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THE 



ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



HRST 


«dIdon, 


puUltbed in thftt folaoMt, 


1768—1771.' 


SECOND 


tt 


ten 


1777-1784. 


THIRD 


n 


»t eighiMn „ 


1788—1797. 


FOURTH 


tt 


„ twenty „ 


1801— i8ia 


nPTH 




t9 


t» twenty „ 


1815—1817. 


SIXTH 




* 


tt twenty „ 


1813—1814. 


SEVENTH 




f 


„ twenty-one „ 


1830— 184a. 


EIGHTH 




n 


„ twenty-two » 


1853-1860. 


NINTH 




f 


•„ twenty-five „ 


1875-1889. 


TENTH 




» 


ninth edition And eieTeo 




ji 






1902-1903. 


ELEVENTH 




n 


pablishcd in twenty-nine tolumet, 


1910—19x1. 



THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA 

A 

DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL 

INFORMATION 

ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XVIII 

MEDAL to MUMPS 



NEW YORK 
THE ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY 

1911 



woo. 



Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1, 

by 

The Encyclopedia Britannica Company. 



INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS.* WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE 

ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. 



A. Ok Abthui Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. /__ - . 

See the biographical article Caylby, Arthuk. \ "Ollfe, Oaqura. 

A. B. G. Rkv. Alfkzd Eenest Gakvxe, M.A., D.D. 

Principal of New CoOcffe. Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and the J iflfi*U 
Board of Philoaophy, London University. Author of Studies in the tuner Life "* ■ ^^^"^' 
Jesus; 8k. 

A. B. 8. AxTHXTs Everett Shipley, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 

Master of Christ's G>ll«|e, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. 
Joint-editor of the CamBridge Natural History, 

A. P. P. Altert Frederick Pollard, MA., F.R.Hist.S. f 

Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' J „ . 
College. Oxford. AssisUnt Editor of the DicHonary of National Biography, 1893- i Honon, JohlL 
1901. Lothian Prizeman (Oxford). 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of 
Emg^aud under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c I 



A.Go.« 


A.G.D. 


A. Ha. 


A. HA 


A.J.G. 


A.J.I.. 


A.U 


A.H.C. 


A.H. 



dtheJ 
ife o/| 

•{ 



Honlos; Mennonltat; 
Kenno, Simons; 
Morone. 

Hereier, Honors 



Rsv. Alexander Gordon, M.A. 

Lecturer oa Church History in the Universtty of Manchester. 

Arthur George Doughty, M.A., Lnr.D., C.M.G. 

Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. , 
Author of The Cradle of New France; Ac Joint-editor of Documents relating to the ^ 
Constitutional History of Canada. 

Adou Earxmx. ^. , . , „ - / HUtoiinlum: Montanlsm. 

See the biographical article. Harnack, Adolf. \ -unwiiuiuu, jhwumuuhi. 

Sir a. Houtum-Schindler, CLE. f 

General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irah. \ 

Rev. Alexander Jakes Grieve, M.A., B.D. r 

Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent College, J ^i , # . ^ 

Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras university and Member of Mysore j ■BMODS \tn part). 
Educational Service. L 

Andrew Jaceson Lamoureux. f 

Librarian. College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Formeriy Editor of the -{ Mexico: Geography. 
Rio News, Rio de Janeirow . L 

Andrew Lang. I De^uk,^ 

See the biographical article, Lang, Andrew. \ aouere. 

Agnes Mary Clerke. •TMouehaz. 

See the biographical article, Clbreb. A. M. I 



Aljred Newton, F.R.S. 

See the biographical article, Newton, Alfred. 

Adam Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S. 

Professor of Zoolosv at the Imperial Colleffc of Science and Technology, London. . 
FeUow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College. Cambridge. Professor of Zoology 
* 1 die University of Cambridge, 1 907-1909. 



Hegapode; Merganser; 
MoeUng Bird; 
Moor-Hen; MorlUon; 
Motmot; Mouse-Bird. 

Metamorphosis. 



A. ▼. 0. Baron Alfred von Gutschmid. f Moses of Chorene (in ParO 

See the biographical article, Gutschmid, Alfred, Baron von. L "*'^ "' vnorww vin jw.; 

A. Wl Asthur Waugh, M.A. f 

New College, Oxford. Newdigate Prize, 1888. Author of Gordon in Africa; Alfred, J Morris. Wnilam. 
Lord Tennyson. Editor of Johnson's Lives of the Poets; editions of Dichens, Tenny- ] ^ «•«««■. 

son, Arnold, Lamb; &c L 

* A complete list, duming all individual contributors, appears in the final Tolume. 



vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



B. J. Bernhaso JUiJO (1825-1886). r 

Forxneriy Professor of Classical Phnology in the Univernty of Innabrilclc. Author J WAviMila* f^«M<«a« 
of Mongdische M&rchensammluHg: Ober Wesen undAufgabg der Spnekanssensckqfti ] "««»■• i^nptof^ 



and On the Present State of Mongdiau Researches. 

B. IL^ BUDGETT MeAKIN (1866-I906). f 

Formerly Editor of the Times of Morocco. Author of The Land 0/ Ike Moors; The i MofOOeo (tn ^ar(S 
Moorish Empire; Life in Morocco; &c. [^ r^ /• 

C.A« Cleveland Abbe, A.M.. LL.D. r 

Professor of Meteorology, U.S. Weather Bureau. Washington. Director of the 
Cincinnati Observatory, 1 863-1 873. Editor of Monthly Weather Review; and < Meteorology, 
Bulletin of Mount Weather Observatory. Author of Meteorological Apparatus and 
Methods; &c I 

C.B.W.* Charles Bertie Wedd, F.G.S. , u ^ . . . .. 111111110110 0111: 

Jowt-author of various memouB and maprof the Geological Survey I ' 

0. a Charles Creighton, M.A., M.D. f Monster (tn pdrt)i 

King's College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Epidemics in Britain; Jemur \ HomnL 
and vaccination ; Plague tn India ; &c. I *""»^"^ 

C. EL Sir Charles Norton Eoccombe Euot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. f 

Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. — ^^^«,.«. 
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East < ■orarouam. 
Africa Protectorate: Agent and Consul-general at Zanzibar; and Consul-general 
for German East Africa. 1900-1904. I 

C.P.A. Charles Francis Atkinson. (MaAMi* Wn, n^^niij>m 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College. Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal \ "•*!*■• *^^/ Oecoralton, 
FusUiers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. { (>» P<urlh 

0. P. B. Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D. r 

Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University J Monettnr CODfOfOBMS: 

Trade; 9cc 

C. G.Ala. Chaloner Grenville Alabaster. 

Barristcr-at-Law, Inner Temple. 

C. J. B. Charles Jasper Blunt, A.O.D. 

Major, Royal Artillery. Chief Ordnance Officer, Singapore. Served through' 

Chitral Campaign. 
C. J. P.* Constance Jocelyn Ffoulkes. 

Translator of Morelli's Italian Painters; &c 

C. J. L. SiE Charles Tames Lyall, K.C.S.L, CLE., LL.D. (Edin.). 

Secretary, Judicial and Public Department. India Office. Fellow of King's College, __ , . . „._ 
London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894, • MofiffallQflt^ 
Chief Commissioner. Central Provinces, India. 1895-1898. Author of Translations 
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c 

0. ML Chedouille Mijatovich. f Mlehael Obienofioh IIL. 

Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo- < mnt»Vk Obrenovieh L 
tentiary of the King of Servia to the Court cl St James's, Ifii95~i900, and 1903-1903. L ^^ 

CHo. William Cosmo Monkhouse._ ... _ / 



of Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; theory of IntemaHonal | Money. 



*[Moiiey-L 
Mohinaiid *^"*rfttiit 
MoroOL 



See the biographical article, Monkuouse. Wiluam CosMa 



C. Pf, Christian Pfister, D-is.-L. f 

Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Authors MerOYlngtant. 
of Etudes sur le rhgne de Robert le Pieux. { 

C. R. B. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Lrrr.. F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. fMela, Pomponias 

Professor of Modem History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow /• ^--j\. 
of Merton College. Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. - __ ^ 4/ ' 
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer. Boston, 1908. Author of Henry Mercitor; 
the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c I Monto CorvlDO. 

C. R. W. B. C. R. W. Bicgar, M.A., K.C. Mowat, Sir OUvir. 

G. S. R. Hon. Charles Stewart Rolls, M.A., F.R.G.S. (1877-1910). f Motor VehlelM* 

Trinity College, Cambridge. British Pioneer of Motoring and Aviation. Formerly J V^ , / »rvfv * 
Managing Director of RoTls-Roycc, Ltd. \ ^«» Vehcks. 

C. We. CeOL WeaTHERLY. / Mnnnnmnt- 

Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Uw. \ "On"™"*- 

TiCAN Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. r 

Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. Author J 

of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional Theory ;"] MUItL 
Selections from Ibn Khaldun ; Religious A Uitude and Life in Islam ; &c [ 

D. P. T. Donald Francis Tovey. f M!!lliSiL»iiii-»«»#iii%M. 

Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The\ "•MWSWBII-BinilOMJ 
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. | __ U** A^) > . _ 



D. B. Ma. Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. 



D. GL Sn Davto Gill, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., D.Sc. 

H.M. Astronomer at Cape of Good Hope, 1 879-1907. Served on Geodetic Survey 
of Egypt, and on the expedition to Ascension Idand to determine the Solar Parallax 
by observations of Mars. Directed Geodetic Survey of Natal, Cape Colony, and 
Rhodesia. Author of Geodetic Survey of South Africa; Catalogues of Stars jor the 
JSgutfraxes, iSjo, i860, 288s, 1890, Ifioo; ftc 



I Motet; Moart {in partes 
Mlerometer. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES va 

0. 6. H. David Geokge Hogaxth, M.A. f 

Keeper of the Ashniolean M lueam. Oxford. FeOow of lyfafldalen Collcse. Oxford. J -, . „„ ^ 
Fdlow of the Bntish Academy. Excavated at Paphos. 1888: NaucratS 1899 and 1 MttsUw; MfletUt. 
1903; Ephesus. 1904-1905: Asuut. 1906-1907. Director, Brituh School at Athens, 
i8Q7-XQOOl Director. Cretan Exoloration Fund. 180a. v 



D. H. David Hannay. f 

Formeriy Britiih Vice-ContuI at Barcelona. Author of Skort History ef tk€ Royal < Malortft: 
Na8y;UftoJEmUioCasidar\dtc I 

D. U. T. Damixl Llkutes TBomas. r 

Barri^terat-Law, Lincola'a IniL StipeofUary Magiatnte at Pontypridd and \ HMttiT TyJin. 
Rhoodda. | 

D. Ua. David Masson, LLJ>. C ^^ . 

See the biosrapdiical article, Massom. David. \ Milton Km part). 

JL SB. Rbv. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A. f 

Minister of South Grove Congregational Church. Highgate. Author of ConstnuHte < Mdvllte, Andltw, 
Cauf^etaHomd Ideals; && { 

D. V. P. DxARiOD Noel Paton. M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.). 

Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Supers 
intendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians. Edinburgh. 
Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University. 1884. Author of EssenHals of Human 
Physiology; Ac 

D. B^IL David Randall-MacIver, M.A., D.Sc. r 

Curator of Egyptian Department, University of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester \ MonomotlBt. 
Reader in E^^ptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia; &c. [ 

D. 8. IL^ David Savuel Makgououth, M.A., D.Lrrr. r 

Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic J ..--^ 
Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of laam; Cairo, Jerusalem | XnM. 



Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of loom; Cairo, Jerusalem 1 

^ { 



K. A. H. Edwaed Altked Minchin, M.A., F.Z.S., 

Professor of Protosoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton 
CoU^e, Oxford. 

X B. T. Edwaed Buknett Tyloe, D.C.L., LL,D. f Mailoo: Ancient History 

See the biographical article, Tylor, Edward Burnett. \ iin part). 

K. C. K. Right Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., D.Litt. f '■•'*?^ Movement 

Abbot of Downside Abbey. Bath. Author of " The Uusiac HUtory of Palladius *' J *»« Orders; 
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi | Mooastieism; 

I Monte Cisslno. 

K. B. A. Ernest E. Austen. r ^ 

Assistant in Department of Zoology. Natural History Museum, South Kensington. '\^ Moiqaito, 

K F. S. D. Lady Dilke. f 

See the biographical article, Dileb, Sir C. W., Bart. | MUlet, Jean FtaQSOil. 

K. Gc Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. f MegtlopoDs; 

See the biographical article, Gardner, Percy. i megara Un partl); 

[MeloSj, 

K. H.B. Sir Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S.(d. 1805). fiffiii. BAmiw^fiim 

M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. 1847-1852. Author of A History ef Ancient Geography: < ^^fr ^^Vomm 
Sec I ^'^ F<»''0- 

B. H. M. Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. f 

University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridte. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian 
at Pembiwe College. Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. 

B. K. Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., M.Sc.Tech. (Manchester), F.I.C. 

Professor <^ Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical 
Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, ■ 
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of A Manual of Dyeing; &c. Editor 
of Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 

S4. M. EouARD Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.). LL.D. 

Professor of Ancient Histoiy in the University of Berlin. Author of Ceschichte 
des AUerthums; Ceschichte aes alten Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbar- 



Mereerizlng. 



L 0.« Edmund Owen. M.B., F.R.C.S.. LL.D., D.Sc. 

Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, 
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner . 
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of 
A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. 



Media; 

Memnon of Rhodes; 

Menander (Miumda) 

{in part); 
Mentor of Rhodes; 
Mithradatos. 

Mortlflcatlon; 
Mouth and Salivary 
Glands {Surgery). 



fiLlt, Edgar Prestace. f 

Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner 
in Portuguese in the Universities of London. Manchester, ^c. Commendador, J {foraes. 
Portujpiese Order of S. Thiaga Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy | 
of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor ot Letters of a Portuguae \ 
Hvn ; Aiurara's Chronicle 1^ Guinea; Ac V 



via 

B.R.U 



E.SL 
I.S.8. 

F. C. C. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



F.G.H.B. 


P.O. P. 


P. H. Ne. 


P.J.H. 



P.LLG. 



P.N.1L 


P.O.B. 


P. We. 


P.W.R* 


G.A.B. 


G. G. W. 



G.E.D. 



G.P.B. 


G.G.S. 


G. H. Po. 


G.P.B. 


G.Sa. 


G.Sn. 



Sm Edwin Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. 

Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. President of the British Association. 1906. 
Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University Collie. London, 
1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomjr at Oxford, 1891-1898. 
Director of the Natural History Departmenu of the British Museum, 1898-1907. 
Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. 
Author of Degeneration; The Advancement oj Science; The Kingdom of Man; &c. 

Eugene Stock. 

Formerly Editorial Secretary of the Church Missionary Society. 

Edward Shrapnell Smith. 

Editor of Tk* Commercial Motor. Hon. Treasurer of the Commercial Motor Users 
Association. Organiser of the Lancashire Heavy Motor Trials of 1898, 1 899-1 901. 

Frederick Cornwalus Conybeare, M.A., D.Th. (Giessen). 

Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 
Editor of The Ancient Armentan Texts of Aristotle. Author o\ Myth^ Magic and 
Morals; Sk. 

Frederick George Meeson Beck, MJL 

Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. 

Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Antbrop.Inst. 

Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on 
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 
London. Formeriy Hunterian Professor at the Royal Collie of Surgeons. 

Francis Henry Neville, M.A., F.R.S. 

Fellow and Lecturer in Natural Science, Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. 

Francis John Haverpield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. 

Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of 
Brasenose College. Fellow of the Bntish Academy. Author of Monographs on 
Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. 

Francis Llewellyn Grifptth, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. 

Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey 
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 
German Archaeological Institute. 

Colonel Frederic Natusch Maude, C.B. 

Lecturer in M ilitary History, Manchester University. Author of War and the World's 
Policy; The Leipzig Campaig;n; The Jena Campaign. 

Frederick Orpen Bower, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. 

Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. Author of Practical 
Botany Jor Beginners; && 

Frederick Wedkore. 

See the biographical article, Wbdmorb, Frederick. 

Frederick William Rxtdler, I.S.O., F.G.S. 

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1 879-1 902. 
President of the Geologisu' Association, 1 887-1 889. 

George A. Boulencer. D.Sc.. Ph.D., F.R.S. 

In tharge of the collections of Reptiles s^d Fishes, Department of Zoology, British 
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. 

George Charles Wiluamson, Litt.D. 

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures; Life of Richard 
Cosway, R.A.; George Engleheart; Portrait Drawings; &c Editor oif new edition cl 
Bryan s Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. 

Surgeon-Major George Edward Dobson,M.A.,M.B.,F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). 
Army Medical Department, 1 868-1 888. Formerly Curator of the Royal Victoria 
Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; A Monograph 
of the Insectioora, Systematic and AnatomtcaL 

George F. Barwick. 

Assisunt Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British 
Museum. 

George Gregory Smith. M.A. 

Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of 71u Days 
of James IV. ; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; ftc 

George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S.. F.L.S., Ph.D. 

Formerly Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester; and Assistant 
Professor of Zoology at University College, London. 

Gerald Philip Robinson. 

President of the Society of Mezzotint Engravers. Meziotint Engraver to Queen 
Victoria and to King Edward VII. 

George Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L. 

See the biographical artkle, Saintsbury, G. 

Grant Showerhan, A.M., Ph.D. 

Professor of Latin in the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological 
Institute of America. Member of American Philological Association. Author of 
ff^M /ke Pro/essor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c 



Metamerism; 
MoUueca {in pati^. 



BOsslons {in paH^, 

Motor yehleles: 
Heavy Commercial 
Vehicles. 

Moses of Chorene 
(m pari). 



MeieliL 

Hooth and Sallvaiy 
Glands. 

MetaOofiaplij (in parti. 

Mona. 

Memphb; Henes; 
Moeris, Lake of; 
Mummy. 

Mets. 

Mohl, Hofo fon. 

Miiyon. 

MoUavlta. 

Mormyr. 



Mtnlatore; 
Morland, Georgt. 



Mole (m part). 



Montgomerie. 
MIerotomy. 

Menotlnt 

M«rim«e; Miehelet, lata; 
Montaigne; Monteaqoieii; 
Mon^ensier, Duebene die, 

Hlthias. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTIOLES 



G.W.T. 
S.B.WO. 

H.a. 

H.B. 

H.F.B. 

B.F.G. 
H.H.L. 

H.L.H. 

H.L.8. 
H.1I.8. 

H.N.D. 
H.O. 

H.SI. 
H.8.J. 

H.8.1L 
H.8.W. 

H.T.A. 

H.W.H. 
H. W. C. D. 

H.W.B.* 

LA. 

i.A.a 



Rsv. GRumHES Wheeler Thatches. M.A., B.D. 

Warden of Camden Collie, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old 
Testament History at Manifidd College, Oxford. 

Horace Bouncbroke Woodward. F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. 
President, Geologists' Association, 1 893-1 894. WoUaston Medallist, 1508. 

Hugh Chisholic, M.A. 
Formerly Scholar of 
of the oKcydopaedia Britannica, 



Co>editor of the loth edition. 



Karl Herkeann EtkI, M.A., Ph.D. 

Professor of Oriental Languages, University CoUege, Aberystwyth (University of 
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Uanuscnpls in Ike India Q^e Library, 
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c 

Henri Frantz. 

Art Critic. Caaetie des beaux arts, Paris. 

Horatio Robert Forbes Brown, LL.D. 

Editor of the Calendar of Venetian Staie Papers, for the Public Record Office. Author 
of Life on the Lagoons i VeneHt^n Studies: John Addington Symonds, a Biography, 
Ac. 

Hans Friedrich Gadow. F.R.S., Ph.D. 

Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author 
of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History, 

Henry Harvey LittlejohNj M.A., M.B., CM., F.R.C.S. (Edin.), F.R.S. (Edin.) 
Professor of Forensic Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 

Harriet L. Hemmissy, M J). (Bruz.), L,R.C.P.L, L.R.C.S J. 

H. Lawrence SwiNBUXiinE (d. zgoy). 

Henry Morse Stephens, M.A. 

Balliol College, Oxford. Professor of History and Director of University Extension, 
University of California. Author of History of the French Reoolutum; Modem 
European History, Ac 

BiHRY Newton Diceson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.R.G.S. 

Professor of Geography at Univerrity College, Reading. Formerly Vice-President, 
Royal Meteorological Society. Lecturer in Physical (geography, Oxford. Author 
of Meteorology I Elanenis of Weather and Qimate; &c. 

Hermann Oelsner, M.A., Ph.D. 

Taylorian Professor of the Romance Languages in University of Oxford. Member 
of Council of the Philological Society. Author of A History of Proven^ Literature ; 
Ac 

Henry Sturt, M.A. 

Author of Idala Tkeatrii The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism, 

Henry Stuart Jones, M.A. 

Formeriy Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British 
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. 
Author of The Roman Empire; &c 

Henry Smith Munroe, D.Sc., Ph.D. 

Professor of Mining, Columbia University, New York. 

Henry Spenser Wilkinson, M.A. 

Chichele Professor of Milttaiy History. University of Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' 
Cdlege. Author of The Brain of an Army; && 

Rev. Herbert Thomas Andrews. 

Professor of New Testament Execens. New College, London. Author of " The 
Commentary on Acts " in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the 
Apocryphal Boohs in the '' Century " Bible. 

Hope W. Hocc, M.A. 

Professor of Semitic Languages and Literatures in the University of Manchester. 

Henry William Carless Davis, M.A. 

Fdlow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 
1895-1902. Author of En^and under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. 

Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson. M.A. 

Professor of Church History in Rawdon College. Leieds. Senior Kennicott Scholar, 
Oxford, iQOi. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology 
(in Mansfield College Essays) ; &c. 

Israel Abrahams, M.A. 

Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. 
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Swrt 
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. 

Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G. 

See the biographical article, Crowe, Sir J. A. 



Uobanad. 



Miner, Hugh. 

Meredith, GeorKe; 
Milan Obrenoviteh IV.; 
Moriey, Viseouot 

lOrUioiid. 



{in part). 
Mlgntlon: Zoology; 



Medleal Jurbprndeme 
(in part). 

Medleal Edoeatton, USJL 
{in part). 

Medal: War Decorations 
{in part). 

Mirabean, Honori. 



Mediterranean Sea; 
Mexico, Gulf oL 



MistraL 

Metemp^ehosls. 

Mosale: Ancient {in part). 



Moltke, Count von. 

Missions {in part), 

Mesopotamia. 
Montfort, Simon de. 

MIcah {in part), 

r Melr; Melr of Rothenbnrg; 
I Menasseh ben Israel; 
I Mendelssohn, Moses; 
[Mocatta; Molko. 



X INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

J. A. F. John Ambrose Fleming, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. 

Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow 
of University Collie. London. Formeriy Fellow of St John's Coll^, Cambridge. •{ M^tar BIHCIlllc. 
and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author m Matn^ and ' 

Eieclric Currents. 

J. A. S. John Addington Symonds, LL.D. 

See the biographical article, Symonds, John Addington. 

J. A. V, Rev J \ Vanes f 

Prof^r of NeW TcsUmcnt Exegesis. Wesleyan College, Richmond. \ ■•ttwdtan (m part). 

J. Bt. James Bartlett. r 

Lecturer on Construction. Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities. &c., at King's College, J -- ^^ 
London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior | "Wir. 
Engineers. ' t 

J. B. T. Sir John Batty Tukz, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.Sc., LL.D. f 

President of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom. Medical Director J mmIImI VAnmmUt^n 
of New Saughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh. M.P. for the Universiues of Edinbui^h 1 "«"«" Kanouon. 
and St Andrews, i90O-i9ia I 

J. D. B. James David Bourchier, M.A.. F.R.G.S. 

King's College, Cambridge. Corr^pondent of The Times in South-Eastem Europe. J UontantOO. 
Commander of the Orders of Ppnce Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of ' 
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. 



{■ 

J. E. H. Rev Joseph JEdmund Hutton. M.A. ( Uonvian Bnttmn. 

Author of History of the Moravian Church. \ 

J. F. K. James Furman Kemp, D.Sc. f 

Professor of Geology, Columbia University, New York. Geologist to United States •< Minenl Deposits, 
and New York Geological Surveys. Author of Handbooh o/Rochs; &c. I 

J. F. P. Joseph Frank Payne, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P.(i84o-i9io). f 

Formeriy Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians. London. Hon. Fellow I w-ji^i^*. rr* j /• ^ -A 
of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow of the University of London. Author of ] ■«UClll«. History {tn part). 
Lectures on Ang^Saxon Medicine; &c I 

J. G. H, Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E. f Httal-Work: Industrial 

Author of PlaHng and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c \ ■•»^**"'»- ^'wiMirw*. 

J. G. B. John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D. r 

Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the! MeUtenlnnc 
English Language, Stra^urg University. Author of History of German Literature; | ^ 

Tames George Scott, K.C.I.E. f w i. wi v 

Superintendent and Political Officer* Southern Shan Sutes. Author of Burma; i ■•Kong; Hlnoil. 
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. L 

r Honandor; 
J.H.F. John Henry Freese.M. A. ^ ^ ., \ Minor. Ancient; 

Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. | Ho^sia. 

{■ 



J. G. 8e. Sn Tames George Scott, K.C.LE. 

Superintendent and Politic ' 
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. 



J. H. Jo. James Hopwood Jeans, M-A.^ F.R.S. 

Stokes Lecturer in the University of Cambridge. Formeriy Fellow of Trinity •{ Molecule. 
College. Author of Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magtutism ; Ac 



Uetal-Work: Art 

{in part); 
Monreale; 
Mosaic: Ancient {in part) 

Mortaln; 
Mowbray: Family. 



)yndicate.jMomeil, Couut; 

European j Montholon, Marqols do. 



J. H. M. John Henry Mhidleton, M.A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1806). 

Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-189^ Director 
of the Fiuwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 1889-1892. Art Director of the South 
Kensington Museum, 1 893-1 896. Author of The Enrraved Gems of Classical Times; 
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. 

i. H. B. John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. 

Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and 
Pedigree. 

J. HL B. John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D. 

Lecturer on Modem History to the Cambridge University Local LecturesS; 

Author of Life of Napoleon L ; Napoleonic Studies; The Developmtnt of the 

Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c v 

T.Le, Rev. James Legce, D.D. /mmwIh. 

See the bk)graphkal article, Lbcgb, Jambs. \ ""w*"* 

J. L. W. Jessie Latolay Weston. f uerlln. 

Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ 

i. M. Bo. Rev. James Monroe Buckley, D.D;, LL.D. \ „ ^^ ^, ,, . , t». s 

Editor of the Christian AdvocaU, New York. Author of History of Methodism in < Methodisin: Untied States 
the United States; &c I 

J. M. M. John Malcolm Mitchell. f *"V John Stoart 

Sometime Scholar of Queen's Colleg^e, Oxford. Lecturer in Classkrs, East London •< (m part) 
College (University oiLondon). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. I MilUades,* * 

Jno. 8. Sir John Scott, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.C.L. 



formeriy Deputy Judge- Advocate-General to His Majesty's Forces. Judge. J «fni|._„ » «„ 
afterwards Vice-President, International Court of Appeal in Egypt. 1874-1882. i ""»»»«y ■*'*• 
Jhudge of High Court. Bombay, 1882-1890. Judicial Adviser to the Khedive of 
tgypt, 1890-1898. Vice-President, International Law Association. \ 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



1.8.BL 

j.8.r 

J.S.O. 
J. a. Ma. 

1.T.B6. 
i.T.a 

J. T. §.• 

K.A.1L* 

IL8. 

L.BL 

UF. 
L.J.8. 

ii.H.a 

H.B.8. 

ILN.T. 
M. 0. B. C. 

H.F. 
I. W. T. 

O.Bft. 
O.C.W. 



Jonf SuTHZRLAMD Blacx, M.A., LL.D. I 

Aantttfit Editor. 9th editkm. Emychpotdia Britammea, Joint-editor of the H 
BmcycUpaedia BiUua, I 

John Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S. 

Petfographer to the Geological Survey. Fonneriy Lecturer on Petrology in 
" NeiirMedallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. WtgAxy 



Hetamorphltiii; 



Edinburgh University. Nei 

Medallist of the Geological Society of London. 

John Stabxiz Gabdnes, F.S.A. . f 

Expert Metal Worker. Author of Armotw m Bm^tamd; Iromwprk (for the Educational 1 



Miai-8«liist; 
Mteropagmatlto; 



Hetel-Work: Modem AtL 



Profeawr of Greek ati ii««««o: Modem History. 



:(«n part)', 
MoMQwCtn part). 



{in part); 



MnUtt 



JMIddld AfM. 

(w part). 



MoUK%Ktoe«0. 



Department) ; &c 

James Saumarez Mann, M.A. 

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Trinity Collese, Oxford. 
Bedford College, London. Joint-editor of SocM/Eiiffafid. 

John Thomas Bealby. 

Jotnt-author of Sunford** Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish CeopapkUal 
Mlagiaune, Translator of Sven Hedin's Throuffi Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c 

Joseph Thomas Cunningham. M.A.. F.Z.S. 

Lecturer on ZookMry at the South-Westem Polytechnic, London. Fonneriy Fellow . 
of University College. Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biok)gical Association. 

James Thomson Shotwell, Ph.D. 

Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. 
Kate A. Meaqm (Mrs Budgett Meakin). 

Kathleen Schlesincek. 

Editor of the Portfoiio cf Musical Archaeelagy. Author of The Instmments of the 
Orthestra. 

Louis Bell, Ph.D. 

Consulting Engineer. Boston. U.S.A. Chief Engineer, Electric Power Transmission . 
Department. General Electric Ca. Boston. Formeriv Editor of Electrical World, ' 
New York. Author of Electric Power Transmission-, Ac. 

LUDWIG BOLTZMANN (1844-I906). 

Fonneriy Professor of Theoretical Physics, Universities of Munich. Vienna and . 
Leipzig. Author of Lectures on the Theory cf Gas; Lectures on Maxwell's Theory 
of Electricity and Light. 

Lazakus Fletchee, M.A.. F.R.S. 

Director of Natural History Departments of the British Museum. ' Keeper of 
Minerals. British Museum. 1 880-1909. Secretary to the Mineralogkal Society. 
Formeriy Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Introduction to the Study 
of Meteorites: &c 

Leonard James Spences, M.A. 

Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formeriy Scholar of. 
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Hari^ness Schobr. Editor of the Minera- 
logical Magaaine. 

Montague Hughes Crackanthorpe, M.A., D.C.L., K.C. 

Honorary Fellow. St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. Formerly 
Member of the General Council of the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, • 
and Standing Counsel to the University of Oxford. President 01 the Eugenics 
Educatk>n Society. 

Marion H. Spielmann, F.S.A. 

Formeriy Editor of the Matasine t^ ArL Member of Fine Art Committee of 
International Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires. Rome, and the Franco- 
British Exhibition. London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait 
Painhng to the opening of the NineUenth Century; Worhs ofC. F. Watts, Rjl.; British 
Sculpture and Sculptors qf To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c 

Marcus Niebuhr Too, M.A. 

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, - Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. ■ 
Joint-author <^ Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. 

Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. r 

Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- -j Uegani (in part). 






Mieroeline; HiUerite; 
MimeUte; Minentogy; 
Mlspiekel; Mo|ybd«iltr, 
Monaxite. 



{in part). 



'■{ 



ham University, 1905-190S. 



{mow. 



Sir Tbomat. 



Medium. 



Rev. Mark Pattison. 

See the bk>graphkal article, Pattison, Mark. 

NoRTHCOTE Whitridge Thomas, M.A. I 

Government Anthropok>gist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the J 
Soci£t£ d'Anthropologie dc Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and \ 
Marriage in Australia; Ac I 

Oswald Barron, F.S.A. f unBtara (Pntmn^'\ 

Editor of The Ancestor, 1903-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the-{ ~" "*" >L"^^yj* 
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. t 

Owen Charles Wuttehouse, M.A., D.D. 

TheobgKal Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew, Clieshunt Coflege, Cambridge. 



I lIorUiiier(Famt/>). 



y* ^. 



V 



xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 

0. Hr. Otto Henkek, Ph.D. f -u,,^.^ 

On the Staff of the Cari Zeiss Factory, Jena, Gennany. \ HJcroiCope. 

P. A.K. PsiNCE Peter Alexeivitch Kkopotkin. (Wsak {in ^rt)- 

See the biographical article, Kropotkin. Primcb P. A. \ HoogoUs; Hoseow. 

P. C. M. Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., FZ.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r 

Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in J Hontter (in part); 
Comparative Anatomy and AssisUnt to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.1 Morphology (m part). 

P.Oe. Patrick GEDDES.F.R.S. (Edin.). f 

Professor of Bouny, University College. Dundee. Formerly Lecturer on Natural J MomhAlAffv (i» 4t/twi\ 
Hbtory in School of Medicine, Edinburgh. Part-author of Evolutum of Sex. 1 "«»^"»««y ^»« 1^")- 
Author of Chapters in Modem Botany, L 

P. 0. K. Paul George Konody. f 

Art Critic of the Observer and the DaUy MaO. Formerly Editor of The Artist. \ HemUnc (m pari). 
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Veiasquet, Life and Worh; &c L 

P.I#. Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. f 

Lecturer on Phyncal and Regional Geography in Cambridge Univeruty. Formerly J mavIaa* n^^^m.. 
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of BrUtsh CamMan 1 "«»«>• ^^^ology. 
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyser's Crai^a<iw GMtogy. I 

P.V. Pasquale Villari. /Medici fFajni/v) 

See the biographical article. Villari, Pasqualb. \ '"*' K^amuyj, 



R. A. 8. M. Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A. fMIehiiiRth* Mlznah* 

St John's CoUege, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- \ M«H*h 
tionFund. ^^mwi»n. 

andCaius-j I 



R. C. P. Reginald Crundall Punnett, M.A. 

Professor of Bidogy in the University of Cambridge. Fdlow of Gonville 
College. Superintendent of the Museum of Zoology. 

R. H. C. Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt. f 

Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British J Masm. AsmmnilAii t%f 
Academy. Formeriy Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author! ""^ iwwnpuon 01. 
of Critical History cf the Doctrine of a Future Idfei Booh cf JubUees\ &c L 

R. LP. Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S. fHIlllpido; IDmleqr; 

Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \ Mito. 

R. K. D. Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas. r 

Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and J ^ ^. 
Professor of Chinese. King's College, London. Author of The Language onrfl "O"*©"- 
Literature of CkaM\ &c t 

R. L.* Richard Lydekker, M. A.. F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f JIl*^""' "*'• (*» ^''^ • 

Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, i874-i8to. Author of J Monodelphla; 
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum; The Deer of] HoDOtremftU; Mouse; 
All Lands ; The Came A nimals of Africa ; &c. [ Multltaberealfta. 

R. Mw-S. Richmond Mayo-Shith, Ph.D. 



9M0ND MaYO-SiOTH, Ph.D. f wi.^M^« /' j. s\ 

See the biographical article, Mato-Smitb, RiCRKOifa -j^HIgnaoil (m part). 



R. If . B. Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909). 

Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1 883-1909. Author of Scandinavia^ thi 



Monshlkov; 
Miehaal, Tsar; 
Moltko, Coant A. 0.; 
Mottko, Coant A. W. 



Political History of Denmarh, Norway and Sweden, tfJJ-tgoo; The First Romanovs, 
i6i3-t72K; Slavonic Europe, the Political History ef Poland and Russia from 1469 
to 1796; &C. 

R. P. 8. R. Phen4 SnERS, F.S.A.. F.R.I.B.A. f 

Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy. London. Past „ --^ , ., _ 

President of Architectural Association. AsK)ciate and Fellow of King's College, -j "Oifliw; MOUldiDiS. 
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's I 
History of Architecture, Author tii Architecture: East and West; Ac I 

R. S C. Robert Seymoxtr Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab/). r 

Professor of Latin and Indo-Euro|)ean Philology in the University of Manchester. J 
Formeriy Professor of Latin in University CoII^ Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1 
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects, I 



S. A. C. Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A. 

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac. and formeriy Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, 
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hd>rew 
and Aramaic. London University, 1 904-1 908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 
1904-1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law ef Moses and the 
Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Rekgion of Ancient 
Palestine; &c. 



Molehisadek {in part); 
MoBRliem; Midnsh; 
MIxnIm; Moab; 
Moloeh {in part); 
Mom. 



8. C. Sidney CoLviN, LL.D. ^ / Mfadnbiunlo. 

See the biographical article, CoLVW, SiDMBT. \ * 

8t C. Viscount St. Cyres. '' 

See the biographical article, Iddbslbicb, est Earl or. 

JL jr. Sdcon Newcomb, D.Sc., LL.D. 

See tba biographical article, Nbwcomb, Simon. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



xiU 



T.A.L 
T.Ga. 

T.C.A. 

T.H.H.* 

T.K.It 

HlM. 
T.8.W. 

T.W.ItD. 
W.A.B.C 

W.A.P. 



W.B.BL 


W. B. S.* 


W. C. R.-A. 


W.F.C. 


W. F. D. 


W.P.Sk. 


W.H.P. 


W.H.H. 


w.H.a. 


W.L.* 



THOMAS AsHBT, M.A., D.LiTT. (Oxon.). 

Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formeriy Scholar of Christ 
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member 
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Tibs Qasskal 
T^pogr^pky of the Raman Campapta, 



TaoMAS Allan Imcsam. M.A., LLJ>. 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Tbomab Case, M.A. 

Preadent of Coiput Christ! College, Oxford. Formeriy Waynflete Professor of 
Moral and Metaphysical Philosopny in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of 
Magdalen College. 

Sn Thomas Cuffobd Allbutt, K.C.B., M.A., M.D.. D.Sc., LL.D.j F.R.S. 

Regius PnAtaaor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. Physician to Adden- 
brooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 
Editor of Systems qf Medicine, 

Colonel Sir Thomas Huncerfokd Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.CJ.E., D.Sc. 

Superintendent Frontier Surveys. India, 1892-1808. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. 
(London). 1887. Author of The Indian Borderiand; The Countries qf the King*s 
Award; India; Tibet; Ac 

Thomas Khee Rose, D.Sc. 

Chemist and Assaver, The Royal Mist, London. Author of Metallurgy ef Cold; The 
Precious Metals; oc. 

Tbeooor NOldeke, Ph.D. 

See the biographical article, NOlobkb, Theodor. 

Theodore Sausbury Woolsey, LL.D. 

Professor of International Law, Yak University. Editor of Wooliey's IntemaHanal 
Lam. Author of America's Foreign Policy; &c 

TiOMAS William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D. 

Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali 
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal 
Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Boohs cf the BuddhisU; 
EaHy Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; Sec 

Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S.. PH.D.(Bem). 
Fdlow of Magdalen College. Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's 
College, Lampeter, 1 880-1 881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphini; The Range 
oj the Tddi; Guide to Grinddwald; Guide to Switserland; The Alps in Nature and tn 
History; &c Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; Ac 

Walter Alison Phillips, M.A. 

Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, 
Oxford. Author of Afodmi£t(roAe:&c 

Sn William Blake Richmond, K.C.B. 

See the biographical article, RicHMONp, SiR WaLiAM Blake. 

William Barclay Squire. M.A. 

Assistant in Chaige of Printed Music, British Museum. 

Snt William Chandler Roberts-Austen, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
See the biographical article, Robbrts-.^ustbn, Sir W. C. 

WiLUAM Feiloen Craies, M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College, London. 

Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). 
William Frederick Denning, F.R.A.S. 

Gold Medallist, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society, 1 877-1 878. 

Author of Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings; The Great Meteoric Shower; &c 

William Fleetwood Shepparo, M.A. 

Senior Examiner in the Board of Education. Formeriy Fellow of Trinity College, 
Cambridge. Senior Wrangler, 1884. 

Snt William Henry Flower, F.R.S. 

See the biographical article. Flower, Sir W. H. 
WiLLUM Henry Howell. M.D., Ph.D., LL.D. 

Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University, 

Baltimore. President of the American Physiological Association. Associate-editor 

of American Journal cf Physiology, 



Hedlolaoiim; 
Hegm Hyblaaa; 
HenioR; HeUpontom; 
Milan {in part); 
MlntnnuM; Misennm; 
HonrMde(ti» part); 
HonteleoiM Calabro; 
Hotyt; Honiimeiit: Italy. 



(in part); 
Midwife; 
MlfiBttoa (ni part). 

MeUphystog. 



Medlelne: Modem 
Progress. 



[Mo*aIiait 



{MUinda). 

Melrlngen; Hsran; 

Merian; Mont Osnls; 

Mont; 

MOlter, JohannM too. 

Mehemet AH; 
Hephlstopheles; 
Mettarnleh; MInlstw; 
^Mltn. 

I Mosaic: Modem. 
I Morhy, nomas. 
/Metallography (m pari^. 



MensimtloiL 
^Mlnk. 

Medical Edocatloo, UJSJL 
(m part). 



WnxuM Herrick Macaulay, M.A. 

Fellow and Tutor of King's College, Cambridge. 

Walter Lermann. D.M. i 

Directorial Assistant, Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich. ' Author of Methods H 
oa^ Results in Mexicass Researeh; ftc 



JMoUon, 



Laws of. 



Mexico: Ancient History 



ZIV 

W.M. 

W.ILC. 

W.M.R. 
W.P.A. 

W.R.1L 



W.R.8. 

W.R.S.* 
W.8.R. 



INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES 



WiLUAM Mnrro, LL.D. 

See the biographical ankle, Blorro, Wiluaii. 

Sir W. Maktin Conway. 

See the biographical article, COnwat, Sim W. Bl 



William Michael Rossetti. 

See the biographical article, RosssTTl, Damtb, G. 



{mo, John Stuart 
{in pari). 

•[ HoantBlDaeiliis. 

•[Moroni. 

Libut.-Colonel William Patrick Anderson, MJnst.C.E., F.R.G.S. f 

Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the •{ Miehlgail, Lake. 
Geographic Board 01 Canada. Past President of Ca na d i an Society of Civil Engineers, t 

William Richard Mortill, M.A. (d. xgio). r 

Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Sbvonic Languages in the University J m.uiAwiM Rilam 
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution Oxford. Author of Russian ■'«>«wicx, MMBL 
Slavonic Literature; &c L 



William Robertson Smitb, LL.D. 

See the biographical article, Smith, William Robertson. 



William Roy Smitb, M.A., Ph.D. 

Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of 
SectiomUism in Pennsyhania during the RepoluHon; &c. 

William Smyth Rockstro. 

Author of A General History of Music from the Infancy of the Greeh Drama to the 
Present Period; and other works on the history of music 



HeleUiadek (in part) ; 
h {in part); 
{in part); 
{in part). 

msMiirt Compromite. 

Hendeissohn-Bartboldy 

{in part); 
Hoart {in part). 



PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES 



Hslboiinie. 


Miehigan. 


Minnesota. 


Montana. 


Melon. , 


Hleronesia. 


MIssisslppf. 


Moors. 


HeoiDgltH. 


Mimia. 


Mlssisslni River. 


Moravia. 


Heroanttle System. 


MUk. 


MlsMUri. 


Mormons. 


Mereinj (Chembliy). 


Mineral Wateis. 


Monaeo. 


Morphine. 


Mennaids. 


Mlnistiy. 




Mortgage. 


HetaL 


Minnesingers. 


Monopoly. 


Mounted Infantry. 


MetaUuigy. 









ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 



ELEVENTH EDITION 



VOLUME XVIII 



MSDAL (Fr. wMaOU, from Lat. metaBimy, strictly the 
term given to a memorial piece, originally of metal, and 
generally in the shape of a coin, used however not as ciirrency 
but as an artistic product. " Medallion " is a similar term 
for a large medal, but is now usually restricted to a form of 
bas-relief in sculpture. The term " medal " is, artistically, 
extended by analogy to pieces of the same character not neceS- 
sarOy shaped like coins. The history of coins and medals 
b inseparable, and is treated under the general heading of 
NuMxsiCATics. That article may be supplemented here by an 
account of (i) the more recent progress in the art of the medallist, 
and (}) the use of medals for war decorations. 

I. The medal— as.it Is understood to-day— enjoys a life 
entirely independent of the coin on the one hand, and, on the 
other, of the sculptured medallion, or bas-relief; and its renais- 
sance is one of the chief phenomena in art during the period 
&nce about 1870. It is in France that it has risen to the greatest 
perfection. Its popularity there is well-nigh imiversal; it is 
esteemed not only for memorials of popular events and of 
public men, but also for private celebrations of all kinds. No 
other nation approaches in excellence — in artistic feeling, 
treatment, and sensitiveness of execution — the artists and the 
achievements of France. In Engkmd, although the Royal 
Academy seeks to encourage its students to practise the art, 
the prize it offers commonly induces no competition. The 
art of the medallist b not properly appreciated or understood, 
and receives little or no support. The prevailing notion 
ooQceming it is that it consists in stamping dieap tokens out of 
white metal or bronze, on which a design, more or less vulgar, 
itAnds out in frosty relief from a dazzling, glittering background. 
These works, even the majority of military and civic medals, 
demonstrate how the exquisite art of the Renaissance had been 
degraded in England — almost without protest or even recognition 
—so that they are, to a work of Roty or Chaplain, what a 
nameless daub would be to a picture by Rembrandt or Velasquez. 

It is probable that Jacques Wiener (d. 1899), of Belgium, 
i^s the last of the medallists of note who habitually cut his 
sted dies entirely with his own hand without assistance, though 
others in some measure do so still. Although most modern 
workers, exclusively medallisU, have themselves cut dies, 
they now take advantage of the newest methods; and the 
pamir en midailks has become simply a nUdaiUeur. His 
knowledge of effect is the same— though the effect sought is 
different: in eariier times the artist thought chiefly of his 
skGdffms\ rx>w he mainly regards his planes. Otherwise his 
aims are not dissimilar. At the present day the medallist, 
after making conscientious studies from life (as if he were about 
to paint. a picture), commonly works out his' design in wax, 
or similar substance, upon a disk of plaster about 12 or 14 inches 



in diameter. From that advanced model a simple mould, 
or matrix, is made, and a plaster cast is taken, whereupon the 
artist can complete his work in the utmost perfection. Then, 
if a struck medal is required,, a steel cast is made, and from 
that a reduction to the size required for the fiiud work is pro- 
duced by means of the machine— the lour d rtduire. It is this 
machine which has made possible the modem revival, and has 
revolutionized the taste of designers and public alike. It 
was invented by Contamin, who based it upon that low d 
portrait which Houlot produced in 1766, and which helped 
to fame several engravers now celebrated. This machine was 
first exhibited in Paris in 1839, and was sold to the Munich- 
Mint; while a similar invention, devised at the same time by 
the English engraver Hill, was acquired by Wyon for £aooo, 
and was ultimately disposed of to a private mint in Paris. From 
that city comes the machine, based by the French inventor 
M. Ledru upon the two already referred to, now in use at the 
Royal Mint in London. A well-served medallist, there/ore, 
need trouble himself nowadays about little beyond the primary 
modelling and the final result, correcting with his own hand 
only the slightest touches — refining, perfecting — but sometimes 
merely confining himself to giving his directions to the profes- 
sional engraver.* 

The great majority of the artistic medals at present in the 
world (in the great collection of France there is a total of not 
fewer than 200,000 medals) are cast, not struck. There is in 
them a charm of surface, of patina, of the metal itself, which 
the struck medal, with all the added beauties which it allows 
of delicate finish and exquisite detail, can hardly give. But 
the production of the cast medal is much slower, much more 
uncertain, and the number of fine copies that can be produced 
is infinitely smaller. All the early medals were cast, being first 
modelled in wax, and then cast by the cire perdue (waste wax) 

^The method of preparing the dies, &c., is the same for medals 
as for coins, save that lor larger and heavier work more strokes are 
required, as in the case of L. Coudray's popular " Orphde " — rather a 
sculpture-relief than a medal. The dies are capable of a great yield 
before becommg quite worn-out; it is said that no fewer than three 
million copies were struck of Professor J. Tautenhayn's Austrian 
jubilee medal of the Emperor Francis Joseph. In France, Thonelier's 
perfected machine, substituting the lever for the screw, has been in 
use for coins since 184^; but for the striking of medals the same old- 
fashioned screw-press is retained which had till then been employed 
both for coins and medals since the time of Louis XIV. In its present 
form the machine consists of an iron or bronze frame, of which the 
upper part is fitted with a hollow screw wherein works an inner screw. 
This screw, moved by steam or electricity, drives the dies, set in iron 
collars, so that they strike the blank placed between them. This 
machine can deliver a strong blow to produce a high relief, or a delicate 
touch to add the finest finish. In the Paris Mmt large medals can 
be struck with comparative ease and rapidity. A hydraulic press 
of nearly two million pounds pressure U uuVvied Vot x.^^xXw^vV'^ ^vt% 



MEDAL 



process, and were usually worked over by the chaser afterwards; 
indeed, it was not until the beginning of the i6th century 
that dies, hitherto used only for coins executed in low relief, 
were employed for larger and bolder work. The medallists 
of those days always cast in bronze or lead, and only proceeded to 
use silver and gold as a luxurious taste began to demand the 
more precious metals. There is little doubt that the material 
to be preferred is dull silver ( mat or sabli — sand-blasted), 
as the work, with all its variations of light and shade, can be 
better seen in the delicate grey of the surface. 

The medal, properly considered, is not sculpture. Vasari 
was happy in his definition when he describ«d the medallic 
art as the link between sculpture and painting — that is to say, 
painting in the round with the colour left out. Less severe 
than sculpture, it need not be less dignified; it is bound down 
by the conventions of low relief, and by compulsions of com- 
position and design, dependent on shape, from which sculpture, 
even when the relief is the lowest, is in a great measure free. 
In the medal, otherwise than in sculpture, elaborate perspective 
and receding planes are hot out of place. The genius of the 
modem Frenchman rebelled against the rule that commonly 
governed the medal during the decadence, and has triumphed 
in his revolt, justifying the practice by his success. The modem 
medal and the plaqnette aim at being de<torative yet vigorous, 
reticent and dignified, delicate and tender, graceful and pure; 
it may be, and often is, all these in tum. Imagination, fancy, 
symbolism, may always be brought into play, allied to a sense 
of form and colour, of arrangement and execution. By the 
demonstration of these qualities the artist is to be differentiated 
from the skilful, mechanical die-sinker, who spreads over the 
art the blight of his heavy and insensitive hand and brain. 
So with portraiture. Accurate Ukeness of feature as well as 
character and expression are now to be found in all fine works, 
such as are seized only by an artist of keenly sensitive tempera- 
ment. It is thus that he casts the events and the actions of 
to-day into metallic history, beautifully seen and exquisitely 
recorded; thus that the figure on the medal is no longer a mere 
sculpturesque symbol, but a thing of flesh and blood, suave 
and graceful in composition, and as pleasing in its purely decora- 
tive design as imagination can inspire or example suggest. 
It is thus that the art, while offering easy means of permanent 
memorial, has afforded to men of restricted means the eagerly 
seized opportunity of forming small collections of masterpieces 
of art at a small outlay. 

France.-^ln France the fxamplt of Oudifif, comia^ after tKst 
of David d'ArvK'er*^ d'J rnuch to itrvolLj|iorLij<c the spirit 3.mmsiung. 
the modern mcNdalltst. but Chapu. by tiises^-'mblly modern treat- 
ment, did more. To Pbnscarroe (pupil o| Oudtn^J is chiefly dye 
the idea, of rendering mat the ground 4* *tll a» the «iiljiL^rt on ihe 
meU^l* the aupprestion of the raiic<!4J nm, aftd the abaodurtfnmt oi 



ihc typ£>grpptiic kttcrine tikherto in vftgue^ t<%7ther with the 
nwrlianical rcgulirity ol it a arrangement, Dt-ecdrge, with hii 
semi -pictorial trfsitment, wa* followed by Daniel Dupuls^ whoic 



delicate and playful fancy, almost entirely pictorial, makes ua forget 
jilpkc the material and the die. J. C ChapUin a unsurpaiflcd ab a. 
modellcc of noble hcadsj incltudin^ I ho** ol four presidents of the 
Fr^^nch RepubUc^Macmahon, Casimtr-IVrier, Faurt and Loubct^ 
and his allL^oricaL d^^ign^are finely irnegincd and admimbly worked 
out (we f*Iate); but L. Oscar Ro(y ^ptipil of Ponscarmc) is at the 
head of the whole modern acbool, not only by virtue of abwiqie 
tn»ftery of the technique of his srt, but also of his^ orii^inality of 
arrani;em<rn^ of the poetic charm ot hh fymbohsm and hJs allegDrits, 
the cSelicate fanry, the cKqijibiie Xovzh, the clia*tenes5 and jpnriiy 
of taste— wedding a modtm $entin]cnt id an obviuui. feeling for the 
Crwk, Though e*pre**ly le*a virile than Chaplain, Foty ii never 
«ITeniirtjit«. To Roty belonf« the credit of having first revived the 
form ftf the ptc^utilt. of rectangular medal, which had been aban- 
doned! ifid fongoti en along with many crther traditions of the Renais- 
sance (sec Pbie), Alpirde Dubois^ Lagranze,, and Borrel tnufrt 
be mentioned among ihox who are understood to engrave their own 
ditt. ^ Followers are to be found in Mouchon, LrchcvrcV, Vernon « 
Henri Dubois, Patcy, Bott^ {titc Fbie) — nil ^terlin^ artists if not 
innavatora^ Medallists of more srtiking qrigin^lit^ but h*^ ^ninh, 
and of fat leai elessnce are Miciiel Otin^ LcA^i^lam (who los-ct a<- 
much 4^ B4fidincTli ta male over tii splay of hh knowk-ftiiC of 
muscular anatomy), Charpentier. and their school, who aim at a 
manner which makes less demand of highly educated artistry such 
as that of Roty or of Chaplain. It is learned and accomplished in 



its «'ay. but lumpy in its result; breadth is gained, but refinement 
and distinction are in a great measure lost. It may be added — to 
give some idea of the industry of the modern medallist, and the 
encouragement accorded to him — that between 1879 and 1900 
M. Roty executed more than 150 pieces, each having an obverse 
and a reverse. 

i4tM(ria.^The two leading medallists of the Austrian school are 
Josef Tautenhayn (see Plate) and Anton Scharff. both highly 
accomplished, vet neither displaying the highest qualities of uste. 
ability and " keeping," which distmguishes the French masters. 
About 330 pieces have come from the hand of Anton Scharff. Stefan 
Schwartz, Franz Pawlik, Staniek, Marschall and J. Tautenhayn, 
junior, are the only other artists who have risen to eminence. 

Germany.— A characteristically florid style is here cultivated, 
such as lends itself to the elaborate treatment of costume, armorial 
bearings, and the like; but delicacy, distinction, and the highest 
excellence in modelling and draughtsmanship — qualities which should 
accompany even the most vigorous or elaborate desiens — are lack- 
ing in a great degree. Professors Hildebrand and Kowarzik have 
wrought some ol the most artistk: works there produced. 

Bajtium. — Although sculpture so g^rcatly flourishes in Belgium, 
medal work shows little promise of rivalling that of France. The 
influence of the three brothers Wiener (Jacques, Lipoid and Charles) 
— good medallists of the old school— has not vet been shaken off. 
The remarkable architectural series by the iirst-named. and the 
coinage of the aecOnd, have little affinity with the spirit of the modern 
medal. Lemaire has perhaps done as well as any, followed by Paul 
Dubois, J. Dillens (a follower of the French). G. Devreese and 
Vin^tte (see Plate} — whose fdaquetU for the Brussels Exhibition 
award (1887) is original, but more admirable in design than in finish. 

Holland. — In Holland not very much has been done. Patriotism 
has called forth many medals of Queen Wilhelmina. and the best of 
them are doubtless those of Bart van Hove and Wortman. Baars 
is a more virile artist, who follows Chaplain at a distance. Wicnecke 
is interesting for the sake of his early Netherlandic manner; the 
incongruity is not unpleasant. 

Svnixerland. — The medal is also popular in Switzerland. Here 
Bovy is the leader of the French tradition and Hans Frei of a more 
national sentiment. The last-named, however, is more remarkable 
as a revivalist than as an original artist. 

Great Britain. — In England only two medallists of repute can be 
counted who practically confine themselves to their art— G. W. de 
Saulles, of the Royal Mint, best known by the Diamond Jubilee 
medal of Queen Victoria and by his medal of Sir Gabriel Stokes, 
and Frank Bowchcr (sec Plate) By that of Thomas Huxley. These 
artists both cut their own dies when necessary. Emil Fuchs, 
working in England in the manner of the Frencn medallists, but 
with greater freedom than is the wont of the older school, has pro- 
duced several examples of the art: the medals commemorative 
of the South African War and of Queen Victoria (two vcrtaons). all 
of 1900; and many portrait medals and plaquettes of small size have 
come from the same hand. Besides these, the leading English 
sculptors have produced medals — Lord Lcighton, Sir Edward 
Poynter, Hamo Thomycroft. T. Brock, Onslow Ford, G. Frampton 
and Ck>scombe John; but. practising more continually in sculpture, 
thoy tii> TiL>i ci:jirn [uik ii? ini>.jLilnMt'^, ni>r hai'f imry sDUijiu Lo acquire 
that cla^s of dcHteriiy which conitant habit alone can give. Alphonie 
Legroi, who has ca^E a certain number of porLtait medal«, it usually 
included in the Frtnch school. 

Uniicd 5/a/cj.' Among American medallistf Augustus 5t Caudeiu 
(sec Plate) 19 perhaps the moist prominent ; buL he is not, feinctly 
speaking, a medallist, bnt a sculptcrr who tan modd in the flat. 

AuTJiORiTiE5."F, f^arkes Weber, Jied'dlj and Mi^diiUiom of t^ 
tgih Cenlury rdfiiintiP Bnihnd by for^gn Antsii [London^ tSqd); 
Rogwr Mam, " The Kcriai^smee of I he Medal in France," Tht Siimo 
(vol. Jtv. i^^-S): M. H. Spirlmannr " Frank Bowcher, Medaili^c^ witb 
wme Comment on. the Medallic Art." Th£ Magatinf of Art {February 
J 900); 3f>i»k (f ^aen'f hfonikiy NitmiiMoiu: Circtdar {piusimjy 
1^9 J onwards (in EhkIi'^, French and German) : Roger Marx, Lfi 
MMa'iikuft franiaii dtp^is ifSg (Pjjris, 1S97); Lei MMaiUtun 
fran^i^is (imffinp^rniHi (Plate*) (Paris, iBw); La Mom naif d£ 
Parti d VEjipoitiiim UnfWfs^iif (F^ria, tooo) l Cent ans dt nttmii- 
malique fran^iiiit (2 voR, Jflg^-iB^M: F. MaseTDlle, L. O. Roty: 
Biitgraphie el ii>u4oi;ui it ii?» ffl-irrr^ (Paris, 1S97): J. F. Chaplain: 
Biairaj^it ei ^tittMi&sii* de ttsu^t (Paris, 1897); Dr H. }. de 
Dompierie die Chauft-pi^, Lei MSdaiites ei piaquttitLi modrrnes (in 
Dutch and French) (Haarlem, 1B<>^): A. R. v. Loehr, Wumir MrdaU- 
ieut-e, iSqq. (Virnna, i&gqh A, Lichtwarkn ** Die Wiedererwetkun^ 
der Medailler /*aii. (895, pp 34-40: 1^9*. PP- Ji «-3'H: ^' Modern*. 
Mediiilit (a monthly magazine, pajiim) (Vienna); L Forrer, Bis- 
traphkai Didwn^ry af MtdiAiviix, vol. i. A-D. (London, \<^i). 
V ^ ' (M. H. S.) 

Medals as War Decosahons 

Although the striking of medals to commemorate important 
events is a practice of considerable antiquity, yet the custom 
of using the medal as a decoration, and especially as a decoration 
to do honour to those who have rendered service to the state 



MEDAL 



in time of war, is comparatively modern. It has been supposed 
that tl^ circular ornaments on the Roman standards bad medals 
in their centres, but there is no evidence to show that this 
was the case, and the standards shown on the column of Trajan 
appear only to have had plain bosses in their centres. It is 
true that the Chinese are said to have used military medals 
during the Han dynasty (ist century a.d.), but, as far as the 
West is concerned, we have to come to the i6th century before 
we find the custom of wearing medals as decorations of honour 
a recogm'zed institution. 

The wearing of decorative medals was common in England in 
the reign of Heniy VIII., but the first medals commemorating 
a particular event that were evidently intended as a personal 
decoration, and were in all probability (though there is no 
absolute prooO bestowed as reward for military services rendered 
to the Crown, are the " Armada " medals of Queen Elizabeth, 
158S-1589. Of these there are two. The earliest, generally 
styled the ** Ark in flood " medal, is a large oval medal of 
silver (2 by 1*75 in.), and bears on the obverse a profile bust 
of the queen surrounded by the inscription, ELIZABETH 
D. G. ANGLIAE. F. ET HI. REG. On the reverse is an ark 
on waves, with above the rays of the sun, and around the 
legend, SAEVAS TRANQVILLA PER VNDAS. This medal 
dates from 1588, and in the following year there was given 
another medal, a little larger (2-3 by 2*1 in.) and struck in gold, 
silver and copper. The obverse of this second medal bore a 
fuD-face bust of Elizabeth, with the legend, characteristic 
both of the monarch and the period, DITIOR IN TOTO NON 
ALTER CIRCULUS ORBE. The reverse has an island around 
which ships are sailing and sea-monsters swimming, and on 
the island there are houses, a flourishing bay-tree, standing 
uninjured by a storm of wind, and lightning emerging from 
heavy clouds above. The island is inscribed NON IPSA 
PERICVLA TANGVNT. These medals are of special interest 
as demonstrating thus eariy the existence of a doctrine of 
sea-power. In fact, in the medals of James I. (1603-1625), 
none of which have a distinct reference to war services, the 
" ark in flood ** design was again reproduced on the reverse, 
this time with the legend slightly altered, viz. STET SALVVS 
IN VNDIS. 

Other European nationalities were also about this period 
conferring decorative medals as a reward for war services, 
as for example, the " Medal to Volunteers " issued in Holland 
ia 1622-1623 and the " Military Medal of Gustavus Adolphus " 
ksatd in Sweden in 1630. Here it may be noted that' in follow- 
i^ the history of medals as used as a decoration to reward 
military services, only those of British origin need be dealt 
with in detail, since Great Britain has utilized them in a much 
greater degree than any other nationality. The countless 
minor wars of the 19th century, waged by the forces of the 
Crown of every class, navy, army and auxiliary, have no equiva- 
lent in the history of other states, even in that of France, the 
United States and Russia. The great wars of the 19th century 
were divided by long intervals of peace, and the result is that 
with most of the great military powers the issue of campaign 
medals has been on a small scale, and in the main decorations 
have taken the form of " Orders " (see Knichthgoo and 
Cbivalby: Orders), or purely personal decorations for some 
meritorious or exemplary service. 

During the reign of Charles I. (1625-1649), wc come across 
somerous medals and badges; a considerable number of these 
were undoubtedly associated with, and given, even system- 
atically given, as rewards for war services; for a royal warrant 
'*gi\'en at our Court of Oxford, the eighteenth day of May, 
1643,** which directed ** Sir William Parkhurst, Knight, and 
Tbocnas Bushell, Esquire, Wardens of our Mint, to provide 
from time to time ceruin Badges of silver, containing our Royal 
iraage, and that of our dearest son. Prince Charles, to be delivered 
u» wear on the breast of every man who shall be certified under 
the hands of their Commanders-in-Chief to have done us faithful 
service in the Foriom-hope/* 
From the foregoing it must not be deduced that this medal 



was in any way intended to reward special valour. In those 
days " forlorn-hopes " were not volunteers for some desperate 
enterprise, as to-day, but a tactical advanced guard which 
naturally varied, both in numbers and arm of the service, 
according to ground and circumstances. That a very free 
distribution of the award was contemplated is evident from 
the fact that "soldiers" alone were specified as recipients 
and that a clause was inserted in the warrant suictly forbidding 
the sale of the medal. This letter ran: — 
" And we do, therefore, most straitly command, that no 
soldier at any time do sell, nor any of our subjects 
presume to buy, or wear, any of these said Badges, 
other than they to whom we shall give the same, and 
that under such pain and punishment as our Council 
of War shall think fit to inflict, if any shall presume 
to offend against this our Royal command." 
As there are in existence several medals of this period which 
bear the effigies of both the king and Prince Charles, it is 
uncertain which in particular was used for the " forlorn-hope " 
award. Very probably it is one, an oval silver-gilt medal 
( I -7 by 1-3 in.) which bears on the obverse a three-quarters 
(r.) bust of Charles I., and on the reverse a profile (1.) bust of 
Prince Charles (see Mayo, Medals and Decorations oj the British 
Army and Navy, vol. i. No. 16, Plate $, No. 3). During the 
Commonwealth (1649- 1660), parliament was lavish in the 
award of medals in recognition of war services, and for the 
first time we find statutory provision made for their bestowal 
as naval awards, in the shape of acts of parliament passed 
Feb. 22, 1648 and April 7, 1649 (cap. 12, 1648 and cap. 21, 
1649), and Orders in Council of May 8 and Nov. 19 and 
21, 1649, and Dec. 20, 1652. There is no doubt whatever 
that there was a " Medal of the Parliament " for sea service 
issued in X649. This medal, oval (95 by -85 in.) and struck 
in gold and silver, had on the obverse an anchor, from the 
stock of which are suspended two shields, one bearing the 
cross of St George, and the other the Irish harp. The motto 
is MERVISTI. On the anchor stock, T. S.» The reverse 
has on it the House of Commons with the Speaker in the chair.' 
This medal is referred to in a minute of the Council of State 
of Nov. 1$, 1649: — 
" (5) That the Formes of the medalls which are now brought 
in to be given to the several! Mariners who have 
done good service this last SuAer be approved off, 
viz*: the Armes of the Co Aon wealth on one side 
with Meruisti written above it, and the picture 
of the House of Coflions on the other." 
That there was a " Medal of the Parliament " for land service 
as well, is proved by the following extract from the Journals 
of the House of Commons (vii. 6, 7) : — 
" Resolved, That a Chain of Gold, with the Medal of the Parlia- 
ment, to the Value of One Hundred Pounds, be sent 
to Colonel Mackworth, Governor of Shrewsbury, as a 
mark of the Parliament's Favour, and good acceptance 
of his fidelity: And that the Council of State do take 
care for the providing the same, and sending it forth- 
with." 
This order was duly carried out, as is shown in the minutes 
of the Council of State, June 2 and July 30, 1652, but there 
Is no trace to-day of either medal or chain. It is not un- 
likely that this medal is one figured at page 117 of Evelyn's 
Numismata (the engraving, unnumbered, is placed between 
Nos. 39 and 40, and there is no allusion to it in the text), which 
has on the obverse a representation of the parliament, and on 
the reverse a bust of the Protector with a- camp and troops in 
the background. 

The most splendid of all the naval awards of this perioa 
were those given for the three victories over the Dutch in 1653, 
namely: — 

* Thomas Simon, master and chief graver of the mint. Most 
of the medals of this period were his work, and they are considered 
to be amongst the best specimens of the meidallic art that have tx;en 
produced in the country. 



MEDAL 



I. The fight of Feb. 18/20, when Blake, Deane and Monk 
defeated Von Tromp and De Ruyter, the battle beginning 
off Portland and ending near Calais; (2) the fight of June 2 
and 3, off the Essex coast, when Monk, Deane (killed), Penn 
and Blake, again defeated Van Tromp and De Ruyter; (3) the 
fight of 31st of July off the Tezel, in which Monk, Penn and 
Lawson beat Van Tromp in what was the decisive action of 
the war. The authorization for these awards will be found 
recorded in the Journals of the House of Commons (vii. 296, 
297), under date Aug. 8, 1653. The medals, all oval, and in 
gold, were given in three sizes, as described below: — 

A (2*2 by 2 in.). Only four of these medals were issued, 
to Admirals Blake and Monk, each with a gold chain of the 
value of £300, and to Vice-Admiral Penn and Rear-Admiral 
Lawson, each with a gold chain of the value of £100. On the 
obverse is an anchor, from the stock of which are suspended 
three shields, bearing respectively St George's cross, the salt ire 
of St Andrew, and the Irish harp, the whole encircled by the 
cable of the anchor. On the reverse is depicted a naval battle 
with, in the foreground, a sinking ship. Both obverse and reverse 
have broad, and very handsome, borders of naval trophies, and 
on the obverse side this border has imposed upon it the arms 
of Holland and Zeeland. Of these four medals three are known 
to be in existence. One, lent by the warden and fellows of 
Wadham College, Oxford (Blake, it may be noted, was a member 
of Wadham College) was exhibited at the Royal Naval Exhibi- 
tion of 189X. A second is in the royal collection at Windsor 
Castle. The third, with its chain, is in the possession of the 
family of Stuart of Tempsford House, Bedfordshire. This 
latter medal is known to have been the one given to Vice- 
Admiral Penn, an ancestor of the Stuart family. The one 
at Windsor is presumably Blake's, as Tancred sUtes "the 
medal given to Blake was purchased for William IV. at the 
price of xso guineas (Tancred, Historical Records of Medals ^ 
p. 30). The medal at Wadham was formerly in Captain 
Hamilton's collection. He purchased it at a low figure, but 
secrecy was kept as to the owner, and the original chain that 
was with it went into the melting-pot: there is therefore nothing 
to show whether it was Monk's or Lawson's, as the chain would 
have done. It was sold at Sotheby's in May 1882 for £305. 

B (2 by 1-8 in.). Four of these medals were issued, each 
with a gold chain of the value of £40, to the " Flag Officers," 
i.e. to the flag captains who commanded the four flag-ships. 
The obverse and reverse of this medal'are, with the exception 
of the borders, precisely as in (A). The borders on both sides 
are a little narrower than those of (A), and of laurel instead 
of trophies. One of these medals— that given to Captain William 
Haddock, who was probably Monk's flag-captain in the " Van- 
guard," in the February fight, as he had been in that ship in 
the previous year, and who commanded the " Hannibal," 
(44) in the June battle — is now (1909) in the possession of 
Mr G. D. Holworthy, who is maternally descended from 
Captain Haddock. 

- C (i-6 by 1-4 in.). This medal is precisely the same as (B). 
but has no border of any kind, and also was issued without 
the gold chains. It was in all probability one that was issued 
in some numbers to the captains and other senior oflicers of 
the fleet. 

Some of these medals have in the plate of the reverse an 
inscription: FOR EMINENT SERVICE IN SAVING Y 
TRIUMPH FIERED IN FIGHT WH Y DVCH IN JULY 
1653. The medal so inscribed was given only to those who 
served in the " Triumph," and commemorates a special service. 
Blakc, incapacitated by wounds received in the fight of February, 
took no part in this action, but his historic flag-ship, the 
"Triumph," formed part of the fleet, and early in the battle 
was fired by the Dutch fire-ships. Many of the crew threw 
themselves overboard in a panic, but those who remained on 
board succeeded by the most indomitable and heroic efforts 
in subduing the flames, and so saving the vessel. 

But undoubtedly the most interesting of all the medals of 
the Commonwealth period, is that known as the "Dunbar 



Medal," authorized by parliament, Sept. 10, 1650, in a resolu- 
tion of which the following is an extract: — 
"Ordered, that it be referred to the Committee of the Army, 
to consider what Medals may be prepared, both lor 
Officers and Soldiers, that were in this Service in Scotland; 
and set the Proportions and Values of them, and their 
number; and present the Estimate of them to the 
House. (Journals of Ike House of Commons, vi. 464-465.) 
So came into being, what, in a degree, may be regarded as 
the prototype of the " war medal " as we know it to-day, for 
the " Dunbar Medal" is the very eariiest that we know was 
issued to all ranks alike, to the humblest soldiers as well as to 
the commander-in-chief. It differed however in one very 
material point from the war medal of to-day— in that it was 
issued in two sices, and in several different metals. There 
is no evidence to show what was the method that governed the 
issue of this medal; but the medal itself undoubtedly varied 
in size or metal, or both, according to the rank of the recipient. 
Of the two sizes in which the medal was issued the smaller, 
X by '85 in. was apparently intended for seniors in the 
respective grades, for it was struck in gold, silver and copper. 
The larger, i-3S by i-is in. was struck in silver, copper and 
lead (see Mayo. op. c><. i. 20-21).* On the obverse of both 
issues of the " Dunbar Medal " is a left profile bust of Oliver 
Cromwell, with, in the distance, a battle. The reverse of the 
larger medal has the parliament assembled in one House with 
the Speaker; and, on the left, a member standing addressing 
the chair. The reverse of the smaller medal is the same as 
that of the larger, except that the member addressing the House 
is omitted. Cromwell himself expressed a wish to the " Com- 
mittee of the Army, at London," in a letter dated the 4th of 
February 1650/51, that his likeness, to procure which accurately 
the committee had sent Mr Simon to ScotUind, should not appear 
on the medaL He writes: — 

■" If my poor opinion may not be TOJetred by ypu^ I have to offer 
to which I think the most noiblc «nd, to wkt^ The CommceriDracon 
of that ^reat Mercie att Dunbar, and the GrarMiCie to the Army^ 
which might be better cKpressed upon ihc N'ltdiikL, by engTaving;., 
as on the" one side the Piirliamc'nt which [ hear *"!» lnTcnd«l 
and will do singulariy wv]\. bo on tbt? other lide m Army, wiih thi* 
inscription over the head o\ it. Tht Lofd of Hotis which was 
our Word that day. Whcrcforr, if [ m^v bcc it ai a favour (tern 
you, I most earnestly bwccch you. if 1 may do it without oflcnct, 
that it may be soe. And if you think not mi 10 haw it as t ofTcr, 
you may alter it as you see cauit; only I doe ihink 1 may truly say, 
It will be very thankfuHy ackiio*Wgtd by me, it you willfipare 
the having my Effigies in it.'* 

In spite of this request Cromwell's " Effigies " is made the 
prominent feature of the obverse of the medal, to which the 
representation of the " Army " is entirely subordinated. His 
wish that the " word " for the day should be commemorated 
is, however, observed in the legend on the obverse, as is also, 
on the reverse, his suggestion that on one side of the medal 
there should be a representation of the parliament. 

During the reign of Charles II. the issue of medals was numer- 
ous, and though we have it on the authority of Evelyn that 
many of these were bestowed as "gratuities of respect," yet 
many were given as naval awards; and, for the first time, 
there appears official authorization for the conferring of partlcu- 
lar awards on those who had succeeded in the very hazardous 
service of destroying an enemy's vessel by the use of fire-ships. 
In what are probably the eariiest " Fighting Instructions " 
issued — those of Sir William Penn, in 1653, and again in an 
abridged form in 1655— no allusion to these awards is made, 
but that the custom of rewarding this special service prevailed, 
there is a piece of strong indirect evidence to show, in the shape 
of an amusing letter from a certain Captain Cranwill, of 
" yo Hare Pinke," to the Admiralty Committee, dated Feb. 4, 
1655:— 

* An excellent reproduction of this medal, both obverse and re- 
verse, is ^vcn in Plate 8, figs, s and 5. of the same work, and on 
Plate 9 will be found equally well reproduced facsimiles of the three 
medah for " Victories over the Dutch, 165^." fi|{s. I, 2 and 3 and of 
the " Medal of the Parliament, for Sea Service. 1649," fig. I. 



MEDAL 



Plate I. 




Dixplessis Plaquettc. 
Roty. 





i. ■" kwB^ 



Study. 
Rotv. 





\- 



Boulanger Plaquctte. 
Roty. 




Maurice Albert 


--i " 


Ambroisine Merlin. 


Portrait. 


Wedding Medal. 


From the Medal by 


Roty. 


Roty. 


Michel Cazin. 



^ Q m 

m • ! 



Medals and Plaquettes. 
Jules Chaplain. 



Plate II. 



MEDAL 





Henri Dubois. 



Medal of Award for the Cope and 

Nicol School of Painting. 

F. Bowchcr. 




^2^^ 



Gold Medal, Vienna, 

1894. 
By Joseph Tautenhayn. 



Great Gold Medal, Brussels, 1898. 
Designed by P. Wolfers. Engraved by Vincottc. 





Paris Universal Exhibition, 1889. 
By Louis Bottde. 



International Exhibition, Chicago, 1893. 
By Augustus St Gaudens. 



MEDAL 



" Ai for w Pfay yor Hbora were pktae to order mee for my vrvice 
b ye HarePinbe, 1 retarn nuMt humble thankes. and am ready to 
■erve yor Hoon and my Country for ye future 

For thoiigh ye Hare be mewied in ye sand 

yet Cranweu at your mercy stUl doth stand 

A 6re Ship w>w doth bee Crave. 

And the Fox fain would he Have, 

then has hee had both Fox and Hare. 

then Spanish Admirall stand you cleare. 

For Cranwell means ye Chaine of goold to ware; 



Sett penn to paper it is done, 

for Czanwdl ■till will be your man.* 



aO of which goes to show that it had not been unusual to bestow 
gold chains, with or without medals, on the captains of fire- 
sUpa. By the "fighting Instructions" issued 20th of April, 
1665, by James, duke of York, lord high admiral, it was pro- 
vided as follows^ In tbe case of the destruction of an enemy's 
vessel of forty guns or more, each person remaining on board 
the fire-ship till the service was performed was to receive £10, 
"on board ye Admiral! imediatdy after ye service done," 
and the captain a gold medal and " shuth other future encourage- 
ment by preferment and commande as shall be fitt both to 
Rwaid him and induce others to perform yt like Service." 
If it was a flag-ship that was fired " ye Recompense in money 
tkaii be doubled to each man performing itt, and ye medall 
to ye Coaunandcr shall be shuth as shall particularly express 
ye Eminensye of ye Service, and his with ye other officers 
pceferesBcnt shalbe suiuble to ye meritt of itt." This was 
MIowcd by an " Oder of the King in Council " dated Whitehall 
utk of January 1669-1670, in which the lord high admiral is 
aflAofised '* to distribute a Medall and Chaine to such Captaines 
of fire Sfaipps as in the last Dutch Warr have burnt any Man 
of Wair, as also to any of them that shall perform any such 
«rHce in the present Warr with Algiers. Which Medalls 
and Chaines are to be of the price of Thirty Pounds each or 
thereabouU" 

To OMnpkte tlie story of fire-^p awards, it may here be 
noted (though out of cluonological order) that in 1703 revised 
*' Fighting Instructions " were issued by Admiral Sir George 
Rooke, in which it was provided that the captain was to have 
ha choice between a gratuity of £100, or a gold medal and 
chain of that value. Lastly an order of the king in council^ 
dated, St James's, x6th of December, 1742, ordered that all 
Eeutenants of fire-ships (which originally carried no officers 
of this rank) should be entitled to a gratuity of £50 " in all 
«^»^ where the Captain is entituled to the Reward of £100." 
TlKNigh probably others were conferred, so thorough an investi- 
gator as the late John Horsley Mayo, for many years assistant 
mili tary secretary at the India office, who had special opportun- 
ities of access to official records, traced but three authenticated 
fire-ship awards. Those were: (i) to Captain John Guy, who 
bfew up his fire^^hip the "'Vesuvius" under the walls of St 
Mah> in 1693; (2) to Captain Smith Callis who, with his fire- 
ship the " Duke," in 1742, destroyed five Spanish galleys 
which had put into St Tropez, to the eastward of Marseilles; 
(3) to Captain James Wooldridge, who commanded the British 
fire-ships in Aiz Roads on the nth of April 1809, when four 
French safl of the line were burnt. This latter is believed 
to be the last award of the kind that was issued. Fire-ships 
awards are of special interest as affording a precedent, in future 
naval wars, lor the award of special decorations for torpedo 
•et vices. 

It is in this reign also that we first find a case of medals 
being granted by the Honourable East India Company. The 
earliest <rf these would appear to have been a gold medal of 
the value of £20, conferrKi on Sir George Oxinden, president 
at Surat, 1622-1669, in 1668, for considerable civil and military 
services. Surat was then and until 1687, when Bombay took 
its place, the seat of government of the Western Presidency 
and the most eminent of Sir George's services was the defence 
of the Company's treasures and possessions at that place against 
Sivajee and the Malirattas in 1664. It is not known what 
has beooDe of this medal, but there is indirect evidence to 



show that it was a circular medal, three inches in diameter. 
On the obverse the " Arms of the Governor and Company of 
Merchants of London trading to the East Indies, with crcast, 
supporters, and mottoes," and around the legend NON MINOR 
EST VIRTVS QUAM QVAERERE PARTA TVERI. The 
reverse was probably blank to admit of an inscription. This 
award was the forerunner of many given by the H.E.I. Co., 
several of which were " general distributions " of the very highat 
interest, which will be dealt with together later on. 

The awards made in the reigns of James II., William and 
Mary, William III., Anne, George I., George II., may be very 
briefly dealt with. Almost without an exception they were 
either naval or conferred by the Hon. East India Company, 
and with only perhaps one or two exceptions, they were " per- 
sonal " as distinct from " general " awards. Of the very few 
medals awarded by James II., one was an undoubted military 
award, though curiously enough the recipient was a bishop. 
This was Peter Mew, who had been made bishop of Bath and 
Wells in 1672, was translated to Winchester 1684, "and next 
year was commanded by the king, in compliance with the re- 
quest of the gentry of Somerset, to go against Monmouth, and 
did eminent service at the battle of Sedgmoor, where he managed 
the artillery; for which he was rewarded with a rich medal " 
(Hutchins's History of Dorset, 3rd ed., vol. iv. p. 149). 

The possible exceptions in the way of a " general " distribu- 
tion of a medal during the reigns under review are the cases 
of the medals struck after the battles of La Hogue, 1692, 
and Cullodcn, 1746. By an act of parliament passed in 1692 
(4 Gul. and Mar. c. 25), it was enacted that a tenth part of 
the prize money taken by the navy should be set apart " for 
Medalls and other Rewards for Officers, Mariners, and Seamen 
in their Majesties Service at Sea who shall be found to have 
done any signal or extraordinary service." (Later a Royal 
Declaration of Queen Anne, the ist of June 1702, provided that 
all medal and monetary awards " shall be also paid out of Her 
Majesties Shares of Prizes.") This is the first case in naval 
records authorizing the issue of medals to men as well as to 
officers, and the conferring of the " La Hogue " medal was 
the first case in which the enactment was carried into effect, 
at any rate as far as admirals and officers are concerned. Seamen 
and soldiers had a more substantial reward, for the queen sent 
£30,000 to be distributed amongst them, whilst gold and silver 
medals were struck for the admirals and officers. The medal, 
which was circular, 1*95 in. in diameter, had on the obverse 
the busts conjoined of William and Mary, r., with around GVL 
ET MAR D G M B F ET H REX ET REGINA. On the reverse 
was a representation of the fight, showing the French flag-ship, 
" Le Solcii Royal," in flames, with above the legend, NOX 
NVLLA SECVTA EST, and, in the exergue, PVGN NAV INT 
ANG ET FR 21 M.AY 1692. 

As regards the medal struck after CuIIoden, fought on the 
i6th of April 1746. and in which the adherents of the young 
Pretender were completely routed, there is nothing even to 
show that it was issued evenby the authority of the government, 
though it was undoubtedly worn, and (if a contemporary portrait 
is to be relied upon, that of an ancestor of Mr W. Chandos-Pole 
of Radbournc Hall in Derbyshire) around the neck attached 
to a crimson ribbon with a green edge. There is no doubt it 
was struck in gold, silver and copper, but how it was awarded 
there is no proof, probably only to officers. The obverse had 
an r., bust of the duke of Cumberland, with above CUMBER- 
LAND, below YEO f (Richard Yco fecit), and, on the reverse, 
an Apollo, laureate, leaning upon Ms bow and pointing to a 
dragon wounded by his arrow. The reverse legend was ACTUM 
EST ILICET PERIIT, and, in the exergue PROEL COLOD 
AP XVI MDCCXLVL The medal is a strikingly handsome 
one, with an ornamental border and ring for sus(>ension, oval, 
I-7S by 1-45 in., but very few specimens arc known to exist. 
Those in gold were probably only given to officers commanding 
regiments and a very fine specimen of these, originally conferred 
on Brigadier-General Fleming (at one time in command of the 
36th Foot) is now in the collection of Major-General Lord 



MEDAL 



Oieylesmore. In his monograph, If aval and MilUary UedalSf 
Lord Cheylesmore mentions another " CuJloden " medal in 
his collection^ *'a slightly larger one in white metal, which 
leads one to suppose that it was given in infecior metal to the 
more jimior branches, probably ofiicers; but whether this was 
the case or no I am unable authoriutively to sUte." However, 
one thing is fairly certain, that the issue of the " Culloden " 
medal was in no sense " general," as we now understand the 
term, nor as were the issues for " Dunbar " or the issues of the 
Honourable East India Company, which will ne^ be dealt with. 
No medal awards were made to either the naval or military 
services for the Seven Years' War, and the American War of 
Independence. In fact George HI. had been more than thirty 
years on the throne when the first medal award by the Crown 
was given, in the shape of the navy gold medals, first issued 
in 1794. It will however be more convenient to deal later with 
these medals and the army gold medals and crosses given for 
services in the long and arduous struggle of 1793-181$, and to 
describe here in sequence those medals which were issued by the 
Honourable East India Company, the issue of which was, with 
certain limitations, " general," thus reverting to the precedent 
first established in the " Dunbar " award, namely an issue to 
all ranks. They are nine in number, and are described bdow 
in the chronological order of the military operations for which 
they were awarded. 

1. Tlic " DECCAN " medal, Authorirvd. firet in 1784^ and again 
1785. Obverse: Ruurc of Britannia seated on a military tui\i\iy, 
witb her right h4nij holdmg » wrp^iEh of Uurcl and extended towanjiii 
a forticii over whifh ths: Briii»h fb|; J1ir». Keverse: Persia n in- 
tcripdana^ln c^ntnt. " Presented by ttie Calcutta Covtmment 
In memory of good wrvittafid i(iir<^|tid valout, a,d. 1784, a.m. i i^g;" 
around. *^XaV^ thii coin trtay it endufc tn the wdHrld, ond the exer- 
tions of thcfic lioii'heart<d En^liihrnen of efcat namep victorioiia 
from Kindoaun to the [>M:can» become exalted." Thii medal wa» 
iuued in two siiw, dLiniticrs 1-6 and (-35 in. The larger mc-d^I 
*ai Etruek both in gdid :ind silver, the amalWt in silver only, and 
both were worn round the neck su»p^nded from a yellow cord. Thii 
medal was awarded to two Urge dctajchincnt^ of the Bengal army, 
denominated the " Boenbsy Deia^^hment ''{authoriied 1784), and 
the "Carnatic Detachment " (authoriied I^Bj), whkh rcjpeciivtly 
foueht in the west ol India and Guzer^t* ij;;^-^^, and in the south 
of India, i^So-^. The mediil wajt fiot giv^^n ro any EurDpcani^ 
onlv to liAtivTs: the larger medd in gold to Sobadars, and in silver 
to Jemadars: the smaller silver medil tQ non-commtsiiio^ed officcra 
and KpoyL By a minyte of council^ dated the isih of Jul^ 1784, a 
fun her boon *^s granted to the ** Bombay Detiitnment," inasmuch 
as it eicempied all fiindut of that detachment fron^ paytnerit of the 
dutb^ levied b5r the auihoritiea on pilgrimi to Cova in Behar As 
tbe large majority of the troopa were high caste Hinduji, and Coya 
wUi and Is the Mecca of Hinduism, this favour must have been 
much appreciated by the recipients of the medal. This is theeaftieit 
AniElo-mdian eit^^mple of a medal issued atike to all ranloL 

2. The "MYSORE" medal. Authnrlfcd, 1793 Obverw: A 
lepoy hoWb^ in hi- d-h'; h.-unri Th.-. rrriTi-!i ,:.-lni}ri, jp, l^,j , i^.fj ^^ 

enemy's Bi.r- ':'!-■■ ■ ■_ , ■ - : 1 , :. 1 ■ _■_ -j _ i!.^i_..ujjied 

cannon. A fortified town is in the background. ReverK: Within 
a wreath; "For Ser>aces in Mysore, a.d. 1791-1792." Between 
wreath and rim is an inscription in Persian : " A memorial of devoted 
services to the Englbh government at the war of Mysore. Christian 
Era, 1 791-1793, eauivalent to the Mahomedan Era, 1205-1206." 
Like the " Deccan^' this medal was in two sizes, diameters 17 in. 
and I '5 in., the larger being struck both in gold and stiver, the smaller 
in silver only, and both were worn suspended from the neck by a 
yellow cord. The medal was awarded for the operations against 
Tippoo Sultan, and was bestowed on the " Native Officers and ^poys 
of tne Infantry and Cavalry, and on the Artillery Lascars, who either 
marched by land, or proceeded by sea to the Camatic and returned 
to Bengal.*' The large gold mmlals were given to Subadais, the 
laree silver to " Jemadars and Serangs," the small stiver medals to 
" Havildars, Naicks, Tindals, Sepoys and Lascars." The award 
therefore, followed precisely the precedent set in the " Deccan " 
medal. One of the very rare gdd specimens of this medal is in the 
collection of Captain Whitaker, late Sth Fusiliers, whose colksction, 
and that of Lord Cheylesmore, are probably the two finest that 
hav-e as yet been brought together. 

3. The " CEYLON^' medal. Authorized. l8o7. Obverse: An 
English inscription: " For Services on the Island .of Ceylon, 
A.D. 179^-6." Reverse: A Persian inscription: "This Medal was 
presented to commemorate good services in Ceylon during the years 
of the Hegira 1209-10." This medal was issued in only one size, 
2 in. diameter, and was awarded to a small force of Bengal native 
artillery which formed a fraction of a large body of British and native 
troops (the rest did not receive the naedal) which captured Ceylon 



from the Dutch in 1795-96. It is the only instance of a war medal 
that has merely a verbal design on both obverse and reverse, and 
moreover it sets a prece<jent that was destined to be followed only 
too often in that it was only granted twelve years after the services 
that had earned it had been rendered. Only 123 medals were struck, 
two in gold for native officers, and 121 in silver for other ranks. 
Like the two preceding, it was worn from the neck suspended from 
a yellow cord. 

, A.The"SERlNGAPATAM"medal. Authorized, 1799, for services 
in Lord Harris's campaign of that year, and the storm of Scringa- 
pat^m. ObvLfst:. A r j . . ;.' ,[i,jei uJ Uu' storming of thir breach 
at Smngapatam, ^%l:L i;., ni, rirJi;in sMn denoting the time of the 
itorm. In the ^\i\,^.:. i, .3 Per»ian instriptian: "The Fort 
of Seringapaiani, ih^- g\.\i oi God, the 4th May 17*1^" Rc^-^oeT 
A British lion overcoming a tiger the cmbtem of Tippoo SliiUan. 
Above is a standard^ with, in ilic innermost part of thft hoist irtt» 
mediatL-ly ^uniij^uQus to the stiff, the Union badge, andt in ihr Hy. 
an Arabic legend nicntfyirtg " Tht Liun of Cod Li the Conqueror,'' 
Jnthecxergut: IV. MAY, MDCCXCIX. ft he date of the assault). It 
was in oni; Bi^tt t-9 io* but of tve different kinds. Ahhouch 
thft medat was agihariicd in 1799. it wa* iSoi before order? for the 
prtparation of jo gpld mcdati, ittiS iilvtT-eilt, 850 silver, 5000 cop{«r 
brdin.£?d, and ji5,ooo pure tin, were cii^n, the artijt »in^ C^ H+ 
Kuchlern and the medals made by Matthew Bo u lion at the Soho 
Mint, BirmLn^hain> It wai iik)8 before they tame out to Indi^k for 
dlKuiliution^ and it was not tilt 1&15 that the Company'i Eumpean 
officefft had th<^ prince regent's sanction to wearing them on public 
occasions. For the first tinw the issue waa abtodutely " general," 
to EurocKans as well as natives, tp Crown troops ai well at to thoie 
of the H.E I. Co.H but it wa* not till ili^j, when the Fltst India G.5«. 
Medal was awarded, that oflicUd sanction was given (0 their being 
worn by Europeans in unifofin. The medal was given in gold to 
gifncr^l oflicera, in silver-gilt to fie!*! officers, in silver to captains and 
Au baiter ns^ in co[>peT bronzed to fton-com missioned officers, and 
in pure grain tin to private-* and tc'poys- With regard to this medal 
there is an incident I hat is worth rrcordjrg. The bulk of the irooni 
engaged at Serinjiapiitani were Ctown forcea, or belonged to the 
Madrai and Bombay presidencies; the only [krngal troops taking 
pan being five battalions oi infantry, and ^inillery detichmcnti. 
On their return to Bengal no ite^A were lakcci with reganj to medala 
till ]to7t when medals copied from the Soho Mint one, but i-S in. 
only in diameter, were made at the Calcutta Mint. Following the 
Bengal pnHiedentfl as Kt in the '* Doccan," " Mysore "and " Ceylon " 
medals, the medalj wer^ itruclc in gold for omcer^ and In ^Ivtrt (of 
the othtr r^nks. A £iengal native ofliccf therefore wore just the 
stance medal ai a general officer of any of the other forrii, 
and iimilariy a Beni;al xpoy wore the name medal m a British 
captAin or subaltern of the Crewn. The Bengat medal can e^tily 
be dlbtini^iiiTsht'd from the othcr*^, for in ttie reverse the artist a 
initials C.H.K. are rendered "CM.H." Some officers^ amongst 
them Lord Harris himself and his second-in-command Sir David 
Baird. wore the medal with the red, blue-bordcned ribbon, which is 
the same as that worn with the Army Gold Medal (see below) and 
was in fact the only authorized military ribbon then in use; but 
though no ribbon was issued with the medal, recipients were given 
to understand that the ribbon would be of a deep maize colour and 
watered, the shading on the ribbon symbolizing the stripes in the 
fur of the tiger, Tippoo Sultan's favourite emblem. The duke of 
Wellington's medal (silver gilt), has the maize (or yellow as it is 
often termed) ribbon, and the medal was undoubtedly more generally 
worn with this ribbon than with the red and blue one. There are 
also apparently occasional instances of it having been worn with a 
plain red ribbon. 

5. The "EGYPT" medal. Authorized, 1802. Obverse: A 
S^oy holding the Union Flag in his right hand ; in the background 
a camp. In exergue, in Persian: " This medal has been presented 
in commemoration of the defeat of the French Army in E^pt by 
the victorious and brave English Army." Reverse: A British ship 
sailiiu; towards the coast of Egypt. In the background, an obelisk 
and four pyramids. In the exergue, MDCCCl. This medal was 
only awarded to native officers and men of the small force of Bengal 
and Bombay troops which formed part of the expeditionary force 
from India, that co-operated in Sir Ralph Abcrcromby's descent on 
Egypt in 1801 (see BAiao, Sia David). This was another case of 
a belated issue (181 1 for the Bengal troops and two years later for 
the Bombay troops). The medal was issued in only one size, i -9 in. 
in diameter. For the Bengal troops 776 medals were struck, 16 in 
gold for commissioned officers, 760 in silver for other ranks. The 
Bombay government obtained the approval of the court of directors 



for the issue of the medal to their troops in 1803, but apparently 
did nothii^ till 1812, when they asked the Calcutta Mint tor a copy 
of the meduU to enable them to prepare similar ones. The Bombay 



Mint would not however appear to have been equal to the occasion, 
for the sample was returned to Calcutta with the request that 1439 
medals might be struck there. This was accordingly done, but all 
of these medals were made of silver, and so the medal went to the 
Bombay troops in all ranks alike. As in the case of the " Deccan " 
medal, Hindu sepoys, who had volunteered for Egypt, were exempted 
from the duties levied on pilgrinu. This medal was worn suspended 
from the neck by a yellow cord. 



MEDAL 



«. th* "HODRICUES, BbURBOFf Artft> MAURITIUS" 
tO«^]. Aulhonird, tSii. Obverse: A tf^ty, KoHing in hi* rijfht 
h^iuj the Briti^ Cbg- ii> hli left a musket with kjayuntrt 6x^. etands 
Mj(h Ki^ left FddC trampling: a Frcfifti inagle and stJiutArd; besuie the 
^urv i caiADCpn, ajid, in ihv bickj^round the sea slitd sliipi^ Reverse: 
wiOiia A wTOiCh, in (*c™a,ai " This medal *a5 confrrrrd in cum- 
awiiHf3ti<>ii of the bravFry aiwl dtTotion Mhibiird by (he Sepoys 
ctf the Englbh Company in tht capture of tbe l^iandn of Rodrigurs, 
Bourban, and Mauritiu*, in th« year of the Hegira 1336," U the 
m^unttnoa, in Ecaliih: RODRIGUES VJ, JULY MDCCCIX. 
60URBON VIIL JULY AND ISLE OF FRAf^CE III. DEC. 
ilDCCCX^ Thi« tsntd^l was awarded to the native troop* of the 
Bo^l f^nulenfy that fomietj part of tbt; c^rflbin^rd n»val and mili- 
W fome* tbai effect >i?d ihc redutrtion of tboe islands in tBcM)-io, 
nt pnfEnunent of Ek'iiciil also au^eAed " for the c^n«ideraiiDn 
itf {lie KyvcmmenEi of Fort St Geofgt> and Bombay 4 that cotnc- 
" \ Medalt shall be cutif erred on the native troops from those 
H ftyn t*.-*' but th49c gi>vemment^ do not appear to have 
with the ■u;cgt:&tiiMn^ a distinct injustice to the Mad rat 

, ^.JkAy troops emptoyrd> Tbe tiiedals, struck at ths Cakutu 

IfiBt Jor the Bcnpl troo^, wrfc 1-9 in. in dija meter, and in ^o\d 
«Dd hIvft. 45 gtjld for native officer^, 315* !illver for all other ranks. 
Ih^ Tfl-rr WW71 aa wai customary in «o many cases with yellow bib 
Bisrd suspended from the fleck. 

f. Vx '• JAVA ■* mrdal. Authorised. iBia. Obverse: A 
tqmnutioii of the viorming oi Fort CorncLia. On a lU^-itaff 
Ibe Sfidflii ftag: La i^own flying above a Dutch one, and over ^11 ■« 
tte VQcd OiTDc^is. RcVffijc : In Persian : " This medal was cctflferrvd 
fai GsmnKBiafaiion ol the brav^^eiy and rour^^e exhibited by the 



1 of tbe Eiifiiih Compan y in t"Ke capture of J ava^ 1 i J H , Hegira /' 

ITafcinnfH^Mx, in Et,f,\hh; -JA\/a CONQUERED 30tVI. 
AtPGUST MEMTCCXl.'* ThU medal wa* awarded to the native 
tiHpt of the Honourable Eirt India Company (all BengaT), 
«t»CB took pan in thu e^pcdtuon under Lieut. Gejieral Sir Samuel 
AtKhmutv whurh cflectcd the captuti? ol Java from the Dutch in 
iJlii, TW nw3il. r-9 in, in diamcrter, was SPtruck in ftold and 
miv^, 13J iin **«: former metal fof rtatiw o^cef$, and 6^t9 in iilver 
lor QCbcr nnki,i and wai vom in the usual manner »tth a yetlow 

8. Tbe " NEPAL ** medal. Authorised. 1816. Obverse: Hills 
cro w ned with stockades. In right foreground the cokwrs and 
bayraets of an attacking force, to the left a cannon. Reverse: In 
l^rnan: "This Medal was conferred by the Nawab Governor- 
General B^iadur in testimony of the energy, good service, skill and 
intrepidity, which were ^i^^ytd in the nilb in the yars of the 
Hesira 1239 and 1230." This was awarded to the native troops 
0^ the East Indb Compaiw who took part in the arduous operations 
m Nepal in 1814-16. This medal, 2 in. in diameter, marks a 



very tnterestin|[ new departure, for it was struck only^ in stiver, 

ecisely alike, whether the recipient was 

was worn from the usual yellow silk 



and given to aSl ranks precisely alike, whether the recipient was 
... -jj ^ . . 



or not. 

9. The "BURMAH" medal. Amhoriir^l, i§26. Obve«e^ 
Representation of the ttormlng oi the g^rtat pofjoda at Rangoon; an 
the left, a palm tr*e unde/ whkh the eenrrj^V ijnd staff, and Lh* river 
with steamer and boats of 1 he Irnw^ddy AotlUa joining in the attack- 
Is exercue, in PerHan: *' The Standard ol the viciorious Army of 
Fff gfa "*^ upon Ava.*" Reverie: The While Etrphant of Burm^ 
croochii^ in «ubmisiioci before the Briiifh Lion; behind ihe lion, 
the Bfiti^ fia^K Hy^n^ brciadi, behind the elephant, the Burma flag 
droopittg and between the two fbgs palm trt<c». Jn the cu^rgue, 
is PnWn: " Tfie eirphant of Ava SiLunmitt to the lion of England, 
year 1826." Thiit. on? o^ the most beautiful of ail war rnedalii. wna 
deagned by W Dan 1*11, R,A,. and t»i»cuted by W- Wyon* and was 
awarded to all the Company's native troops, that participated in 
the First Burmese War, 1824-26. The medal. 1-5 in. diameter, was 
t»jed in gold to native officers, in silver to other ranks. In all there 
«ef« struck; for Bengal troops, 368 gold, 13.108 silver; and for those 
cf Madras, ^50 gold and 20,025 silver. Oi the Madras medals how- 
ever nearly naif were still unclaimeii in i8ao. It is with this medal 
that we nrst find, as regards Indian medals, definite instructions 
as to the use of a ribbon, and the manner in which medals should 
be mom. In 1831 . it was officially ordered that the colour should be 
red with blue etues — it was in fact precisely similar to the Waterloo 
ribbon (for which see Plate I.) — and the instructions were that the 
medal " be worn perfectiv square upon the centre of the left breast, 
the upper edge 01 the ribbon being even with the first button for 
naks wearing Sword Belts only, and even with the second button 
for ranks wearing Cross Belts. Like the Waterloo medal also, it 
V3« mounted on a sCeel clip and ring, and the medals were struck 
02 iIm; Royal Mint instead of. as heretofore, in India.' 



* Most ol the authorities on medals, including Mr Thomas Carter 
and Captain Tancred. style as the reverse of the medal what above 
is ttyled the obverse ana vice versa. We. however, prefer to agree 
vriih the descriptkm of the medal as given by Mayo and for this 
rouoo. The side of the medal which is described above as the 
olnerw depicts a chief incident of the war; the allc^gorical repre- 
sratatinn on the other side is after all but the pictorial equivalent 
u a verbal inscription, and so is properly the reverse of the medal. 



This doses the list of the Indian medals, which, with the excep- 
tion of that for Seringapatam, were issued only to the native 
troops of the Honourable East India Company. All are now 
veiy jare and very highly valued by collectors. 

As has already been stated, the first war medals awarded 
by the Crown in the reign of George III., were tbe navy gold 
medals, instituted on the occasion of Lord Howe's great victory 
over the French fleet on the ist of June 1794. On the 26th of 
that month the king and queen visited Portsmouth, and, on 
the deck of the "Queen Charlotte," Lord Howe's flag-ship, 
presented the victorious admiral with a diamond-hilted sword 
of the value of three thousand guineas. Gold chains, from 
which the medaU were afterwards to be suspended, were also 
conferred on Admiral Lord Howe; Vice- Admirals Graves and 
Sir Alexander Hood; Rear- Admirals Gardner, Bowyer and 
Pasley; and Captain of the Fleet Sir Roger Curtis. At the 
same time the king announced his Intention of conferring gold 
medaU on each of the officers named, and similar, but smaller 
medals on the a4>tains. The medals were delivered in 1796, 
the Admiralty oidering " The Admirals to wear the Medal 
su^>ended by a ribband round their necks. The Captains 
to wear the Medal suspended to a ribband, but fastened through 
the third or fourth button-hole on the left side. The colour of 
the ribband, blue and white." 

The ribbon, which is white with broad blue borders (see 
Plate I.), did not of course supersede the gold chain in the case 
of those officers on whom chains had been conferred. They 
wore their chain with the ribbon, and the medal of Admiral 
Bowyer (now in tbe collection of Lord Cheylesmote) is so sus- 
pended. The same splendid and intensely interesting medal 
was later conferred for various fleet and ship actions deemed 
worthy of special acknowledgment; and so came into being 
the first " regulation " medal for naval officers. 

The two medals are, with but one slight distinction, identical 
in design, tbe larger being 2, and the smaller x-3, in. in diameter. 
The design is: — 

Obverse: The fore part of an antique galley, on the prow of which 
rests a figure of Victory who is placing a wreath on the head of 
Britannia who stands on the deck of the galley, her right foot resting 
upon a helmet, her left hand holding a spear. Behind Britannia is a 
" union " shield, charged with the CTross of St George and the Saltire 
of St Andrew. (Ireland had not then been added to the Union). 
Reverse: Within a wreath of oak and laurel, the name of the re- 
cipient, the event for which the medal was conferred, and the date. 
(In the smaller medal the wreath is omitted.) 

In all, eighteen actions were recognized by this medal, the 
complete list of which is as follows: — 

The " Glorious First of June " (7 large and 18 small medals); St 
Vincent (Feb. 14, 1787) (6 Urge and 15 small medals) ; Camperdown 
Oct. II, §797) (2 large, is small medals); The Nile (Au^. 1, 
1798) (1 large and 14 small medals); Re-capture of the frigate 
" Hermione from the Spaniards by the boats ol H.M.S. " Surprise " 
at Porto Cavallo (Oct. 25, 1709) (i small medal); Trafal- 

f'ar (Oct- 21, iSo^i) (^ Lat^ and 37 small medals); Action off 
'errol (Nov, 4. 1805) {4 F.ma]l rriedaliA)^ AcLion off St Domingo 
(Feb. 5, 1B0&) (3 large and 7 Bmall medals); Capture of Cura^oa 
(Jan. I, 1807) (4 Email medahh Capture of the Turkish frigate 
*^Baderc Zaif e- " bv H-M,!x "fic^horac" (lulv 6, 1808) (i small 
mtdali; Capture of the French frigate Thetis" by H.M.S. 
" Amt'th)^it " (Nov, I Oh itioH) (i smaU mcdid); Capture of the 
French frigate ** Furicnse "by H.M. ship-sloop " Bonne Ciloyenne " 
J[]|y 6, iBog (r small medal] ; Capture of the Island of Banda Neira 
(Augn 9, T^ioJ (i small medal); Captain W, Hoste's action oflF 
Lissa (Mnrth iv tSu) {^ small trcdalt); Capture of the French 
74(?T]n fchlp "liivali" by H-MS ^^ Victorioui " (Feb. 22, 1812) 
(i *mai; medal); The '" CheiGSpeake " and "Shannon" (June i. 
iSii) (1 small medal): Captune of (he Frenrh frigate '* Etoilc " by 
H M S, " Hcbrus" (March 27, 1814) (i «naU medal); Capture of the 
American ffieate " President '* by H.M.S, " Endyraion * (Jan. 15, 
1815) (1 tmall medall- 

|ti nil 2; Urge medal?, and 11? 6Tn.ll I. v^rf awarded; but this does 
not say that all who were entitled to the medal received it. This 
is most notably the case with regard to the " Glorious First of June." 
When the issue was made, in 1796, the medals were given only to 
those flag officers who had received gold chains, and to such captains 
as were specially mentioned in Lord Howe's despatch of the 21st 
of June, de-ipite the fact that the admiral specially put it on record 
that the selection therein made. " should not be construed to the 
disadvanuge of the other commanders, who may have been equally 



iajuiii 



8 



MEDAL 



deserving of the approbation of the Lords Commissioners of the 
Admiralty, although I am not enabled to make a pauttcular sute- 
roent of their merits." For this reason the medal was never awarded 
to Rear-Admiral B. Caldwell, fifth in command on the great day.to 

ili:S I'.i-' ' .1. :..i: , I .1] ' ..i^r, |; '•.':■■' ■;i. ■ nil ■ ■\-, n i- l-v r .-.lEitiiinj 
of tine ul tMiLtlc siHip^ cn^a^cJ. One capuin tioi^xvtr, whu va not 
mentioned in dppiircrhe^, ^iicc^cdcd in gainEtig the ntnlal, by a 
t6t(f di fffr^t cminrciily characteristic of the _Buperb_ breed or naval 
officers thit Ehe great wars had brought into being. Thia was 
ColtinKwixid, whohadbt^n flaj^'Capt^n to Bowycrin the" Barfleiir.'" 
When Colling Wood wai awiindHl the medal for St Vmcent, where he 
c<nninanded the ** Excellent /' he Aatly refused iQ receive it unless 
that lor the First pi June waa ako conferred upan hijn+ which wai 
done. Foir St Vincent^ the Nile and Trafalgar, s.\\ flagplhcers and 
captains enE^Bi^ nxeiviMl the ntedal. At the Nile* Troubridg*'* 
ship, the '* Cuilodcd/* gnoufidetl id entfring the bay, and «► atrlctly 
■pej3ltin£, he was n^vw vnci^srd. in the action; but the king specially 
iflctuded him in the award, for his servitj^ both before and »ncc^ 
and lot the grmit and wondefful vxertion^ he made at the time of 
the action, in saving and ^'tting off hi* ship " 

For Camijcrdciwnt omJ capi^ln^ aftcrWianid found euitty by couri- 
martial of failure in duty, did not rrt:cLvc the medal. Several 
poathumoLLS awards of the smaller medals were made to the relatives 
of officer! who were either killed in action or died of wounds. The« 
were: on the first of junen, Captains Hutt C' Queen ")* Montagu 
C' Montaru "), Harvey (" Brunswick "); at Caniperdown, Captviin 
Sunless ('Ardent *'); at the Sile, Ciptain WestcoLt iT' Majestic ") \ 
Bt Trafalgar^ Captnixis Duff ('^ Mars *'} and CooJte (*' BcUerophon "). 
Captain Westcott was doubly unfortunate, for he wai one of the 
Fimt ol jure captains who should have received the medal hut did 
not. Captain Mi tier of the " The*eui '^ also did not receive hi^ m^^dul 
(or the Nile, for, though not killed in the action, he ptrriahcd at Acre 
in an afciiiiL-nLai (wwiJlt tif^toijijn ih^i M:iv \<^Wn^vn^\l, the medal 

arrr .: ■ i- - i ^ .. i. .. i i.. . .. ■ .i . -.a. .,- .u^^ jn 

oiih ■ ■ • _ .^rank, 

these being Sir R, Curtis, captain of the fleet to Lord Howe on the 
First of June, and Nelson, who only flew a commodore's broad 
pendant at St Vincent. Following this latter precedent Sir R. 
Strachan should have had the large medal for the action of the 4th 
of November 1805, for he also was a commodore, but it «'as denied 
him for what seems quite an inadcauate reason, namely that he was 
junior in rank to Captain Hcrvey 01 the " Temeraire," who was the 
senior of the Trafalgar captains. Hervey was promoted to rear- 
admiral for Trafalear on the 9th of November, and Strachan to the 
same rank on the following day. 

The small medal ti3o was conferred in only three ca&et on ol}irer$ 
below tht rank of post ca pt,^in. These were Con^n^^ndf^r Mouni>ey 
of the " Bonne Cittwenne," for the capture of the " Fur<eu*e "and 
Lteuts. PiUold and Stockhiim, who at Trafalgar eommiinded respec- 
tively the " AjjiJi " and the "Thunderer,*' the captains of those 
two ships being at the tinie of the action in England giving evidence 
at the court -martial ot Sir Rotiert Calder. In aU, of the dghteen 
awards yf the Na*^ Goki M^^l^l, eight were lot fleet actions (on* of 
which wd» between K^uadrun^ of rr»K.^:e«), seven for single ship 
actions, one between line of ba(t]i>«hipi^ sis in which frigates were 
engaged, iwi? for shore opera tian;^ (in both cases the taking of i»knd$ 
from the Dutchk and lastly the ri>-capiure of I he " Hermione " by 
the "Surprise." This last mentioned award is one partkrularly 
memoraLite^ not onl^ becauw it wai the first time that the medal 
was awarded to a fngate captain, but also because it is the only case 
in which the mwljl *j^a\vaftlfd far bi.>ji *itr\'ltt rmrf and ^^imple. 

Nelson '.V i^f- ■:- ' ■ ' :' ■ .. I . ' . ,. \ 

a medal fur A\ ■ 

were not made by the Crown but by the generosity of two private 
individuals, though of course with the kinc's approval and permis- 
sion. The first of these is ** Davison's Nile Medal," which Mr 
Alexander Davison, Nelson's prize agent and a valued friend, caused 
to be struck at a cost of near £3000, and one of which was presented 
to every ofhcer and man engaged at the Nile. The medal, 1-85 in. 
in diameter, was given in _Kold to Nelson and his captains, in 
silver to lieutenants and ofnccrs of corresponding rank, in copper 
gilt to warrant and petty officers, and in copper bronze to seamen 
and marines: — 

Obverse: Hope, iftanding on a rock in the sea, holdini; in her 
right hand nn oliv^ branch, and fupporting with ber left fiidc a shield 
on which x% the bu^t of Nelv^n surrounded by the legend: 
" EUROPE S HOPE AND BRITAIN S GLORY. Behind the 
figure and shield is an nnchof, whiUt around all 1* Inscribed: 
" REAR-AD AURAL LORD N£LSON OF THE NILE/" Rnerae: 
The French fleet at anchor in Aboukir Bay, the British fleet ad- 
vancing to the attack: a ^.fitting sun denote* the time ol the action. 
Around: " ALMIGHTY GOD HAS IVLESSED HIS MAJESTY'S 
ARMS "; and, in t^rf-Me: '' VICTORY OF THE NILE AUCU'ST 
I 1798." In [til riVLTw ih- ( rLi;r.],vir when jinking The die forEot 
to transpose the position of the objects, and so the sun is made to set 
in the east instead of in the west, and the land which is shown oqthe 
right should properly be on the left. 

Davison's Nile medal was struck at the Soho Mint, Birminghem. 
by Boulton. and it was this that probably inspired the latter to 
preaent a mpdaj to ail who took part in the battle of Trafalgar. 



** Boulton'c Trafalgar Medal " was 1 '9 in. in diameter, and given 
in gold to the three admirals, in silver to captains and nrst-Ueuteo- 
a ni&, and i n pewter to other ranks. In a very considerable number of 
cases the pewter medals were either returned, or thrown overboard, 
the recipients being di^^sted at what thev deemed the paltrincaa 
of the reward. Obverse: A bust of Ix)rd Nelson in uniform with 
ar«und: HORATIO, VISCOUNT NELSON, K.B. DUKE OF 
BRONTE* Ac. Reverse: A represenution of the battle, with 
amund on a scroll: ENGLAND EXPECTS EVERY MAN WILL 
DO HIS DUTY. In exergue: TRAFALGAR OCTr. ai 1805. 

Both the Davison and the Boulton medals were worn sus- 
pended fram a blue ribbon. These are the only two cases in 
which officers and men of the navy and army have accepted 
apd tk'Qrn medals presented by a private individual. 

The Cold Medal given by George III. to the superior officers in 
command at the battle of Maida, in Sicily, on the 4th of July x8o6, 
is an award of special interest, for not only was it the first 
mjtiury award made by the Crown during the reign, but it was 
moreover the prototype of the superb army gold medals and 
crossca which were so widely distributed during the years that fol- 
lowed. A general order of the duke of York, commander-in-chief, 
dated Horse Guards, 22nd of February 1808, awarded a gold 
intd&l for Maida to Sir John Stuart, K.B., his three brigadiers, 
and nine other officers. Subsequently four other officers 
received it, so in all seventeen officers received the award. 
iL wai prescribed that the medal " should be worn suspended 
by a Ribband of the colour of the Sash, with a blue edge, from 
a button of the coat on the left side." It was in fact to be worn 
ia the same way as the small Navy Gold Medal, and as this 
grant eatablish^ blue and white as the specific navy ribbon, 
so did the Maida award establish red with a blue border as the 
regulation military ribbon. The Maida ribbon is in fact precisely 
the same as the Waterloo ribbon shown in Plate I. The Maidk 
medal was 1*5 in. in diameter and struck in gold only. It 
was issued precisely alike, quite irrespective of rank, to each of 
its seventeen recipients. 

Obverse: Head of George III., laureated and facing left, with 
bcbw the l^end: GEORGIUS TERTIUS REX. Reverse: 
Briit;innb castmg a spear with her right hand, and on her left arm 
the Lm^ti shield, above, and approaching her is a Flying Victorv 
hoidtnj^ ttut a wreath. In front of Britannia in four lines, m MAI/ 
DA/I VL IV/MDCCCVI/; behind her the triquetra or trinacria. the 
symbol oi the Island of Sicily. In the exergue are crossed spears. 

Two and a half years after the Maida award the king author- 
lied the " Army Gold Medal," the first grant of which was 
notified by the commander-in-chief, in a Horse Guards general 
order dnied the 9th of September 18 10. This authorized the 
bestQw:iJ of the medal on 107 senior officers mentioned by name. 
The battles commemorated were Roleia, Vimicra (1808), the 
cavalry actions of Sahagun and Benevente (1808), Corunna 
and Talavera (1809). TTie Army Gold Medal so awarded was 
in two silts, large, 2'X in. in diameter, for general officers, 
imall, ti in. in diameter, for officers of lower rank: and the 
reguJnLions provided that it should be worn from a red ribbon 
edged with blue, the larger round the neck, the smaller on the 
left breast from a button-hole of the uniform. The ribbon 
w^ the same width, 1} for both ribbons, and precisely the 
saine kter on for the Gold Cross. Both large and small medals 
were ot identical design, in fact there was no difference, either 
in medals or in ribbons, except in size and the style in which 
they were worn : — 

Obverse : Britannia seated' on a globe, holding in her right hand 
a bufvl ti^reath. and in her left, which rests upon a Union shield 
reitine ag-iinst the globe, a palm leaf; at her feet to her right, a lion. 
Reverse: A wreath of laurel, encircling the name of the battle or 
operations for which the medal was granted. 

In the following years subsequent orders similar to the 
oi^nal grant extended the award of the Army Gold Medal, 
until evetitually twenty-four distinct awards were made, com- 
rocmorating twenty-six actions, or series of operations, which 
took place not only in the Peninsula, but also in North America, 
atid both the East and the West Indies. 

The Peninsula medals were for Roleia and Vimiera, Sahagun 
and 6«a£vente, Corunna, Talavera, Busaco, Barrosa, Fuentes 
d'Oncr, Albuera, Ciudad Rodrigo (181 2), Badajoz (181 2), 



MEDAL 



Sahmanra, Vlttoria, Pyrenees, St Sebastian, Nivelle, Nivc, 
OrtlKs, Tonloiiae. Tlie West Indies medals were for Martinique 
(Feb. 1809) and Gaudaloupe (Jan.-Feb. 1810), the North 
American for Fort Detroit (Aug. 16, 181 2), Chateauguay (Oct. 
26, 1813) and Chrystler's Farm (Nov. 11, 1813), and there 
vas. lastly, a medal awarded for Java (Aug.-Sept. 181 1). 

From the above it will be seen that as time went on many 
officers became entitled to two, three and even more medals, 
aad as this was found inconvenient, the method of granting 
the award was very materially amended as notified by the 
commander-in-chief, in a general order, dated Horse Guards, 
October 7, 1813. This ord^ formulated regulations which were 
as follows: — 

1. That one medal only was to be borne by each officer recom- 
nended for the distinction. 

2. That lor a second and a third action a gold clasp was to be 
attached to the ribbon from which the medal was suspended inscribed 
with the name of the action. 

3. When a fourth distinction was earned, the medal and two. 
dl^» were to be replaced by a (k>ld Cross having the four actions 
for which it was awarded inscribed upon it, one upon each arm. 

4. On every occasion the recipient was awarcied the decoration 
after the fourth a (}okl Clasp worn on the ribband was added to the 
Cress. 

The regulations further laid down that only officers should 
be reoommended who had been " personally and particularly 
cogaged " on the occasion, and that officers were to be named 
by "special selection and report of the Commander of the 
Forces upon the qx>t, as having merited the distinction by 
CDaapkuous service Further, the Commander of the Forces 
was restricted in his selection to General Officers, C.Os. of 
Brigades, CDs. of Artillery or Engineers, and certain staff 
officers holding field rank, and Commanding Officers of Units, 
aad Officers succeeding to such command during an engagement.* 
It was also ordered thaA awards earned by deceased officers 
should be transmitted " to their respective families." The 
Gold Cross that was, under these regulations, instituted is as 
fbUows:— 

A Maltese Cross, i) inches square, with an ornamental border; 
ia the centre, a lion, facing rijg^ht ; in each limb of the cross the name 
of oee of the actions for which it was conferred. The back of the 
cross is the same as the front. The cross was precisely the same 
ircespective of whether it replaced a large or a small medal. 

The clasps were all of the same pattern, whether worn with 
the cross, the large gold medal, or the small gold medal. They 
are 2 in. in length by } in. in width, and bear, within a border 
of laurel, the name of the action for which they were conferred. 
At the dose of the war in the Peninsula the issue of this handsome 
and much coveted decoration was discontinued, the enlargement 
of the Order of the Bath (January 181 5) affording another 
metlKxl of reward which the Crown deemed more appropriate. 
On the occasion of this extension all officers who had obtained 
the cross with one clasp, i^. who had been decorated for five 
or oaore actions, were made Knights Commander of the Bath. 
In all 847 awards of this superb decoration were made. The 
aBe<^ alone went to 469 officers, whilst 143 received it with 
one dasp, and 72 with two clasps. The cross was issued singly 
in 61 cases, with one dasp in 46, with two in 18, with three in 
17. with four in 8, and with five clasps in 7 cases. The cross 
with six dasps was gained by Sir Colin Campbell (Lord Clyde), 
Six Alexander Dickson (d. 1840) and Sir (}eorge Murray (d. 1846). 
Two officers. Viscount Beresford and Sir Denis Pack (d. 1823) 
received it with seven clasps. The duke of Wellington's had 
Bine, the decoration thus commemorating fourteen out of the 
twenty-six battles, sieges or operations for which the Gold 
Medals. Cross and Clasps were awarded. On the limbs of this 
cross are, ROLEIA AND VIMIERA, TALAVERA, BUSACO, 
FL-ENTES DE ONOR. The dasps are for CIUDAD ROD- 
RI(X). BADAJOZ. SALAMANCA. VITTORIA, PYRENEES, 
NI\XLLE, NIVE, ORTHES and TOULOUSE. Not unUl 
• CTapcain Savers of the royal navy, who commanded the " Leda '* 
36. and landed in command of the 500 seamen who erected and 
aanocd the batteries for the attack of Fort Cornclis. received the 
asttll medal for Java. This is the only case of the Army Gold Medal 
having been conferred on a naval oflmrer. 



after the dose of the Great War, however, do we meet with 
the real prototype of the war medal as we know it to-day; for 
the Waterloo Medal of 181 5 is the first actual "general" 
medal that was ever issued, because it was issued precisely 
alike to all ranks. In the twelve cases in which we have seen 
that a medal was given to all ranks, the medals differed either 
in size or in metal, or in both, according to the rank of the 
recipient, and in eight out of the nine issued by the Hon. East 
India Company the award was withhdd from the British officers 
and men employed. Again in none of the cases quoted were 
the awards made by the Crown. The " Dunbar " medal was 
awarded by the Commonwealth parliament. The men of the 
Nile and Trafalgar wore their medals through the generosity 
of private individuals. In the other nine cases the award was 
made by the directors of the Hon. East India Company. It 
was with the issue of the Waterloo Medal that all this was 
changed ana for this wcU-mcrited and much prized boon the 
Services owe all gratitude to the duke of Wellington. Writing 
from Orville on June 28, 1815, to H.R.H. the duke of York, 
he says: — 

" 1 would likewise beg leave to suggest to your Royal Highness 
(the then Commander-in-chief) the expediency of giving to the non- 
commissioned officers and soldiers engaged in the battle of Waterloo, 
a medal. I am convinced it would have the best effect in the army; 
and, if that battle should settle our concerns, they will well deserve 
it." 

Again, writing from Paris, Sept. 17, 181 5. to Lord Bathurst, 
then war secretary: — 

" I have long intended to write to you about the medal for Water- 
loo. I recommend that wc should all have the same medal, hung 
to the same ribband as that now used with the medals." 

{i.e. the army gold medals and crosses). It is also fair to point 
out that in his place in the House of Commons, and on the 
day after the duke's letter to the commander-in-chief had been 
penned, WiUiom Wat kins Wytm urged that medals should 
be given to the survivors of Waterloo, and that they should 
be the same for both officers and men, " so that they who had 
been fellows in danger might bear the same badge of honour." 
And so came into being that type of " general " medal, which 
beginning with Waterloo has continued down to the present. 
The description of these later medals, and the points of 
interest about them, will now be given as fully as exigencies 
of space will allow. 

1. Waterloo, 1815. — Awarded by the Prince Regent, 18 16. Ob- 
verse: Bust of the Prince Regent. Leg. GEORGE P. REGENT. 
Reverse: Figure of Victory seated; in her right hand, a palm branch: 
in her left, an olive branch. Above, WELLINGTON; below. 
WATERLOO, JUNE 18. 1815. Ribbon: Crimson with blue borders 
(Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. 

The notification of this award was made in a memorandum by 
H.R.H. the commander-in-chief, dated Horse Guards, March 10. 
1816, and it is worth noting that the prince regent commanded that 
the ribbon " shall never be worn but with the medal suspended to it." 
The medal was conferred on all the British troops, including the 
King's German Legion, present on the i6th Tune at Quatre Bras, 
on the 17th in the fiehtmg that took place during the retirement 
through Genappc to Waterloo, and on the i8th at Waterloo. It was 
also given to four regiments, 2nd Batt. 35th, 1st Batt. 54th, 2nd Batt. 
59th. and ist Batt. 91st Regiments of Foot, which formed Sir Charles 
Colville's Brigade, which was detached. The reverse of this medal 
would appear to have been copied from the Greek Coin of Elis, about 
450 B.C., a specimen of which is in the British Museum. The medals 
most prized by collectors are those of the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Draeoons 
(the Union Brigade "), and the 28th and 42nd Regiments of Foot. 
as those regiments suffered very severely and consequently fewer 
survivors received the medal than in other corps. 

2. Chuznee, 18^9. — Awarded by the GoxTrnment of India, 1842. 
Obverse: The Gateway of the Fortress. Below, GHUZNEE. 
Reverse: In centre a space for name of recipient; above, 2^rd July; 
below, a mural crown with underneath it 1839; the whole withm 
a wreath of laurel. Ribbon: Particoloured, crimson and green 
(Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. 

This medal originated with Shah Soojah, whose part the Indian 
government took in the Afghan troubles of the time. His downfall 
and death having taken place before the medals were ready, the 
actual award was made by the Government of India. It was origin- 
ally ordered (Bengal Military Proceedings, May 27. 1842; Nos. 151 
and 152) that the ribbon should be green and yellow, and it was 
undoubtedly so worn by some recipients: but there is no official 
I record to snow why the colours were altered to green and crimsoa 



■rfi^Mih 



ir -n--. 



lo MEDAL 

The med^ wat iwarded ta kU troopi both of the Ctowti tmd of th^ 
Company thdi Were actually prtrvoC «t the «kse uul capture of the 
[artrc5>, July 2 1.2 J, and JA, i^A9- 

X.^ 5yfw, 1840,— A warded b;^ the Suit* n of Turkey ^(S+t, Obvefsf; 
A Tortmx on which the Tyrki!»h lias U Hying, and abov« ^x tun; 
below, in Turkish, '^ The People ot Syria; aM the Ciudcl of Acre, 
A.H. J 35a." R*vcrsp : Cypher of the Sultan, within a laurel wreath. 
Ribbon: Red with whkc edges. Ck$ps:NiL 

Thtr St Jean d'Acre ni«ia,l, a^ it h commonly tallHl. wa^ zi warded 
to th(r c>f¥iet:r-'S and men of the Brit lib fl(?et thjtC were cn^^^ed in the 
uperaci^ris oEl the ajAA of Syria, aji^iost Atchemct All, which culniin- 
mced ict ihc bombard [iii:ni and capture of St Jeau d'Acrv, Nov. 3, 11^40. 
The mrd^t, 1 1 ia. in diameter, la pi^rely a uaval medal thercfoiv, 
although A few atcillery and eni^incor oEFirert doing duty iu the fleet 
neeeiviKl it. It wa^ given in go\a to ofificer$ of flag rank and captaina 
(or field o^cer?), in wfvcf to quarttr-deck and warrant olftcer*^ and 
in copper to other nnki. This ii the otily in nance of there being a 
dkiTerencf nude according to the rank of tbe rccipknt una the 
** Burmii "* medaL 

4. Cktaa, 1840-41 (iBt Medal): China, 1557-60 (md Medal], 
— Aih-arded by Queen Victoria, iSiJ, 1861. Obverw; Head of 
Queen Victoria, diademed, l. Le^. VICTORIA RtGlNA. Revcne^ 
Naval and military trophy, with behind a palm trec» aftd in 
front a Uiield of the Royal Armi. Above, ARM IS EXPOSCERE 
FACEM. In exergue, CHINA lH41,< Ribbon; Red with yellow 
boirde:n (Plate )0. CiaspiL at medal, nil; and medal, fijt— 
CHINA tSjLi; FATSHAN 1S57'; CANTON 1657: TAKU FORTS 
Ji5il^TAK^J FORTS ta6o; PEKIN 1&60, 

The hfii China medal wai awarded to aU the naval and military 
force:^, both of the Crown and of the flon. E^st India Company. tKaE 
took part in the fint China War, tH40'43. Another medal waa^ 
$<crui;k, and is in be found in proof, but it was never lE^ocd as it wa* 
deemeil ii might gi^e offence to China. Of this the obvier^c! it the 
fame o-t thai de^^fibed above; but the reverse had, undef the tame 
IBOIIO4 the Briiii^h lion trampEing upon the Chinese dragon, and 
ifl the exergue, NANKENG 1843. The second Chin4 medil was 
Aimtbrly awardic^ii to both ihe naval and military forces, Briti^^b and 
Indian, that took part in the second China war,. 1857-60, To iho'Wi 
however, who were already in ponseAfcion of the hrst China mcfJal 
the second medal wa* not awarded, ih^y receiving: a cLis-p CHINA 
1^42 to go on their original medal, together of course vith thecla^p^ 
to which their sefvicts in the second war had entitled them. The 
■ccond medal wai» in fact nnt a new decoration but a re'isfue. The 
first China medal wa* the (if*t to be iiaued with the effigy of Queen 
Victoria upon it. The fir*t mcd^ ftith clasps for the second China 
war it very rare, and in almo*t every caue would probably be found 
to be a navjl jot'daL Of the second medal only one wa* issued 
with all the live new clii^ps^ Thii was to a Ro>'al Marine Artillcrv- 
man, and it is now in the ChtyU>more collection. Medals speciahlv 
valued by collector* arc iho*e given to the ibt Dragoon Guards^ with 
the two clasps TAKL' FORTb ififio and PEKJN 1860, as only two 
aquadronj of the regiment were present. In a GO. by Lord Ellcrt' 
borough, governor general oi Jndia, dated Simla, Oct- 14, 1842, it 
was intimated that the Govern men I of India would present to the 
Indian Army a medal, the de&ien of which w-aa indicated in theordet, 
but thi^ idea was^ of CQunc abandoned when tfie queen intimated 
her intention of making the award. 

5, Jfilalabad. ift+J. — Awarded by the Government of India, tS-O- 
Firnt medal— Obverse: A mural crown; above, JELLALABAD. 
Revtra^r Vtl April 1842, Second medal— Ob verw: Head of 
Queen Victoria as in China medal, but legend, VICTORIA VIN DEX. 
Revere: Figure of Victory flying, in ner right hand two wreaths, 
i n her left t he B ri i lih Ha g Denca th , the low n of J el la labad. Above, 
JELLALABAD VII APRIL incsereue. MDCCCXLll. Ribbon 
(both mrd.ilsj : Military ribbon of India (Plate I. J. Clasp*: Nil. 

In a G-O-r dated Alfahabad, April 30. iS+i. Lord Ellen borough 
announced that the Government of India would preicni a rneoal 
to the Company'* troops^ and with the conKnt of Her Majesty, 
to those of the Crown^ that held Jellalabad, undtr Sir Robert Sale 
(Nov. 12, 1842— April 7, iH^J). The queen's consent to her troops 
(15th Foot, now Somersetshire Light Infantry) receiving the medal 
was granted in August. The ^overnor-ijenerHil being diwJ.ti4fi_ed 



with the first mpdal. made at the Calcutta Mint, theiceond {cencfally 
ina; Victory '^} wa* ordered in England, and it 
was notified that oh their arrival the first medals, all of which had 



twco distributed, could be eJ(changed for the second. The new issue 
was ready by March 13» 1843, but the recipients appaientEy preferred 
the original medals, (or very few were exchani^. Both are very 
rare, for only ij^ medals were Uaued. The ** military ribbon of 
India " i*a tricolour composed of the three primary colours shAding 
into one another. It was designed by Lord Ellcnboruugh, and Is 
intended lo symboUie an Oriental sunrijK 

6. Ahkaniiicit, ti+i (ist Afghan)— Awarded by Government 
of India, 1842- Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First 
China Medal Reverse: No. 1. CAXDAHAR iSij within a laurel 
wrcith; abov^, a crown. No. 2. GHLIZINEE CAbUL each within 
a laurel wreath ; above, a crown : below, 1^41. No, 3. CAN D AH A R 



' The second med.tl hat no d^ite^ 

' Royai Navy and Royal Marines only. 



GHUZNEE CABUL 1Z43 all within a laurd wfeath ; aUxvt, m trvwti. 
No- 4- CABUL i@43 within a Uurcl ^-reath ; above, a crown- Ribbon i 
MiLit4iry ribbon of India (Plate L). Clasps: Nil, 

The authority for this medal ita G.O, ol thegovernor^general dated 
October 4, 1&12. It was awarded to all troopa, both of the Cr^wn 
and the Hon. East India Company, who took pan in the opera licins 
in Afghanistan in t&^, that is to say the second pliasii of the M^rst 
Afghan War. The medal, with reverse'ti J, 2 and 3, w^^ av^ardcd 
to those troops that WL-re wifth Majof'General Sir Willi3in Noit in 
Candahar^ and took pan in tht; operation ft around that place, rs' 
captured Chujnctt and then joined hand* with the column under 
MajQr-Getietal Pollock at Csbul- The med^iil nith rc%crH; 4 was 
awarde^^ to the column which advanced from Peshawu^f on Cabul, 
being Joined tn rtrbJc by the victorious garrison at J el la la bad. This 
h the first of the four occasions on i^i'hich the rr verve d a medal has 
been used to denote the actual part taken in the operations by the 
recipient, in the manner that is now done by claipv Ol theae 
medals the one with the No. l reverse is the rarest, as its iasue wai 
confined to the tmall portion of his army that Maior-Gecveral Nott 
left behind him in Candahar.' The medal with the No. 1 revcne 
is also lare^ as its distribution was very limited. 

7. KfLiUt-Ghtttte^ th^l. — Awarded by Government of India, iB^i^ 
Obverse: A shield inscribed KELAT I GHILZIE encircled by a 
laurel wreath, and surmounted by a mural crown. Reverse A 
military trophy^ beneath, on a tablet r IN VICT A MDCCCXLll* 
Ribbon. Mifitary ribbon of India (Plate I.). Clasps^ NiL 

The authority for this medul is the mme as that for the Fifft 
Afghan Medal, and the medal itself was awarded to the ffoopt of 
the Hon. East India Company, which defended thia hill fortress for 
several months^ and hnally, before they were eventually relieved 
from Candahar utterly routed and drove off a force of four thousand 
men. As the medal Has given only to 950 in all (forty bring 
European artillerymen, the remainder native trooiH}, it ii naturiilly 
very scarce. 

B. Siftd^, tftj;!.— Awarded by Queen VictorU to the force* of the 
Crown, and by the Government of 1 ndia to the t roops of the Cooifiany . 
Obver^. Head of Queen Victoria as on First China MedaL Reverse; 
1 MEEANEE t84X i. HYDERABAD 1843 3. MEEANF-E 
HVDERABAD t^^. In each case the in#criprijn i^ SiUrroonded 
by a laurel wreath, and surmounted by a crown. Ribbon- Military 
ribbcn of India (Plate |.). Cla'sps: Nil. 

The aih'ard of a rnedal for Sir Charles Napier s conqueil of Sinde 
was fir*t noiified, as far as the troops of the Crown were concfrned, 
by a iL-iier from Lord Stanley* then war secretary, to the president 
01 the In4p Boaj^, da(ed JuEy tB, tS43, and it h worth noiing that 
this is the only in&tance of any medals for Indian tetvjte being fi^id 
for by the Crown. The notification of a similar aw^rd by i he Gov em* 
mem of India to r heir own troops, followed in a CO- by the ^ovemor- 
genetal, dated September 22, 1843- The award was confined to 
those who had been preieot at either Meeanee or Hyderabad, and 
the medals were issued according ai to i^hlch actions the recipient 
had been present, no orve of course receiving more than one mtdal 
for the campaign. In addition to the btid Torce* of Ihe Hon, East 
India Company, the medal was also given lo the oavil oBicers and 
crews of the Company 1 (Jot ilia on tbe lndus^ The only Crown 
regiment that received this medal was the 22nd Foot, 

q. CKoiwr. 1S4J (" Maharjjpoor '* and " Punniar " Stars) — 
Awarded by thcGovemmcrtt of India, 1S.J4. Tht* de^omijon took, 
fhe forrn of a bronie star of tiK points, 2 m- in diameter. Obversei 
In centre a silver star, ij in m diameter, around the centre of 
which is a einle in which is in -scribed eiilur MAHARAJPOOR t8J3 
or PUNNIAR 1S43, and in centre of circle the rJate 20th DECR, 
Reverse. Plain for name and rtsiment, or corpt, o? recipient. 
Ribbon: Military ribbon of India (Pbte LK Clasps: NiL 

The awani of a medal to the troops of the Crown and the Hon» 
East India Company engaged irt the Gwaliof Campaign of 1^43 
1ft as fifst notified in governor-general's C O , dated 1 amp^ Cwalior 
Rcjiidency, January 4^ 1844; and the qufen^s permission for tt to 
be worn by Crown tFoopi given June 26, 1844. The force moved 
in two columnar the main and larger under Sir Hugh (Viftcatint) 
Gough. the smaller undet V^ajor General Gray. Earn force fought 
an action on the ame da>r, December 2q, 1 843. the fon.ier at Mahara^- 
prfior, the Latter at Pun n tar, and the st^t was ioscribwi accofdinf to 
which action the recipient was engaged. The stars were manu- 
factured from the met ill of the captured guns. The star si*en to 
Sir Hugh Gough had in the cenirc a silver elephant in lieu oia silver 
star, and it Wat origin.iHy intended that all should be the $ame, but 
the silver star was substituted for reasons of cconomv. As there 
were fewer troopa at Punniar that star is of course the more un- 
common. 

10. SiLllfj. 1645-46 (tst Sikh War], — Awarded by Government 
of India, 1845. Obverse: Head of Queen \^ctorii as on First Chin* 
Medal- Reverse: Figure of Victory^ standing, with in right hand 
outstretched a wrearK in left a palm branch ; at her feet a trophy 
of captured Sikh weapons and armour In exergue, name and year 
of the first battle of (he war in which recipient was encaeed- Thcs* 
inscriptions are four, vj* MOODKEE ife^S^ FEROZESHrHLR 
i«4S, ALIVVAL 1846, son R AON ifl46. Ribbon^ Blue wUh 
cfim«n borders (Pkle 1 ), Clasps: FEROZESHUHURp ALlWAL, 
SOBRAON. 



^Si 9H3rd<, Sived to »X\ tht tfflopi, both Crcnrn ancf Hon. East 
pulh Compairy en^aml td the First Sikh War, u^j$ fu^t tiotifted 
Hi gptcrnQtr-fewml » GO., d4t<^ Camp^ FeraieiJOTC, Deci'mber 25, 
ApSt Che Quati** cocufnt lof Crown troops to rccirivfr the medal 
|«af ^Kft lijL OKitthf Uter. As thc^rv w^s a conitdenible number 
if tMDpi emogtd ia thncam^iEf'^, the medal ii not a very rare one, 
bqc A wry ftiv cDmbi nation ts the medal wixh FerozHhuhur in the 
ewsue and the cbsp for AliwaTn at anly Hall a campQiiy of native 
artillery was pr«*.-nt rn these two baiiJei and in no other. This 
is a speciaUy noticeable medal, for it is the first time that '* clasps " 
vcre tsraed with a " general " medal, the precedent followed being 
that of the Army Gold MedaL For every action after his first battle, 
vhkh was inscribed on the medal itself, the recipient received a dasp. 
This a medal with " Moodkee " in the exergue might carry one, 
tvo or three clasps; a " Sobraon " medal could have no clasps. 
This and the " Punjab " medal, to be described later, are generally 
cotaidered to be the two finest pieces of medal work by W. Wyon, 

II. Navy General Service, 1703-1840.— Awarded by Queen 
Mctoria, 1S17. Obverse: Head 01 Queen Victoria as on First China 
Medal: under head, iSaS. Reverse: Britannia seated on a sea 
hone; in her right hand, a trident; in her left, a laurel branch. 
Ribbon: Wlute. with dark blue borders (Plate I.). Clasps: 231 
dosps in all were granted, of which 55 were for " Boat Service." 

Ajb Admiralty memorandum dated June i, 18^7. notified the grant 
of this award to commemorate the services of the fleet " during the 
van commencing in 1791 and ending in 1815." and this practically 
confined the award to those operations for which the Navy Gold 
Medal (see ante) had been conferred. Subseouently. however, a 
beard of admirals was af>po«nted to consider claims, and on their 
recommendatk>n an Admiralty memorandum dated Tune 7. I8a8. 
ottradcd iKf Grant, dasp? wrrt to he given for: (i) All Ck>ld Medal 
j.ncktrs or operation i. {j) AH actions in which first lieutenants or 
cDcncunden: we^r? prcnmoted, as had been customary afte^ important 
ms^ ts^TitcAJous enfoiEienieflts. (3) All " Bmt Service " operations 
it irhich the officer con ducting the operations was promoted. (4) 
Fcsr. In coHDfirnitiao »iih the bod forces, the siege and capture of 
Majitnii^tiK. thc^. Giuda^oupe, iSto, Java. 1811. and St Sebastian. 
liij, fpf all of whjfh onerafiomi the Army Gold Medal had been 
«wanled: tod i^i The feombirdfwnl of Algiers, 1816; the Battle 
of Navarine. iSsj; and oprrarjont on the coast of Syria, 1840. 

Althouiirh the mnial is purely a naval one, yet it was conferred 
en a frv soldiers 'vrho had done duty in the fleet in actions or op(ra> 
t>:>A±, for vrhich the medal was i^niFited. Forty military officers 
£tt 3!) reoeised the Nfl\->' C.S, medal, one. Captain Caleb Chute. 
#*»l9 Fooi^ wkh two efdfp*^ viz. " J 4th March, 1795 " and " St 
".' --^-tt."' Ft U very difficult to compile an absolutely accurate 
1 iM i^c thi^f* iL^uetl, for In scir ral cases more than one clasp 

wras given for the same action, and there were moreover nine or ten 
clasps allowed for which no claims appear to have been made good. 
The cMDbination of the clasps is endless, but it is curious to note 
chat medals with more than one. or two clasps are rare; with four 
or five clasps, vety rare; and the highest number of clasps issued 
with any one medal is six. Antongst very rare clasps the follow- 
iK f^ay be mentioned. One survivor only, Lieut. Baugh. the 
oncer in command, was alive to daim the clasp " Rapid. 24th April, 
1808." Only two claims were proved for "Surly, 24th Apnl, 1810"; 
flix for "Castor, 17th June. 1809"; seven for "Amazon, 13th January, 
1797"; «jht for "Confiance, 14th January. 1809"; and ten for 
" Acheron. 3rd February, 1805. Of " Boat Service " clasps only 
tbree were claimed for "20th December, 1799"; four for "9th 
lone. 1799 "; and eight for " loth July. 1799." (All " Boat 
Service ' clasps are inscribed " Boat Service" with the day and 
DQOth on the left, and the year on the right.) In all nearly thirty 
thousand claims were proved for the medal. 

li Army Gittrmi 3frti^r. J793->flf4^— Awarded by Queen 
Vfcswia, (^7. OtntTse: Head of Queen Vjcioiij as on Flrat China 
Medal; motr iitad, iBaa. RevTenc: Quren Victoria on a dais 
• pl«ij«j w«3ib pn the head of ihe duke of WcMicifiton, who kriecls 
«■ h^ left ^tee befors her, holding in hifi ripihr hand the t»ton of a 
Wytd Hairhal: at ihr siid* of the 44ti is a lion drtrmant, Leeend: 
TO THE BRITISH ARMY, fn exergue: 1701-1814. Ribtwn- 
Chff^n *iTh blue bordtrs (Plate I,). ClasrA: FGYFT. MA I DA 
EDLEfA. VlMfERA. SAHAGltN.^ BENEVENTE,' SAHAHUN* 
tt.SEVCSTE,' CORLTNNA. MARTLNfQUE,' TALAVERA, 
C^rADALOliPE,' BC5ACO. BAR ROSA. FlrENTES DONOR, 
ALBtHERA, JAVA,' CI l' DAD ROORJCO, BADAJO^, SALA- 
MANCA, FORT DETROIT, CHATEAUGUAV, CHftYSTLER'S 
FARSf, VlTTORfA, PYRENEES^, ST SEBASTfAMj NIVELLE, 
JtlVE, ORTHES. TOirtOUSE. 

TUi nwdal, freauent^y erroncotwly termed the " Peninsiilar ^Yar '* 
iMdttL *i^3s A warned to the sur^-ivon o( the niilitary forces of the 
GnvR ihat Iwtl laltfn part in the Peninsular War, and in conttrn* 
poraneous operations in other parts of the world: it was also given 
with the clasp " Java " to the European troops of the Hon. East 
ladia Company: with the clasps " Martinioue " and " Guadaloupe " 
to oenatn local West Indian Corps: and with the clasps '* Fort 

* Whether in one or both actions, only one clasp awarded. I 

* A amilar clasp was given with the Navy C.S. medal. ■ 



MEDAL II 

pctroit," ** Chateaugoay," aiul " Chryvtter's Farm," to tome Cana- 
dian militia and tocAl levies, as well as to i^mr tndidn auxiliaries. 
The award of ihe medaL and all ihe claipa tKcrpt " Ejfipt," bear 
date JyM 1, IS47, but the clasp "Egypt " was not gramed till 
Fi:bruary rt, ^i^jo- Although the oirdal is supposed to coin- 
meniorate services "during the wars coin menrioE in I79J^ and ending 
in 18 1|," the earliest opcrarionib for which the medal wa* awarded 
did not take plaoe until t8o]. \q medal was i»ucd without a tlasp, 
and as will be seen the mecf^l was awarded only for those actions 
or opera T ions for «hich the Army Cold Medats (including that for 
^fajd;Ljl had been awarfivd; and in addition for the operations in 
E^ypt in i^i, ^ The tombi nation of c]a»p» ts endless but only 
t^Q medats Ki-ere issued Kith fifteen clasps, tkough 5(?vcral survivon 
pto'k'cd their claim to fourteen clasps, in (act medals with seven, 
eilfht or nine cUups are not common, tho^e with ten, or more, di^* 
linctly rare. For example, taking only rnedab issued to officers 
(including; thote of the King's German Legion), three ^-ere issued 
with 14 cfaaiH, three with tj, nine with u, twelve with ti, ihirty-six 
with ro, fifty-eight with 9, ninety wiih P, and one hundred and four- 
teen with 7. By far the runt 61 all cLisps is " Bene\Trnte/* as 
according to (he War Offk* llflf only thrpe would appear to havt 
been laAued, vit to CapCaJn Eveksh, R.H.A-, Pte. G. Barriir, loih 
MuAin, and Pte. M^ Giimour, tiih Huvsa^t, akhou(th a jnviizl with 
thia claip hjivine ev^ery appearance of bcini; g?enuine and i^ued 
to Pic. William Cyne, 7th Huisar^, was in the colleeiion ol Colonel 
>lurray of 'Polmaitf. Sahagun also is a very rare claap, as it wa* 
ri'ceived only by fifteen men of the 15th Hussars and a few^ others. 
The ihr«r North Ameri<-an clasps are al*o very rare, especially 
Cha lea u](ua y . Lea vinsoutawarditoEndbnw^rriors, theataiistics 
t^iffandinjr the issue of tne North American daiips are app-roximaiely 
as rol}owE. At Chateauguay some 300 mien fought, and 1^3 gurvivon 
proved for the clasp, of which all ejcc*>pT threr of the Royal Artillery 
were Canadians. For Chry!«tlcr's Farm, the tIfXI rarest cla^p, out 
of about Soo eng^aged 176 claim* were proved: vii, 79 of the &91I1 
Foot, 59 Canadians, 44 o| the 49th Foot^ and 4 Royal Artifleiy. At 
Fort Deifivit* J J JO mt-n were engagedt and ihose who proved for the 
clasp included aio C4n,iLdians, 5 J of the 4isf Foot, 5 Royal Artillery, 
and one man d the 41^1 Foot (who alw got the clasp for Chrystler's 
Farm). One irutn proved for all three clasps, another for " Fort 
D^inoii *' and " ChateauinJ^y>'* ^ third for " Chateauguay " and 
" Chrysilcr's Farm-"* The former medal is iiaid to be in the cabinet 
of a New York collector. Two " regulars " al44][ prov-ed for t he medal 
with clasps for '* Fort Detroit " and " Chnj-itler'* Farm," the one 
beloni^inc fo the Royal An tilery, the other ta the 4^1 h Foot. The 
medal of the former sold at the Greg Sv^le, in iSSj, for Q^ tos. 

It. PuHjah^ 184^49 (md Silih War) — Awarded by Government 
ol India. ti^O' Ohvffw:; He.id of Ouccn Victoria ai in First 
China Mrilit. Klmll-t^: Sikh chief* deltverinjt up their arms to 
Sir U'jlur K.il. J»:ht.ilttert,nearRawjil Pindi, March 14^ JB4Q Aliove, 
TO THE MiM\ Oh THE PliN^AB. In exergue, MDCCCXLtx! 
Rit^bort: Blue with yellow stnpe* at side (Plate IX Clasps; 
MQQLTAN, CHILIANVVALA. GOOJERAT. 

The awird of thii medal was firit nonfii'd by 3 CO, of the governor- 
Ifeneral, dated Camp* Feroicpore, April 2, 1S49, The medal is one 
of special interest, for it &^tab)ish« the principle that now rules, 
>iz, that every one pan id ps tine iti a campaign (including for the 
Brit time civilians) wa* entitled to receive the nvwjai apart from 
thc^e vbo reottved the medal tof^her with a clasp for a ipcfific 
action* The n^edal in fact was granted *" to every omter and soldier 
who has been employed vnfkin tkt Punjab in this campaign to the 
date of the oecupaiion of Ptshawur." In other words it was gTanted 
to all who had served "during this campaiEn within the territories 
of Maharajah Duleep Sing," irtt^pecii^-f of w heihet ihcy had Qualified 
for any of the clasps. A very lat^ number of medals was iherefoie 
iMued without cUspt. Another iitieresitn|[< point about this award 
is that after its irant it was laid down that in future no cnedals were 
Lo lie issued by the Cov^rnmeni of India without the consent of ihe 
Crowo^ As a matter ol fact the Government of India was for the 
future only concerned in the grant of the two medals that followed, 
namely the First and Second India General Ser^^ice Medalit No 
medals were issued with more than two of I he three cla^, the com* 
bi nation \x\n^ either "Moojian" and "Coojerat*' or "Chllianwala" 
and " Goojerat." Very rare medals are those of ihe J4th Foot with 
fhc clasp for " Chilianwala," as in thai action they lost more than 
half their strength, their casualties amountini; to 497, of whom 750 
were killed or died of wounds. Another rare medal is that given 
without a clasp (o the ofhcers and men of the Indian Marine that 
manned the Indus Flotilla; and more rare stilt is the iamc medal 
with the " Mooltan *' clasp which was given to a naval brigade landed 
from the same floiilb. 

\^. Indtu, I79i^i8j6 (rsi India C.S., oflidally styled "India* 
185T "J. — ^Awarded by ihff Government of India, 1*51. Ob^-erse: 
Head of Queen Victoria as in First China ^fedal Reverse: \iciofy 
seated, in hfr ri^hi hand a birrel branch, in her left a wreath ; on 
(he ground beside her a lotus flower, and in the left hackjj round a 
p;i1m tree and trophy of Eastern arms. Above, TO THE ARMY 
OF JNDIA. tn eicerffue. 1709- iHj&. Ribbon; Sk> bine f Plate I.)- 
Cbsp^: ALLIGHUR, BATTLE OF DELHI, ASSVE, AS- 
seerghi:r. LASVVARKEE. ARGAUM. CAWILGHUR. 
DEFENCE OF DELHI, BATTLE OF DEIG. CAPTURE OP 



12 



MEDAL 



DEIG. NEPAUL. KIRKEE.> POONA.» KIRKEE-POONA,* 
SEETABULDEE,» NAGPORE,» SEETABULDEE-NAGPORE/ 
MAHEIDPOOR, CORYGAUM. AVA, BHURTPOOR. 

This medal was awarded " to the surviving officers and soldten 
of the Crown and of the East India Company who took part in any 
one of seventeen specified actions and operations whicn occurred 
in India, Nepaul and Burma, during the first twenty-five years of 
the 19th century, " including the omcers and seamen of the Royal 
Navy and the Company's Marine who took part in the first Burmese 
War." The queen s consent to the grant of this medal was an- 
nounced in the London Gazette by a Notice of the Court of Directors, 
dated March 31, 1851. It was subsequently notified to the British 
Army by a Horse Guards G.O., dated March 21. 1851 ; to the Royal 
Navy by an Admiralty memorandum of the same date; and to the 
Army in India by a governor-general's G.O., dated April 14, 1851. 
In this medal again there is a discrepancy in dating, for though it 
is dated 1709-1826, the first action for which it was awarded, the 
storming of Allighur. took place on September 24, 1803. No medals 
were issued without clasps, the largest combination of clasps known 
being five. According to the India Office records there were ap- 
parently men entitled to as many as seven clasps, but whether any 
medal was issued with more than five is very doubtful. That 
awarded to the duke of Wellington had three clasps, " Assye." 
" Argaum " and ** GawilRhur." With the exception of medals 
issued with the Ava and Bhurtporc clasps, this medal is a rare one, 
and with a Urge number of the clasps, all except perhaps those for 
Nepaul and Maheidpore. an extremely rare one. The rarest of all 
is Seetabuldce," as only two Europeans and two natives are known 
to have received it. " Defence of Delhi " is also a very rare clasp, 
as the garrison only comprised two weak battalions of native infantry ; 
as is also " Corygaum, which was issued to only two Europeans, 
" both officers,', and seventy-five natives. The only European 
troops present at Corygaum were an officer and twenty-six men ol 
the Madras Artillery, of whom the officer and twelve men were 
killed and eight wounded. As the " Burma " medal had already 
been given to the Company's native officers and soldiers for the 
First Burmese War, only the European officers and men of the 
Company's service received the medal with " Ava " clasp: but as 
the Nepaul " medal had not been given to all the native troops 
who actually served " within the hills," the medal with clasp 
" Nepaul " was granted to those native troops who had not 
received the Nepaul medal, as well as to all the Company's 
European officers and men. 

15. India, 1852-05 (3nd India G.S., officially styled " India, 
1854 "). — Awarded by the Government of India as far as the first 
two issues with their clasps are concerned, all subsequent issues and 
clasps, with the exception of the last two, by Queen Victoria; the 
last two issues and clasps by King Edward VII. Obverse: Head 
of Queen Victoria as in First China Medal. Reverse: Victory 
standing, crowning a naked warrior sitting. In exergue, a lotus 
flower and leaves, symbolizing the connexion of the medal with India. 
Ribbon: Red, with two blue stripes, forming five i-inch stripes 
(PUte I.). Clasps: PEGU,' PERSIA.' NORTH-WEST FRONTIER, 
UMBEYLA, BHOOTAN. LOOSHAI, PERAK i875-76.« JOWAKI 
1877-78. NAGA 1879-80, BURMA i885-87,« SlKKfM 1888, 
HAZARA 1888, BUR.MA 1887-89. CHIN-LOOSHAI 1880-90, 



^uS2a 



SA.MANA 1891, HAZARA 1891. N.E. FRONTIER 1801, HUl _ . 
1891, BURMA 1889-92. LUSHAI 1889-92.WAZIRISTAN 1894-95. 
CHIN HILLS 1892-93. KACHIN HILLS 1802-93. 

The queen's assent to this award, to those of H.M.'s Sea and Land 
Forces, as well as those belonging to the Elast India Company's 
Establishment engaged in the Second Burmese War, was first 
made known to the Government of India in a letter from the Court 
of Directors, April 6, 1853. In a Minute by Lord Dalhousie, the 
governor-general, December 9. 1852. it had been suggested " whether 
It would not be better for the future, instrad of issuing a separate 
Medal for each campaign, to have one Medal, such as the ' Indian 
Medal * [i.e. the ' India, 1851 ' Medal), which should be issued once 
to each individual entitled: the particular service for which it is 
granted being recorded upon a Bar, and every subsequent service 
which may l» thought to deserve distinction being recorded by an 
additional Bar. This plan would avoid the multiplication of Medals, 
which has accumulated of late years, which I humbly think is 
undcMrable." In another letter from the Court of Directors to the 
Government of India. March i, 185^. this suggestion is approved, 
and it was ordered that after ** a suitable design ' had been procured 
(L. C. Wyon designed the reverse), "the ^fcdal to be now struck 
shall be of a general character, the particular service for which it 
is now granted, viz. ' Pegu.' bcinj? recorded on a Bar. In the event 
of the same soldiers being entitled hereafter to another similar 
distinction, the service will be recorded by an additional Bar to the 
same Medal." Occasional mistakes have however been made, ior, 
since the issue with the clasp for the Pcrak campaign, from which 
time it has become customary to date the cla<ip. many instances 
have occurred of men having received two me*?als with clasps for 
different campaigns. The issue to the Persian Expeditionary Force 



(iBSfr-iSST). with the clasp " Persia/* m-as awarded by the Court of 
Dirvctors iafiuiry 19, idj^, and sanctioned by the queen in the same 
mo rich- The first i>»ue of the medi! by the Crown was authorized 
Apri! 15h 1859, with the cbspa " ^ art h- West Ffontkr" and " Um- 
tX'yU/^ Lhe fomner cDvcrinf vnnoLJs expt'dlLlanig beLween 1849 and 
ifloj, the Utier tht' hard ^fought L'mbeyLi Campeiign of the latter 
mrniioned yeah All E^ubsefiuent iiAura of the award were made by 



* Whether in one or both actions, only one clasp awarded. 

* The Royal Navy or Indian Marine, or both, received the medal 
with these dasps. 



tnousana men were empioyea, ana tne majoniy ol the* were 
uhmere Imperial Service Troops. No European troops received 
e clasps, ^ Looshai," " Naga 1879-80," or " Hunza 1891." 
Sikkim 1888 " is also a rare dasp as only some aooo troops were 



Queen Victoria, with the exception of those that carried with them 
the rUipa "Chin Hill 1895-93." and " Kachin Hills 1892-^t," 
which vtcreoTily awarded ten yeafSiafterv^irds by King Edward VII., 
and notified in Army OrdtT q ol January 1903; thf medal, which 
had meantime been superwat-d by the Third Imiu GS. medal 
described below, being: re-iisued wjth th«e liiat two clasps. The 
comtinaiion ol clasps with this medAl ii vt;ry nutneroiis. but medals 
with more than two or ihrt-e clasps are Tare* Seven is probably 
the ^Tcateit number awarded with any one med^l, and a m«lal witn 
this numbtT, viz, " Umbeyb." " North- Wt^t Ffrtntier," "Jowalci 
1877-78." "Burma 1885-87,*' " Hazara 1888," " Samana 1891," 
and " Hunza 1891," was granted to Bhanga Singh. Sardar 
Bahadur, who retired as Subadar-Maior of No. 4 (Dcrajat) Mountain 
Battery. Sir William Lockhart (o.v.) had the medal with six clasps. 
The rarest of all the clasps is probably " Hunza 1891," as less than 
a thousand men were employed, and the majority of the* were 

Cashmere I ■*-' *^ — -'" "^ *-'- ^ ' 

the claspi 

"Sikkim 1 ^ 

employed, the only Europeans beins two companies of tne 2nd 
Derb^hire Regiment. So also is " N.E. Frontier 1891," for in the 
Manipur expedition for which this clasp was given about 3000 men 
were employed, the only Europeans being (our companies of the 
King's Royal Rifle Corps. It was with the issue of this medal with 
the clasp '* Burma 1885-87." that the precedent was set of award- 
ing the medal and clasp in bronze to " all authorized followers," a 
precedent that was followed in all subsequent issues. 

16. S<n'^ " -" * 

Vkrtoria, 
Awarded 

Victoria as In First China Medal. Reverse: A lion crouching be- 
hind a sugar bush {Protm mrlhjeia). AU^vir, S<JUTH AFRICA. 
In exerEue, 1 853. In the energue of the fe-Is&ucd medal, the place 
of the date ts taken by a trophy of tour asv^is ^nd & Zulu shields 
Ribbon; Orancc watered, with two broad and two narrow blue 
stripes {Plate I J). Clasps: 1877-78^79, J 871-79, 1877-78, 1878, 
lajT, (879. 

The command of the quf«n that a m«da1 should be awarded to 
the survivijfs of the forces that had beten encaged in the first, second 
fl nd t h' rd KilSr Wars ( i &34~33 ► l S^6-^^ 7 , a nd j 850- 53 ) was notified by 
Vi^ount HardiriEe» the iiommander- in-chief, in a C.O., dated Horse 
GuAJ>d^, Novvrnticr 22^ 1854^ No clasps were issued with this medal. 
I he mrdal waiifcoTdcd only to the " re^ubr forces " (including the 
Cafie Mount«J Rific*}^ so local Icvirt did not receive it. In the third 
Kalfir WlJ^f a smvill Nav>al Brigade and a detjchment of Royal 
NUnnc^ took part in the opcfatiotis, and the iurvivgr; received the 
medal r The award ol ihe re-isisuc was noiLhed in a ChO. by the duke 
of Cambridgi', commander-in-chielj Augusrt l^ iBBo. It was to " be 
granted to Her Majesty's Imperial F(irc«, and To luch of Her 
\I a jetty's Colonial Forcei, EurDfteaii or Naiivef as were rMularly 
urKanir«l and diwrlplincd as combatant*, whether raised by the 
Cijionial Goviernmcnt or by the Genrral Officer Commanding." "The 
oix ratmni for which it wa;. given wtrt i^gsin^t 1 he G.ilekasand Gaikat 
1877-78, the Griauas 1878, Basutos 1879, Zulus 1870, and Sekukuni 
1878-79. In both the operations against the Galekas and Gaikaia, 
and in the Zulu War of 1879, the Royal Navy and Royal Marines 
took part and received the medal. The clasps issued with this medal 
were as noted above and record the year, or years, of service covering 
all the operations in which the recipient was engaged. No one 
received a medal with more than one clasp. The m«lal without a 
clasp was issued to such troops as were employed in Naul from 

ianuary to September 1879, but never crossed the border, into 
lululand. 

17. Crimea, 1854-56.— Awarded by Queen Victoria in 1854. 
Obverse: Head of pueen Victoria as in First China Medal; below, 
1854. Reverse: Victory crowning a Ronian soldier, who holds a 
sword in his right hand, and bears on his left arm a shield on which 
is the figure of a lion. On the left. CRIMEA. Ribbon : Light blue, 
with narrow yellow borders (Plate I.). Clasps: ALMA, BALA- 
KLAVA, INKERMANN, SEBASTOPOL. a2oFF.> 

This medal, awarded to both Services, was first notified by a 
commander-in-chief's CO., dated December 15, 1854. The grant 
was limited to all troops landing in the Crimea up to September 9, 
1855— the day on which Sevastopol fell — " unless they duill have 
been engaged after thai date in some expedition or operation against 
the enemy." This latter proviso applied in the main to the naval 
clasp " AZOFF," the period for which award was extended to the 
22nd of November. The clasps for this medal are very ornamental, 
being in the shape of oak leaves, ornamented with acorns. The 
Royal Nav> and Roval Marines, besides the " Azof! " clasp, icceived 
the clasps " Balaklava," " Inkermann." " Sebast opol." The 

* Royal Navy and Royal Marines. 



MEDALS AND DECORATIONS 



Plat« L 



i 



£ 




ih 

S I 






r-i'l! 



I 



3 






3 




Uii 




M||jj: 










is 





. m 

I 111! 

Nil 




,V\-ifa-a I.mte C-f , MmgmiM, A' |' 



MEDAL 



biBert aninber of chips to any one medal b foor. Certain non- 
oombatanu received the medal without a clasp. 

la. Baltic, 1854-55.— Awarded by Queen Victoria, 18^ Ob- 
wne: Head of Queen Victoria as in First China MedaL Reverse: 
BritanriU «Aicd and holding a tndt'-nt in h^r right hand, !n the 
bsckgT'^nd fLjit*. Above, BALTIC^ In c^crguc* 1854-1 &55* 
Ribbon: Vdrow, with pa.\e blue bordrrm Cfkte [.). CU^ps: KQ. 

This awards notified by Admiralty Order. June 5, 1856^ wile 
granted *' ro the officcn and crew of Ker iStaij'Fvty'i Ehip§p as well 
as to suck oAkiCTi atid Men of Ker Majesty's Army as were €mploy«d 
in the opentions in ihe Baltic iq the year4 1854 and iSS^-' Th* 
medal ii^ of couri«, pvafCkaUy a naval on^, but two ofncerK and 
abety-mne men of the Royal Engifi«r» were employed inthccxpcdi- 
bpo. ctFpeciitW at Bomariiund, aitd receivf^ U^ 

I9l Tiirkiik Crimtti AfwtsJ,— Awafdtfi by the Sulun^ 1856* 
(Xnwse; A trophjr cociiiposHi of a field pice?, a mcrtar^ and an 
anchor, the fifid piecv tfandin^ on the Rn^ian Impcrbl Stafidard* 
and having a map of tht Crinvca spread over the wheel and bnECch^ 
Behind arc th* Tur ti^h, British ^ French and Sardinian Hai;^ The 
flaf of th« natHjn to which the recipient belonged a in thv fmnt with 
that of Turk^yi th« Rag^ of the oLher two nailonatitics behind. In 
caergur. " Choi^ J^SS-*' ** ^ Crimln? iSSS." or " La Crimea iflss/' 
accordintt au to whether the medal was intended for British, french 
or Sarduwan ireipientj^ Rfvcne: The Sul tan's cypher, below, in 
Torkisli* *'Criin*3i." and the year of the Hef^ira. IJ71. Ribbon; 
Crimsofi vatenxl, with hri|(ht green cdcea (Plate L). Clasps: Nil. 

This n'jfdal waj di^uibuted to all of the AliiL-d Forces, both naval 
and military, whkh shamj in the operation i in the Black Sea and 
the Crimea, As the shfp thai conveyed a majority of the English 
medaU wai viinK the remainder were bsued indiscriminately, and a 
hrse RhUiabcT of the BHiish received itietlak which were oriifirully 
intended cither for the French or Sardinians.* 

TO. Arctic, 1818-1855 (First Arctic).— Awarded by Queen 
Victoria, 1857. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, wearing a tiara. 
Legend. VICTORIA REGINA. Averse: A ship blocked in the 
ice. ircberg:* to right and left, and in foreground a sledging party. 
Alovc. FOR ARCTIC DISCOVERIES. In exergue, 1818-1855. 
Ribbon: V\Tiite (Plate II.). Clasps: Nil. 

This award was first notified in an Admiraltv Notice dated, 
January 30, 18^7. It was given to the crews 01 Her Majesty's 
ships employed in Arctic exploration, and also " to the oflficers of 
the French Navy, and to such volunteers as accompanied those 
expeditions": also to those engaged in expeditions e({uipped by 
the government and citizens of the United States": also to the 
** commandeTs and crews of the several expeditions which originated 
in the acal and humanity of Her Majesty's subjects ": and finally to 
tbiMC who served " in the several land expeditions, whether equipped 
by Her Majesty's government, by the iludson's Bay Company, or 
from private resources." The medal is worn on the left breast and 
tabes rank as a war medal. It is octagonal in shape. 1*3 in., and has 
affixed to the upper edge a (ive-pointcd star to which is attached 
a rime for suspension. The head of the queen, which is the work 
of L. C. Wyon, has never been reproduced on any other medal. 

21. Indian Mutiny, 1857-58. — Awarded by the Government of 
India. 1858. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on First China 
Medal. Reverse: Britannia standins; facing left with a lion on her 
right side; her right arm is extended holding out a wreath; on her 
left arm is the Union shield, and in her left hand a wreath. Above, 
INDi.\. In exergue, 1857-1858. Ribbon: While, with two red 
stripes, forming five J-inch stripes (Plate L). Clasps: DELHI 
(May- 30 to Sep. 14. 1857): DEFENCE OF LUCKNOW Qunc 29 
to Sep!^-;. 1857); RELIEF OF LUCKNOW (Nov.. 1857): LUClC- 
NO\V (.\1arch 2 to 21. 1858); CENTRAL INDIA (Jan. to June 

The grant of this award was first notified in a despatch from the 
Court of Directors to the Govern mcnt which ttated that ** the 
Queen has been graciously pleased to comrn&nd thjt a Medal shall 
be granted to the troops in the Service of Her Majesty, and of the 
East India Company, who have been, or moy he, cni[j|oyed in the 
sapprc*bi«jn of the Mutiny in India." Thi? is the last rnedal given 
ty the Honourable East India Conipany. The rfledal without 
cu^p Ha* aviarded to all, including civili.in?^f who had tAlten part 
in operations against the mutineers or relx-ls, and w>ih the cjaspf 
en'jnncratt-d above to those who shared in thie operations ffici^ifit'd- 
Some t«o or three artillery men arc known to have received the 
KKdal »ith the clasps " Delhi," " Relief of Lucknow,*^ " Luck^ 
now " and " Central India." The mcdaE with three clasps, vi*^ 
" Ddhi." " Relief of Lucknow " and " Luc know " was civen only 
to the 9th Lancers and the Bengal Horse Artillery, ancTof course 

' In addition to this award the French emperor sent five hundred 
cf the French " Military Medal." to be distributed amongst specially 
sriccted non-commi«ioned officers and men of the army and Royal 
Marine*, and petty oflficers and seamen of the Royal Navy. Only 
t«oof these medals were given to officers, viz. the duke of Cambridge 
and Sir William Codrington, the latter hein^ presented bv Peiiisicr 
*ith hl« own medal. The king of Sardinia also distributed 450 
rwTiaU to the British forces, of which 50 were given to the Royal 
Navy and Royal Marines, and 2^3 to oflficers and 157 to non-com> 
_■ ^ officers and privates 01 the army. 



>3 



vanou* officcfs who «emd on the sUflT. as, for example. Field 
Marshals Earl Ruticrts and Sir Henry Norman. With rnard to 
the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, the "Shannon's" &isade, 
under Captain Peel, received the medal with one. or both, oithe 
clasps " Relief of Lucknow, ' " Lucknow," the " Peari's" brigade, 
under Captain Suthoby rcxxived the medal without clasp. This 
11 the last merlal that had on it the beautiful head of Queen Victoria 
which wa^ hr^t u»ed for the China Medal of 1842, and of whkh 
W. Wyon, R.A.g wa* the artist. 

aj. Abytiima, 1867-68— Awarded by Queen Victoria, 1868. 
Obverse: Bust of Qu«n Victoria^ with diadem and veil; around 
&n imtvnTed border, oetwven the nine points of which are the letters 
A.B,Y,:5S.I N.LA. Reverse; Within a beaded circle the name of 
fi^ipient, ht^ corps, resimcnt or ship, the whole surrounded with 
a wreath cf laurul. Ribbon: Red, with broad white borders 
Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. 

The sanction of this award b tobe found in a letter from Sir 
J. S. Pakingtonp socnrtary of state for war. to H.R.H. the duke 
of Cambridj^c, held-ntarnhat commanding-in-chief, which notifies 
the queen'ii pleasune '* that 3 medal be granted to all Ifer Majesty's 
Forces and Indian ForL-cs, Naval and Military, employed in the 
operations in Ahy'^inia, which resulted in the capture of Magdala." 
In all 20,000 medals were struck. The medal is smaller tluin the 
usual, 1} in. in diameter, and it is surmounted by an Imperial 
Crown, and a large silver ring for suspension. It is altogether an 
unusual type of medal, and in the use of an indented border it 
follows a very old precedent, that of a medal commemorating the 
victory of Valens over Procopius, A. D. 365. (See Lcs MfdatUons 
de Vem^ire romain, by W. Froehner, Pans, 1878). The artists 
responsible for this medal are Joseph S. Wyon and Alfred -B. Wyon, 
and this bust of the queen is reproduced on only one other medal, 
the New Zealand. 

23. New Zealand, 184W7, i86o-<)6. — ^Awarded by Queen 
Victoria, 1869. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on Abyssinia 
medal, but larger. Legend: VICTC>klA D:G:BR1TT: REG:F:D: 
Reverse: Dated, within a wreath of laurel, according to the period 
in which the recipient served. Above, NEW ZEALAND; below, 
VIRTUTIS HONOR. Ribbon: Blue, with a broad red stripe 
down centre (Plate I.). Clasps: Nil. 

The grant of this award to the Army was notified in an Army 
Order, dated March i, 1869, and its extension to the Royal Navy 
and Royal Marines by an Admiralty Order, dated June 3, 1869. 
Owing to incompleteness in the returns many medals were issued 
undated. The dates on the reverse, in those issued dated, varied 
considerably; for the First Maori War, the medal was issued to the 
Army with one, and to the Navy with five different dates; for the 
Second Maori War, the medal was issued to the Army with twenty- 
one, and to the Navy with five different dates. No medal was 
dated 1862, though many of the Army medals bore date of a period 
covering that year, although no naval medals did. 

24. Wesl Africa, 1 873-1000. —A\nvirdc<I (originally as the "Ash- 
antce" medal) hy Queen v'ictoria in 1874, with the exception of 
the last issue, with clasp " 1900," which was awarded by H.M. 
King Edward VII. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria, with 
diadem, and veil behind, by L. C. Wyon. Legend: VICTORIA 
REGINA. Reverse: British soldiers fighting savages in thick 
bush, by Sir E. J. Poynter. Ribbon: Yellow, with black borders, 
and two narrow black stripes (Plate II.). Clasps: COOMASSIE, 
1887-8, 1891-2, 1892, 1893-94; WITU, 1890;' LlWONDl, 1893:' 
WITU, August 1893;' JUBA RIVER. 1893:" LAKE NVA^A, 



This medal was first awarded by Army Order 43, dated June I. 
1874. to "all of Ikr forces wha hive been employee! 

on the Gold Coait nJumi,;^ lLl- opLTatlons against the King of 
Ashantee," and in addition a cbsp, " Coomas-yi**," "in the case of 
those who were present at Amoaful and ihn actions between that 
place and Coomaisie (including the capture of the capital), and of 
those who, during the five days of thoie aciiun^. were engaged on 
the north of the Prah in maintaimng ^nd prui^^/iing the communi- 
cations of the main army/' ]n all, with and without the clasp, 
11,000 medals werL' ii^ued for the Ashanu-c campaign to both 
Services. Over tiehtetn yejrs later thi* sime medal was re-issued 
as a "general service " mt.-*\iki, the award being for operations in 
CcntralAfrica, and on the East and Wc*l Coasts, during the period 
1887-92, which were covered by the dated clasps " 1887-8," 
" 1891-2," and " 1892." As Jiich the twoe Tuas continued for 
operations down to the year 1900, atthou^h tht* L>fficial title " West 

' These clasps uTre all naval awanis, but two companies of the 
West India Regiment took part in the operations for which the 
clasp " Gambia. 1894," was awarded. 

' Were awarded by the Admiralty to certain local forces which 
co-opcraie<l with the Naval Brigades. 

* " Mwelc. 1895," is not strictly speaking a clasp^ as it is engraved 
on the edge of the medal. Recipients already in possession of the 
medal were entitled to have the action and dale engraved thereon. 
It corres|)onds, however, to a clasp in that it commemorates a 
particular service, and ao has been included. 



H 



MEDAL 



Africa Medal*' f**^ Army Ofder 153^ of Dec. I&44) li somrwhat 
of a misnomer, for very ffFquently the medil has been Rrantcd for 
acrvkea tn Ceotr^l Afnca and Ln the Fllnterland of ibe East Cojfit 
aa for iCTviccs on the We-^t Coaat. In all issues since the original 
" A^haotee " medaln the ela&p only wa* given lo those who already 
bad the mcdAl> m suhwqkieidt UMJl^» do not inakje it a new ^v/^. 
As wlU be step Utcf » the simc medal was sut»i<«iucntly isMjed »ji1i 
a diffcrtm ribbon, and bo ton.^iEut€<! as an cmirely new decoraHon^ 
tKat ccuM be wcuri in conjunction with the older one. With the 
ejuzepiion of thOK i^^ued wiih " Mw?lc, f @95 ^' en|;ra%¥d on the 
medal, none of these medals have been isAued without tf t^lasp 
mnc^ the orig:inal issue for the camraign of 1873-74; and the 
liiup '* CoDfunssie " that accompanied the Srvt i&Koe 11 the only 
one that haa been iuued to rc^imeniat unit* o| the British Army 
ai apart from the Wejit India Regimeiit and local trtiops. The 
duke of Edinburgh was iJiarrii^d in January of the year in which 
this medal was first awarded ^ aiid it is said that ycUowaod biark tthc 
Imperial Rus!>ian eolour-i) were E;hQsen as the dolours of the ribbon, 
in complimeni to Mh ccinsort the tmnd dueScsa Marie of Itussia, 

J5, A rciK^ I B76 {i nd Arci k Medal J - — Awarded by Oueen Victoria , 
1870. Obvcrsei Bii*t of Queen VicioriiiH crowmr^l and wkh veil 
by G. G. Adami. l>eend: VICTORIA REGINAj nndernearh 
bust, 1676. Reveru: A ship packed in floe ke; above, an Arctic 
fiky wi th fleuy cLoudsinaelcarhoriixriiL Rlbbcm : Whke (Fb te [ f J , 
CLaspi: KIL 

The nwmrd of this gtant was noiiJied m an Adnuralty Order, 
dated Nov. ai, JS76, and the award U specihed " to aW pcf^n^, 
of every rack and class, who were serving on bo^rd Hit Majesty's 
§Jt»Q% ' Alert ' and * Discovery ' during the Arctic lij^pedition <jt 
ja7S-ia;r6>H and on board the yacht 'Pandora,' in her voyaee to 
the Arctic Regions m tB76/' The 'P-aftdyfa' was owned and silled 
by Commander (Sir Allen J Voong, R,N\R,^ whose oHicersand crew 
rendered valuable servicer to Her^iaiesty^s shins when in the Kolar 
■eas. SiKty-threc mcdab were given on board the " Alert,*' fifty- 
seven on board the " Discovery. ' The bust on the obvcric of this 
medal has not been fcprtxluccd On any other. The reversse (by L. C* 
Wyon) Ls copied from phoiocraph taktn durin|f the expedltjun of 
the " Alert ' and ^' Discovery ' under Sir Ceoixe Nares, K-C^Bk 

a6. Afghaniiitin^ 1878-60 (Jnd ATpthan). Awarded by Queen 
Victoria, ]l!i&>. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, crowned and 
with veiL by J. E. Ikiehm. This ts the hr&t war medal bearin? 
the itnpejiil title. Lejjcnd: VICTORIA REGINA ET IMPERA- 
TRJX^ Reverse: A column of troops emerging from a mountain- 
pan, headed by a heavy battery vh-phartt carrying a gun ; behind^ 
mounted troops. Above, AFGHANISTAN* In etemuc, 187^- 
-79^1io, Ribbon: ijreen. with cfim-^on bordet? (Plate l.J. 
Cfu^ps^ ALE MIJSJID. PEIVi^AR KOTAL, CHARASIA, KAJBLiL. 
AHMED KHEL. KANDAHAR. 

At the conclusion of ttie fifst phase of the Second Afghan War, 
it was proposed ihat the (Second) India G.S* Medal should be 
iiBued for t hi* campaign with cbsps" AfghaLnistaOt*' " AM Musjul," 
'* Pciwar Komi/' but, after the n^assacnc of Sir P, L. N. CavaBoitri 
and the ttteml^ers and escort of the Embassy at IGbi/l, Sep. 3, 
1^79, and the consequent renewal of the war^ it was decided to 
^rant a separate medal. The hrat oRieiiil intimation of the award 
IS in a Telegram from the secretary ol state for India to the viceroy, 
dated Aug. 7, i&tio. The awardn with the regulaiioni to govern 
the iHue, was promulgated in a G,0. hy the jjovcrnor-getieral, 
Dee. 10, 1880, and subsequent GO/t The medal without clasp 
waj awarded to all who had wrvtd across the Iroatier betwf^cn 
Nov. J J, I §78, and May 5^&, 1879 (fir^i phase of the war), and Iw 
tween Sep. 1879, and Aug. 15. i$So for the Khyber and Kurram 
Lines, and Sep. Jo, iBSp, for Sciuthern Afghanistan (5i,Tond pha^ 
of the war). The " Kabul " clasp was awarded to all who had 
shared in the operations^ "at and near that place from the imh 
to the 2%rd Dec^, JSjjg, forludinfr the column under the command 
of Brigadier-General C, 1. S. Cough, CB.^ which joined Sir Frederick 
Roberts on the 34th Dec., 187^9." The cb»p for " Kandahar " 
did not include the whole garrison of the beleaguered city, but 
onlv the troops that were actually " enga^r^ in the action fought 
tinder Sir Frederick Roberts^ commano £jrainst Sirdar Mahomed 
Ayob Khan on the Est Sep., t86o." The ereaiest number of 
cUsps with which the medal wai is<^ed was fourn and the units 
10 which such medaU were issued arc the 72nd HigManders. StK 
Ghoorkdsi, sih Punjab Infantry and 2y<A Punjab Pioneers The 
bust of the Queen by Sir Edgar Boehm, R.A., has not been t*- 
produted on other war medal 5- 

17. Kabii! to Kandakftr. iB8k>.— Awarded by Queen Vietoria, 
t88o. This decoration look the form of a Ave- pointed star, 1-9 in. 
across from point to point r with a ball between the points: between 
the two topmost points of the *tar h an Imperial Crown and rm^ 
for suspension, Obvene; In the centre the imperial monogram 
V.RJ., surrounded by a band in«ribed KARUL TOKANDA14AR, 
(S80, Reverse: Plam, with a hollow centre, round which the 
recipient's name and regiment are indented in capitiit ktten. The 
old m in bow -coloured military ribbon is worn witn tbia star 

The ffrani of thi* awarrj was first notified in a despatch from the 

tecrctary of state for India to the viceroy, d*ted Nov, 30, i8tk). 

This awafded the d^oration 'to the furte whirh marched from 

Ji^^u/ i4? A^dgJur/' Mnd Jater, Aug. 26, 1881, a G.O. by the 



Govemor-GenemT extended tbe et>nf ** to tbc troops which tb« 
composed ihe garri^n of Kelai-i-GhUiait and accompanied I he 
force under the command of Lieutenant-General Sir F, L Roberts, 
G.C.B.^ V.C., from that place to Kandahar." 

28. E£ypi. I &53- 1 889,— A warded by Queen Victoria, 1B82, 
Obverse: Head of Queen V^ictoria as in the W«t Afrkan MedaL 
Legend t VICTORIA REClNA ET IMPERATRIX. Reve«e: 
A Sphins; above, EGYPT: below^ iSSj. Ribbon: Blue, with two 
white stripes, forming five J inch ttripe* (Plate L), CUspa; ALEX- 
A[^DR1A, iith iu\y; TEL-EL-KF.BIR, SUAKIN, 1884; El^ 
TED, TAMAAL EL-TEB TAMAAl » THE NILE^ i88i-g*; 
ABU KLEA. KIRBEKAN. SUAKIN, 16^5; TOFREK, GEMAl- 
ZAH, 1S88: TOSKl, 1889.* Thi^ medal was first awarded (Admi- 
ralty Circular* Oct. t8S2;G.O^ by the commander-in-chief, {>tt* (7^ 
1883: and CO. by governor -|cnerat of India, Oct, 37, r&SjJ; 
to all the Foreea, naval and milii4iry, prpwnt and serving in Egypt 
L>etwcen July i6» and Sepn 14, iSiiis. The first two claspi were 
fliso given With this isanc. One military officer {Major-General 
Sir A. B. Tulloch, tlu-n of the Welbih Regiment) rtrt^ived the clasp 
" AlcKandria, i ith July," as he was servmg in the fleet as military 
adviser to Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour. A second issue was 
made In JS84, and wiih ii the nent four clasps wetc eiven^ *' Sua kin, 
1 884+" for thobe who landed at Suakin or Trinkitai bciween Feb. 19 
and March 36, [884, was, however, only gfven to thofie with the 
1881 me<la1^ thi>!«e not so posnessed receiving the medal without 
a cla^p,. A third issue was made tn 1885, the ctext five clasps 
accompanying it* "The Nile, 1884-85," was gi%'cn to those 
who served Kmth of As-vea^ on or before March 7, 1865; " Suakin, 
18B5," to those who were engaged in the operations at Suakin 
between Match and May 14. 1885; but the former clatp wati only 
to go to those already fiossevied of the medal, others received the 
medal onty+ The medal alor^e was also given to all an duty at 
Suakin UtA-ecn Marrh 37, iflSd, and May 14, 188^. No medal* 
were is^uc^l with single clasps for " Tofrek," recipients of which 
also pot clasp " Su:iktn, rSJ^s,'" or " Abu KIca " and '' Kirbtkao;* 
rccljnrnis of which got also clasp *' The Nile, 1884-IS5" In 
l8S<'), the mi^al without was issued to Lhqjse ivho had not previ- 
ously nrccivcd it and had served at, and south of Wady Halfa^ 
tK'lwecn Nov. yt, 1885 and Jan. it, 1886, but no ela*p4 weni taiih 
this isiuc, although ibe o [derations included the baiilc of Oinnis, 
The bit iwuc was made in 1890. The medal with clasp ' GemaiuN, 
i8S8," to all who were present at that action near Suakin, Dec. 30, 
iB8S? the medal alone to all employed on the .Mle at. and souiti 
of Korosko, on Aug. 3, 1819, and wuh clasp ' Toslti, (8B9." to all 
present at that action, Aug. 1, tBSg. Besides those already enumer- 
ated who received tbc medal without clasp, it was gi^-en lo oAicer* 
o| hired transjiorts of the mercamile marine, to »me civilians^ 
native and European* to the Australian contingent that landed at 
Suakin, and to tnc Canadian boatmen employ^ on the Nile, tn 
fact, not far short of fitly thousand of thtat medals have been 
struck, and the numbers issued have ckceeded that of any other 
medal with the exception of that i|iven tor ihc South African War. 
Seven clasps; " TebebKebir,'* " Suakin, 1884 "j " El-Teb Tamaai"; 
"The Nile, 1884^85"; "Abu Klea " ; "Gemaijah, 1888*': and 
" Toski, i88g/' were awarded to one officer, Major Beech, late loth 
Hussar Sh. who also received the Bronte Star wjib the clasp *' Tokar, 
18190," The medal with six clasps was earned by four men of (he 
t9th Husiars who wcr^ Lord Wolstlcy's ofderli<?s, and who afier 
ha vine earned the first five cUsps enumerated in Major Betch'i 
mcdau went with Lord Wolseley to Suakin and so eot the " Suakin. 
1885 " cUsp. 

29. Biyj>t Bronu Star, 1882-93.— Awarded by the Khedive 
1883. This decoration is in the shape of a five-pointed star (i'9 in. 
diameter) connected by a small star and crescent to a laurcated 
bar to which the ribbon is attached. Obverse: A front view of 
the Sphinx, with the desert and pyramids in the rear. Around 
a double band, upon which arc. above, EGYPT, 1882, and below, 
in Arabic, "Khedive of Egypt, 1299" (the Hegira date). In the 
second and third issues the dates are respectively altered to 18S4. 
1301 and 1884-86 and 1301-4; the fourth and fifth issues 
are dateless. Reverse: A large raised circle inside which is the 
Khedivial monogram, T. M. (Tewfik Mahomed), surmounted by 
a Crown and Crescent and Star. Ribbon: Dark blue (Plate I.). 
Clasps: TOKAR, 1890. 

This star was awarded for the same operations as was the British 
Egyptian medal above described, but, except for a few officers 
and men of the Royal Navy, the issue of the clasp TOKAR was 
confined to British and native officers and men of the Egyptian 
service. (H. L. S.) 

30. Canada, 1885. — Awarded by Queen Victoria. 1885. Obverse: 
Head of Oueen Victoria as on the West African (" Ashantre ") 
Medal. Reverse: NORTH WEST CANADA and date, within 
a maple leaf. Ribbon: Blue-grey, with a crimson stripe on each 
side (Plate H.). Clasp: SASKATCHEWAN. 

This medal, commemorative of services in the Riel Rebellion, 
was awarded to Canadian forces only. 



' Issued to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines only. 

' For combatants present at both actions. 

• Only claq> not issued to Royal Navy and Royal Marines. 



MEDAL 



IS 



31. Camada iCemeral Srmce).— Awarded, 1899. Obverse: Head 
of Queen Victona. as in Third India G. S. Medal. Reverse: Within 

■ Hup'' I'-. . '■■!■...•. I :; .:..,:..■,..■, (.AN ^[v\. Ribbon: 

IM. »i!Th »*hUe ctnire f Plate [Lj. Clasfs; FEMAN RAID, 
i«06; FFlMAN RAID, 1870; RED RlVER> 1870. Ont batraLian 
of the Kiftg't Rjoy^l RiRei rvctsvif^ thiji med;il with the Red River 
Ctmp^ Oth^fwiie i^^duc confined to Can^didn rGixcs- 

ja, •• Oacrv's " Ssrfon, iflofr-t&^fl.— Awardifd bv ||^uecn Vit'oria, 
iS^ Obvprse: Half -length fffigy *iF Quwn Vkrioda hoTdifiK 
KTptrt, b^ Pv 5au]li?», ^« in ^^ llganda '' rm^dal dc^fcribcd b^low. 
Rfvfir^f : A wingH] ^^ictory, Mr^tcdt wiih, on rithcr hand, the 
Uiu^^K Jack and the Ecy^iiun fljg. The left hand holdsa buret 
«m4f>i, the rij^ht a palm branch. On a tnblet below, SUDAN^ 
Aod l^lo« thi^ Icytui kavt^L Ribbon: YlaSl blacky hall yellow, 
f^iridrd bv a Aarrow re^d stripe (Plai^ [.). Cbspsi none. 

Given tor the opera i ion* und<?r the command of Sr Herbert 
tLoidJ Kitclienef* which It-d to the rcconqgett of the Sudart^ (89* s 
fiBifiil in bronze to fQllpwert^ 

jj- '* J^WJiK'd ^* 5it^«, iH^B-r^oa— A*ard<*d by ihe Jthodivc 
li \^. Obvene: " Abtui Hlimi j1/' and date* in AttbicK Re- 
ivwi A trophy of arm& with a >hlcld ict the centn?^ on a tiibk't 
Wjjw " Rccc^vtry of the SutUfii** \n Armblc, Riblnjn: VVKow, 
*itb blirf cenift <Pbtc IK CU^p^: FIRKFIT* HAFJH. 5UDAN< 
1S97; *^LDAN, iSg«: ABU HAM ED, THE ATflAftA, KHAR^ 
TOUM CE:DAREF,i SUDAN, 1899;' SUDAN, 1000;* CEDID,' 
BAHR-EL-GKAZAU 1900-1902;* TEROK,' NVAM NVAM,' 
TALODt.^ 

Tli» medaL w^as awarded to ^fficere and men of ifie Bnti^ Navy 
i«J Army, to il^ EfVpiijn Army engaged in thi; rcconquHt ^ 
fbe S«itiin aitd (in br^nje without claipn.) to fotlowc^rs. 

J4. Csp€ Celony Ctmfnt S^mke, t9Qq.— AwardttJ by the govern- 
Mai Cipe Cofowy* Obvcfit: Bu»i of Quctn Victoria 3i on the 

r Long Srrvice Meda.1. Revcr«: Arms of Cape Colony. 

Dark blur, with yellow «ntre (Pblc It,). Claap^; 
BAStrrOLASO, TRANSKEf, BECHLIANALAND, iMinjd to 
CdIbmI troops onty, fijr icrviccf in vanouit mi not ampaignf.. 

35. Mmtfbelctand. 184) (tilled the Rko4^iia Mc4tii I— Awarded 
by lie fttitijli Souih Akk* Company, i6y6, Obvcffc: fiutt of 
Qi9Pni Victona. RevrrMf: A (ighiin^ lion. Ribbon: Orance, 
wiih Ehrw dark btu«,- stripes fPlitc tl.). Clasps: RHODESf A 
and MASHONALAND. with dates. 

This ia the first war medal issued by a chartered company since 
the close of the Company's rule in India. It was awarded to British 
o& cc rs and men o( tne British service, to the Cape Mounted Rifles. 
Bechtfan^nd police, and the Chartered Company's own forces, 
e«^a4sed in the Matabeleland and Mashonaland Campaigns 1893, 
lS96and 1897. 

36. East and Central Africa, 1891-98. — Awarded by Queen 
\lctoria in 1895- Obverse and Reverse: as in West African (or 
orsriaal Ashantee) Medal described above. Ribbon: Terra-cot la, 
vbife and black stripes (Plate 11.). Cbsps: CENTRAL AFRICA, 
»*M-96; CENTRAL AFRICA, 1899. 

Tbis medal only differs from the West African in that it has a 
di fferent ribbon. It is suspended by a ring. Practically only the 
local forces (and of course tneir British officers) received this medal. 
B-jt a few officers and men of the Indian Army and of the Royal 
Navy have also received it. 

37. fffff<4«*< Central Africa, 1 899 ((Jke " Ufflnda" Medal).— Aytardcd 
by Queen Victoria in 1899. Obverse: Half-length cfiigy of Queen 
Victoria, by De Saulles.^ Reverse: Britannia with lion, gazing over 
a devert towards a rising sun. Ribbon: Half red, half yellow 
(PUte ID. Clasps: LUBWAS. UGANDA, 1897-98; UGANDA, 
i8m; UGANDA, 1900. 

Thus medal was awarded to the local forces and also to officers 
and mtn of the Indian Army and Royal Navy. 

38. Asiauti Star, 1896. — Awardeci by Queen Victoria in 1896. 
Obverse: An imperial crown with " Ashanti, 1896 " round it. 
Reverse: Inscribra " from the Queen." The star is four-pointed, 
aod is crosaed by a saltire or St Andrew's cross. Ribbon: Yellow 
with black stripes (Plate II.). 

This medal was issued for the expedition against Prempeh in 
1896. As there was no actual fighting, no medal was given, but 
sickness claimed many victims, amongst them Prince Henry of 
Battenberg. The decoration was issued to officers and men of 
Che British Army. Royal Navy and local troops. 

39. Ashanti Medal, 1900.— Awarded by King Edward VII. in 
Moi. Obverse: Head ami bust of King Edward VII. in the uniform 
of a field-marshal, by De Saulks. Reverse: a lion standing on a 
diff, in the background the rising sun. Ribbon: Green with black 
edKes and bUck central stripe (Plate II.). Clasp: KUMASSI. 

This medal was the first which was i»ucd with an effigy of King 
Edward VII. It was given only to bCal forces, and the British 
odkrrs employed on the staff or in commands. 

40. Afhca General Service, 1^9- .—Awarded by King 
Edward VII. in 1002. Obverse: As in Ashanti Medal of 1900. 
Revcne: As in "^Uganda" Medal above described. Ribbon: 
YeSow. vith black edges and two narrow green stripes (Plate 11.). 
Clasps: N. NIGERIA, with various dates ;S. NIGERIA, with various 



' Awarded to Egyptian Army ojiJy. 



dalts; UGANDA, l«w: TlfBALAND, GAM BIA. LANGO, 1901 and 
i9dj: IIDBALLf, KlSSf, loog^ SfJ MALI LAND, 1901 and 1902-04: 
BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA, 1^99-1900; A ROT 1901-02: 

Thi$ mfditl rtprewnis an almc^^t incessant warfare of a minor, 
bui exacting, naiunv In the fin^i eighteen months, eleven clasps 
were aw9jpdc<l, aome awards beimt; of course retrospective. Tne 
clasp "Jubaland" is chiefly a n.iv.il award, but all the rest are 
almost cKcJuiivcly earned by thf \V<!8t African Frontier Force and 
the KingV African Rifl«L U ia worthy of remembrance, however, 
thjt a contingent of Boer mounted riflemen took part in the Somali- 
bnd Campaign, withiji one year of the peace of Vereeniging. and 
rectived the medal sn6 cLj^p The ''^Somaliland, 1902-1904 " 
cbsp repretcntn indeed a con I ! ^ : ' campaign in which contingents 
from Great Britain and fji ■ iart. 

41. "Queen's" South African, 1 899-1 002.— Awarded by King 
Edward VII. in 1901 shortly after Queen Victoria's death. Obverse: 
Bust of Queen Victoria, by De Saulles. Reverse: Britannia holding 
an outstretched laurel wreath towards a body of troops, in the 
background a coast line, the sea and war-ships. Ribbon: Centre 
orange bordered with blue, outside edgea red (Plate II.). Cbsps; 
see below. 

l;ix !^^... ;i„ ' medal for troip* tJi^.j.;^U in the South Afntan 
War was aothonzed, shortly alter Queen Vietorb'* death, by 
Army Order 94 of 1901. it wa* given "to all officers, warranl 
offictits, non^^ommiEAioned officers and men, of the Britiih, Indian 
sntj C^ilonbl for ecu, and to all Nar-ye* and Nursing Sisters, who 
actu^^tly served in South Africa between nth of October iflog, and 
a date to be fixed hereafter " (the w^r not being concluded) ^' 10 all 
itoops stationed In CapeCiilony and Natal at the outbreak of ho^titi- 
tie*, and to troops stationed at St Helena beiwevrt the iJth of April 
1909, and a dale to be fixed hereafter." The bst provision shows 
a wideninff of the *ignifie,»iion hiihcrto attaching to '* war service/' 
fot the tn^op^ at St Helena were employed in euardiAg Boef 
priMiners. The A-0. trf erred 10 was SLipplenientctr bv ol^er* in 
1^1 and tqoj. Claspa wure authoriied as follows: BELMONT 
iNov. It, r899>l MODDER RfVER (Nov. xU. iM); PAARDE- 
RERG (Feb. 17-^6, 1900); DREIFONT^.IN (M^irch )o, rooo>r 
WEPEIMER (April 9-«, I900h JOHANNESBL'RG (May ». 
igoo); DIAMCJnD MUL (June it-)3, 1900); BELFAST 
thus. ^-27. 1900) J WITTEBERGEN Otily 1-^9^ tgoo}\ DE. 
M:<?rE OF KfMBERLEV fOci, V4, iS^p Feb. rsT 1900); 
f^ELU'F OF KIMBERLEY (Feb, ij, igS); DEFENC^F 
^I'MJ^f^i^^ .^1^^^- '^" i«92^May J7- I9«>)3 RELIEF OF 
MAI kKlNG (May 17, 19M>);TALANA (Oct, so, (899); ELANDS- 
LAAGTE (Ozt. 21. i«99h DEFfiNCE OF TaDYSMITH 
(Nov. 3. iB^^^— Feb. 28, igoo)i TUG EL A HEIGHTS (Feb. u- 
27, 1900)^ RELIEF OF LADVSMITH (Dec. t^, ,tor>--Feb. sV 
Kjr«); LAINCS NEK fftane 3-9 ^ looo). Cb^p*: for 
<\rE COLONY. NATAL, ORANCE FREESTATE an^ RHO- 
DEShV wtTv liven to troopii who served within the Umiti of tb» 
rcspcctire colonies and itaics named during the war, without 
Iwinp pneftent at any action, fouitht inside Those limit*, for whicb 

a Cb^p was aWnird'vl ■N^rin-nlUp.fl ii|,.n. r.f ,..1, ^i.-VM- ^;v!>--v^l'v, 

who dri;* niilli,:--- ■ : . j 

of *ilviir ;ind \ft . . „ _ : _..J 

were sent to Mediterranean stations to release the regulars "for 
field service were awarded (Feb. 1902) the medal without clasp, 
"Mediterranean" being substituted for "South Africa" on the 
reverse. This was not, of course, issued to any one entitled to the 
Queen's Medal for Sodth Africa. 

43. The " King's " South African Medal was awarded by King 
Edward VII. in 1902, to be worn in addition to the "Queen s " by 
those who completed eighteen months' service in South Africa 
during the war. On the obverse of the medal is the effiey of King 
Edward, by De Saulles (as on the " Ashanti, 1900," Nledal); the 
reverse is the same as that of the "Queen's" Medal. Ribbon: 
Green, white and orange (Plate II.). The two clasps awarded 
were, in accordance with the terms of the award, general in character, 
to wit, SOUTH AFRICA, 1901 and SUJi I Jl Ai KICA, 1903, 

44. China, 1900.— Awarded by Kins* Edward VII., tooj. Ob- 
verse: Bust of Queen Victoria as on "Outtn's" Sgyth Afrkaa 
Medal. Reverse: As on first China ^^'fJL^X but with date ahefed. 
Ribbon: As in first China Medal (PI iec L). Cbios; DEFENCE 
OF LEGATIONS, RELIEF OF PEKIN, TAKU FORTS, 

This medal was issued to the Royal Navy (including some Noval 
volunteers), British and Indian Arnuii, and the (Wei bai-Wet) 
Chinese Regiment, for operations rtnring ihe Bojier rebctlien. 
This was the bst war medal, as the '^ F^ ■ ' hir^, " ■ -- "^■/ ''"t 
to bear Queen Victoria's effigy. Sir E. H. Seymour, the commander 
of the Tientsin relieving column, who had taken part in the former 
China War, received the new medal as well as the old. 

45. India, 1895 (Third India General Service).— Awarded by 

?ucen Victoria in 1896. Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria, by 
. Brock. R.A. Reverse: A British and Indian soldier supporting 
a standard; below, INDIA, 1895. Ribbon: Three red and two 
green stripes of equal width (Plate 1.). Clasps: DEFENCE OF 
CHITRAL. 1895; RELIEF OF CHITRAL, 1895: MALAKAND, 
1898; PUNIAB FRONTIER, 1898; TIRAH, \89i\ TV^NW, 
1898; VVAZfRISTAN, 1901-02. 
The ribhoa of this medal is perViaps moc« li«c^u<:u\\^ ves.'a >2DA.tL 



i6 



MEDAL 



that of any other British war medal except those (or South Africa. 
In 1903 the medal was re-issued with the military effigy of King 
Edward VII. (as on the Ashanti, 1900, medal) on the obverse, 
and the date was omitted from the reverse. The medal is issued 
in bronze, without clasps, to followers. 

46. Tibetf 1903-04. — Awarded by King. Edward VII in 1905. 
Obverse: Military effigy of the king as on A&hanti, 1900, ni«ial. 
Reverse: a representation of the Potala at Lhasa. Ribbon: 
Purple-red. edged with green and white stripes (Plate 11.). Clasp: 
CYANTSfe. 

47. India, 1908. — A new India General Service Medal was 
autnorizcd in i9pS, to take the place of the medal granted by A.O. 
43 of 1903. This was to be issued in silver to officers and 
men, and m bronze to non-enlisted men of all sorts. This medal 
with clasp bearing the name and date was given to the troops 
whkh took part in the North Western Frontier Expedition of I90<B. 
The ribbon u dark blue edged with green. 

48. Transport if «iai.— Awarded by King Edward VII. in 1002. 
Obverse: Head and bust of the king in naval uniform, bv De Saulles. 
Reverse; A steamer at sea. and the five continents. Ribbon: red, 
with two thin stripes near the edge (Plate II.). Clasps: SOUTH 
AFRICA, 1899-1902; CHINA, 1900. This medal is restrkted to 
officers of the mercantile marine serving in chartered troo(>-shi|3s. 
It is a sort of general service medal, clasps being added as earned. 
Up to 1910 only the above clasps had been authorized. 

49. Polar Medal (or Antarctic JIfrJa/).— Awarded by King 
Edward VII., 1004. Obverse: Naval effigy of the king as on 
Transport Medaf. Reverse: In the foreground a sledge and travel- 
lers, in the background the steamer " Discovery " (Capt. R. F. Scott's 
Expedition, 1904). Ribbon: As for ist and and Arctic Medals, 
white (Plate I.). The medal, like the 1st Arctic Medal, is octagonal. 

First awarded to officers and men of the " Discovery," whether 
belonging to the Royal Navy or not. It is given with a dated clasp 
for Antarctic exploration service. 

Other Medals and Decorations. — The above forty-nine medals 
are given as rewards for participating in the operations they 
commemorate, and issued generally to all concerned, irrespective 
of individual distinction or bravery. There are other classes 
of medals and decorations, civil as well as military, which must 
be grouped with them, as being allied in character. These 
are either (i.) awards personal to the recipient, being an acknow- 
ledgment of or reward for special individual services or good 
conduct (these are civil as well as military in respect of awards 
for bravery), or (ii.) awards that are simply of a commemorative 
kind, though worn as war medals and for the most part given 
to officers and soldiers. The more important of these two 
classes will be named. Orders given for service are dealt with, 
for the most part in the article Kmicutuood; but particulars 
are given here of certain distinctively military orders that 
have no knighthood rights and duties, and indeed little meaning 
apart from the deeds or services which led to the award— being 
so to speak, records of the past, rather than badges of a present 
membership. Individual decorations for services may be 
classed as (i.) for gallantry, (ii.) for special merit, and (iii.) 
for long service and good conduct. 

1. Indian Order of Merit. — Awarded by H.E.I. Company and 
notified by CO. of governor-general, April 17. 1837. Obverse: 
1st Class — A Gold Star, i| in. diameter; in the centre, in gold on 
a ground of dark blue enamel, crossed swords within a circle around 
which is the legend, REWARD OF VALOUR, the whole encircled 
by a gold laurel wreath. 2nd Class — Star similar to that of 1st 
Class, out in silver. Wreath and centre as in 1st Class. 3rd Class — 
Star exactly similar to that of 2nd Class, but the wreath and centre 
in silver, and dark blue enamel and silver, rcs|)ectively. Reverse: 
Engraved isi, 2nd and 3rd Class Order of Merit, respectively, but 
the name of the recipient is not engraved on the decoration when 
issued. Ribbon: Dark blue, with red edges. This decoration is 
to be obtained only by a " conspicuous act of individual gallantry " 
in the field or in the attack or defence of fortified places. It is 
open to all native officers or soldiers of the Indian Army, " without 
distinction of rank or grade." The 3rd Class is bestowed for the 
first act of gallantry for which the recipient is recommended. The 
2nd Class is given only to those who possess the third, and for a 
second act of conspicuous gallantry. The ist Class is given onlv 
to those who holcf the 2nd, and for a third act of bravery. A 
recipient of the decoration receives an additional allowance equivalent 
in the 3rd Class to one-third, in the 2nd to two-thirds, and in the 
1st to the whole of the ordinary pay of his rank, over and above 
that pay or his pension. The widow (in the case of plurality of 
wives, the first married) receives the pension of the Order for three 
years after her husband's death. 

2. Victoria Crow.— Instituted by Royal Warrant, January 29, 
^S^A A bronze Maltese Cross, \\ in. diameter, with, in th« 

ceatre, the Royal Crest (lion and crowo), and below it a scroll 



jMcribed ^*FOR VALOUR." There is a bronze laureated bat 
lor auftpeDsion, connected with the cross by a V. The reverse is 
plain, but the namt, rank and corps of the recipient are engraved 
oil the back ol the laureated bar. Ribbon: Red for the army; 
blue far the navv. Clasp: For every additional act of bravery 
a cl34p, braiing the due of such act. may be awarded. 

Nothing save " the merit of conspicuous bravery " ^ives claim 
for [he deooj^tiofi, and it must be evinced by " some sienal act of 
vabur or devotion to their country " periormed " in ute presence 
fij (he enemy" (The regulation italicized was for a short time 
abTO|aied> but soon n stored to force.) The orieinal Royal Warrant 
hai been bupplcmi-nicd by various Royal V^rrants (Ckrt. 1857, 
Aug. and Di'c, 1858, Jan, 1867, April and Aug. 1881), and now 
fvcry E^ide and rank of all ranks of all branches of His Majesty's 
i-Drce«. BriLJ&h and Colonial, are eligible, with the single exception 
of native ranks oE the Indian army, who have an equivalent decora- 
tion in their own Order of Merit In the case of recipients who 
are not c^ comcni^^ioried rank, the Cross carries with it a pension 
of £10 a yt4r» and an additional £5 a vear for each clasp. A larger 
grant i» lomctinics {^iven to holders of the V.C. who are in need of 
mon«-iary htlp. In all, up to 1904, the Cross was awarded to 521 
rcripienti t^f^cludinj; 15 posthumous awards). 

3< PijJiiJifunW CLflBtfiic/ in the Field {ArmyS. — Instituted by 
Roval Warrant H Stpitmber 30, 1862. Obverse: A military trophy, 
idltn* tit The cctitre, ihe Royal Arms (as in the Long Service and 
r.ood Conduct Mi-^iils). Reverse: inscribed "FOR DISTIN- 
GUISHED CON DUCT IN THE FIELD." Ribbon : Three stripes 
equal, niidiK* out^ltli;! red. centre blue (Plate II.). Clasp: Royal 
Warrant, 7tK of February 1881, authorized award of clasps for 
subsfqueni acEi of gallantry. 

" individual acts of distineuished conduct in the field in any 
part of the warld " entitle to this medal, and only non-commissioned 
officers and men of the British forces are eligible for the award. 
Priof to ill initltution, distinguished gallantry was rewarded by 
the " Merilorious Service " medal. Single clasps have been con- 
iianity conrcrred* and there is more than one case of a recipient 
hn vi n^ earncK] 1 wo c1:t s^pa to his medal. 

4. Aibfrt Medal {ior saving life at sea). — Instituted by Royal 
Warrant » 7ih of Marth 1866. Gold oval badge, enamelled in dark 
blue, with a foonogram composed of the letters V and A, inter- 
laced wUh an anchor erect, all in gold, surrounded with a garter 
in bronfc.% instriWd in raised letters of gold " FOR GALLANTRY 
IN SAVE KG LIFE AT SEA," and surmounted by a representation 
tA the crowii of the prince consort, the whole edged with %cM. 
Ribbtin; dark blLje» with two white stripes. Clasps are awarded 
for any subsequent acts of bravery. By a subsequent Royal 
VVarrant of the j 3ih df April 1867, the decoration was reconstituted 
in two claises. as follows. 1st Class — Badge precisely as already 
described. Ribbon L Dark blue, with fow white stripes (ii in. 
wide:). Cbjbp€: As authoriaed in original warrant. 2nd Class — 
Badge exactly simibr to that of the ist Class, except that it is 
entirely worked in b^Dnze, instead of sold and bronae. Ribbon: 
Dark bluct with ^bv white stripes. Clasps: As authorized for 
i»[ Cla!». 

The decoration » awarded only to thoae who "have, in sa%ang 
Of i-ndcavDuring to mvc the lives of others from shipwreck or other 
peril of the sea, embngered their own lives." The ist Class is 
confined " to cases o\ extreme and heroic daring "; the 2nd for acts 
whieh. though great courage may be shown, ^' are not sufficiently 
diitinBul$h<-J to descrM^c " the 1st Class of the decoration. 

5. Netn Zealand Crpj*.— Instituted by an Order of the governor 
of N'ew Zealand jn council. loih of March, 1869. Silver Maltese 
Croas with ^old $rar on each of the four limbs and in the centre, 
in a circle within a gold laurel wreath, NEW ZEALAND. Above 
the Cross a crown iit gold, and connected at the top by a V, to a 
iilver bsT ornamented with laurel in gold. The name of recipient 
i^cngravLd on fevcfse. Width of Cross, \\ in. Ribbon: Crimson. 
(Tbip;!^ Authorised for subsequent acts of valour. In authorizing 
this decoration Sir G. F. Bowen. the then governor, went outside 
hb authority, but the queen ratified the colonial order in council, 
and intimatfd '" Her gracious desire that the arrangements made 
by it may be considered as established from that date by Her. 
direct authority." It was, however, stipulated that the occasion 
was in no way to form a precedent. The award was to be for those 
"who may particubriy distinguish themselves by their bravery 
In action, or devotion to their duty while on service," and only 
local "Militia, Volunteers or Armed Constabulary" were to be 
eligible^ In all only nineteen of these decorations were awarded. 
No clasps were awarded. . 

6h ConipkuQuy Gallantry fiVary).— Instituted by an Order of 
the quern in Courtcil. 7th of July, 1 874. Obverse: Head of Queen 
Victoria, by W. Wyon, R.A. (as on China Medal). » . Rewfse.- A 
laurel wruath, and within FOR CONSPICUOUS GALLANTRY. 
Above, a 4rrown* Ribbon: Three stripes of equal width, outside 
blue, centre white (Plate II.). Clasps: none authorized. 

To reward *'acis of pre-eminent bravery m Action with the 
Enemy/' Only petty officers and seamen of the Royal Navy, 



» Now Daval effigy of King Edward VII.. as 00 Transport Service 
Medal. 



MEDALS AND DECORATIONS 



PlJ^TK II. 




SiAgCra t.uhi, Co . BMt'*'« ^' V 



MEDAL 



17 



iad ooo-oommiHaoiwd oflkcn and privstet of the Rofyal Marines, 
ue eligible for thb decontion. Prior to the institutioii of thb 
decoratioa, acts of gallantry by sailors and marines weire rewarded 
by the same medal as that given to the army before the " medal 
for disunguisbed conduct in the field " was instituted, vix. the 
"Meritorious Service " mcdaL If the bolder be a Chief or First 
Que Petty OfBcer, or a Sergeant of Marines, the award carries 
with it an annuity of £20 per annum; and if a recipient's service 
ends before his reaching one of those ranks, he may receive a 
gratuity of £20 on discharge. 

7. AlbeH Medal (for saving life 00 land).— Instituted by Royal 
Warrant. 30th of April i877> 1st Class— Similar to that of the 
1st Class for savins life at sea. but the enamelling is in red 
instead of blue, ana there is no anchor interlaced witn the mono- 
mm V.A. Ribbon: Crimson, with four white stripes. Claras: 
tor subsrouent acts of same character, and Class — Badge similar 
to that oc the and Class for saving;^ life at sea, but the enamelling 
is in red instcssd of blue, and there is no anchor interlaced with the 
monogram V.A. Ribbon : Crimson, with two - white stripes. 
Clasps: As authorised for 1st Class. 

The conditions governing the award of this decoration are the 
ume that govern the award for saving life at sea. Originally the 
award was restricted to acu of gallantry performed within British 
dominions, but this restriction was removed by Royal Warrant, 
5th of June 1905* 

8. Distintuisked Condtut in Ike Fidd (CeWotim/)-— Instituted by 
a Royal Warrant. 24th of May 1894, which was later cancelled 
and supeneded by Royal Warrant, jist of Mav 1895. Obverse: 
same as " Distinsruishcd Conduct in the Field " (Army). Reverse: 
same as " Army medal, but with the name of the colony inscribed 
above the words " For Distinguished Conduct in the Field." 
RiUwn: Crimson, \(rith a line oi the colonial colour in the centre. 
Clasps: Authorized for subsequent acts of valour, Eveiv colony 
or FHTotectorate, havii^ permanently embodied forces, draws up 
r^ulatiotts to govern the issue of these medals as puit its own 
particular requirements, but in all essentiab these regulations are 
modelled on those that govern the award of the Distinguished 
Conduct in the Field (Army). 

9. CcHspiemcus Sentu Cross. — Instituted by an Order in Council. 
15th of June 1901. Stiver cross, with the reverse side plain; on 
the obverse, in the centre, the imperial and Royal Cypher, E.R.I.. 
surmounted by the imperial crown. Ribbon: Three stripes equal 
width, outside white, centre blue. CHasps: none authorized. 

This award is to recognize " Distinguished Service before the 
Enemy." Its grant is confined to '^Warrant Officers or Sub- 
ordinate Officers " of the Royal Navy. Such, not being of " lower- 
deck rating." are not eligible for the " Conspicuous (Gallantry " 
medal: also. they. " by reason of not holding a commission in the 
Ro>al Navy, arc not eligibk to any existing Order or DecoiBtion." 

10. Edward Medal. — Founded in 1907 to reward acts of courage 
in saving life in mines, this medal was extended in 1909 (R.W. 
Dec. 3) so as to be awarded " to those who in course of industrial 
employment endanger their own lives in saving or endeavouring 
to save the lives 01 others from perils incurred in connexion with 
such industrial employment." 

Certain important medaU and decorations for saving life 
are not the gift of the Crown. These are allowed to be worn 
in uniform on the right breast. They are the medals of the 
Royal Humane Society, those given by the Board of Trade 
for gallantry in saving life at sea, the medals of the Royal 
National Lifeboat Institution, those of the Shipwrecked Fisher- 
men and Mariners' Royal Benevolent Society, Lloyd's Honorary 
Silver Medal, Liverpool Shipwrecked and Humane Society's 
Medals, and the Sunhope Gold Medal. 

All these are suspended from a dark blue ribbon with the exception 
of the medals of the S.F. and M. Roya^ Benevolent S^itlv, vhkh 
has a light blue ribbon, and the StsnhD[je GbU] Medial whirh hdi 
a broad dark blue centre, edged with yellow^ ai^d bUcW borJpn, 
These medals are usually struck in lilver or bmnze^ but DCcasionall^ 
gold medals are awarded. The Stanhope C^ld M^fidl b annuAUy 
awarded for the most gallant of all the acts of rvifue for T^hich 
the society have awarded medals during the vtan Thi* award has 
been frequently earned by oflicera or men 01 iJnr Rtiyat Navy, tt 
is, in fact, the " Victoria Cross " of awards of this character. 



The following are decorations for special merit:— 

I. Order of British India. — Instituted by General Order of 
(Governor-General of India. 17th of April 1837. 1st Class— A 
pdd star of eight pdnts radiated, if in. in diameter, between 
the two top points the crown of England. In the centre, on a 
rround of fight blue enamel, a gold lion statant. within a band of 
dark blue enamel, containing in gold letters ORDER OF BRITISH 
INDIA, the whole encircled by a gold laurel wreath. The whole 
i»nn from the ribbon by a gold loop attached by a rins to the top 
if the crown, and is worn round the neck, outside the uniform. 
Itlbfaon: originally sky-blue, changed to crimson 1838. and Cliss — 
(ioU star similar to that of the 1st Class, but smaller. 1 1 in. diameter. 
XVJU I« 



and without the crown. The centie also Is similar to that of the 
1st Cfaus star, but the enamelling is all dark blue. Suspended and 
worn as in the 1st Class. Ribbon: As in ist CTlasa. 

This, the highest miliury distinctbn to which in the ordinary 
course native oJScers of the Indian Army can attain, and confined 
to them, is a reward for k>ng, honourable and specially meritorious 
service. The 1st Class is composed exclusively of officers of and 
above the rank of Subadar in the artillery and infantry, or of 
a correspondii^ rank in the other branches of the service. The 
and Class is open to all native commissioned officers, irrespective 
of their rank. Originally the order was limited to 100 in the 
1st Class and the same number in the and, but it now comprises 
315 in the ist Class and 32^ in the and Class. Officers in the 
1st Class are entitled to the title of " Sirdar Bahadur." and receive 
a daily alh>wance of two rupees in addition to the pay. allowances 
or pension of their rank, while those of the and Class are styled 
" Bahadur," and receive an extra one rupee per diem. 

a. Ability and Good Condtut. — Instituted in 184a. Obverse: 
A paddle-wheel steamship. Reverse: Crown and anchor, and 
inscribed, FOR ABILITY AND GOOD CONDUCT. Ribbon: 
None authorized. 

No official documents as regards the institution of this decoration 
are now to be found at the Admiralty, but only engineers were 
eligible for the award, and it carried no gratuity or annuity. Only 
six were ever awarded. When, in 1847. engineers were raised to 
the rank of warrant officers, the issue of this decoration was dit- 
continocd. It had a ring for suspension, and was probably worn 
with the narrow navy blue ribbon of the " Long Service and Good 
(Conduct " medal of the period. 

3. Meritorious Service (Army and Royal Marines). — Iiistituted 
by Royal Warrant, 19th December 18^5, for army only: grant 
extended to Royal Marines by Order in Council, i^th January 
1849. Obverse: Head of Queen Victoria as on China medal.' 
Reverse: FOR MERITORICJUS SERVICE, within a laurel wreath, 
Ritibon: Crimsofi for atwy (Pbie 11.)^ navy blue for Royal 
Marines. Only non-cam missioned offiecn of or above the rank 
of sergeant are eliifible for thia decoration. It carries with it an 
annuity not eiceedini^ £jd per annum; bt^t^ as the total sum avail- 
able IS icrictly limited, the number cf the% medals that is issued 
IS nmall, and a non-com mk^iqEied ol^ici^r who is recommended may 
have to wrait many yean bcfcire hi^ ttjrn comes and he rec^ves 
the award. The qualiftcation for rccotnmendation is long, efficient 
and meritoriaui sen'ice, and need not necciidrily, although in many 
€as€% it dnes, include any special di^pU^ of personal gallantry in 
action. For many yean the " mentoraous service " medal was 
Considered to cancel the *' tung service and good conduct " medal, 
but bv ArO. 7^0 of rqoa both medals can bo worn together.' 

)[. The Dislirtiuiihfd Servue Ordtr (see Knighthood) is given 
y to oRi€cr9 (and n^vaJ and ntilkary a/Fuials of officer rank, not 
incmdin]; Indian native oflicersj Inr ^rvices in war. Often it is 
the reward of actual conapicuous ^lUntry under fire, but its purpose, 
a& defined in the Royal Warmnt in&iittiting the order, is to reward 
'' individual instances of meritorious or ^listinguishcd service in 
war; " and the eame document declan^ that only those shall be 
eligible who have been menLianed *' in iJ^f patches for meritorious 
or diatin{;ui!jhed service in the Aeld^ or |jt:fc>re the enemy." In the 
main, therefore, it is awarded for specijl -M^rviccs in war, and not 
necessarily under Hre; and all hough the ii<?ryiccs rewarded are as 
a lace generally renderefl in action, the onlcr is in no sense a sort 
of second riass ol the Victoria Cntjss. Like the latter, the Dis- 
tinj;ui*hed Service Order in generally refLTixJ to by its initials. 

5. Thf Jfoyai /?^d Crati is al^i !\t] Onl.ir. Membership is re- 
stricted to women (not necessarily British subjects), and is given as 
a reward for naval or military nursing service. Instituted 1883. 

6. The Kaisar-i-Hind Medal is given Tor public services in India. 

7. The Volunteer Officers' Decoration. — Instituted in 1892. An 
oval of silver, crossed at intervals with gold, in the centre the 
monogram V.R. and crown in gold. Worn from a ring. Ribbon: 
Dark green. 

This decoration was instituted in 1892. and is the reward of 
twenty vcars* service in the commissioned ranks of the volunteer 
force. It is generally called the " V.D. " Since the conversion of 
the Volunteer into the Territorial Force (1908) it has been replaced 
by THE TERRITORIAL OFFICERS' DECORATION. Officers 
of the Royal Naval Reserve ami of the Royal Naval Volunteer 
Reserve arc elifi^ble for a similar decoration (1910). 

8. The Long Service and Good Conduct (Army) Medal was instituted 
in iSti. Obverse: A trophy of arms.* Reverse: FOR LONG 
SERVICE AND GOOD CONDUCT. Ribbon: Crimson, as for 
" Meritorious Service " medal (Plate II.). 

This is a reward for " long service with irreproachable character 
and conduct," the qualifying period of service being 18 years. _^ 

* Now naval effigy of King Edward VII., as on Transport Service 
medal. 

• Other " Meritorious " or " Long Service " medab worn with 
a crimson ribbon are the former Long Service medal of the H.E.I. 
Company's European troops and the Meritorious and Long Service 
medals of the Indian Native Army. 

' Now replaced by military effigy of King Edward VI I. 



i8 



MEDEA 



9^ Tb« Lffng Sertke and G^k>d Conduct (Kwy) Utdol wur In* on the nvervc u CAmpcnH ol C^^ An ueIc pcTrlipd tin a cajmoil, 
:^.fc-j !_ .a.. ii:i.i„_, &♦.._ ^j.i. >..u:** _**^ rm^,^ ir I *uppf>fu?d by fivT it^ndftrdi (typifyiag the five great wars o* the 



sdtutjed in i§t[. Ribbon: Blur, with white idgm (PlAU IL). 

10. The Vkunte^ Lmt Serwi^t Afe^jJ,— Ift*titutftl ta 1894. 
Has a gri-pn nhbon. Obwersfr; Effley cff Qar*i\ Victona. Revcft*; 
A MrrolT wiihln a wfrcath, infrrihwl FOR LONG SERVICE IN THE 
VOLUNTEER FORCE. Re^^bKcd by tbe TirrHerisl Ung ^nk4 
Mtdal (iqoS). of which the nhbon i* (t«*ri with a ytUow centre i 
*iid I he obvcne a buit of the king. The Militia Lmi Service 
M^dal (1004) ha* a Xi^ht. blue dbboo, the tmberiai Yeam&nrj Loni 
Semee MfJai s. yulbw ribbon^ ibe Hmtn^ahU AftiUery C(mpanf*t 
Uedid m. blaclct "^ aQ^ yeilow ribboiL All thcK a» ihown on 
PUte II.« 

11. The Medal for the Best Shot in the Army was instituted in 
1869 Obverse: Bust of Queen Victoria (now effigy of King 
Edward VII.). Reverse: A^ winged Victory crowning a warrion 
Ribbon: Red. with two narrow blaclc stripes on each edge, the 
two black stripes being divided by a narrow white one. There is 
also a ** Best Shot " Medal for the Indian Native Army, which 
has an orange ribbon. 

I a. The Medal for JVaM/CimfKry was instituted ini903. Ribbon: 
Red centre, flanked by two narrow white stripes, two broad blue 
stripes at edges (Plate II.). 

Amongst medals of the last class may be mentioned the Jubilee 
Medals of 1887 and 1807, the Coronalion Medal of 1902. the Royal 
Vietorian Medal (this, however, b a sort of sixth class of the Royal 
Victorian Order, for whkh see Knightb<5oo) and the medals 
awarded for Durban^ 

United States.— The war medals and decorations of the 
United States, although few in number, are interesting, as 
they follow a peculiar system in the colours of the ribbons. 

The primripl militapy decoration of (he United Statei is the 
" Medal of Honor/' which iwas founded for the reward of unusud 
bfwery or ftpecLst good conduct during the Civil War. in it» 
inncnt form it is a five- pointed star* with a iiiedaElion in the 
centre bearing a head of Mmerva and ffiand it UNITED isTATES 
OF AMERICA in relief. On each ray nf the itar la an oak-leaf, 
aod the pciint* themscJvrt arc trefoil shaped. A laurcf wreath, 
in |;re<rn onaentl. cncinrln the whole, and ihid wreath u «tirniouiitcd 
by VALOR, which in turn is surmouniLtl by an eagk that attajchct 
tnt decointion to its ribboiu Thb last 1^ bme^ with thirtnrn while 
star* worlccd on it in ailk* Accompany; njii: this decoration there is 
a badge or bpel hutf(?n, hri^igonal, and mid'^ of bhi-^ ^ilk with the 
thirteen stjrt \n v:\y\n\ 

The original form of the decoration had no encircling wreath; 
CD the rays, instead of the oak-leaves, were small wreaths of laurel 
and oak, and the design in the central medallion was a figure of 
Minerva standing, with her left hand resting upon a consul's fasces 
and her right waging off with a shield the figure of Discord. The 
bacl^round was formed by thirty-four stars. The decoration 
was surmounted by a trophy of crossed guns, swords, &c., with 
eagle above, and the ribbon was designed of the national colours, 
as follows: thirteen alternate red and white stripes, and across 
the ribbon at the top a broad band of blue (palewiae gules and 
argent and a chief azure). The ribbon, was attached to the coat 

&f a clasp badge bearing two cornucopias and the arms of the 
.S. The present decoration does not have this badge, but a 
nispendcd from a concealed bar brooch. 

Another special decoration is the " Merit " Medal. This bears 
on the obvcrK an eagle, surrounded by the inscription VI RTVTIS 
ET AVDACIAE MONVMENTVM ET PRAEMIVM, and on the 
reverse the inscription FOR MERIT, surrounded by an oak-leaf 
wreath; in the upper part of the exeigue b UNITED STATES 
ARMY, in the lower thirteen stars. The ribbon b red. white and 
blue, in six stripes, two red stripes divided by a fine white line 
in the centre, two white on cither side of the red and two blue 
forming the two outer edges. 

We come now to the war medab proper, issued generally to all 
those who took part in the events commemorated. 

The Civil War Medal bears on the obverse the portrait of Lincoln, 



United Statei )> rifle*. Indian shiFld. apcar and arrow*, Filipino 
dag&{terdi%d Cuban machete; Ih'i be Vow tnti tniphy the words FOR 
SERVICE; (tj in exergue, abovu. UNITED STATES ARMV, 
below, thirteen stars. 

Ribboft of the tndtati Medal, vermilion, with deep red ed^ei. 

The " WiLr with Spain *' Medol bears on the obverse a cattle 
with two flmkinK tower*; tn ej(crEut, above. WAR WITH SFAIN^ 
bekiw. the date i&r^, with, oil one ude of it , a branch of the tobacco- 
platiCt and on. the other a vu^r-canci^ Revcf^c: A» for '* Indian 
War&" MedaL K^hboo: Centre Kolden -yellow, with two red 
stripes d»e to the edges, the edges themsclvis being narrow s^rtpci 
of blue. 

The " PhitippLne Iiuurrection " Medal bean on the obverse « 
eoco-nut palm tree. with, on the left of it, a lamp (typifying En- 
liizhtenmeFir). and on the right a balance (repre*entiinE Justice}, 
This ij encireled by the Initription PHILIPPI NE 1N5U RRECTlON 
1894. The ribbon is blue, with two red ctripea near the edgek 
Reverie: As in " I ad ian Wan *\ MedaL 

Another medal eonnected with the Filipino) insuTrection i» the 
do-called '* CoFi£re99ionaL ** Medals vhich was designed to com memo- 
rate the pttrticipation in' the war of r^vUr» and volunteers^ North- 
'rnen and Southefncj^* nd* by sidew On the obvrne is a colour- 



surrounded by an inscription taken from his famous Second Inau- 
gural-WlTH MALICE TOWARDS NONE. WITH CHARITY 
FOR ALL. On the reverse b the inscription THE CIVIL WAR. 



1861 -1865 surrounded by a wreath of oak leaves and olive branches. 
The ribbon b somewhat similar to that last described; the blue 
stripe, however, is in the centre, divided as before by a white line, 
and the red stripes form the outer edges. 

The " Indian Wars " Medal b interesting from the fact that its 
reverse was copied on other medals, thb making it, in a sense, a 
" general service " medal. On the obverse b a mounted Indian 
in war costume bearing a spear, in the upper part of the exergue 
INDIAN WARS, in the lower a buffalo's skull with arrow-heads 
on either side. What we have called the " general service ^ design 

* By Royal Warrant of 31st of May 1895. medals both for 
dbtinguished conduct in the field and tor long service were author- 
ized to be awarded by the various colonies possessinj; regular or 
vcJu nteer troops, " under regulations similar, as fat as circumstances 
/>ermic. to thoae aotimnking for Our Regular and Auxiliary Forces." 



party of infuntry with ihe natioftsJi flag, the fly uf the tlag e^tendinc 
almost to the cdfire of the mwht, Bulow \*. the date. 1099. and 
above, in a semicircle* PHILfPf-lNE IN'lJUkRErTlON/ The 



reverie has the inscription FOR PATRIOTISM, FORTITl^DE 
ASI> LOYALTY, suiTogiidcd bv a wreath of oik lL'av« ((ypifjing 
the N^irthV and pilm bc»nche» (typifying the South). The ribboa 
it blue, edfed by narrow stripes of the n^ttonat ccJours, the blue 
)x\^t n^areit the ed^e and the red nGimt the centre. 

The " Chitia f^tef " Medal bears 00 the obvt-rw a Chinese 
dm son, turrounded by the inseription CHINA RELIEF EX- 
PEDITION, and at bottom^ the date i^oo-t. Reverse: As for 
'Mndian Wars" niedal. Ribbon: Leraon~>-ellow, with narrow 
blue ed^ei. 

It is interesting to note that in the case oC two of the« medals 
the natioiul csotour* of the enemy (Spain and China] furnish thore 
of the ribbon. The national colour^ adopied by the Filifiini^ were 
ted atvij blue* ond these also heuie^ in spite 01 thctr ^imiiariiy^ to 
the U-S. ry]:tianal colours, on the ribbons of the '' Fitipino " and. 
" CongresiMEjnii '" Medal ji. The Indian ribbon is, &imilarl^', of the 
coltHtr of the enemy's war paint^-^vermllion. Bee, for illustr^tioru 
and further details of all these medals and decorations, Joufmaloi 
the \U.S\ Miiitary Servkt Imtiitttiim, May^June 1409. Some of 
the bodges oC membenhip ol aMociarions of vetenn^, sueh a*, the 
Loyal Legion, are allowed to be worn as war m^'dali in uniform. 
The '* Re*eue " Medal, in gpld or advert is awarded for bravery in 

Other Countries.-rAB has been mentioned above, foreign 
decorations for military service usually take the form of Orders 
in many classes. There are, however, numerous long service 
decorations, which need not be specified. The most famous 
of the European war and service decorations are the Prussian 
Iron Cross, the French Midaille MUitaire, and the Russian 
St George's Cross; all these are individual decorations. 

The Iron Cross b given to officers and soldiers lor dtstineuishcd 
service in war. It was founded, in the enthusbsm of the War of 
Liberation movement, on the loth of March 1813, and revived at 
the outbreak of the " War for Unity " against France, 19th of luly 
1870. The cross is a Maltese cross of cast iron edged 'with silver. 
The 1813-15 crosses have the initbls F. W. (Friedrich Wilhelm) 
in the centre, a crown in the upper limb of the cross, and the date 
in the lower. Those of 1870 have W. (Wilhelm) in the centre, 
crown on the upper and date on the lower limb of the cross. There 
are certain distmctions between the Grand Cross, whkh b worn at 
the neck, the i&t Class Cross whu:h b worn as an Order suspended 
from a ribbon, and the and Class Cross, which b worn on the breast. 
In 1870 war medals were given, bearing on the obverse a Maltese 
cross superposed on a many-pointed star, and having in its centre 
1870-1871 within a wreatfi. The reverse has W. and a crown, 
with, for combatants the inscription Dem siegreicken Heere» and 
for non-combatants Pur PflichUreue im Kriege, in each case sur- 
rounded by the words CoU war mil uns 1km set die Ekre. The 
award of the Iron Cross to the rank and file carries with it an allow- 
ance of 3-6 marks monthly. (H. L. S. ; C. F. A.) 

MEDBA (Gr. MM^a), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, 
daughter of Aeetes, king of Colchis. Having been thrown 
into prison by her father, who was afraid of being injured by 
her witchcraft, she escaped by means of her art and fled to the 
temple of Helios the Sun-god, her reputed grandfather. She 
fell in love with Jason the Argonaut, who reached Colchb at 
thb time, and exacted a terrible revenge for hb faithlessness 
(tee Argonauts and Jason). After the murder of Jason's 



MEDELLIN— MEDFORD 



'9 



aecood wife mnd her own chndren, she fled from Corinth in her 
car drawn by dragons^ the ipft of Helios, to Athens, where 
she married king Aegeus, by whom she had a son,.Medus. But 
the discovery of an attempt on the life of Theseus, the son of 
Aegeus, forced her to leave Athens (ApoUodorus L 9, 28; 
Pausanias ii. 3, 6-1 1; Diod. Sic. iv. 45, 46, 54-56). Accom- 
panied by her son, she returned to Colchis, and restored her 
father to the throne, of which he had been deprived by his own 
broiber Perses. Medus was regarded as the eponymous hero 
and progenitor of the Medes. Medea was honoured as a goddess 
at Corinth, and was said to have become the wife of Achilles 
in the Elysian fields. The chief seat of her cult, however, was 
Tbessaiy, which was always regarded as the home of magic. 
As time went on her character was less favourably described. 
In the case of Jason and the Argonauts, she plays the part of 
a kindly, good-natured fairy; Euripides, however, makes her a 
barbarous priestess of Hecate, while the Alexandrian writers 
depicted her in still darker colours. Some authorities regard 
lledea as a lunar divinity, but the ancient conception of her 
as a Thessalian sorceress is probably correct. The popularity 
of the story of Jason and Medea in antiquity is shown by the 
large amount of literature on the subject. The original story 
was probably contained in an old epic poem called lAiMvat 
wmJtnt, the authorship of which was ascribed to Prodicus of 
Phocaea. It is given at some length in the fourth Pythian ode 
of Pindar, and forms the subject of the Argonautica of Apollonius 
Rhodtus. There is a touching epistle {Uedea to Jason) in the 
Htrndts of Ovid. Medea is the heroine of exunt tragedies 
of Euripides and Seneca; those of Aeschylus and Ennius (adapted 
from Euripides) are lost. Neophron of Sicyon and Melanthius 
wrote pbys of the same name. Among modem writers on the 
same theme may be mentioned T. Corneille, F. Grillparzer 
and M. Chenibini (opera). 

The death of Glauce and the murder of her children by Medea 
was frequently represented in ancient art. In the famous 
picture of Tomomachus of Byzantium Medea is deliberating 
whether or not she shall kill her children; there are copies of 
this painting in the mural decorations of Herculaneum and 
PbmpciL 

See Lion Mallinger. Midie: itude sur la litUrature comparie, an 
accDUBt of Medea in Greek, Roman, middle age and modern literature 
(1896): and the articlei in Darembere and Saglio't Dictionnaire des 
aadiuiiis and Roscher's Lexikon der iiytholoiie, 

MEDBUJH* a city of Colombia and capital of the department 
of Antioquia, 150 m. N.W. of Bogota, on a plateau of the Central 
Cordillera, 4823 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906 estimate), 
So,ooou Medellin, the foundation of which dates from 1674, 
stancb in the valley of the Porce, a tributary of the Cauca, and 
is reputed to be one of the healthiest as well as one of the most 
attractive cities of the republic. It has a university, national 
college, school of mines and other educational institutions, 
aauying and refining laboratories, a public library and a mint. 
The principal industry of the surrounding country is mining, 
and gold and silver are exported in considerable quantities. 
Coffee and hides are also exported, but the trade of the city 
bas been greatly impeded by difficulties of transportation. A 
nilway from Puerto Berrio, on the Magdalena, was begun many 
jrears before the end of the 19th century, but political and 
fm*nria\ difiicuities intcTposed and work was suspended when 
otAy 43 m. were finished. The completion of the remaitiing 
80 ffl. was part of a larger scheme proposed in 1906 for bring- 
ing the Cauca Valley into railway communication with the 
national capitaL 

HBDEMBUK, a seaport of Holland, on the Zuider Zee, the 
terminus of a branch railway from Hoorn, 10} m. S. Pop. 
(1903), 30x3. Once the capital of West Friesland and a pro- 
^>enxis town, many of its streets and quays are now deserted, 
though the docks and basins constructed at the end of the i6th 
and beginning of the 17th centuries could still afford excellent 
accommodation for many ships. Close to the harbour entrance 
stands the castle boih by Florens V., count of Holland, in 1285. I 
It has been restored, and b used as a court of Justice. Tbe ' 



West church, formerly called after St Boniface, the apostle of 
Germany, was once the richest in Friesland, and belong from 
an eariy date to the cathedral chapter at Utrecht, where, until 
the Reformation, the pastor of Medemblik had a seat in the 
cathedral. It contains the tomb of Lord George Murray (q.t.). 
Among the public buildings are the town-hall (17th century), 
weigh-house, orphanage, the old almshouse, the house (1613) 
of the Water Commissioners, and a large building formerly 
belonging to the admiralty and now used as a state lunatic 
asylum. There are many interesting brick bouses, dating chiefly 
from the first half of the 17th century, with curious gabln 
and picturesque ornamentation, carvings and inscriptions. 

MEDFORD, a city, including several villages, of Middlesex 
county. Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the Mystic river and Lakes, 
5 m. N. by W. of Boston. Pop. (1900), 18,244, of whom 4327 
were foreign-bom; (1910 census) 23,150. The city is served 
by the Southern Division and a branch of the Western Division 
of the Boston & Maine railroad, and is connected with Boston 
and neighbouring cities by electric railways. The Mystic 
River, a tidewater stream, is navigable for small craft as far 
as the centre of the dty. There are manufactures of considerable 
importance, including bricks and tiles, woollen goods, carriages 
and wagons, food products, iron and steel building materials 
and machinery. The dty covers a land area of about 8 sq. m., 
along the Mystic river, and extending to the hills. The western 
portion borders the Upper and Lower Mystic Lakes, which are 
centres for boating. In the north-west portion of Medford is 
a part of the Middlesex Fells, a heavily wooded reserve bek>nging 
to the extensive MetropoUun Park System maintained by the 
state. The broad parkways of this system also skirt the Mystic 
Lakes, and here is the greater part (1907, 267 out of 291 acres) 
of the Mystic River Reservation of the Metropolitan System. 
Among the city parks are Hastings, Brooks, Logan, Tufts and 
Magoun. Within the city limits are some of the oldest and 
most interesting examples of colonial domestic architecture 
in America, including the so-called " Cradock Hotise " (actually 
the Peter Tufts house, built in 1677-1680), the "Wdlington 
House," built in 1657, and the " Royall House." The last was 
built originally by Governor John Winthrop for the tenanu 
of his Ten Hills Farm, and was subsequently enlarged and 
occupied. l>y Lieut.-Governor John Usher, and by Isaac Royall* 
{c. 1 7 20-1 781) and bis son, Isaac Royall, Jun. 

Medford has a public library of about 35,200 volumes, housed 
in the colonial residence (reconstructed) of Thatcher Magoun. 
The city bas also a dty ball, a high school and manual training 
school, an opera house, and one of the handsomest armory 
buildings in the country (the home of the Lawrence Light 
Guard), presented by General Samuel C. Lawrence (b. 1832), 
a liberal benefactor of Medford institutions and the first mayor 
of the city (1892-1894). The Salem St. Burying Ground, 
dating from 1689, is one of the oldest burial places in America. 
The Medford Historical Society maintains a library and museum 
in the birthplace of Lydia Maria Child. Medford is the seat 
of Tufts College, planned and founded as a Universalist institu> 
tion in 1852 by Hosea Ballou, its first president, and others, 
and named in honour of Charles Tufts (i 781-1876), a successful 
manufacturer, who gave the land on which it stands. The 
college, which had 11 20 students and 217 instructors in 1909, 
comprises a college of letters, a divim'ty school, and a school 
of engineering (all in Medford), and medical and dental schools 
in Boston; it is now undenominational. Among the twenty 
college buildings, the Barnum Museum of Natural History 
(1885) founded by Phineas T. Barnum, and the Eaton Memorial 
Library (1907), presented by Mrs Andrew Carnegie in memory 
of her pastor, are noteworthy. The college endowment amounted 
in 1908 to $2,300,000. 

Medford was first settled in 1630. A considerable portion 
of its area formed the plantation of Matthew Cradock (d. 1641), 
first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company, who in 1630 

• A prominent Loyalist, whose estate was seized during th^ V/^x 
of Independence, but was restored to Vvs Wvts 3\^uV \V». >\^ 
endowed the first professorship ol \aw \n Kmwca— w. ^w>rtx^ 
College, 



20 



MEDHANKARA— MEDIA 



sent out agents to settle his lands. John Winthrop's " Ten 
Hills Farm," partly within the present limits of Medford, was 
settled soon afterwards. One of the earliest industries was 
ship-building, John Winthrop's " Blessing of the Bay," built on 
the Mystic in 1631-1632, being one of the first keels laid on the 
continent. In 1802 Thatcher Magoun began building sea-going 
vessels, and many of the famous privateers of the War of 181 2 
were constructed here. By 1845 Medford employed fully a 
quarter of all the shipwrights of the state. The industry gradually 
lost its importance after the introduction of steamships, and 
the last keel was laid in 1873. Another early industry was 
the distilling of rum; this was carried on for two centuries, 
e^)eciaUy by the Hall family and, after about 1830, by the 
Lawrence family, but was discontinued in 1905. The manufac- 
ture of brick and tile was an important industry in the 17th 
century. The Cradock bridge, the first toll-bridge in New 
England, was built across the Mystic in 163$; over it for 
1 50 years ran the principal thoroughfare, from Boston to Maine 
and New Hampshire. The course of Paul Revcre's ride lay 
through Medford Square and High Street, and within a half- 
hour of fab passage the Medford minute men were on their way 
to Lexington and Concord, where they took part in the engage- 
ments with the British. After the Battle of Saratoga many of 
Burgoyne's officers were quartered here for the winter. The 
Middlesex Canal was opened through Medford in 1803, and 
the Boston & Lowell railroad (now the southern division 
of the Boston & Maine) in 1831. Medford was chartered as a 
city in 1892. 

bee Charles Brooks. History of the Town of Medford (Boston, 1855; 
cnlareed by J. M. Usher, Boston, 1886); Historical Register of the 
Mcdiord Historical Society (1898 et scq.) ; Proceedings of the systh 
Annitersary of the Settlement ^ Medford (Medford. 1905): S. A. 
Drake, Htslorv of Middlesex County (2 vols., Boston, i88o) and 
Helen Tildcn Wild, Medford in the Revolution [Medtortl, 1903). 

MEDHANKARA, the name of several distinguished members, 
in inedicval times, of the Buddhist order. The oldest flourished 
about A.D. X20O, and was the .author of the Vinaya Artha 
SamuccQya, a work in the Sinhalese language on Buddhist 
canon law. Next to him came Araftf^ka Medhankara, who 
presided over the Buddhist a>uncil held at Polonnaruwa, then 
the capital of Ceylon, in 1 250. The third Vanaratana M^han- 
kara, flourished in 1280, and wrote a poem in Pali, Jina Carita^ 
on the life of the Buddha. He also wrote the Payoga Siddki. 
The fourth was the celebrated scholar to whom Ring Parftkrama 
B&hu IV. of Ceylon enuusted in 1307 the translation from Pali 
into Sinhalese of the Jdtaka book, the most voluminous extant 
work in Sinhalese. The fifth, a Burmese, was called the Sang- 
bar&ja Nava Medhankara, and wrote in Pali a work entitled 
the Loka Padlpa Sdra, on cosmogony and allied subjects. 

See the Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1882, p. 126; 1886. pp. 62, 
67. 72; 1890, p. 63; 1896, p. 43;. if oMtufpua, ch. xl.. verse 85. 

(T. W. R. D.) 

MEDHURST, WALTER. HENRY (1796-1857). English Con- 
gregationalist missionary to China, was born in London and 
educated at St Paul's school. He learned the business of a 
printer, and having become interested in Christian missions 
he sailed in 1816 for the London Missionary Society's station 
at Malacca, which was intended to be a great printing-centre. 
He became proficient in Malay, in a knowledge of the written 
characters of Chinese, and in the colloquial use of more than 
one of its dialects. He was ordained at Malacca in 181 9, and 
engaged in missionary labours, first at Penang, then at Batavia, 
and finally, when peace was concluded with China in 1842, 
at Shanghai. There he continued till 1856, laying the foundations 
of a successful mission. His principal labour for several years, 
as one of a committee of delegates, was in the revision of existing 
Chinese versions of the Bible. The result was a version (in High 
Wen-li) marvellously correct and faithful to the original. With 
John Stronach he also translated the New Testament into the 
Mandarin dialect of Nanking. His Chinese-English and English- 
Chinese dictioimries (each in 2 vols.) are stiD valuable, and to 
him the British public owed its understanding. of the teaching 
of Hung-Sew-Tseuen, the leader of the Tai-ptng rising (185X-64). 



The university of New York conferred upon him in 1843 the 
degree of D.D. Medhurst left Shanghai in 1856 in failing 
health, and died two days after reaching London, on the 24th 
of January 1857. His son. Sir Walter Henry Medhurst (1822- 
1885), was British consul at Hankow and afterwards at Shanghai. 

If E^IA, the ancient name of the north-western part of Iran, 
the country of the Medes, corresponding to the modern provinces 
of Azerbaijan, Ardelan, Irak Ajemi, and parts of Kurdistan. 
It is separated from Armenia and the lowlands on the Tigris 
(Assyria) by the mighty ranges of the Zagros (mountains of 
Kurdistan; in its northern parts probably called Choatras, 
Plin.,v. 98), and in the north by the valley of the Araxes (Aras). 
In the east it extends towards the Caspian Sea; but the high 
chains of mountains which surround the Caspian Sea (the 
Parachoalhras of the ancients and the Elburz, separate it from 
the coast, and the narrow plains on the border of the sea (Gilan, 
the country of the Gelae and Amardi, and Mazandaran, in 
ancient times inhabited by the Tapuri) cannot be reckoned 
as part of Media proper. The greater part of Media is a mountain- 
ous plateau, about 3000-5000 ft. above the sea; but it contains 
some fertile plains. The climate is temperate, with cold winters, 
in strong contrast to the damp and unwholesome air of the 
shores of the Caspian, where the mountains are covered with a 
rich vegetation. Media contains only one river, which reaches 
the sea, the Sefid Rud (Amardus), which flows into the Caspian; 
but a great many streams are exhausted after a short course, 
and in the north-west is a large lake, the lake of Urtuniah or 
Urmia.* From the mountains in the west spring some great 
tributaries of the Tigris, viz. the Diyala (Gyndes) and the Kerkheh 
(Choaspes). Towards the south-east Media passes into the 
great central desert of Iran, which eastwards of Rhagae (mod. 
Rai, near Teheran), in the region of the " Caspian gates," 
reaches to the foot of the Elburz chain. On a tract of about 
150 m. the western part of Iran is connected with the east 
(Khorasan, Parthyaea) only by a narrow district (Choarene and 
Comisene), where human dwellings and small villages can exist. 

The people of the Mada, Medes (the Greek form Mrjiioi is 
.Ionian for Moboi) appear in history first in 836 B.C., when 
the Assyrian conqueror Shalmaneser II. in his wars against 
the tribes of the Zagros received the tribute of the Amadai 
(this form, with prosthetic a-, which occurs only here, has many 
analogies in the names of Iranian tribes). His successors under- 
took many expeditions against the Medes (Madai). Sargon in 
715 and 7x3 subjected them " to the far mountain Bikni," i.e. 
the Elburz (Demavend) and the borders of the desert. They 
were divided into, many districts and towns, under petty local 
chieftains; from the names which the Assyrian inscriptions 
mention,, we learn that they were an Iranian tribe and that 
they had already adopted the religion of Zoroaster. In spite 
of different attempts of some chieftains to shake off the Assyrian 
yoke (cf. the infprmation obtained from prayers to the Sun-god 
for oracles against these rebels: Knudtzon, Assyrische Gebett 
an den Sotmengott), Media remained tributary to Assyria under 
Sargon's successors, Sennacherib, Esar-haddon and Assur-bani- 

Herodotus, I. xox, gives a list of six Median tribes {ykp^o), 
among them the Paraetaceni, the inhabitants of the mountainous 
highland of Paraetacene, the distria of Isfahan, and the Magoi, 
i.e. the Magians, the hereditary caste of the priests, who in 
Media took the place of the " fire-kindlers " {athravan) of the 
Zoroastrian religion, and who spread from Media to Persia 
and to the west. But the Iranian Medes were not the only 
inhabitants of the country. The names in the Assyrian inscrip- 
tions prove that the tribes in the Zagros and the northern 
parts of Media were not Iranians nor Indo-Europeans, but an 
aboriginal population, like the early inhabitants of Armenia, 
perhaps coimected with the numerous tribes of the Caucasus. 

*Anc. Mantiane, Strabo xi. 529: Martiane, Ptol. vi. 2, ^, 
probably identical with the name Matiane, Matiene, bywhicn 



Herodotus i. i89r 202, tii. 94. v. 40, ^ (in i. 72 and vii. 72 they 
to be a different people in Asia Mine ' " ■ • 

part 01 Media. 



to be a different people in Asia Mfnor); Polyb. v. 44.' o: Strabo L 
xi. 509, 514. 523, 525: Plin vL 48, designate the northern 



MEDIA 



21 



We can see how the Iranian dement gradoaOy became dominant: 
piiaocs with Iranian names occasionaliy occur as rulers of these 
tribes. But the Gdae, Tapuri, Cadnsii, Amardi, Utii and other 
tribes in northern Media and on the shores of the Caspian were 
not Iranians. With them Polsrbius v. 44, 9, Strabo zi. 507, 
S08, sx4t And Pliny vi 46, mention the Anariad, whom they 
couider as a particular tribe; but in reality their name, the 
** Not-Arians," is the comprehensive designation of all these 
smafl tribes. 

In the second half of the 7th century the Medians gained their 
independence and were united by a dynasty, which, if we may 
trust Herodotus, derived its origin from Ddoces (q.v.), a Median 
chidtain in the Zagros, who was, with his kinsmen, transported 
by Sargon to Hamath (Hamah) in Syria in 715 B.C. The 
kLigs, who created the Median Empire, were Phraortes and his 
son Cyaxares. Probably they were chidtains of a nomadic 
Median tribe in the desert, the Manda, mentioned by Sargon; 
for the Babylonian king Nabom'dus designates the Medians 
and tbdr kings always as Manda. The origin and history 
of the Median Empire is quite obscure, as we possess almost 
no contemporary information, and not a single monument 
or inscription from Media itself. Our prindpal source is 
Herodotus, who wrongly makes Ddoces the &rst king and 
uniter of the whole nation, and dates their independence from 
c. 710 — t^ from the time when the Assyrian supremacy was 
at itt height. But his account contains real historical dements, 
whereas the story which Ctesias gave (a list of nine kings, begin- 
ning with Arbaces, who is said to have destroyed Nineveh 
abont 880 BX., preserved in Diod. ii. 32 sqq. and copied by many 
later authors) has no historical value whatever, although some 
of his names may be derived from local traditions. According 
to Herodotus, the conquests of Cyaxares were interrupted 
by an invasion of the Scythians, who founded an empire 
in western Asia, which lasted twenty-eight years. From 
the Assyrian prayers to the Sun-god, mention^ above, we 
learn that the Median dynasts, who tried rebellions against 
the Assyrians in the time of Esar-haddon and Assur-bani-pal, 
were allied with chidtains <A the Cimmerians (who had come 
from the northern shore of the Black Sea and invaded Armenia 
and Asia Minor), of the Saparda, Ashguza and other tribes; and 
from Jeremiah and Zephaniah we know that a great invasion 
of Syria and Palestine by northern barbarians really took place 
in 626 B.C. With these facts the traditions of Herodotus must 
in some way be connected; but at present it is impossible to 
regain the history of these times. The only certain facts are that 
in 606 Cyaxares succeeded in destroying Nineveh and the other 
cities of Assyria (see Phsaortes and Deioces). 

From then the Median king ruled over the greatest part of 
Iran, Assyria and northern Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappa- 
docia. His power was very dangerous to their neighbours, 
and the exiled Jews expected the destruction of Babylonia by 
the Medes (Isa. xiii., xiv., xxi.; Jerem. 1. li.). When Cyaxares 
attacked Lydia, the kings of Cilida and Babylon intervened and 
negotiated a peace in 585, by which the Halys was established 
as the boundary. Nebuchadrezzar married a daughter of Cya- 
xares, and an equilibrium of the great powers was maintained 
t21 the rise of Cyrus. 

About the internal organization of the Median Empire we 
know only that the Greeks derive a great t>art of the ceremonial 
of the Persian court, the costume of the king, &c., from Media. 
But it is certain that the national union of the Median dans 
was the work of their kings; and probably the capital Ecbatana 
(f^.) was created by them. 

By the rebellion of Cyrus, king of Persia, against his suzerain 
Astyafes, the son of Cyaxares, in 553, and his victory in 550, 
the Medes were subjected to the Persians. In the new empire 
they retained a prominent position; in honour and war they 
itood next to the Pftsians; the ceremonial of their court was 
adopted by the new soverdgns who in the summer months 
raided in Ecbatana, and many noble Medes were employed 
ts officials, satraps and generals. After the assassination of the 
isvper Smeidis, a Mede Fravartish (Phraortes), who pretended 



to be of the race of Cyaxares, tried to restore the Median 
kingdom, but was ddeated by the Persian generals and executed 
in Ecbatana (Darius in the Behistun inscr.). Another rebellion, 
in 409, against Darius II. (Xenophon, HeiUn. L 2, 19) was of 
short duration. But the non-Aryan tribes of the north, espedally 
the Cadusians, were always troublesome; many abortive expe- 
ditions of the later kings against them are mentioned. 

Under the Persian rule the country was divided mto two 
satrapies. The south, with Ecbatana and Rhagae (Rai), 
Media proper, or " Great Media," as it is often called, formed 
in Darius' organization the deventh satrapy (Herodotus iii. 
92). together with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians; the 
north, the district of Matiane (see above), together with the 
mountainous districu of the Zagros and Assyria proper (east 
of the Tigris) was united with the Alarodians and Saspirians in 
eastern Armenia, and formed the eighteenth satrapy (Herod, 
iii. 94; rf. V. 49, 52, vii. 72). When the empire decayed and 
the Carduchi and other moimtainous tribes made thcmsdves 
independent, eastern Armenia became a special satrapy, while 
Assyria seems to have been united with Media; therefore 
Xenophon in the Anabasis ii. 4, 27; iii. 5, 15; vii. 8, 25; d. iii. 
4, 8 sqq. always designates Assyria by the name of Media. 

Alexander occupied Media in the summer of 330; in 328 he 
appointed Atropates, a former general of Darius (Arrian iii. 
8, 4), as satrap (iv. 18, 3, vi. 29, 3), whose daughter was married 
to Perdiccas in 324 (Arrian vii. 4, 5). In the partition of his 
empire, southern Media was given to the Macedonian Pcithoo; 
but the north, which lay far o£f and was of little importance 
for the generals who fought for the inheritance of Alexander, 
was Idt to Atropates. While southern Media with Ecbatana 
passed to the rule of Antigonus, and afterwards (about 310) to 
Sdeucus I.; Atropates maintained himself in his satrapy and 
succeeded in founding an independent kingdom. Thus the 
partition of the country, which the Persian had introduced, 
became lasting; the north was named Atropatene (in Plin.' 
vf. 42, Atrapatene; in Ptolem. vi. a, 5, Tropatene; in Polyb. 
V. 44 and 55 corrupted in rd carpartia Kakoiffiofo), after the 
founder of the dynasty, a name which is preserved in the 
modem Azerbaijan; d. N5ldeke, "Atropatene," in Zeilsckrift 
der deutschen morgenl, GeseUschaft^ 34, 692 sqq. and Marquart, 
Eranskahr, p. 108 sqq. The capital was Gazaca in the central 
plain, and the strong castle Phraaspa (Dio Cass. xlix. 26; Plut. 
Anton. 38; Ptol. vi. 2, 10) or Vera (Strabo xi. 523), probably 
identical with the great ruin Takhti Suleiman, with remains 
of Sassanid fire-altars and of a later palace. The kings had a 
strong and warlike army, especially cavalry (Polyb. v. 55; 
Strabo xi. 253). Neverthdess, King Artabazanes was forced 
by Antiochus the Great in 220 to condude a disadvantageous 
treaty (Polyb. v. 55), and in later times the rulers became 
in turn dependent on the Parthians, on Tigranes of Armenia, 
and in the time of Pompey who defeated their king Darius 
(Appian, Mithr. 108), on Antonius (who invaded Atropatene) 
and on Augustus of Rome. In the time of Strabo (a.d. 17), 
the dynasty existed still (p. 523); in later times the country 
seems to have become a Parthian province. 

Atropatene is that country of western Asia which was least of 
all influenced by Hellenism; there exists not even a single coin 
of its rulers. But the opinion of modern authors — that it had 
been a spedal rduge of Zoroastrianism — is based upon a wrong 
etymology of the name (which is falsely explained as " country 
of fire-worship "), and has no foundation whatever. There can 
be no doubt that the kings adhered to the Persian religion; 
but it is not probable that it was deeply rooted among their 
subjects, especially among the non- Aryan tribes. 

Southern Media remained a province of the Scleucid Empire 
for a century and a half, and Hellenism was introduced every- 
where. " Media is surrounded everywhere by Greek towns, in 
pursuance of the plan of Alexander, which protect it against the 
neighbouring barbarians," says Polybius (x. 27). Only Ecbatana 
retained its old character. But Rhagae became a Greek town, 
Europus; and with it Strabo (xi. 524) names Laodicea, Apamea, 
Heraclea or Acbais (cf. Plin. vi. 48). Most of them were founded 



22 



MEDIATION— MEDIATIZATION 



by Sdeacus I. and his son Antiochus I. In aax, the satrap 
Molon trie4 to make himself independent (there exist bronze 
coins with his name and the royal title), together with his brother 
Alexander, satrap of Persis, but they were defeated and killed 
by Antiochus the GreaL In the same way, in i6i, the Median 
satrap Timarchus took the diadem and conquered Babylonia; 
on his coins he calls himself *' the great king Timarchus"; 
but this time again the legitimate king, Demetrius 1., succeeded 
in subduing the rebellion, and Timarchus was slain. But 
with Demetrius 1. the dissolution of the Seleudd Empire 
begins, which was brought on chiefly by the intrigues of the 
Romans, and shortly afterwards, about 150, the Parthian king, 
Mithradates I. (g.v.)^ conquered Media (Justin xli. 6). From 
this time Media remained subject to the Arsacids, who changed 
the name of Rhagae, or Europus, into Arsada (Strabo xL 
Sh)> &nd divided the country into five small provinces (Isidorus 
Charac.)- From the Arsacids or Parthians^ it passed in aj>. 226 
to the Sassanids, together with Atropatene. By this time 
the old tribes of Aryan Iran had lost their character and had 
been amalgamated into the one nation of the Iranians. The 
revival of Zoroastrianism, which was enforced everywhere 
by the Sassanids, completed this development. It was only 
then that Atropatene became a principal seat of fire-worship, 
with many fire^tars- Rhagae now became the most sacred 
dty of the empire and the seat of the head of the Zoroastrian 
hierarchy; the Sassanid Avesla and the tradition of the Parsees 
therefore consider Rhagae as the home of the family of the 
Prophet. Henceforth the name of Media is used only as a 
geographical term and begins to disappear from the living 
language; in Persian traditions it occurs under the modem 
form if ah (Armen. Mai; in Syriac the old name Madai is 
preserved; cf. Marquart, Eranshahrf z8 seq.)> 

For Mahommedan history see Caliphate; for later history 
Seljuks and Persia. (Ed. M.) 

MEDIATION (Lai. medius, middle), in the international 
sense, the intervention of a third power, on the invitation 
or with the consent of two other powers, for the purpose of 
arranging differences between the latter without recourse to 
war. Mediation may also take place after war has broken 
out, with a view to putting an end to it on terms. In dther 
case the mediating power negotiates on behalf of the parties 
who invoke or accept its aid, but does not go farther. Unlike 
an arbitrating power the mediator limits his intervention to 
suggestion and advice. His action is liable to be arrested at 
any time at the will of dther party unless otherwise agreed, in 
which case to arrest it prematurely would be a breach of good 
faith. The difference between mediation and arbitration may 
be sUted in the words of the Digest (lib. iv. tit. 8, f 13): 
" Recepisse autem arbitrium videtur, ut ait Pedius, qui judicis 
partes suscepit finemque se sua sententia controversiis imposi- 
turum pollicetur. Quod si hactenus intervenit ut experiretur 
an condUo suo vd auctoritate discuti litem paterentur, non 
videtur arbitrium recepisse." 

Some writers distinguish mediation from "good offices," 
but the distinction is of little practical value. We may, if we 
please, regard " good offices " as inchoate mediation, and 
** mediation " as good offices brought to the birth. Thus we 
may say that a third power renders " good offices " when it 
brings the parties together so as to make diplomatic negotia- 
tions between them possible; whilst if it takes an active 
part in those negotiations it becomes for the time being a 
mediator. The spontaneous yet successful effort made by 
President Roosevelt in 1905 to bring together the Russian 
and Japanese governments, and to secure their appointing 
delegates to discuss terms of peace, although not strictly 
mediation, was dosely akin to it. 

Of successful mediation in the strict sense there have been 
many instances: that of Great Britain, in 1825, between Portugal 
and Brazil; of France, in 1849-1850, when diffefences arose 
between Great Britain and Greece ; of the Great Powers, in 
1868-1869, when the relations of Greece and Turkey were strained 
to breaking-point by reason of the insurrection in Crete; of 



Pope Leo Xm., in 1885, between Germany and Spain in the 
matter of the Caroline Islands. Jn these cases mediation averted 
war. The Austro- Prussian War of 1866, the war between 
Chile and Peru in 1882, and that between Greece and Turkey 
in 1897, are instances of wars brought to a close through the 
mediation of neutral powers. Mediation has also been occasion- 
ally employed where differences have arisen as to the interpreta- 
tion of treaties or as to the mode in which they ought to be 
carried out: as when Great Britain mediated between France 
and the United States with regard to the Treaty of Paris of 
the 4th of July 1830. In one case at least mediation has been 
successful after a proposal for arbitration had failed. In 1844, 
when war between Spain and Morocco was threatened by reason 
of the frequent raids by the inhabitants of the Rif on the Spanish 
settlement of Ceuta, Spain declined arbitration on the ground 
that her rights were too dear for argument. But both she and 
Morocco subsequently accepted joint mediation at the hands 
of Great Britain and France. 

The cause of mediation was considerably advanced by the 
Declaration of Paris of 1856. The plenipotentiaries of Great 
Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Sardinia and Turkey recorded 
in a protocol, at the instance of Lord Clarendon, their joint wish 
that " states between which any misunderstanding might arise 
should, before appealing to arms, have recourse so far as drcum- 
stances might allow (en tant que Us circonstatues I'admeUraient) 
to the good offices of a friendly power." Article 8 of the Treaty 
of Paris, conduded in the same year, stipulated that " if there 
should arise between the Sublime Porte and one or more of 
the other signing powers any misunderstanding which might 
endanger the maintenance of their relations, the Porte and each 
of such powers, bdore having recourse to the use of force, shall 
afford the other contracting parties the opportunity of preventing 
such as extremity by means of mediation." These precedents 
(in which it will be seen that " good offices " and " mediation " 
are used interchangeably) were followed in the general act 
agreed to at the Conference held at Berlin in 1884-1885 the 
object of which was to secure religious and commerdal liberty 
and to limit warlike operations in the Congo basin. 

A special form of mediation was proposed by a ddegate 
from the United States at the Peace Conference held at the 
Hague in 1899, and was approved by the representatives of 
the powers there assembled. The dause in which this proposal 
was embodied provided in effect that, whenever there is danger 
of a rupture between two powers, each of them shall choose a 
third power to which these differences shall be referred, and that, 
pending such reference, for a period not exceeding thirty days 
(unless, the time is extended by agreement) the powers at 
issue shall cease to negotiate with each other and leave the 
dispute entirely in the hands of the mediating powers. The 
powers thus appealed to occupy a position analogous to that 
of seconds in a duel, who are authorized to arrange an " affair of 
honour " between their principals. This novd device has the 
advantage of toning. down, if not of eliminating, personal and 
national prejudices by which controversy is frequently em> 
bittered. It also gets over the difficulty, often met with in 
arbitration, of choosing a referee satisfactory to both parties. 
The closer the relations between states become, the more thdr 
commercial interests are intertwined, the larger the part which 
mediation seems destined to play. It is true that states 
which have accepted the intervention of a mediator remain 
free to adopt or reject any advice he may give, but the advice of 
a disinterested power must always add considerable moral weight 
to the side towards which it inclines. (M. H. C.) • 

MEDUTIZATION (Ger. Mediatisierung, from Lat. mediatus, 
mediate, middle), the process by which at the beginning of the 
19th century, a number of German princes, hitherto sovereign 
as holding immediaUly of the emperor, were deprived of thdr 
sovereignty and mediatised by being placed under that of other 
sovereigns. This was first done on a large scale in 1803, when 
by a recess of the imperial diet many of the smaller fiefs were 
mediatized, in order to compensate those German princes who 
had been forced to cede their territories on the left bank of the 



MEDICAL EDUCATION 



23 



RUae to Fnnce. In x8o6 the formation of the Confederation 
of the Rhine involved an extension of this mediatizing process, 
though the abolition of the empire itself deprived the word 
** mediatization " of its essential meaning. After the downfall 
of Kapoleon the powers were besieged with petitions from 
the mediatized princes for the restoration of their " liberties "; 
but the congress of Vienna (1815) further extended the process 
ci mcdiatization by deciding that certain houses hitherto 
immeiiaU (i^. Salro, Isenburg, Leyen) should only be represented 
niediately in the diet of the new Confederation. On the other 
hand, at Aiz-la-Chapelle (18 18) the powers, in response to the 
representations of the aggrieved parties, admonished the German 
sovereigns to respect the rights of the mediatized princes subject 
to them. Of these rights, which included the hereditary right 
to a seat in the estates, the most valued is that of EhenbUrtigkeU 
(equality of birth) .which, for purposes of matrimonial alliance, 
ranks the mediatized princes with the royal houses of Europe. 

See August WUbelm Heffter, Die SonderreckU ier Sovaer&nen und 
ier Mwdtatisirien, vormais reichssldndischen Hduser DeutscUands 

iBcffitt. 1 871 ). The mediatized families are included in the Almanack 
tCttka. 

MEDICAL EDUCATIOH. Up to 1858 each University, 
Royal College of Physicians or of Surgeons, and Apothecaries' 
Ctattf Hall in Great Britain and Ireland laid down its 

'own regulations for study and examination, and 
granted its degree or licence without any State 
In that year, pursuant to the Medical Act, 
it k. 22 Vict. c. 90, the General Medical Council of Medical 
Education and Registration was established, consisting of 
tweaty-ihree members, of whom seventeen were appointed 
by the various licensing bodies and six by the Crown. This 
was increased by the amended act of 1886 to twenty- 
, three of the six additional members being elected by the 
" direct " representatives. The object of the 
act was " to enable persons requiring medical aid to distinguish 
qnafificd from unqualified practitioners." To this end the 
** Medical Rq;ister " was established, on which no person's 
nanx could be inscribed who did not hold a diploma or licence 
from one or more of the licensing bodies after examination. 
By the 1886 act a qualifying examination was defined as " an 
cxunination in medicine, surgery, and midwifery," conducted 
by universities or by medical corporations, of which one must 
be capable of granting a diploma in medicine, and one in surgery. 
The Coundl is authorized to require from the licensing bodies 
iafbrmation as to courses of study and examinations, and 
generally as to the requisites for obtaining qualifications; and 
to vnit and inspect examinations either personally or by 
deputy. If the visitors think the course of study and exami- 
natioo of any licensing body is not sufficient to ensure that 
candidates obtaining its qualification possess the requisite 
knowledge and skill for the efficient practice of their profession 
the Council, on a report being made, may represent the same 
to the Privy Council. The Privy Council may, if it sees 
fit, deprive the accused body of its power to grant registrable 
qieafifications. From thb statement it will be seen that the 
powers of the Council are limited; nevertheless, by their cautious 
applicatioD, and by the loyal manner in which the licensing 
bo^Bes have acted on the recommendations and suggestions 
uhich have from time to time been made, the condition of 
aeifical education has been improved; and although there is 
aoc a omform standard of examination throughout the United 
the Council has ensured that the minimum require- 
I of any licensing body shall be sufficient for the production 
of trustworthy practitioners. 

One of the first subjects to which the Council applied itself 
vas the establishment of a system of examinations in general 
kaowfedse. Such examinations have to be passed before 
beginning medical study. On presentation of a certificate to 
tl)e registFars of the Coundl, and on evidence being produced 
ibat the candidate is sixteen years of age, his name is inscribed 
oa the " Stttdenu' Register." The subjects of examinations 
tre: (a) ir-»^t^ language, including grammar and composition 



(marks not exceeding 5% of the total obtainable in this section 
may be assigned to candidates who show a competent knowledge 
of shorthand); (6) Latin, including grammar, translation from 
specified authors, and transbtion of easy passages not taken 
from such authors; {c) mathematics, comprising arithmetic; 
algebra, as far as simple equations inclusive; geometry, the 
subject-matter of Euclid, Books I., II. and III., with easy 
deductions; (</) one of the following optional subjects — Greek, 
French, German, Italian or any other modern language. 
Certificates are accepted from all the universities of Great 
Britain and Ireland, from the leading Indian and colonial 
universities, from government examination boards, and from 
certain chartered bodies. The German Abiturienten Examen 
of the gymnasia and f«o/-gymnasia, the French diplomas of 
Bachelier ds Lettres and Bachclier ^ Sciences, and corresponding 
entrance examinations, to other continental universities are 
also accepted. 

As regards professional education, the Council divided its resolu- 
tions into "requirements" and " recommendations " ; the former 
consisting of demands on the licensing bodies, non-compliance with 
which renders them liable to be reported to the Privy Council; the 
latter are regarded merely as sunjcstions for the general conduct 
of education and examination. The requirements may be sum-, 
marized as follows: (a) Registration as a medical student. (6) 
FivL' years oi bona-ftdt studji' between the date of registration and 
the date of the final examination far siny diploma entitling the 
holder to be rc^giucivd under the Medknl Atts. [c) In every course 
or firafcKimnal study and «sATniiU3tton th« Mowing subjects murt 
tje c^^rlLamcd^ the Council o^cring no opinion a» to the manner in 
mhifh they ahoutd be distributed or corribtned for the purposes of 
teaching or ciuimiiiattan, this being tcft to the cii^riition 01 the bodies 
or of rh*E student — fij physk9» including the srirmcntary mechanics 
of 9ol>d$ and fluida, and the rudiments of heat, iii^tit and electricity; 
(ii.) chtmt^ry, including the principles of the Hiiince, and the details 
which bear on the sEudy of medicine; (iii.) elemcncary biology; (iv.) 
anatomy: (w) phj^oloey; (vi.^ materia mcdioi and pharmacy: 
(vil> pathology : (vui,) thctapcuUcs; (iat.) medicine, including medical 
aiiacom.v and ehnical mcd;tifie* (it) tur^ry, including surgical 
anatomy and clinical furuery; (xi,) midwdery, including diseases 
peculiar to women and to new-born childnfn: (xii.). theory and 
practice of vaeetnation^ fnii.) forensic in«^lii:iftc; (xiv.) hygiene: 
{%v) mentiil diaeaiie, {d) The firtt ot th<? fcuf yf irs must be passed 
at a school or schools of rnedicine re«jgnJ-&fd by any of the licensing 
bodies; provid«l that the first year may be parv^d at a university 
or teaching; inbtitutiuti where the iubjccts ol physics, chemistry and 
bk^k^jjy jtf- t.ifi^ln; :in*! th-\t ^fid\ixi'-<. in .iris 4)r science of any 
university recognized by the Council, who shall have spent a year 
in the study of these subjects, and have passed in them, shall be held 
to have completed the hrst of the five years of medical study, (e) 
The study of midwifery practice must consist of three months' 
attendance on the indoor practice of a lying-in hospital, or the 
student must have been present at not less than twenty labours, 
five of which shall have been conducted throughout under the direct 
supervision of a registered practitioner. 

The fifth year of study is intended to be devoted to clinical work 
and may be passed at any one or more public hos(>itals or dispen- 
saries, British or foreign, recognized by the licensing authorities; 
six months of this year may be passed as a pupil to a practitioner 
posscsjiinK such opportunitits of im^ijjfELng practicjl knowledge a« 
shall be iatisfactory to the medkal authontie:^. This letter method 
IS rarely employed. 

The " recommcndationa " of the Council contain »ucttestiona 
which may or may not be acted on by the bodies. For tut most 
part ihty fire comj^tied with in connection with the system of practical 
and clinical Teaching. 

The Council sitiahes itstlf that its reauirtments are acted on, and 
that the ejaminatif^na arc '* sufficient/' by C3^I« of inspection about 
rvery five j-eara. The ejta mi nation of each licensing body ja visited 
Jjy an in^pcclof, whO' forwani* his repiori 10 the Cou ncitn whtch sends 
each rf fxJrt to the bodj^ \ot it* information and rrmarks^. As yet 
it has nc^'tr bc«n the duty of the Council to report to the I*nvy 
Council that any e*amination has rot been fnund sufficient. 

Most universities exact ^Lttendanceat mon: cU*5« than the eolte^es 
and ha]h; for instance, botany and natural history art tanght to 
their sludienta, who are also <rxamined in theni. But with these 
exceptions the system ol professional education ia fairly uniform. 
Since 1875 attendance on ' practical " classes has been called for in 
all subjects. Under this system the larger classes in which the 
subjects are taught systematically are broken up, and the students 
are taught the use of apparatus and the emjjloyment of methods 
of investigation and observation. Tutorial instruction is supcrj 
imposed on teaching by lecture. Much the same plan is adopted 
in respect of clinical instruction: not only is the student taught at 
the bedside by the lecturer, but he receives, either from the house- 
surgeon or house-physadan or from a specially appointed dmical 



24 



MEDICAL EDUCATION 



tulor, «it Iiut^ht inCe ntetisods at n^mtnatioa of diseases, and learns 
practkally the use ot the Ettetho^ope iind other aids to dia^osis. 
and of frur^ica! and obitetrlcal instrucnonts. In fact, it may be said 
that each jfubj^t oi instruction ii duplicated. If this is taken into 
account, ii must be evid^Mit chat tht Ume of the student is fully 
occupied, and the btllef is rapidly gnotRring that five years is too 
short a period ol «tudy. Aa a. niaLter of fact, the average time taken 
to obuiin a BntiAh licence to pr,acEise h upwards of six years. The 
probabiEity i« that the solution of the difficulty will be found, in the 
inclusion of iuch subjects as phytici,, biology and chemistry in a 
" preliminary scienttBc '* examination, which may have to be under- 
tuKeo before regisTr^tion as a niediri'Lt student, thus leaving the 
wbole five jcan to be devoted to purely professional study. 

The German regulations in regard to professional study are 
few. They are those for the Staais Examen, for which the 
q^^^ university degree is no longer necessary. The regu- 
* lations for the admission of candidates to the Stoats 
ExamensLTe contained in the royal proclamations, of the 22nd of 
June 18S3. They comprise: (a) Certificate of a course of study 
at a classical gymnasium of the German Empire. In exceptional 
cases, the same from a classical gymnasium outside the German 
empire may be considered sufficient. (For details of the course 
of study and examinations, see Minutes of ike General Medical 
Council^ voL xxvii. appendix 3.) (6) Certificate from a univer- 
sity, certifying a course of medical study of at least nine half- 
years at a university of the German empire, (c) Certificate that 
the candidate has passed, entirely at a German university, the 
medical VorprUfung^ and thereafter has attended for at least 
four half-years the medical studies of a university. (<0 The 
spedal testimony of the clinical directors bearing witness that 
the candidate has taken part as Praktikant (dcrk or dresser) 
during two half-years at the medical, surgi(^, and gynaeco- 
logical clinics; has himself delivered two cases of labour in the 
presence of his teachers or assistant physicians; and has attended 
for a half-year as Praktikant the clinic for diseases of the eye. 

The medical VortrHfung referred to b necessary alike for the 
&aats Examen and the degree of Doctor of Medicine. It takes place 
at the end of the second year (fourth semestre), and includes the 
subjects of experimental physics, chemistry, botanv, xoology, 
anatomy and ptiysiology. It is conducted by a board appointed 
yeariy by the Mmister of Education. 

No one can practise medicine in France who does not possess 
the diploma of Doctor of Medicine of a French university. The 
-. _^ qualification of Officier de santS is no longer granted. 
Before he can inscribe as a student of medicine the 
applicant must have obtained the diplomas of Bachelier is lettres 
and Bachelier is sciences. Although the course of professional 
study may be completed in four years, a longer time is generally 
taken before the student proceeds to the final examination for 
the doctor's degree. Each year is divided into four trimestres; 
at each trimestre the student must make a new inscription. The 
trimestres are (i) November and December, 56 days; (2) January, 
February, March, 86 days; (3) April, May, June, 86 days; (4) 
July, August, 56 days. Practically there are no regtdations 
determining the division of the various subjects, or the number 
of lectures in each course, or requiring the student to attend the 
courses. The medical faculty of each university puts before 
the student a scheme recommending a certain order of studies 
(Division des itudes) for each of the four years of the medical 
course, and, as a matter of fact, this order of study is enforced 
by the system of intermediate examinations {^camens du Jin 
d'annie). All the lecture courses are free, as also are the clinics 
and the hospital service, and there is no system of ascertaining 
the regularity of attendance at lectures, or of certificate of attend- 
ance. If, however, the student fails to pass the Examen du fin 
d'annie he is debarred from making the next trimestral inscrip- 
tion, and thus loses three months. The lectures are, however, 
closely attended. In contrast to the freedom in regard to atten- 
dance on systematic lectures, there are strict direction and control 
in regard to hospital attendance and practical courses. The 
student is required to sign a register ad hoc each time he goes 
in and ouL From the beginning of the third year, e.g. from the 
ninth quarterly inscription, hospital attendance is enforced till 
the end of the fourth year. No one can renew his trimestral 
insaiptioii without produciDg a schedule of his last trimestral 



stage, showing that during it he had not absented himself more 
than five times without {explanation. Practical work is obliga- 
tory during each of the four years. 

Besides systematic courses of lectures, Conflrencts are held by the 
asnstant-professors ifigrigts) in natural history, physiok^, general 
pathology, internal pathology, external pathology. At the end of 
the first year the student is examined in osteoloey, myology and the 
elements of physioloffy ; at the end of the second year, in anatomy 
and physiology in all their branches; at the end of the third year, 
in medicine and surgery ; at the end of the fourth year, an examina- 
tion is held over the whole field of study. 

No one is allowed to enter on the study of medidne without 
passing the Artium examen of a secondary school. This is the 
equivalent of the German Abiturienten Examen of 0„j|M,rtt 
a dassical gymnasium. After study for two semestres 
an examination must be passed in psychology, logic and history. 
The spedal professional examinations consist of (i) preliminary 
sdentific, in botany, xoology, physics, chemistry; (2) first spedal 
or professional, anatomy (orally and by dissections), physiology, 
and pharmacology; (3) second spedal or professiomd, written 
examinations in medicine, surgery, medical jurisprudence; 
practical and oral in operative surgery, in clinical medicine, and 
clinical surgery; and oral in pathological anatomy, medidne, 
surgery; and midwifery. The completion of the full medical 
course takes six years, of which the first two are devoted to the 
study of the natural sdences. 

^ AtfTHORitiEi. — The history of the developrrvent ol mrd^l educa- 
tion frOin the earliest times down to JS94 will be fijund treated of 



fUipEig, iSfl^icjOS) tranfilated by E- H, HifC (London, i8gi). 
ThcFSc deaiiine more special Lnforniation an the Eubject in regard to 
the dclaili of Brit is n institutiom labfiuld consuk the annals of 
the various universities and colleges q( Great ^rilaiEi and Irelii^d. 
The following woika supply much interesting information regarding 
the e^radual rise and developtncni of te^icKing and eitainioatlon: 
Annals iff the Bathtr Sur^eons^by Sydney Young (1^90); History 
o{ iht R&ytil CoUt^ of Suft^oni of Jrtiani, by Cameron (iSJi6): 
EaWy Days of the Kaytil Colif^r of Phyiutant of Bdinbur^, by FVtl 
Ritchie ((899)1 Hiitorkal Sktuh Qf tht Koyui CoUrie cf Suritom af 
Edinburgh, t»y Gairdner (i A60J j M^'nurriali ofiU Farttity ofPkyikwns 
and Suttfons ofGiojitrw, hy Duncan {i8t(6J ; Tk^ Siory 0) ike UriKw 
fiiy pf Edinburfth, by Sir A* Grant (1S84J; UnitxrsUyttfGLaifiFUr, by 
St™art (i89t), a B.T.) 

As late as 1880 medical education in the United States was 
in a deplorable condition. In the early history of the country, 
before and shortly after the beginning of the 19th 
century, the few medical colleges had shown a dis- suum. 
position to require a liberal education on the part of 
those who entered upon their courses, and some effort was made, 
through the agency of state boards, to control the licence to 
practise. But as the country increased in population and wealth 
preliminary requirements were practically abolished, the length of 
the courses given each year was shortened to four or five months 
or less, and in the second and final year there was simply a repe- 
tition of the courses given during the first year. This is to be 
attributed mainly to the fact that there was no general national 
or state supervision of medical training. Medical colleges could 
obtain incorporation under state laws without difficulty, and 
brought considerable advantages in the way of prestige and 
increased practice to those concerned. That the existence of a 
college depended solely upon the fees of the students encouraged 
the tendency to make both entrance and graduation requirements 
as easy as possible, especially as there was no state supervision, 
and the mere possession of a diploma entitled the bolder to 
practise. Fortunately, during this period the practical character 
of the clinical instruction given in the better colleges fitted the 
graduates in some measure for the actual necessities of practice, 
while the good traditions of medicine as a learned profession 
stimulated those who adopted it as a career, so that in the main 
the body of practitioners deserved and held the confidence and 
respect of the community. From the middle of the 19th century 
there has been constant agitation on. the part of the physicians 
themselves for an improvement in medical education. The first 
notable result was an increase in the time of instruction from 
two to three years (Chicago Medical College, 1859; Harvard 
Medical School, 1871), the lengthening of each session to six 



MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 



I or more, and the introductioD of graded courses instead 
of a repetition of tlie same lectures eveiy year. The improve- 
ment thus begun became marked during the decade 1890-1900, 
amoonting ahnost to a revolution in the rapidity with which 
the coarse of instruction was amplified. Many factors co-oper- 
ated to produce this result: the general development of scientific 
isstmctlon in the Colleges and secondary schools, the influence 
of the large number of medical graduates who completed their 
traimng by study in European schoob, the adoption by many 
states of stringent regulations regarding the licence to practise 
within their borders, the good examples set by many leading 
schools in voluntarily raising their requirements for entrance and 
Snuiuatioi&, and, perhaps above all in its general effect, the 
igiution continually maintained by several national or state 
tsaodations which in a measure have exerted the general 
regulating control that in other countries has been enforced by 
Batiooal legislation. Among the most influential of these 
asBodations are the American Medical Association, the American 
Academy of Medicine, the Association of American Medical 
CbOe^es, the Illinob Sute Board of Health, and the University 
of the State of New York. 

The different suies make their own general regulations as to 
the practice of medicine within their borders. Certain states 
tmpnrr the medical diplomas granted by other states having 
equivaknt standards of examination. Such certificates are 
fenenlly required to be (a) of graduation from a " zepuUble 
medical school," (b) certificates of moral character, (c) the 
applicant must be at least twenty-one years of age. These 
caabfe the candidate to present himself before the state board 
lor the state examination. In many sUtes the applicant must 
Mtiify the board not only as to his professional, but as to his 
general education. The sUnding of the various medical schools 
is usually left to the sUte boards, each one determining the 
matter for its own state, consequently a school may confer a 
degree recognized as repuUble in several states but not in 
others. Only three or four states regulate the chartering of 
ioBtitatioitt. In other states any body of men may sectire 
articles of incorporation of a college or school by paying the 
neceasaiy state fee, without question as to the ability of the 
incocptwator to furnish an education. So strong, however, has 
been the growth of American public opinion that a four-years' 
ODttise of medical training has become the standard in medical 
schools, and in the majority this is in addition to one or two 
years* training in the natural sciences. There are dome sixty- 
Bve sute boards, and many have adopted strong medi<^ 
practice acts. 

The standard of preliminary requirements for entrance to the 
medical schools is being gradually raised, and a large number of 
the states demand a certincate of a high school education, while the 
comprising the Association of Medical Colleges, which 
I more than half the American medical schools, accept as an 

: standard a certificate of at least one year's study at a high 

KhooL In the report for 1908 of the United Sutcs bureau of 
cdncat ioo of 71 schools, which report the number of their students 
having an arts degree, it b stated that a degree was held by only 
»% of the candidates in medicine. These students were mostly 
tetrflMited between the Johns Hopkins Medical School (which from 
the date of its foundation in 1803 has only admitted college gradu- 
sees, and has in addition stipulated that candidates shau have a 
of French and German and have already completed a 
'. itumt ficitnces). Harvard Medical School 
L I'--, .".ry, and the Diedic^J departments of the 
ii Cj^iELfornla, Mtchlgan and Chicago (Hush Medical 
J ire cm entrance the cqnivaJiQiit of a two- yean' college 
h fliyrt ificludc French and German, together with 
Ti«ry and bi^ilofjy. Thia tendency ii in accordance 
rnm^ndc4 Btan'krd of medical education augct^ted by 
o( Mt^iral Bdycaticm and adopted by the House of 
I fw American Jtledical Aiiuciatlon^of wlucb the following 
isasammary: — 

I. (a) Tne ixelimlnary of a four-^rs' high school education 

or aa examination such as would admit to a recognized university. 

(I) la addition a year of not less than nine months devoted 

to caenustiv, physics and biology and one language (preferably 

Freach or German) to be taken at a college of the liberal arts. 

a. ft^ey i o us to entering a medical college every student should re- 
ceive from the state boara a " medical student's entrance certificate " 
to be gK««a 00 the pfoductioo of cre^tiab of traming as above. 



Cdk 



the 
Ddc 



25 

3- Four years of study in a medical college 'having a minimum 
of a 30-weeks course each year, with not less than 30 hours' work 
per week. 

4. Craduatkm from college to entitle a candidate to present 
himself for examination before a state board. 

5- A satisfactory examination to be passed before the sute 
board. 

Practically ajZ mcdicat echoota admit women, but ihtrc are three 
separate schioo!* of medicine for women ^ TKc Women'* Medical 
Collpge of Phllaildplita. E^nnsytvania ; Wamfn's Medical CoileRP, 
Rjjtimare, Maryland; New Vorfc Medical CpltrgB and Ho^pttal for 
Women — %ht bi« being one ol the eifihtcort tiomaeop^thic college? 
of Ihc L'nitc^d ^atc^ 

Avtit oiti Tj Ei. —J , M. Tower, CottiHhutwns It> ike A n nals p/ Mnlkai 
Protreix attd Xttdical Edu^alioa it$ ihe Uniied StQtru bijori and d\tr\n^ 
ikt Wa.f iif Indtpfudtnct (W^jfhirictnn Oowrn merit Prirnir^tf Ollicc, 
1^74) J N. S. Davi^. IliiimyoJ Mrditd Edui:ainm and InitituHani im 
thf Ujtitfd Statei (Chirngjo, iSji); Cfyrfirihutieni ta fA< ttistf?Ty e^ 
AfMk^ Edttialion tiful MfdicnJ InjtUuiwni in the Vniitd ^ata 
(Wn-fhrnRion. Govern nit m rrintintr Office, ift??); J. B, Ikcfc. Am 
UiitQriciii Skekk of ih^ Staif of Mrdtttve in ike Amtri^iin Cpi&miet 
(AlEany. 1830); Buil^iins ef tkf Aaurifaa Acadimy of M^uim 
(The <.hemic]%1 PuUiiihlFtx Company, Eaifon, Pa. I; H. L Taybr, 
" rrolc4Bion>"il Eidut^tinn In. the United Stjtcn/' Cotlcige Dt'p.trtmti'nt, 
Univeraiiy of the Stale of N'ew York, SvdifHn f , tSap, and BMletinS^ 
J poo: *' Course?* of Stgdv in Medical 5c hook" kr^ri of ihi Com- 
miniim^i of Edue^iaH {WastiinKton. tQOfl); F. R. Patkard, M,D., 
Tki History of JifetiiciTHf in tke Umiitd State i (t90(); fau^n^i ef 
Amtric^n Mmit^ Aiffyiiation (Aug. t^^ 1909); A. Fic^nert Medii^<d 
Edncnitom in ike U.S. and Canada. U^io}. ( W. H. H ► ; H , 1* H. ) 

MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, or Forensic Medicine, that 
branch of state medidne which treats of the application of 
medical knowledge to certain questions of civil and criininal law. 
The term " medical jurisprudence," though sanctioned by long 
usage, is not really appropriate, since the subject i» strictly a 
branch of medicine rather than of jurisprudence; it does not 
properly include sanitation or hygiene, both this and medical 
jurisprudence proper being distinct branches of state medicine. 
The connexion between medidne and the law was perceived long 
before medical jurisprudence was recognised, or had obtained a 
distinct appellation. It first took its rise in Germany, and more 
tardily received recognition in Great Britain. Forensic medidne, 
or medical jurisprudence proper as distinguished from hygiene, 
embraces all questions which bring the medical man into contact 
with the law, and embraces (i) questions affecting the dvil rights 
of individuals, and (2) injuries to the person. 

i. — quesnons amcting the civil or sooal rights of 
Individuals 

I. Development of the Human Frame.— Tht development of 
the physical and mental powers of the human being is a factor 
of great consequence in determining criminal responsibility, 
dvil responsibility, or the power of giving validity to dvil 
contracts, and in determining the personal identity of a living 
person or of a corpse. Human life is usually divided into the 
five periods of infancy, childhood, youth, manhood and old age. 
Some writers increase the number of these unnecessarily to seven 
periods. 

Infancy is the period from birth till the first or milk set of teeth 
beg;in to be shea — usualljr about the seventh year. During this 
period the body increases in size and stature more, relatively, than 
at any other period of existence; and the mental faculties undergo 
great development. The milk teeth, twenty in number, arc evolved 
m a definite order. bc|^inning with the central incisors at about six 
months, and ending with the second molars about the termination 
of the second vear. From the size and stature of the body, the 
development of the teeth, and the more or less advanced state of 
ossification or solidification of the bony skeleton, conclusions may 
be drawn as to the probable age of the infant. 

Childhood extends from the ruirnnitiuicmcnt of the ^hcddine ol 
the milk teeth to the age of psjJi^Tty— uj^uaily from the seventh to 
the fourteenth or fifteenth y«;Mr. Duting thi* period the body 
expands, as well as the bony stntrtun-!!!. withnui any clearly nnarlced 
ditterence in structure being oh^rvsble l»etween the $eKe« except 
as regards the genitals, so that it is impaiisibk to dL^tinguUh ahao- 
lutcly between the male and the formal*? ik^leton during thta period. 
The milk teeth are shed, and arc replan?d by the iixc^ti or per- 
manent set, thirty-two in number, though these da not Ubually 
all make thdr appearance during chitdhwjpd- Marked difl<rcnfe» 
between the proclivities of the wxei are notkwihie even at an early 
period of childhood, and lon^ befcr^ the characterutic functiona 
begin to be devdoped. 



26 



MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 



Youth b marked at its commencement by the changes which occur 
at puberty — the development of the genitals in both sexes, the 
appearance of hair on the genitals, the appearance of a beard in 
the male, the development of the breasts in the female, the 
appearance of the monthlv flow in the female, and the ability 
to secrete semen in the male. Marked mental changes now occur, 
and the generative functions are perfected. Youth terminates at 
the age of legal majority,, twenty-one years, or perhaps the period 
ought to be extendra to twenty-bve years ol age, as it is with some 
nations. 

Manhood (or Wotnanhood) is the period of perfection of all the 
bodily and mental powers. It ceases in woman with the cessation 
of the monthly flow at about forty-five years of age; but in man it 
often extends to a much later period of life. 

Old Age begins with the decay of the bodilv and mental faculties, 
and is characterized by wrinkling of the skin, loss of the teeth, 
whitening of the hair, and feebleness of the limbs. In its later stages 
decay of the mental faculties, deafness, obscurity or loss of vision, 
and bowing of the spine are added. 

3. Duration of Human Life. — The chances of human life form 
an important subject of inquiry, and on deductions from com- 
parisons of birth and death rates is founded the system of annui- 
ties, insurance against loss in sickness, and the insurance of 
Uves. Since the establishment of compulsory r^istration of 
deaths, our knowledge of the ordinary and extraordinary chances 
of human life has been extended, and surer data are avaikble 
for calculations of probabilities of life, of survivorships, and of 
the payments which ought to be made in benefit clubs (see 
Insurance). 

'3, Personal Identity. — Where the identity has to be established 
or disproved after long absence, exposure to foreign climates and 
hardships, wounds, &c., the problem has often been extremely 
difficult. The data for identifying a person are individual 
and family likeness, stature, the colour of the eyes, peculiarities 
of garb and manner, recollection of antecedent events, but more 
especially marks on the persons either congenital or acquired. 
Such are naevi or mother's marks, scars, and disunited or badly 
united fractures, known to have exbted upon the missing person 
(see Identikcation). In the case of the living, identification is 
more often a matter for the police officer than for the medical 
man. Bertillon and Galton have each devised methods for the 
identification of criminals (see Anthropometry, and Finger- 
prints). 

4. Marriage. — Under this head the medical jurist has to deal 
principally with the nubile age, viewed in the light of nature and 
according to legislative enactments, and with such physical cir- 
cumstances as affect the legality of marriages, or justify divorce. 

In Great Briuin the a^ at which the sexes are first capable of 
propagating the species is later than in more southern climes. 
Ordinarily it docs not occur before fifteen years of age for the male 
and fourteen for the female; exceptionally it occurs at the ages of 
thirteen and of twelve (or even less) respectively in the male and 
female. By law, nevertheless, parents and guardians may, in England 
at all events, forbid the marriage of young people till the age oflegal 
majority. The only physical circumstances which in Great Britain 
form a bar to marriaee are physical inability to consummate, and 
the insanity of one ot the parties at the time of marriage. Both 
those circumstances have been pleaded and sustained in the law 
courts. In other countries minor physical circumsUnces, as disease, 
are held to invalidate marriage. 

5. Impotence and Sterility.— These are of importance in con- 
nexion with legitimacy, divorce and criminal assaulu. Impo- 
tence and sterility may arise from organic or from functional 
causes, and may be curable or incurable. Impotence (q.v.) is 
taken cognisance of by the law courts as a ground of divorce, and 
might, of course, be urged as a defence in a case of rape. Sterility 
is not a ground of divorce, but might be a question of importance 
in cases of legitimacy. 

6. Pregnancy.— This subject presents one of the widest fields 
for medico-legal evidence. The limits of agel)etween which it is 
possible, the limits of utero-gestation, and the signs of pregnancy 
may all in turn be the subjects of investigation. 

The limits of age between which pregnancy is possible are usually 
fixed by the appearance and cessation of the monthly flow; and these 
ordinarily begin about fourteen and cease at forty-five years of age. 
Exceptionally they appear as early as the tenth year, and may not 
cease till the end uf the fifth decade of life. Cases, however, have 
occurred where a woman has conceived before menstruating; and 
a few doubtful cases of conception are recorded in women upwards 



of fifty or evtn sixty yvAn ol agt. Tht ^neral fact of pregnancy 
Ireing lifniccd by the ogc of pLjE.>f rty on the one hand and the cessation 
of the monthly flow — or (ifty-chrcv or fifLy-four years as theextrcme 
linilL of aju^t?^ — must \x acccpttrd a> the uk>st guide in practice. ^ 

The limiti of utcxo-tfistation pBtt not in England fixed by legisla- 
tion. Thr French code fixes the extreme limit of three hundred 
daya. The ordinary period is forty wcscka and a half, or two hundred 
ana eight y'thfiec d^vs from the cessation of the la^ monthly flux. 
Thf ILinit of three hundred days, as Axed by the French code, is 
perhspi never cKreLded, if ever reached. The uncertainty of 
liiinalea in fixing the exAct date ol concepuon has given rise to tlw 
di«frfpant opimons of phy^logi^ts on the subject. It is well 
known, however, that among the hii^her animals the period is not 
pri'^sc: It ad imprcgiutiofl and conccpiJOD need not necessarily be 
coincident. 

The signs ot pn?gnAi]cy are oJ the utmost importance to the 
medical jurist. He may be called upon to pronounce upon the virtue 
ol a female, to &u.«taln or rebut a pica Tor divorce, to determine 
whether a capital H'ntence shall be earned out. or to determine 
w h ether k is probable t hat an heir will be Ln jm to an estate. Medical 
jurii^t!. claasiry the sijjns of prt?giiancy as uncertain or certain; it u 
the lorraer which art mc«t rt?K^rdeiJ by the public, but the latter 
nrc alone ol probative value to the jurist. The usual and uncertain 
BiRTit arta the c«ution of the martthly llow, nausea, sickness, a 
darkcniinc ol the Areola and the formation of a secondary areola 
arouEi^l the nipple^ enlargement of the bn^osts, increased size of the 
■iEhJ<i?TriM:3i the KrrmaLion of a tumour in the womb, quickening, and 
the motions of the foetus. Ako ancertain are the uterine souffle, 
which h a peculiar solt sound heard over the abdomen and syn* 
1; hf onous wit h the maternal pulse and bolloctemcnt or the examination 
for & &oa.iitig tumour in the abdomen between the fifth and eighth 
months of pregnancy. The ctrrtain sijins of pregnancy are the 
foetal limbs paTpated through I he abdomen by the physician, the 
pulsations of the loetal heart htarrj by means of the stethoscope, 
the pulsations being mi^h quicker and not synchronous with 
the maternal pulses This latto" Is inapplicable before the fourth 
month of gestation. 

7. PariuriHm, — The innBtrtflK^ of the process of parturition 
IS of comparatively Httle interesl to the medical jurist; but the 
signs of T€i€nt delivery are all^irnp^rtant. These signs are the 
bruised, iwoUenr and lacerated state of the external genitals, 
retaxatioti and dilalatioti of the vagina and womb, the existence 
of a peculiar vaginal dischargf' known as. the lochia, a relaxed and 
tisstiied conditido of the bbdotntniil i^alls, a peculiar aspect of 
the Eroiintenantc^, and the distended state of the breasts due to the 
secretion of jnilk. The lochial discharge is the most character- 
istic ^gn. AU tht signs may disappear within ten days of 
delivery r though this Is not usual. 

Connected with pmiriiiofi. the question of viability (potentiality 
for life} of the child is not uniniportant. After the intra-uterine 
ag« of seven months is feoched a child is certainly viable. The 
period at which the foetua becomes viable cannot be suted with 
certairtty: but five calendar months, or one hundred and fifty days, 
\i perhijp* the nearest appraKimatiun. The viability of a child ia 
judgol by tsu site and weight, ita general BUte of development; the 
state of ine sldit4 hair, and nail« ; it* sirtnEih or fccblencss.the ability 
to cry, and its power of laking in,ilernal nourishment. The questioa 
of viability has important bearings uptm the crime of infantktde. 
\n the case of auccvssion to property the meaning of " bom alive ** 
is different from the meaning of the same cxpresMon as used respect- 
\f\g infanticide^ In questions of tf nancy by the curtesy iq.v.) it has 
been decided that any kind of motion ftf the child, as a twitching 
Lifid trcinulotis motion ol tho Tips, i* -iafTiciicnt evidence of live-birth. 
By tlie French code, howcvd-^ noehiljthjt is bom alive can inherit, 
unkt> it is born \iablc As rfifanls infjnticidc, proof of a conclu- 
ijve siipamtc Existciiee of the Child is dcnandcd before live-birth is 
admitted^ 

The luhjoct ot lufxrforUiiktH and iMperfe^undatum, or the possibility 
of two cotttentsons having occitrfrsd re«u icing in the birth of twins 
with a contldtrablc intcrveninif intcrvjl, is obscure and has given 
rijte to much controversy. There Is much, however [e.g. the existence 
ol a double or bihd utefus), to countenance the view that a double 
CffiDceptiort » possible. 

8. MoKstiTS and Hermaphr&diks^—To destroy any living 
humnn birthT however unlike a human creature it may be, is to 
commit a crime. Blackstont stales that a monster which hath 
not the shape of mankind halh n» inheritable blood; but the law 
has not defined a tnonst^r, nor what constitutes a human form. 
Tlie same author stales that if, in spite of deformity, the product 
of birth hoi huniiin shapi?, it may be an heir. Hermaphrodites 
are bi.'in^ with mal!arinatJons ol the sexual organs, simulating 
a double *cx. Phy5io]ogist& do not admit, however, the existence 
of true hermaphrodiies with double perfect organs, capable of 
poIttimiDg the lunclions of both i 



MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 



9. PuUrmUy and AjfiliaHon. — ^These are often matters oCgxtaii 
doubt. A considerable time may elapse between the absence or 
deatb ci a father and the birth of his reputed child. As has 
already been said, three hundred days is the utmost limit to 
which physiologists would extend the period of utero-gestation. 
This subject involves questions riespecting children bom during 
a second mairiage of the mother, posthumous children, bastardy, 
and aliased cases of posthumous children. 

10. Fresnmptum of Surnvorskip. — When two or more persons 
perish by a common accident, when a mother and her new-bom 
diild are found dead, and in a few analogous cases, important 
civil rights may depend upon the question which lived the longest; 
and great ingenuity has been displayed in elucidating the dilutes 
which have arisen in the law courts in such cases. 

11. Maladus exempiing from Discharge of Public Duties 
frequent^ demand the attention of the medical man. He may 
be caUed upon to dcdde whether a man is able to undertake 
militaiy or naval service, to aa as a juryman without serious risk 
to life or health, or to attend as a witness at a triaL 

12. Peigiud and SimuiaUd Diseases often require much skill 
and caution in order to detect the imposture. 

13. Tke Signs of Death.— -The determination of the actual 
oistciice of death assumes a certain importance in tropical 
oountries, where the necessity for speedy interment may involve 
a risk of borial alive. Such an accident cannot well occur where 
a medical man confirms the existence of death, and in the United 
Kiogdocn, where burial rarely takes place before the lapse of 
forty-eiglit Iwurs, such changes usually occur in the body as to 
leader any error practically impossible. Within a varying 
period, nsually not more than twelve hours, the body becomes 
rigid, owing to the development of rigor mortis or post mortem 
rigidity. The blood, which during Ufe is equally distributed 
tkroQgliottt the body, gravitates to the most dependent parts 
and develops a discoloration of the skin which is known as 
post mortem lividity or post mortem staining. At a variable 
period of time, dependent on the cause of death, also the tempera- 
ture and moisture of the air to which the body is exposed, de- 
oooiposition or putrefaction sets in. These changes after death 
aic of great importance, not only as affording certain proof 
of death, but also because they furnish valuable information 
•9 to the probable time at which it occiirred, and from the 
bet that they may alter or destroy evidence as to the cause of 



14. IfumnUy or Mental Alienation. — A medical man may be 
nqoired to give evidence in any of the law courts, civil, criminal 
w ecdesiastical, before commissions de lunatico inquirendOf or 
bdore a magistrate, as to the sanity or insanity of an individual; 
tad he may Inve to^ign certificates of unsoundness of mind with 
the view oi providing for the safe custody and proper treatment 
of a lunatic Hence he must be familiar with the chief forms 
of insanity (see Insanxty), and be able to distinguish and treat 
cscfa of these. He will also be required to detect feigned insanity, 
tad to »TJi«niiw persons charged with crime with the view of 
preventing real lunatics from being treated as criminals. 

II.— Injuries to the Pesson 

1. DejhraSian. — ^The signs of defloration are obscure and 
Bcertain; and it is rather by the coexistence of several of the 
■sal marks than the existence of any one sign, that any just 
coodusion can be arrived at. 

2. Rape. — ^This crime consists in the carnal knowledge of a 
VMBon forcibly and against her will. The proofs of rape apart 
bcm the consistency of the woman's story, mainly depend on the 
pRseooe of marks of violence, stains, &c. In all charges of rape, 
tbe woman and her assailant should be examined as soon as 
peaible by a medical man, but such examination, it is important 
to ronember, can only be carried out with the free consent of the 
puty to be examined. It is to be noted that according to English 
h« the slightest degree of penetration is sufficient to constitute 
Ik crime of rape. 

5. Mutilation. — This may consbt in the cutting or maiming of 
■qr member; castration is the most important, and perhaps but 



27 

rarely effectM/u a crime. Self-mutHation, giving rise to false 
accusations, is occasionally resorted to. 

4. Criminal Abortion. — ^This crime consists in unlawfully 
procuring the expulsion of the contents of the gravid uterus at 
any period short of full term. It must be noted that while this 
definition may be held to recognize the induction of premature 
labour by medical men in certain circimistanccs, yet, when the 
operation is necessary, a medical man should always protect 
himself from possible misconstmction of his action (i.e. criminal 
intent) by having a consultation with another practitioner. The 
means employed in criminal abortion to procure the desired 
result may be classed under three heads: (i) general violence to 
the body, (2) administration of drugs supposed to have aborti- 
facient qualities, (3) instrumental interference with the contents 
of the uterus. Among the drugs Trequently employed for the 
purpose, although by no means always successfully, are ergot, 
strong purgatives, iron, me, pennyroyal, savin. 

5. Hvmicide. — The legal sense of the term homicide excludes 
such injuries as are the result of either accident or of suicide. It 
embraces murder or wilful homicide, mansbughter or culpable 
homicide, casual homicide, and justifiable homicide. 

Ordinary homicide may be accomplished by several modes 
that may sometimes be ascertained by examination of the body, 
e.g. poison. 

As a preliminary in all cases of homicide, it is the duty of the 
medical jurist in the first pUce to ascertain the fact of death, and 
to distinguish between real and apparent death; and then to 
determine, if possible, the period at which death took place. 

Infanticide, or child murder, is by the British law treated with 
the same severity as the murder of an adult. Indeed infanticide 
as a crime distinct from murder has no legal recognition. Practi- 
cally this severity defeats itself, and hence an alternative charge 
of concealment of birth in England, or concealment of pregnancy 
in Scotland, is usually preferred in such cases. 

The iniquity of the old law which threw the onus of proof of stilU 
birth on the mother now no longer exists, and the law demands 
strict proof of live-birth at the bands of the prosecution. Hence 
the subject involves nice points of forensic medicine. The child 
must be proved to have arrived at the period when there was a 
protnbilit)r of its living (proof of viability) ; and as the establishment 
of respiration is necessary to prove live-birth the evidences of thiH 
act must be carefully investigated. The uze and position of the 
lungs, and the state of the vessels concerned in foetal circulation, 
roust be carefully noted. The foetal lungs are dark, dense and liver- 
like in appearance and consistence, and sink when immersed in 
water; whilst the fully respired lungs arc rosy, marbled, and soft 
and crepitant when handled. Minor degrees of respiration are 
recognized by the appearance of little groups of dilated air- vesicles, 
and by the fact that, although the lungs as a whole may sink in water, 
certain portions of them, mto which respired air has penetrated, 
float in water even after subjection to firm pressure in the hand. 
Care must be taken, neverthdcss, to exclude buoyancy of the lung 
due to putrefaction ; in this case the air may be expelled by gentle 
pressure, and the previously buoyant portion of lung now sinks in 
water. It is impossible, however, to distinguish certainly between 
a lung naturally inflated and one artificially msufflated. 

It must be borne in mind that, although live-birth cannot be 
affirmed in the absence of signs of respiration, the presence of these 
signs is not proof of live-birth in the legal sense 01 the term. The 
law demands for live-birth a separate existence of the child after 
delivery ; and breathing may take place whilst the child is still cither 
wholly or partially within the maternal passages, and in some special 
cases whilst still within the uterus itself. 

When proofs of respiration — it may be to such an extent as to 
leave no doubt as to live-birth — have been found, the cause of death 
is then to be investigated. Wounds, and other forms of injury, 
must be sought for. There may be signs of strangulation, suffoca- 
tion, puncture of the fontanellcs and consequent injury to the brain, 
the administration of a poison, or other means of procurinff death. 
It must be borne in mina that some of these causes may be brought 
about by omission, or even by accident. Thus strangulation may 
arise from natural and unrelieved pressure of the navel-string on 
the neck of the child ; suffocation from immersion of the face of the 
child in the maternal discharges, or by pressure of clothes on the 
mouth. Death may result from haemorrhage through neglect to 
tic the navel-string, or the infant may perish from exposure to cold. 

In the case of exposed infants it is important to ascertain the real 
mother. As such exposure usually takes place soon after birth, 
comparison of the age of the infant with the signs of recent 
delivery in the suspected mother is the best method of proving the 
relation. 



28 



MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 



De^from Asphyxia.-^Among the forms of violent death due 
to this cause are drowning, hanging, strangulation, garotting, 
smothering, suffocation from choking, mechanical interference 
with the expansion of the chest walls, as when persons are crushed 
together during a panic in a fire, breathing poisonous gases, such 
as carbonic add or carbonic oxide. Suicide and accidental 
death from these causes are still more common. 

Drotming is thought to produce death occasionally by the sudden- 
ness of the shock causing suspension of the functions of circulation 
and respiration — by shock without a .struggle. The usual mode of 
death appears, however, to be by the circulation of unoxygenatcd 
blood through the brain acting as a poison upon that orsan ; and 
this is attended with all the phenomena of asphyxia, as in suffocation. 
The phenomena attending asphyxia are as follows. As soon as the 
oxygen in the arterial blood, through exclusion of air. sinks below 
the nornul. the r(.!-fjiralory iv. ■ i ■ . . iii.pt^r and al I he 

tame litnc more frcqueri't; buih ::ii_ j_i_,j.ij.i: .^y and expiratory 

EtiAtes arc exaggerated, the aiftpitriii^nury rt>[jifatoc>[ muscles are 
roMcht into play^ ^nd the breathing becomes hurried. Ai the 
blooa bccumca more and jnorc vcnoui, the ttip^niory mfl^vemcnti 
continue to incrt^st both in force and frequcnty. Very won tht 
C)ipir£ttory movements ticeamc more marked than the intptratory, 
and ev^try muscle which can in any way a:$^i»t irt cxpirnucin ii brought 
into pUiy* The orderly enpiraiory mt^vcmrcnts culmirLite in ea- 
piTator>' convLiUions; thcac violent cff43rl* npocdiEy cxh;iutt tht 
jKrvou» sy attm, and the convulsions iiUdUcnly ccaee and an: rollQwt.-d 
by a period o[ calm. The calm i^ one til exhau^Uon; all expiratory 
active moyements have ceased, and alt ihe ntu^le^ of the body arc 
flaccid and quiet- But at I^ne inttrvab lengthened deep Lnipiratory 
movtrituenu take pla«; then tnesc moveinentfi become lc» Trcqupnt ; 
tJw rhythm bccomea irrc-gular, »o that each bft*ith l^ctomca a more 
and more prolnng,i*d gasp, which becomes at last a coavulaivc stretch- 
log of the whole bodyj and with cxttndc>d Umbi and a stralghtencHJ 
trunk, wiith the head thrown back, the mouth widely open, the fare 
drawn and the no*trila dilated, tht bit breath is Uken. The above 
phenomena are not all obicrvifd! extent in ca&ci ol mudd^n and enitre 
excluaon of air from the lungi. In slow asphyxia, where the supply 
of air U gmduatly dlminiihcd (^ f. in dfOwnin(^), the phcncmena 
ate lunda men tally the tame* but with minor differences. The 
appcrarances of the body after dt^ath from drowning are various. 
There may be fialbr of the countenance, or this niay be livid and 
swollen. The air pasioses are filled wiUn frothv mucu*, and there 
may be water in the ftomach. The endi of xhc fingtra art oftt^n 
excoriated from Era«ping at objects; and weed*, &C-, are aomciimc^a 
found graipcd in, the hands. ITic dis'ti notion between murder and 
suicide by drowning can raftly be m^ide out by examination of the 
body alone, and n usually decided iTOm colbtc^ril circumstance? 
Or marks of a ^niKgle. Attention must also be paid to the exi jtmcc 
of wounds on the tvldy, marks ot str^ngubtion on the neck, and the 
like. 

Hanging may result in death from asphyxia, or, as is more parttcu- 
larly the case in judicial hanging, some mjury is inflicted on the upper 
portion of the spinal cord, resulting in instant death. The ordinary 
appearances of death from asphyxia may be found: dark fluid blood, 
congestion of the brain, intcnsefy congested lungs, the right cavities 
of the heart full, and the left comparativefy empty of blood, and 
general engorgement of the viscera. Ecchymosis may be found 
beneath the site of the cord, or a mere parchmenty appearance. 
There may even be no mark of the cord visible. The mark, when 
present, usually follows an oblique course, and is high up the neck. 
The fact that a body may be suspended after death, and that if this 
be done speedily whilst the body is still warm there may be a post- 
mortem mark undistinguishable from the mark observed in death 
from hanging, tnust not be forgotten. 

Sufocation may occur from the impaction of any substance in ihe 
glottis, or by .covering up the mouth and nose. It ]» frequently of 
accidental origin, as when substances become accidentally imr^cttd 
in the throat, and when infants are overlaid. The phenomena are 
those of pure asphyxia, which have already been deiailed. On 
post-mortem examination the surface of the lungs is found covcrtd 
with minute extravasations of blood, known a^r punctated eccby moAds. 

Strangulation may be accompltdied by drawing a cord tightly 
round the neck, or by forcibly compressing the windpipe (throttling). 
Hence there may be either a circular mjrk round the neck, not m 
oblique as after hanging, or the marks of tht fingers may be found 
about the region of Uie larynx. The cart iUginoua itructurea of the 
larynx and windpipe may be broken. The mark of the ligature is 
often k)w down in the neck. The signs of asphyxia are present in 
a marked degree. 

Metkitism.— In the United Kingdom this last form of death 
usualfy results accidentally from an escape of lighting gas, the danger 
has been much increased in many towns owing to the addition of 
carburetted water-gas to the ordinary supply. Carbonic oxide 
gas is contained in ordinary lighting gas to the extent of about 
6 to 8 %, and is extremely fatal when inhaled. Carburetted water- 
gas contains about a8 %. and when mixed with ordinary lightiM 
ns the percentage of carbonic oxide is thus very much tncreaseo. 
Aa a mode of assassination it is sekiom employed, but is frequently 



resorted to on the continent of Europe by luictdes, charcoal fumes 
being commonly used for the purpose. 

6. Death from Starvation. — Cases occur in which it is importaot 
to distinguish this from other modes of death. In such cases the 
skin becomes harsh and dry, and may acquire a peculiar odour; 
the subcutaneous fat disappears; the gums shrink away from the 
teeth; the tongue and mouth become dark-coloured and dry; 
the eyes are bloodshot; the intestines become thin and their 
coats translucent; the {^-bladder is distended. The period of 
total abstinence from food required to kill an adult is unknown, 
and greatly depends upon whether there be access to liquid. In 
some cases persoivt have been able to subsist on little or no 
nourishment for long periods, the body being in a state of 
quasi-hibemation. 

7- Death from Extremes of Temperature. — (i) Death from cold 
is not often observed in the British Isles. A portion only of the 
body, as the extremity of a limb, may perish from extreme cold. 
After the first sensation of tingling experienced on exposure to 
severe cold, loss of sensation supervenes, with languor and an 
irresistible propensity to sleep. The tendency to this forms an 
extreme danger in such cases. (2) Death from extreme heat 
usually occurs in the form of burning and scalding, attended with 
destruction of a large portion of the cutaneous structures. Here 
the cause of death is obvious. The human ,body is capable of 
exposure to very hot air — as is seen in Turkish baths — ^for a 
considerable period with impunity. Sunstroke is a cerebral 
affection brought on by too great exposure to a hot atmosphere, 
especially whilst undergoing fatigue. 

8. Death by Lightning. — Lightning or an electric current may 
cause instant death. No visible marks of the effects of the 
electric current may be left, or the body may be singed or 
discoloured, or the skin may be perforated at one or two spots. 

9. Injuries or Wounds. — These include in a medico-legal sense 
not only those characterized as incised, punctured, contused, 
lacerated, stab wounds, but also bums, injuries produced by 
firearms, fractures, dislocations, &c. One of the chief questions 
which have to be decided in all forms of violent death is whether 
it was the result of accident, suicide or murder. In cases of 
fatal wounding, among the poinU to be noted, which will help to 
decide the question, are the situation; direction and extent of. the 
wound, the position in which the body and any weapon nuiy be 
found, together with the presence and distribution of any bkxxl 
marks and the signs of a struggle. In wounds caused by fire- 
arms the injury, if suiddal, is usually situated in a vital and acces- 
sible part of the body, the temple, mouth, and chest being the 
favourite situations; but such an injury also presents, as a rule, 
the characteristic appearances resulting from the discharge of 
the weapon close to the body, viz. besides the wound of entrance 
of the bullet, there are singeing of the cuticle and hair, and 
blackening of the area immediately surrounding the wound, from 
particles of imconsumed powder being driven into the skin and 
from the smoke of the discharge. These effects are naturally 
not produced when the weapon is discharged at a distance exceed- 
ing 3 or 3 ft., as usually happens in cases of homicidal shooting. 
They may also be wanting in undoubted suicidal wounds 
produced by revolvers and cartridges filled with amberite or 
other smokeless powders. Death from burning is generally 
accidental, very rarely suicidal, and when homicidal is usually 
employed to conceal traces of other violence inflicted upon the 
body. In large conflagrations death is not always due to burning. 
Charred bodies may be found presenting various injuries due 
to the fall of beams, crushing, the trampling of others trying to 
escape, &c, or fractures and lacerations may be due simply to 
the action of the heat. Death may result from such injuries, or 
from suffocation by the gases of combustion, before the victim 
is affected by the actual fire. Spontaneous combustion of the 
body has been stated to occur, but the evidence upon which the 
cases rest is not well authenticated. 

Punctured wounds or stabs require minute attention: for there 
have been instances in which death has been produced by an instru- 
ment so small as a pin thrust into a vital-part. Wounds of the head 
are always dangerous, especially if the blow has been severe. The 
person so wounded may die without division of the skin, or fracturt 



MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 



off die boQca. m hftppena in what is known m concussion of the bfain. 
I which dp not chyide the sldn may fracture the skull ; 



or the inner tnUe of the skull may be fractured without the outer 
bdM broken or depressed. Even wounds of the scalp may prove 
fataC from inflammation extending towards the brain. Punctured 
wounds of the head are more dangerous than cuts, as more likely 
Co excite fatal inflammation. When the brain and its membranes 
are injured, all such wounds are generally fatal. Wounds of the 
face or organs of sense are often dangerous, always disfiguring, and 
productive of serious inconvenience. IVonnds of tk* neck are always 
serious whenever more than the skin u divided. The danger of 
openii^ laiige bkod-vessels. or wounding important nerves, is 
inmtnent ; even the division of a large vein in tne neck has proved 
immecfiatdy faUl. from the entrance of air into the vessel, and its 
speedy conveyance to tt^ heart. A bk>w on the neck has instantly 
pcovcd fatal, from mjury to an impoitant nerve, senerally the 
pncumogastric or the sympathetic Dislocations ana fractures of 
the bones of the neck prove insuntly fatal Wounds of the chest 
are always serious when the cavity is penetrated, though persons 
may reco v er from wounds of the lungs, and have even survived 
for some time considerable wounds oTthe heart. This last b an 
important fact ; because we are not always to consider the spot where 
the body of a person killed by a wound of the heart, and apparently 
reaaining where he fell, is found as that in which the fatal wound 
was inflicted. Instances have occurred of persons surviving severe 
wounds of the heart for several days. Broken ribs are never without 
danger; and the same mav be said of severe contusions of the chest, 
from the chance of inflammation extending inwards. Wounds 
penetrating both sides of the chest are generally considered as fatal ; 
bat possibly there may be recovery from such. Wounds of the 
§tdmmn, when they do not completely penetrate, may be considered 
as ample wounds, unless when inflkrted with great force, so as to 
brake the contents of the abdominal cavity; in that case they may 
prodoce death without breach of surface, from rupture of some viscus, 
times happens from bk>ws or kicks upon the belly. Wounds 
; the peritoneum are highly perilous, from the risk of severe 
lation. Wounds of the stomach or intestines, or of the gall- 
bladder, generally prove mortal, from the effusion of their contents 
into the peritoneal cavity producing fatal inflammation. Wounds 
of the Uver, spleen or kidneys are generally soon mortal, from the 
great vaaculanty of thoK or^ns. wounds of the extremities, when 
fatal, nay geneially be considered so from excessive haemorrhage, 
fron the consequences of inflammation and gangrene, or from the 
Aock to the system when large portions of the limb are forcibly 
removed, as in accidents from machinery, and in wounds from 



Biood Staiiu. — ^The examination of blood stains is a frequent 
and important operation in criminal charges. Blood stains when 
fresh and abundant can be recognized without difficulty, but 
when old, or after being acted upon by certain subsUnces, their 
identity is not readily determined. 

I ■■- '■■ ■ * ■.. ;. I" !> !■ ►. -•-ri-\- ■■'» xo 3. luspnted rtain opnust of; 
(i) 14/ mu:7<}iiopu Uit. A portion of tKc stAJn i& toAked in a drop 
of some fi0i<! wnicli wifU soften and cauw Hpa ration of the dfkd 
Uond corptj4dc« without alteritig their characteristic aprpeamnce. 
Svch fli^mare solutioni of glycerine and watirr of a &pceinc gravity 
ef poal or jo% csuotic poiijiih. The recogniti<^n ol blood corpuKlei 
affaidfe evidence of the nature of the Main, (j) Ckemtcai umr (d) 
|is«t appGed to a tolution obt^ified hy wa^\Lmg «OTne of the stamed 
faiiiieu ooM nler^ A blood ioliition i« ix-d. And lo^cs \\% ncd colour 
m. ap^lfaatfea of heatt vhik ^X the «ime time a buET^oloured pre- 
dpftatr vi loroud^ <fr) Oti Applying a dmp of frtvhly prepared 
tincture of fuuBCtim and then some oionlc ether or peroxide of 
hvdrDfei) to tW stain, a blue colour if obtained i\ blood be preitent. 
Many other «jb«anec% however, give the same rmction. (0 \S* 
even to the unalkst partiek of dried bkiod. a IraEment of commpon 
wit vnd wmc ^Ifcial acetic acid be added, and the Latter ii then 
fietied to ebuUitioEi and allowed to evaporate away, amall browti 
rhumboid cr>italf — ^haemen crystals — wiU be found to have formed , 
SAd they c^n be recogniied under the microscope, [j) Sp^firmt&ptc 
itfi^ A solution of blood obtained from a &Eain will anow a spectrum 
havisfl turn dark bands beiween Frautihofer'a line* D ind B (ojsy- 
hfci II imlnhi n 1 On addinfi^ ammonium fiiilphidv to the wbiion 
ibr ^i-T-^^i^-^^^fn '■■ r'-^.v■H iH ••'M- -n^' ^n-H rhric band is seen 
tredi-- ' ■■:.'•.■■■ •M-.h lo 3 solution 

of blood, alkaline haematin is formed, and this again is transformed 
oa the farther addition of ammonium sulphide into reduced haematin 
or kaemochromogen, which ^ves a very characteristic spectrum 
of two dark bands situated m the yellow part of the spectrum. 
The prodoction of these three dUTerent spectra from a red-coloured 
Blut¥» is diaracteristic of blood. Old blood stains are insoluble 
in water, wbereas recent stains are readily soluble in cold water* 
yiehlioc a red solution. The application of hot water or washing 
mth soap tends to fix or render blood stains insoluble. Vegetable 
dyes my likewise g;ive red stdutions. but they may be distinguished 
mm bk»od by the addition of ammonia, whtch afters the colour of 
^bt fomcr. but nther intensifies the red colour of a blood solution. 

The diffcfentiation between human blood stains and those pro> 



29 

dooed by the blood of other animals, more especially domestic 
animals, u a matter of great importance to the medical jurist. 
When the blood stain is fresh, measurement of the corpuscles may 
dvcic!<? the ctui.'r-t 1^^.11, but in J^v- u^-a -..i ■[.\ and old stains it is im- 
poi^ble to make the distinct wn, A mi.-Uiixl has been discovered, 
however, which enables the dii^tiiiction lo Ik made not only between 
human blood and that <^ other animal? (with the exception of 
Simiidae)^ but alio between the bloods af different animals. The 
method dependA upon the fact that if an animal (A), such as a dog 
or rabbit, i$- inoculated with the blood or aerum of another animal 
(B)» then the bbod or t«rum of A ta found to produce a specific 
reaction (namely, the production of a cloudiness or precipitate) 
when added to a solution of the blood of a similar animal to B. and 
that !ipecics of animal only* If^ therefore^ human blood serum is 
mjected into an jiniFaal. it* blood after a time affords an " anti- 
serum '* which produces the ipecilic reaction only in human blood 
Botution^ and not in those formed from the blood of other animals. 

to. Poisoning. — ^There is no exact definition of a poison (q.v.). 
Popularly, substances which destroy or endanger life when 
swallowed in small quantity are called poisons, but a scientific 
definition woidd also include many substances which are injurious 
to health in large doses or only after repeated administration, 
and which act not only when swallowed, but also when taken into 
the system through other channels, e.g. the skin or the lungs. 
The branch of science which relates to poisons, their nature, 
methods of detection, the symptoms produced by them, and 
treatment of poisoning, is called Toxicology, and is one of the 
most important subjects included imder the term Medical 
Jurisprudence. 

The medical evidence in cases of poisoning rests upon — (i) 
the symptoms produced during life; (2) the post mortem Tippear- 
ances; (3) the chemical analysis and detection of the sul^tance 
in the body, or in the excretions and vomited matters, or in 
articles of food; (4) experiments on animals in the case of certain 
poisons where other conclusive evidence is difficult to obtain 
The treatment of cases of poisoning will vary according to the 
substance taken, but the general principles which should be 
followed are: (a) to get rid of the poison by means of the stomach- 
pump, or by washing out the stomach with water through a 
soft rubber tube, or by giving an emetic such as mustard, sulphate 
of zinc, ipecacuanha; (6) to neutralize the poison by giving a 
substance which will fcrm with it an innocuous compound (e.g. 
in the case of the strong acids by administering magnesia or 
common whiting), or which has an opposite physiological action 
(e.g. atropine in opium poisoning) , (c) to promote the elimination 
from the body of the poison which has been already absorbed; 
(</) general treatment of any dangerous symptoms which 
appear, as by stimulation in collapse or artificial respiration in 
asphyxU- 

Food Poisoning (see also Adulteration).— Foods may prove 
noxious from a variety of causes: (i) The presence of metallic 
poisons, as in peas artificially coloured with copper salts, in 
tinned foods from dissolved tin salts, &c. (2) The contami- 
nation of any food with the specific germs of disease, as for 
example, milk infected with the germ of enteric fever, (3) The 
presence in meat of parasites, such as the Trichina spiralis, or 
of disease in animals, capable of transmission to man, such as 
tuberculosis, or the presence of poison in the flesh of animals 
which have fed on substances harmless to them but poisonous to 
human beings. Grain may be infected with parasitic fungi of a 
poisonous character, as for example Ctaviceps purpurea, causing 
epidemics of ergotism. (4) Foods of various kinds may contain 
saprophytic bacteria which elaborate certain poisons, either 
before or after the food is taken. It is chiefly in relation to food- 
poisoning from the last-mentioned cause that our knowledge has 
been increased in recent years. 

Many cases of food-poisoning, previously of mysterious origin, 
can now be explained by the action of bacteria and the products 
which they give rise to — tox-albumoses, ptomaines, toxins — by 
splitting up proteid substances. It is not necessary that the food 
snould show evident signs of putrefaction. It may not do so, and 
yet on being eaten produce violent symptoms of gastro- intestinal 
irritation almost immediately, followed by various nervous synip* 
toms. In such cases a chemical poison, developed by putrefactive 
bacteria before the food was eaten, quickly acts upon the system. 
On the other hand, symptoms may not appear for many hours after 
' ingestion of the food, and then come on suddenly and with great 



30 

•everitv — there has been a period of incubation. In such cases the 
food when swallowed has contained the bacteria, but the poisonous 
toxin has been elaborated by them afterwards in the system during 
the period preceding the onset of symptoms. In both varieties 
of poisoning the symptoms are similar, consisting of gastro-intestinal 
irritation — vomiting, purging and pain in the abdomen — together 
with pneat prostration, fever, muscular twitchiiq;s, disturbances 
of vision, delirium and coma. The varieties of meat which have 
most FiLi'iLir, ml;. i;ivt'ii rise to [>*■'' ■ =- : '^ " ■■"" -i ' .^- i .1.. I^iin, 
veal, «du^>j,t-=i, Lj'^wn, Viiricau:^ kiFiniri -ji (\u-n. |.'l^^ .^ini t^i^'UcLl mv^rft. 
Pig flf^h iippc^rt to be spcci»ily liabk: to b«ome inlected, A point 
of caniidcr.ib1e interest, which ha^ tometiiDcs given riie to doubt 
ai to the pal»nDUi< character oi cncat in certain in Glances, !&, that 
th« same fcMid may be poiBonouii at one Lime and not at another, 
Thut it may be harming when frc-ohJy preparcdi cauific fatal effects 
if eaten a day or two aflerwarda, and fihortly after thi^t a^ain provi? 
ptfitct\y innocuoujv Thb U explained by the (act that the touc 
sAMtaiKea takv tnmt time to df v^lop, and after development art stiU 
[wthef spill tip by the bacteria into oi her todie* of a h^trmku naiure. 
in. some fi»h— f-i, Tn^iktrtuj dratc, or id weaver— the poison i» a 

Ehysoloslcal produci of teruin ^iancl:^ In othcts the pQiiori ia not 
nown^ a* in ihe family Sctnnbi^idae, to which the di«eai« Kakki hA* 
been attributed, Irt the United Kinsdom the poisonous effect* pro- 
duced by fi^ are due to bacteiidl agency after death, and iFiUantct 
have Dccuired from the eating of hrrrinss, mackerel, dried salt 
codfith, cavLare^ tinned salmcrn aiid Unned sardines. Shellfish 
may produce pOk&onous efTeet^ from putrefactive changed Or from 
the devfJopment in them (oysleri and mussels) ol ptomaincv 
Brieser diicovered a ptomaine in poisonout mutieti to which he 
gave the name my^ilotoxin. tt k now fully proved that oyttcr* 
and mu^^-la may became eonLaminated with the organism of typhoid 
fever U placed in specihcalily polluted water, and thua transmit the 
dlsrase to human beia|;s^ Milk, a^ already itated^ may be contami- 
nated and convey the infection of ^arleT fcvtfr and other diMrases. 
!i miy .•.'-■■• > ■.<:.' .'<i< ib-r.it,- -•- ■"■F !.".■:■ rlrt ur^jm, v- hTh r..-.- j:'...-.jbly 
the cause of infantile diarrhoea, and others, having a fatal effect upon 
adults. Cheese has frequently caused' poisoning. Vaughan dis- 
covered a toxic substance in milk and cheese — tyrotoxicon — but 
there are other toxic substances of bacterial origin sometimes present 
in cheese to which poisonous effects have probably been due. Mush- 
room-poisoning resulu from the eating of poisonous fungi in mistake 
for the edible mushroom. The poisonous element in most cases is 
either muscarin contained in the fungus Amaniia muscana, or phallin 
in Amanita pkaUoides, 

History op Forensic Medicine 
The true origin of medical jurisprudence is of comparatively 
-recent date, although traces of its principles may be perceived 
in remote times. Among the ancient Greeks the principles of 
medical science appear only to have been applied to legislation 
in certain questions relating to legitimacy. In the writings of 
Galen we find, however, remarks on the differences between the 
foetal and the adult lungs; he also treats of the legitimacy of 
•even months' children, and discusses feigned diseases. Turning 
to Rome, we find that the laws of the Twelve Tables fix three 
hundred days as the extreme duration of utero-gcstation. It 
is doubtful whether the Roman law authorized medical inspec- 
tions of dead bodies. In the code of Justinian we find De 
statu hominum; De poenis et manumissis; De sicariis; De 
inspiciendo ventre eustodiendoque partu; De muiiere quae 
peperit undecimo mense; De impoUntia; De hermapkrodilis — 
titles which show obvious traces of a recognized connexion 
between medicine and law. It was not, however, by the 
testimony of living medical witnesses that such questions were 
to be settled, but on the authority of Hippocrates. 

Medical jurisprudence, as a science, dates only from the i6th 
century. In 1507 the bishop of Bamberg introduced a penal 
code in which the necessity of medical evidence in certain cases 
was recognized; and in 1532 the emperor Charles V'. persuaded 
the Diet of Ratisbon to adopt a tmiform code of German penal 
jurisprudence, in which the civil magistrate was enjoined in all 
cases of doubt or difficulty to obtain the evidence of medical 
witnesses, — as in cases of personal injuries, infanticide, pretended 
pregnancy, < simulated diseases, and poisoning. The true dawn 
of forensic medicine dates, however, from the publication in 
1553 of the Constitutio criminalis Carolina in Germany. A few 
years later Weiher, a physician, having undertaken to prove 
that witches and demoniacs are, in fact, persons subject to 
hypochondriasis and hysteria, and should not be punished, 
aroused popular indignation, and was with diffictilty rescued from 
the flames by his patron, William duke of Cleves. 



MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE 



At the dose of the i6th century Ambrose Par6 wrote on 
monsters, on simulated diseases, and on the art of drawing up 
medico-legal reports; Pineau also published his treatise on vir- 
ginity and defloration. About the same time as these stimuli to 
the study of forensic medicine were being made known in Paris, 
the first systematic treatise on the science appeared in Sicily in the 
form of a treatise De rdationilms medicorum by Fidele. Paulo 
Zacchia, the illustrious Roman medical jurist, moreover, published 
from 1621 to 1635 a work entitled Quaestiones medko^egatts, 
which marks a new era in the history of the science — a work 
which displays an immense amount of learning and sagacity in 
an age when chemistry was in its infancy, and physiology very 
imperfectly understood. The discovery of the circulation of 
the blood by Harvey soon followed, and gave a new impetus 
to the study of those branches of forensic medicine having direct 
relations to physiology; and to Harvey we owe the idea how to 
apply Galen's observations on the differences between the foetal 
and the adult lungs to the elucidation of cases of sui^xised 
infantidde. About this time, too, Sebiz published two treatises, 
on the signs of virginity and on the examination of wounds 
respectively. In the former he contended that the hymen was 
the real mark of virginity; but this was denied by Augenio and 
Gassendi. In 1663 Thomas Bartholin investigated the period 
of human uterine gestation, a subject which had engaged the 
attention of Aristotle. He also proposed the " hydrostatic 
test " for the determination of live-birth — a test still in use, and 
applied by observing whether the lungs of an infant float or sink 
in water. J. Swammerdam exphuned the rationale of the process 
in 1677; but it was not till 1683 that it was first practically 
applied by Jan Schreyer. 

Germany, ever the leader in questions of forensic medicine, 
introduced the first public lectures on medical jurisprudence. 
Michaelis gave the first course about the middle of the 17th 
century in the university of Leipzig; and these were followed 
by the lectures of Bohn, who also published De renunciationt 
vulnerum; cut accesserunt dissertationes binae de partu enccato, 
et an quis vivus nwrtuuste aquis submenus, slrangulatus, aut 
vulneratus fuerity and De qjkiis medici duplicis, ciinici et 
forensis. Welsch and Anunan wrote on the fatality of wounds, 
and Licetus on monsters. 

From the time of Ambrose Par6 the mode of conducting investi- 
gations in forensic medicine had attracted attention in France; 
and in 1603 Henry IV. authorized his physician to appoint 
persons skilled in medicine and surgery to make medico-legal 
inspections and reports in all cities and royal jurisdictions; in 
1692, difficulties having arisen, Louis XIV. created hereditary 
royal physicians and surgeons for the performance of like duties. 
These, having become a corrupt and venal body, were suppressed 
in I7QO. The only works on forensic medicine which appeared 
in France during the 17th century, however, were Gendry's 
Sur Us moyens de hien rapporter d justice and Bl^gny's Doctrine 
des rapports en chirurgie. At the beginning of the i8th century 
the latter was superseded as a text-book by Devaux'sL*i4r/ de 
/aire des rapports en chirurgie. Valentini followed with two 
works, which were finally incorporated in his Corpus juris medico- 
legate which appeared in 1722. This work is a vast storehouse 
of medico-legal information, and a summary of the knowledge of 
the time. 

Professorships for teaching the subject were founded in the 
German universities early in the i8th century, and numerous 
treatises on forensic medicine were published. Teichmeyer's 
Institutiones medicinae legalis long formed the text -book of the 
subject; and Albert!, professor of legal medicine at Halle, in his 
Systema gave to the world a most complete and laborious treatise 
on the science. His industrious collection of facts renders his 
works a precious mine of information. Indeed towards the close 
of the i8th century the Germans were almost the only cultivators 
of legal medicine. But in France the celebrated case of ViUe- 
blanche attracted attention to the subject, and called forth 
Louis, who in a memoir on utero-gestation attacked with power- 
ful arguments the pretended instances of protracted pregnancy, 
I and paved the way for the adoption in the Code Napolion of 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



three handred dayi u the limit of utero-gwution, a period in 
pndae accordance with the ancient Roman law of the Twelve 
Tables. Louis also wrote on death from hanging, and pointed 
oat the mode by which we may distingtiish murder from suicide 
nodcr such circumstances. It is be who is credited with having 
been the fint in France to publicly teach the just application 
of medical knowledge to jurisprudence. Foder6's celebrated 
Traiii ie wUdecim UgaU appeared in 1798, and marks a new era 
in the annals of l^(al medicine. 

No British author wrote systematically on forensic medicine 
tin 1788, when Dr Samuel Farr published a short treatise on the 
EUmeuU of Medical Jwrispntdenu\ but this was merely an 
abridgment of an earlier work of Fazelius. Previous writers — 
as Mead, Munro, Denman, Perdval and the two Hunters— had, 
however, dealt with fragments of the subject; nevertheless the 
sdeace as a whole was httle appreciated or recognized in this 
country during the iSth century. 

In the 19th century France took the lead; and the institution 
of three professonhips of forensic medicine at the end of the xSth 
century produced excellent fruits. In 18 14 Orfila, a Spaniard by 
birth, bul naturalized in France, published his Toxkologief a work 
which revolutionized this branch of medical juri^rudence, and 
first placed the knowledge of poisons upon a scientific basis. 
Since the u'me of Orfila, France has never ceased to have one or 
more living medical jurists, among the most recent of whom we 
must enomerateTardieu, whose treatises on abortion, on poisons, 
on wounds, &c., are justly celebrated. Germany too industri- 
ously pursued the subject, and Casper's great work on forensic 
racdkine will ever remain a classic in the science. In Russia 
Dragendorff greatly contributed to our knowledge of poisons. 

Thooffa forenSNC medicine may be said to have been entirely 
iieglect«l in Engbnd till the beginning of the 19th centurv. its 
piuy e sft has since been by no means slow or unimportant ; and the 
wbMct DOW forms a recognized and obligatoiy portion of medical 
stndy. The first lectures delivered in Great Britain were given in 
the university of Edinburgh in 1801 by the elder Dr Duncan; and 
the 6nt proiessorahip was held by his son in 1803. Dr Alfred 
Siuia« Taylor gave the first course of lectures delivered in England, 
at Guy's Hospital in 1831; and in 186^ the university of London 
nude forensic medicine a separate subject for examination and 
honours for medical graduates. In 1822 there was not in the 
&^ish language any treatise of authoruy fit her on medic;]! juri^ 
pnMJence or on any important division of the tubicct l Tor it vat not 
tin the fdUowing year that the useful com pend torn ol Paria and 
Fonblanque was published; and even in tnr middle of the t9th 
century medical jurisprudence may be aaid to have Ufn alma^t in 
its infancy as compared with what it it now. From i^jg Greai 
Britain produced an abundant crop of liters rure on lcrcfi«ic medicine. 
Sir Robert Chiistison's admirable treat i^ on Ttfftiofif^y, Dr A. S. 
Ta>ior's PrincitUs and Practice of Mrduat Junspftidrnie {190S 
edition, by F. V Smith), the same author'? Eii-tnma ff Mcdkat 
Junsfirudence, ur Guy's Forensic Mai •':. .pi ! ''K\ ,'.<,'nTfi 

M Medical Jurispmdence have become well-known and widely circu- 
lated works. The separate memoirs of Taylor, Christison, Guy and 
«4J*en irt al^i i^torehQUK-^ pf Iia,ri5 iincj octjucrnmii m the :yiE?nce. 
Aiaerca. too, has not hcen behind ti^nd in the f^ce. F. Whanon :ind 
|(L SChlU't Mo-tKimi. Wormtey'i Tvii^oioxy, and the worlu ol Bei;k 
vA Reese hAve furthered the study of the Kience. 

SttatsD Diiccfi M^nn, Foftnsic Mrduine and T^xii-tftoiy (London, 
•foa); WVntrr Blyth, Pmioni: JAnr Efftm and Dtifefinn (London. 
l9Qr||); AnbuTt and Rolle«an, A System of MedUin^, vol- ii. " Intoxi- 
cattDDs" (Loridi^ci, iqo^)', Vaughan. TvMnitelk C/mtury Fraittif of 
MtdMtnf. vc4. xiil. Jirtkle *' ProituiiJie*. Toxins and LeucomQint* ' 
O^Mdos, l^h IkldichkaH Hartdbnck dtr itrickittchen M^dkm 
(TtbinBEiit ]ft8i'ft>fi]: Hofnunn, Lehhinh der geTuklil£h^m 
Midkm (Wkn, t§98): Sirdftfmafifl. Lihrbvtk der gerickiftjitun 
Mt^m CStutigan^ 1*95): Kunfci-L Hondbmih dtr Ti^sikdo^e 
Oe«a. 1690): Brouankl, L'/s/iHiNcitdf. La Ptndaisffn, &c. (Paris. 
1897). (H. H.L.:T.A.I.) 

MEDICI, the name of a family renowned in Italian history for 
the extraordinary number of statesmen to whom it gave birth, 
and for its magnificent patronage of letters and art. They 
emerged from private life and rose to power by means of a very 
subtle policy that was persistently pursued from generation to 
fSmeration. The origin of the family is buried in obscurity 
Some court historians indeed declare it to have been founded 
by Perseus, and assert that Benvenuto Cellini's bronze Perseus 
holding on high the head of Medusa was executed and placed in 
the Loggia dci Lana at Florence to symbolize the victory of the 



31 

Medici over the republic. But this only proves that the real 
origin of the family is unknown, and equally unknown is the 
precise signification of the Medicean arms— six red balls on a 
field of gold. 

The name appears in Florentine chronicles as early as the close 
of the X2th century, although only casually mentioned in con- 
nexion with various offices of the republic. The _ ^ 
first of the family to be a distinct figure in history ^^ 
was Salvestro dd Medici, who, in 1378, took an active ^^ 
part in the revolt of the Ciompi— so called because it 
was led by a wool-carder (ciompo), one Michele di Lando, and 
because the chief share in it was taken by the populace, who held 
the reins of government for some time, and sought to obtain 
extended political rights. Although Michele di Lando was the 
nominal chief of the revolt, Salveslro dei Medici was its real 
leader. The latter, although a member of the greater gilds, 
had joined the lesser and sought to be at their head, in order to 
lay the foundation of his own power and that of his kindred by 
attacking the Albizzi, who were the leading men of c^^^^ 
the greater gilds. The victory of the Ciompi, ^■'^•*^ 
however, was brief, for the excesses of the lower classes brought 
about a reaction, in which they were crushed, and Michele di 
Lando sent into banishment. Nevertheless the lesser gilds had 
gained some ground by this riot, and Salvestro dei Medici the 
great popularity at which he had aimed. His policy during 
that period had traced the sole possible road to power in 
liberty-loving Florence. This was the road henceforth pursued 
by the Medici. 

On Salvestro's death in 1388 the Albizzi repossessed them- 
selves of the government, and conducted the wars of the republic. 
Vieri dei Medici, who seems to have been the next 
head of the family, understanding the temper of *'*** 
the times, abstained from becoming a popular leader, and left 
it to his successors to prosecute the task under easier conditions. 
Then, in the person of Giovanni, son of Averardo Bicci dei Medici 
(1360-1429), another branch of the family arose, and became 
its representative branch. Indeed this Giovanni may be con- 
sidered the actual founder of Medicean greatness. He took little 
part in political affairs, but realized an immense fortune by trade 
— establishing banks in Italy and abroad, which in his successor's 
hands became the most efficient engines of political power. The 
Council of Constance (14 14-14 18) enabled Giovanni dei Medici 
to realize enormous profits. Besides, like his ancestor Salvestro, 
he was a constant supporter of the lesser gilds in Florence. 
Historians record *his frequent resistance to the Albizzi when 
they sought to oppress the people with heavier taxation, and his 
endeavours to cause the chief weight to fall upon the richer 
classes. For this reason he was in favour of the so-called law of 
catasto, which, by assessing the property of every citizen, 
prevented those in power from arbitrarily imposing taxes that 
unjustly burdened the people. In this way, and by liberal loans 
of money to all who were in need of it, he gained a reputation 
that was practically the foundation-stone of the grand family 
edifice. Giovanni dei Medici died in 1429 leaving two sons, 
Cosimo ( 1 389-1 464) and Lorenzo (1395-1440). From the former 
proceeded the branch that held absolute sway for many genera- 
tions over the nominal republic of Florence, and gave to Italy 
popes like Leo X. and Clement VII. On the extinction of this 
elder line in the i6th century, the younger branch derived from 
Lorenzo, Cosimo's brother, seemed to acquire new life, and for 
two centuries supplied grand-dukes to Tuscany. 

Cosimo, sumamed Cosimo the Elder, to distinguish him from 
the many others bearing the same name, and honoured after his 
death by the title of paler patriae, first succeeded ^^ 
in solving the strange problem of becoming absolute pu^ 
ruler of a republic keenly jealous of its liberty, with- 
out holding any fixed office, without suppressing any 
previous form of government, and always preserving the 
appearance and demeanour of a private citizen Bom in 1389, 
he had reached the age of forty at the time of his father's death. 
He had a certain amount of literary culture, and throughout 
his life showed much taste and an earnest love both for letters 



mbi 



32 

and art. But his father had mainly trained him to commerce, 
for which he had a spedai liking and aptitude. He was*devoted 
to business to the day of his death, and like his forefathers 
derived pecuniary advantage from his friendly relations with the 
papal court. He accompanied Pope John XXIII. to the Council 
of Constance, transacted a vast amount of business in that city, 
and made very large gains. He then travelled in Germany, and 
after his return to Fk>rence discharged several ambassadorial 
missions. At the death of his father he was possessed of a vast 
fortune and an extended experience, and inherited the leadership 
of the opposition to the then dominant party of the greater gilds 
headed by Rinaldo degli Albizd, PaUa Strozzi and Niccold da 
Uzzano. Of gentle and kindly manners, generous in lending and 
even in giving money whenever he could gain popularity by 
that means, at critical moments he frequently came to the 
succour of the government itself. He was very dexterous in 
turning his private liberalities to account for the increase of his 
political prestige, and showed no less acumen and still fewer 
scruples in making use of his political prestige for purposes of 
pectmiary profit. Indeed, whenever his own interests were at 
stake, he showed himself capable of positive villainy, although 
thb was always tempered by calculation. COsimo proved his 
skill in these knavish arts during the war between Florence and 
Lucca. He had joined the Albizd in urging on this war, and 
many writers assert that he turned it to much pecuniary advan- 
tage by means of loans to the government and other banking 
operations. When, however, military affairs went badly, Cosimo 
joined the discontented populace in invectives against the war 
and those who had conducted it. This won him an enormous 
increase of popularity, but the hatred of the Albizzi and their 
friends augmented in equal degree, and a conflict became 
inevitable. The Albizzi, who were far more impetuous and im- 
patient than Cosimo, were now bent upon revenge. In 1433 
one of their friends, Bernardo Guadagni, was elected gonfalonier, 
and thereupon Cosimo dei Medici was called to the palace and 
summarily imprisoned in the tower. A general assembly of the 
people was convoked and a bulla chosen, which changed the 
government and sent Cosimo into exile. Undoubtedly the 
Albizzi party would have preferred a heavier sentence, but they 
did not dare to attempt their enemy's life, being well aware of the 
great number of his adherents. Cosimo had some apprehension 
that he might be poisoned in prison, but Federigo dei Malavolti, 
captain of the palace guard, showed him the utmost kindness, 
and, to soothe his fears, voluntarily shared his meals. On the 
3rd of October the prisoner was sent to Padua, his allotted 
place of exile. 

The Albizzi speedily saw that they had done either too much 
or too little. While seeking to keep the government entirely 
in their own hands, they beheld the continual growth of the 
Medici party. When it was necessary to make a campaign in 
Romagna against the mercenary captains commanding the 
forces of the duke of Milan, it was plainly seen that in banishing 
Cosimo the republic had lost the only citizen banker in a position 
to assist it with considerable loans. The Florentines were 
defeated by Piccinino in 1434, and this event greatly increased 
the public exasperation against the Albizzi. Meanwhile Cosimo, 
who had gone to Padua as a private individual, was entertained 
there like a prince. Then, being permitted to transfer his resi- 
dence to Venice, he entered on a course of lavish expenditure. 
He was overwhelmed with letters and appeals from Florence. 
Finally, on the ist of September 1434, a signory was elected 
composed of his friends, and his recall was decreed. Rinaldo 
degli Albizzi determined to oppose it by force, and rushed to the 
Piazza with a band of armed men; but his attempt failed, and 
he left the country to return no more. The Medici were now 
reinstated in all their former dignities and honours, and Cosimo, 
on the evening of the 6th of September, rode past the deserted 
mansions of the Albizzi and re-entered his own dwelling after an 
exile of a year. For three centuries, dating from that moment, 
the whole history of Florence was connected with that of the 
bouse of Medici. 

Cosiffio's first thought was to secure himself against all future 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



risk of removal from Florence, and accordingly he drove tbe 
most powerful citizens into exile to all parts of Italy. Nor did 
he spare even his former political adversary, Palla -..__ 
Strozzi, although the latter had been favourable to JJ^fJT^ 
him during the recent changes. His rigour in this pianmm. 
particular case was universally censured, but Cosimo 
would tolerate no rivals in the city, and was resolved to abase the 
great families and establish his power by the support of tbe lower 
classes. He was accustomed to say that states could not be 
ruled by paternosters. Still, when cruelty seemed requisite, 
he always contrived that the chief odium of it should fall upon 
others. When Neri Capponi, the valiant soldier and able 
diplomatist, gained great public favour by his military prowess, 
and his influence was further increased by the friendship of 
Baldaccio d'Anghiari, captain of the infantry, Cosimo resolved to 
weaken his position by indirect means. Accordingly, when in 
144X a partisan of the Medici was elected gonfalonier, Baldaccio 
was instantly summoned to the palace, imprisoned, murdered, 
and his body hurled from the window. No one could actually 
fix this crime upon Cosimo, but the majority believed that he 
had thus contrived to rid himself of one enemy and cripple 
another without showing his hand. It was impossible for Cosimo 
openly to assume the position of tyrant of Florence, nor was 
it worth his while to become gonfalonier, since the term of ofiBce 
only lasted two months. It was necessary to discover some other 
way without resorting to violence; he accordingly employed what 
were then designated " civil methods." He managed to attain 
his object by means of the balie. These magistracies, which 
were generally renewed every five years, placed in the ballot* 
bags the names of the candidates from whom the signory and 
other chief magistrates were to be chosen. As soon as a bolla 
favourable to Cosimo was formed, he was assured for five years 
of having the government in the hands of men devoted to bis 
interests. He had comprehended that the art of politics depended 
rather upon individuals than institutions, and that he who nikd 
men could also dictate laws. His foreign policy was no less 
astute. His great wealth enabled him to supply money not 
only to private individuals, but even to foreign potentates. 
Philippe de Comines tells us that Cosimo frequently furnished 
Edward IV. of England with sums amounting to many hundred 
thousand florins. When Tommaso Parentucelli was still a 
cardinal, and in needy circumstances, Cosimo made him consider- 
able loans without demanding guarantees of payment. On the 
cardinal's accession to the tiara as Nicholas V. he was naturally 
very well disposed towards Cosimo, and employed the Medid 
bank in Rome in all the affairs of the curia. At the time when 
Francesco Sforza was striving for the lordship of Milan, Cosimo 
foresaw his approaching triumph, showed him great friendship, 
and aided him with large sums of money. Accordingly, when 
Sforza became lord of Milan, Cosimo's power was doubled. 

Without the title of prince, this merchant showed royal 
generosity in his expenditure for tbe promotion of letters and 
the fine arts. Besides his palace in the dty, he constructed noble 
villas at Careggi, Ficsole and other places. He 
built the basilica of Fiesole, and that of St Lorenzo ^^y|J^^^ 
in Florence, and enlarged the church and monastery otArt. 
of St Mark. Even in distant Jerusalem he endowed 
a hospice for the use of pilgrims. The artists of the day 
comprised men like DonateUo, Bnmelleschi, Ghibcrti, Luca 
della Robbia, and many others, and Cosimo's magnificent com> 
missions not only developed their powers but stimulated other 
men of wealth to the patronage of art. Without being a schoUr, 
Cosimo had a genuine taste for letters. He purchased many 
Greek and Latin manuscripts; he opened the first public library 
at St Mark's at his own expense, and founded another in the 
abbey of Fiesole. The Greek refugees from Constantinople 
found a constant welcome in his palace. During the Council of 
Florence (1439-1442). GemistusPletho spoke to him with enthusi- 
asm of the Platonic philosophy. Cosimo was so deeply attracted 
by the theme that he dedded to have the young Marsilio Ficino 
trained in philosophy and Greek learning in order to make a 
Latin translation of the complete works of Plato. And thus a 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



was p rod uc ed tliat is still considered one of the best 
extant, and that Platonic academy was founded which led to 
sach important results in the history of Italian philosophy and 
letters. On the ist of August 1464 Cosimo breathed his last, at 
the a^e d seventy-five, while engaged in listening to one of 
Plato's dialogues. 

The concluding yean of his life had been years of little happi- 
ness for Florence. Being old and infirm, he had left the govern- 
ment to the management of his friends, among whom Luat Pitti 
was one of the most powerful, and they had ruled with disorder, 
corruption and cruelty. The lordship of Florence accordingly 
did not pass without some difficulty and danger into the hands of 
^^ Piero, sumamed the Gouty, Cosimo's only surviving 
^g^f^ legitimate son. Afflicted by gout, and so terribly 
crippled that he was often only able to use hU 
tongue, the new ruler soon discovered that a plot was on foot 
to overthrow his power. However, showing far more courage 
than be was supposed to possess, he had himself borne on a 
litter from his villa to Florence, defeated his enemies' designs, 
and firmly re-established his authority. But his success may 
be mainly attributed to the enormous prestige bequeathed 
by Cosimo to his posterity. Piero died at the end of five years' 
teign, on the 3rd of December 1469, leaving two sons, Lorenzo 
(144Q-1493) and Giuliano (1453-1478). The younger, the 
gentler and less ambitious of the pair, was quickly removed 
from the world. Lorenzo, on the contrary, at once seised 
the reins of state with a firm grasp, and was, chronologically, 
the second of the great men bestowed upon Italy by the 
hoose of Medici. In literary talent he was immensely 
superior to Cosimo, but greatly his inferior in the conduct 
of the commercial affairs of the house. In politics he had 
■obler conceptions and higher ambitions, but he was more 
eas3y carried away by his passions, less prudent in hu revenge, 
and maie disposed to tyranny. He had studied letters from his 
caihest years under the guidance of Ficino and other leading 
litterati of the day. At the age of eighteen he visited the different 
courts of luly. At his father's death he was only twenty-one 
Limmm >**" ^^' **"' Instantly showed his determination 
to govern Florence with greater despotism than his 
father or grandfather. He speedily resorted to the system of the 
beUe, and was very dexterous in causing the first to be chosen 
to suit his purpose. He then proceeded to humiliate the great 
families and eult those of little account, and this was the policy 
he constantly pnirsued. His younger brother Giuliano, being of 
a fluM and yielding disposition, had only a nominal share in the 
(ovemment. 

Lorenao's policy, although prosecuted with less caution, was 
sttD the old astute and fortunate policy initiated by Cosimo. 
Bat the grandson bestowed no care upon his commercial interests, 
ahboogh squandering his fortune with far greater lavishness. 
Accordingly be was sometimes driven to help himself from the 
pabHc purse without ever being able to assist it as Cosimo had 
done. An this excited bUme and enmity against him, while 
bis greed in the matter of the alum mines of Volterra, and the 
sabaequent sack of that unhappy city, were crimes for which 
there was no excuse. Among his worst enemies were the Pazzi, 
zzd, as tlwy formed a very powerful clan, he sought their ruin 
t^ competing with them even in business transactions. They 
were 00 the point of inheriting the large property of Giovanni 
Borromeo when Lorenzo hurriedly caused a Uw to be passed 
tkat altered the right of succession. The hatred of the Pazzi 
wu thereby exasperated to fury. And in addition to these 
tUngs there ensued a desperate quarrel with Pope Sixtus IV., 
a man of very impetuous temper, who, on endeavouring to erect 
a ttate on the frontiers of the Florentine republic for the benefit 
of his nephews, found a determined and successful opponent in 
Lorenao. Consequently the Pazzi and Archbishop Salviati, 
aaotber enemy of Lorenzo, aided by the nephews of the pontiff, 
vbo was hintfdf acquainted with the whole matter, determined 
to pot an end to the family. On the 36th of April 1478, while 
GialiaDO and Lorenzo were attending high mass in the cathedral 
of Flofc&cc, the former was mortally subbed by conspirators. 



33 

but the latter was able to beat back his assailanu and escape 
into the sacristy. His life preserved, and no longer having to 
share the government with a brother, Lorenzo profited by the 
opportunity to wreak cruel vengeance upon his foes. Several 
of the Pazzi iind their followers were hanged from the palace 
windows; others were hacked to pieces, dragged through the 
streets, and cast into the Amo, while a great many more were 
condemned to death or sent into exile. Lorenzo seemed willing 
and able to become a tyrant. But he stopped short of this 
point. He knew the temper of the dty, and had also to look 
to fresh dangers threatening him from without. The pope had 
exconununicated him, put Florence under an intercUct, and, 
being seconded by the Neapoliun king, made furious war 
against the republic. The Florentines began to tire of submitting 
to so many hardships in order to support the yoke of a fellow- 
citizen. Lorenzo's hold over Florence seemed endangered. 
But he rose superior to the difficulties by which he was encom- 
passed. He boldly journeyed to Naples, to the court of King 
Ferdinand of Aragon, who was reputed to be as treacherous as 
he was cruel, and succeeded in obtaining from him an honourable 
peace, that soon led to a reconciliation with Sixtus. Thus at 
last Lorenzo found himself complete master of Florence. But» as 
the balle changed every five years, it was always requisite, 
in order to retain his supremacy, that he should be prepared 
to renew the usual manoeuvre at the close of that term and have 
another elected equally favourable to his aims. This was often 
a difficult achievement, and Lorenzo showed much dexterity in 
overcoming all obstacles. In 1480 he compassed the institution 
of a new council of seventy, which was practically a permanent 
balia with extended powers, inasmuch as it not only elected 
the chief magistrates, but had also the administration of numer- 
ous state affairs. This permanent council of devoted adherents 
once formed, his security was firmly established. By this 
means, the chroniclers tell us, " liberty was buried," but the chief 
affairs of the state were always conducted by intelligent and 
experienced men, who promoted the public prosperity. Florence 
was still called a republic; the old institutions were still preserved, 
if only in name. Lorenzo was absolute lord of all, and virtually 
a tyrant. His immorality was scandalous; he kept an army of 
spies; he frequently meddled in the citizens' most private affairs, 
and exalted men of the lowest condition to important offices of 
the state. Yet, as Guicciardini remarks, " if Florence was to 
have a tyrant, she could never have found a better or moie 
pleasant one." In fact all industry, commerce and public 
works made enormous progress. The civil equality of modern 
states, which was quite unknown to the middle ages, was more 
developed in Florence than in any other city of the world. 
Even the condition of the peasantry was far more prosperous 
than elsewhere. Lorenzo's authority was not confined to Tus- 
cany, but was also very great throughout the whole of Italy. 
He was on the friendliest terms with Pope Innocent VHL, from 
whom he obtained the exaltation of his son Giovanni to the 
cardinalate at the age of fourteen. This boy<ardinal was after- 
wards Pope Leo X. From the moment of the decease of 
Sixtus IV., the union of Florence and Rome became the basis of 
Lorenzo's foreign policy. By its means he was able to 
prevent the hatreds and jealousies of the Sforzas of Milan and 
the Aragonese of Naples from bursting into the open conflict 
that long threatened, and after his death actually caused, the 
beginning of new and irreparable calamities. Hence Lorenzo 
was styled the needle of the Italian compass. 

But the events we have narrated cannot sufi^ce for the full 
comprehension of this complex character, unless we add the 
record of his deeds as a patron of letters and his achievements as 
a writer. His palace was the school and resort of illustrious men. 
Within its walls were trained the two young Medici afterwards 
known to the world as Leo X. and Clement VII. Ficino, 
Poliziano, Pico della Mirandola and all members of the Platonic 
academy were its constant habitu6s. It was here that Puici 
gave readings of his Morgante, and Michelangelo essayed the 
first strokes of his chisel. Lorenzo's intellectual powers were 
of exceptional strength and versatility.- He could speak with 



34 

equal fluency on painting, sculpture, music, philoaophy and 
poetxy. But his crowning superiorily over every other Maecenas 
known to history lay in his active participation in the intellectual 
labours that he promoted. Indeed at certain moments he was 
LwvasoM positively the leading spirit among the lltterati of his 
mMsaoi time. He was an elegant prose writer, and was 
L0mn. likewise a poet of real originality. At that period 
Italians were forsaking erudition in order to forward the revival 
of the national literature by recurring to the primitive sources 
of the spoken tongue and popular verse. It is Lorenzo's lasting 
glory to have been the initiator of this movement. Without 
being — as some have maintained — a poet of genius, he was 
certainly a writer of much finish and eloquence, and one of the 
first to raise popular poetry to the dignity of art. In his Ambra^ 
his Caccia dd Jalcone and his Nencia da BarberinOy he gives 
descriptions of nature and of the niral life that he loved, with the 
graphic power of an acute and tasteful observer, joined to an 
ease of style that occasionally sins by excess of homeliness. 
Both in his art and in his politics he leant upon the people. 
The more oppressive his government, the more did he seek in his 
verses to incite the public to festivities and lull it to slumber by 
sensual enjoyments. In his Ballate, or songs for dancing, and 
more especially in his carnival songs, a kind of verse invented by 
himself, Lorenzo displayed all the best qualities and worst defects 
of his muse. Marvellously and spontaneously elegant, very 
truthful and fresh in style, fertile in fancy and rich in colour, they 
are often of a most revolting indecency. And these compositions 
of one filling a princely station in the city were often sung by 
their author in the public streets, in the midst of the populace. 
Lorenzo left three sons — Pietro (1471-1503), Giovanni 
(1475-1521) and Giuliano (1479-1516). He was succeeded by 
Pietro, whose rule lasted but for two years. During this brief 
term he performed no good deeds, and only displayed inordinate 
Vanity and frivolity. His conduct greatly helped to foment the 
hatred between Lodovico Sforza and Ferdinand of Naples, 
which hastened the coming of the French under Charles VIII., 
and the renewal of foreign invasions. No sooner did the French 
approach the frontiers of Tuscany than Pietro, crazed with fear, 
hastened to meet them, and, basely yielding to every 
demand, accepted terms equally humiliating to him- 
self and the state. But, returning to Florence, he found that 
the enraged citizens had already decreed his deposition, in order 
to reconstitute the republic, and was therefore compelled to 
escape to Venice. His various plots to reinstate himself in 
Florence were all unsuccessful. At last he went to the south of 
Italy with the French, was drowned at the passage of the 
Garigliano in 1503, and was buried in the cloister of Monte 
Cassino. . 

The ensuing period was adverse to the Medici, for a republican 
government was maintained in Florence from 1494 to 1513, and 
the dty remained faithful to its alliance with the French, who 
were all-powerful in Italy. Cardinal Giovanni, the head of the 
family, resided in Rome, playing the patron to a circle of littcrati, 
artists and friends, seeking to increase his popularity, and calmly 
waiting for better days The battle of Ravenna wrought the 
downfall of the fortunes of France in Italy, and led to the rise 
of those of Spain, whose troops entered Florence to destroy the 
republic and reinstate the Medici. Pietro had now been dead 
for some lime, leaving a young son, Lorenzo (149^-1 5» 9) 1 who 
was afterwards duke of Urbino. The following year (1513) 
Cardinal Giovanni was elected pope, and assumed the name of 
Cmnttmsl ^'^ ^* ^^ accordingly removed to Rome, leaving 
Ohvmaal his brother Giuliano with his nephew Lorenzo in 
{LeoX.), Florence, and accompanied by his cousin Giulio, 
OMimao, ^|^q ^^ ^ natural son of the Giuliano murdered 
*^*'"' in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, and was soon destined 
to be a cardinal and ultimately a pope. Meanwhile his kinsmen 
in Florence continued to govern that city by means of a 
bdia. And thus, being masters of the whole of central Italy, 
the Medici enjoyed great authority throughout the country 
and their ambition plumed itself for still higher flights. This 
was the moment when Niccolo Mackiavelli, in his treatise The 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



Prince^ ootmsdled them to accomplish the unity of Italy 1^ 
arming the whole nation, and expelling its foreign invaders. 

Leo X., who is only indirectly connected with the history of 
Florence, gave his nazne to the age in which he lived in conse- 
quence of his magpificent patronage of art and letters in Rome. 
But he was merely a clever amateur, and had not the liteiaiy 
gifts of his father Lorenzq. He surrounded himself with versi- 
fiers and inferior writers, who enlivened hu board and accom- 
panied him wherever he went. He liked to lead a gay and 
untroubled life, was fond of theatrical performances, satires and 
other intellectual diversions. His patronage of the fine arts, his 
genuine affection for Raphael, and the numerous works be caused 
to be executed by him and other artists, have served to confer 
an exaggerated glory on his name. He had not the remotest 
idea of the grave ijnportance of the Reformation, which indeed 
he unconsciously promoted by his reckless and shameless sale 
of indulgences. The whole policy of Pope Leo X. consisted in 
oscillating between France and Spain, in always playing fast and 
loose, and deceiving both powers in turn. Yet the evil results 
of this contemptible policy never seemed to disturb his mind. 
He finally joined the side of the emperor Charles V., and in 1521, 
at the time of the defeat of the French by the Spanish troops 
on the river Adda, he ceased to breathe at his favourite villa of 
Magliana. 

Giuliano dei Medici had died during Leo's reign, in 1516, 
without having ever done anything worthy of record. He was the 
husband of Philibcrta of Savoy, was duke of Nemours, and left a 
natural son, Ippoliio dei Medici (151 1-1535), who afterwards 
became a cardirul. Lorenzo, being of more ambitious temper, 
was by no means content to remain at the head of the Florence 
government hampered by many restrictions imposed by republi- 
can institutions, and subject to the incessant control of the pope. 
In his eagerness to aggrandize his kinsmen, the latter had further 
decided to give Lorenzo the duchy of Urbino, and formally 
invested him in its rights, after expelling on false pretences its 
legitimate lord, Francesco Maria della Rovcre. This prince, 
however, soon returned to Urbino, where he was joyously 
welcomed by his subjects, and Lorenzo regained possession only 
by a war of several months, in which he was wounded. In 15 19 
he also died, worn out by disease and excess. By his marriage 
with Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, he had one daughter, 
Caterina dei Medici (1 519-1589), married in 1533 to Henry, 
duke of Orleans, afterwards king of France. She played a long 
and sinister part in the history of that country. Lorenzo also 
left a natural son named Alessandro, inheriting the frizzled hair 
and projecting lips of the negro or mulatto slave who had given 
him birth. His miserable death will be presently related. Thus 
the only three surviving representatives of the chief branch of 
the Medici, Cardinal Giulio, Ippoliio and Alessandro were all of 
illegiiimate birth, and left no legitimate heirs. 

Cardinal Giulio, who had laboured successfully for the rein- 
statement of his family in Florence in 1512, had been long 
attached to the person of Leo X. as his trusted factotum and com- 
panion. He had been generally regarded as the mentor of the 
pope, who had no liking for hard work. But in fact, his frivolity 
notwithstanding, Leo X. always followed his own inclinations. 
He had much aptitude for command, and pursued his shuffling 
policy without any mental anxiety. Giulio, on the contrary, 
shrank from all responsibility, muddled his brains in weighing 
the reasons for and against every possible decision, and was 
therefore a belter tool of government in others' hands than he 
was fit to govern on his own account. When Giuliano and 
Lorenzo died, the pope appointed the cardinal to the government 
of Florence. In that post, restncted within the limits imposed 
by republican institutions, and acting under the continual 
direction of Rome, he performed his duties tairly well. He 
caressed the dlizens with hopes of extended liberties, cmMm^ 
which, although never destined to be fulfilled, long OMto 
served to keep men's minds in a pleasant flutter of ^^"^'^ 
expectation; and when the more impalieni spirits ^* 

attempted to raise a rebellion he speedily quenched it in blood. 
When, after the death of Leo X. and the very brief pon " 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



of Adriui VI., be wis dected pope (1533) under the name of 
aeiDCot VIL. lie entrusted the government of Florence to 
Cardinal Silvio Passerini conjointly with Alessandro and Ippo- 
fito, *lio were still too young to do much on their own account. 
Tbe pontificate of Leo X. had been a time of felicity to himself 
if of disaster to Italy and tbe Church. The reign of Clement, 
00 the contrary, was fatal to himself as well. His policy, like 
that of Leo X., consisted in perpetual oscillation between France 
and Spain. By his endeavours to trick all the world, he fre- 
quently ended in being tricked himself. In 1525 he was the 
ally of the French, who then suffered a terrible defeat at Pavia. 
where tlicir king Francis I. was taken prisoner. The armies of 
Charles V. triumphantly advanced, without Clement being able 
to oppose any effeaual resistance. Both Rome and Florence 
were threatened with a fearful catastrophe. 

This far we have had no occasion to speak of the younger 
branch of tbe Medid, descended from Lorenzo, brother to Cosimo 
the ddcr. Always in obscurity, and hitherto held in check by 
the ehler fine, it fiist entered the arena of history when the other 
was on the point of extinction. In fact the most valiant captain 
of the papal forces was Giovanni dei Medici, afterwards known 
by the name of Giovanni delle Bande Nere. His father was 
Giovanni, son of Tier Francesco, who was the son of Lorenzo, 
the brother of Cosimo dei Medici. History has little to tell of 
the elder Giovanni; but his wife Caterina Sforza, of whom he was 
the third husband, was a woman of more than masculine vigour. 
Giovaani dei Medici married her in 1497, but died in 1498, 
having her with one son who was christened Lodovico, but after- 
wards took his father's name of Oioyanni (1498- 
**'''' K26). Trained to arms from his eariiest years, this 
t^^ ytNith inherited all the energy of his mother, whose 
Sforza blood seemed to infuse new life into the 
yoanger branch of the Medici. Notwithstanding his extreme 
youth, he bad already achieved the title of the best captain in 
Italy. He had always fought with immense dash and daring, 
tad was devotedly loved and obeyed by his soldiery. He was 
the oaly leader who opposed a determined resistance to the 
ja^aial (onxs. He was seriously wounded at Pavia when 
fightii^ oa the French side. On his recovery he joined the army 
of the League, and was much enraged by finding that the duke 
of Urbino, commander of the Venetian and papal forces, would 
sever decide on attacking. When the imperial troops were 
oniggCng through the marshes of Mantua, surrounded on every 
■de, and without stores or ammunition, Giovanni could not 
loigB himself to inactivity like his colleagues in command. 
He was igixrant that the imperialists had just received supplies 
and artillery from the duke of Ferrara, and therefore daringly 
utacked them with a small body of men without taking any 
preraatioos for defence. One of the first shots fired by the 
nemy injured him so fatally that he died a few days after. 
He was married to Maria Salviati, by whom he had one son, 
CoBDo (1519-1574)* who became the first grand duke of 
Tacany, and indeed the founder of the grand duchy and the 
lev dynasty. 

Sfcanwhile tbe imperial army pursued its march upon Rome, 
optned the Eternal City after a few hours' combat, and cruelly 
SKked it daring many days (1527). Thanks to his perpetual 
sfcflA'ng and excessive avarice, the pope found himself utterly 
iMsaken, aiKl was obliged to seek refuge in the castle of St 
Ai^Ho, whence he only effected his escape after some months. 
Be then signed a treaty of alliance with the emperor (i539)« 
«bo sent an army to besiege Florence and restore the Modici, 
vhoB the people had expelled in 1527 on the re-establishment 
«f the republic After an heroic defence, the city was forced 
to srarender (1530); and, although it was expressly stipulated 
tkat the ancient liberties of Florence should be respected, every 
cue foresaw that the conditions would be violated. In fact, 
pope and emperor immediately began to dispute as to which 
ihoald be the new lord of the city. Clement VII. had inherited 
the fraditjonal family dislike for the younger branch of his kin, 
and 90 the choice lay between the two bastards Ippolito and 
Alosandco. The former being a cardinal, tbe latter was chosen. 



35 

Alessandro, who already bore the title of duke of Citti di Penna, 
came to Florence in 1531, and by imperial patent was nominated 
head of the republic. According to the terms of this 
patent, the former liberty enjoyed under the Medicean ^ 
rule was to remain intact. But no previous ruler 
of the city had enjoyed hereditary power confirmed by 
imperial patent, and such power was incompatible with the 
existence of a republic. Moreover, Clement VH. showed dis- 
satisfaction with the uncertainty of the power conferred upon 
his kinsnian, and finally succeeded in obtaim'ng additional 
privileges. On the 4th of April 1532 a parliament was convoked 
for the last time in Florence, and, as usual, approved every 
measure proposed for acceptance. Accordingly a new council 
was formed of two hundred citizens elected for life, forty-eight 
of which number were to constitute a senate. Alessandro, as 
duke of the republic, filled the post of gonfalonier, and carried 
on the government with the assistance of three senators, changed 
every three months, who took the place of the supprea^ 
signory. 

The duke's chief advisers, and the contrivers of all these 
arrangements were Baccio Valori, Francesco Vettori and above 
all Francesco Guicclardini— men, especially the latter two, of 
lofty political gifts and extensive influence. The mind and 
character of Duke Alessandro were as yet comparatively un- 
known. At first he seemed disposed to rule with justice and 
prudence. But encountering difficulties that he was unable to 
overcome, he began to neglect the business of the state, and 
acted as if the sole function of government consisted in lulling 
the people by festivities and corrupting it by the dissolute life 
of which he set the example. The question of the moment was 
the transformation of the old republican regime into a princedom; 
as an unavoidable result of this change it followed that Florence 
was no longer to be the ruling city to whose inhabitants alone 
belonged the monopoly of political office. When the leading 
Florentine families realized not only that the republic was 
destroyed, but that they were reduced to equality with those 
whom they had hitherto regarded as their inferiors and subjects, 
their rage was indescribable, and hardly a day passed without 
the departure of influential citizens who were resolved to achieve 
the overthrow of their new ruler. They found a leader in Cardi- 
nal Ippolito dei Medici, who was then in Rome, cardiaml 
embittered by the preference given to Alessandro, ippoiuo. 
and anxious to become his successor with the least 
possible delay. Under the pressure of terror the duke at once 
became a tyrant. He garrisoned the different cities, and began 
the erection in Florence of the Fortezza da Basso, built chiefly 
at the expense of Filippo Strozzi, who afterwards met his death 
within its walls. 

In 1534 Clement VII. died, and the election fell on Paul III., 
from whom Cardinal Ippolito hoped to obtain assistance. 
Accordingly the principal Florentine exiles were despatched to 
Charles V. with complaints of Alessandro's tyranny and his 
shameless violation of the terms upon which the city had surren- 
dered. Cardinal Ippoloto also represented his own willingness 
to carry on the government of Florence In a more equitable 
manner, and promised the emperor a large sum of money. 
Reply being delayed by the emperor's absence, he became so 
impatient that he set out to meet Charies in Tunis, but on the 
loth of August 1535 died suddenly at Itri, poisoned by order 
of Alessandro. Such at least was the general belief, and it was 
confirmed by the same fate befalling other enemies of the duke 
about the same time. On the emperor's return from Africa, 
the exiles presented themselves to him in Naples, and the vener- 
able patriot Jacopo Nardi pleaded their cause. Duke Alessan- 
dro, being cited to appear, came to Naples accompanied by 
Francesco Guicciardini, who by speaking in his defence rendered 
himself odious to all friends of liberty, and irretrievably tarnished 
his illustrious name. The cardinal being dead, it was hard to 
find a successor to Alessandro. On this account, and perhaps 
to some extent through the emperor's personal liking for the 
duke, the latter rose higher than before in the imperial favour, 
married Margaret of Austria, the natural daughter of Charles, 



36 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



flPAA/ 



and returned to Florence with increased power. And now 
AJessandro indulged unchecked in the lowest excesses of tyranny, 
and although so recently a bridegroom gave way to increased 
libertinism. His whole time was passed in vicious haunts and 
in scandalous adventures. In order to conceal the obscurity of 
his birth, he left his mother to starve, and it was even asserted 
that he finally got rid of her by poison. 

His constant associate in this disgraceful routine v/as his 
distant kinsman Lorenzo, generally known as Lorenzino del 
Lttrm iM ^*^^^°'- ^^ ^^^ younger branch of the Medici, the 
dftM^McL ^^^^^ w^s second cousin of the Cosimo already 

mentioned as the son of Giovanni delle Bande Nere 
He had much culture and literary talent, but led an irregular 
life, sometimes acting like a madman and sometimes like a 
villain. He was a writer of considerable elegance, the author 4>f 
several plays, one of which, the Aridosio,Mtas held to be among 
the best of his age, and he was a worshipper of antiquity. Not- 
withstanding these tastes, when in Rome he knocked off the 
heads of some of the finest statues of the age of Adrian, an act 
by which Clement VII. was so incensed that he threatened to 
have him hanged. Thereupon Lorenzino fled to Florence, 
where he became the friend of Duke Alessandro, and his partner 
in the most licentious excesses. They went together to houses 
of ill-fame, and violated private dwellings and convents. They 
often showed themselves in public mounted on the same horse. 
All Florence eyed them with disgust, but no one foresaw the 
tragedy that was soon to take place. 

On the evening of the 5th of January 1537, after a day passed 
in the usual excesses, Lorenzino led the duke to his own lodging, 

and left him there, promising shortly to return with 

the wife of Leonardo Ginorr. Alessandro, worn out 
), by the exertions of the day, fell asleep on the couch 

while awaiting Lorenzino's return. Before long the 
latter came accompanied by a desperado known as the Scoron- 
concolo, who aided him in falling on the sleeper. Roused by 
their first thrusts, the duke fought for his life, and was only 
despatched after a violent struggle. The murderers then lifted 
the body into a bed, hid it beneath the clothes, and, Lorenzino 
having attached a paper to it bearing the words tincii amor 
patriae, laudumqiu immensa cupido, they both fled to Venice. 
In that city Lorenzino was assassinated some ten years later, in 
1548, at the age of thirty-two, by order of Alessandro 's successor. 
He wrote an Apologia, in which he defended himself with great 
skill and eloquence, saying that he had been urged to the deed 
solely by love of liberty. For this reason alone he had followed 
the example of Brutus and played the part of friend and courtier. 
The tone of this Apologia is so straightforward, sometimes even 
so eloquent and lofty, that we should be tempted to give it 
credence were it possible to believe the assertions of one who not 
only by his crime but by the infamy of his previous and subse- 
quent career completely gave the lie to his vaunted nobility of 
purpose. By Alessandro's death the elder branch of the Medici 
became extinct, and thus the appearance of the younger line 
was heralded by a bloody crime. 

When the duke's absence from his own palace was discovered 
on the morning of the 6th of January he was at first supposed to 
-^ . have spent the night with one of his mistresses^ but 

soon, some alarm being felt, search was made, and 
Cardinal Cybo was the first to discover the murder. Enjoining 
the strictest secrecy, he kept the corpse concealed for three days, 
and then had it interred in the sacristy of San Lorenzo. Mean- 
while he had hastily summoned Alessandro Vitclli and the other 
captains, so that, by the time Alessandro's death was made 
public, the city was already filled with troops. The cardinal 
then convoked the council of forty-eight to decide upon a sue* 
cessor. Alessandro's only issue was a natural son named Giulio, 
aged five. The cardinal favoured his election, in the hope of 
keeping the real sovereignty in his own hands. But he speedily 
saw the impossibility of carrying out a design that was ridiculed 
by all. Guicdardini. Vettori and others of the leading citizens 
favoured the choice of Cosimo, the son of Giovanni delle Bande 
Nere. He was already in Florence, was aged seventeen, was 



keen-witted and aspiring, strong and handsome in person, heir 
to the enormous wealth of the Medici, and. by the terms of the 
imperial patent, was Alessandro's lawful successor. Charles V. 
approved the nomination of Cosimo, who without delay seized 
the reins of government with a firm grasp. Like Alessandro, he 
was named head of the republic; and Guicdardini and others who 
had worked hardest in his cause hoped to direct him and keep 
him under their control. But Cosimo soon proved that, his 
youth notwithstanding, he was resolved to rule unshackled by 
republican forms and unhampered by advisers disposed to act 
as mentors. The Florentines had now an absolute prince who 
was likewise a statesman of eminent ability. 

On learning the death of Alessandro and the election of 
Cosimo, the exiles appreciated the necessity for prompt action, 
as delay would be fatal to the overthrow of the Medicean rule. 
They had received money and promises from France; they were 
strengthened by the adhesion of Filippo Strozzi and Bacdo 
Valori, who had both become hostile to the Medici through the 
infamous conduct and mad tyranny of Alessandro; and Strozzi 
brought them the help of his enormous fortune and the pro«-ess 
of that very distinguished captain, his son Piero. The exiles 
assembled their forces at Mirandola. They had about four 
thousand infantry and three hundred horse; among them were 
members of all the principal Florentine families; and thdr 
leaders were Bernardo Sal via ti and Picro Strozzi. They 
marched rapidly, and entered Tuscany towards the end of July 
1537. Cosimo on this occasion displayed signal capadty and 
presence of mind. Informed of the exiles' movements by his 
spies, he no sooner learned their approach than he ordered 
Alessandro Vitelli to collect the best German, Spanish and Italian 
infantry at his disposal, and advance against the enemy without 
delay. On the evening of the 31st of July Vitelli marched towards 
Prato with seven hundred picked infantry and a band of one 
hundred horse, and on the way fell in with other Spanish foot 
soldiers who joined the expedition. At early dawn the following 
morning he made a sudden attack on the exiles' advanced guard 
close to Montemurlo, an old fortress converted into a villa be- 
longing to the Nerli. Having utterly routed them, he proceeded 
to storm Montemurlo, where Filippo Strozzi and a few of hit 
young comrades had taken refuge. They made a desperate 
resistance for some hours, and then, overwhelmed by superior 
numbers, were obliged to yield themselves prisoners. The main 
body of the army was still at some distance, having been detained 
in the mountains by heavy rains and difficult passes, and, on 
learning the defeat at Montemurlo, its leader turned back by the 
way he had come. Alessandro Vitclli re-entered Florence with 
his victorious army and his fettered captives. Cosimo had 
achieved his first triumph. 

All the prisoners, who were members of great families, were 
brought before Cosimo, and were received by him with courteous 
coldness. Soon, however, a scaffold was erected in the Piazza, 
and on four mornings in succession four of the prisoners were 
beheaded. Then the duke saw fit to stay the executions. 
Baccio Valori, however, and his son and nephew were beheaded 
on the 2oih of August in the courtyard of the Bargello. Filippo 
Strozzi still survived, confined in the Fortezza da Basso, that had 
been built at his expense. His family was illustrious, he had 
numerous adherents, and he enjoyed the protection of the 
French king. Nevertheless Cosimo only awaited some plausible 
pretext to rid himself of this dreaded enemy. He brought him 
to trial and had him put to the question. But this cruelly led 
to nothing, for Strozzi denied every accusation and bore the 
torture with much fortitude. On the i8th of December he was 
found dead in his prison, with a blood -stained sword by hb side, 
and a slip of paper bearing these words: exorian aliquis nastrit I 
ex ossibus ultor. It was believed that, having renounced all ^ 
hope of his life bdng spared, Strozzi had preferred suicide to ' 
death at the hands of the executioner. Some, however, thought ^ 
that Cosimo had caused him to be murdered, and adopted thk <= 
mode of concealing the crime. The young prince's cold-blooded ^ 
massacre of his captives cast an enduring shadow upon his rei^ ^ 
and dynasty. But it was henceforward plain to all that he was e 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



a nMB of stem ittohre, who went stniglit to his end without 
samples or half-messoxes. Before long he was regarded by many 
as the inramation of Machiavelli's Prince, " inasmuch as he 
jotDcd daring to talhit and prudence, was capable of great 
duehy, and yet could practise mercy in due season." Guicdar- 
dini, who still pretended to act as mentor, and who on account 
of his many services had a certain influence over him, was obliged 
to withdraw from public life and busy himself with writing his 
History at his villa of AroetrL He died in this retreat in 1540, 
and it was immediately rumoured that the duke had caused hini 
to be poisoned. This shows the estimation in which Cosimo 
was now held. He punished with death all who dared to resist 
his wjlL By 1 540 sentence of death had been pronounced against 
foar hondred and thirty contumacious funtives, and during his 
feign one hundred and forty men ana six women actually 
ascended the scaffold, without counting those who perished in 
faccign lands by the daggers of his assassins. He reduced the 
old rqwUkan institutions to empty forms, by making the magis- 
trates mere creatures of his wilL He issued the sternest edicts 
against the rebels, particularly by the law known as the " Pol- 
veiina,** from the name of its proposer Jacopo PolverinL This 
bw decreed not only the confiscation of the property of exiles, 
bat likewise that of their heirs, even if personally acquired by 
the latter. Cosimo ruled like the independent sovereign of a 
great state, and always showed the capacity, finnness and 
coofige dexnanded by that station. Only, his state being small 
and weak, he was forced to rely chiefly upon his personal talent 
and wealth. It was necessary for him to make heavy loans to 
the <^erent European sovereigns, especially to Charles V., the 
nost rapacious of them all, and to give enormous bribes to their 
ambassadors. Besides, he had to carry on wars for the exten- 
sion of his dominions; and neither his inherited wealth nor the 
large soms gained by confiscating the estates oi rebellious 
subjects sufficed for aU this outlay. He was accordingly com- 
pelled to burden the people with taxes, and .thus begin at onoe to 
diminish its strength. 

Codmo bore a special grudge against the neighbouring 
republics of Siena and Lucca. Although the latter was 

small and weak, and the former garrisoned by 
j^^^,^^,^ Spaniards, yet the spectacle of free institutions at 

the frontiers of his own sute served as a continual 
incitement to subjects disaffected to the new regime. In fact 
Francesco Burlainacchi, a zealous Lucchese patriot, had con- 
ceived the design of re-establishing republican government in 
afl the cities of Tuscany. Cosimo, with the emperor's help, 
Mcoeeded in having him put to death. Lucca, however, was 
sa insignificant state making no pretence of rivalry, whereas 
Sesa was an old and formidable foe to Florence, and had always 
given protection to the Florentine exiles. It was now very 
rdoctantly submitting to the presence of a Spanish garrison, 
and, being stimulated by promises of prompt and efficacious 
wi^anrr from France, rose in rebellion and expelled the Span- 
iards in 1552. Cosimo instantly wrote to the emperor in terms 
tkat appealed to his pride, asked leave- to attack Siena, and 
begged for troops to ensure the success of his enterprise. As no 
knmediate answer arrived,, he feigned to begin negotiations with 
Henry H. of France, and, by thus arousing the imperial jeafpusy, 
"MiirtHI a contingent of German and Spanish infantry. SictH 
was besieged for fifteen months, and its inhabitants, aided by the 
vabmr of Piero Strozzi, who fought under the French flSg, made 
a most heroic resistance, even women and children helping on 
tfac walls. But fortune was against them-. Piero Strozzi sus- 
tained sevex^ defeats, and finally the Sienese, having exhausted 
their ammunition and being decimated by famine and the sword, 
vere obliged to capitulate on honourable terms that were shame- 
lessly violated. By the varied disasters of the siege and the 
comber of fugitives the population was reduced from forty to 
dght thousand inhabitants. The republicans, still eager to 
resist, withdrew to Montaldno. Cosimo now ruled the city and 
territory of Siena in the name of Charles V., who always refused 
lam its absolute possession. After the emperor's abdication, 
ud the succession of Philip II. to the Spanish throne, Cosimo 



37 

at last obtained Siena and Porto Ferraio by giving up his daim 
to a sum of 300,000 ducaU that he was to have received from 
Charles V. 

In 1559 Cosimo also captured Montalcino, and thus formed the 
grand-duchy of Tuscany, but he continued to govern the new 
state — i.e. Siena and its territories — separately from 
the old. His rule was intelligent, skilful and des- ^ 
potic; but his enormous expenses drove him to raise J" 
large sums of money by special contrivances unsuited 
to the country and the people. Hence, notwithstanding the 
genius of its founder, the grand-duchy held from the first the 
elements of its future decay. Cosimo preferred to confer office 
upon men of humble origin in order to have pliable tools, but he 
also liked to be surrounded by a courtier aristocracy on the 
Spanish and French pattern. As no Tuscan aristocracy any 
longer existed, he created new nobles, and tempted foreign ones 
to come by the concession of various feudal privileges; and, to 
turn this artificial aristocracy to some account, he founded the 
knightly order of St Stephen, charged with the defence of the 
coast against pirates, which in course of time won much honour 
by its prowess. He also established a small standing army for 
the protection of his frontiers; but he generally employed German 
and Spanish troops for his wars, and always had a foreign body- 
guard. At the commencement of his reign he opposed the popes 
in order to maintain the independence of his own state; but later, 
to obtain help, he truckled to them in many ways, even to the 
extent of giving up to the Inquisition his own confidant, Piero 
Carnesecchi, who, being accused of heresy, was beheaded and 
burnt in 1567. In reward for these acts of submission, the popes 
^owed him friendship, and Pius V. granted him the title of 
grand-duke, conferring the patent and crown upon him in Rome, 
although the emperor had always withheld his consent. The 
measure most injurious to Tuscany was the fiscal system of 
taxes, of which the sole aim was to extort the greatest possible 
amount of money. The consequent damage to industry, com- 
merce and agriculture was immense, and, added to the devasta- 
tions caused by the Sienese War, led to their utter ruin. Other- 
wise Cosimo did not n^lect useful measures for the interior 
prosperity of hisT state. He was no Maecenas; nevertheless he 
restored the Pisan university, enlarged that of Siena, had the 
public records classified, and also executed public works like 
the Santa Triniti bridge. During the great inundations of 1557 
he turned his whole energy to the relief of the sufferers. 

In 1539 he had espoused Eleonora of Toledo, daughter of the 
viceroy of Naples, by whom he had several children. Two died 
in 1562, and their mother soon followed them to the grave. It 
was said that one of these boys, Don Garcia, had murdered the 
other, and then been killed by the enraged father. Indeed, 
Cosimo was further accused of having put his own wife to death; 
but neither rumour had any foundation. He now showed signs 
of illness and failure of strength. He was not old, but worn by 
the cares of state and self-indulgence. Accordingly in 1 564 he 
resigned the government to his eldest son, who was to act as his 
lieutenant, since he wished to have power to resume the sceptre 
on any emergency. In 1570, by the advice of Pope Pius V., he 
married Camilla Martelii, a young lady of whom he had b^n 
long enamoured. In 1574 he died, at the age of fifty-four 
years and ten months, after a reign of thirty-seven years, 
leaving three sons and one daughter besides natural children. 
These sons were Francesco, his successor, who was already at 
the head of the government. Cardinal Ferdinand, and Piero. 

Francesco I., bom in 1541, began to govern as his father's 
lieutenant in 1564, and was married in 1565 to the archduchess 
Giovanna of Austria. On beginning to reign on his avockmo L 
own account in 1574, he speedily manifested his real 
character. His training in the hands of a Spanish mother had 
made him suspicious, false and despotic. Holding every one 
aloof, he carrini on the government with the assist|ince of a few 
devoted ministers. He compelled his step-mother to retire to a 
convent, and kept his brothers at a distance from Florence. He 
loved the privileges of 'power without its burdens. Cosimo had 
known how to maintain his independence, but Francesco cask 



38 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



himsdf like a vassal at Austria's feet. He reaped his reward by 
obtaining from Maximilian II. the title of grand-duke, for which 
Cosimo had never been able to win the imperial sanction, but 
he forfeited all independence. Towards Philip II. he showed 
even greater subroissiveness, supplying him with large sums of 
money wrung from his overtaxed people. He held entirely 
aloof from France, in order not to awake the suspicions of his 
protectors. He traded on his own account, thus creating a 
monopoly that was ruinous to the country. He raised the tax 
upon com to so high a rate that few continued to find any profit 
in growing it, and thus the Maremmc, already partly devastated 
during the war with Siena, were converted into a desert. Even 
industry declined under this system of government; and, 
although Francesco founded porcelain manufactories and pietra 
dura works, they did not rise to any prosperity until after his 
death. His love of science and letters was the only Medicean 
virtue that he possessed. He had an absolute passion for 
chemistry, and passed much of his time in his laboratory. Some- 
times indeed he gave audience to his secretaries of state standing 
before a furnace, bellows in hand. He took some useful measures 
to promote the rise of a new city at Leghorn, which at that time 
had only a natural and ill-sheltered harbour. The improvement 
of Leghorn had been first projected by Cosimo I., and was 
carried on by all the succeeding Medici. Francesco was a slave 
to his passions, and was led by them to scandalous excesses and 
deeds of bloodshed. His example and neglect of the affairs of 
the state soon caused a vast increase of crime even among the 
people, and, during the first eighteen months of his reign, there 
occurred no fewer than one hundred and sixty-eight murders. 

In default of public events, the historians of this period enlarge 
upon private incidents, generally of a scandalous or sanguinary 
kind. In 1575 Orazio Pucci, wi^ng to avenge his father, whom 
Cosimo had hanged, determined to get up a conspiracy, but, 
soon recognizing how firmly the Medicean rule had taken root 
in the country, desisted from the attempt. But the grand-duke, 
on hearing of the already abandoned plot, immediately caused 
Pucci to be hanged from the same window of the Palazzo 
Vecchio, and even from the same iron stanchion, from which his 
father before him had hung. His companions, who had fled 
to France and England, were pursued and murdered by the ducal 
emissaries. Their possessions were confiscated, and the " Pol- 
verina " law applied, so that the conspirators' heirs were reduced 
to penury, and the grand-duke gained more than 300,000 
ducats. 

Next year Isabella dei Medici, Francesco's sister, was strangled 
in her nuptial bed by her husband, Paolo Giordano Orsini, whom 
she had betrayed. Piero dei Medici, Francesco's brother, 
murdered his wife Eleonora of Toledo from the same motive. 
Still louder scandal was caused by the duke's own conduct. 
He was already a married man, when, passing one day through 
the Piazza of St Mark in Florence, he saw an exceedingly beautiful 
woman at the window of a mean dwelling, and at once conceived 
a passion for her. She was the famous Bianca Cappello, a 
Venetian of noble birth, who had eloped with a young Florentine 
named Pietro Buonaventuri, to whom she was married at the 
time that she attracted the duke's gaze. He made her acquaint- 
ance, and, in order to see her frequently, nominated her husband 
to a post at court. Upon this, Buonaventuri behaved with so 
much insolence, even to the nobility, that one evening he was 
found murdered in the street. Thus the grand-duke, who was 
thought to have sanctioned the crime, was able to indulge his 
passion unchecked. On the death of the grand-duchess in 1578 
he was privately united to Bianca, and afterwards married her 
publicly. But she had no children, and this served to poison 
her happiness, since the next in succession was her bitter enemy, 
the cardinal Ferdinand. The latter came to Florence in 1587, 
and was ostentatiously welcomed by Bianca, who was most 
anxious to conciliate him. On the i8th of October of the same 
year the grand-duke died at his villa of Poggio a Caiano, of a 
fever caught on a shooting excursion in the Maremme, and the 
next day Bianca also expired, having mined her health by dmgs 
Jtaken to cure her sterility. But rumour asserted that she bad 



prepared a poisoned tart for the cardinal, and that, when he 
suspiciously insisted on the grand-duke tasting it first, Bianca 
desperately swallowed a slice and followed her husband to the 
tomb. 

Such was the life of Francesco dei Medici, and all that can be 
said in his praise is that he gave liberal encouragement to a few 
artists, including de Giovanni Bologna (g.v.). He was the 
founder of the Uffizi gallery, of the Medici theatre, and the villa 
of Pratolino; and during his reign the Delia Cruscan academy 
was instituted. 

Ferdinand I. was thirty-eight years of age when, in 1587, be 
. succeeded his brother on the throne. A cardinal from the age 
of fourteen, he had never taken holy orders. He_^^, 
showed much tact and experience in the manage- 
ment of ecclesiastical affairs. He was the founder of the Villa 
Medici at Rome, and the purchaser of many priceless works of 
art, such as the Niobe group and many other statues afterwards 
transported by him to Florence. After his accession he retained 
the cardinal's purple until the time of his marriage. He was 
in all re^)ects his brother's opposite. Affable in his manners 
and generous with his purse, be chose a crest typical of the 
proposed mildness of his rule^a swarm of bees with the motto 
MajesUUe tanlutn. He instantly pardoned all who had opposed 
him, and left his kinsmen at liberty to choose their, own place 
of residence. Occasionally, for political reasons, he committed 
acts unworthy of his character; but he re-established the adminis- 
tration of justice, aiid sedulously attended to the business of the 
state and the welfare of his subjects. Accordingly Tuscany 
revived under his mle and regained the independence and 
political dignity that his brother had sacrificed to love of ease 
and personal indulgence. He favoured commerce, and effectually 
ensured the prosperity of'Leghom, by an edict enjoim'ng tolera- 
tion towards Je\vs and heretics, which led to the settlement 
of many foreigners in that city. He also im'proved the harbour 
and facilitated communication .with Pisa by means of the 
Naviglio, a canal into which a portion of the water of the Arno 
was turned. He nevertheless retained the reprehensible custom 
of trading on his own account, keeping banks in many cities 
of Europe. He successfully accomplished the draining of the 
Val di Chiana, cultivated the plains of Pisa, Fucecchio and 
Val di Nievole, and executed other works of public utiUty at 
Siena and Pisa. But his best energies were devoted to the 
foreign policy by which he sought to emancipate himself from 
subjection to Spain. On the assassination (1589) of Henry III. 
of France Ferdinand supported the claims of the king of Navarre, 
undeterred by the opposition of Spain and the Catholic League, 
who were dismayed by the prospect of a Huguenot succeeding to 
the throne of France. He lent money to Henry IV. , and strongly 
urged his conversion to Catholicism; he helped to persuade the 
pope to accept Henry's abjuration, and pursued this policy with 
marvellous persistence until his efforts were crowned 'with 
success. Henry IV. showed faint gratitude for the benefits 
conferred upon him, and paid no attention to the expostulations 
of the grand-duke, who then began to slacken his relations with 
France, and showed that he could guard his independence by 
other alliances. He gave liberal assistance to Philip III. for 
the campaign in Algiers, and to the emperor for the war with the 
Turks. Hence he was compelled to burden his subjects with 
enormous taxes, forgetting that while guaranteeing the inde« 
pendence of Tuscany by his loans to foreign powers he was 
increasingly sapping the strength of future generations. He 
at last succeeded in obtaining the formal investiture of Siena, 
which Spain had always considered a fief of her own. 

During this grand-duke's reign the Tuscan navy was notably 
increased, and did itself much honour on the Mediterranean. 
The war-galleys of the knights of St Stephen were despatched 
to the coast of Barbary to attack Bona, the headquarters of 
the corsairs, and they captured the town with much dash and 
bravery. In the following year ( 1 608) the same galleys achieved 
their most brilliant victory in the archipelago over the stronger 
fleet of the Turks, by taking nine of their vessels, seven hundred 
prisoners, and jewels of the ^ue of 3,000,000 ducats. 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



FerdinaDd I. died in 1609, leaving four sons, of whom the 
ddest, Cosimo II., succeeded to the throne at the age of nineteen. 
C^g^m^m. ^^ *^*^ ^^ ^'^ assisted in the government by his 
mother and a council of regency. He had a good 
disposition, and the fortune to reign during a period when 
Europe was at peace and Tuscany blessed with abundant 
harvests. Of his rule there is little to relate. His chief care 
was given to the galleys of St Stephen, and he sent them to assist 
the Druses against the Porte. 0^ one occasion he was involved 
ia a quand with France. Condno ConcinT, the Marshal d'Aacre, 
being assassinated in 161 7, Louis XIII. claimed the right of 
transferring the property of the murdered man to De Luynes. 
Cosimo, refusing to recognize the confiscation decreed by the 
French tribunals, demanded that Concini's son should be allowed 
to inherit. Hence followed much ill-feeling and mutual reprisals 
between the two countries, finally brought to an end by the 
intervention of the duke of Lorraine. 

like his predecessors, Cosimo II. studied to promote the 
prosperity of Leghorn, and he deserves honour for abandoning 
all CDmmerce on his own account. Biit it was no praiseworthy 
act to pass a law depriving women of almost all rights of inheri- 
tance. By this means many daughters of the nobility were 
driven into convents against their wilL He gave scanty atten- 
tion to the general affairs of the state. He was fond of luxury, 
spent freely on pubh'c festivities and detested trouble. Tuscany 
was apparently tranquil and prosperous; but the decay of 
which the seeds were sown under Cosimo I. and Ferdinand I. 
was rapidly spreading, and became before long patent to all and 
beyond all hope of remedy. The best deed done by Cosimo II. 
was the protection accorded by him to Galileo Galilei, who 
had removed to Padua, and there made some of his grandest 
discoveries. The grand duke recalled him to Florence in 16x0, 
and nominated him court mathematician and philosopher. 
Cosimo died in February 162 x. Feeling hu end draw near, 
when be was only aged thirty and all his sons were still in their 
dnkihood, he hastened to arrange his family affairs.' His 
moilMr. Crutina of Lorraine, and his wife, Maddalena of Austria, 
were nominated regents and guardians to his eldest son Ferdinand 
II., a boy <rf ten, and a council of four appointed, whose functions 
Here regulated by law. After Cosimo's death, the yotmg Ferdi- 
nind was sent to Rome and Vienna to complete his education, 
aad the government of Tuscany remained in the hands oi 
two jealous and quarrelsome women. Tlius the administration 
of justice and finance speedily went to ruin. Out of sub- 
missivcness to the pope, the regents did not dare to maintain 
ibeir legitimate right to inherit the duchy of Urbino. They 
c(Hirerrcd exaggerated privileges on the new Tuscan nobility, 
vhich became increasingly insolent and worthless. They 
resumed the practice of trading on their own account, and, 
without reaping much benefit thereby, did the utmost damage 
to private enterprise. 

In 1627 Ferdinand III, then aged seventeen, returned to Italy 
ajxi assumed the reins of government; but, being of a very gentle 
ruMuum^n ^disposition, he decided on sharing his power with 
the regents and his brothers, and arranged matters in 
such wise that each was almost independent of the other. He 
pined the love of his subjects by his great goodness; and, when 
Fbreoce and Tuscany were ravaged by the plague in 1630, 
be showed admirable courage and carried out many useful 
measures. But he was totally incapable of energy as a states- 
man. When the pope made bitter complaints because the 
board of health had dared to subject certain monks and priests 
to the necessary quarantine, the grand-duke insisted on his 
(^ficers asking pardon on their knees for having done their duty. 
On the death in 1631 of the last duke of Urbino, the pope was 
allowed to ^ize the duchy without the slighcst opposition on 
the part of Tuscany. As a natural consequence the pretensions 
of the Roman curia became increasingly exorbitant; ecclesiastics 
usurped the functions of the state; and the ancient laws of the 
republic, together with the regulations decreed by Cosimo I. as 
a check upon similar abuses, were allowed to become obsolete. 
Oa the eztioctioa of the line of the Gonzagas at Mantua in 1627, 



39 

war broke out between France on the one side and Spain, 
Germany and Savoy on the other. The grand duke, uncertain 
of his policy, trimmed his saib according to events. Fortunately 
peace was re-established in 1631. Mantua and Monferrato fell 
to the duke of Nevers^ vi France had always desired. But 
Europe was again, in arms for the Thirty Years' War, and Italy 
was not at peace. Urban VIII. wished to aggrandize his nephews, 
the Barberini, by wresting Cai(tro and Ronciglione from Odoardo 
Famese, duke of Parma and brother-in-law to Ferdinand. 
Famese marched his army through Tuscany into the territories 
of the pope, who was greatly alarmed by the attack. The grand- 
duke was drawn into the war to defend his own state and his 
kinsman. His military operations, however, were of the feeblMt 
and often the most laughable character. At last, by means of the 
French intervention, peace was made in 1644. But, although 
the pope was forced to yield, he resigned none of his ecclesiastical 
pretensions in Tuscany. It was during Ferdinand's reign that 
the septuagenarian Galileo was obliged to appear before the 
Inquisition in Rome, which treated him with infamous cruelty. 
On the death of this great and unfortunate man, the grand-duke 
wished to erect a monument to him, but was withheld by fear 
of the opposition of the clergy. The dynasty as well as the 
country now seemed on the brink of decay. Two of the grand- 
duke's brothers had already died childless, and Ippolito, the sole 
survivor, was a cardinal The only remaining heir was his son 
Cosimo, bom in 1642.. 

Like nearly all his predecessors, Ferdinand tl. gave liberal 
patrohage to science and letters, greatly aided therein by his 
brother Leopold, who had been trained by Galileo Galilei, and 
who joined with men of learning in founding the celebrated 
academy Dd Cimento, of which he was named president. This 
academy took for its motto the words Provando e riprowindo, 
and followed the experimental method of Galileo. Formed in 
1657, it was dissolved in 1667 in consequence of the jealousies 
and dissensions of its members, but during its brief existence 
won renown by the number and importance of its works. 

Cosimo III. succeeded his father in 1670. He was weak, vain, 
bigoted and hypocritical. In 166 1 he had espoused Louise of 
Orleans, niece of Louis XIV., who, being enamoured cmimo UL 
of duke Charles of Lorraine, was very reluctant to 
come to Italy, and speedily detested both her husband and his 
country, of which she refused to learn the language. She had 
two sons and one daughter, but after the birth of her third child, 
Giovan Gastonc, her hatred for her husband increased almost 
to madness. She first withdrew to Poggio a Caiano, and then, 
being unable to get her marriage annulled, returned to France, 
where, although supposed to live in conventual seclusion, she 
passed the greater part of her time as a welcome visitor at court. 
Even her testamentary dispositions attested the violence of her 
dislike to her husband. 

Cosimo's hypocritical zeal for religion compelled his subjects 
to multiply services and processions that greatly infringed upon 
their working hours. He wasted enormous sums in pensioning 
converts — even those from other countries — and in giving rich 
endowments to sanctuaries. Meanwhile funds often failed for 
the payment of government clerks and soldiers. His court 
was composed of bigots and parasites; he ransacked the world 
for dainties for his table, adorned his palace with costly foreign 
hangings, had foreign servants, and filled his gardens with exotic 
plants. He purchased from the emperor the title of " Highness " in 
order to be the equal of the duke of Savoy. He remained neutral 
during the Franco-Spanish War, and submitted to every humilia- 
tion and requisition exacted by the emperor. He had vague 
notions of promoting agriculture, but accomplished no results. 
At one time he caused eight hundred families to be brought over 
from the Morca for the cultivation of the Marcmmc, where all 
of them died of fever. But when, after the revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes, French Huguenots offered to apply their labour 
and capital to the same purpose, the grand duke's religious 
scruples refused them refuge. So ruin fell upon Tuscany. 
Crime and misery increased, and the poor, who only asked for 
work, were given alms and sent oftener to church. This period 



wtm 



+0 

witnessed the rise of many charftable institutions of a religious 
character under the patronage of the grand-duke, as for instance 
the congregation of San Giovanni Battista. But these could 
not remMly the general decay. 

Cosimo's dominant anxiety regarded the succession to the 
throne. His eldest son Ferdinand dfed childless in 1715. The 
pleasure-loving Giovan Gastone was married to Anna Maria of 
Saxe-Lauenburgi widow of a German prince, a wealthy, coarse 
woman wholly immersed in domestic occupations. After living 
with her for some time in a Bohemian village, Giovan Gastone 
yielded to his dislike to his wife and her country, withdrew to 
France, and ruined his health by his excesses. After a brief 
return to Bohemia he finally separated from his wife, by whom he 
had no family. Thus the dynasty was doomed to extinction. 



MEDICI (FAMILY) 



thought on ascending it was to regain strength enough to ptm 
the remainder of his days in enjoyment. He dismissed the spies, 
parasites and bigots that had formed his father's court, abolished 
the pensions given to converts, suppressed several taxes, and pro- 
hibited the organized espionage established in the family drde. 
He wished to live and let live, and liked the people to be amused. 
Everything in fact bore a freer and gayer aspect under his reign, 
and the Tuscans seemed to feel renewed attachment for the 
dynasty as the moment of its extinction drew near. But the 
grand-duke was too feeble and incapable to accomplish any real 
improvement. Surrounded by gay and dissipated young men, 
he entrusted all the cares of government to a certain Giuliano 
Dami, who drove a profitable trade by the sale of offices and 
privileges. In this way all things were in the hands of oomipC 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE MEDICI 

domaiil d'Avcfacdo. knows as Giovanni di Bkci, ij6o-i4>0 
-Piccarda Bum. 



Cobw the Ekkr, 1389-1464- Comcsaina de* Battf. 



Piera, 1416-1469 

. ^ l,ti4«a 



1 



Giovanni. *fi'*;}jifis^ 



nnl. 14; 



LBrroto, g9S-i44« 
—Cinrvra dvalcara 

Pier Francesco, 1 1467 
* Laudonia Acciaiuoil 



r 



Loreuoil 
MagnllkOk 



GiulLi . 

I4$J-U78. -Cuj 

1449- 1 49> I del 

Clanre Onlnl. Giulio(aenent 
ti4M. VII.). i47»-iSi4. 



Nannina Maria fnat.) 

— Bernardo - lionello 

RuceUai. de' RosiL 



ranai, i4< 



Pic<ro. 

» Alfonsina 
Oisini. 
tiS»o 

duke of* 
Urbina 

.•Ii?;^el2. 

de la Tour 

d'Auwrgne, 

t «$I9. 



Giovanni 
(LeoX). 
«47$-»S»«. 



OarU. 
-Fifii 



Giuliano, 
duke of 
Nemours, 
I479-t$l6 
-PliaibcrU 
of Savoy. 

cardinal, 
»Sii-i$3S. 



Lticrciia Maddalena Conieisinn 
-Giacomo •Franccschetto -Piero 
SalyiaU. C^bo. Ridolfi. 

Kiccoi6 
Ridolfi, 
cmrdiaal. 



Aleasandro 
(nat). 
1 1537. 



Giovanni Mark Elena 

Salxitti. -Giovanni -lacopoV. 
caidinal. delle B«ade Appiani. 
Nerc. 



Cairrina. 



r 



I 



Giovanni, 1467-iMS 
-Caterina Sforza Rurio^ 

♦r 

Giovanni dclle Bande Nere, 

i4«S-i5a6 

-Maria Sal viali. 

1 1 54 J. 

t. Camilla Martdli. 



1 
tiS03 



Pier Francesco, t ts»5 
-Maria SodcftaL 



i I 

Laudomia. Maddalena Gtuli 

;• -Picro -Roberto bislicpoi 

Stroui. Stroui. "-^ — 



Fkanccsco.&O 6 I 

' - .2- *■♦ 



isi9-isf9 Innocrn<o Crbo. Lorenzo Cybo Caierina CrbOb 
■ Henry II., caxdiaal. -Rkdarda ' * 

king of Malaspina. 

rnaa pnnrestof 



J. Joanna 
uf Austria, 

tiJ7«: 
a. Banra 

appciio. 

t IS*?- 

^ 1 Cosmo II., 

Maria, isoo-1621 

tift4»^„ -Mann 

-HrnrylV.. MadAilena 

king of of Austria. 

France. f jOji. 



i i i r 

E«DiMANoI., Pietro, lubella, "^ 

tM9-t609 1554 1604 l54»-isr6 

• Cristinaof -Eleoonra -Paolo "S d'Esie. 

Loiraine. of Toledo, Giordano »S duke of 

ti637. ti576. OruaL r ff ' 



■^i d'Eaie. 



r 



FttDlNAND II., 
1610-1670 

-VitloriadelU 
Roverr, 1 1694. 



Francesco, 
ti6j4- 



MalUa. 
ti667 



LeoDoldo, 
cardinal. 
1 1675. 



"T 



1 



Giovanni Anra 

Carlo. -Ferdinand 

cardinal, of Austrian 

ti66t- Tyrol 




Calerina- Clawfin 
Ferdinand -1. Fcdcfi«B 
Coaaaga. delta Rovcn. 
duke of ftrreditanr 

erf 



^!h^DO, 

a.LeofMldrf 



TyroL 



CostMOlll.. i64>-l7>J 

■Marguerite Louite of Orleans, t i7'i> 



FrancrKO Maria. 1660-1711 (cardinal until i709> 
-EUconura Cooraga. 



Ferdinand. 1663-1715 
■Violante of Bavaria, f 1731. 



Giovan Gastone. i67i-i'»37 
"Anna Maria of Saie Lauenburg. t i74i' 



Cosimo had a passing idea of reconstituting the Florentine 
republic, but, this design being discountenanced by the Euro> 
pean powers, he determined to transfer the succession, after 
the death of Giovan Gastone, to his sister Anna Maria Louisa, 
who in fact survived him. For this purpose he proi>osed to 
annul the patent of Charles V., but the powers objected to this 
arrangement also, and by the treaty of 17 18 the quadruple 
alliance of Germany, France, England and Holland decided that 
Parma and Tuscany should descend to the Spanish Infante Don 
Carlos. The grand-duke made energetic but fruitless protests. 

Cosimo III. had passed his eightieth year at the time of his 
decease in October 1723, and was succeeded by his son Giovan 

^ Gastone, then aged fifty-three. The new sovereign 

fftrffgf ^^^ "* ^^^ health, worn out by dissipation, and had 

neither ambition nor aptitude for rule. His throne 

was already at *ht disposal of foreign povrers, and his only 



Anna Maria Luisa, 1667-1743 
- John William of the Palatinate 

individuals; while the grand-duke, compelled to pass the greater 
part of his time in bed, vainly sought diversion in the company 
of buffoons, and was only tormented by perceiving that all the 
world disposed of his throne without even asking his advice. 
And when, after prolonged opposition, he had resigned himself 
to accept Don Carlos as his successor, the latter led a Spanish 
army to the conquest of Naples, an event afterwards leading 
to the peace of 1735, by which the Tuscan succession was trans> 
ferred to Francesco II., duke of Lorraine, and husband of Maria 
Theresa. Giovan Gastone was finally obliged to submit even to 
this. Spain withdrew her garrisons fmm Tuscany, and Austrian 
soldiers took their place and swore fealty to the grand-duke on 
the 5th of February 1737. He expired on the 9th of July of 
the same year. Such was the end of the younger branch of the 
Medici, which had found Tuscany a prosperous country, where 
art, letters, ^commerce, industry and agriculture flourished. 



MEDICI, G.— MEDICINE 



41 



and left bcr poor And dectyed in all wayi,dnined by Uzation, 
and o ppff c d by laws contiary to every principle of tound 
coooDOijr, downt r odden by the clergy, and burdened by a weak 
and vkaoos axistocxacy. 

ffloreBoe* i£'7^T ^' 1** Feitcili, Hiilmrt dt FlifFtm^ dfpMts ia 
mmmimitiam dts liidkit jw^'A ta ekttit dt ia ripuiJt4Sii£ (Pam, i^^^^^ 
S^i; W. RoBoe, L4ft of Lenmaa df Mfdiii (n<w M., l^ndon. [B7}) 
^md ^ft ^^^^ Jf- (Lonckinp ift^fe); A. von Ren mom. GtHkitku 
TAca^fft dill der Ende dfi ficrtnl^ Frtiitaat^ (j viiU,, Gotha, lUjb) 
9ad Imwmar dt^ Uisdizi (Lcipfif. 1A74J ; A. Fabronii, Ui-utcniii Meduri 
■VfP^a vftHa t3 voIl^ Pisa^ t7^) and A/a|iii' Coiimi Mtdicei v%ia 
ig woia.» Pin. 17^)1 BuKr, Lhrff%^ dt' Mtdki alt ikiiimiicker 



Ff*»ir*^ (Lei 



' ud W( 



(Leipci;^ t^T^J And 0f4 i^^TifAunim dtr If ali^wr n 

' , 1879); E. Armstrong K Larefisg de' MediH 

iUari, La SKorvd di Gtr^^jiw Sownarp/a (Flurf nci^. 



*i^) and Mcf-fciifiti^i (floTTetice, iSjIi-lftit. irveral nubicqucni 
edil»iH) ; Ca}ltL&i^ Stari^ dti ^anduc^o di Taj€ana loUo d gistermy 
4i fi»a 3i€dKi (5 vdIi., Flonercc, 17^7); E. Robiony^ Gk miiimi 
J fi di c i (FlomncvK 1905 »; E, L. S. HDrhburghn J>ffflui 1m A|{ifniVk<7t/ 
«^ fiffrnur en Jbcr GflUcm ^fe <i^) ; and jaiur t Rds«» £r«x ^/ iki 
Mtdad /f«» fknr £dij£cn [1910), 5« *l*o uiMkr FtOBSSCft ami 
Tt'iCAMt. (p. V.) 

MEDICI, GIAOOMO (xSzy-zSSa), Italian patriot and soldier, 
was bom at Milan in January 1817. Exiled in 1836, be fought 
in Spain against the Carlisu between 1836 and 1840, and in 
1846 joined Garibaldi at Montevideo. Returning to Italy with 
Garibaldi in 1848, he raised a company of volunteers to fight 
apqnst Austria, and commanded the volunteer vanguard in 
Lombardy, proceeding thence to Rome, where he gained dis- 
tinction by defending the " Vascello," a position near the Porta 
San Pancnuio, against the French. During the siege of Rome 
he himaelff was wounded. In the war of 1859 be commanded 
a volunteer regiment, and was sent by Cavour into Tirol In i860 
he tried in vain to dissnsde Garibaldi from the Marsala expedi- 
tiaa, but, after liis chiefs departure, he sailed for Sidly with the 
second expedition, taking part in the whde campaign, during 
which he forced Messina to capitulate after an eight days' siege. 
Joining the regular army, be was appointed military com« 
Hiandanr of Palarmo, in which capacity he facilitated the abortive 
campaign of Garibaldi in 1862. In x866 he commanded the 
division which invaded Tirol, but the effect of his victories 
vas neutralised by the conclusion of peace. Returning to 
Palermo be did good work in restoring order in Sidly. He 
became a senator in 1870, and marquis of the " Vascello " and 
fast aide-de-camp to the king in 1876. He died on the 9th of 
Uirch 1883. 

HBDICnnL — ^The sdence of medidne, as we understand it, 
has for its province the treatment of disease. The word 
** medidne " (LaL medkina: sc ars, art of healing, from mederi, 
to heal) may be used very widdy, to indude Falkdcgy (g.v.), 
the theory of the causation of disease, or, very narrowly, to 
Bean only the drug or form of remedy prescribed by the 
physician — this being more properly the subject of Therapeutics 
(ft.) and Pkanmacology (?.?.). But it is necessary in practice, for 
Ustorical onnprehensiveness, to keep the wider meaning in view. 

Disease (see Pathology) is the correUtive of health, and the 
vord is not capable of a more penetrating definition. From 
tk time of Gakn, however, it has been usual to speak of the 
ifc of tbe body dther as proceeding in accordance with nature 
(«ar4 ^6^v, stcundmm naturam) or as overstepping the bounds 
ef nature (wapd ^6eiy, fraeUt noiwranC). Taking disease to 
be a deflexion from the line of health, the first requisite of 
mM\^r%^ is an extensive and intimate acquaintance with the 
aonn of tbe body. The structure and functions of the body 
fonn tbe subject of Anaiomy (9.?.) and Pkysiolcgy (q.9.). 

Tbe ntedical art (ars medendi) divides itself into departmenU 
tad subdepartments. The most fundamental division is into 
iatemal and external medidne, or into medicine proper and 
sargexy iq.9.). The treatment of wounds, injtuies and de- 
focmitlca, with operative interference in general, is the special 
departflseat of surgical practiccT (the corresponding parts of 
patbolegy, infhtH«"g inflammation, repair, and removable 
tamoors, are sometimes grouped together as surgical pathology) ; 
and whefe the work of tbe profession is hi|^y subdivided. 



surgery becomes the exdosive province of the surgeon, while 
internal medicine remains to the physician. A third great 
department of practice is formed by obstetric medicine or 
midwifery (see Obstetsics); and dentistry (^.r), or dental 
surgery, is given up to a distinct branch of the profession. 

A state of war, actual or contingent, gives occasion to special 
developments of medical and surgical practice (military hygiene 
and military aurgery). Wounds caused by projectiles, sabres, 
&c., are the special. subject of naval and military surgery; while 
under the head of military hygiene we may indude the general 
subject of ambulances, the sanitary arrangements of camps, 
and the various forms of epidemic camp sickness. 

The administration of the dvil and criminal law involves 
frequent relations with medicine, and the professional subjects 
most likdy to arise in that connexion, together with a summary 
of causes ciUbreSt are formed into the department of Medical 

JuaiSPRUDENCS (^.f.). 

In preserving the public health, the medical profession is 
again brought into direct relation with the state, through the 
public medical officers. 

HxsTOKY or Medicine 

Medicine as Portrayed in the Homeric Poems. — In the state 
of sodety pictured by Homer it is dear that medicine has already 
had a history. We find a distinct and organized profession; we 
find a system of treatment, especially in regard to injuries, 
which it must have been the work of long experience to frame; 
we meet with a nomenclature of parts of the body substantially 
the same (according to Daremberg) as that employed long 
afterwards in the writings of Hippocrates; in short, we find a 
sdence and an organization which, however imperiect as com- 
pared with those of later times, are yet very far from being in 
their beginning. The Homeric heroes tbemsdves are repre- 
sented as having considerably skill in surgery, and as able to 
attend to ordinary wounds and injuries, but there is also a 
professional class, represented by Machaon and Podalirius, the 
two sons of Asdepius, who are treated with great respect. It 
would ai^>ear, too, from the Aetkiopis of Archinus (quoted by 
Welcker and Hftser) that the duties of these two were not 
predsely the same. Machaon's task was more especially to 
heal injuries, while Podalirius had recdved from his father the 
gift of " recognizing what was not visible to the eye, and tending 
what could not be healed." In other words, a rough in- 
dication is seen of the separation of medidne and surgery. 
Asdepius appears in Homer as a Thessalian king, not as a god,' 
thou^ in later times divine honours were paid to him. There 
is no sign in the Homeric poems of the suboixiination of medicine 
to religion which is seen in andent Egypt and India, nor are 
priests charged, as they were in those countries, with medical 
funaions— all drcumstances which throw grave doubts on the 
commonly recdved opinion that medicine derived its origin 
in all countries from religious observances. | 

A] though ibi^ ^t-iLiji u[:,^LlIJ■#^■]l^t^ of medidne amon^ the Homeric 
C-reeks wAi thu» quite diKinct from religion, the worthip oi Asdepius 
(or At^^ubpiua) Ai The Kcid of htilitig^ dcniind* some notice. This 
cult apftad very widk^ly acnang th« Crwlts: it had great civil im- 
ponamre, and lasted even into Chnstlin tirnc«; but thtri: is no reason 
to attribute to it any tpectal connesion with the development of 
the science or prufewon ol niDdicioe. Sick persons repaired, or 
were conveyed, to the temples of Asclepiut in order to be healed. 
lii< hi in ntodern tirm^s rebel ii sought h^ a di^votioc^^il ptlffrimage 
pr from the it^tcrb of •ome sacred npnng, and then a» now tne neaiinjK 
influence w^t^mctimea soui^ht by ^puty. The «ick person, or his 
ftpffrKTitativc, after abluLion, prayer and ncriSce, was made to 
ftJc^-p on the hide of the sacrifKcd animal qf at the feet of the statue 
of the god, while iacred Tite» w^re performed- In hh tieep (incubatio, 
iywotiiitut) the appropriate rtioeily wis indicated by a dream. 
Moral Of dietetic reined icf were rtiore often prescribed than drun.' 
The record of the cure *a» inicobtd on the columns or walls Of the 
temple; and it hat brtii thought thit b ibis iray v^s introduced 
the custcm of " rrfarding cd^iT?," and thnt the physicians of the 
IVn • --i ■>.'.' :. ■. :' !' >•■ ■ 10 arcumubtc clmio] experience. 
But the priests of Asdepius were not physicians. Although the 
latter were often called Asclepiads, this was in the first place to 
indicate their real or supposco descent from Asdepius, and in the 
second place as a complimentary title. No medical writing of 
antiquity apeak* of the worship of Asdepius in such a way as to 



42 



MEDICINE 



(HISTORY 



Imply any connexion with the ordinary art of healing. The two 
syitems appear to have existed side by side, but to have been distinct, 
aiid if thcv were ever united it must have been before the times of 
which we have any record. The theory of a development of Greek 
medicine from the rites of Asciepius, though defended by eminent 
names, must acccmlingly be rejected. 

DeoehpmefU of Medicine in Greece. — ^It is only from non- 
medical writers that anything is known of the development of 
medicine in Greece before the age of Hippocrates. The elaborate 
collections made by Daremberg of medical notices in the poets 
and historians illustrate the relations of the profession to society, 
but do little to prepare us for the Hippocratic period. Nor is 
much importance to be attached to the influence of the philo- 
sophical sects on medicine except as regards the school of 
Pythagoras. That philosopher and several of his successors 
were physidans, but we do not know in what relation they stood 
to later medical schools. We must therefore hasten onward to 
the age of Pericles, in which Hippocrates, already called " the 
Great," was in medicine as complete a representative of the 
highest efforts of the Greek intellect as were his contemporaries 
the great philosophers, orators and tragedians. The medical 
art as we now practise it, the character of the physician as we 
now understand it, both date for us from Hippocrates. The 
justification of this statement is found in the literary collection 
of writings known by his name. Of these certainly many arc 
falsely ascribed to the historidl Hippocrates of Cos; others are 
almost as certainly rightly so ascribed; others again arc clearly 
works of his school, whether from his hand or not. But which 
are to be regarded as the " genuine works " is still uncertain, 
and authorities are conflicting. There are clearly two schools 
represented in the collection — that of Cnidus in a small pro- 
portion, and that of Cos in far the larger number of the works. The 
latter was that to which Hippocrates belonged, and where he 
gave instruction; and accordingly it may be taken that works 
of this school, when not obviously of a different date, are 
Hippocratic in doctrine if not in actual authorship. 

Hippocratic Medicine.-^The first grand characteristic of Hippo- 
cratic medicine is the high conception of the duties and status of 
the i^ysician. shown in the celebrated " Oath of Hippocrates " and 
elsewhere — equally free from the mysticism of a priesthood and 
the vulgar pretensions of a mercenarv craft. So matured a ]^n>- 
fessionai sentiment may perhaps have Dccn more the growth of tmic 
and organization than the work of an individual genius, but certainly 
corresponds with the character universally attributed to Hippocrates 
himself. The second great quality is the singular artistic skill and 
balance with which the Hippocratic physician used such materials 
and tools as he possessed. Here we recognize the true Greek vcd^peofoir. 
But this artistic completeness was closely connected with the third 
cardinal virtue of Hippocratic medicine — the dear recognition of 
disease as being equally with life a process governed bv what we 
should now call natural laws, which could be known by observation, 
and which indicated the spontaneous and normal direction of 
recovery, by following which alone could the phvMcian succeed. In 
the fourth place, these views of the " natural history of disease " 
(in modem language) led to habits of minute observation and accu- 
rate interpretation of symptoms, in which the Hippocratic school 
was unrivalled in antiquity, and has been the model tor all succeeding 
ages, so that even in these days, with our enormous advances in 
knowledge, the true method of clinical medicine may be said to be 
the metmxl of Hippocrates. 

The actual science of the Hippocratic school was of course very 
limited. In anatomy and physiology little advance had been made, 
and so of pathology in the sense of an explanation of morbid processes 
or knowledge of diseased structures there could be very little. The 
most valuable intellectual possession was a large mass of recorded 
observations in individual cases and epidemics of disease. Whether 
these observations were systematic or individual, and how they were 
recorded, are points of which we are quite ignorant, as the theory 
that the votive tablets in the temples supplied such materials must 
be abandoned. 

Though the Hippocratic medicine was so largely founded on 
observation, it would be an error to suppose that dogma or theory 
had no place. The dominating theory ojf disease was the humoral, 
which has never since ceased to influence medical thought and 
practice. According to this celebrated theory, the body contains 
tour humours — blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile, a right 
proportion and mixture Of which constitute health; improper 
proportions or irregular distributionj disease. It is doubtful whether 
the treatise in which this theory m fully expounded («-cpl ^6«^iot 
hSpinrov) is as old as Hippocrates himself: but it was regarded as 
a Hippocratic doctrine, and, when taken up and expanded by Galen, 
its terms not only became the common property of the profession, 



but passed Into general titeratvre and common language. Aooth^ 
tlippocn&tic d(K trine, the JnOutiice pI v^hich i) not even yet exhauurd, 
i« thitof the healing powtr of namre. Not that Hippocrates tAught^ 
at he wmt aftcrvtarU^ re&roachtd with teaching, that iwurc is 
sufBcient tor the cure of diicaic*5 'or he held itront^ly tht efficacy 
[}[ art. But he recagmzcd, at least in acute d)«asc^, « natucu 
procev which the humours wen through — being hrst of dl cm/iL 
then paMing throui^K Mc/itm or digestion, and fifully bein^ pxpelted 
by resolution ar friiif through oru^ of the lutumL channcU of the 
body. Tht duty oi the phy^t^rin vm to lorcsce thest chan^t^ 
'* to assist or not to hiddcf thcnii" »o that '] the i-iclf tnan might 
conquer the di&caie with the help of the phyiician-" The time« at 
which criKs were to be c\pecied wcj^ naturally looked for with 
anxiety; and it was a candiiiA^ point in the Hippocratic system to 
foretell them with pn«:Uion. Jiipftncr^lc*, in^uenccd at is thought 
by the Pythagorean doctrines of number, uiu|ht that they were to 
be expected an days hxed by ceftain numericjt^l rules, in some cajei 
on cjad* in others on even numbers^ — the celebrated docttiiw of 
^' critical diye." This f.il«e pmriuon can have had no practical 
value, but may have enforced habits of minute cb^rvatioo. It 
fallows from wKai hai been said that prugt^aH), or the art of fort* 
telling the coui^e and event of the d'i^fOj', WAS a strong pi>int vith 
tht Htppocratic physiciani. In this they have perhaps never been 
cxrclLed. Diagnoiit, or recognition ol the dW^**:, mutt have 
been neceifiarily imperfect^ when no scientific noiology or ^ttetn 
of disea^ existed, and the knowledge of anatofny wnA quite in^ 
adequate to allow of a piredse determination of the Mat of diaea^e^ 
but iymptoms were no doubt observed and interpreted skillutly. 
The pulse If not spoken of in any of the works now attributed to 
Hippocrates hintielf, though it 'n mentioned in dther works ol the 
CDUeclion. 

In the treatment of discaje. the Hippocratic school attached great 
importance to diet, the variatiotu nixeasary in different dJMSei 
being minutely defined. Medicines were regarded aa ol «ecQiidary 
importance, but not neglected, two hundred and siMy-five drufs 
being mentioned at dfScrent pbces an the Hippocratic wwln. 
Blood letting was known, but not ^reatlv practised. The highest 
tniportance was attached to nppJytng all leraedies at the nght 
momenta and the general principle enforced of making nil influences 
— iniCfnal and external— co-operate fi:^r the relief of the patient. 
The prifieiplci of trvalment just mentioned apply more especiaUy 
to the cure of acute di«a$e&; but they arc the moit nalient character^ 
istica of the Hippocratic athooL In chronic cases diet, exercise aod 
natural methods were chiefly reJicd upon. 

The schuol of CnidU4, m distinguished from that of Cob. qI which 
Hippocrates is the rrpn^cntatlve, appean to have diflercd in attach^ 
ing mOTT importance to the diffefCDces of special dLsca&efi. and to 
have made more use ot dfu^ A treaiiat on the diuaies of womcn^ 
contained En the Hippoctatw; co[lectii>nH and of remarkable practical 
value, h attributed tu this srhouL. 

The above sketch of Hiprjocrtitic medicine will make it less 
ncce$L^ry to dwell upon the detaiU relating to subsequent medical 
QchooU of sects in ancient liflKi The general concept inn ol the 
physician** aim and taak rentain^l the same, though, aa knowledge 
ii4icteued, there wa* much div-et^entx both in theory and practice — 
even oppo^ng schools wen; found to be developing some part of the 
Hippocratic system. Direct opponenta or repudiators of the autho< 
rity of Hippocntcii were rafc. all generally appealing to his autharitv. 
But, inscn*ibly. the kast valuable part of the Hippocratk wode^ 
the theory H was made permanent; the most valuable, the pmctical. 
nee^«ted* 

F£iii-Hipp&Cfaiic JlfifiliitM*.^^ After Hippcjcratea the prttgrea of 
medicine la Gncrce d<^t not call for any special remark in such a 
tketch a*thi5.butmentionDiiuatbcmadeofone great name. T hough 
none of Ari»toi1c'e wTitiii|s are atrictiy medical, be hat by his 
re&irchts in artatomy and physiology contributed greatly to ihe 
progres* of medio nc. It ihoufd aVso be remembered that he was 
of an Avlcpiad family, and received that partly medical educattoo 
which wa4 tmdiiipnal In such fa mi Lies, and also himself ii said to 
have practised medicine as an aniateur. Mom-Twr. his works on 
natural history douhtleu furthered the prepress among the Greeks 
of Aciences tnlHitary to medicine, though the only specimena of 
euch wurki which have come down to us from the Peripatetic 
schoo} are those of Theophrasiua, who may be eon^dered the 
founder of the scientific tftudy of botany. Among his encyxlopaedic 
writitigr* wert some on medical subjects^ of which fragments only 
have been preacTvcd. The Peripatetic school may have bern mom 
favourable to the development of medicine, aa of other departments 
of natural knowledge, than any other; but there ii no evidence ihac 
any of the philosophical ichwaU had important influence on the 
progress of medicine. The fniit of Ari*lotIe's teaching and ejujnpk 
wan seen later on in the schools of Akxandda. 

The century after the death of Hippocratei it a time atmort blank 
in mediual annaR It is probable that the tcicnce, like oiheri, 
sh4nrt1 in the general intellectual decline of Greece after the Mace- 
donian euprcmacyt but the works of physician* of the period art 
almpflt entirely loit, and were so even in the time of Galen. Gikn 
c[a!^& them all as of the dogmatic school; but^ whatever may haw 
been ibeir characterisllca, they are o\ no importance in the Uitory 
of ihe scieoce. 



HISrORYI 



MEDICINE 



43 



Aksminam Sckoel ef if «itnM.— The dispenbn of Greek 
wdatot and intellectaal activity through the world by the 
cooqnests of Alexander and his successors led to the formation 
of more than one learned centre, in which medicine among other 
scimcrs was represented. Fergamum was early distinguished 
for its medical school; but in this as in other respects iu repu- 
tation was ultimately effaced by the more brilliant fame of 
Alexandria. It is here that the real continuation and develop- 
ment of Hippocratic mrdirine can be traced. 

In one department the Alexandrian school rapidly surpassed 
its Greek original — namely, in the study of anatomy. The 
dissection of the human body, of which some doubtful traces or 
hints only are found in Greek times, was assiduously carried out, 
being Uvoured or even suggested perhaps by the Egyptian 
custom of disembowelling and embalming the bodies of the 
dead. There is no doubt that the organs were also examined 
by opening the bodies of living perK>na— criminals condemned 
to dnth being given over to the anatomists for this purpose. 

Two eminent names stand in the first rank as leaders of the 
two earliest scboob of medicine which arose in Alexandria, 
fierophilus and Erasistratus. 

Hcrophiliis (A3X-280 b.c.) was a Greek of Chakedon, a pupU of the 
achoob both oTCos and of Cnidus. He was especially noted for 
his praCoaad fcaearcbes in anatomy (see i. 803), and in the know- 
ledge and practice of medicine he appears to have been equally 
tenowned. He professed himself a ctose adherent of Hippocrates, 
MvA adopted his theocv of the humours. He also made extensive 
oe of onigs and of bleedii^. The reputation of Herophilus is 
J by the fact that four considerable physicians wrote works 
him and his writings, and he is furtner spoken of with 

voice 
to 



ntrngs, 

the kqgbest regpect by Galen and Celsus. 



. . ._, , , By the general 

of tke medical world of antiquity he was placed only second 



k (d. 2to B,c.) waa the cqntfmporuy and rival of 
Little u hxiown at his ljfe„ accept that he spent some 
e'm the court of Seteucus Nicator at Aotioch before coming to 
aadfia, and that he cultivated anatonny tate in tife, after he 
kat taken up hii abode in the latter axy, Hh nurmTrjus works 
vt ska alnott entirely tt^^ fra^Tncnit^ ontv beirg^ prv-tierved by 
dlen »ad otben. ErojiifTratus^ insiead cf (oUaving Hippocrates 
at Heniphllus did. depreciated him. and iecmi to hav« been rather 
tigfttmn and iiidrprndrnt in his viewL He appears to have leaned 
tp MciianioLl expLi nations of the cymptomi of diirase^ as was 
^tlL^ the ca^ with inHamfnatiofi, of which be |;ave the first 



Dtiooaii though nccca&arily inadequate^ theory. 

TV TWO KhoQpIs composed of the (olbwcrs of Kcraphilus and 
En^HTfarui rrspcctivrly lonu divided brtwren tbt-m the medical 
> ■" ' r A"' •. ■ i:'.! T'-- ::;■,:■- .3 r'..Ty i -r. .h'r- ' L : i. timbers of 
both sects have been preserved, but it would be useless to repeat 
them. The Herophilists still reverenced the memory of Hippocrates, 
sad wrote numerous commentaries on his works. They produced 
may eminent anatomists, but in the end seem to have become lost 
is thoaredcal subtleties, and to have maintained too high a standard 
of Etciary cultivation. The school of Erasistratus was less distin- 
guished in anatomy than that of Herophilus, but paid more attention 
to the special symptoms of diseases, and employed a great variety 
d dr^B. It was longer-lived than that of Herophilus, for it still 
sambered many adherents in the 2nd century aftef Christ, a century 
after the latter had become extinct. 

• The Erasistrateans paved the way for what was in some respects 
At most important school whkh Alexandria produced, that known 
as the emptTK, which, though it recognised no master by name, may 
beiwisidcfed to have been founded by Philinus of Cos (280 B.C.). a 
papfl of Herophilus: but Serapion, a great name in antiquity, and 
GJandas of Tarentum. who traced the empirical doctrine back to 
the writings of Hippocrates, are also named among its founders. 
The most strikinf( peculiarity of the empirics was that they rejected 
anatomy, regarduig it as usdess to inquire into the causes of things, 
and thus, as they contended, being the more minute in their observa- 
tion of the actual phenomena of disease. They professed that'their 
whole practice was based upon experience, to which word theyjg;ave 
a speoal meaning. Three sources, and three only, could experience 
(kaw from: obsnvation, history (i^. recorded observation), and 
jsdrroent by analosy. These three bases of knowledge were known 
as the " tripod " of the empirics. ^ It should not, however, be for- 
Sotten that the empirics read and industriously commented on the 
works of Hippocrates. They were extremely successful in practical 
Btttters. especially in surgery and in the use of drugs, ana a large 
part of the routine knowledge of diseases and remedies which became 
ttadixional in the tiroes of the Roman empire is believed to have 
been derived from them. In the 2nd century the school became 
dosdy ooonected with the philosophical sect of the Sceptics, whose 
kader. Sextos (200 ■.€.). was an empirical physician. It lived and 
' ' 1 far beyond this time, when transplanted to Rome, not ll 



l«s th^xi m iti native Alrxandrta. and appears to be recognisable 
even up to the begin fitng of the middle ages. 

If we look at the work of the Alexandrian schools in medidne 
u a whole, wc must admit that the progress made was great 
and permaneni. The greatest service rendered to medicine 
was undoubtedly tlie syitcmatic study of anatomy. It is dear 
I hit the knowledge of fund ion (physiology) did not by any 
Qiean^ keep pace with the knowledge of structure, and th^ 
was probably the reason why the important sect of the empirics 
were able ctitirely to dispense with anatomical knowledge. The 
doctrines of Hippociatfs, though lightly thought of by the 
Er^iiiratcans, still were no doubt very widely accepted, but 
the practice of the Hippocr^iic school had been greatly improved 
in almost every depart tnent — stirgery and obstetrics being 
probibly tbose in which the Alexandrian practitioners could 
compare most favourably with those of modem times. We 
have BOW to trace the fortune^ of this body of medical doctrine 
and practice when transplanted to Rome, and ultimately to 
the whole Roman world. 

Ritm4» Mtdkine. — The Romans caimot be said to have at 
any time originated or possessed an independent school of 
medicine^ They had from cariy times a very complicated 
$y&tem of superstitious medicine, or religion, related to disease 
und the cure of dkeosc, borrowed, as is thought, from the 
Etniwtrts; and, though the sa^ying of Pliny that the Roman 
people got on for six hundred years without doctors was 
doubtless ii> exaggeration, and not, literally speaking, exact, 
it must be accepted for the broad truth which it contains. 
When a medical profession appears, it is, so far as we are able 
to trace it, OS an importation from Greece.' 

The Am Greek physkriao whose name is p reser ved as having 
ntip-aicd to flome was Afvha^athus, who came over from the 
Pelopannesuji in iifi a.c; but there were probably others before 
bim. When Greece wat made a Roman province, the number of 
luch phyMcUits vho sought thdr fortunes m Rome must have been 
yerv Urge. The bitter words of M. Pordus Cato, who disliked them 
as he did other irrprtrsentativvs of Greek culture, are evidence of 
thiL The JDCUE eminent of these earlier Greek physicians at Rome 
was AacJepiideSi the friend of Cicero (bom 124 tf.c. at Prusa in 
Bitbynki}^ He came to Rome £i» a young man, and soon became 
distingubbcd both for hb meiical skill and his oratorical power. 
He introduced a system which. k> far as we know, was his own, 
thouj^h lounded upon the Epicurean philosophical creed; on the 
fjrajrtical lidc it coniTanTied pri'tty closely to the Stoic rule of life, 
thus adapting iticlf to thr Icanin^^s of the better stamp of Romans 
in the later timei of the republic. According to Asclepiades all 
disca^cB depended tipon altef^itioiiB in the size, number, arrangement 
or movement of the '* atom^^ " uf which, according to the doctrine 
of Epicurus, thu tuxJy consisted* These atoms were united into 
rjatajgefi (rfp^t) ihrougb which the juices of the body wereconveyed. 
This qw:trifle, of which the dcv^Eopments need not further be followed* 
was important chiefly in so /ar that it was perfectly distinct from, 
and opposed to, the humoral ftathology of Hippocrates. In the 
treatment of di«cau Asclcpiadt;^ sltachcd most importance to diet, 
cKcrcise, patitjve rricntrfnent* or frictions, and the external use of cold 
water—in short, to a nK^lfied athletic training.^ He rejected the 
vii m^durairix natMTCr, pointing out that nature in many cases not 
orily did not help but manrd the cure. His knowledge of disease 
and aurgk^a] skill were, as appears from the accounts ^iven by 
Ceiaus^ ami CaeliuJ AurelLanu*, very considerable. Asclepiades had 
many pupih who adhf-mj mote i>r less closely to hb doctrines, but 
it was especially one of thijm, Thcmison, who gave permanence to 
the teachings of hi^ n^ster by framing out of them, with some 
modi 5e.3t bos, a new aystem of medical doctrine, and founding on 
this ba»si a tchoril which bited for some centuries in successful 
rivalry with th« Hippocratic trad h ion, which, as we have seen, was 
up to that time the prevailing influence in medicine. 

This jiy^eiti wai known as methodism, its adherents as the 
racthodict or ituMhodistJi. Ita main principles were that it was 
uiiele» to consider the causes of a disease, or even the organ affected 
by the disease, and that it was sufficient to know what was common 
to all di!X!a4Be4. vii. thdr common fiualiiies (communitates.KOii'ATin-ft). 
Of these thei^ were three possible forms— ji) relaxation, (2) con- 
c faction of tht minute p^t^jtages or rSpoi, and (3) a mixed state, partly 
U*. partly constrktcd. The signs of these morbid states were to 
be kiutid in the general conititutimn of the body, especially in the 
excretioni. B»tde& thii it was important only to consider whether 
the diM^ave was scute or chronic^ whether it was increasing, declining 
or stationary. Treatment of diacaie was directed not to any spc^Jfl 
ori^n, nor to producing the eriscs and critical discharges of the 
tfippociatic ichool, but to correcting the morbid common condition 
or ■'community," relajdng the body if it was constricted, causing 



44 



MEDICINE 



[HISTXAY 



contraction if it was too lax, and in the " mixed state " acting accocd- 
ing to the predominant condition. Thu «mple rule of treatment 
was the system or " method " from which the school took its name. 

The methodists agreed with the empirics in one poiAt, in their 
contempt for anatomy; but, strictly speaking, they were d«^matists, 
though with a dogma different from that oT the Hippocratic school. 
Benoes Themison, its systematic founder, the ichool boasted many 
physicians eminent in tneir day, among whom Thessalus of Tralles, 
a half-educated and boastful pretender, was one of the most popular. 
He reversed the Hippocratic maxim " art is long," promising his 
flcholan to teach them the whole of medicine in six months, and had 
inscribed upon his tomb . Urpopk^, as being superior to all living 
and bygone physicians. 

In the 2nd century a much greater name appeare among the 
methodists, that of Soranus of EphesuSj a physician mentioned with 
praise even by TertuUian and Augustine, who practised at Rome 
in the rcjgns of Trij.in iiniJ M:i.ffri:in. Sir.miL- i- x:i...vmi Ny ri work, 
at ill evLiLnt in Ibe Greek (origjirut, an the dtsifd^^ of WL>cncri, and aUu 
by the Latin work of Caehua Aun'UaniJS, thirc ce^nturici latrr, on 
acute and chronic diseases, which is based upon, if not, as some thinki 
an actual translatio'n of, thi^ chief work of ScrraauA, and whkh is the 
principal flounie of our knowledge of the methodk ichool. The 
work on diseaBes of women is the only cncnplete work on that flubject 
which haa come down to ui fracn antiquity, and thowA remarkable 
Fullnc^a of practical knowledge in relation to it& subject, ft b 
notable that an important instrument ol rtsearch^ the ipeculum, 
which ha» been reinvented in modem tirne^p wa$ uwd by Soranui; 
and wccimenis of fttlll earlier date, showing gr^^t mechanjrcal perfec- 
tion, have hcf-n found among the ruini of Poiript^ii- Th? work on ' 
acute and chronic disca^« Ls also full of practica] knowledge, but 
p&netraLed with the theorici gf the mcthodist*. 

The methodic Kh»i lasted ccruinly for some centuna» and 
InducncH the nivivnl of medical acknci! m the middle afic*. though 
overshadowed by the cr^atcr rrputaliiin of Galen, It wis the first 
deAnite product of Girtk medicine on Roinan #oil, bur was destined 
to be foilciwcd by o[hc», which kept up a more or lea* successful 
rivalry with it^ and with the Hippocntic tradition. ' 

The »-<!alled pneumatic school was foundnj by Athenaeui, in the 
Ut century after Christ. According to its doctrines the normal 
ai well aj diseased actions of the body ^-eie to be rEfcrred to th< 
Operation of the pneuma or univer§al soul. This doctrine, crudely 
Eranftferred from philosophical speculation^ was intended to reconcile 
the butnoral (or Hippcicjatic]i and solidist (or methodic] school*; 
but the methodists leetn to have claimed Atbenaeui as one of 
themselves. 

The conflicts of the oppoung schools, and the obvious deficiencies 
of each, led many physicians to try and combine the valuable parts 
of each system, and to call themselves eclectics. Among these were 
found many of the most eminent physicians of Graeco-Roman tinles. 
It may be sufficient to name Ruius or Ephesus (2nd cwitury A.D.), 
and Archigenes (JL a.d. 90), who is mentioned by JuvenaL 

Although no system or important doctrine of medicine was 
originated by the Roman intellect, and though the practice of 
the profession was probably almost entirely in the hands of the 
Greeks, the most complete picture which we have of medical 
thought and activity in Roman times is due to a Latin pen, 
and to one who w&s, in all probability, not a physician. 
A. Cornelius Celsos, a Roman patrician, who lived probably in 
the xst century, appears to have studied medicine as a branch 
of general knowledge. Whether be was a practising physidan or 
not has been a matter of controversy. The conclusion supported 
by most evidence seems to be that he practised on his friends 
and dependants, but not as a remunerative profession. His 
well-known work, De medkina, was one of a series of treatises 
intended to embrace all knowledge proper for a man of the world. 
It was not meant for the physicians, and was certainly little 
read by them, as Celsus is quoted by no medical writer, and 
when referred to by Pliny, is spoken of as an author not a 
physician. There is no doubt that his work is chiefly a com- 
pilation; and Daremberg, with other scholars, has traced a 
large number of passages of the Latin text to the Greek originals 
from which they were translated. In the description of surgical 
operations the vagueness of the language seems sometimes to 
show that the author had not performed such himself; but in 
other parts, and especially in his historical introduction, he 
speaks with more confidence; and everywhere he compares 
and criticizes with learning and judgment. The whole body of 
medical literature belonging to the Hippocratic and Alexandrian 
times is ably summarized, and a knowledge of the state of 
medical sdence up to and during the times of the author is 
thus conveyed to us which can be obtained from no other source. 
The work of Celsus b thus for us only second in importance to 



the Hippocratic writings and the woiks of Galen; but it it 
valuable rather as a part of the Bistoiy Of medicine than as tlie 
subject of that histoiy. It forms no link in the general chain 
of medical tradition, for the simple reason that the infhmKe 
of Celsus (putting aside a few scanty allusioos in medieval 
times) commenced in the xsth century, when his works wevs 
first discovered in manuscript or committed to the press. Since 
then, however, he has been almost up to our own times the most 
popular and widely read of all medical classics, partly for the 
qualities already indicated, partly because he was one ol tlie 
few of those classics accessible to readers of Latin, and partly 
also because of the purity and classical perfection of his language. 

Of Pliny, another encyclopaedic writer, a few words must be 
said, thou^ he was not a physician. In his Natural History 
we find as complete a sunmiary of the pc^ular medidne oC hb 
time as Celsus gives of the scientific medicine. Pliny disliked 
doctors, and lost no opportimity of depreciating regular medicine; 
nevertheless he has left many quotations from, and many details 
about, medical authors which are of the bluest value. He is 
useful to us for what he wrote about the history of medidne, 
not for what he contributed. Like Celsus, he had little influence 
on succeeding medical literature or practice. 

We now come to the writer who, above all others, gathered 
up into himself the divergent and scattered threads of andcnt 
medidne, and out of whom again the greater part of modem 
European medicine has flowed. Galen was a man furnished 
with all the anatomical, medical and philosophical knowledge 
of his time he had studied all kinds of natural curiosities, and 
had stood in near relation to important political events; he 
possessed enormous industry, great practical sagadty and 
unbounded literary fluency. He had, in fact, every quality 
necessary for an encydopaedic writer, or even for a literary and 
professional autocrat. He found the medical profession of his 
time split up into a number of sects, medical sdence confounded 
under a multitude of dogmatic systems, the social status and 
moral integrity of physicians degraded. He appears to have 
made it his object to reform these evils, to reconcile sdentific 
acquirements and practical skill, to bring hack the unity of 
medicine as it had been understood by Hippocrates, and at the 
same time to raise the dignity of medical practitioners. 

Galen was as devoted to anatomical and, bo far as then uhderatood, 
physiological research as to practical medicine. He worked enthusi- 
astically at dissection, though, the liberty of the Alexandrian schools 
no longer existing, he could dissect only animals, not the human 
body. In his anatomical studies Galen had a twofold object — a 
philosophical, to show the wisdom of the Creator in making every- 
thing fit to serve its purpose; and a practical, to aid the diarncMOb 
or recognition, of disease. The first led him into a teleologicu 
system so minute and overstrained as to defeat its own end; the 
second was successfully attained by giving greater prediioo Mod 
certainty to medical and surreal practice in difficult cases. His 
general phvsiology was essentially founded upon the Hippocrati c 
theory ot the four elements, with which he combined the notion of 
spirit (pneuma) penetrating all parts, and mineled with the hurooun 
in different, proportions. It was on this field that he most vehe- 
mently attacked the prevailing atomistic and materialistic views 
of the methodic school, and his conception of the pneuma beoune 
in some respects half metaphysical. His own researches in spedal 
branches 01 physiology were important, but do not strictly belong 
to our present subject. 

The application of physiology to the explanation of diseases, and 
thus to practice, was chiefly by the theory of the temperaments or 
mixtures whkh Galen founded upon the Hippocratic doctrine of 
humours, but developed with marvellous and fatal ingenuity. The 
normal condition or temperament of the body depended upon a 
proper mixture or proportion of the four elements-— hot, cokl, wet 
and dry. From faulty proportions of the same arose the hUemperia 
(" distempen "), which, though not diseases, were the occask»n 
of disease. Equal importance attached to faulty mixtures or 
dyscrasiae of the blood. By a combination of these morbid pie- 
dispositions with the action of deleterious influences from without 
all diseases were produced. Galen showed extreme inaenuity in 
explaining all symptoms and all diseases on his system. No pheno> 
menon was without a name, no problem without a solution. And. 
though it was precisely in his fine-spun subtlety that he departed 
furthest from scientific method and cHractical utility, it was this very 
quality whkrh seems in the end to nave secured hb popularity and 
established hb pre-eminence in the medical worid. 

Galen's use of drugs was influenced largely by the same theories. 
In dn^ were to be recognized the same elementary qualtttes-^iot» 



HISTORY] 

ooU* BKiiit* dryi Ac'-m in the Inmiaii bodvj tMO, on tott pnmaMc 
of cariaf by ooBtraries. the me of one or other was indicated. The 
■ liliqma of Galen contain lew of ample objective obeervattons than 
tine of aevcral other ancient phyncians, all being swept into the 
c i if re at of dofmarir exposition. But there b enough to show the 
thorou^inesa and extent of hu practical knowledge. Unfortunately 
It was nei t her this nor his seal for research that chiefly won him 
foOowcn. but the oompleteneas of his theoretical explanations, 
wUdi fell ia with the mental habits of succeeding centuries, and 
were wmdk as have flattered the intellectual indolence of all ages. 
But the repotatioo of Galen grew slowlv; he does not appear to have 
cnioved any pre-eainence over other iMijpcians of his time, to roost 
of wbom he was strongly opposed in opinion. In the next seneration 
he bcgaa to be esteemed onW as a phQoeopher; gradually his system 
was implicitly accepted, and it enjoyed a great though not exclusive 
r— f ff-T''^'*T T till the fall of Roman civilisation. When the 
Arabs pnirisrri themselves of the scattered remains of Greek 
cidture, the works of Galen were more highly esteemed than any 
others except those of Aristotle. Through the Arabs the Galenical 
svHem found its way back a^in to western Europe. Even when 
Affsbiaa medicine gave way before the direct teaching of the Greek 
aittfaors rescued from n^lcct, the authority of Galen was increased 
isatesd of being diminished ; and he assumed a position of autocracy 
in medical science which was only slowly undermined by the growth 
of modem science in the 17th and l8th centuries. 

The histofy of medicine in Roman times is by no means the 
tame thing as the history of the fate of the works of Galen. For 
tone centuries the methodic school was popular at Rome, and 
prodnced one physician, Caelius Aurelianus, who must be pro- 
nooBccd, next to Celsus, the most considerable of the Latin 
medical writers. His date was in all probability the end of the 
4th or the beginning of the 5th century. The works bearing 
hb name are, as has been said, entirely based upon the Greek 
of Sonaas, but are important both because their Greek originals 
aie kst, and because they are evidence of the state of medical 
practice in his own time. The popularity of Caelius is evidenced 
by the fact that in the 6th century an abridgment of his larger 
«»ric was recommended by Cassiodonis to the Benedictine monks 
for the study of medicine. 

Before quitting this period the name of Aretaeus of Cappadocia 
Bst be meationed. So little is known about him that even 
his date cannot be fixed more closely than as being between 
the second half of the ist century and the beginning of the 3rd. 
His wocks have been much admired for the purity of the Greek 
style, and his accurate descriptions of disease; but, as he quotes 
DO medical author, and is quoted by none before Alexander of 
Aphrodisias at the beginning of the 3rd century, it is clear that 
k be l o n ge d to no school and founded none, and thus his position 
is the chain of medical tradition is quite uncertain. Alexander 
ef Aphrodisias, who lived and wrote at Athens in the time of 
Sqitimins Severus, is best known by his commentaries on 
Aristotle, but also wrote a treatise on fevers, still extant. 

Amdemi Uadicime mfkr Gbiim.— The Byxantine school of medicine, 
«bch dooefy corresponds to the Byxantine literary and historical 
sdKMis, followed ckioely in Galen's footsteps, and its writers were 
chiefly oonaptleffs and encyclopaedists. The cariiest b Oribasius 
(326-^p3), whose date and position are fixed by hb being the friend 
sad court physician of JuOan the Apostate. He was a Greek of 
feiamum, educated in Alexandria, and long resident in Byzantium. 
Hiigfcat work ZMwiwysi Impvuvk, di which only about one-third 
hMbeen pceserved, was a medical encyclopaedia founded on extracts 
fam HipfMicrates. Galen, Dioscondes iJL a.d. 50) and certain 
Gfeek writera who are otherwise very imperfectly known. The 
work B thus cue of great historical value but 01 no orbinality. 
The next name iriiich requires to be mentioned b that 01 Aetius 
(A.D. SSi^)* * compiler who closely followed Oribanus, but with 
iaferior powers, ana whose work also has an historical but no original 
valoe. Ahigher rank amoc^ medical writers b assigned to Alexander 
«f Tialles (535-605), whose doctrine was that of an eclectic Hb 
pnK^cal and therapeutical rules are evidently the fruit of hb own 
qpefbnc e , though it would be difficult to attribute to him any 
deckled advance in ntrdify? knowledge. But the most prominent 
ffwc ia Byzantine medidne b that of Paul of Aegina (Paulus 
Aegiaeta), who lived probably in the eariy part of the 7th century. 
His dkill. espedaUy in surgery, must have been considerable, and 
hb Icr^MA fives a very complete picture of the achievements of 
the Gfwcha m thb department. Another work, on obstetrics, now 
kit, was equally famous, and procured for him, among the Arabs, 
the aaoie of " the Obstetrician." Hb repuution lasted through 
the middle ages, and was not less in the Arabian schoob than in the 
^'-^ la this respect Paulus b a most important influence in the 
oMot of medkhif. Hb great work on surgery was eariy 



MEDICINE 



45 



translated Into Arabic, and became the fonndatlofi of the turgerv 
of Abukasis. which in turn \\q anticipit^) w44 cmi? of the ehij^ 
sources of surgical knowledge ta Eur^^pt m the rnidrJk o^ci. The 
succeeding period of Byxantine history hjj^ so lUtle Uvourablr to 
science that no name worthy of note occyn agiin (thoush many 
medical works of thb period air stiM c^xtAnt} till the t^th century, 
when we meet with a group of whten. Dtmetnu^ PefLifiDmenuv 
Nicolaus Myrepsus andjonannn, cilted Act nanus, vbo liouhihcd 
under the protection of the fatieologi. The work of ihc Ust ha» 
some independent merit; but lU arr interrstin^ jl^ ^ho^in-E d fiuioa 
of Greek and Arabbn medicine^ the Utter haviEjg begun to cxeruiiie 
even in the nth century a rrflrTs influence on the schoctU of By- 
zantium. Something was borr , ! from the &rhaol of Salcma, 
and thus the close of Byzanti. \^ brought infO conncusn 
with the dawn of science in modern burope. 

thii 

Cai . , . 

must be mentioned as showing the perustence of the methodic 
schooL An abridgment of one of hb writings, with the title of 
Aurdius, became the most popular of all Latin medical works. As 
a writer he was worthy of a better period of medical literature. 
Little else was produced in these times but compilations, of the most 
meagre kind, chiefly of the nature of herbals, or domestic receipt- 
boon; among the authors of which it may be sufficient to name 
Serenus Sammonicus ^rd century), Gargilius Martialb (^rd century) 
and Marcellus Empincus (sth century). Certain compilations atUI 
extant bear the falsely-assumed names of eminent writers, such as 
Pliny and Hippocrates. A writer with the (perhaps assumed) name 
of Apuleius Platonicus produced a herbal which held its ground 
till the 15th century at least, and was in the 9th translated into 
Anglo-Saxon. Thoe poor coimMlations, together with Latin 
translations of certain works of Galen and Hippocrates, formed a 
medical literature, meagre and unprogressive indeed, but of which 
a great part suryived through the middle ages till the discovery 6f 
printing and revival of leammg. It b important to remember that 
thb otMCure stream of tradition flowed on, only partially affected 
by the influx of Arabian, cr even the eariy revival of purer classical 
learning. 

Arabian Medicine. — ^The rise of the Mahommedan Empire, 
which influenced Europe so deeply both politically and intel- 
lectually, made its mark also in the history of medicine. As in 
the parallel case of the Roman conquest of Greece, the superior 
culture of the conquered race asserted its supremacy over their 
Arab conquerors. After the Mahommedan conquests became 
consolidated, and learning began to flourish, schools of medicine, 
often connected with hospitab and schoob of pharmacy, arose 
in all the chief seats of Moslem power. At Damascus Greek 
medicine was zealously cultivated with the aid of Jewish and 
Christian teachers. In Bagdad, imder the rule of HftrOn el 
Rashid and hb successors, a still more flourishing school arose, 
where numerous translations of Greek medical works were made. 
The names of Mesua, or Yal^yft ibn Mftsawaih (d. a.d. 857-858), 
celebrated for his knowledge of drugs, and ^onein ibn Is^aq el 
*IbftdI (d. 873) or Joannitius, the translator and commentator of 
Hippocrates and Galen, belong to thb period. Certain writings 
of Joannitius, translated into Latin, were popular in the middle 
ages in Europe, and were printed in the i6th century. At the 
same time the Arabs became acquainted with Indian medicine, 
and Indian physicians lived at the court of Bagdad. The 
Islamite rulers in Spain were not long behind those of the 
East in encouraging leanung and medical science, and developed 
culture to a still higher degree of perfection. In* that country 
much was due to the Jews, who had already established schoob 
in places which were afterwards the seats of Moslem dominion. 
From the xoth to the 13th century was the brilliant period of 
Arabian medicine in Spain.* 

The claviic^l period of Arabbn medicine begins with Rhazes (AbO 
Bakr Muftmrnmad ibn j^kany^ el-KAri, K.x>r 925-^26), a native of 
Rum in the province of D^iikm (Perjii), n ho j>ractised with distinc- 
ikin at Bagdad; he followed thp doctrirtea of Galen, but learnt much 
from Hippocfatw, He was xhc^ hr*t of ihe Arabs to treat medicine 
in a comprehtrttive and encyclopaedic manner, surpassing probably 
m volijmir>ou5nif*Si Ga3*n himself, though but a small oroportion 
of hi* works anr cjrtant, RhaZJC4 is dewiTedly remembered as having 
first d«icnbed imall poi and meoatei in an aocurate manner. Hah, 
ij. 'AU ibn el-*AbM», a Pt'raian^ wrote a medical textbook, 
known as tlie '' Rc>>^aV Bctok/' which waa the standard authority 
among the Arabs up to The time of Avkcnna (a.D. 980-1037) ana 
wa« more th&n onee ti^mUted into Latin and printed. Other 



* See Docy, Cat. Cod. Or. Lug. BaL vL 296. 



+6 



MEDICINE 



(HISTORY 



writen ci iMs centuiy need not be mcntiorkcd hcrcj but (lie next, 
the Illh cCTiLjry. a given as the probable thoujj;ti urtcntain iJaic 
of a wnicf whi5 had a grkrit tnHucntc on European medicine, Mcsua 
the youngcf of DamaHrus. vhoii per»n;itity is ob*cu remand of whoic 
very eKi^cncf some ht»ti7rian!i K;3ive doubted^ thinking that the 
name wai auumed by ^d/rre meJicvali Ldtin wcUer. I'he work De 
simUiciifui. which Itcar* bi» naine, was kr ccnturic* a fttandanj 
autnoiity on what wcultl no* be called matem itiedkiiH was printed 
in tweniy-sLx cdiiion» in the 151K century and later^ and «a& used 
in the Icirmation of the hr&t Loiidon pKa^Fnacopoeta,. i^ued Uy the 
College o( PhyMcian^ tit the rekn of JamiA L Either to the loib 
or the 1 ith century tnu&t be nlvncd the name of another Axabi<in 
physician who has a.\x> nttaincd the puiitlon of a. claasic, Abu' I 
vi^Lsim or Abulcasts, of £l-Zahrai near Cordova, in Spain. His 
great vitttk, AitafriJ, a. medical encyclopaedia, is chicBy valued tot 
Its surcic^d portion [alnzarly mentioned), which was translated into 
Latin iri the I6th ccniur^\ and waa for some cenEuricfl a standjsrd 
if not the standard authority on surgery in Europe. Among hi« 
own count ry men the fame 3.mi position of Abulcaus were soon 
eclipsed by the grenter name oi Avkmnna. 

Avicenna h^ »lwfi>-s been regarded a& the chid representative of 
Arabian mrdkine^ He wrote on philosophy also, and tn both 
Mibjects acquii^ the hijjhe^t reputation through the whole of 
eastern Utamt In Mahiunmedan Spain he was Jess regardcid, but 
in Europe his worka rven ecli|>ied nnd tuperseded tho^e of llippo' 
crates and Galen. His style and esL|x»itory power are hi^jhly praised^ 
but the &ubjcct-matler shoH's littk' originality. The workoy which 
he is chiefly known, the celebrated ** canon," js an encyclopaedia 
of medical and siir^icral knowledge, founded upon G^len, Ariniotle, 
the later Greek physieian^, and the earlier Arabuin writerit, unifularly 
compkte and syaittmatic, but is thought not to ihow the practical 
experience of its author. As in the case of Galen, the formal and 
encvdcpawJic trhamcter of Avicenna'a worka was the chief cause 
of his popularity and aiccndancyt though 10 moderii times the» 
very quahtics in a wciciitiric or niedlcal writer would rather cauftc 
him to l^aromc more speedily antiquated. 

In the long list of Arabian medical writers none can here be 
mentioned excvpt the jgreat names ol the Hispano-Kfoorish achooh 
a school both philaKophiciiUy and medically antagoni^^tic to that 
of Avifenna, (Jf these the earliest if Av£N£t>AR or AbumeiX)n» that 
is. Aba ^ien^^tn *AM al-Mahk IbnZuhr [beginnin|^of iitht^ntary), 
a member of a famity which gave several diiiinguished memliers to 
the medical profet.^ion. His chief work, Al-Teysir (facilitatiolt b 
thought to show more practical experience than the writings tif 
Avicenna, and to be lesn based upon diEilccticat ^bik'titfi. It was 
trandated into Latiit* and more than once printed^ a% were ^me of 
his lesser works, whkh thus formed a part of the contribution made 
by the Arabians to European mefbcine, HLi friend and pupil 
AvBRKOES of Cordova (ff »)> m well known for his philosophical 
writings, was also an rttithor in medical subjects, and m such widely 
read in Latin, The famoui Rabbi Maimqkides (a.o. tij5-i204> 

S.o.) doses for us the foil of medical writers oi the Arabi.Tn school, 
is work* exist chiefly in the original Arabic or in HeUrew transla- 
tions; only some smalkf ircatijwa have been translated into Lutin, 
so that no deAnite opinion can be fonned ajt to their imxiical value* 
But, so far as i^ knowu, the independent and rational let io soint 
which the two last -named wrire« ^owed in philosophy did not lead 
them to take any origin at point of view in medidncK 

The works of the Airibi^n nu^ical writer* who have now been 
mentioned form a vi-ry small fraction of the t-xl»ting literature. 
Three hundred mculical writers in Aribic art- enumerated by Ferdi- 
nand VVuitenfcld {i8oS-ia'»), and tithcr hi^torbns have enlarfR] the 
list (Hriierl, but only three liave hmn printed in the originaU a 
certam number more 5 re known through old L^tin translations, and 
the great majority still enist in manuBcriptH II ii thus evident that 
the circumstance of having been transbti^J (which may have been 
in some cases almost an accicleni) is what has chiefly determined 
the inftucntc of parlicubr writers en Wt-^tcm m^kine. But it is 
improbable that further reuearrh will alter the general estimate of 
the value of Arabian medicine:. There can be no doubt that it 
was in the main Greek medicine, modiBed to suit other climates, 
habits and national tastes* ami with «ome important additions 
from Oriental sources. The greater patt is taken from Hippocrates, 
Galen, Oioacoridea and tatcr Greek writers. The Latin medical 
writers were necessarily unknown to the Arabs; ar>d this was partly 
the cauif that even in Europe GaWnic medicine auumed such a 
preponcteranee, the methodic school and Cdsus beinj^ forcotten or 
neglected, tn anatomy and phy^olo^ the Arabians distinctly 
went Wck; in surgery they showed no advance upon the Greek»; 
in p.-actic^t medicine nothing new can be traced, eiscept the descrip- 
tion of ccnain di^a«e» (e.f^ amall-pcK and measles) unknown or 
imperfectly known to the Greeks; the only real advance was in 
pharmacy and the thtrapeurical use of drugs. By their rtbtions 
with the farther East, the AraU became acquainted with valuable 
new remedies which have held their ground till modem times; and 
their skill in chemistry enabled them to prepafie new chemical 
remedies, and form many combinations of those already in use. 
They ^mjduced the firat pharmacopoeia, and established the first 
apochccaiica' shops. Many of tbe moca tod maay Ibtmi «f jnedi- 



cines now used, and in fact the general outline of modem pfaarmacv, 
except ao far as modified by modem chemistry, started with toe 
Arabs. Thus does Arabian medicine appear as judged from a 
modem standpoint; but to medieval Europe, when tattle bat a 
tradition remained of the great ancient schools, it was invested with 
a far higher degree of originality and importance. 

It is now necessary to consider what was the state of medicine 
in Europe after the fall of the Western Empire and before the 
influence of Arabian science and literature began to be feh. 
This we may call the pre-Arabian or Salemitan period. 

Medicine in the Early Middle Ages: School 0/ SaUmo.—ln 
medical as in dvil history there is no real break. A continuous 
thread of learning and practice must have connected the lasl 
period of Roman medicine already mentioned with the dawn of 
science in the middle ages. But the intellectual thread is 
naturally traced with greater diffictilty than that which is the 
theme of dvil history; and in periods such as that from the 
5th to the xoth century in Europe it is almost lost. The chief 
homes of medical as of other learning in these disturbed times 
were the monasteries. Though the sdcnce was certainly not 
advanced by their labours, it was saved from total oblivion, and 
many andent medical works were preserved either in Latin or 
vernacular versions. The Anglo-Saxon Lecchdoms ^ of the nth 
century, published in the Rolls series of medieval chronicles 
and memorials, admirably illustrate the mixture of magic and 
superstition with the rdics of andent sdence which constituted 
monastic medicine. Similar works, in Latin or other languages, 
exist in mantiscript in all the great European libraries. It wfs 
among the Benedictines that the monastic study of medicine first 
received a new direction, and aimed at a higher standard. The 
study of Hippocrates, GaJcn, and other dassics was recommended 
by Casslodorus (6th century), and in the original mother-abbey of 
Monte Cassino medicine was studied; but there was not there 
what could be called a medical school; nor had this foimdation 
any connexion (as has been supposed) with the famous school 
of Salerno.* 

The origin of this, the most important source of medical knoir- 
ledge in Europe in the early middle ages, is involved in obscurity. 
It is known that Salerao, a Roman colony, in a situation noted 
in ancient times for its salubrity, was in the 6th century at least 
the seat of a bishopric, and at the end of the 7th century of a 
Benedictine monastery, and that some of the prelates and hi^icr 
clergy were distinguished for learning, and even for medical 
acquirements. But it has by recent researches been deariy 
established that the celebrated Schola sakmitana was a purdy 
secular institution. All that can with certainty be said is that 
a school or collection of schools gradually grew up in which 
espedally medicine, but also, in a subordinate degree, law and 
philosophy were taught. In the 9th century Salemitan physicians 
were already spoken of, and the dty was known as Cinias 
hippocratica. A little later we find great and royal perscmages 
resorting to Salerno for the restoration of their health, among 
whom was William of Normandy, afterwards the Conqueror. 
The number of students of medicine must at one time have been 
considerable, and in a corresponding degree the number of 
teachers. Among the latter many were married, and their wives 
and daughters appear also in the lists of professors. The most 
noted female professor was the cdebrated Trotida in the xxth 
century. The Jewish dement appears to have been important 
among the students, and possibly among the professors. The 
reputation of the school was great till the 12th or 13th century, 
when the introduction of the Arab medicine was gradually fatal 
to it. The foundation of the imiversity of Naples, and the rise 
of Montpellier, also contributed to its decline. 

The teachings of the Salemitan doctors are pretty well known 
through existing works, some of which have only recently been 
discovered and published. The best-known is the rhyming Latin 
poem on health by Joannes de Mcditano, Regimen sanitatis Salemi. 
professedly written lor the use of the " king of England," supposed 
to mean William the Conqueror; it had an immense reputation 
in the middle ages, and was afterwards manytimes printed, and 
translated into most European Unguages. This was a popular 
work intended for the hiity ; but there are others strictly professionaL 



* Derived from the Anglo-Saxon laece, a physictan, and dom, a law. 



HISIORY] 



MEDICINE 



+7 



Anioag tibe viicen it nmv be mfScieiit to mention htm Garfopontus; 
Cbfdio* irfw wroce the Awatowte porci, a well-known mcdicrval booki 
Jonaan Phteariiu, fint of a family of physicians bearing tht same 
■aoae; whose Fraciica, or medical compendium, wd5 arterwArd» 
■eveial tunes printed; and Trotula, believed to be the wife oi the 
lart-naawd. All of these fall into the fint period befgir the advent 
of Aiabiaa medicine. In the transitbnal period, whi^n the Araban 
school began to influence Eurouan medicine, but before the Salcmi- 
tans vefe superseded, comes Nicolau» Praepositus, who wr^Ec the 
A n lH t tariw m, a collection of formulae for compound medicines, 
which b ecame the standard work on the subject, and th« foundjiion 
of naoy later compilations. An equally {wpular writer was Gillcs 
de Garbeil (Aegidius Corboliensb}. at one time a teacher at Sale; no, 
afcerwafds court physidan to Philip Augustus of France, who com- 
posed several poems in Latin hexameters on medical mibjtzcts. 
Two of then, on the urine and the pulse reflectively, aecaLncd the 
pfifinn of hk'^'t^I classics. 

None of these Salemitan works rise much above the rmk dt 
cnmpilation^ being founded on Hippocrates, Galen and later Greek 
writers, with an unmistakable mixture of the doctrines of the 



But they often show much nractk^l ex|:>eric-iicCi and 

the naturalistic method of the liippocratic schooU The 

1 plan of treatment u dietetic rather than pharmaceulicati 
VxtoA the art of preparing drugs had reached a high degree of 
foinnle iit y at Salerno. Anatomy was as little regarded ss k VAi 
ia the later ancient schooli, the empiric and methodu:, but demon- 
strations of the p^rtfi of the body were given on swine. Althouf^h 
it f»i»iwy be sud that the icience ol tnedkine waji advanced at 
Sslerao, still its decline was irreincd at a time wht-n every other 
faraadi of learning W4$ rapndly UUin^ into decay; and there can be 
nodoabt that the ob4crvatiOTt of p$ti<^nt$ in hofpilalf, and proMbly 
diaical instruction* wf/^ nuidc u^c c4 in karnin^ and teaching. The 
Khool of Salerno thui forms ii b^id^^ between the anCMrnt and the 
oodim medicine, mori: dirtrc though less eonspicuou^ than that 
dreatoits route, through Byiantium, Bagdad and Cordova^ by 
which Hippocrates and Carcn, in Arabian drts», again entered 
Ike European world. Thc^ch the glory of Salerno had departed, 
the Kbooi actually existed till it wa» Anally dissolved by an edict of 
thecnqiexor Napoleon 1. in the y^r i^tt- 



Jnlndmetion of Arabian Medicine: The Sckeioifk Period.^ 

AboQt the middle of the xxth century the Ar&bisui medical 

vriters began to be known by Latin translations in the Weatem 

VDihL Constantinus Africanus, a monk, was the author of 

the eazUcst of such versions (a.d. 1050) ; his labours were direetcd 

duefy to the less important and less bulky Arabian authots^ of 

shorn Haly was the most noted; the real classic? «erc not 

Btrodoccd tUl later. For some time the Salemitun medicine 

Ud its ground, and it was not till the conquest of Toledo by 

' Aipbonso of Castile that any lai:ge number of Western Kholan 

cime in contact witli the learning of the Spanish Moots, and 

Qstematic efforts were made to translate their phtlo^^i^phica] 

ud medical works. Jewish scholars, often under the patronage 

of Christian bishops, were especially active in the work, 1ft 

£ci]y also the Oriental tendencies of Frederick BarbaTo$^ 

and Frederick II. worked in the same direction. Gerard of 

Ciemona, a physician of Toledo (11x4-1187), made transLations, 

it is said by command of Barbarossa, from Avicenna and others. 

It is needless to point out the influence of the crusades in making 

Eistem ideas known in the Western world. The influence of 

Aohian medicine soon began to be felt even in th^ flippocriitic 

dty of Salerno, and in the xjth century is said to have held an 

r?ni balance with the older medicine. After this lime the 

brrign influence predominated; and by the time thai the Aristo- 

t^u dialectic, in the introduction of which the Arabs had so 

htfe a share, prevailed in the schools of Europe, the Arabian 

version of Greek medicine reigned supreme in the meditxil world. 

That this movement coincided with the establishment of $ome of 

[be older European universities is well known. The hi^lnry of 

medicine in the period now opening is closely combmed with the 

history of scholastic philosophy. Both were infected with the 

saoe dialectical subtlety, which was, from the nature of the 

Sbbject. especially injurious to medicine. 

At the same time, through the rise of the universities, medical 
laming was much more widely diffused, and the first definite 
fward movement was seen in the school of MontpclLier, where 
ft Bedical faculty existed early in the 12th century^ tifterw,irds 
touted with faculties of law and philosophy. The medical school 
owed its foundation largely to Jewish teachers, themsclvci 
■*y^1n1 in the Moorish schools of Spain, and imbued^ with the 



intenectud independence of the Averroista. Its rising prosperity 
coincided with the dccJixie of the school of Salcmo. fttontpcliier 
became distinguished for the practical and empirical spirit of 
its medicine, 3S contrasted with (he dogmatfc and schcila^tic 
teaching of Paris and other univct^itles^ In Italy, Bologna 
and Padua were ewllest disiingtiished for medical studies— the 
former preserving m<yrt of the Galenical tradition, the latter 
being more progressive and Avierroist* The northern univer- 
sities conLnbuted lit Lie— the fcpuLafion even of Paris being of 
later growth. 

The supremacy of Arabian medicine lasted till the revival oE 
learning, when the study of the medical dassjcs in tbcir original 
language worked another revolution. The medical writers of 
this period, who chiefly drew from Arabian sources^ have been 
called Arabists (though it is difficult to give any clear meaning 
to this term), and were afterwards known as the neolcrica. 

The medical titeracurc of thU period i^ cxt namely volummqui, 
biit e«Acntully •ccond'handr roasiMio^ mainly of commenurics on 
Hippocmte^T G^ltn, Ayiti^nna and ottiers, ca of c^^mpilationi and 
tempfttdiii fXiW k-st original than cammentariei. Among these may 
be mentioned the CsncUtftior of l^tcr ol Abano ((350-1^)15), the 
At^regnfw oi Jacob dc Dondi (i39»-J-J5o), bcth of the ethuol of 
Pddu:i. and the Pandtclae: mrdkinat cif the Saternitan Matthaeui 
Sylvatkua (d. 1342). a iort of medic j1 filo«ary and dicltorujV' But 
for uft the most intenestine fact ii the firat appearance pf bCnplishmen 
aji authcira. o( medif^l worts hav^ing a European r^pyLat;oii. disp^ 
tingui^hfd, accordinji to the testirtiony of iSflscr, by a practical 
tendency characteristic oE the British race, and fostered in the Khool 
of MompeUier. 

The hnt o\ these worki ii the CffmPcndium mtiuinae, abo called 
Laurta or R&m anttkana. of Gilbert (GiFbertu^ Aniflicut. atpout 
1.^90^, said to eofilain j^cximI obscryationt on kprosiy. A more im- 
ponant work, the Practua st¥ tiiiam nKdiciniie^ of Ikrmard Cordon, 
a Scottiih prolej*or at MontpeliJer (written in the yiair t307), wa* 
more widely sprrad, bejn^ trantlaled into French and Itcbrew, and 

Erin led in «evciaL editions. Of these two physicians the first pro 
ably, the Latter certainly, was educated and praetiited abroad, but 
John Gaddesden ([Jto?-[^6i)i (he nuthor of Rosa anf^lva ifU 
firatiiia nedkinar (between T305 and J^i?)* was a g^faduatc id 
medicine of Mertfln College, UKfonJ, ami toiirt phy&^cian, HU 
compendtum is entirely wanting in originality, and perhaiH uniitualty 
destitute of common sense, but it became so popubr as to be n^ 
printed up to the end of the i6tb century. Works of thii kind 
became still moti: abundant in the uth and in the ^rst h,ill of the 
15th century, till the iKrider distribution of the medical clauica in 
the orig^ina! put them out of fashion. 

In surgery I hit period was far more productive than in medicine, 
eapectally'in Italy and Francei but the limits of our &ubjcct only 
permit us to mention Guljtiniu* dc Salicetoof E^iacen^a (about 127SJ1 
Lanlrancbi of Milan (died about 1 306). the Krtnch »ui%t4r3, Guy de 
Chauliac (about t^^o) and the Lnqtishman, John Ardexn (about 
1350). in anatomy alio the bcf^innint; o( a ne*f epoch was made 
by Mondino dc Liucei or Mundinus (iJ7S"ij2(j)» and his followers. 
The medical wriUngs of ArnalJ dc VUlanova {c. IJ3S"<J13> (if the 
Brtriarium prazikae be rightly ascribed to hiinj rise above the rank 
ofcomptbtiDns^ Finally, m the ijtth and especially the t^th century 
we find, under the name of cunJi'/ta, the nrst mcdiwal report* of 
medical ca&eii which ate prrscrvcsJ iti such a fnrm as to k- intcUigihle. 
CoU«-tiotis of €oniUia wc-rip puhlinhed, among others, by Gen ti lis 
Ful|rineu$ before 134(5^ by Bartnlomco Montafjnaria (d, i*70j, and 
by Ba vcri lis de Baveri;^ of Imola (aliout 1450J. The to&t-iiamed 
contains much that is intemtin|f and readable. 

Pitiad of Ike RePitai of Linrnitft.— The impulse which dl 
departments of intellectual activity received from the revival 
of Greek literature in Europe was felt by medicine emong the 
rest. Not that the spirit of the sciente^ or olits corresponding 
practice, was at once changed. The basis of tnetiicinc through 
the middle ages had been lileraty and dogmatic, and it was 
literary and dogmatic still; but ihe medical literature now 
brought lo light — including as it did the more important work* 
of HipjMcrates and Galen, many of them hitherto unknowi*, 
and in addition the forgotten element of Latin medicine, 
especially the work of Celsus— uas in itself f^r superior to the 
second-hand compilations and incoincct versioiis which had 
formerly been accepted as standards. The classical nt>rks, 
though still teprded with unreasoning reverence, were found 
to have a germinalivc and vivifying poweT that carried the 
mind out of the region of dogma, and pteparol the way for the 
scientific movement isvbich has^ been growing in strength up to 
our own di^. 



48 



MEDICINE 



(HISTORY 



Two of the most important results of the revivtl of learning 
were indeed such as are excluded from the scope of this brief 
sketch — namely, the reawakening of anatomy, which to a large 
extent grew out o£ the study of the works of Galen, and the 
investigation of medicinal plants, to which a fresh impulse 
was given by the revival of Dioscorides (a.d. 50) and other 
ancient naturalists. The former brought with it necessarily 
a more accurate conception of physiology, and thus led up 
to the great discovery of Harvey, which was the turning- 
point in modern medicine. The latter gave rise, on the one 
hand, to the modern science of botany, on the other to a more 
rational knowledge of drugs and their uses. At the same time, 
the discovery of America, and increased intercourse with the 
East, by introducing a variety of new plants, greatly accelerated 
the progress both of botany and pharmacology. 

But it was not in these directions that improvement was 
first looked for. It was at first very naturally imagined that 
the simple revival of classical and especially of Greek literature 
would at once produce the same brilliant results in medicine 
as in literature and philosophy. The movement of reform 
started, of necessity, with scholars rather than practising 
physicians — more precisely with a group of learned men, 
whom we may be permitted, for the sake of a name, to call 
the medical humanists, equally enthusiastic in the cause of 
letters and of medicine. From both fields they hoped to expel 
the evils which were summed up in the word barbarism. Nearly 
all medieval medical literature was condenued under this name; 
and for it the humanists proposed to substitute the originals of 
Hippocrates and Galen, thus leading back medicine to its 
fountain-head. Since a knowledge of Greek was still confined 
to a small body of scholars, and a still smaller proportion of 
physicians, the first task was to translate the Greek classics 
into Latin. To this work several learned physicians, chiefly 
Italians, applied themselves with great ardour. Among the 
earliest were Nicolaus Leonicenus of Vicenza (1428-1524), 
Giovanni de Monte or Montanus (1498-1552), and many others 
in Italy. In northern Europe should be mentioned Gulielmus 
Copus (1471-1532) and GUnther of Andcmach (1487-1584), 
better known as Guinterius Andemacensis, both for a time 
professors at Paris; and, among the greatest, Thomas Linacre 
(about 1460-1524; see Linacre). A little later Janus Comarius 
or Hagenbut (1500-1558) and Leonhard Fuchs (1501-1566) in 
Germany, and John Kaye of Caius (1510-1572) in England, 
carried on the work. Symphorien Champier (Champerius 
or Campegius) of Lyons (1472-1539), a contemporary of Rabelais, 
and the patron of Servetus, wrote with fantastic enthusiasm 
on the superiority of the Greek to the Arabian physicians, and 
possibly did something to enlist in the same cause the two 
far greater men just mentioned. Rabelais not only lectured 
on Galen and Hippocrates, but edited some works of the latter, 
and Michael Servetus (1511-1553), in a little tract Syruporum 
universa ratio, defended the practice of Galen as compared 
with that of the Arabians. The great Aldine Press made an 
important contribution to the work, by ediliones principes of 
Hippocrates and Galen in the original. Thus was the campaign 
opened against the medieval and Arabian writers, till finally 
Greek medicine assumed a predominant position, and Galen took 
the place of Avicenna. The result was recorded in a formal 
manner by the Florentine Academy, sometime shortly before 
1535: " Quae, excusso. Arabicae et barbarae servitutis medicae 
jugo, ex professo se Galenicam appellavit et profligato barbaro- 
rum exercitu unum totum et solum Galenum, ut optimum 
artis medicae authorem, in omnibus se sequuturam pollicita 
est." Janus Comarius, from whom this is quoted, laments, 
however, that the Arabians still reigned in most of the schools 
of medicine, and that the Italian and French authors of works 
called Practice were still in high repute. The triumph of Galen- 
ism was therefore not complete by the middle of the i6th century. 
It was probably most so, and eariiest, in the schools of Italy 
and in those of England, where the London College of Physicians 
might be regarded as an offshoot of the Italian schools. Paris 
was the stronghold of conservatism, and Germany was stirred 



by the teachings of one who must be considered apart from all 
schools— Paracelsus. The nature of the struggle between the 
rival systems may be well illustrated by a formidable contro- 
veisy about the rules for bleeding in acute diseasea. This 
operation, according to the Arabian practice, was always 
performed on a vein at a distance, from the organ affect«L 
The Hippocratic and also Galenic rule, to let Mood from, or 
near to, the diseased organ, was revived by Pierre Brissot 
(1470-1522), a professor in the university of Paris. His attempt 
at reform, which was taken to be, as in effect it was, a revolt 
against the authority of the Arabian masters, led to his ezpuiaioii 
from Paris, and the formal prohibition by the parliament of 
his method. Upon this apparently trifling question arose 
a controversy which lasted many years, occupied several uni- 
versities, and led to the interposition of personages no less 
important than the pope and the emperor, but which is thought 
to have largely contributed to the final downfall of the Arabian 
medicine. 

Paracdsus and Chemical Medicine. — Contemporary with 
the school of medical humanists, but little influenced ^ them, 
lived in Germany a man of strange genius, of whose character 
and importance the nu>st opposite opinions have been expressed. 
The first noticeable quality in Paracelsus (c. 149&-1S41) is 
his revolutionary independence of thought, which was supported 
by Jiis immense personal arrogance. Himself well trained 
in the learning and medical adence of the day, be despised 
and trampled upon all traditional and authoriutive teachings. 
He began his lectures at Basel by burning the books of Avicenna 
and others; he afterwards boasted of having read no books 
for ten years; he protested that his shoe-buckles were more 
learned than Galen and Avicenna. On the other hand, he 
spoke with respect of Hippocrates, and wrote a commentary 
on his Aphorisms. In this we see a spirit very different from 
the enthusiasm of the himianists for a purer and nobler philo- 
sophy than the scholastic and Arabian versions of Greek thought. 
There is no record of Paracelsus' knowledge of Greek, and as, 
at least in his student days, the most important works of Greek 
medicine were very imperfectly known, it is probable he had 
little first hand acquaintance with Galen or Hippocrates, while 
his breach with the humanists is the more conspicuous from 
his lecturing and writing chiefly in his native German. 

Having thus made a clean sweep of nearly the whole of 
the dogmatic medicine, what did Paracelsus put in its place? 
Certainly not pure empiricism, or habits of objective observation. 
He had a dogma of his own— one founded, according to his 
German expositors, on the views of the Neoplatonists, of which 
a few disjointed specimens must here suffice. The human body 
was a " microcosm " which corresponded to the " macrocosm," 
and contained in itself all parts of visible nature, — sun, moon, 
stars and the poles of heaven. To know the nature of man 
and how to deal with it, the physician should study, not anatomy, 
which Paracelsus utterly rejected, but all parts of external 
nature. Life was a perpetual germinative process controlled 
by the indwelling spirit or Archeus; and diseases, according 
to the mystical conception of Paracelsus, were not natural 
but spiritual. Nature was sufiident for the cure of most 
diseases; art had only to interfere when the internal physidan, 
the man himself, was tired or incapable. Then some remedy 
had to be introduced which should be antagonistic, not to the 
disease in a physical sense, but to the spiritual seed of the disease. 
These remedies were arcana— 2t, word corresponding partly 
to what we now call spedfic remedies, but implying a mysterious 
connexion between the remedy and the " essence " of the 
disease. .Arcana were often shown to be such by thdr physical 
properties, not only by such as heat, cold, &c, but by fortuitous 
resemblances to certain [>arts of the body; thus arose the famous 
doctrine of "signatures," or signs indicating the virtues and 
uses of natural objects, which was afterwards developed into 
great complexity. Great importance was also attached to 
chemically prepared remedies as containing the essence or 
spiritual quality of the material from which they were derived. 
The actual therapeutical resources of Paracelsus induded a 



msnntv] 



MEDICINE 



+9 



Imiye Bumber of meullic prepantions, in the introduction 
of tome of which he did (ood service, and, among vegetable 
p wp ara t ioBs, the tincture of opium, still known by the name 
be ^vc it, laudanum. In this doubtless be derived much 
advaBta^e horn his knowledge of chemistry, though the science 
«as as yet not disentangled from the secret traditwns of alchemy, 
and was often mixed up with imposture. 




; of medicine attach great importance to the 
revok of Faiacebus against the prevailing systems, and trace in 
kii wridogs antictpations of many sdentihc truths of later times. 
That his penooality was influential, and his intrepid oriffinality of 
great value as an example in his own country, is undeniable. As a 
he has been not inaptly compared to Luther. 
at in the universal history of medicine we cannot 
J. The chief immediate result we can trace is the 

I certain mineral remedies, especially antimony, the 

«e of which became a kind of badge of the discif^ of Paracebus. 
The use of these remedies was not. however, necessarily connected 
villi a belief in his system, which seems to have spread little beyond 
bis own country. Of the followers of Paracelsus some became mere 
■ystical qmcks and impostors. Others, of more learning and better 
icputa, were distinguisned from the regular physicians chiefly by 
their oae of chemical remedies. In Prance the introduction of 
s ariawm y gwc rise to a bitter controversy which lasted into the 
I7th oesttury, and led to the expulsion of some men of mark from 
the Paris faculty. In England '* chemical medicine " is first heard 
of B the ran of Elizabetn. and was in like manner contemned and 
aasied by the College of Physicians and the Society of Apothecaries. 
Bst it should be remembered that all the chemical physicians did 
sot caE Panoeisas master. The most notorious of that school in 
Eoilsad, Fiancu Anthony (1550-1623). never quotes Paracelsus. 
apoa Amald de Villanova and Raimon LulL From this 



, it is always possible to trace a school of chemical 

j who, though condemned by the orthodox Galenists, 

i their gro un d, till in the 17th century a successor of Paracelsus 
anseia tbe celebrated J. B. Van HelmonL 



r of Ike Rerifol of Ancient Medicine,— Tht revival 
of Gakoic and Hippocratic medidne, though ultimately it 
mnf e ii t d the greatest benefits on medical sciences, did not 
isaediatcly puroduce any important or salutary reform in 
pactial medidne. The standard of excellence in the andent 
viitcis was indeed fair above the levd of the i6th century; but 
the fatal habit of taking at second hand what should have been 
acqaired by direct observation retarded progress more than the 
poacsskm of better models assisted it, so that the fundamental 
fu^ of medieval sdence remained uncorrected. 

Nevertbelen loaie progress has to be recorded, even if not 
dae directly to the study of andent medidne. In the first 
place the X 5th and i6th centuries were notable for the outbreak 
of certain epidemic diseases, which were unknown to the old 
phjpsiciaiis. Of these the chief was the " sweating sickness " 
or** English sweat," especially prevalent in, though not confined 
to, the cDoitry whence it is luuned. Among many descriptions 
ef this disease, that by John Kaye or Caius, already referred 
ta, was one of the best, and of great importance as showing 
tlttt the works of Galen did not comprise all that could be 
known in medirine The spread of syphilis, a disease equally 
mknown to the andents, and the. failure of Galen's remedies 
to cure it, bad a similar eff ecL 

In another direction the foundations of modem medidne 
ncR being laid during the i6th century— namdy, by the intro- 
^actkm of dinical instruction in hospitals. In this Italy, 
and especially the renowned school of Padua, took the first 
step, where Gsovanni De Monte (Montanus), (1498-1552), 
already mentioned as a humanist, gave clinical Iiectures on the 
patients in- the hospital of St Frands, which may still be read 
with interest. Pupils flocked to him from all European coun- 
txies; Germans are especially mentioned; a Polish student 
Rpofted and puUished some of his lectures; and the English- 
Ban K^ye was a zealous disdple, who does not, however, 
SBBBB to have done an3rthing towards transpbnting this 
method of instruction to his own coimtry. Inspections of 
the dead, to ascertain the nature of the disease, were made, 
though not without difficulty, and thus the modem period 
«f the sdence of morbid anatomy was ushered in. 

MtOcime m Iftr iTtk Century.— Tht medidne of the early 
XTih cemury presents no features to distinguish it from that 
jcvm z 



of the preceding century. The practice and theory of medicine 
were mainly founded upon Hippocrates and Galen, with ever- 
increasing additions from the chemical school. But the develop- 
ment of mathematical and physical science soon introduced 
a fundamental change in the habits of thought with respect 
to medical doarine. 

These discoveries not only weakened or destroyed the respect 
for authority in matters of sdence, but brought about a marked 
tendency to mechanical explanations of life and disease. When 
William Harvey by his discovery of the circulation furnished 
an explanation of many vital processes which was recondlable 
with the ordinary lavrs of mechanics, the efforts of medical 
theorists were naturally directed to bringing all the departments 
of medidne under similar bws. It is often assumed that the 
writings and influence of Bacon did much towards introducing 
a more scientific method into medicine and physiology. But, 
without discussing the general philosophical position or historical 
importance of Bacon, it may safely be said that his direct 
influence can be little traced in medical writings of the first 
half of the 17th century. Harvey, as is well known, spoke 
slightingly of the great chancellor, and it is not till the rapid 
development of physical science in England and Holland in the 
latter part of the century, that we find Baconian principles 
explidtly recogm'zed. 

The dominant factors in the xyth-century medicine were 
the discovery of the drculation by William Harvey (published 
in 1628), the mechanical philosophy of Descartes and the 
contemporary progress of physics, the teaching of Van Helmont 
and the introduction of chemical explanations of morbid pro- 
cesses, and finally, combined of all these, and inspiring them, 
the rise of the spirit of inquiry and innovation, which may be 
called the sdentific movement. Before speaking in detail of 
these, we may note that by other influences quite independent 
of theories, important additions were made to practical medicine. 
The method of clinical instruction in hospitals, commenced 
by the Italians, was introduced into Holland, where it was 
greatly developed, especially at Leiden, in the hands of Francis 
de la Bo€, called Sylvius (1641-1672). It is noteworthy that 
concurrently with the rise of clinical study the works of Hippo- 
crates were more and more valued, while Galen began to sink 
into the background. 

At the same time the discovery of new diseases, unknown 
to the andents, and the keener attention which the great 
epidemics of plague caused to be paid to those already known, 
led to more minute study of the natural history of disease. 
The most important disease hitherto imdcscribed was rickets, 
first made known by Arnold de Boot, a Frisian who practised 
in Ireland, in 1649, and afterwards more fully in the celebrated 
work of Francis Glisson (1597-1677) in 1651. The plague 
was carefully studied by Isbrand de Diemerbrock, in his De 
Peste (1646), and others. Nathaniel Hodges of London (1629- 
x688) in 1665 seems to have been the first who had the courage 
to make a post mortem inspection of a plague patient. Chris- 
topher Bennet (161 7-1655) wrote an important work on con- 
simiption in 1654. During the same period many new remedies 
were introduced, the most important being dnchona-bark, 
brought to Spain in the year 1640. The progress of pharmacy 
was shown by the publication of Dispensatories or Fharma- 
copoeiae— such as that of the Royal (Allege of Physidans of 
London in 1618. This, like the earlier German works of the 
same kind (on which it was partly founded), contains both 
the traditional (Galenical) and the modem or chemical remedies. 

Van Hdmont. — ^The medicine of the 17th century was especially 
distinguished by the rise of sytems; and we must first speak of an 
eccentric genius who endeavoured to construct a system for himself, 
as original and opposed to tradition as that of Paracelsus. J. B. 
Van Helmont (1578-1644) was a man of noble family in Brussels, 
who, after mastering all other branches of learning as then under- 
stood, devoted himself with enthusiasm to medidne and chemistry. 
By education and position a little out of the regular lines of the 
profession, he took up in medicine an independent attitude. Well ac- 
quainted with the doctrines of Galen, he rejected them as thoroughly 
as Paracelsus did, and borrowed from the latter some definite ideas 
as well as hb revolutionary spirit. Tbe archeus of Paracelsus 



50 



MEDICINE 



PIISTORy 



appean again, but with still further compUcattont--the whole body 
bein^ controlted by the archeus influus, and the organ of the soul 
and Its various parts by the arcket ituiti, which are subject to the 
central archeus. Many of the symptoms of diseases were caused 
by the passions and perturbations of the archeus, and medicines 
acted by modifying the ideas of the same archeus. These and other 
notions cannot be here sutcd at sufficient length to be intelligible. 
It is enough to say that on this fantastic basis Helmont constructed 
a medical system which had some practical merits, that his thera- 

Eeutical methods were mild and in many respects happy, and that 
e did service by applying newer chemical methods to the prepara- 
tion of drugs. He thus had some share, though a share not generally 
recognized, in the foundation of the tatro-cnemical school, now to 
be spoken of. But his avowed followers formed a small and dis- 
credited sect, which, in England at least, can be clearly traced in 
the btter part of the century. 

|. Diuovery of the Circulation of the Blood. — The influence of Harvey's 
discovery began to be felt before the middle of the century. Its 
merits were recognized by Descartes, among the first, nine years 
after its publication. For the history of the discovery, and its 
a>nsequences in anatomy and physiology, we must refer to the article 
Harvey. In respect of practical medicine, much less effect was at 
first noticeable. But this example, combined with the Cartesian 
principles, set many active and ingenious spirits to work to recon- 
struct the whole of medicine on a physiological or even a mechanical 
basis — to endeavour to form what we should now call physiological 
or scientific medicine. The result of this was not to eliminate dogma 
from medicine, though it weakened the authority of the old dogma. 
The movement led rather to the formation of schools or systems 
of thought, which under various names lasted on into the i8th 
century, while the belief in the utility or necessity of schools and 
systems lasted much longer. The most important of these were 
the so-called iatro-physical m' mechanical and the iatro-chemicat 
•chools. 

lolfif-Pkysi^iii Schoal,-^Thc: ij.ira-phy^Ci:il schocil of medkinr 
erew out of phy^iulogical the^riffl. In founder ii ht\d la have been 
G. A. QomU (160^1679)^ wtioac treatise De motu aKimaiiitmy 
publijhi?d la 16^4 ii regarded a» marking an epoch in phy^ioEo^y. 
The tendency of the ichgal was 10 ex pb in the actiuiu and tunf liont 
of the body on phy^aln and especially on mKhanical, principles. 
The movcmenta of bones and muH:l» were referred to the theory 
of Jcvcrst the proce^ oS digestion wai ri^afded as esacntially a 
process of triiurjtioa; nutrition ^nd seeretian were shown to be 
dependent upufl the tension of the vesscU, and so forth. The 
develop nient-» of this school beEong rather to the history of phyMology, 
where they apptfi^r, seen in the hght of modeni bcicnee, as excellent 
though prematufe endcavoLirs in a scientific direction. But the 
influence of thts* theories on practical tnedidne was not gtc^l. 
The moTt j^diciotis of the mKhnnieai or phyai^al school refrained, 
ai a judicioLia modem physiologist does, imm loo immediate 
an applies tiDQ of their principles to daily praclice^ Mechanical 
thcones vfvn introduced into pathology, in ex pb nation ol the 
processes of fever and the like, but had link or no infliuence on 
therapeutics. The mo*E important men in thi» schwl after BoreUi 
were Nicclius Sfen-^n (5tejio)» (ifejI-rSSb), Giorgio B^^Uvj (1669- 
1707) and Ljirren^o [Wlj[m (1643-1704). An English nhysicu^n, WiiliAm 
Cole (.i635-i7i(>), is also usually ranked with ifujm* One of the 
moit ebtiomte developments of the e>'5tctn was that of Arxrhibald 
Fitcairne (1652-1713), a Scoui*h phystddD wlio became professor 
at Leiden, to be spoken of hereafter. 

lairo-CktmUiii 5rA*flrf,— The so<alted iatrr^heidical ichtxA ttocd 
in a much closer rcbt ion to pfactical n^idne than the i^iro- 
phyiural. The principle which mainly distinguished it wm* not 
tnerely the use of chemical medicines in addition to the traditiorkal, 
or, as they were called in distinciiODi " Galenical '* rtmcdin^ bat 
a theory of ptithology or causa iii>D of discaje entirti^ly different from 
the prevailiniE '* humoral " patholoinr'. lis chief aim was to reconcile 
the new viewi in physioloKy and coemlsiTy *ith practkal medicine, 
jfi some theoretical vic*s, and in the use of cenain tv medics, the 
school owed something to Van Helmont and PiracvUns. but rtMlc 
in the main an independent posidon. The founder of the iatro- 
chemical school was S>lvius {ibi^-idiTi}, who belon^td to a French 
family settled in flalland, and was for fourteen years professor of 
medicine at Leiden, wher* he attracted ttudenis from all quarters 
ef Eufupe. He made a resolute attempt to reconstruct medicine 
on the t«H> bases of the doctrine of the circulation of the biood and 
the new views of chemistry. Fermentation, which waa supposed 
to take place in the itomach, played an important part in the vital 

SrfKcsses. Chemical dlst urba ncea of t hcse pnscesscs , called airuHiirs . 
t-i were the cause of fcvTn and oihvr diseases, Somcttfrncs acid 

IDmctimCS alkaline prnf^rtiL-^ firL-L.nnrnUH in thi' LiSM-^* and 

srcfetions of the botk . ' ' ''.inces. 

In nervous dist-ases d. . moat 

important. Still in some parts of his system Sylvius shows an 
anxiety to base his pathology on anatomical changes. The remedies 
he employed were partly galenical, partly chemical He was very 
moderate in the use of bleeding. 

The doctrines of Sylvius be:amc widely spread in Holland and 
Germany: less so in France and Italy. In England they were not 



generally accepted till adopted with some inodi6catioos by Thomas 
Willis the great anatomist (1621-1675), who is the chief English 
representative of the chemical school. Willis was as thorough-going 
a chemist as Sylvius. He regarded all bodies, organic and inorganic, 
as composed of the three elements — spirit, sulphur and salt, the 
first being only found abundantly in animal bodies. The " intestine 
movement of particles " in every body, or fermentation, was the 
explanation of many of the processes of life and disease. The sen> 
sible properties and physical alterations of animal fluids and solids 
depended upon different proportions, movements and combinations 
of these particles. The elaborate work Pharnuueulice ralionalit 
(1674), based on these materials, had much influence in iu time, 
though it was soon forgotten. But some parts of WiUi**» wafVsL, 
such as his de^riptions of ncTvwis dueiscs, and his account 
Uhe earliest? of diabeie^ are cla^ical cofltribMtions to scienli^ 
medicine. In the application of chemislry to the examination (4 
secretions WiHis made same inif;)ortan^ *ieps. The chemical school 
met with violent oppo&ition^ P^i^ly from Hie adheitfnts of ihc ancient 
medicine^ pariEy from the at ro^ mechanical uhoo] To Hoards ihe 
end of the 17th century appeared an En^liih medical reformer who 
sided with none of the«>e ichook, but rnay be said in tome respects 
to \\iivc surpassed and dispen^d with I hem. 

Sydi^nkum and LM-tr.— Thomas Sydenham ([6;4-i6S9} wai 
educated at Oxford <3nd at Montpelller. He was well atauaintedl 
with the works of the ancient physicians, and probably fairly so 
with chemistry. Of hii knowledge of anatomy nothing definite 
can be said, as he seldom refers to it. Hi* main avowed^ pfinciplc 
was to do without hypothesis, and study the attual di^ea^fs in an 
unbiassed manner As his model in mmical methodA, Syilenhjim 
repeatedly arid pointedly relera to Hlppocr^les^ and he has n>Oi 
unfairly been called the English Hippwrtiies. He re^mbled hU 
Greek master tn the hi^h value he set on the tiudy of the " oalural 
history of disease "\ in the importance he attached to '* epidemic 
canititution ''-^that is, to the inHnence of weather and other natunl 
causes in modifying disease; and further in his conception of th^ 
heading poxLicr of nature in disease^ a doctrine which he even 
expanded beyond the teaching of Hippocrates. According to Syden- 
ham, a dtM^ase is nothing more than an effort of tvature to nestorv 
the health of the patient by the climinaLion of the morbific matter. 
The extent to which his practice was inHuenced by this and other 
a priori conceptions prevents us from classing Sydenkim as a pure 
empiric; but he had the rajre merit of never permitting himjidf to be 
en>s.iaved even by his own theories. Still less was his mind warped 
by either of the two crcat ey stems, the classiLdl and the chemical, 
which then divided tne medicil world. S)^dcn ham's influence on 
Europe-in medicine was very p-eat. His principles were wetcorrted. 
as a TL'E . ■ : -[■•'• M . - ■ h tl-. ■ ■- v:\ v.w r ,■ V. , I - ■ ■ . ■■! t !-■■ ■■■-■r^\r:,'\ -V, pi: V- 

He introduced a milder and better way of treating fevers— especially 
»[m\ll|' ..:, ' , nfic medicines — 

csptcii.illy Jv■flJ^'<,Lf^ ^j,j1v. ilv ^.1^ JiJ j.j^uH.,iik ^ bleeding, and 
often carried it to et,cc**. Another important point in Sydenham's 
dciclrine is bia clear recOfljniiii>n of many di^ea^-* as mnng what 
would be now callcrl ip^ajift and not due raerL'ly to an alteratioa 
in the primary (jualiiic» or humours of the older schools. From 
tht* spnngs hi* hish appfiKtition of specific medicines. 

One name ehouTd always be mentioned along with Sydenham— 
that ol his friend John Locke. The great senutional philosopher 
was a thoroughly traiticd physiciann and practised privately. He 
sfiared and dvf ended many of Sydeiiham'a prlncipEc^, and in the few 
me^lical obscrvariLm.), he has left ihows himacli to be even more 
thorou^h-EoinB fhan the ** English Hippocrates/* It is deeply to 
be regretted in the interests of medicine that he did not write more, 
ft is, hotvever, n;asona ble to suppose that his commanding intellect 
often makes itself felt in the words of Sydenham, One sentence 
of Locke's, in a tetter to William Molvneux, sumj up the practical 
side of !^ydcnham's teaching: — 

" You Ginnot imagine how far a little observation carefully made 
by a nun not lied up to the four humours fGaleni, or sal, sulphur 
and mercury fParaceUusl, or to acid and alcaii [Sylvius and Willis) 
which hat of late prx'vailcd, wid carry a man in the curing of diseases 
though very stubborn and dangerous; and that with very little and 
common things, and almost no medicine at all/' 

We thus see that, wiiile the ^rcat anatomists, physicists and 
chcmLsts — men of the ty|*e of Willis, Bonulli and Boyle^were laying 
found itions which were later on built up into the labric of scientific 
mcniicine, little good wa* done by the premature application of their 
half understood prifldule* to practice. The reform of practical 
medicine was effiaried by men who aimed at, and paKly succeeded 
in, reicciing all hypothesis and feturning to the unbiassed study of 
natural proccsst-s, as shown in health and diseajie. 

Sydenham showed that these prt)a»ses might be profitably studied 
and dealt with without explaining them; and. by turning men's 
minds away from exobnation* and^ fixing them on facts, he enriched 
medicine with a mrtkad more fruitful than any discoveries in detail 
from this lime forth the reign of canonical authority in medicim 
wai at an cndr though the dogmatic spirit long eurvived. 

The i8th Century.— The medicine of the i8tb century is 
notable, like that of the latter port of the lyih, for the strisrinf 



lUnOKYl 



MEDICINE 



51 



after complete theoretical lystemt. Tlic influence of the 

latfx>-f»iiy»cal school was by no means exhausted; and in 

Rngfaiad, especially through the indirect influence of Sir Isaac 

Newton's (1642-1717) great astronomical generalizations, it 

took 00 «. mathematical aspect, and is sometimes known as 

iatiD-mathematicaL This phase is most dearly developed in 

AirhibaM Fitcainie (1652-17 13), who, though a determined 

opponent of meta[Aysical explanations, and of the chemical 

dortrinfm, gave to his own rude mechanical explanations of life 

and disease almost the dogmatic completeness of a theological 

system. His countryman and pupil, George Cheyne (1671- 

i74j)» who lived some years at Bath, published a new theory of 

fevers on the mechanic^ system, which had a great reputation. 

Their English contemporaries and successors, John Frcind, 

William Cole, and Richard Mead, leaned also to mechanical 

explanations, but with a distrust of systematic theoretical 

compleCeneas, which was perhaps partly a national characteristic, 

pertly the result <d the teaching of Sydenham and Locke. 

Freind (1675-1728) in his Emmenologia gave a mechanical 

cxplanatioa oi the [Aenomena of menstruation. He is also 

one of the most distinguished writers on the history of medicine. 

Cole (1635-1716) (see above) published mechaniad hypotheses 

conoeming the causation of fevers which closely agree with those 

of the Italian iatro-mechanical schooL More distinguished 

ia his own day than any of these was Mead (1673-1754), one 

of the most accomplished and socially successful physicians 

of iDodem times. Mead was the pupil of the equally popular 

acd successful John Radcliffe (1650-1714), who had acqtiired 

fnxB Sydenham a contempt for book-learning, and belonged 

to DO school in medicine but the school of common sense. Rad- 

difie left, however, no work requiring mention in a history of 

Bfdirinr. Mead, a man of great learning and intelleaual 

aoirity, was an ardent advocate of the mathematical doctrines. 

" It is very evident," he says, " that all other means of improving 

■Hrrinr have been found ineffectual, by the stand it was 

at for two thousand years, and that, since mathematicians 

have set themselves to the study of it, men already begin to 

talk so intelligibly and comprehensibly, even about abstruse 

Bitters, that it is to be hoped that mathematical learning 

wiB be the distinguishing mark of a physician and a quack." 

His If ccAdnicu/ Account of Poisons, in the first edition (1702), 

pn an explanation of the effects of poisons, as actingf'only 

•a the bkiod. Afterwards he modified his hypothesis, and 

Rferrcd the disturbances produced to the " nervous liquor," 

viucfa he supposed to be a quantity of the " universal clastic 

■alter " diffused through the universe, by which Newton 

opIaiDed the phenomena of light — i.e. what was afterwards 

ailed the luminiferous ether. Mead's treatise on Tke Paveer 

tftke Sun and Moon over Human Bodirs (1704), equally inspired 

ij Newton*s discoveries, was a premature attempt to assign 

the influence of atmospheric pressure and other cosmicol causes 

ID producing disease. His works contain, however, many 

ori^nal experiments, and excellent practical observations. 

Janes Keill (1673-1719) applied Newtonian and mechanical 

pcindples to the explanation of bodily functions with still 

peater accuracy and completeness; but his researches have more 

"T**MT""^» for physiology than for practical medicine. 

Boerhaau. — None of these men founded a school— a result due 
is part to their intellectual character, in part to the absence in 
En^Und of medical schools equivalent in position and importance 
to the univerHties of the Continent. An important academical 
pQKtkxi was. on the other hand, one of the reasons why a physician 
bx very different in his way of thinking from the English physicians 
of the aj^e of (^ueen Anne was able to take a far more predominant 
pnitMM in the medical world. Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738) 
VIS emphatically a fcreat teacher. He was for many years profei>sor 
H nedicnse at Leiden, where he lectured five hours a day, and 
eKxiled in influence and reputation not only his greatest fore- 
naexn, Montanus of Padua and Sylvius of Leiden, but probablv 
tvay subsequent teacher. The hcwpital of Leiden, though with 
ordy twelve beds available for teaching, became the centre of 



As the ormniser, and almost the constructor, of the modem method 
of clinical instruction, the services of Boerhaave to the progreis of 
medkine were immense, and can hardly be overrated. In his teach- 
ing, as in his practice, he avowedly fullowed the method of Hippo- 
crates and Sydenham, both of whom he enthusiastically admired. 
In his medical doctrines ho must be pronounced an eclectic, though 
taking his stand mainly on the iatro-mechanical schooL The be^- 
known parU of Boerhaavc's system are his doctrines of inflamma- 
tion, obstruction and " pkrthora. ' By the last named especially 
he was k>ng remembered. Hb object was to make all the anatomical 
and physiok)]pcal acquisitions of his age, even microscopical ana- 



toV 



and founded the noted Vienna school of medicine. 



tomy. which he diligently studied, available for use in the practice 
of medicine. He thus differed from Sydenham, who took almost 
as little account of modern science as of ancient dognuu Boerhaave 
may be in some respects compared to Galen, but again differed 
from him in that he always abstained from attempting to reduce 
his knowledge to a uniform and coherent system. Boerhaave 
attached great importance to the study of the medical classka. 
but rather treated them historically than quoted them as canonical 
authorities. It almost follows from the nature of the case that the 
great task of Boerhaavc's life, a synthesis of ancient and modem 
medicine, and the work in whkh this is chiefly conuined, his 
celebrated InstUuiions, could not have any great permanent value. 
Nearly the same thing is true c\cn of the Aphorisms, in which, 
followmg the example of Hippocrates, he endeavoured to sum up 
the results of his k>ng experience. 

Hoffmann and Siakl.—We have now to speak of two writers in 
whom the systematic tendencv of the i8th century showed itself 
most completely. 

Fricdrich Hoffmann (1660-1742), like Boerhaave. owed his 
influence, and perhaps partly his intellectual characteristics, to 
his academical position. He was in 1693 apiwinted the first pro- 
fessor of medicine in the university of Halle, then iust founded by 
the elector Frederick III. Here he became, as did his contemporary 
and rival Stahl. a popular and influential teacher, though their 
university had not the European importance of Leiden. Hoffmann's 
" system " was apparently intended to reconcile the opposing 
" spiritual " and materialistic " views of nature, and is thoueht 
to nave been much influenced by the philosophy of Leibnitx. His 
medical theories rest upon a complete theory of the universe. Life 
depended upon a universally diffused ether, which animals breathe 
in from the atmosphere, and which is contained in all parts of the 
body. It accumulates in the brain, and there generates the " nervous 
fluid " or pncuma — a theory closely resembling that of Mead on the 
" nervous liquor," unless indeed .Mead borrowed it from Hoffmann. 
On this system are explained all the phenomena of life and disease. 
Health depends on the maintenance of a proper " tone " in the 
tiody — *oine diseases being produced by excess of tone, or " spasm "; 
Qthcrs by "' atony," or want of tone. But it is impossible here to 
fallow ita further developments. Independently of his system, 
whiirh h^ lang ceased to exert any influence, Hoflmann made some 
contnbutJon^ to practical medicine; and his great knowledge of 
chemwiO' (lubletl him to investigate the subject of mineral waters., 
tk wa-^ ^^inally skilful in pharmacy, but lowered his position by 
the prncuirr. which would be unpardonable in a modem physician, 
r,{ tr-.tT,. L:;-.- in secret remedies. 

George Earnest Stahl (1O60-17.VI) was for more than twenty 
years professor of medicine at Hallc. and thu.« a colleague of Hon- 
mann, whom he resembled in constructing a complete theoretical 
system, though their systems had liiile or nothing in common. 
Stahl's chief aim was to oppose materialism. For mechanical 
conceptions he substituted the theory of "animism " — attributing 
to the soul the functions of ordinary animal life in man, while the 
life of other cneatua^ was k-ft to mechanical laws. The symptoms 
of disease were explained as efforts of the soul to rid itself from 
morbid influences, the soul acting reasonably with respect to the 
end of self-preservation. The anima thus corresponds partly to 
the " nature " of Sydenham, while in other respects it resembles 
the archcus of Van Hclmont. Animism in its completeness met 
with little acceptance dunng the lifetime of itji author, but influ- 
enced some of the iatro-physical school. Stahl was the author of 
the theory of " phlogiston ' in cheinistr>% which in its day had 
great importance. 

Halter and Morgagni. — From the subtleties of rival systems it is 
a satisfaction to turn to two movements in the medicine of the 
1 8th century which, though they did not extinguish the spirit of 
system-making, opened up paths of investigation by which the 
systems were ultimately suixrsedwl. These are physiology in the 
modern sense, as dating from ilaller, and pathological anatomy, 
as dating from Morgagni. 

Albrecht von Ilaller (1708-1777) was a man of e\'en more encyclo- 
paedic attainments than Boerhaave. He advanced chemistry, 
botany, anatomy, as well as phyHiology, and was incessantly 
occupied in endeavouring to apply nis scientific studies to practical 
mc(licine. thus continuing the work of his great teacher Boerhaave. 
Besides all this he was probably more profoundly acquainted with 
the literature and bibli<>praphy of medicine than any one iK'fore 
or since. Ilaller occupied in the new university of Gottingcn 
(founded 1737) a position corresponding to that of Boerhaave at 
Leiden, and in like manner influenced a very brgc circle q( ^\x\^ 



52 



MEDICINE 



(HISTORY 



The appreciation of his work in physiology belongs to the history 
of that science; we are only concerned here with its influence on 
medicine. Haller's definition of irriubility as a property of muscular 
tissue, and iu distinction from sensibility as a property of nerves, 
struck at the root of the prevailing hypothesis respecting animal 
activity. It was no longo- necenary to suppose that a half- 
conadouB "anima" was directing every movement. Moreover, 
Haller's views did not rest on a priori speculation, but on numerous 
experiments. He was among the first to investigate the action of 
niMlicines on healthy persons. Unfortunately the lesson which 
his contemporaries learnt was not the imporunce of experiment, 
but only the need of contrivine ether " systems " less open to objec- 
tion; and thus the influence of Haller led directly to the theoretical 
subtleties of \^illiam Cullen and John Brown, and only indirectly 
and later on to the general anatomy of M. F. X. Bichat. The great 
name of Haller does not therefore occupy .a very prominent ^ace 
in the history of practical medicine. 

The work ot Giovanni Ujtti^tj. Mor^aKm ( 169 7- 1 771) had artd 
still preserv'ta a permanent irnportoncc cjcyond that oi all xhe 
contemparLry Uicnriatii. In a leries q( IptterSr J^f stdihiu tl tauiii 
morborufn ptr anaioiiKn indagaiiiy pubLi&hed vhtn he was Jit his 
eightkth year, be describes tiije apptaranm met ^ith at the posi 
mortcrti e^trtminadoa as well zm the ^inptomB during Life in a 
numtier ot owes cf vuknit diaosc^ It waa not the first work pf 
the kirtd* The Swiss phytician, ThfaphUff Bonet (L630-i6l9t)) 
had published hi*. Stfimnlmm in t^T^; jirid Db^efvaiioni of pott 
mi^rteiTi appcafmncci bad been made by Alonunus, P. Tulp, 
RajTHond Vieufwnt, A^M, VaJlsalva, G, M. Landsi^ Haller »nd 
others. But fi^tr before *is so b/gu a colleciion of cases broug^ht 
together, described with such Accuracy, vf illustrated with equal 
anatomical and jnediral knowIedlKc. Morsagni'ji work at once 
made an epoch in the icienc^. Slorbid itiitomy now bccainc a 
ix-cogniied branch of medical rusoarch^ aad the xnovtmtRt was 
started which has lasted till our own day. 

The contribution of Morgai^ni to medical science must be regarded 
as ID some rftjiiects the counterpart of Sydenham's. The latter 
had. in i3i.irh\ r iny anjitoniy, ncjiiected the most solid baEd» Jor 

Bti3il;-ii' ii'- rj !■■ !.r. .i .:: -L';j.tf; though perhaps it vu less 

froii' ' i, ^ ■ L.e, ai he was not attached to a 

liospital, gave him no opportunities. But it is on the combination of 
the two methods — that of Sydenham and of Morgagni — that modem 
medicine rests; and it is through these that it has been able to make 
steady progress in its own field, independently of the advance of 
physiology or other sciences. ^ .^ ^ 

The method of Morgagni found many imitators, both in his own 
oountrv and in others. In England the first imporunt name in 
this field is at the same time that of the first writer of a systematic 
work in any language on morbid anatomy, Matthew Baillie (1761- 
1823). a nephew of John and William Hunter, who published his 
treatise in 1705. 

CuUen and Brown. — It remains to speak of two systematic 
writers on medicine in the i8th century, whose great reputation 
|>revents them from being passed over, though their real contribu- 
tion to the progress of medicine was not great — Cullen and Brown. 

William CulTcn (1710-ijQo) was a most eminent and popular 
professor of medicine at Edinburgh. The same academical influ- 
ences as mrrounded the Dutch and German founders of systems 
were doubtless partly concerned in leading him to form the plan 
of a comprehensive system of medicine. Cullen's system was 
largely based on the new physiological doctrine of irritability, but 
is especially noticeable for the importance attached to nervous 
action. Thus even gout was regarded as a *' neurosis." These 
pathological principles of CuUen are contained in his First Lines oj 
the Practice of Physic^ an extremely popular book, often reprinted 
and translated. More importance is to be attached to his Nosology 
or Classificalion of Diseases. The attempt to classify diseases on 
a natural-history plan was not new, having been commenced by 
Sauvages and others, and is perhaps not a task of the highest 
importance. CuUen drew out a classification of great and needless 
complexity, the chief part of which is now forgotten, but several 
of his main divisions are still preserved. 

It is difficult to form a clear estimate of the importance of the 
last systcmatizer of medicine — John Brown (1735-1788) — for, though 
in England he has been but little regarded, the wide though short- 
lived popularity of his system on the Continent shows that it must 
have contained some elements of brilliancy, if not originality. 
His theory of medicine professed to explain the processes of life 
and disease, and the methods of cure, upon one simple principle — 
4hat of the property of *' excitability, in virtue of which the 
" exciting powers," defined as being (S) external forces and (2) the 
functions of the system itself, call forth the vital phenomena " sense, 
motion, mental function and passion." All exciting powers are 
stimulant, the apparent debilitating or sedative effect of some 
being due to a aeficiencv in the degree of stimulus; so that the 
final conclusion is that the whole phenomena of life, health as 
well as disease, consist in stimulus and nothing else." Brown 
reco^ized some diseases as sthenic, others as asthenic, the latter 
■requirine stimulating treatment, the former the reverse; but his 
practical conclusion was that 97% of all diseases required a " stimu- 
UxxDg '* treatment. In this he claimed to have made the most 



salutary reform became all * physiciaiia fnmi Hippocrates had 
treated diseases by depletion and debiliuting measurea with the 
object of cudog by elimination. It would be tmprafiuble to 
attempt a complete analysis of the Brunonian system; and it is 
difficult now to understand why it attracted so much attention in 
its day. To us at the present time it seems merely a dialectical 
construction, having its beginning and end in definitions: the wonb 
power, stimulus, &c, being used in such a way as not to co r re ap o n d 
to any precise physical conoepdons, still less to definite nAterial 
objects or forces. One recommendation of the system was that 
it favoured a milder system of treatment than was at that time in 
vogue; Brown may be said to have been the first advocate of the 
modem stimulant or feeding treatment of fevers. He advocated 
the use of *' animal soups " or beef-tea. Further, he had the 
disoemment to see that certain symptoms— such as convulsioos 
and delirium, which were then commonly held always to indicate 
inflammation — were often really signs of weakness. 

The fortunes of Brown's system (called, from having been origitt- 
ally written in Latin, the Brunonian) form orie of the straageat 
chapters in the history of medicine. In Scotland, Brown ao Car 
won the sympathy of the students that riotous tonflicu took pboe 
between his partisans and opponents. In England his s^rtcm 
took little root. In Italy, on the other hand, it received enthusiastic 
support, and, naturally, a corresponding degree of oppositioii. 
The most important adherent to BroWn^ system was 1. Rasori 
(1763-1837), who taught it as professor at Favia, but afterwards 
substituted his own system of contra-stimulus. The theoretical 
differences between this and the " stimuli^s '* theory need not be 
expounded. The practical difference in the corresponding treat- 
ment was very great, as Rasori advocated a copious use of Ueedioff 
and of depressing remedies, such as antimony. Joseph FranK 
(1774-1841), a German professor at Pavia, afterwards of Vienna, 
the author of an encyclopaedic work on medicine now fotgot t cn, 
embraced the Brunonian system, though he afterwards introduced 
some modificationsj and transplanted it to Vienna. Many names 
are quoted as partisans or opponents of the Brunonian system in 
Italy, but scarcely one of them has any other daim to be rtiufi - 
bered. In Germany the new system called forth, a little latec« 
no less enthusiasm and oontroverual heat. C. Girtanner (1760- 
1800) first began to spread the new ideas (though giving tnem 
out as his own), but Weikard was the first avowed advocate of 
the system. Rtechlaub (i 768-1 835) modified Brown's system into 
the theory of excitement (Erreguntstheorie), which for a time was 
extremely popular in (Germany. The enthusiasm of the younger 
Brunonians in Germanjr was as great as in Edinburgh or in Italy, 
and led to serious riots in the umversity of GOttingen. In America 
the system was enthusikstically adopted by a noted physician. 
Benjamin Rush (1745-1813}, of Philadelphia, who was followed 
by a considerable school. France was not more influenced by the 



new school than Ei 
positive science am 



neland. In both countries the tendency towards 
nd progress by objective investigation was too 
marked for any theoretical system to have noore than a passtng 
influence. In France, however, the influence of Brown's tneories 
is very clearly seen in the writings of Francois J. V. Brousaais, 
who, though not rightly classed with the system-makers, since his 
conclusions were partly based upon anatomical investi^tion* 
resembled them in tiis attempt to unite theory and practice tn one 
comprehensive synthesis. The explanation oil the meteoric nkfl- 
dour of the Brunonian system in other countries seems to be a* 
follows. In Italy the period of intellectual decadence had set in, 
and no serious scientific ardour remained to withstand the novdtics 
of abstract theory. In (Germany the case was somewhat different. 
Intellectual activity was not wanting, but the great achievements 
of the 1 8th century in philosophy and the moral sciences had 
fostered a love of abstract speculation; and some sort of *'^*wqiral 
or general system was thought indispensable in every department 
of special science. Hence another generation had to pass away 
before Germany found herself on the level, in scientific investigatioi^ 
of France and England. 

Before the theoretic tendency of the i8th century was quite 
exhausted, it displayed itself in a system which, though in some 
respects isolated in the histoiy of medicine, stands nearest to that 
of Brown — ^that, namely, of Hahnemann (see Homobopatht). 
S. C. F. Hahnemann (i 753-1 844) was in conception as revolutionary 
a reformer of medicine as Paracelsus. He professed to base c " ' 



entirely on a knowledge of symptoms, re^rding all investigation 
of the causes of symptoms as useless. While thus rejecting all the 
lessons of morbid anatomy and pathology, he put lorward views 
respecting the causes of dis^^e which hardly bear to be seriouriy 
stated. All chronic maladies result either from three di seases 
psora (the itch), syphilis or sycosis (a skin disease), or else ace 
maladies produced by medicines. Seven-eighths of all chronic 
diseases are produced by itch driven inwards.^ (It is fair to say 
that these views were published in- oiie of his later works.) In 
treatment of disease Hahnemann rejected entirely the notion of 
a vis medicalrix naturae, and was guided by his well-known principle 



* The itch (scabies) is really an affection produced by the |l 

in the skin of a species of mite (Acarus scabiei), and when this is 
destroyed or removed the disease is at an end. 



BKTORYI 



MEDICINE 



53 




''aimSta sinMlifHia rurafltur," vrhidi lie €£pl&in«i u depeadkFiE on 

tl^ la« tbiil m ordcf to |Ft rid ol i disease some remedy muiEt L>i; 

pvt^ -mhicb should Eutntitute fi>r the dixa^c an aclion dyrumicatly 

mmSUt bdt vntAkcr. The original rn;iLiidy brin^ tliu» ^m rid q(, 

ttc vidll fofCt «^uld easily be able to cape with ^nd extiaifuiib 

Ifat ii||btiEf dt^urbance caused by the remedy. SomethinR very 

imihf v&i hdd by Srown, who tiucht that " indirect debility ' 

vom JO be Cured by a I^^ct degree ai the lafne Atimulus as had 

t^Bfld tbc ririfinAl dialurbance. GcncraUy^ however, Hahnemann's 

tfMitrajdici ibov of Brovn* cJhhieIi moving flocneirhac in the 

pUor. Jq order to tdcet panBoies whkh should fulhl the 

&! pfodm-iflff »yinpffflii» Itkc tho*e ol the dL^eaw. Hahne- 

Ee irany ohscrvitioii* oC the action of drugs on heaUtiy 

He did not on|i(iai:e this line of rcMSfth, (or it hii4 been 

FifFi-'- it not onEimfcd*, by H4ileT, and cultivaitetd ty^tematicaLty 

Vf TftwiiM»ai. an Italian '^' comra-$ticnLili»t. "; but nc carmtj U 

isi vitlt pmcb eUbor^tJon. Ht» re»ulu> neverthel£». were vitlaied 

bw bcBBf obtai/ied in the intereac of a theory, and by fJnguUr w;irtt 

J dktnnunatJDiv liv hi> ««Ofid pciiod h* developed tile iheory 

d " potMitiality " oc dyiumfatioo — liamtly. that meditin» paintd 

is Aftitgt^ by being diluted, if the dilutiofi was accompanied by 

lh4.lun£ crt" pDiii]dini£« which w^* iupjpOKd La '* pctenEialize " or 

iStrca* ih€ potency of the medicine. On thiji principle t'l.ihficmann 

BrtcT^ hta orufinal tincturta lo be nxluccd in strength to one- 

ifdcth; ttttnt^ iTm dilutii^msafcain to one-hfti<rih; and w on, 4:vcn 

til iM ihrnicth dilottcin, which he him^']f used b^ preferences and 

Dfrvtdch be *imbcd the highest " poutitiality/' From a. theorcLical 

pane i3( v'l^w Hah mr man n't ii one o1 the abstract ijyiiems+ pretend- 

■C to tiiiL^^r^lity, which modem medicine neither accept 5 nor 

fad^il wdTih while to controvert, tn the treatment of dijrcaie hii 

poetical ioDOvations came at a fortunate time, when the excesses 

«f the depftetoiy system had only partially been superseded by the 

cmulf iajorious opposite extreme of Brown's stimulant treatment. 

luaeaaan'a u»e of mild and often quite inert remedies contrasted 

fnwobly. with both of these. Further, he did good by insisting 

BVn wnpicsty in prescribing, when it was the custom to give a 

■nfarr oi drugs, often beterofl;encous and inconsistent, in the same 

pRscription. But these indirect benefits were quite independent 

of tketrath or Cakity of hb theocetical system. 

Ptsiiite Progress im ike tStk Century.— In looking back on 
tk repeated attempu in the i8th century to construct a uni- 
veml syatcn of medicine, it is impossible not to regret the waste 
tf bcSiaiit gjfts and profound acquirements which they involved. 
It WM fofttinate, however, that the accumulation of positive 
kBOwkdfe in medicine did not cease. While Germany and 
Scotland, as the chief homes of abstract speculation, gave 
both to most of the theories, progress in objective science 
vas most marked in other countries — ^in Italy first, and after- 
Kaids in England and France. We must retrace our steps a 
little to cnuxnerate several distinguished names which, from the 
uainxt of the case, hardly admit of classification. 

In Italy the tradition of the great anatomists and physiolo- 
gists of the 17th century produced a series of accurate observers 
aad practitioners. Among the first of these were Antonio 
Maria Valsalva (1666-17 23), still better known as an anatomist; 
Cioranni Maria Landsi (1654-1720), also an anatomist, the 
a^kor of a classical work on the diseases of the heart and 
aneurisms; and Ippolito Francisco Albertini (1662-1738), 
arkoae researches on the same class of diseases were no less 



la France, Jean Baptiste S^nac (1693-1770) wrote also an 
iaportant work on the affections of the heart. Sauvages, 
•iherwae F. B. de Lacroiz (i 706-1 767), gave, under the title 
lf«$tlapa wtetkodUa, a natural-history classification of diseases; 
Jean Astruc (1684-1766) contributed to the knowledge of 
fracraJ dffr»fM But the state of medicine in that country 
til the end of the 18th century was unsatisfactory as compared 
mth some other parts of Europe. 

In England the brilliancy of the early part of the century 
in prKtical medicine was hardly maintained to the end, and 
pRMnted, Indeed, a certain contrast with the remarkable and 
■■•"gging progress of surgery in- the same period. The roll 
•f the College of Physicians does not furnish many distinguished 
BSBcs. Among these should be mentioned John Fothergill 
(2712-1780), who investigated the " putrid sore throat " 
Hw caUed diphtheria, and the form of neuralgia popularly 
known as tic douloureux. A physician of Plymouth, John 
Bvham (1694-1768), made researches on epidemic fevers, 
a the spirit of Sydenham and Hippocrates, which are of the 



highest importance. William Heberden (1710-1801), a London 
physician, called by Samuel Johnson ultimus Rvmanorum, 
** the last of our learned physicians," left a rich legacy of practical 
observations in the Commenkiries published after his death. 
More imporunt in their resulu than any of these works were 
the discoveries of EowAROjENNEi(f. 9.) , respecting the preven- 
tion of snuill-poz by vaccination, in which he superseded the 
partially useful but dangerous practice of inoculation, which 
had been introduced into Englanc* in 1721. The history of 
this discovery need not be told here, but it nuiy be pointed out 
that, apart from its practical imporUnce, it has had great 
influence on the scientific study of infectious diseases. The name 
of John Pringle (1707-1782) should also be mentioned as one of 
the first to study epidemics of fevers occurring in prisons and 
camps. His work, entitled Observations on the Diseases of am 
Army, was translated into many European languages and 
became the standard authority on the subject. 

In Germany the only important school of practical medicine was 
that of Vienna, as revived by Ckrard van Swieten (1700-1772), 
a pupil of Boerhaave, under the patronage of Maria Theresa. 
Van Swieten 's cominentaries on the aphorisms of Boerhaave are 
thought more valuable than the original text. Other eminent 
names of the same school are Anton de Ha£n (1704-1776), 
Anton Stdvck (1731-1803), Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), and 
John Peter Frank (i 745-1821), father of Joseph Frank, before 
mentioned as an adherent of the Brownian system, and like 
his son carried away for a time by the new doctrines. This, 
the old " Vienna School," was not distinguished for any notable 
discoveries, but for success in clinical teaching, and for its 
sound method of studying the actual facts of disease during 
life and after death, which largely contributed to the establish- 
ment of the " positive medicine " of the 19th century. 

One novelty, however, of the first importance is due to a 
Vienna physician of the period, Leopold Auenbrugger (1722- 
1809), the inventor of the method of recognizing diseases of 
the chest by percussion. Auenbrugger's method was that 
of direct percussion with the tips of the fingers, not that which 
is now used, of mediate percussion with the intervention of a 
finger or plessimcter; but the results of his method were the 
same and its value nearly as great. Auenbrugger's great 
work, the Inventum novum, was published in 1761. The new 
practice was received at first with contempt and even ridicule, 
and afterwards by Stoll and Peter Frank with only grudging 
approval. It did not receive due recognition till 1808, when 
J. N. Corvisart translated the Inventum novum into French, 
and Auenbrugger's method rapidly attained a European repu- 
tation. Surpassed, but not eclipsed, by the still more important 
art of auscultation introduced by R. T. H. Laennec, it is hardly 
too much to say that this simple and purely mechanical invention 
has had more influence on the development of modem medicine 
than all the " systems " evolved by the most brilliant intellects 
of the i8th century. 

Rise of the Positive School in Prance. — The reform of medicine 
in France must be dated from the great intellectual awakening 
caused by the Revolution, but more definitely starts with the 
researches in anatomy and physiology of Marie Francois Xavier 
Bichat (1771-1802). The importance in science of Bichat's 
classical works, especially of the Anatomic ginirale, cannot be 
estimated here; we can only point out their value as supplying 
a new basis for pathology or the science of disease. Among 
the most ardent of his followers was Francois Joseph Victor 
Broussais (177 2-1838), whose theoretical views, partly founded 
on those of Brown and partly on the so-called vitalist school 
of Th6ophile Bordeu (1722-1776) and Paul Joseph Barthez 
( 1 734-1806), differed from these essentially in being avowedly 
based on anatomical observations. Broussab's chief aim was 
to find an anatomical basis for all diseases, but he b especially 
known for hb attempt to explain all /evers as a consequence 
of irritation or inflammation of the intestinal canal (gastro- 
em^rite). A number of other maladies, especially general 
diseases and those commonly regarded as nervous, were attri- 
buted to the same cause. It would be impossible now to trace 



54 



MEDICINE 



(HISTORY 



the steps which led to this wild and iBfUg rince exploded theory. 
It led, among other consequences, to an enormous misuse of 
bleeding. Leeches were his favourite instruments, and so much 
so that be is said to have used 100,000 in his own hospital 
wards during one year. He was equalled if not surp^sed 
in this excess by his follower Jean BouiUaud (1796-1881), known 
for his important work on heart diseases. Broussais's S3rstem, 
to which he gave the name of " Midedne physiologique," 
did much indirect good, in fixing attention upon morbid changes 
in the organs, and thus led to the rise of the strongly opposed 
anatomical and pathological school of Corvisart, Laennec 
and Bayle. 

Jean Nicolas Corvisart (1755-1821) has already been mentionad 
as ibk translator and introducer into France of Auenbrugger's work 
on percussion. He introduced some improvements in the method, 
but the only real advance was the introduction of mediate percus- 
sion by Piore Adolphe Piorry (i 794-1879) in 1828. The discovery 
had, nowever, yet to be completed by that of auscultation, or 
Uttttmng to feQundfr produced In tbc ^h^ by breathing, the move- 
tattiti ol the heart, &c. The combination q\ ih^^: rK-th<>d« con- 
ttituteji what ia now known n pkyjuiat diag,ni?st^. Kenc Tti^ophllp 
Hyacinth^ Laennec (17^1-18^^^ w^u the inventor of this mo^t 
IntpDirtant pcfhap^ of all methodj o\ medkal research. Ex»pt for 
•ome tricing nances of u>und!9 heard in certain dt^eajies^ this method 
wat entirely (Ww. It was definitely expounded in an almost 
compute lorm m hU work De Vausatitaiion mMioit, pubiish^d in 
18 1 Q. LacnnCT attajehcd undue importance ta the ii«e of the 
stethoscDpe. and Uid too much weij^ht on specific »i£ni of apoci/ic 
dueatcsi, mherwbe hi^ method m iiA nmt\ features hai itmaintd 
uncbanKcd. The r«yH ol hi* discovery wai ah entire revalue ion 
ill the knowledge d dL$eiUiei of thv chc^t; but it would be a mistake 
to torget thai «n essentuxL Cactor in ibis revolution wa.> the »mul- 
Utwout study of the cofidttion of the disea^ ^^^m u tccn after 
death. Without the litter, it h di^{;ult to *e* how the inlormation 
cmivey^ by wund> could ever have beeu verified. This increaic 
ot knowledge it Therefore due. not to auscultation alone, but to 
auKultdtion contbJFied with morbid anatomv. In the case of 
Laennec himself thi* qualiAcatiun talcus noihing from his fame, 
for he «cudied 10 minutely the rebliom of post-mortem appearances 
to symptoms during life thm^ hid he not discovered auscultation. 
His mcdfrchcs in morbid anatomy w«juld have made him famous. 
The pBihologico- anatomical method was also followed with great 
«al and tucccs« by Gatipard Laurent Bayle (1774-1816). whose 
researches on tubercle, and the change? of the lungs and other organs 
in coniumption, arc the found^iion of most that has been done 
sinrr Hi- rimr. Ir «-h* f<-\ mur*-- ,in>ecedent to the discovery of 
auscultation. Starting from these men arose a school of physicians 
who endeavoured to give to the study of symptoms the same pre- 
cision as belonged to anatomical observations, and by the combina- 
tion of both methods made a new era in clinical meaicine. Among 
these were Auguste Francois Chomel (1788-1858). Picne Charles 
Alexandre Louis (1787-1872), Jean Cruveilhier (1791-1874) and 
Gabriel Andral (1797-1876). Louis, by his researches on pulmo- 
nary consumption and typhoid fever, had the chief merit of refuting 
the doctrines of Broussais. In another respect also he aided in 
establishing an exact science of medicine by the introduction of 
the numencal or statistical method. By this method only can the 
fallacies which are attendant on drawing conclusions from isolated 
cases be avoided; and thus the chief objection which has been 
made to regarding medicine as an inductive science has been re- 
moved. Louis's method was improved and systematized by 
Loub Denis Jules Gavarret (1809-1890): and its utility is now 
universally recognized. During this brilliant period of French 
medicine the superiority of the school of Paris could hardly be 
contested. We can only mention the names of Pierre Bretonneau 

i 1771-1863), Louis L^n Rostan (1790-1866). Jean Louis D'Alibert 
1766-1837), Pierre Francois Olive Rayer (1793-1867) and Armand 
'rousaeau (1801-1866), the eloquent and popular teacher. 



English Medicine from 1800 to 1840. — The progress of medicine 
in England during this period displays the same characteristics 
as at other times, viz. a gradual and uninterrupted development, 
without sUrtUng changes such as are caused by the sudden 
rise or fall of a new school. Hardly any theoretical system is 
of English birth; Erasmus Darwin (i 731-1803), the grand- 
father of the great Charles Darwin, alone makes an exception. 
In his Zoonomia (1794) he expounded a theory of Ufe and 
disease which had some resemblance to that of Brown, though 
arrived at (he says) by a different chain of reasoning. 
\ Darwin's work shows, however, the tendency to connect 
medicine with physical science, which was an immediate con- 
sequence of the scientific discoveries of the end of the i8th 
centtiry, when Priestley and Cavendish in England exercised 



the same influence as Lavoisier in France. The Eogliah school 
of medicine was also profoundly stirred by the tfarhings of 
the two brothers William and John Hunter, eqiedaUy the 
latter — who must therefore be briefly mentioiMd, tbou^ 
their own researches were chiefly concerned with subjects 
lying a little outside the limits of this sketch. Wiiliam Hunt« 
(17 18-1783) was known in London as a brilliant teacher of 
anatomy and successful obstetric physician; his younger brother 
and pupil, John Hunter (i 728-1793), was also a teacher of 
anatomy, and practised as a surgeon. His immense contribii- 
tiohs to anatomy and pathology cannot be estimated hen^ 
but his services in stimulating research and training invati> 
gators belong to the history of general medidne. They ait 
sufficiently evidenced by the fact that Edward Jenner mmA 
Matthew BaiUie were his pupils. 

The same scientific bent is seen in the greater attentioa 
paid to morbid anatomy (which dates from Baillie) and tht 
more scientific method of studying diseases. An instanos 
of the latter is the work of Robert Willan (1757-18x2) on diieaaci 
of the skin — a department of medicine in which liMtxact aad 
hypothetical views had been especially injurious. WiUan^ 
by foUowing the natural-history method of Sydenham, at 
once put the study on a sound basis; and his work has beta 
the starting-point of the most important modem researdicib 
About the same time William Charles Wells (1757-1817). a 
scientific investigator of remarkable power, and the author 
of a celebrated essay on dew, published observations on altera- 
tions in the urine, which, though little noticed at the 
were of great value as assisting in the important discovery 
some years afterwards by Richard Bright. 

These observers, and others who cannot be mentioned hocv 
belong to the period wtien EnglJih medicine wa^ stiU Uitle 
Infliiienced by ihc French iichooL Shortly after 1815^ howev^^ 
when the con tine n I of Europe wu again open to Engibh travd* 
lers, many English doctors studied in Paris, and the discovetia 
of Lhelr great French contemporaries began to be known. 
The method of aiucultation was won introdticed into England 
by pupils of Laeimtc. John Forbes {1787-1861) m 18^4, 
VViUlam Stohts (i&a4-t87S) of Dublin in 18 is, published 
treatises on the use of the ^tirthoscope, Forbes also translated 
the works of Laennec and Auenbruggtr, and an entire revolutioa 
was soon effected in the knowledge of diseases of the chest. 
Jamei Hope (1801-1841) and Peter Mere Latham (178^1875) 
further developed this subject, and the former was also knows 
for his researches in morbid anatomy. The combination of 
etjnjcal and anatonucal research led, a^ in the hands of the 
great French physicians, to impnrlant disfoveries by Engtiifc 
invesiigators- The discovery by Richard Bright (1780-1 8 58I 
of the di^eue of the kidneys known by his name provett 10 bt 
otie ol the most momentous of the century. It vras pubiljihed 
in ReporU of Medical Cases iiif-lSji. Thomas Addiiwn {ilf^^ , 
1S60) Laku, somtwhjt later, a scarcely inferior place. The 
remarkable physiological dl^covf^rics of Sir Charles Bell (1771- 
184 j) and Marshall Hail {i7g<3-jSs7) for the first time rendered 
possible the dijacntnLnation of di^ases of the spinal coid 
Several of these physician* were also eminent for their diak^ 
teaching— an art in which Englishmen had up till then beea 
greatly deficient. 

Ahhongli many name* of scarcely less note miirht be mentionei 
Among the London ph>$ician$ of the early part of iht centufy. ve 
must pjH them over tu consider the progr^^ of medicine in ScotUnd 
And treUnd, Jn Edinburgh the adimir^bk leaching of Culkn had. 
raiwd the medic;il faculty to a h*j|ht of pr&jfjcritv of which his 
iuccessor. JjTnct Grcgofy ( 175^-1 fji), *as nut unwortf>y. Nil 
nrphcw, Willum Puttency Alc^n (l7^)0^[S^e>), ^vai even md« 
widely known. Thw* freat teacher^ mainljimed in the northnv 
univeriity a continuoui tradition of succ(M4fu] teathing, ^fikh th« 
difference in ac^idemical and other rirtumiiances r^rdcrHJ liirdly 
po&sible in London. Nor was th^^ nonhern KhocI warning in ipecid 
invrstieator^. *uch as John Abercromblt fi 780-1 844 K \nown fqf 
hi« work on diKa^u of the bnin and spinal cord, published in iftilt 
and many others- Tornine to Tnelandn it ihouldf be laid that tl« 
Dyblin school in I hi* periiM_pfoduafd two physiciani of tht hieHgl 
distinct 100 Robcn James Grave* (17Q6-i85J) wai a moat eitioiciit 
^ teacher and obaerver, who«e tecturet ara r^arded «• 



and '^- 



N PROGRESS 



MEDICINE 



55 



dfancal teachinf. and indeed lerved as such to tbe most 
tmcher of the niris school in the middle of this century, 
u William Stdces (1804-1878) was especially known for 
on diaeaaea of the chest and of the heart, and for his 

t Mtikinefrom tSoo to 1840. — Of the other countries 
V it is now only necessary to mention Germany. Here 
home of positive medicine was still for a long time 
rhere the " new Vienna school " continued and sur- 
* glory of the old. Joseph Skoda (1805-1881) extended, 
oae respects corrected, the art of auscultation as left 
MC Karl Rokitansky (1804-1878), by his colossal 
laced the science of morbid anatomy on a permanent 
I enriched it by numerous discoveries of detaiL Most 
lent cultivators of this science in Gcmany in the next 
I were his pupils. In the other German schools, 
ae great names might be found, as Morits Heinrich 
(1795-1873), the founder of the modem era in the 
nervoos diseases, the general spirit was scholastic 
esult barren till the teaching of one man, whom the 
lerman physicians generally regard as the regenerator 
ic medicine in their country, made itself felt. Johann 
iSnkin (1793-1864) was first professor at WUrzburg, 
i at Ztirich, and for twenty years at Berlin (from 
t). Sch6nlein's positive contributions to medical 
ere not large; but he made in 1839 one discovery, 
f small, but in reality most suggestive, namely, 
mitagious disease of the head called favus is produced 
owth in the hair of a parasitic fungus. In this may 
be germ of the startling modem discoveries in parasitic 

His systematic doctrines founded the so-called 

history school *' ; but his real merit was that of the 
r introducer of a method. In the words of H. Hftser: 
a has the incontesuble merit of having been the first 
ih in Germany the exact method of the French and 
(h, and to impregnate this method with the vivifying 
Icrman research." (J. F. P.) 

Progress. — In recent times the positive bent of modem 
i and methods in other spheres of science and thought, 
iaUy in biology, has influenced medicine profoundly. 
ccuracy of observation was inculcated by the labours 
ling of the great anatomists of the 17th century; 
oodem times, experimental physiology was instituted 
y, anatomy having done little to interpret life in its 
ispects. For medicine in England Harvey did what 
Gilbert did for physics and Robert Boyle for chemistry: 
d upon direct interrogation of natural processes, 
iby annihilated the ascendancy of mere authority, 
hile nations were in the making, was an essential 
a the welding together of heterogeneous and turbulent 
The degradation of medicine between Galen and 
i in part it consisted in the blind following of the 
of the former physician, was primarily due to other 
id its new development was not due to the discovery 
perimental method alone: social and political causes 
oocemed in the advance even of the exact sciences. 
ch contributory causes is the more familiar intercourse 

nations which we enjoy in our own day; the ideas 
tion rapidly permeate neighbouring nations, and by 
\ of printed books penetrate into remoter provinces 
iistant lands. Hence the description of the advance 
le in western Europe and America may for the latest 
.aken as a whole, without that separate treatment, 

nation, which in the history of eariier times was 

Italy lost the leading place she had taken in the 

opment of science. The several influences of modern 

France and America became of the first importance 
I medicine; but these tides, instead of pursuing their 

independent streams, have become confluent. The 
leodor Schwann (1810-1882), Johannes MUlIer (1809- 
idolph Virchow and Karl Ludwig (1816-1895) in 
of R. T. H. Laennec and Qaude Bernard in France, 
ted in England, at that of Matthew Baillie, Charles 



Bell. Bright, Graves and othen of the British school, quickly 
made itself felt abroad. 

The character of modem medidne cannot he summed in 
a word, as, with more or less aptness, that of some previous 
periods may be. Modem m«lidne, like modem ggfgf§, 
science, is as boldly speculative as it has been in anmui 
any age, and yet it is as observant as in any natural f****^ _ 
istic period; its success lies in the addition to these '*"V*'mA 
qualities of the method of verification; the fault of previous 
times being not the activity of the q>eculative faculty, without 
which no science can be fertile, but the kuJi of methodical 
reference of all and sundry propositions, and parts of |Moposi- 
tions, to the test of experiment. In no department is the 
experimental method more continually justified than in that 
of the natural history of disease, which at first sight would 
seem to have a certain independence of it and a somewhat exclu- 
sive value of its own. Hippocrates had no opportunity of 
verification by necropsy, and Sydenham ignored pathology; 
yet the clinical features of many but recently described diseases, 
such, for example, as that named after Grkves, and m3rxoedema, 
both associated with perversions of the thyroid gland, lay 
as open to the eye of physicians in the past as to our own. 
Again, to the naturalist the symptoms of tabes dorsalis were 
distinctive enough, bad he noted them. No aid to the trained 
eye was necessary for such observations, and for many other 
sqch; yet, if we take Sir Thomas Watson (X793-X883) as a 
modem Sydenham, we may find in his lectures no suspicion 
that there may be a palsy of muscular co-ordination apart from 
deprivation of strength. Indeed, it does not seem to have 
occurred to any one to compare the muscular strength in the 
various kinds of paraplegia. Thus it was, partly because 
the habit of acceptance of authority, waning but far from 
extirpated, dictated to the clinical observer what he should 
see; partly because the eye of the clinical observer lacked that 
special training which the habit and influence of experimental 
verification alone can give, that physicians, even acute and 
practised physicians, failed to see many and many a sympto- 
matic series which went through iu evolutions conspicuously 
enough, and needed for its appreciation no unknown aids 
or methods of research, nor any further advances of patho- 
logy. We see now that the practice of the experimental method 
endows with a new vision both the experimenter himself and, 
through his influence, those who are associated with him in 
medical science, even if these be not themselves actually 
engaged in experiment; a new discipline is imposed upon old 
faculties, as is seen as well in other sdences as in those 
on which medicine more directly depends. And it is not 
only the perceptions of eye or ear which tell, but also the 
association of concepts behind these adits of tbe mind. It 
was the concepts derived from the experimental methods of 
Harvey, Lavoisier, Liebig, Claude Bernard, Kelmholtz, Darwin, 
Pasteur, Lister and others which, directly or indirectly, trained 
the eyes of clinicians to observe more closely and accurately; 
and not of clinicians only, but also of pathologists, such a% 
Matthew Baillie, Craveilhier, RokiUnsky, Bright, Virchow— 
to name but a few of those who, with (as must be admitted) 
new facilities for necropsies, began to pile upon us discoveries 
in morbid anatomy and histology. If at first in the 1 8th century, 
and in the earlier 19th, the discoveries in this branch of medical 
knowledge had a certain isolation, due perhaps to the pre- 
possessions of the school of Sydenham, they soon became the 
property of the physician, and were brought into co-ordination 
with the clinical phenomena of disease. The great Morgagni, 
the founder of morbid anatomy, himself set the example of 
carrying on this study parallel with clinical observation; and 
always insisted that the clinical story of the case should be 
brought side by side with the revelations of the necropsy. In 
pathology, indeed, Virchow's (1 821-1902) influence in the 
transfiguration of this branch of science may almost be compared 
to that of Darwin and Pasteur in their respective domains. 
In the last quarter of the 19th century the conception grew 
clearer that n^rbid anatomy for the most part demonstrates 



S6 



MEDICINE 



[MODERN PROGRESS 



disease in its static aspects only, and also for the most part 
in the particular aspect of final demolition; and it became 
manifest as pathology and clinical medicine became more and 
more thoroughly integrated, that the processes which initiate 
and are concerned in this dissolution were not revealed by the 
scalpel. 

Again, the physician as naturalist, though stimulated by 
the pathologist to delineate disease in iu fuller manifestations, 
yet was hampered in a measure by the didactic method of 
constructing " types " which should command the attention 
of the disciple and rivet themselves on his memory; thus too 
often those incipient and transitory phases which initiate the 
paths of dissolution were missed. Not only so, but the physician, 
thus fasdnated by " types," and impressed by the silent monu- 
mentsof the pathological museum, was led to localize disease too 
much, to isolate the acts of nature, and to forget not only the 
continuity of the phaste which lead up to the ezemphiry forms, 
or link them together, but to forget also that even between 
the types themselves relations of affinity must exist — and these 
oftentimes none the less intimate for apparent diversities of 
form, for types of widely different form may be, and indeed 
often are, more closely allied than types which have more 
superficial resemblance — and to forget, moreover, how largely 
negative is the process of abstraction, by which types are 
imagined. Upon this too static a view, both of clinical type 
and of post-mortem-room pathology, came a despairing spirit, 
almost of fatalism, which in the contemplation of organic ruins 
lost the hope of cure of organic diseases. So prognosis became 
pessimistic, and the therapeutics of the abler men negative, 
until fresh hopes arose of stemming the tides of evil at their 
earliest flow. 

Such was medicine, statically ordered in pathology, sutically 
ordered in its clinical concepts, when, on the 24th of November 
1859, the Origin of Species was published. It is no 
exaggeration to say that this epoch-making work 
brought to birth a world of conceptions as new as 
the work of Copernicus. For the natural philosopher the whole 
point of view of things was changed; in biology not only had the 
anthropocentric point of view been banished, but the andent 
concept of perpetual flux was brought home to ordinary men, and 
entered for good into the framework of thought. The study 
of comparative pathology, yet in an inchoate stage, and of 
embryology, illuminated and enlarged biological conceptions, 
both normal and abnormal; and the ens reale subsisUns in corpcre 
disappeared for ever — at any rate from physiology and medidne. 
Before Darwin — ^if the name of Darwin may be used to signify 
the transformation of thought of which he was the chief artificer 
— natural objects were regarded, not in medicine and pathology 
only, as a set of hidebound events; and natural operations as 
moving in fixed grooves, after a fashion which it is now difficult 
fpr us (o realize. With the melting of the ice the more daring 
spirits dashed into the new current with such ardour that for 
them all traditions, all institutions, were thrown into hotchpot; 
even elderly and sober physidans took enough of the infection to 
liberate thdr minds, and, in the field of the several diseases and 
in that of post-mortem pathology, the hollownessof classification 
by superfidal resemblance, the transitoriness of forms, and the 
flow of processes, broke upon the view. Thus it came about 
not only that classifications of disease based on superficial like- 
ness — such as jaundice, dropsy, inflammation — were broken up, 
and their parts redistributed, but also that even more set dis- 
eases began to lose their settlements, and were recognized as 
terms of series, as transitory or cxdminatiLg phases of perturba- 
tions which might be traced to their origins, and in their earlier 
stages perhaps withstood. 

The doctrine of heredity in disease thus took a larger aspect; 
the view of morbid series was no longer bounded even by the 
life of the individual; and the propagation of taints, and of mor- 
bid varieties of man, from generation to generation proved to be 
no mere repetition of fixed features but, even more frequently, 
to be modes of development or of dissolution betraying them- 
selves often in widdy diaamilar forms, in series often eitcnding 



over many lives, the terms of which at first sight had 
wholly disparate. Thus, for example, as generations succeed 
one another, nervous disorders appear in various guise; cpi]epqr» 
megrim, insanity, asthma, hysteria, neurasthenia, a motkj 
array at first sight, seemed to reveal themsdves as terms of 
a morbid series; not only so, but certain disorders of otbcs 
sjrsteros also might be members of the series, such as certate 
diseases of the skin, and even peculiar su8ceptU>ilities or immaai- 
ties in respect of infections from without. On the other handt 
not a few disorders proved to be alien to classes to whidi nar> 
rower views of causation had referred them; of such are tabci 
dorsalis, neuritis, infantile palsy or tetanus, now removed fraoi 
the category of primary nervous diseases and placed in one or 
other of the class of infections; or, conversely, certain forms of 
disease of the joinU are now regarded with some certainty at 
members of more than one series of diseases chiefly i««t»tf*^ jm 
the nervous S3rstem. In the effects of simpler poisons the ieoaf» 
nilion of unity in diversity, as in the aflUiation of a peripheiil 
neuritis to arsenic, illustrated more definitely this serial or 
etiological method of dassifying diseases. On the other liaBi^ 
inheritance was dismissed, or survived only as a " 
bility," in the cases of tubercle, leprosy and some other 
now recognized as infectious; while in others, as in qrphiBit It 
was seen to consist in a translation of the infectious doBtat 
from parent to offspring. These new conceptions of the uraltik 
plidty in unity of disease, and of the fluidity and continuity cf 
morbid processes, might have led to vagueness and over-I 
in speciilation and reconstruction, had not the 
method been at hand with dues and tests for the several seriSi 
Of this method the rise and wonderful extension of the sdcnosflf 
bacteriology also furnished no inconsiderable part. 

In the disease of the scalp called favus, Schdnldn had dil> 
covered a minute mycelial fungus; a remarkable disooveiy, far 
it was the first conspicuous step in the attribution _ , ^ 
of diseases to the action of minute parasites. Schdn- iHSr^ 
lein thus did something to introduce new and positive 
conceptions and exacter methods into Germany; but 
nately his own mind retained the abstract habit of his 
and his abilities were dissipated in the mere speculations 
Schelling. Similarly Karl Hoffmann of Wtirzburg wasted Hi i 
appreciations of the newer schools of developmental biology li ^ 
fandful notions of human diseases ar reversions to nonnal 
of lower animals; scrofuU being for him a reversion to the 
rickets to the mollusc, epilepsy to the osdllaria, and so 
Even that distinguished physiologist Johannes MttUer 
a staunch vitalist. Fortunately Germany, which at the 
ning of the century was delivered over to Brownism and 
and was deaf to Bichat, was rescued from this sort of 
by the brilliant experimental work of Claude Bernard and ftt* 
teur in France — work which, as regards the attenuated idraL| 
was a development of that of Edward Jenner, and indeed dK| 
Schwann, Robert Koch worthily following Pasteur with his 1 
on the bacillus of anthrax and with his discovery of that of tn 
culosis; and by the cellular doctrine and abundant labovn^} 
pathology of Virchow. Ludwig Brieger then discovered tiff 
toxins of certain infections; and Emil A. von Behring < 
the ^here of the new study by his discovery of the antitOBMl 
diphtheria and tetanus. In practical medidne the sul 
results of Behring and his followers have in diphtheria atti 
a signal therapeutical success. If the striking conceptions 4 
Paul Ehrlich and Emil Fischer continue to im>ve as fertile \ 
inspiring and directing research as at present they seem to I 
another wide sphere of conceptions will be opened out, 1 
bacteriology only, but also in biological chemistry ai 
molecular physics. Again, besides giving us the due I 
nature of many diseases and to the continuity of many 1 
series, by bacteriology certain diseases, such as acti 
have been recognized for the first time. 

As the prevalence of the conceptions signified and ] 
by the word " phlogiston " kept alive ontological not 
disease, so the dissipation of viulistic conceptions in the i 
of physics prepared men's minds in patholosy for the 



h 



tomh 



MODERN PROGRESS) 



MEDICINE 



57 



views opened by the discoveries of Pasteur on the side 
of pathogeny, and of j. F. Cohnhcim (1839-1884) and of 
Iliya Metchnikoff on the dynamical side of his- 
JUJj^JJ^Jf tology. Of the older ontological notions of disease 
g^Mfc ^^ strongest were those of the essence of fever and 
of the essence of inflammation. Broussais had done 
much to destroy the notion of fever as an entity, but by extrava- 
gances in other directions he had discredited the value of his 
ouia propositions. Yet, although, as Andral and other French 
physicians proved, it was extravagant to say that all fevers 
take their origin from some local inflammation, it was true and 
Bost useful to insist, as Broussais vehemently insisted, that 
" fever " is no substance, but a generalization drawn from sym- 
ptoms comnum to many and various diseases springing from many 
rarious and often local causes; from causes agreeing perhaps 
only in the factor of elevation of the temperature of the body. 
To the establishment of this new conception the improvement 
and general use of the clinical thermometer gave invaluable ad- 
vaatagea. This instrument, now indispensable in our daily work 
It the bedside, had indeed long been known both to physiolo- 
psts (Haller) and to clinicians. In the i8th century A. de HaSn, 
and, in the United Kingdom, George Cleghom (i 716-1789) of 
Dublin and James Currie (1756-1805), carried on the use of the 
tbcmometcr in fevers; and on the continent of Europe in later 
yean F. G. F. von Barensprung (1823-1865) and Ludwig Traube 
(iSLft-x376) did the same ser\'ice; but it is to the work of Karl 
Amnst Wunderlich (iSi 5-1877) that we owe the esUblishmcnt 
of this means of precision as a method of regular observation 
both in pathology and in clinical medicine. By his almost 
ahauuive comparison of febrile movements as symptomatic 
processes Wunderlich dealt the last blow to the expiring doctrine 
of the "entity" of " fever "; while on the clinical side Breton- 
neau and Louis, in 1862-1873, by their careful clinical and patho- 
kpcal studies of forms of fever, relieved the new doctrine 
of the extravagances of Broussais, and prepared the way for 
llie important distinction of enteric from typhus fever by 
A. P. Stewart (1813-1883), William Jenner, William Budd 
(iaci-i83o), Charles Murchison (1830-1879), J. H. F. 
Ajtecricth (1772-1835). Heinrich Gustav Magnus (1802-1870), 
Hma and others. By the learned and acco^npliahed Armand 
Trousseau British and German influences were carried into 
FcaDce. 

Meanwhile Cohnhcim and Metchnikoff were engaged in 
■lesiroying the ontological conception not of fever ^nly, but also 
of isSammation. of which, as a local event, an ontological con- 
cqMFon was no less strongly implanted. By his researches on 
Che Bugration of the white corpuscles of the blood Cohnheim, 
oe the bases laid by Virchow, brought the processes of inflam- 
catkMi «>-i:hin the scope of the normal, seeing in them but a modi- 
iotioD of normal processes under perturbations of rehitively 
Ktcmal incidence; e\'en the formation of abscess was thus 
bfoaght by him within the limits of perversion of processes not 
dibrisg essentially from those of health; and " new formations," 
'pU&:ic exudations," and other discontinuous origins of an 
"essential " pathology, fell into oblivion. And it is not alien 
Iraai the present point of view to turn for a moment to the light 
Ifirgvn on the cardio-arterial pulse and the measurement of its 
■oiions by the more intimate researches into the phenomena of 
the circulation by many observers, among whom in the 19th 
caiDr>- James Hope. £. J. Marey (i 830-1904) and C. F. W. 
lodvig will alwa>-s take a leading place. By them the demon- 
Kiuioo of Har\-cy that the circulation of the blood is in large 
put a mechanical process, and nowhere independent of mechani- 
al hv\, was considerably enlarged and extended. In particular 
tW fuctuations of the pulse in fevers and inflammations were 
heAet understood, and accurately registered; and we can scarcely 
leiJiae now that before Harvey the time of the pulse seems 
BK to have been counted by the watch. Discovery in these 
virioes directions then led physicians to regard fever and inflam- 
■sijoa not as separable entities, but as fluctuating symptom- 
due to swcrvings of function from the normal balance 
coDtin^ent forces. 



As to such reforms in our conceptions of disease the advances 
of bacteriology profoundly contributed, so under the stress of 
consequent discoveries, almost prodigious in their 
extent and revolutionary effect, the conceptions of the JJjJJ^^J^ 
etiology of disease underwent no less a transforma- EUohgy, 
tion than the conceptions of disease itself. It is 
proper to point out here how intimately a pathology thus 
regenerated modified current conceptions of disease, in the 
linking of disease to oscillations of health, and the regarding 
many diseases as modifications of the normal set up by the 
impingement of external causes; not a few of which indeed may 
be generated within the body itself—" autogcnetic poisoning." 
The appreciation of such modifications, and of the working of 
such causes, has been facilitated greatly by the light thrown 
upon normal processes by advances in physiology; so dependent 
is each branch of knowledge upon the advances of contiguous and 
incident studies. To biological chemistry we have been deeply 
indebted during the latter half of the lOth century. In 1872, 
Hoppe-Seyler (1825-1895) gave a new beginning to our know- 
ledge of the chemistry of secretion and of excretion; and Utter 
students have increased the range of physiological and patho- 
logical chemistry by investigations not only into the several 
stages of albuminoid material and the transitions which all food- 
stuffs undergo in digestion, but even into the structure of proto- 
plasm itself. Digestion, regarded not long ago as little more 
than a trituration and " coction " of ingcsta to fit them for 
absorption and transfer them to the tissues, now appears as an 
elaboration of peptones and kindred intermediate products 
which, so far from being always bland, and mere bricks and 
mortar for repair or fuel for combustion, pass through phases of 
change during which they become so unfit for assimilation as to 
be positively poisonous. The formation of prussic add at a 
certain period of the vital processes of certain plants may be given 
as an example of such phases; and poisons akin to muscarin 
seem to arise frequently in development or regression, both in 
animals and plants. Thus the digestive function, in its largest 
sense, is now seen to consist, not only in preparation and supply, 
but in no small measure also of protective and antidotal conver- 
sions of the matters submitted to it; coincidcntly with agents of 
digestion proper are found in the circuit of normal digestion 
" anti-substances " which neutralize or convert peptones in 
their poisonous phases; an autochthonous ferment, such as 
rennet for instance, calling forth an anti-rennet, and so on. 
Now as our own bodies thus manipulate substances poisonous 
and antidotal, if in every hour of health we are averting self- 
intoxication, so likewise are we concerned with the various 
intruding organiiims, whose processes of digestion arc as danger- 
ous as our own; if these destructive agents, which no doubt are 
incessantly gaining admission to our bodies, do not meet within 
us each its appropriate compensatory defensive agent, dissolution 
will begin. Thus, much of infection and immunity are proving 
to be but special cases of digestion, and teleological conceptions 
of protective processes are modified. 

Under the name of chemotaxis (W. Pfeffcr) are designated 
certain of the regulative adaptations by which such ends arc 
attained. By chemical warnings the defensive 
processes seem to be awakened, or summoned; and i^^ittMae*, 
when we think of the infinite variety of such possible 
phases, and of the multitude of corresponding defensive agents, 
we may form some dim notion of the complexity of the animal 
blood and tissues, and within them of the organic molecules. 
Even in normal circumstances their play and countcrplay, 
attractive and repellent, must be manifold almost beyond con- 
ception; for the body may be regarded as a collective organiza- 
tion consisting of a huge colony of micro-organisms become 
capable of a common life by common and mutual arrangement 
and differentiation of function, and by toleration and utilization 
of each other's peculiar products; some organs, such as the liver, 
for example, being credited with a special power of neutraliiing 
poisons, whether generated under normal conditions or under 
abnormal, which gain entrance from the intestinal tract. As a 
part of these discoveries has arisen another but kindred doctrine 



58 



MEDICINE 



{MODERN PROGRESS 



that of honnones (Starling), juices prepared, not for excretion, not 
even for partial excretion, but for the fulfilment of physiological 
equilibrium. Thus the reciprocity of the various organs, main- 
tained throughout the divisions of physiological labour, is not 
merely a mechanical stability; it is also a mutual equilibration in 
functions incessantly at work on chemical levels, and on those 
levels of still higher complexity which seem to rise as far beyond 
chemistry as chemistry beyond physics. Not only are the 
secreted juices of specialized cells thus set one against another 
In the body, whereby the various organs of the body maintain 
a mutual play, but the blood itself also in its cellular and fluid 
parts contains elements potent in the destruction of bacteria 
and of their secretions. Thus endowed, the blood, unless over- 
whelmed by extraordinary invasions, does not fail in subility 
and self-purification. So various are the conditions of self- 
regulation m various animals, both in respect of their peculiar 
and several modes of assimilating different foods, and of protect- 
ing themselves against particular dangers from without, that, 
as we might have expected, the bloods taken from different 
species, or even perhaps from different individuals, are found to 
be so divergent that the healthy serum of one species may be, 
and often is, poisonous to another; not so much in respect of 
adventitious substances, as because the phases of physiological 
change in different species do not harmom'ze; each by its peculiar 
needs has been modified until, in their several conditions of 
life, they vary so much about the mean as to have ))^come, 
almost if not quite alieh one (o another. 

In the preservation of immunity then, in its varipus degrees 
and kinds, not only is the chemistry of the blood to be studied, 
but also its histology. By his eminent labours in cellular 
pathology, Virchow, and Metchnikoff later, gave the last blow 
to the mere humoral pathology Which, after an almost unchal- 
lenged prevalence for some two thousand years, now finds a 
resting-place only in our nurseries. Now the cellular pathology 
of the blood, investigated by the aid of modem staining methods, 
is as important as that of the solid organs; no clinical investigator 
^— inde^, apart from research, no practitioner at this day — can 
dispense with examination of the blood for purposes of diagnosis; 
its coagulability and the kinds and the variations of the cells it 
contains being evidence of many definitely morbid states of the 
body. Again, not only in certain diseases may strange cells be 
found in the blood (e.g. in myelogenic leucaemia), but parasites 
also, both in man, as those of malaria, of sleeping sickness, of 
kala-azar.and in animals, as redwater, yellow fever, n'gana have 
beendiscovered,tothe great advantage of preventive medicine. 
For some of these, as redwater (pyrosoma), antidotes are already 
found; for others, as for yellow fever -^ of which the parasite is 
unknown, but the mode of its transmission, by the mosquito, 
discovered (Finlay-Reed)— preventive measures are reducing the 
prevalence. 

It is obvious that the results of such advances prescribe for 
the clinical physician methods which cannot be pursued without 
g.^>«.ii. expert assistance; a physician engaged in busy prac- 
^**^"'* tice cannot himself undertake even the verifications 
required in the conauct of individual cases. Skill in modem 
laboratory work is as far out of the reach of the untaught as 
performance on a musical instrument. In spite, therefore, of 
the encyclopaedic tradition which has persisted from Aristotle 
through the Arab and medieval schools down to Herbert Spencer, 
it is forced upon us in our own day that in a pursuit so many- 
sided as medicine, whether in its scientific or in its practical 
aspect, we have to submit more and more to that division of 
labour which has been a condition of advance in all other walks 
of life. It is now fully recognized that diseases of infants and 
children, of the insane, of the generative organs of women, of 
the larynx, of the eye, have been brought successively into the 
light of modern knowledge by " specialists," and by them dis- 
tributed to the profession; and that in no other way could this 
end have been attained. That the division of labour, which may 
seem to disintegrate the calling of the physician, really unites 
it, is well seen in the clinical laboratories which were initiated 
in the later 19th century, and which are destined to a great 



future. By the approach of skilled pathologists to the dinicd 
wards, a link is forged between practitioners and the men of 
sdence who pursue pathology disinterestedly. The first dinicd 
laboratory seems to have been that of Von Ziemssen (1829-1902) 
at Munidi, founded in 1885; and, although his example has nol 
yet been foUowed as it ought to have been, enough has been done 
in this way, at Johns Hopkins University and elsewhere, to 
prove the vital importance of the system to the progress of 
modem medicine. At the same time provision must be made 
for the integration of knowledge as well as for the winning of it 
by several adits. A conspicuous example of the incalculable 
evil wrought by lack of mtegration is well seen in the radiad 
divorce of surgery from medicine, which is one of the moit 
mischievous legacies of the middle ages — one whose mischief ii 
scarcely yet fully recognized, and yet which is so deqply rooted 
in our institutions, in the United Kingdom at any rate, as to bi 
hard to obliterate. That the methods and the subject-mattcf 
of surgery and of medicine are substantially the same, and that 
the advance of one is the advance of the other, the division befng 
purely artificial and founded merely on accidents of personal 
bent and skill, must be insisted upon at this time of our histqiy. 
The distinction was never a scientific one, even in the sense in 
which the word science can be used of the middle ages; it origi- 
nated in social conceits and in the contempt for mechanical arta 
which came of the cultivation of " ideas " as opposed to convcsae 
with " matter," and which, in the dawn of modem methods, led 
to the derision of Boyle by Oxford humanists as one given up Co 
" base and mechanical pursuits." Had physicians been brou|^ 
into contact with facU as hard as those face^ by the surgeons of 
the i6th century (cf. Ambrose Par^), their art would not have 
lain so long in* degradation. It is under this closer occupation 
with mechanical conditions that surgery to-day is said — not 
without excuse, but with no more than superficial truth— to 
have made more progress than medicine. Medicine and suigeiy 
are but two aspects of one art; Pasteur shed light on both suifeiy 
and medicine, and when Lister, his disdple, penetrated into 
the secrets of wound fevers and septicaemia, he illuminated 
surgery and medicine alike, and, in the one sphere as in the other, 
co-operated iii the destruction of the idea of " essential fevers " 
and of inflammation as an "entity." Together, then, withtht 
necessary multiplication of specialism, one of the chief iessoos 
of the latter moiety of the igth century was tht unity of medicint 
in all its branches — a unity strengthened rather than weakened 
by special researches, such as those into " medical " and " sin^ 
gical " pathology, which are daily making more nuuifest tht 
absurdity of the distinction. Surgeons, physicians, oculistib 
laryngologists, gynaecologists, neurologists and the rest, all afS 
working in allotments of the same field, and combining to t 
common harvest. 

While pathology then, which is especially the *' science of 
medicine," was winning territory on one side from physiology, 
of which in a sense it is but an aspect, and on another 
by making ground of its own in the post mortem room fSSm 
and museum of morbid anatomy, and was fusing 
these gains in the laboratory so as to claim for itself, as a spedd 
branch of science by virtue of peculiar concepts, itsdueplacs 
and provision — provision in the establishment of chairs and of 
special laboratories for its chemical and biological subdivisions- 
clinical medicine, by the formal provision of disciplinary clas8e^ 
was illustrating the truth of the experience that teaching and 
research must go hand-in-hand, the one reinforcing the othcn 
that no teacher can be efficient unless he be engaged in reseaidl 
also; nay, that for the most part even the investigator needs tht 
encouragement of disciples. Yet it was scarcely until the ImI 
quarter of the 19th century that the apprenticeship systeoi, 
which was a mere initiation into the art and mystery of a Cfafl« 
was recognized as antiquated and, in its virtual exclusion of 
academic study, even mischievous. In place of it, systemaUe 
clinical classes have become part of the scheme of every e6Eiciaift 
school of medicine. A condition of this reform was the need df 
a preliminary training of the mind of the pupil in pure scieoc% 
even in physics and chemistry; that is to say, before introduction 



MODERN PROCRESq 



MEDICINE 



59 



into his professioDal studies. The founding of new teaching 
universities^ in which England^ and even France, had been at 
some disadvantage as compared with Scotland and Germany, 
strengthened the movement in favour of enkrging and liberal- 
izing technical training, and of anticipating techniod instruction 
by some broader scientific discipline; though, as in all times of 
tnnsitioa, something was lost temporarily by a departure from 
the old discipline of the grammar school before a new scheme of 
traioing the mind in scientific habits and conceptions was estab- 
fished or fully apprehended. Yet on the whole, even from the 
beginning, the revolt was useful in that it shook the position of 
the '* learned physidan,'* who took a literary, fastidious and 
meditative rather than an experimental interest in his profession, 
and, as in great part a descendant of the humanists, was never 
in fun sjnnpathy with experimental science. At the risk no 
doubt of some defects of culture, the newer education cleared the 
way for a more positive temper, awoke a new sense of accuracy 
and of verification, and created a sceptical attitude towards all 
ODBvcntions, whether of argument or of practice. Among the 
drawbacks oi this temper, which on the whole made for progress, 
VII the rise of a school of excessive scepticism, which, forgetting 
tbc value of the accumulated stores of empiricism, despised 
those degrees of moral certainty that, in so complex a study and 
ID teatative a practice as medicine, must be our portion for the 
pKseot, and even for a long future, however great the triumphs 
of oedidne may become. This scepticism took form in the 
Kbool, most active between i860 and 1880, known as the 
Kknl d "Expectant Medicine." These teachers, genuinely 
toadied with a sense of the scantiness of our knowledge, of our 
coafidQDce in abstract terms, of the insecurity of our alleged 
"bets," case-histories and observations, alienated from tradi- 
tioaal dogmatisms and disgusted by meddlesome polypharmacy 
— enUgfatened, moreover, by the issue of cases treated by means 
JKh ts the homoeopathic, which were practically " expectant " 
— vfed that the only course open to the physician, duly 
fdnsckms of his own ignorance and of the mystery of nature, 
B to pot his patient under diet and nursing, and, relying on the 
tesdency of all equilibriums to recover themselves under 
poturfaation, to await events (Vis medkatrix naturae). Those 
piijrskians who had occupied themselves in the study. of the 
exacter sciences, or more closely or more exclusively of the 
vTtckage of the post mortem room, were the strongest men of 
tisis Khool, whether in England or abroad. 

But to sit down helpless before human suffering is an un- 
eodnrable attitude. Moreover, the insight into origins, into 
initial morbid processes revealed by the pathologists, 
awoke more and more the hope of dealing with the 
dements of disease, with its first beginnings; and in 
tlie field of therapeutics, chemical and biological experiment, as in 
iht case of digitalis, mercury and the iodides, was rapidly sim- 
piJfTifig remedies and defining their virtues, so that these agents 
cojid be used at the bedside with more precision. Furthermore, 
the aversion from drugging had the advantage of directing men's 
Binds to remedies taken from the region of the physical forces, 
of electricity (G. B. Duchenne, 1806-1875), of gymnastics (Ling, 
1 776-1 839), of hydropathy (V. Priessnitz), of massage (Weir 
Mhchell), of climate (James Clarke), of diet (R. B. Todd, King 
Chambers. &c.). and even of hypnotbm (James Braid 1795?- 
fS6e), whfle with the improvement of the means of locomotion 
caae the renewal of the old faith and the establishment of new 
methods in the use of mineral springs. These and such means, 
cCicn in combination, took much of the place formerly given to 
the Qse of drugs. 

Again, a like spirit dictated the use of the physical or " natu- 
nl'* methods on a larger scale in the field of prevention. 
_^^ From the new regard given by physiologists and 
**** pathologists to the study of origins, and in the new 
hopes of thus dealing with disease at its springs, not in indivi- 
duh only but in cities and nations, issued the great school 
tf Preventive Medicine, initiated in England— E. A. Parkes 
(1819-1876). J. Simon, Sir B. W. Richardson (1828-1896), Sir 
B. W. AcUnd (1815-1900), Sir G. Buchanan (1831-1895), and 



forwarded in Germany by Max von Pettenkofcr (1818-1901). 
Hygiene became for pathology what " milieu " is for physiology. 
By the modification of physical conditions on a national scale a 
prodigious advance was made in the art of preventing disease. 
The ghastly roll of infantile mortality was quickly purged of iu 
darkest features (Ballard and others); aided by bacteriology, 
sanitary measures attained some considerable degree of exact- 
ness; public medicine gained such an ascendancy that special 
training and diplomas were offered at universities; and in 187$ 
a consolidated act was passed for the United Kingdom establish- 
ing medical officers of health, and responsible by sanitary 
authorities, with no inconsiderable powers of enfordng the 
means of public health in rural, urban, port and other jurisdic- 
tions, with summary methods of procedure. A department of 
public health was formed within the precincts of the Local 
Government Board; government laboratories were established, 
and nu&chinery was devised for the notification of infectious 
diseases. The enormous growth of towns during the second 
half of the 19th century was thus attended with comparative 
safety to these great aggregates of mankind; and the death-rates, 
so far from being increased, relatively decreased in substantial 
proportions. In 1878 an act was passed giving like powers in 
the case of the infectious diseases of animals. The establishment 
in England of the Register of qualified practitioners and of the 
General Medical Council (in 1858) did something, however 
imperfectly, to give unity to the profession, unhappily bisected 
by " the two colleges "; and did much to organize, to strengthen 
and to purify medical education and qualification. In 1876 
women were admitted to the Register kept by the Council. 
In 1871 the Anatomical Act of 1832 was amended; and in 1876 
the Vivisection Act was passed, a measure which investigators 
engaged in the medical sciences of physiology and pathology 
resented as likely to prevent in England the advance of know- 
ledge of Uving function, both in its normal balance and in its 
aberrandcs, and moreover to slacken that habit of incessant 
reference of propositions to verification which is as necessary to 
the clinical observer as to the experimentalist. However the 
opinion of later generations may stand in respect of the Vivisec- 
tion Act. it will surely appear to them that the other acts, largely 
based upon the results of experimental methods, strengthening 
and consolidating the medical profession, and fortifying the 
advance of medical education, led directly to a fundamental 
change in the drciunstanccs of the people in respect of health. 
The intelligent classes have become far better educated in the 
laws of health, and less disposed to quackery; the less intelligent 
are better cared for and protected by municipal and central 
authority. Thus the housing of the poor has been improved, 
though this difficult problem is yet far from solution; not the 
large towns only, but the larger villages also, are cleansed and 
drained; food has been submitted to inspection by skilled officers; 
water supplies have been undertaken on a vast scale; personal 
cleanliness has been encouraged, and with wonderful success 
efforts have been made to bring civilized Europe back from the 
effects of a long wave of Oriental asceticism, which in its neglect 
and contempt of the body led men to regard filth even as a 
virtue, to its pristine cleanliness under the Greeks and Romans. 
During the latter half of the 19th century the death-rate of many 
towns was reduced by something like 50%. Some plagues, 
such as typhus fever, have been dispelled; others, such as enteric 
fever, have been almost banished from large areas; and there is 
much reason to hope that cholera and plague, if introduced, 
could not get a footing in western Europe, or in any case could be 
combated on scientific principles, and greatly reduced. Tem- 
perance in the use of alcohol has followed the demonstration not 
only of its unimportance as a food or tonic, but also of its harm- 
fulness, save in very small quantities. In the earlier part of the 
19th century, and in remoter districts even in its later years, the 
use of alcohol was regarded not as a mere indulgence, but as 
essential to health; the example of teetotallers, as seen in private 
life and in the returns of the insurance offices, has undermined 
this prepossession. From the time of Plato medicine has been 
accused of ministering to the survival of unfit persons, and to 



6o 



MEDICINE 



CMODERN PROGRESS 



their propagation of children. But bodily defect is largely a 
result of evil circumstances, in the prevention of which the 
physician is not unsuccessfully engaged, and the growth of 
sympathy means a stronger cement of the social structure. At 
any rate the mean standard of health will be raised, perhaps 
enormously. 

In the tropics, as well as in Europe, such methods and such 
researches threw new light upon the causes and paths of the 
terrible infections of these climates. In 1880, two years before 
Koch discovered the bacillus of tubercle, C. L. A. Laveran 
(b. 1845) discovered the parasite of malaria, and truly conceived 
its relations to the disease; thus within two years were made two 
discoveries either of which was sufficient to make the honour of a 
century. Before the end of the XQth century .this discovery of 
the blood parasite of malaria was crowned by the hypothesis of 
Patrick Manson, proved by Ronald Ross, that malaria is propa- 
gated by a certain genus of gnat, which acu as an intermediate 
host of the parasite. Cholera (Haffkine) and yellow fever 
are yielding up their secrets, and falling under some control. 
The aoth century, by means of this illumination of one of the 
darkest regions of disease, may diminish human sufifering enor- 
mously, and may make habitable rich and beautiful regions of 
the earth's surface now, so far as man's work is concerned, con- 
demned to sterility. Moreover, freedom of trade and of travel 
has been promoted by a reform of the antiquated, cumbrous, 
and too often futile methods of quarantine — a reform as yet very 
far from complete, but founded upon a better understanding of 
the nature and propagation of disease. 

Special Departments. — Hitherto we have presented a survey 
of the progress of the science and practice of medicine on general 
iBffrihtaw ^°^' *^ rcntiains to give some indication of the 
advance of these subjects of study and practice in 
particular departmenu. As regards infections, it is not to be 
supposed that our knowledge of these maladies has been ad- 
vanced by pathology and bacteriology only. In the clinical 
field also it has received a great enlargement. Diphtheria, long 
no doubt a plague among mankind, was not carefully described 
until by Pierre Bretonncau in 1826; and since his time our con- 
ception of this disease has been extended by the study of later, 
secondary and incidental phases of it, such as neuritis, which had 
always formed part of the diphtheritic series, though the con- 
nexion had not been detected. Influenza, again, was well known 
to us in 1836-1840, yet clinical observers had not traced out those 
sequels which, in the form of neuritis and mental disorder, have 
impressed upon our minds the persistent virulence of this infec- 
tion, and the manifold forms of its activity. By the discovery 
of the bacillus of tubercle, the physician has been enabled to 
piece together a long and varied list of maladies under several 
names, such as scrofula and lupus, many of them long suspected 
to be tuberculous, but now known to belong to the scries. It is 
on clinical grounds that beriberi, scarlet fever, measles, &c., are 
recognized as belonging to the same class, and evolving in phases 
which differ not in intimate nature but in the more superficial 
and inessential characters of time, rate and polymorphism; and 
the impression is gaining strength that acute rheumatism belongs 
to the group of the infections, certain sore throats, chorea and 
other apparently distinct maladies being terms of this series. 
Thus the field of disease arising not from essential defect in the 
body, but from external contingencies, is vastly enlarging; 
while on the other hand the great variability of individuals in 
susceptibility explains the very variable results of such extrinsic 
causes. Coincidently therewith, the hope of neutralizing infec- 
tions by fortifying individual immunity has grown brighter, 
for it appears that immunity is not a very radical character, 
but one which, as in the case of vaccination, admits of modifica- 
tion and accurate adjustment in the individual, in no long time 
and by no very tedious methods. Evidence is accumulating 
which may end in the explanation and perhaps in the prevention 
of the direst of human woes— cancer itself, though at present 
inquiry is being directed rather to intrinsic than to extrinsic 
causes. 

When, leaving the infections, we look for evidence of progress 



in our knowledge of more or less local diseases, we may begin with 
the nervous system. It is in this department, from its abttruse- 
ness and complexity, that we should expect the 
advance of anatomy and physiology — ^normal and ' 
morbid — to be most delayed. If we consult the medical \ 
even of the middle of the zpth century we shall find that, in the 
light of the present time, accurate knowledge in this sphere, 
whether clinical, pathological or therapeutical, could scarcely 
be said to exist. Even in the hands of J. A. Lockhart Clarke 
(181 7-1880), one of the earliest investigators of nervous 
pathology, the improvement of the compound microscope had 
not attained the achromatism, the penetration and the magnifi- 
cation which have since enabled J. L. C. Schroeder-van der Kolk 
(1797-1862), Albert von Kdlliker, Santiago Ramon y Cajal, 
C. Golgi (b. 1844) and others to reveal the minute anatomy of 
the nervous centres; while the discrimination of tissues and moi^ 
bid products by stains, as in the silver and osmic acid methods, 
and in those known by the names of Carl Weigert or Maichi, 
had scarcely begun. In England the Hospital for the Paralysed 
and Epileptic was founded in 1859, where Charles E. Biowa- 
S6quard (18x7-1894), J. Hughlings-Jackson, Thomas Buzzard, 
Henry C. Bastian (b. 1837), Sir W. R. Cowers and David Ferricr 
(b. 1843) found an adequate field for the clinical and patho- 
logical parts of their work. In France, in the wards of the H6tcl 
Dieu, Guilhiume Benjamin Duchcnne (1806-1875), in assodatka 
with Trousseau and in his private clinic, pursued his memorable 
clinical and therapeutical researches into the diseases of the 
nervous system; and Jean M. Charcot (1825-1893) in that great 
asylum for the wreckage of humanity— the Salp6tri2re--di>- 
coverqd an unworked mine of chronic nervous disease. M. H. 
Romberg (i 795-1873) and Theodor Meynert (1833-1892) also 
were pioneers in the study of nervous diseases, but it was not 
till later in the century that Germany took a high place in tUl 
department of medicine. The discoveries of the separate paths 
of sensory and motor impulses in the spinal cord, and come- 
quently of the laws of reflex action, by Charles Bell and Marshal 
Hall respectively, in their illumination of the phenomena of 
nervous function, may be compared with the discovery in the 
region of the vascular system of the circulation of the blood; for 
therein a key to large classes of normal and aberrant functloM 
and a fertile principle of interpretation were obtained. Nor 
was the theory of reflex action confined to the more " mechao* 
ical " functions. By G. H. Lewes and others the doctrine of 
"cerebral reflex" was suggested, whereby actions, at fint l 
achieved only by incessant attention, became organized tt ) 
conscious or subconscious habits; as for instance in the playiiif \ 
on musical or other instruments, when acts even of a vtsf r 
elaborate kind may directly follow the impulses of scnsatioiai |= 
conscious adaptation and the deliberate choice of meaia beiag ^ 
thus economized. This law has important ethical and polidcu 1 
bearings; but in the province of disease this advance of what mqr !*■ 
be compared to the interiocking of points and signals has 1 
wide influence not only in altering our conceptions of ( 
but also in enlarging our views of all perturbations of functMNL 
The grouping of reflex " units," and the paths wherein impidast 
travel and become associated, have been made out by the phyrio* 
logist (Sherrington and others) working on the healthy i 
as well as by the record of disease; and not of spontaneous c 
alone, for the artificial institution of morbid processes in i _ 

has led to many of these discoveries, as in the method of A. V. ^ 
Waller (i 816-1870), who tracked the line of nervous strands Iff -"^ 
experimental sections, and showed that when particular straaoi'^ 
arc cut off from their nutritive centres the consequent degenen* ^ 
tion follows the line of the separated strands. By simibr :^ 
methods nature, unassisted, betrays herself but too often; H,^ 
many instances — probably originating primarily in the nervoM J^ 
tissues themselves — the course of disease is ol»erved to foQoV 'f 
certain paths with remarkable consistency, as for instance llt'^ 
diseases of particular tracts of the spinal cord. In such cases thfer^ 
paths of degeneration are so neatly defined that, when the tknH^^ 
are prepared after death by modern methods, they are plaU^^'* 
to be seen nmning along certain columns, the subdiviskl^ _. 



nay f- 
had jh 



IfOOERN PROCRESSl 



MEDICINE 



6i 




of wfakh in the nonnal tUle my hardly be distinguishable one 
from another: some run in strips along the periphery of the 
tpmal cord, at Its anterior, middle or posterior segments, as the 
case may be; in oth» cases such strips occur within iu substance, 
whether along columns of cells or of white matter. It is needless 
to point out how such paths of disease, in their association with 
characteristic symptoms, have illuminated the clinical features 
of disease as wdl as the processes of normal function. 

Not, however, all diseases of the nervous system conduct them- 
selves on tl^ese definite paths, for some of them pay no attention 
to the geography of structure, but, as one may say, blunder 
ittdisaiminately among the several parts; others, again, pick 
out particular parts definitely enough, but not parts immedktely 
continuous, or even contiguous. Diseases of the latur kind are 
cspcdaOy interesting, as in them we see that parts of the 
MrvoQS structure, separated in space, may neverthdess be asso- 
ciated in function; for instance, wasting of a group of muscles 
aaodated in fimction may depend on a set of central degenera- 
tions concurring in parts whose connexion, in spite of dissociation 
ia Htace, we thus perceive. The undiscriminating diseases, on 
the other hand, we suspect not to be primarily of nervous 
origin, but to depend rather on the agency of other constituent 
tiMoes of this system, as of the blood-vessels or the connective 
Amt,^f^ Thtis, arguing inversely, we may learn something of 
tbe respective natures of these inQuences and of the way in 
vUch the nervous system is affected secondarily. 

Yet even the distribution of toxic matters by the blood is not 
irrrgfrily followed by general and indiscriminate injury to the 
nervous elements. In. infantile palsy, for example, 
and in tabes dorsalis, there is good reason to believe 
that, definitely as the traces of the disease are 
found in certain physiologically distinct nervous 
they are due nevertheless to toxic agents arriving 
by way of the blood. Here we enter upon one of the most 
iotcresting chapters of disorders and modes of disorder of this 
and of other systems. It has come out more and more clearly 
of late years that pcnsons do not betray even an approximately 
imfilEefent affinity for all tissues, which indeed a little reflection 
would tdl us to be a priori improbable, but that each tends 
to fix itself to this cdl group or to that, picking out parts 
for which they severally have affinities. Chemical, physio- 
logical and pathological research is exploring the secret of 
these more refined kinds of "anchorage" of molecules. In 
i86S Drs A. Crum Brown and T. R. Fraser proved that by 
sobttitution of molecules in certain compounds a stimu- 
lant could be converted into a sedative action; thus by 
the addition of the methyl group CHs to the molecule 
•f strychnine, thebaine or brudne, the tetanizing action 
•f these drugs b converted into a paralysing action. The 
' of these instances, and the variety of them, are now 
1 to be very large; and it is supposed that what is true of 
these simpler agenu is true also of far more elaborate phases 
of vital metabolism. Now, what is remarkable in these and 
■any other reactions is not only that effects apparently very 
' ; may result from minute differences of molecular con- 
ttnKtion, but also that, whatever the construction, agents, not 
r indifferent to the body or part, tend to anchor themselves 
lo organic mcdecules in some way akin to them. Highly com- 
plex as are aU animal tissues, or nearly all, yet in this category 
flf Ugh complexity are degrees higher and higher again of which 
I form little conception, so elaborate they are, so peculiar 
ia their respective properties, and probably so fugitive. It is 
this wide range of dynamic peculiarities above the common 
_ : of known physical and chemical molecules which excites 
•■r'woader; and a reflection of these peculiar properties is seen 
ii their ffffiniti»* for this or that toxic or constructive agent, 
^ the peculiarity, for example, of a particular kind of 
serve oefl may be altered, antagonized, reinforced or converted. 
Oi the other hauxl, the reagents by which such modifications 
e apt to be produced are not necessarily simple; many of them 
! are known to be of very high degrees of complexity, 
; perhaps in complexity the molecules to which thqr 



are akb. Of such probably are the toxins and antitoxins of 
certain infections, which, anchoring themselves not by any means 
indiscriminately, but to particular and concerted molecules, by 
such anchorage antagonize them or turn them to favourable 
or imfavourable issues. Toxins may thus become so closely 
keyed into their corresponding atom groups, as for instance in 
tetanus, that they are no longer free to combine with the anti- 
toxin; or, again, an antitoxin injected before a toxin may antici- 
pate it and, preventing its mischievous adhesion, dismiss it for 
excretion. In the mutual behaviour of such cells, toxins, and 
antitoxins, and again of microbes themselves, we may demon- 
strate even on the field of the microscope some of the modes 
of such actions, which seem to partake in great measure at any 
rate of a chemical quality (agglutinins, coagulins, chemotaxis). 
It is convenient here to add that such reactions and modifica- 
tions, if more conspicuous in the nervous system, are of course 
not confined to it, but are concerned in their degree in all the 
processes of metabolism, being most readily traced by us in the 
blood. 

Many other diseases formerly regarded as primarily diseases 
of the nervous system are not such; but, by means of agenU 
either introduced into the body or modified there, establish 
themselves after the affinities of these in contiguous associated 
parts of the structure, as in vascular, membranous or connective 
elements, or again in distant and peripheral parts; the perturba- 
tions of nervous function being secondary and consequential. 
Of such are tetanus and diphtheria, now known to be due to 
the establishment from without of a local microbic infection, 
from which focus a toxin is diffused to the nervous matter. 
The terrible nervous sequels of some forms of inflanmiation 
of the membranes of the brain, again, are due primarily to 
microbic invasion rather of the membranes than of their 
nervous contents; and many other diseases may be added to 
this list. The grave palsies in such diseases as influenza, 
diphtheria, beriberi, cr ensuing on the absorption of lead, are 
in the main not central, but due to a symmetrical peripheral 
neuritis. 

Among diseases not primarily nervous, but exhibited in certain 
phenomena of nervous disorder, are diseases of the blood-vessels. 
Much light has been thrown upon the variations of 
arterial and venous blood pressures by Karl Ludwig ^JJjjJ'J/ 
(1816-1895) and his many followers: by them not ojimm. 
only the diseases of the circulatory system itself are 
elucidated, but also those of other systems — the nervous, for 
instance — which depend intimately on the mechanical integrity 
of the circulation of the blood as well as on the chemical integrity 
of the blood itself. With changes of the pressures of the blood 
in arteries, veins or capillaries, and in the heart itscU and its 
respeaive chambers, sUtic changes are apt to follow in these 
parts; such as degeneration of the coats of the arteries, due 
either to the silent tooth of time, to persistent high blood pres- 
sures, or to the aaion of poisons such as lead or syphilis. Syphi- 
litic ledon of the arteries, and likewise of other fibrous tissues, 
often involves grave consequential damage to nervous structures 
fed or supported by such parts. Some of the most successful 
of the advances of medidne as a healing art have followed the 
detection of syphilitic disease of the vessels, or of the supporting 
tissues of nervous centres and of the peripheral nerves; so that, 
by specific medication, the treatment of paralytic, convxilsive, 
and other terrible manifestations of nervous disease thus second- 
arily induced is now undertaken in early stages with definite 
prospect of cure. 

Not of less importance in this respect, and in other disorders 
many of them of grave inddence, is the knowledge of the pheno- 
mena of embolism and of thrombosis^ also gained during the latter 
half of the 19th century— W. S. Kirkes (1823-1864), R. Virchow. 
By embolism is meant the more or less sudden stoppage of a 
vessel by a plug of solid matter carried thither by the current 
of the blood; be it a little dot from the heart or, what is far 
more pemidous, an infective fragment from some focus of 
infection in the body, by which messengers new fod of infection 
may be scattered about the body. Thrombosis is an acddent 



62 



MEDICINE 



[MODERN PROGRESS 



of not dissimiUr chancier, whereby a vessel is blocked not by a 
travelling particle, but by a clotting of the blood in sUUf probably 
on the occasion of some harm to the epithelial lining of the vessel 
Such injuries are apt to occur in syphilitic endarteritis, or senile 
arterial decay, whereby an artery may be blocked permanently, 
as if^with an embolus, and the area supplied by it, in so far as it 
was dependent upon this vessel, deprived of nutrition. These 
events, although far more mischievous in the brain, the functions 
of which are far-reaching, and the collateral circulation of which 
b ill-provided, are seen very conmionly in other parts. 

It is in the structure of the brain itself that modem research 
has attained the most remarkable success. In 1861 an alleged 
" centre " of speech was detected, by a combination of clinical 
and pathological researches, by Paul Broca (1824-1880). By 
these means also, in the hands of Hughlings- Jackson, and more 
conclusively by experimental research initiated by G. T. 
Fritsch (b. 1838) and T. E. Hitzig (b. 1838), but pursued inde- 
pendently and far more systematically and thoroughly by 
David Ferrier (b. 1843) and his disciples, it was proved that the 
cerebrum is occupied by many such centres or exchanges, which 
preside over the formulation of sensations into purpouve groups 
of motions — kinaesthesis of H. Charlton Bastian (b. 1837). The 
results of these experimental researches by many inquirers into 
the constitution of the brain have transformed our conceptions of 
cerebral physiology, and thrown a flood of light on the diseases 
of the brain. Not only so, but this mapping of the brain in 
areas of function now often enables the clinical physician to 
determine the position of dbease; in a certain few cases of 
tumour or abscess, so precisely that he may be enabled to open 
the skull above the part afFectcd and to extirpate it — opera- 
tions which are surely a triumph of science and technical skill 
(Lister, W. MacEwen, V. Horsley). 

The remarkable discovery of the dual nature of the nervous 
system, of its duplex development as a lower and upper system of 
" neurons," has shed much light upon the problems of practical 
medicine, but this construction is described under Bsain; 
Neuropathology; Muscle and Nerve, &c. 

In menial diseases little of first-rate importance has been done. 
The chief work has been the detection of chronic changes in the 
cortex of the brain, by staining and other histological methods, 
in degenerative afifections of this organ — ^Theodor Meynert 
(1833-1892), W. Griesingcr (181 7-1868), Bevan Lewis — and 
in the separation from insanity due. to primary disease or defect 
of nerve dements of such diseases as general paralysis of the 
insane, which probably arise, as we have said, by the action of 
poisons on contiguous structures — such as blood-vessels and 
connective elements — ^and invade the nervous matter second- 
arily. Some infections, however, seem to attack the mental 
fabric directly; intrinsic toxic processes which may be suspected 
on the detection of neurin and cholin in the fluids of the brain 
(F. W. Mott). Truer conceptions of normal psychology have 
transfoimed for us those of the morbid— P. Pinel (1745-1826), 
Griesinger, Henry Maudsley (b. 1835), Mercicr, Kr£pclin, Rivers 
— and indicated more truly the relations of sanity to insanity. 
In the treatment of insanity little has been done but to com- 
plete the non-restraint system which in principle belongs to 
the earlier part of the 19th century (Pinel, Tuke, R. G. Hill, 
J. Conolly). An enormous accimiulation of lunatics of all 
sorts and degrees seems to have paralysed public authorities, 
who, at vast expense in buildings, mass them more or less indis- 
criminately in barracks, and expect that their sundry and difficult 
disorders can be properly studied and treated by a medical 
superintendent charged with the whole domestic establishment, 
with a few young assistants imder him. The life of these insane 
patients is as bright, and the treatment as humane, as a barrack 
life can be; but of science, whether in pathology or medicine, 
there can be little. A considerable step in advance is the estab- 
lishment by the London County Council of a central laboratory 
for its asylums, with an eminent pathologist at its head: from 
this Uboratory valuable reports are in course of issue. Provision 
for the reception and treatment of insanity in its earliest and more 
curable stages can scarcely be said to exist. Sufferers from 



mental disease are still regard^ too much as troublcaome 
persons to be hidden away in humane keeping, rather than as 
cases of manifold and obscure disease, to be studied and treated 
by the undivided attention of physicians of the hij^est »H11 
Tlie care and education of idiots, initiated by Guggenbuhl and 
others, is making way in En^and, and if as yet inMilfiri^nt^ ^ 
good of its kind. 

By the genius of Ren6 Th£ophile Laennec (x78x-x8a6), 
diseases of the lungs and heart were laid on a foundation so broad 
that his successors have been occupied in detail and refinement 
rather than in reconstruction. In heart disease the chief woik 
of the latter half of the 19th century was, in the first quarter, 
such clinical work as that of William Stokes and Peter Mere 
Latham (1789-1875); ^nd in the second quarter the fuller com- 
prehension of the vasoilar system, central and peripheral, with 
its Qrdes and variations of blood pressure, venous and arterial. 
Moreover, the intricades of structure and function within the heart 
itself have been more fully discriminated (W. H. Gaskell, Aschoff, 
A. Keith, Wenkebach, J. Mackenzie). By the greater thorough- 
ness of our knowledge of the physics of the circulation— £tienne 
Marey (b. 1830), Karl Ludwig (1816-1895), Leonard Hill— we 
have att&ined to a better conception of such events as arterial 
disease, apoplexy, " shock," and so forth; and pharmacologists 
have defined more predsdy the virtues of curative drugs. To 
the discovery of the parts played in disease by thrombosis and 
embolism we have referred above. With this broader and more 
accurate knowledge of the conditions of the health of the 
circulation a corresponding efficiehcy has been gained in the 
manipulation of certain remedies and new methods of treatment 
of heart diseases, especially by baths and exercises. 

As regards pulmonary disease, pneumonia has passed more and 
more definitely into the category of the infections: the modes of 
invasion of the lungs and pleura by tuberculosis has been more 
and more accurately followed; and the treatment of these 
diseases, in the spheres both of prevention and of cure, has under- 
gone a radical change. Instead of the close protection from the 
outer air, the respirators, and the fancy diets of our fathers, the 
modem poiirinaire camps out in the open air in all weathers, is 
fed with solid food, and in his exercise and otherwise is ruled with 
minute particularity according to the indications of the clinical 
thermometer and other symptoms. The almost reckless reliance 
on climate, which, at Davos for instance, marked the transition 
from the older to the modem methods, has of late been sobered, 
and supplemented by more systematic attention to all that con- 
cerns the mode of life of the invalid. The result is that, both 10 
ph3rsicians and in the public, a more hopeful attitude in respect 
of the cure of phthisis has led to a more earnest grappling with 
the infection in its earliest stages and in every phase, with a cor- 
respondingly large improvement in prevention and treatment. 
Indeed, m such early stages, and in patients who are enabled to 
command the means of an expensive method of cure, phthisis ii 
no longer regarded as desperate; while steps are bdng taken to 
provide for those who of their own means are unable to obtain 
these advantages, by the erection of special sanatoriums on a 
more or less charitable basis. Perhaps no advance in medicine 
has done so much as the study of tuberculosis to educate the 
public in the methods and value of research in medical subjects, 
for the results, and even the methods, of such hibours have been 
brought home not only to patients and their friends, but also to 
the farmer, the dairyman, the butcher, the public carrier, and, 
indeed, to every home in the land. 

It was in the management of pleurisies that the aid of surgical 
means first became eminent in inward disease. In the treatment 
of effusions into the pleura and, though with less advantage,. of 
pericardial effusions, direct mechanical interference was practiMd 
by one physician and another, till these means of attaining ra|»d 
and complete cure took their places as indispensable, and were 
extended from thoracic diseases to those of the abdominal and 
other inner parts formerly beyond the reach of direct therapeutici. 
Lord Lister's discoveries brought these new methods to bear with 
a certainty and a celerity previously undreamed of; and many 
visceral maladies, such as visceral ulcers^^ disease of the pancreas, 



MODERN PROGRESSI 



MEDICINE 



63 



atooe of the kidney or gall-bladder, perityphlitis, ovarian dropsy, 
whidi in the earlier part of the igtb century were either fatal or 
czippling, are now taken promptly and safely in hand, and dealt 
with socccnfully. Even for internal cancer cure or substantial 
rchef is not infrequently obtained. We have said that this 
advance is often qiaoted, not very wisely, to signify that in 
modem progress " medicine " has fallen behind surgery— as if 
the art of the physician were not one and indivisible. That 
certain Fellows of the College of Physicians (especially in gynae- 
cology) have personally taken operative procedures in hand 
ii some good omen that in time the unreal and mischievous 
schism between medicine and surgery may be bridged over. 

In the department of abdominal disease progress has been 
Bade, not only in this enormous extension of means of cure by 
operative methods, but also in the verification of diagnosis. The 
fiot recognition c4 a disease may be at a necropsy, but then 
vaaQy by irresponsible pathologists; it is another matter when 
the physadan himself comes under rebuke for failing to seize a 
wty to cure, while the chance remained to him, by section of the 
abdomen during life. The abdomen is still " full of surprises "*, 
sad he who has most experience of this deceptive region will have 
kut confidence in aq>res8ing positive opinions in particular 
cases of disease without operative investigation. Besides the 
attainments mentioned above, in respect of operative progress, 
■any important revisions of older rule-of-thumb knowledge have 
oooe about, and not a few other substantial discoveries. Among 
the revisions may be adduced some addition to our knowledge 
of dyspepsia, attained by analytic investigations into the 
coBtents of the stomach at various stages of digestion, and by 
watmiti'wg the passage of opaque substances through the primae 
Me by the Rfiotgen rays. Thus the defects, whether of this 
Hcxction or of that, and again of onotor activity, the state of the 
nhrular jnnctions, the volume of the cavities, and their position 
m the abdcMDen, may be ascertained, and dealt with as far as may 
be; so that, although the fluctuations of chemical digestion are 
ttifl very obscure, the application of remedies after a mere tradi- 
tjooai routine is no longer excusable. In our conceptions of the 
hter stages of assimilation and of excretion, with the generation 
of poisons (auto-intoxication) in the intestinal tract, there is still 
such obscurity and much guess-work; yet in some directions 
positive knowledge has been gained, painly by the physiologist, 
partly by the physician himself. Of such are the better under- 
standing of the functions of the Uver in normal catabolism, in the 
Destrahzation of poisons absorbed from the intestines or else- 
where, in the causation of jaundice, and in diabetes [Bernhardt 
Naunyn (b. 1839) and F. W. Pavy]. Nor must we forget the 
■nfdding of a new chapter of disease, in the nosology of the 
pancreas. In diabetes this organ seems to play a part which 
ii not yet predsdy determined; and one fell disease at least has 
been traced to a violent access of inflammation of this organ, 
caused perhaps by entry of foreign matters into its duct. The 
part of the pancreas in digestion also is better understood. The 
part of the spleen in the motley group of dyspepsias and anaemias, 
ooospicnous as it often is, still remains very enigmatic. 

The peritoneum is no longer regarded with awe as inviolable; 
by modem methods, if not as manageable as other lymphatic 
sacs, it is at any rate accessible enough without considerable risk 
to life. Not only in its bacteriological relations are the conditions 
of peritonitb recognized in its various kinds, but also the state 
known as '* shock '* turns out to be quasi-mechanical, and 
SToidable by measures belonging in considerable part to this 
ategory. Thus, by the avoidance both of toxaemia and of shock, 
peritonitis and other dangers of the abdomen, such as strangu- 
lations or intussusceptions of the bowels, formerly desperate, 
can in many cases be dealt with safely and effectively. 

Oar knowledge of diseases of the kidneys has made no great 
advance since the time of Richard Bright. In the sphere of 
physiology and in the interpretation of associated arterial 
<fiseases much obscurity still remains; as, for instance, concerning 
the nature of the toxic substances which produce those bilaterd 
changes in the kidneys which we call Bright 's disease, and bring 
about the " usaemia " which-is chancteristic of iL Lardaceous 



disease, however, here and in other regions, now appears to be 
due to the specific toxins of pyogenetic micro-organisms. In 
stone of the kidney a great advance has been made in treatment 
by operative means, and the formation of these stones seems 
to recent observers to depend less upon constitutional bent 
(gout) than upon unhealthy local conditions of the passages, 
which in their turn again may be due to the action of micro- 
organisms. 

To Thomas Addison's descriptions of certain anaemias, and 
of the disease of the suprarenal capsules which bears his name, 
something has been added; and W. Hunter's researches on 
the severer anaemias are doing much to elucidate these subtle 
maladies. And on the influence of these inconspicuous bodies 
and of the pituitary body in sustaining arterial bkxxi pressures 
physiologists have thrown some important light. 

The secret of the terrible puerperal septicaemia was read by 
J. P. Semmelweiss (g.v.), wherein he proved himself to be the 
greatest of Lister's forerunners (see Lister). 

The diseases peculiar to women (see Gynaecology) have 
received attention from early times, but little progress had been 
made in their interpretation till the 19th century. In the 
middle part of the century, by a natural exaggeration of the 
importance of newly-discovered local changes in the pelvic 
organs, much harm was done to women by too narrow an atten- 
tion to the site, characters and treatment of these; the meddle- 
someness of the physician becoming in the temperament of woman 
a morbid obsession. To James Matthews Duncan (1826-1890) 
we chiefly owe a saner and broader comprehension of the 
relative importance of the local and the general conditions 
which enter into the causation of uterine and ovarian disorders. 
In operations for diseases of the pelvis, ovfuian dropsy, cancer 
of the uterus, and other grave diseases of the region, success has 
been stupendous. 

In the subject of diseases of Ike skin much has been done, in 
the minuter observation of their forms, in the description of 
forms previously unrecognized, and in respect of bacterial and 
other causation and of treatment; The comparison of observa- 
tions in various climates and peoples has had some weight; 
while in the better knowledge of their causes their treatment has 
found permanent advantage. Not only is the influence of bacteria 
in the causation of many of them newly revealed, but it is now 
recognized also that, even in skin diseases not initiated by micro- 
bic action, microbes play a considerable and often a determining 
part in their perpetuation; and that the rules of modem aseptic 
surgery are applicable with no little success to skin therapeutics. 
We have learned that " constitutional " causes play a smaller 
part in them than was supposed, that a large number of diseases 
of the skin, even if initiated by general disorder, are or soon 
become local diseases, being, if not initiated by local infection 
yet perpetuated thereby, so that, generally speaking, they are to 
be cured by local means. 

The diseases of children have not lacked the renewed attention, 
the successful investigation, and the valuable new lights which 
have been given to other departments of medicine. That infan- 
tile paralysis is an infection, and that its unhappy sequels are 
now treated with more hope of restoration, has been indicated 
already. Infantile diarrhoea has also been recognized as a 
common infection (Ballard), and the means of its avoidance and 
cure ascertained. The conditions of diet and digestion in children 
are now far better understood, and many of their maladies, 
formerly regarded as organic or incomprehensible, are cured or 
prevented by dietetic rules. Rickets, scurvy and " marasmus " 
may be instanced as diet diseases in children. Acute inflamma- 
tion of the ear, with its alarming extensions to the cerebral 
cavity, is now dealt with successfully by surgical means, and 
infected sinuses or even encephalic abscesses are reached and 
cleansed. The origins, kinds and processes of meningitis are 
more clearly distinguished, and referred each to its proper cause 
— for the inost part bacterial. 

As by the discovery of stelhoscopy by Laennec a new field of 
medical science and art was opened up, so, more recently, 
inventions of other new methods of investigation in medicine 



6+ 



MEDINA, J. T.— MEDINA 



have opened to us other fields of little less interest and im- 
portance. Of such is the ophthalmoscope, invented by H. 
von Helmholtx in 1851. By the revelations of this 
raunogn ijjjjrument not only have the diseases of the eye been 
illuminated, but much light has been thrown also upon the part of 
the eye in more general maladies; as, for instance, in syphilis, 
in diabetes, in kidney diseases, and in diseases of the brain— 
F. C. Donders (1818-1889), Alfred von Grife (1830-1809) and 
others. A remarkable help to the cure of headaches and 
wider nervous disorders has come out of the better appreciation 
and correction of errors of refraction in the eye. Radiography 
has done great things for surgery; for medicine its services are 
already appreciable, and may prove more and more valuable 
hereafter. In 1879 the use of the spectroscope in medicine 
was pointed gut by Dr Charles A. MacMunn (b. 1853) 
By E. du Bois-Reymond, Robert Remak (1815-1865), Carlo 
Matteucd (181 1-1868), Guillaume Duchenne (1806-1875), the 
value of electricity in medicine, greater in diagnosis perhaps than 
in therapeutics, was demonstrated. By the sphygmograph (E. J. 
Marey, 1863) attention was drawn to the physical features of 
the circulation, to the signs of degeneration of the arterial tree, 
and less definitely to the fluctuations of blood pressure; but 
as we have said under the consideration of diseases of the heart, 
the kymographs of Ludwig and his pupils brought out these 
fluctuations far more accurately and completely. By these, and 
other instruments of precision, such as the thermometer, of which 
we have already spoken, the eminently scientific discipline of the 
measurement of functional movements, so difficult in the complex 
science of biology, has been cultivated. By the laryngoscope, 
invented about 1850 by Manuel Garcia the celebrated singing 
master, and perfected by Johann Czermak (1828-1873) and 
others, the diseases of the larynx also have been brought into the 
general light which has been shed on all fields of disease; and 
many of them, previously known more or less empirically, 
submitted to precise definition and cure. Of such we may cite 
tuberculosis of the larynx, formerly as incurable as distressing; 
and " adenoids " — a disease revealed by intrascopic methods— 
which used grievously to thwart and stifle the growth both of 
mind and body in children, are now promptly removed, to the 
infinite advantage of the rising generation. To the value of 
stains in clinical diagnosis, especially in investigation of perver- 
sions of the blood in many maladies, we have already made 
some reference. The discovery of the Rdntgen rays has also 
extended the physician's power of vision, as in cases of aortic 
aneurysm, and other thoracic diseases. 

By photography and diagrammatic records the clinical work 
of hospital wards has been brought into some better definition, 
and teaching made more accurate and more impressive. The 
separation of the alkaloids belongs rather to the earlier part of 
the 19th century, but the administration of these more accurate 
medications by means of hypodermic injection (see Thera- 
peutics) belongs to the hitter. The ancient practice of trans- 
fusion has been placed on a more intelligible footing, and by the 
method of saline injections made more manageable as a means 
of relief or even of cure. Finally, calculation by statistics 
(William Farr, Kari Pearson, and others) has been brought into 
line with other scientific methods: the method is a diflicult one, 
and one full of pitfalls for the unwary, yet when by co-operation 
of physician and mathematician its applications have been 
perfected its services will appear more and more indispensable. 

Among the achievements of the medicine of the 19th century 
the growth of the medical press must not be forgotten. In 
England, by the boldness of the Lancet (founded in 1823), the 
tyranny of prescription, inveterate custom, and privilege abused 
was defied and broken down; freedom of learning was regained, 
and promotion thrown open to the competent, independently 
of family, gild and professional status. For the record and 
diffusion of rapidly growing knowledge, learned societies, univer- 
sities and laboratories, greatly increased in number and activity. 
issue their transactions in various fields; and by means of year- 
books and central news-sheets the accumulation of knowledge is 
organized and made accessible. 



It is interesting to find that, with all this activity In the pretent 
reformed methods of research and verification are not confined to 
the work of the passing day; in the brilliant achievemenu of 
modem research and reconstruction the maxim that " Thith b 
the daughter of Time " has not been forgotten. In the field of 
the History of Medicine the work of scholars such as Franda 
Adams of Banchory (1796-1861), William A. Greenhill (1814- 
1894) and C. Creighton in England, Maximilien P. Littr6 (1801- 
1881) and Charles V. Daremberg (1817-1872) in France, and 
Hdnrich Hiser (181 1-1888) and August Hiisch, Dieis, Wdt- 
mann and Julius Pagd in Germany, will prove to our childreii 
that tradition was as safe in our hands as progress itself. 

(T. C. A.) 

Bibliography.— Osier and McCrae. ModerH Medicuu; F. T. 
Roberts, The Praaiu of Medidtu (1909); Hermann Nochnacd, 
ItUemationaU Bettrdt* *^ inneren Median (1903); Ed. Brovaidel. 
TratU de mAimM 71895-1902); T. D. Savill. Clinical Medidm 



(1909): W. Osier. Tke Principles and Practice of Medicine (1909); 
Allbutt and Rolleston. A System of Medicine (1906-1910); Str 
Patrick Manaon, Tropical Medicine (1907); Frederick Taylor, A 
Manual of the Practice of Medicine (1908). 

MBDIHA. JOSE TORIBIO (1853- ), Chflean bibliographer, 
was bom at Santiago, and was educated for the bar. His fint 
publication, when a very young man, was a metrical translaUoa 
of Longfellow's Evangeline. When twenty-two he was appointed 
sccreUry to the legation at Lima. After his retum he publiibed 
a history of Chilean literature (1878), and a work upon the 
aboriginal tribes (1884). In this latter year he was appointed 
sccreUry of legation in Spain, and availed himself of tike oppor- 
tunity of examining the treasures of the old Spanish librariet. 
These researches, repeated on subsequent visits to Spain, and 
also to France and England, enriched him with a mass of historical 
and bibliographical material Among his publications may be 
mentioned the Biblioteca hispano-americana, a catalogue of aU 
books and pamphlets relating to Spanish America printed in 
Spain; the Biblioteca hispano-ckilena, a similar work, com- 
menced in 1897; the standard and magnificent history of printing 
in the La Plata countries (1892); comprehensive works on the 
Inquisition in Chile, Pem and the Philippines; and the standard 
treatise on South American medals (1899). In addition, Sefior 
Medina produced the fullest bibliographies yet attainable of 
books printed at Lima, Mexico and Mam'la, and a number of 
memoirs and other minor writings. No other man had rendered 
anything like the same amount of service to the literary histoiy 
and bibliography of the Spanish colohies. 

MEDINA, or rather Al-Meoina (the dty), or MEftncAT Rasul 
Allah (the dty of the apostle of God), a town of the Hejas in 
Arabia, about 820 m. by rail S.S.E. of Damascus, in 35* N., 
40" E.,* the refuge of Mahomet on his emigration from Mecca, 
and a renowned place of Moslem pilgrimage, consecrated by the 
possession of his tomb. The name Medina goes back to the 
Koran (sur. xxxiii. 60) ; the old name was Yathrib, the Lathrippa 
of Ptolemy and lathrippa of Slephanus By7.antius. 

Medina stands in a basin at the northem extremity of an 
elevated plain, on the western skirt of the mountain range which 
divides the Red Sea coast-lands from the central plateau of 
Arabia. At an hour's distance to the north it is dominated by 
Mount Ohod, an outlying spur of the great mountains, the scene 
of the well-known battle (see Mahomet), and the site of the 
tomb and mosque of the Prophet's uncle Hamza. To the east 
the plain is bounded by a long line of hills ei^t or ten boun 
distant, over which the Nejd road runs. A number of torrent 
courses (of which Wadi Kanat to the north, at the foot of Mount 
Ohod, and W. Akik, some miles to the south, are the most 
important) descend from the mounuins, and converge in the 
neighbourhood of the town to unite farther west at a place called 
Zaghaba. whence they descend to the sea through the " mountains 
of the Tehama "—the rough country between Medina and its 

* This is a very rough estimate. The road from Yarobu 00 the 
Red Sea. which runs somewhat north of cast, is by Burton's estimate 
132 m. From Medina to Mecca by the inland or hisfa road he 
makes 248 m. The usual road near the coast by Rabigh and 
Khulesa and thence to W. Fatima cannot be very different in 
length. Caravans traverse it in about ten or eleven days. 



MEDINA 



65 



port of Yambtt— under the name of W. Idam. Southwards from 
Medina the plain extends unbroken, but wiih a slight rise, as 
far as the eye can reach. The convergence of torrent-courses 
in the neighbourbood of Medina makes this one of the best- 
watered spots in northern Arabia. The city lies close to one of 
the great volcanic centres of the peninsuhi, which was in violent 
cmptlon as late as aj>. i 366, when the hiva stream approached 
vithin an hour's distance of the walls, and dammed up W. Kanat. 
The result of this and older prehistoric eruptions has been to 
confine the underground water, so important in Arabian tillage, 
which can be reached at any point of the oasis by sinking deep 
wtlls. Many of the wells are brackish, and the natural fertility 
of the volcanic soil is in many places impaired by the salt with 
which it is impregnated, but the date-palm grows well every- 
where, and the groves, interspersed with gardens and cornfields, 
which surround the city on all sides except the west, have been 
fimous from the time of the Prophet. Thus situated, Medina 
WIS originally a city of agriculturists, not like Mecca a city of 
aeichanu; nor, apart from the indispensable trade in provisions, 
hat it ever acquired commercial imporunce like that which 
Mecca owes to the pilgrimage.* Landowners and cultivators 
ve still a chief element in the population of the city and suburbs. 
The latter, who are called Nakhlwila, and more or less openly 
profess the Shraopinions, marry only among themselves. The 
townsmen proper, on the other hand, are a very motley race.' 
New settlers remain behind with each pilgrimage; attracted by 
Uk many offices of profit connected with the mosque, the stipends 
psid by the sultan to every inhabitant, and the gains to be derived 
by (nlgrim-cicerones (Muxawwirs) or by those who make it a 
business to say prayers at the Prophet's mosque for persons who 
lead a fee from a distance^ as well as the alms which the citizens 
ue accustomed to collect when they go abroad, especially in 
Tukcy. The population of the city and suburbs may be from 
16,000 to 20,000. 

The dty proper is surrounded by a soUd stone wall,* with 
bmcfs and four massive gateways of good architecture, forming 
aa irregular oval running to a kind of angle at the north-west, 
wbere stands the castle, held by a Turkish garrison. The houses 
vt good stone buildings similar in style to those of Mecca; the 
Kreets are narrow but clean, and in part paved.* There is a 
copious supply of water conducted from a tepid source (ez- 
Zuki) at the village of Kuba, 2 m. south, and distributed in under- 
ground dstems in each quarter.* The glory of Medina, and the 
only important buOding, is the mosque of the Prophet, in the 
eastern part of the city, a spacious enclosed court between 400 
aod SCO ft. in length from north to south, and two-thirds as much 
in breadth. The minarets and the lofty dome above the sacred 
graves are imposing features; but the circuit is hemmed in by 
booses or narrow lanes, and is not remarkable except for the 
principal gate (Bab al-Salam) at the southern end of the west 
front, facing the sacred graves, which is richly inlaid with marbles 
and fine tiles, and adorned with golden inscriptions. This gate 
leads into a deep portico, with ten rows of pillars, running along 
the southern walL Near the farther end of the portico, but not 

'The pilgrimage to Medina, though highly meritonous. is not 
Mifitory, and it is not tied to a single season : so that there is no 
leoeral concourse at one time, and no fair like that of Mecca. 

'A small number of families in Medina still claim to represent 
the aacicflt iliuar, the "defenders" of Mahomet; there arc also 
sofoe Siddiqiyak, claiming descent from Abu Bekr. But in fact 
the did population emigrated en masse after the sack of Medina by 
Moslim in 683. and passed into Spain in the armies of Musa. In 
the 13th century one old man of the Khazraj and one old woman 
of the Aus tribe were all that remained of the old stock in Medina 
(^laqqari, L 187: Dozy. Mus. d'EsfHsgne, i. in). The aristocratic 
bfl^y of the Bern Hosain, who claim descent from the martyr of 
Kcxbda. and so from the Prophet, have apparently a better cstab- 
Uicd pedsree. 

* According to Ibn Khattikan (Slane's trans, iii. 027) the walls 
aieof the 12th century, the work of Jam&l ud-Din ai-lspahftni. 

^TbeBaOt or great paved street of Medina, a very unusual 
featttie in an Eastern town, dates from the ist century of Isl&m. 
fSce WOstenfeki's abstract of SamhOdi. p. 115) . .. , ^ , ^ 

* KufaA is famous as the place where the Prophet lived before he 
catered Medina, and the site of the first mosque in which he prayed, 
k fies ai^dst occhaxds in the richest part of the oasis. 



adjoining the walls, is a sort of dooriea house or chamber hung 
with rich curtains, which is supposed to contain the graves of 
Mahomet, Abu Bekr and Omar. To the north of this is a smaller 
chamber of the same kind, draped in black, which is said to 
represent the tomb of Fatima. Both are enclosed with an 
iron railing, so closely interwoven with brass wire-work that 
a glimpse of the so-called tombs can only be got through 
certain apertures, where intercessory prayer is addressed to 
the prophet, and pious salutations are paid to the other 
saints.* The portico in front of the raiUng is not ineffective, 
at least by nightlight. It is paved with marble, and in the 
eastern part with mosaic, laid with rich carpets; the southern 
wall is clothed with marble pierced with windows of good stained 
glass, and the great railing has a striking aspect; but an air of 
tawdrincss is imparted by the vulgar painting of the columns, 
especially in the space between the tomb and the pulpit, which 
has received, in accordance with a tradition of the Prophet, the 
name of the Garden (rau4a), and is decorated with barbaric 
attempts to carry out this idea in colour.' The throng of visitors 
passing along the south wall from the Bab al-Salam to salute 
the tombs is separated from the Garden by an iron railing. The 
other three sides of the interior court have porticoes of less depth 
and mean aspect, with three or four rows of pillars. Within the 
court are the well of the Prophet, and some palm-trees said to 
have been planted .by Fatima; this " grove " is separated from 
the rest of the court by a wooden partition. 

The original mosque was a low building of brick, roofed with 
palm-branches, and much smaller than the present structure. 
The wooden pulpit from which Mahomet preached appears to 
have stood on the same place with the present pulpit in the 
middle of the south portico. The dwelling of the Prophet and 
the huts of his women adjoined the mosque. Mahomet died in 
the hut of Ayesha and was buried where he died; Abu Bekr and 
Omar were afterwards buried beside him. In a.d. 7 i i the mosque, 
which had previously been enlarged by Omar and Othman, 
was entirely reconstructed on a grander scale and in Byzantine 
style by Greek and Coptic artificers at the command of the caliph 
Walid and under the direction of Omar Ibn Abd-al-Aziz. The 
enlarged plan included the huts above named, which were pulled 
down. Thus the place of the Prophet's burial was brought 
within the mosque; but the recorded discontent of the city at this 
step shows that the feeling which regards the tomb as the great 
glory of the m(»que, and the pilgrimage to it as the most meri- 
torious that can be undertaken except that to Mecca, was still 
quite unknown. It is not even certain what was done at this 
time to mark off the graves. Ibn *Abd Rabbih, in the beginning 
of the loth century {'Hd, Cairo ed., iii. 366), describes the 
enclosure as a hexagonal wall, rising within three cubits of the 
ceiling of the portico, clothed in marble for more than a man's 
height, and above that height daubed with the unguent called 
khalAk. This may be supplemented from I$takhri, who calls 
it a lofty house without a door. That there are no gravestones 
or visible tombs within is certain from what is recorded of 
occasions when the place was opened up for repairs. Ibn Jubair 
(p. 193 seq.) and SamhadI speak of a small casket adorned with 
silver, fixed in the eastern wall, which was supposed to be opposite 
the head of the Prophet, while a silver nail in the south wall 
indicated the point to which the corpse faced, and from which 
the salutation of worshippers was to be addressed (Burton 
misquotes). The European fable (mentioned and refuted, e.g. in 
Histoire des Arahcs par VahH de Marigny, I. i. p. 46, Paris, 1750) 
of the coffin suspended by magnets is totally unknown to Moslem 
tradition. The smaller chamber of Fatima is comparatively 
modern. In the time of Ibn Jubair and of Ibn Batuta (unless 

•The space between the railing and the tomb is seldom entered 
except by the servants of the mosque. It contains the treasures 
of the mosque in jewels and plate, which were once very consider- 
able, but have been rcpcatcclly plundered, last of all by the Wahhabis 
in the beginning of the 19th century. 

^ The word rautfa also means a mausoleum, and is applied by 
Ibn Jubair to the tomb itself. Thus the tradition that the space 
between the pulpit and the tomb was called by the Prophet one of 
the gardens of Paradise probably arose from a mistake. 



66 



MEDINA— MEDINA SIDONIA, DUKE OF 



the latter, as is so often the case, is merely copying his prede- 
cessor) there was only a small marble trough north of the rau^a 
(or grave) which " is said to be the house of Fatima or her 
grave, but God only knows." It is more probable that Fatima 
was buried in the Bal^J, where her tomb was also shown in the 
1 3th century (Ibn Jubair, pp. 198 seq.). 

The mosque was again extended by the caliph Mahdl (a.d. 781) 
and was burned down in 1 256. Of its appearance before the fire 
we have two authentic accounts by Ibn *Abd Rabbih early in 
the 10th century, and by Ibn Jubair, who visited it in z 184. The 
old mosque had a much finer and more regular appearance than 
the present one; the interior walls were richly adorned with marble 
and mosaic arabesques of trees and the like, and the outer walls 
with stone marquetry; the pillars of the south portico (seventeen 
in each row) were in white plaster with gilt capitals, the other 
pillars were of marble. Ibn *Abd Rabbih speaks of eighteen 
gates, of which in Ibn Jubair's time, as at present, all but four 
were walled up. There were then three minarets. After the 
fire which took place just at the time of the fall of the caliphate, 
the mosque long lay in a miserable condition. Its repair was 
chiefly due to the Egyptian sultans, especially to IsAit Bey, 
whose restoration after a second fire in 148 1 amounted almost to 
a complete reconstruction. Of the old building nothing seems 
to have remained but some of the columns and part of the 
walls. The minarets have also been rebuilt and two new ones 
added. The great dome above the tomb, the railing round it, 
and the pulpit, all date from l^&il Bey's restoration. 

The suburbs, which occupy as much space as the city proper, 
and are partly walled in, lie south-west of the town, from which 
they are separated by an open space, the halting-place of cara- 
vans. Through the suburbs runs the watercourse called Wadi 
Buthan, a tributary of W. l^anit, which the Yanbu* road crosses 
by a stone bridge. The suburbs are the quarter of the peasants. 
Thirty or forty families with their cattle occupy a single court- 
yard (hdsh), and form a kind of community often at feud with 
its neighbours. The several clans of Medina must have lived 
in much the same way at the time of the Prophet. The famous 
cemetery called Bal^' el-Ghar^ad, the resting-place of a multi- 
tude of the " companions " of the Prophet, lies immediately to 
the west of the city. It once contained many monuments, the 
chief of which are described by Ibn Jubair. Burckhardt in 181 5 
found it a mere waste, but some of the mosques have since been 
rebuilt. 

History. — The story of the Amalekites in Yathrib and of their 
conquest by the Hebrews in the time of Moses is purely fabulous 
(see Noldeke, Ober die Amalckiter, 1864, p. 36). The oasis, when 
it first comes into the light of history, was held by Jews, among 
whom emigrants from Yemen afterwards settled. From the 
time of the emigration of Mahomet (a.d. 622) till the Omayyads 
removed the seat of empire from Medina to Damascus, the town 
springs into historic prominence as the capital of the new power 
that so rapidly changed the fate of the East. Its fall was not 
less rapid and complete, and since the battle of Harra and the 
sack of the city in 683 it has never regained political importance 
(see Caliphate, B. §§ i, 2, &c.). Mahomet invested the country 
round Medina with an inviolable character like that of the Haram 
round Mecca; but this provision has never been observed with 
strictness. After the fall of the caliphs, who maintained a 
governor in Medina, the native amirs enjoyed a fluctuating 
measure of independence, interrupted by the aggressions of the 
sherifs of Mecca, or controlled by an intermittent Egyptian 
protectorate. The Turks after the conquest of Egypt held 
Medina for a time with a firmer hand; but their rule grew weak, 
and was almost nominal long before the Wahhibls took the city 
in 1804. A Turko-Egyptian force retook it in 181 2, and the 
Turks now maintain a pasha with a military establishment, while 
the cadi and chief agha of the mosque (a eunuch) are sent from 
Constantinople. In late years the influence of the Turkish 
government has been much strengthened, an important factor in 
its consideration being the construction of the railway from Syria 
to the Hejaz. Railway communication between Damascus and 
Medina was effected in 1908. 



A UT HOAi Ttss, — Medi na ha 9 bw n df^sc ribed from penonal otMerva* 
tion by Burckhardt who vmted it in [815, and Burton, who made 
ihc pil^rima^- [a 1 8 5^ . Sad] icr on >i j<y j aumey from Katif to Yambu 
(I St 9)' wi$ not al lowed to enu-r tht.' holy city. Burckhardt was 
prevented by ill-hralth from. ejLi mining the city and country with 
ni« li&uijil thoroughncu, Lit tie ti LieiJi.-tj to our information oy the 
report oi 'AM ct-RjuIq, who pcrfurcncd ihe pilgrimage in 1878, 
on 4 nttdical comniiigion from the English government. The 
chkt Arabic authoriiy b(.>^d« )hn 'Abd Rabbih and Ibn Jbbair 
ift SamhQdi, of whose htstofy VVustcnfeld publithcd an abstract 
in the G^tfingcn AbhandiuftgeH, vol. ix. (1861). It goes down to 



the CEid of the isth century. The tonography of the country about 
Mcfjjrt^ h mivreiUne both hUtorkally and geographically: Bakri. 
Yii^ili and other Arabic gco^i^ranhrr^. supply much material on this 



topic^ Soxne good ififofcnation rL^nccrnmR Medina is containol 
in the 2ad volume ol Ooujihty'fi Travth in Aralna Deserta. 

(W. R. S.; 

HEDINA,a village of Orleans county, in north-west New York, 
U.S.A., about 40 m. N.E. of Buffalo, and on Oak Orchard Cnek. 
Pop. (1900), 4716, (857 foreign-born); (1905, state census), 5114; 
(1910) 5683. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson 
River railroad, by the Buffalo, Lockport & Rochester (inter- 
urban) railway, and by the Erie Canal. On Oak Orchard Creek 
and near the 'city are electric power plants, at the Medina Falls 
and at a Urge storage dam (60 ft. high ) for water power, built in 
1902. In the neighbourhood are extensive apple, peach and pear 
orchards; and vegetables, especially beans, are grown. There 
are valuable quarries of Medina sandstone, a good building-, 
paving- and flag-stone, varying in colour from light grey to 
brownish red, readily shaped and split, and less likely than 
limestone to crack or than granite to wear slippery; it was 
first found at Medina in 1837. There was a saw-mill on the 
creek near here in 1805, but the place was little settled before 
1824, and its growth was due to the Erie Canal. It was incor- 
porated in 1832. 

MEDINA SIDONIA, DON ALONSO PEREZ DB GUZMAll BL 
BUENO, 7TH Duke of (1550-1615), the commander-in-chief U 
the Spanish Armada, was bom on the loth of September 1550. 
He was the son of Don Juan Claros de Guzman, eldest sod of 
the 6th duke, and of his wifeDofiaLeonor Manrique de Zuftigay 
Sotomayor. His father died in 1555, and Don Alonso became 
duke, and master of one of the greatest fortunes in Europe, <» 
the death of his grandfather in 1539. The family of Guzman 
was originally lords of Abiados, on the southern slope of the 
Picos de Europa in the hill country of Leon. The name it 
believed to be a contraction or corruption of Gundamaris, t.e. 
son of Gundamar. An early family tradition represents them 
as having come from Britain, and they may have descended from 
one of the Scandinavian invaders who attacked the north coast 
of Spain in the loth century. It is in the loth century that they 
first appear, and they grew great by the reconquest of the 
country from the Mahommedans. The branch to which the 
dukes of Medina Sidonia belonged was founded by Alonso Peret 
de Guzman (i 256-1309), sumamed El Bueno, the good, in the 
sense of good at need, or stout-hearted. In 1296 he defended 
the town of Tarifa on behalf of Sancho IV., and when the be- 
siegers threatened to murder one of his sons whom they held as 
a prisoner if he did not surrender, he allowed the boy to be killed. 
He was rewarded by great grants of crown land. The dudiy of 
Medina Sidonia. the oldest in Spain, was conferred by John II. 
in 1445 on one of his descendants, Juan Alonzo de Guzman, 
count of Niebla. The addition " £1 Bueno " to the family name 
of Guzman was used by several of the house, which included 
many statesmen, generals and colonial viceroys.^ The 7th 
duke was betrothed in 1 565 to Ana de Silva y Mendoza, who was 
then four years of age, the daughter of the prince of Eboli. In 
IS? 2 when the duchess was a little more than ten years of age, 
the pope granted a dispensation for the consummation of the 
marriage. The scandal of the time, for which there appears to 
be no foundation, accused Philip II. of a love intrigue with the 
princess of Eboli. The unvarying and unmerited favour he 
showed the duke has been accounted for on the ground that be 

* The titles and grandeeship passed, in accordance with CaatiKaa 
law, by marriage of a daughter and heiress in 1777. to the marqucH 
of Villafranca. and have since remained in that house. 



MEDINA SIDONIA— MEDITERRANEAN SEA 



67 



tDok a paternal interest in the duchess. Don Alonso, though he 

boie the name of El Bueno, was a man of mean spirit. He made 

DO serious effort to save his mother-in-law from the persecution 

ihe suffered at the hands of Philip IL His correspondence is 

fall of whining complaints of poverty, and appeals to the king 

for pecuniary favours. In 1581 he was created a knight of the 

Golden Fleece, and was named captain-general of Lomhardy. 

By pressing supplications to the king he got himself exempted 

on the ground of poverty and poor health. Yet when the 

marquess of Santa Cruz (q.v.) died, on the 9th of February 1588, 

Philip insisted on appointing him to the command of the Armada. 

He was chosen even before Santa Cnu was actually dead, and 

was forced to go in spite of his piteous declarations that he had 

neither experience nor capacity, and was always sick at sea. His 

conduct ol the Armada justified his plea. He was even accused 

ol showing want of personal courage, and was completely broken 

by the sufferings of the campaign, which turned his hair grey. 

ilie duke retained his posts of " admiral of the ocean " and 

captain-general of Andalusia in spite of the contempt openly 

cspressed for him by the whole nation. When an English and 

Datch armament assailed Cadiz in 1596 his sloth and timidity 

were largely responsible for the loss of the place. He was held 

«p to ridkule by Cervantes in a sonnet. Yet the royal favour 

coDiinned nnabated even under the successor of Philip II. In 

1606 the obstinacy and folly of the duke caused the loss of a 

sqoadron which was destroyed near Gibraltar by the Dutch. 

Hedkd in 1615. 

See CeBsrio Duro, La Armada invincible (Madrid, 1884), which 
gives Bumerous references to authorities. 

■ZDIXA nOOIfIA, or MsoiNASiDOinA, a town of southern 
%UD, in the province of Cadiz, 21 m. by road E.S.E. of Cadiz. 
hip. (xgoo), 11,040. Medina Sidonia is built on an isolated 
M surrounded by a ctiltivated plain. It contains a fine Gothic 
church, several convents, and the ancestral palace of the dukes of 
Medina Sidonia. It has a small agricultural trade, chiefly in 
vheat, olives and oats. 

Medina Sidonia has been identified by some with the Asido 
of Pliny, but this is uncertain. Under the Visigoths the place 
vxs erected into a bishopric (Assidonia), and attained some 
unportance; in the beginning of the 8th century it was taken by 
Tariq. In the time of Idrisi (12th century) the province of 
Skadlbta or Skidona included, among other towns, Seville and 
Carmona; later Arab geographers place ShadHna in the province 
of Seville. 

HEDIOlAinni, or Mediolanium (mod. Milan, q.v.), an ancient 
city of Italy, and the most important in Gallia Transpadana. 
LJvy attributes its foundation to the Galii Insubrcs under 
Beilovesus after their defeat of the Etruscans, in the time of the 
older Tarquin. According to other authorities, the Etruscan 
city of Melpum which preceded it was destroyed in 396 B.C. 
Objecu of the Bronze age have been found outside the city on 
the south. The name itself is Celtic. The Romans defeated the 
losubres in 225-223 B.C., and stormed Mediolanum itself in the 
latter year. Its inhabitants rebelled some twenty years later in 
the Hannibalic War, but were defeated and finally reduced to 
obedience in 196 B.C. They probably acquired Latin rights in 
89, and full civic rights in 49 B.C., as did those of the other towns 
of Gallia Transpadana. It appears later on (but not before the 
3cd century aj>.) to have become a colony It acquired a 
certain amount of literary eminence, for we bear of youths going 
from Comum to Mediolanum to study. In Strabo's time it was 
00 an equality with Verona, but smaller than Patavium, but in 
the later times of the empire its importance increased. At the 
end of the 3rd century it became the seat of the governor of 
Aemilia and Liguria (which then included Gallia Transpadana 
also, thus consisting of the 9th and nth regions of Augustus), 
sad at the end of the 4th, of the governor of Liguria only, 
Aemilia having one of its own thenceforth. From Diocletian's 
tiaie miwards the praefectus praetorio and the imperial vicar of 
Italy abo had their seat here: and it became one of the principal 
ffints of the empire. The emperors of the West resided at 
num during the 4th centuiy, until Honorius preferred 



Ravenna, and in 402 transferred his court there. Its importance, 
described in the poems of Ausonius, is demonstrated by its 
many inscriptions, and the interest and variety of their contents. 
In these the rarity of the mention of its chief magistrates is 
surprising: and it is not impossible that owing to its very impor- 
tance the right of appointing them had been taken from it (as 
Mommsen thinks). The case of Ravenna is not dissimilar. 
The inscriptions indicate a strong Celtic character in the popula- 
tion. Procopius speaks of it as the first city of the West, after 
Rome, and says that when it was captured by the Goths in 539, 
300,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It was an important 
centre of traffic, from which roads radiated in several directions 
—as railways do to-day — to Comum, to the foot of the Lacus 
Verbanus (Lago Maggiore), to Novaria and Vercellae, to Ticinum, 
to Laus Pompeia and thence to Placentia and Cremona, and to 
Bcrgomum. None of these roads had an individual name, so 
far as we know. To its secular power corresponds the indepen- 
dent position which its Church took in the time of St Ambrose 
{q.v.), bishop of Milan in 374-397, who founded the church 
which bears his name, and here baptized St Augustine in a.d. 
387, and whose rite is still in use throughout the diocese. Theo- 
dosius indeed did penance here at Ambrose's bidding for his 
slaughter of the people of Thessalonica. After his death the 
period of invasions begins; and Milan felt the power of the Huns 
under Attila (452), of the Heruli under Odoacer (476) and of the 
Goths under Thcodoric (493). When Belisarius was sent by 
Justinian to recover Italy, Datius, the archbishop of Milan, 
joined him, and the Goths were expelled from the city. But 
Uraia, nephew of Vitigis the Gothic king, subsequently assaulted 
and retook the town, after a brave resistance. Uraia destroyed 
the whole of Milan in 539; and hence it is that this city, once so 
important a centre of Roman civilization, possesses so few 
remains of antiquity. Narses, in his campaigns against the 
Goths, had invited the Lombards to his aid. They came in a 
body under Alboin, their king, in 568, and were soon masters of 
north Italy. They entered Milan in the next year, but Pavia 
became the Lombard capital. 

Of Roman remains little is to be seen above ground, but 
a portico of sixteen Corinthian columns near S. Lorenzo, 
which may belong to the baths of Hercules, mentioned by 
AusQnius, or to the palace of Maximian. Close to the Torre 
del Carrobio remains of an ancient bridge and (possibly) 
of the walls of Maximian were found: and many remains 
of ancient buildings, including a theatre, have been dis- 
covered below ground-level. The objects found are preserved 
in the archaeological museum in the Castello Sforzesco. (See 

MlIAN.) 

See Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscript. Latin. (Berlin. 1883), v. 617 
sqq. (with full bibliography) ; Nolixie degli Scavi, passim. 

(J. As.) 

MEDITERRANEAN SEA. The Mediterranean is all that 
remains of a great ocean which at an early geological epoch, 
before the formation of the Atlantic, encircled half the globe 
along a line of latitude. This ocean, already diminished in 
area, retreated after Oligocene times from the Iranian plateau, 
Turkestan, Asia Minor and the region of the north-west Alps. 
Next the plains of eastern Europe were lost, then the AraJo- 
Caspian region, southern Russia and finally the valley of the 
Danube. The " Mediterranean region," as a geographical 
unit, includes all this area; the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora 
are within its submerged portion, and the climate of the whole 
is controlled by the oceanic influences of the Mediterranean 
Sea. Professor Suess, to whom the above description is due, 
finds that the Mediterranean forms no exception to the rule in 
affording no evidcnceof elevation or depression within historic 
times; but it is noteworthy that its present basin is remarkable 
in Europe for its volcanic and seismic activity. Submarine 
earthquakes are in some parts sufficiently frequent and violent 
as seriously to interfere with the working of telegraph cables. 
Suess divides the Mediterranean basin into four physical regions, 
which aflord probably the best means of description : (i) The 
western Mediterranean, from Gibraltar to Malta and Sicil/, 



68 



MEDITERRANEAN SEA 



enclosed by the Apennines, the mountains of northern Africa, 
and of southern and south-eastern Spain (CordUUre hitique). 
(2) The Adriatic, occupying the space between the Apennines 
and the Dinaric group (Suess compares the Adriatic to the valley 
of the Brahmaputra). (3) A part surrounded by the fragments 
of the Dinaro-Taurus arch, especially by Crete and Cyprus. 
This includes the Aegean and the Black Sea, and its margin 
skirts the south coast of Asia Minor. These three parts belong 
strictly to Eurasia. (4) Part of the coastal region of Indo- 
Africa, terraced downwards in successive horizontal planes 
from the Shot, reaching the sea in the Little Syrte, and con- 
tinuing to the southern depressions of S3rria. Malta and 
Gozo are the only islands of the Mediterranean which can be 
associated with this section, and, per contra, the mountain 
chain of north-west Africa belongs to Eurasia. Murray 
(1888) estimates the total area of the Mediterranean at 
813,000 sq. m. Karstens (1894) breaks it up into parts as 
follows: — 

Western Mediterranean 811,593 sq. km. 

• Sicilian-Ionian basin . . 767,058 „ 

Greece and Levant basin 769,652 „ 

Adriatic Sea .... 130,656 ,. 



Total 



2.509.559 



A more recent calculation by Krtimmel gives the total area 
u 2,967,570 sq. km. or 1,145,830 sq. m. (See Ocean.) Murray 
estimates the total surface of the Mediterranean drainage area, 
with which must be included the Black Sea, at 2,934,500 sq. m., 
of which 1,420,800 are Eurasian and 1,5x3,800 are African. 
The principal rivers entering the Mediterranean directly are 
the Nile from Africa, and the Po, jlhone and Ebro from 
Europe. 

The physical divisions of the Mediterranean given above hold 
good in describing the form of the sea-bed. The western 
Mediterranean is cut off by a bank crossing the narrow strait 
between Sicily and Cape Bon, usually known as the Adventure 
Bank, on which the depth is nowhere 200 fathoms. The mean 
depth of the western basin is estimated at 881 fathoms, and 
the deepest sounding recorded is 2040 fathoms. In the eastern 
Mediterranean the mean depth is nearly the same as in the 
western basin. The Sicilian-Ionian basin has a mean depth of 
885 fathoms, and the Levant basin, 793 fathoms. Deep water 
is found close up to the coast of Sicily, Greece, Crete and the edge 
of the African plateau. The steepest slope observed occurs off 
the island of Sapienza, near Navarino, where 1720 fathoms has 
been obtained only xo miles from land. In 1897 the ship 
" Washington " obtained depths of 2220 fathoms in the middle 
of the eastern Mediterranean; and the Austrian expeditions in 
the " Pola •* discovered in the " Pola Deep " (35" 44' N., 21"' 45' 
£.), south-west of Cape Matapan, a maximum depth of 2046 
fathoms. Between these two deep areas a ridge runs in a 
north-westerly direction 550 fathoms from the surface— possibly 
a projection from the African plateau. Another bank iioo 
fathoms from the surface runs south from the east end of Crete, 
separating the Pola Deep from the depths of the Levant basin, 
in which a depth of i960 fathoms was recorded near Makri on 
the coast of Asia Minor. The later e]Q>edition of the " Pola ** 
discovered the " Rhodes Deep " (36" 5' N., 28' 36' E.), with a 
maximum depth of 21 10 fathoms: this deep is closed to the 
south-east by a ridge running south-east, over which the depth 
is 1050 fathoms. Off the coast of Syria the " Pola " obuincd 
four soundings of more than xioo fathoms, and between Cyprus 
and the coast of Asia Minor only two over 550 fathoms. Murray 
gives the following figures for the areas and volumes of the 
Mediterranean at different depths:— 



Depth. 


Area. 


Volume. 


Fathoms. 


Sq. Miles. 


Cub. Miles. 


0- 100 


201,300 


80,950 


100- 500 


251.650 


220,850 


500-1000 


81.300 


189,200 


1000-2000 


263.250 


217.050 


Over 2000 


15.500 


1.750 



813.000 



709,800 



which gives a mean depth over all of 768 fathoms. Thefdbwii^ 
table is due to Karstens: — 

Volume. Mean Depth. 

Cub. Km. Fathoms. 

Western Mediterranean 1*356,512 881 

Sicilian-Ionian basin 1,242,549 885 

Levant if 116,599 793 

Adriatic Sea 3I1844 135 

Krtimmel gives the total volume of the basin as 4,249,020 cubic 
kilometres or 1,019,400 cubic statute miles, and the mean dq>Ui 
as 782 fathoms. (See Ocean.) 



MeUorologpf. — As already stated, ^he " Mediterranean .^ 

forms a distinct climatic unit, chiefly due to the form and position 
of the Mediterranean Sea. The prevailing winds in this regioa, 
which the sea traverses longitudinally, are wttteriy, but the aea 
itself causes the formation of bands of low barometric pressure 
during the winter season, within which cyclonic disturtMtnces 
frequently develop, while in summer the r^on comes under the 
influence of the polar margiA of the tropical high pressure belc 
Hence the Mediterranean region is characteristically one of winter 
rains, the distinctive feature becoming less sharply defined from 
south to north, and the amount of total annual fail increasu^ in 
the same direction. The climate becomes more continental in type 
from west to east, but there aue great local irregularities — the ele- 
vated plateaus of Algeria and Spain cause a rise of pressure in wi.^ter 
and delay the rainy seasons: the rains set in eaulier in the west 
than in the east, and the total fall is greater. Temperature varies 
greatly, the annual mean varying from 56* F. to 77* F. In the 
west the Atlantic influence limits the mean annual range to about 
10"— 12" F.. but in iht ta^t this increases to 36* and even 40'- 
Autumn is warmiirr than sprtrijf^ especially in the tioAstai regiorts^ 
and this is exa^gc'^rp.tc'il in the vafitcrn region by local L^nd vindi, 
which replace tnc ctxil Ka-brcCf^'^ of summer: Dvtrco4ts are ordi' 
narily worn in Spaiii and haly till Juty, and trc thtn put aside till 
October. Local winds lorm an important leaiurc iti nearly all 
the coast climate^ of the Mrdi^errB^ntan, FipecLaMy In wintEr, whtnt 
they are primarily caused by the rapid change gf (timperattire 
from the sea to the tnow-clad tiinterlandft. Cold dry windi, olteii 
of great violence, txrcui- in the Rhone valley (tht Mi$tral}, in tM.m, 
and Dalmatia (the Bora}, and in the wcfltern CaiJca«JJ>, In mmmrr 
a north-west " trade " wind^ the Maeitm, occurs in the Adriatic 
The Sirocco is a cyclonic wind charactcriittc of thr winter rainy 
season: in the Adriatic it Li usually accdrnp^nicd by cloud «nd 
moisture, often by rain. In Sicily and southern Italy the Sirocco 
occurs at all sca^n?.; it ij a dry, du^iy wind from »uth-<easi or 
south-west. The do^t i^ chiefly of local oHfiin, but partly comes 
from the Sahara- Similar wind* ine met with in Spain tthe Lev*ch*), 
but they reach their pircate^t dtrvelapment in the Simoo^i of Alfens 
and Syria, and the Kham>in cf E^ypt. 

Temperature.— Thv mean surface temperature ol the watets cX 
the Mcditcrran* ^ "; ' '1'-^ f-c^r^ ^'-ith-^-nM, whene it 14 over 70* F,, to 
north-west, the ■ ^ the Crulf of Lyons Mnsfio*. 

The isothermal of 65'' runs from Gibraltar to the north of Sarainia, 
and thence by the Strait of Messina to the Gulf of Corinth. A 
similar distribution is found 1 00 fathoms from the surface, tempera- 
ture falling from 60* in the Levant to 55* east of Gibraltar. At 
200 fathoms temperature falls in the same way from ^* to s«*, 
but below 250 fathoms temperatures are practically uniform to the 
bottom, SS'S" in the western basin and 56*5* in the eastern. The 
bottom temperature observed in the Pola Deep was 56-3*. 

Salinity. — In the extreme west the salinity of the surface water 



is about '36*3 per mille. and it increases eastwards to 37*6 east of 
Sardinia and ^9*0 and upwards in the Levant. Observations of 
salinity in the depths of the western Mediterranean are very deficient. 



but the average is probably between 38-0 and 385. In the eastern 
basin the " Pola " expedition observed salinities of 38-7 to 39*0 to the 
east of a line joining Cape Matapan with Alexandria, and 38'2 to 
387 to the west of it. The Salter watere apparently tend to make 
their way westwards close to the African coast, and at the bottom 
the highest salinities have been observed south of Crete. Evnitaki 
states that the saltest water of the whole basin occurs in the A^ean 
Sea 

Circii/fl/ttm.— There is little definite circulation of water within 
the Mediterranean itself. In the straits joining it with the Atlantic 
and the Black Sea the fresher surface waters of these seas flow 
inwards to assist in making good the loss by evaporatkm at the 
surface of the Mediterranean, and in both cases dense water makes 
its way outwards along the bottom of the channels, the outflowing 
currents being less in volume and delivery than the inflowing. 
Elsewhere local surface currents are developed, either drifts due 
to the direct action of the winds, or streams produced by wind 
action heapine water up against the land ; but these nowhere rise to 
the dignitv of a distinct current system, although they are often 
sufficient to obliterate the feeble tidal action charactenstk: of the 
Mediterranean. Dr Nattcrer, the chemist of the " Pola " expeditions, 
has expressed the opinion that the poverty of the pelagic fauna 
is solely due to the want of circulation in the depths. 



MEDIUM— MEDLAR 



69 



DtpuHx. — ^A great part of the bottom of the Mediterranean is 
cowt r ed with blue muds, frequently with a yellow upper layer 
containing a considerable proportion of carbonate of lime, chiefly 
shells of pelagk Foraminifera. In many parts, particularly in 
the eastern basin, a calcareous or siliceous crust, from half an inch 
to three inches in thickness, is met with; and Natterer sug^e^ed 
that the formation of this crust may be due to the production of 
carbonate of ammonium where deposits containing or^nic matter 
are undergoing oxidation, and the consequent precipitation of 
oibooate of time and other substances from the waters nearer 
the surface. This view, however, has not met with general 
aocepiance. (H. N. D.) 

■EDIUlf, primarily a person through whom, as an inter- 
nediate, communication is deemed to be carried on between 
Gving men and spirits of the departed, according to the spiritistic 
bypothcss; such a person is better termed sensitive or auto- 
natist. The phenomena of mediumship fall into two classes, 
(i) ** physical phenomena ** {q,v.) and (2) trance and automatic 
phenomena (utterances, script, &c); both these may be mani- 
fetfed by the same person, as in the case of D. D. Home and 
Stainton Moses, but are often independent. 

L No sufficient mass of observations is to hand to enable us 
to distinguish between the results of trickery or hallucination 
w the one hand, and genuine supernormal phenomena on the 
other; but the evidence for raps and lights is good; competent 
observers have witnessed supposed materializations and there 
ii lespectabfe evidence for movements of objects. 

Mediumship in the modem sense of the term may be said to 
have originated with the Rochester rappbgs of 1848 (see 
SnuTUAUSv); but similar phenomena had been reported by 
foch authors as ApoUonius of Tyana; they figure frequently in 
the Hves of the saints; and the magician in the lower stages of 
cihure is in many respects a counterpart of the white medium. 
Among physical mediums who have attained celebrity may be 
OKOtioned D. D. Home {q.v.), Stainton Moses and Eusapia 
hdbdino; the last has admittedly been fraudulent at times, 
bol no deceit was ever proved of Home; Stainton Moses sat in a 
private circle and no suspicion of his good faith was ever aroused. 
W. Stainton Moses (1839-189 2) was a man of university educa- 
tkm, a clergyman aund a schoolmaster. In 1872 he became 
mterested in spiritualism and soon began to manifest medium- 
isttc phenomena,which continued for some ten years. These 
included, besides trance communications, raps, telekinesis, 
levitation, production of lights, perfumes and musical sounds, 
apports and materialized hands. But the conditions under 
iriiich the experiments were tried were not sufficiently rigid to 
exdude the possibility of normal causes being at work; for no 
smount of evidence that the normal life is marked by no lapse 
from rectitude affords a presumption that uprightness will 
duxacterizc States of secondary personality. 

Eusapia Palladino has been observed by Sir O. Lodge, Pro- 
fessor Richet, F. W. H. Myers, and other eminent investigators; 
the first named reported that none of the phenomena in his 
\ went beyond what could be accomplished in a normal 
r by a free and uncontrolled person; but he was convinced 
that movements were produced without apparent contact. 
Amof^ other phenomena asserted to characterize the medium- 
diip <A Eusapia are the production of temporary prolongations 
from the medium's body; these have been seen in a good light 
by competent witnesses. It was shown in some sittings held 
at Cambridge in 1895 that Eusapia produced phenomena by 
fraudulent means: but though the evidence of this is conclusive 
it has not been shown that her mediumship is entirely fraudulent. 
Automatic records of seances can alone solve the problems 
raised by physical mediumship. It has been shown in the Davey- 
Hodgson experiments that continuous observation, even for a 
short period, is impossible, and that in the process of recording 
Hx observations many omissions and errors are inevitable. 
Even were it otherwise, no care could provide against the 
possibility of hallucination. 

H. The genuineness of trance mediumship can no longer be 
called in question. The problem for solution is the source of 
the information. The best observed case is that of Mrs Piper 
of Bostooi at the outset of her career, in 1884, she did not differ 



from the ordinary American trance medium. In 1885 the 
attention of Professor William James of Harvard was attracted 
to her; and for twenty years she remained under the supervision 
of the Society for Psychical Research. During that period three 
phases may be distinguished: (i) 1 884-1 891, trance utterances 
of a ** control " calling himself Dr Phinuit, a French physician, 
of whose existence in the body no trace can be found; (2) 
1892-1896, automatic writing by a '* control " known as " George 
Pelham," the pseudonym of a young American author; (3) 
1896 onwards, supervision by " controls " purporting to be 
identical with those associated with Stainton Moses. There is 
no evidence for regarding Mrs Piper as anything but absolutely 
honest. Much of the Piper material remains unpublished, 
partly on account of its intimate character. Many of those to 
whom the communications were made have been convinced 
that the " controls " are none other than discamate spirits. 
Probably no absolute proof of identity can be given, though the 
reading of sealed letters would come near it; these have been left 
by more than one prominent psychical researcher, but so far 
the " controls " who claim to be the writers of them have failed 
to give their contents, even approximately. 

Professor Floumoy has investigated a medium of very differ- 
ent type, known as H^lene Smith; against her good faith nothing 
can be urged, but her phenomena — trance utterance and glosso- 
lalia — have undoubtedly been produced by her own mind. 
These represent her to be the reincarnation of a Hindu princess, 
and of Marie Antoinette among others, but no evidence of 
identity has been produced. The most striking phenomenoh 
of her trance was the so-called Martian language, eventually 
shown by analysis to be a derivative of French, comparable 
to the languages invented by children in the nursery, but more 
elaborate. 

AuTHORiTrES,— F. W. H. Myers, Human Personality; F. Podmore, 
Modem Sptrilualism; the Proceedings and Journal of the Society 
for Psychical Research, passim; for a convenient survey of the 
Piper case, see F. Sage, Madame Piper; J. Maxwell. Les Phi-, 
nomknes psychioues (1903; Ene. trans. 1905); Th. Flournov. Des 
Indes d la planku Mars. For fraudulent methods, sec Confessions 
of a Medium (London. 1883); TrucfKlell. Bottom Facts of Spiritualismt 
and works cited by Myers, II., 502-503. (N. W. T.) 

MEOJIDIE, or Mejidie. the name of a military and knightly 
order of the Turkish Empire, and also of a silver Turkish coin, 
worth twenty piastres. The coin was first struck in 1844, and 
the order was instituted in 1852 by the sultan Abd-ul-Mejid, 
whose name was therefore given to them. (See Knighthood 
AND Chivalry: $ Orders of Knighthood.) 

MEDLAR, MespUus germanica, a tree of the tribe Pomeae of 
the order Rosaceae, closely allied to the genus Pyrus, in which it 
is sometimes included; it is a native of European woods, &c., 
from Holland southwards, and of western Asia. It occurs in 
hedges, &c., in middle and south England, as a small, much- 
branched, deciduous, spinous tree, but is not indigenous. The 
medlar was well known to the ancients. Pickering {Chron. Hist. 
PI. p. 201) identifies it with a tree mentioned in a Siao-ya ode 
{She-King, ii. i, 2), 827 B.C. It is the luov'ikri of Theophrastus 
and MespUus of Pliny. The Latin mespilus or mespilum became 
in Old French mesle or medic, "the fruit," meslier, medlier, "the 
tree." The modern French ntfle is from a corruption nespilum of 
the Latin. The German Mispel preserves the original more closely. 
The well-known fruit is globular, but depressed above, with 
leafy persistent sepals, and contains stones of a hemispherical 
shape. It is not fit to eat until it begins to decay and becomes 
" bletted," when it has an agreeable acid and somewhat astrin- 
gent flavour. Several varieties are known in cultivation. . The 
large Dutch medlar, which is very widely cultivated, has a 
naturally crooked growth; the large, much-flattened fruit is 
inferior in quality to the Nottingham, which is a tree of upright 
habit with fruits of about i in. diameter, superior to any other 
variety. There is also a stonelcss variety with still smaller 
fruits, but the quality is not so good. 

The medlar is propagated by budding or grafting upon the 
white-thorn, which is most suitable if the soil is dry and sandy, 
or on the quince if the soil is moist; the pear slock also succeeds 



70 



MEDOC— MEDUSA 



well on ordinary aoib. It produces the best fruit in rich, loamy, 
iomewhat moist ground. The tree may be grown as a standard, 
and chiefly requires pruning to prevent the branches from rub- 
bing each other. The fruit should be gathered in November, 
on a dry day, and laid out upon shelves. It becomes " bletted " 
and fit for use in two or three weeks. The Japanese medlar is 
Eriobotrya japonica (see Loquat), a genus of the same tribe of 
Rosaceae. 

1|6dOC, a district in France adjoining the left bank of the 
Crironde from Blanquefort (N. of Bordeaux) to the mouth of 
the Gironde. Its length is about 50 m., its breadth averages 
between 6 and 7 m. It is formed by a number of low hills, 
which separate the Landes from the Gironde, and is traversed 
only by small streams; the Gironde itself is muddy, and oftfen 
enveloped in fog, and the region as a whole is far from 
picturesque. Large areas of its soil are occupied by vineyards, 
the products of which form the finest growths of Bordeaux. 
(See WiKE.) 

MEDUSA, the name given by zoologists to the familiar marine 
animals known popularly as jelly-fishes; or, to be more accurate, 
to those jelly-fi&hcs^ in which the form of the body resembles 
that of an umbrella, bell or parachute. The name medusa is 
suggested by the tentacles, usually long and often numerous, 
implanted on the edge of the umbrella and bear the stinging 
organs of which sea-bathers are often disagreeably aware. The 
tentacles serve for the capture of prey and are very contractile, 
being often protruded to a great length or, on the other hand, 
retracted and forming corkscrew-like curls. Hence the animals 
have suggested to vivid imaginations the head of the fabled 
Gorgon or Medusa with her chevdure of writhing snakes. 

The medusa occurs as one type of individual in the class 
Hydrozoa {q.v.)^ the other type being the polyp {q.v.). In a 
typical medusa we can distinguish the following parts. The 
umbrella-like body bears a circle of tentacles at the edge, whereby 
the body can be divided into a convex exumbreJla or exumbral 
surface and a concave subumbrella or subumbral surface. The 
vast majority of jelly-fish float in the sea, with the exumbrclia 
upwards, the subumbrella downwards. A few species, however, 
attach themselves temporarily or permanently to some firm 
object by the exumbral surface of the body, and then the sub- 
umbral surface is directed upwards. From the centre of the 
subumbral surface hangs down the manubrium, like the handle 
of an umbrella or the clapper of a bell, bearing the mouth at its 
extremity. In addition to the tentacles, the margin of the 
\imbrella bears sense-organs, which may be of several kinds 
and may attain a high degree of complexity. 

Medusae capture their prey, consisting of small organisms of 
various kinds, especially Crustacea, by means of the tentacles 
which hang out like fishing-lines in all directions. When the 
prey comes into contact with the tentacles it is paralysed, and 
at the same time held firmly, by the barbed threads shot out 
from the stinging organs or ncmatocysts. Then by contraction 
of the tentacles the prey is drawn into the mouth. Medusae 
thus form an. important constituent of the plankton or floating 
fauna of the ocean, and compete with fish and other animals for 
the food-supply furnished by minuter forms of life. 

A medusa has a layer of muscles, more or less strongly 
developed, running in a circular direction on the surface of the 
subumbrella, the contractions of which are antagonized by the 
elasticity of the gelatinous substance of the body. By the con- 
traction of the subumbral circular muscles the concavity of the 
subumbrella is increased, and as water is thereby forced out of 
the subumbral cavity the animal is jerked upwards. In this 
way jelly-fish progress feebly by the pumping movements of 
the umbrella. Besides the circular subumbral muscles, there 
may be others running in a radial direction, chiefly developed 
as the longitudinal retractor muscles of the manubrium. In 
some cases the circular subumbral muscles form a rim known as 
the velum (v., see fig. i), projecting into the subumbral cavity just 
within the ring of marginal tentacles. The two principal 

'The jrooscbcrry-like or band-shaped jelly-fishes belong to the 
class Ctenophora (9.V.). 



divisions of the medusae are characteriied by the presence or 
absence of a velum. 

Correlated with the well-developed muscular system and 
sense-organs of the medusa, we find also a distinct nervous 
system, either, when there is no velum, in the form of concentra- 
tions of nervous matter in the vicinity of each sense-organ, or, 
when a velum is present, as two continuous rings running round 
the margin of the umbrella, one external to the velum (exumbral 
nerve-ring, n>*, see fig. i), the other internal to it (subumbral 
nerve-ring, »./*.). The exumbral nerve-ring is the larger and 
supplies the tentacles; the subumbral ring supplies the velum. 

Evei^ posMble variety of body-form compatible with the fore- 
going description may be exhibited by different species of medusae. 
The Dody may show modifications 01 form which can be compared 
to a shallow saucer, a cup, a bell or a thimble. The marginal 
tentacles may be very numerous or may be few in number or even 
absent alt(»cther; and they may be simple filaments, or branched 
in a complicated manner. The manubrium may be excessively 
long or very short, and in rare cases absent, the mouth then being 
flush with the subumbral surface. The mouth may be circular or 
four-cornered, and in the latter case the manubrium at the angles 
of the mouth may become drawn out into four lappets, the oral 
arms, each with a groove on its inner side continuous with the comer 

a 




Fig. I. 
Diagram of the structure of a medusa : the ectoderm is left clear, 
the cndodcrm is dotted, the mcsogloca is shaded black; 0-6. 
principal axis (sec Hydrozoa); to the left of this line the section 
IS supposed to paits throueh an inter-radius (I.R.); to the right 
through a radius (R). The exumbral surface is upperntost, the 
subumbral surface, with the manubrium and mouth, is facing 
downwards. 

St. Stomach. G. Gonads. 

rx. Radial canal. fi.r.' Exumbral (so-called 

ex. Circular or ring-canal. upper) nerve-ring. 

e.t. Endoderm-lamclla. n.r.* Subumbral (so-called 

V. Velum. k>wer) nerve-ring. 

(For other figures of medusae see Hydrozoa.) 

of the mouth. The oral arms are the starting-point of a further 
series of variations: they may be simple flaps, crinkled and folded 
in various ways, or they maybe subdivided, and then the branches 
may simulate tentacles in appearance. In the genus Rkisostomat 
common on the British coasts and conspicuous on account of its 
large size, the oral arms, originally distmct and four in number, 
undergo concrescence, so that the entrance to the mouth is reduced 
to numerous fine pores and canals.* 

Like the external structure, the internal anatomy of the medusa 
shows a complete radial symmetry, and is simple in plan but often 
complicated m detail (sec fig. i). As in all Hydrozoa (g.v.) the body 
wall is composed of two cell-layers, the ectoderm and endodcrm. 
between which is a structureless gelatinous secreted layer, the 
mesogloea. As the name jelly-fish implies, the mesogloea is greatly 
developed and abundant in quantity. It may be traveraed by 
processes of the cells of the ectoderm and cndoderm, or it may 
conuin cells which have migrated into it from these two layers. 
The ectoderm covers the whole external surface of the animal, 
while the endodcrm lines the coelentcron or gastrovascular space; 
the two layers meet each other, and become continuous, at the edge 
of the mouth. 

The mouth leads at once into the true digestive cavity, divisible 
into an oesophageal region in the manubrium and a more dilated 
cavity, the stomach (sL), occupying the centre of the umbrella. 
From the stomach, canals arise termed the radial canals (rx.); 
typically four in number, they run in a radial direction to the edge 



* For other variations of the medusa, often of importance for 
systematic classification, see Hyoeomeousai and ScyrHOaiKoasA& 



MEDWAY— MEEK 



7» 



of the anibrelh. There the ndtal cuiali ak loined by a nng- 
canal icx.) which runs nwnd the margin or the umbrclb. From 
the ring-canal are given off tentacle<anals which run down the 
am of each tentacK; in many cases, howc'vtr, tht cavity of the 
tcntaclr is obliterated and instead of a can^l the tentacle cgnuiris 
a solid cove of endoderro. Oesophagus, »tOTnacb. ndial caiuli, 
ring-canal and tentacle<anals. constitute t[:isfihcr the enttro- 
"Vascular system and are lined throughout by rndcKkmi^ which 
forms also a Bat sheet of cells connecting: the radb! can,ifs and 
rioff canal to^^ether like a web; this is the ' ' 'I > f r' r . . . ' : ^tUa 
ifJ.), a most important feature of medusan morpholoey. the nature 
cf wUch win be apparent when the development is described. As 
a Benerat rule the mouth is the only aperture of the gastrovascular 
ijrstem: in a few cases, however, excretory pores are found on the 
raw-canal, but there b never any anal opening. 

The sense-organs ci medusae are of two classes: (i) pigment 
^»ts, sensitive to light, termed oceUi, which may become ebiborated 
iato eye-like structures with lens, retina and vitreous body: 
U) organs of the sense of balance or orientation, commonly termed 
«t$cysis or st^ocysU, The sense-organs are always situated at the 
■argia of the unbrdla and may be distinguished from the morpho- 
logiol point of view into two categories, according as they are,' or 
ue sot, derived from. modifications of tentacles; in the former case 
they are termed tenlaculocysts, (For fuller information upon the 
lense-organs sec Hydbomedusab.) 

Medusae are neariy alwa^of separate sexes, and instances of 
kemufdiroditism are tare. The gonads or generative oreans may 
be prMuced either in tlw ectodeirm or the cndoderm. When the 
fonads are endodermal. they are formed on the floor of the stontach : 
vhen ectodermal (G, see fig. i}, they are formed on the subumbral 
Mirface. either on the manubrium or under the stomach or under 
the radial canals, or in more than one of these regions. Medusae 
often have the power of budding, and the buds are formed either 
oa tbe manubrium, or at the margin of the umbrella, or on an out- 
growth or " stolon '* produced from the cxumbral surface. 

The internal anatomy of the medusa is as variable as its external 
features. The roouth may lead directly into the stomach, without 
any oesophagus. The stomach may be situated in the disk, or 
stay be drawn out into the base of the manubrium, so that the 
diik is occupied onlv by the radial canals. On the other hand the 
stomach may have fobcs extending to the ring-canal, so that radial 
canals may be very short or absent. The radial canals may be 
fcwr. nxfSLy six, or a multiple of these numbers, and may be very 
Bonerous. They may be rimple or branched. (For other ana- 
tonical variations see Hvdromedusab and Scyphomedusab.) 

In development the medusa can be derived ea&ily by a process 
of differential growth, combined with concrescence of cell-layers, 
from the actinuu-larva. (For figures see Hydrozoa.) The actmula 
is polyp-like, with a sack-like or rounded body; a crown of tentacles 
nrrounds a wide peristome, in the centre of which is the mouth, 
BMially raised on a conical process termed the hypostome. To 
produce a medusa the actinula grows greatly along a plane at right 
angles to the vertical axis of the bodv, whereby tnc aboral surface 
of the actinula becomes the exumbrclfa, and the peristome becomes 
the subumbrella. The crown of tentacles thus comes to form 
a fringe to the margin of the bodv, and the hvpostomc becomes 
the nunubrium. As a result of this change of form the gastric 
cavity or coclenteron becomes of compressed lenticular form, and 
the emfedcrm lining it can be distinguished as an upper or cxumbral 
lay^r and a bwer or subumbral bycr. The next event is a great 
growth in thickness of the gelatinous mesogloca, especially on the 
cxumbral side; as a result the flattened coelcnteron is still further 
compressed so that in certain spots its cavity is obliterated, and its 
exumbral and subumbral layers of endoderm come into contact 
and undergo concrescence. As a rule four such areas of concrescence 
or caUuimnutta (E. Haeckel) are formed. The cathammal areas 
Buy remain very small, mere wedge-shaped partitions dividing 
up the coelcnteron into a four-lobed stomach, the lobes of* which 
communicate at the periphery of the body b^ a spacious ring-canal. 
More usually each cathamma is a wide triangular area, reducing 
tbe peripheral portion of the coelcnteron to the four narrow radial 
canals and the ring-canal above described. The two apposed 
byers of endoderm in the cathammal area undergo complete f^usion 
to form a single byer of epithelium, the endodcrm-braelb of the 
aduU medusa. 

Medusae, when they reproduce themselves by budding, always 
produce medusae, but when they reproduce by the sexual method 
tbe embryos produced from the egg grow into medusae in some 
cases, in other cases into polyps which bud medusae in their turn. 
In this way complicated cycles of alternating generations arise, 
vfaicfa are described fully in Hydromedusae and Scypiiomedusae. 
Medusae are exclusively aquatic animals and for the most part 
narine. but at least two frcsn-water species are known.* Limno- 
cedimm sowerb j i was first discovered swimming in the tank in which 
the water-lily, Victoria regia, is cultivated in Kew Gardens, and 



•C. L. Boukrnger (Proc. Zocl. Sot. of London, 1007, p. 516) 
recorded the discox-ery of a third species by himself and \V. A. 
Connington, in the brackish water 01 bkc Birkct cl Kerun in the 
igypciaa Fayum. 



has since been found tporadicaDy in a stroi&r situation in other 
bounkal gardens, its most recent appearance being ar Lille. 
These jelly-fishes are probably budded from a minute polyp-stock 
introduced with the roots of the lily. Another fresh-water form is 
Limnocnida tanganyicae, discoverea first in bke Tanganyika, and 
now known to occur also in the Vkrtoria Nyanza and in the Niger. 
A medusa with a remarkable habit of life b Mnestra parasttes, 
whkh is parasitic on the pelagic mollusc Phyiiirrkoe, attaching itself 
to the host by its subumbral surface; its tenudes. no longer required 
for obtaining food, have become rudimentary. A parasitic mode of 
life b abo seen in medusae of the senus Ciintna during the brval 
condition, but the habit b abandoned, in thb case, when tne medusae 
become adult. 

For figures of medusae see (i) E. Haeckel, " Das System der 
Medusen," Denkukriften med-natwiss. Ces, Jena (18^, a vols.); 
(2) Id.. "Deep-Sea Medusae," CkalUnger Retorts, Zoology, IV. 
pt. ii. (1883); (3) O. Maas, " Die craspcdoten Medusen," Ergehn. 
Plankton-Expedttion, II. (1801): (4) id.. " Die Medusen," Mem, 
Mus. Comt. Zool. Harvard, XXIII. (1897): (5) C. J. AUraan, "A 
Monograph of the Gymnobbstic or TuDulanan Hydroids," Ray. 
Soc, (1871-1872). (E. A. M.) 

MEDWAT, a river in the south-east of Engbnd. It rises 
in the Forest Ridges, S.W. of East Grinstead in Sussex, and, 
increased by many feeders from these picturesque hiUs, has an 
easterly course to the county boundary, which it forms, turning 
northward for a short distance. Entering Kent near Ashurst, 
its course becomes north-easterly, and thb direction b generally 
maintained to the mouth. The river passes Tonbridge, receiving 
the Eden from the west, and later the Tebe and Beult from the 
south and east, all these streams watering the rich Weald (f.v.) 
to the south of the North Downs. These hilb are breached by 
the Medway in a beautiful valley, in which lies Maidstone, 
generally much narrower than the upper valley. The charac- 
teristic structure of thb part of the valley b considered under the 
heading Downs. Below Maidstone the valley forms a perfect 
basin, the hilb descending upon it closely above Rochester. 
Below this city the river enters a broad, winding estiuiry, passing 
Chatham, and at Shcemcss joining that of the Thames, so that 
the Medway may be considered a tributary, and its drainage area 
of 680 sq. m. reckoned as part of that of the greater river. 
The length of the Medway is about 60 m., excluding its many 
lesser windings. The estuary b navigable for sea-going vessels 
drawing 24 ft. up to Rochester Bridge. A considerable trafKc 
is carried on by small vessels up to Maidstone, and by barges up to 
Tonbridge, the total length of the navigation being 43 m. The 
marshy lowlands along the course of the river have yielded exten- 
sive rtmains of Roman pottery, a plain ware of dark slate-colour. 

MEEANEB. or Miani, a village in Sind, India, on the Indus 
6 m. N. of Hyderabad. Pop. (1901), 962. It b famous as the 
scene of the battle in which Sir Charles Napier, with only 
2800 men, broke the power of the mirs of Sind on the 17th of 
February 1843. The result of thb victory was the conquest 
and annexation of Sind. 

MEEK, FIELDING BRADFORD (181 7-1876), American 
geologist and palaeontologist, the son of a lawyer, was born at 
Madison, Indiana, on the loth of December 1817. In early 
life he was in business as a merchant, but his leisure hours were 
devoted to collecting fossils and studying the rocks of the neigh- 
bourhood of Madison. Being unsuccessful in business he turned 
hb whole attention to science, and in 1848 he gained employ- 
ment on the U.S. Geological Survey in Iowa, and subsequently in 
Wisconsin and Minnesota. In 1852 he became assistant to Pro- 
fessor James Hall at Albany, and worked at palaeontology with 
him until 1858. Meanwhile in 1853 he accompanied Dr F. V. 
Hayden in an exploration of the " Bad Lands " of Dakota, and 
brought back valuable collections of fossils. In 1858 he \vent 
to Washington, where he devoted his time to the palacontological 
work of the United States geological and geographical surveys, 
hb work bearing " the stamp of the most faithful and con- 
scientious research," and raising him to the highest rank as a 
palaeontologist. Besides many separate contributions to science, 
he prepared with W. M. Gabb (1839-1878), two volumes on 
the palaeontology of California (1864-1869); and also a Report 
on the Invertebrate Cretaceous and Tertiary Fossils oj tJie Upper 
Missouri Country (1876). He died at Washington, on the 22Dd 
of December 1876. 



K 



72 



MEER— MEERSCHAUM 



JAN VAN DBR (1632-1675), more often called 
Vermeer of Delft— not to be confounded with the elder (1628- 
1691) or younger (1656-1705) Van der Meer of Haarlem, or with 
Van der Meer of Utrecht— is one of the excellent Dutch painters 
about whom the Dutch biographers give us little information.* 
Van der Meer, or Vermeer, was born in Delft, and was a pupil 
of Care! Fabritius, whose junior he was by only eight years. 
The works by Fabritius are few, but his contemporaries speak 
of him as a man of remarkable power, and the paintings now 
ascertained to be from his hand, and formerly ascribed to Rem- 
brandt, prove him to have been deeply imbued with the spirit 
and manner of that master. Whether Van der Meer had ever 
any closer relation to Rembrandt than through companionship 
with Fabritius remains uncertain. In 1653 he married Catherine 
Bolenes, and in the same year he entered the gild of St Luke of 
Delft, becoming one of the heads of the gild in 1662 and again 
in 1670. He died at Delft in 1675, leaving a widow and eight 
children. His circumstances cannot have been flourishing, for 
at his death he left twenty-six pictures undi^Msed of, and his 
widow had to apply to the court of insolvency to be placed under 
a curator, who was Leeuwenhoek, the naturalist. 

For more than two centuries Van der Meer was almost com- 
pletely forgotten, and his pictures were sold under the names 
and forged -signatures of the more popular De Hooch, Metsu, 
Ter Borch, and even of Rembrandt. The attention of the art- 
world was first recalled to this most original painter by Thor6, 
an exiled Frenchman, who described his then known works in 
Musies de la HoUande (1858-1860), published under the assumed 
name of W. Barger. The result of his researches, continued in 
his Galerie Suermondl and Calerie d'Arenberg^ was afterwards 
given by him in a charming, though incomplete, monograph 
{Gazette des beaux-arU, 1866, pp. 297, 458, 542). The task was 
prosecuted with success by Havard (Les Artistes holiandais), 
and by Obreen (Nederlandsche Kunstgeschiedcnis, DI. iv.), and 
we are now in a position to refer to Van der Meer's works. His 
pictures are rarely dated, but one of the most important, in 
the Dresden Gallery, bears the date 1656, and thus gives us a 
key to his styles. With the exception of the " Christ with 
Martha and Mary " in the Coats collection at Glasgow, it is 
perhaps the only one, hitherto recognized, that has figures of 
life size, though his authorship is claimed for several others. 
The Dresden picture of a " Woman and Soldier," with other 
two figures, is painted with remarkable power and boldness, 
with great command over the resources of colour, and with 
wonderful expression of life. For strength and colour it more than 
holds its own beside the neighbouring Rembrandts. To this early 
period of his career belong, from internal evidence, the "Reading 
Giri " of the same gallery, the luminous and masterly " View of 
Delft " in the museum of the Hague, the " Milk-Woman " and 
the small street view, both identified with the Six collection at 
Amsterdam, the former now in the Rijksmuseum; the magnifi- 
cent "The Letter" also at Amsterdam, "Diana and the Nymphs" 
(formerly ascribed to Vcrmccr of Utrecht) at the Hague Gallery, 
and others. In all these we find the same brilliant style and 
vigorous work, a solid impasto, and a crisp, sparkling touch. His 
first manner seems to have been influenced by the pleiad of 
painters circling round Rembrandt, a school which lost favour 
in Holland in the last quarter of the century. During the final 
ten or twelve years of his life Van der Meer adopted a second 
manner. We now find his painting smooth and thin, and his 
colours paler and softer. Instead of masculine vigour we have 
refined delicacy and subtlety, but in both styles beauty of tone 
and perfect harmony are conspicuous. Through all his work 

*This undeserved neglect seems to have fallen on him at an 
early period, for Houbrakcn (Croole Sckauburgk, 1718), writing little 
more than forty years after his death, docs not even mention him. 
The only definite information we have from a contemporary is 
given by Bleyswijck {Beschrijving der Stad Delfl. 1687), who tells 
us that he was born in 1632, and that he worked with Carel Fabritius, 
an able disciple of Rembrandt, who lost his life by an explosion 
of a powder magazine in Delft in 1654. It is to the patient researches 
of W. BUrger (Th. Thor6), Havard, Obreen. Soutendam. and others, 
that we owe our knowledge of the main facts of his life, discovered 
in the archives of his native town. 



may be traced his love of lemon-yellow and of blue of aU shades. 
Of his second style typical examples are to be seen in ** The 
Coquette" of the Brunswick Gallery, in the "Woman Reading'* 
in the Van der Hoop collection now at the Rijksmuseum at 
Amsterdam, in the " Lady at a Casement " belonging to Lord 
Powerscourt (exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1878) and in 
the " Music Master and Pupil " belonging to the King (exhibited 
at "the Royal Academy, 1876). 

Van der Meer's authentic pictures in public and private 
collections amount to about thirty. There is but one in the 
Louvre, the "Lace Maker"; Dresden has the two afore- 
mentioned, while Berlin has three, all acquired in the Suennondt 
collection, and the Czernin Gallery of Vienna is fortunate in 
possessing a fine picture, believed to represent the artist in his 
studio. In the Arenberg Gallery at Brussels there is a remark- 
able head of a giri. half the size of life, which seems to be inter- 
mediate between his two styles. Several of his paintings are 
in private foreign collections. In all his work there is a singular 
completeness and charm. His tone is usually silvery with 
pearly shadows, and the- lighting of his interiors is equal and 
natural. In all cases his figures seem to move in light and air, 
and in this respect he resembles greatly his fellow-worker De 
Hooch. It is curious to read that, at one of the auctions in 
Amsterdam about the middle of the i8th century, a De Hooch 
Is praised as being " nearly equal to the famous Van der Meer of 
Delft." 

Sec also Havard, Van der Meer (Paris, 1888): Vanzype, Vermeer 
de Delfl (Brussels, 1908). and Hofstedc de Groot, Jan Vermeer von 
Delft (Leipzig, 1909). 

MBERANB, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, 9 m. N. of 
Zwickau and 37 S. of Leipzig by rail Pop. (1905), 26,005. It con- 
tains a fine medieval church (Evangelical). It is one of the most 
important industrial centres of Germany for the manufacture 
of woollen and mixed cloths, and in these products has a large 
export trade, especially to America and the Far East. There 
are also extensive dyeworks, tanneries and machine factories. 
Sec Leopold. Ckronik und Beuhteibung der Fabrik- und Handel- 
stadt Meerane (1863). 

MEERSCHAUM, a German word designating a soft white 
mineral sometimes foimd floating on the Black Sea, and rathei 
suggestive of sea-foam {Meerschaum), whence also the French 
name for the same substance, Icume de mer. It was termed 
by E. F. G locker sepiolite, in allusion to its remote resemblance 
to the " bone " of the sepia or cuttle-fish. Meerschaum is 
an opaque mineral of white, grey or cream colour, breaking 
with a conchoidal or fine earthy fracture, and occasionally 
though rarely, fibrous in texture. It can be readily scratched 
with the nail, its hardness being about 2. The specific gravity 
varies from 0988 to 1-279, but the porosity of the mineral may 
lead to error. Meerschaum is a hydrous magnesium silicate, 
with the formula HiMgzSijOio, or MgsSiiOv 2HsO. 

Most of the meerschaum of commerce is obtained from Asia 
Minor, chiefly from the plain of Eski-Shehr, on the Haidar 
Pasha-Angora railway, where it occurs in irregular nodular 
masses, in alluvial deposits, which are extensively worked for 
its extraction. It is said that in this district there are 4000 
shafts leading to horizontal galleries for extraction of the 
meerschaum. The principal workings are at Sepetdji-Odjaghi 
and Kcmikdji-Odjaghi, about 20 m. S.E. of Eski-Shehr. The 
mineral is associated with magnesite (magnesium carbonate), 
the primitive source of both minerals being a serpentine. When 
first extracted the meerschaum is soft, but it hardens on exposure 
to solar heat or when dried in a warm room. Meerschaum 
is found also, though less abundantly, in Gieece, as at Thebes, 
and in the islands of Euboca and Samos; it occurs also in 
serpentine at Hrubschitz near Kromau in Moravia. It is found 
to a limited extent at certain localities in France and Spain, 
and is known in Morocco. In the United States it occurs in 
serpentine in Pennsylvania (as at Nottingham, Chester county) 
and in South Carolina and Utah. 

Meerschaum has occasionally been used as a substitute for 
soap and fuller's earth, and it is said also as a building material; 
but its chief tise is for tobacco-pipes and dgar-holders^ The 



MEERUT— MEETING 



73 



BBbml Bodnks aie fint Boiped to remove the red earthy 
natrix, thien dried, again acnped and polished with wax. 
The ruddy shiqped maaies thus prepared are sent from the 
East to Vienna and other manufacturing centres, where they 
are turned and carved, smoothfd with gUss-paper and Dutch 
tushes, heated in wax or stearine, and finally polished with 
bone-ash, frc Imitations are made in plaster of Paris and 
other preparations. 

The soft, iHiite, earthy mineral from Lingbanshyttan, in 
Vermland, Sweden, known as aphrodite (&4p^> foam), is 
dosdy rdated to meerschaum. It may be noted that meer- 
tchanm has sometimes been called magnesite iq.v.), 

HBRUT, a dty, district and division of British India. 
m the United Provinces. The dty is half-way between the 
Ganges and the Jumna, and has two stations on the North- 
Wcttcm railway, 37 m. N.E. from DelhL Pop. (1901), 
iiSfiag^ The dty proper lies south of the cantonments, and 
although dating back to the days of the Buddhist emperor Asoka 
(c iy> B.C.) Meerut owes its modem importance to its selection 
by the British government as the site ot a great military station. 
In 180S it is mentioned as "a ruined, depopulated town.'' 
Tbe cantonment was established in 1806, and the population 
rose to ^,or4 in 1847, and 82,035 in 1853. The town is an 
inportant centre of the cotton-trade. It is the headquarters 
of the 7th division of the northern army, with accommodation 
for hone and field artillery, British and native cavalry and 
isiuitry. It was here that the first outbreak of the Mutiny 
of 1857 took place. (See Indian Mutiny.) 
I The Dbtsict or Meekut forms part of the upper Doab, 
« tiaa between the Ganges and the Jimma, extending from 
mcr to river. Area, 2354 sq. m. "Diough well wooded in 
piaos and abundantly supplied with mango groves, it has but 
lev patches of jungle or waste land. Sandy ridges run along 
tbe low watersheds which separate the minor channels, but 
vith this exception the wh<^e district is one continuous expanse 
of cucful and prosperous tillage. Its fertility is largely due 
to the system of irrigation canals. The Eastern Jumna canal 
rtuB through the whole length of the district, and supplies 
the rich tract between the Jumna and the Hindan with a network 
of distributary streams. The main branch of the Ganges canal 
poses across the centre of the plateau in a sweeping curve 
and waters the midland tract. The AnQpshahr branch supplies 
irrigation to the Ganges slope, and the Agra canal piisses through 
the southern comer of Loni pargana from the Hindan to the 
Jumna. Besides these natural and artificial channels, the 
country is everywhere cut up by small water-courses. The Burh 
Gangs, or ancient bed of the Ganges, lies at some distance from 
the modem stream; and on its bank stood the abandoned dty 
of Hastinapur, the legendary capital of the Pandavas at the 
period of the Mahdbhdrata, said to have been deserted many 
centuries before the Oiristian era, owing to the encroachments 
ftf the river. 

The comparatively hi^ latitude and elevated position of 
Meerut make it- one of the healthiest districts in the plains of 
India. The average temperature varies from 57^ F. in January 
to 87* in June. The rainfall is small, less than '30 in. annually. 
The only endemic disease in the district is malarial fever; but 
small-pox and cholera occasionally visit it as epidemics. The 
population in 190X was 1,540,175, showing an increase of 
10-6% in the decade. The prindpal crops are wheat, pulse, 
miDet, sugar-cane, cotton and indigo, but this last crop has 
dedined of late years almost to extinction. The district is 
tnversed by the North-Westem railway, and also contaiiis 
China had, the terminus of the East Indian system, whence a 
branch runs to Delhi, while a branch of the Oudh 81 Rohil- 
khand railway from Moradabad to Ghaziabad was opened in 
zpoa 

The authentic history of the district begins with the Moslem in- 
vaaons. The first undoubted Mahommedan invasion was that 
of Kutbeddin in z 191, when Meerut town was taken and all the 
Hindu temples turned into mosques. In 1398 Timar captured 
the fort of Loni after a desperate resistance, and put all his Hindu 



prisoners to death. He then proceeded to Ddhi, and after 
his memorable sack of that dty returned to Meerut, captured 
the town, raxed all the fortifications and houses of the Hindus, 
and put the male inhabitants to the sword. The establishment 
of the great Mogul dynasty in the x 6th century, imder Baber 
and his successors, gave Meerat a period of internal tranquillity 
and royal favour. After the death of Aurangzeb, however, 
it was exposed to alternate Sikh and Mahrattt invasions. 
From 1707 till 1775 the country was the scene of perpetual 
strife, and was only rescued from anarchy by the exertions 
of the military adventurer Walter Reinhardt, afterwards the 
husband of the celebrated Begum Samru, who established 
himself at SardhAna in the north, and ruled a large estate. 
The southem tract, however, remained in its anarchic condition 
under Mahrattt exactions until the fall of Delhi in 1803, when 
the whole of the country between the Jumna and the Ganges 
was ceded by Sindhia to the British. It was formed into a 
separate district in 18x8. In the British period it has become 
memorable for its connexion with the Mutiny of 1857. 

The Division or Meerut comprises the northem portion 
of the Doab. It consists (d the ix districts of Dehra Dun, 
Saharanpur, Muzaffamagar, Meerut, Bulandshahr and Aligarh. 
Area, 11,303 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 5,979,7x1, showing an increase 
of 12*3% in the decade. 

See lieeriU Distria Gaa$Ueer (Allahabad. 1904). 

MEBmiO (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 
O. Eng. mitan ; d. Du. moeUu, SAred. mdla, GotL gamotjan, &c., 
derivatives of the Teut. wOrd for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. mdt, 
moot, an assembly of the people; d. wUanagemot), a gathering 
together of persons for the purpose of discussion or for the 
transaction of business. Public meetings may be dther those 
of statutory bodies or assemblies of persons called together 
for sodal, political or other purposes. In the case of statutory 
bodies, by-laws usually fix the quorum necessary to constitute 
a legal meeting. That of limited companies may be dther 
by reference to the capital hdd, or by a fixed quorum or one 
in proportion to the number of shareholders. It has been 
held that in the case of a company it takes at least two persons 
to constitute a meeting {Sharp v. Daws^ 1886, 2 Q.B.D. 26). In 
the case of public meetings for social, political or other purposes 
no quorum is necessary. They may be hdd, if they are for a lawful 
purpose,, in any i^Uce, on any day and at any hour, provided they 
satisfy certain sUtutory provisions or by-laws made under the 
authority of a statute for the safety of persons attending 
such meetings. If, however, a meeting is held in the street 
and it causes an obstruction those convening the meeting may 
be proceeded against for obstructing the highway. The control 
of a meeting and the subjects to be discussed are entirdy within 
the discretion of those convening it, and whether the meeting 
is open to the public without payment, or subject to a charge or 
to membership of a specified body at sodety, those present are 
there merdy by virtue of a licence of the conveners, which 
licence may be revoked at any time. The person whose licence 
is revoked may be requested to withdraw from the meeting, 
and on his refusal may be ejected with such force as is necessary. 
If he employs violence to those removing him he commits a 
breach of the peace for which he may be given into custody. 
An important English act has dealt for the first time with the 
disturbance of a public meeting. The Public Meeting Act 1908 
enacted that any person who at a lawful public meeting acts in 
a disorderly manner for the purpose of preventing the trans- 
action of the business for whidi the meeting was called together 
shall be guilty of an offence, and if the offence is committed at a 
political meeting hdd in any parliamentary constituency 
between the issue and return of a writ, the offence is made 
an illegal practice within the meaning of the Corrupt and Illegal 
Practices Prevention Act 1883. Any person who indtes another 
to conmiit the offence is equally guilty. A public meeting is 
usually controlled by a chairman, who may be appointed by 
the conveners or dected by the meeting itself. On the chairman 
falls the duty of preserving order, of calling on persons to speak, 
dedding points of order, of putting questions to the meeting 



74 



MEGALOPOLIS 



for dedsion, and declaring the result and other incidental 
matters. 

In England it is illegal, by a sUtute of Georjpe III. (Seditious 
Meetings Act 1817), to hold a public meeting in the open 
air within i m. of Westminster Hall during the sitting of 
Parliament. 

See C. P. Blackwell's Law of Meetings (1910). 

MEGALOPOLIS, an ancient dty of Arcadia, Greece, situated 
in a plain about 20 m. S.W. of Tegea, on both banks of the 
Helisson, about 2| m. above its junction with the Alpheus. Like 
Messene, it owed its origin to the Theban general Epaminondas, 
and was founded in 370 B.C., the year after the battle of 
Leuctra, as a bulwark for the southern Arcadians against Sparta, 
and as the seat of the Arcadian Federal Diet, which consisted 
of ten thousand men. The builders were protected by a Theban 
force, and directed by ten native oecists (official " founders "), 



an attempt to reduce Megalopolis; but the Thebans tent 
assistance and the dty was rescued. Not sure of this assist- 
ance, the Megalopolitans had appealed to Athens, an appeal 
which gave occasion to the oration of Demosthenes, Titfl 
MeyaXos-oXiTwv. The Spartans were now obliged to condude 
peace with Megalopolis and acknowledge her autonomy. 
Nevertheless their feeling of hostility did not cease, and 
Megalopolis consequently entered into friendly relations with 
Philip of Macedon. Twenty years later, when the Spartans 
and their allies rebelled against the power of Macedon, 
Megalopolis remained firm in its allegiance, and was 
subjected to a long siege. After the death of Alexander, 
Megalopolis was governed by native tyrants. In the war 
between Cassander and Polyperchon it took part with the 
former and was besieged by the latter. On this occa«on it 
was able to send into the fidd an army of fifteen thousand. 



MEGALOPOLIS. 




who likewise attended to the peopling of the new dty, which 
apparently drew inhabitants from all parts of Arcadia, but 
espcdally from the neighbouring districts of Maenalia and 
Parrhasia. Forty townships are mentioned by Pausanias 
(viii. 27, 3-5) as having been incorporated in it. It was 
50 stadia in circumference, and was surrounded with strong 
walls. Its territory was the largest in Arcadia, extending 
northward 24 m. The city was built on a magnificent scale, 
and adorned with many handsome buildings, both public and 
private. Its temples contained many ancient statues brought 
from the towns incorporated in it. After the departure of 
Epaminondas, Lycomedes of Mantineia succeeded in drawing 
the Arcadian federation away from its alliance with Thebes, 
and it was consequently obliged to make common cause with 
Athens. An attempt on the part of the federation to use the 
treasures of the temple of Zeus at Olyropia led to internal 
dissensions, so that in the battle of Mantineia (362) one half of 
the Arcadians fought on the side of the Spartans, the other 
on that of the Thebans. After this battle many of the 
inhabitants of Megalopolis sought to return to their former 
homes, and it was only by the assistance of three thousand 
Thebans under Pammenes that the authorities were able to 
prevent them from doing so. In 353, when Thebes had her 
hands full with the so-called Sacred War, the Spartans made 



In 234 B.C. Lydiades, the last tyrant of Megalopolis, voluntarily 
resigned his power, and the dty joined the Achaean League. 
In consequence of this it was again exposed to the hatred of 
Sparta. In 222 Cleomenes plundered it and killed or dispersed 
its inhabitants, but in the year following it was restored and its 
inhabitants rdnstated by Philopoemcn, a native of the dty. 
After this, however, it gradually sank into insignificance. The 
only great men whom it produced were Philopoemen and 
Polybius the historian. Lycortas, the father of the latter, 
may be accounted a third. In the time of Pausanias the 
city was mostly in ruins. 

The site of Megalopolis was excavated by members of the 
British School at Athens in the years 1890-1892. The description 
of Pausanias is so clear that it enabled Curtius, in his Pelopon- 
nesoSf to give a conjectural plan that was found to tally in most 
respects with the reality. The town was divided into two 
approximately equal parts by the river Helisson, which flows 
through it from east to west. The line of the walls may be 
traced, partly by remains, partly by the contours it must have 
followed, and confirms the estimate of Polybius that they bad 
a drcuit of 50 stades, or about 5} m. It b difficult to see 
how the river bed, now a broad and shingly waste, was dealt 
with in ancient times; it must have been embanked in some way, 
but there are no remains to show whether the fortification wall 



MEGANUCLEUS— MEGAPODE 



75 



was carried acroas the river at either end or along the paraUd 

rmhankments so as to make two separate enclosures. There 

most haw been, in all probability, a bridge to connect the 

two halves ol the dty, but the foundations seen by Leake and 

others, and commonly supposed to bek>ng to such a bridge, 

f»oved to be only the substructures of the precinct of Zeus Soter. 

The buildings north of the river were municipal and were 

grouped round the square agora. One, of which the complete 

pUn has been recovered, is the portico of Philip, a splendid 

biulding. which bounded the agora on the north; it was 300 ft.. 

long, with three rows of columns running its whole length, 

three in the outer line to each one in the two inner lines; it had 

s sfightly projecting wing at either end. At the south-west 

o( the agora was found the precinct of Zeus Soter: it consists 

d a square court surrounded by a double colonnade, and faced 

00 the west side by a small temple; on the east side was an 

CQtraoce or pcopylacum approached by a ramp. In the midst 

of the court was a substructure which has been variously 

interpreted as an altar or as the base of the great group of 

Zeus snd Megalopolis, which is recorded to have stood here. 

North of tbb was the Stoa MyropoUs, forming the east boundary 

of the agora, and, between this and the Stoa of Philip, the 

Arcbeii or municipal offices. These buildings were of various 

dstes, but seem all to fit into an harmonious plan. The buildings 

oa the south and west of the agora have been almost entirely 

destroyed by the Helisson and a tributary brook. On the 

south bank of the river were the chief federal buildings, the 

thntre (noted by Pausanias as the largest in Greece), and the 

ThersiUon or parliament hall of the ten thousand Arcadians. 

These two buildings form part of a common design, the great 

portico of the Thersilion facing the orchestra of the theatre. 

As a consequence of this arrangement, the plan of the theatre 

is abnormal. The auditorium has as its lowest row of seats 

a set of " thrones " or ornamental benches, which, as well as 

the gutter in front, were dedicated by a certain Antiochus; the 

orchestra is about 100 ft. in diameter; and in place of the 

western parados is a closed room called the Scanotheca. The 

chief peculiarity, however, lies in the great portico already 

mentioned, which has its base about 4 ft. 6 in. above the 

level of the orchestra. It was much too lofty to serve as a 

proscenium; yet, if a proscenium of the ordinary Greek type 

vert erected in front, it would hide the lower part of the columns. 

SocH a proscenium was actually erected in later times; and 

beneath it were the foundations for an earlier wooden proscenium, 

vhicb was probably erected only when required. In later times 

s:eps were added, leading from the base of the portico to the 

level of the orchestra. The theatre was probably used, like 

the theatre at Athens, for political assemblies; but the adjoining 

Thersilion provided covered accommodation for the Arcadian 

ten thotisand in wet weather. It is a building unique in plan, 

sloping up from the centre towards all sides like a theatre. 

The roof was supported by columns that were placed in lines 

radiating from the centre, so as to obscure as little as possible 

the view of an orator in this position from all parts of the 

building; there were two entrances in each side. 

See Excavttlicns at Megalopolis (E. A. Gardner, W. Loring. G. C. 
Rkhards. W. J. Woodhousc; Architecture, by R. W. Schultz); 
Scppiementary Paper issued by the Society for the Promotion of 
Hrilenic Studies, 1892: Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. 328. 



A G. Bather; p. 319. E- F- Benson ("Thersilion "); i89«, p. 15, 
" B. Bury (" Double City ") ; W. Ddrpfcld (" Das eriechische 
ater "): O. Pochstein, " Gricchische BOhne " (Theatre). 



MEGANUCLEUS (also called Macronucleus), in Infusoria 
iqjt.)., the large nucleus which undergoes direct (amitotic) 
Prison in fission, and is lost during conjugation, to be 
replaced by a nucleus, the restilt of the karyogamy of the 
micTonuclei. 

HEGAPODB (Gr. M^af, great and roit, foot), the name given 
generally to a small but remarkable family of birds, characteristic 
ci sonw parts of the Australian region, to which it is almost 
pecufiar. The Uegapodiidae, with the Cracidae and Pkasianidae, 
form that division of the sub-order Colli named by Huxley 



Perisleropodes (Proc. Zool, Soe., iS6S^ p. 196). Their most 
remarkable habit is that of leaving their eggs to be hatched 
without incubation, burying them in the ground (as many 
reptiles do), or in a mound of earth, leaves and rotten wood 
which they scratch up. This habit attracted attention nearly 
four hundred years ago,* but the accounts given of it by variotis 
travellers were generally discredited, and as examples of the 
birds, probably from their unattractive plumage, appear not 
to have been brought to Europe, no one of them was seen by 
any ornithologist or scientifically described until near the end 
of the first quarter of the 19th century. The first member 
of the family to receive authoritative recognition was one of 
the largest, inhabiting the continent of Australia, where it is 
known as the brush-turkey, and was origimilly described by J. 
Latham in 1821 under the misleading name of the New Holland 
vulture. It is the Catketurus latkasni of modern ornithologists, 
and is nearly the size of a hen turkey. This East Australian 
bird is of a sooty-brown cobur, relieved beneath by the lighter 
edging of some of the feathers, but the head and neck are nearly 
bare, beset with fine bristles, the skin being of a deep pinkish- 
red, passing above the breast into a large wattle of bright yellow. 
The tail is commonly carried upright and partly folded, some- 
thing like that of a domestic fowL Allied to it are three or 
four species of TakgaUus, from New Guinea and adjacent 
islands. 

Another form, an inhabitant of South and West Australia, 
commonly known in England as the mailee-bird, but to the 
colonists as the " native pheasant "—the Lipoa ocelUUa, as 
described by J. Gould in the Proc. Zool. Soc. (1840), p. 126, 
has much shorter tarsi and toes, the head entirely clothed, 
and the tail expanded. Its plumage presents a combination 
of greys and browns of various tints, interspersed with black, 
white and buff, the wing-coverts and feathers of the back 
bearing each near the tip an oval or subcircular patch, whence 
the scientific name of the bird is given, while a stripe of black 
feathers with a median line of white extends down the front of 
the throat from the chin to the breast. There is but one species 
of this genus known, as is also the case with the next to be 
mentioned, a bird long known to inhabit Celebes, bi>t not fully 

* Antonio Pigafetta, one of the survivors of Magellan's voya^, 
records in his iournal, under date of April 1521^ among the peculia- 
rities of the Philippine Islands, then first discovered by Europeans, 
the existence of a bird there, about the size of a fowl, which laid its 
eggs, as big as a duck's, in the sand, and left them to be hatched 
by the heat of the sun {Premier voyage aulour du monde, ed. Amor- 
etti, Paris, A.R. ix. 88). More than a hundred years later the 
Jesuit Niercmberg, in his Historia naturae, published at Antwerp 
m 1635, described (p. 207) a birtl called *' Daie." and by the natives 
named " Tapun," not larger than a dove, which, with its tail (!) 
and feet excavated a nest in sandy places and laid therein eggs bigger 
than those of a goose. The publication at Rome in 1651 oT Hernan- 
dez's Hist, avium novae Hispaniae shows that his papers must have 
been accessible to Nicremberg, who took from them the passage just 
mentioned, but, as not unusual with him, misprinted the names which 
stand in Hernandez's work (p. 56, cap, 220) " Daic " and " Tapum " 
respectively, and omitted his predecessor's important addition 
" Viuit in Philippicis," Not long after, the Dommican Navarrete, 
a missionary to China, made a considerable stay in the Philippines, 
and returning to Europe in 1673 wrote an account of the Chinese 
empire, of which (Churchill (Collection of Voyages and Travels. 
vol. i.) gave an English translation in 170^. It is therein stated 
(p. 4S) that in many of the islands of the Malay Archipelago " there 
is a very singular bird call'd Tabon*' and that " What I and many 
more admire is, that it being no bigger in body than an ordinary 
chicken, tho* long legg'd, yet it lays an egg larger than a gooses, 
so that the egg is bigger than the bird itself. ... In order to lay 
its eggs, it digs in the sand above a yard in depth ; after laving, it 
fills up the hole and makes it even with the rest; there the eggs 
hatch with the heat of the sun and sand." Gemelli Careri, who 
travelled from 1663 to 1699. and in the latter year published an 
account of his voyage round the world, gives similar evidence 
respecting this bird, which he calls " tavon," in the Philippine 
Islands {Voy. du tour du monde, ed. Paris. 1727. v. 157, 158). 
The megapode of Luzon is fairly described by Camel or CamcUi 
in his olMervations on the birds of the Philippines communicated bv 
Petiver to the Royal Society in 1703 {Phil. Trans, xxiii. 1398). 
In 1726 Valentyn published his elaborate work on the East Indies, 
wherein (deel iii. bk. v, p. 320) he correctly describes the megapode 
of Amboina under the name of " malleloe," and also a larger kind 
found in Celebes, 



76 



MEGARA— MEGARA HYBLAEA 



described untU 1846,* when it received from Salomon MUller 
{Arch. f. Naturgeschicktef xil. pt. i, p. 116) the name of 
Uacrocephalon maleo^ but, being shortly afterwards figured by 
Gray and Mitchell {Gen. Birds, iii. pi. 123) under the generic 
term of Megacephahn, has since commonly borne the latter 
appellation. This bird bears a helmet-like protuberance on 
the back of its head, aU of which, as well as the neck, is bare 
and of a bright red colour; the plumage of the body is glossy 
black above, and beneath roseate- white. 

Of the megapodes proper, constituting the genus Megapodius, 
about fifteen species are admitted. The birds of this genus 
range from the Samoa Islands in the east, through the Tonga 
group, to the New Hebrides, the northern part of Australia, 
New Guinea and its neighbouring islands, Celebes, the Pelew 
Islands and the Ladrones, and have also outliers in detached 
portions of the Indian Region, as the Philippines (where indeed 
they were first discovered by Europeans), Labuan, and even the 
Nicobars — though none is known from the intervening islands 
of Borneo, Java or Sumatra. Within what may be deemed 
their proper area they are found, says A. R. Wallace (Ceogr. 
Distr. Animals, ii. 341), " on the smallest islands and sandbanks, 
and can evidently pass over a few miles of sea with ease." 
Indeed, proof of their roaming disposition is afforded by the 
fact that the bird described by Lesson {Voy. Coquillc: Zoologie, 
p. 703) as Alecthdia urvUlii, but now considered to be the 
young of Megapodius freycineti, flew on board his ship when 
more than 2 m. from the nearest land (Gucb^), in an exhausted 
state, it is true, but that may be attributed to its youth. The 
species of Megapodius are about the size of small fowls, the 
head generally crested, the tail very short, the feet enormous, 
and, with the exception of M. wallacii {Proc. Zool. Soc, 
i860, Aves, pi. 171), from the Moluccas, all have a sombre 
plumage. 

Megapodes are shy terrestrial birds, of heavy flight, and 
omnivorous diet. In some islands they are semi-domesticated, 
although the flesh is dark and general!) unpalatable. (A. N.) 

MBOARA, an ancient Greek town on the road from Attica 
to Corinth. The country which belonged to the city was 
called Vitrtapli or 4 Meyapix^; it occupied the broader part 
of the isthmus between Attica, Boeotia, Corinth, and the two 
gulfs, and its whole area is estimated by Clinton at 143 sq. m. 
The range of Mount Gerancia extends across the country from 
cast to west, forming a barrier between continental Greece 
and the Peloponnesus. The shortest road across this range 
passes along the eastern side of the mountains, and the most 
difficult part is the celebrated Scironian rocks, the mythic 
home of the robber Sciron. The only plain in the rugged 
little country was the White Plain, in which was situated the 
only important town, Megara. The modem town of Megara 
is situated on two low hills which formed part of the ancient 
site; it is the chief town of the eparchy of Megaris; pop. about 
6400. It contains few remains of antiquity, except of the 
aqueduct and basin, said to have been made by the architect 
Eupalinus for the tyrant Theagenes. (E. Gr.) 

From the somewhat conflicting evidence of mythology it 
may be gathered that in prehistoric days Megara had maritime 
intercourse with the southern Aegean. The early inhabitants, 
whose race is unknown, were extirpated or absorbed in the Dorian 
migration, for in historic times the city had a homogeneous 
Dorian population. Favoured by its proximity to two great 
waterways and by its two ports, Nisaea on the Saronic and Pegae 
on the Corinthian Gulf, Megara took a prominent part in the 
commercial expansion of Greece from the 8th century onwards, 
and for two hundred years enjoyed prosperity out of proportion 
to the slight resources of its narrow territory. Its trade was 
mainly directed towards Sicily, where Mcgarian colonies were 
established at Hybla (Megara Hyblaea) and Selinus, and towards 
the Black Sea, in which region the Megarians were probably 

*As we have seen, it was mentioned in 1726 by Valcntyn. and 
a youn^ example was. in 1810 described and figured bv Quoy 
and Gaimard (Voy. del'AstrcMbe : Oiseaux, p. 339. pi. 25) as the 
Megapodius mbripes of Temminck, a wholly different bird. 



pioneers of Greek commerce. In the Sea of Mannora they 
had to face the competition of the Samians, with whom ihey 
waged a war concerning the town of Perinthus, and of Milet(»; 
but on the Bosporus they established themselves by means of 
settlements at Chalcedon and, above all, Byzantium (founded^ 
according to tradition, 675 and 658 respectively). In the 
Black Sea they exploited the shores of Pontus and Scythia, 
whose products they exchanged for textiles spun from the 
wool of their own country. Their chief colonies in this sea 
were Astactis and Heraclea in Bithynia, and another Heradea 
in the Crimea. In the later 7 th century this current of trade 
dwindled in face of the great commercial and colonising activity 
of Miletus; it probably received further injury through the 
subsequent interference of Athens on the Hellespont. Simul- 
taneously Megarian conmierce in Sicily began to be supplanted 
by Corinth and Corcyia. 
Me^ra's economic development entailed a change in the dis- 



tribution of wealth, and consequently of political power, which 
the elegies of Theoenis ((f.*.)-. The 



commented upon in 1 



original 



land-holding aristocracy, which had probably initiated and for 
a time monopolized commerce, was partly supplanted by prosperous 
upstarts, and with the general increase of prosperity began to lose 
its hold upon the community of artisans. In the ensuing party 
struggles the city passed under a tyrant. Theagenes (about 640). 
whose rule was too brief to produce great changes. The power of 
the nobles would seem to have been more effectively broken in a 
war with Athens, in which Megara ultimately lost the island of 
Salamis (about 570. see Solon), for shortly afterwards the con- 
stitution was changed to a democracy, and eventually %vas fixed 
,:' ; ■!.,,!;■ I"jy ^f ^ niod(-r;ite type. 

iJurimy the Persian wars the state, which had recently joined 
I he Kcloponnpsian L^Hlgu1:, could still muster 3000 hoplites. But 
thp sLbsequcnt cNpansion of Athens ruined the commerce of Megara, 
and thi; town Usi'ir was thri .icned with absorption by some powerful 
i>c>ighbour. 1 n 459 an attack by Corinth, which had always coveted 
Mf^an'i territory^ in<luceiJ the people to summon the aid of the 
Athcnian^^ who securtd Megara m battle and bv the construction 
of loni^ wrWa between the capital and its port Nisaea. In 44^ a 
revubicin ol feeling; M the Mcjearians to massacre their Athenun 
prri&OEi^ The Athembns retaliated by placing an embaigo upon 
Me^rlin trade thrttUHhout their empire (433), and in the Pelopon- 
nr-sun W^^r, which ilic Megarians had consequently striven f 
h > '. i-i.diict:4 :>iLir neighbours to misery by blockade and 

devastations. In 434 they nearly captured Megara, in collusion 
with a democratic party within the town, and succeeded in securing 
Nisaea, which they held till 410. In the 4th century Megara re- 
covered some measure of prosperity, but played an insignificant 
part in politics, its only notable move being the participation in 
the final conflict against Philip II. of Macedon (338). During the 
Macedonian supremacy the town passed in turn from Cassander 
and Demetrius Poliorcetes to Antigonus Gonatas, and finally was 
^,,^..;JJ..-^!^^. \-'. ;^L A..:i.Li..i: L.eaguc. Megara suffered severely 
during the ilivW Wjr of 4^ BX,, but seems at some later period to 
have received new scttlens. \i maintained itself as a place of some 
fiize in subsequent ecnturiefr, but was depopulated by the Venetians 
in A.o. r^fx). The inhiibitantfl of the modem village are mostly 
ui\ AlbAninn origin. 

[fi Jiicratu ft Megara fig^jrei as the reputed home of the comedian 
SuKtrion. and in the 4th century (^ave iu name to a schod of phik>- 
sopby iDiindcd by Euclid. 

5ec Slrabo ix. jg 1^395: Theognis; Thucydides i.-iv.; Aristo- 
pSanci, Atkarmanj, 73^835; F. Caucr, Parteien und Peiitilur in 
M€gara and Atium (Stuttjjartn i8i)o). pp. 1-44: B. V. Head, Hisioria 
nvtmomm (Oxford ^ 1SB7}. pp. J29-330; R. DelbrQck and K. G. 
Vullnnitlerp " Das Brunnenhau^ des Theagenes," in MitUU. d. 
dtuiiik. Imt Aihin. XXV. {\^j). (M. O. B. C.) 

MEGARA HYBLAEA (perhaps identical with Hybla Majok), 
an ancient city of Sicily, on the E. coast, 12 m. N.N.W. of 
Syracuse, founded in 728 B.C. by Megarean colonists, who had 
previously settled successively at Trotilon, Leontini and 
Thapsus. A hundred years later it founded Selinus, apparently 
because it had no room for development. It never seems to 
have been a town of great importance, and had no advantages 
of position. It was destroyed by Gclon about 481 B.C., and its 
walls seem to have been razed 10 the ground. In the Athenian 
expedition against Syracuse (415-413) Lamachus proposed 
(it being then deserted) to make it the Athenian base of opera- 
tions; but his advice was not taken, and in the next spring 
the Syracusans fortified it. In 309 it was still fortified; but, 
after Marcellus captured it, in 214, we hear little more of it. 
Excavations carried on in 1891 led to the discovery of the 



MEGARIAN SCHOOL— MEGATHERIUM 



77 



Borthern portion of the western town wall, which in one section 
served at the same time as an embankment against, floods 
(it was apparently more conspicuous in the time of P. Cluver, 
SkiU, p. IS3), of an extensive necropolis, about looo tombs 
of which have been explored, and of a deposit of votive objects 
hom a temple. The harbour lay to the north of the town. 



See P. Om in MonnmenU dei Lincei (1891). i. 689-950: 
id cgmgttsso ddU scUnu stoncke^ v, 181 (Rome, 1904). 



and Atii 
(T. As.) 



IB8ARIA1I SCHOOL OP PHILOSOPHY. This school was 
buDded by Eudides of Megara, one of 
the pupils of Socrates. Two main ele- 

nents went to make up the Megarian^ 

doctrine. Like the Cynics and the 

Cyrenaics, Eudides started from the 

Sooatic principle that virtue is know- 
ledge. But into combination with this 

he brought the Eleatic doctrine of Unity. 

Petcriving the diflliculty of the Socratic 

dktum he endeavoured to give to the 

word *' knowledge " a definite content by 

divorcing it absolutely from the sphere 

of sense and experience, and confining it 

to a sort of transcendental dialectic or 

bpc. The Eleatic unity is (joodness, 

lod a beyond the sphere of sensible 

apprehension. This goodness, therefore, 

aiiMie exists; matter, motion, growth 

and decay arc figments of the senses; 

they have no existence for Reason. 

" Whatever is, is I " Knowledge is of 

ideas and is in conformity with the 

necessary laws of thought. Hence Plato 

in the Scpkisi describes the Megarians 

IS "the friends of ideas." Yet the 

Megarians were by no means in agreement with the Platonic 

idealism. For they held that ideas, though eternal and im- 

aovable, have neither life nor action nor movement. 

This dialectic, initiated by Eudides, became more and more 
opposed to the testimony of experience; in the hands of Eubulides 
and Alezinus it degenerated into hairsplitting, mainly in the 
form of the reduaio ad absurdum. The strength of these men 
by in destructive criticism rather than in construction: as 
dialecticians they were successful, but they contributed little 
to ethical speculation. They spent their energy in attacking 
Plato and Aristotle, and hence earned the opprobrious epithet 
of Eristic, They used their dialectic subtlety to disprove 
the possibOity of toiotion and decay; unity is the negation of 
change, increase and decrease, birth and death. None the less, 
m ancient times they received great respect owing to their 
iotellectaal pre-eminence. Cicero {Academics, ii. 43) describes 
their doctrine as a "ix>bilis disciplina," and identifies them 
dosriy with Parmenides and 2U:no. But their most immediate in- 
fiaence was upon the Stoics (9.9.), whose founder, Zeno, studied 
Boder Sulpo. This philosopher, a man of striking and attractive 
penooality, succeeded in fusing the Megarian dialectic with 
C>iiic naturalism. The result of the combination was in fact 
a juxtaposition rather than a compound; it is manifestly impos- 
sible to find an organic connexion between a practical code 
like Cynicism and the transcendental logic of the Megarians. 
Bat it served as a powerful stimulus to Zeno, who by descent 
*as imbi"!^ with oriental mysticism. 

For biblicwraphical information about the Megarians. see 
Eccuocs: Eubulides: Diodorus Cronus: Stilpo. See also 
Eleatic School : Cynics; Stoics; and, for the connexion between 
the Menrians and the Eretrians, Menedemus and Piiaedo. Also 
Zefler. Socrates and the Socratic Schools', Dyeck, De Megaricorum 



been found at Tiryns and Mycenae, and references are made 
to it in the Hiad and the Odyssey. 

MBGATHBRIUM (properly Megalotkerium), a huge extinct 
edentate mammal from the Pleistocene deposits of Buenos 
Aires, typifying the family Megatheriidae (or Megalotkeriidae), 
and by far the largest representative of the Edentata. Except, 
indeed, for its relatively shorter limbs Megatherium americanum 
rivalled an elephant in bulk, the total length of the skeleton 
being iS feet, five of which are taken up by the tail. The 
Megatheriidae, which include a numberofgenera, are collectively 




Prantl. 
843): 



iactrima (Bonn. 1827): Mallet. Histoire de t'icole de Migare (Paris, 
i4i$): Ritter. Obir die Philosophie der meg. Schule; " 
CexkidUe der Logik, i. 32: Henne, L'ic<de de Migare (Paris, 
(MMprrz, Creek rkimitrs (Eng. trans. 1905), ii. 170 seq. 

the prindpal hall of the andent Greek palace, 
the andron or men's quarter. Examples have 



ttoated in 



Fig. I. — Skeleton of the Megatherium, from the specimen in the Museum of the Royal 
College of Surgeons of Lngland. 

known as ground-sloths, and occupy a position intermediate 
between the sloths and the ant-eater: their skiilis being of the 
type of the former, while their limbs and vertebrae conform in 
structure to those of the latter. As in the other typical South 
American edentates, there are no teeth in the front of the jaws, 
while those of the check-series usually comprise five pairs in the 
upper and four in the lower. In nearly all the other Plebtocene 
forms these teeth were subcylindrical in shape, with the summit 
of 1 the crown (except sometimes in the first pair) forming a 
cup-like depression; enamel being in all 
cases absent. From all these Mega- 
therium differs in the form and struc- 
ture of the teeth. 

In form, as shown in fig. a, the teeth 
are quadrangular prisms, each of which is 
surmounted by a pair qf transverse ridges. 
They grew apparently throughout life, 
and were implanted to a great depth in 
the jaws, being 7 or 8 in. in length, with 
a cross-section of at least an inch and a 
half. The ridges on the crown are due 
to the arrangement of the vertical layers 
of hard dentine (fig. 3, d). softer vaso- 
<ienfinip (r) and cement (c). The skull 
ia rcLtivciy smalt, with the lower jaw 
very deep in iu central portion, and pro- 
duced in part into a long anout-likc 
AymphysiA for the reception, doubtless, 
of a large and fleahy tongue (fig. 2). 
LTnEikf iloih). the megal herium lias seven 
cervical vertebrae; and the Eipinrs of all 
the trunk- vertebrae incline unckwards. 
Tht prlvii and hmd-limbf are much 
inorf* prjwtrful than fhe fore-quarters; 
[hereby eiiAMing ihe$e animal*, in all 
pR3baLi!iiy, to ivar rhCTflfttlvw on their 
hinid-nu,iii:er?. and thu* piill down the 
bra nt fn» of f rets . if not , Indf r . I , i n some 
cases to bodily uproot the trees them- 
selves. Large chevron-bones are sus- 
pended to the vertebrae of the tail, 

which was massive, and probably afforded a support when the 
monster was sitting up. The humerus has no foramen, and the 




(From Owen ) 

Fig. 2.— Lower Jaw and 
Teeth of Megatherium, 



78 



MEGHNA— MEHEMET ALI 



whole fore-limb was very mobile. The first front toe was rudimen- 
tary, having no phalanges, but the fifth was rather less aborted, al- 
though clawless: the other three carried enormous claws, protected 
by reflected sheaths. The hind-foot is remarkable for the great back- 
ward projection of the calcancum, and likewise for the peculiar shape 
of the astragalus; the middle toe alone carries a claw, this being 
of huge size, and ensheathed like those of the fore foot. No trace 




(FramOwca.) 

Fig. 3. — Section of Upper Molar Teeth of Megatherium. 
of a bony armour in the skin has been detected: but, from the 
evidence of other genera, it may be assumed that the body was 
clothed in a coat of long, coarse hair. Although similar teeth 
occur in the phosphorite beds of South Carolina, which may have 
been transported from elsewhere, no undoubted remains of Mega- 
therium are known from North America. 

The typical species ranged from Argentina and Chili to Brazil. 
Por certam small ground-sloths from ratagonia with M«gnfherium- 
Uke teeth, see Mylodon. IM-L.*) 

MBGHNA, a river of India. It forms, in the lower part of its 
course, the great estuary of the Bengal delta, which conveys to 
the sea the main body of the waters of the Ganges and the 
Brahmaputra, which unite at Goalanda in Faridpur district. 
The united waters, turbid and of great depth, are sometimes split 
into half a dozen channels by sand-banks, sometimes spread mto 
a wide sheet of water. The river ent«rs the sea by four principal 
mouths, enclosing the three large islands of Dakshin Sbahbazpur, 
Hatia and Sandwip. It is navigable by native boats and river 
steamers all the year; but the navigation is difficult and some- 
times dangerous on account of shifting sand-banks and snags, 
and boisterous weather when the monsoon is blowing. The most 
favourable season is between November and February. Alluvion 
and diluvion are constantly taking place, especially along the 
seaboard, and in Noakhali district the land is said to have made 
rapid advance on the sea; while the islands fringing the mouth 
are annually being cut away and redeposited in fresh shapes. 
The regtilar rise of the tide is from 10 to 18 ft., and at springs 
the sea rushes up in a dangerous bore. It is greatest at the time 
of the biennial equinoxes, when navigation is sometimes impeded 
for days together. The tidal wave advances like a wall topped 
with foam of the height of nearly 30 ft., and at the rate of 15 m. 
an hour; in a few minutes it is past, and the river has changed 
from ebb to flood tide. A still greater danger is the " storm 
wave " which occasionally sweeps up the Meghna under a 
cyclone. 

MBHAdIA, a market town of Hungary, in the county of 
Krassd-Szdr^ny, 287 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 
3492. The town is the site of the ancient Roman colony Ad 
Mediam, near which passed the Roman road from the Danube 
to Dacia. It contains the ruins of a fortress, and other Roman 
remains. In its neighbourhood are the famous Hercules baths 
(Hungarian. HerkidesfUrdd). These are situated in a narrow 
rocky ravine in ihe valley of the Cserna, where there are 22 hot 
springs, of which nine are in use, the most powerful being the 
Hercules spring. The springs are all strongly impregnated with 



salts of sulphur, iodine, bromine and chlorine, and their 1 _ 
temperature is 70* to 145** F. They were famous in the Romaii 
period under the name of Thermae Herculis or Pontes Herctdis. 
Their popularity is attested by numerous inscriptions and relics. 
After the fall of the Roman Empire they fell into disuse until 1 735, 
but in modern times they have been much frequented. 

MEHEIIET AU (1769-1849). pasha and afterwards viceroy of 
Egypt, was born at Kavala, a small seaport on the frontier of 
Thrace and Macedonia. His father, an Albanian, was an aga, a 
small yeoman farmer, and he himself lived in his native town for 
many years as a petty official and trader in tobacco. In 1798 
he became second in command of a regiment of bashi-bazouks, or 
volunteers, recruited in his neighbourhood to serve against 
Napoleon in Egypt. He took part in the battle of Aboukir 
(July 25, 1799), was driven into the sea with the routed Turks, 
and was saved from drowning by the gig of the British admiral. 
Sir Sidney Smith. In 1801 he returned to Egypt, in command 
of his regiment, and on the 9th of May distinguished himself 
by heading a bold cavalry charge at the battle of Rahmanieh. 
In the troubled years that followed, Mehemet All, leader of a 
compact body of Albanian clansmen, was in the best position to 
draw advantage from the struggle for power between the Mame- 
lukes and the representatives of the Porte. In 1803 he cast in 
his lot with the former; in 1804 he turned against them and 
proclaimed his loyalty to the sultan; in 2805 the sheiks of Cairo, 
in the hope of putting a stop to the intolerable anarchy, elected 
him pasha, and a year later an imperial firman confirmed their 
choice. The disastrous British expedition of 1807 followed; 
and while at Constantinople the prestige of the sultan was being 
undermined by the series of revolutions which in 1808 brought 
Mahmud II. to the throne, that of Mehemet Ali was enhanced by 
the exhibition at Cairo of British prisoners and an avenue of 
stakes decorated with the heads of British slain. 

The situation revealed to the astute Albanian boundless 
possibilities for gratifying his ambition. In ^ite of his chance 
victories, he was too shrewd an observer not to recognize the 
superiority of European methods of warfare; and as the first step 
towards the empire of which he dreamed he determined to create 
an army and a fleet on the European model. In 1808 the build- 
ing and organization of the navy was begun with the aid of French 
officers and engineers. In 181 1 the massacre of the Mamelukes 
left Mehemet Ali without a rival in Egypt, while the foundations 
of his empire beyond were laid by the war against the Wahhibb 
and the conquest of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. The 
WahhabI War, indeed, dragged on till 1818, when Ibrahim (g.».), 
the pasha's son, who in 1816 hacl driven the remnant of the 
Mamelukes into Nubia, brought it to an end. This done, the 
pasha turned his attention southward to .the vast country 
watered by the Upper Nile. In 1820 the oasis of Siwa was 
subdued by his arms; in 1823 he laid the foundations of 
Khartum. 

By this time Mehemet Ali was the possessor of a powerful fleet 
and of an army of veterans disciplined and drilled by European 
officers. To obtain these money had been necessary; and to 
raise money the pasha had instituted those internal " reforms *' 
— the bizarre system of state monopolies and the showy experi- 
ments in new native industries which are described in the article 
Eg>'pt {q.v.). The inherent viclousness of these expedients had, 
however, not as yet been revealed by their inevitable results, 
and Mehemet Ali in the eyes of the world was at once the 
most enlightened and the most powerful of the sultan's valis. To 
Mahmud II., whose whole policy was directed to strengthening 
the authority of the central pwwer, this fact would have sufficed 
to make him distrust the pasha and desire his overthrow; and 
it was sorely against his will that, in 1822, the ill-success of 
his arms against the Insurgent Greeks forced him to summon 
Mehemet Ali to his aid. The immediate price was the pashalik 
of Crete; in the event of the victory of the Egyptian arms the 
pashaliks of Syria and Damascus were to fall to Mehemet Ali, 
that of the Morca to his son Ibrahim. The part played by Mehe- 
met Ali in the Greek War is described elsewhere (see TvaiL-sv: 
History) Greece: History; Greek I.ndepenoence, Wxa o»; 



MEHEMET ALI 



79 



iBtAsm). The interventioii of the powers, culminating in the 
shattering of the Egyptian fleet at Navarino (q.v,), robbed him 
of his reward so far as Greece was concerned; the failure of his 
arms io face oi this intervention gave Sultan Mahmud the excuse 
be desired for withholding the rest of the stipulated price of his 



This disappointment of his ambition would not perhaps in 
itself have sufficed to stir Mehemet Ali to revolt against his 
master; but it was ominous of perils to come, which the astute 
pasha thought it wise to forestall. The sultan's policy had been 
a»si^ently directed to crushing the overgrown power of his 
vusak, in the spring of 1831 two rebellious pashas, Hussein of 
Bcsoia and Mustafa of Scutari, had succumbed to his arms; 
and. since he was surrounded and counselled by the personal 
enttnies of the pasha of Egypt, it was likely that, so soon as he 
should feel himself strong enough, he would deal in like manner 
with Mehemet Ali. It was to anticipate this peril that Mehemet 
Ali determined himiself to open the struggle: on the ist of Novem- 
ber 1831 a force of qooo Egyptian infantry and 3000 cavalry 
ooiicd the frontier into Syria and met at Jaffa the fleet which 
brought Ibrahim as commander-in-chief. The combined forces 
at ooce laid siege to St Jean d'Acre. 

The stubborn resistance of the garrison delayed Ibrahim's 
progress; and. meanwhile, wild rumours went abroad as to Mehe- 
Bct All's intentions. He was master of the holy cities, and the 
offidal UoniUur Ottoman denounced his supposed plan of aiim'ng 
at the cafa'phate in collusion with the sherif of Mecca. As for 
the pasha himself, he loudly disclaimed any such disloyal pre- 
tensioas, his aim was to chastise Abdulla, pasha of Acre, who had 
fcarboared refugees from his " reforms "; to overthrow Khusrev, 
«f» had encouraged him in his refusal to surrender them; to 
seaire the fulfUroent of the sultan's promise with regard to Syria 
aod Damasctis. Mahmud, on the other hand, was torn between 
hatred of the pasha and hatred of the Christian powers which 
bad forced him to make concessions to the Greeks. Voices urged 
hin to come to terms with Mehemet Ali, secure peace in Islam, 
tad turn a united face of defiance against Europe; and for a while 
he bariwured the idea. He was conscious of bis own intense 
■npopttlarity, the outcome of his efforts at reform; he knew 
tbat in popular opinion Mehemet Ali was the champion of Islam 
against the infidel caliph, and that the issue of a struggle with him 
vas more than doubtful. He was hampered by the unpaid debt 
to Russia; by unrest in Bosnia and Albania; above all, by the 
revolt of the Greek Islands, which had left his navy, deprived 
of its best sailors, in no condition to dispute the Egyptian com- 
m^ad of the sea. In the end, however, his pride prevailed ; in 
April 1833 the Turkish commander-in-chief Hussein Pasha left 
Constantinople for the front ; and in the third week in May the 
ban of outlawry was launched against Mehemet Ali. 

Meanvhile, Ibrahim had occupied Gaza and Jerusalem as well 
as Taffa, on the 27th of May, a few days after the publication 
CI :te ban. Acre was stormed; on the isth of June the Egyptians 
occupied Damascus. Ibrahim pressed on with characteristic 
ra^iy, his rapid advance being favoured by the friendly 
altitude of the various sections of the Syrian population, whom 
be had been at pains to conciliate. He defeated the Ottoman 
advaoce-guard at Homs on the gth of July and at Hamah on 
the nth, entered Aleppo on the 17th. and on the 20th inflicted 
a crushing defeat on the main Turkish army under Hussein 
Puba at the pass of Beilan. All Syria was lost to the sultan, 
and the Egyptian advance-guard passed the mountain defiles 
into Adana in Asia Minor. 

Mahmud. in desperation, now turned for help to the powers. 
Rusftiao aid. though promptly offered, was too double-edged a 
vrapoo to be used save at the last extremity. Austrian diplo- 
macy was. for the mon>ent. that of Russia. France had broken 
her kmg tradition of friendship for Turkey by the occupation 
of Algiers. Great Britain, prodigal of protestations of goodwill, 
aVme remained; and to her Mahmud turned with a definite offer 
o( an offensive and defensive alliance. Stratford Canning, who 
was at Constantinople for the purpose of superintending the 
KSBtiatioiis for the dcUnuUtion of the frontiers of Greece, wrote 



home urging the government to accept, and suggesting a settle- 
ment of the Egyptian question which foreshadowed that of 1841. 
Palmerston, however, did not share Canning's belief in the 
possible regeneration of Turkey; he held that an isolated inter- 
vention of Great Britain would mortally offend not only Russia 
but France, and that Mehemet Ali, disappointed of his ambitions, 
would find in France a support that would make him doubly 
dangerous.* 

In the autunm Sultan Mahmud, as a last independent effort, 
despatched against Ibrahim the army which, under Reshid 
Pasha, had been engaged in pacifying Albania. The result was 
the crowning victory of the £g3rptians at Konia (Dec. 21). The 
news reached Constantinople at the same time as Count Muraviev 
arrived on a special mission from the tsar. The Russian offrrs 
were at once renewed of a squadron of battleships and of a land 
force for the protection of the capital. Efforts were made to 
escape the necessity of accepting the perilous aid. Ottoman 
agents, backed by letters from the French charg6 d'affaires, were 
sent to Mehemet Ali and to Ibrahim, to point out the imminence 
of Russian mtervention and to offer modified terms. Muraviev 
himself went to Alexandria, where, backed by the Austrian agent. 
Count Prokesch-Osten, he announced to the pasha the tsar's 
immutable hatred of rebels. Mehemet Ali merely protested the 
complete loyalty of his intentions, Ibrahim, declaring that as a 
soldier he had no choice but to obey his father's orders, advanced 
to Afium-Karahissar and Kutaiah, whence he wrote to the sultan 
asking his gracious permission to advance to Brusa. He was at 
the head of 100,000 men, well organized and flushed with victory; 
the Ottoman army survived only as demoralized rabble. Panic 
seized the Seraglio; and at the beginning of February the assis- 
tance of Russia was formally demanded. The representatives 
of France and Great Britain made every effort to secure a 
reversal of this fatal step; but, while they were threatening 
and promising, Russia was acting, and on the 3oth of February 
a Russian squadron entered the Bosporus. 

In view of this it became necessary for the objecting powers to 
take a new line. The new French ambassador. Admiral Roussin, 
had arrived on the 17th; he now, with the full concurrence of 
Mandeville, the British charg£ d'affaires, persuaded the Porte to 
invite the Russians to withdraw, undertaking that France would 
secure the acceptance by Mehemet Ali of the sultan's terms. 
A period of suspense followed. The Russian squadron was 
detained by contrary winds, and before it could sail peremptory 
orders arrived from the tsar for it to remain until Ibrahim should* 
have repassed the Taurus mountains. Meanwhile, Mehemet Ali 
had scornfully rejected the offers of the Porte; he would be con- 
tent with nothing but the concession of his full demands — Syria, 
Icheli, Aleppo, Damascus and Adana. France and Great Britain 
now urged the sultan to yield, and in March a Turkish agent 
was sent to Ibrahim to offer the pashaliks of Syria, Aleppo and 
t>amascus. The crisis was precipitated by the arrival on the 5th 
of April of a second division of the Russian fleet in the Bosporus, 
and of a Russian force of 6000 men, which landed on the Asiatic 
shore. The Porte now tried once more to modify its terms; but 
the Western pwwers were now intent on getting rid of the Russians 
at all costs, and as a result of the pressure they brought to bear 
on both parlies the preliminary convention of Kutaiah, conced- 
ing all the Egyptian demands, was signed on the 8th of April, and 
Ibrahim began his withdrawal. The convention stipulated for 
the bestowal of the pashalik of Adana on Ibrahim; but when on 
the i6th he received the official list of appointments, he found 
that Adana had been expressly reserved by the sultan. He at 
once arrested his march; but the pressure of famine in the capital, 
caused by the cutting off of supplies from Asia and the presence 
of the large Russian force, compelled Mahmud to yield, and on the 
3rd of May a firman ceded Adana to Ibrahim under the pretext of 
appointing him muhassil, or collector of the revenue. 

When Lord Ponsonby, the new British ambassador, arrived at 

* Canning's original memorandum is in the Foreign Office Records 
in the volume marked F.O., Turkey: From Sir Stratford Canning 
(August to December. 18^2). It bears elaborate pencil notes in 
Palroerston's handwriting, m part alrcaoy obliterated. 



8o 



MEHEMET ALI 



Constantinople on the ist of May he found Russia practically in 
possession. Sultan Mahmud was to the last degree embittered 
against the powers which, with lively protestations of friendship, 
had forced him to humiliate himself before his haled vassal. 
Russia had given him deeds, not words; and to Russia he com- 
mitted himself. A further contingent of six or seven thousand 
Russians had arrived on the 2 and of April; Russian engineers 
were busy with the fortifications along the Straits; Russian 
agents alone were admitted to the sultan's presence. *' It is 
manifest," wrote Lord Ponsonby, " that the Porte stands in the 
relation of vassal to the Russian govenunent."^ The relation 
was soon to be yet more manifest. Before, on the gth of July, 
the Russian fleet, with the Russian troops on board, weighed 
anchor for the Black Sea, there was signed at the palace of 
Unkiar Skelassi the famous treaty (July 8, 1833) which, under 
the guise of an offensive and defensive alliance, practically 
made Russia the custodian of the gates of the Black Sea. (See 
Turkey: History.) 

Mehemet Ali had triumphed, but he was well aware that he 
held the fruits of his victory by a precarious tenure. ' He was 
still but a vali among the rest, holding his many pashaUks 
nominally by the sultan's will and subject to annual re- 
appointment; and he knew that both his power and his life 
would be forfeit so soon as the sultan should be strong 
enough to deprive him of them. To achieve this one end 
had, indeed, become the overmastering passion of Mahmud's 
life, to defeat it the object of all Mehemet Ali's policy. So 
early as 1834 it seemed as though the struggle would be 
renewed; for Mehemet Ali had extended to his new pashaliks 
his system of monopolies and conscription, and the Syrians, 
finding that they had exchanged Turkish whips for Egyptian 
scorpions, rose in a passion of revolt. It needed the inter- 
vention of Mehemet Ali in person before, in the following year, 
they were finally subdued. Meanwhile it had needed all the 
diplomatic armoury of the powers to prevent Mahmud hastening 
to the assistance of his "oppressed subjects." The threats of 
Great Britain and France, the failure of Russia to back him up, 
induced him to refrain; but sooner or later a renewal of the war 
was inevitable; for the sultan, with but one end in view, was 
reorganizing his army, and Mehemet Ali. who in the autumn of 
1834 had assumed the style of viceroy and sounded the powers 
as to their attitude in the event of his declaring his complete 
independence, refused to continue to pay tribute which he knew 
would be used against himself. 

The crisis came in 1838. In March the Egyptians were severely 
defeated by the revolted Arabs of the Hauran; and the Porte, 
though diplomatic pressure kept it quiet, hurried on prepara- 
tions for war. Mehemet Ali, too, had small reason for p<»t- 
poning the conflict. The work of Moltke. who with other 
German oflicers who had been engaged in organizing the Turkish 
army, threatened to destroy his superiority in the field; the 
commercial treaty signed by the Ottoman government with 
Great Britain (Aug. 16), which applied equally to all the 
territories under his rule, threatened to destroy at a blow the 
lucrative monopolies which supplied him with the sinews of war. 
Months of suspense followed; for the powers had threatened to 
cast their weight into the scale against whichever side should 
prove the aggressor, and Mehemet' Ali was too astute to make 
the first move. In the end Mahmud's passion played into his 
hands. The old sultan thirsted to crush his rebellious vassal, 
at any cost; and on the 21st of April 1839 the Ottoman army, 
stationed at Bir on the Euphrates, crossed the stream and invaded 
Syria. On the 23rd of June it was attacked and utterly routed 
by Ibrahim at Nezib. On the 1st of July the old sultan died, 
unconscious of the fatal news, leaving his throne to Abd- 
ul- Mejid, a lad of sixteen. To complete the desperateness of 
the situation the news reached the capital that Ahmed Pasha, 
the Ottoman admiral-in-chief, had sailed to Alexandria and 
surrendered his fleet to Mehemet Ali, on the preiext that the 
sultan's advisers were sold to the Russians. 

So far as the forces of the Ottoman Empire were concerned, 
' From Lord Ponsonby, F.O., Turkey, May aa, 1833. 



Mehemet Ali was now absolute master of the situation. The 
grand vizier, in the sultan's name« wrote beseeching him to 
avoid the further shedding of Mussulman blood, offering him a 
free pardon, the highest honours of the sUte, the hereditary 
pashalik of Egypt for himself, and Syria for Ibrahim until he 
should succeed his father in Egypt. Mehemet Ali replied diplo- 
matically; for, though these offers fell far short of his ambitions, 
a studious moderation was essential in view of the doubtful 
attitude of the European powers. 

On the 27 th of July the ambassadors of the five powers pre- 
sented to the Porte a joint note, in which they declared that an 
agreement on the Eastern (^estion had been reached by the five 
Great Powers, and urged it " to suspend all definite decision made 
without their concurrence, pending the effect of their interest in 
its welfare." The necessity for showing a united front juslifiol 
the diplomatic inexactitude; but the powers were agreed on 
little except the need for agreement. Especially was this need 
realized by the British government, which feared that Rusaa 
would seize the occasion for an isolated intervention under the 
treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. On the ist of August Palmcrston 
wrote to Ponsonby impressing upon him that the representatives 
of the powers, in their communications with the Porte, " should 
act not only simultaneously in point of time, but idaUicaUy m 
point oj manner " — a principle important in view of later develop- 
ments. Yet it was a task all but impossible to preserve tUs 
appearance of unanimity in view of the divergent views within 
the concert. France and Great Britain had hitherto acted 
together through common opposition to the supposed designs ol 
Russia. Austria, too, now that the revolutionary q>ectres of 
1830 had been laid, was reverting to her traditional (^position 
to Russia in the affairs of the Near East, and Mettemich sup- 
ported Palmerston's proposal of an international conference at 
Vienna. Everything depended on the attitude of the emperor 
Nicholas. This was ultimately determined by his growing dis- 
trust of Austria and his perennial hatred of the democratic regime 
of France. The first caused him to reject the idea of a conference 
of which the activities would have been primarily directed against 
Russia; the second led him to drive a wedge into the Anglo- 
French entente by making direct overtures to Great Britain. 
Palmerston likened to the tsar's proposals, conveyed throu^ 
Baron Brunnow, " with surprise and admiration." The emperor 
Nicholas was prepared to accept the views of Great Britain on the 
Turco- Egyptian question; to allow the Treaty of Unkiar Skelean 
to lapse; to act henceforth in the Ottoman Empire only in conceit 
with the other powers, in return for an agreement closing the 
Dardanelles to the war-ships of all nations and to extend the same 
principle to the Bosporus. Finally, Brunnow was empowered 
to arrange a coalition of the great powers with a view to the 
settlement of the Egyptian question; and in this coaUtion the 
tsar was willing, for poUtical reasons, that France should be 
included, though he stated his personal preference for her 
exclusion. 

To these views Austria and, as a natural consequence, Prussia 
acceded without difliculty. The attitude of France was a more 
doubtful quantity. In France Mehemet Ali had become a 
popular hero; under him French civilization had gained a foothold 
in Egypt; he was regarded as invincible; and it was hoped that 
in alliance with him French influence in the Mediterranean would 
be supreme. Palmerston, on the other hand, believed that the 
Ottoman empire would never be secure until " the desert had 
been placed between " the pasha of Egypt and the sultan; and 
the view that the coalition should be directed against Mehemet 
Ali was shared by the other powers. In the circumstancci 
France should either have loyally accepted the deciuon of the 
majority of the concert, to which she had committed herself by 
signing the joint note of the 27th of July, or should have frankly 
stated her intention of taking up a position outside. The fact 
that she did neither led to a crisis that for a moment threatened 
to plunge Europe into war. 

For nearly a year the diplomatic pourparlers continued without 
an agreement being reached; France insisted on Mehemet Ali*k 
receiving the hereditary pashalik of Syria as well as that of 



MEHEMET ALI 



8i 



Egypt, a praposition to which Pahttenton; though siocerdy 
aimous to preserve the Anglo-French entenU, refused to a^rec. 
The tension of the situation was increased when, on the 20th of 
February 1840, Thiers came into power. The diplomacy of 
Gulaot. backed now by Austria and Prussia, had succeeded in 
persuading Palmerston to concede the principle of allowing 
Mefaemet Ali to receive, besides Egypt, the pashalik of Acre as 
far as the frontiers of Tripoli and Damascus (May 7). Thiers, 
bowevtf, refused to listen to any suggestion for depriving him 
of any part of Syria; but, instead of breaking off the corre-. 
spondence and leaving the concert, he continued the negotiations, 
ud before long circumstances came to the knowledge of the 
British government which seemed to prove that he was only 
doing so with a view to gaining time in order to secure a separate 
settlement in accordance with French views. 

The opportunity for this arose from a change in the situation 
at Constantinople, where the dismiwal of Khusrev Pasha had, in 
Mefaemet Ali's view, removed the main obstacle to his recondlia-i 
tbo with the sultan. He proposed to the French consul-general 
at Akiandria to make advances to the Porte, and suggested 
nding back the Ottoman fleet as an earnest of his good inten- 
tions, a course which, it was hoped, " would lead to a direci and 
aoucaUe arrangement of the Turco-Egyptian question." On 
the 2ist of June his envoy, Sami Bey, actually arrived at Con- 
stiBtinople, ostensibly to congratulate the sultan on the birth of a 
^ughter, really to make use <^ the French influence now supreme 
at the Porte in order to effect a settlement. In the circumstances 
tilt proper course for Thiers to have pursuM would have been to 
kve communicated to the powers, to whom he was bound by 
tbe moral engagement of the 27th of July 1839, the new conditions 
arising out of Mehemet Ali's offer. Instead he wrote to Guizot, 
00 the 30th of June, sajring that the situation argued strongly 
in favour ot postponing any decision in London, adding: *' 1 
hsve written to Alexandria and Constantinople to counsel 
Boderation on both sides; but I have been careful to forbid the 
agents to enter on their own account, and as a French under- 
taking, on a negotiation of which the avowed aim is a direct 
arrangement. If such an enterprise is imputed to us, you will be 
ia a position to deny it." 

The discovery of what seemed an imderhand intrigue on the 
part of France produced upon the powers exactly the effect that 
Tkieis had foreseen and deprecated. They regarded it as an 
attempt to ruin the work of the concert and to secure for France 
t " comi^ete individual triumph " at Alexandria and Constanti- 
itople; aiid their countermove was to sign at London on the 15th 
of July, without the concurrence of France, a convention with 
the Porte for the settlement of the affairs of the Levant. By this 
iastrument it was agreed that the terms to be offered to Mehemet 
AC having been concerted with the Porte, the signatory powers 
vould unite their forces in order to compel the pasha to accept 
the settlement. As to the terms to be offered, it was arranged 
that, in the event of Mehemet Ali yielding within ten days, he 
ihould receive the hereditary pashalik of Egypt and the admini- 
I Kration for life of southern Syria, with the title of Pasha of Acre 
and the possession of the fortress of St Jean d'Acre. At the end 
of ten da>-s, should he remain obdurate, the offer of Syria and 
Aoe would be withdrawn; and if at the end of another ten days 
he was still defiant, the sultan would hold himself at liberty to 
withdraw the whole offer and to take such measures as his own 
iatncsts and the counsels of his allies might suggest to him. 

The news of this " mortal affront " to the honour of France 
caocd immense excitement in Paris. The whole press was 
damoroos for war; Thiers declared that the alliance with Great 
Britain was shattered, and pressed on warlike preparations; 
nrea Louis Philippe was carried away by the fever. The 
tKBiHiate effect was that Mehemet Ali, confident of French 
ttbtance, maintained a defiant attitude. The situation, 
kovever, was rapidly changed by the unexpected results of the 
tnaed intervention of the Allies. The appearance of the com- 
biaed British, Austrian and* Russian fleets, under Sir Charles 
Kapicr, off Bdrat (Aug. xi) was the signal for a general rising 
if tbe Syrians afaiost Ibrahim's tyranny. On the xxth of 
XViD i* 



September, Suleiman Pasha not having obeyed the summons 
to evacua'te the town, the bombardment was begun, and Otto- 
man troops were landed to co-operate with the rebels. On the 
3rd of October Beirut fell; and Ibrahim, cut off from his com- 
munications by sea, and surrounded by a hostile population, 
began a hurried retreat southward. On the 3rd of November 
Acre surrendered to the allied fleet. Mehemet Ali's power in 
Syria had collapsed like a pricked bubble; and with it had gone 
for ever the myth of his humane and enlightened rule. The sole 
question now was whether he should be allowed to retain 
Egypt itself. 

On the 15th of September the sultan, who had broken off all 
negotiations with Mehemet Ali on receipt of the news of the 
Syrian revolt, aaing on the- advice of Lord Ponsonby, declared 
the pasha deposed, on the ground that the term allowed by the 
Convention of London had expired, and nominated his successor. 
Mehemet Ali received the news with his accustomed sang-froid, 
observing to the consuls of the four powers, who had come to 
notify their own removal, that " such denunciations were nothing 
new to him; that this was the fourth, and that he hoped to get 
over it as well as he had done the other three, with the help of 
God and the Prophet." In the end his confidence proved to be 
justified. The news of the events in Syria and especially of the 
deprivation of Mehemet Ali had produced in France what 
appeared to be an exceedingly dangerous temper; the French 
government declared that it regarded the maintenance of Mehe- 
met Ali in Egypt as essential to the European balance of power; 
and Louis Philippe sought to make it clear to the British govern- 
ment, through the king of the Belgians, that, whatever might 
be his own desire to maintain peace, in certain events to do so 
would be to risk his throne. Palmerston, indeed, who did not 
believe that under the Bourgeois Monarchy France would trans- 
late her brave words into action, was in favour of settling the 
Turco-Egyptian question once for all by depriving Mehemet Ali 
of Egypt as well. The influences against him, however, were too 
powerful. Mettemich protested against a course which would 
result, in his opinion, either in a war or a revolution in France; 
King Leopold enlarged on the wickedness and absurdity of 
risking a European war for the sake of putting an end to the 
power of an old man who could have but few years to live; 
Queen Victoria urged her ministers to come to terms with France 
and relieve the embarrassments of the '* dear King "; and Lord 
Melbourne, with the majority of the cabinet, was in favour of 
compromise. When therefore, on the 8th of October, Guizot, 
in an interview with Palmerston, presented what was practically 
an ultimatum on the part of France, " it was determined that this 
intimation should be met in a friendly spirit, and that Lord 
Palmerston should see the Ministers of the other powers and agree 
with them to acquaint the French that they with England would 
use their good offices to induce the Poite not to insist on the 
deprivation of Mehemet Ali so far as Eg>pt is concerned." In 
accordance with this Palmerston instructed Ponsonby to press 
upon the sultan, in the event of Mehemet Ali's speedy submission, 
not only to withdraw the sentence of deprivation but to confer 
upon him the hereditary pashalik of Eg>'pt. 

For a while it seemed that even this would not avert a Euro- 
pean war. Thiers still maintained his warlike tone, and the 
king's speech prepared by him for the opening of the Chambers 
on the 28th of October was in effect a declaration of defiance to 
Europe. Louis Philippe himself, however, was not prepared 
to use this language; whereupon Thiers resigned, and a new 
cabinet was formed under Marshal Soult, with Guizot as foreign 
secretary. The equivocal tone of the new speech from the Throne 
raised a storm of protest in the Chambers and the country. It 
was, however, soon clear that Palmcrston's diagnosis of the 
temper of the French bourgeois was correct; the clamour for war 
subsided; on the 4th of December the address on the Egyptian 
Question proposed by the government was carried, and peace was 
assured. Nine days earlier Sir Charles Napier had appeared with a 
British squadron off Alexandria and. partly by persuasion, partly 
by threats, had induced Mehemet Ali to submit to the sultan 
and to send back the Ottoman fleet, in return fot «i f;oAX«A\xft 



82 



MEHIDPUR— MEIKTILA 



of the hereditary paahalik of Egypt. This Arrangement was 
ratified by Paimerston; and all four powers now combined to 
press it on the reluctant Porte, pointing out, in a joint note of the 
30th of January 1841, that " they were not conscious of advising 
a course out of harmony with the sovereignty and legitimate 
ri^ts of the sultan, or contrary to the duties imposed on the 
Pasha of Egypt as a subject appointed by His Highness to govern 
a province of the Ottoman Empire." This principle was elabor- 
ated in the firman, issued on the X3th of February, by which the 
sultan conferred on Mehemet Ali and his heirs by direct descent 
the pashalik of Egypt, the greatest care being taken not to bestow 
any rank and authority greater than that enjoyed by other 
viziers of the empire. By a second firman of the same date 
Mehemet Ali was invested with the government of Nubia, Darf ur, 
Khordofan and Sennaar, with their dependencies. On the loth 
of June the finnan was solenmly promulgated at Alexandria. 

Thus ended the phase of the Egyptian Question with which 
the name of Mehemet Ali is specially bound up. The threatened 
European conflict had been averted, and presently the wounded 
susceptibilities of France were healed by the invitation extended 
to her to take part in the Straits Convention. As for Mehemet 
Ali himself, he now passes off the stage of history. He was an 
old man; his mind was soon to give way; and for some time 
before his death on the and of August 1849 the reins of power were 
held by his son and successor Ibrahim. 

Probably no Oriental ruler, not even excepting Ali of lannina, 
has ever stirred up so much interest among his contemporaries 
as Mehemet Ali. The spectacle of an Eastern despot apparently 
advancing on the lines of European progress was in itself as 
astonishing as new. Men thought they were witnessing the 
dawn of a new era in the East; Mehemet Ali was hailed as the 
most beneficent and enlightened of princes; and political philo- 
sophers like Jeremy Bentham, who sent him elaborate letters 
of good advice, thought to find in him the means for developing 
their theories in virgin soil In fact the pasha was an illiterate 
barbarian, of the same type as his countryman Ali of lannina, 
courageous, cruel, astute, full of wiles, avaricious and boundlessly 
ambitious. He never learned to read or write, though late in life 
he mastered colloquial Arabic; yet th(»e Europeans who were 
brought into contact with him praised alike the dignity and 
charm of his address, his ready wit, and the astonishing 
perspicacity which enabled him to read the motives of men 
and of governments and to deal effectively with each situation 
as it arose. 

The latest account of Mehemet Ali and the European crias 
arising out of his revolt is that by W. Alison Phillips in vol. x. 
ch. xvii. of the Cambridge Modern History ^1907). The biblio- 
graphy atuched to this chapter (p. 853) gives a list of all the principal 
publisned documents and works, together with some analysis 
€d the unpublished Foreign Office records bearing on the subject. 
Of the works mentioned C. de Freycinet's La Question d'Egypie 
(Paris, 1905) gives the most authoritative account of the diplomatic 
developments. (W. A. P.) 

MEHIDPUR, or Mahidpxts, a town of India, in Indore 
state of Central India, on the right bank of the Sipra, 1543 ft. 
above the sea, and 24 m. N. of Ujjain. Pop. (1901), 6681. 
Though of some antiquity and frequented by Hindu pilgrims, 
it is best known for the battle fought in the neighbourhood 
on the 20th of December 181 7, in which Sir John Malcolm 
defeated the army of Holkar. The result was the Treaty of 
Mandasor and the pacification of Malwa. Mehidpur was 
again the scene of some sharp fighting during the Mutiny. 
The British cantonment, placed here in 18x7, was removed 
in 1882. 

m6hUL, firiENNB HENRI (or £tienne Nicolas) (1763- 
181 7), French composer, was born at Givet in Ardennes, on 
the 24th of June 1763. His father being too poor to give him 
a regular musical education, his first ideas of art were derived 
from a poor blind organist of Givet; yet such was his aptitude 
that, when ten years old, he was appointed organist of the con- 
vent of the Rteollcts. In 1775 an able German musician and 
organist, Wilhelm Hauser^ was engaged for the monastery 
of lAvaldieu, a few miles from Civet, and M^ul became his 



occasional pupil. In 1778 he was taken to Paris by a miliuxy 
oflBcer, and placed himself under Edelmann, a good musidan and 
harpsichord player. His first attempts at instrumental conv 
position in 1781 did not succeed, and he therefore turned hb 
attention to sacred and dramatic music. Gluck gave him advior 
in his studies. After various disappointments during hit 
efforts for six years to obtain, at the Grand Op£ra, a representa- 
tion of his Cora et Alonso, he offered to the Op£ra Comique 
his Eupkrosine et Coradin, which, being accepted and perfomied 
in 1790, at once fixed his reputation. His opera of Straiomu 
was also received with enthusiasm in 1792. After several 
unsuccessful operas, his Adrien appeared, and added much 
to his fame, which was further increased by his three best 
works, Le Jeune Henri, Uthal and Joseph, the finest of the 
series. UUtal was written for an orchestra without violins. 
M^ul held a post as one of the four inspectors of the Paris 
Conservatoire, but this office made him feel continually the 
insufficiency oif his early studies, a want which he endeavoured 
to remedy by incessant application. TimcUon, Ariedaid 
and Bion followed. Epicure was composed by Mfhul and 
Cherubini jointly; but the superiority of the latter was evidenL 
M6hurs next opera, Lltato, failed. After wridng forty-two 
operas, besides a number of songs for the festivals of the republic, 
cantatas, and orchestral pieces of various kinds, his health 
gave way, from an affection of the chest, and he died on the. 
i8th of October 1817 in Paris. 

See Lives by Pougin (1889), Viellard (1859), and Quatxcnere de 
Quincey (1818). 

MEIBOM, HEINRICH (1555-1625), German historian and 
poet, was bom at Lemgo on the 4th of December 1555, and 
died on the 20th of September 1625, at Helmstedt, where he 
had held the chair of history and poetry since 1583. He was 
a writer of Latin verses {Parodiarum horatianarum libri III. 
et sylvarum libri II., 1588); and his talents in this direction 
were recognized by the emperor Rudolph II., who ennobled him; 
but his claim to be remembered rests on his services in duddat- 
ing the medieval history of Germany. 

His Opusctda historica ad res itrmanicas spedantia was edited 
and published in 1660 by his grandson, Heinrich Meibom (1638- 
1700), who was professor of medicine and then of history and jwetiy 
at Helmstedt, and incorporated his grandfather's work with his 
own Rerum germanicarum scriptores (1688). 

MEIDERICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian 'Rhine 
province, 2I m. by rail N.E. of Ruhrort, whose river harbour 
is in great part within its confines. Pop. (1905), 40,822. Iron 
and steel works, coal-mines, saw-mills, brickworks, and machine- 
shops furnish the principal occupations of the inhabitants. 
Meiderich, which is first mentioned in 874, was united with 
Duisburg in 1905. 

See Gracber, Tausendjahrige GeschichU von Meiderich (1893). 

MEIKTILA, a district and division in Upper Burma. The 
district is the most easterly of the districts in the dry zone, 
and has an area of 2183 sq. m. It lies between KyauksC, 
Myingyan, YamSthin, and on the east touches the Shan States. 
It is a slightly undulating plain, the gentle slopes of which are 
composed of black " cotton " soil and are somewhat arid. The 
only hills above 300 ft. are on the slopes of the Shan hflls^ 
The lake is the chief feature of the district. It is artificial, 
and according to Burmese legend was begun 2400 years afO 
by the grandfather of Gautama Buddha. It is 7 m. long, * 
averages half a mile broad, and covers an area of 3I sq. m. 
With the Minhla and other connected lakes it irrigates a large 
extent of country. 

There are small forest reserves, chiefly of cutch. Large 
numbers of cattle are bred. The chief agricultural products 
are rice, sesamum, cotton, peas, maize, millet and gram. Fap» 
(1901), 252,305. Famines in 1891, 1895 and 1896 led to con- 
siderable emigration. The climate is healthy except in the 
submontane townships. The temperature rises to 100* F. 
and over between the months of March and June, and the 
mean minimum in January is about 61°. The rainfall is uncer- 
tain (36-79 in. in 1893, 25-59 in 1891).. The vast nu^jocity 



MEILHAC— MEIR OF ROTHENBURG 



83 



of the popoUtion are Buddhists. The headquarters town, 
Hektila, stands on the banks of the lake, which supplies 
food drinking water. Pop. (1901), 7203. A wing of a British 
Rginient h stationed here. A branch railway connects it 
at Thaxi station with the Rangoon-Mandalay line, and continues 
vcsttrard to its terminus on the Irrawaddy at Myingyan. 

The division includes the districts of Meiktila, KyauksC, 
Yamethin and Myingyan, with a total area of 10,852 sq. m., 
and a population (igox) of 992,807, showing an increase of 
io-a% in the preceding decade, and giving a density of 91 
jahabifants to the square mile. All but a small portion of the 
divisioa lies in the dry zone, and cultivation is mainly dependent 
c a irrig ation. 

■HLHAC HENRI (Z831-Z897), French dramatist, was' 
bora in Paris on the azst of February 1831, and while a young 
man began writing fanciful articles for the newspapers and 
MMfewBer for the theatres, in a vivacious bouUvardier spirit 
which brought him to the front. About i860 he met Ludovic 
EaKvy, and the two began a collaboration in writing for the 
ftage which lasted for twenty years. An accotmt of their 
wo^ IS given under HaiivY. Meilhac wrote a few pieces 
«ith leaser coDaboraton. In 1888 he was elected to the 
A cademy. H e died at Paris in 1897. 

■HHBBRO, a village and watering-place of Germany, in 
the principality of Lippe Detmold, situated in a pleasant valley 
voder the Teutoburger Wald, 12 m. S.E. from Detmold by the 
raSway to Altenbeken. Pop. (1905), z3oa The waters of 
Ifcinbeig, which attract annually about 1200 visitors, are 
nlphor springs, and are used for drinking, bathing and inhala- 
tioB. They became known in the i8th century. 

See Gilbert and Blcissoer, Bad MeinUrg und mne KwrmiuA 
(Bcrfin, 190a). 

mbmbkb: johamw albrecht fribdrich august 

(1790-1870), German classical ;scholar, was bom at Soest in 
Westphalia on the 8th of December 1790. After holding 
cdocational. posts at Jenkau and Danzig, he was director of 
the Joadnoathal gymnasium in Berlin from 1826 to 2856. 
He died at Berlin on the Z2th of December 1870. He was 
<fiaingnisbed in amjectural criticism, the comic writers and 
Akzandiine poets being his favourite authors. 

His most important works are: Gratcomm comicorum fragmenla 
(i839~l8S7t the first volume of which contains an essay on the 

(£iieaiitf(^ t!K fn^jnentA of RJiianus, Euphorion, Al^Jundcr oi 
Attoiiai, tad Funhtmiiit} ; CallimActnu ttS*jj): ThcocrituA, Bkm, 
*l«chi» i^rd td . iSS^Jt Aldphron (l*sij3 Slrabot3nd«]..ieft6) 
and Vmdicix sfr(j^ji?tat»«f (165?): Sicbaeu* (tAjS-iSdi); Aihrtucua 
' " ~ phsbyF,Raniwri87iKH.^t]f--'^""" 



c{t87Jl, 



{itj^tStfj}^ Sraf mcinoeinipbs by F, Ritikc (l 871 )i H Sitmoc 
tmd^ F^tevtcmaDn in AUtrmetKe {kHisthe Bifriratfkie. XXL U^^5)t 
iteSaSiyi^ Hitf. Odxi. Schoi. U^). m. 117. 

HEUUHvEN, a town of Germany, capital of the duchy of 
Saae-Meiningen, romantically situated in forests on the right 
baak of the Werra, 40 m. S. of Eisenach by rail. Pop< (1905), 
15,989. It consists of an old town and several handsome 
saborfas^ but much of the former has been rebuilt since a fire 
ia 1874. The chief building is the Elisabethenburg, or the 
tkl ducal palace, containing several collections; it was built 
Bsialy about 1680, although part of it is much older. Other 
bBiMings are the Henneberger Haus with a collection of antiqui- 
ties, and the town church, with twin towers, built by the emperor 
Beniy IL in the xxth century. The theatre enjoyed for many 
jfcais (1875-1890) a European reputation for its actors and 
imic effects. The English garden, a beautiful public park, 
contains the ducal mortuary chapel and several monuments, 
indiMling busts of Brahms and Jean Paul Richtcr. 

Heiningen, which was subject to the bbhops of Wtirzburg 
(1000-1542), came into the possession of the duke of Saxony 
H 1583, having in the meantime belonged to the counts of 
Baaebcrf. At the partition of z66o it fell to the share of 
Sue-AItcnborg, and in x68o became the capital of Saxc- 



Sce E. DObner, Bauskine s» titur CesckkhU ier Stadt Meiningen 
(Uciaiagea. 19M). 



MEIR, Jewish rabbi of the 2nd century, was bom in Asia 
Minor and according to legend was a descendant of the family 
of Nero. He was the most notable of the disciples of Aqiba 
(9.9.), and after the Hadrianic repressions of a.d. 135 was 
instrumental in refounding the Palestinian schools at Usha. 
Among his teachers was also Elisha ben Abuya {q.v.), and 
MeXr continued his devotion to Elisha after the latter's apostasy. 
He is said to have visited Rome to rescue his wife's sister. 
His wife, Beruriah, is often cited in the Talmud as an exemplar 
of generosity and faith. She was a daughter of the martyr 
gananiah ben Teradion. On one occasion Meir, who had 
been frequently troubled by his ungodly neighbours, uttered 
a prayer for their extinction. " Nay," said Beruriah, " it is 
written (Ps. civ. 35) let sins be blotted out, not sinners "; 
whereupon MeIr prayed for the evildoers' conversion. But 
she b best known for her conduct at the sudden death of her 
two sons. It was the Sabbath, and Melr returned home towards 
sunset. He repeatedly asked for the children, and Beruriah, 
after parrying his question, said: " Some time ago a precious 
thing was left with me on trust, and now the owner demands 
its return. Must I give it back ? " " How can you question 
it? " rejoined her husband. Beruriah- then led him to the bed 
whereon were stretched the bodies of the children. Melr burst 
into tears. But the wife explained that this was the treasure 
of which she had spoken, adding the text from Job: "The 
Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away; blessed be the name 
of the Lord." Melr himself was the author of many famous 
sayings: " Look not to the flask, but to its contents. Many 
a. new vessel contains old wine, but there are old casks which 
do not contain even new wine." " Condole not with a mourner 
while his dead is laid out before him." " Man cometh into 
the world with closed hands as though claiming the ownership 
of all things; but he departeth hence with hands open and 
limp, as if to show that he taketh naught with him." " What 
God does is well done." " The tree itself supplies the handle 
of the axe which cuts it down." His wisdom was proverbial, 
and to him was in particular assigned an intimate acquaintance 
with fables, and he is reported to have known 300 Fox-Fables. 
" With the death of Rabbi Melr," says the Mishnah {Sota ix. 15), 
" Fabulists ceased to be." 

Melr's wide sympathies were shown in his inclusion of all 
mankind in the hopes of salvation (Sifra to Leviticus xviii. 
5). He was certainly on friendly terms with heathen scholars^ 
Melr contributed .largely to the material from which finally 
emerged the Mishnah. His dialectic skill was excessive, and 
it was said jestingly of him that he could give 150 reasons to 
prove a thing clean, and as many more to prove it unclean. 
His balanced judgment fitted him to carry on Aqiba's work, 
sifting and arranging the oral traditions, and thus preparing 
the ground for the Mishnaic Code. 

Melr left Palestine some time before his death, owing to 
disagreements between him and the Patriarch. He died in 
Asia Minor, but his love for the Holy Land remained dominant 
to the last. " Bury me," he said, " by the shore, so that the 
sea which washes the land of my fathers may touch also my 
bones." The tomb shown as that of Melr at Tiberias is 
inauthentic. 

Sec Bachcr, Agada der TannaiUn, vol. il. ch. i.; Gractz, Histcry of 
the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. 11. ch. w'u; Jewish Encyclopedia (whence 
some of the above cited sayings are quoted), viii. 432-435- On 
Meir's place in the history of the fable, see J.Jacobs, The Fables oj 
Aesop, 1. Ill, &c. (see Index s.v.). (1. A.) 

MEIR OF ROTHENBURG {c. 1215-1293), German rabbi and 
poet, was born in Worms c. 1215. He played a great part in 
organizing the Jewish communal life of the middle ages. In 
1286 for some unknown reason he was thrown into prison in 
Alsace, where he remained until his death in 1393. His friends 
offered to find a ransom, but he declined the suggestion, fearing 
that the precedent would lead to extortion in other cases. 
He wrote glosses to the Talmud (tosaphot) and many Rcsponsa 
of the utmost value for historical research. Through his disciples 
Asher ben Yeljiel and Mordecai ben Hillel, Meir exercised much 



84 



MEIRINGEN— MEISSEN 



influence on subsequent developments of Judaism. He was 
also a liturgical poet of considerable merit. One of his finest 
elegies is translated into English in Nina Davis's Songs of ExiU. 
Sec L. Ginzberg, Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 437-440- (I- A.) 
MEIRINGEN, the principal village on the Hasle (or the upper 
Aar) valley in the Swiss canton of Bern. It is built at a height 
of 1969 ft. on the right bank of the Aar and on the level floor of 
the valley, but is much exposed to the south wind (or F6hn)^ 
and has several times been in great part destroyed by fire (1632, 
1879 and 1891). It has 3077 inhabitants, all German-speaking 
and Protestants. The parish church is ancient, and above 
it are the ruins of the medieval castle of Resti. Meiringen 
is frequented by travellers in summer, as it is the meeting-point 
of many routes: from Interlaken by the lake of Brienz and 
Brienz, from Lucerne by the Briinig railway (28 m.), from 
Engelberg by the Joch Pass (7267 ft.), from the upper Valais 
by the Grimsel Pass (7100 ft.), and from Grindelwald by the 
Great Scheidcgg Pass (6434 ft.). Many waterfalls descend 
the hill-sides, the best known being the Reichenbach and the 
Alpbach, while the great gorge pierced by the Aar through 
the limestone barrier of the Kirchet is remarkable. The village 
and valley belonged of old to the emperor, who in 1234 gave 
the advowson to the Knights of St Lazarus, by whom it was 
sold in 1272 to the Austin Canons of Interlaken, on the sup- 
pression of whom in 1528 it passed to the state. In 13 10 the 
emperor mortgaged the valley to the lords of Weissenburg, 
who sold it in 1334 to the town of Bern. (W. A. B. C.) 

' MEISSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, 
on both banks of the Elbe, 15 m. N.W. from Dresden, on the 
railway to Leipzig via Ddbeln. Pop. (1905), 32,336. The old 
town lies on the left bank of the river, between the streams 
Meisse and Tricbisch, and its irregular hilly site and numerous 
fine old buildings make it picturesque. Most of its streets 
are narrow and uneven. The cathedral, one of the finest early 
Gothic buildings in Germany, stands on the Schlossberg, x6o ft. 
above the town. It is said to have been founded by the emperor 
Otto the Great, but the present building was begun in the 13th 
century and was completed about 1450. Here are tombs of 
several rulers and princes of Saxony, including those of Albert 
and Ernest, the founders of the two existing branches of the 
Saxon house. The cathedral also contains works by Peter 
Vischer and Lucas Cranach and several other interesting monu- 
ments. A restoration, including the rebuilding of the two 
towers, was carried out in 1903-1908. Adjoining the cathedral 
is the castle, dating from 1471-1483, but restored and named 
the Albrcchtsburg about 1676. Another restoration was 
undertaken after i860, when a series of historical frescoes was 
painted upon its walls. A stone building of the X3th century 
connects the Schlossberg. with the Afraberg, which owes its 
name to the old convent of St Afra. The convent was suppressed 
by Duke Maurice in 1543, and was by him converted into 
a school (the FUrsten Schule), one of the most renowned 
classical schools in Germany, which counts Lessing and 
Gellert among its former pupils. Other public buildings of 
interest are the town-hall, built in 1479 and restored in 
2875; the fine town church, called the Frauenkirche or 
Marienkirche; the Ntkolaikirche and the Afrakirche. The 
Franciscan church is now used as a museum of objects 
connected with the hbtory of Meissen. Since 1710 Meissen 
has been the seat of the manufacture of Dresden china. Till 
i860 the royal porcelain factory was in the Albrechtsburg, 
but in that year it was transferred to a large new building in 
the Triebischtal, near the town. Meissen also contains iron 
foundries, factories for making earthenware stoves and pottery, 
sugar refineries, breweries and tanneries. A considerable trade 
is carried on in the wine produced in the surrounding vineyards, 
and other industries are spinning and weaving. 

Meissen was founded about 920 by Henry the Fowler (see 
Meissen, Margraviaie). From 968 to 1581 Meissen was the 
seat of a line of bishops, who ranked as princes of the empire. 
During the 15th century the town suffered greatly from the 
Hussites, and it was captured by the imperial troops during 



the war of the league of Schmalkalden, and again in the Tliiitjr 
Years' War. In 1637 it suffered much from the Swedes, and 
in 1745 it fell into the hands of the Prussians. The bridge over 
the Elbe was destroyed by the French in 18x3, and again by 
the Saxons in June 1866 in order to impede the march of the 
Prussians on Dresden. CdUn on the right bank of the Elbe 
was incorporated with Meissen in 1 901. 

See Rdnhard, Die Stadt Meissen, ihre MerkwHrdigkeiUn (MeineB, 
1829); Loose, AU-Metssen in Biidem (Meissen. i88q); Jftachke, 
Meissen und seine Kirchen (Leipzig, 1902) ; and Gersdori, Urktmdmh 
Imch der Stadt Meissen (Leipzig. 1873). 

MEISSEN, a German matgraviate.now merged in the kingdom 
of Saxony. The mark of Meissen was originally a distzkt 
centring round the castle of Meissen or Misnia on the Middle 
Elbe, which was built about 920 by the German king Henry I., 
the Fowler, as a defence against the SUvs. After the death 
of Gero, margrave of the Saxon east mark, in 965, his territoiy 
was divided into five marks, one of which was csilled Meissen. 
In 98s the emperor Otto UI. bestowed the office of margrave 
upon Ekkard I., margrave of Merseburg, and the district com* 
pris^ig the marks of Meissen, Merseburg and TmXz was generally 
known as the mark of Meissen. In 1002 Ekkard was succeeded 
by his brother Gunzelin, and then by his sons Hermann I. and 
Ekkard U. Under these margraves the area of the mark 
was further increased, but when Ekkard II. died in 1046 it 
was divided, and Meissen proper was given successively to 
William and Otto, counts of Weimar, and Egbert II., count of 
Brunswick. Egbert was a rival of the emperor Henry IV. 
and died under the imperial ban in 1089, when Meissen was 
bestowed upon Henry I., count of Wettin, whose mother was 
a sister of the margrave Ekkard II. Henry, who already ruled 
lower Lusatia and the new and smaller Saxon east mark, was 
succeeded in 1103 by his cousin Thimo, and in 1104 by hi^ son 
Henry II., whose claim on the mark was contested by Thimo't 
son Connid. When Henry died without issue in 11 23 Meissen 
was given by the emperor Henry V. to Hermann IL, cxmnt 
of Wintzenburg; but, renewing his claim, Conrad won* the 
support of Lothair, duke of Saxony, afterwards the e m p eror 
Lothair II., and obtained possession in 1130. Conrad, taOed 
the Great, extended the boundaries of Meissen before abdicating 
in 1 1 56 in favour of his son Otto, known as the Rich. Otto 
appointed hb younger son Dietrich as his successor and was 
attacked and taken prisoner by his elder son Albert; but, 
after obtaining his release by order of the emperor Frederick L, 
he had only just renewed the war when he died in 1 190. During 
his reign silver mines were opened in the Harz Mountains, 
towns were founded, roads were made, and-the general conditioa 
of the country was improved. Otto was succeeded by hift 
son Albert, called the Proud, who was engaged in waxfaie 
with his brother Dietrich until his death in 1195. As Albert 
left no children, Meissen was seized by the emperor Henry VL 
as a vacant fief of the empire; but Dietrich, called the OppresMd, 
secured the mark after Henry's death in 1 197. Dietrich married 
Jutta, daughter of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, and 
was succeeded in 1221 by his infant son Henry, sumiained 
the Illustrious; who on arriving at maturity obtained u 
reward for supporting the emperor Frederick II. against the 
pope a promise to succeed his uncle, Henry Raspc IV., bs land- 
grave of Thuringia. In 1243 Henry's son Albert was betrothed 
to Margaret, daughter of Frederick II.; and Pleissnerland, 
a district west of Meissen, was added to his possessions. Having 
gained Thuringia and the Saxon palatinate on his uncle's deatll 
in 1247, he granted -sections of his lands to his three sons in 
1265, but retained Meissen. A series of family feuds followed. 
His second son Dietrich died in 1285, and on Henry's own 
death in 1288 Meissen was divided between his two remaining 
sons, Albert (called the Degenerate) and Frederick, and Ym 
grandson Frederick Tutta, the son of Dietrich. Albert vat 
engaged in struggles with his three sons, who took him prisoner 
in 1288; but he was released the following year by order of the 
German king Rudolph I. Abont this time he sold his poitioft 
of Meissen to his nephew Frederick Tutta, who held the litll 



MEISSONIER, J. L. E. 



8S 



I and ruled tlie greater part of the mark untfl his 
ieath in 1291. Albert's two remaining sons, Frederick and 
)ietridi or Diezmann, then claimed Meissen; but it was seized 
ij King Adolph of Nassau as a vacant fief of the empire, 
ind was for some time retained by him and his successor King 
Ubert L ' In the cotuse of constant efforts to secure the mark 
jke brothen Frederick and Dietrich defeated the troops of 
Ijag Albert at Lucka in May 1307 and secured partial possession 
af their lands. ' In this year Dietrich died and Frederick became 
Rooodled with his father, who, after renouncing his claim on 
Uessen for a yeariy payment, died in 13x4. Having obtained 
poaiession of the greater part of the mark, Frederick was invested 
viih it by the German king Henry VII. in 13x0. During these 
ycais the part of Meissen around Dresden had- been in the 
pMKBiion of Frederick, youngest son of the nuugrave Henry the 
IBBitrioas, and when he died in 13x6 it came to his nephew 
Fnderick. About 13x2 Frederick, who had become involved 
B a dispute with Waldemar, margrave of Brandenburg, over 
the possession of lower Lusatia, was taken prisoner. Sur- 
iwdning fewer Lusatia he was released, but it was only 
iftcr Waldemar's death in 13x9 that he obtained undisputed 
possession ol MeisseiL Frederick, who was sumamed the 
Ftascefol, died in 1323 and was followed as margrave by his 
saa Frederick II., callni the Grave, who added several counties 
to his inheritance. From this latter Frederick's death in X349 
Dtil 138X the lands of the family were ruled by his three sons 
Jointly; but after the death of his eldest son Frederick III. 
ia Z3SX a division was made by which Meissen fell to his youngest 
son Vraiiam L In 1407 William was succeeded by his nephew 
firdrrirk, called the Warlike, who in X423 received from the 
cafiaw Sigismund the electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg. 
The mark then became merged in the duchy of Saxony, and 
it the partition of 1485 fell to the Albertine line. As Meissen 
■as idieved from tl:^ attacks of the Slavs by the movement 
flf the German boundary to the east, its prosperity increased. 
Many towns were founded, among which were Dresden, Leipzig 
aad Freiburg; Chemnitz began its textile industry; And although 
the condition of the peasants was wretched, that of the townsmen 
was improving. The discoveries of silver brought great wealth 
lo the margraves, but they resorted at times to bedcs, which 
•ere contributions from the nobles and ecclesiastics who met 
ia a kind of diet. During this period the mark of Meissen 
biy on both banks of the Elbe, and stretched from Bohemia 
to the dnchy of Saxe-Wittenberg, embracing an area of about 
3000sq.n1. _ "^ 

See O. Pn—e, Die Markgrafen wm Meissen und das Ham Wettin 
(Lapag, 1881} ; F. W. Tittmann, GeschicfUe Hemricks des erlaucklen 
Utrlmfeu s» Meissen (Dresden, 1845-1846): C. F. von Poscrn- 
IQm, Zur Cesekukte der Verfassung der Markgrafschaft Meissen im 
Q. J^hrkmrndert <L«pzig, 1 863). Stt also Urkunden der Markgrafen 
tm Meissen nnd Landtrafen von Th&ringim, edited by E. G. Gersdorf 
(LapBC. 1864) : and H. B. Meyer, HoJ- und Zenlralverwaltung der 



r (Leipzig. 1902), 

JEAV LOUIS ERNEST (18x5-1x891), French 
pBBter, was bom at Lyons on the 2 xst of February 1 8 1 5. From 
la schooldays he showed a taste for painting, to which some early 
Ae&cfaes, dated 1823, bear witness. After being placed with 
idrasgbt, he obtained leave from his parents to become an 
tojaij and, owing to the recommendation of a painter named 
htier, hinaelf a second class Prix de Rome, he was admitted 
to lion Cogniet's studio. He paid short visits to Rome and 
to Switzerland, and exhibited in the Salon of X83X a picture 
then called ** Les Bourgeois Flamands " (" Dutch Burghers ")t 
kit also known as " The Visit to the Burgomaster," subsequently 
pachaied by Sir Richard Wallace, in whose collection (at 
ficnford House, London) it is, with fifteen other examples 
ifthb painter. It was the first attempt in France in the 
Nrticnlar gfnre whidi was destined to make Meissonier famous: 
tiaoKopic painting — miniature in oils. Working hard for 
^Jr brnd at illustrations for the publishers — Curmer, Hetzcl 
lad Dubocber — he also exhibited at the Salon of X836 the 
* Chess Player " and the " Errand Boy." After some not very 
kippr attempts at religious painting, he returned, under the 



influence of Chenavard, to the dass of work he was bom to 
excel in, and exhibited with much success the " Game of Chess " 
(X841), the "Young Man playing the 'Cello" (1842), "The 
Painter in his Studio " (1843), " The Guard Room," the " Young 
Man looking at Drawings," the " Game of Piquet " (1845), 
and the " Game of Bowls " — works which show the finish and 
certainty of his technique, and assured his success. After 
his " Soldiers " (X848) he began " A Day in June," which was 
never finished, and exhibited " A Snraker " (1849) and " Bravos " 
(" Les Bravi," X852). In 1855 he touched the highest mark 
of his achievement with " The Gamblers " and " The (;hiarrel " 
(" La Rixe"), which was presented by J^apoleon III. to the 
English Court. His triumph was sustained at the Salon of 
1857, when he exhibited nine pictures, and drawings; among 
them the " Young Man of the Time of the Regency," " The 
Painter," " The Shoeing Smith," " The Musician," and " A 
Reading at Diderot's." To the Salon of i86x he sent "The 
Emperor at Solferino," "A Shoeing Smith," "A Musician," 
" A Painter," and " M. Louis Fould "; to that of J864 another 
version of " The Emperor at Solferino," and " 1814." He 
subsequently exhibited " A Gamblers' (parrel " (1865), and 
"Desaix and the Army of the Rhine" (1867). Meissonier 
worked -with eUiborate care and a scrupulous observation of 
nature. Some of his works, as for instance his " X807," remained 
ten years in course of execution. To the gtcat Exhibition 
of 1878 he contributed sixteen pictures: the portrait of 
Alexandre Dumas which had been seen at the Salon of 1877, 
" Cuirassiers of 1805," " A Venetian Painter," " Morcau and his 
Staff before Hohenlinden," a " Portrait of a Lady," the " Road 
to La Salice," " The Two Friends," " The Outpost of the Grand 
Guard," " A Scout," and " Dictating his Memoirs." Thence- 
forward he exhibited less in the Salons, and sent his work to 
smaller exhibitions. Being chosen president of the Great 
National Exhibition in 1883, he was represented there by such 
works as " The Pioneer," " The Army of the Rhine," " The 
Arrival of the Guests," and " Saint Mark." On the 24th of May 
1884 an exhibition was opened at the Petit Gallery of Meissonier's 
collected works, including X46 examples. As president of the 
jury on i>ainting at the Exhibition of 1889 he contributed some 
new pictures. In the following year the New Salon was formed 
(the National Society of Fine Arts), and Meissonier was president. 
He exhibited there in X890 his picture " 1807 "; and in 1891, 
shortly after his death, his " Barricade " was displayed there. 
A less well-known doss of work than his painting is a series 
of etchings: "The Last Supper," "The Skill of Vuillaumc 
the Lute Player," " The Little Smoker," " The Old Smoker," 
the " Preparations for a Duel," " Anglers," " Troopers," 
" The Reporting Sergeant," and " Polichincllc," in the Hertford 
House collection. He also tried lithography, but the prints 
are now scarcely to be found. Of all the painters of the century, 
Meissonier was one of the most fortunate in the matter of 
payments. His " Cuirassiers," now in the late due d'Aumalc's 
collection at Chantilly, was bought from the artist for £10.000, 
sold at Brussels for £ii>ooo, and finally resold for £16,000. 
Besides his genre portraits, he painted some others: those 
of " Doctor Lefevre," of " Chenavard," of " Vandcrbilt," 
of " Doctor Guyon," and of " Stanford." He also collaborated 
with the painter Francais in a picture of " The Park at St Cloud." 
In 1838 Meissonier married the sister of M. Steinheil, a painter. 
Meissonier was attached by Napoleon III. to the imperial 
staff, and accompanied him during the campaign in Italy and 
at the beginning of the war in 1870. During the siege of Paris 
in 1 87 1 he was colonel of a marching regiment. In 1840 he 
was awarded a third-class medal, a second-class medal in 1841, 
first-class medals in X843 and 1844 and medals of honour at 
the great exhibitions. In 1846 he was appointed knight of 
the Legion of Honour and promoted to the higher grades in 
1856, X867 (June 29), and 1880 (July 12), receiving • the 
Grand Cross in 1889 (Oct. 29). He nevertheless cherished 
certain ambitions which remained unfulfilled. He hoped to 
become a professor at the £cole des Beaux Arts, but the appoint-' 
ment he desired was never given to him. On various occasions; 



86 



MEISSONIER, J. A.— MEKONG 



too, he aspired to be chosen deputy or made senator, but he 
was not elected. In 1861 he succeeded Abel de Pujol as member 
of the Academy of Fine Arts. On the occasion of the centenary 
festival in honour of Michelangelo in 1875 he was the delegate 
of the Institute of France to Florence, and spoke as its represen- 
tative. Meissonier was an admirable draughtsman upon wood, 
his illustrations to Les Conies Rimois (engraved by Lavoignat), 
to Lamartine's FaU oj an Angel, to Paui and Virginia, and to 
The French Painted by Themselves being among the best known. 
The leading engravers and etchers of France have been engaged 
upon plates from the works of Meissonier, and many of these 
plates command the highest esteem of collectors. Meissonier 
died in Paris on the aist of January zSgi. His son, Jean 
Charles Meissonier, also a painter, was his father's pupil, and 
was admitted to the Legion of Honour in 1889. 

See Alexandre, Histoire de la peinture militaire en France (Paris, 
1891): Laurens, Notice sur Meissonier (Paris, 1892}: Grdard, Meis- 
sonier (Paris and London, 1897); T. G. Dumas, Mattres modemes 
(Paris, 1884); Ch. Formenttn, Meissonier, sa vie — son etuvre (Paris, 
1901} ; J. W. MoUett, lUustraUd Biographies of Modem Artists : 
Meissonier (London, 1882). (H. Fr.) ,- 

MEISSONIER, JUSTE AURiLE (1695-1750), French gold- 
smith, sculptor, painter, architect, and furniture designer, 
was bom at Turin, but became known as a worker in Paris, 
where he died. His Italian origin and training were probably 
responsible for the extravagance of his decorative style. He 
shared, and perhaps distanced, the meretricious triumphs 
of Oppenard and Germain, since he dealt with the Baroque 
in its most daring and flamboyant developments. Rarely 
does he leave a foot or two of undecorated space; the effect 
of the whole is futile and fatiguing. It was because Meissonier 
carried the style of his day to its extreme that he acquired 
so vast a popularity. Like the English brothers Adam at 
a later day he not only as architect built houses, but 
as painter and decorator covered their internal walls; he 
designed the furniture and the candlesticks, the silver and 
the decanters for the table; he was as ready to produce a 
snuff-box as a watch case or a sword hilt. Not only in 
France, but for the nobility of Poland, Portugal and other 
countries who took their fashions and their iaste from Paris, 
he made designs, which did nothing to improve European 
taste. Yet his achievement was not wholly without merit. 
His work in gold and silver-plate was often graceful and some- 
times bold and original. He was least successful in furniture, 
where his twirls and convolutions, his floral and rocaille motives 
were conspicuously offensive. He was appointed by Louis XV. 
Dessinateur de la ckambre et du cabinet du roi; the post of 
designer pour les pompes Junibres et galatUes was also held along 
with that of Orjtvre du roi. 

For our knowledge of his work we arc considerably indebted 
to his own books of design: Livre d'omements en trente piices; 
Livre d'orf^rerie d'iglise en six piices, and Omements de la carte 
chronologique. 

MEISTERSINGER (Ger. for " master-singer "), the name 
given to the German lyric poets of the x^th, x5th and i6th 
centuries, who carried on and developed the traditions of the 
medieval Minnesingers (q.v.). These singers, who, for the most 
part, belonged to the artisan and trading classes of the German 
towns, regarded as their masters and the founders of their 
gild twelve poets of the Middle High German period, among 
whom were Wolfram von Eschenbach, Konrad von Wttrzburg, 
Rcinmar von Zweter and Frauenlob. The last mentioned 
of these, Frauenlob, is said to have established the earliest 
Meistersinger school at Mainz, early in the X4th century. This 
is only a tradition, but the institution of such schoob originated 
undoubtedly in the upper Rhine district. In the X4th century 
there were schools at Mainz, Strassburg, Frankfort, Wiirzburg, 
Zurich and Prague; in the 15th at Augsburg and Nuremberg, 
the last becoming in the following century, under Hans Sachs, 
the most famous of all. By this time the Meistersinger schools 
had spread all over south and central Germany; and isolated 
gilds were to be found farther north, at Magdeburg, Breslau, 
Gdrlitz and Danzig. 



Each gild numbered various classes of meRtben^^ tingfof 
from beginners, ot Schiilcr (cornaponrliag to LradF-«pprent}ces), 
and Schulfreunde (who were equivalent to GaeUcn or journey^ 
men), to Meister, a MciiUr being k poet who w;is not merely 
able to write new verses to citing melodies but had himself 
invented a new melody. The poem waa techaically known u 
a Bar or Gesetx, the mdmly as a T&n or Weis. The ionp 
were all sung in the $chodb ^iihoul accompaniEnenL The 
rules of the art wcifc set down in the so-called Tabtdaiur « 
law-book of the gild. The meetings took plncc either in the 
Rathaus, or townhdir or, when they were htld — at ws* y^uaHy 
the case — on Sund^syi in the church; and three times a yor, 
at Easter, WhitsunUdc and ChiistmaE, sptdol failv^b 4nd 
singing competitions were instituted. At $uch comjKtiticrm 
or Schulsingen judges were appointed, the jo-e&lled Metkit. 
whose duty it was to cnticijcc the competitors &nd note tbdr 
offences against the rules of the Ti^bufiiiur. 

The literary value ol the Meistersinger poetry waa hu€kjf 
in proportion to the brge p^rt it played in the life of the Germai 
towns of the 15th and i6th centuries. As the medieval lytk 
decayed, more and more attcrition was given to the cxlemali 
of poetic composition, the torm^ the number of syllablrs, iht 
melody; and it was such e^iternals that attracted iht; interefl 
of these burgher- poets. Poetry was to them a mecbaoial 
art that could be learned by diligent appLicatJon, and iM* 
prizes they had tt? bestow were the rewards of ingenuity, Mt 
of genius or inspiratioii. Consequently we find an extraordjiQaii 
development of stnophic forms corresponding to the many ne* 
" tones " which every Mcitter^ingci- reg^irded it as lits duty M 
invent — tones which bore the most remarkable and often ridt 
culous names, sucK as Gcjtrci/tsaJranbiiimiHntceis, Fdtd^cks^^ 
Viel/rassweis, gebiilmte Pafntiicswcit^ li^c. The verses imv 
adapted to the musiciJ strophes by a merely mrchaniul 
counting of syllables, regardless of rhythm or sense. The meiB^ 
ing, the sentiment, the thou^^ht, were the la^t things lo whldl 
the Meistersingers gave heed. At the same time there wid 
a certain healthy aspect in the culdvation of the Meistergesioc 
among the German middle classes of the 1 5th and i6tb centuries; 
the Meistersinger poctryt if not great or even reaJ poetry, bad 
— especially in the hands of a poet Uke Hans Sachs — many 
germs of promise for the future. It reflected without exaggerv 
tion or literary veneer the faith of the German burgher, hit 
blunt good sense and honesty of purpose. In thi^ respect it 
was an important factor in the rise of that middle-class litcraturt 
which found its most virile eiq^ression in the pericMl of the 
Reformation. The Mcistergcsang reached its highest point 
in the x6th century-; and it can hardty be said to have outliVTfd 
that epoch, although the traditions of the Meistersinger schools 
lingered in south German lo^nseven as Late as the igth century. 

Specimens of Mtislerfiioaw poftry will be found in vvioiui 
collections, such as J. J. Uirre*. AiideulKhi Votki- uikf Mftsierifekf 
(1817); K. Bartsch, MeitirHifdir dit Ktrimarer Hfitidsehtijt (Pubt 
of the Stuttgart LUrramcAtr V^fftin. voV tisviij. : ift&j). Of ibe cidrir 
sources of infofmaiion abowt ibc Mctfltcrritrtger ihe most impOfTjiot 
are Adam Puschnunn. GruHdiuhir Bcrkhi des druiickm Mvittif- 
^sangs tusamt der TcbvJitlur (1571; reprinted in \V. BrauorV 
Tfeudrucke deutscher LitcmlnrvxTht dts i6. and 17. Jakrk.. 7J. iHSB), 
and J. C. WagensciL Df chelate Nohbtrgrnsi (1697), Sec further 
J. Grimm. Ober dett oIidruticfi<n McisUrtesajie {iUtt)*, F. 5c|iikmt 
von Carolsfeld, Zur GeKhichie dei /tfutuhm Mftiitrie$0nit (iSj^), 



t 



R. von Lilicncron, 6^^^ den Inhaii der athfrntrnm BUd^mg. «« m0 
- ■ ■ - - _ ^, 

neer " {ZriifcArififur diui. Alierti , - , - , ^ , , „.„ 

Minne- und Mei5tcf%esam^ (\Mi^\ IC Mey, Dn UfiiltT]^-uLui m 



Zeit der Scholastik (1870 : G. Jacob sit haL 
der Meistersinger " {ZeiischTihjut dtui. A 



ff 11 
ic tnu»lk4l>scheBi1diiififl 



I 



Geschichte und Kunsi (i*qj>. The art of the Melstersineen hat bctt 
immortalized by Richard Wagner in his muuc drama, Die Mtiiiti^ 
singer (1868). (J- C. R4 

MEKONG, or Ms Nav Kokg (pronounced Ksvmi), $ometlracs 
known as the Cambodia. River, the great river of lndo-Chin»p 
having its origin in the Tibetan highlands. It i» the third of 
fourth longest river in Asia and the seventh or eighth in OtB 
world. It is about aSoo m Jei length, of which 1 joo flow thtou|^ - 
portions of the Chinese Empire ind Tibet and 1600 Ihroi^ - 
French territory. Its sources are not definitely settled, butfc 
is supposed to rise 00 the slopes of Dza-Nag-Lun^-Mong In ^M^ 



MELA— MELAMPUS 



87 



23* N., 93* E., at tn altitude of 16,700 ft. above sea-IeveL 
Througbout the greater part of its course in Tibet, where it is 
called tlie Dza-Cbu, it flows south-eastwards to Chiamdo, on the 
great cast and west caravan route from China to Lhasa. At 
tikis point it is about xo,ooo ft. above sea-level. From here 
k iows southwards through little-known mountain wastes. 
Below Dayul in lat. 39" it is known by the Chinese name of 
Laatsan Kiang. For the next 300 m. of its course the Lantsan 
Kiang. or, as it soon becomes known among the Thai peoples 
inhabiting its rugged valley, the Mekong, is very little known to 
m. The river flows beneath bare and rocky walb. A few scat- 
iocd villages of Lusus and Mossos exist in this region; there is 
■0 trade from north to south. In 25** 18' N. the Tali-Bhamo 
caravan route, described by Colborne Baker, crosses the river 
by one of those iron suspension bridges which are a feature of 
Yon-nan, at a height of 4700 ft. above sea-level. From this 
point to Chieng or Keng Hung, the head of the old confederacy 
of the Sibsawng Punna or Twelve States, it is little known; the 
fact that it falls some 900 ft. for each degree of latitude indi- 
cates the diaracter of the river. Under the provisions of the 
Aaglo-French agreement of January 1896, from the Chinese 
frontier southwards to the mouth of the Nam Hok the Mekong 
liviBS the frontier between the British Shan States on the west 
aad the territories acquired from Siam by France in 1893. By 
thetreaty of 1893, from that point southwards to about 13'' 30' N. 
it is also the frontier between French Indo-China and Siam, 
aadi a zone extended 25 kilometres inland from the right bank, 
withia which the Siamese government agreed not to construct 
any fortified port or maintain any armed force. This 25 kilo- 
metre neutral zone was abolished in 1905 when France surren- 
dered Chantabun to the Siamese, who in their turn ceded the 
port of Krat and the provinces of Melupre and Bassac, together 
with various trading concessions to France on the right bank 
9i the Mekong. Below the Siamese Shan town of Chieng Sen 
the river takes its first great easteriy bend to Luang Prabang, 
being joined by some important tributaries. This portion is 
obstructed by rapids. The country is mountainous, and the 
vegetation of the lower heights begins to assume a tropical 
aspect. From Luang Prabang the river cuts its way southwards 
for two degrees through a lonely jungle country among receding 
kak of low elevation. From Chieng Khan the river again turns 
castirards along the i8th parallel, forcing its way through its 
mail serious rapid-barrier, and receiving some imporUnt tribu- 
taries from the highlands of Tung Chieng Kum and Chieng 
Kvacg, the finest country in Indo-China. In 104° E. the river 
icsanes a southerly course through a country thinly peopled. 
At Kemarat (i6' N.) the fourth serious rapid-barrier occurs, 
mat 60 m. {n length, and the hist at Khong in 14° N. From 
bere to it^ outfall in the China Sea the river winds for some 
400 m. through the French territories of Cambodia and Cochin 
Ckina. and to its annual overflow these countries owe their 
citraordinary fertility. The French have done much to render 
the river navigable. Steamers ply rcgulariy from Saigon through 
Mythe to Pnompenh, and launches proceed from this place, 
tfK capital of Cambodia, to the Preapatano rapids, and beyond 
(kis a considerable portion of the distance to Luang Prabang, the 
jtomey being finished in native boats. (J. G. Sc.) 

■SLA. POHPONIUS (ft. c. a.d. 43), the earh'cst Roman 
fBOgrapher. His little work (De situ orhis libri III.) is a mere 
fOBpcttdium, occupying less than one hundred pages of ordinary 
yriat, dry in style and deficient in method, but of pure Latinity, 
ind occasionally relieved by pleasing word-pictures. Except- 
im the geographical parts of Pliny's Historia naturaJis (where 
Ueia B cited as an important authority) the De situ orhis is the 
Sil> formal treatise on the subject in classical Latin. Nothing 
il kaotrn of the author except his name and birthplace — the 
Mill town of Tingentera or Cingentcra in southern Spain, on 
A^ectras Bay (Mela ii. 6, \ 96; but the text is here corrupt). 
The date of his writing may be approximately fixed by his 
ilosioB (iii. 6 { 49) to a proposed British expedition of the 
tt^aiag emperor, almost certainly that of Gaudius in a.d. 43. 
Til this passage cannot refer to Julius Caesar is proved by 



several references to events of Augustus's reign, especially to 
certain new names given to Spanish towns. Mela has been 
without probability identified by some with L. Annaeus Mela of 
Corduba, son of Seneca the rhetorician, and brother of the great 
Seneca. 

The general views of the De situ orhis mainly agree with those 
current amone Greek writers from Eratosthenes to Strabo; the 
latter was probably unknown to Mcb. But Pomponius is unique 
among anaent geographers in that, after dividing the cafth into 
five cones, of which two only were hubitablc, he asserts the existence 
of antickthones, inhabiting the southern temperate zone inacccstublc 
to the folk of the northern temperate regiuns from the unbearable 
heat of the intervening torrid belt. On the divisions and bound- 
aries of Europe, Asia and Africa, he repeats Eratosthenes; like all 
classical geoeraphers from Alexander the Great (except Ptolemy) 
he regards the Caspian Sea as an inlet of the Northern Ocean, 
corresponding to the Persian and Arabian (Red Sea) gulfs on the 
south. . His fndian conceptions are inferior to those of some earlier 
Greek writers; he follows Eratosthenes in supposing that country 
to occupy the south-eastern angle of Asia, whentte the coast trended 
northwards to Scythia, and then swept round westward to the 
Caspian Sea. As usual, he places the Rhipaean Mountains and the 
Hyperboreans near the Scythian Ocean. In western Europe hb 
knowledge (as was natural m a Spani^ih subject of Imperial Komc) 
was somewhat in advance of the Greek gco^phcrs. He defines 
the western coast-line of Spain and Gaul and its indentation by the 
Bay of Biscay more accurately than Eratosthenes or Strabo, his 
ideas of the British Isles and their position arc also dearer than 
his predecessors*. He is the first to name the Orcadcs or Orkneys, 
which he defines and locates pretty correctly. Of northern Europe 
his knowledge was imperfect, out ne speaks vaguely of a great bay 
{■■ ( ; .. irth of Germany, among whose many 

iiJ.ii.ii, ^.L& .^,u. L^J.i^^,.ylp■iJ,■' of ore-emment size; this name 
rtjp[>oar5 in Pliny as " Scandinavia. Mela's descriptive method 
i^ l>i:ulk^r and {^convenient' Ln&it^d of treating each continent 
nLpiXtAXklf he bctina at the Straits dt Gibraltar, and describes the 
tutifiEric? arljoiriiiii^ the south coast of il>c Mediterranean; then he 
moves round by ^yria and Asia Miaor to the Bbck Sea, and so 
fi'turns to Spain ttlang the iWTth shore of the Euxinc. Propontis, Ac. 
After treating the Xicditerrancan islands, he next takes the ocean , 
littoral — to wcft, north, cast and south successively — from Spain 
d^^d Gaul round to India, fium lutila to Persia, Arabia and Ethiopia; 

ani - I '■ ■- n.^iirid South Africa. Like naost 

classical geographers he conceives the Dark Continent as surrounded 
by sea and not extending very far south. 

The first edition of Mela was publibhed at Milan in 1471 ; the first 
good edition was by Vadianus (Basel, 1522), superseded by those 
of Vosa (1658). J. Gronovius (1685 and 1696). A Gronovius (1722 
and 1728), and Txschucke (1806-1807), in seven parts (Leipzig; 
the most elaborate of all); G. Parthey's (Berlin, 1867), gives the 
best text. The English trans, by Arthur Golding (1585), is famous; 
see also E. H. Bunbury, Ancient Geography, ii. 3^-368, and 
D. Detlefsen, QuelUn una Forschungen tur alien Cesck. und Ceog. 
(1908). (E. H. B.;C. R.B.) 

MELACONITB, a mineral consisting of cupric oxide, CuO, 
and known also as black copper ore. In appearance it is 
strikingly difTercnt from cuprite (^.r.) or red copper ore, which is 
cuprous oxide. Crystals are rare; they belong to the mono- 
clinic, or possibly to the anorthic system, and have the form of 
thin triangular or hexagonal scales with a stccl-grcy colour and 
brilliant metallic lustre. More often the mineral is massive, 
earthy or pulverulent, and has a dull iron-black colour. Hence 
the name mclaconite, from the Greek fukai, black and nlwii, 
dust, which was originally given by F. S. Bcudant in 1832 in 
the form mclaconise. The crystallized Vcsuvian mineral was 
later named tcnorite, a name commonly adopted for the species. 
The hardness of the crystals is 3-4, but the earthy and powdery 
forms readily soil the fingers; the spec. grav. is 5-9. Crystals 
have been found only at Mt Vesuvius, where they encrust lava, 
and in Cornwall. The other forms of the mineral, however, 
are common in copper mines, and have resulted by the alteration 
of chalcocite. chalcopyrite and other copper ores, on which 
they often form a superficial coating. (L. J. S.) "* 

MELAMPUS, in Greek legend, a celebrated seer and physician, 
son of Amythuon and Eidomene, brother of Bias, mythical 
eponymous hero of the family of the Mclampodidae. Two 
young serpents, whose life he had saved, licked his ears while he 
slept, and from that time he imdcrstood the language of birds 
and beasts. In the art of divination he received instruction 
from Apollo himself. To gain the consent of Neleus, king of 
Pylos, to the marriage of his daughter Pero with Bias, Melamptxs 



88 



MELANCHLAENI— MELANCHTHON 



undertook to obtain possession of the oxen of the Thessalian 
prince Iphiclus. A$ ^Iclampus had foretold, he was caught and 
imprisoned, but was released by Phylacus (the father of Iphidus) 
on giving proof of his powers of divination, and was finally 
presented with the oxen as a reward for having restored the 
virility of the son. Melampus subsequently obtained a share in 
the kingdom of Argos in return for having cured the daughters 
of its king Proetus, who had been driven mad for offering resis- 
tance to the worship of Dionysus or for stealing the gold from 
the statue of Hera. At Aegosthcna in Megara there was a 
sanctuary of Mebmpus, and an annual festival was held in his 
honour. According to Herodotus, l)e introduced the cult of 
Dionysus into Greece from Egypt, and his name (" black foot ") 
is probably " a symbolical expression of his character as a 
fiacchic propitiatory priest and seer " (Preller). According to 
the traditional explanation, he was so called from his foot 
having been tanned by exposure to the stm when a boy. In his 
character of physician, he was the reputed discoverer of the herb 
melampodiiun, a kind of hellebore. Melampus and Bias are 
symbolical representatives of auming and force. 

See ApoIIodorus i. 9, 11, 12} il 2,, 21 Odyssey, yv. 225-940; 
Diod. Sic. iv. 68; Herodotus ii. 49;- ix. ^; Pausanias iL 18, 4; 
iv. 36. 3; scholiast on Theocritus liL 43; Ovid, Metam. xv. 325: 
C. Eckennann, Melampus und sein Gesckuckt (iSio). 

Melampus is also the name of the author of a snort extant treatise 
of little value on Divination by means of Palpitation (IIaX|iwv) 
and Birthmarks ('BXaiwv). It probably dates from the time of 
Ptolemy Philadclphus (3rd cent. B.C.). Edition by J. G. Frana in 
ScripUnres physiognomiae veteres (1780). 

MELANCHLAENI (from Gr. m^os, and xXaii^a, "Black- 
cloaks '*)> an ancient tribe to the north of Scythia, probably 
about the modem Kyazan and Tambov (Herodotus iv. xo6). 
They have been identified with the Finnish tribes Merja 
(now extinct) and Chercmis, now driven north-east on to the 
middle Volga. These, till recently, wore black. There has 
been confusion between this tribe and another of the same 
name mentioned by Pliny {N. H, vi. 15), and Ptolemy in the 
Caucasus. (E. H. M.) 

MELANCHOLY (Gr.At€Xa7XoXta, from filXas, black, and xoX^, 
bile), originally a condition of the mind or body due to a supposed 
excess of black bile, also this black bile itself, one of the chief 
" humours " of the body, which were, according to medieval 
physiology, blood, phlegm, cholcr and melancholy (see Humour) ; 
now a vague term for desponding grief. From the xyth century 
the name was used of the mental disease now known as 
," melancholia " (see Insanity), but without any reference to 
the supposed cause of it. 

I MELANCHTHON, PHILIP? (1497-1560), German theologian 
and reformer, was born at Bret ten in Baden on the x6th of 
February 1497. His father, George Schwartzerd, was an 
armourer uiidcr the Palatinate princes. His mother, Barbara 
Renter, a niece of Johann Reuchlln, was shrewd, thrifty and 
affectionate.^ Her father, Johann Rcuter, long burgomaster 
of Brctten, supervised the education of Philipp, who was taught 
first by Johannes Hungarus and then by Georg Simler at the 
academy of Pfortzheim. Rcuchlin took an interest in him, 
and, following a contemporary custom, named him Mclanchthon 
(the Greek form of Schwartzerd, black earth). In October 
1509 he went to Heidelberg, where he took the B.A. degree, 
afterwards proceeding M.A. at Tubingen. The only other 
academic distinction he accepted was the B.D. of Wittenberg 
(1519). He would never consent to become a "doctor," be- 
cause he thought the title carried with it responsibilities to which 
he felt himself unequal. At Tubingen he lived as student and 
teacher for six years, until on Rcuchlin's advice, the elector of 
Saxony called him to Wittenberg as professor of Greek.in 1518. 

* Her character is evidenced by the familiar proverb— 
Wcr mchr will verrchrcn 
Dcnn .scin Pflug kann erchren, 
Dcr muM zuletzt vcrdcrbcn 
Und viclleicht am Galgcn stcrben— 
of which Mebnchthon said to his students " Didici hoc a mea 
roatrc, vos ctiam obser\-atc." (For Mclanchthon's Latin version 
of the saying mm: Corpus rejormatorumj x. 469.) 



This appointment marked an epoch in German univenity 
education; Wittenberg became the school of the nation; the 
scholastic methods of instruction were set aside, and in a Dis- 
course on Reforming the Studies of Youth Melanchthon gave 
proof, not only that he had caught the Renaissance spirit, but 
that he was fitted to become one of its foremost leaders. He 
began to lecture on Homer and the Epistle to Titus, and in con- 
nexion with the former he announced that, like Solomon, he 
sought Tyrian brass and gems for the adornment of God's Temple. 
Luther received a fresh impulse towards the study of Greek, 
and his translation of the Scriptures, begun as early as 1517, 
now made rapid progress, Melanchthon helping to collate the 
Greek versions and revising Luther's translation. Melanchthon 
felt the spell of Luther's personality and spiritual depth, and 
seems to have been prepared on his first arrival at Wittenberg 
to accept the new theology, which as yet existed mainly in sub- 
jective form in the person of Luther. To reduce it to an 
objective system, to exhibit it dialcctically, the calmer mind ol 
Melanchthon was requisite. 

Melanchthon was first drawn into the arena of the Reformi- 
tion controversy through the Leipzig Disputation (June 27-July 
8> i5i9)> ftt which he was present. He had been reproved 1^ 
Johann Eck for giving aid to Carlstadt (" Tace tu, PhiUppe, ac 
tua studia cura nee me perturba "), and he was shortly after> 
wards himself attacked by the great papal champion. Melanch- 
thon replied in a brief and moderately worded treatise, setting 
forth Luther's first principle of the supreme authority of Scrip> 
ture in opposition to the patristic writings on which Eck relied. 
His marriage in 1520 to Catharine Krapp of Wittenberg gave a 
domestic centre to the Reformation. In xsax, during Luth^s 
confinement in the Wartburg, Melanchthon was leader of the 
Reformation cause at the university. He defended the actioa 
of Carlstadt, when he dispensed the Eucharist in an " evangelical 
fashion." * 

With the arrival of the Anabaptist enthusiasts of Zwi^n, 
he had a more difficult task, and appears to have been irresolute. 
Their attacks on infant baptism seemed to him not altogether 
irrational, and in regard to their claim to personal inspiratioa 
he said " Luther alone can decide; on the one hand let us beware 
of quenching the Spirit of God, and on the other of being led 
astray by the spirit of Satan." In the same year, 1521, be 
published his Loci communes rerum theologicaruMf the firrt 
systematized presentation of the reformed theolf^y. From 
1522 to 1524 he was busy with the translation of the Bible and in 
publishing commentaries. In 1 524 he went for reasons of health 
into southern Germany and was urged by the papal legate 
Campegio to renounce the new doctrines. He refused, and 
maintained his refusal by publishing his Summa icOrinM 
Lutheri. 

After the first Diet of Spires (1526), where a precarious pean 
was patched up for the reformed faith, Melanchthon was deputnl 
as one of twenty-eight commissioners to visit the reformed states 
and regulate the constitution of churches, he having just 
published a famous treatise called the Liheilus HsilaUritUt ^ 
directory for the use of the commissioners. At the Marburg con* 
ference (1529) between the German and Swiss reformers, Luther 
was pitted against Oecolampadius and Melanchthon agaiaA 
Zwingli in the discussion regarding the real presence in the sacn- 
ment. How far the normally conciliatory spirit of Melanchthoo 
was here biased by Luther's intolerance is evident from tte 
exaggerated accounts of the conference written by the former 
to the elector of Saxony. He was at this time even more emfaitf 
tered than Luther against the Zwinglians. At the Diet of Aup^ 
burg (1530) Melanchthon was the leading representative of thi 
reformation, and it was he who prepared for that diet the seven- 
teen articles of the Evangelical faith, which are known as tfas 
" Augsburg Confession." He held conferences with Roma 
divines appointed to adjust differences, and afterwards wralt 
an Apology for the Augsburg Confession. After the Aupbaff 

' He read the usual service, but omitted everything that tamIC . 
a propitiatory sacrifice; he did not elevate the Host, and begavt . 
both the bread and the cup into the hands of every c 



MELANESIA 



89 



conference further tttempta were made to settle the Refoimation 
controversy by a compromise, and Melanchthon, from his concili- 
atory spirit and facility of access, appeared to the defenders of 
the old faith the fittest of the reformers to deal with. His 
historical instinct led him ever to revert to the original unity of 
the church, and to regard subsequent errors as excrescences 
aiher than proofs of an essentially anti-Christian system. He 
ma weary of the rabies Iheologorum^ and dreamed that the evan- 
pUcal leaven, if tolerated, would purify the church's life and 
(bclrine. In 1537, when the Protestant divines signed the 
Lutheran Articles of Schmalkalden, Mclanchthon appended to 
his signature the reservation that he would admit of a pope 
provided be allowed the gospel and did not claim to rule by 
di\ine right. 

The year after Luther's death, when the battle of MUhlberg 
(1547) had given a seemingly crushing blow to the Protestant 
uuse. an attempt was made to weld together the evangelical 
and the papal doctrines, which resulted in the compilation by 
Pdug. Sidonius and Agricola of the Augsburg " Interim." This 
vas proposed to the two parties in Germany as a provisional 
KTOuad of agreement till the decision of the Council of Trent. 
IfcUnchtbon, on being referred to, declared that, though the 
Interim was inadmissible, yet so far as matters of indifference 
(fldifxphora) were concerned it might be received. Hence arose 
that " adi^horistic " controversy in connexion with which he has 
been misrepresented as holding among matters of indifference 
such cardinal doctrines as justification by faith, the number of 
the sacraments, as well as the dominion of the pope, feast-days, 
and so on. The fact is that Mclanchthon sought, not to minimize 
differences, but to veil them under an intentional obscurity of 
expresMon. Thus he allowed the necessity of good works to 
salvation, but not in the old sense; proposed to allow the seven 
sacraments, but only as rites which had no inherent efficacy to 
salvation, and so on. He afterwards retracted his compliance 
with the adiaphora, and never really swerved from the views 
Kt forth in the Loci communes; but he regarded the surrender 
of more perfect for less perfect forms of truth or of expression as 
a painful sacrifice rendered to the weakness of erring brethren. 
L;ithcr, though he had probably uttered in private certain 
expressions of dissatisfaction with Mclanchthon, maintained 
unbroken friendship with him; but aftci* Luther's death certain 
s.*naUer men formed a party emphasizing the extrcmest points 
of his doctrine.* Hence the later years of Mclanchthon were 
occupied with controversies within the Evangelical church, and 
fruitless conferences with his Romanist adversaries. He died 
io bb lixty-third year, on the igth of April 1560, and his body 
vas laid beside that of Martin Luther in the Schlosskirche at 
Vittenberg. 

Hb r^ady pen. dear thought and elegant style, made him the 
«nbe df the Reformation, mokt public documents on that side 
bcio; dnvn up by him. He never attained entire independence 
cf Ltitber, though he gradually modified some of his {x>sitions 
firvn thoae of the pure Luthcrism with which he set out. His 
dn^kipmcnt is chiefly noteworthy in regard to these two leading 
pt-xt5— the rtlacion of the evamgelium or doctrine of free grace 
to 10 free will and moral ability, and (2) to the law and poeniUntia 
•r ihe fwxl work» connected with repentance. At first Luther's 
OLrdr.il <V>ccrine of grace appeared to Mclanchthon inconsistent 
•ita any view of free will; and, following Luther, he renounced 
An<orle and philosophy in general, since " philosophers attribute 
rvt?ythin2 to human power, while the sacred writings represent 
all Koral po*er as lost by the fall." In the first edition of the 
Uci {1531) he hrld, to the length of fatalism, the Augustinian 
4%tr)nc \i irrcM«tililc grace, workmg according to CkxI's immutable 
deems, ami denied freedom of will in matters civil and religious 
»5ke. In thr. .Au^sburf Confeswon (i$;jo), which was largely due 
to k'm. frcvdom is claimed for the wm in non-religious matters, 
aa4 in the Led of 15^ he calls the denial of freedom Stoicism, 
aof{ ho!d4 that in justification there is a certain causality, though 
■oc vDrthinrw. in the recipient, subordinate to the EMvinc causality. 
1^ I5U. combating Laurentius Valla, he did not deny the spiritual 
■Bcapachy of the will per se, but held that this is strengthened by 
iW word of God. to which it can cleave. The will co-operatea 
mch the word and the Holy Spirit. Finally, in 1543, he says that 
the <9»mt of the difference of final dc^iny among men lies in the 
' It muA be admitted, however, that Matthias Flacius saved 
fkRdomaiioo. 



different method of treating grace which is possible to believen as 
to others. Man may pray for help and reject grace. This he calls 
free will, as the power of laying hold of^ grace. Melanchthon's 
doctrine of the three concurrent causes in conversion, viz. the 
Holy Spirit, the word, and the human will, suggested the semi- 
Pelagian position called Synergism, which was held by some of bb 
immediate followers. 

In regard to the relation of grace to repentance and good works, 
Luther was disposed to make faith itself the principle of sanctifi- 
cation. Mclanchthon, however, for whom ethics possessed a special 
interest, laid more stress on the law. He began to do this in 1527 
in the LibcUus viiitatorius, which urges pastors to instruct their 
people in the necessity of repentance, and to bring the threatenings 
of the law to bear upon men in order to faith. This brought down 
upon him the opposition of the Antinomian Johannes Agricola. 
In the Loci of 153^ Mclanchthon sought to put the fact of the 
co-existence of justification and good works in the believer on a 
secure basis by declaring the latter necessary to eternal life, though 
the believer's destiny thereto is already fully guaranteed in his 
justification. In the Loci of 1543 he did not retain the doctrine 
of the necessity of good works in order to salvation, and to this he 
added, in the Leipzig Interim, " that this in no way countenances 
the error that eternal life is merited by the worthiness of our own 
works." Mclanchthon was led to lay more and more stress upon 
the law and moral ideas; but the basis of the relation of faith and 



are necessary by reason of immutable Divine command. 

BiBLiocKAPiiv. — The principal works of Mclanchthon, with the 
bulk of his correspondence, are contained in the Corpus reforma- 
torum (vols, i.-xxviii.; Halle, 1834-1850), etiitcd by Bretschncider 
and Bindseil, to which must be added Bindseil's Sup^emenia 
(Halle, 1874). Melanchthon's earliest and best biographer was 
his friend Joachim Camerarius (1566), a new annotatra edition of 
which is much needed. The best modern life is that by Georg 
ElEinecr <0.i:rlln, tgoj); otxi is that of Karl ^Schmidt fEUjcrlLld^ 
1861 Jl The ci^lebratitjn in 1 B97 of the 4001 H aiintvcrur>' of Mi^bnch- 
thon's birth prod need many short bit>gmnhir%And Ffj/rrJfpi, ajnong 
them works by J. W. Ru:hard {N*.-* York arid London, iB^fl)^ 
George Wil«oEi (Londcrn, 1897]-: Karl Sell (Hi^tlc, 1^7}: Ftrdiciancl 
Cohri (Ijallc^ i>^7>: Dcys^^hla^ and Harnark (ili97>. Rithard 
koihc'i Feitrede {JB60J also ii Ruod. The moKt kumcd of modtro 
McUinchihon schoUiis wias prx>bab3y Karl H^itfflckr^ who wrute 
Fkdipp Mchnfkik^^ 5li PrUfcepitfr CermaHiae (Ikrtinp 1899); 
M^liitiththirHmHa piij-di^^Bikii (Lcipfig. i8i»J), giving in ihf first 
named two full bibEiagmpna'i, one of at! works written on Mclanch- 
thon, tht other of all works wriitcfl by him (in chmnologlcal order/. 
Hartfc^ldfr believed that a ftrXHj di jl ol unpublishefi material is 
it ill Itlt in German and foreign libraries. Thus ihrt-ti lone unknown 
letters are pubii^bed in tht Quelien und Fiitiihunityi qf uie Kc^nigl. 
PreuM. Inst. Hi§i. at Rome, vol. ii. Two arc to ihij Cardinal o£ 
Auc4burR and one to La ranis von SchwendL. Melanchlhon was 
on nta w.iy ■ ■ r! , 1 .imcil of Trent as dcleRitc of the tle<:t>f uf 
Saxony and the cardinal had offered to mei't him at Dillingcn. He 
writes " ingeminating peace," deploring that the council was nut 
a national synod, which would have been a better means of arriving 
at the truth. 

MELANESIA, one of the three great divisions of the oceanic 
islands in the central and western Pacific. It embraces the 
Bismarck Archipelago, N.E. of New Guinea, the Louisiade, 
Solomon, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides and Loyalty islands, New 
Caledonia, Fiji and intervening small groups. The name (Gr. 
/liXas, black, and i^<ro;, island) is derived from the black 
colour of the prevailing native race, the Papuan and its allied 
tribes. Many of these diflfer widely from the parent race, but 
all the Melanesian peoples have certain common characteristics' 
which distinguish them sharply from the inhabitants of Poly- 
nesia and Micronesia. Their civilization is lower. The Melan- 
csians arc mostly " negroid," nearly black, with crisp, curly hair 
elaborately dressed; their women hold a much lower position 
than among the Pol>'ncsians; their institutions, social, political 
and religious, are simpler, their manners ruder; they have few 
or no traditions; cannibalism, in different degrees, is almost 
Universal; but their artistic skill and taste, as with some 
of the lower African negroes, arc remarkable, and they arc 
amenable to discipline and fair treatment. Their languages, 
which exhibit considerable difference among themselves, have 
features which mark them off clearly from the Polynesian, 
notwithstanding certain fundamental relations with the latter. 

5Vxr R. H. Codrington, The Melanesian Languages (Oxford. 1885) 
and The Melaneiians (Oxford, 1891); the articles Papua.ss and 
Pacific Ocean ; also those on the several island-groups, &c. 



90 



MELANfTHIUS— MELBOURNE 



MBLAMTHIUS, a noted Greek painter of the 4th century b.c. 
He belonged to the school of Sicyon, which was noted for fine 
drawing. 

MBLBA [Nexxie Porter Armstrong] (1859- ), British 
operatic soprano, nie Nellie Porter Mitchell, was bom at Burnley, 
near Melbounie, Australia, her father being a contractor, of 
Scottish blood. She sang at a local concert when six years old, 
and was given a good musical education. In x88a she married 
Captain Charles Armstrong, and in 1886 went to study singing 
in Paris under the famous teacher, Madame Matbildc Marches!, 
whose daughter, Madame Blanche Marchesi, also a famous singer, 
was associated with her. In 1887 she made her d£but in opera 
at Brussels, taking the stage-name of Madame Melba from her 
connexion with Melbourne. In the next year she sang the part 
of Luda, which remained one <^ her famous r61es, at Covent 
Garden, London; and, though critics complained of her cold- 
ness as an actress, her liquid voice and brilliant execution hence- 
forth made her famous as the greatest successor to Patti, in 
pure vocalization, on the operatic stage. She maintained this 
position for over twenty years, her triumphs being celebrated in 
every country. 

See the " authorized " biography by Agnes G. Murj^y (1909). 

MELBOURNE. WILUAM LAMB. aNo Viscount (1779-1848), 
English statesman, second son of the ist Viscount Melbourne, 
by his marriage with the daughter of Sir Ralph Milbanke, bart., 
was bom on the 1 5th of March 1779. His father, Peniston Lamb 
(1748-1829), was the son of Sir Matthew Lamb, bart. (d. 1768), 
who made a large fortune out of the law, and married Miss 
Coke of Melbourne Hall; in 1770 he was made baron and in 
1781 Viscount Mi^bourne in the Irish peerage, and in 181 5 was 
created an English peer. After completing his course at Trinity 
College, Cambridge, William Lamb studied law at the university 
of Glasgow, and was called to the bar in 1 804. In 1 805 he married 
Lady Caroline Ponsonby (1785-182S), daughter of the 3rd earl 
of Bessborough. She was, however, separated from him in 
1825. Lady Caroline Lamb acquired some fame as a novelist 
by her romance of CUnarvon, which was pubUshed anonymously 
in 181 6 and was afterwards (1865) re-issued under the title of 
The Fatal Passion. On entering parliament in 1806 the Hon. 
William Lamb (as Lord Melbourne then was) joined the opposi- 
tion under Fox, of whom he was an ardent admirer; but his 
Liberal tendencies were never decided, and he not infrequently 
supported Lord Liverfxx)! during that statesman's long tenure 
of office. During the short ministry of Canning in 1827 he was 
chief secretary for Ireland, but he afterwards for a time adhered 
to the small remnant of the party who supported the duke of 
Wellington. The influence of Melbourne as a politician dates 
from his succee<ling to the peerage in 1829. Disagreeing with 
the duke of Wellington on the question of parliamentary reform, 
he entered the ministry of Grey as home secretary in 1830. 
For the duties of this office at such a critical time he was deficient 
in insight and energy, but his political success was independent 
of his oflicial capacity; and when the ministry of Grey was 
wrecked on the Irish question in July 1834 Melbourne was 
chosen to succeed him as prime minister. In November follow- 
ing he had to give place to a Conservative ministry under Peel; 
but he resumed ofiice in April 1835, and remained prime minister 
till 1841. He died at Melbourne House, Derbyshire, on the 
24th of November 1848. 

Lord Melbourne was without the qualification of attention to 
details, and he never displayed those brilliant talents which 
often form a substitute for more solid acquirements. Though 
he possessed a fine and flexible voice, his manner as a speaker 
was ineffective, and his speeches were generally ill-arranged and 
destitute of oratorical point. His political advancement was 
due to his personal popularity. He had a thorough knowledge of 
the private and indirect motives which influence politicians, 
and his genial attractive manner, easy temper and vivacious, if 
occasionally coarse, wit helped to comer on him a social distinc- 
tion which led many to take for granted his eminence as a 
statesman. His favourite dictum in politics was, " Why not 
leave it alone?" His relations with women gave opportunity 



for criticism though not open icuidal; but the action braqglit 
against him in 1836 by Mr George Chq>ple Norton in r^^id to 
the famous Mrs Caroline Norton (9.9.) was deservedly nntnfaa 
fuL The most notable and estimable feature of hb poKticd 
conduct was his relation to Queen Victoria {q.v.), whom he initi- 
ated into the duties of sovereign with the most delicate tad and 
the most paternal and conscientious care. 

Melbourne was succeeded as 3rd viscount by his bretlier, 
Frederick James Lamb (1782-1853), who was British 1 
sador to Vienna from 1831 to 1841. On the 3rd visamnt't i 
the titles became extinct, but the estates passed to Us 1 
Emily Mary (i 787-1869), the wife of Lord Palmenton. 

See W. McC. Torrent. Memoirs of Lord Mettourm (itTt); 
Lloyd Sanders. Lord Mdhourne's Papers (1889): A. Haywanfi 

essay (from the Quarterly Review^ 1878) in " Enuncnt " * 

(1880). 



MELBOURNE, the capital of Victoria, and the mc 
city in Australia. It is situated on Hobson's Bay, a northerf 
bend of the great harbour of Port Phillip, in Bourke county, 
about 500 m. S.W. of Sydney. The suburbs extend along thi 
shores of the bay for more than 10 m., but the part Hitin^. 
ively known as the " dty " occupies a site about 3 m inland 
on the north bank of the Yarra river. The appearance d 
Melbourne from the sea is by no means picturesque. The bu^ 
shipping suburbs of Port Melbourne and Willianostown occupy 
the flat alluvial land at the mouth of the Yarra. But the dty 
itself has a different aspea; its situation is relieved by numeracs 
gentle hills, which show up its fine public buildings tc great 
advantage; its main streets are wide and weU kept, and it hasai 
air of prosperity, activity and comfort. The part espedaQy 
known as the " city " occupies two hills, and ak>ng the nlBgf 
between them mns the thoroughfare of Elizabeth Street. PanlM 
to this is Swanston Street, and at right angles to thoe, 
parallel to the river, are Bourke Street, Collins Street and 
Flinders Street — the first being the busiest in Mdboume, the 
second the most fashionable with the best shops, and the third, 
which faces the river, given up to the maritime trade. TImm 
streets arc an eighth of a mile apart, and between each b a 
narrower street bearing the name of the wider, with the prdta 
" Little." The original plan seems to have been to constnid 
these narrow streets to give access to the great business liousci 
which, it was foreseen, would be built on the frontage of the mail 
streets. This plan, however, miscarried, for q)ace grew m 
valuable that large warehouses and business establishment! 
have been erected in these lanes. Little Flinders Street, is 
which the great importers' warehouses are mainly situated, ii 
locally known as " the Lane." In the centre of the dty some d 
the office buildings are ten, twelve or even fourteen storeyi 
high. The main streets are 99 ft. wide, and the lanes somewhat 
less than half that width. Round the dty lies a drcle of popu* 
lous suburbs— to the north-east Fitzroy (pop. 31,687) and 
CoUingwood (32,749), to the cast Richmond (37.824), to the 
south-east Prahran (40,441), to the south South Melboumc 
(40,619), to the south-west Port Melbourne (12,176), and to the 
north-west North Melbourne (18,120). All these suburbs lie 
vi-ithin 3 m. of the general post office in Elizabeth Street; but 
outside them and within the 5 m. radius is another drcle — ic 
the east Kcw (9469) and Hawthorne (21,430), to the south-east 
St Kilda (20,542) and Brighton (10,047), to the souih-wcat 
Williamstown (14,052) and Fooiscray (18,318), to the north-west 
Esscnden (17,426), and Fleminglon and Kensington (10.946), 
and to the north Brunswick (24,141). Numerous small subiubl 
fill the space between the two drcles, the chief being Northcote, 
Preston, CambcrwcU, Toorak, Caulfield, Elsternwick and Coburg 
Some of these suburbs are independent cities, others separati 
munidpalities. In spite of the value of land, Mdboume is not 
a crowded city. 

The Parliament House, standing on the crown of the easten 
hill, is a massive square brick building viiih a pillared fceestoM 
fagade approached by a broad flight of steps. The interior fe 
lavishly decorated and contains, besides the legislative chambcni 
a magnificent library of over 52,000 volumes. At the top d 



I 




MELBOURNE 
and Environs. 

¥ ^. *f I 

n 
U. rtrtmft mmrltftt 

U. St fialrirki Callit^rmt 

... A 4fpi;HtM fVith^V*/ 

i.1 



MELBOURNE 



91 



CoDiDs Street a biulding in brown freestone b occupied by the 
Treasury, behind which and fronting the Treasury Park another 
palatial building houses the government offices. A little further 
on is St Patrick's Roman Catholic cathedral, the seat of the 
archbisbqp o( Melbourne, a building of somewhat sombre blue- 
stone. Two striking churches face each other in Collins Street, 
the Scots church, a Gothic edifice with a lofty spire, and the 
Independent church, a fine. Saracenic building with a massive 
campanile. The seat of the Anglican bishop, St Paul's cathe- 
dral, has an elegant exterior and a wealth of daborate workman- 
ship within, but stands tow and is obscured by surrounding 
warehouses. On the western hill are the law courts, a fine bk>ck 
cf buildings in classic style surmounted by a central dome. In 
SwAnston Street there is a large building where under one roof 
are fotmd the public library of over 100,000 volumes, the museum 
of sculpture, the art gallery, and the museums of ethnology and 
technology. In connexion with the art gallery there is a travel- 
ling scholarship for art students, endowed by the state. The 
Exhibition Bufldings are situated on a hill in Carlton Gardens; 
they consist of a large cruciform hall surmounted by a dome and 
fianked by two annexes. Here on the 9th of May 1901 the first 
federal parliament of the Australian commonwealth was opened 
by King George V. (as duke of Cornwall and York). The 
Trades HaU at Carlton is the meeting-place of the trades-union 
societies of Victoria, and is the focus of much political influence. 
Tbe Melbourne town hall contains a central chamber capable of 
accommodating 3000 people. The suburban cities and towns 
ha\-e each a town hall. The residence of the governor of the 
colony is in South Melbourne, and is surrounded by an extensive 
domain. The university b a picturesque mass of buildings in 
large grounds about a mile from the heart of the city. It com- 
pfi3C9 the university buildings proper, the medical school, the 
natural hbtory museum, the Wilson Hall, a magnificent building 
in the Perpendicular style, and the three affiliated colleges, 
Trinity College (Anglican), Ormond College (Presbyterian) and 
Queen's College (Wcsleyan). The university, cstabUshcd in 1855, 
b undenominational, and grants degrees in the faculties of arts, 
Uw. medicine, science, civil engineering and music; instruction in 
theology a left to the affiliated colleges. Melbourne has numer- 
ous stale schoob, and ample provision b made for secondary 
education by the various denominations and by private enter- 
prise. Of theatres, the Princess and the Theatre Royal are the 
most important. Other public buildings include the mint, 
the ob7>er\'atory, the Victoria markets, the Melbourne hospital, 
the general post office, the homoeopathic hospital, the custom 
house aad the Alfred hospital. Many of the commercial 
buildings are of architectural merit, notably the banks, of which 
tlK bank of Australasia, a massive edifice of the Doric order, 
and the Gothic Australian bank are the finest examples. 

The public gardens and parks of Melbourne arc extensive. 
Ul:hin the city proper the Fitzroy Gardens are a network 
of avenues bordered with oak, elm and plane, with a " fcrn- 
ircc gully " in the centre; they arc ornamented with casts of 
hnurjs statues, and ponds, fountains and cbssic temples. The 
Treasury, Flagstaff and Carlton Gardens are of the same class. 
Around the city lie five great parks— Royal Park, in which are 
eicdient zoological gardens; Yarra Park, which contains the 
icadi.ig cicket grounds; the Botanical Gardens, sloping down to 
\he bsaks of the river; Albert Park, in which b situated a lake 
ccch used for boating; and Studley Park on the Yarra river, 
a favourite resort which has been left in a natural state. Besides 
tbse parks, each suburb has its public gardens, and at Fleming- 
toi th«rc b a fine race-course, on which the Melbourne cup races 
arc run every November, an event which brings in a large influx 
of visitors from all parts of Australia. Melbourne has a complete 
itimvzy sv-sicm; all the chief suburbs are connected with the 
dtjr by cable trams. The tramways arc controlled by a trust, 
rrpnsenting twelve of the metropolitan municipalities. The 
ch'.ef monuments and statues of the city are the statue of Queen 
Victoria in the vestibule of the Houses of Parliament, and a 
cd1o«iI group commemorating the explorers Robert O'Hara 
Bourfcc Cb. x8io) and William John Wilb (b. 1834)1 who died of 



starvation in 1861 on an ezpeditbn for the crossing of Auitnlia 
from south to north. There are also the statue to Sir Redmond 
Barry, first chancellor of the university, outside the public 
library, the Gordon sutue in Spring Street, a replica of that in 
Trafalgar Square, London, and a statue of Daniel O'Connell, 
outside St Patrick's cathedral 

Port Melbourne, originally called Sandridge, b about 2| m. 
distant from the city, with which it b connected by rail and 
tramway. It has two brge iners, abngsidc of which vesseb of 
almost any tonnage can lie. One of these piers b served by the 
railway, and here most of the great liners are berthed. Vesseb 
drawing 22 ft.«of water can ascend the river Yarra to the heart 
of the dty. There are 2 m. of wharves along each bank of 
the river, with two brge dry-docks and ship-repairing yards and 
foundries. Below (^een's Bridge b an expansion of the river 
known as the Pool, in which the largest ships using the river 
can turn with ease. Leading from a point opposite the docks b 
the Coode canal, by means of which the journey from the dty 
to the mouth of the river b shortened by over a mile. As a 
port Melbourne takes the first pbce in Australia as regar(b 
tonnage. It b also a great manufacturing centre, and both 
dty and suburbs have thdr distinctive industries. The chief 
are tanning, fcUmongery, wool-washing, bacon-curing, flour 
milling, brewing, iron-founding, brick-making, soap-boiling, the 
manufacture of pottery, candles, cheese, cigars, snuff, jams, 
biscuits, jewelry, fumiture, boots, dothing and leather and 
woollen goods. 

The climate of Mdboume b exceptionally fine; occasionally 
hot winds blow from the north for two or three days at a time, 
but the proportion of days when the sky b clear and the air dry 
and mild b large. Snow b unknown, and the average annual 
rainfall b 25-58 in. The mean annual temperature b 
57'3° F., corresponding to that of Washington in the United 
States, and to Lisbon and Messina in Europe. The city b 
supplied with water from the Yan Yean works, an artificial 
lake at the foot of the Plenty Range, nearly 19 m. dbtant. 

The little settlement of the year 1835, out of which Melbourne 
grew, at first bore the native name of Dootigala, but it was 
presently renamed after Viscount Melbourne, premier of Great 
Britain at the time of its foundation. In June 1836 it consbted 
of only thirteen buildings, eight of which were turf huts. For 
two years after that date a constant stream of squatters with their 
sheep flowed in from around Sydney and Tasmania to settle in 
the Port Phillip dbtrict, and by 184 1 the popubtion of the town 
had grown to 11,000. The discovery of gold at Ballarat in 1851 
brought another influx of popubtion to the district, and the 
town grew from 30,000 to 100,000 in the course of two or three 
years. In 1842 Melbourne was incorporated and first sent 
members to the New South Wales parliament. A strong 
popular agitation caused the Port Phillip district to be separated 
from New South Wales in 1851, and a new colony was formed 
with the name of Victoria, Mcltwume becoming its capital. In 
1901 Melbourne became the temporary capital of the Australian 
commonwealth pending the selection of the permanent capital 
in New South Wales. The population of the city proper in 
1901 was 68,374, and that of " greater Melbourne " was 496,079. 

MELBOURNE, a market town in the southern parliamentary 
division of Derbyshire, Engbnd, 8 m. S.S.E. of Derby, on the 
Midbnd railway. Pop. (1901), 3580. It lies in an undulating 
dbtrict on a small southern tributary of the Trent, from which 
it b about 2 m. dbtant. The church of St Michael is a fine 
example of Norman work, with certain late details, having 
clercstoricd nave, chancel and aisles, with central and two 
western towers. Melbourne Hall, a building of the time of 
William III., surrounded by formal Dutch gardens, stands in 
a domain owned at an early date by the bishops of Carlisle, 
whose tithe barn remains near the church. They obtained the 
manor in 1133. In 131 1 Robert de Holland fortified a mansion 
here, and in 1327 ihb castle belonged to Henry, earl of Lancaster; 
but it was dismantled in 1460, and little more than the site b 
now traceable. The title of Viscount Melbourne was taken from 
thb town. There arc manufactures of silk, and boots and shoes. 



92 



MELCHERS— MELEAGER 



MBLCHERS. (JULIUS) QARI (i860- ), American artist, 
was bom at Detroit, Michigan, on the ixth of August x86o. 
The son of a sculptor, at seventeen he was sent to DOsseldorf to 
study art under von Gebhardt, and after three years went to 
Paris, where he worked at the Acad^mie Julien and the £cole 
des Beaux Arts. Attracted by the pictorial side of Holland, he 
settled at Egmond. His first important Dutch picture, '* The 
Sermon," brought him honourable mention at the Paris Salon 
of 1S86. He became a member of the National Academy of 
Design, New York; the Royal Academy of Berlin; Sod£t£ 
Nationale des Beaux Arts, Paris; International Society of 
Painters, Sculptors and Engravers, London, and the Secession 
Society, Mimich; and, besides receiving a number of medals, his 
decorations include the Legion of Honour, France; the order 
of the Hed Eagle, Germany; and knight of the Order of St 
Michael, Bavaria. Besides portraits, his chief works are: 
" The Supper at Emmaus," in the Krupp collection at Essen; 
" The Family," National Gallery, BerUn; " Mother and Child," 
Luxembourg; and the decoration, nt the Congressional Library, 
Washington, " Peace and War." 

MBLCHIADE8, or Miltiaoes (other forms of the name being 
Meltiades, Melciades, Mildades and Miltides), pope from the 
and of July 310, to the xith January 314. He appears to 
have been an African by birth, but of his personal history 
nothing is known. The toleration edicts of Galerius and of 
Constantine and Lidnius yrere published during his pontificate, 
which was also marked by the holding of the Lateran synod in 
Rome (313) at which Caedlianus, bishop of Carthage, was 
acquitted of the charges brought against him and Donatus 
condemned. Melchiadcs was preceded and followed by 
Eusebius and S ilvester I. respectively. 

MBLCHITES Git. Royalists, from Syriac melcha, a king), 
the name given in the sth century to those Christians who 
adhered to the creed supported by the authority of the Byzantine 
emperor. The Melchites therefore are those who accept the 
decrees of Ephesus and Chalcedon as distinguished from the 
Nestorians and Jacobite Church (qq.v.). They follow the 
Orthodox Eastern liturgy, ceremonial and calendar, but acknow- 
ledge the papal and doctrinal authority of Rome. They number 
about 80,000, are found in Syria, Palestine and Egypt, and are 
under the immediate rule of the patriarch of Damascus and 
twelve bishops. 

MBLCHIZEDBK (Heb. for "king of righteousness"; or, 
since §edeV is probably the name of a god, " ^deV is my king"),* 
king of Salem and priest of "^ supreme £1 " {El *cly<m)f in the 
Bible. He brought forth bread and wine to Abraham on his 
return from the expedition against Chedorlaomer, and blessed 
him in the name of the supreme God, possessor (or maker) of 
heaven and earth; and Abraham gave him tithes of all his booty 
(Gen. xiv. 18-20). Biblical tradition tells us nothing more 
about Melchizcdek (of. Heb. vii. 3); but the majestic figure of 
the king-priest, prior to the priesthood of the law, to whom 
even the father of all Israel paid tithes (cf. Jacob at Bethel, Gen. 
xxviii. 22), suggested a figurative or typical application, first in 
Psalm ex. to the vicegerent of Yahwch, seated on the throne of 
Zion, the king of Israel who is also priest after the order of 
Melchizcdek, and then, after the Gospel had ensured the 
Messianic interpretation of the Psalm (Matt. xxii. 42 seq.), to 
the kingly priesthood of Jesus, as that idea is worked out at 
length in the Epistle to the Hebrews. 

The theological interest which attaches to the idea of the pre- 
Aaronic king-priest io these typical applications is practically 
independent 01 the historical questiuns suggested by the narrative 
of Grien. xiv. The episode of Melchizcdek. though connected with 
the main narrative by the epithets given to Yahwch in Gen. xiv. 22, 
breaks the natural connexion of verses 17 and 21, and may perhaps 



have come originally from a separate source. At the narrative 
now stands Salcm must be sought in the vicinity of " the king's 
dale," which from 2 Sam. xviii. 18, probably, but not necessarily, 



now stands Salcm must be sought in the vicinity of " the king's 
dale," which from 2 Sam. xviii. 18, probably, but not necessarily, 
lay near Jerusalem. That Salcm is Jerusalem, as in Psalm Ixxvi. 3, 

' It b to be noted also that the name is of the same form as 
Adoni-zedek, king of Jerusalem (Josh. x. i), and that the un- 
Hebraic Araunah of 3 Sam. xxiv. .16 is probably a corruption 
of the similar compound Adonijah (so Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 290). 



is the ancient and common view; but even in the I Sth ceatury BjC 
Jerusalem was known as Uru-ialim. Jeronoe and others hftvc 
identified Salim with one or other of the various places which bear 
that name, e.g. the ZaX<(M of John iiL 23, 8 m. south of Bcth- 
shean. In a genuine record of extreme antiquity the naion of 
king and priest in one person, the worship of El as the supreme 
deity by a Canaanite,* and the widespread practice of the consecra- 
tion of a tithe of booty can present no difficulty ; but, if the historical 
character of the narrative is denied, the date ol the conceptioa 
must be placed as late as the rise of the temporal authority 01 the 
high priests after the exile. So far no evidence has been UNind ia 
the cuneiform inscriptions or elsewhere in support either of the 
genuineness of the e(>isode in its present form, or of the antiquity 
which is attributed to it (see further, J. Skinner, Genesis, pp. 269 sqq.). 
An ancient legend identifies Melchizcdek with Shem (Palestinian 
Targum, Jerome on Isa. xli., Ephraem Syrus m ioco). 

See further the literature on C^en. xiv., and the articles Abrarail 
Gbmesis. (W. R. S. : S. a. C.) 

MBLCOMBE* QBORGB BUBB DODDINGTON. Bakon (1691- 
1762), English politician. His father's name was Bubb, bat 
the son took the name of Doddington on inheriting a Urge 
property by the death of an tmde of that name (1720). He 
was educated at Oxford. In 1 71 5 he was returned to parliament 
as member for Winchelsea, and was sent as envoy extraordinary 
to Spain. He carried on a scandalous traffic in the five or six 
parliamentary votes which he controlled, his tergiversatioo 
and venality furnishing food for the political satirisu and 
caricaturists of the day. His most estimable political action 
was his defence of Admiral Byng in the House of Commons 
(1757)* From X722 to 1754 he sat in parliament for Bridge- 
water; from 1724 to 1740 was a lord of the treasury; and, in 
1744, became treasurer of the navy under Henry Pelham, and, 
again in 1755, tmder Newcastle and Fox. In April 1761 be was 
raised to the peerage as Baron Melcombe of Melcombe Regis ia 
Dorsetshire. He died at La Trappe, his Hammersmith house, 
on the 28th of July 1762. His wife, acknowledged only after 
the death of another lady to whom he had given a bond that he 
would marry no one else, died without issue. He was a wit and 
a friend of wits, a good scholar, and something of a Maecenas; 
Thomson's " Sunmier " was dedicated to him. Fielding addressed 
to him an epistle and Edward Young a satire. He was a leading 
spirit of the " Hell-fire " Club, whose members, called *' Fran> 
ciscans," from their founder Sir Francis Dashwood (d. 1781), 
held their revels in the ruined Cistercian abbey of Medmenbam, 
Bucks. 

His diary, published in 1784. reveals him in his character of 
place-hunter and throws a curious light on the political methods 
of the time. 

MELEAGER (Gk. UiXiaypot), in Greek legend, the son of 
Oeneus, king of Calydon, and Althaea. His father having 
neglected to sacrifice to Artemis, she sent a wild boar to ravage 
the land, which was eventually slain by Mcleager. A war bn^e 
out between the Calydonians and Cureles (led by Althaea^ 
brothers) about the disposal of the head and skin, which Meleager 
awarded as a prize to Atalanta, who had inflicted the first 
wound; the brothers of Althaea lay in wait for Atalanta and 
robbed her of the spoils, but were slain by Meleager. When 
Althaea heard this, she cursed Meleager, who withdrew, and 
refused to fight until the Curetes were on the point of capturing 
the city of Calydon. Then, yielding to his wife's entreaties, 
he sallied forth and defeated the enemy, but was never seen 
again, having been carried of! by the Erinyes, who had heard hb 
mother's curse (or he was slain by Apollo in battle). According 
to a later tradition, not known to Homer, the Moerae appeared 
to Althaea when Meleager was seven days old. and announced 
that the child would only live as long as the log blazing on the 
hearth remained unconsumed. Althaea thereupon seized the 
log, extinguished the flames, and hid it in a box. But, after her 
brothers' death, she relighted the log, and let it bum away until 
Meleager died.' Then, horrified at what she had done, she 
hanged herself, or died of grief. The sisters of Meleager were 

'The god 'EXtoOv was also Phoenician; see Driver, Genesis, 
p. 165; Lagrange, Religions Sfmiiiques, Index, s.v. 

*0n the torch as repre%nting the light of life, see E. Kuhneit 
in Rheinisckes Museum, xlix.. 1894, and J. Grimm, Teutonic Mylk»^ 
logy (Eng. trans, by J. Sullybrasa, 1880), ii. 853. 



MELEDA— MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH 



93 



chinged by Artemis oat ci compassion into guinea fowls and 
Tsmoved to the island of Leros, where they mourned part of the 
year for their brother. The life and adventures of Meleager 
were a favourite subject in ancient literature and art. Meleager 
b rq>tcsented as a tall, vigorous youth with curly hair, holding 
t iavelin or a boar's head, and accompanied by a dog. 

See R. Kekul^ De fabtila meUapea dissertatio (1861); Surber, 
Die ileUagersage (ZOrich. 1880): articles on "Meleager" and 

** Mdeagridcs " in Roacher's Lexikon der Mythologie; L. Preller. 

OnKidscha Mythotoeiei Apollodorus i, 8; Homer. Iliad, ix. 527; 

Diod. Sic iv. 34; Dio Chrysostom. Or. 67; Hyginus, Fab. 171; 

Ovid, Mttam. viiL 260-545. In the article Greek Art (fig. 41) 

the hunting of the Calydonian boar is represented on a fragment 

of a f nene from a beroum. 

lELKDA (Serbo-Croatian, Mijd; Lat. iidUa), the most 
tOQtkrly and easterly of the larger Adriatic islands of the 
Aastrian province of Dalmatia. Pop. (1900), 1617. Meleda 
fics south of the Sabioncello promontory, from which it is divided 
hy the Meleda ChanneL Its length is 23 m. ; its average breadth 
am. It is of volcanic origin, with numerous chasms and gorges, 
of which the longest, the Babinopolje, connects the north and 
mith of the island. Port Palazzo, the principal harbour, on 
the north, is a port of call for tourist steamers. Meleda has 
been regarded as the Melita on which St Paul was shipwrecked, 
ths view being first expounded, in the zoth century, by Con- 
stantine PorphyiOigenitus. As at Malu, a " St Paul's Bay " is 
fiHI shown. 

HELEGNANO (formerly Marignano)^ a town of Lombardy, 
Idly, in the province of Milan, xx m. S.E. of that city by the 
nilway to Piacenza, 289 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 6782. 
There are remains of a castle of the Visconti. Its military 
importance is due to its position at the crossing of the river 
Lambro. It was a stronghold of Milan in her great struggle 
•gainit Lodi, and is famous for the victory of Francis L of 
France over the Swiss in 15x5, known as the battle of Marignan, 
and for the action between the French and Austrians iq 1859. 

HELDTDBZ VALDiS, JUAN (i754-x8x7)> Spanish poet, was 
bora at Ribeca del Fresno, Badajoz, on the nth of March 1754. 
Destined by his parents for the priesthood, he graduated in 
liv at Salamanca, where he became indoctrinated with the 
fcieas of the French philosophical schooL In 1780 with BatUo^ 
a pastoral in the manner of Garcilaso de la Vega, he won a 
pnze offered by the Spanish academy; next year he was intro- 
duced to JovelLinos, -through whose influence he was appointed 
to a professorship at Salamanca in 1783. The pastoral scenes 
ia Lu Bodas de Camacho (1784) do not compensate for its 
codramatic nature, but it gained a prize from the municipality 
of Madrid. A volume of verses, lyrical and pastoral, published 
io 1785, caused Melendez Vald^s to be hailed as the first Spam'sh 
poet of his time. This success induced him to resign his chair 
at Salamanca, and try his fortune in politics. Once more the 
friend^p of Jovellanos obtained for him in 1789 a judgeship 
at Saragossa, whence he w^^ transferred two years later to a 
post in the chancery court at Valladolid. In 1797 he dedicated 
to Godoy an enlarged edition of his poems, the new matter 
ooasisting principally of unsuccessful imitations of Milton and 
Thomson; but the poet was rewarded by promotion to a high 
post in the treasury at Madrid. On the fall of Jovellanos in 
1798 Meiendez Vald^ was dismissed and exiled from the capital; 
be returned in x8o8 and accepted office under Joseph Bonaparte. 
Re had previously denounced the French usurper in his verses. 
He DOW outraged the feelings of his coiuitrymen by the grossest 
Cattery of his foreign master, and in 1813 he fled to Alais. Four 
years later he died in poverty at Montpellier. His remains 
were removed to Spain in 1900. In natural talent and in 
acquired accompUshment Meiendez Vald6s was not surpassed by 
any contemporary Spaniard; he failed from want of character, 
aod his profound insincerity affects his poems. Yet he has fine 
noments in various veins, and his imitation of Jean Second's 
BuU is Twtabk. 

■ELBTIUS OF AMTIOCH (d. 381), Catholic bishop and saint, 
vas bom at Mditene in Lesser Armenia of wealthy and noble 
parents. He first appears (c. 357) as a supporter of Acacius, 



bishop of Caesarea, the leader of that party in the episcopate 
which supported the Homoean formula by which the emperor 
Constantius sought to effect a compromise between the Homoe- 
usians and the Homousians. Meletius thus makes his d6but as 
an ecclesiastic of the court party, and as such became bishop 
of Sebaste in succession to Eustathius, deposed as an Homousian 
heretic by the synod of Mclitene. The appointment was 
resented by the Homoeusian clergy, and Meletius retired to 
Beroea. According to Socrates he attended the synod of 
Seleucia in the autumn of 359, and then subscribed the 
Acacian formula. Early in 360 he became bishop of Antioch, 
in succession to Eudoxius, who had been raised to the see of 
Constantinople. Early in the following year he was in exile. 
According to an old tradition, supported by evidence drawn 
from Epipham'us and Chrysostom, this was due to a sermon 
preached before the emperor Constantius, in which he revealed 
Homousian views. This explanation, however, is rejected by 
Loofs; the sermon contains nothing inconsistent with the 
Acacian position favoured by the court party; on the other 
hand, there is evidence of conflicts with the clergy, quite apart 
from any questions of orthodoxy, which may have led to the 
bishop's deposition. 

The successor of Meletius was Euzoeus, who had fallen with 
Arius imder the ban of Athanasius; and Loofs explains the 
subilafidei mutatio which St Jerome {ann. Ahr. 2376) ascribes 
to Meletius to the dogmatic opposition of the deposed bishop 
to his successor. In Antioch itself Meletius continued to have 
adherents, who held separate services in the "Apostolic" 
church in the old town. The Melctian schism was complicated, 
moreover, by the presence in the city of another anti-Arian sect, 
stricter adherents of the Homousian formula, maintaining the 
tradition of the deposed bishop Eustathius and governed at 
this time by the presbyter Paulinus. The synod of Alexandria 
sent deputies to attempt an arrangement between the two 
anti-Arian Churches; but before they arrived Paulinus had been 
consecrated bishop by Lucifer of Calaris, and when Meletius— 
free to return in consequence of the emperor Julian's contemp- 
tuous policy — reached the city, he found himself one of three 
rival bishops. Meletius was now between two stools. The 
orthodox Nicene party, Notably Athanasius himself, held 
communion with Paulinus only^, twice, in 365 and 37i'or 372, 
Meletius was exiled by decree of the Arian emperor Valcns. A 
further complication was added when, in 375, Vitalius, one of 
Meletius's presbyters, was consecrated bishop by the heretical 
bishop ApoUinaris of Laodicca. 

Meanwhile, under the influence of his situation, Meletius 
had been more and more approximating to the views of the 
newer school of Nicene orthodoxy. Basil of Caesarea, throwing 
over the cause of Eustathius, championed that of Meletius who, 
when after the death of Valens he returned in triumph to 
Antioch, was hailed as the leader of Eastern orthodoxy. As such 
he presided, in October 379, over the great synod of Antioch, 
in which the dogmatic agreement of East and West was estab- 
lished; it was he who helped GrcRory of Nazianzus to the see 
of Constantinople and consecrated him; it was he who presided 
over the second oecumenical council at Constantinople in 381. 
He died soon after the opening of the council, and the emperor 
Theodosius, who had received him with especial distinction, 
caused his body to be carried to Antioch and buried with the 
honours of a saint. The Meletian schism, however, did not end 
with his death. In spite of the advice of Gregory of Nazianzus 
and of the Western Church, the recognition of Paulinus's sole 
episcopate was refused, Flavian being consecrated as Meletius's 
successor. The Eustathians, on the other hand, elected Evagrius 
as bishop on Paulinus's death, and it was not till 415 that* 
Flavian succeeded in re-uniting them to the Church. 

Meletius was a holy man, whose ascetic h"fe was all the 
more remarkable in view of his great private wealth. He was 
also a man of learning and culture, and widely esteemed for 
his honourable, kindly and straightforward character. He is 
venerated as a saint and confessor in both the Roman Catholic 
and Orthodox Eastern Churches. 



94 



MELETIUS OF LYCOPOLIS— MJ&LINGUE 



See the article G. F. Lo6f« in Herzp^-Hauck, ReaUitcyUop6dU 
(ed. 1897, Leipxag), xii. 552, ajid authorities there cited. 

MELETIUS OF LYCOPOUS (4th century), founder of the 
sect known after him as the '* Meletians," or as the " dhurch 
of the Martyrs^" in the district of Thebes in Egypt With 
Peter, archbishop of Alexandria, he was thrown into prison 
during the persecution under Diocletian. His importance is 
due to his refusal to receive, at least until the persecution had 
ceased, those Christians who during the persecutions had 
renounced their faith, and then repented. This refusal led to 
a breach with Peter, and other Egyptian bishops who were 
willing to grant absolution to those who were willing to do 
penance for their infidelity. Meletius, after regaining his 
freedom, held his grotmd and drew around him many supporters, 
extending his influence even so far away as Palestine. He 
ordained 39 bishops and encroached upon Peter's jurisdiction. 
The Council of Nicaea in 325 upheld the bishops, but Meletius 
was allowed to remain bishop of Lycopolis though with merely 
nominal authority. His death followed soon after. His 
followers, however, took part with the Arians in the controversy 
with Athanasius and existed as- a separate sect till the 5th 
century. 

See Achelis in Herzog-Hauck. Realeneyk. xti. (1903) 558, with the 
authorities there quoted, and works on Church History. 

MELPI, a city aijd episcopal see of Basilicata, Italy, in the 
province of Potenza, 30 m. by rail N. of the town of that namtf. 
Melfi is picturesquely situated on the lower slopes of Monte 
Vulture, 1591 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 14,547. The 
castle was originally erected by Robert Guiscard, but as it now 
stands it is mainly the work of the Dona family, who have 
possessed it since the time of Charles V.; and the noble cathedral 
which was founded in 11 53 by Robert's son and successor, 
Roger, has had a modern restoration (though it retains its 
campaniles) in consequence of the earthquake of 1851, when 
the town was ruined, over one thousand of the inhabitants 
perishing. It is the centre of an agricultural district which 
produces oil and wine. In the town hall is a fine Roman 
Sarcophagus found 6 m. W. of \'ciicJSa. 

Mdfi ao€t nof 5ccfn to occypy an atKicnt site, and its oricin b 
unexruiti. By the Sorm^io^^ it n-ns midc the Cdpiut <i( Apulia m 
lOiT, and fortified. The council held by Nicholas J^ In 1059, that 
of Urban fl. Ln \oS^. the a^bcUi^n against RogiT iit 1 [ jj and ihe 
subsequent p'jniihmetili the plunder of the town by BadtaJiassa 
in T167, the attack by Richard, cdunt of Actrra in ItOo* and the 
■JBrliament of 12JJ, in livhich FreiJerick [[. establisbed the convtiru^ 
tion of the kingdoffi of N^ple^n iartn the prindpal podnts of tnCerat 
in the ann!\U of Mel6. In 1^8 Joanna 1. of Nipla bettoved the 
dry on Nktolo Acciajuoli; but it was shortly afterwards captured. 
alter a ux months' si«tt by the king of Hungary, who imnsftmed 
tc to Conmd the Wolr m i^qi Coffrtdo Mariana was made 
count of Melfi i but Joanna U, granted (he lordship to the Caracciolo 
family » and they rouincd it for one hundred and aeven years till 
the lime of Charles V, An c^b*tinate ri^Liiancc was offend by the 
city to Lautrec de Poi* in 15^8; and hi* enCf;Lnce within its walU 
was followed by the maMacrc, it h said, of iftgOoo of *ti citiixfis. 

See C+ de f^rcnxo^ Venoia e ia rfgiene del ViJture (Bergamo, 
1906). 

MBUCERTES, in Greek legend, the son of the Boeotian 
prince Athamas and Ino, daughter of Cadmus. Ino, pursued by 
her husband, who had been driven mad by Hera because Ino 
had brought up the infant Dionysus, threw herself and Mcliccrtes 
into the sea from a high rock between Megara and Corinth. 
Both were changed into marine deities — Ino as Lcucothea, 
Melicertes as Palaemon. The body of the latter was carried 
by a dolphin to the Isthmus of Corinth and deposited under 
a pine tree. Here it was found by his imcle Sisyphus, who had 
it removed to Corinth, and by command of the Nereids instituted 
the Isthmian games and sacrifices in his honour. There seems 
little doubt that the cult of Melicertes was of foreign, probably 
Phoenician, origin, and introduced by Phoenidan navigators 
on the coasts and islands of the Aegean and Mediterranean. 
He is a native of Boeotia, where Phoenician influences were 
strong; at Tenedos he was propitiated by the sacrifice of children, 
which seems to point to his identity with Mclkart. The 
premature death of the child on the Greek form of the legend is 
probably an allusion to this. 



The Romans lEJcntifR-d Palaiznian with Portaiitis <the jhafboqr 
gpd). No ■atisiactory onipn oi (he name Palaemon has been 
sivcn. It ha! been suj^se^tcd that it mea^s the "wrestler" or 
_' itrucglcf '* (vttXtUu) and it an epithet of Heracles, who is often 
tdcntijiod with Melkart, but then: tltM.-s not appear to be any 
tfaditional eonncxicrn between Hemcle^ and Puaemon. Meli* 
CLTtes being PhoenicianH Paia^inon also has been explained as the 
" bumtnii lord " (Daal^hanian), but theiv seems littw in oommoa 
between a Rod of the &ea and a gi»d of fire- 
See Apollodqnis iii. 4^ 3; Qvid^ Meiam. iv. 416-542, Fast!, 
vi. 4^5: HvEintia. F<A. 2; Fausani.ts i. 44, iL i; Philostratus, 
hdn^i, 11. 16 ; artkEen by Toutain in Da rem berg and Saglio's Dictum- 
nairf dft anltfjttiiti and by Stoll in Rmrlicr'* Lexikon der Mythohnie; 
L* Preller, Grifihiifhe Mythtsipi^ie; R, Bjruwn, Semitic Infiwau* is 
tietlnt it Myikotogy ( i S^tt ). 

MELILLA* a Spanish fiorttlied station and penal settlement 
on the north coast of Morocco, south of Cape Tres Forcas and 
135 m- ES.Ep of Ccuta, Fop. about gooo. The town is built 
on a. huge rock connected with the maJtikind by a rocky isthmus. 
^Hiere is a b^bouft only acccsaible to small vessels; the roadstead 
outnide is safe and has deep water a mile to the east t>f the 
fortress. From the tandingplace, where a mole is cut out of 
the rockr there is a steep ascent to the upper town, charac- 
teristicaXly Spanish in appearance. The town is walled, and 
the jsthmus protected by a chain of small forts. A Moorish 
ciuitDin -house h placed on the Spanish border beyond the fort 
of Santn IstibeL and is the only authorized centre of trade on 
the RifT coast between Tctuan and the Algerian frontier. It 
thus forms the entrcpAt for the commerce of the Riff district 
and its hinterlands Goat skins, eggs and beeswax are the 
principal exportSi cotton goods, teaj sugar and candles being 
the chief imports. For the period 1Q00-1905 the annual value 
of the trade was about £700,000, Melllla, the first place captured 
by Spain on the Afric3.n mainland, was seized from the Moors 
in [490^ The Spaniards have had much trouble with the 
neighbouring tribe*— turbtiknt RiSians, hardly subject to the 
stiltan of Morocco, The limii$ of the Spanish territory round 
the forifcsa were fijtcd by treaties with Morocco in i8sg, i860, 
i^fii and iSf>4. In jS9j the Riflians besieged Melilla and 
35,000 men had to be despatched ttgi]mst them. In 1908 two 
companies, Under the protection, of El Roghi, a chieftain then 
rulitag the Riff region 1 started mitiing lead and iron some 15 m. 
from Ale! ilia and a railway to the mines was begun. In October 
of that year the RiffjanJ revolted from the Roghi and raided the 
mines, which remained do^d lintii June 1909. On the 9th of 
July tlie workmen were again attacked and several of them. 
kUlcdH Severe fighting between the Spi^niardsand the tribesmen 
followed. The RifTi^is having submitted, tUe Spaniards, in 
1910, rr?t£iricd the miiics and undertook harbour works at 
Mot Chica^ 

See Budget! Meakm, The Land of ike Moors (London. iQOl). 
chr %\\,, and the auEhorities there cited; P. Barr6, " Melilia et 
lea presides eipagnola/' Rxr. jran^uist (tgoS). ' 

MfiLIHE, FftUX JULES fiSjS- )» French statesman, waA 
born at Reniiremont on the JOlb of May 1838. Having adopted 
the bw OS bis profeasion, be *ai chosen a deputy in 1872, and 
in 1S7Q he was for a short time under- secretaiy to the minister 
of the interior. In tJJSo he come to the front as the leading 
spokesman of the parly whteh favoured the protection of French 
industries, and he had a con^derablc share in fashioning the 
protectionist legislation of the years 1890-1902. From 1883 
to cBEji Meline was minister for agricuJture, and in 1888-1889 
he was president of the Chamber oi Deputies. In 1896 he 
became premier {pr^^idcni du cemcil) and minister for agriculture, 
oRice* which he vacated tn 1S98* At one time he edited La 
Ripubliijuc fran^aiit, and after his retirement from public life he 
wrote Ic kctouT d la Urrc €t ta Murproduction industridU, tout 
cff/arfwr df VaKruuiiurc (1905). 

HfiUHGUE. tHEHNE HARI» (1808-1875), French actor 
and sculptor, was bont la. Cocn, the son of a volunteer of 1792. 
He cirly went to Paris and obtained work as a sculptor on the 
church of the Madeleine, but his passit>n for the stage soon led 
turn to join a stroUinjt cdnnpany of comedians. Finally chance 
nave him an opportunity to show his talents, and at the Porte 
Saint Martin he became Lhe popular interpreter of romantic 



MELIORISM— MELLITIC ACID 



95 



dEUBA of the Alenndre Domas type. One of his greatest 
w a rrrm s et was as Benvenuto Cellini, in which he displayed his 
ability both as an actor and as a sculptor, really modelling 
before the eyes of the audience a statue of Hebe. He sent a 
■amber of statuettes to the various exhibitions, notably one 
of Gilbert Louis Duprez as William TelL MeUnguc's wife, 
Tbtodorine Thiesset (1813-1886), was the actress selected by 
Vktor Hugo to create the part of Guanhumara in Burgraves at 
tke Com£die Frangaise, where she remained ten years. 
See Dumas, Vue Vit fartisU (1854). 

DLIORISM (Lat. mdicr, better), in philosophy, a term given 
to that view of the world which believes that at present the sum 
ofgood exceeds the stmi of evil and that, in the future, good will 
oootiBually gain upon eviL The term is said to have been 
isTeaied by George Eliot to express a theory mediating between 
optimism and pessimism. The pragmatic movement in philo- 
apliy which puts stress upon the duty and value of effort is 
utuaUy favourable to the melioristic view: the best things 
that have been said recently in favour of it are found in books 
adi as William James's Pragmatism. 

OUSSUS OP 8AM08, Greek philosopher of the Eleatic 
School {q.9.), was bom probably not hter than 470 B.C. Accord- 
iig to Dkq^enes LaCrtius, ix. 34, he was not only a thinker, 
btt also a political leader in his native town, and was in command 
el the fleet which defeated the Athenians in 442. The same 
lathority says he was a pupil of Parmenides and of Hcraclitus, 
but the statement is improbable, owing to discrepancy in dates. 
His works, fragments of which are preserved by Simplicius 
sad atte^ed by the evidence of Aristotle, are devoted to the 
deidxe of Parmenides' doctrine. They were written in Ionic 
SBd consist of long series of argument. Being, he says, is 
eternaL It cannot have had a beginning because it cannot have 
began from not-being (cf. ex nihUo nihil), nor from being (cti} 
yifi Ar oprtf Kol 06 yipoiTo). It cannot suffer destruction; 
it b impMsible for being to become not being, and if it became 
another being, there would be no destruction. According to 
SmpHdus {Pkysica, I. a^b), he differed here from Parmenides 
in distioguishing being ami absolute being {r6 inrkui tbv). He 
goes on to show that eternal being must also be unlimited in 
magnitude, and, therefore, one and unchangeable. Any change 
whether from internal or external source, he says, is unthinkable; 
the One is unvarying in quantity and in kind. There can be 
no division inside this unity, for any such division implies 
space or void; but void is nothing, and, therefore, is not. It 
ioikms further that being is incorporeal, inasmuch as all body 
has size and parts. The fundamental difficulty underlying this 
k)gic is the paradox more dearly expressed by Zeno and to a 
large extent represented in almost all modem discussion, namely 
that the evidence of the senses contradicts the intellect. Abstract 
argument has shown that change in the unity is impossible; 
yet the senses tell us that hot becomes cold, haid becomes soft, 
the living dies, and so on. From a comparison of Melissus with 
Zeno of Elea, it appears that the spirit of dialectic was already 
tentatively at work, though it was not conscious of its own 
power. Neither Melissus nor Zeno seems to have observed that 
the application of these destraciive methods stmck at the root 
not only of multiplicity but also of the One whose existence they 
maintained. The weapons which they forged in the interests 
of Parmenides were to be used with equal effect against them- 
selves. 

See RItter and Preller, (( 159-166; Brandis, Commenlationum 
deoiicarum. pt. I.p. 185; Mullach. AristoUlis de Melisso, Xenophane, 
Cthui : Pabsc. De Melissisamii/ragmeHtis (Bonn. 1889), and histories 
o( philosophy. 

MBUTO, bishop of Sardis, a Giristian writer of the 2nd 
century, mentioned by Eusebius {Hist. Ecd. iv. 21) along with 
Hegesippus, Dionysius of Corinth, Apollinaris of Hierapolis, 
Irenaeus, and others, his contemporaries, as a champion of 
orthodoxy and upholder of apostolic tradition. Of his personal 
history nothing is known, and of his numerous works (which 
are enumerated — with quotations — by Eusebius) only a few 
Ingm^ats are extant. They included an Apologia addressed to 



Xntoninus some time between a.d. 169 and 180, two books 
relating to the paschal controversy, and a work entitled 'Eickayai 
(selections from the Old TesUment), which contained the first 
Christian list of " the books of the Old Covenant." It excludes 
Esther, Nehemiah and the Apocrypha. The fragments have 
been edited with valuable notes by Routh (Reliquiae sacrae, 
vol. i., 1814). These are sufficient to show that Melito was an 
important figure in Asia Minor and took much part in the 
paschal, Marcionite and Montanist controversies. 

It seems more than doubtful whether the Apologia of Melito 
" the Philosopher," discovered in a Syriac transbtion by Henry 
Tattam (i 789-1 868), and subsequently edited by W. Cureton and 
by Pitra-Renan, ought to be attributed to this writer and not to 
another of the same name. The KX<{t (cbvis), edited by Pitra- 
Renan. is a much later Latin collection of mystical explanations 
of Scripture. 

See A. Hamack. Texle und Untersuchungen, i. 240-278 (Leipzig, 
1882); Erwin Preuschen, s.v. "Melito" m H^rzoe-Hauck. Rtal' 
etuykiopddie, xii., 1903, giving full list of works and bibliography. 

MELKSHAM, a market town in the Westbury parliamentary 
division of Wiltshire, England, 95 i m. W. of London by the 
Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2450. 
It lies in a valley sheltered by steep chalk hills on the east, 
its old-fashioned stone houses lining a single broad street, which 
crosses the Upper Avon by a bridge of four arches. The church 
preserves some remnants of Norman work and a Perpendicular 
south chapel of rare beauty. Melksham possesses doth-mills 
where coco-nut fibre and hair doth are woven, flour-mills and 
dye-works. On the discovery of a saline spring in 1816, baths 
and a pump-room were opened, but although two other springs 
were found later, the attempt to create a fashionable health 
resort failed. The surrounding deer-forest was of ten^ visited by 
Edward I. Lacock Abbey, 3 m. distant, was founded in 1232 
for Austin canonesses, and dissolved in 1539. Portions of the 
monastic buildings remain as picturesque fragments in and 
near the modem mansion called Lacock Abbey. 

MELLB, a town of westem France, capital of an arrondisse- 
ment in the department of Deux-S^vres, on the left bank of the 
B6ronne, 21 m. E.S.E. of Niort by raiL Pop. (1906), 2231. 
Melle has two churches in the Romanesque style of Poitou, 
St Pierre and St Hilaire, the latter ornamented with sculptured 
arcading. The hospital has a richly carved doorway of the 
17th century. The church of St Savinien (nth century) serves 
as a prison. The town has trade in farm-produce, mules and 
other live stock; distilling is carried on. Melle {MelaUum) 
derives its name trom the lead mine worked here during the 
Roman occupation and in the early middle ages. At the latter 
period it had a mint. In later times it was a possession of the 
counts of Maine. 

MELUnC ACID (benzene hexacarboxyUc acid), a(COOH)«, 
was first discovered in 1799 by M. H. Klaproth in the mineral 
honeystone, which is the aluminium salt of the acid. The 
acid may be prepared by warming honeystone with ammoiuum 
carbonate, boiling off the excess of the ammonium salt and 
adding ammonia to the solution. The precipitated alumina is 
filtered off, the filtrate evaporated and the ammonium salt of the 
acid purified by recrystalUzation. The -ammonium salt is then 
converted into the lead salt by precipitation with lead acetate 
and the lead salt decomposed bv sulphuretted hydrogen. 

The acid may also be prepared by the oxidation of pure carbon, 
or of hcxamcthyl benzene, in the cold, by alkaline potassium 
permanganate (F. Schulze,Bfr., 1871. 4, p. 802: C. Friedcl and J. M. 
Crafts, Ann. chim. phys., 1884 (61. i, p. 470). It cr>'stallizcs in fine 
silky needles and is soluble in water and alcohol. It is a very stable 
compound, chlorine, concentrated nitric acid and hydnodic acid 
having no action upon it. It is decomposed, on dry disrillation. 
into carbon dioxide and pyromellitic acid. CioHtOg; when distilled 
with lime it gives carbon dioxide and benzene. Long digestion of 
the acid with excess of phosphorus pentachloride results in the 
formation of the acid chloride. C«(COCI)«. which crystallizes in 
needles, melting at 190** C. By heating the ammonium salt of the 
acid to 150-160** C. as long as ammonia is evolved, a mixture of 

paramide (mellimide), C«((;^q > NHjj, and ammonium euchroate is 

obtained. The mixture may be separated by dissolving out the 
ammonium euchroate with water. Paramide is a white amorphous 
powder, insoluble in water and alcohoL 



96 



MELLITUS— MELODY 



■BLLITUS (d. 624), bishop of Lotadbn and archbishop of 
Canterbury, was sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great in 
(k>i. He was consecrated by St Augustine before 604, and a 
church was built for him in London by Aethelberht, king of 
Kent; this chtirch was dedicated to St Paul, and Mellitus became 
'first bishop of London. About ten years later the East Saxons 
reverted to heathenism and the bishop was driven from 
his see. He took refuge in Kent and then in Gaul, but 
soon Yetumcd to England, and in 619 became archbishop of 
Canterbury in succession to Laurentlus. He. died on the 24th 
of April 624. 

MELLONI, MACEDONIO (179S-1854), Italian physicist, was 
bom at Parma on the nth of April 1798. From 1824 to x8jx 
he was professor at Parma, but in the latter year he was compelled 
to escape to France, having taken part in the revolution. In 
1839 he went to Naples and was soon appointed director of the 
Vesuvius obsf'rvatory, a post which he held until 1848. Melloni 
received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in 1834. 
In 1835 he Wc J elected correspondent of the Paris Academy, and 
in 1839 a foreign member of the Royal Society. He died at 
Portid near Naples of cholera on the nth of August 1854. 
Melloni's reputation as a physicist rests especially on his dis- 
coveries in radiant heat, made with the aid of the thcrmo- 
multiplier or combin|ition of thermopile and galvanometer, 
which, soon after the discovery of thermoclectridly by T. J. 
Seebeck, was employed by him jointly with L. Nobili in 1831. 
His' experiments were cspcdally concerned with the power of 
transmitting dark heat possessed by various substances and with 
the changes produced in the heat rays by passage through 
different materials. Substances which were comparativdy 
transparent to heat he designated by the adjective "diathcr- 
mane," the property being " diathermaneU^," while for the heat- 
tint or heat-coloration produced by passage through diflercnt 
materials he coined the word " diathcrmansie." In English, 
however, the terms were not well understood, and " diather- 
mancy," was generally used as the equivalent of " diatherma- 
n£lt6." In consequence McUoni about 1841 began to use 
" diathermique " in place of " diathcrmane," " diathcrmasie " 
in place of "diatherman6ll6," and " thermocrose " for " diather- 
mansie." His most important book, La thermocrose ou la 
coloration calorifique (vol. i., Naples, 1850), was unfinished at 
his death. He studied the reflection and polarization of radiant 
heat, the magnetism of rocks, electrostatic induction, daguer- 
xotypy, &c. 

MELODRAMA (a coined word from Gr. /teXos, music, and 
jpa/xa, action), the name of several species of dramatic com- 
position. As the word implies, " melodrama " is properly a 
dramatic mixture of music and action, and was first applied 
to a form of dramatic musical composition in which music 
accompanied the spoken words and the action, but in which 
there was no singing. The first example of such a work has 
generally been taken to be the Pygmalion of J. J. Rousseau, 
produced in 1775. This is the source of romantic dramas 
depending on sensational incident with exaggerated appeals to 
conventional sentiment rather than on play of character, and 
in which dramatis personae follow conventional types — the 
villain, the hero wrongfully charged wth crime, the persecuted 
heroine, the adventuress, &c. At first the music was of some 
importance, forming practically a running accompaniment 
suitable to the situations — but this has gradually disappeared, 
and, if it remains, is used mainly to emphasize particularly strong 
situations, or to bring on or off the stage the various principal 
characters. Such plays first became popular in France at the 
beginning of the 19th century. One of the most prolific writers 
of melodramas at that period was R. C. G. de Pixericourt 
(1773-1844). The titles of some of his plays give a sufiidcnt 
indication of their character; e.g. Victor ^ ou V enfant de la foret 
(1797); CarlinOf ou Venfattt du mysibre (i8or); Le Monaslbre 
abartdonniy ou la malediction patemellc (1816). Another form 
of melodrama came from the same source, but developed on 
lines which laid more emphasis on the music, and is of some 
importance in the history of opera. Probably the first of this 



type is to be found in Georg Benda's Ariadne aufNasos (1774). 
The most familiar of such melodramas is Gay's Beua^s Optra. 
In these the dialogue is entirely spoken. In true opexM, the 
spoken dialogue was replaced by redtative. It may be noticed 
that the speaking of some parts of the dialogue is not tuffident 
to dass an.opera as a '* mdodrama " in this sense, as is proved 
by the spoken grave-digging scene, accompanied by music, in 
Fidelio, and the incantation scene in Der FreisckUtz, To this the 
English term " declamation " is usually applied; the Germans 
use Mdodram. But see Opera. ; 

MELODY (Gr. luKuila^ a choral song, from peXof, tune, 
and ^1^, song). In musical philosophy and history the word 
" melody " must be used in a very abstract sense, as that aspect 
of music which is concerned only with the pitch of successive 
notes. Thus a " melodic scale " is a scale of a kind of music 
that is not based on an harmonic system; and thus we call 
andent Greek music " melodic." The popular conception of 
melody is that of " air " or " tune," and this is so far from bdng 
a primitive conception that there are few instances of such 
melody in recorded music before the 17th century; and even folk- 
songs, unless they are of recent origin, deviate markedly from 
the criteria of tunefulness. The modem conception of mdody 
is based on the interaction of every musical category. For us 
a melody is the surface of a series of harmonies, and an unac- 
companied melody so far implies harmony that if it so behaves 
that simple harmonies expressing dear key-relationships would 
be difficult to find for it, we feel it to be strange and vague. 
Again, we do not feel music as melodious unless its rhythm is 
symmetrical; and this, taken together with the harmonic 
rationality of modem melody, brings about an equally intimate 
connexion between melody on a large scale and form on a small 
scale. In the article on Sonata Forics it is shown that there 
are gradations between the form of some kinds of single mdody 
like " Barbara Allen " (see Ex. i) and the larger dance forms of 
the suite, and then, again, gradations between these and the 
true sonata forms with their immense range of expression and 
development. Lastly, the element that appears at first sight 
most strictly melodic, namely, the rise and fall of the ptch, is 
intimately connected by origin with the nature of the human 
voice, and in later forms is enlarged fully as much by the char- 
acteristics of instruments as by paralld developments in rhythm, 
harmony and form. Thus modem melody is the musical 
surface of rhythm, harmony, form and instrumentation; and, if 
we take Wagnerian Leitmotif into account, we may as well 
add drama to the list. In short, mdody is the surface of music 

We may here define a few technicalities which may be said to 
come more definitely under the head of melody than any other; 
but see also Harmony and Rhythm. 

r. A theme is a melody, not necessarily or even usually complete, 
except when designed for a set of variations (q.v.), but of sufficient 
independent coherence to be, so to speak, an intelligible musical 
sentence. Thus a fugue-subject is a theme, and the first and 
second subjects in sonata form are more or less complex groups 
of themes. 

2. A figure is the smallest fragment of a theme that can be 
recognized when transformed or detached from its surroundings. 
The grouping of figures into new melodies is the most obvious 
resource of " development " or " working-out " in the sonata-forms 
(ice Ex. 2-7), besides being the main resource by which fugues are 
carried on at those moments in which the subjects and counter- 
subjects are not present as wholes. In i6lh-century polyphony 
melody consists mainly of figures thus broken off from a canto 
fcrmo (sec Contrapuntal Forms). 

3. Pqlyphony is simultaneous multiple melody. In 16th-century 
music and in fugue-writing every part is as melodious as every 
other. The popular cry for melody as an antidote to polyphony 
is thus really a curious perversion of the complaint that one may 
have too much of a good thing. Several well-known classical 
melodies are polyphonically composite, being formed by an inner 
melody appcarin(^ as it were through transparent places in the 
outer melody, which it thus completes. This is especially common 
in music for the pianoforte, where the tone of long notes rapidly 
fades; and the works of Chopin are full of examples. In Bach s 
works for keyed instruments figures frequently have a double mean- 
ing on this principle, as. for instance, in the peculiar kind of counter- 
subject in the 15th fut;ue of the 2nd book of the Wokliem^erirtes 
Ktavier. A good familiar example of a simple mekxly which, as 
written by the composer, would need two voices to ting it, is that 



MELODY 



97 



bcsfas the aeoood mbject of Beethoven's WaUsUin Sonata Wagner, whoie metodiet aie almost always of instrumental origin, 
3, brsc nowement, bars 35-42. where at the third bar of the is generally dbjunct in diatonic mekxly and conjunct in chromatic 

(Ex. a, fig. C. is a disjunct ftguie not forming an arpeggio). 

For various other melodic devices, such as inversion, augmenta* 
tion and diminution, see Contrapuntal Forms. 

We subjoin some musical illustrations showing the treatment' 
of figures m melody as a means of symmetry (Ex. i), and develop 
ment ( Ex. 2-7), and (Ex. 8-13) some modem melodic transforma- 
tions, differing from earlier methods in being immediate instead of 
gradual. (D. F. T.) 

Ex. I. **Bcrhara Alien" (showing the germ of binary f orm in the b alance between A* on the dominant and A* on the tonic). 

nsi 1 _ . rr* — 1 



r> 35-43, where at the third bar of the 

, a l u w cr voice enters and finishes the phrase). 

^ (•) CMt/wKf m mt eme nt b the movement of melody aloiu; 
M^cent degrees of the scale. A lan» proportion of Beethoven s 
■docfies are conjunct (see Ex. 3, fig. 6). 

4 (h) Disjunct mtoHment^ the opposite of conjunct, tends, though 
\ff BO means always, to produce arpeggio types of melody, t^. 
' " '^ sol a chord, (^eitai 



up and down the notes of a chord. 

types of such melody are highly characteristic of Brahms; and 



Ez.3. Main theme ofthefint movement of Beethoven's Trio in Bb, Op. 97. 




J L5!_l i^ I 

Ci. 3. Figure A of above developed in a new pdyphonic 4-bar phrase. Ex. 4. Further sequential developments of A. 
AJ 






Ex. 5. Devdopment of C with B. 







l_E I f 



I "^ I 



1_£LJ 



C»«r 



El. 6. FanbcT devdopment of .B by diminutioii, in conbinatioa with the trills derived from C 
C*t Ir 



a M -n 




El 7. Further devdopment of B by diminution and contrary motioti 
(inversion). 




Ex. 9. A ^nd B* diminished. 



im 



Ex. 8. Brahms, Quintet, Op. 34- 



gp^^f=M 




Eiiai 



Ex. II. The Rkeindauihter's Toy. Wa gner. Dsa Rheingold, 



j^^^^^gJ^H^Hs^M! 



E«. la. The Nibdun^s Talisman, 



JT^i 





^ Prf g^^ 



mm 



98 



MELON— MELORIA 




Transverse section of the 
fruit of the melon (Cucutnis 
iN«fo) , showing the placentas (p/) , 
with the seeds attached to them. 
The three carpels forming the 

Eare separated by partitions 
From the centre, processes 
> todrcumferenceCO, ending 
in curved placentaries bearing 
the ovules. 



MELON (Late Lat. melo, shortened form of Gr. ftiKowiwv, 
a kind of gourd; m^Xof, apple, and ir^rur, ripe), Cucumis meU>, 
a polymorphic species of the order Cucurbitaceae, including 
numerous varieties.^ The melon is an annual trailing herb 
with palmately-lobed leaves, and bears tendrils by means of 
which it is readily trained ovier trellises, &c. It is monoecious, 
having male and female flowers 
OD the same plant; the flowers 
have deeply five-lobed campanu- 
2 late corollas and three stamens. 
Naudin observed that in some 
varieties {e.g. of Cantaloups) 
fertile stamens sometimes occur 
in the female flowers. It is a 
native Of south Asia " from the 
foot of the Himalayas to Cape 
Comorin,"* where it grows spon- 
tanMUsly, but is cultivated in 
the temperate and warm regions 
of the whole world. It is vari- 
able both in diversity of foliage 
and habit, but much more so in 
the fruit, which in some varieties 
is no larger than an olive, while 
in others it rivals the gourd 
{Cucurbiia maxima). The fruit is 
globular, ovoid, spindle-shaped, 
or serpent-like, netted or smooth-skinned, ribbed or furrowed, 
variously coloured externally^ with white, green, or orange flesh 
when ripe, scented or scentless, sweet or insipid, bitter or even 
nauseous, &c. Like the^ourd, the melon undergoes strange meta- 
morphoses by crossing its. varieties, though the latter preserve 
their characters when alone. The offspring of all crossings are 
fertile. As remarkable cases of sudden changes produced by 
artificially crossing races, M. Naudin records that in 1859 the 
offspring of the wild melons m. sauvage de VInde (C. melo agrestis) 
and m. s. d^AfriquCf le peiit m. de Figari bore different fruits 
from their parents, the former being ten to twelve times their 
size, ovoid, white-skinned, more or less scented, and with reddish 
flesh; though another individual bore fruits no larger than a nut. 
The offspring of m. de Figari after being crossed bore fruits of the 
serpent-melon. On the other hand, the serpent-melon was made 
to bear ovoid and reticulated fruit. 

Naudin thinks it is probable that the culture of the melon in 
Asia is as ancient as that of all other alimentary vegetables. The 
Egyptians grew it, or at least inferior races of melon, which were 
either indigenous or introduced from Asia. The Romans and 
doubtless the Greeks were familiar with it, though some forms 
may have been described as cucumbers. Columella seems to 
refer to the serpent-melon in the phrase tU coluber .^.venire 
cubat flexo. Pliny describes them as pepones (xix. 23 to xx. 6) 
and Columella as meloncs (xi. 2, 53). The melon began to be 
extensively cultivated in France in 1629, according to Olivier de 
Serrcs. Gerard {Herhall, 772) figured and described in 1597 
several kinds of melons or pompjons, but he has included gourds 
under the same name. 

The origin of some of the chief modem races, such as " Canta- 
loups," " Dudaim," and probably the netted sorts, Is due to 
Persia and the neighbouring Caucasian regions. The first of 
these was brought to Rome from Armenia in the i6th century, 
and supplies the chief sorts grown for the French markets; but 
many othera arc doubtless artificial productions of west Europe. 

The water-melon {CitruUus vulgaris) is a member of a different 
genus of the same order. It has been cultivated for its cool 
refreshing fruit since the earliest times in Egypt and the Orient, 
and was known before the Christian era in southern Europe and 
Asia. 
The melon requires artificial heat to grow it to perfection, the 

* For a full account of the species of Cticumis and of the varieties 
of melon by Charles Naudin, see Annales des sciences naturelUs^ 
tier A, vol. XI. p. 34 (1859). 

' Naudin, loc. cit. pp. 39, 76. 



rock and cantaloup varieties succeeding with a bottom heat 6f 70* 
and an atmospheric temperature of 7j$*, rising with sua hnt 
to 80*, and the Persian varieties requiring a bottom beat of l$\ 
gradually increasing to So*, and an atmospheric tempefaum 
ranging from 75* to 80* when the fruit is swelling, as much sua 
■heat as the plants can bear being allowed at all times. The mdou 
grows best m rich turfy loam, somewhat heavy, with uriiich a Utsll 
well-rotted dung, especially that of pigeons or fowb, shouhl bt 
used, in the proportion of one-fifth mixai in the compost of loaa. 
Melons are grown on hotbeds of fermenting manure, when the ao9 
should be about a foot in thickness, or in pits heated either by hoi 
water or fermenting matter, or in houses heated by hot water, fa 
which case the soil bed should be 15 or 18 in. thick. The fer 
menting materials should be well prepared, and, since the heat hai 
to be kept up by lining[s, it is a good plan to introduce one or tvt 
layers ot faggots in building up the bed. A 'mixture of dang aad 
leaves gives a more subdued but more durable heat. 

For all ordinary purposes February w eariy enough for sowing thi 
first crop, as well-flavoured fruits can scarcely be looked for befon 
May. The seeds may be sown singly in 3-in. pots in a mixture d 
leaf-mould with a little loam, the pots being plun^ in a bottoa 
heat of 75* to 80*, and as near the glass as possible, m order that thi 
young plants may not be drawn up. The hill or ndge of soil shoidi 
be about a foot in thickness, the rest of the surface bein^ af terwaid 
made up nearly to the same level. If the fruiting-bed is not read] 
when the roots have nearly filled the pots, they must be shiftac 
into 4-inch pots, for they must not get starved or pot-bound. Twc 
or three planu are usually planted in a mound or ridge of soi 
pLiL^iJ [ii i:ic ^^i.L.-L- ul l^.Ij ].f,;iL, „;.■: i:,^: rest of the surface ii 
covcFtd over to a sJiiikUf depth oji noan its the roots haye madl 
thc^ir way thrtsugh the mound' 

The melon bcin^ ane of those pbEiiE. which produce distiact 
male and fcmjilc lio«-i!n, it 14 necK&^ry to its fertility that both 
ahauld be product, and th;it the pallen of ihe male flower shoidd» 
cither naturally by Imcct agency, or artlEicLilly by the cultivatoc^ 
manipulition, be eonve^ed to the stigma o( iae female flower; 
ihi$ ficUing pf the fruit t$ often done by stripping a male flower ef 
i[i corutb, and inverting it in the centT? of tne fniit-bearifly flower. 
.Mtcr The fruit ha^ Aft and bm erown to the size of an egg, it should 
W preserved fmrn o^nlatt with the soil by placing it on a piece of 
lilc or slate; or if grown on a trclli* by a little swinging woodea 
shelf, jurt large encti^h 10 hold it. In either case the material ussi 
Should be titled a littk 10 one «idc, sa a* to permit water to 
away. Before the pf<r>cc$^ of ripening commences, the roots 
hnive a ;T 1. if 1 i .<i mDisture. so that none may be 
Jron t\< ■■• ■ ir.iit 13 cut. 

When the melon is grown in a house there should be a good depth 
of drainage over the tank or other source of bottom heat, a«l 
on this should be placed turfs, grass side downwards, bekyw dhl 
soil, which should not be less than 15 and need not be more thaa 
18 in. in thickness. The compost should be made roodenttdy 
firm, and only half the bed should be made up at first, the rest beam 
added as the roots require it. The melon may also be grown ii 
large pots, supplied with artificial manure or manure water. Thi 
stems may be trained up the trellis in the usual way. or the raftcn 
of a pine stove may be utilized for the purpose. If the tr^is h 
constructed in panels about the width of the ^hts, it can be takci 
down and conveniently stowed away when not m use. 

The presence of too much moisture either in the atmosphere a 
in the soil is apt to cause the plants to damp ofl^ at the neck, but dM 
evil may be checked by applying a little fresh-slaked Une ronad 
the stem of the plant. 

Melons are liable to the attack of red spider, which are bHl 
removed by syringing with rain-water, and prevented by keepia| 
a fairly humid atmosphere ; green or black fly should also be w a tchw 
for and removed by fumigation with tobacco smoke or bf 
" vaporizing." 

The varieties of melon are continually receiving additions, aai 

as newer varieties spring into favour, so the older ones drop onl 

of cultivation. A great deal depends on getting the varieties trai 

to name, as they are very liable to get cross-fertilized by imtel 

. ,. Sonus ol thi. ' - ' rr. ?nt arc: 

.^1 J^/(^JffJ*/((.— lilcrihrii.i I ge, Frogmore Orange, Invindfal^ 
SuttHjn'a Scarlt't, and Triniiii ! 

WhiiffUskrd.—C.rAd€ti })!... J r Hero of Lockinge, Loogktt, 



P^.^rfiTiioni RoyaJ^'avouritc, 
K.in!;;l<raatr^ 



, Koyal 



British Queen^ Epicure, Exquisite, 



J h« m<arkct 'gardeners rouncl Paris and other parts of FrudI 
chi^^tiy cultivate varieti<rs of Cnint^loup melon known as the PresoMl 
hStif A. ehat^b and Prcseott fond blanc — both excellent in flavoA. 
The plants are grown in fnunei* on hotbeds, and only one fag" 
[riujt i» allowed to ^nature on each plant. If secured early in A: 
seiwn— say in Jyiw^from 35 to 35 francs can be obtained for «!■! 
fruit in the Paris markets; later fruits, however, drop down l»t^ 
franrs each, or ev*n Ics* when there is a glut (see J. Weath W i ; 
fremh Mufket-Gi^rdming)^ 

MELORIA, a rocky islet, surrounded by a shoal, ahMIt, 
opposite Le^om. It was the scene of two naval battles of iki. 



MELOS— MELOZZO DA FORLI 



99 



L Tlie fint, on the 3rd of May 1241, was fought 
i fleet of the emperor Frederick II. HohensUufen, 
tnpor Mundi, in alliance with Pisa, against a Genoese 
tinging a nomber of English, French and Spanish 
ittend the a>uncil summoned to meet at the Lateran 
ex. Three Genoese galleys were sunk and twenty- 

Several of the prelates perished, and many were 
oners to the camp of the emperor. The second, 
mday the 6th of August x 284, was of higher historical 

It was a typical medieval sea-fight, and accom- 
min of Pisa as a naval power. The long rivalry of 
d of Genoa had broken out for the last time in 1282, 
kte cause being the incompatible claims of the two 
fcreignty over the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. 
oomiUcts of the war in 1282, 1283 and the spring of 
)cen unfavourable to Pisa. Though the city was 
the Catalans and with Venice in hostility to Genoa, 
it had chosen a Venetian, Alberto Morosini, as its 
-eceived no help from either. The Genoese, who had 
id more efficient fleet, sent their whole power against 
r. When the Genoese appeared oflf Mcloria the 
lying in the river Amo at the mouth of which lay 

tne port of the dty. The Pisan fleet represented 
»wer of the dty, and carried members of every family 

1 most of the great officers of state. The Genoese, 
draw their enemy out to battle, and to make the 
ive, arranged their fleet in two lines abreast. The 
mposed according to Agostino Giustiniani of fifty- 
s, and eight panjUi^ a dass of light galleys of eastern 
d after the province of Pamphylia. Uberto Doria, 
t admiral, was stationed in the centre and in advance 

To the right were the galleys of the Spinola family, 
of the eight ** companies " into which Genoa was 
tsteUo, Piazzalunga, Macagnana and Son Lorenzo, 
were the galle3rs of the Dorias, and of the other four 
Porta, Soziglia, Porta Nuova and II Borgo. The 
of twenty galleys, under the command of Benedetto 
rZaccharie), was placed so far behind the first that 
xnild not see whether it was made up of war-vessels 
craft meant to act as tenders to the others. Yet it 
nigh to strike in and decide the battle when the action 
The Pisans, commanded by the Podesta Morosini 
tenants Ugolino della Gherardescha and Andrcotto 
une out in a single body. It is said that while the 
was blessing the fleet* the silver cross of his archi- 
iff fell off, but that the omen was disregarded by the 
of the Pisans, who declared that if they had the 
>tild do without divine help. They advanced in line 
»eet the first line of the Genoese, fighting according 
cval custom to ram and board. The victory was 
[>noa by the squadron of Giacaria which fell on the 
; Pisans. Their fleet was nearly annihilated, the 
I taken, and Ugolino fled with a few vessels. As 
yo attacked by Florence and Lucca it could never 
disaster. Two years later Genoa took Porto Pisano, 
> the harbour. The count Ugolino was afterwards 
leath with several of his sons and grandsons in the 
ie famihar by the 32nd canto of Dante's Inferno. 
'4 dellc Tcputiica di Cenowx, by Agostino Giustiniani 
Genoa, 1854). (D- H.) 

ood. Milo), an island of the Aegean Sea (Cydades 
le S.W. comer of the archipelago, 75 m. due £. from 
Laconia. From £. to W. it measures about 14 m., 
S. 8 m., and its area is estimated at 52 sq. m. The 
[00 is rugged and hilly, culminating in Mount Elias 
(2538 ft.). Like the rest of the duster, the island 
c origin, with tuff, trachyte and obsidian among its 
cks. The natural harbour, which, with a depth 
from 70 to 30 fathoms, strikes in from the north- 
} cut the island into two fairly equal portions, with 
lot more than i} m. broad, is the hollow of the prin- 
In one of the caves on the south coast the heat is 



still great, and on the eastern shore of the harbour there are hot 
sulphurous springs. Sulphur is found in abundance on the top 
of Mount Kalamo and elsewhere. In andent times the alum of 
Melos was reckoned next to that of Egypt (Pliny zxxv. 1$ [52]), 
and millstones, salt (from a marsh at the east end of the harbour), 
and gypsum are still exported. The Melian earth (yrj MifXiAs) 
was employed as a pigment by andent artists. Orange, ohve, 
cypress and arbutus trees grow throughout the island, which, 
however, is too dry to have any profusion of vegetation. The 
vine, the cotton plant and barley are the main objects of culti- 
vation. Pop. (1907), 4864 (commune), 12,774 (province). 

The harbour town is Adamanta; from this there is an ascent 
to the plateau above the harbour, on which are situated Plaka, 
the chief town, and Kastro, rising on a hill above it, and other 
villages. The andent town of Melos was nearer to the entrance 
of the harbour than Adamanta, and occupied the slope between 
the village of Trypete and the landing-place at Klima. Here is a 
theatre of Roman date and some remains of town walls and other 
buildings, one with a fine mosaic excavated by the British school 
at Athens in 1896. Numerous fine works of art have been found 
on this site, notably the Aphrodite of Mdos in the Louvre, the 
Asdepius in Ihe British Museimi, and the Poseidon and an 
archaic Apollo in Athens. The position of Mdos, between 
Greece and Crete, and its possession of obsidian, made it an 
important centre of early Aegean dvilization. At this time 
the chief settlement was at the place now called Phylakopi, 
on the north-east coast. Here the excavations of the British 
school cleared many houses, induding a palace of " Mycenaean " 
type; there is also a town wall. Part of the site has been washed 
away by the sea. The antiquities found were of three main 
periods, all preceding the Mycenean age of Greece. Much 
pottery was found, including examples of a peculiar style, with 
decorative designs, mostly floral, and also considerable deposits 
of obsidian. There are some traditions of a Phoenician occupa- 
tion of Mdos. In historical times the island was occupied by 
Dorians from Laconia. In the 6th century it again produced 
a remarkable series of vases, of large size, with mythological 
subjects and orientalizing ornamentation (see Greek Amt, fig. 9), 
and also a series of terra-cotta reliefs. 

Though Melos inhabitants sent a contingent to the Greek fleet 
at Salamis, it hdd aloof from the Attic league, and sought to 
remain neutral during the Peloponnesian War. But in 416 B.C. 
the Athenians, having attacked the island and compelled the 
Mclians to surrender, slew all the men capable of bearing arms, 
made slaves of the women and children, and introduced 
500 Athenian colom'sts. Lysandcr restored the island to its 
Dorian possessors, but it never recovered its former prosperity. 
There were many Jewish settlers in Melos in the beginning of the 
Christian era, and Christianity was early introduced. During 
the " Prankish " period the island formed part of the duchy 
of Naxos, except for the few years (1341-1383) when it was a 
separate lordship under Marco Sanudo and his daughter. 

Antimdos or Antimiio, 5} m. north-west of MUo, is an un- 
inhabited mass of trachyte, often called Eremomilo or Desert 
Melos. KimoloSt or Argentiera, less than i m. to the north-east, 
was famous in antiquity for its. figs and fuller's earth (Kt/iwXIa 
7^), and contained a considerable city, the remains of which 
cover the cliff of St Andrews. Polinos, Polybos or Ptdivo (anc. 
Polyaegos) lies rather more than a mile south-cast of Kimolos. 
It was the subject of dispute between the Mclians and Kimolians. 
It has long been almost uninhabited. 

Sec Leycester, " The Volcanic Group of Milo, Anti-Milo, &c.,'* 
in Jour. Roy. Geog. Soc. (1852) ; Toumcfort, Voyage; Leake, Northern 
Greece, iii.; Prokesch von Ostcn, Denkwiirdigkexten, &c.; Bursian, 
Geog. von Griechentand, ii. ; Joum. Heii. Stud, xvi., xvii., xviii.; 
Excavations at Phylakopi; Inscr. graec. xii. iii. 197 sqq.; on coins 
found in 1909, see Jameson in Rev. Num. 1909, 188 sqq. (E. Gr.) 

MELOZZO DA FORLI (c. 1438-1494), Italian painter, the first 
who practised foreshortening with much success, was bom at 
Forll about 1438; he came, it is supposed, of a wealthy family 
named Ambrosi. In all probability, Mdozzo studied painting 
under Piero de' Franceschi, of Borgo St Sepolcro; he seems also 
to have been well acquainted with Giovanni Santi, the father oC 



lOO 



MELROSE 



Raphael. It has been said that he became a journeyman and 
colour-grinder to some of the best masters, in order to prosecute 
his studies; this lacks confirmation. Only three works are 
extant which can safely be assigned to Melozzo: those in the 
Louvre, the National Gallery, London, and the Barberini Palace, 
Rome, are disputable, (i) He painted in 1472 the vault of the 
chief chapel in the church of the ApostoU in Rome, his subject 
being the " Ascension of Christ "; the figtire of Christ is so.boldly 
and effectively foreshortened that it seems to " burst through 
the vaulting "; this fresco was taken down in 171 1, and the figure 
of Christ is now in the Quirinal Palace, not worthy of special 
admiration save in its perspective quality; while some of the 
other portions, almost Raphaelesque in merit, are in the sacristy 
of St Peter's. (2) Between 1475 ^^^ '4^ he executed a fresco, 
now transferred to canvas, and placed in the Vatican picture- 
gallery, representing the appointment of Platina by Pope Sixtus 
IV. as librarian of the restored Vatican library. (3) In the 
Collegio at Fori! is a fresco by Melozzo, termed the " Pestapepe," 
or Pepper-grinder, originally painted as a grocer's sign; it is an 
energetic specimen of rather coarse realism, now much damaged. 
Melozzo also painted the cupola of the Capuchin church at Forll, 
destroyed in 165 1; and it has been said that he executed at 
Urbino some of the portraits of great men (Plato, Dante, Sixtus 
IV., &c.) which are now divided between the Barberini Palace 
and the Campana collection in Paris; this, however, is doubtful, 
and it is even questionable whether Melozzo was ever at Urbino. 
In Rome he was one of the original members of the academy of 
St Luke, founded by Sixtus IV. He returned to "FotU, probably 
towards 1480, and died in November 1494. He contributed 
sensibly to the progress of pictorial art; and, without being re- 
markable as- a colourist, gave well graded lights, with general 
care and finish, and fine dignified figures. His works bear a 
certain resemblance to those of his contemporary Mantcgna. 
Marco Palmezzano was his pupil; and the signature " Marcus dc 
Melotius " on some of Palmezzano's works, along with| the general 
affinity of style, has led to their being ascribed to Melozzo, who 
has hence been incorrectly called " Marco Melozzo." 

MELROSE, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., 
about 7 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 8519; (1900), 12,962, of 
whom 2924 were foreign-born and 130 were negroes; (1916 cen- 
sus) 15,715. It is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, 
and by inter-urban electric railwa3rs. The city covers 48 sq. m. 
of broken, hilly country, in which is a part of the state park of 
Middlesex Fells; it includes the villages of Melrose, Melrose High- 
lands, Wyoming and Fells. In 1905 the total factory product 
was valued at $9,450,929 (an increase of 176-6% over th^ value 
of the factory product in 1900). The principal products arc 
rubber shoes (at the village of Fells), skirts (at the village of 
Wyoming), and leather and silverware (at Melrose Highlands). 
The water supply of Melrose, like that of Stoncham and of Med- 
ford, is derived from the metropolitan reservoir called Spot Pond 
in Stoneham, immediately west of Melrose. The city was the 
home of Samuel Adams Drake (1833-1905), American historian, 
whose History of Middlesex County (Boston, 1880; vol. 2, " Mel- 
rose," by E. H. Goss) should be consulted; and of William 
Frederick Poole (1821-1894), the librarian and the originator of 
indexes of periodical literature. Melrose was settled about 1633, 
and was a part of Charlestown until 1649, ^nd of Maiden until 
1850. The eastern part of Stoneham was annexed to it in 1853. 
In 1899 it was chartered as a dty ; the charter came into effect in 
1900. The name is said to be due to a resemblance of the scenery 
to that of Melrose, Scotland. 

MELROSE, a police burgh of Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. 
(looi), 2195. It lies on the right bank of the Tweed, 37^ m. 
S.E. of Edinburgh, and 19 m. N.W. of Jedburgh, via St 
Boswells and Roxburgh, by the North British railway. The 
name — which Bede (730) wrote Mailros and Simeon of Durham 
(i 130) Melros — is derived from the Celf'c maol ros, " bare moor," 
and the town figures in Sir Walter Scott's Abbot and Monastery 
as " Kennaquhair." In consequence of the beauty of its situa- 
tion between the Eildons and the Tweed, the literary and 
historical associations of the district, and the famous ruin of 



Melrose Abbey, the town has become residential and a holiday 
resort. There is a hydropathic establishment on Skirmish Hill, 
the name commemorating the faction fight on the 35th of July 
1526, in which the Scotts defeated the Doughses and Ken. 
Trade is almost wholly agricultural. The main streets run from 
the angles of the triangular market-place, in which stands the 
market cross, dated 1642, but probably much older. Acroa 
the river are Gattonside, with numerous orchards, and Allerly, 
the home of Sir David Brewster from 1827 till his death in 
1868. 

The original Columban monastery was founded in the 7th 
century at Old Melrose, about 2} m. to the east, in the loop of a 
great bend of the Tweed. It was colonized from Lindisfame, 
Eata, a disdple of Aidan, being the first abbot (651), and Boisfl 
and Cuthbert being priors here. It was burned by Koinelh 
Macalpine in 839 during the wars between Scot and Saxon, and, 
though rebuilt, was deserted in the middle of the nth century. 
The chapel, dedicated to St Cuthbert, continued for a period to 
attract many pilgrims, but this usage gradually declined and the 
building was finally destroyed by English invaders. MeanwhOe 
in XI 36 David I. and founded an abbey dedicated to the Virgin, 
a little higher up the Tweed, the first Cistercian settlement in 
Scothnd, with monks from Rievaulx in Yorkshire. Lying in the 
direct road from England, the abbey was frequently assaulted and 
in 1322 was destroyed by Edward II. Rebuilt, largely by means 
of a gift of Robert Bruce, it was nearly burned down in 1385 by 
Richard II. Erected once more, it was reduced to ruin by the 
earl of Hertford (afterwards the Protector Somerset) in 1545. 
Later the Reformers dismantled much of what was left. Tlw 
adaptation of part of the nave to the purposes of a parish church 
and the use of the building as a quarry did*further damage. 
The ruins, however, now the property of the duke of Bucdeuch, 
are carefully preserved. Of the conventual buildings apart 
from the church nothing has survived but a fragment of the 
cloister with a richly-carved round-headed doorway and some 
fine arcading. The abbey, cruciform, is in the Decorated and Per- 
pendicular styles, with pronounced French influence, due probaUj 
to the master mason John Morow, or Morreau, who, according 
to an inscription on the south transept wall, was bom in Paris. 
The south front is still beautiful. The west front and a large 
portion of the north half of the nave and aisle have perished, but 
the remains include the rest of the nave, the two transepts, the 
chancel and choir, the two western piers of the tower and tho 
sculptured roof of the east end. From east to west it measured 
258 ft., the nave is 69 ft. wide and the width of the transepts from 
north to south is 1 1 s| ft. The nave had an aisle on each aide, 
the north noticeably the narrower, the south furnished with 
eight chapels, one in each bay. Both transepts contained aa 
eastern aisle, and the chancel a square chapel at its west end on 
each side. Over the south transept aisle, which was the chapd 
of St Bridget, is the clerestory passage, which ran all round the 
church. The choir extended westwards for three bays beyowl 
the tower and terminated in a stone rood-screen. Sir Walter 
Scott has immortalized the east window, in The Lay of the Lasi 
Minstrel, but the south window with its flowing tracery is even 
finer. In the carving of windows, aisles, cloister, capitals, bosses 
and doorhcads no design is repeated. The heart of Robert 
Bruce was buried at the high altar, and in the chancel are the 
tombs of Sir William Douglas, the Knight of Liddesdale (1500- 
1353). James 2nd earl of Douglas (1358-1388), the victor of 
Otterburn; Alexander II.; and Michael Scot "the Wizard" 
(11 75-1 234) — though some authorities say that this is the tomb 
of Sir Brian Layton, who fell in the battle of Ancrum Moor (i 544). 
At the door leading from the north transept to the sacristy is ths 
grave of Joanna (d. 1 238), queen of Alexander II. 

The muniments of the abbacy, preserved in the archives of te 
carl of Morton, were edited by Cosmo I noes for the Bannatyat 
Club and published in '1837 under the title of Libtr 
Marie de Melros. Among the documents is one of the ( 
specimens of the Scots didfoct. The Chronica de Mailros, pn 
among the Cotton MSS., was printed at Oxford in 1684 by V^^lfiuB 
Kulman and by the Bannatyne Club in 1835 under the editonlri^ 
of John Stevenson. 



MELTON MOWBRAY— MELVILLE, ANDREW 



WBJOM MOWBRAT, a market town in the Melton parlia* 
mentary division of Ldccsterahire, England, pleasantly situated 
in a fertile vale, at the coofluen^ of the Wreake and the Eye. 
Pop. of urban district (1901), 7454. It is 105 m. N.N.W. from 
Loodoo by the Midland railway, and is served by a joint branch 
of the London & North Western and Great Northern railways. 
The church of St Mary, a fine crudform structure. Early En^ish 
and later, with a lofty and richly ornamented central tower, was 
enlarged in the reign of Elizabeth. Melton is the centre of a 
celebrated hunting district, in connexion with which there are 
laige stables in the town. It is known for iu pork pies, and has 
a trade in Stilton cheese. There are breweries and tanneries and 
an important cattle market. There are blast furnaces in the 
neighbouring parish of Asfordby for the smelting of the abun- 
dant supply of iron ore in the district. During the Civil War 
Melton was in February 1644 the scene of a defeat of the parlia- 
mentary forces by the royalists. It is the birthplace of John 
Henley the orator (1692-1759). 

MBLUir, a town of northern France, capital of the department 
of Seine-et-Mame, situated north of the forest of Fontainebleau, 
28 m. S.S.E. of I^ris by rail. Pop. (1906), 11,3x9. The town 
is divided into three parts by the Seine. The principal portion 
Ees OQ the slope of a hill on the right bank; on the left bank is the 
most modern quarter, while the old Roman town occupies an 
islaad in the river. On the island stands the Romanesque 
dburcfa of Notre- Dame (nth and 12th centuries), formerly part 
of a nunnery, the site of which is occupied by a prison. The 
other public buildings are on the right bank of the river. Of 
these, the most striking is the church of St Aspais, an irregularly 
shaped stniaure of the 15th and i6th centuries, on the apse of 
vhkh may be seen a modem medallion in bronze, the work of 
the sculptor H. Chapu, representing Joan of Arc as the liberator 
ofMehin. Theh6tel-<ie-ville(i847)— in the construction of which 
aa old mansion and turret have been utilized — and the tower 
of St Bartholomew of the i6th and z8th centuries are also of 
iBtercst. In the courtyard of the former there is a monument to 
Jacques Amyot, the translator of Plutarch, who was bom at 
lldim in 15 13. Among the rich estates in the neighbourhood 
the most reinarkable is the magnificent chAteau of Vaux-le- 
Vlcomte, which belonged to Nicholas Fouquet, intendant of 
fioances under Louis XIV. Melun is a market for grain and farm 
' produce, and its industries include brewing, tanning, distilling, 
awing and the manufacture of agricultural implements, clogs, 
hf garments, lime, cement and plaster. 

In Caeor's Gallic war* Melun (Mehdunum) was taken by his 
Geuteoant Labienus. in order to faciliute the attack of Lutetia 
by the right bank ojf the Seine. It was pllaged bv the Normans, 
aad afcerwards became the favourite residence of the first kings of 
the nee of Capet; Robert and Philip I. both died here. In 1359 
Udua was given up by Jeanne of Navarre to her brother, Charles 
titt Bad. but was reukcn by the dauphin Charles and Bcrtrand 
DmescUn. In 1430 it made an heroic defence aflninst Henrv V. 
tf bi^nd and his ally the duke of Burgundy. Ten years later 
the people of Melun. with the help of Joan of Arc, drove out the 
Eofluh. It was occupied by the League in 1589, and retaken by 
Hory IV. in the following year. 

MtUSKKE, the tutelary fairy of the house of Lusignan, was 
tlse eldest daughter of the fairy Pressine, to avenge whose wrongs 
she shut up her father in a mountain in Northumberland. For 
t!tn she was condemned to be metamorphosed every Saturday 
isto a wmnan-serpent — that is, to be a serpent from the hips 
downwards. She might, however, be eventually saved from this 
ponishment if ahc could find a husband who would never see 
her on a Saturday. Such a husband was foimd in Raymond, 
Bepfaew of the a>unt of Poitiers, who became rich and powerful 
thmgfa the machinations of his wife. She built the castle of 
'^fTTft and many other of the family fortresses. When at 
Ingth her husband gave way to his curiosity, and saw her taking 
the bath of purification on a Saturday she flew from the castle 
ia the form of a serpent. Thenceforward the death of a member 
of the house of Lusignan was heralded by the cries of the fairy 
leipcBt. " FoMSser dts cris de Milusine " is still a popular 
iqring. 

This history is reUted at length, with the adventures of 



lOI 

M61usine's numerous progeny, by Jean d* Arras, in his Ckronutue if 
la prineesse, written in 1387 at the desire of John, duke of Berry, 
for the amusement of the duke and of his sister Marie of France, 
duchess of Bar. It is one of the most charming of the old prose 
romances in manner and style, and is natural in spite of the free 
use of the marvellous. An attempt has been made by Jules 
Baudot in Les Princesses Yolande et Us ducsde Bar ^Paris, 1900) to 
make it a roman d cU and to idenu'fy the personages. M61usine, 
Mellusine or Meriusine is, however, simply the spirit of the 
fountain of Lusignan, and the local Poitevin myth is atUched to 
the origin of the noble house. Hie etymology of the word has 
been variously and fancifully given. Some writers have supposed 
Meriusine to be a corruption of mdre Ludne {mater Lucim^, the 
deity invoked in child-birth. She has been identified with 
Mdisende, widow of a king of Jerusalem, and with Mervant, wife 
of Geoffrd de Lusignan. 

'The Milusine of lean d' Arras was printed by Adam Steinschaber 
at Geneva in 1^78, and was reprinted many times in the isth 



The English transbtion was edited from a unique MS. in the 
British Museum by A. K. Donald for the E.E.T.S. (1895). The tale 
was versified in the 14th century by a poet called Couldrette. 
whose poem was published in 1854 by Francisque Michel See 
further J. C. Dunlop. HisL of Fiction, ii. aQi-493 (new ed., 1888); 
S. Baring-Gould, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages, pp. 470 seq. 
(new ed.. 1881); and J. C Brunet, Manuel du libraxre (vol. iil, 1862, 
S.V. Jean d'Anas). 

MELVILLE. ANDREW (1545-1622), Scottish schola^ theo- 
logian and religious reformer, was the youngest son of Richard 
Melville (brother to Melville of Dysart), proprietor of Baldovy 
near Montrose, at which pUce Andrew was bom on the ist of 
August 1545. His father fell at the battle of Pinkie (1547), 
fighting in the van of the Scottish army, and, his wife having died 
soon after, the orphan was cared for by his eldest brother 
Richard (1532-1575). At an eariy age Melville began to show a 
taste for learning, and his brother did everything in his power 
to give him the best education. The mdiments of Latin he 
obtained at the grammar school of Montrose, after leaving which 
he learned Greek for two years under Pierre de Marsilliers, a 
Frenchman whom John Erskine of Dim had induced to settle 
at Montrose; and such was Melville's proficiency that on going 
to the imiversity of St Andrews he excited the astonishment of 
the professors by using the Greek text of Aristotle, which no one 
else there understood. On completing his course, Melville left 
St Andrews with the reputation of " the best poet, philosopher, 
and Grecian of any young master in the land." He then, in 
1564, being nineteen years of age, set out for France to perfect 
his education at the university of Paris. He there applied 
himself to Oriental hinguages, but also attended the last course 
of lectures delivered by Turnebus in the Greek chair, as well as 
those of Peter Ramus, whose philosophical method and plan of 
teaching he afterwards introduced into the universities of Scot* 
land. From Paris he proceeded to Poitiers (1566) to study dvil 
law, and though only twenty-one he was apparently at once made 
a regent in the college of St Marceon. After a residence of three 
years, however, political troubles compelled him to leave France, 
and he went to Geneva, where he was welcomed by Theodore 
Beza, at whose instigation he was appointed to the chair of 
humanity in the academy of Geneva. In addition to his teaching, 
however, he also applied himself to studies in Oriental literature, 
and in particular acquired from Cornelius Bertram, one of his 
brother professors, a knowledge of Syriac. While he resided at 
Geneva the massacre of St Bartholomew in 1572 drove an 
immense number of Protestant refugees to that city, including 
several of the most distinguished French men of letters of the 
time. Among these were several men learned in dvil law and 
political sdence, and their society increased Melville's knowledge 
of the world and enlarged his ideas of dvil and ecdesiastical 
liberty. In 1574 Melville returned to Scotland, and almost 
immediately received the appointment of prindpal of Glasgow 
University, which had fallen into an almost ruinous state, the 
college having been shut and the students dispersed. Mdville, 



102 



MELVILLE, ARTHUR— MELVILLE, H. 



however, set himself to establish a good educational system. He 
enlarged the curriculum at the college, and established chairs 
in languages, science, philosophy and divinity, which were 
confirmed by charter in 1577. His fame spread through the 
kingdom, and students flocked from all parts of Scotland and 
even beyond, till the class-rooms could not contain those who 
came for admission. He assisted in the reconstruction of 
Aberdeen University in 1575, and in order that he mi^^t do for 
St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed 
principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580. His duties 
there comprehended the teaching, not only of theology, but of 
the Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac and Rabbinical languages. The 
ability of his lectures was universally acknowledged, and he 
created a taste for the study of Creek literature. The reforms, 
however, which his new modes of teaching involved, and even 
some of bis new doctrines, such as the non-infallibUity of Aristotle, 
brought him into collision with other teachers in the university. 
He was moderator of the General Assembly in 1582, and took 
part in the organization of the Church and the Presbyterian 
method. Troubles arose from the attempts of the court to force 
a system of Episcopacy upon the Church of Scotland (see Scot- 
land, Chukch of), and Melville prosecuted one of the " tulchan " 
bishops (Robert Montgomery, d. 1609). In consequence of this 
he was summoned before the Privy Council in February 1584, 
and had to flee into England in order to escape an absurd charge 
of treason which threatened imprisonment and not improbably 
his life. After an absence of twenty months he returned to 
Scotland in November 1585, and in March 1586 resumed his 
lectures in St Andrews, where he continued for twenty years; 
he became rector of the university in 1590. During the whole 
time he protected the liberties of the Scottish Church against 
all encroachments of the government. That in the main he and 
his coadjutors were fighting for the constitutionally guaranteed 
rights of the Church is admitted by all candid inquirers (see in 
particular The History of England from 1603 to i6i6f by S. R. 
Gardiner, vol. i. chap. ix.). The diicf charge against Melville 
is that his fervour often led him to forget the reverence due to an 
" anointed monarch." Of this, however, it is not easy to judge. 
Manners at that time were rougher than at present. When the 
king acted in an arbitrary and illegal manner he needed the 
reminder that though he was king over men he was only " God's 
•illy vassal." Melville's rudeness (if it is to be called so) was the 
outburst of just indignation from a man zealous for the purity 
of religion and regardless of consequences to himself. In 1599 
he was deprived of the rectorship, but was made dean of the 
faculty of theology. The dose of Melville's career in Scotland 
was at length brought about by James in characteristic fashion. 
In 1606 MelviUe and seven other clergymen of the Church of 
Scotland were summoned to London in order " that his majesty 
might treat with them of such things as would tend to settle the 
peace of the Church." The contention of the whole of these 
faithful, men was that the only way to accomplish that p\irpose 
was a free Assembly. Melville delivered his opinion to that 
effect in two long speeches with his accustomed freedom, and, 
having shortly afterwards written a sarcastic Latin epigram on 
some of the ritual practised in the chapel of Hampton Court, and 
some eavesdropper having conveyed the lines to the king, he 
was committed to the tower, and detained there for four years. 
On regaining his liberty, and being refused permission to return 
to his own country, he was invited to fill a professor's chair in the 
university of Sedan, and there he spent the last eleven years of his 
life. He died at Sedan in 1622, at the age of seventy-seven. 

See McCrics, Andrew Melville (cd. 1819); Andrew Lang, History 
of Scotland (1902). (D. Mn.) 

MELVILLE, ARTHUR (1858-1904), British painter, was born 
in Scotland, in a village of Haddingtonshire. He took up paint- 
ing at an early age, and though he attended a night-school and 
studied afterwards in Paris and Grez, he learnt more from 
practice and personal observation than from school training. 
The remarkable colour-sense which is so notable a feature of his 
work, whether in oils or in water-colour, came to him during his 



travels in Persia, Egypt and India. MelviUe, though < 
tively little known during his lifetime, was one of the ' 
powerful influences in contemporary art, especially in his broad 
decorative treatment with water-colour. Though his vivid 
impressions of colour and movement are apparently recorded 
with feverish haste, they are the result of careful deliberation 
and selection. He was at his best in his water-colours of Eastern 
life and colour and his Venetian scenes, but he also painted several 
striking portraits in oils and a powerful colossal composition of 
" The Return from the Crucifixion " which remained unfinished 
at his death in 1904. At the Victoria and Albert Miiseum is one 
of his water-colours, " The Little Bull-Fight— Bravo, Torol " and 
another, " An Oriental Goatherd," is in the Weimar Museum. 
But the majority of his pictures have been absorbed by private 
collectors. 

A comprehensive memorial exhibition of Melville's works was 
held at the Royal Institute Galleries in London in 1906. 

MELVILLE. HENRY DUNDAS, xST Viscount (X742-X811). 
British statesman, fourth son of Robert Dundas (1685-1753), 
lord president of the Scottish court of session, was bom at 
Edinburgh in '1742, and was educated at the high school and 
university there. Becoming a member of the faculty of advo- 
cates in 1763, he soon acquired a leading position at the bar; 
and he had the advantage of the success of his half-brother 
Robert (1713-1787), who had become lord president of the court 
of session in 1760. He became solicitor-general to Scotland in 
1766; but after his appointment as lord-advocate in 1775, he 
gradually relinquished his legal practice to devote his attention 
more exclusively to public business. In 1774 he was returned to 
parliament for Midlothian, and joined the party of Lord North; 
and notwithstanding his provincial dialect and ungraceful manner, 
he soon distinguished himself by his clear and argumentative 
speeches. After holding subordinate ofiices under the marquesi 
of Lansdowne and Pitt, he entered the cabinet in 1791 as home 
secretary. From 1794 to 1801 he was secretary at war under 
Pitt, who conceived for him a special friendship. In 1803 he 
was elevated to the peerage as Viscount Melville and Baion 
Dunira. Under Pitt in 1804 he again entered office as first k>rd 
of the admiralty, when he introduced numerous improvements 
in the details of the department. Suspicion had arisen, however, 
as to the financial management of the admiralty, of which 
Dundas had been treasurer between 1782 and x8oo; in 1802 t 
commission of inquiry was appointed, which reported in 1805. 
The result was the impeachment of Lord Melville in x8o6, on 
the initiative of Samuel Whitbread, for the misappropriation of 
public money; and though it ended in an acquittal, and iwthing 
more than formal negligence lay against him, he never again held 
office. An earldom was offered in 1809 but declined; and be died 
on the s8th of May 18x1. 

His son Robert, and Viscount Melville (1771-18SX), filled 
various political offices and was first lord of the admiialty from 
x8i2 to 1827 and from X828 to 1830; his name is perpetuated 
by that of Melville Soimd, because of his interest in Arctic 
exploration. His eldest son, Henry Du2n>AS, 3rd Viscount 
(i8oi>x876), a general in the army, played a distinguished part 
in the second Sikh War. 

See Hon. J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Amiy, vol hr. 
(1907). 

MELVILLE, HERMAN (1819-1891), American author, was 
bom in New York City on the 1st of August 1819. He shipped 
as a cabin-boy at the age of eighteen, thus being enabled to make 
his first visit to England, and at twenty-two sailed for a tong 
whaling cruise in the Pacific. After a year and a half he deserted 
his ship at the Marquesas Islands, on account of the cruelty of the 
captain; was captured by cannibals on the island of Nukahiva, 
and detained, without hardship, four months; was rescued by 
the crew of an Australian vessel, which he joined, and two yean 
later reached New York. Thereafter, with the exception of a 
passenger voyage around the worid in i860, Melville remained 
in the United States, devoting himself to literature—though for a 
considerable period (1866-1885) he held a post in the New York 
custom-house — and being perhaps Hawthorne's most intimate 



MELVILLE, JAMES— MEMBRANELLE 



the Etenry men of America. His writings are 
, and of varsring merit; his verse, patriotic and other, 
is totgotten; and his works of fiction and of travel are of irregular 
qec n t ioa. Nevertheless, few authors have been enabled so 
ffceij to introduce romantic personal experiences into their 
books: in his first work, Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life, or 
Fvm UomOu^ lUsidenu in a Valley of the Marquesas (1846), he 
d es cribed his escape from the cannibaJs; while in OmoOj a Narra- 
Um of Adoemtures in the Souik Seas (i847)> WhiU Jacket, or The 
WoHd w a Mar^f'War (1850), and especially Moby Dick, or Tke 
WkaU (1851), he portrayed seafaring life and character with 
vigrar and originality, and from a personal knowledge equal to 
that of Cooper, Marryat or Clark Russell. But these records of 
adventure were followed by other tales so turgid, eccentric, 
opinionative, and loosely written as to seem the work of another 
antbor. Mdville was the product of a period in American 
literatuxe when the fiction written by writers below Irving, Poe 
and Hawthorne was measured by humble artistic standards. He 
di ed in New York on the 38th of September 1891. 

MELVUIE, JAMES (1556-1614), Scottish reformer, nephew 
e( Andrew Melville (q.v.), was bom on the 26th of July 1556. He 
was edwated at Montrose and St Leonard's College, St Andrews. 
In 1574 he proceeded to the university of Glasgow, of which his 
vnde was principal, and within a year became one of the regents. 
When hb uncle was appointed, in 1580, principal of the New 
(liter, St Mary's) Coll^, St Andrews, he was transferred to the 
dair of Oriental languages there. For three and a half years 
k lect u red in the university, chiefly on Hebrew, but he had to 
flee to Berwick in May 1584 (a few months after his uncle's exile) 
to escape the attacks of his ecclesiastical enemy. Bishop Adam- 
Mo. After a short stay there and at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and 
again at Berwkk, he proceeded to London, where he joined some 
of the leaders of the Scottish Presbyterian party. The taking 
of Stirling Castle in 1585 having changed the political and 
ecclesiastical positions in the north, he returned to Scotland 
m November of that year, and was restored to his office at St 
Andrews. From 1586 to his death he took an active part in 
Grarch controversy. In 1589 he was moderator of the General 
Assembly and on several occasions represented his party in 
coaferences with the court. Despite his antagonism to James's 
qxscopal schemes, he appears to have won the king's respect. 
He answered, with his uncle, a royal summons to London in 
1606 for the discussion of Church policy. The uncompromising 
attitude of the kinsmen, though it was made the excuse for send- 
ing the elder to the Tower, brought no further punishment to 
James than easy detention within ten miles of Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. During his residence there it was made clear to him by 
the king's agents that he would receive high reward if he sup- 
ported the royal plans. In 16 13 negotiations were begun for his 
return to Scotland, but his health was broken, and he died at 
Berwkk in January 1614. 



Mdville has left ample materials for the history of his time from 

" andpoint, in (a) correspondence with his uncle 

, IS. in the library of the university of Edinburgh). 

ud (6) a diary (MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh). The 



latter is written in a vigorous, fresh style, and is especially direct in 

its descriptions of contemporaries. His sketch 01 John Knox at 

St Andrews is one of his best passages. 
As a writer of verse he compares unfavourably with his uncle. All 

his pieces, with the exception of a " Itbcllus supf^ex " to King James, 
are written in Scots. He translated a portion of the Zodiacus 
taae of Palincenius, and adapted some passages from Scaliger 
uader the titb of Description of the Spainyarts naturall. Hh 
Spiriimal Propine of a Pastour to his Peotde (1598). The Black BastUl, 
a lamentation for the kirk (161 1), Thrie may keip CounseU, pve 
Two. be away. The Belitfe of the Singing Soul, David's Tragique 
FtU, and a number of Sonnets show no originality and indifferent 
ttrhnical ability. 

The Diary was printed by the Bannatyne Club in i8?9, and 
by the Wodrow Society in 1842. Large portions of it arc incorpor- 
ated in David Calderwood's (1575-1650) History of the Kirk of 
Stadamd (firfet minted in 1678). For the life and times, see Thomas 
MCrie 8 Ufe of Andrew MdmUe, 

MSLVILLB, SIR JAMES (1535-1617), Scottish diplomatist 
and memoir writer, was the third son of Sir John Melville, laird 
of Raith in the county of Fife, who was executed for treason in 



103 

1548. One of his brothers was Robert, ist Baron Melville of 
Monimail (1527-1621). James Melville in 1549 went to 
France to become page to Mary Queen of Scots. Serving on the 
French side at the battle of St Quentin in 1557 Melville was 
wounded and taken prisoner. He subsequently carried out a 
number of diplomatic missions for Henry II. of France. On 
Mary's return to Scotland in 1561 she gave Melville a pension 
and an appointment in her household, and she employed him as 
special emissary to reconcile Queen Elizabeth to her marriage 
with Damley. After the murder of Damlcy in February 1567, 
Melville joined Lord Herries in boldly warning Mary of the danger 
and dis^acc of her projected marriage with Bothwell, and was 
only saved from the latter's vengeance in consequence by the 
courageous resolution of the queen. During the troubled times 
following Mary's imprisonment and abdication Melville con- 
ducted several diplomatic missions of importance, and won the 
confidence of James VI. when the king took the government into 
his own hands. Having been adopted as his heir by the reformer 
Henry Balnavcs, he inherited from him, at his death in 1579, the 
estate of Halhill in Fife; and he retired thither in 1603, refusing 
the request of James to accompany him to London on his acces- 
sion to the English throne. At Halhill Melville wrote the 
Memoirs of my oum Life, a valuable authority for the history of 
the period, first published by his grandson, George Scott, in 1683. 
Sir James Melville died at Halhill on the 13th of November 1617. 
By his wife, Christina Boswell, he had one son snd two daughters; 
the elder of these, Elizabeth, who married John Colville, Je jure 
3rd Baron Colville of Culross, has been identified with the 
authoress of a poem published in 1603, entitled Ane Codlie 
Dreame. 

See the Memoirs mentioned above, of which the most modem 
edition is that prepared by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club 
(Edinburgh, 1827). 

MBLVILL VAN CARNBEB, PIBTER, Baron (1816-1856), 
Dutch geographer, was born at the Hague on the 20th of May 
1 81 6. He traced his descent from an old Scottish family, 
originally, it is said, of Hungarian extraction. Destined for the 
navy, in which his grandfather Pieter Melvill van Cambee 
(i 743-1810) had been admiral, he imbibed a taste for hydro- 
graphy and cartography as a student in the college of Medemblik, 
and he showed his capacity as a surveyor on his first voyage to 
the Dutch Indies (1835). In 1839 he was again in the East, 
and was attached to the hydrographical bureau at Batavia. 
With the assbtance of documents collected by the old East 
India Company, he completed a map of Java in five sheets, 
accompanied by sailing directions (Amsterdam, 1842). He 
remained in the East till 1845 collecting materials for a chart of 
the waters between Sumatra and Borneo (two sheets, 1845 and 
1846). On his return to Holland he was attached to the naval 
department with the charge of studying the history of the 
hydrography of the Dutch East Indies. He also undertook, 
in connexion with P. F. von Sicbold, the publication of the 
Monitcur des Indcs, a valuable series of scientific papers, mainly 
from his own pen, on the foreign possessions of Holland, which 
was continued for three years. In 1850 Melvill returned to 
India as lieutenant of the first class and adjutant to Vice-Admiral 
van den Bosch; and after the premature death of this commander 
he was again appointed keeper of the charts at Batavia. In 
1853 he obtained exemption from active naval service that he 
might devote himself to a general atlas of the Dutch Indies. But 
in 1856 he fell a victim to climate, dying at Batavia on the 24th 
of October. In spite of delays in engraving, twenty-five sheets 
of the atlas were already finished, but it was not till 1862 that 
the whole plan, embracing sixty sheets, was completed by 
Lieut.-Colonel W. F. Versteeg. In 1843 Melvill received the 
decoration of the Netherlands Lion, in 1849 that of the Legion 
of Honour. 

MEMBRANELLE, an organ in Ciliate Infusoria {q.v.), a flat- 
tened assemblage of adherent cilia, like the plates of Ctcnophora 
{q.v.): such are arranged in a series in the adoral wreath of the 
Heterothrichaceae Oligotrichaceae and Hypotrichaccae and 
constitute the posterior girdle of Peritricha. 



I04 



MEMEL— MEMLINC 



, t town of Germany, in the kingdom of PnissiA, the 
most northerly town of the German empire, 91 m. by rail N.E. 
of Kdnigsberg, at the mouth of the Dange, and on the bank of a 
soimd, called the Memeler Tief, which connects the Kurische 
Haff with the Baltic Pop. (1905), 20,687. On the side next the 
tea the town is defended by a citadel and other fortifications, 
and the entrance to the harbour is protected by a lighthouse. 
Memel has been largely rebuilt since a destructive fire in 1854. 
It possesses iron-foundries, shipbuilding yards, breweries, 
distilleries, and manufactories of chemicals, soap and amber 
wares. By far the most important interest of the town, however, 
is iu transit trade in timber and the* grain and other agri- 
cultural products of Lithuania, and also herrings and other 
kinds of fish. The timber is brought by river from the forests of 
Russia, and is prepared for export in numerous saw-mills. The 
annual value of timber exported is above £1,000,000. A Prussian 
national memorial was unveiled here in the presence of the 
emperor William II. in September 1907. 

Ktempl wa4 {oundcd In 1353 fay Poppo von OEterna, grand master 
of the Teutonic OTd1^^, and was at fir^t caU«l New Dortmund and 
iitenrardi Ktemelburg. It boon acquired a considerable trade, and 
joined the Han^atic League. Duriiij^ the i^th^ t^th and t5th 
ctntufies it wa* repeatedly burped by it* hoAtiie neLgbbaurfi. the 
Lithuanian! and Pola. and in the t7lh ccntgry it remained for 
tome umtintht posstitica of Sweden. ]n 1757, and apm in [813* 
It wai octupipd by Russurt troops. After the battle of Jena, King 
Frederick Wiiliam Ml. retired 10 Mcrneh and here, in iBoj, a treaty 
was cci[idud{.>d between England and Prussia. The poet Simon 
Dach was a native of iMemer 

See J. Scmbritjki, Cescfackie dtr Hnii^kh prtussischen See- vnd 
Handtfisludi MJrmfJ (Memel, 1900) ; and MarKJ in /^ Jahrkundfri 
(McftieL l^ajj. 

MBMEL, or NiEiaN, a river of Russia and Prussia, rising in 
the middle of the Russian government of Minsk at an altitude of 
580 ft. and flowing generally west as far as Grodno. Thence it 
runs north to Kovno, separating Poland from Russia, and at 
Kovno it turns west again, still dividing Poland from Russia, 
until it enters the Prussian province of East Prussia, through 
which it flows west and north-west past Tilsit for a distance of 
70 m. and finally enters the Kurisches Haff by several arms. 
Of these, those principally used for navigation are the Russ, and 
iu chief branch the Atmat. The Russ is connected with the 
outlet of the Kurisches Haff at Memel by a canal, while another 
canal links the Gilge arm southward with the Pregel. Considerr 
able quantities of timber are floated down the Memel, and large 
amounts of com shipped down it and its navigable tributary 
the Viliya. The lowlands of Tilsit are protected against inun- 
dation by dikes. Total length of the river, 490 m.; area of its 
basin, 34.950 sq. m. It is navigable for large vessels as far as 
Grodno. 

See H. Keller, Memel, Pregel und Weichselstrom (a vols., Berlin, 
1900); and Schickert, Wasserwege und Deickwesen in der Memel- 
niederung (Kdnigsberg, 1901). 

MEMLINC, HANS (c. 1 430-1494), Flemish painter, whose art 
gave lustre to Bruges in the period of its political and commercial 
decline. Though much has been written respecting the rise and 
fall of the school which made this city famous, it remains a moot 
question whether that school ever truly existed. Like Rome or 
Naples, Bruges absorbed the talents which were formed and 
developed in humbler centres. Jan Van Eyck first gained repute 
at Ghent and the Hague before he acquired a domicile elsewhere, 
and Mcmlinc, we have reason to think, was a skilled artist 
before he settled at Bruges. The annals of the city are silent 
as to the birth and education of a painter whose name was in- 
accurately spelt by different authors, and whose identity was lost 
under the various appellations of Hans and Hausse, or Hemling, 
Memling, and Mcmlinc. But W. H. J. Wealc mentions a con- 
temporary document discovered in 1889, according to which 
Memlinc " drew his origin from the ecclesiastical principality of 
Mayence," and died at Bruges on the nth of August 1494- He 
probably served his apprenticeship at Maycncc or Cologne, and 
later worked under Rogier van der Weyden. He did not come 
to Bruges until about 1467. and certainly not as a wounded 
fugitive from the field of Nancy. The story is fiction, as is also 



the report that he was sheltered and cured by the HospitaUeit 
at Bruges, and, *o show his gratitude, refused payment for a 
picture he had painted. Memlinc did indeed paint for the 
Hospitallers, but he painted not one but many pictures, and be 
did so in 1479 and 1480, being probably known to his patrons of 
St John by many masterpieces even before the battle of Nancy. 

Memlinc is only connected with military operatioos in a 
mediate and distant sense. His name appears on a list of sub- 
scribers to the loan which was raised by Maximilian of Austria to 
push hostilities against France in the year X48a In 1477, when 
he is falsely said to have fallen, and when Charles the Bold was 
killed, he was under contract to furnish an altarpiece for the gild- 
chapel of the booksellers of Bruges; and this altarpiece, now 
preserved, under the name of the " Seven Griefs of Mary," in the 
gallery of Turin, is one of the fine creations of his riper age, and 
not inferior in any way to those of 1479 in the hospital of St John, 
which for their part are hardly less interesting as illustrative ci 
the master's power than the " Last Judgment " in the cathedral 
of Danzig. Critical opinion has been unanimous in assigning 
the altarpiece of Danzig to Memlinc; and by this it aflirms that 
Memlinc was a resident and a skilled artist at Bruges in 1473; for 
there is no doubt that the " Last Judgment " was painteid and 
sold to a merchant at Bruges, who shipped it there on board of a 
vessel bound to the Mediterranean, which was captured by a 
Danzig privateer in that very year. But, in order that Memlinc's 
repute should be so fair as to make his pictures purchasable, as 
this had been, by an agent of the Medici at Bruges, it is inctim- 
bent on us to acknowledge that he had furnished sufficient proofs 
before that time of the skill which excited the wonder of such 
highly cultivated patrons.* 

It is characteristic that the oldest allusions to pictures con- 
nected with Memlinc's name are those which point to relations 
with the Burgundian court. The inventories of Margaret of 
Austria, drawn up in 1524, allude to a triptych of the " God of 
Pity " by Rogier van der Weyden, of which the wings containing 
angels were by " Master Hans." But this entry is less impor- 
tant as affording testimony in favour of the preservation of 
Memlinc's work than as- showing his connexion with an older 
Flemish craftsman. For ages Rogier van der Weyden was ac- 
knowledged as an artist of the school of Bruges, until records of 
undisputed authenticity demonstrated that he was bred at Tour- 
nai and settled at Brussels. Nothing seems more natural than the 
conjunction of his name with that of Memlinc as the author of an 
altarpiece, since, though Memlinc's youth remains obscure, it is 
clear from the style of his manhood that he was taught in the 
painting-room of Van der Weyden. Nor is it beyond the limits 
of probability that it wa* Van der Weyden who received com- 
missions at a distance from Brussels, and first took his pupfl to 
Bruges, where he afterwards dwelt. The clearest evidence of 
the connexion of the two masters is that afforded by pictures, 
particularly an altarpiece, which has alternately been assigned 
to each of them, and which may possibly be due to their 
joint labours. In thi^ altarpiece, which is a triptych ordered 
for a patron of the house of Sforza, we find the style of Van der 
Weyden in the central panel of the Crucifbdon, and that of 
Memlinc in the episodes on the wings. Yet the whole piece 
was assigned to the former in the Zambeccari collection at 
Bologna, whilst it was attributed to the latter at the Middleton 
sale in London in 1872. At first, we may think, a closer re- 
semblance might be traced between the two artists than that 
disclosed in later works of Memlinc, but the delicate organization 
of the younger painter, perhaps also a milder appreciation of 
the duties of a Christian artist, may have led Memlinc to realise 
a sweet and perfect ideal, without losing, on that account, the 
feeling of his master. He certainly exchanged the asceticism 
of Van der Weyden for a sentiment of less energetic con- 
centration. He softened his teacher's asperities and bitter 
hardness of expression. 

In the oldest form in which Memlinc's style is displayed, or rather 
in that example which represents the Baptist in the gallery of 
Munich, wc arc supposed to contemplate an effort of the year 1470. 
The finish of this piece is scarcely surpassed, though tne subject 
is more imporunt, by that of the " Last Judgment " of i*^--- ^ 



MEMMINGEN— MEMNON 



105 




But tilt ^tttr li mmv fntFmtinjt tkan the formcf , bctrntite il tflU 
fcvw MMnliDC, long ahcr Rovifr's dcalh and hi^ OH'n KftWrncut 
ai Brug^, prE^served the tramtiona of JBcrHJ art which had been 
kbfp£i«d in tB* first put of the century by Rosier van dcr Weyd^n to 
tar " LjJt Judginent " of Bejunc AIJ that Mcmlinc did wa! to 
pof^ his fian^t-r'M. fuuiner of exmsivic strintn^ncy, and add to hi a 
Olbrr quaJltn * vcEvet KiftDHA of plgintnt, a dedicate tmn^^pasTnce 
of colottrSp iud yiddirh^ grace of blender formal Ttut tkich 4 beautiful 
vorfc u tht ** Last Judgment " of Danxie ^ould Have bctti imaght 
for tbe Italian nurkct is not nu-prLsing when we rec ticket that 
Dktufc^fAJicic^^ in ihd,t country were familiar with thtr bcautic* of 
Meifilinc'si curnpoiiEiont, as sHqwh in the prefFitrnce givm to thCTn 
W Hicb puix^liA^^^Tji as CardinaJ Gdmari and Card/nal Bcmbo at 
Vinacr, and tb« hc-^ds of the boujcr of Medici at Flonencc But 
liemUnc'i rcpiitaticn viu not conftiied to Italy or Flanders. The 
** UAdonnj a-nti Sq.int$ " whic^h pasfied out of the Duchatcl collection 
mto the eallcry of ilfcc L/iuvne^ the *' Vlfpn and Child " painted 
for Sir John Donne .and no«r at Chiitjwu'tht and other noble »peci- 
mcfia in ELneli^ and Ojnlinenl4l pKvJitc^ houses, show that hia work 
m^A MA widely Itnown jLiud jpprecbted av it <^uld be in the «tate 
of civiliatian of the i&th Century* It Mm* perhttpa not their sole 
attractJDo that they ^ve the most tender and delioitc pbsfiible 
ifflpersooatJOfLi <A the Mother of Chnit " that could suit the ta^te 
tit that aee in uny Eutopcan counti^'. But the pcjrtrait^ cf the 
iloaiirftv with whith they were mostly cumbtnedr were mofc charac- 
t(rL£iiCt ^nd probably inore i^markiible si likcnr^^rsi, than any 
(flat 3^femlinc 4 contemporaries could produce. Nor is it unreason' 
•ble 1-& thiak that hi& Auccei^ as a portTait painter, which is manifested 
baoitaBd bu:i4:3 a& well a:^ in altarpieces, waa of a kind lo react with 
4Jbrt *■ the Venetian jchool, which undoubtedly was affected by 
i^AirtiBlSty of Antanelk> da ^leuina for trans- Alpine typca studied 
IB rafoderk in Menilim:''« time. The portraits of Sir John Donne 
> and children in the Chatsworth altarpitce are not less 
J a^ fnodeli of drawing and Enl^ th^n as reined pre- 

I di per*oni ol distinction^ nor is any difference in this 

: to b^ [ound in the splendid groups of father, mother, nnd 
A libitth fill t^ noble altarpiece of the Lauvre. As sinele 
pnlTuts, tbe bu^s of Burpomoiter Moreel ;ind his wife in tlie 
naarum ol Bruf^H^teiv and their daughter the ** Sibyl Zfirnbetha " 
^roordio^ to the added description) in the hoswlal at Bruges, tire 
tbc &fie« and mo« interesting of spedmens. The " Seven Grief j 
il liary " in the gallery of Tunn, to which we may add ihe " Seven 
Jf4^ U Mary " in the Pinakothck of Munich, are illu«tra lions of 
tie hftbit whicb dune to the art of Flanderi of r^Fnt^nling a e)-tle 
rf subjects on the diBcr^nt pUnes of a single picturtt wh*fe a wide 
npuw of ground ij coven^ with incidents from the Passon in 
l^fons ccmmon to the action of sacred playa. 

The ma^erpicce of MemUnc't later yearo^ m. shrine conblimng 
tdks of St L'rsula in the museum of the hospital of Bruera, is fairly 
raMRoed to Haw been ordered and finished in l^So. The delicacy 
n( uiikh in \\i miniature figures, the ^-ariety of its landficapes and 
^sntuine. the marvellous pnticnce with which Its dL-tails are given, 
tR all ra^iters of enjoy nient to the spectator. There is later 
cwk of The master in the " St Christopher and Siints ''of l^Si in . 
tie Acuiemy^ or the Newcnhoven *' %Iadonna " in the hospital of 
Brvfo, or » Uf^e *' Crucifixion/' with scenes from the Ptassion, 
ti \^i m. the <^thedral of Liibeck. ^ Bgt as we near the cloiic of 
Metyinc's career m-c obaer\'e that his practice has become kir|;er 
1}^ he can romfjons alone; and. as usual in such cases, the labour 
of diaciples^ is !iub«cUut«J for hi:t own* Thc^ registers of the painters^ 
EXfpefBtkHi at BruEcs give the names of two apprentices who »er,'ed 
tietr time with Mcmlinc and paid dues on admission to ihc g:ild In 
(4*0 and i4aGw Th&it suburdinaTe^ rem«ained obscure* 

J%t trad£a of hu will appeared before the court of wards at 
Bmtes on tlie loch of December 1^95, and we ^ther from records 
sT E&at date Btvd plac« that Memliix: left behind Kveial children 
lad a coBSiderBble ptoperty- 

AuTHOMTtES.— A, XiSichie!^, Memiimt tti tu ti Jis oidri-gei (Vet- 
»fe^ i*4t); T- Gaederti, Hsni Mtrnhng uTtd dtism AiiarickfeiK im 
Omn Bt ijihrck (Leipfig, i&Bj); |ules du Jardin^ ViU^le di Bruges, 
IC«f Mtmdingt ion trmps, isvierl ion irttvrf (Antwerpn tSaj) ; Ludwig 
£infRr^ M^mlms (Leipzig. !*»); W. HJ. Weale, mm Memlinc 
BiMrin^ I^tJ» Hbju Mfmhni: Bioersphy (BrugefH 190 1). 

0+ A, C-i P+ G* Kh) 
nUMIMGEM* a town of Germany, lo the kjnedcjiii of Bavstria^ 
M the Ach, a tributary ol the lUer. 35 m- S*W, of Augsburg on 
dk r^Iway la Ulm. Pop. (1905), ir,6i3. It ia partly surrounded 
*itb vaUi. ifid b^ tome interesting old gates and houses. It 
cQtLiaiixs tlir 6i)t Gothic ehurcb of St Martm, which contains 67 
beunifDlly curved cboir-staHs, and a town baH dating from about 
iSSo. It^ industrial producu are yam, calico, wooUcn goods, 
Itoead. A troD$idcrable trade Ls carried on in hops, whicb are 
mcQ^diy cultivated in the neighbourhood, and in cattle, wooli 
Imier and gram- 
Mem tnin^ien, 6r*t men tinned in a document of toto, btlflnged 
OffiiiAaEh' to the Guelf family, and later to the tfohcnat.iufcni. In 
mk it btcsiw a itta <My of Ihe epapint « pOiitioA which it jnaut- 



tftined down to 1803, when it was allotted to Bavaria. In 1331 it 
was a member of the league of Swabian towns; in IS30 it was one 
of the four towns whkh presented the Confessio iS^politcna to 
the emperor Ferdinand I. ; and a few years later it joined the league 
of Schmalkaldcn. During the Thirty Years' War it was alternately 
occupied by the Swedes and the imperialists. In May 1800 the 
French sained a victory over the Austrians near Memmingcn. 

See uobel, Memminten im ReformationsteitaUer X Augsburg, 
1 877-1 878), and Clauss, MemmingieH Ckronik, 1826-1892 (Menunin- 
gen, 1894). 

MEMMIUS, GAIUS Oncorrectly caUed GemeUuSi " The Twin "), 
Roman orator and pOet, tribune of the people (66 b.c.)> friend 
of Lucretius and Catullus. At first a strong supporter of Pompey, 
he quarrelled with him, and went over to Caesar, whom he had 
previously attacked. In 54, as candidate for the consulship, 
he lost Caesar's support by revealing a scandalous transaction 
in which he and his fellow candidate had been implicated (Cic. 
Ad AU.'iv. 15-18). Being subsequently condemned for illegal 
practices at the election, he withdrew to Athens, and afterwards 
to Mytilene. He died about the year 49. He is remembered 
chiefly because it was to him that Lucretius addressed the De 
rerum naiura, perhaps with thf idea of making him a convert to 
the doctrines of Epicurus. It appears from Cicero (Ad Fam. 
xiiL i) that he possessed an estate on which were the ruins of 
Epictinis' house, and that he had determined to build on the site 
a house for himself. According to Ovid (Trist. ii. 433) he was 
the author of erotic poems. He poissessed considerable oratorical 
abilities, but his contempt for Latin letters and preference 
for Greek models impaired his efficiency as an advocate (Cic. 
BnU, 70). 

Another Gaius Msimnn, tribune in iii B.C., attacked the 
aristocrats on a chaige of corrupt relations with J ugurtha. Memmius 
subseouently stood Tor the consulship in ^, but was slain in a riot 
stirred up by his rival the praetor Glauoa. Sallust describes him 
as an orator, but Cicero (De oratoret iL 59, 70) had a poor opinion 
of him. 

MEKNOK, in Greek mythology, son of Tithonus and Eos 
(Dawn), king of the Aethiopians. Although mentioned in 
Hesiod and the Odyssey, he is rather a post-Homeric hero. 
After the death of Hector he went to assist his uncle Priam 
against the Greeks. He performed prodigies of valour, but was 
slain by Achilles, after he had himself killed Antilochus, the son 
of Nestor and the friend of Achilles. His mother, Eos, removed 
his body from the field of battle, and it was said that Zeus, 
moved by her tears, bestowed immortality upon him. Accord- 
ing to another account, Memnon was en^iged in single combat 
with Ajax Telamonius, when Achilles slew him before his 
warriors had time to come to his aid (Dictys Cretensis iv. 6; 
Quintus Smymaeus ii.; Pindar, Pythia, vi. 31). His mother 
wept for him every morning, and the early dew-drops were said 
to be her tears. His companions were changed into birds, 
called Memnonides, which came every year to fight and lament 
over his grave, which was variously located (Ovid, Metam, xiii. 
576-622; Pausanias x. 31). The story of Memnon was the 
subject of the lost Aethiopis of Arctinus of Miletus; the chief 
source from which our knowledge of him is derived is the second 
book of the Posthomerica of Quintus Smymaeus (itself probably 
an adaptation of the works of Arctinus and Lesches), where his 
exploits and death are described at length. As an Aethiopian, 
Memnon was described as black, but was noted for his beauty. 
The fight between Achilles and Memnon was often represented 
by Greek artists, as on ^hc chest of Cjrpselus, and more than one 
Greek play was written bearing his name as a title. In later 
times the tendency Was to regard Memnon as a real historical 
figure. He was said to have built the royal citadel of Susa, 
called after him the Mcmnonion, and to have been sent by 
Teutamus, king of Assyria, to the assistance of his vassal Priam 
(Diod. Sic. ii. 22). In Egypt, the name of Memnon was con- 
nected with the colossal statues of Amenophis (Amcnhotcp) III. 
near Thebes, two of which still remain. The more northerly 
of these was partly destroyed by an earthquake (27 B.C.) and 
the upper part thrown down. A curious phenomenon then 
occurriwi. Every morning, when the rays of the rising sun 
touched the statue, it gave forth musical sounds, like the 



io6 



MEMNON OF RHODES— MEMPHIS 



moaning noise or the sharp twang of a harp-string. This was 
supposed to be the voice of Mention responding to the greeting 
of his mother Eos. After the restoration of the statue by Sep- 
timius Severus (a.d. 170) the sounds ceased. The tound, which 
has been heard by modem travellers, is generally attributed to 
the passage of the air through the pores of the stone, chiefly due 
to the change of temperature at sunrise. Others have held that 
it was a device of the priests. Strabo (xvii. S^i6), the first to 
mention the sound, declares that he himself heard it, and Pau- 
sanias (i. 42, 3) says " one would compare the sound most nearly 
to the broken chord of a harp or a lute" (Juvenal^ zv. 5, 
with Mayor's note; Tacitus, Annals, ii. 61). 

' The supporters of the solar thcorv Took upon Memnon as the son 
of the dawn, who, though he might vanish from sight for a time, 
could not be destroyed; hence the immortality bestowed upon him 
by Zeus. He comes from the cast, that is, the land of the rismg sun. 
(m early Creek vases he is represented as borne through the air; 
this is the sun making hb way to his place of departure in the west. 
Both Susa and Egyptian Thebes, where there was a Mcmnonion 
or temple in honour of the hero, were centres of sun-worship. 
" Eos, the mother of Memnon, is so transparently the morning, 
that her child must rise again as surely as the sun reappears to run 
his daily course across the heavens '' (G. W. Cox, Mythology and 
FoiUqre, p. 267). 



Lcpsit 

Edinb „ 

LexikoH dcr mythologu. 

MEMNON OP RHODES, brother of Mentor (q.v.), with whom 
he entered the services of the rebellious satrap Artabaxus of 
Phrygia, who married his sister. Mentor after the conquest of 
Egypt rose high in the favour of the king, and Memnon, who 
had taken refuge with Artabaziis at the Macedonian court, 
became a zealous adherent of the Persian king; he assisted 
Mentor in subduing the rebellious satraps and dynasts in Asia 
Minor, and succeeded him as general of the Persian troops. In 
the pseudo-Aristotelian Oeconomica^ ii. 28, stories are told of his 
methods of obtaining money and evading his obligations; thus 
he extorted a large sum of money from the conquered inhabitants 
of Lampsacus and cheated his soldiers out of a part of their pay. 
He owned a large territory in eastern Troas (Arrian i. 17, 8; 
Strabo xiii. 587). He gained some successes against Philip II. 
of Maccdon in 336 (Diod. xvii. 6; Polyaen. v. 44, 4, 5) and 
commanded the Persian army against Alexander's invasion. 
Convinced that it was impossible to meet Alexander in a pitched 
battle, his plan was to lay waste the coimtry and retire into the 
interior, meanwhile organizing resistance on sea (where the 
Persians were far superior to the Macedonians) and carrying 
the war into Greece. But his advice was overridden by the 
Persian satraps, who forced him to fight at the Granicus. After 
his defeat he tried to organize the maritime war and occupied 
the Greek islands, but in the beginning of 333 he fell ill and died 
(Arrian u. i, 1). (Ed. M.) 

MEMORANDUM OP ASSOCIATION, in English company law, 
a document subscribed to by seven or more persons associated 
for any lawful purpose, by subscribing to which, and otherwise 
complying with the requisitions of the Companies Acts in respect 
of registration, they may form themselves into an incorporated 
company, with or without limited liability (see Company). 

MEMORIAL DAT (or Decoration Day), a holiday observed 
in the northern states of the United States on the 30th of May, in 
honour of soldiers killed in the American Civil War, and espe- 
cially for the decoration of their graves with flags and flowers. 
Before the dose of the Civil War the 30th of May was thus 
celebrated in several of the southern states; in the North there 
was no fixed day commonly celebrated until 1868, when (on 
the 5th of May) Commander-in-Chief John A. Logan, of the 
Grand Army of the Republic, issued a general order designating 
the 30th of May 1868 " for the purpose of strewing with flowers 
or otherwise decorating the graves of comrades who died in 
defense of their country during the late rebellion "; Logan did 
this " with the hope that it will be kept up from year to year." 
In 1882 the Grand Army urged that the " proper designation of 
May 30 is Memorial Day "—not Decoration Day. Rhode Island 



made it a legal holiday in 1874, Vermont in 1876, and New HaiB|^ 
shire in 1877; and by 1910 it was a legal holiday in all the states 
and territories save Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Florida, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina 
and Texas. In Virginia the 30th of May is observed as a 
Confederate Memorial Day. The 3rd of June (the biithday of 
Jefferson Davis) is observed as Confederate Memorial Day in 
Louisiana and Tennessee; the 26th of April in Alabama, Florida, 
Georgia and Mississippi; and the loth of May in North Carolina 
and South Carolina. 

MEMPHIS, the capital of Egypt through most <^ iU eaily 
history, now represented by the rubbish moimds at BedresbEn 
on the W. bank of the Nile 14 m. S. of Cairo. As the chief seat 
of the worship of Ptah, the artisan god (Hephaestus), Memphis 
must have existed from a very remote time. But its greatness 
probably began with Mencs (q.v.), who united the kingdoms d 
Upper and Lower Egypt, and is said to have secured the site for 
his capital near the border of the two lands by diverting the 
course of the river eastward. Memphis was the chief dty of 
the zst npme of Lower Egypt; in iu eariy days it was known 
as " the white walls " or the " white wall," a name which clung 
to its citadel down to Herodotus's day. The residence here of 
Pepi I. of the Vlth Dynasty, as well as his pyramid in the 
necropolis, was named Mn-nfr, and this gradually became the 
usual designation of the whole dty, becoming Menfi, Membi in 
late Egyptian, ».e. Memphis. It was also called Hakeptah, 
" Residence of the ka of Ptah," and this name furnishes a possible 
origin for that of Egypt {Atyxnrrot). Various dynasties had their 
ancestral seats elsewhere and individual kings built their palaces 
and pyramids at some distance up or down the valley, but Mem- 
phis must have been generally the centre of the government' 
and the largest dty in Egypt until the New Empire (Dyns. 
XVIII.-XX.), when Thebes took the lead. In the succeeding 
period it regained its ancient position. The government of the 
Persian satrap was seated in Memphis. After the amquest of 
Alexander the dty quickly lost its supremacy to his new founda- 
tion, and although it remained the greatest native centre, its 
population was less than that of Alexandria. In the time of 
Strabo (xvii. 807) it was the second dty of Egypt, inferior 
only to Alexandria, and with a mixed population like the latter. 
Memphis was still important though declining at the time of 
the Moslem conquest. Its final fall was due to the rise oi the 
Arabic dty of Fostftt on the right bank of the Nile almost oppo> 
site the northern end of the old capital; and its ruins, so far as 
they still lay above ground, gradually disappeared, being used 
as a quarry for the new dty, and afterwards for Cairo. The 
remains of " Menf " were still imposing late in the xath century, 
when they were described by *Abdallatif. Now the ruins of 
the dty, the great temple of Ptah, the dwelling of Apis, and the 
palaces of the kings, are traceable only by a few stones among 
the palm trees and fields and heaps of rubbish. But the necro- 
polis has been to a great extent protected by the accumtilations 
of blown sand. Pyramids of the Old and Middle kingdoms 
form a chain 20 m. long upon the edge of the valley from Giaa 
to Dahshur. At Saqqara, opposite Memphis itself, the step- 
pyramid of Zoser of the IlIrd Dynasty, several pyramids of 
the Vth and Vlth Dynasties, and innumerable mastaba-tombs 
of the Old Kingdom, are crowded together in the cemetery. 
Later tombs are piled upon and cut through the old one^ One 
of the chief monuments is the Serapeum or sepulchre of the A|ms 
bulls, discovered by Mariette in 1851. From 1905 J. £. Quibcll 
was charged by the Service dcs Antiquity solely with the 
excavations in this vast necropolis. His prindpal discovery 
has been the extensive remains of the Coptic monastery <rf 
St Jeremias, with remarkable sculptures and frescoes. Flinders 
Petrie began the systematic exploration of the ruins of Bed- 
reshSn, and in three seasons cleared up much of the topography 
of the ancient dty, identifying the mound of the dtadd and 
palace, a foreign quarter, &c. Among his finds not the least 
interesting is a large series of terra-cotta heads representing 
the characteristic features of the foreigners who thronged the 
bazaars of Memphis.- They date from the Persian rule down to 



MEMPHIS— MENA, JUAN DE 



the Ptofenuuc period and are evidently modelled by Greek 
voffJunen. In the Old Testament Memphis is mentioned under 
the names of Moph (Hos. ix. 6) and Noph (Isa. xiz. 13; Jer. ii. 
16; £zek. zxz. IS, 16). 

See f. de Morgan. CarU de la tUeropoU mempkiU (Cairo. 1897): 
Ba edek er's Egypt; J. E. Quibell. Exaaatums at Saoqara (2 vols.. 
Cairo, 190&-1909); W M. Flinders Petrie, Mempku I. and The 
PaUe9 cfApna {Mempku J J.) (London, 1909). (F. Ll. G.) 

MEMPHIS, a port of entry and the largest dty of Tennessee, 
U.S^, and the county-seat of Shelby county, on the Mississippi 
river, in the S.W. comer of the sute. Pop. (i860), 22,623; 
(1870), 40,226; (1880), 33.592; (1890), 64,49s; (1900), 102,320, 
of vhom 51 10 were foreign-bom and 49>9io were negroes; 
(1910 census) 131,105. It is served by the Chicago, Rock 
Island ft Padfic, the St Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois 
Central, the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville, the Nashville, 
(Hiattaiiooga ft St Louis, the St Louis South-Westem, the St 
Louis. Iron Mountain & Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi 
Valley railways, and by steamboats on the Mississippi. The 
river b qsanned here by a cantilever railway bridge 1895 ft. long, 
completed in 1892. The dty is finely situated on the fourth 
Chickasaw Bluffs, more than 40 ft. above high water; the streets 
•re broad, well paved and pleasantly shaded; and a broad levee 
overlooks the river. In Court Square, in the heart of the dty, 
are many fine old trees and a bust of President Andrew Jackson, 
h 1909 the dty had about 1000 acres of parks and xi} m. of 
paikways, besides two race-courses. Overton Park has beautiful 
phygiounds and a good zoological collection. Five miles from 
Uemfdits is a National Cemetery. Among the prominent build- 
ings are the United States Government building, the county 
(joort house. Cotton Exchange, Business Men's Club, Goodwyn 
lottitate, containing an auditorium and the public library, the 
CoiBett Free Library, Grand Opera House, Lyceum Theatre, 
Auditorium, Gayoso Hotd, Memphis Evening Sdmitar building, 
Uk Union and Planters' Bank and Trust Company building, 
Equtabie buOding, Memphis Trust building, Tennessee Trust 
boSding, the Bank of Commerce, Woman's building (containing 
offices for business women). Masonic Temple, Odd Fellows' 
boOding and the 0>mmerdal Appeal building. Among educa- 
tional mstitutions are the College of Christian Brothers (Roman 
Catholic, opened in 187 1), Memphis Hospital Medical College, 
CoCege of Physicians and Surgeons, Hannibal Medical College 
kt negroes and Le Moyne Normal Institute, also for negroes. 
Uemplus is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishopric. The 
dty is supplied with water from more than eighty artesian wells, 
htving an average depth of about 400 ft. 

Owing to its situation at the head of deep water navigation 
M the Mississippi, Memphis has become a leading commercial 
dty of the southern states; its trade in cotton, lumber, groceries, 
Boles and horses is especially large. The dty also manufactures 
large quantities of cotton-seed oil and cake, lumber, flour and 
fna-auH products, foundry and machine-shop products, confec- 
tionery, carriages and wagons, paints, furniture, bricks, dgars, 
kc. The Illinois Central and the St Louis & San Francisco 
oflways have woricshops here. The total value of the dty's 
Banufacturcs increased from $15,344,558 in 1890 to $i7>923,os9 
(*«4,a33»483 being factory product) in 1900, and to $21,346,817 
(factory product) in 1905, an increase of 50% over the value of 
tl»e factory product in 1900. 

(3iickasaw Blufis were named from the Chickasaw Indians, 
*ho were in possession when white men first came to the vidnity. 
Late in the 17th century the French built a fort on the site of 
Memphis, and during most of the i8th century thb site was held 
dther by the French or the Spanish. In 1797 it passed into the 
poaession of the United States. By a treaty of the 19th of 
October 18 18, negotiated by General Andrew Jackson and 
Ceaenl Isaac Shdby, the Chickasaws ceded all their claims 
cast of the Mississippi, and early in 1819 Memphis was laid out 
m accordance with an agreement entered into by John Overton 
(1766-1833), Andrew Jackson and James Winchester (1752- 
1826), the proprietors of the land. Its name was suggested 
bxMs the similarity of its situation on the Blississippi to that of 



107 

the Egyptian dty on the Nile. Memphis was incorporated as 
a town in 1827, and in 1849 was chartered as a dty. Near 
Memphis, on the 6th of June 1862, a Union fleet of 9 vessels 
and 68 guns, under Commander Charles Henry Davis (1807-77), 
defeated a Confederate fleet of 8 vessels and 28 guns under 
Commander J. £. Montgomery after a contest of little more than 
one hour, three of the Confederate vessels being destroyed and 
four of them captured, and from this victory until the dose of 
the war the city was in possession of the Union forces. In 
August 1864, however, a Confederate force under General N. B. 
Forrest raided it and captured several hundred prisoners. The 
decrease of population between 1870 and 1880 was due to the 
ravages of yellow fever in 1873, 1878 and 1879. The epidemic 
of 1873 resulted in over two thousand deaths, and that of 1878 
in a total of 5x50, of whom 4250 were whites and 900 negroes. 
At the return of the fever in 1879 better care and strict quaran- 
tine arrangements prevailed, but there were 497 deaths. During 
the epidemics of 1878 and 1879 fully two-thirds of the popula- 
tion fled from the dty, many of whom died of the fever at other 
places, and a still larger number did not return. For three 
months during each year business was suspended, and all ingress 
or egress except for the most necessary purposes was forbidden. 
The city was left almost bankrupt, and as a means of relief the 
legislature of the state in January 1879 repealed the dty's charter, 
and, assuming txdusive control of its taxatioaand finances, con- 
stituted it simply a " taxing district," pladng its government in 
the hands of a " legislative council." This anomalous proceeding 
was declared constitutional by the supreme court of Tennessee. 
Subsequently the streets were cleansed and repavcd, an improved 
sewer system was put in operation, and the water supply was 
obtained from artesian wells. In 1891 a new dty charter was 
obuincd, and in 1907 the "Houston plan" (see Houston, 
Texas) was adopted for Memphis by the state legislature. The 
act, however, was declared unconstitutional by the state supreme 
court, on the ground that it would force elected officers out of 
office before the expiration of their constitutional terms; and in 
1909 a new charter on the Houston plan was adopted by the 
legislature, to become effective on the ist of January 1910, 
providing for a government by five commissioners, each having 
charge of a separate departmenL 

See J. M. Kcatine. History of the City of Memthis and Shelby 
County, Tennessee (S>Tacuse, 1888); James Phelan, History of 
Tennessee (Boston, 1889). 

MENA, JUAN DE (141X-1456), Spanish poet, was bom at 
C6rdova in 1411. In his twenty-fourth year he matriculated 
at the university of Salamanca, and studied later at Rome. 
His scholarship obtained for him the post of Latin secretary at 
the court of Castille; subsequently he became historiographer 
to John II. and magistrate at C6rdova. According to the 
Epicedio of Valerio Francisco Romero, Mena died from natural 
causes in 1456; popular tradition, however, ascribes his death 
to a fall from his mule. Though nominally the king's chronicler, 
Mena had no share in the Crdnica de Don Juan II. \ the statement 
that he wrote the first act of the Cclestina (g.v.) is rejected; but 
three authentic specimens of bis cumbrous prose exist in the com- 
mentary to his dull poem entitled La Coronacion or Calamacileos, 
in the Iltada en romance (on abridged version of Homer), and in 
the unpublished Memories de aigunos linajes antiguas i nobles de 
Castilla. He is conjectured to be the author of the satirical 
Coplas de la panadera; but, ajiart from the fact that, these verses 
arc ascribed by Argote de Molina to liiigo Ortiz de Z6fiiga, 
they arc instinct with a tart humour of which Mena was destitute. 
His principal work is his allegorical poem, El Laberinto de 
Fortuna, dedicated to John II.; in the oldest manuscripts it 
consists of 297 stanzas, but three more stanzas were added to it 
later, and hence the alternative, popular title of Las TrezietUas. 
The Laberinto is modelled on Dante, and further contains remin- 
iscences of the Roman de la rose, as well as episodes borrowed 
from Virgil and Lucan. It is marred by excessive emphasis and 
pedantic diction, and the arte mayor measure in which it is 
written is monotonous; but many octaves are of such excellence 
that the arte mayor metre continued in fashion for nearly a 



io8 



MENA, PEDRO DE— MENAHEM 



century. The poem, as a whole, is tedious;' yet its dignified 
expression of patriotic spirit has won the admiration of Spaniards 
from Cervantes' time to our own. 

A critical edition of the Laberinto has been issued by R. Foulch6- 
Delboac (Mftcon, 1904). 

MENA, PEDRO DB (d. 1693), Spanish sculptor, was bom 
in Adra. He was a pupil of his father as well as of Alonzo Cano. 
His first conspicuous success was achieved in work for the con- 
vent El Angel at Granada, including, figures of St Joseph, 
St Antony of Padua, St Diego, St Pedro Me&ntara, St Frandscus 
and Santa Clara. In 1658 he signed a contract for sculptural 
work on the choir stalls of the cathedral at Malaga— this work 
extending over four years. Other works are, statues of the 
Madonna and child and of St Joseph in Madrid, the polychro- 
matic figures in the church of St Isodoro, the Magdalena and the 
Gertrudis in the church of St Martin (Madrid), the crucifixion 
in the Nuestra Sefiora de Grada (Madrid), the statuette of St 
Frands of Assisi in Toledo, and of St Joseph in the St Nicholas 
church in Murda. Between 1673 and 2679 Mena worked at 
Cordova. About z68o he was in Granada, where he executed 
a half-length Madonna and child (seated) for St Pominicos. Mena 
died in Malaga in 1693. He and Mora {q.v.) may be regarded as 
artistic descendants of Montaf&es and Alonzo Cano, but in tech- 
nical skill and the expression of religious motive his statues are 
unsurpassed in the sculpture of Spain. His feeling for the nude 
was remarkable. Like his immediate predecessors he excdled in 
the portrayal of contemplative figures and scenes; Mena's 
drawing of Santiago leaping upon his charger is good, and the 
carving admirable, but the necessary movement for so spirited 
an action is lacking. 

See B. Haendcke, Studien nr Geschichk.der spanischeu Plastik 
(Strassburg, 1900). 

MENABREA, LUIGI FEDERICO, Marquis of Valdora (1809- 
1896), Italian general and statesman, was bom at Chamb^ry on 
the 4th of September 1809. He was educated at the university 
of Turin, where he qualified as an engineer and became a doctor 
of mathematics. As an officer of engineers he replaced Cavour 
in 1 83 1 at the fortress of Bardo. He then became professor of 
mechanics and construction at the military academy and at the 
university of Turin. King Charies Albert sent him in 1848 on 
diplomatic missions to secure the adhesion of Modena and Parma 
to Sardinia. He entered the Picdmontese parliament, and was 
attached successively to the Ministries of War and Fordgn 
Affairs. He bdonged to the right centre, and until the events 
of 1859 he believed in the possibility of a compromise between the 
Vatican and the state. He was major-general and commander- 
in-chief of the engineers in the Lombard carapai^ of 1859. 
He superintended the siege works against Peschiera, was present 
at Palestro and Solfcrino, and repaired the fortificatiomi of 
some of the northem fortresses. In i860 he became lieutenant- 
general and conducted the siege of GaeU. He was appointed 
senator and received the title of count. Entering the Ricasoli 
cabinet of 1861 as minister of marine, he hdd the portfolio of 
public works until 1864 in the succeeding Farini and Minghetti 
cabinets. After the war of 1866 he was chosen as Italian 
plenipotentiary for the negotiation of the treaty of Prague and 
for the transfer of Venetia to Italy. In October 1867 he suc- 
ceeded Rattazzi in the premiership, and was called upon to deal 
with the difficult situation created by Garibaldi's invasion of the 
Papal Sutes and by the catastrophe of Mentana. Menabrea 
disavowed Garibaldi and instituted judicial proceedings against 
him; but in negotiations with the French govenmient he pro- 
tested against the retention of the temporal power by the pope 
and insisted on the Italian right of interference in Rome. He 
was in the secret of the direct negotiations between Victor 
Emanuel and Napoleon UI. in June 1869, and refused to enter- 
tain the idea of a French alliance unless Italy were allowed to 
occupy the Papal Slates, and, on occasion, Rome itself. On the 
eve of the assembly of the Oecumenical Council at Rome Mena- 
brea reserved to the Italian government its right in respect of 
any measures directed against Italian institutions. He with- 
drew from seminary studenU in 1869 the exemption from mili- 



tary service which they had hitherto enjoyed. Througibottt Ik 
term of office he was supported by the finance minister Count 
Cambray Digny, who forced through parliament the grist tax 
proposed by Quintino Sella, though in an altered form from the • 
earlier proposal. After a series of changes in the cabinet, and 
many crises, Menabrea resigned in December 1869 on the dectioo 
of a new chamber in which he did not command a majority. He 
was made marquis of Valdora in 1875. His successor in the 
premiership, Giovanni Lanza, in order to remove him from hit 
influential position as aide-de-camp to the king, sent him to 
London as ambassador, where he remained until in i88a he 
replaced General Cialdini at the Paris Embassy. Ten yean 
later he withdrew from public life, and died at Saint Capin on 
the a4th of May 1896. 

MmiAGB, GILLES (16x3-1693), French scholar, eon of 
Guillaume Manage, king's advocate at Angers, was bom in that 
dty on the xsth of August 1613. A tenadous memory and an 
early enthusiasm for learning carried him speedily through his 
literary and professional studies, and he practised at the bar at 
Angers as early as 1632. In the same year he pleaded several 
causes before the parlcment of Paris, but iUness induced him to 
abandon the legal profession for the church. He became prior 
of Montdidier without taking holy orders, and lived for some 
years in the household of Cairdinal de Rets (then coadjutor to 
the archbishop of Paris), where he had leisure for literary pur- 
suits. Some time after 1648 he quarrelled with his patron and 
withdrew to a house in the doister of Notre-Dame, where he 
gathered round him on Wednesday evenings those literary 
assemblies which he called " Mcrcwiaks" Chapdain, PeUitton, 
Conrart, Sarrazin and Du Bos were among the habituis. He was 
admitted to the Delia Cruscan Academy of Florence, but his 
caustic sarcasm led to his exdusion from the French Academy. 
M6nage made many enemies and suffered under the satire of 
Boileau and of Moli^. Moli&e immortalized him as the 
pedant- Vadius in Les Femmes savanUs, a portrait Mteage 
pretended to ignore. He died in Paris on the a3rd of 
July 1692. 

Of his works the following may be mentioned: PoemtUa laUna, 
Mllica, graeca, et italica (16^6); Origini ddla lingua iUdiana (1669): 
Dictionnaire itymologique (1650 and 1670): Obsenatunu sw la 
langue fratiiaise (1672-1676), and Anti-BaUiel (1690). 

MENAGERIE, a collection of wild animals kept for show or 
exhibition. The word is particularly appUed to travelling 
exhibitions of wild animals, attached to a drcus or other show, 
" zoological gardens "(q.v.) being the term generally applied to 
large stationary and permanent exhibitions, arranged on a 
sdentific system. The French mtnagerie (from minage, O. Fr. 
mesnage, Lat. mansionoiicum, piansio, house, d. ** nuCnage ") 
originally meant the administration of a household or farm, with 
spedal reference to the live stock.* 

MENAHEM (Hebrew for " consoler "), a king of Israd. He 
was the son of Gadi {i.e. perhaps, a man of Gad), and during the 
disturbances at the death of Jeroboam II. seized the t^ooe 
and reigned ten years (2 Kings xv. 14-18). The scene of hii 
revolt was Tirzah, the old seat of the kings of Israd between 
Jeroboam I. and Omri (which period the present closely 
resembles), and it was only after perpetrating namdess cnidtics 
at Tappuah* on the border of Ephraim and Mannasseh that the 
coimter revolt of Sballum, son of Jabesh (perhaps a Gileadite), 
was suppressed. Towards the end of his reign Tiglath- 
Pileser IV. marched against north Syria, and among 
his tributaries mentions Menahem* together with Rezin 
of Damascus, and kings of Tyre, Gebal, &c (c. 738 B.C.). 
According to the Old Testament ' account the Assyrian king 
even advanced against Israd, and only withdrew in con- 
sideration of a tribute amounting to about £400,000. A 
thousand talents {i.e. about 3,000,000 shekels) was raised by 
assessing every wealthy person at 50 shekels. The act was 
hardly popular, and the internal troubles which he had quell^ 
. * Scarcely Tiphsah (2 Kings xv. 16) on the Euphrates. 

'The idcntihcation of the Israelite king with Me-ni-hi-(im)-nrf 
of Sa-me-ri-na-ai on the Ass. inscription has been unneoesttrily 
doubted. 



MENAI STRAITS— MENANDER 



109 



broke out again at or diortly after his death. The Gileadites 

again conspired, and having slain his son Pekahiah set up Pekah 

the 90D of Rcmaiiah in his place.*. This meanta return to an 

anti-.^sayri an p olicy. (Sec Ahaz.) (S. A. C) 

• HEHAI STRAITS* a channel of the Irish Sea, separating 

Angiesea from Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, extending 14 m. from 

Beaumaris to Abennenai, and varying in breadth from 300 yds. 

to 2 m. It is famous for the suspension and tubular bridges 

vhkh cross it. The suspension bridge carries the Holyhead 

road from Bangor. Designs were prepared by T. Telford. It 

was begun in 1819; the first chain carried over in April 1825; 

the last in July of the same year, and the bridge opened to the 

public the 30th of January 1826. The cost was £120,000. The 

length of the chains (from rock-fastenings) is 171 5 ft., and be- 

t«wa the piers 590 ft.; the length of the roadway between the 

piers b 550 fL and the total roadway length 1000 ft.; the height 

of the roadway from the spring tide high-water levd is 100 ft.; 

the breadth of the roadway including two carriage-ways and a 

footpath is 30 fL The sixteen suspending chains are carried 

60 ft. through rock. Their sustaining power has been calculated 

at 3016 tons, while the whole weight of the suspended part of 

the bridge is only 489 tons. During a gale a slight oscillation 

is Dotkeable on the bridge itself and from the shore. The 

tcbular bridge carries the London & North Western railway. 

Here the channel is about iioo ft. wide, and divided in the 

middle by the Britannia Rock, bare at low water. The tide 

generally rises 20 ft., with great velocity. The principal mcasure- 

Bcnts are: each abutment 176 ft.; from abutment to side 

toircr, 230 ft.; from side tower to central tower, 460 ft.; breadth 

of each side tower at road-Ievd, 32 ft.; breadth of centre tower, 

43 ft. 5 in. The total length of the roadway is 1841 ft. 5 in. 

Tie Britannia tower measures at its base 62 by 52) ft.; with a 

lotil height of 230 ft. There are loi ft. between the sea at 

lugh tide and the bridge roadway bottom. The limestone used 

b from Penmon, 4 m. from Beaumaris. Four stone lions 

otnchant guard the approaches to the bridge. The first tube 

of the tubular bridge was deposited in its place on the 9tb of 

^'o^-ember 1849, the last on the 13th of September 1850. The 

total cost was £621,865. The engineer of the tubular bridge was 

Robert Stephenson, who was assisted by Sir William Fairbairn 

ajtd Eaton Hodgkinson. 

■EHAM« or Me Nam (literally the " mother water " or 
" nuio river ")> a river of Siam, the chief highway of the interior, 
OQ whose yearly rise and fall depends the rice crop of Lower 
Si2m. Rising in the Lao or Siamese Shan state of Nan, at a 
^o^ of X400 ft. upon the shoulders of the mountain mass of 
Doi Luang, it is first known as the Nam Ngob, after a village of 
tbt name. As the Nam Nan, still a mountain stream, it flows 
southward through the state so named between high forested 
nftg£s,and, notwithstanding the frequent rapids along its course, 
(be aatives use it in dug-outs for the transport of hill produce. 
From Utaradit, where it leaves the hills of the Lao country, it 
ft/vi southward through the plain of Lower Siam, and is navi- 
pUe for flat-bottomed native craft of considerable capacity. 
I: is here known as the Nam, or Mcnam Pichai. Below Pichai 
the tiytT flows through forest and swamp, the latter providing 
vast overflow basins for the yearly floods. Thousands of tons 
of ish are caught and cured here during the fall of the river after 
the rains. Bdow Pitsunalok the waters of the Menam Yom, 
the hstoric river of Siam, upon which two of its ancient capitals, 
Savankalok and Sukotai. were situated, meander by more than 
one tortuous clayey channel to the main river, and combine to 
farm the Nam Po. At Paknam Po the main western tributary 
oocacs in, the shallow Me Ping, the river of Raheng and Chicng 
Mai, bringing with it the waters of the Me Wang. As the chief 
daty-flation for teak, which is floated in large quantities down 
s3 the upper branches of the river and as a place of transshipment 
for boats, Paknam Po is an important and growing town. 
Frca this point southwards the river winds by many channels 

' The dmmoloffy in xv. 2, 23, 32, appears to confuse Pckah and 
PekaJuah, and the view has been held that they were originally 
OK aad the lame: cf. Cheyne, Ency. Bib., col. 3643. 



through the richest and most densely populated portion of Siam. 
About Chainat the Tachin branches oflf, forming the main 
western branch of the Menam, and falling into the gulf at a 
point about 24 m. west of the bar of the main or Bangkok 
river. At Ayuthia., another of the ancient capitals of Siam, the 
Nam Sak flows in from the north-east, an important stream 
affording communication with the rich tobacco district of Pecha- 
bun, and draining the western slopes of the Korat escarpment. 

MENANDER (342-291 B.C.), Greek dramatist, the chief repre- 
sentative of the New comedy, was born at Athens. He was the 
son of well-to-do parents; his father Diopeithes is identified by 
some with the Athenian general and governor of the Thracian 
Chersonese known from the speech of Demosthenes De Cker- 
soneso. He doubtless derived his Caste for the comic drama 
from his uncle Alexis [q.v.). He was the friend and associate, 
if not the pupil, of Theophrastus, and was on intimate terms 
with Demetrius of Phalerum. He also enjoyed the patronage 
of Ptolemy Soter, the son of Lagus, who invited him to his 
court. But Menander, preferring independence and the com- 
pany of his mistress Glycera in his villa in the Peiraeus, refused. 
According to the note of a scholiast on the Ibis of Ovid, he was 
drowned while bathing; his countrymen built hitn a tomb on 
the road leading to Athens, where it was seen by Pausanias. A 
well-known statue in the Vatican, formerly thought to represent 
Marius, is now generally supposed to be Menander (although 
some distinguished archaeologists dispute this), and has been 
identified with his statue in the theatre at Athens, also mentioned 
by Pausanias. 

Menander was the author of more than a hundred comedies, 
but only gained the prize eight times. His rival in dramatic 
art and also in the affections of Glycera was Philemon {q.v.), 
who appears to have been more popular. Menander, however, 
believed himself to be the better dramatist, and, according to 
Aulus Gellius, used to ask Philemon: ** Don't you feel ashamed 
whenever you gain a victory over me? " According to 
Caecilius of Calacte (Porphyry in Euscbius, Praep. nan. x. 3, 13) 
he was guilty of plagiarism, his Aetat^oIpKov being taken bodily 
from the Oitaviariii of Antiphancs. But, although he attained 
only moderate success during his lifetime, he subsequently 
became the favourite writer of antiquity. Copies of his pbys 
were known to Suidas ^d Eustathius (loth and nth centuries), 
and twenty-three of them, with commentary by Psellus, were 
said to have been in existence at Constantinople in the i6th 
century. He is praised by Plutarch {Comparison of Menandtr 
and Aristophanes) and Quinlilian (Instil, x. 1. 69), who accepted 
the tradition that he was the author of the speeches published 
under the name Of the Attic orator Charisius. A great admirer 
and imitator of Euripides, he resembles him in his keen observa- 
tion of practical life, his analysis of the emotions, and his fondness 
for moral maxims, many of which have become proverbial: 
" The property of friends is common," " Whom the gods love 
die young," " Evil communications corrupt good manners " 
(from the ThaJs, quoted in i Cor. xv. 33). These maxims 
(chiefly monostichs) were afterwards collected, and, with addi- 
tions from other sources, were edited as "SUvLvSpov yvwuai 
tiovixTTixoi, a kind of moral textbook for the use of schools. 

Menander found many Roman imitators. The Eunuckus, 
Andria, Htautonlimorumcnos and Add phi of Terence (called 
by Caesar " dimidiatus Menander ") were avowedly taken from 
Menander, but some of them appear to be adaptations and combi- 
nations of more than one play; thus, in the Andria were combined 
Menander's 'Avbpla and UepivBta, in the Eunuckus the Eivovxot 
and K6Xa^, while the Add phi was compiled partly from Menan- 
der and partly from Diphilus. The original of Terence's Hecyra 
(as of the Phormio) is generally supposed to be, not Menander,' 
but Apollodorus of Carystus. The Bacchides and Stichus of 
Plautus were probably based upon Menander's Ai$ 'EfairaTwi' 
and *tXd5«X0oi, but the Ponitdus docs not seem to be from the 
Kapxv^vuK, nor the Mostdlaria from the ^k<nia, in spile of the 
similarity of titles. Caecilius Stalius, Luscius Lavinius, Tur- 
pilius and Atilius also imitated Menander. He was further 
credited with the authorship of some epigrams of doubtful 



no 



MENANDER 



authenticity; the letters addressed to Ptolemy Soter and the 
discourses in prose on various subjects mentioned by Suldas 
are probably spurious. 

Till the end of the iQth century, all that was known of Menander 
were the fragments collected by A. Mcineke (1855) and T. Kock, 
Comicorum atlicorum fragmenta, iii. (1888). They consist of some 
1650 verses or parts.of verses, in addition to a considerable number 
of words quoted expressly as from Menander. by the old lexico- 
graphers. Krom 1897 to 1907 papyri were discovered in different 
parts of Egypt, containing fragments of considerable length, 
amounting to some 1400 lines. In 1897, about eighty lines of the 
TtupTfiit', m 1899, fifty lines of the IIc/MKctpoM^n}; m 1903. one 
hundred lines (half in a very mutilated condition) from the K6Xa{; 
in 1906, two hundred lines from the middle of the II«^»uetpo^in}, 
the part previously discovered containing the dinouemenl; five 
hundred hncs from the 'Ertrpirotrrct, generally well preserved; 
sixty-three lines (the prologue, list of characters, and the first 
scene), from the 'Upat; three hundred and forty lines from the 
Zatila (the identification of the two last plays is not considered 
abinlute^Iy certain); and twenty lines from a.a unknown cotntdy. 
Subsequently, part of a third copy of the n^^M^ipo^i^jnT was fguctd 
in E^'pt. fiome one bufidred and forty lin^, half of which uxrc 
ainady known, while the remainder were new {Abhumilungen dtf 
k^if^.-iiiiLksiitheii Geitilichaft dtr Wisstmckajien^ Leipii^g}, i9oB. 

It U douhtfijl whether these fra^menCSt whkih are ot aufTiL^icnt 
length to allocti a basii for the confidcr^tion of the m^iirfta of 
Mtn^ndi^r a* a writer of comedies, justify the ^reat FepkiLatlon 
enjoyed by him in aiKicnt times. With the exception of a scene in 
the ^Er^r^i^ovttf. 'wHieh would appeal to the Ikigious Athenian** 
they contain little that is witty or hufnorous; there is little 
vaneiy in the charattcni, the situations are Conventional, and the 
plots, not ol a hiy^hly edifying ch^r-icter, are Uckifig in originality. 
Menander^s chief txcjcllencc* *ccm to be Jacility of Unguage. accurate 
portrayal of manncrsn and natumlne^s of th^ setitimcntt which he 
pjjts into the mouth of his dmrndtiE; (Kreonae. It is remarkable 
that the maxims^ which form the chkf part of The eariicr collections 
of fravmeEits, arc few in the later. 

On Mi?nandef generaUy sec manograph^ by C, Bencttt (1854 J and 
G^Cuiiot (IISSS): I Geffctjcn. J^^wtira tu M^mi^dfT (i8<)a); H, Llibkc. 
Menander und fttm K^ft4i (ifl^jh J. Dcni», Ltt C(>midi€ gretiitte 
(] SS6), vol. il. ; H. Weil, Eivdti Jwr tamiquU^ grttqutt (igoo). Editions 
of the Irarnicntfr; T^ttpyM, by J, Nicr»k% with tninstdiiion and notes 
(16^8} and by B, P* CrtMnUU and A, S. Hunt, with rcvi^d text and 
translation' (159B): the 'H|>wt. 'Ernrfi^lfCi^iT, ll*fi*^*ipofik*^, 2«Mfa, 
by G. Ldebvrt and M. Croiset> with iintrodurlion, noiea and 
tiranalatlon (Cairo, 1007) j J. van Lei'uwcit, with Latin noiea {2nt\ 
ed.» 190^); L. Bodin and V. Maion, Extraiii di Al^jtandrf 
ij^mia and Epiirfpimia, 1908}: £. Croisct. L'ArMraiiP, critical 
id, and translation (igpcsfi); C. Robert, Drr titttt Mftiattdfr {lent 
rec<»istnicted. i«j9}; Wilamowiu-MolkndorfT, " Der Menander 
von Kairo" in New Jnhrbiifhfffur das ki^ifsiitke Al{€r$um (iQOfl), 
pp. 34~^2» German Iran* by C^ RoU^rti Si^ntn am MtrnQfidrr 
(igoHj: English by Unus Multorum £1909!. Sec aUo Wilamowit^- 
orff. " Dcr Landmann da Menandr 



M6lkndori 



' Dcr Landmann da Menandros *' in Nrui Jakrinliher 



( i&Tjg), p. 5U : C [>i^ijt£ko> " Der inhall des Georgos von Menander," 
in khrtn. Mui. iiv, 497. I v. T&41; F. Lto. *' Der Ncue Menander " 
in JF/#fj«pj, xliii. 1 30; E* Cappt, " The Plot of Meitander's Epiire- 
ponU-i " in Amr7, /sum, f/ Fkihioiy ([90^), p, ^toi A, Krttscbmar. 
Dt Menandri kU&uHs ttufvr reprriis (1906): F. G, K^nyon in 
QtiHtiftly Rgnew (April. 1908); Tht Times Liitrary Supfikmeni 
f^pX. xOy 1907): AtJtertsftim (Oct. 33, 1*^7; Aug, I. igoS; Oct.ai, 
190^); and list of articles in periodicals in Van Lecuweni 
edition. U, H. F.) 

MEHANDER (ftfiLiNtsA), a Graem-rndian dynast. When the 
Gracco-Indian king Demetrius had been beaten by Eucratidcs 
of Bactria, about 160 B.C., and the kingdom of Eucratidcs 
(q.v.) dissolved after his assassination {c. 150 B.C.), a Greek 
dynasty maintained itself in the Kabul Valley and the Punjab. 
The only two kings of this dynasty mentioned by classical 
authors are Apollodotus and Menander, who conquered a great 
part of India. Trogus Pompcius described in his forty-first 
book (sec the prologue) " the Indian history of these kings, 
A[)ollodotus and Menander," and Strabo, xi. 516, mentions from 
Apollodotus of Artemita, the historian of the Parthians, that 
Menander "conquered more tribes than Alexander, as be 
crossed the Hypanls to the east and advanced to the Isamus; he 
and other kings (especially Demetrius) occupied also Patalene 
(the district of Patala near Hyderabad on the head of the delta of 
the Indus) and the coast which is called the district of Saraostes 
{U. Syrastene, in mod. Gujarat, Brahman Saurashtra) and the 
kingdom of Sigerdis (not otherwise known); and they extended 
their dominion to the Seres {i.e. the Chinese) and Phryni (?)." 
The last statement is an exaggeration, probably based upon the 
fact that from the mouth of the Indus trade went as far as China. 



That the old coins of Apollodotus and Menander, with Gret^ 
legends, were still in currency in Barygaza (mod. Broach), the 
great port of Gujarat, about a.d. 70 we are told by the Periplut 
maris Erythraci^ 48. We possess many of these coins, whkh 
follow the Indian standard and are artistically degenerate as 
compared with the earlier Graeco-Bactrian and Graeco^IndUii 
coins, with bilingual legends (Greek and Kharoshti, see Bactbia). 
Apollodotus, who must have been the earlier of the two kings, 
bears the titles SoUff Pkilopator^ and " Great King "; Menander, 
who must have reigned a long time, as his portrait is young on 
some coins and old on others, calls himself SoUr and " Just " 
{bUaun). Their reigns may be placed about 140-S0 B.C. 
Menander appears in Indian traditions as Milinda; he b praised 
by the Buddhists, whose religion he is said to have adopted, and 
who in the Milindapanha or Milinda PaAko (sec below), " the 
questions of Milinda " (Rhys Davids, Sacred Books of the East, 
XXXV., xxxvi.) relate his discourses with the wise Nigasena. 
According to the Indians, the Greeks conquered Ayodhya and 
Pataliputra (Palimbothra, mod. Patna); so the conjecture of 
Cunningham that the river Isamus of Strabo is the Son, the great 
southern tributary of the Ganges (near Patna), may be true. 
The Buddhists praise the power and military force, the energjr 
and wisdom of " Milinda "; and a Greek tradition preserved by 
Plutarch (Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6) relates that " when Menander, 
one of the Bactrian kings, died on a campaign after a mild rule, 
all the subject towns disputed about the honour of his burial, 
till at last his ashes were divided between them in equal parts.** 
(The Buddhist tradition relates a similar story of the relics of 
Buddha.) Besides Apollodotus and Menander, we know from 
the coins a great many other Greek kings of western India, 
among whom two with the name of Straton are most con- 
spicuous. The last of them, with degenerate coins, seems to 
have been Hermaeus Soter. These Greek dynasts may have 
maintained themselves in some part of India till about 40 B.C. 
But at this time the west, Kabul and the Punjab were already 
in the hands of a barbarous dynasty, most of whom have Iranian 
(Parthian) names, and who seem therefore to have been of 
Arsacid origin (cf. Vincent A. Smith, "The Indo-Parthian 
Dynasties from about 120 B.C. to a.d. 100," in ZeiUckrift der 
dculschcn morgenldndiscken Cesellsckaft, 1906, Iz. 69 sqq.). 
Among them Manes, two kings named Azes, Vonones and espe- 
cially Gondophares or Hyndopharcs are the most con^icuous. 
The latter, whose date is fixed by an inscription from the Kabul 
Valley dated from the year 103 of the Samvat era ( ■* aj>. 46), 
is famous by the legend of St Thomas, where he occtirs as king 
of India under the name of Gundaphar. Soon afterwards the 
Mongolian Scyths (called Saka by the Indians), who had con- 
quered Bactria in 139 B.C., invaded India and founded the greaC 
Indo-Scythian kingdom of the Kushan dynasty. (See Bactkia; 
and Persia: Ancient History.) (Eo. M.) 

The Milinda PaHko is preserved in Pali, in Ceylon, Bunna and 
Siam, but was probably compo«icd originally in the extreme nortli- 
west of India, and in a dialect spoken in that region. Neither 
date nor author is known; but the approximate«date must have 
been alx>ut the 2nd century of our era. The work is entitled 
Milinda Pahko — that is, The Qtuslions of King Milinda. In it Ite 
king is represented as propounding to a Buddhist Bhikshu nancd 
NSgascna a number ol problems, puzzles or questions in rcligiM 
and philosophy: and as receiving, in each case, a convincing reply. 
It is a matter of very little importance whether a tradition of toot 
such conversations having really taken place had survived to tht " 
time when the author wrote his book. In any case he co mp owd 
both problems and answers; and his work is an historical ronuuwc; 
written to di<<-uss certain points in the faith, and to invest tbi 
discussion with the interest arisine from the storv in which it ii 
set. This plan is carried out with great skill. An introductioe, 
giving the pist and i>rescnt lives of Milinda and Nfieasena, is adoadi^ > 
ably adapted to fill the reader with the idea of tne great abOicy 
anci distinction of the two disputants. The questions chosen tn 
just those which would appeal most strongly to the intdkctiitl ^ 
taste of the India of that age. And the style of the book is vcif *° 
attractive. Each particular point is kept within easy limits A 
space, and is treated in a popular way. But the eamestncM fli 
the author is not concealed; and he occasionally rises into a vay 
real eloauence. The work is several times ouoted as authority 
by Buddnaghosa, who wrote about A.D. 450, and it is the only wori^ 
not in the canon, which receives this honour. 



MENANDER— MENASHA 



I Hi 



Tlw Mifioda has been edited in Pali by V. Trcnckncr, and trans- 
lited into Englidi by the present writer, with introductions in which 
tbe hktorical and critical pcmits made in this article are discussed 
in dctaQ. There is space henr to mention only one further fact. 
M. S>ivaia l>vy, working in coUaboratk>n with M. Spocht, has 
iliovn that there are two, if not three, Chinese works, written 
bf f ee n the 5th and 7th centuries, on the Questions of Milinda. 
Ihey purport to be translations of Indian works. They arc not, 
hovcvcr. translations of the Pali text. They give, with alterations 
and additions, the substance of the earlier part of the Pali work; 
tad are probably derived from a recension that may be older than 
tbePalL 

AUTHOKITIKS. — ^V. Trenckner, Milinda-paiiho (London, 1880); 
Rh)-s I>a\-ids, Qmestions of King Milinda (2 vols.. Oxford, 1890- 
1894): R. Garbe. BeiUdgfi xur indiuken Kidlwieuhi<kte (hcrhn, 
igoi. ch. 3, Dtr liUinda-paHka); Milinda Prashf^ya, in Sinhalese, 
(Colombo, 1877): R. Moms, in the i4rodrmv (Jan. 11, 1881): Sylvain 
Ury, ProcerdiU^s cf the gtk International Congress of Orientalists 
(Loodoo. 1892), 1. 518-539, and Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 

(1891). p. 476. a.w.R.D.) 

UHAJfDER, of Laodicea on tbe Lycus, Greek rhetorician 
ud commentator. Two incomplete treatises on epideictic 
(or show) speeches have been preserved under his name, but it 
is genenlly considered that they cannot be by the same author. 
Bcrsian attributes the first to Menandcr,whom he placed in the 
4th century, and the second to an anonymous rhetorician of 
Alesaodria Troas, who possibly lived in the time of Diocletian. 
Oihen^ from the superscription of the Paris MS., assign the 
fiK to Gcnethlius of Petrae in Palestine. In view of the general 
tadition of antiquity, that both treatises were the work of 
Ueunder, it is possible that the author of the second was not 
ideuical with tbe Menandcr mentioned by Suldas, since the name 
ii of •fteqnent occurrence in later Greek literature. The first 
tieitiK, entitled ^tolpc^if TCaf iirt5cucruur, discusses the different 
kinds of epideictic speeches; the second, IIcpl irtUixTiKuiVt has 
Vedal titJcs for each chapter. 

Tea in L. Spengcf's Rketores rraeeit iii. 329-416, and in 
C. Bofsiaa's " Der Rhetor Menandros und seine Scnriften " in 
AlhtaM. der baytr. Akad. der Wissenschafttn, xvi. (1882); see alM 
W. yitKhe, Der Rketor M. und die Schofien zu Demosthenes; I. E. 
Suifu Hist, of Classical Scholarship (1906), L 338; W. Christ, 
God. itr grieehtscken LUteratur (1898), % 550. 

niAVDER PROTECTOR (nporfcrtfp, i.e. one of the imperial 
bodyguards), Byzantine historian, was bom in Constantinople 
ii the middle of the 6th century a.d. The little that is known 
of hii life is contained in the account of himself quoted by Suldas. 
He at fint took up the study of law, but abandoned it for a life 
of pleasure. When his fortunes were low, the patronage accorded 
lolilcrature by the emperor Maurice (582) encouraged him 
!o liy writing history. He took as his model Agathias {q.v.), 
«ho like him bad been a jurist, and his history begins at the 
poist where Agathias leaves off. It embraces the period from 
tk arrival of the Cotriguri Hunni in Thrace during the reign of 
Jssliniaa in 558 down to the death of the emperor Tiberius in 582. 
Considerable fragments of the work are preserved in the excerpts 
of Coostantine Porphyrogenitus and in Suldas. Although 
the styk is sometimes bombastic, he is considered trustworthy 
ud is one of the most valuable authorities for the history of 
ike 6th century, especially on geographical and ethnographical 
mtlers. He was an e>'e-witness of some of the events he 
deKribes. like Agathias, he wrote epigrams, one of which, on a 
hxmuk magus, who became a convert to Christianity and died 
l&c death of a martyr, is preserved in the Greek anthology 
Uuik. Pal, L loi). 

■ The fragments will be found in C. W. MQller. Fraf^. hist, grace, iv. 
aoo: j. P. Migne. Patrologia graeca. cxiii.. and L. Dindorf, llistorici 
pmen mtnores, ii.: see aiM> C. Krumbachcr^ Ceschichle der byzan- 
imsckeu Litleratur (1897). 

■EKAMGKABOfi. the most civilized of all the true Malays 
of Sumatra, inhabiting the mountains above Padang. Their 
district is regarded as the cradle of the Malay race, and thence 
hcgao. about 1160, those migrations which ended in the true 
Malays becoming the dominant race throughout the peninsula 
tad the Malay Archipelago. The Menangkabos arc said to be 
the original conquerors of the island, and the real form of the 
•ord is Mcnang-Karhau (" victory of the buffalo ")» »n reference 
io a k)cal kgend of a fight between a Sumatran and Javanese 



buffalo, ending in victory for the former. Though converts to 
Islam, the ancient confederate village communes and the matri- 
archal system still exist. The people are divided into clans, 
the chiefs together forming the district council. Early in the 
19th century a religious sect was founded among the Alanang- 
kabos, known as " Padris " from its zealous proselytism, or 
Orang putt (white men) from the converts being dressed in 
white. The tendency was towards asceticism, the chief tenet 
being the prohibition of opium, the use of which was made a 
capital offence. The sect brought a large portion of the interior 
of Sumatra under its rule, but the neighbouring tribes asked 
the Dutch to protect them, and this led to the Netherlands 
government acquiring the Menangkabo territory. 

M^NANT. JOACHIM (1820-1899), French magistrate and 
orientalist, was bom at Cherbourg on the i6th of April 1820. 
He was educated for the law, and became vice-president of the 
civil tribunal of Rouen in 1878, and a member of the cour d'appel 
three years later. But he became best known by his studies on 
the cuneiform inscriptions. Among his works on the subject 
of Assyriology are: Recueil d* alphabets des icrilures cuniijormei 
(i860); Exposi des iUments de la grammaire assyrienne (1868); 
Le Syilabaire assyrien (2 vols., 1869-1873); Les Langucs perdues 
de la Perse ei de I'Assyrie (2 vols., 1885-1886); Les Pierres gravies 
de la Haute- Asie (2 vols., 1883-1886). He also collaborate with 
Julius Oppcrt. He was admitted to the Academy of Inscrip- 
tions in 1887, and died in Paris on the 30th of August 1899. J 

His daughter Delphine (b. 1850) received a prize from the 
Academy for her Les Par sis ^ histoire des communautis soro- 
astriatnes de VInde (1898), and was sent in 1900-1901 to British 
India on a scientific mission, of which she published a report 
in 1003, 

MENARD, LOUIS NICOLAS ri822-i90i), French man of 
letters, was bom in Paris on the 19th of ()ctobcr 1822. His 
versatile genius occupied itself in tum with chemistry, poetry, 
painting and history. In 1843 he published, under the pseudo- 
nym of L. de Scnncville, a translation of Promiikie dilivri. 
Turning to chemistry, he discovered collodion in 1846, but its 
value was not recognized at the time; and its application latcy 
to surgery and photography brought him no advantage, houia 
Menard was a socialist, always in advance of the reform move- 
ments of his time. After 1848 he was condemned to imprison- 
ment for his Prologue d'une revolution. He escaped to London, 
returning to Paris only In 1852. Until i860 he occupied himself 
with classical studies, the fruits of which are to be seen in his 
Pohmes (1855), Polythiisme helUnique (1863), and two academic 
theses, De sacra poesi graecorum and La Morale avant les philo- 
sophes (i860). The next ten years Menard spent chiefly among 
the Barbizon artists, and he exhibited several pictures. He 
was in London at the time of the Commune, and defended it 
with his pen. In 1887 he became professor at the ficole des 
Arts dccoratifs, and in 1895 professor of universal history at the 
Hdtel de Villc in Paris. His Riverics d'un paten mystique (1876), 
which contained sonnets, philosophical dialogues and some 
stories, was followed in 1896 by Poimcs ct riverics d'un pa'ien 
mystique. Menard died in Paris on the 12th of February 1901. 

His works include: IJistoire des anciens beuples de I' Orient (1882): 
Histoire des Israelites d'aprh l'exigi:se biolique (1HK3). and Histoire 
des Crecs (1884-1886). There is an appreciation of NK'nard in the 
opening chapter of Maurice Harris's Voyage de Sparte. 

MENASHA (an Indian word meaning " thorn " or " island ")? 
a city of Winnebago county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 88 m. N. of 
Milwaukee, and 14 m. N. of Oshkosh, attractively situated at 
the N. extremity of Lake Winnebago at its outlet into the Fox 
river. Pop. (1890), 4581; (1900), 5589 (1535 foreign-bom); 
(1905, state census), 5960; (1910), 6081. Mcnasba is served 
by the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago & North- Western 
railways, and by an inter-urban electric railway system. Several 
bridges across the Fox River connect Afenasha with Ncenah, 
with which it really forms one community industrially. Doty 
Island, at the mouth of the river and divided about equally 
between the cities, is a picturesque and popular summer resort. 



112 



MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL— MENCIUS 



Meoosha had good water power and among its manufactures 
are paper and sulphite pulp, lumber, wooden-ware and cooperage 
products, woollen and knit goods, leather, boats and bricks. 
The first white man to visit the site of Menasha was probably 
Jean Nicolet, who seems to have come in the winter of 1634-1635 
and to have found here villages of Fox and Winnebago Indians. 
Subsequently there were French and English trading posts here. 
The city was settled permanently in 1848, and was chartered 
in 1874. 

* MENASSEH BEN ISRAEL (c. 1604-1657), Jewish leader, was 
born in Lisbon about 1604, and was brought up in Amsterdam. 
His family had suffered imder the Inquisition, but found an 
asylum first in La Rochelle and later in Holland. Here Menassch 
rose to eminence not only as a rabbi and an author,, but also as a 
printer. He established the first Hebrew press in Holland. 
One of his earliest works El Conciliador won immediate reputa- 
tion. It was an attempt at reconciliation between apparent 
discrepancies in various parts of liie Old Testament. Among 
bis correspondents were Vossius, Grotius and Huet. In 1638 
be decided to settle in Brazil, as he still found it difficult to pro- 
vide in Amsterdam for his wife and family, but this step was 
rendered unnecessary by his appointment to direct a college 
founded by the Pereiras. . . _ 

! In 1644 Menassch met Antonio de Montesinos, who persuaded 
him that the North-American Indians were the descendants of 
the lost ten tribes of Israel. This supposed discovery gave a 
new impulse to Menassch 's Messianic hopes. But he was con- 
vinced that the Messianic age needed as its certain precursor 
the settlement of Jews in all parts of the known worid. Filled 
with this idea, he turned his attention to England, whence thb 
Jews had been expelled since 1290. He found much Christian 
support in England. During the Commonwealth the question 
of the readmission of the Jews was often mooted under the 
growing desire for religious liberty. Besides this, Messianic 
and other mystic hopes were current in England. In 1650 
appeared an English version of the Hope of Israel, a tract which 
deeply impressed pubb'c opinion. Cromwell had been moved to 
sympathy with the Jewish cause partly by his tolerant leanings, 
but chiefly because he foresaw the importance for English com- 
merce of the presence of the Jewish merchant princes, some of 
whom had already found their way to London. At this juncture 
Jews received full rights in the colony of Surinam, which had 
been English since 1650. In 1655 Menassch arrived in London. 
It was during his absence that the Amsterdam Rabbis excom- 
municated Spinoza, a catastrophe which would probably have 
been avoided had Menasseh — Spinoza's teacher — been on the 
spot. One of his first acts on reaching London was the issue of 
his Humble Addresses to the Lord Protector, but its effect was 
weakened by the issue of Prynne's able but unfair Short Demurrer. 
Cromwell summoned the Whitehall Conference in December of 
the same year. To this conference were summoned some of 
the most notable statesmen, lawyers and theologians of the day. 
The chief practical result was the declaration of Judges Glynnc 
and Steele that " there was no law which forbade the Jews' 
return to England." Though, therefore, nothing was done to 
regularize the position of the Jews, the door was opened to their 
gradual return. Hence John Evelyn was able to enter in his 
Diary under the date Dec. 14, 1655, " Now were the Jews 
admitted." But the attack on the Jews by Prynne and others 
could not go unanswered. Menassch replied in the finest of his 
works, Vindiciae judaeorum (1656). " The best tribute to its 
value is afforded by the fact that it has since been frequently 
reprinted in all parts of Europe when the calumnies it denounced 
have been revived " (L. WolQ. Among those who used in this 
way Menasseh's Vindiciae was Moses Mendelssohn (f/.r.). Soon 
after Menassch left London Cromwell granted him a i>ensiun, 
but he died before he could enjoy it. Death overtook him at 
Middleburg, as he was conveying the body of his son Samuel 
home for burial. 

I Menasseh ben Israel was the author of many works, but his 
English tracts remain the only ones of importance. His De 
ierwuHO vitac Was traoslatcd into English by Pococke, and his 



Coticiliaior by G. H. Lindo. Among his other works were % 
ritual compendium Tesoro dos dinim, and a treatise in Hebrev 
on immortality {Niskmath ^yim}. He was a friend of Rem- 
brandt, who painted his portrait and engraved four etchings to 
illustrate his Piedra gloriosa. These are preserved in the British 
Museum. 

See Graetz, History of (he Jews, vol. v. ch. ii.; LucSen Wotf. 
Menasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, with a reprint 
of the English pamphlets ^London, 1901); H. Adler, "A HoouifB 
to Menassch bvn Israel." in Transactions of tko Jmrish Hislened 
Society of England, i. 25-54. (L A.) 

MENCIUS, the latinized form' of Ming^tsze, " Mr Ming," or 
" M&ng the philosopher," a Chinese moral teacher whose namt 
stands second only to that of Confucius. His sutue or ipirit- 
tablet (as the case may be) has occupied, in the temples of the 
sage, since our nth century, a place among " the four asaessocs," 
and since a.d. 1530 his title has been J^ the philosopher Ming, 
sage of the second degree." _ _ 

The Mings or M&ng-suns had been in the time of Coofodui 
one of the three great clans of LO (all descended from the marquis 
Hwan, 711-694 B.C.),, which he had endeavoured to ouhi 
Their power had subsequently been broken, and the branch to 
which Mendus belonged had settled in Tsiu, a snudl adjacent 
prindpality, the name of which remains in Tsiu haien, a district 
of YenchtLu Shan-tung. A magnificent temple to Mendus is 
the chief attraction of the district city. The large marUt 
statue of Mencius in the courtyard shows much artistic sUH, 
and gives the impression of a man strong in body and mind, 
thoughtful and fearless. His lineal representative lives in the 
dty, and thousands of Mings are to be found in the ne^ 
bourhood. 

Mencius, who died in the year 289 B.C., had lived to a great 
age — some say to his eighty-fourth year, placing his birth in 
373 B.C., and others to hb ninety-seventh, placing it in 38^ 
All that we are told of his father is that he died in the third year 
of the child, who was thus left to the care of his mother. Her 
virtues and dealings with her son were cdebrated by a great 
writer in the ist century before our era, and for two tbnntiBfl 
years she has been the modd mother of China. 

Mencius is more than forty years old when he comes before at 
as a public character. He must have spent much time in study, 
investigating questions as to the fundamental prindplcsof monb 
and society, and brooding over the condition of the country. 
The history, the poetry, the institutions and the great men of the 
past had received his attention. He intimates that he had bcci 
in communication with men who had been disdples of Confndu. 
That sage had become to him the chief of mortal men, the object 
of his untiring admiration; and in the doctrines whidi he had 
taught Mencius recognized the truth for want of an appredatioi 
of which the bonds of order all round him were being relaxed, and 
the kingdom hastening to anarchy. 

When he first comes forth from Tsiu, he is accompanied by 
several eminent disciples. He had probably imitated Confudoi 
in becoming the master of a school, and encouraging the resort 
to it of inquiring minds that he might resolve their doubts and 
unfold to them the right methods of government. One of Us 
sayings is that it would be a greater delight to the superiormaa 
to get the youth of brightest promise around him and to teach 
and train them than to enjoy the revenues of the kingdom. Hs 
intercourse with his followers was not so intimate as that of 
Confucius had been with the members of his selected drc1c;aad,' 
while he maintained his dignity among them, he was not abk 
to secure from them the same homage and reverent admiration.^ 

More than a century had elapsed since the death of Confudoi, 
and during that period the feudal kingdom of Chiu had been 
showing more and more of the signs of dissolution, and porten- 
tous errors that threatened to upset all social order were widdy 
disseminated. The sentiment of loyalty to the dynasty had 
disappeared. Several of the marquesses and other feudal princes 
of earlier times had usurped the title of king. The smaller ficb 
had been absorbed by the larger ones, or reduced to hdpksi 
dependence on them. . Tsin, after greatly extending its territoiy. 



MENCIUS 



"3 



htA broken up into three powerfU kingdoms, each about as 
laise as England. Mendus found the nation nominally one, 
and with the tiaditions of two thousand yean affinning its 
ffntial unity, but actually divided into seven monarchies, 
each seelcing to subdue the others under itself. The consequences 
were constant warfare and chronic misery. 

In Gxif ucius's time we meet with recluses who had withdravni 
in disgust from the world and its turmoil; but these had now 
given place to a class of men who came forth from their retire- 
ments provided with arts of war or schemes of policy which 
they recommended to the contending chiefo, ever reedy to 
chuge their allegiance as they were moved by whim or interest. 
Mendus was once asked about two of them, "Are they not really 
great men? Let them be angry, and ^ the princes are afraid. 
Let them live quietly, and the flames of trouUe are everywhere 
ottBguisbed." He looked on them as little men, and delighted 
i to piodaim his idea of the great man in such language as the 



"To dwell in love, the wide house of the worid, to tund in 
propriety, the correct seat of the world, and to walk in righteou»> 
■eai^ the great path of the worid; when he obtains his desire for 
dke. to practise his prindples for the good of the people, and 
vfcea that denre is disappointed, to practise them alone; to i)e 
sbowe ^e oowcr of riches and honours to make dissipated, of 
povnty ana mean condition to make swerve from the right, and of 
povcr and force to make bend— these characteristics constitute 
tihegFcatnaa." 

Host vivid are tiie pictures which Mendus gives of the con- 
dUw of the people in consequence of the wars of the states. 
"The royal ordinances were violated; the multitudes were 
oppr ess ed; the supplies of food and drink flowed away like 
alter." It is not wonderful that, when the foundations of 
lovermnent were thus overthrown, speculations should have 
niien that threatened to overthrow what he considered to be 
tk foundations of truth and all sodal order. " A shrill-tongued 
bibazian frtxn the south," as Mendus called him, proclaimed 
tk dissolution of ranks, and advocated a return to primitive 
■nplicity. He and his followers maintained that learning was 
qiackery, and statesmanship craft and oi^ression, that prince 
ud peasant should be on the same level, and every man do 
mrything for himself. Another, called Yang-chA, denied 
the difference between virtue and vice, glory and shame. 
It was the same with all at death. The conclusion there- 
fere was: "Let us eat and drink; let us gratify the ears 
isd eyes, get servants and maidens, beauty, music, wine; 
vhen the day is insuffident, carry it on through the night. 
£idi boe for himself." Against a third heresiarch, of a very 
different stamp, Mendus fdt no less indignation. This was Mo 
11, who fotind the source of all the evils of the time and of all 
time in the want of mutual love. He taught, therefore, that 
men should love others as themsdves; princes, the states of 
ether princes as much as thdr own; children, the parents of 
others as much as thdr own. Mo, in his gropings, had got hold 
of a noble prindple, but he did not apprehend it distinctly nor 
set it forth with disoimination. To our philosopher the doctrine 
appeared contrary to the Confucian orthodoxy about the five 
relations of sodety; and he attacked it without mercy and with 
an equal confusion of thought. " Yang's prindple," he said, 
* is 'each one for himself,' which does not acknowledge the claims 
of the soverdgiL Mo's is 'to love all equally,' which does 
M( acknowledge the peculiar affection due to a father. But to 
acknowled^ ndtber king nor fother is to be in the state of' a 
benL The way of benevolence and righteousness is stopped up." 
On this ocean of lawlessness, wickedness, heresies and misery 
Meadns looked out from the quiet of his school, and his spirit 
was stirred to attempt the rescue of the people from misrule 
and error. "If Heaven," he said, "wishes that the kingdom 
should enjoy tranquillity and good order, who b there brides 
ae to bring it about? " He formed his plan, and proceeded 
to put it in execution. He would go about among the different 
kixigs tin he should find one among them who would follow 
Ibs c o unsels and commit to him the entire administration of 
bis government. That obtained, he did not doubt that in a 

xnn 3 



few years there would be a kingdom so strong and so good that 
all rulers would acknowledge its superiority, and the people 
hasten from all quarters to crown its sovereign as monarch 
of the whole of China. This plan was much the same as that 
of Confudus had been; but, with the bolder character that 
bdonged to him, Mendus took in one respect a position from 
which "the master" would have shrunk. The former was 
always k>yal to Ch&u, and thought he could save the country 
by a reformation; the latter saw the day of ChAu was past, 
and the time was come for a revolution. Mendus's view was 
the more correct, but he was not wiser than the sage in fore- 
casting for the future. They could think only of a reformed 
dynasty or of a changed dynasty, ruling according to the model 
prindples of a feudal constitution, which they described in 
glowing language. They desired a repetition of the golden 
age in the remote past; but soon after Mendus disappeared 
from the stage of life there came the sovereign of Ch'in, and 
solved the question with fire and sword, introducing the 
despotic empire which has since prevailed. 

The question may be asked, "How, in the execution of 
his plan, was Mendus, a scholar, without wealth or station, 
to find admission to the courts of lawless and unprindpled 
kings, and acquire the influence over them which hb expected? " 
The answer can only be found by bearing in mind the position 
accorded from the earliest times in China to men of virtue and 
ability. The same written character denotes both scholars 
and officers. They are at the top of the social scale— the 
first of the four classes into which the population has always 
been divided. This ai^redation of learm'ng or culture has 
exerdsed a powerful influence over the government under 
both conditions of its existence; and out of it grew the system 
of making literary merit the passport to official employment. 
The andent doctrine was that the scholar's privilege was from 
Heaven as much as the sovereign's right; the modem system 
is a device of the despotic rule to put itsdf in Heaven's place, 
and have the making of the scholar in its own hands. The 
feeling and conviction out of which the system grew prevailed 
in the time of Mendus. The dynasties that had successivdy 
ruled over the kingdom had owed their establishment not 
more to the military genius of thdr founders than to the wisdom 
and organizing ability of the learned men, the statesmen, 
who were their bosom friends and trusted counsellors. Why 
should not he become to one of the princes of his day what 1 Yin 
had been to Thang, and Th^-kung Wang to King W&n, and 
the duke of Ch&u to Wil and Ch'&ng? But, though Mendus 
might be the equal of any of those worthies, he knew of no prince 
like Thang and the others, of noble aim and soul, who would 
adopt his lessons. In his eagerness he overlooked this condition 
of success for his enterprise. He might meet with such a 
ruler as he looked for, or he might reform a bad one, and make 
him the coadjutor that he required. On the strength of these 
perad ventures, and attended by several of his disciples, Mendus 
went for more than twenty years from one court to another, 
always baflied, and always ready to try again. He was recdved 
with great respect by kings and princes. He would not enter 
into the service of any of them, but he occasionally accepted 
honorary offices of distinction; and he did not scruple to rccdve 
large gifts which enabled him to live and move about as a man 
of wealth. In delivering his message he was as fearless and 
outspoken as John Knox. He lectured great men, and ridiculed 
them. He unfolded the ways of the old sage kings, and pointed 
out the path to universal sway; but it was all in vain. He 
could not stir any one to honourable action. He confronted 
heresy with strong arguments and exposed it with withering 
sarcasm; but he could work no deliverance in the earth. The 
last court at which we find him was that of LA, probably in 
310 B.C. The marquis of that state had given office to Yo-ch2Lng, 
one of Mendus's disdples, and he hoped that this might be the 
means of a favourable hearing for himself. So it had nearly 
happened. On the suggestion of Yo-chSng the marquis had 
ordered his carriage to be yoked, and was about to step into it 
and proceed to bring Mendus to his palace, when an imworthy 

la 



114. 



MENCIUS 



favourite stepped in and diverted him from his purpose. The 
disciple told his master what had occurred, reproaching the 
favourite for his ill-timed intervention; Mencius, however, 
said to him/' A man's advancement or the arresting of it may 
seem to be cflfectcd by others, but is really beyond their power. 
My not finding in the marquis of LA a ruler who would confide 
in me and put my lessons in practice is from Heaven." 

Mendus accepted this incident as a final intimation to him 
of the will of Heaven. He had striven long against adverse 
circumstances, but now he bowed in submission. He withdrew 
from courts and the public arena. According to tradition 
he passed the last twenty years of his life in the society of his 
disciples, discoursing to them, and giving the finishing touches 
to the record of his conversations and opinions, which were 
afterwards edited by them, and constitute his works. Mencius 
was not so oracular, nor so self-contained, as Confucius; but 
his teachings have a vivacitv and sparkle all their own. 

Mencius held with Confucius — and it was a doctnac whkli Had 
descended to them both from the remotest antiqutiy — that royal 
government is an institution of God. An ancient Aovenngn \Ud 
said that " Heaven, havins produced the peoptt, apmitirod lor 
them hilcrs, and appointed for them teachers r wha should be assi'it- 
ing to God." Our philosopher, adopting this doctfintn wai led by 
the manifest incompetency of all the rulers of his tim? ta ask how 
it could be known on what individual the appointment q{ Heaven 
had fallen or ought to fall, and he condudc-d that thia could be 
ascertained only from his personal character and hU condyct of 
affairs. The people must nnd out the will of Hc-avxn as to «ho 
should be their ruler for themseU*e8. There ^vas another old syinif 
which delighted Menciu« — " Heaven sees as th« pirapb !m;^; Hc^aven 
hears as the people hear." He taught acconlju^ly That, while 
government is from God, the governors are from the people; — vox 
populi vox Dei. No claim then of a " divine right should be 
alloifv-ed to a sovereign if he were not exercising a rule for the good 
of the people. " The peor)lc are the most important element in 
a nation ; the altars to the spirits of the land and grain are the second ; 
the sovereign is the lightest." Mencius was not afraid to follow 
this utterance to its consequences. The monarch whose rule is 
injurious to the people, and who is deaf to remonstrance and counsel, 
should be dethroned. In such a case " killing is no murder." 
But who is to remove the sovereign that thus ought to be removed ? 
Mencius had three answers to this difficult question. First, he 
would have the members of the royal house perform the task. 
Let them disown their unworthy head, and appoint some better 
individual of their number in his room. If they could not or would 
not do this, he thought, secondly, that any high minister, though 
not allied to the royal house, might take summarv measures with 
the sovereign, assuming that hu acted purely with a view to the 
public weal. His third and grand device was what he called " the 
minister of Heaven." When the sovereign had become a pest 
instead of a blessing, he believed that Heaven would raise up some 
one for the help of the people, some one who should so conduct 
himself in his original subordinate position as to draw all eyes 
and hearts to himself. Let him then raise the standard not of 
rebellion but of righteousness, and he could not help attaining to 
the highest dignity. Mencius hoped to find one among the rulers 
of his day who might be made into such a mini&ter, and he counselled 
one and another to adopt measures with that object. It was in 
fact counselling rebellion, but he held that the house of ChAu had 
forfeited its title to the throne. 

A good government according to his ideal must be animated by 
a spirit of benevolence, and ever pursue a policy of righteousness. 
Its aims must be, first, to make the people well off, and next, to 
educate them. No one was fit to occupy the throne who could 
be happy while any of the people were miserable, who delighted 
in war, who could indulge in palaces and parks which the poorest 
did not in a measure snare with him. Came laws received his 
emphatic condemnation. Taxes should be liKht, and all the regula- 
tions for agriculture and commerce of a character to promote and 
encourage them. The rules which^ he suggested to secure those 
objects had reference to the existing condition of his country, 
but they arc susceptible of wide application. They carry in them 
schemes of drainage and irrigation for land, and of free trade for 
commerce. But it must be, he contended, that a sufficient and 
certain livelihood be secured for all the people. Without thb their 
minds would be unsettled, and they would proceed to every form 
of wild licence. They would break the laws, and the ruler would 

Eunish them— punish those whom his neglect of his own duties 
ad plunged into po\'crty, of which crime was the consequence. 
He would be, not tncir ruler, but their " trapper." 

Supposing the fK'ople to be made well ott, Mencius taught that 
education should be provided for them all. He );ave the marquis 
of Thang a programme of four kinds of educational institutions, 
which he wisned him to establish in his state — in the villages and 
the towns, for the poor as well as the rich, so that none might be 



anorant of his duties m the various relations of society. Bat 
ter all, unless the people could eet food and doching by their 
labour, he had not much faith in tne power of education to make 
them virtuous. Give him, however, a government fulfilling the 
conditions that he laid down, and he was confident there woakl 
soon be a people, all contented, all virtuous. And he saw nothii^ 
to prevent the realization of such a government. Any ruler might 
become, if he would, " the minister of Heaven," who was hb kicU, 
and the influence of his example and administration would be aD- 

Eowerful. The people would flock to him as thdr parent, and 
elp him to do justice on the foes of truth and happinems. Puhe 
and grain would be abundant as water and fire, and the multitudes, 
well clothed, and well principled, would sit under the shade of their 
mulberry trees, and hail the ruler " king by the grace of Heaven.** 

Opinions were much divided among his contemporaries on the 
subject of human nature. Some held that the nature of nun is 
neither good nor bad; he may be made to do good and also to do 
evil. Others held that the nature of some men b good, and that 
of others bad ; thus it b that the best of men sometimes ha\^ bad 
sons, and the worst of men good sons. It was also maiDUinec. 
that the nature of man b evil, and whatever good ai>pcars in it b 
the result of cultivation. In opposition to all these views Mendw 
contended that the nature of man is good. " Water," he lakia 
" will flow indifferently to the cast or west ^ but will it flow 
indifferently up or down? The tendency of man's natum 
to goodness b like the tendency of water to flow downwards: 
By striking water you may make it leap over your forehead; and 
by damming and leading it you may make it go up a hill. But 
such movements are not according to the nature of water; it b 
the force ap(>lied which causes them. When men do what b not 
good, their nature has been dealt with in thb way." With varkMMa 
but equally felicitous, illustration he replied to nb different oppt^ 
nents. Sometimes he may seem to express himself top stroi^y, 
but an attentive stud^ of hb writings shows that he b speaking 
of our nature in its ideal, and not as it actually is — as we may 
ascertain, by an analysis of it, that it was intended to be, and not 
as it has been made to become. 

Mencius insists on the CDnttUuents of human nature, dweltlqf 
especblly on the principles of benevolence* right eoiisiitss^prTipdcty^ 
and wisdom or knowledge, the last iiuludlng the jud^mcfit m 
consdence. " These," said he, " arc not infuscl ioio us fraA 
without. Men have these four principle ]ust as tbey have their 
four limbs." But man has ^ta instincts and appetim which 
seek their own gratification without r^crence lo righii^oasneis 
or any other control. He met this difficulty hy c-anundins: that 
human nature is a constitution, in which the higher pnncipic-* um 
designed to rule the lower. '^ Some constituents of it are aob4i 
and some ignoble, some great and some small. The i^f^ai muiC 
not be injured for the small, nor the noble for the ignofate^" 

One of hb most vigorous vindications of his doctrine \* the 
following: " For the moutti to dciire ftjv-oiirs, the eye coV.^un, 
the ear sounds, and the four limti« c^iic and nest bcli>ni;; in m^n'ft 
nature. An individual's lot may restrict him from tt»e gratificatioa 
of them; and in such a case the superior man will not say, * My 
nature demands that plcaaiire, and I vriU get it.' On the ollMr 
hand, there are love between father and son, righteousness be t ween 
ruler and miiiiFtcr, th^ rules of ceremony between host and guett* 
arid knowledge been in recogniring the able and virtuous, and in 
(he s^^e'A fulhlling the heavenly course; — these are appointed (by 
H^^avcnJ. But they also belong to our nature, and the superior man 
will ricit uyt ^ The drcumatancm of my lot relieve me from them.' " 

Wti^vi he pfocecdi'd from his ideal of human nature to aocoiiBt 
for the actual f henotnena of conduct, he was necessarily less success 
fill. " There n nothing good." he said, " that a man cannot do; 
he only does not do it.'^ But why does he not do it ? Agsimt 
the fitubbortt fact Mencius beats his wings and shatters hb wes p o w 
—all in vaifi. He mentions a few ancient worthies who, he cod- 
ccived, Had always been^ or who had become, perfectly virtuom 
Above them all he extoU Confucius, taking no notice of that asgc^ 
conftrtsioi^ that he had not attained to conformity to his own mis 
of doing to 01 hers as he would have them do to him. No sock 
ackno'kvrcilgmtnt about hiiiiH^lf ever came from Mendus. Theiris 
%Q was inTeripr to his predecessor: he had a subtler faculty d 
thought, and a nruch tnorc vivtd imagination; but he did not kaov 
himself nor hia special subject of human nature so well. 

A few pa!t4jj£es illuatrattvc of his style and genera! teachiip 
will complete all that can be said of him here. Hb thoa|^h^ 
iindccd, were sttdam condensed like those of "the master" UKO 
aphori»rTi«, and should; be read in their connexion; tnit we htve 
from him mariy woitJs of wisdom that have been as goads to nulUoH 
for more than two thousand years. For instance: — 

" Though a man may be wtc Iced, yet, if he adjust hb thon^it^ 
fast, and bathe, he may sacrifice to God." 

" When Heaven b about to confer a great office on any man, ll 
first exercises his mind with suffering, and his sinews and boiM 
with toil. It exp<)!ies his body to hunger, subjects him to extreme 
poverty, and confounds his undertakings. In all these waw 
It stimulates his mind, strengthens hb nature, and supplies Mi 
i ncom pete ncies. ' ' 

" The great man u he who does not lose hb child-1 



MENDE— MENDELISM 



"5 



** TIk lOMe of rfuuBt it to A nwi of grett importance. 

; loanie, he will afterward* not 



When 
k adiamrH of having been without 
have occawon for fhame.'* 

** To nourish the heart there is nothing better than to keep the 
desires lev. Here b a man whose desires are few; in some tningft 
he may not be able to keep liis heart, but they will be few. Here 
is a man whose desires are many; in some things he may be abk 
to keep his heart, but thev will be few." 

" Benevole n ce is the distinguishing characteristic of man. As 
wnhodied in his conduct, it may be called the path of duty." 

** There is an ordination for everything; and a man should receive 
sulwissi vely what may be correctly ascribed thereto. He who 
has the oorrect idea of what Heaven s ordination is will not staml 
beoeath a tottering walL Death sustained in the discharge of one's 
Unties may be correctly ascribed to Heaven. Death under handcuffs 
and fetten cannot be correctly so ascribed." 

" When one by force subdues men, they do not submit to him 
in heart. When he subdues them by virtue, in their beurts' core- 
thev ace pleased, and sincerely submit." 

Two translations of the works of Mencius are within the reach 
of Earopean readers: that by Sunislaus Julien, in Latin (Paris, 
1824-183Q) : and that forming the second volume of Legge's Chinese 
Ooisics (Hong-Kong. 1863). The latter has been published at 
lotAm (1875) without the Chinese text. See also E. Faber, Tkcr 
Miad tf Miimcius, or Political Economy founded on Moral Philo- 
»*l|v. transbted from the German by A. B. Hutchinson (London, 

mDB; a town of south-eastern France, capital of the 
d fp i rtmcnt of Loz^ 59 m. N.N.E. of Millau by raiL Pop. 
(1906), town 5246; commune 7007. Mende is picturesquely 
atoated on the left bank of the Lot, and at the foot of the 
Mimat cliff, which rises 1000 fL above the town, and terminates 
Ike Causae de Mende. The town is the seat of a bishopric. 
Us cathedral of St Peter was founded in the 14th century by 
Bope Urban V., a native of the district, but the two towers, 
■Vectively 280 and axo ft. high, were added by Bishop Francois 
4e la Rov^ in the early part of the i6th century. Partly 
doliojrcd during the devastation of the town by the Protestants 
is 1579 and 1580, it was rebuilt in the x 7th century, and in 
1S74 a sutne of Urban V. was erected in front of it. A Renais- 
■Bcs tower of the ancient citadel now serves as the belfry 
of the cfanrch of the Penitents, and a X4th-century bridge 
CKMMS the Lot. The town is a convenient centre for visitors 
Istbe gorges of the Tarn. It is the seat of a prefect and a 
CDut of awiaxa , ami hau a tribunal of first instance and a chamber 
a oommerce. The chief industry is the manufacture of serges 
tad shaOoons, known as Mende stuffs, exported to Spain, Italy 
ndGcnnany. 

Mende (Mixnate) grew up around the hermitage, partly 
ocavated in the side of the Mimat cliff, to which St Privat, 
biihop of Javols, retreated after the destruction of that town, 
lid where he was subsequently shun by the Vandals, who had 
I thither, about 408. In the 14th century the new 
t the dvfl, as it had previously been the ecclesiastical, 
apital of the G^-audan district. 

DMITRI IVANOVICH (1834-1907), Russian 
the youngest of a family of seventeen, was bom at 
Tobolsk, Siberia, on the 7th of February (n.s.) 1834. After 
tff Hiding the gymnasium of his native place, he went to 
ttady natural science at St Petersburg, where he graduated in 
cheoBistry in 1856, subsequently becoming privatdozcnt. In 
itto he went to Heidelberg, where he started a laboratory 
flf his own, but returning to St Petersburg in 186 1, he became 
profesor of chemistry in the technological institute therein 
1863, and three years later succeeded to the same chair in the 
■uvenuty. In 1890 he resigned the professorship, and in 1893 
be was apfxnnted director of the Bureau of Weights and 
Ucasores, a post which he occupied till his death. 

liendelfeff's original work covered a wide range, from questions 
m applied chemistry to the most general problems of chemical and 
physical theory. His name b best known for his work on the 
FModk Law. Various chemists had traced numerical sequences 
; the atomic weights of some of the elements and noted 
between them and the properties of the different 
a hrt a nces ; but it was left to him to give a full expression to the 
feaeialiation, and to treat it not merely as a system of classify- 
iag the elemcnu according to certan observed facts, but as a 
'*kwo( Datoie" which could be relied upon to predict new facts 



imd to disclose errors in what were supposed to be old factiL 
Thus in 1871 he was led by certain gaps in his tables to assert the 
existence of three new elements so far unknown to the chemist, 
and to assign them definite properties These three he called 
ekaboron, ekaaluminium, and ekasilicon; and his prophecy 
was completely vindicated within fifteen years by the discovery 
of gallium in 1871, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886. 
Again, in several cases he ventured to question the correctness 
of the "accepted atomic weights," on the ground that they 
did not correspond with the Periodic Law, and here also he 
was justified by subsequent investigation. In 1902, in an 
" attempt at a chemical conception of the ether," he put 
forward the hjrpothesis that there are in existence two elcmjents 
of smaller atomic weight than hydrogen, and that the lighter 
of these is a chemically inert, exceedingly mobile, all-pene- 
trating and all-pervading gas, which constitutes the aether. 
Mendel^ff also devoted much study to the nature of such 
"indefinite" compounds as solutions, which he looked upon 
as homogeneous liquid systems of unstable dissociating com- 
pounds of the solvent with the substance dissolved, holding 
the opinion that they are merely an instance of ordinary definite 
or atomic compounds, subject to Dalton's laws. In another 
department of physical chemistry he investigated the expansion 
of liquids with heat, and devised a formula for iu expression 
similar to Gay-Luasac's law of the uniformity of the expansion 
of gases, while so far back as i86x he anticipated T. Andrews's 
conception of the critical temperature of gases by defining 
the absolute boiling-point of a substance a» the temperature 
at which cohesion and heat of vaporization become equal to 
zero and the liquid changes to vapour, irrespective of the pressure 
and volume. Mendel£cff wrote birgely on chemical topics, 
his most widely knom-n book probably being The Principles of 
Chemistry ^ which was written in 1 868-1 870, and has gone through 
many subsequent editions in various languages. For his work 
on the Periodic Law he was awarded in 1882, at the same time 
as L. Meyer, the Davy medal of the Royal Society, and in 1905 
he received its Copley medal. He died at St Petersburg on 
the and of February 1907. 

See W. A. Tilden, " Mendel^eff Memorial Lecture," Jow, Chem. 
Soc., 95, p. 2077. 

MENDEUSM. To define what some biologists call Men- 
delism briefly is not possible. Within recent years there has 
come to biologists at new idea of the nature of living things, 
a new conception of their potentialities and of their limitations; 
and for this we are primarily indebted to the work of Gregor 
MendeL Peasant boy, monk, and abbot of Brilnn, this remark- 
able man at one time interested himself in the workings of 
heredity, and the experiments devised by him and carried out 
in his cloister garden are to-day the foundation of that exact 
knowledge of the physiological process of heredity which bio- 
logists are rapidly extending in various directions. This extension 
Mendel never saw. Born in 1822 he published the account 
of his experiments in 1865, but it was not until 1900, eighteen 
years after his death, that biologists came to appreciate what 
he had accomplished. That year marked the simultaneous 
rediscovery of his work by three distinguished botanists: Hugo 
de Vries, C. Correns and E. Tschermak. Thenceforward 
Mendel's ideas have steadily gained ground, and, as the already 
strong body of evidence in their favour grows, they must come 
to exert upon biological conceptions an influence not less than 
those associated with the name of Darwin. 

Dominant and Recessive. — Mendel chose the common pea 
(Pisum sativum) as a subject for experiment, and investigated 
the effects of crossing different varieties. In his method he 
differed from previous investigators in concentrating his atten- 
tion on the mode of inheritance of a single pair of alternative 
characters at a time. Thus on crossing a tall with a dwarf 
and paying attention to this pair of characters alone, he found 
that the hybrids (or Fi generation) were all tall and that no 
intermediates appeared. Accordmgly he termed the tall 
character dominarU and the dwarf character recessive. On 
allowing these hybrids to fertilize themselves in the Qtdu&AX>| 



ii6 MENDELISM 

wty he obtained a further generation which on the avenge by imaU plain and bhcfc rectang^ Each sygote miiit a» 

was composed of three tails to one dwarf. Subsequent experi- tain two and each gamete but one of these imit-characteit 

ment showed that the Zygotes such as the original parents which breed true to a giver 

Tx D -"P dwarfs always bred true, character are said to be homozygous for that character, and 

I as did also one out of from their nature such homozygotes must produce identical 

rl^ p every three tails; the two gametes. Consequently when » cross is made only one kind 

I ' remaining tails behaved of zygote can be formed, viz. that containing both the 

I , I , 1 as the original hybrids in dominant and recessive unit-characters. When the genn-cdls 

T [Tj [T] D F, giving three talis to one of such a heterozygote split to form gametes, these, as indicated 

I I I dwarf. Having regard to in fig. 2, will be of two sorts containing the dominant and re- 

^ i—f — f— I Y} F ^® characters, tallness cessive characters respectively, and will be produced in equal 

I TCtUtID I ' and dwarf ness, three and numbers. If we are dealing with a hermaphrodite plant such at 
* only three kinds of peas the pea the ovules will consist of one half bearing only the 
Fig. I. exist, viz. dwarfs which dominant character and one half bearing only the recessive 
breed true, tails which character; and this will be true also of the pollen grains, 
breed true, and tails which give a fixed proportion of tails Consequently each dominant ovule has an equal chance of 
and dwarfs. The relation between these three forms may being fertilized by a dominant or by a recessive poUen grain* 
be briefly summarized in the subjoined scheme, in which and the dominant ovules must therefore give rise to equal 
pure tall and dwarf are represented by T and D respectively, numbers of dominant homozygous and of heterozygous plants, 
while [T] denotes the tails which do not breed true. Experi- Similarly the recessive ovules must give rise to equal numbeis 
ments were also made with several other pairs of characters, of recessive homozygotes and of hetcrozygotes. Hence of 
and the same mode of inheritance was shown to hold good the total offspring of such a plant one quarter will be pure 
throughout. donunants, one quarter recessives, and one half heterozygotet 
Unit^karaders. — As Mendel clearly perceived, these definite as indicated in fig. a. Where one character is completely 
results lead inevitably to a precise conception of the consti- dominant over the other, hetcrozygotes will be indistinguisb- 
tution of the reproductive cells, or gametes; and to appreciate able . in appearance from the homozygous dominant, and the 
fully the change wrought in our point of view necessitates Fi generation will be composed of three plants of the domi- 
a brief digression into the essential features of the reproductive nant form to each recessive. These are the proportions actuaDy 
)f>rocess. A sexual process (see Sex) is almost universal among found by Mendel in the pea and by many other more recent 
animals and phmts, and consists essentially of the union of observers in a number of plants and animals. The experi- 
two gametes, of which one is produced by either parent. Every mental facts are in accordance with the conception of unit- 
gamete contains small definite bodies known as chromosomes, characters and their transmission from zygote to gamete in 
and the number of these is, with few known exceptions, con- the way outlined above; and the numerical results of breeding 
stant for the gametes of a given species. On the fusion of two experiments are to be regarded as proving that in the fcmna- 
gametes the resulting cell or zygote has therefore a double tion of gametes from the heterozygote the unit-characters are 
Structure, for it contains an equal number of chromosomes treated as unblending entities separating cleanly, or ^e^efo/fiif, 
brought in by the paternal and by the maternal gamete from one another. From this it follows that any gamete can 
—in the case of a plaint by the pollen grain as well as by the cany but one of a pair of unit-characters and must therefore 
ovule. By a process of re- be pure for that character. The principle of the segregation 

_? ^ peated division the zygote of characters in gametogenesis with its natural coroUaiy, 

gives rise to a plant (or an the purity of the gametes, is the essential part of Mendd'a 

animal) whose cells appar- discoveries. The quite distinct phenomenon of dominance 

/\ ently retain the double observed by him in Pisum occurs in many other cases, but, as 

/ \ structure throughout. Cer- will appear below, is by no means universal. 

/ \ tain of the cells of such a lUustralions. — Mendelian inheritance in its amplest form, 

^ipj lS\ ^ fi) aygote become the germ i.e. for a single pair of characters, has already been shown to 

**^-^ ^^ / ^^* *°^ ^'^ "^ apart, as occur in many spedcs of animals and plants, and for many 

Pi2*nte 1 ^ 1 it were, for the formation very diverse characters. In some cases complete dominance 

yfVM 1 1 — t Qf gametes. Histology has of one of the pair of unit-characters occurs; in others the form 

I' — 'I shown that when this occurs of heterozygote is more or less intermediate. Fresh cases 

the cells lose the double are continually being recorded and the following short list 

/ f^ ^S Q. s^^c^ure which they had can but serve to give some idea of the variety of characters in 

V>^'^>s^ p=l ^^^ o hitherto possessed, and that which Mendelian inheritance has been demonstrated. 

5 (Q B ff) I f* ^^^ result of aprocfM a. Dommance m^rfy or quite compile. {The dominant 

^ ^<::7v. [^ ^^^\ ^^^"^^ ^ ^^^ reduction characlpr isBTven fir^t). 

(^\ ^^^^r^ r\ o division gametes are formed Tall ^nd dwarf habit (pta^ i»wt pea). 

>^5'v^ I j ^^^ in which the number of Round wwd and wrinliEcd «Mti (pc*). 

' ' 21 chromosomes is one half Long pcllen and njund poKei (*««[ pta) ■ 

of that which characterizes HoaHnfaj ancfab^net o( haint (Mock*. Ly^%U\ 

the cells of the zygote. It BrjrdTrss and bearded ootid it ioo (wlwat)* 

is generally acknowledged PjriclcliTir^? nnd tmooiKfiCK o( rruiL* (jDaJiira}» 

F.z^i^tM that the chromosomes play F^ilm and r^m leaf (Prt^iJa) 

•_.»_*•*!, rurplp and nrd flowers (twtct pea, fttocKi, a:C,1i 

Fig. 2, an important part m the tvnilitj,^ and sterility of amhrn (sw«i pea), 

hereditary process, and it is Susceptibility and immunity to ru« (wheat), 

possible that the divisions which they undergo in gametogenesis I^«^^' tomb 4nd single conib (fowU). 

are connected with the observed inheritance of characters. ^^^ ^".^^7*^1*'' piumap (Rowcomb bifltann). 

Wejl»UreferU.er,othef.wobse™tion.which5e.«toc<»n*« ^r/Z^/.t^Sr^TK"^;!;.™"'- 

tHe two sets of phenomena. Pigtm^ntation and albinism (fabbin, rata, mice), 

Our conception of what occurs when a cross is made between Potled and homc^d conditk^ji (cattW). 

two individuals may be illustrated by the diasrara which forms f!'^'^ ^?^ '?"^ !' AnRoni " coat (rabbits}, 

t,m A 7w«At.« •» k^.M> .-.^ir.-.,* .^ u - J » NornisTl and waltzLnfr habit (mice). 

ii?;- / Zyigtes are here represented by squares and gametes Ddom^cd hand witE but two phaUne« in dJfCta and normal 

ifjrcuxJcs. T:^^ dominant and recessive cbuncUn tat im^cated hand (man). 




MENDEUSM 



117 



B* Ahhob of <ioininmicBt the bctcraijfgote Mtng oion or km 
iotennediate in fonn. ' 
Block and white iplaihod plnmage (Andalusaan faw\»). 
Lax and dense can (wheat). 
SoK rawed and two rowed can (barley). 
ZHiMinflarf, — ^The meaning of this phenomenon is at present 
obscaxe, and we can make no suggestion as to why it should 
be ffffiyMr in one case, partial in another, and entirely absent 
m a tldid. When found it is as a rule definite and orderly, 
b«tt there are cases known where irregularity exists. The 
extra toe diaiacteristic of certain breeds of fowls, such as Dork- 
ings, beharcs generally as a dominant character, but in certain 
cases it has been ascertained that a fowl without an extra toe 
may yet carry the extra toe character. It is possible that in 
some cases dominance may be conditioned by the presence of 
other features, and certain crosses in sheep lend colour to the 
sippositiao thiat sex may be such a feature. A cross between 
the polled Suffolk and the homed Dorset breeds results in 
boned rams and polled ewes only, though in the Ft generation 
both sexes appear with and without horns. At present the 
uplest faypcAhesb which fits the facts is that horns are domi- . 
BSBt in the male and recessive in the female. It is important 
not to ooafoae cases of apparent reversal of dominance such 
IS the abowe with cases in which a given visible charaaer may 
be the resolt of two entirely different causes. One white hen 
■ay give ooly colour chicks by a coloured cock, whilst the 
nae cock with another white hen, indistinguishable in appear- 
ance from the former, will give only white chickens containing 
a fov dark ticks. There is here no reversal of dominance, 
but, ss has been abundantly proved by experiment, there are 
tvo entir^ distinct dasses of white fowls, of which one is 
doBinant and the other recessive to colour. 

The Prtsatee and Absence Hypothesis.— V/htthtt the pheno- 
amon of dominance occur or not, the unit-characters exist 
ia pairs, of which the memben are seemingly interchangeable, 
la Tirtoe of this behaviour the unit-characten forming such 
a pair have been termed allelomorphic to one another, and 
tk qoestkm arises as to what is the nature of the relation 
between two allelomorphs. The fact that such cases of heredity 
n bave been fully worked out can all be formulated in terms 
of iDelomorphic pairs is suggestive, and has led to what may 
be called the ** presence and absence " hypothesis. An allelo- 
Boiphic pair represents the only two possible sutes of any 
pna ontt-character in its relation to the gamete, vix. its pre- 
Kaoe or its absence. When the unit-character is present the 
qaiEty for which it stands is manifested in the zygote: ^en 
^ ii absent some other quality previously concealed is able 
to appear. When the unit-character for yellowness is present 
k » pea the seeds are yellow, when it b absent the seeds are 
ptcD. The green character is underlying in all yellow seeds, 
bet can only appear in the absence of the unit-character for 
ydowncss, and greenness is allelomorphic to yellowness because 
it B the expression of absence of yellowness. 

DikybridisM, — ^The instances hitherto considered are all 
■ople cases in which the individuals crossed differ only in 
oae pair of unit-characters. Mendel himself worked out cases 
B vhich the parents- differed in more than one allelomorphic 
pur, and he pointed out that the principles involved were 
opable of indefinite extension. The inheritance of the various 
aSdomorphic pairs is to be regarded as entirely independent. 
For eumple. when two individuals A A and aa are crossed 
tbe composition of the Ft generation must be i4il + 2Aa-\-aa. 
If *e suppose that the two parents differ also in the allelo- 
onrphic pair B-6, the composition of the Ft generation for 
thift pair will be BB-^riBh + bb, Hence of the zygotes which 
are homozygous for A A one quarter will carry also BB^ one 
qoarter bb, axid one half Bb. And similarly for the zygotes 
vlticb carry ^ a or oo. The various combinations possible 
togtther with the relative frequencies of their occ\irrence may 
be gathered from fig. 3. Of the 16 zygotes there are: — 
9 containing A and B 3 containing B but not A 

3 „ i4 bat not ^ i „ neither AaorB 



JkA 




Am. 


MJk 




AA 

» 


- 


« 


^ 


It 


u 

1» 


B 


tt 


tf 


s 


S 



Flo. 3. 



the t%o alldomorphic pahs, !.«. most be of the ooostitution 
Aa Bb. It is obvious that such a result may be produced in two 
ways, either by the union of two gametes, 
Ab and aB, or of two gametes A B and 
ab. In the former case each parent 
must be homozygous for one dominant 
and one recessive character; in the 
latter case one parent must be homo- 
zygous for both the dominant and the 
other for both recessive characters. 
The results of a cross involving, 
dihybridism may be complicated in 
several ways by the reaction upon one 
another of the tmit-characten belonging to the separate 
allelomorphic pairs, and it will be convenient to consider 
the various possibilities apart. 

X. The simplest case is that in which the two allelomorphic 
pairs affect entirely distinct characters. In the pea tallness 
is dominant to dwarfness and yellow seeds are dominant to 
green. When a yellow uU is crossed with a green dwarf the 
Fi generation consists entirely of tall yellows. Precisely the 
same result is obtained by crossing a tall green with a dwarf 
yellow. In either case all the four characten involved are 
visible in one or other of the parents. Of every 16 plants 
produced by the tall yellow Fi, 9 are tall yellows, 3 are tall 
greens, 3 are dwarf yellows, and i is a dwarf green. If we 
denote the tall and dwarf characters by A and a, and the yellow 




WALNUT 



F.C.4. ^SlNGLt 

The four types of comb referrwl to In the text are shown here. 
All the drawings were made from male birds. In the hens the 
combs are smaUer.- All four types of comb are liable to a certain 
amount of minor variation, and the walnut especially so. The 
presence of minute bristles on its posterior portion, however, 
serves at once to distinguish it from any other comb. 

and green seed characters by B and b respectively, then the 
constitution of the Ft generation can be readily gathered from 

fig. 3- 

a. When the two allelomorphic pairs affect the same structure 
we may get the phenomenon of novelties appearing in F| and 
Fj. Certain breeds of fowls have a " rose " and others a " pea " 
comb (fig. 4). On crossing the two a "walnut" comb 
results, and the offspring of such walnuts bred together consist 



of 9 walnuU, 3 roses, 3 peas, and 1 tinflLt cott^ vci tNtrf 
- - .16 birds. This case may be brought \nlo ^t mxYi xY^fc wJawafc 

Ii a caM of dihybridism the Fj 19^19 /irasr^ J^/cra^y^^OTis/pf J Xa i^. ^ if we coniidec Ui« •U^tnoi^Y^c v^^n gsos;)(?n^ V) 



ii8 



MENDELISM 



be rose {A) and absence of rose (a), and pea {S) and absence 
of pea (b). The zygotic constitution of a zose is therefore 
AAbb, and of a pea aaBB, A zygote containing both rose 
and pea is a walnut: a zygote 6>ntaining neither rose nor pea 
is a single. The peculiar feature of such a case lies in the fact 
that absence of rose and absence of pea are the same thing, 
«.«. sin^e; and this is doubtless owing to the fact that the 
characters rose and pea both affect the same structure, the 
comb. 

3. Cases exist in which the characters due to one allelo- 
morphic pair can only become manifest in the presence of a 
particular member of the other pair. If in fig. 3 the characters 
due to B-b can only manifest themselves in the presence of 
il, it is obvious that this can happen in twelve cases out of 
sixteen, but not in the remaining four, which are homozygous 
for aa. An example of this is to be found in the inheritance 
of coat colour in rabbits, rats and mice where the allelomorphic 
pairs concerned are wild grey colour (B) dominant to black 
(6) and pigmentation {A) dominant to albinism (a). Certain 
albinos (aaBB) crossed with blacks {AAbb) give only greys 
{AaBb), and when these are bred together they give 9 greys, 
3 blacks and 4 albinos. Of the 4 albinos 3 carry the grey 
character and i does not, but in the absence of the pigmenta- 
tion factor (i4) this is not visible. The ratio 9:3-4 must be 
regarded as a 9 : 3 : 3 : x ratio, in which the last two terms are 
visibly indistinguishable owing to the impossibility of telling 
by the eye whether an albino carries the character for grey 
or not. 

4. The appearance of a zygotic character may depend upon 
the coexistence in the zygote of two unit-characters belonging 
to different allelomorphic pairs. If in the scheme shown in 
fig. 3 the manifesUtion of a given character depends upon 
the simultaneous presence of A and B^ it is obvious that 9 of 
the 16 zygotes will present this character, whilst the remaining 
7 will be without it. This is shown graphically in fig. 5, where 

the 9 squares have been shaded 
and the 7 left plain. The sweet pea 
offers an example of this phenom- 
enon. White sweet peas breed true 
to whiteness, but when certain strains 
of whites are crossed the offspring 
are all coloured. In the next genera- 
tion (Ff) these Fi plants give rise to 9 
coloured and 7 whites in every 16 
plants. Colour here is a compound 
character whose manifestation depends 
upon the co-existence of two factors 
in the zygote, and each of the original parents was homozy- 
gous for one of the two factors necessary to the production 
of colour. The ratio 9 : 7 is in reality a 9:3:5:1 ratio 
in which, owing to special conditions, the zygotes represented 
by the last three terms are indistinguishable from one another 
by the eye. 

The phenomena of dihybridism, as illustrated by the four 
examples given above, have been worked out in many other 
cases for plants and animals. Emphasis must be laid upon 
the fact that, although the unit-characters belonging to two 
pairs may react upon one another in the zygote and affect 
its character, their inheritance is yet entirely independent. 
Neither grey nor black can appear in the rabbit unless the 
pigmentation factor is also present; nevertheless, gametic 
segregation of this pair of characters takes place in the normal 
way among albino rabbits, though its effects are never visible 
until a suitable cross is made. In cases of trihybridism the 
Mendel ian ratio for the forms appearing in Ft is 37 : 9 : 9 : 9: 
3 : S : 3 : ii »•*• 27 showing dominance of three characters, three 
groups of 9 each showing dominance of two characters, three 
groups of 3 each showing dominance of one character, and 
a single individual out of 64 which is homozygous for all three 
recessive characters. It is obvious that the system can be 
indefinitely extended to embrace any number of allelomorphic 
pairs. 



nr 


17 — 


"' J" 1 




.LA 


3^ 

t>3 


bb 


tk 




M 




ti 


« 


r» 


a 



Fic. 5. 



Rt9ersum:—'Faet3 sadi as thoee juit dealt with in t 
with certain cases of dihybridism throw an entirely new light 
upon the phenomenon known as reversion on crossing. Tliii 
is now seen to consist in the meeting of facton which had in 
some way or other become separated in phylogeny. Tlie 
albino rabbit when crossed with the black " reverU " to the 
wiM grey colour, because each parent supplies one of the two 
factors upon which the manifesUtion of the wild colour dqwodi. 
So also the wild purple sweet pea may corneas aievexnon 
on crossing two whites. In such cases the reversion appears 
in the F| generation, because the two factors upon which it 
depends are the dominants of their respective aillelomorpliic 
pairs. Where the reversion depends upon the simultaneoot 
absence of two characters it cannot appear until the Ft gescfm- 
tion. When fowls with rose and pea combs are crossed the 
reversionary single comb characteristic of the wild GaUus i 
first appears in the Fi generation. 

Gametic Coupling. — ^In certain cases the distribution of < 
acters in heredity is complicated by the fact that particular 
unit-characters tend to become associated or coupled together 
during gametogenesis. In no case have we yet a complete 
explanation of the phenomenon, but in view of the important 




Fig. 6. 
bearing which these facu must eventually have on our ideas 
of the gametogenic process an illustration may be given. 
The case in which two white sweet peas gave a coloured oa 
crossing has already been described, and it was seen that the 
production of colour was dependent upon the meeting of two 
factors, of which one was brought in by each parent. If tlie 
allelomorphic pairs be denoted by C-c and R-^^ then the zygotic 
constitution of the two parents must have been CCrr and 
ccRR respectively. The Fi plant may be either purple or red, 
two characters which form an allelomorphic pair in which 
the former is dominant, and which may be denoted by the 
letters B-b. U B is brought in by one parent only the Fi 
plant will be heterozygous for all three allelomorphic pairs, 
and therefore of the constitution Cc Rr Bb. In the Ft generation 
the ratio of coloured to white must be 9 : 7, and of purple to 
red 3:1; and experiment has shown that this generation is 
composed on the average of 27 purples, 9 reds and 28 whitd 
out of every 64 plants. The exact composition of such a fami^ 
may be gathered from the accompanying table (fig. 6). So 
far the case is perfectly smooth, and it is only on the introductioa 
of another character that the phenomenon of partial coupling 
is witnessed. Two kinds of pollen grain occur in the sweet 
pea. In some plants they are oblong in shape, whilst in others 
they are round, the latter condition being recessive to the 
former. If the original white parents were homozygous for long 
and round respectively the Fi purple must be heterozygous, and 
in the Ft generation, as experiment has shown, the ratio of 
longs to rounds for the whole family is 3 : x. But among the 
purples there are about twelve longs to each round, the txxxm 
of longs here being balanced by the reds, where the proportioa 



MENDELISM 



119 



ii 1 loos to about $*$ raondb. There b partial coupling 

of hmg poDen with ^ puzple colour and a complementary 

ffffr'^nf of the red cokmr with round pollen. This result 

woold be brought about if it were supposed that seven out of 

cfcry eigfat purple gametes produced by the Fi plant carried 

the long poUen character, and that seven out of every eight 

led gametes carried the round pollen character. The facts 

ob se iye d fit in with the suiqx»ition that the gametes are pro- 

dooed in series of sixteen, but how such result could be brought 

about is a question which for the present must remain open. 

} Spmioms AlUlomorpkisM. — ^InsUnces of association between 

diBnctefs are known in which the connection is between the 

doainant member of one pair and the recessive of another. 

In many sweet peas the standard folds over towards the wings, 

and the flower is said to be hooded. This '* hooding " behaves 

as a recessive towards the erect standard. Red sap colour 

is also recessive to purple. In families where purples and 

n^aswefl as erect and hooded sundards occur it has been 

foond, as might be expected, that erect standards are to hooded 

eocs, and that purples are to reds as 3:1. Were the caseone 

of simple dihybridiun the Ft generation should be composed 

of 9 erect purples, 3 hooded purples, 3 erect reds and x 

hooded red in every x6. Actually it is composed of 8 erect 

poiples, 4 hooded purples and 4 erect reds. The hood willnot 

associate with the red, but occurs only on the purples. Cases 

Qie this are best interpreted on the assumption that during 

funetogenesb there is some form of repulsion between the 

ntabexsof the different pairs— in the present instance between 

tk factor for pnrpk-and that for the erect standard— so that 

aQ the gunetes which contain the purple factor are free from 

\h factor for the erect standard. To the process involved 

m.this assumption the term spurious allelomorphism has been 

•pplicd. 

Set.— On the existing evidence It is probable that the in- 

beritance of sex runs upon the same determinate lines as that 

«f other characters. Indeed, there occurs in the sweet pea 

vlot may be regarded as an instance of sex inheritance of 

tbe simplest kind. Most sweet peas are hermaphrodite, but 

some are found in which the anthers are sterile and the plants 

function only as females. This latter condition is recessive to 

tk hermaphrodite one and segregates from it in the ordinary 

vay. Most cases of sex inheritance, however, are complicated, 

tad it b further possiMe that the phenomena may be of a 

diflcTcnt order in plants and animals. Instructive in this 

eooaexion are certain cases in which one of the characters 

of an aUelomorphic pair may be coupled with a particular sex. 

The pale Icctiador variety of the currant moth (Abraxas 

f^nvdoriata) b recessive to the normal form, and in families 

produced by heterozygous parents one quarter of the ofTspring 

are of the variety. Though the sexes occur in approximately 

equal nombers, all the lacticolor in such families are females; 

tad the association of sex with a character exhibiting normal 

Kgn^atxm b strongly suggestive of a similar process obtaining 

for sex aba Castle has worked out similar cases in other 

Lepidoptcra and has put forward an hypothcsb of sex in- 

iMritance on the basb of tbe Mendeiian segregation of sex 

determinants. An ovum or spermatozoon can carry either the 

■ale or the female character, but it b essential to Castle's 

bypothcsb that a male spermatozoon should fertilize only a 

Sanak omm and vice versa, and consequently on hb view all 

tygoccs are heterozygous in respect of sex. Whether any such 

fUKtic sdectkm as that postulated by Castle occurs here or 

dtowhcxe must for the present remain unanswered. Little 

evid enc e exbts for it at present, but the possibility of its 

oocorreoce should not be ignored. 

More recently evidence has been brought forward by Bateson 
and others (3) which supports the view that the inheritance 
if sex b on MendeHan lines. The analysis of cases where there 
h a doaer association between a Mendeiian character and a 
pviicniar aes has suggested that femaleness b here dominant 
t» nnkneii, and that the latter sex b homozygous whik the 
aKBer b betcrosygdiia. 



Chromosomes and Umt-Charaeters,'~'BTttShig experiments 
have established the conception of definite unit-characters 
exbting in the ceUs of an organism: in the cell histology has 
demonstrated the exbtence of small definite bodies— the 
chromosomes. During gametogenesb there takes place what 
many hbtologbts regard as a differentiating division of the 
chromosomes: at the same period occurs the sqp^gation of tbe 
unit-characters. Is there a relation between the postulated 
imit-character and the visible chromosome, and if so what is 
thb relation? The researches of £. B. Wilson and others have 
shown that in certain Hemiptera the character of sex b definitely 
assodated with a particular chromosome. The males of Pro- 
tenor possess thirteen chromosomes, and the qualitative divbion 
on gametogenesb results in the production of equal numbers 
of spermatozoa having six and seven chromosomes. The 
somatic number of chromosomes in the female b fourteen, and 
consequently all the mature ova have seven chromosomes. 
When a spermatozoon with seven chromosomes meets an 
ovum the resulting zygote has fourteen chromosomes and b a 
female; when a spermatozoon with .six chromosomes meets 
an ovum the resulting zygote has thirteen chromosomes and 
b a male. In no other instance has any such definite relation 
been established, and in many cases at any rate it b certain 
that it could not be a simi^ one. The gametic number of 
chromosomes in wheat b eight, whereas the work of R. H. Biffen 
and others has shown that the number of unit-characters in 
thb species b considerably greater. If therefore there exbts 
a definite relation between the two it must be supposed that a 
chromosome can carry more than a sin^^e unit-character. It 
b not impossible that future work on gametic coupling may 
throw light upon the matter. 

Heredity and Variation. — ^It has long been realized that the 
problems of heredity and variation are closely interwoven, 
and that whatever throws light upon the one may be expected 
to illuminate the other. Recent as has been the rise of the 
study of genetics, it has, nevertheless, profoundly influenced 
our views as to the nature of these phenomena. Heredity 
we now perceive to be a method of analysb, and the facts of 
heredity constitute a series of reactions which enable us to 
argue towards the constitution of living matter. And essential 
to any method of analysb b the recognition of the individuality 
of the individual Constitutional differences of a radical 
nature may be concealed beneath apparent identity of external 
form. Purple sweet peas from the same pod, indbtinguishable 
in appearance and of identical ancestry, may yet be funda* 
mentally different in their constitution. From one may come 
purples, reds and whites, from another only purples and reds, 
from another purples and whites alone, whilst a fourth will 
breed true to purple. Any method of investigation which 
fails to take account of the radical difTcrcnccs in constitution 
which may underlie external similarity must necessarily be 
doomed to failure. Conversely, we realize lo-day that indivi- 
duals identical in constitution may yet have an entirely diflfcrcnt 
ancestral history. From the cross between two fowls with 
rose and pea combs, each of irreproachable pedigree for genera- 
tions, come single combs in the second generation, and these 
singles are precisely similar in their behaviour to singles bred 
from strains of unblemished ancestry. In the ancestry of the 
one b to be found no single over a long series of years, in the 
ancestry of the other nothing but singles occurred. The creature 
of given constitution may often be built up in many ways, 
but once formed it will behave like others of the same constitu- 
tion. The one sure test of the constitution of a living thing 
lies in the nature of the gametes which it carries, and it is 
the analysb of these gametes which forms the province of 
heredity. 

The clear cut and definite mode of transmission of characters 
first revealed by Mendel leads inevitably to the conception 
of a definite and clear-cut basis for those characters. Upon 
this structural, basis, the unit -character, are grounded certain 
of the phenomena now termed variation. Varieties exist as 
such in virtue of differing in one or more unit-characters from 



I20 



MENDELSSOHN 



what is conventioiudly termed the type; and since these unit- 
characters must from their behaviour in transmission be regarded 
as discontinuous in their nature, it follows that the variation 
must be discontinuous also. A present tendency of thought 
is to regard the discontinuous variation or mutation as the 
material upon which natural selection works, and to consider 
that the process of evolution takes place by definite steps. 
Darwin's opposition to this view rested partly upon the idea 
that the discontinuous variation or sport would, from the 
rarity of its occurrence, be unable to maintain itself against 
the swamping effects of intercrossing with the normal form. 
Mendel's work has shown that this objection is not valid, and 
the precision of the mode of inheritance of the discontinuous 
variation leads us to inquire if the small or fluctuating variation 
can be shown to have an equally definite physiological basis 
before it is admitted to play any part in the production of 
q>edes. Until this has been shown it is possible to consider 
the discontinuous vaiiation as the unit in 'all evolutionary 
change, and to regard the/ fluctuating variation as the unin- 
herited effect of environmental accident. 
; The Human Aspect. — In conclusion we may briefly allude to 
certain practical aspects of Mendel's discovery. Increased 
knowledge of heredity iheans increased power of control over 
the living thing, and as we come to understand more and more 
the architecture of the phmt or animal we realize what can 
and what cannot be done towards modification or improvement. 
The experiments of Biffen on the cereals have demonstrated 
what may be done with our present knowledge in establishing 
new, stable and more profitable varieties of wheat and barley, 
and it is impossible to doubt that as this knowledge becomes 
more widely disseminated it will lead to considerable improve- 
ments in the methods of breeding animals and plants. 

It is not, however, in the economic field, important as this 
may be, that Mendel's discovery is likely to have most meaning 
for us; rather it is in the new light in which man will come 
to view himself and his fellow creatures. To-day we are almost 
entirely ignorant of the unit-characters that go to make the 
difference between one man and another. A few diseases, 
such as alcaptonuria and congenital cataract, a digital mal- 
formation, and probably eye colour, are as yet the only cases 
in which inheritance has been shown to run upon Mendelian 
lines. The complexity of the subject must render investigation 
at once difiictilt and slow; but the little that we know to-day 
offers the hope of a great extension in oiur knowledge at no 
very distant time. If this hope is borne out, if it is shown 
that the quahties of man, his body and his intellect, his im- 
munities and his diseases, even his very virtues and vices, are 
dependent upon the ascertainable presence or absence of definite 
unit-characters whose mode of transmission follows fixed laws, 
and if also man decides that his life shall be ordered in the light 
of this knowledge, it is obvious that the social system will have 
to undergo considerable changes. 

BiDLiOGRAPHY.— In the following short list are given the titles of 
rapers dealing with experiments directly referred to jn -thb article. 
References to most of the literature will be found in (ii), and a 
complete list to the date of publication in (3). 

(I) W. Bateson. Mendets Principles of Heredity (Cambridge. 
1903), contains translation of Mendel s paper. (3) W. Bateson, An 
Address on Mendelian Heredity and its Application to Man, 
" Brain/" pt. cxiv. (1006). ts) W, Bateson, Mmdd't Ftintipks 
of Heredity flgogln U) H* H* Bifftn* " MendcV* Laws of Ifl- 
h^iiantc and Wheat Breedtnes," Journ. A^f. Sor.r vol. L (1903) 
<K) W. E. Oirtip, ■■ The Heredky of Sex/' BuU. Muj. Comp. Zeci. 
(Harvard, 1903). (6) L. Cudnot, " L'Hdr6dit6 de U pigmpniatiGn 
Chez lr» fioiiri*/' Anh. Zool. ELrp. (1903-1904)1. {j) ll, de Vrit*, 
Pie idutaiwnitke&rie (Lripiig. i9D[-i9oj), {^} L. DonoiAcr and 
C, H- Ray nor, " Breeding. Exprrimtnts with LcpidopleniH" Pr^. 
Zoot. Sor, (London 1906I. (9) C. C. Hurstn " Enpertmenul 
Siudici on Heredity in Elabbks/' Journ. Linn. So£. (1^5}. O^} 
G. J* Mendel, Versueke Uter Fflaits^n-Hybriden, Vrvk. luilur. /. per, 
in Br6Hn, Bd. IV. (1S65I. fli) Rfp<Frtt *<? iht Evt*tu$ian Qmmitiee 
4>fihe Reyal Sodety, voh. t~l\l (London. 1901-1006, r^pcrimenti by 
W. Bat«oii, E. R, Sauflden, R. C. Punnott. C. C. Hurii and other*), 
(is) E. B. Wilier), *' Studies in ChronsosomMH," vols, i.-iii. Jovrn. 
Exp. ZO0I. (1 90s- 1906). (tt) T. B. Wood* *' Mote on the Inheri- 
tanci: oT Boms and F*ce Coteur in Shttp," Jnm* Ap^ Spc, vol L 



MENDELSSOHN, MOSES (xys^-xySd), Jcwiih phflniopliffr, 
was bom in Dessau in 1729, His father's name was Modd^ 
and he was biter on sumamed Mendelssohn («scm of MmdffQ. 
He was the foremost Jewish figure of the x8th centuxy, and tD 
him is attributable the renaissance of the House of IsneL With 
this third Moses (the other two being the Biblical kwghcr 
and Moses Maimonides) a new era o|>ens in the histocy of tht 
Jewish people. Mendel Dessau was a poor scribe--^ writer 
of scrolls — and his son Moses in his boyhood developed curvatuni 
of the spine. His early education was cared for by his father 
and by the local rabbi, David Fr&nkeL The latter, besidet 
teaching him the Bible and Talmud, introduced to him tht 
philosophy of Maimonides (q.v.). Frilnkel received a call to 
Berlin in 1743. Not many months later a weakly lad knocked 
at one of the gates of Berlin. He was admitted after an altooi- 
tion, and found a warm welcome at the hands of his fonner 
teacher. His life at this period was a struggle against crushing 
poverty, but his scholarly ambition was never relaxed. A 
refugee Pole, Zamosx, taught him mathematics, and a youag 
Jewish physician was his tutor in Latin. He was, however, 
mainly self-Uught. " He learned to speU and to philotophiat 
at the same time" (Graetz). With his scanty <^rtitng> ke 
bought a Latin copy of Locke's Essay amceming the Hmmn 
Understanding, and mastered it with the aid of a Latin dictionaiy. 
He then made the acquaintance of Aaron Solomon Gimipen^ 
who taught him the elements of French and English. In xjjo 
he was appointed by a wealthy silk-merchant, Isaac Bemhard, 
as teacher to his children. Mendelssohn soon won the confidenot 
of Bemhard, who made the young student successive^ Us 
book-keeper and his partner. 

Gumperz or Hess rendered a con^icuous service to.Mendds- 
sohn and to the cause of enlightenment in 1754 by introdndag 
him to Lessing. Just as the latter afterwards makes Nathaa 
the Wise and Saladin meet over the chess-board, so did T 
and Mendelssohn actually come together as lovers of the (^ 
The Berlin of the day^the day of Frederick the Great- 
in a moral and intellectual ferment. Lessing was the great 
liberator of the German mind. He had already begun his woik 
of toleration, for he had recently produced a drama {Dk 
Juden, 1749), the motive of which was to prove that a Jew can 
be possessed of nobility of character. This notion was being 
generally ridiculed as untrue, when Lessing found in Mendds* 
sohn the realization of his dream. Within a few months of 
^hc same age, the two became brothers in intellectual and artistic 
cameraderie. Mendelssohn owed his first introduction to 
the public to Lessing's admiration. The former had writtea 
in ludd German an attack on the national neglect of native 
philosophers (prindpally Leibnitz), and lent the manuscript 
to Lessing. Without consulting the author, Lessing puBUshed 
anonymously Mendelssohn's PhUosopkical Conversations (PAfl*- 
sopkische Gesprdche) in 1755. In the same year there appeared 
in Danzig an anonymous satire, «P0^ a Ueiaphysictan {Popa 
ein Meiaphysiker), the authorship of which soon transpired. 
It was the joint work of Lessing and Mendelssohn. From 
this time Mendelssohn's career was one of ever-increasing 
brilliance. He became (i 756-1759) the leading spirit of Nicolai's 
important literary undertakings, the Bibliotkek and the IMeratW' 
briefe, and ran some risk (which Frederick's good' nature 
obviated) by somewhat freely criticizing the poems of the 
king of Prussia. In 1762 he married. His wife was Fromet 
Gugenheim, who survived him by twenty-six years. In the 
year following his marriage Mendelssohn won the prize offered 
by the Berlin Academy for an essay on the application of mathe- 
matical proofs to metaphysics, although among the competitors 
were Abbt and Kant. In October 1763 the king granted 
Mendelssohn > the privilege of Protected Jew {Sckuti-Judey-' 
which aisured his right to undisturbed residence in Berlin. 

As a result of his correspondence with Abbt, Mendelssohn 
resolved to write on the Immortality of the SouL Materialistic 
views were at the time rampant and fashionable, and faith 
in immortality was at a low ebb. At this favourable juncture 
appeared the PhUdon (1767). Modelled on PUto's dialofut 



MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY 



121 






off the nme name, Menddssohn 8 work po as qaed some of tlie 
ctenn off its Greek exemplar. What moat impresaed the 
Gcnnan world was its beauty and luddity of style--features to 
w^di MmdfhacAn still owes his popularity as a writer. The 
fhadam was an immediate success, and besides being often 
wprinted in German was speedily translated into nearly all 
the European languages, induding English. The author was 
hailed aa t2»e " German Plato," or the " German Socrates "; 
nyal and other aristocratic friends showered attentions on 
hia, and it is no exaggeration to assert with Kayserling that 
" no stranger who came to Berlin failed to pay his personal 
mpKts to the German Socrates." 

Sobr, Mendelssohn had devoted his talents to phiksbphy 
lad crilidsm; now, however, an inddent tum^ the current 
ollds life in the direction of the cause of Judaism. Lavater 
V3S ooe of the most ardent admirers of Mendelssohn. He 
desaibed him as " a companionable, brilliant soul, with pierdng 
qro, the body of an Aesop— a man of keen insight, exquisite taste 
aad wide eriidition . . . frank and open-h^rted." Lavater 
lai fired with the ambition to convert his friend to Christianity. 
h the preface to a German translation of Bonnet's essay on 
fW^?* Evidences, Lavater publidy challenged Mendeksohn 
to idote Bonnet or if he could not then to " do what wisdom, 
Ik love of truth and honesty must bid him, what a Socrates 
wmU krvc done if he had read the book and found it unanswer- 
lUe." This appeal produced a painful impressbn. Bonnet 
RKBted Lavnter's action, but Mendelssohn was bound to 
Rpiy. though <q>po9ed to religious .controversy. As he put 
k: " S uppose there were living among my contemporaries 
a CoDfodus or a Solon, I could, according to the prindples 
dwj faith, love and admire the great man without fall- 
lag iato the ridiculous idea that I must convert a Solon or a 



1 



. Hoe we see the germs of Mendelssohn's Pragmatism, to 
■e the now current term. He shared this with Lcssing; in 
lUi case, at all events, it is probable that the latter was indebted 
to Menddssohn. But bdfore discussing this matter, we must 
fafioir out the consequences of Lavater's intrusion into Mendels- 
tohi's affairs. The latter resolved to devote the rest of his 
fife to the emandpation of the Jews. Among them secular 
Madws had been neglected, and Mendelssohn saw that he could 
best remedy the defect by attacking it on the religious side. 
A great chapter in the history of culture is filled by the influence 
rf translatioos of the Bible. Mendelssohn added a new section 
to this chapter by his German translation of the Pentateuch 
aad other parts of the Bible. This work (1783) constituted 
MeadelsBohn the Luther of the German Jews. From it, the Jews 
kamed the German language; from it they imbibed culture; 
lith it there was bom a new desire for German nationality*, 
at a result of its popularity was inaugurated a new system of 
Jewidi education. Some of the conservatives among the Jews 
e|>poaed these innovations, but the current of progress was too 
MroBg for them. Mendelssohn was the first great champion of 
Inrkh emandpation in the i8th century. He it was who 
iadaoed C W. Dohm to publish in 1781 his epoch-making 
«ork. On the Civil Amdioration of Ike Condition oj the Jem, 
a BKBaorial which played a great part in the triimiph of tolerance. 
Meaddsaohn himself published a German translation of the 
Tmiieiae judaeorum by Menasseh ben Israd. The exdtement 
CMBed by these proceedings led Mendelssohn to publish his 
mott important contribution to the problems connected with 
the position of Judaism in relation to the general life. 

This work was the Jerusalem (1783; Eng. trans. 1838 
aad 1853). It is a fordble plea for freedom of conscience. 
Kant described it as "an irrefutable book." Its basic idea 
■ that the state had no right to interfere with the religion of 
ks cUiaens. As Kant put it, this was " the proclamation of 
• peal icform, which, however, will be slow in manifestation 
lad in pragresa, and which will affect not only your people 
kt others, as well." Mendelssohn asserted the pragmatic 
lldadpl^off the poaaible plurality of truths: that just as various 
I jMed diffcfcnt coostittaion»— to one a monarchy, to 



another a republic, may be the most congenial to the national 
genius— so individuals may need different religions. The 
test of religion is its effect on conduct. This is the moral of 
Lessing's Nathan the Wise, the hero of which is imdoubtedly 
Menddssohn. The parable of the three rings M the epitome 
of the pragmatic position. One direct result of this pragmatism 
was unexpected. Having been taught that there is no absolutely 
trxie religion, Mendelsohn's own descendants— a brilliant 
drde, of which the musidan Felix was the most noted— left 
the Synagogue for the Church. . But despite this, Mendelssohn's 
theory was found to be a strengthening bond in Judaism. 
For he maintained that Judaism was less a "divine need, 
than a revealed life." In the first part of the xgth century, 
the criticism of Jewish dogmas and traditions was assodated 
with a firm adhesion to the older Jewish mode of living. Reason 
was applied to beliefs, the historic consdousness to life. Modem 
reform in Judaism is parting to some extent from this conception, 
but it still holds good even among the liberals. 

Of Mendelssohn's remaining years it must suffice to say that 
he progressed in fame numbering among his friends more and 
more of th^ greatest men of the age. His Morgenstunden 
appeared in 1785, and he died as the result of a cold contracted 
while carrying to his publishers in 1786 the manuscript of a 
vindication of his friend Lessing, who had predeceased him 
by five years. 

. Mendelssohn had six children. His sons were : Joseph (founder 
of the Mendelssohn banking bouse, and a friend and benefactor 
of Alexander Humboldt), whose son Alexander (d. 1871) was 
the lost Jewish descendant of the philosopher; Abraham (who 
married Leah Bartholdy and was the father of Fanny Hcnsel 
and J. L. Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy); and Nathan (a mechan- 
ical engineer of considerable repute). His daughters were 
Dorothea, Recha and Henriette, all brilliantly gifted women. 

BiBLiocRA PHY. — An edition of Menddssohn's works was published 
In i84>-i84<, with a biography by his son Joseph; another edition 
of his Schnften tacr Pkilosopkie, Aesthetik una Apdogetik, appeared 
(ed. Brasch) in 2 vols, in 1880. For Mendelssohn's biograpny the 
chief sources are Gractz, History of the Jews, vol. v., and Kayser- 
ling's M. Mendelssohn's Leben und Wirken (1887). Much intcrestinj; 
material on the Mendelssohn family is given in Hensd's Die Famiiu 
Mendelssohn (translated into English, 1881). Much general 
comment on Moaes Menddssohn appeared in the press of the world 
on occasion of -the centenary of the birth of the composer Mendels- 
sohn in 1909. (I. A.) 

MENDBL8S0HK-BARTH0LD7. JAKOB LUDWIG FEUX 
(1809- 1 847), German composer, grandson of Moses Mendelssohn 
(q.v.), was bom in Hamburg on the 3rd of February xSoq. In 
consequence of the troubles caused by the French occupation 
of HaJnburg, Abraham Mendelssohn, his father, migrated in 
181 X to Beriin, where his grandmother Fromct, then in the 
twenty-fifth year of her widowhood, received the whole family 
into her house, No. 7 Neue Promenade. Here Felix and his 
sister Fanny rccdved thdr first instruction in music from their 
mother, under whose care they progressed so rapidly that their 
exceptional talent soon became apparent. Thdr next teacher 
was Madame Bigot, who, during the temporary residence of 
the family in Paris in 1816, gave them valuable instruction. 
On their return to Berlin they took lessons in thoroughbass 
and composition from Zclter, in pianoforte-playing from Ludwig 
Berger, and in violin-playing from Henning — the care of their 
general education bdng entrusted to the father of the novelist 
Paul Heysc. 

Felix first played in public on the 24th of October 181 8, 
taking the pianoforte part in a trio by Woclfl. On the nth 
of April 181 9 he entered the Berlin Singakadcmie as an alto, 
and in the following year began to compose with extraordinary 
raiudity. His earliest dated work is a cantata, In riihrend 
Jeicrlichen Tdnen, completed on the 13th of January 1820. 
During that year alone he produced nearly sixty movements, 
including songs, pianoforte sonatas, a trio for pianoforte, 
violin and violoncello, a sonata for vioUn and pianoforte, 
pieces for the organ, and even a little dramatic piece in three 
scenes. In 1821 he wrote five symphonies for stringed instru- 
ments, each in three movements; moteu for four voices, aa 



tzz 



MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY 



opera, In one act, called Soldatenliebschaft; another, called Die 
beiden POdagogen; part of a third, called DUwandemden Comddi- 
anten; and an immense quantity of other music of different 
kinds, all showing the precocity of his genius. The original 
autograph copies of these early produaions are preserv^ in 
the Berlin Library, where they form part of a collection which 
fills forty-four lai^e volumes, all written with infinite neatness, 
and for the most part carefully dated— a sufficient proof that 
the methodical habits which distinguished his later life were 
formed in early childhood. 

In 183 X Mendelssohn paid his first visit to Goethe, with whom 
he spent sixteen days at Weimar, in company with Zelter. 
From this year also dates his first acquaintance with Weber, 
who was then in Berlin superintending the production of 
Der FreisckUtM; and from the summer of 182a his introduction, 
at Cassel, to another of the greatest of his contemporaries, 
Ludwig Spohr. During this year his pen was even more prolific, 
producing, among other works, an opera, in three acts, entitled 
Die beiden Nejen, oder der Onkel aus Bost<m, and a .pianoforte 
cbncerto, which he played in public at a concert given by Frau 
Anna Milder. 

It had long been a custom with the Mendelssohn family to 
give musical performances on alternate Sunday mornings in 
their dining-room, with a small orchestra, which Felix always 
conducted, even when he was not tall enough to be seen without 
standing upon a stool. For each of these occasions he produced 
some new work — playing the pianoforte pieces himself, or 
entrusting them to Fanny, while his sister Rebecka sang, and 
his brother Paul played the violoncello. In this way Die beiden 
Neffen was first privately performed, on the fifteenth anniversary 
of his birthday, the 3rd of February 1824. Between tht 3rd 
and the 31st of March in this year he composed his fine sym- 
phony in C minor, now known as Op. xo, and soon afterwards 
the quartet in B minor, Op. 3, and the (posthumous) pianoforte 
sestet, Op. xio. In this year also began his lifelong friendship 
with Moscheles, who, when asked to receive him as a pupil, 
said, ." If he wishes to take a hint from me, as to anything 
new to him, he can easily do so; but he stands in no need of 
lessons." 

In X825 Abraham Mendelssohn took Felix to Paris, where 
among other musicians then resident in the French capital he 
met the two most popular dramatic composers of the age, 
Rossini and Meyerbeer, and lived on terms of intimacy with 
Hummel, Kalkbrcnner. Rode, Baillot, Herz, and many other 
artists of European celebrity. On this occasion also he made 
his first acquaintance with Cherubini, who, though he rarely 
praised any one, expressed a high opinion of his talent, and 
recommended him to write a Kyrie, for five voices, with full 
orchestral accompaniments, which he himself described as 
" exceeding in thickness " anything he had attempted. From 
letters written at this period we learn that Felix's estimate 
of the French school of music was far from flattering; but he 
formed some friendships in Paris, which were renewed on later 
occasions. He returned to Berlin with his father in May 1825, 
taking leave of his Parisian friends on the igth of the month, 
and interrupting his journey at Weimar for the purpose of 
paying a second visit to Goethe, to whom he dedicated his 
quartet in B minor. On reaching home he must have worked 
with greater zeal than ever; for on the loth of August in this 
same year he completed an opera, in two acts, called Die Hockxeit 
dcs Camacho, a work of considerable importance. 

No ordinary boy could have escaped uninjured from the 
snares attendant upon such a life as that which Mendelssohn 
now lived. Notwithstanding his overwhelming passion for 
music, his general education had been so well cared for that 
he was able to hold his own, in the society of his seniors, with 
the grace of an accomplished man of the world. He was already 
recognized as a leading spirit by the artists with whom he asso- 
ciated, and these artists were men of acknowledged talent 
and position. The temptations to egoism by which he was 
surrounded would have rendered most clever students intoler- 
able. But . the natural amiability of his disposition, and the 



healthy influence of his happy home-life, oountencted al 
tendencies towards self-assertion. 

Soon after his return from Paris, Abraham MendcisMln 
removed from his mother's residence to No. 3 l«ipziger Stcaae 
a roomy, old-fashioned house, containing an excellent mtaio 
room, and in the grounds adjoining a " Gartenhaus " capabli 
of accommodating several hundred persons at the Stuub] 
performances.* In the autumn of the following year tlni 
"garden-house" witnessed a memorable private performanoi 
of the work by means of which the greatness of Menddasohn^ 
genius was first revealed to the outer world — the overture ti 
Shakespeare's Midsummer Nigk^s Dream. The finished soon 
of this famous composition is dated " Beriin, August 6, 1826 "— 
its author was only seventeen and a half years old. Yet in m 
later work does he exhibit more originality of thought, mon 
freshness of condeption, or more perfect mastery over the detaili 
of technical construction, than in this delightful inspiratioo 
The overture was first publicly performed at Stettin, in Febmai] 
X827, under the direction of the young composer, who was al 
once accepted as the leader of a new and highly characteristii 
manifesution of the spirit of progress. Henceforth we mnsi 
speak of him, not as a student, but as a mature and experienced 
artist. 

Meanwhile Camacho* s Wedding had been submitted to Spontioi 
with a view to its production at the opera. The libretto 
founded upon an episode in the history of Don Quixote, wai 
written by Klingemann, and Mendelssohn threw himself inti 
the spirit of the romance with a keen perception of its peculiai 
humour. The work was put into rehearsal soon after the cooi' 
poser's return from Stettin, produced on the 2Qth of Apd 
X827, and received with great apparent enthusiasm; bat 1 
cabid was formed against it, and it never reached a aecoiMi 
performance. . The critics abused it mercilessly; yet it exhibitl 
merits of a very high order. The solemn passage for the trom- 
bones, which heralds the first appearance of the knight of Li 
Mancha, is conceived in a spirit of reverent appreciation of thi 
idea of Cervantes, which would have done honour to a compoaa 
of lifelong experience. 

Mendelssohn was aimoyed at this injustice, and some time 
elapsed before his mind recovered its usual bright tone; 
but he continued to work diligently. Among other serkxa 
undertakings, he formed a choir for the study of the choral 
works of Sebastian Bach, then unknown to the public; and, 
in spite of Zelter's opposition, he succeeded, in X829, in indudni 
the Berlin Singakademie to give a public performance of tht 
Passion according to St Maltkew^ under his direction, with a 
chorus of between three and four hundred voices. The scheme 
succeeded beyond his warmest hopes, and proved the meau 
of restoring to the world great compositions which had nevei 
been heard since the death of Bach. But the obstructive 
party were offended; and at this period Mendelssohn was fai 
from popular among the musicians of Berlid. 

In April 1829 Mendelssohn paid his first visit to London. Hii 
reception was enthusiastic He made his first appearana 
before an English audience at one of the Philharmonic Sodet/k 
concerts — then held in the Argyll Rooms — on the 25th of May, 
conducting his symphony in C minor from the pianoforte, tc 
which he was led by John Cramer. On the 30th he played 
Weber's ConcertstUck, from memory, a proceeding at that tiiM 
extremely unusual At a concert given by Drouet, on the 
24th of June, he played Beethoven's pianoforte concerto ii 
£ flat, which had never before been heard in the country; 
and the overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream was abo 
for the first time, presented to a London audience. On retuminf 
home from the concert, Attwood, then organist of St PaulH 
Cathedral, left the score of the overture in a hackney coadi, 
whereupon Mendelssohn wrote out another, from memory, 
without an error. At another concert he played, with Moscheles, 
his still unpublished concerto in £, for two pianofortes and 

* After Mendelssohn's death this house was sold to the Pnmiafl 
government ; and the " Hcrrenhaus " now stands on the site of thi 
garden-house. 



MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY 



123 



After tlie dote of the London leaion he lUrtcd 
with Klingemann on a tour through Scotland, where he was 
inspiied with the first idea of his overture to The Isles of Fingal, 
ittnnung to Berlin at the end of November. Except for 
an accident to his knee, which lamed him for some time, his 
visit was highly successful and laid the foundation of many 
friendships and prosperous negotiations. 

The visit to England formed the first division of a great 
scheme of travel which his father wished him to extend to all 
the most important art centres in Europe. After refusing 
the offer of a professorship at Berlin, he started again, in May 
iSjo, for Italy, pausing on his way at Weimar, where he spent 
a fortnight with Goethe, and reaching Rome, after many 
pleasant intermptions, on the ist of November. No excitement 
prevented him from devoting a certain time every day to 
compositioa; bat he lost no opportunity of studying either 
the countless treasures which form the chief glory of the great 
dty or the manners and customs of modem Romans. He 
aitcnded, with insatiable curiosity, the services in the Sistine 
Ckapd; and his keen power of observation enabled him to throw 
B«h interesting light upon them. His letters on this subject, 
fcfl ievcr , lose much of their value through his incapacity to 
CDBprehcnd the dose relation existing between the music of 
Plltttrina and his contemporaries and the ritual of the Roman 
Cbuch. His Lutheran education kept him in ignorance even 
d the fint prindples of ordinary chanting; and it is amusing 
tt&nd him describing as enormities peculiar to the papal choir 
CMoms familiar to every village singer in England, and as closely 
nunected with the structure of the " Anglican chant " as with 
tht of " Gregorian music." Still, though he could not agree 
iisfl points with Baini, the greatest ecdesiastical musician 
tka living, he shared his admiration for the Improperia, the 
Miunre, and the eantus planus of the Lamentationes and the 
£nAer, the musical beauty of which he could understand, 
ipirt from their ritual significance. 

In passing through Munich on his return in October 1831 
k composed and played his pianoforte concerto in G minor, 
ttd accepted a commission (never fulfilled) to compose an 
opera for the Munich theatre. Pausing for a time at Stuttgart, 
Frankfort and DQsseldorf he arrived in Paris in December, 
lad passed four pleasant months in the renewal of acquainUnces 
Ibmied in 1825, and in close intercourse with Liszt and Chopin. 
Os the xoth of February 183a the overture to A Midsummer 
Kifjhfs Dream was played at the conservatoire, and many of 
bis other compositions were brought before the public; but he 
did not escape disappoint menu with regard to some of them, 
especially the Reformation symphony, and the visit was brought 
to a premature close in March by an attack of cholera, from 
vhich, however,- he rapidly recovered. 

On the 23rd of April 1832 he was again in London,^ where 
he twice played his G minor concerto at the Philharmonic 
concerts, gave a performance on the organ at St Paul's, and 
published his first book of Licder ohne Worte. He returned 
to Berlin in July, and during the winter he gave public perform- 
laces of his Reformation symphony, his concerto in G minor, 
and his Walputgisnackt. In the following spring he paid a 
third visit to London for the purpose of conducting his Italian 
symphony, which was played for the first time, by the Phil- 
karmonic Sodety, on the 13th of May 1833. On the 26th of 
tlie same month he conducted the performances at the Lower 
Uunc festival at Diisseldorf with such brilliant effect that he 
vas at once offered, and accepted, the appointment of general- 
music-director to the town, an office which included the manage- 
ment of the music in the principal churches, at the theatre, 
and at the rooms of two musical associations. 

Before entering upon his new duties, Mendelssohn paid a 
fourth vBit to London, with his father, returning to Diisseldorf 
00 the 27th of September 1833. His influence produced an 
nodlent effect upon the church music and in the concert-room; 
but his relations with the management of the theatre were not 
akflgetber pleasant; and it was probably this circumstance 
vUch first led him to forsake the cultivation of the opera for 



that of sacred music. At Diisseldorf he first designed his 
famous oratorio St Paul^ in response to an application from 
the C&dlien-Verein at Frankfort, composed his overture to 
Die schdne Mdusine^ and planned some other works of impor- 
tance. He liked his appointment, and would probably have 
retained it much longer had he not been invited to undertake 
the permanent direction of the Gewandhaus concerts at Leipzig, 
and thus raised to the highest position attainable in the German 
musical world. To this new sphere of labour he removed in 
August 1835, opening the first concert at the Gewandhaus, 
on the 4th of October, with his overture Die MeeresstUle, a 
work possessing great attractions, though by no means on a 
levd with the Midsummer Night's Dream, The Isles of Fingal, 
orMdusine. 

Mendelssohn's reception in Leipzig was most enthusiastic; 
and under their new director the Gewandhaus concerts prospered 
exceedingly. Meanwhile St Paul steadily progressed, and was 
first produced, with triumphant success, at the Lower Rhine 
festival at Diisseldorf, on the 22nd of May 1836. On the 3rd 
of October it was first sung in English, at Liverpool, under 
the direction of Sir George Smart; and on the x6th of March 
1837 Mendelssohn again directed it at Leipzig. 

The next great event in Mendelssohn's life was his happy 
marriage, on the 28th of March 1837, to Cecile Charlotte Sophie 
Jeanrcnaud. The honeymoon was scarcely over before he was 
again summoned to England to conduct St Paul, at the Birming- 
ham festival, on the 20th of September. During this visit 
he played on the organ at St Paul's and at Christ Churchy 
Newgate Street, with an effect which exercised a lasting influ- 
ence upon English organists. It was here also that be first 
contemplated- the production of his second oratorio, Elijah. 

Passing over the composition of the Lobgesang in 1840, a 
sixth visit to England in the same year, ^d his inauguration 
of a scheme for the erection of a monument to Sebastian Bach, 
we find Mendelssohn in 184 1 recalled to Berlin by the king of 
Prussia, with the title of Kapellmeister. Though his appoint- 
ment resulted in the production of Antigonej Oedipus Coioneus, 
Athalie, the incidental music to the Midsummer Night's 
Dream, and other great works, it proved an endless source of 
vexation, and certainly helped to shorten the composer's life. 
In 1843 he came to England for the seventh time, accompanied 
by his wife, conducted his Scotch symphony at the Philharmonic, 
again played the organ at St Peter's, Cornhill, and Christ 
Church, Newgate Street, and was received with honour by the 
queen and the prince consort. He did not, however, permit 
his new engagements to interfere with the direction of the 
Gewandhaus concerts; and in 1843 he founded in Leipzig the 
great conservatoire which soon became the best musical college 
in Europe, opening it on the 3rd of April in the buildings of 
the Gewandhaus. In 1844 he conducted six of the Phil- 
harmonic concerts in London, producing his new Midsummer 
Night's Dream music, and playing Beethoven's pianoforte 
concerto in G with extraordinary effect. He returned, to his 
duties at Berlin in September, but succeeded in persuading the 
king to free him from his most onerous cnRaRcmcnts. 

After a brief residence in Franfort, Mendelssohn returned 
to Leipzig in September 1845, resuming his old duties at the 
Gewandhaus, and teaching regularly in the conservatoire. 
Here he remained, with little interruption, during the winter — 
introducing his friend Jenny' Lind, then at the height of her 
popularity, to the critical frequenters of the Gewandhaus, 
and steadily working at Elijah, the first performance of which 
he conducted at the Birmingham festival, on the 36th of August 
1846. The reception of this great work was enthusiastic. 
Unhappily, the excitement attendant upon its production, 
added to the irritating effect of the worries at Berlin, made 
a serious inroad upon the composer's health. On his return 
to Leipzig he worked on as usual, but it was clear that his health 
was seriously impaired. In 1847 he visited England for the 
tenth and last time, to conduct four performances of Elijah 
at Exeter Hall, on the i6th, 23rd, 28th and 30th of April, one 
at Manchester on the 20th, and one at Birmingham on the 27th. 



124. 



MENDES 



But the exertion was beyond hit strength. He witnessed 
Jenny Lind's first appearance at Her Majesty's Theatre, on 
the 4th of May, and left England on the 9th, little anticipating 
the trial that awaited him in the tidings of the sudden death 
of his sister Fanny, which reached him only a few days after 
his arrival in Frankfort. The loss of his mother in 1842 had 
shaken him much, but the suddenness with which this last 
intelligence was communicated broke him down. He fell to 
the ground insensible, and never fully recovered. In June 
he was so far himself again that he was able to Uavel, with his 
family, by short stages, to Interlaken, where he stayed for 
some time, illustrating the journey by a series of water-colour 
drawings, but making no attempt at composition for many 
weeks. He returned to Leipzig in September, bringing with 
him fragments of Chrislus, LortUy, and some other unfinished 
worlcs, taking no part in the concerts, and living in privacy. 
On the 9th of October he called on Madame Frege, and asked 
her to sing his latest set of songs. She left the room for lights, 
and on her return found him in violent pain and almost insen- 
sible. He lingered for four weeks, and on the 4th of November 
he passed away, in the presence of his wife, his brother, and 
his three friends, Moschelcs, Schleinitz, and Ferdinand David. 
A cross marks the site of his grave, in the Alte Dreifaltigkeits 
Kirchhof, at Berlin. 

Mendelssohn's title to a place among the great composers 
of the century is incontestable. His style, though differing 
little in technical arrangement from that of his classical pre- 
decessors, is characterized by a vein of melody peculiarly his 
own, and easily distinguishable by those who have studied 
his works, not only from the genuine effusions of contemporary 
writers, but from the most successful of the servile imitations 
with which, even during his lifetime, the music-shops were 
deluged. In less judicious hands the rigid symmetry of his 
phrasing might, perhaps, have palled upon the ear; but under 
his skilful management it serves only to impart an additional 
charm to thoughts which derive their chief beauty from the 
evident spontaneity of their conception. In this, as in all other 
matters of a purely technical character, he regarded the accepted 
laws of art as the medium by which he might most certainly 
attain the ends dictated by the inspiration of his genius. Though 
caring nothing for rules, except as means for producing 
a good effect, he scarcely ever violated them, and was never 
weary of impressing their value upon the minds of his pupils. 
His method of counterpoint was modelled in close accordance 
with that practised by Sebastian Bach. This he used in 
combination with an elastic development of the sonata-form, 
similar to that engrafted by Beethoven upon the lines laid 
down by Haydn. The principles involved in this arrangement 
were strictly conservative; yet they enabled him, at the very 
outset of his career, to invent a new style no less original than 
that of Schubert or Weber, and no less remarkable as the 
embodiment of canons already consecrated by classical authority 
than as a special manifestation of individual genius. It is 
thus that Mendelssohn stands before us as at the same time 
a champion of conservatism and an apostle of progress; and 
it is chiefly by virtue of these two apparently incongruous 
though really compatible phases of his artistic character 
that his influence and example availed, for so many years, 
to hold in check the violence of reactionary opinion which 
Injudicious partisanship afterwards fanned into revolutionary 
fury. 

Concerning Mendelssohn's private character there have 
never been two opinions. As a man of the world he was more 
than ordinarily accomplished — brilliant in conversation, and 
in his lighter moments overflowing with sparkling humour 
and ready pleasantry, loyal and unselfish in the more serious 
business of life, and never weary of working for the general 
good. As a friend he was unvaryingly kind, sympathetic and 
true. His earnestness as a Christian needs no stronger testimony 
than that afforded by his own delineation of the character of 
St Paul; but it is not too much to say that his heart and life 
were pure as those of a little child. CW. S. R.) 



This article has the unique value of bong Uie neocd of 



eminent musical scholar who was an actual pupil of Mei 

No change of reputation can alter the value of such a reoofd of a 
man whom even his contemporaries knew to be greater than his 
Mendelssohn's aristocratic horror of tdu-ad' 



unfitted him for triumph in a period of revolution; he died, most 
inopportunely, when his own powers, like Handel's at the same age, 
were being wasted on pseudo-classical forms; the new art was not 
yet ripe; and in the early Wagner-Liszt reign of terror his was the 
first reputation to be assassinated. That of the too modest and gentle 
" Romantic " pioneer Schumann soon folbwed; but, as being more 
difllcult to explain away, and more embarrassing to irreverence and 
conceit, it remains a subject of controversy. Meanwhile Mendelssohn's 
reputation, except as the composer of a few inexplicably beautiful 
and original orchestral pieces, has vanished and been replaced by 
a pure fiction known as the " Mendelssohn tradition " of orcbestial 
conducting. This fiction is traceable to some characteristic remarks 
made by Wagner on his experiences of English orchestral playing, 
remarks which, though not very good-natured, do not bear the full 
construction popularly imputed to them. If Beethoven had come 
and conducted in' England,^ Mendelssohn's expostulations with 
careless players would nave been met by references to the " Beet- 
hoven tradition"; and, if Wagner had shared Menddssohn's 
reluctance to putting on record remarks likely to wound individual, 
professional and national sensibilities, it might not have been im- 
possible that reproaches against slipshod and mechankal crfayimr 
might nowadays be met by references to the " Wagner traditioa, 
for Wagner also found himself compelled to concentrate hb care 
on the main items in the overloaded English orchestral progranunea. 
to the detriment of the rest. 

Mendelssohn's influence on the early career of Joachim is, 
next to his work in the rediscovery of Bach, his greatest bequest 
to later muucal history. Those many profound and sincere admirers 
to Joachim to whom the name of Mendelssc^n calls up only the 
Widow in BXijah and the weaker Sonii wilhoml Words, may find 
the idea strange; but there is no doubt that Joachim regarded 
the continuation of a true Mendelssohn tradition as identical with 
hb own efforts to " uphold the dignity of art." (D. F. T.) 

MENDfiS, CATULLB (1841-1909), French poet and man of 
letters, of Jewish extraction, was bom at Bordeaux on the sand 
of May 1841. He early established himself in Paris, attaining 
speedy notoriety by the publication in the Revue fantaisisU 
(1861) of his " Roman d'une nuit," for which he was condemned 
to a month's imprisonment and a fine of soo francs. He was 
allied with the Parnassians from the beginning of the movement, 
and displayed extraordinary metrical skill in his first volume 
of poems, Pkilomila (1863). In later volumes— Po^we*, /*• 
sirie (1876), which includes tnuch of his earlier verse, ** Soirs 
moroses," Conies ipiques, Pkilomila^ &:c; Poisies (7 vols., 1885), 
a new edition largely augmented; Les Poisies de CatuUe Mendis 
(3 vols., 1892); La Crive des vignes (1895), &c.— his critics have 
noted that the elegant verse is distinguished rather by dexterous 
imitation of different writers than by any marked originaUty. 
The versatility and fecundity of Mendes's talent is shown in a 
series of his critical and dramatic writings, and of novels and 
short stories, in the latter of which he continues the French 
tradition of the licentious conte. For the theatre he wrote: 
La Part du roi {1872), a one-act verse comedy; Les Frires d'armes 
(1873), drama; Justice (1877), in three acts, characterized by 
a hostile critic as a hymn in praise of suicide; the libretto <^ 
a light opera, Le Capitaine Fracasse (1878), founded on Th6o- 
phiic Gautier's novel, La Femmede Tabarin (1887) ; Midie (1898), 
in three acts and in verse; La Reine Fiammette (1898), a conU 
dramatique in six acts and in verse, the scene of which is laid 
in the Italy of the Renaissance; Le Fits de I'itoUe (1904), the hero 
of which is Bar-Cochcbas, the Syrian pseudo-Messiah, for the 
music of C. Erlanger; Scarron (1905); Ariane (1906), for the 
music of Massenet; and Clatigny (1906). His critical work 
includes: Richard Wagner (1886); VArt au tki&tre (3 vols., 
1896-1900), a series of dramatic criticisms reprinted from 
newspapers; and a report addressed to the minister of 
public instruction and of the fine arts on Le Mouvement poitiqut 
fran^ais de i86j d igoo (new ed., 1903), which includes a biblio- 
graphical and critical dictionary of the French poets of the 
19th century. Perhaps the most famous of his novels arc: 
Le Roi vierge (1880) in which he introduces Louis II. of Bavana 
and Richard Wagner; La Maison de la vielle (1894), and Cog 
(1897). He married in 1866 Mile Judith Gautier, younger 
daughter of the poet, from whom he was subsequently separated. 



MENDICANCY— MENDIP HILLS 



"S 



Ob the gth of Febmaiy 1909, eariy in the morning, his dead 
bodlsr was dia co ¥ci ed in the railway tunnel of Saint Germain. 
He had left Paris by the midnight train on the rth, and it is 
s uppo se d that, thinking he had arrived at the station, he had 
o pened t he dcwr of his compartment while still in the tunnel. 

MUOICAHCT (from Lat. mtndicusM a condition of beggary, 
a woid of unknown origin), a state or condition of being a beggar, 
the pnctice of obtaining a livelihood by asking alms. The word 
" mendicnnt,'' also found in the French form " mendiant," 
sppears to have come into use through the begging friars. 

■mnCAirr MOVBHEMT and orders. The facts con- 
oexning the rise of the Orders of Mendicant Friars are related 
in the artkles on the several orders (Franciscans, Dominicans, 
CAtMKum. Aucustinian Heuuts), and in that on Monash- 
asif (i 11), where the difference between friars and monks is 
mmjJmj^^mA fhe purpose of this article is to charaaerize the 
novcnent •» a whole, and to indicate the circumstances that 
pradnced it. The most striking pberx>menon in coimezion 
vith the begiimings of the mendicant orders is the rapidity 
vith which the movement spread. Within a generation of the 
dath of the two great founders, Dominic (1221) and Francis 
(1226), their institutes bad spr«u) all over Europe and into 
Asa, and their friars could be numbered by tens of thousands, 
h aO the great dties of Western Europe friaries were established, 
ud in the universities theological chairs were held by Dominicans 
imi Fiandscans. And when at the middle of the century the 
«kr great mendicant orders of Carmelites and Austin Friars, 
ttd also Servites {q.v.) arose their propagation showed that the 
poMJbilities of the mendicant movement had not been exhausted 
hj the Dominicans and Franciscans. Lesser mendicant orders 
ipcang up in all directions — Gasquet mentions half a dozen 
Rich that found their way into England (English Monastic Life^ 
pi 341) — in such numbers that the Council of Lyons in 1274 
faaod it necessary to suppress all except the orders already 
BiBied. Moreover, besides the various orders of friars, there 
Bcre the lay Tertiaries that arose and spread far and wide in 
ooBoexioo with the Franciscans and other mendicants, and 
the simOar institute of the Humiliati (see Tertiaries). 
Tbcse facts dearly show that the Mendicant Movement re- 
qnoded to widely spread and deeply felt needs of the time. 
These needs found expression not only in the Mendicant orders 
within the Church, but also in a number of more or less heretical 
aad revolutionary religious sects. There was this in common 
aflM»g the Cathari, Waldenses, Albigenses and other heretical 
bodies that overran so many parts of Western Europe in the 
lecsod half of the 12th century and the beginning of the 13th, 
that they all inveighed against the wealth of the clergy, and 
preached the practice of austere poverty and a return to the 
ample fife of Christ and the Apostles. Thus the sectaries 
BO kss than the Mendicant orders bear witness to the existence 
of spuituai i>eeds in Western Christendom, which the Mendicant 
oidefs went a long way towards satisfying. Probably the 
BMSt crying need was that of priests to minister to the great 
dty populations, at that time growing up with such rapidity, 
cspei^y in luly. During the xoth, nth and 12th centuries 
the Church had been organized on the lines of the prevailing 
fieadal system — the bishops and abbots were feudal barons, 
and the effects of the system were felt throughout the ranks 
of the lower dergy. The social fabric was built up not on the 
towns, but on the great landlords; and when the centre of gravity 
began to move, first of all in Italy, to the towns, and crowded 
populations began to be massed together in them, the parochial 
qrstems broke down under the weight of the new conditions, 
aad the people were in a state of spiritual and moral no less than 
physcal destitution. So, when the friars came and established 
thoBsdves in the poorest localities of the towns, and brought 
icfigion to the destitute and the outcasts of sodety, assimilat- 
ing themselves to the conditions of life of those among whom 
tky worked, they supplied a need with which the parochial 
dexiDr were unable to cope. 
Ihe fiiaa responded not only to the new needs of the age, 

btt to Its new ideas— religious, intelleaual, sodal, artistic 



It was a period of religious revival, and of reaction against abuses 
that followed in the wake of the feudal system; and this religious 
movement was informed by a new mysticism— « mysticism 
that fixed iu attention mainly on the humanity of Christ and 
found its practical expression in the imitation of His life. A 
new intellectual wave was breaking over Western Europe, 
symbolized by the university and the scholastic movements; 
and a new spirit of democratic freedom was making itself felt 
in the growing commercial towns of Italy and Germany. There 
is no need to labour the point that the Mendicanu responded 
to all these needs and interpreted them within the pale of 
Catholic Christianity, for the fact lies upon the surface of history. 
But a few words are necessary on the central idea from which 
the Mendicants recdved their name— the idea of poverty. 
This was St Francis's root idea, and there is no doubt— though 
it has been disputed— that it was borrowed from him by St 
Dominic and the other Mendicant founders. St Francis did 
not intend that begging and alms should be the normal means 
of sustenance for his friars; on the contrary, he intended them 
to live by the work of their hands, and only to have recourse 
to begging when they could not earn their livelihood by work. 
But as the friars soon came nearly all to be priests devoted to 
spiritual ministrations, and the communities grew larger, it 
became increasingly difficult for them to support themselves 
by personal work; and so the begging came to play a greater 
r61e than had been contemplated by St Francis. But his 
idea certainly was that his friars should not only practise the 
utmost personal poverty and simplidty in their life, but that they 
should have the minimum of possessions — no lands, no funded 
property, no fixed sources of income. The maintaining of this 
ideal has proved unworkable in practice. In the Dominican 
Order and the others that started as mendicant it has been 
mitigated or even abrogated. Among the Franciscans them- 
sdves it has been the occasion of endless strife, and has been 
kept alive only by dint of successive reforms and fresh sUrts, 
each successful for a time, but doomed always, sooner or later, 
to yield to t)ie inexorable logic of facts. The Capuchins (q.v.) 
have made the most permanently successful effort to maintain 
St Francis's ideal; but even among them mitigations have 
had to be admitted. In spite, however, of all mitigations 
the Franciscans have nearly always presented to the world 
an object lesson in evangelical poverty by the poorness and 
simplidty of their lives and surroundings. 

On the subject-matter of this article the best thing in En^ish 
is the Introductory Essay by the Capuchin Fr. Cuthbert on "The 
Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan Friars," in The Friars and 
how they came to England (1903): see also the earlier chapters of 
Emil Gebhard's Italie mystiqtk (1899). (E. C. B.) 

MENDIP HILLS, a range in the north of Somersetshire, 
England. Using the name in its widest application, the 
eastern boundary of the range may be taken to be formed by 
the upper valleys of the rivers Frome and Brue, and the depres- 
sion between them. The range extends from these north- 
westward with a major axis of about 23 m., while the outliers 
of Wavering Down and Bleadon Hill continue it towards the 
shore of the Bristol Channel. The range is generally about 
6 m. in width, and its total area about 130 sq. m. Its south- 
western face descends to the low " moors " or marshes drained 
by the Axe and other streams, the small towns of Axbridge, 
Cheddar and Wells lying at the foot of the hills. Towards 
the north-east its limits are less clearly defined, for high ground, 
intersected by narrow vales, extends as far as the valley of the 
Avon. A depression, followed by the road between Radstock 
and Wells, strikes across the range about its centre; the principal 
elevations lie west of this, and to the area thus defined the 
name of the Mendips is sometimes restricted. The summit of 
the hills is a gently swelling plateau, which reaches its extreme 
height in the north — 1068 ft. The Mendips consist principally 
of Carboniferous Limestone. Fine cliffs and scars occur on 
the flanks of the plateau, as in the gorge of Cheddar, and there 
is a wonderful series of caverns, the result of water action. 
The surface of the plateau is often broken by deep holes 



126 



MENDOZA, A. H. DE— MENDOZA, P. G. DE 



("swilleu**) into which streams flow. Some of the aives» 
mch as those at Cheddar, are easy of access, and attract many 
visitors owing to the beauty of the stalactitic formations; 
others, of greater extent and grandeur, have only been explored, 
W partly explored, with great difficulty. Some caves have 
yidded large quantities of animal remains (hyaenas, bears and 
others) together with traces of prehistoric human occupation. 
Among such Wookey Hole, where the river Axe issues from 
the foot of a cliff, may be mentioned. Lead was worked among 
the Mendips at a very early period. Some of the Roman 
workings, especially in the neighbourhood of Charterhouse-on- 
Mendip, have yielded pigs of lead inscribed with the names 
of emperors of the zst and and centuries aj>., together with 
an abundance of smaller objects. 

See E. Baker and H. Balch, The Netkerworld cf Maidip (Qifton. 
1907). 

MENDOZA. ANTONIO HURTADO DB (zs93?-x644)> Spanish 
dramatist, was bom about the end of the x6th century in the 
province of Asturias, became page to the count de Saldafia (son 
of the duke de Lerma), and was recognized as a rising poet by 
Cervantes in the Viaje dd Pamaso (16x4). He rose rapidly 
into favour under Philip IV., who appointed hini private 
secretary, commissioned from him comtkias palaciegas for the 
royal theatre at Aranjuez, and in 1623 conferred on him the 
orders of Santiago and Calatrava. Most of his contemporaries 
and rivals paid court to " d discreto de pdacio" and Mendoza 
seems to have lived on the friendliest terms with all his brother- 
dramatists except Ruiz de Alarc6n. He is said to have been 
involved in the fall of Olivares, and died unexpectedly at 
Saragossa on the 19th of September 1644. Only one of his plays, 
Querer por s6lo querer, was published with his consent; it is 
included in a volume (1623) containing his semi-official account 
of the performances at Aranjuez in 1622. The best edition 
of Mendoza's plays and verses bears the title of Obras liricas 
y cdmicaSf divinas y kumanas (1728). Much of his work does 
not rise above the level of graceful and accomplished verse; 
but that he had higher qualities is shown by El Marido hace 
mujer, a brilliant comedy of maimers, which forms the chief 
source of Moli^re's £cde des maris. 

The Fiesta aue se kito en Aranjuea and Ouerer por sSlo querer 
were ttanslatea into English by Sir Richard Fanshawe, afterwards 
ambassador at Madrid, m a posthumous volume published in 167 1. 

MENDOZA, DIEGO HURTADO DE (1503-1575). Spanish 
novelist, poet, diplomatist and historian, a younger son of the 
count of Tendillas, governor of Granada, was bom in that 
dty in 1503. The celebrated marquis of Santillana was his 
great-grandfather. On leaving the university of Salamanca, 
Mendoza abandoned his intention of taking orders, served 
under Charles V. in Italy, and attended lectures at the uni- 
versities of Bologna, Padua and Rome. In 1537 he was sent to 
England to arrange a marriage between Henry VIII. and the 
duchess of Milan, as well as a marriage between Prince Louis' 
of Portugal and Mary Tudor. Despite the failure of his mission, 
he preserved the confidence of the emperor, and in 1539 was 
appointed ambassador at Venice; there he patronized the Aldi, 
procured copies of the Greek manuscripts belonging to Cardinal 
Bessarion, and acquired other rare codices from the monastery 
of Mount Athos. The first edition of Joscphus was printed 
(1544) from the texts in Mendoza's collection. He acted for 
some time as military governor of Siena, represented Spain 
diplomatically at the council of Trent, and in 1 547 was nominated 
special plenipotentiary at Rome, where he remained till 1554. 
He was never a favourite with Philip II., and a quarrel with 
a courtier resulted in his banishment from court (June 1568). 
The remaining years of hb life, which were spent at Granada, 
he devoted to the study of Arabic, to poetry, and to his history 
of the Moorish insurrection of 1 568-1 570. He died in 1575. 
His Guerra de Granada was published at Lisbon by Luis 
Tribaldos de Toledo in 1627; the delay was doubtless due to 
Mendoza's severe criticism of contemporaries who survived 
him. In some passages the author deliberately imitates Sallust 
and Tacitus; his style is, on the whole, vivid and trenchant, 



his informatioh ui exact, and in critical insight he it not inleiior 
to Mariana. The attribution to Mendoza of LaaariUo di TmwuM 
is rejected by all competent schoUrs, but that he excelled in 
picaresque malice is proved by his indecorous verses written 
in the old Castilian metres and in the more elaborate measures 
imported from Italy. Mendoza is believed to be the author of 
the letters to Felidano de Silva and to Captain Salazar, pubUshed 
by Antonio Paz y Melia in Sales EspaHolas (Madrid, 1900). 

See A. Senin y Alonso, D. Diego Hurtado de Mendomit apmmlet 
biogrdfiohcriiicos (Granada. 1886); Calendar of Letters a»d Papm 



kispanique (Paris. 1894), voL L 

MENDOZA, PEDRO GONZALEZ DE (1428-1495), Spanish 
cardinal and statesman, was the fourth son of Iftigo Lopez de 
Mendoza, marquess of Santillana, and duke of Infantado. He was 
bom at Guadakjara in New Castile, the chief brd^p of his 
family, on the 3rd of May 1428. The house of Mendoza claimed 
to descend from the lords of Llodio in Alava, and to have been 
settled in Old Castile, in the nth century. One chief of the 
house had been greatly distinguished at the battle of the Navas 
de Tolosa in 121 2. Another had been Admiral of Castile in 
the reign of Alphonso the Wise. Peter the Cruel had endowed 
them with the lordships of Hita and Buitrago. The greatness 
of the Mendozas was completed by Pedro Gonzalez, who sacri- 
ficed his life to save King 'John I. at the battle of Aljubarrou 
in 1385. The cardinal's father, the marquis of Santillana— 
to use the title he bore for the greater part of hb life — was a 
poet, and was conspicuous during the troubled reign of John XL 
Loyalty to the Crown was the traditional and prevailing policy 
of the family. Pedro Gonzalez, the future cardinal, was sent into 
the Church mainly because he was a younger son and that be 
might be handsomely provided for. He had no vocation, 
and was an example of the worldly, political and martial 
prelates of the X5th century. In X452 at the age of twenty- 
four, he was chosen by the king John U. to be bishop of Caln- 
horra, but did not receive the pope's bull till 1454. As bishop 
of Calahorra he was also seHort or dvil and military ruler, of 
the town and its dependent district. In his secular capacity 
he led the levies of Calahorra in the dvil wars of the reign of 
Henry IV. He fought, for the king at the second battle of 
Ohnedo on the 20th of August X467, and was wounded in the 
arm. During these years he became attached to Dofia Mends 
de Lemus, a Portuguese lady-in-waiting of the queen. She 
bore him two sons, Rodrigo, who was once sdected to be the 
husband of Lucrezia Borgia, and Diego, who was the grandfather 
of the princess of Eboli of the reign of Philip II (see Peuz, 
Antonio.) By another lady of a Valladolid family he had a 
third son who afterwards emigrated to France. In 1468 he 
became bishop of Siguenza. In 1473 he ^^ created cardinal, 
was promoted to the archbishopric of Seville and named 
chancellor of Castile. During the last years of the rdgn of King 
Henry IV. he was the partisan of the Princess Isabella, afterwards 
queen. He fought for her at the battle of Toro on the xst of 
March 1476; had a prominent part in placing her on the throne; 
and served her indefatigably in her efforts to suppress the 
disorderly nobles of Castile. In 1482 he became archbishop 
of Toledo. During the conquest of Granada he contributed 
largely to the maintenance of the army. On the 2nd of January 
X492 he occupied the town in the name of the Catholic sovereigns. 
Though his life was worldly, and though he was more soldier 
and statesman than priest, the " Great Cardinal," as be was 
commonly called, did not neglect his duty as a bishop. He 
■used his influence with the queen and also at Rome to arrange 
a settlement of the disputes between the Spanish sovereigns 
and the papacy. Though he maintained a splendid housdKM 
as archbishop of Toledo, and provided handsomdy for his 
children, he devoted part of his revenue to charity, and with part 
he endowed the college of Santa Cruz at Valladolid. His hnhh 
broke down at the close of 1493. (^een Isabella visited and 
nursed him on his deathbed. It is said that he recommended 
her to choose as his successor the Franciscan Jimenez de Cisnen% 



MENDOZA— MENEDEMUS 



127 



a nun who had no likeiie« to himielf save in political faculty 
and devocioia to the authority of the Crown. He died at 
Gudalajaxa on the nth of January 1495. 

The life of the cardinal, by Salaxar de Mendoca. Cromiea dH 
pas tmrimai Dom Fidro ConzaUM dt Mendom (Toledo, 1695), is 
UMUu» fe and nrmlou* but valuable. See alao Pieicott, Histcryef 



a province of western Argentina, bounded N. 
by San Joan, £. by San Luis and the territory of La Pampa, 
S. by the territories of La Pampa and Neuquen, and W. by the 
Rpiiblic of Chile. Area, 56,502 sq. m.; pop. (1895), 116,136; 
(1904, estimate), 159.780. The Andes form the western boun- 
duy, and a considerable part of the territory is covered by 
tk great Cordillera, its foothills and flanking ranges. The 
eastern part b an arid, sandy, level plain, with extensive saline 
buins, having no vegetation other than coarse grasses and 
Ikickets of low, spiny mimosas and "chafiar" (jGourtiata 
kcartkams). Tne fertile, populated districts of the province 
border 00 the Cordillera, partictdariy in the north where numerous 
flicams from the snow-dad summits supply water for irrigation. 
Tbe secondary ranges in this part of Mendoza are the Sierra 
^ los Paramillos, which encloses the Uspallata Valley, and 
tbe Sierra 6t\ Tunuy&n, which encloses a number of populous 
viQeys drained by the Tunuyin river and its tributaries. One 
fk the largest of these u the Yuco Valley. Farther south the 
ODutry becomes more arid and sparsely populated, and unsub- 
I daed tribes of Indians for a long time prevented iu exploration, 
b this region the Sierra de Pay^n and Sierra del Nevado 
(Mhenrise known as the Sierra Quero Matro Pellon) extend 
in a north-easterly direction. With the exception of the Rio 
Ccaade in the south-west part of the province, which forms the 
pindpal source of tbe Colorado, all the rivers of the province 
low easterly and southeriy into the great saline depression of 
•atera Argentina, which includes a great part of Mendoza, 
Sid Luis and La Pampa. The Andean streams rise in the 
U^ snow-dad elevations, but their waters become impregnated 
vith saline matter soon after reaching the plain, and are even- 
tally lost in the saline marshes and lagoons of southern Mendoza 
od La Pampa. These Andean rivers are the Mendoza, Tunuyin, 
Oiamaate and Atud, with their numerous tributaries, all of 
•tuck discharge into the sluggish river which flows from the 
Hoanacache lagoons, on the San Juan frontier, southward to 
tbe manbes and lagoons of La Pampa. The upper part of 
tbis blackish, swampy stream is called the Desaguadero, and 
tbe lower the Salado. It forms the eastern boundary line of 
tbe province down to the 36th parallel. With the exception 
tf the elevated districts of the Andes, the climate of Mendoza 
a hot and dry. On the plains the rainfall is insignificant, 
bot on the slopes of the Cordillera rains arc frequent and winter 
cold is severe. Agriculture is the principal occupation where 
inigatioo can be used, the province having a high reputation 
for its raisins and wines. Alfalfa is an important product, 
being grown for fattening the cattle driven through the province 
to the Chilean markets. The mineral resources of the province 
aic said to be good, but receive little attention. Petroleum 
B found in the vicinity of San Rafael, on the Diamante river, 
aad it is claimed that coal exists in. the same region. Although 
Sfendoza was settled by Spanish colonbts from Chile as far 
kadi as 1559, its development has been hindered by its isolated 
position. This isolation was broken in 1884 by the completion 
e( the Argentine Great Western railway to the provincial 
capitaL Since then a railway has been built northward to San 
Joas. and another line was in 1908 under construction through 
tbe Andes to connect with the Chilean railway system. In 
addition to Mendoza. the capital of the province, the principal 
tovBs (hardly more than villages) are Guaymallcn, Maipu, San 
Martin, Lujan and San Rafael. The provinces of Mendoza, San 
Jau and San Luis, which were settled from Chile and were for a 
kag time governed from Santiago, were at first called the province 
•f Cnyo, and are still spoken of as the " Cuyo provinces." 

IBDOZA, a dty of Argentina, capital of Mendoza province, 
Ip B. by rail WJ«I.W. of Bueoot Aires. Pop. (1904, esUmate), 



32,00a It stands on a pUin near the foot of a secondary Andean 
range called the Sierra de k>s Paramillos, at an elevation of 
2320 ft. The surrounding district is arid, but has been irrigated 
and is covered with gardens, orchards and cultivated fields. 
The dty is about 15 m. N. of the Mendoza, or Lujan river, whose 
waters are utilized for irrigation and for the requirements of 
the dty by means of a channd which leaves the main river a 
little above the town of Lujan and nms to the Tulumaya river 
and the Ugoons of Huanacache. This channd is called £1 
Zanj6n, and is bdleved to have been opened by Guaymall6n, 
the chief of the Guarp^ who inhabited this district at the time 
of the Spanish conquest, but it is more probably natural. The 
dty is laid out in a reguUr manner with broad well-paved 
streets and numerous public squares. The Zanj6n and another 
stream called the Guaymallfo traverse the dty, and the prindpal 
streeu have water flowing through them and are shaded by 
poplars. Because of earthquake risks, the public buildings 
are ndther costly nor imposing. The private residences are 
commonly of one storey, built with wooden frames filled in 
with adobes. The climate is bot, dry and enervating, not- 
withstanding the elevation and the proximity of the Andes. 
The surrounding districts produce fruit, vegetables, alfalfa and 
cereals. The vineyard industry is prominent, and raisins and 
wine are exported. The poution on the main route across 
the Andes into Chile, by way of the Uspallata or Cumbre pass 
(highest point 12,870 ft.), has given the dty commerdal im- 
portance. It has railway connexion with the prindpal dties 
of the republic, including the poru of Rosario, Buenos Aires 
and Bahia Blanca, and also with the capital of San Juan. 

Mendoza was founded by Captain Pedro dd Castillo, who 
had been sent from Santiago across the Andes in 1559 by Garcia 
Hurtado de Mendoza, the governor of Chile, to conquer and 
annex the territory extending N.E. to Tucuman. The dty 
was named after Mendoza. It was made the capital of the 
province of Cuyo, and belonged to Chile down to 1776, when 
the province was transferred to the newly created viceroyalty 
of La Plata. It was the headquarters of General San Martin 
while he was organizing an army for the Uberation of Chile, 
and greatly assisted him with men and money. Under re- 
publican admim'st ration Mendoza suiTered much from revolu- 
tions. Moreover, on the 20th of March 1861, the dty was 
destroyed by an earthquake and a fire which followed. Not 
a building was left standing, and the loss of life was estimated 
at 10,000 to 12,000. The French geologist Bravard, who had 
predicted the catastrophe, was one of its victims. The poplars 
in the streets, together with some species of fruit-trees, were 
first planted in Mendoza by a Spaniard, Juan Cobos, in 1809, 
who thus became one of its greatest benefactors. 

MENEDEMUS, Greek philosopher, and founder of the Eretrian 
school of thought, was bom at Erctria about 350 and died 
between 278 and 275 B.C. Though of noble birth, he worked as 
builder and tcntmakcr until he was sent with a military expe- 
dition to Megara, where, according to Diogenes Lacrtius, he 
heard Pbto and resolved to devote himself to philosophy. It 
is more likely that he heard one of Plato's followers, inasmuch 
as Plato died when he was only four years old, if the above dates 
are correct. At Megara he formed a life-long friendship with 
Asclepiades, with whom he toiled in the night that he might 
study philosophy by day. He was subsequently a pupil first 
of Stilpo and then of Phaedo of Elis, whose school he transferred 
to Eretria, by which name it was afterwards known. In 
addition to his philosophical work, he took a leading part in 
the political affairs of his city from the time of the Diadochi 
until his death, and obtained a remission of the tribute to 
Demetrius. His friendship with Antigonus Gonatas seems to 
have roused suspicion as to his loyalty, and he sought safety 
first in the temple of Amphiaraus at Oropus, and later with 
Antigonus, at whose court he is said to have died of grief. Other 
accounts say that he starved himself to death on failing to 
induce Antigonus to free his native dty. His philosophical 
views are known only in part; Athenaeus quotes Epicrates 
as suting that he was a Platonist, but other accounts credit 



128 



MENELAUS— MENES 



him with having preferred Stilpo to Plato. Diogenes LaErtius 
(ii. 134 and 135) says that he declined to identify the Good 
with the Usefid, and that he denied the value of the negative 
proposition on the ground that aflkmation alone can express 
truth. He probably meant to imply that qualities have no 
existence apart from the subject to which they belong. In 
ethics we learn from Plutarch (De virt. tnor. 2) and from Cicero 
{Acad. ii. 42) that he regarded Virtue as one, by whatever name 
it be called, and maintained that it is intellectual. Cicero's 
evidence is the less valuable in that he always assumed that 
Henedemus was a follower of the Megarians. Diogenes says 
that he left no writings, and the Eretrian school disappeared 
after a short and unobtrusive existence. 

Beside the ancient sources quoted above, see H. Mallett, Histoire 
de ncoU de Migare et des icoUs d'Elis et d'Eritrie (1845). Also 
the articles MscaaiAN School; Puaedo; Stilpo. 

MENELAUS* in Greek legend, son of Atreus (or Pleisthenes), 
king of Sparta, brother of Agamemnon and husband of Helen. 
He was one of the Greeks who entered Troy concealed in the 
wooden horse (Virgil, Aentid^ ii. 264) and. recovered his wife 
at the sack of the city. On the voyage homewards his fleet 
was scattered off Cape Malea by a storm, which drove him to 
Egypt. After eight years* wandering in the east, he landed on 
the island of Pharos, where Proteus revealed to him the means of 
appeasing the gods and securing his return. He reached Sparta 
on Ihe day on which Orestes was holding the funeral feast over 
Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra. After a long and happy life in 
Lacedaemon, Menelaus, as the son-in-law of Zeus, did not die 
but was translated to Elysium (Homer, Odyssey^ iii. iv.). His 
grave and that of Helen were shown at Therapnae, where he was 
worshipped as a god (Pausanias iiL 19, 9). He was represented 
in works of art as carrying off the body of the dead Patroclus 
or lifting up his hand to ^y Helen. 

1IENEI.BK n. (Sauala Mariem), emperor of Abyssinia, 
ofikially negus negusti (king of kings) of Ethiopia (1844- ), 
son of Haeli Melicoth, king of Shoa, was borh in 1844, and 
claimed to be a direct descendant of Solomon by the queen of 
Sheba. On the death of his father in 1855 he was kept a prisoner 
at Gondar by Kassai, the governor, who had seized the throne 
under the title of Theodore III. But having succeeded in 
. effecting his escape be was acknowledged king of Shoa, and at 
once attacked the usurper. These campaigns were unsuccessful, 
and he turned his arms to the west, east and south, and annexed 
much territory to his kingdom, still, however, maintaining his 
divine right to the crown of Ethiopia. After the death of 
Theodore in 1888 he continued to struggle against his successor, 
the emperor Johannes (better known to Europeans as King 
John of Abyssinia). Being again unsuccessful, he resolved to 
await a more propitious occasion; so, acknowledging the supre- 
macy of Johannes, in 1886 he married his daughter Zeodita 
(b. 1876) to the emperor's son, the Ras Area; he was thereupon 
declared heir to the empire, and on his side acknowledged the 
Ras Area as his successor. Ras Area died in May 1888, and the 
emperor Johannes was killed in a war against the dervishes at 
the battle of Gallabat (Matemma) on the loth of March 1889. 
The succession now lay between the late emperor's natural 
son, the Ras Mangasha, and Mcnelek, but the latter was elected 
by a large majority on the 4th of November, and consecrated 
shortly afterwards. Menelek had married in 1883 Taitu (b. 1854) 
a princess of Tigr6, a lady who had been married four times 
previously and who exercised considerable influence. Menelek's 
clemency to Mangasha, whom he compelled to submit and then 
made viceroy of Tigr£, was ill repaid by a long series of revolts. 
In 1889, at the time when he was claiming the throne against 
Mangasha, Menelek signed at Uccialli a treaty with Italy 
acknowledging Italian claims to the Asmara district. Finding, 
however, that according to the Italian view of one of its articles 
the treaty placed his empire under Italian domination, Menelek 
denounced it; and after defeating the Italians at Amba-Alagi, 
he compelled them to capitulate at Adowa in February 1896, 
ahd a treaty was signed recognizing the absolute independence 
of Abyssinia. His French sympathies were shown in a reported 



official offer of treasure towards payment of the fademidty at 
the dose of the Franco-Prussian War, and in February 1897 he 
condudea a commercial treaty with France on very favourable 
terms. He also gave assistance to French officers who sought 
to reach the upper Nile from Abyssinia, there to join forces 
with the Marchand Mission; and Abyssinian armies were sent 
Nilewards. A British mission under Sir Rennell Rodd in May 
1897, however, was cordially received, and Mendek agreed to a 
settlement of the Somali boundaries, to keep open to British 
commerce the caravan route between Zaila and Harrar, and to 
prevent the transit of munitions of war to the Mahdists, whom 
he proclaimed enemies of Abyssinia. In the following year the 
Sudan was reconquered by an Anglo-Egyptian army and there- 
after cordial rdations between Mendek and the British author- 
ities were established. In 1889 and subsequent years, Mendek 
sent forces to co-operate with the British troops engaged against 
the Somali mullah, Mahommed Abdullah. Menelek had in 
1898 crushed a rebellion by Ras Mangasha (who died in 1906) 
and he directed his efforts henceforth to the consolidation of 
his authority, and in a certain degree, to the opening up of Ids 
country to western dvilization. He had granted in 1894 a 
concession for the building of a railway to his capital from the 
French port of Jibuti, but, alarmed by a claim made by France 
in 1902 to the control of the line in Abyssinian territory, be 
stopped for four years the extension of the raflway b^ond 
Dire Dawa. When in 1906 France, Great Britain and Italy 
came to an agreement on the subject, Mendek officially rdtersted 
his full sovereign rights over the whole of his empire. In May 
X909 the emperor's grandson Lij Yasu, or Jeassu, then a hul of 
thirteen, was married to Romanie (b.. 1902), granddaughter of 
the negus Johannes. Two days later Yasu was publidy pro- 
claimed at Adis Ababa as Mendek's successor. At that time 
the emperor was seriously ill and as his ill-health continued, a 
council of regency — from which the emperor was exduded — was 
formed in March 1910. (See also Abyssinia.) 

MBNfiNDBZ Y PELAYO, MARCEUNO (1856- ), Spanish 
scholar and critic, was bom at Santander on the 3rd of November 
1856. In 1871-1872 he studied under MiUly Fontanab at the 
university of Barcelona, whence he proceeded to the central 
\miversity of Madrid. His academic successes had never been 
surpassed; a special law was passed by the Cortes to enaUe 
him to become a professor at the age of twenty-two, and three 
years later he was elected a member of the Spanish Academy. 
But before this date (1882) he was well known throughout Spain. 
His first volume, Estudios crUicos sobre escrUores monlaMeset 
(1876), had attracted little notice, and his scholarly Horace em 
Espana (1877) appealed only to students. He became famous 
through his Ciencia espaAola (1878), a collection of polemical 
essays defending the national tradition against the attacks of 
political and religious reformers. The unbending orthodoxy of 
this work is, if possible, still more pronounced in the Historic dt 
los heterodoxos espaHoles (1880-1886), and the writer was bailed 
as the champion of the ultramontane party. His lectures (1881) 
on Calder6n established his reputation as a literary critic; and 
his work as an historian of Spanish literature was continued in 
his Historic de las ideas esUlicas en EspaHa (1881-1891), ha 
edition (i 890-1903) of Lope de Vega, his Antohgta de pottos 
llricos castdkmos (1890-1906), and his Origenes do la nooela 
(1905). 

MENENIUS LANATU8, AORIPPA, Roman patridan and 
statesman, consul 503 B.C. On the occasion of the first sccesaioo 
of the people to the Sacred Mount, Agrippa, who was known to 
be a man of moderate views, was one of the commissioners 
empowered by the senate to treat with the seceders. On this 
occasion he redted the well-known fable of the belly and the 
members. 

Livy ii. 16, 32, 33; Dion. Halic. v. 44-47: vi. 49-^ 96; VaL 
Max. IV. 4, 3. 

MENES, the name of the founder of the xst Dynasty of 
historical kings of Egypt. He appears at the head oif the lists 
not only in Herodotus and Manetho, but also in the native 
Turin Papyrus of Kings and the lisU of Abydo^ while the Urt 



MENGS— MENIN 



129 



«r Sddbum begint with the tilth jdng of the ist Dsrnasty, a fact 
which may throw loine doubt on the suf^Msed foundation of 
Uaapbii by Menca. Until recently he was looked upon as 
seffli-DBythicai, but the discoveiy of the tombs of many kings of 
tke lit Dynasty including probably that of Menes Umself, as 
weOasanabundanceof remains of still earlier ages in Egjrpt has 
given him a personality. He ]pras* probably ruler of Upper 
Egypt and conquered the separate kingdom of Lower Egypt. . 
See EcTrr ; K. Sethe. " Mepes und die Grundung von Memphis,'* 
n hb Umitmckmmgin mr CexkkkU und AUertkumskunde Aegypunst 
vL ui. (F. Ll. G.) ' 



AMTORT RAPHAEL (1728^x779), German painter, 

«u bom in 1738 at Aussig in Bohemia, but his father, Ismael 

Mengs, a Danish painter, established himself finally at Dresden, 

i4Knce in 1741 he took his son to Rome. The appointment of 

Mmgs in 1749 as first painter to the elector of Saxony did not 

pcevent his spending much time in Rome, where he had married 

k 1748, and abjured the Protestant faith, and where he became 

ii X754 director of the Vatican school of painting, nor did this 

\aaier him on two occasions from obeying the call of Charles III. 

of S|Hun to Madrid. There Mengs produced some of bis best 

iQih, and specially the ceiling of the banqueting-hall, the 

nbject ol which was the Triumph of Trajan and the Temple 

of.Glny. After the completion of this work in 1777, Mengs 

Rtnmed to Rome, and there he died, two years later, in poor 

dicamstanceft, leaving twenty children, seven of whom were 

P'^fftifi! by the king of Spain. Besides numerous paintings 

iithe Madrid gallery, the Ascension at Dresden, Perseus and 

Aidroaieda at St Petersburg, and the ceiling of the ViUa Albani 

mt be mentitmed among his chief works.' In England, the 

Ue of Northumberland possesses a Holy Family, and the 

calces ol All Souls and Magdslftn, at Ozfonl, have altar-pieces 

bjr Ui hand. In his writings,, in Spanish, Italian and German, 

Heap has put forth his edectic theory of art, which treats of 

pofedion as attainable by a well-schemed combination of 

' Arcae ezceUenccs — Greek design, with the expression of 

Itplocl, the chiaroscuro of Correggio, and the colour of Titian. 

His intimacy with Winckclmann— who constantly wrote at his 

dictation — ^has enhanced his historical importance, for he formed 

hftsdbolars, and the critic must now concur in Goethe's judgment 

<f Meagi in Winckdmcnn und sein Jakrhundert; he must deplore 

tbt so much learning should have been allied to a total want 

<f iaitiative and poverty of invention, and embodied with a 

ttruned and artificial mannerism. 



Open di Antonio RaffatUo Menfis (Parma, 1780): Uengs 
, iUrsetzt v. C. F. Prange (1786): Zeitsckrift fur bildende 
<Buf (1880); Bianconi. Elogio storuo di Mengs (Milan, 1780); 
Ismati mnd Raphael Mengs (Leipzig, 1893). 



See 



1 



J a dty in the S.E. of the province of Yunnan', 
ChiniL Pop. about 12,000. It was selected by the French 
convention of 1886 as the seat of the overland trade between 
ToQ^dng and Yunnan, and opened two years later. It is 
besitUfnlly situated in the centre of a valley basin on a plateau 
3S00 ft. above sea-leveL ' The country round is fertile and 
«dl cultivated, and the place must have been one of considerable 
veahh before the T'aip'ing rebellion, as the ruins of many fine 
tcn^ies attest. A considerable overland trade has sprung up 
■see the opening of Mengtsze. Of the import trade Hong-Kong 
SBppGed 86%, and of the export trade 70'%, Cochin-China, 
Toogking anid Annam claiming the remainder^ Tin (68%) and 
opoffl (37-8%) are the principal exports, and textiles (71%), 
■ostly cottons, and tobacco (4%) are the chief imports. On 
Oe Ton^dng side this trade follows the Red River route as far 
as Manhao, which is distant from Mengtsze about 40 m., though 
tke navigation of the river is difficult. From Manhao the transit 
ii bjr coolies or pack animals. ' Concessions have been obtained 
by the French government to build a line of railway from the 
Toogking frontier at the town of Laokay via Mengtsze to 
Y ttnasB-f n. The climate is equable and healthy. 

lHHAinDI, economically one of the most important fishes 
<f the United Sutes, known by a great number of local names, 
' and " PHWsbnnker " being those most generally 



in use. The Indians and white settlers used it as a manure* 
and the name is Narragansett for "fertilizer." Its scientific 
name is Clupea (or Alosa) menhaden and Brevcortia tyrannus. 
It is allied to the European species of shad and pilchard, and, 
like the latter, approaches the coast in immense shoals, which 
aro found throughout the year in some part of the littoral 
wkters between Maine and Florida, the northern shoals retiring 
into deeper water or to. more southern latitudes with the 
approach of cold weather. The average size of the menhaden 
is about 12 in. It is too bony and oily for a table-fish, but is 
used as bait for cod and mackercL A large fleet is engaged 
in the fishery; and a great number of factories extract the 
oil for tanning and currying, and for adulterating other more 
expensive oils, and manufacture the refuse into a valuable guano. 

MENIAL, that which belongs to household or 'domestic ser- 
vice, hence, particularly, a domestic servant. The idea of such 
service being derogatory has made the term one of contempt. 
The word is derived fi;pm an obsolete i»Wn»« or meyney, the 
company of household servants or retainers; a Scottish form is 
menxic. *^The origin is to be found in the O.Fr. mesnie, popular 
Lat.' mansumatCf .from mansio mansion, from whidi comes 
Fr. maisoH, house. - 

; MitNIER, EMILB JUSTIN (1826-1881), French manufacturer 
and politician, was born at Paris in 1826. . In 1853, on the 
death of his father, Antoine Brutus M£nier, he became proprietor 
of a large drug factory, founded in 1815 by the latter at Saint 
Denis, Paris, and in 1825 at Noisiel-sur-Maroe. Antoine Brutus 
M6nier had also manufactured chocolate in a small way, but, 
Emile Justin from the first devoted himself specially to chocolate. 
He purchased cocoa-growing estates in Nicaragua and beet-fields 
in France, erected a sugar-mill, and equipped himself in other 
ways for the production of chocolate on a large scale. In 1864 
he sold his interest in the drug-manufacturing business, and 
thenceforth confined himself to chocolate, building up an 
immense trade. M6nier was a keen pohtidan, and frdm 1876 
till his death had a seat in the French Chamber, his geneial 
views being strongly Republican, while he consistently opposed 
protection. He was the author of several wofks on fiscal and 
economic qu&tions, notably L'Impdt sur le capital (1872), La 
Riforme fiscaU (1872), Economic ruralt (1875), L'Avenir 
icoHomique (187 5-1 878), Atlas dc la production de la ru:kess§ , 
(1878). He died at NoisicI-sur-Mame in 1881, his sons succeeding 
to the business. 

. MfiNlteE'S DISEASE, a form of auditory vertigo; first 
described by a French physician, Emile Antoine M6ni^, in 
i86x. It usually attacks persons of middle age whose hearing 
has been previously normaL A. Politzer gives the following 
as the principal causes: intense heat and exposure to the sun, 
rheumatism, influenza, venereal diseases, anaemia and leukaemia. 
The disease presents itself in various forms, but the most 
usual is the apoplectoform, due to haemorrhage into the laby-| 
rinth, followed by more or less complete deafness in cither or 
both ears. The attack usually sets in with dizziness, noises' 
in the cars, nausea, vomiting and staggering gait, and the 
patient may suddcntly fall down with loss of consciousness.' 
The seizures are usually paroxysmal, occurring at irregular 
intervals of days or weeks. Between the attacks the equilibrium 
may be disturbed, there being marked nystagmus and unsteadi- 
ness of gait. The attacks of vertigo tend to become less frequent 
and may- entirely pass away, but the deafness may remain 
permanent. The treatment 'is directed towards relieving the 
troublesome head symptoms by the application of cold com> 
presses. The drug that has proved most serviceable in dimin- 
ishing the dizziness is potassium iodide, administered daily for 
at least a month. PoUtzcr considers that the attacks may be 
averted by producing rarefaction of the air in the external 
meatus of the ear by means of a specially devised aspirating 
tube. 

MENIN (Flemish Meencn), a town of Belgium in the province 
of West Flandep situated on the Lys 7 m. S. of Courtrai. Pop.' 
(1904), 19,377. It manufactures linen and flannel, and in the 
neighbourhood are .extensive tobacco plantations. It was first 



I30 



MENINGITIS 



fortified in 1578, and in 1685 Vaut>tn nude It one of the strongest 
placet on the French frontier, but the fortifications were razed 
in X748 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 

MENINGITIS (from Gr. lajviy^, a membrane;, a term, in 
medicine applied to inflammation affecting the membranes of 
the brain (cerebral meningitis) or spinal cord (spinal meningitis) 
or both. 

Tubercular cerebral memngUis (or Acute Hydrocephalus) is a 
disease due to inflammation of the meninges of the brain produced 
by the presence of a tubercle bacillus. This disease is most 
common in children under ten years of age, but may affect 
adults. The tubercular constitution b an important factor in 
this malady. In numerous cases it is manifestly connected 
with bad hygienic conditions, with insufficient or improper 
feeding, or with over exercise of the mental powers, all of which 
will doubtless more readily exert their influence where an inherited 
liability exists, and the same may be said regarding its occasional 
occurrence as one of the after consequences of certain of the 
diseases of childhood, es^)ecially measles and whooping-cough. 
i There are certain typical features characterizing the disease in 
each of its stages. The premonitory symptoms are mostly such 
as relate to the general nutrition. A falling off in flesh and failure 
of strength are often observed for a considerable time before the 
characteristic phenomena of the disease appear. The patient, if 
a child, becomes listless and easily faticucd, loses appetite, and is 
restless at night. There is headache alter exertion, and the child 
becomes unusually irritable. These symptoms may persist during 
many weeks; but on the other hand such premonitorv indications 
may be entirely wanting, and the disease be devdopcd to all 
appearance suddenly. 

The onset is in most instances marked by the occurrence of vomit- 
ing, dften severe, but sometimes only sligfit, and there is in general 
obstinate constipatbn. In not a few cases the first symptoms 
are convulsions, which; however, may in this early stage subside, 
and remain absent, or reappear at a later period. Headache is 
one of the most constant 01 the eariier symptoms, and is generally 
intense and accompanied with sharper paroxysms, which cause 
the patient to scream, with a peculiar and characteristic cry. 
There is great intolerance of light and sound, and general nervous 
sensitiveness. Fever is present to a arcater or less extent, the 
temperature ranging from 100** to toy F.; yet the pulse is not 
quiclcened in proportion, being on the contraiy rather slow, but 
exhibiting a tendency to irregularity, and liable to become rapid 
on slight exertion. The breathing, too, b somewhat irregular. 
Symptoms of thb character, constituting the staee of excitement, 
continue for a period var>'ing from one to two weeks, when they are 
succeeded by the stage of depression. There b now a marked 
change in thie symptoms, which b apt to lead to the belief that a 
favourable turn has taken place. The patient becomes quieter 
and inclines to sleep, but it will be found on careful watching that 
this quietness b but a condition of apathy or partbl stupor into 
which the child has sunk. The vomiting has ceased, and there 
b less fever I the pulse b slower, and shows a still greater tendency 
to irregularity than before, while the breathing b of markedly 
unequal character, being rapid and shallow at one time, and 
long drawn out and sinking away at another. There is manifestly 
little suffering, although the peculbr cry may still be uttered, 
and the patient lies prostrate, occasionally rolling the head uneasily 
upon the pillow, or picking at the bedclothes or at his face with 
his fingers. He does not ask for food, but readily swallows what 
is offered. The countenance b pale, but is apt to flush up suddenly 
for a time. The eyes present important alterations, the pupib 
being dilated or unequal, and scarcely responding to light. There 
may be double vision, or partial or complete blindness. Squinting 
b common in thb stage, and there may alito be drooping of an eyelid, 
due to paralysb of the part, and one or more limbs may be likewise 
paralysed. 

To thb succeeds the third or final stage, in which certain of the 
former symptoms recur, while others become intensified. There 
b generally a return of the fever, the temperature riding sometimes 
very high. The pulse becomes feeble, rapid, and exceedingly irre- 

Sular, as is also the case with the breathing. Coma is profound, 
ut yet the patient may still be got to swallow nourishment, though 
not so readily as before. Convulsions are apt to occur, while para- 
lysis, more or less extensive, affects portions of the body or groups 
of muscles. The pupils are now widely dilated, and there is gener- 
ally complete blindness and often deafness. In this condition the 
patient's strength undergoes rapid decline, and the body becomes 
markedly emaciated, death takes place either suddenly in a fit, 
or more gradually from exhaustion. Shortly before death it is 
not uncommon for the patient, who, it may be for many days 

f>reviousIv. lay in a state of profound stupor, to awake up, ask for 
ood, and talk to those around. The duration of a case varies 
somewhat, but in general death takes pbcc within three weeks 
from the onset of the symptoms. The disease may be said to be 



almost mvanably fatal, yet cases presenting all the priacipil 

symptoms occasionally recover. 

Nluch may be done in the way of prevention of this diseise, 
and, in its earlier stages, even in the way of cure. It b most iB> 
portant in families where the hbtory indicates a tuberculous or 
scrofulous tendency, and particularly where acute hydrocephalns 
has already occurred, that every effort should be used to fortify 
the system and avoid the causes already alluded to as favouring 
the development of the disease during that period in which children 
are liable to suffer from it. With this view wholesome food, warn 
clothing, cleanliness, regularity, and the avoidance of over-eaenioo. 
physical and mental, are of tme utmost consequence. 

Timely use of remedies may mitigate and even occasionally 
remove the symptoms when they arise. The maintenance of the 
patient's strength by light nourishment and the use of sedatives 
to compose the nervous system are the measures most likdy to 
be attended with success. Bromide, combined with iodide of 
potassium, b the medicinal agent of most value for thb purpose. 
Should convulsions occur, they are best treated by cUoral or 
chloroform. 

In what b known as suppurafO/e, or simple adite memmpHt 
(non-tubercular), the disease arises from various causes, and 
the symptoms are similar to those described above. 

In posterior-basic meningitis, inflammation of the membranei. 
investing the posterior basic spinal cord, the chief symptoms 
are fever, with severe pain in the back or loins shooting down- 
wards into the limbs (which are the seat of frequent painfnl 
involuntary startings), accomjwnicd with a feeling of tight nf 
round the body. 

The local symptoms Dear reference to the portion of the ooid 
the membranes of which are involved. Thus when the inflamma- 
tion b located in the cervical portion the muscles of the arms and 
chest are spasmodkrally contracted, and there may be difficulty 
of swallowing or breathing, or embarrassed heart's action, while 
when the disease b seated in the lower portion, the lower Umba and 
the bladder and rectum are the parts affected in thb way. At 
first there b excited sensibility (hyperaesthesb) in the parts of 
the surface of the body in relation with the portion of cord affected. 
As the disease advances these symptoms give place to those ol 
partbl loss of power in the affected muscles, and also |5artial anaes- 
thesia. These various phenomena may entirely pass away, and 
the patient after some weeks or months recover; or, on the other 
hand, they may increase, and end in permanent paralysis. 

Some observers regard these forms as sporadic cases of oerebn^ 
spinal fever; and Still, Willbm Hunter and George Nuttall have 
isolated an organism Mmilar to the diplococcus intraodlulariik 
while Henry Koplik in New York found cases of typical posterior- 
basic meningitb due to the diplococcus intracdlulans. 

The treatment b directed to allaying the pain and SnflamoiatQiy 
action by opiates. Ergot b recommended by many physicians. 
The patient should have perfect rest in the recumbent, or better 
still in the prone, position. Cold applKations to the spine may 
be of use. while attention to the functions of the bladder and bowcb, 
and to the condition of the skin with the view of pceventinc bed- 
sores, b all-imporunt. 

Cerebrospinal fever or epidemic cere6ro-spfnal memmiilisi 
popularly called ** spotted fever," b an infectious disease occur- 
ring sporadically or in epidemics, and due to the dipkKOccvs 
intraccllularis discovered by Weichselbaum in 1887. This 
disease was not recognized until the 19th century. It was first 
described at Geneva in 1805 and small outbreaks followed in 
Paris (1814), Metz and Genoa (1815), and WestphaUa (1822), 
but in the United States there was a widespread epidemic, 
including New England and spreading as far as Kentucky and 
Ohio. Fresh outbreaks in Europe took place between 1837 and 
1850. In 1837 it prevailed in the south of France chiefly amongst 
troops in garrison, and fresh outbreaks continued throughout 
France in 1846 with epidemics in Algiers, Italy and Sicily. In 
Great Britain it first showed itself in the Irish workhouses in 
1846, where it was known as " the black death " or " malignant 
purpuric fever." After 1866 except for sporadic cases it dis- 
appeared from Great Britain, but small outbreaks took place 
in 1 88s to 1900 in Dublin. In 1905 there was an extensive 
epidemic in New York, followed by an outbreak in Scotland in 
1906, and in Scotland and Ireland in 1907-1908. The regbtrar> 
general's returns for 1907 give 1018 deaths in Scotland due to 
the disease, of which 711 were at Glasgow and 148 at Edinburgh. 
In the same year Belfast was vbited by a severe epidemic, 495 
deaths out of the total death-rate of 631 taking place in that 
dbtrict. 



MENIPPUS— MENIUS 



131 



Tbe mode of infection b otMcnre, but the orsaniHn b thought 
to gain access to the circuUtion through the mucous membrane of 
the note and conjunctiva, as the organism has been isolated from 
ibc mucoua nwrabrane of the noie, not only of those suffering from 
the diseate but from healthy persons who have been in contact 
vich cases. Ccrcbro-spinai lever has an undoubted tendency to 
ftiUow bad MUiitary conditions and to prevail in damp, sunless 
boQies. Ic b a disease of teniperate climates, and the outbreaks 
uually take place in the spring of the vcar. The victims are 
nmtly children and young adults, and Koplik states that few 
recoveries take place in children under two years of age. 

The onsec of svmptoms is sudden, as contrasted with tubercular 

nraingitis. in which the onset is gradual. The attack comes on 

sharply vicb intense headache, ngors and vomiting. The pain 

soon localizes itself in the back of the neck and occiput, and may 

thence radiate down the H>>ne. limbs and abdomen. The inin is 

soon followed by a characteristic symptom, namely retraction of 

the bead. The head is drawn back and rigidly fixed, the spine 

arched and the limbs drawn up, and muscular spasms may take 

pLice. There b general hyperaesthoesb, the slightest contact 

producing pain. ^ Nfure or less fever is present, but the temperature 

i» not characteristic. The headache continues with great se\Trity 

aad rcsclessnesB and delirium supervene, or there may be long 

periods when the patient is comatose. Twitching of the limbs 

and nneral convulsions may occur and facbl paralysis is frcouent. 

P^niytb of the ocubr nerves causing squint, dibtations and con> 

tTKtions of the pupil are common as in other varieties of menincitis. 

Some of the most striking symptoms are the rashes. ^ These 

■ttiaOy occur about the fourth day of illness and vary widely in 

daracter. resembling erythema, urticarb. rose spots or purpuric 

nets. The rashes have usually no relation to the eravity of the 

luease, but severe cutaneous haemorrhages usually indicate a 

Kvcre form of illness. Should the patient survive the first shock 

d the attack serious complications may arise; the eyes may be 

anocked by severe conjunctivitis, iritis or keratitis or inflammation 

d the deeper parts may take place leading to detachment of the 

mitta. non freciuent even is disease of the auditory apparatus, 

ud purulent otitb medb or disease of the bbyrinth may load to 

ponanent deafness. Serous effusion may take pbce into joints 

lUch are painful, red and swollen as in acute rheumatism. 

Certain forms of the disease are rapidly fatal, these are known 
It the fulminant type, and death may talee place within 12 to 34 
hmsof the onset. Ueath usually occurs between the fifth and the 
achth day, but many cases drag on for weeks with rapid and pro- 
pmive emacbtion, and recovery b slow. The mortality has 
Qried m diflcrent epidemics. Hirsch's tables of forty-one epidemics 
five a mortality of from 25 to 75 %, and Koplik rates it at 48 to 
^\ During 1907, 623 cases of cerebro-^>inal fever were notified 
B Belfast, and the deaths numbered 495. During that year the 
£ies4e was made notifiable in 48 Irish urban and 55 rural districts. 
Tk eaortality in Dublin was 75*0- Osier states that in children 
ladcrone year On New York) the mortality reached 87-6%. 

The changes foumi after death from cercbro-spinal Uver are an 
atute inflammation of the pb-arachnoid membrane both of the 
Inm and spinal cord, with effusion of serum or pus into the vcn- 
triciibr and subarachnoid spaces. With such rapidity may the 
cffsson b ecome purulent that it has been found purulent in a case 
vhere death took place within five hours from the apparent onset. 
The operation' of lumbar puncture (or puncture of the spinal canal 
betveso the lumbar vertcorae)^ has enabled the phyHcun to make 
aa accurate diagnosis by bacteriological cxamin«(ti()n of the contents 
of the spinal fluid. Lumbar puncture too has been found to l>e ui 
cjsinent service in many cases, the withdrawal of from 30 ro 50 cc. 1 
«f the spinal fluid serving to relieve pressure and at least temporarily 
aaeliorate the sjrmptoms. 

Up to a few years ago it may be said that there was no effective 
treatment for cercbro-spinal lever but that of endeavouring to 
•Urnate pain by the administration of opium, but with the recent 
KiTodoction of serum therapy the future is full of hope. In 
the epidemic in New York (1905) the scrum of Flexner and Jobling 
SIS nedt and the most striking results were seen in young patients, 
the death-rate where the serum was used sinking to 46-3 *:« as 
*pb*t 90% without. Like other scrum treatments, to get the 
wit results the serum must be administered early in the diM-n!«. 
Of 231 patients injected during the first week of illness the mortality 
»as oaiy ib%, while of 107 others injected after the first week of 
the disease the mortality was double that amount. When given 
••bcdtaneously, as in diphtheria, the serum has little or no effi-ct. 
tad to <^>tain good results it must be injected directly into the 
apnul canal after the removal of a certain amount of the spinal 
Hid. The injections are then continued daily a« required according 
to the severity of the case. Dr Robb oi Belfast reports that 
dw epidemic there, of 275 cases treated by ordinary means, 
ith-rate was 72-3%. but in 90 can's treated with injir- 
I of Flexner and Jobling's serum the death-rate was only 
Dr Ivy McKenzie and Dr W. B. Martin of Glasgow have 
- - bed a series of cases treated with the highly immune serum 
«f patients who have recovered from the disease with encouraging 



MENIPPUS, of Gadtra in Coele-Syria, Greek cynic and satirist; 
lived during the 3rd century B.C. According to Diogenes 
LaSrtius (vi. 8) he was originally a slave, amassed a fortune as 
a money-lender, lost it, and committed suicide through grief. 
Hb works (written in a mixture of prose and verse) are all lost.' 
He discussed serious subjects in a spirit of raillery, and cspccblly 
delighted in attacking the Epicureans and Stoics. His writings 
exercised considerable influence upon later literature. One of 
the dialogues attributed to Lucian, his avowed imitator, who 
frequently mentions him, b called Menippus. But this dialogue 
b regarded with suspicion, and since the sub-title (" The Oracle 
of the Dead ") resembles that of a work ascribed to Mvnippus by 
Diogenes LaCrtius, it has been suggested that it b really the 
work of Mcnippus himself, or at any rate imitated from his Ncicwa 
by the author, whether Lucian or another. It b well known 
that the Menippcan satires of M. Tcrcntius Varro, the fragments 
of which give an idea of thb kind of composition, were called 
after Mcnippus of Gadara ^scc Tcuffel-Schwabe. Hist, of Roman 
Literature, | 165, 3). 

Bibliography. — F. Ley, De vita scriptisgue Menippi cynid 
(Culugne, 1843): R. Helm, Lucian und Menipp (1906); L. Wuchs- 
muth, SiUographorum graecorum retiauiae (18^5), with an account 
of Mcnippus and similar writers. Nlcnippus found an imitator in 
jater times in Justus Lipsius, author of a Satvra menippaea (1637) 
in which he ridiculed certain literary men of his age, especially the 
poet laureate; and in the authors of the famous Satyre Mrnippie 
II.S93: btchtetlitionsby C. Marcilly, Paris, 1882: J. Frank, ()p(x*ln, 
1884), written against the Holy League during the reign of Henri IV. 

MENIUS, JUSTUS (1499-1558), Lutheran theologian, whose 
name is Latinized from Jost or Just (i.e. Jodocus) Mcnig, was 
born at Fulda, of poor but respectable parents, on the 13th of 
December 1400. Entering the university of Erfurt in 1514, he 
took the bachelor's degree in 151 5, the master's in 1516. At 
this time, in association with the keen humanists Conrad Mutian, 
Crotus Rubeanus and Eoban Hess, he was of sceptical tendency;, 
moving to Wittenberg in 1510, he became evangelical under the 
teaching of Melanchthon and the preaching of Luther. After 
travel in Italy (1521-1522) he was appointed (1523) town's 
preacher at Wittenberg, but was soon transferred to the charge 
of Miihlberg, under Erfurt. Here he published his commentary 
on Acts (1524) and married. He resigned his charge (1525) and 
opened a school at Erfurt, but the town council insisted on hb 
resuming his ministry, appointing him preacher in St Thomas', 
Erfurt. He worked in conjunction with Luther's friend, John 
Lange, and was opposed by the Franciscans under Conrad 
Kling. Hence he left for Gotha (1528), resumed teaching, and 
enjoyed the friendship of Fricdrich Mycunius. Duke John of 
Saxony had placed him on the commission for church n'sitalion 
in Thuringia, and in 1529 appointed him pastor and supinn- 
tendent at Eisenach, where for eighteen years he udminihlcrcd 
church affairs with tact, and fostered the spread of education. 
In 1529 he brought out his Oiconomia Christiana (a treatise in 
German, on the right ordering of a Christian household) with a 
dedication to the duchess Sybil of Saxony and a preface by 
Luther. His tractate, written in concert with Myconius, con- 
troverting Der WicdertHuJcr Lehre und Gihcimniss (1530) was 
also prefaced by Luther. The reversion to the Roman com- 
munion of his old friend Crotus led to his mordant Rcsponsio 
amici (1532, anon.) to the Apologia (1531) of Crotus. He took 
his part in the theological disputations of the lime, at Marburg 
(1520), the Concordia at Willcnbcrg (1536), the Convention at 
Schmalkaldcn (1537), the discussions at Hagcnau and Worms 
(1340). His tractate (1542) against the permission of bigamy in 
the case of Philip of Ilcsse was not allowed to be printed (the 
manuscript is in the Heidelberg university library). In 1542 he 
removed to Miihlhauscn, being appointed by Duke Henry of 
Saxony for the ordering of the church there. On the death of 
Myconius (1546) he was cnlruste<l with the oversight of Gotha. in 
addition to that of Eisenach; to Goiha he returned in 1547. The 
remainder of his life was not happy. He was against the Leipzig 
Interim (1548) with its compromise on some Catholic usages, 
and was involved in controversies and quarrels; with Gc^rgius 
Merub, against whom he maintained the need of exorcism in 



132 



MENKEN— MENNO SIMONS 



baptism; with Osiander's adherents in the matter of justification; 
with his colleague, Nicholas yon Amsdorf, to whom he had 
resigned the Eisenach superintendency; with Flacius Ulyricus, 
and others. He lost favour with Duke John Frederic of Saxony, 
fell into bad health, was deposed (1555) from his offices, and was 
disappointed in his hopes of being reinstated, after the colloquy 
at Eisenach (1556). He died at Leipzig on the nth of August 
1558. He was twice married, and had several sons, of whom 
Eusebius held a chair of philosophy at Wittenberg, and married 
Melanchthon's grand-daughter, Anna Sabinus. Schmidt gives 
a full bibliography of the numerous writings of Menius, who 
translated several of Luther's biblical commentaries into German. 
His Oeconomia Was reprinted in 1855. 

See G. L. Schmidt, Justus Menius, der' Reformalor Tkaringens 
(1867) ; Wagenmann, in AUgemeine deutsche Bioi.{i6S$) ; G. Kawerau, 
in Hauck's RtaUncykhpidU (1903). (A. Go.^) . 

I'MBNKBN, ADAH ISAACS (1835-1868), 'American actress, 
iHs bom in New Orieans, the daughter of a Spanish Jew, her 
name being Dolores Adios Fuertes. Left in poverty at the age 
of thirteen, she made her first appearance as a dancer in her 
native dty. She had a great success there and in other southern 
dtics, including Havana, and she afterwards aspired to act 
in serious parts. In 1856 she married John Isaacs Menken, 
translated Adios to Adah, and thus took the name she there- 
after bore through various matrimonial ventures. In 1864 she 
appeared at Astley's in London as Mazeppa, a performance of an 
athletic dramatic type suited to her fine physique. In England 
and France she became intimate with many literary men- 
Swinburne, Charles Reade, Dickens (to whom she dedicated in 
z868 a volume of verse, Infdicia), Gautier and Dumas the 
elder. Paris saw her for a hundred nights in Les Pirates de la 
Savantt and she also played in Vienna and again in London. 
She died in Paris on the loth of August 1868. 
■ MENNONITES, a body of religionists who take their name 
from Menno Simons (see below), the most valued exponent of 
their prindples. They maintain a form of Christianity which, 
discarding the sacerdotal idea, owns no authority outside the 
Bible and the enlightened consdence, limits baptism to the 
bdiever, and lays stress on those precepts which vindicate the 
sanctity of himian life and of a man's word. The place of 
origin of the views afterwards called Mennonite (see Baptists) 
was Zurich, where in 1^23 a small community left the state 
church and (from Jan. 18, 1525) adopted the tenet of beUcvers' 
baptism. Unlike other Reformers, they denied at once the 
Christian character of the existing church and of the civil 
authority, though, in common with the first Christians, it was 
their duty to obey all lawfiil requirements of an alien power. 
By P/otestants as much as by Catholics this position was not 
unnaturally regarded as subversive of the established founda; 
tions of sodety. Hence the, bitter persecutions which, when 
the safety of toleration was not imagined, made martyrs of 
these humble folk, who simply wished to cultivate the religious 
life apart from the worid. There was something in this ideal 
which answered to that medieval conception of separation 
from the world which had leavened all middle-class society in 
Europe; and the revolt from Rome had prepared many minds 
to accept the further idea of separation from the church, for the 
pursuit of holiness in a society pledged to primitive discipline. 
Hence the new teaching and praxis spread rapidly from Switzer- 
land to Germany, Holland and France. While the horrors of 
the Milnster fanaticism, which culminated in 1534, made Ana- 
baptism a byword, and increased the severity of a persecution 
directed against all Baptists indiscriminately, the reaction 
against the fatal errors of the Mtinstcr experiment increased 
also the adherents of communities which discarded the sword; 
thus Menno was brought into their ranks. Each community 
was independent, united with others only by' the bond of love. 
There was no hierarchy (as with the Familists), but " exhorters " 
chosen by the memliers, among them " elders " for administering 
baptism and the Lord's Supper; an arrangement so readily 
renewed that the sure way of putting down such a body was 
the execution of all iu constituenu, often by drowning, an 



appropriate end, according to Zwingli's'quip^ The remnaiit ol 
the Swiss Mennonites (not tolerated till 1710) broke in 1690 into 
two parties, the Uplanders (or Amish, from their lea<ter Jacob, 
Amen) holding against the Lowlanders that excommusiouioa 
of husband or irife dissolved marriage,' and that rason and 
buttons were unlawful. In Holland the Mennonites have alwajfi 
been nxmierous. An offshoot from them at Rhijnsburg in 1619, 
founded by the four brothers, farmers. Van der Kodde, aod 
named Collegianten from their meetings, termed coUeg^ (thus, 
as not churches, escaping the penal laws), has been compared 
to the Plymouth Brethren, but differed in so far as they required 
no conformity of religious opinion, and recognized no office 
of teacher. With them, as Martineau notes, Spinoisa had " an 
intense fellow-feding." Later, the exiled Sodnians from Polaiid 
(1660) were in many cases recdved into membership. There 
had previously been overtures, more than once, for union with 
Mennonites on the part of Polish Sodnians, who agreed with 
them in the rejection of oaths, the refusal to take human lifie^ 
the consequent abstinence from militaiy service and magto^rial 
office, and in the Biblical basis of doctrine; differences of doc- 
trinal interpretation preduded any fusion. In Holland the 
Mennonites were exempted from military service in 1575, from 
oath-Uking in 1585, from public office in 16x7. In Zedtand 
exemption from military service and oaths was granted in xs77; 
afterwards, as in Friesland, a heavy poll tax was the price of 
exeniption from military service; but since 1795 th^ have 
enjoyed a legal eTSmption from oath-taking. In France tht 
Mennonites of the Vosges were exempted from military service 
in X793, an exemption confirmed by Napoleon, who employed 
them in hospital service on his campaigns. That he did not 
exempt the Dutch Mennonites is due to the fact that " they had 
ceased to present a united front of resbtance to mflitaiy 
claims" (Martineau); in fact they sent a large band of 
volunteers to Waterloo (Barclay). While in Germany the 
Mennonites exist in considerable numbers, more important are 
the German Mennonite colonies in southern Russia, brought 
there in 1 786 by Catherine II., and freed, by the grant of complete 
religious liberty, from the hardships imposed by Pnwias 
military law. These colonies have sent many emigrants to 
America, where their oldest community was settled (X683) at 
Germantown, Pennsylvania. Thdr settlement in Caiuda datdf 
from 1786. Among the American Mennonites there are three 
sections, and a progressive party, known as New School 
Mennonites. 



S. Cramer gives U903) the following statistict:.tn all, Kwie^so/XO 
members, of whom over 80,000 are m the United States, 70,000 ie 
Russia, 60,000 in Holland, 20,000 in Canada. 18,000 in Oermany. 
1500 in Switierland. 800 in France, and the same number in Polaad 
andGalicia. (A. Go.*) j 

MENNO SIMONS ((492-x5S9),^religious leader,' 'was bom {a 
1492 at Witmarsum in Fripland. Of his parentage (apSt 
from his patronymic) and education nothing is known. He 
was not a man of learning, nor had he many books; for ha 
knowledge of early Christian writers he was partly indebted to 
the Chronica or compilations of Sebastian Franck. At the 
age of twenty-four he entered the priesthood, becoming one of 
two curates under the incumbent of Pingjum, a village iwar his 
birthplace. He accused himself, with the other dergy, of las 
and self-indulgent living. Doubts about transubstantiatkxi 
made him uneasy; some of Luther's tracts fell in his way, and 
he was comforted by Luther's dictum that salvation does not 
depend on human dogmata. Hence he began to study the New 
Testament. The question as to the right age for baptism came 
up; he found this an open matter in the eariy church. Then 
the execution, in March 1531, at Leeuwarden, of the tailor Sicke 
Freerks, who had been rebaptized in the previous December at 
Emden, introduced further questions. Menno was not satisfied 
with the inconsistent answers which he got from Luther, Bucer 
and Bullinger; he resolved to rely on Scripture alone, and from 
this time describes his preaching as evangelical, not sacra mental. 
In 1532 he exchanged^iis curacy for a living at Witmarsum, in 
response to a popular call. _Anabaptism of the Mttnster ^ype 



MENOMINEE— MENSHIKOV 



"33 



His first tractate (1535. first printed 1627) is 

directed as^inst the *' horrible and gross blasphemy of John of 

Letdcii ** — though the genuineness of this tract has been doubted. 

A brother of Menno joined the insurgent followers of John 

Mitthysxoon, and was killed at Dobward (April 1535). Blaming 

the leaden by whom these poor people had been miiied, Menno 

blimcd himsdlf for not having shown them a straight course. 

Acconfing^y on the 12th of January 1536, he left the Roman 

conmunion. There were now among the so-called Anabaptists 

lour parties, the favourers of the MQnster faction, the Batcn- 

boiBen. extremists, the Melchiorites and the Obbem'tes. For 

a time Menno remained aloof from both Melchior Hofman and 

Obbe Philipsz. Before the year was out, yielding to the prayer 

of sis or eight persons who had freed themselves from the 

Mflaster spell, he agreed to become their minister, and was set 

ipsrt (jMnuasy 1537) to the eldership at Gioningen, with im- 

poBtJofi of hands by Obbe Philipsz, who is regarded as the actual 

founder of the Mennonite body. In fact, Obbe left the body 

ind is stigmatized as its Demas. Menno repudiated the forma- 

tkn of a sect; those who had experienced the "new birth" 

■ere to him the true Christian church, which was limited by 

M> decree of reprobation. His Christology was in the main 

orthodox, though he rejected terms (such as Trinity) which he 

oald not fiind in Scripture, and held a Valentinian doctrine of 

Ike cdestial origin of the flesh of Christ. His church discipline 

VIS drawn from the Swiss Baptists. Silent prayer was a feature 

fli the wocship; sermons were without texts. Neither baptism 

(bf pouring on the head) nor the Lord's Supper (with the 

accompaniment of feet-washing) conferred grace; they were 

dhriae ordinances which reflected the believer's inward state. 

Manisge with outsiders was prohibited; women had no part 

'b duirch government. Oaths and the taking of life were 

ibsolatdy forbidden; hence the magistracy and the army were 

for the Mennonite unlawful callings; but magistrates were to 

be obeyed in all things not prohibited by Scripture. The 

iriaequent career of Menno was that of an active missioner; 

ha dtanges of f^ce, often compulsory, are difficult to trace. 

He »as apparently much in East Fricsland till 1 541; in North 

HoUaod, with Amsterdam as centre, from 1541 to 1543; again 

tUl 1S4S in East Friesland (where he held a disputation at Emden 

with John i Lasco in January 1544); till 1547 in South Holland; 

oext, about Uibcck; at Wismar in 1553-1554 (he held two 

dJ^MuUons with Martin Micronius at Norden in February 

15S1); lastly at WOstenfelde, a village near Oldcsloo, between 

Haoibttrg and Ltlbeck, where he died on the 13th of January 

1559. He had married one Gertrude at Groningcn, and left a 

daughter, by whom the dates of his birth and death were 

cocBinunicated to P. J. Twisch, for his Chronyk (1619). 

Mcftfio** writings in Ptattdeutsch, printed at various places, are 
Nmcnwf. with much sameness, and what an unfriendly critic 
•odd can wool-gatherinjK : through them shines a character attrac- 
tive by the atncerity of its simple and warm spirituality, the secret 
oC Mcniio's influence. The ci' 1,^11 

{AMCcfdan. 1681 ), folio, in a Dl^.. i 1 - u: .™i., i.ui f^.^ ..^ .. l ■-■. . 1 ,:^ . l liroc 
inctatcs. with re f erence to rune unpritiKKJ. Vi\^ tnam {rMncipIci 
*3 be found in his Dal Fundsmmid^i Ctriiidytken Lftn (ISJ9. Svp). 
A Kh c t io n iCtdcfMlaUer) fmm h\% ^t\{\n^*,, \n a German vmiun, in 
hoaoor of the (supposed) tfixcntcunial ol his denth not edited by 
[. Maonhaidt (Danzig. 1861) wkh an appcndU from the i^riimgs of 



Dlrkr 



k Philipsz (1504-1^70), brother of Obbe, and M en noV henchman. 
His vritinKS are published in English at Elkhart, Indiana. 

Since the publication of the l^fr^n ( 1 837 ) by A, M . Cr^i mcr, light hai 
hen thrown on the period bv the irst-;^ r t }ics oF de Vaxip SclicfFir; 
«e Van der Aa. Bco^^ ' ' . . ■.■r...,.j- ■■.-, v.-,-.r/ .,..-, ,. ^>^>-j._ 
R. Bsfday. Inner IaJc of Religious Societies of the Commonwealth 
(ilM) for a good account of Mennonite anticipations of Quaker views 
and practices : F. C. Fleischer. Menno Simons, eene Levensschets 
(tS^i): V. M. Reimann. Mennonis SimonisqualisfuerilvUa (189^) ; S. 
Caaer. in Hauck's ReaUncyUopddie (1903) ; a separate article in the 
•ott. Metmomiien, by S. Cramer, gives a survey of the origin and 
onificatioa* of the movement in Europe and America. (A. Go.*) 
moaiMBB, a dty and the county-scat of Menominee 
CDouy, Michigan, USA., on Green Bay, at the mouth of the 
Uenoioiinee river, opposite Marinette, Wisconsin, at the southern 
I cnmaity of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1890), 10,630; (1900), 
12^8, of whom 4186 were foreign-boro; (1910 census), 



10,507. It is served by the Chicago & North-West em, the Chicago. 
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Wisconsin & Michigan, and the Ann 
Arbor railways, and is connected by five bridges with Marinette, 
Wisconsin. Menominee has several parks, and harbour and dock 
facilities for the heaviest lake vessels. It is one of the largest 
lumber centres in the United States; it has excellent water 
power, and there are manufactures of wire, steel,-electrical appli- 
ances, mill and mining machinery, shoes, beet sugar and paper. 
The use of beet-pulp instead of Indian com ensilage for dairy 
cows has promoted the dairying industry in the city. 

A trading post was established here in r799, but settlement 
was not begun until 1833. Menominee became the county-seat 
in 1874, was chartered as a city in 1883, and in 1891 and in 1901 
it was re-chartered; in 1903 an amendment to the charter created 
a municipal court. The city is named after the Menominee 
Indians,' an Algonquian tribe formerly ranging over a consider- 
able territory in Wisconsin and Michigan, who seem to have been 
first visited by whites in 1634, when Nicolet found them at the 
mouth of the Menominee river, and now number about 1600, 
most of them being under the Green Bay school superintendency, 
Wisconsin. The name is the Chippewa word for wild rice, which 
formed part of the food of the tribe. 

MENOMONIB, a city and the county-seat of Dunn county, 
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 64 m. E. of St Paul, Minnesota, on the 
Red Cedar river. Pop. (1890), 5491; (1900), 5655, of whom 
1772 were foreign-bora; (1905), 5473; (1910), 5036. It Is 
served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, and the Chicago, 
St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha railways. The city is widely 
known for its institutions, for the most part founded or supported 
by James Huff Stout (i848-i9io),a prominent local lumberman. 
Among them are the Mabel Tainter Memorial Library, the Dunn 
County School of Agriculture, the Dunn County Normal Training 
School, the Stout Institute for the training of teachers of domestic 
science &c., institutions in which public school children receive 
physical training. The dty has grain elevators, and manufac- 
tures of bricks and tiles, foundry and machine shop products, 
carriages and wagons and flour. Menomonie is an important 
market for dairy products and livestock. Menomonie was 
settled about 1846 and was chartered as a dty in 1882. The 
first free travelling library in the state was established here in 
1896 by James Huff Stout. 

MENSA and MARBA, semi-nomad pastoral tribes of Africans 
occupying part of the Abyssinian highlands included in the 
Italian colony of Eritrea, and the adjacent coast plains of the 
Red Sea. They have for neighbours the Habab and Beni- 
Amer tribes, as well as Abyssinians. The Marea are found 
chiefly in the valley of the Khor Anseba, the Mensa dwelling 
farther north. These tribes claim Arab origin, tracing their 
descent from an uncle of the Prophet. Under Abyssinian rule 
they were Christians, but became Mahommedans in the 19th 
century. They speak a dialect of Tigrin (Abyssinian). On the 
death of a Marea the head of every dependent tigri or slave 
family must give his heirs a cow. The »ribes avenge an illegiti- 
mate birth by putting parents and child to death. 

MENSHIKOV, ALEXANDER DANILOVICH, Prince (1663?- 
1739), Russian statesman, was born not earlier than 1660 nor 
later than 1663. It is disputed whether his father was an ostler 
or a bargee. At the age of twenty he was gaining his livelihood 
in the streets of Moscow as a vendor of meat-pics. His hand- 
some looks and smart sallies attracted the attention of Francois 
Lefort, Peter's first favourite, who took him into his service 
and finally transferred him to the tsar. On the death of Lefort 
in 1699, Menshikov succeeded him as prime favourite. Ignorant, 
brutal, grasping and corrupt as he was, he deserved the confid- 
ence of his master. He could drill a regiment, build a frigate, 
administer a province, and decapitate a rebel with equal facility. 
During the tsar's first foreign tour, Menshikov worked by his 
side in the dockyards of Amsterdam, and acquired a thorough 
knowledge of colloquial Dutch and German. He took an active 

» See W. L. Hoffman in the FourUenth Retort (Washington, 1896) 
of the Bureau of American Ethnology and A. E. Jenks in the Mn#- 
teentk Report (1900). 



13+ 



MENSHIKOV— MENSURATION 



part in the Azov campaigns (1695-96), and superseded Ogilvie as 
commander-in-chief during the retreat before Charles XII. in 
1708, subsequently participating in the battle of Holowczyn, 
the reduction of Mazepa, and the. crowning victory of Poltava 
(June 26, X709), where he won his marshal's b&ton. From 
X709 to 1 7 14 he served during the Courland, HolStetn and 
Pomeranian campaigns, but then, as governor-general of Ingria, 
with almost unlimited powers, was entrusted with a leading part 
in the civil administration. Menshikov understood perfectly 
the principles on which Peter's reforms were conducted, and was 
the right hand of the tsar in all his gigantic undertakings. But 
he abused his omnipotent position, and his depredations fre- 
quently brought him to the verge of ruin. Every time the tsar 
returned to Russia he received fresh accusations of peculation 
against *' his Serene Highness." Peter's first serious outburst 
of indignation (March 17x1) was due to the prince's looting in 
Poland. On his return to Russia in 171 2, Peter discovered that 
Menshikov had winked at wholesale corruptions in his .own 
governor-generalship. Peter warned him " for the last time " 
to change his ways. Yet, in 17x3, he was implicated in the 
famous Solov'ey process, in the course of which it was demon- 
strated that he had defrauded the govenmient of 100,000 roubles.^ 
He only owed his life on this occasion to a sudden illness. On his 
recovery Peter's fondness for his friend overcame his sense of 
justice. In the last year of Peter's reign fresh frauds and defal- 
cations of &f enshikov came to light, and he was obliged to appeal 
for protection to the empress Catherine. It was chiefly through 
the efforts of Menshikov and his colleague Tolstoi that, on the 
death of Peter, in 1725, Catherine was raised to the throne. 
Menshikov was committed to the Petrine system, and he recog- 
nized that, if that system were to continue, Catherine was, at 
that particular time, the only possible candidate. Her name 
was a watchword for the progressive faction. The placing of 
her on the throne meant a final victory over ancient prejudices, a 
vindication of the new ideas of progress. During her short reign 
(February 1725— May 1727), Menshikov was practically absolute. 
On the whole he ruled well, his difficult position serving as some 
restraint upon his natural inclinations. He contrived to prolong 
his power after Catherine's death by means of a forged will and a 
coup d'ittU. While his colleague Tolstoi would have raised 
Elizabeth Petrovna to the throne, Menshikov set up the youthful 
Peter II., son of the tsarevich Alexius, with himself as dictator 
during the prince's minority. He now aimed at establishing 
himself definitely by marrying his daughter Mary to Peter II. 
But the old nobility, represented by the Dolgorukis and the 
Golitsuins, united to overthrow him, and he was deprived 
of all his dignities and offices and expelled from the capital 
(Sept. 9, 1727). Subsequently he was deprived of his enormous 
wealth, and he and his whole family were banished to Berezov 
in Siberia, where he died on the X2th of November 1729. 

See G. V. Esipov. Biography of A. D. Menshikov (Rus.) (St. 
Petersburg, 1875); N. I. Kostomarov, The History of Russia in the 
biographies of her great Men (Rus.). vol. ii. (St Petereburg, 1888, frc); 
R. Ntsbct Bain. The First Romanovs (London, 1905): ibid. The Pupils 
of Peter the Great, ch. 2-4 (Westminster, 1897). (R. N. B.) 

MENSHIKOV, ALEXANDER SERGEIEVICH, Psince (1787- 
1869), great-grandson of the preceding, was born on the xith 
of September 1787, and entered the Russian service as attache 
to the embassy at Vienna. He accompanied the emperor 
Alexander throughout his campaigns against Napoleon, and 
retired from army service in 1823. He then devoted himself 

> The Solov'evs were three brothers ostensibly employed by the 
Russian government to ship corn from Russia and sell it at Amster- 
dam. As a matter of fact they were at the head of a combination 
for selling Mcnshikov's com in preference to the corn of the Russian 
government and the bulk of tnc proceeds went into Mcnshikov's 
pockets. From 1709 to 171 1 they had exported almost as much of 
Menshikov's corn as of that of the government, though the export 
of any corn from Russia, except in account of the Treasury, was a 
capital olTencc. The affair dragged on from 17 13 to 1716, when 
the examination of the Solov'evs' books, and the subseaurnt applica- 
tion of torture, revealed the fact that the Solov'evs had systcma- 
ticallv robbed the Treasury of 675.000 roubles (1 rouble then - 5s.) 
and fiad accumulated a fortune of half a million. For full details 
see Nisbet Bain, Tlie first Romanovs, pp. 327-329. 



to lULval matters, became an admiral in 1834, and put the 1 
navy, which had fallen into decay during the reign of Alexander, 
on an efficient footing. At the time of the d^ute as to the 
Holy Places he was sent on a special mission to Constantinople, 
and when the Crimean war broke out he was appointed com- 
mander-in-chief by land and sea. He commanded the Russian 
army at the Alma and in the field operations round Sevastopol. 
In March 185s he was recalled, ostensibly and perhaps really, on 
account of failing health. He died on the 2nd of May 1869 at 
St Petersburg. 

MENSURATION (Lat. mensura, a measure), the science of 
measurement; or, in a more limited sense, the science of 
numerical representation of geometrical magnitudes. 

1. Scope of the Subject.— Even in the second sense, the term is a 
very wide one, since it comprises the measurement of angles 
(plane and solid), lengths, areas and volumes. The measure- 
ment of angles belongs to trigonometry, and it is convenient to 
regard the measurement of the lengths of straight lines {i.e. of 
distances between points) as belonging to geometry or trigo- 
nometry; while the measurement of curved lengths, except in 
certain special dises, involves the use of the integral calculus. 
The term " mensuration " is therefore ordinarily restricted to the 
measurement of areas and volumes, and of certain simple curved 
lengths, such as the circumference of a circle. 

2. This restriction is to a certain extent arbitrary. The 
statement that, if the adjacent sides of a rectangle are repre- 
sented numerically by 3 and 4, the diagonal is represented by s» 
is as much a matter of mensuration as the statement that the 
area is represented by 12. The restriction is really determined 
by a difference in the methods of measurement. The distance 
between two points can, at any rate in theory, be measured 
directly, by successive applications of the unit of measurement. 
But an area or a volume cannot generally be measured by 
successive applications of the unit of area or volume, inter- 
mediate processes are necessary, the result of which is expressed 
by a formula. The chief exception is in the use of liquid measure; 
this is of importance from the educational point of view ({ 12). 

3. The measurement is numerical, i.e. it b representation io 
terms of a unit. The process of determining the area or volume 
of a given figure therefore involves two separate processes; viz. 
the direct measurement of certain magnitudes (usually lengths) 
in terms of a unit, and the application of a formula for determin- 
ing the area or volume from these data. Mensuration is not 
concerned with the first of these two processes, which forms part 
of the art of measurement, but only with the second. It might, 
therefore, be described as that branch of mathematics which 
deals with formulae for calculating the numerical measurements 
of curved lengths, areas and volumes, in terms of numerical data 
which determine these measurements. 

4. It is also convenient to regard as coming under mensuration 
the consideration of certain derived magnitudes, such as the 
moment of a plane figure with regard to a straight line in its 
plane, the calculation of which involves formulae which art 
closely related to formulae for determining areas and volumes. 

5. On the other hand, the scope of the subject, as described in 
§ 3, is limited by the nature of the methods employed to obtain 
formulae which can be applied to actual cases. Up to a certain 
point, formulae of practical importance can be obtained by the 
use of elementary arithmetical or geometrical methods. Beyoiul 
this point, analytical methods must be adopted, and the student 
passes to trigonometry and the infinitesimal calculus. These 
investigations lead, in turn, to further formulae, which, though 
not obtainable by elementary methods, are nevertheless M'mple 
in themselves and of practical utility. If these are included in 
the description " mensuration," the subject thus consbts of two 
heterogeneous portions — elementary mensuration, comprising 
methods and results, and advanced mensuration, comprising 
certain results intended for practical application. 

6. Mensuration, then, is mainly concerned with quadrature^ 
formulae and cubature-formulae, and, to a not very clearly de- 
fined extent, with the methods of obtaining such formulae; a 
quadrature-formula being a formula for calculating the numerical 



MENSURATION 



135 



RpRsenution of an area, and a cubature-fonnula being a 
formula for calculating the numerical representation o{ 
a volune, in terms, in each case, of the numerical repre* 
Knutkms of particular dau which determine the area or the 
vohiRie. 

7. This use of formulae for dealing with numbers, which 
nprcaa magnitudes in terms of units, constitutes the broad 
diference between mensuration and ordinary geometry, which 
knows nothing of units. Mensuration involves the use of 
geometrical theorems, but it is not concerned with problems of 
geometrical construction. The area of a rectangle, for instance, 
ii found by calculation from the lengths of the sides, not by 
construction of a square of equal area. On the other hand, it i& 
worth noticing that the words " quadrature *' and " cubature " 
are originally due to geometrical rather than numerical con- 
siderations; the former implying the construction of a square 
vhose area shall be equal to that of a given surface, and the 
btter the construction of a cube whose volume shall be equal to 
that of a given soh'd. 

8. There are two main groups of subjects in which practical 
Deeds have tended to develop a separate science of mensuration. 
The 6rsl group comprises such subjects as land-surveying; here 
the measurements in the elementary stages take place in a plane, 
lod the consideration of volumes necessarily constitutes a later 
Hagei and the figures to be measured are mostly not movable, 
10 that txiangulation plays an important part. The second 
group comprises the mechanic arts, in which the bodies to be 
neasured are solid bodies which can be handled; in these cases 
idane figures appear mainly as sections of a solid. In develop- 
iag a system of mensuration-formulae the importance of this 
Utter group of cases must not be overlooked. 

A third group, of increasing importance, comprises cases in 
which curves or surfaces arise out of the apph'cation of graphic 
methods in engineering, physics and statistics. The general 
fonnolae applicable to these cases are largely approximative. 

9. RdatioH to other Subjecls.—As a result of the importance 
both of the formube obtained by elementary methods and of 
Iboie which have involved the previous use of analysis, there is a 
tendency to dissociate the former, like the latter, from the 
BKtbods by which they have been obtained, and to regard 
ncfisuralion as consisting of those mathematical formulae which 
are concerned with the measurement of geometrical magnitudes 
(ioduding lengths), or, in a slightly wider sense, as being the art 
of applying these formulae to specific cases. Such a body of 
formulae cannot, of course, be regarded as constituting a science; 
h has no power of development from within, and can only grow 
by accretion. It may be of extreme importance for practical 
purposes; but its educational value, if it is studied apart from the 
methods by which the formulae are obtained, is slight. Vitality 
can only be retained by close association with more abstract 
braocbes of mathematics. 

la On the other hand, mensuration, in its practical aspect, is of 
importance for giving reality to the formulae themselves and to 
the principles on which they are based. This applies not only 
to the geometrical principles but also to the arithmetical prin- 
ciples, and it is therefore of importance, in the earlier stages, to 
keep geometry, mensuration and arithmetic in close association 
with one another; mensuration forming, in fact, the link between 
arithmetic and geometry. 

II. It is in reference to the measurement of areas and volumes 
that it » of special importance to illustrate geometrical truths 
by means of concrete cases. That the area of a parallelogram 
ii equal to the area of a rectangle on the same base and between 
the same paralleb, or that the volume of a cone is one-third that 
of a cylinder on the same base and of the same height, may be 
established by a proof which is admitted to be rigorous, or be 
accepted in good failh without proof, and yet fail to be a matter 
of conviction, even though there may be a clear conception of the 
relative lengths of the diagonal and the side of a square or of the 
fdative contents of two vessels of different shapes. The failure 
seems (( 3) to be due to difficulty in realizing the numerical 
eapretsion of an area or a solid in terms of a specified tinit, while 



the same difiiculty does not arise in the case of linear measure 
or liquid measure, where the number of um'ts can be ascertained 
by direct counting. The difficulty is perhaps less for volumes 
than for areas, on account of the close relationship between solid 
and fluid measure. 

I a. The nuun object to be aimed at, therefore, in the study of 
elementary nnensuration, is that the student should realize the 
possibility of the numerical expression of areas and volumes. The 
following are some important points. 

(i) The double aspect of an area should be borne in mind ; i^. area 
should be treated not only as lenfrth multiplied by length, but also 



as volume divided bv thickness. There are, indeed, certain advan- 
uses in preferring the latter to the former, and in procccdlne from 
volumes to areas rather than from areas to volumes. While, for 



insunce, it mav be difficult to realize the equality of area of two 
plou of ground of different shapes, it may be otsy to realize the 
equality of the amounts of a given material that would be required 
to cover them to a particubr depth. This method is unconsciously 
adopted by the teacher who illustrates the equality of area of two 
geometrical figures by cutting them out of cardboard of uniform 
thickness and weighing them. 

(ii) The very eariiest suges of mensuration should be directly 
associated with simple arithmetical processes. 

(iii) Association of solid measure with liquid measure, presenting 
numerical measurement in a different aspect, should be retained 
by testing volumes as found from linear dimensions with the 
volumes of the same bodies as found by the use of measures of 
capacity. Here, as usual, the British systems of measures produce 
a difficulty which would not arise under the metric system. 

(iv) Solids of the same substance should be compared by measur- 
ing and also by weighing; the comparison being then extended to 
areas of uniform thickness (see (i) above). 

(v) The idea of an average may be introduced at an early stage, 
methods of calculating an average being left to a btcr stage. 

13. Classification. — The methods of mensuration fall for the 
most part under one or other of three main heads, viz. arith- 
metical mensuration, geometrical mensuration, and analytical 
mensuration. 

14. The most elementaiy stage is arithmetical mensuration, 
which comprises the measurement of the areas of rectangles and 
parallelepipeds. This may be introduced very early; square 
tablets being used for the mensuration of areas, and cubical 
blocks for the mensuration of volumes. The measure of the area 
of a rectangle is thus presented as the product of the measures 
of the sides, and arithmetic and mensuration are developed con- 
currently. The commutative law for multiplication is directly 
illustrated; and subdivisions or groupings of the units lead to 
such formulae as (a + a) {b + fi)^ab'\-a0'\-ab'\-afi. Associ- 
ation with other branches of science is maintained by such 
methods as those mentioned in §12. 

The use of the square bricks familiarizes the scholar with the 
ideas of parallel lines, of equality of lengths, and of right angles. 
The conception of the right angle is strengthened, by contrast, by 
the use of bricks in the form of a rhombus. 

15. The next stage is geometrical mensuration, Vhere geo- 
metrical methods are applied to determine the areas of plane 
rectilinear figures and the volumes of solids with plane faces. 
The ordinary process involves three separate steps. The first 
step is the establishment of the exact equality of congruence of 
two geometrical figures. In the case of plane figures, the 
congruence is tested by an imaginary superposition of one figu.v 
on the other; but this may more simply be regarded as the super- 
position, on either figure, of the image of the other figure on a 
contiguous plane. In the case of solid figures a more difficult 
geometrical abstraction is involved. The second step is the con- 
version of one figure into another by a process of dissection, 
followed by rearrangement of parts; the figure as rearranged 
being one whose area or volume can be calculated by methods 
iilready established. This is the process adopted, for instance, 
for comparison of the area of a parallelogram with that of a 
rectangle on the same base and of the same height. The third 
step is the arithmetical calculation of the area or volume of the 
rearranged figure. These last two steps may introduce 
magnitudes which have to be subtracted, and which therefore 
have to be treated as negative quantities in the arithmetical 
calcuUtion, 



136 



MENSURATION 



The difficulties to which refere&ce has been made in { 11 arc 
largely due to the abstract nature of the process involved in the 
second of the above steps. The difficuliy should, wherever 
possible, be removed by making the process of dissection and 
rearrangement complete. This is not always done. To say, for 
instance, that the area of a right-angled triangle is half the area 
of the rectan^e contained by the two sides, is not to say what the 
area is, but what it is the half of. The proper statement is that, 
if a and b are the sides, the area is equal to the area of a rectangle 
,wbose sides are a and \b; this being, iii fact, a particular case of 
the proposition that the area of a trapezium is equal to the area 
of a rectan^e whose sides are its breadth and the arithmetic 
mean of the lengths of the two parallel sides. This mode of 
statement helps to establish the idea of an average. The 
deduction of the formula \abf where a and b arc numbers, 
should be regarded as a later step. 

Elemenury trigonometrical formulae, not involving the 
conception of an angle as generated by rotation, belong to this 
stage; the additional geometrical idea involved being that of 
the proportionality of the sides of similar triangles. 

16. The third stage is analytical mensuration, the essential 
feature of which is that account is taken of the manner in which 
a figure is generated. To prevent discontinuity of results at this 
stage, recapitulation from an analytical point of view is desirable. 
The rectangle, for instance, has so far been regarded as a plane 
figure bounded by one pair of parallel straight lines and another 
pair at right angles to them, so that the conception of " rectan- 
gularity" has had reference to boundary rather than to 
content; analytically,' the rectangle must be regarded as the 
figure generated by an ordinate of constant length moving 
parallel to itself with one extremity on a straight line perpen- 
dicular to it. This is the simplest case of generation of a plane 
figure by a moving ordinate; the corresponding figure for 
generation by rotation of a radius vector is a circle. 

To regard a figure as being generated in a particidar way is 
essentially the same as to regard it as being made up of a number 
of successive elements, so that the analytical treatment involves 
the ideas knd the methods of the infinitesimal calculus. It is not, 
however, necessary that the notation of the calculus should be 
employed throughout. 

A plane figure bounded by a continuous curve, or a solid figure 
bounded by a continuous surface, may generally be most con- 
veniently regarded as generated by a straight line, or a plane area, 
moving in a fixed direction at right angles to itself, and changing 
as it moves. This involves the use of Cartesian co-ordinates, and 
leads to important general formulae, such as Simpson's formula. 

The treatment of an angle as generated by rotation, the 
investigation of the relations between trigonometrical ratios and 
circular measure, the application of interpolation to trigono- 
metrical tables, and the general use of graphical methods to 
represent continuous variation, all imply an analytical onlook, 
and must therefore be deferred to this stage. 

17. There are certain special cases where the treatment b 
really analytical, but where, on account of the simplicity or 
importance of the figures involved, the analysis does not take a 
prominent part. 

(i) The circle, and the solid figures allied to it. are of special 
importance. The ordinary definition of a circle is equivalent to 
dennition as the figure generated by the rotation of a radius of 
constant length in a plane, and is thus essentiallv analytical. The 
ideas of the centre and of the constancy of the radius do not, 
however, enter into the elementary conception of the circle as a 
round figure. This, elementary conception is of the figure as 
already existing, rather than of its method of description ; the test 
of circularity being the possibility of rotation within a surrounding 
figure so as to keep the two boundaries always completely in contact. 
In the same way, the elementary conception of the sphere involves 
the idea of sphericity, which would be tested in a similar way, and 
is in fact so tested, at an eariy stage by tactual perception, and at 
a more advanced stage by mechanical methods; tne next step being 
the circularity of the central section, as roughly tested (where the 
sphere is small) by visual (wrception. i^. in effect, by the circularity 
Of the cross-section of a circumscribing cylinder; and the ideas of 
Che centre and of non-central sections follow later. 

It seems to follow that the consideration of the area of a circle 
should precede the consideration of its perimeter, and that the 



consideration of the volume of a sphere should precede the cooaidcfw 
ation of its surface<area. The proof that the area of a circle b pro- 
portional to the sguare of its diameter would therefore precede the 
proof that the perimeter is proportional to the diameter: the former 
property is the easier to jsrasp. since the conception of the length 
of a curved line as the limit of the sum of a number of strawht 
lengths presents special difficulties. The ratio }r would thus brat 
appear as the ratio of the average breadth of a circle to the greatest 
breadth ; the interpretation of r as the ratio of the circumference 
to the diameter being a secondary one. This order follows, in fact, 
the historical order of development of the subicct. 

(ii) Developable surfaces, such as the cylinder and the cone, form 
a special class, so far as the calculation of their area is concerned. 
The process of unrolling is analytical, but the unrolled area can be 
measured by methods not applicable to other surfaces. 

(iii) Solids of revolution also form a special class, which can be 
conveniently treated by the two theorems of Pappus (( 3^. 

z8. The above classification relates to methods. The classifi- 
cation of results, i.e. of formulae, will depend on the purpose for 
which the collection of formidae b required, and may involve 
the grouping of results obtained by very different methods. A 
collection of formulae relating to the circle, for instance, would 
comprise not only geometrical and trigonometrical formulae, 
but also approximate formulae, such as Huygens's rule (§91), 
which are the result of advanced analysis. 

The present article Is not intended to give either a complete 
course of study or a complete collection of formulae, and there- 
fore such only of the ordinary formulae are given as are required 
for illustrating certain general principles. For fuller discussion 
reference should be made to Geometry and Triconouetky, 
as well as to the articles dealing with particular figures, such 
as Triangle, Circle, &c. - 

19. The most important formulae are those which correspond 
to the use of rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates. Thb implies 
the treatment of a plane or solid figure as being wholly comprised 
between two parallel lines or planes, regarded by convention as 
being vertical; the figure being generated by an ordinate or 
section moving at right angles to itself through a distance which 
b called the breadth of the figure. The length or area obtained 
by dividing the area or the volume of the figiure by its breadth 
b the mean ordinate (mean height) or mean section (mean sectional 
area) of the figure. 

(^drature-formulae or cubature-formulae may sometimes 
be conveniently replaced by formulae giving the mean ordinate 
or mean section. In the eariy stages it b best to use both 
methods, so as to develop the idea of an average (S 12). In the 
present article the formulae for area or volume will be used 
throughout. 

20. Approximation. — The numerical result obtained by apply- 
ing a formula to particular data will generally not be ezacL 
There are two kinds of causes producing want of exactness. 

(i) The formula itself may not be numerically exact. Thb may 
happen in either of two ways. 

(a) The formula may involve numbers or ratios which canooc 
be expressed exactly in the ordinary notation. This b the case, for 
instance, with formulae which involve «> or trigonometrical ratios. 
This inexactness may, however, be ignored, since the numbers or 
ratios in question can generally be obtained to a greater degree of 
accuracy than the other numbers involved in the calculation (sec 
(ii) (ftf below). 

(6) The formula may onlyf be approximative. The length of the 
arc of a circle, for instance, is known if the length of the chord and 
its dbtance from the middle point of the arc are known; but it may 
be more convenient in such a case to use a formula such as Huyjj^ens i 
rule than to obtain a more accurate result by means of tngono* 
metrical tables. 

(ii) The data may be such that an exact result b impossible. 

(a) The nature of the bounding curve or surface may not be 
exactly known, so that certain assumptions have to be made, a 
formula bein^ then used which is adapted to these assumptmna 
The application of Simpson's rule, for instance, to a plane figure 
implies certain assumptions as to the nature of the bounding curve. 
Such a formula is approximative, in that it is known that the result 
of its application will only be approximately correct : it differs from 
an approximative formula of the kind mentioned in (i) (6) above, 
in that it is adopted of necessity, not by choice. 

(6) It must, however, be remembered that in all practkral applica- 
tions of formulae the data have first to be ascertained by (firect 01 
indirect measurement; and this measurement involves a oeitaio 
margin of error. 



MENSURATION 



"37 



The two flourcM of error mentioaed under (a) and (b) above are 
doariy n^ted. Suppose, for instance, that we require the area of 
a droilar sia«»-pk>t of measurtd diameter. As a mal 
00 gfas»^|Hoc is truly circular; and 
bieadth m various directions were 



matter of fact, 
it might be found that if the 
) measured moce accurately the 
w^MML of circularity would reveal itsejf. Thus the inaccuracy 
in taJting the measured diameter as the datum b practically 
of the same order as the inaccuracy in taking the grass-plot to 
bedrcular. 

(iii) In dealing with cases where actual measurements are involved, 
the error 0) due to inaccuracy of the formula will often be negligible 
b comparison with the error (ii) due to inaccuracy of the data. For 
diis reason, formulae which will only give approximate results are 
nually classed together as mks, whethier the inaccuracy lies (as in 
tlie case of Hpygens's rule) in the formula itself, or (as in the case 
of Simpsim's nue) in its application to the data. 

31. It is necessary, in applying formulae to specific cases, not 
only, on the one hand, to remember that the measxiremenu are 
only approxiniate, but also, on the other hand, to give to any 
iitio such as ir a value which is at least more accurate than the 
measurements. Suppose, for instance, that in the example given 
ia i 20 the diameter as measured is 15 ft. 3 in. If We take r>3* 14 
and find the area to be 36388*865 -sq. in. — 182 sq. ft. 80-865 sq. 
b., we make two separate mistakes. The main nustake is in 
living the result as true to a small fraction of a square inch; but, 
'i this degree of accuracy had been possible, it would have been 
VToog to give X a value which is in error by more than z in 

2000. 
(Calculations involving feet and inches are sometimes performed 

by ocans of dmodecimal arithmetic; «.«., in effect, the tables of square 

neaioie and of cubic measure are amplified by the insertion of 

iatenafdiate units. For square measure — 

12 square inches ■> i superficial prime, 

13 superficial primes ■> i square foot; 
«iuk (or cubic measure — 

13 cotsic inches ■• i solid second, 

13 solid seconds • i solid prime, 

13 solid primes • i cubic foot. 
When an area has been calculated in terms of square feet, primes 
tsd Kpiaie inches, the primes and 8()uare inches have to be reduced 
to ufon inches; and similarly with the calculation of volumes. 
The value of v for duodecimal arithmetic is ^+1/13+8/12'+ 
4/i2'+l/i3*+ . . . : so that, marking off duodecimal fractions 
by oMnmas, the area in the above case b i of 3, i, 8, 4, 8X15. 
3X15. 3 sq. ft. • 183. 7, 10 sq. ft.- 183 sq. ft. 94 sq. in. (or 
ibi aq. ft. approximately). 

MEMStnuiTiON or spBcinc FIGURES (cbombtrzcal) 

ij X, r,^ ^r i'iane Rtttilinear Figures. — ^The following are ex- 
PfeKioait for the areai of ^?mt^ simple figures; the expressions in 
flp Hid r«) arr obt^Lincd arithmetically, while those in (iii)-(v) involve 

(i^ Sanfln: nde 4. Arcd ^a*. 

(it) Hectanilc: sides A ami b. Area«a&. 

(^ Rl$ht-Aji|{kd triangle: sides a and h, enclosing the right 

Wi l^nllfdwrain : tva opposite sides a and a, distance between 

U\ Triajigle: one sicte a^ distant k from the opposite angle. 

If the data for any of these figures are other than those given 
above, trigonometrical ratios will usually be involved. It, for 
iflatance, toe data for the triangle are sides a and 6, enclosing an 
satle C the area b \ab sin C. 

33. The figures considered in § 22 are particular cases of the 
frs^m, which b a <iuadrilateral with two parallel sides. If these 
sdes are a and b, at distance h from one another, the area is A.)(a+ 
h). In the case of the triangle, for instance, b b zero, so that the 
areab|Aa. 

The trapeanm b also sometimes called a " trapezoid/' but it will 
beooovenient to r ese rve thb term for a different figure (§ 24). 

The most imfXHtant form of trapezium b that in which one of the 
t«o remainiim; sides of the figure b at right angles to the two parallel 
ndes. The trapeziom b then z, right trapettum; the two parallel 
adei are called the sides^ the side at right angles to them the base, 
sad the fourth side the lop. 

By producing the two parallel sides of any trapezium (e.g. a para- 
noKiam), and drawing a line, at rieht angles to them, outside 
tse ^pire. we see that it may be treated as the difference of two right 
tnpeaa. 

ft is, however, more simple to convert it into a single right 
tnpeacm. Let CABJD (fig. i) be a trapezium, the sides CA and DB 
beiag parallel. Draw any straight line at right angles to CA and DB 
ipw diic ed if necessary), meeting them in M and N. Along CA and 
DB; 00 the same side of MN, uke MA'-CA, NB'-DB; and 



join A'B'. Then MA'B'N b a r^ht tntpesium, Hrfaose area b 
equal to that of CABD; and it b related to the latter in such 
a way that, if any two lines _parallel to AC and BD meet AS. 
CD, MN, A'B'. in E, G, P. E\ and F, H, Q, F'. respecUvely. 
the area of the piece PET[(2 of the right trapezium ^ 



t/ 



b equal to the area of the piece GEFH of the original 

trapezium. The right trapezium so constructed 

may be called the emiivalent right Irapnium, In 

the case of a parallelogram, the equivalent right »y ; - x,^ 

trapezium b a rectangle: in the case of a triangle, 8»«(^ 

it b a right-angled triangle. . *^r\\ 

24. It we take a series of right trapezb, such 
that one side (ft 23) of the first b equal to one side 
of the second, the other side of the second b equal 
to one side of the third, and so on, and place them » JB S. m 
with their bases in a straight line and their equal "n* | | T" 
sides adjoining each other, we get a figure such as 
MABCDEFS (fig. 2). which has two parallel sides 
MA and SF. a base MS at right angles to these, and 
the remainder of its boundary from A to F recti- 
linear, no part of the figure being outside the space 
between MA (produced) and SF (produced). A 
figure of this kind will be called a trapnoid. 

(i) If frorn the other angular points B, C. D. E, perpendiculars 
BN. CP. DQ. ER. are drawn to the base MS (fig. 2), the area b 
MN.J(MA-|-NB)H-NP.J(NB-h 

PC)+. i,-,.+Rs.K^EtsF).r 

NL 



X. 



Fig. 1. 



PC)-H H-RS.I(RE+SF).- Ad ^ 

Thi Unes MA, NB, PC I [ ^T I 

are called the ordinates of the _U. ■ I ' J 

points A. B.C from the "NP 5 r s 



base MS, and the portions MN, 
NP, PQ. . . .. . of the base are 

the projeaicns of the sides AB, BC, CD, . 



Fig. 3. 
, on the base. 



. . >pc<^l ca 

with S. The figure then stands on a base MS. the remainder of its 
boundary being a broken line from M to S. The formula then 
becomes 

area-i(MP.NB-l-NQ . PC-h. . . +QS . RE). 

i.e. the area b half the sum of the products obtained by multiplying 
each ordinate by the distance between the two adjacent ordtnates. 
It would be possible to regard thb form of the figure as the general 
one; the figure considered in (i) would then represent the special 
case in which the two end-pieces of the broken line are at right angles 
to the base. 

(iii) Another specbl case b that in v^hich the distances MN, NP, 
PQ, ... RS are all equal. If thb dbtance b h, then 
arca-A(JMA-fNB-|-PC-f. . .-fJSF). 

25. To find the area of any rectilinear figure, various methods 
are available. 

(i) The figure may be divided into triangles. The quadrilateral, 
for instance, consists of two triangles, ana its area is the product 
of half the length of one dbgonal by the sum of the^ perpendiculars 
drawn to thb diagonal from Uie other two angular points. 

For figures of more than four sides this method is not usually 
convenient, except for such special cases as that of a regular polygon, 
which can be divided into triangles 
by radii drawn from its centre. 

(ii) Suppose that^ two angular 
points, A and E, are joined (fig. 3) so 
as to form a diagonal AE, and that 
the whole of the figure lies between 
lines through A and E at right 
angles to AE. Then the figure w 
(usually) the sum of two trapezoids 
on ba^ AE, and its area can be 
calculated as in j 24. If BN, CP, 
GT are 




Fig. 3. 



DQ FS. GT are the pcrpcn- 

diculars to AE from the angular points, the ordinates NB. PC, .... 
arc called the offsets from the diagonal to the angular points. 

The area of the polygon in fig. 3 is given by the expression 
i(AP . NB-HNQ . PC-HPE . QD-HET . SF-I-SA . TG). 

Te should be noticed (d) that AP , NQ SA are taken in the 

radical order of the points ABC . . - GA, and (b) that in fie. 3, if 
A N and N B are regarded as positive, then SF. TG. ET and 5A are 
ncgalive, but the products ET.SF and SA.TG are positive. 
Nwjiiiivif products will arise if in moving from A to E along the 
pcnmetcr of either side of the figure the projection of the moving 
pa I Tit docs not always move in the direction AE. 

<\i\) Take any straight line intersecting or not intersecting the 
R^ure, and dr^w perpendiculars Afl. B6. Cc, EW, . . . F/, G^ to thb 
line. Then, with proper attention to signs, 

area=|(g6 . aA+ac'. bB+bd . cC+. . . +/a . gG). 

(iv) The figure may be replaced by an equtvalent trapezoid, on the 
system explained in { 23. Take any base X'X. and draw lines at 
right angles to thb base through all the angular points of the figure. 



138 



MENSURATION 



Let the lines through B. G, C, D And F (A^. a) cut the boundary of 
the figure again tn B, G'» C'» D' and F , and idki thv baie 
X'X in K, U M, N and P; 

th« poLntJi A ojid E being at 
thr cxtrtrmities of the figurr^ 
and tKe linca through them 
ntt^tinK thv ba,K in a and e. 
Tben^ li we talcc ordinaia K^^ 
U, Mc, Nrf. P(, cqupl to B'B. 
GG'. C'C, D'D» FF'p the liirure 
chftdje will be the cqufvalent 
triipcfoid^ and anjr ordinate 
dt^wn ffDrn the b&K to the 
tQp of tKii tra peloid will be 
^Li^l to the poTtiDfi of thii 
crdinate (produced) which fjlU 



angles subtended by them at the oentiv, i»c get the idea of dicolar 




Fig. 4. 



Volume " height X i . area 



of cross-section S. 



within the original figure. ^ , 

26. Volumes of Solids wiln Plane Fa««.— The foliowuig are ex- 
pressions for the volumes of some simple solid figures. 

(i) Cube: side a. Volume -a>. 

fti) RccUngular parallelepiped: sides a, h, c. Volume ■•aAc 

diil Right prism. Volume -length of edge X area of end. 

(iv) Oblique prism. Volume -height X area of end-lenfi[th of 
edge X area of cross-section ; the " height " being the perpendicular 
disunce between the two ends. 

The parallelepiped b a particular case. 

(v) Pyramid with rectilinear base, 
of base. 

The tetrahedron is a particular case. 

(vi) Wedge: parallel edges a, b, c\ 
Voiume-i(«+6-raS., ^ . . c .. .. u • 

This formula holds for the general case m which the base is a 
trapezium; the wedge being thus formed by cutting a triangular 
prism by any two planes. 

(vii) Frustum of pyramid with rectilinear base: height A: areas 
of ends ^^. base and top) A and B. Volume-*. J(A+VAB+B). 

27. The figures considered in | 26 are particular cases of the 
prismoid (or prismaloid), which may be defined as a solid figure with 
two parallel plane rectilinear ends, each of the other (t.e. the lateral) 
faces being a triangle with an angular point in one end of the figure 
and iu opposite side in the other. Two adioining faces in the same 
plane may together make a trapezium. More briefly, the figure 
may be defined as a polyhedron with two parallel faces conuining 
all the vertices. « . . 

If R and S are the ends of a prismotd, A and B their areas, h the 
perpendicular distance between them, and C the area of a section 
bv a plane parallel to R and S and midway between them, the volume 
of the prismoid is 

iA(A+4C+B). 
This is known as the tnsmoidal Jformvia. 

The formula is a deduction from a general formula, considered 
later (ft 58), and may be verified in vi.rious ways. The most 
instructive is to regard the prismoid as built up (by addition or 
subtraction) of simpler figures, whkh are particular cases of it. 

(i) Let R and S be the vertex and the base of a pyramid. Then 
A - O, C - iB. and volume - \kh - ik{h + 4C + B). The 
tetrahedron is a particular case. 

(ii) Let R be one edec of a wedge with parallel ends, and S the 
face containing the other two edges. Then A— O, C — |B, and 
volume - \hh - iA(A+4C+B). 

(iii) Let R and S be two opposite edges of a tetrahedron. Then 
the tetrahedron may be regarded as the difference of a wedge with 
parallel ends, one of the edges being R, and a pyramid whose base 
IS a parallek)gram, one side of the parallelogram beine S (see fig. 9, 
ft 58)7 Hence, by (i) and (ii), the formula holds for this figure. 

(iv) For the prismoid in general let ABCD ... be one end, and 
ahcd . . . the other. Take any point P in the latter, and form 
triangles by joining P to each of the sides AB, BC, , . . ab, be, . , . 
of the ends, and also to each of the edges. Then the prismoid is 
divided into a pyramid with vertex P and base ABCD . . ., and a 
■ I of tetrahcdra, such as PABa or PAoft. By (i) and (iii), the 
formula holds for each of these figures; and 
therefore it holds for the prismoid as a whole. 
Another method of verifying the formula is 
to take a point Q in the mid-section, and 
divide up the pnsmoid into two pyramids 
with vertex Q and bases ABCD ... and 
ahcd . . . respectively, and a series of tetra- 
hcdra having Q as one vertex. 

28. The Circle and Allied Figures.— The 




Fig. 5. 



mensuration of the circle is founded on the 
property that the areas of different circles are 
. proportional to the squares on their diameters. 

Denoting the constant ratio by \r, the area of a circle is va*, where 
a u the radius, and r-^'14159 approximately. The expression 
2«i for the length of the arcumfcrence can be deduced by consider- 
ing the limit of the area cut off from a circle of radius c by a 
concentric circle of radius «— a, when a becomes indefinitely small; 
this IS an elementary case of differentiation. 
The lengths of arcs of the same drcle being proportional to the 



Let 6 be the common centre of two drcki, of radii a and ft, and 
let radii enclosing an angle 9 (circular measure) cut their dfoaoH 
ferences in A, B and C, D respectively (fig. 5). Then the area of 
ABPCis 

|W-ftd«»-(6-a).|(6-h»)«. 

If we bisect AB and CD in P and Q respectively, anddcKribe 
the arc PQ ofa circle with centre O, the length of this arc is 
jK&+a)9: and fr-a-AB. Hence area ABDC-ABX arc PQ. 
The figure ABDC is a sector of an anii idiff. which is the portico oia 
circle left after cutting out a concentric drde. 

29. By considering the circle as the limit of a polygoa. it foOows 
that the formulae (iii) and (v) of 1 26 hold for^ right cifcular cytindcr 
and a right circular cone; i^. 

volume of right circular cylinder -length X area of base; 
volume of right circular cone —height X ft area of base. 
These formulae also hold for any right cylinder and any cone. 

30. The curved surfaces of the cylinder and of the cooe are 
developable surfaces; ue. tney can be unrolled on a plane. The 
curved surface of any right cylinder (whether circular or not) be- 
comes a rectangle, and therefore its area -length X perimeter 
of base. The curved surface of a right circular cone becomes a 
sector of a circle, and iu area-ft*slant height X perimeter -of base. 

31. If a is the radius of a sphere, then 

(i) volume of sphere — |«o>; 

(ii) surface of sphere -4*0' -curved surface of drcum- 
scribing cylinder. 

The first of these is a particular case of the prismoidal formub 
(ft 58). To obtain (i^ and (ii) together, we Uiow that the volume 
of a sphere is proportional to the volume of the cube whose edge is 
the diameter; denoting the constant ratio by iK the volume of the 
sphere is Xa*, and thence, by taking two concentric spheres (cf. ft 28), 
the area of the surface is 3X0*. This surface may be split up into 
elements, each of which is equal to a corresponding element of the 
curved surface of the circumscribing cylinder, so that 3X4'— curved 
surface of cylinder - 20. 2ra — 4»o». Hence X— 1». 

The total surface of the cylinder is 4«t>*+«a'+«n'— 6«^, and 
its volume is 2a . «o' - 2waK Hence 

' volume of sphere — i volume of drcumacfibing cylinder; 
surface of sphere — i surface of drcumscribing cylinder. 

These latter formulae are due to Archimedes. 

jj» Momcnij and Centroids. — For every material body there is 
a point, ^xcd mth regard to the body, such that the moment of the 
tiody ifoth n.'Kard to any plane is the same as if the whole mass were 
coUectc'd at that point; the moment being the sum of the products 
of t-ach elcmcoc 01 mass of the body by its distance from the plane. 
Thl*i point is the centroid of the body. 

The iduft of moment and of centroid are extended to geometrical 
Ir^nH, whether solid, superficial or linear. The moment of a figure 
with regard to a plane is found bv dividing the figure into dements 
ol volume, arci or length, multiplying eacn element by its distance 
from th' : ' , and adding the products. In the case of a plane 
area or a plane continuous line the moment with regard to a straight 
line in the plane is the same as the moment with regard to a per- 
pendicular plane through this line; t.e. it is the sum c7 the products 
of each clement of area or length by its disunce from the straight 
line. The centroid of a figure is a point fixed with regard to the 
figure, and such that its moment with regard to any plane (or, in 
the case of a plane area or line, with regard to any line m the plane) 
is the same as if the whole volume, area or length were concen- 
trated at this point. The centroid is sometimes called the centre 
of volume, centre of area, or centre of arc. The proof of the 
existence of the centroid of a figure is the same as the proof ol the 
existence of the centre of eravity of a body. (See Mechanics.) 

The moment as described above is sometimes called the Jirsi 
moment. The second moment, third moment, ... of a plane or sialid 
figure are found in the same way by multiplyine each element by 
the souare, cube, ... of its distance from the une or plane with 
regard to which the moments arc being taken. 

If we divide the first, second, thiid, «. . moments by the total 
volume, area or length of the figure, we get the mean distance, mean 
spiare of distance, mean cube of distance, ... of the figure from the 
line or plane. The mean distance of a plane figure from a Une in its 
plane, or of any figure from a plane, is therefore the same as the 
distance of the centroid of the figure from the line or plane. 

We sometimes require the moments with regard to a line or 
plane through the centroid. If No is the area of a plane figure, and 
Ni, Ni, . . . are its moments with regard to a line in its plane, 
the moments Mi. Mt. — with regara to a parallel line thnNigh 
the centroid are given by 

Ml - Ni - xNo - o, 

M, - N, - 2xNi -f x«N, - N, r- x«N,, 



M. - N. - jxN,.i -I- 2ll^>x«N,-, ... + (- )«-««x«-«N, + 
(-)«xN,; 



MENSURATION 



"39 



vhoe s^ihm <Estaiice between the tiro finet-Ni/N*. Thew 
focmalae also hold for converting momenti of a toUd fiinixe with 
icgprd to a plane into moments with regard to a parallel plane 
through the centroid; x being the distance between the two planes. 
A fine through the centroid of a jdane figure (drawn in the plane 
of the figure) is a central line, and a plane through the centroid of a 
solid figure is a central plane , of the figure. 

The ceotroid of a rectangle is iu centre, i^ the ocant of intersec- 
tioa of its diagonals. The first moment of a plane figure with regard 
CO a fine in its plane may be regarded, as obuincd t^ dividing the 
area into elementary strips by a series of parallel lines indefinitely 
dose together, and concentraung the area of each strip at its centre. 
Smilariy the first moment of a solid figure may be regarded as 
obrained by dividing the figure into elementary fuisms by two set* 
of parallel planes, and concentrating the vdume of each prism at 
tM centre. This also holds for higher moments, provided that the 
edges of the elemenury strips or prisms are par^ld to the line or 
plane with regard to which the moments are taken. 

33. SUids and Surfaces of Resolution, — ^The solid or surface 
lenoated by the revolution of a plane closed figure or a plane 
continooas fine about a straight fine in its plane, not intersecting 
it, is a solid of reoalution or surface of reooluHon, the straight line 
being its axis. The revolution need not be complete, but may be 
throogh any angle. 

The section 01 a solid of revdution by a plane at right an^es to 
the axis b an annulus or a sector of an annulus (fig. s), or is corapcned 
of two or more such figures. If the solid is divided into elementa 
bf a series of such planes, and if k r ''■■' i'r-ir. .-■ % ^ .„. n t .xn l^.a- 
tecutive planes making sections such 3.3 AiJDC in hg. ^. liit vcilume 
of the efetncnt between these planes, whtn h la vvrv small. \a approxi- 
Bstdy JkXAB.X arc PQ - A.A&.OP.^. Tht EQircapondifig 
dement of the revolving figure is approiuFnarcly a T€<ts.nk\t of Arci 
k.AB, and OP is the distance of ihe mifldic pctni^ of ci^Htr tide of 
tiK rectangle from the axis. Hcncr the: tot A vuikimtr tt\ the wlid 
ift M.#, where M is the sum of the qioniitin k.ABM^, i.e. ii the 
aoaent of the figure with regard to ihc aus. The v^^lurne it thcno 
iore equal to S.y.S, where S is the ainra of the revojving^ figun, and 
9b tbe distance of its centroid from [ h<- ,l ^ i^. 

Smilariy a surface of revolution . 1 1 1 t h ! 1 *^ Ided hy planes at riEht 
Ugie»to the axis into elements, t 1. J^ .r v\]i,ich h appraximateiy a 
■ctkm of the surface of a right tirt uljr cone. By unmllin^ each 
MKhelement (|30)intoasectorof ^ciTruIarannuluaJt will be found 
that the total area of the surface k M%e- L.f .«. when^ M' k ;he 
nooeat of the original curve with r-v---.! m tb- ht:- | i- ^ i.^- ^ntjil 
bgtbof the original curve, and i is the distance of the centroid of the 
curve from the axis. These two theorems may be stated as follows : — 
(i) If any plane figure revolves about an external axis in its plane, 
tbe volume of the solid generated by the revolution is coual to the 
product of the area of the figure and the distance travelled by the 
oestraid of the figure. 

ifl) If any fine in a plane revolves about an external axis in the 
Jihfle. the area of the curved surface generated by the revolution 
tt equal to the product of the length M the line and t^e distance 
tovdled bv the centroid of the line. 

These theorems were discovered by Pappus of Alexandria (c. 
A.D.300), and were made generally known by Guldinus (c. A.D. 1640). 
Tbey are sometimes known as Guldinus' s Theorems^ but are more 
properly described as the Theorems of Pappus. The theorems 
«n of use. not only for finding the volumes or areas of solids or 
Boriaoes of revolution, but also, conversely, for finding centroids or 
ceatres of gravity. ,Thcv may be applied, for instance, to finding 
tbecnitroid of a semicircle or of the arc of a semicircle. 

34* ScfmeU of Parabola. — The parabola affords a simple example 
ef the use of infinitesimals. -Let AB (fig. 6) be any arc of a parabola ; 
sad suppose we require the area of the figure bounded by this 
^ arc and the chord AB. 

Draw the tanecnts at A and B, 
meeting at T; draw TV parallel to 
the axis of the parabola, meeting the 
arc in C and the chord in V; and 
draw the tangent at C, meeting AT 
and BT in a and b. Then t-^t.^^ 
Parabola) TC-CV, AV-VB, and 
ab is parallel to AB, m> that aC*Cfr. 
Hence area of triangle ACB '^ twice 
area of triangle 0T6. Repeating The 
B with the arcs AC and CB, and continuing the FOpciii Ion ind^li^^ 
BteJy, we divide up the required area and the remaindiT of the 
jnanjjle ATB into corresponding elements., each element of the 
asnaa being double the corresponding elements of 1 he la t len H enf e 
tie required area is double the area of the remainder of the triangle, 
sad therefore it is two-thirds of the area of the triangle. 

The line TCV is parallel to the axis of the parabola. If we draw 
> fine at right angles to TCV, meeting TCV produced in M and 
parallels through A and B in K and L, the area of the triangle ATB 
■ JKL.TV— kL.CV; and therefore the area of the figure bounded 
by AK, BL. KL and the arc AB, is 

KL.JCAK+BL)+JKL|CM-J(AK+BL)| 

-iKL(AK+4CM+BL). 1 




Fig. .6. 



Similarly, for a corresponding figure KfBA outside the porabohu 
the area is 

4K'L'(K'A+4M'C+L'B). 

35. n« Ellipse and ikt Ellipioid.—For elementary mensuration 
the ellipse is Ui be regarded j.t obtained by projection of the circle, 
ami the ellipsoid by projection at the diphcre. Hence the area of an 
ellipse whose axes a re la a nd 3^ i^ rot ; and the volume of an ellipsoid 
whose axes arc 7^. 3b and 7c it U^U- The area of a strip of an elfipse 
between two lines p.-trd]lel to an abs^ or the volume <m the portion 
(frustum) of an elkp^oid b«Mun,«n two planes parallel to a principal 
section, may be found in the i&rat: way. 

36. Examples 0/ ApblkatiitTn.—Tht formulae of | 24 for the aiea 
of a trapezoid are of special importantc in land-surveying. The 
measurements of a pDl>'Y^Dnal (jetd or other area are usually taken 
**.*" * ^5 Oi) ; a diagonil AEi is tiiken as the base-line, and for the 
poinu B, C, D* . . . there are cnlcfcd this disUnces AN, AP, 
Ay* • ^,^ !L**^i>^* base-line^ and the Jengths and directions of the 
offsets NB, PC, QD. , , . The area ii then given by the formula 
of I 25 (U). 

37. The mensuration of earthwork involves consideration of 
quadrilaterals whose dimensions are given by special data, and of 
prismoids whose sections are 
such quadribterals. In the 
ordinary case three of the four 
lateral surfaces of the prismoid 
are at right angles to the two 
ends. In special cases two of 
these three lateral surfaces are 
equally inclined to the third. 

(i) In fig. 7 let base BC-2a. 




Fig. 7. 



and let A be the distance, measured at right angles to BC, 
from the middle point of BC to AD. Ahm, let angle ABC-r-9. 
anjele BCD-r- ^, angle between BC and AD-^. Then (as the 
difference of two triangles) 

»r^ ARrn— ii£2Li±£}L (»cot»-a)« 

*~ ^^^'^-2(COti-COt*) - 2(COt^4-COttfr 

Qi) If ^«9. this becomes 

**"^ " tan»?-tln«^ ^* + * **" '^' ~ *' **" •• 
(iii) If ^ - o. so that AD is parallel to BC, it becomes 

area - 2aJk+ i (cot 9 + cot ^)k\ 
(iv) To find the volume of a prismoidal cuttina with vertical 
ends, and with sides equally inclined to the vertical, so that ^"0, 
let the values of A, f for the two ends be Ai, ^1, and At, ^, and write 

>"'^ cotr-^;:ot<> (^+*'^^^-'>"^ cotr/'cot> («+*'«>^<^)' 



'=cot^Vcot»^* + *«~* *^- 



'"'= cotr-^cotg (^ + *«~'*>' "' 

Then volume of prismoid - length X ilmiHi + ntsRi+ 

i(mina + wjiii) -3c«l tan $. 

MENSURATION OP GRAPHS 

,38. (A) Preliminary.— In § 23 the area of a right trapeaum 
has been exptessed in terms of the base and the two sides; and in 
§ 34 the area of a somewhat similar figure, the top having been 
replaced by an arc of a parabola, has been expressed in terms of 
its base and of three lengths which may be regarded as the sides 
of two separate figures of which it is composed. We have now 
to consider the extension of formulae of this kind to other figures, 
and their application to the calculation of moments and volumes. 

39. The plane figures with which we arc coocerned come mainly 
under the description of graphs of continuous variation. Let £ 
md F be two magnitudes so related that whenever F has any 
value (within certain limits) £ has a definite corresponding value. 
Let n and x be the numerical expressions of the magnitudes of E 
and F. On any line OX take a length ON equal to xG, and from 
N draw NP at right angles to OX and equal to uH; and H being 
convenient units of length. Then we may, ignoring the units G 
and H, speak of ON and NP as being equal to x and u respec- 
tively. Let KA and LB be the positions of NP corresponding 
to the extreme values of x. Then the different positions of NP 
will (if X may have any value from OK to OL) trace out a figure 
H)n base KL, and extending from KA to LB; this is called the 
i^raph of £ in respect of F. The term is also sometimes applied 
to the line AB along which the point P moves as Nmovesfrom K 
10 L. 

To illustrate the importance of the mensuration of graphs, 
suppose that we require the average value of «i with regard to *. 
ft may be shown that this is the same thing as the mean distance 



I40 



MENSURATION 



of dements of the graph from an axis through O at right angles 
to OX. Its calctdation therefore involves the adailation of the 
area and the first moment of the graph. 

40. The proccfses which have to oe performed in the mensuration 
of fibres of this kind are in effect pnroceaset of integ^ration; the dis- 
tinction between mensuration and integration lies m the different 
natures of the data. If, for instance, the graph were a trapezium, 
the calculation of the area would be e9uivalent to finding the mtegral, 
from x^a to x>6. of an expression of the form px+q. This 
would involve p and q; but, for our purposes, the data are the sides 
pa+q and pb+q and the base 6— a, and the expression of the 
mtegral in terms of these data would require certain eliminations. 
The province of mensuration is to exptress the final result of such an 
elimination in terms of the data, without the necessity of going 
through the intermediate processes. 

Ai. Trapeaeties and Bnquettes. — ^A figure of the kind described 
in 9 30 b called a irapeaetle. A trapcsette may therefore be defined 
as a plane figure bounded by two straight lines, abase at riffht angles 
to them, and a top which may be of any shape but is such that every 
ordinate from the base cuts it in one point and one point only; or, 
alternatively, it may be defined as the figure generated oy an ordinate 
which moves in a plane so that its foot is always on a straight base 
to which the ordinate is at right angles, the length of the ordinate 
varying in any miinner j;* it movjja. The dintanco betwti.n ilic two 
straig^tit udcfl, i.e. bctwf«rn the uiitial and the hnat position of the 
ordinatCr ii the brcadik of the trapcictTc. Any line^ drawn fmm the 
luK, at ri^ht anglei to it, and tcrminiitcd by the lap of the Erapezvttrp 
11 an ordtncte of the lif uie. The trapezium is a particular case. 

Either (v both of ihe bounding ordiinaics may be zeioi the top, in 
that ca£e^ me«t» the baae At Uiat extremity. Any plane figure 
might be converted into an equivalent irapeiette by as extenAioo 
ol the methctd of S 25 (ivK 

4J. The corrts.|:iuniiing solid fieure* in its moit ecucral form, i} 
such ai wouW becunsirutrcd tO ixprtscnt the relation of a magnitude 
E to two nugnlituUf^ F and G of which it b a luncticn^ it would 
Btand 00 ^ plane ba?c, AtiiJ tie wmpristd within a cylindrioil boundify 
whdae arosaHieciion might be of any sJiiape, We are not conctmci 
with 5inirvi of this etneial kind, but only with casts in which the 
base 13 a r«:tangle. The lii^urf i« fUch as would be tin>duced by 
rempvinfi a piece of a rect^ngubr prism* and 15 called a hriqiatte. 
A briquet Eu m^iy thcivfoi* be defined as a solid hKure bounded by a 
pair ct parallel pianet, Another pair of parallel plants at ri^^hi a neks 
to these, a buc at ri^ht angles lD.tb1^tf four planes (and themor^ 
rectangular), and a top whicn is a aurfaeeof any form, but such that 
every ofdinale from the bau cuts it in one point and one point only. 
it may be rL^Rirdcd as generated cither by a trapfzette jnovin;: in 
flidir^' ':'<i: ir [.lit angles to itjdf and changing its top but k£?fping 
iU Lt..' '. ! ' rnJ^ or bv an ordinate moving so that ita foot baj 

every possiDie position within a rectangular base. 

43. Nidation and Definitums. — The ordinate of the trapezette will 
be denoted by «, and the abscissa of thu ordinate, «.e. the distance 
of its foot from a certain fixed point or origin O on the base (or the 
base produced), will be denoted by x, so that u is some function 61 x. 
The sides of the trapezette are the " bounding ordinates " ; their 
abscissae being x^ and xt+H, where H is ue breadth of the 
trapezette. 

The " mid-ordinate " is the ordinate from the middle point of the 
base, i^. the ordinate whose abscissa is x^+^H. 

The " mean ordinate " or average ordinate u an ordinate of length / 
•uch that Hi b equal to the area of the trapezette. It therefore 
appears as a calculated length rather than as a definite line in the 
figure; except that, if there ts only one ordinate of this length, a line 
drawn through its extremity is so placed that the area of the trape- 
zette lying above it is eoual to a corresponding area below it and 
outside the trapezette. Formulae giving the area of a trapezette 
should in general also be expressed so as to state the value of the 
mean ordinate ((( la (v), 15, 19). 

The " median ordinate " is the ordinate which divides the area 
of the trapezette into two equal portions. It arises mainly in 
statistics, when the ordinate of the trapezette represents the relative 
frequency of occurrence of the magnitude represented by the 
abKrissa x; the magnitude of the aMcissa corresponding to the 
median ordinate is then the " median value of x." 

The " central ordinate " is the ordinate through the centroid ol 
the trapezette (f 32). The distance of this ordinate from the axis 
of u (f>. from a line drawn through O parallel to the ordinates) is 
equal to the mean distance (( 32) of the trapezette from this axis; 
moments with re^rd to the central ordinate arc therefore sometimes 
described in statistics as " moments about the mean." 

The data of a trapezette are usually its breadth and cither the 
bounding ordinates or the mid-ordinates of a series of minor trapc- 
zettes or strips into which it is divided by ordinates at equal distances. 
If there are m of these strips, and if the breadth of each is k, so that 
H^mh, it is convenient to write x in the form x^+0A, and to 
denote it by x^, the corresponding value of u being m#. The data are 
then either the bounding ordinates «*,«!,... «»_i, m« of the strips, 
or their mid-ordinates u\, m}, . . . Uwt-^. 

A4^ In the case of the briquette the position of the foot of the 
ordinate « is expressed by co-ordinates X, 7, referred to a pair of axes , 



pamllel tb a pair of odes of "the bate of Hie briqoette. ' If tfat 
lengths of these tides are H and K, the coord inaiei of the aagka 
of tftc base — i.i. the co-ordiriatc^ of the edgei of the briquette — ai« 

The briquette may uauaEly be regarded as divided into a aeries 
of minor briquettes by t^Xf seU ol par^lld planes, the p^neiof eadl 
set being at 4iJcceMJVk::Ey t^iii] dbunce?. If the pLirL«> of one set 
divide it into m &laba of thiclcn^:^ k, and thoae of the other into u 
sEabs of thickneu k, so that H>mA, K-^tik. then the ^-allies ol 
X and of y lor any ordin.it( may be denoted by Xt-i-tk afid yr^-^k, 
and the length of the ordinate by m. f. 

The data art usuatly the breadths H and K and dther (i> the e_, 
of the minor bric^uettcs, viz. tsn^^ us,;, . , , Uijh Uij, * , , orOi)^ 
mld-ordJnatei of one set of parallel Taccs^ vi^ icaj, ii«,i, . . . 
Ui^, . . . w «j,», ffj.fl, . . . uy, . . ., Of (Lii} the " aud^ocdlnates ** 
v^i* ib,|k ' ■ > Ui^i. ... of the minor briquettes, iLr, the onUitttes 
from the centres of their bascs^ 

A plane pamllel to cither pair of stdcA of the briquette is a 
*' priiKipal plane/' The ordinate throtigh the centroid of the 
figure is the " central ordinate." 

45. f n some cases the data for a trapezette or a briquette are not 
only certjiin ordi nates within or on the boundary of the figure, but 
a]^ cthefG forming the contiji nation of the bcries outside the figure. 
For a tniFKictte, Ic^ instance, they may be , , . jl^. u^, tEtv Mi . . . 
Vm, Ut^^i Uw,*t . * .. where it§ denotes the lame funetioo of 
JTsSCt+tfA, whether Sk lies between the timiti o and H or not. 
Ihcse CfUAs a^e important aj enabtlng simpler formtiket Involving 
central dif^cpcnces, to be used (3 76). 

46. The area of the trapenettc-, meaaurvd from the Lower boumfii^ 
ordinate up to the ordinate corresponding to any value of « . is some 
function of x. la the notation: of the jntegral cakuliss, this area is 
equal to j ^ vdx\ but the notation is JnconvenieoC* nace it to^ifiei 

a division into infinitesiifial elementSt which U not i^ndal to the 
idea of an area, ft ii therefore better to use fome indc-peodeot 
notation, sucfa as A, . v. It will be found coavcnknt to denote 

ifib)—4*{o). where ^{x} is afiy fuoction of r, by l*!')]*^** ^ 

area of the tt^ipontte whose bounding onJioates are Mt uJ ■« may 

then be denoted by [a^ . "IJZ^ "^[^ - "J*-"' ™***^ ^ 

byf^ydx. 

In the same way the volmme of a briquette betve» the planes 
x^Xih y^y^ X'-a, y-t may bedexiotedby 



[[V.., . .]j:J.]-t. 



47. The statement that the ordinate h of a trapeaette Is a funcdoo 
of the absciua x. or that m */U), must be disti^gimhcd from 
it"/U) as the equation to the top of the-trape*etle. 

In elementary geometry wc deal wiih iinci and curve*, while in 
mensuration we deal with aro* boundwl by these lines or curves. 
The circle^ for instance^ is ftcardcd geometrically as a bne <^cacribed 
in a particular way. while from the point of view of inai»uration 
it is a figure of a particubr Ehapc. Similarly, analytical plane 
geometry dcsils with the curve deicn'bed by a point moving in a 
partidubr way, white analytic^ plane mensuration deils with the 
figure genemted by an ordinate moving io that its lengtb varies ia 
a particiiLar manner depending on iu position. 

In the ifiime way, in the ca^e of a figure in three dimensions, 
analytical geometry is concerned with the form of the suiiace, while 
nnalytirmi mensuration ij concerned with the figure as a whole. 

4JI. RfpfficniiUi^n c/ y^tume by Arte —An imponant plane 
grill ph U that which reprcsenEt the volume of a solid hgure. 

Suppo^ that we take a pair of parailcl ptanes, ujch that the solid 
extends from one to the other of these planes. The lection by any 
intermediate parallel plane will be called a '* cross-section/' The 
solid may then be rei^arded as generated by the cruss-scction moving 
parallel to itw::!! ana changing its shape, or its^ position with r^ara 
to ■ 6*ed axis to which it is ^Iwayi perpendicular, ai it moves. 

If the area of the ctOM-wction, m evrry posJtbn. is known in 
tcrtns of it4 diiitantc from one of the bounding planes, or from a &ted 
plane A parallel to them, the volume of the solid can be eat p resse d 
m terms ol the area of a trapczetle. Let S be the area of the cros^ 
section at distarice x from the plane A, Oti a stniight line OX in 
any pique take a point N at distance x fnom O. and draw an ordinate 
NP at right angles to OX and equal to 5/f. where i u some fixed 
length (f.£, the unit of m^surement). If this is done for every 
pos&ibte value of x, there will be a series of ordinates tracing out a 
trapezette with base alotig OX, The voltinie mm prised between 
the eras*- section whose arra Is S and a conjsixiitive cross-section at 
distance 9 from it is uhimatcly S9. when i is indefinitely small; 
and the area between the conrKponding ordinates of the trapeiette 
ia {Sfi\r 9'^JL Hence the volume of each element of the solid 
figure i« !o be found by multiplying the area of the c orrc spood* 
ing element of the trapezette by t, and therefore the tOUl voUime tt 
i X area of crapefettc. 



MENSURATION 



HI 



ifi 



hane of a fariqtiette can be found in tbis way if the area i 
tioa by any principal plane can be expreand in terms of 
ne of this plane from a find plane of the same set. The 
■satina this area as if it were the ordinate of a trapeaette 
penal formulae, when the dau are of the kind mentioned 

Memsmndon of Graphs of Algebrakal FaiKftofU.— The 
of cases to be considered comprises those cases in which 
pebraieal function (ue. a rational integral algebraical func- 

or of jc and y, of a degree which is known. 

simplest case is that m which u a constant or is a linear 
if ae, i^. is of the form px -^ a. The trapezette b then a 
eaium. and its area, if «i »/, b fA(Mo + ai) or Jb»i. 

next case b that in which aba quadratic function of x, 
he form psfi -k- qx -k- r. The top is then a parabola whose 

* ' It angles to the base; and the area can therefore (( ^a) 

„ in terms of the two bounding ordinates and the midr. 

If we take these to be mo and ««. and mi, so that m » a, 

* JHC- + 4«. + «t) - W- + 4-1 + «tl. 
m's formula. 
I of Vfc «t, and «b we have four ordinates a*, »i, u», and 
t Si » 3. it can be shown that 

area - iA(M« -r 3«i + 3«t + a«). 
impsam's second formula. It may be deduced from the 
;ivcn above. Denoting the areas of the three strips by 
C. and introducing the middle ordinate u], we can eacpress 
i + C; A + B + C; and B in terms of a*. «i, at. at. «i. 
as; ami »t. «). a> respectively. Thus we get two expressions 
I 4- C, from which we can eliminate a|. 

aette of this kind will be called a parabolic trapezette. 
peon's two formulae also apply if a is of the form ^ + 
4- s. Generally, if the area of a trapezette for which a is an 
il fuoctioo of X of degree 2h is given correctly by an expres- 
b b a linear function of values of a representing ordinates 
rmmetrically about the mid-ordtnate of the trapezette 
without this mtd-ordinate), the !fame expresidon will give 
if a trapezette for which a b an algebraical function of x of 

+ 1. Thb will be seen by taking the mid-ordinate as the 
for which x » o, and notKing that the odd powen of x 

positive and negative terms which balance one. another 
whole area b taken into account. ^ 

en a b of degree 4 or 5 in x, we require at least five Ofdinates. 
, and the data are a*. ai, at. as. a4, we have 

area - A*(7«o + S2ai + wa, + 3^1 + 7«*) 
actions of higher degrees in x the formulae become more 
ted. 

e general method of constructing formulae of thb kind 
the use of the integral calculus and of the calculus of finite 
a. The breadth of the trapezette being m/i, it may be 
at its area b 

938^255*^*^1111 + •••(• 

l«t a^ a^ . . . denote the values for x •■ Xi«, of the 

e differential coefficients of a with regard to x; the aeries 
ig until the differentbl coefficients vanish. ^ There are two 
1 cases, according as m is even or odd; it will be con- 
o consider them first for those cases in which the data arc 
ding ordinates of the strips. 
■ b even, a^ will be one of the given ordinates, and we 

ess ifiu7m> h*u^^ ... in terms of «)« and its even central 

es (see DiFrcRBXCBS, Calculus of). Writing m - 2^, and 
the coefficients of the successive differences, we shall find 

I5I20 »^' )' 

r degree 2/ or 2/ + i in x. we require to go up to S^u,, so 
nust be not less than 3/. Simpson's (first) formula, for 

holds f or / > I. and b obtained by taking P ^ t and 
differences after fin,. 
m is odd, the given ordinates are «o. . . • ai»-|, uim*\. 

We then have 

■la. nfiuim, . . . denote J(«j«.-i + «i« + i). K***!-.-! + 




Fig; 8. 



^vVfl)' - - - Sicnpeon'a teeoed formirift b obtaiiied by taldnf 
m > ^and ignoring diffefcnces sf cer ff^vj.. 

55. The fcucrtd formulae of I 54 ijp ^pK rppUtcd in (i) by kfn) 
may in ihe saroc way be dpplil^d to obtatnlormulae giving the wt 
of the tnipcccrttc in termi of the mid-ordiiutes of the strip*, the 
series f>dng takta up to ^'vjL* or h^^u^b at Icaat, where a Is of 
d-egrce a/ of a/ + i in i. Thus »« find from U) that Slmpfon'i 
second formula H for the case where the top L* 4 paiaboLi (with anis. 
At before,, at righi angles to the t>uc) and then are thiec ii,rip« <m 
bnsadtb A, may be repbced by 

ana - iA(j«i + JMj + JMj). 

This mi^t have brco deduced directly from Simpiofi^t first fonnulaf 
by a serica of eliminationiL 

56. E-lence, fof the casx of a parabola^ we can cxprett the aiea 
tn ternu of the bouDding Ordinate^ of two strips, but, if we use 
mj:d-ordl£tat«, we rw^uire three strips ; ao ihai^ in each caie, 
thrc* tirdinjues are requtred^ The qutrinon then arises whether, 
by rcmoviri'ii the lirnitatlcm as to the pa&ition of ihe ordinam* wc 
Can reduce their nitimticr, 

Suppi^ac tha^t in f^gn^^ ( I M) wd draw crdinates QD midway between 
tCAand MC, and Kt midway bctwei'p MC and LB, meeting the lop 
in D and K (%. -B), and join DE, [fleeting 
KA, LB, and MC in H, J, and W. Then it 
may t>e shown that DE ii paralluL to AB. and 
that tlie area of the figufe lietween eliDrd DHi 
and arc DE ii half the iam uf tht area? Dli/i 
and EJB. Hence the are* of the right tra- 
FK^fkcjcn KHJL i« greater than the area ol the 
irfipttettc KACBL 

If wc w-wc to t4kc QD and RE closer to MC, 
the former area would be stiU greater. II, on 
the other hand, we wtre to take theid very 
close to KA and LU retpectlveliy, the area of 
the trapezette would f>c the greater. Thene 
i« therclorc somE^ inEcrmediate paitlon such 
that the two areas are equal ; i.e. such that the area of the trapexette 
b reprewnied by KL . f(QD 4* RE)* 

To find ihi* pcssition, let us write QM - MR t*#.fCM. Then 
WC " J?* , VC, VW - (1 ~ ^} VC| 

cufvtd ana AC8 - | of panftelogratn AFGB - JKL , VC; 
pamllcloEnim AH JB - ECL . VW - (i - f ) KL . VC 
JicACe the areas of the trapezette and of the trapeiium ?rill be equal 

I - d" = I. S - J/V3, 
This value of i is the same for all parabolai wbkh pan throygh D 
and E and have their axes at right angles to KL. ft fDHowi that, 
by taking two ordinates in a certain pobition with regard to the 
bounding ordinates, the area of any parabatjc trapezette whose top 
pa4i.e4 tfimugh their Q^tremitle^ can be expfiascd in terms of thcae 
ordinates and of the bread Eh of the trapezette. 

The tame formula wiU also hold (I 53) for any cubic trapezette 
through the point iL 

57. This a a particular oje of a gperal theorem, due to Cautt, 
that, if a i» an algebraical function of jf of desree ap or ap + 1, the 
area can be expreiKd ia tenns of |^ + I ordinjitea Uken ia suitable 
pofitSonSv 

5^^. The Pnsmouial Fitrmtda.—ll follows from || 4B and 51 that, 
if V 19 a Bolid figure eittcodlng froim a ptane K to a piirallci plane L, 
and If the area of every {zrosa-sccrion parallel to these pbnc« isa 
qiudratic function of the distance of the Motion from a fijtcd pbne 
parahel tothem,SLmp5£ifi^i formula may he applied l« tind the volume 
of the solid. If the ansas of the two cnda in the planci K and L are 
Sa and Si. and the area of the mtd-ieetjon {i.e. the section by a plane 
parallel to theic planes and midway f^etween them} is S], the volume 
U iH (5, + 4S, 4- Sj). where H is the total breadth. 

This formulk applii;! to fuch hgufes ai the cone, the sphere, the 
4,llLpAO]d and thejirismoid. In thv case af the ephere, far instance^ 
ivhos; radius is R, the area cj the 4t^tion at distance x from tlie 
Centre i» *{R'-jc*)t wliich ip a qyadrjtit function of x; the valuea 
of Sb St, and Sj arc rcspec lively o, rR*, and o, and tht volume ii 
ihcrcfofe i , jR . 4'R' " U^'. 

To show ttiat the area of a croo^iection of a ptismoid it oT 
the form aj^ + fri 4- <^, where * is 
the distance of the section from 
one end, we may proceed as in 
(37, In the cive of a pyramid, of 
he]|;ht k. the area of the section 
by a plane paratjel to the base 
and at distance x from the vertex 
h cltirly jc*/^' X area of fiaie. 
In ihc cue of a wedge with 
parallel cndi the ratio i'A* is re- 
placed by xfh. For a letTahtdroti, 
two of whoie oppoiite ednes are 
AB and CD, we require the area 
of the iccUon by a plane parallel to AB and CD. Let tbc dJvtaaee 
between the parallel planes through AB and CD be A* and let a 
plane at distance x from the plana thnough AB cut the edge* AC, 




142 



MENSURATION 



f. 



f particles of masacs o, vR*. and 4. |«-R', placed at the extremities 
na the middle of iu axis; «.e. the oentroid b at distance iR from 



BC, BD,AD,inP,Q,R,S(fiff.9). Then the lectioo of the pyramid 
by this plane is the paraUelogiam PQRS. By drawing Ac and 
Ad parallel to BC and BD, so as to meet the plane through 
CD m c and d, and producing QP and RS to meet Af and Ai in { 
and f, we see that the area o^ PQRS is (x/il-Jt^/A^)X area of 
eCDd; this also is a quadratic function of x. The proposition can 
then be etublished for a prismoid generally by the method of 1 27 (iv). 
The formula is known as the prismoidal Jhrmula, 

59. Moments. — ^Since all ix>ints on any ordinate are at an equal 
distance from the axis of u. it is easily shown that the first moment 
(with regud to this axis) of a trapczette whose ordinate is m is equal 
to the area of a trapezette whose ordinate is xu ; and this area can 
be found by the methods of the preceding sections in cases where u 
is an algebraical function of x. The formulae can then be applied 
to finding the moments of certain volumes. 

In the case of the parabolic trapezette, for instance, xu b of degree 
in X, and therefore the first moment is i/i(xBiio+4Xi«i+xa<(s). 
n the case, therefore, of any solid whose cross-section at disunce x 
from one end is a quadratic function of x, the position of the cross- 
section through the ccntroid b to be found oy determining the 
position of the centre of gravity of particles of masses proportional 
to Ss. St. aiKi 4S1, placed at the extremities and the middle of a line 
drawn from one end of the solid to the other. The centroid of a 
hemisphere df radius R, for instance, j» the sanie as the centroid 

and 

the plane face. 

60. The method can be extended to finding the second, third, . . . 
momenu of a trapczette with regard to the axis of «. If « b an 
algebraical function of x of degree not exceeding p, and if the area 
01 a trapezette, for which the ordinate « is of degree not exceeding 
p-\-q. may be expressed by a formula X^A+yiVt-f . . . 4-^«v«, the 
«th moment of the trapezette b X«x^Mo+XiXi«tii+ . . . +X«r««««, 
and the mean value of x« b 

(XrfWK. + Xixi«ui + . . . + X.Ai«««)/(V«o + Xi«i+ . . . + X«««). 
The calculation of thb last expression is nmpUfied by noticing that 
we are only concerned with the mutual ratios of \o, Xi. . . . and of 
««, »i, . . , not with their actual values. 

61. Cubature of a Briqutil^.—Tfj extend these incthods to a bri- 
quette, where the ordinate u l& act atapbrakjil function of x and y, 
tne axes of x and of y bein;^ pdrillel to the iidci of the base, we 
consider that the area of a section at dUtnncv x from the plane x>0 
b exprened in terms of the ordinates in which it iiiter«.<ct£i the series 
of planes, parallel to y — o. through the given ordLnatt:^ of the 
briquette (^J 44) ; and that the arta of the wctLon ia then represented 
by the ordinate of a trapezette. This ordinate will Ix an algebraical 
function of x, and we can again apply a suitable formula. 

Suppose, for instance, that u is of degree not ^luzeedmg 3 in x, and 
of degree not exceeding 3 in y^ f.t. that it contains terFn» in x*y*, 
x'y, i?y*, &c. ; and suppose that the edgta parallel to which x and y 
are measured are of lengths ih and 3I, ih^^ briquette bcin^ divided 
into six elements by the pbne x = ia+h ii:id the pbncs y— y,-J-ik, 
y-y»+2ik, and that the 12 ordinates forming the edges of these 
six elements are given. The areas of the ndes for which x»x)» and 
x^x»+3h, and of the section by the plane x-xk+^ may be 
found by Simpson's second formula; call these A« and Ai, and A|. 
The area of the section by a plane at distance x from the edge 
x—xt is a funqtion of x whose degree b the same as that of u. 
Hence Simpson's formula applies, and the volume b iA(i4»+4i4i+ 

The process b amplified by writing down the general formula 
first and then substituting the values of «. The formula, in the 
above case, b 

**(!*(«#,• + 3«^i +3««.t + «o,,) +4X|*(«M -I- ...) + !*(«!,•+. .)!. 
where «•,♦ denotes the ordinate for which x-x»+«*, y-»3«»+^*. 
The result b the same as if we multiplied 
|A(i«i + 3«^+3»i + fi) by i*(«o + 4«» 
•i-ih), and then replacea udth, uifii, . . . 
by Mo,», ««.i . . . The multiplication b 
shown in the adjoining dia^m; the 
factors i and i are kept outside, so that 
the sum mo.«+3*<«>i+ . . . +4«iio+. . . . 
can be calculated before it b multiplied 
by ik . Ik. 

63. The above b a particular case of a general principle that 
the obtaining of an expression such as iAt^»«+4«i+Mt) or 
|*(»»+3i^+3«^+tf|) b an operoHon performed on «o or «^ 
and that this operation is the sum of a number of operations 
such as that which obtains \hu4 or Ikv^. The volume of the 
briquette for which « is a function of x and y b found by 
the of)eration of double integration, consbting of two successive 
operations, one being with regard to x, and the other with regard 
to y; and these operations may (in the cases with which we 
are concerned) be performed in either order. Starting from any 
ordinate Uf,f, the result of integrating with regard to x through a 
distance 2k b (in the example considered in (61) the same as the 
result of the operation M(i -^ 4E -^ E*), where E denotes the 
Operation of changing x into x-\'k (see Uiffbixncxs, Calotlus 



ixl 


1 4 1 


I 
3 
3 

1 


I 4 I 
3 " 3 
3 " 3 
1 41 



of) . The iiiieeration with T«|:*rd to 7 ma y dintUriy Cm thf 
example) be rcpLiced by the opi^fa^cm J*£i+)K*+J 
whe^e E' denotes the chj^nge of y into 3p -I- ftr loe rrv 
forming both operations, in order to obtain the volume, is 
oi the operation denoted by the pfodutt of these two ea 
and in this product the power* of E and tA E.^ may be t 
according to algebraicof Ijwf. 

The methods of IS 59 and 60 can £iniilaj-|y be extended 
the position of the central ordinate of a bnquette, ot tbti 
distanoe of element* of the briqutitr fnom a principal plar 

6 J. (C> MensuraxutH 0/ GfOfihs Cmerolty.—V^'e^ have 
con&ider the extension of the prertding methods to ca^ra i 
ii not ncceisartly an algirbraii:^! function of j: or of r and 

The general principle! i» that the numerical data frori 
particiular tvnxU is to he di-duced are in jfeoeral nm emic 
given unly to a. coniin dcgrre ol accuracy. Thij Umits ihi 
of ihc tviiiU ; and we can therefore replace the ftgytr b 
figure which colncidisra with it approjtimaiely, provided 
further inaccuracy so introduf:ed is cocnparabk witii tfa 
indccur^cic» of mcasuremf nt. 

The rf btion betwitrn the inaccurary of the data and the . 
in^'-.-in^j-y f!|if^ (n q»ii,x.r;t.itif.n *-^f ii-nfi.h'-t fi^^rr- t<; ^^imi 
rebtion between the inaccuracies in mensuration of a fig 
is supposed to be of a given form (( 20). The volume <m 
of a cone, for instance, can be expressed in terms of certs 
tudes by a certain formula ; but not only will there be son 
the measurement of these magnitudes, but there b not an] 
figure which is an exact cone. The formub may, howeve 
if the devbtion from conical form b -rebtively less 
errore of measurement. The conditions are thus umiUu 
which arise in interpobtion (q-v.). The data are the san 
cases. In the case of a trapezette, for insunce, the dal 
magnitudes of certain ordinates; the problem of intcrpok 
determine the values of intermedbte ordinates, while tha 
suration b to determine the area of the figure of which the 
ordinates. If, as b usually the case, the ordinare throug 
strip of the trapezette can be expressed approximately a 
braical function of the abscissa, the application of th> 
calculus gives the area of the figure. 

64. There are three cbsses oT cases to be considered. I 
of mathematical functions certain conditions of conti 
satbfied, and the extent to which the value given by any 
formub dilfere from the true value may be estimated witli 
limits; the main inaccuracy, in favourable cases, being c 
fact that the numerical data are not absolutely exact. Ii 
and mechanical applications, where concrete measurer 
involved, there is. as pointed out in the preceding sei 
additional inaccuracy due to want of exactness in the fig 
In the £ase of statistical data there b the further diiSficulty 
is no real continuity, since we are concerned with a fimt 
of individuals. 

The proper, treatment of the devbtions from mathemai 
racy, in the second and third of the above cbsses of c 
specbl matter. In what follows it will be assumed that 1 
tions of continuity (which imply the continuity not onl> 
also of some of its differentbl coefl^ents) are satisfied, 1 
the small errors in the values of u actually given ; the linaii 
errors being known. 

65. It is only necessary to conrider the trapezette and the 
nnce the cases which occur in practice can be reduced to oc 
of these forms. In each case the data are the values 
equidistant ordinates, as described in {( 43-45- The tei 
rature'formula and cubature-formula are sometimes rest 
formulae for expressing the area of a trapezette, or the ' 
a briquette, in tertns of such data. Thus a quadratui 
b a formula for expresung [A«.u] or fudx in terms of a 
given valuet of u^ while a cu ha ^u re-form ula 11 a formub fc 
ing [I Kf ,T> tr]| or ffudxdy in terms of the values of m for cert 
qI X in combi (union with certain value* of >; these % 
necesrarily lying within the Itmiis of the inio^^raxioiiL 

6fi- Thcrt are h*o principal meihods. The first, whi 
best known but is of Umitefi appUcaiion, consists in repl^ 
successive port ion of the figure by another Agurc whofn, 
is an algebraical function of jr or of jt and y, and expmmn 
or volume of ihia latter flgun? (exactly or approximately) i: 
the given ordinal eg. The second consiits in taking a cOBi| 
»mple csprc'-^Mon obtained in this -way, and introdutiiig t 
ufr. ', '..r--^: >:,■■ ^ /.' ■ -r-r ■:; - ■ .,! -r i' ir V. 1 ainds 
h. I Inrf 

ette, the extensions to the briquette being only treated bri 
67. The Trapesoidal Rule.— The simplest method is to r 
trapezette by a series of trapezia. If the dau are tto, «fi, 
the figure formed by joining the tops of these ordinates is a 
whose area is A(§«o + «i+«t+ . . . +«u-i + i«««>. 
called the trapezoidal or chordal area, and will be denoted 
the data are «•. «]. . . . Mm~\, we can form a series of tr 
drawing the tangents at the extremities of these ordinates; 
of the areas of these trapezia will be k^u^•\^u^'\■ . . . 
Thb b called the taniential area, and will be denoted by 



MENSURATION 



*43 



1 MHM wtcf be expvmed in terms ot dionial areu. If we 

C| for die chordal area obtained by taUng ordinatet at 
b iA, then Ti"aC|— Ci. If the trapezette, as seen from 
is cvoywbae convex or everywhere concave, the true area 

ween Ci and T|. 

68.-Olftcr Adlcff for Trapeuttes.—IY^ extension of this method 
fiMiisTs in cfivicUng the ttapesette into minor trapexettes, each 

I islint of two or more strips, and replacing each of these minor 

uapes e ll ea by a new figure, whose ordinate v is an algebraical 
fsflctioa of x; this function being chosen so that the new ftf^n shall 
co iack i e with the oripnal figure so far as the given ordinates are 
a«oeraed.r Tl^ means that, if the minor trspezette consists of k 
scrips. V win be of degree k or k — i in x, accofdii^r as the data are the 
bonding ocduiates or the mid-ordinates. If A denotes the true 
sica of the original trapcsette, and B the affiregate area of the 
sBbstituted .figures, we have Aif^B, where iQideno^ approximate 
Mulity. The value of B is found by the methods of IS 49-55- 
TW foUowing are some examples. 

(i) Snppoae that the bounding ordinates are given, and that m b 
a smitiple of 2. Then we can talce the strips in pain, and treat each 
psir as a parabolic trapexette. Applying Simpson's formula to each 
of these, we have 
AAl*(ni + 4* +••) + l*(«t + 4«« + ««) + .. . 
&}*(■• + 4ni + 3iii + 4«a + 2X« + . . . + 2«i*-i + 4«»4 + «■)• 
TUs B Simpmt's nde. 

(i) Sioutarly, if m b a multiple of 3. the repeated application of 
Smpno's second formula gives Simpson's second rule 
AAliOte + Sm +3»«+2«« + 3«»« + • •» +3«*^ + 2««^ + 

3«->-a + 3«»-i + ««)• 
{jSSi If mid-ordinates are given, and m b a multiple of 3, the 
Rpcated application of the formula of f 55 will give 

Ail l&(3a(| + a«| + 3«| + 3«j + . . . + 2«»^ + 3»»-|)* 
69L The formulae become complicated when the number of strips 
■ach of the minor trapexettes b laivc. The method is then modified 
b]f replscing B by an expression which gives the arti^s of the sub- 
Mated figures apfsroximatcly. This intnxluces a further inaccuracy ; 
bst dm latter may be negligible in comparison with the main in- 
ansades already involved (cf. { ao (iii)). 

Sappose, for instance, that m->6, and that we consider the 
tnpoette as a whole; the data beins the bounding ordinates. 
Skc there are seven of these, v will be of degree 6 in x; and we shall 
^(§54(0) 

B-tt(ft + IJV, -I- lilVi + M«^«) -6*(ii.+l«««i+ii«^«i+iW«i). 
If «e lepboe /i\A(s in thb expression by iV^fMi. the method of 
|tt|ires 

A& ffh (■• -H 5vi + «t + 6tf s -h «« + 5«» + «•); 
te opmsion on the right-hand side being an approximate expres- 
BOS (or B. and differing from it only by rlpHS*«>. This b WeddU's 
nit. If m b a multiple of 6, we can obtain an expression for A by 
Sfiplyiog the rule to each group of six strips. 

7a Some of the formuue obtained by the above methods can 
Ik oprened more simply in tenns of chordal or tangential areas 
tskra in various ways. Consider, for example, Simpson's rule 
(f tf G))* The expression for A can be written in the form 

l»(|a, + a,+ a,-h«,+ . . . + «-.+ «»-i +i««)-|*(i«.+ «t + 

»« + ...+ «— 1 + !«•). 
Kow. if ^ b any factor of m, there b a scries of equidUtant 
onfioatcs ait, «^ ««». . . . «».,. h«; and the chordal area as 
doennined by these ordinates b 

M(i* + «,+ i«t,+ +«—, + !««). 

vkich may be denoted by Cp. With this notation, the area as 
pvw by Simpson's rule may be written in the form JC| — JCt or 
Ci+lCCi-Cfl). The following are some examples of formulae of 
dia kiod, in terms of chordal areas. 
0) SI a multiple of 2 (Simpson's rule). 

A AJ(4C, - C, ACi + J(Ci - CO. 
(a) SI ft multiple of 3 (Simpson's second .rule). 

A A 4(9C. - CO =a C, -I- ICC - Ca). 
Cb) ■ a multiple of 4. 

A A A(64Ci - 20Ct+C4)&Ci+\iCi - CO - A(Ci - CO- 
<W) ■ a multiple of 6 (Weddle's rule, or its repeated application). 
AaA(«5Ct-6C,-|-C0:aCi +i(Ci - CO -A(C, - co. 
(v) ■ a multiple of 12. 

A a A(56C» - 28C, -I- 8C. - CO 
«aC,-l-J(C» - CO - l(C, - CO + A(Ci - CO. 
^Theie are similar formulae in terms of the tangential areas Ti, 
Ti,T* Thus (ui) of 1 68 may be written A A iCoT, - TO- , 

It. The general method of constructing the formulae of t 70 for 
will areas b that, it p, g, r, . . . axe k <A the factors (including i) 
if a, «e take 

AAPC,-|-QC,-hRCr + . . ., 



P, Q, R, . . . satisfy the k equationi 
P + Q + R + ... 



■ If 

• o. 



The last k—i of these equations give 

i/P : i/Q : i/R : . . . - ^(P> - 9^(^ - r«) . . . 
'.^it-mt-^) . . . : f«(r» - p«)(r» - ^) ...:.. . 
Combining thb with the first equation, we obtain the values of 
P, 6, R, . . . 

The saftie method applies for tangentbl areas, by taking 
AiiPT,-fQT,4-RT, -I-... 
provided that ^, 9, r, . . . are odd numbers. 

72. The justification of the above methods lies in certain properties 
of the senn of successive differences of u. The fundamental 
assumption b that each group of strips of the trapexette may be 
replaced by a figure for which differences of u, above those of a 
certain order, vanish (S 54). The legitimacy of thb assumption, 
and of the further assumption which enables the area of the new 
figure to be expressed by an approximate formula instead of by an 
exact formula, must be verified in every case by reference to the 
actual differences. 

71. Correction by means of^ Extreme Ordinates. — The preceding 
methods, though apparently simple, are open to various objections 



in practice, such as the following: (i) The assignment of different 
coefficients of different ordinates, ana even the selection of ordinates 
for the purpose of finding Ct. C>, &c. ({ 70), is troublesome, (ii) Thb 
assignment of different coefficients means that different weights are 
given to different ordinates; and the -relative weights may not 
agree with the relative accuracies of measurement, (iii) Different 
formulae have to be adopted for different values of m; the method is 
therefore unsuitable for the construction of a table giving successive 
values of the area up to successive ordinates. (iv) In order to find 
what formula may be applied, it b necessary to take the successive 
differences of u; and it is then just as easy, in most cases, to use 
a formula which directly involves these differences and therefore 
shows the degree of accuracy of the approximation. 

The alternative method, therefore, consists in taking a simple 
formula, such as the trapcxoidal rule, and correcting it to suit the 
mutual relatbns of the differences. 

74. To illustrate the method, suppose that we use the chordal 
area Ci, and that the trapexette b in tact parabolk:. The difference 
between Ci and the true area b made up of a series of areas bounded 
by chords and arcs; thb difference becoming less as we subdivide 
the figure into a greater number of strips. 

The fact that Ci does not ^ve the true area b due to the fact that 
in passing from one extrcimty of the top of any strip to the other 
extremity the tangent to the trapexette 
changes its direction. We have therefore 
in .tne first place to see whether the 
difference can be expressed in terms of the 
directions of the tangents. 

Let KABL (fig. 10) be one of the strips, 
of breadth A. Draw the tangents at A and 
B, meeting at T; and through T draw a 
line parallel to KA and LB, meeting the ^ 
arc AB in C and the chord AB in V. 
Draw AD and BE perpendicular to this 
line, and DF and TG perpendicular to LB. ^ 
Then AD = EB-JA, and the triangles'^ 
AVD and BVE are equal. F«C- »<>• 

The area of the trapexette is less fin 
fig. 10) than the area of the trapezium KABL by two-thirds of the 
area of the triangle ATB (J 34). This latter area b 
ABTE - AATD - ABTG-AATD = JA' tan GTB - !*« tan DAT. 
Hence, if the angle which the tangent at the extremity of the ordinate 
ug makes with Uie axis of x b denoted by ^9, we have 
area from «o to ni » \k(uo -f «i) — I'j A»(tan rh — tan fp). 
Ml to fu-i JA(m, -h m) - i»,*'(tan ^t - tan ^^i), 

n«_i to «» w §A(fU-i + «•) - A*»(tan ^« - tan ^»-i) . 
and thence, by summation, 

A-C, -,S*'(tan^« - tan^). 
Thb, in the notation of (S 4^ and 54, may be written 

A-c.+[-A*v]j:2-. 

Since k - H/w, the inaccuracy in taking Ci as the area varies at 
l/m». 
It might be shown in the same way that 

A-Ti4-A*'(tan f.- tan ^) - T, -f [s^Av] J^ J*. 

75. The above formulae apply only to a parabolic trapexette 
Their generalixation b given by the EuUr-Madawin formnia 




144 



MENSURATION 



irrho *^«^ — • • • J , Z jjs 

and an analogous formula (which may be obtained by tubftituting 
|A and C| for h and Ci in the above and then ezprening Ta as 
2C|— Ci) 

To apply these, the differential coefficients have to be ex p ie s sed in 
terms 01 differences. 

76 If we know not only the ordinates t%, m, . . . or «|, fi|, . . . , 
but also a sufficient number of the ordinates obtained by continuing 
the series outside the trapesette, at both extremities, we can use 
central-difference formulae, which are by far the most convenient. 
The formuUe of f 75 give 

A-Ti+A[^ito-,«h«%+«^Ai«Hi-nHIUii«'» + . . . ]j; 



77. If we do not 
advancing or 
are 



values of u outside the figure, we must use 
differences. The formulae usually employed 



A-T»+A { - AAt4+M«ti|- ^AA««m- rfMAHi* - . . . 



where A, A*. . . . have the usual meaning 



•ui-m, AH(t- 



ig (A - . .. 
Aift " A««, ....), and A% A\ • • • denote differences read back* 

wards, so that A'llM«tl»^-llM, A'*Um»Um^-7Um^+Um, 

The calculation of the expressions in brackets may be simplified by 



taking the pairs in terms from the outside; «.«. by finding the 
successive differences of ■■ + ««( Ug+.Mm^,.,., or of Ui + Um^i, 



An alternative method, which is in some ways preferable, b to 
complete the table of differences by repeating the differences of the 
highest order that will be taken into account (see Interpolation), 
and then to use central-difference formuUe. 

78. In order to find the corrections in respect of the terms shown 
in square brackets in the formulae of f 75, ceruin ordinates other 
than those used for Ci or Ti are sometimes found specially. Par- 
wieniUr's ruU, for instance, assumes that in addition to M|, «| ... '. 
fin-|, we know «• and a.; and u^ — m and «« — «»^ are taken 
[c be equal to |^u'« and i^tii'm respectively^ These methods are 
not to be recoii) mended ciccepi in tpcicial cascL 

7a. By n^placinK A in ( 75 by li. lA, . . . nnd etiminating khi\ 
ft^u , . . ^ , wc obtain cjuct fDrmufa?^ corfespondini; to the ap- 

ftroxJitiAtc formulae of | 70, The Col lowing ajnc the results (for the 
ormuUf involving chardal arcjp), given ia lerms of differential 
cwlEirierLta and of ccnLr^I differences. They are not so convenient 
at the fomiulae of \ 76, but they scrvf: to indicate the degree of 
acc^r»v of the approximate formulae. The <cxpr«&ions in square 
brackets are m each cast to be taken as nbttng to the extreme 
values x-A and x-c^h a^ in || 75 and 76, 

(i) A-J(4Ci-C,)+l-th*V"+Ti^i*'«'-TTip*^'«+ ... 1 

(U) A-}(9Ci-C,)+I-A*V"+th*Hrr- rtWf*'«^+ ... J 

-I(9C,-C,)+M-AM«H»+»4J.M«»««-rfAVT.M«'«+. . .J. 
(iii) A-A(64Ci-2oC,+ C4)+[-tfT*'«'+aB*Hr«- . • . J 

-A(64Ci-2oC,+C«)+*l-flrM«*«1-iimM«'«- ... 1. 
(iv) A-A(i5C.-6C,+C,)+l-ih*Hr rriW*Hr«- • • • 1 

-A(i5Ci-6C4-C,)+AI-»b*««»«^„*iV«M«'«- ... J. 
(v) A-A(56C,-28C,+8C,-C«)+[-riV»*H«^+ ... 1 

- A(56Ci-28C+8C,-C«)+M-nV»M«'»+ ... J. 
The general expression, if p, 9, r, ... are A of the factors of ai, is 

A-PC,+ QC, + RCr+...+[(-)*&**«^ + 

where P, Q, R, . . . have the values given by the equations in { 71, 
and the coefficients bu, bhfi. ... are found from the corresponding 
coefficients in the Euler-Maclaurin formula (( 75) by multiplying 
them by P/^+Q8*+Ri*+ . . ., P/^^+Q8*^+RH^+. . . , 

8a MometOt of a TrapnOU.—ThK above methods can be applied, 
•s in If 59 and 60. to finding the moments of a trapesette, when the 



data are a series of oniiiiates. To find tfat puSk \ 

an, m, t%, . . . are given, we have only to find thearaa of a t 
whose ordinates are x^hit, xi*^. Xk*^ . . . 

81. Theie is, however, a certain set of cases, oocarrii^iastatSptiab 
in which the data are not a s^ies of ordinates, but the aiCM 
A|, A|, . . . Am.| of the strips bounded by the consecutive onliD- 
ates a*, m. . . . M*. The determination of the momenta ia tlMt 
cases involves special methods, which are considered ia tfat ant 
twosectiona 

8a. The most simple case is that in whkh the trapeietta tapcn 
out in such a way that the curve forming its top haa very doM 
contact, at its extremities, with the base; in other words* the dafer- 
ential coeflkients a*, a", a"'. ... are practicaUy ncglifibla for 
x-xk and for x-Xi^ The method adopted ia these caaea is ta 
treat the areas A|, A|, . . . as if they were ordinatca placed at 
the points for which x*"X|, x*"X|, . . . , to calculate die 1 



X|. 



on this assumption, and then to apply certain oorrebtioaa. If tkt 
firrt, second, . . . moments, so calculated, before correctioa aia 
denoted by pi. pi. . . . , we have 

PI - xjA|+ x|A| + . . . + xw.iA«.| 
p,-x«»A| + x«|A| + . . . +x«^jA^ 

p»->x>»|A| +x*^+ . . . +x»»4A«-|. 
These are called the row memeiUs. Then, if the true n tftmrn ti aai 
denoted by yi, vik . . . » their values are given by 
riiOpi 

r,ap,-|*>Pi 

r4ilP«-i*'p.+iifA«pi 

rKap,-|*»p,+A*<Pt 
: 

where p» (or vi) u the total area A| + A| + . . . + A»4; tkt 
general expresskm being 




X.-A. >e-th. X.-ilh. X4-rt%, U^Mh, . . . 

The establishment of these formulae involves the use ol tfat integlll 
calculus. 

The position of the central ordinate is given by «*f^ps, aad 
therefore is given approximateljy by x— pi/p». To find the 1 
with regard to the central ordinate, we must use this appi 
value, and transform by means of the formulae given in f 33. 
can be done either before or after the above correctiona are fl 
the transformation is made first, and if the resulting raw i_ 
with regard to the (approximate) central ordinate are o, «k, «».... , 
the true moments mi. Mt. Mi« - • . with regard to the central orabalt 
are given by 

«i-o 

83. These results may be extended to the calculatbnof anexpr»> 

sion of the form J^a^(x)dx, where ^(x) u a definite function of M^ 

and the conditions with regard to a are the same as in | Sa. 
(i) If ^(x) is an explicit function of x, we have 

/jJ'«*(*)<**fi^i^(«l)+A|f (x|)+ . . . + A«-|f (Jiw^), 

where 



f (x)S*(x)-^"(x)+^V(x)-. . . . 
the coefficients X|, >t* . . . . having the values given in i to. 

Oi) If ^(x) is not given explicitly, but is tabulated for fte va 
. . X|, X|, . . . of X, the formuU of (i) applies, provided we 1 

^f(x)S(i-A«"+ih«*-TAi«'+ . . .)♦(*). 
The formulae can be adapted to the case in which #(x) ia t 
for x«x»,xi, . . . 

84. In cases other than those described in i 83, the ^b 1 
with regard to the axis of a is given by 

»,-x»«A-AS^. 
where A b the toul area of the original trapesette, and S^.« ia tbt 
area of a trapezette whose ordinates at successive distances k, 
beginning and ending with the bounding ordinates, are 

xi»-*A|, x,^'(AH-Ai), . . . xt:!(Ai+ Ai+ . . . + A^). st'K 
The value of S^^ has to be found by a quadrature-formula. Tht 
gcneralixed formula is 



/5'«*(x)dx-A*(x^)-T. 



MENSURATION 



HS 



A»j)f 0^-i)t A^ Oca): the aocenu denoung the firat diffefcntial 



vhcfc T ■■ the am ofa.'tnpcsette wboie ordioatcs at tuoccMive 
ft). CA4+A|)4'(x.).... . 
; the aocenta denoung the 

U. KaiaMe aatf MomaOs ef a BriqueUe.—Tht application of the 

Mthods of ii 73-79 to calculation of the volume of a briouette lead* 

toeomplicated iormulae. If the conditions are such that the methodt 

d I6i cannot be uaed, or are undesirable as giving too much weight 

to particular ordioates, it b best to proceed in the manner indicated 

ttthe end of i 48 ; tje. to find the areas of one set of parallel sections, 

ud treat thoe aa the ordinatcs of a trapezette whose area will be 

tk volume <rf the briquette. 

tb. The formulae of^i 82 can be extended to the case of a briquette 

itese top has dose contact with the base all along its boundary; 

the data being the volumes of the minor briquettes formed by the 

phoes x-a». x-xi, . . .and y-^, y-yi, . . . The method 

d ooutmctiiig the formulae b explamea in f 63. If we write 

n first calculate the raw values «^u »ia »i.it • . . of Sm, Si,*, Si,i, 
... on the assumption that the volume of each minor briquette 
Boncrat rated along iu mid-ordtnate (f 44). and we then obum the 
iwDiake o( correction by multiplying the formulae of f 83 in pairs. 
Tli» wc find (e.g.) 

Si4^fWi.t-iSAi*«i,« 

Si.i=a»,,i-uv,.i 

vkot <M b the total volume oif the briquette. 

l7' If the data of the briquette are, as in { 86, the volumes of the 
nioor briquettes, but the condition as to close contact b not satisfied, 
aeluve 

*kre KaajLXgth moment with regard to plane yo, 
Lmy*Xpth moment with regard to plane x->o, 
asd k b the volume of a briquette whose ordinate at (pCny,) b found 
fcy ankmfying by M *^ Jf^ the volume of that portion of the 
«i|inl bmiuette wiuch lies between the planes x-s^, x-Xr. 
;«>. y-*;*. The ordinatea of thb new briquette at the points of 
■ t wiwt ioB of X-*. x-xi, . . , with y-iib, y-yi, ... are 
ebtibed from the data by summation and multiplication ; and the 
erfiasry methods then apply for calculation of its volume. Either 
or bach of the expressions K and L will have to be calculated by 
swsas of the formula of { 84; if thb b applied to both expressions, 
*e have a formula which may be written in a more general form 

.^•|]rfadxiy|4i^y 

+/*|-|/-|-adxdyji^dxdy. 

Tie seoofld and third expressions on the right-hand side represent 
iiess of trapeaettes, which can be calculated from the data; and 
the fourth expression represents the volume of a briquette, to be 
cdcabtcd in the same way as R above. 

S8. CSuri of Failure. — ^When the sequence of differences is not such 
ai to enable any of the foregmng methods to be appUed, it b some> 
tbKs possible to amplify the data by measurement of intermedbte 
srfiaaies, and then apply a suitable method to the amplified series. 

There is, however, a certain class of cases in which no subdivision 

«f aiervals will pcoduce a good result ; viz. cases in which the top 

flf the figure b, at one extremity (or one part of its boundary), at 

q^ aisles to the base. The Euler-Madaurin formula () 75) 

MUKs that the bounding values of u', u'". . . . are not infinite ; 

thb oooditioa b not satined in the cases here considered. It is 

ila> dearly impossible to express « as an algebraical function of x 

Md 7 if some indue of dufdx or dufdy b to be infinite. 

' .Noeomplecely satisfactory methods have been devised for dealing 

aidi these cases. One method b to construct a table for interpola- 

^^n tion of X in terms of », and from this table 

^^^"^ I" to calculate values of x corresponding to 

TL^^ L values of «, proceeding by equal intervals; 

/ P a quadrature-formula can then be applied. 

/ I Suppose, for instance, that we require the 

/ I area of the trapezette ABL in fig. 11; the 

tfm^ \ curve being at right angles to the base AL 

* Q ■- at A. If QD b the bounding ordinate of 

one of the component strips, we can calculate 
the area of QDBL in the ordinary way. The 



Fic. II. 
I for the are 



xvm 3« 



kDQ are a series of values of u corrttponding to 
I of x; if we denote by y the distance of a point 



on the arc AD fmm QD, we can from the series of valuea of % 
con^ruct a Kric? of viilun ^i y corresponding to equidifferent valuea 
kX h» and thus hat% tKc area of ADy, treating QD as the base. The 
protcs*. however, i* trgiublt^wnM, 

«9. EjcjsxmpUt of Ap^uaiitmj.— The following are some examples 
of cjjses m wkich t h? alH>vc iDetbod» may be applied to the calcula* 
tion of area* *nd intcf rala. 

(l) Can^irvftiim of Maih^msiksl Taldes. — Even where « b an 
rxplicii functim of x, bo fhat/'iufx may be expressed in terms of x, 
it i« often more convenient » for <:on 51 ruction of a table of values of 
suctii an int^Knil, to y*e finite-difference formulae. The formula 
of I 7<^ may <sec DirrEfiENCESt Calculus of) be written 

-**(*«- 1^ JPAk 4- iVb«**» -... )/ 

- <r <*« + f^^km - f\l^*ku +...). 
The tecood of these ii usually the more convenient. Thus, to 
construct a Utile ol vuluca t^ f'vdx by intervals of A in x, we first 
farm a table of volutt of An for the intermedbte values of x from 
thb obtain a Exble of values of U+ii^-i\Ui*-{- . . .) ku kx 
Khac valua of x, and then conitruct the table of f'udx by succea* 
live additions. Atcentkin mu*t bo given to the possible accumula- 
tion of ttTbn due to the imaM emc^rs in the values of u. Each 
ol the abovt tarmulae invt^lv^t an arbitrary constant; but thb 
dbappcaxs when wc start the additions from a known value of 
/' viz. 
The pFooe^ may be repeated. Thus we have* 

/'/'"i*^ - C' + ^» - ^1 4* +...)«*•» ^ 

- *«(*^ + AI**** -Tit»*A'« + ...). 
Here there are two arbitrary coniunu, which may be adjusted in 
various ways. 

The formutse may be used for extending the accuracy of tables,' 
in cases where, if v rrpresentt the quantity tabulated, hdv/dx or 
h^d*wldx* can be cnnvenierkt^y capreHed in terms of v and x to a 
greater det^ree of accuracy ihati it could be found from the table. 
The pntctis prqctidlly cvm^^rt^ in using the table as it stands for 
i(nprt>\iii£ th? firiit or second diflerrnces of v and then, building up 
the tabk afresh. 

(ii) Liff Ittsvrame.—Thc use of quadrature-formulae b important 
iti ■ctuarial work, wherv th? fundamental tables are based on experi- 
ence, and the formulae applying tkene tables involve the use ol the 
tabuUted values and their dilTi^rende^, 

90. The folio vrini; are initancea of the application of approximative 
formulae 4.0 the calculation of the volumes of solids. 

(i) TimbfF MecsuFt. — To find tho quantity of timber in a trunk 
with parallel ends» the areas oi a few sections must be calcuUted 
as accurately u possible, and a formula applied. As the measure- 
ments oin only be rcmgh, the trapefoidal rule b the most appropriate 
tti ofdittary caKi^ 

(ii) C<iu£ine—Tti mc^satv the votume of a cask, it may be as- 
tuined that the interiof is approKiriiately.a portion of a spheroidal 
figure. The formula appllc<l can t h^n oe either Simpson s rule or 
a tute ba-^cd on Gauss's theDirm for two ordinates (| 56). In the 
Litter CMC the T wo sect iona. are taken at distances *^ §H/V 3 ■ * -sSSjH 
fram the middle section, where H Is the total internal length; and 
their arithnvetic mean ii tal^n to be the mean section of the cask. 
Allowance must of cmirse 1* madt for the thickness of the wood. \ 

91. Certain appmiumate formub^^ for the length of an arc of a 
circle are obt:iined by methodi fiimiUr to those of (f 71 and 79. 
Let n be the radio* of a circle, and $ (circular measure) the un- 
known angle subtended by an arc. Then, if we divided into 
m equal parts, and Li demote* the sum of the corresponding 
cbondi, to that U— ima tin i^iim)^ the true length of the arc b 

f , where ^ Slim, Similarly, if Lt repre-! 

sentfl the sum of the chords when m (assumed even) is replaced by 



u+^]$-$+ 



tiw, we have an expreit&ion involving Ls and 2^. The method of 
71 then allows that, by taking l(4Li — Lj) as the value of the arc, 
we get rid of temM in i^'. If we use ci to represent the chord of 
the whole arc, ti the chord of half the arc, and c« the chord of one 
quarter of the arc* then corpcs^^ofiding to (i) and (iii) of ( 70 or 
1 79 wc have jfBfa— fi) and 1^(356^-1 -40Cf+Ci) as approximations 
to the length oFthe are* The fimt of chesc b Huy^ens's rule. 

Rer£iiENCE,s, — For application? oj the prismotdal formula, see 
Alfred Lodge, Mmsvralipn for Sfnwr Students (1895). Other works 
on cktnentary meniur^tion arc G. T- Chivers, Elementary Mensura- 
tion (1904}^ R, W, K^ Edwatds, Elifntcntary Plane artd Solid Mensura- 
tion (ipoj); William H. Jackson, FM^nentary Sdtd Geortietry (1907); 
p. A. Lamberts Compulaiion and Afensuration (1907). A. E. Pier- 
paint V Ifeniufoiiitn Formuiae {t^i) is a handy collection. Rules 
br ^Tiltulation of artst* ore al^^o given in such works as F. Castle, 
Mummt of Froitrcai Malhem^iHci (ifjo^); F. C CUrke, Practical 
Matiumaiiii (1907}; C. T. MUlb, Tethntcal Arithwietic and Geometry 

\a 



146 



MENTAWI— MENZEL, A. F; E. VON 



(1903). For emrnJet of measurement of areu by geometrical 
conitructioa, tee C C. Turner, Graphics appUtd to ArUkmHie, 
iiensurtUiem and StaHc's (1907). Diacuisiomi of the approximate 
calculation of definite integrals will be f(Hind in works on the in- 
finitesimal calculus; see e.f. E. Goursat. A Course in iiaikemoHcal 
Analysis (1905 ; trans, by b. R. Hedrick). For the methods involv- 
ing finite dinerenccs, sec references under Diffbkbncbs, Calculus 
of; and Intekpolation. On cakulation of moroenu of graphs, 
see W. P. Elderton, Frequency-Curves and Corrdation (1906); as to 
the formulae of f 83, see also Biomarika, v. 450. For mechanical 
methods of calculating areas and moments see Calculating 
Machines. (W. F. Sh.) 

. MENTAWI, a chain of islands in the Dutch East Indies, off 
the west coast of Sumatra, between i* and 3** 30' S. There arc 
twenty-one islands in all, of which the majority lie close to or 
between the four largest — Sibenit, Sikaban or Sipora, North ! 
Pageh and South Pageh. The two last (also called Pagi or 
Poggy) are sometimes termed the Nassau Islands. The total 
land area is 1 2 24 sq. m. The islands are included in dhe admini- 
stration of Padang, Sumatra. They are apparently volcanic. 
Coral reefs lie off the coasts and render them difficult of access. 
The natives in language and customs present affinities with some 
Polynesians, and have been held to be a survival of the eastward 
immigration of people of Caucasian stock which took place 
before those which established the " pre-Malay" peoples (such 
as the Dyaks and Battas) in the Malay Archipelago. The islands 
produce some coco-nuts, sago, trepang and timber. 

MBNTEITH, or Monteith, a district of south Perthshire, 
Scotland, roughly comprising the territory between the Teith 
and the Forth. Formerly it was a stewartry and gave the title 
to an earldom. The title was first held by Gilchrist, a Celtic 
chief ennobled by Malcolm IV., and passed successively to Walter 
Comyn (d. 1258), to a branch of the Stewarts, and finally to the 
Grahams, becoming extinct in 1694. The lake of Menteith, 
situated 2\ m. S. of Loch Vennachar measures 1} m. long by x m. 
broad, and contains three islands. On Inchmahome (Gaelic, 
" the Isle of Rest") are the ruins of an Augustinian pri6ry 
founded in 1238 by Walter Comyn. It is Early English, with an 
ornate western doorway. The island was the residence of (^een 
Mary, when a child of five, for a few months before her departure 
to France in 1548. On Inch Talla stands the mined tower of the 
earls of Menteith, dating from 1428. The village of Port of 
Monteith (pop. of parish, 1088), oi\ the north shore of the lake, 
is 3i m. north by west of the station of the same name on the 
North British Railway Company's Forth & Clyde line. 

MENTONE (Fr. Menion), a town in the department of the 
Alpes Maritimes in south-east France, situated on the shore of 
the Mediterranean, about 15 m. by rail E. of Nice. Pop. (1901), 
9944. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre on a rocky 
promontory, which divides its semicircular bay into two portions. 
The main town is composed of two parts. Below, along the sea- 
shore, is the town of hotels and foreigners, while above, and 
inaccessible to wheeled vehicles, is that of the native Mentonese, 
with steep, narrow and dark streets, clinging to the mountain 
side around the strong castle which was once its protection 
against pirates. In the old town is the church of St Michel, 
rebuilt in great part since an earthquake in 1887, while below, 
in the principal street, the Corniche road, is the monument set 
up in 1896 to commemorate the union (in i860) of Men tone with 
France. East of the main town is the suburb of Garavan, 
sheltered by cliffs, and filled with hotels. A mile and a half far- 
ther on is the Pont St Louis, which marks the frontier between 
France and Italy, while beyond it Sir Thomas Hanbury's villa 
at La Murtola is soon reached, with its marvellous gardens of 
250 acres. West of the main town more hotels and villas are 
scattered along the coast towards Cap Martin. This is a pine- 
covered promontory which shelters the Bay of Mentone on the 
west, and is crowned by a great hotel, not far from which is the 
villa of the ex-empress Eugenie. Facing south-east, and 
sheltered on the north and west by mountains, the Bay of 
Mentone has a delicious climate and is frequented by invaUds. 
The mean for the year is 61" F., while that for the winter is 72* 
in the sun, and 55° in the shade. Frost occurs on the average 
only once in ten years. Besides the charms of its climate Mentone 



offers those of an almost tropical vegetation. IfemoiiKtrees, olivB-' 
trees and pines rise in successive stages on surrounding alopet. 
The district produces 40,000,000 lemons yearly, and this is its 
principal natural wealth. In the east bay is the harbour, con- 
structed in 1890. It has a depth of about 26 ft., and is sheltered 
by a jetty about 400 yds. in length. The harbour is frequented 
by pleasure yachts and a few coasting vessels. 

Mentone wgj probably the Lunncne of the kinctanct. but aa 
Runian remains exiit. After having belonged to the counts of 
V(?ntimi£lu artd a noble Gena«e family, ic waa purchased about iht 
middle c( ihc i^th century by the Crimaldifi, lords of Moimco. 
DurihE the Fim Kerrublic and the First Empire ic belonged to France^ 
but in i%i^ it reverted to the ^rinee of Mon^o. who subjected it to 
sych exactioni that in [&48 1(5 inhribluinl» proclaimed the town 
(wiLii Ruqucbrune On the west) indicpcndent, under the protectiofl 
of Sard in La. [n 1 860 both Mentone and Roquebrunc were purchdiefl 
by France from the prince of Nfonaco, and added to the dtpartmcnl 
ol the Alpei Maritimes then formed out of the county of Ntce^ ocded 
Che same year to France by Sardinia. 

MENTOR, in Greek legend, the son of Aldmua and the faitlifal 
friend of Odysseus. During the absence of the latter, Mentor 
was entrusted with the care of his household and the giisrdian- 
ship of his son Telemachus. The word " mentor " is now used 
in the sense of a wise and trustworthy adviser, a meaofof 
probably connected with the etymology of the name, from the 
root tnott-, seen, in Lat. monere, to advise, numUor, adviser. 

The New English Dictionary points out that the txanaferred «• 
is due less to Homer's Odyssey than to F^nelon's TiUiiiapu,in wUdi 
Mentor is a somewhat promuent character. 

MENTOR OF RHODES, brother of Memnon (q.v.), a Greek 
condottiere who appears first in the service of the rebcUiooi 
satrap Artabazus of Phrygia in 363. When Artabasus had 
rebelled a second time and was in 353 forced to flee with Memnoi 
into Macedonia, Mentor entered the service of the Egyptian 
king Nectanebus, and was sent by him with a body of Greek 
mercenaries to support the rebellious king Tennes (Tabnit) d 
Sidon against Artaxerxes III. But Tennes and Mentor betrayed 
the besieged town to the Persians (344 b.c.). Tennes was kiUed 
after his treason, but Mentor gained the favour of the king. It 
was due largely to him that Egypt was conquered in 343 (Died. 
zvL 45 sqq.). He now closely allied himself with the eunuch 
Bagoas (9.9.), the all-powerful vizier of Artazerxes III. He 
was appointed general in Asia Minor, and with the hdp of 
Arubazus and Memnon, whose pardon and recall he obtained 
from the king, subdued the rebels and local dynasts. The bkmI 
famous among them was Hermias of Atameus, the protector 
of Aristotle, who had become master of some towns of-Acolii 
and Troas. By treachery he made him prisoner and occupied ha 
towns (342 B.C.) ; Hermias was executed by order of the king 
(Diod. xvi. 52; Polyaen. vi. 48; pseudo-Arist. (keon. fi. rj; 
Strabo xiii. 610; Didymus' commentary on DemosthcDCt 
Pkil. 4, p. 6; cf. Diog. Lam. vi. 9). Shortly afterwards Mentor 
died, and was succeeded by his brother Memnon. His sob 
Thymondas commanded in the naval war against Alexander aod 
atIssus(Arrianii. a, i;i3, a). (Ed. M4 

MENZEL. ADOLPH FRIEORICH ERDMANIT VOff (i8ts- 
1905), German artist, was bom at Breslau on the 8th of December 
181 5. His father was at the head of a school for girls, aod 
intended to educate his son as a professor; but be would boI 
thwart his taste for art. Left an orphan in 1832, Menxd had to 
maintain his family. In 1833 Sachse of Berlin published his fint 
work, an album of pen-and-ink drawings reproduced on atoo^ 
to illustrate Goethe's little poem, " KUnstlers ErdenwaUen." 
He executed lithographs in ^ the same manner to illustrate. 
DenkwUrdigkeiten aus der bramUnburgisch-preussiscken GescMcAir, 
pp. 834-836; " The Five Senses " and " The Prayer," as wcttas 
diplomas for various corporations and societies. From 1839 to 
1842 he produced 400 drawings, reviving at the same time the i 
technique of engraving on wood, to illustrate the GesdUdMfe '' 
Friedrichs des Grossen (" History of Frederick the Great ") by .. 
Franz Kugler. He subsequently brought out FHeiriihs ia * 
Grossen Armee in ikrer Uniformirung (" The Uniforms of ihs 
Army under Frederick the Great ")f Soldalem Frieiricks da 
Grossen (" The Soldiers of Frederick the Great "); and finally, Iv 



MENZEL, W.— MEQUINEZ 



H7 



of the king Frederick WfDiua IV., he illustrated the 
of Frederick the Grett, JUustraHonen tu den Werken 
frudncks des Crossen (1843-1849). By these works Menzel 
established his chum to be considered one of the first, if not 
actually the first, of the illustrators of his day in his own line. 
iCeanwhile Menad had set himself to study unaided the art of 
painting, and he so(»i produced a great number and variety of 
pictoKS, always showing keen observation and honest workman- 
dnp — subjects dealing with the life and achievements of Frederick 
the Great, and scenes of everyday life, such as " In the Tuileries," 
" The Bali Supper," and " At Confession." Among the most 
important of these works are " The Forge " (1875) and " The 
ICaiket-place at Verona." Invited to paint " The Coronation of 
UnUiam L at Koenigsberg," he produced an exact representation 
of the ceremony without regard to the traditions of official 
iwitithij Menzel died at Berlin on the 9th of Febriiary 1905. 
In Germany he received many honours, and was the first painter 
to be given the order of the Black Eagle. 

■■■■JLM^ VOLPOAWO (i 798-1873), German poet, critic and 
Iteiary historian, was bom on the axst of June 1798, at Walden- 
bug in Silesia, studied at BresUu, Jena and Bonn, and after 
iriag for some time in Aarau and Heidelberg finally settled in 
Stattgart, whAe, from 1830 to 1838, he had a seat in the Wtirt- 
teasbag Diet. His first work, a clever and original volume of 
poems, entitled Streekoene (Heidelberg, 1823), was followed in 
182^1825 by a popular Gesekkkte der DaUseken in three volumes 
ttd in 1829 and 1830 by RUbadU and Narcissus, the dramatized 
liiiy^tories vpon which his reputation as a poet chiefly rests, 
hi 1851 be poblisbed the romance of Furore, a lively picture of 
tkpoiod of the Thirty Years' War; his other writings include 
Getdtidde Emropas, 1789-1815 (a vols. Stuttgart, 1853), and 
kirtflries of the German War of 1866 and of the Franco-German 
Wsr of 1870-71. From 1826 to 1848 Menzel edited a " LiUra- 
tsiUatt " in connexion with the MargenblaU; in the latter year 
k t iaasf e i ie d his allegiance from the Liberal to the Conservative 
psrty, and in 1852 his " Literaturblatt " was revived in that 
litevesL In x866 his political sympathies again chaziged, and 
k opposed the " particularism " of the Prussian " junkers " 
sad the ant* -unionism of south Germany. He died on the a3rd 
of April 1873 at Stuttgart. His library of 18,000 volumes was 
sftcmrds acquired for the university of Strassburg. 

HUZBUVSK. a town of eastern Russia, in the government 
of Cfa, 142 m. N.W. of the town of Ufa, and 10 m. from the left 
hsak of the Kama. Pop. (1897), 7542. lu fair is one of the 
BMt important in the southern Ural region for cattle, hides, furs, 
pain, tea, manufactured articles, crockery, &c., which are sold 
to the annual value of £500,000. The town was founded in 1 584. 
HVHinOPHELBS.* in the Faust legend, the name of the 
evfl tfixit in return for whose assistance Faust signs away his 
souL The origin of the conception and name of Miphistophelcs 
bis been the subject of much learned debate. In Dr Fausls 
BiBefamoMg '* Mephistophiel " is one of the seven great princes 
of kO;" he stands under the planet Jupiter, his regent is named 
Zadkid, an enthroned angel of the holy Jehovah . . .; his form 
bfiistly that of a fiery bear, the other and fairer appearance is as 
of a Ettle man with a black cape and a bald head." The origin 
of tk klea of Mephistopheles in Faust's mind is thus clear. He 
uu one of the evil demons of the seven planets, the Maskim of 
tkiacient Akkadian reUgion, a conception transmitted through 
tk Chaldeans, the Babylonians and the Jewish Kabbala to 
nedieval and modem astrologers and magicians. This fact 
\ a plausible theoiy of the origin of the name. In the 
. Mesopotamian religion the Intelligence of Jupiter was 
Ifaxduk, " the lord of light," whose antithesis was accordingly 
conceived as the lord of darkness. Mephistopheles, then (or 
nther Mcphostophiles, as the Faust-books spell the name) is 
**k who docs not love light "(Gr.^i^, ^, ^(Xijs).' 

* la the FamsAuck of 1587 it is spelt Miphostophilcs; by Marlowe 
MtpUttophilis; by Shakespeare (Merry Wives of Windsor, Act i.) 
Mephos t oirfulos. The form Mephistopheles adopted by Goethe 
in* appean in the version des CknsUick Meinenden, c. 1712. 

' KMsrwctter, p. 163. To Schrder this deriv-atinn seems improb- 
iblt, aad he appears to pccfer that from Hebrew Me^kix, destroyer. 



To Faust himself, somnambulist and medium, Mephistopheles 
had — according to Kiesewetter — a real existence: he was " the 
objectivalion of the transcendental subject of Faust," an experi- 
ence familiar in dreams and, more especially, in the visions of 
mediums and clairvoyants. He was thus a " familiar spirit ," 
akin to the " daemon " of Socrates; and if he was also half the 
devil of theology, half the kobold of old German myth, this was 
only because such " objcctivations " are apt to clothe themselves 
in forms borrowed from the common stock of ideas current at the 
time when the seer lives; and Faust lived in an age obsessed with 
the fear of the devil, and by no means sceptical of the existence 
of kobolds. It is suggested, then, in the light of modem psychical 
research, thst Mephistopheles, though (as thq Faust-books 
record) invisible to any one else, was visible enough to Faust 
himself and to Wagner, the famulus who shared his somnambu- 
listic experiences. He was simply Faust's "other self," appear- 
ing in various guises— as a bear, as a little bald man, as a monk, 
aa an invisible presence ringing a bell — but always recognizable as 
the same " familiar." 

The MephostophUcs of the Faust-books and the puppet plays 
passed with little or no modification into literature as the Mephisto- 
philis _ of Marlowe's Fauslus. Mcphistophilis has the kobold 
qualities: he not only waits upon Faustus and provides him with 
sumptuous fare ; he indulges in norsc-pUy and is addicted to practical 
joking of a homely kind. He is, however, also the devil, as the age 
of the Reformation conceived him : a fallen angel who has not for- 
gotten the splendour of his first esute, and who pictures tu Faust 
the glories 01 heaven, in order to accentuate the horrors of the hell 
to which he triumphantly drags him. Goethe's Mephistopheles is 
alto^her another conception. _ Some of the traditional qualities 
are mdtr<l pnr^-* ■•' ■ . 1 r^icticai jokiTi, for In.-i ■ . ■' .^ 

character a kk:»botd; and, lilte the pbnct-spirU^ ul the old nsagie 
he app«rar4 aUtmauly in animal anti huiiun fhA(tc- Hv ii tw 
identified with the devit; thu^, in acrardaricc with old G^rmaii tradi- 
tion, he ii drcised a& i nctbkmnn {ttn (dUr Junker), all in rwl. with 
a little cape of »tifl allt. a. cock's feather in hii luu and a. long pointed 
sword; al thp wjlcHca' SabhaEh on ihe Broclccn he U haileifaa '" the 
knight wiih the horse's hooff" and Sybei in Auefbach'i Kelttr a 
not too drunk not to notice thai he limps. But hi* lirnp is the only 
indication ihrtt he i& Lufiftr faHun Uam htavni. Hf cmiki ncii, like 
Marlowe's Mcphistophilis or Milton's Satan, regretfully paint the 
glories of the height from which he has been hurled; for ne denies 
the distinction between high and low, since " everything that comes 
into being deserves to be dcstroyetl." • He is, in short, not the devil 
of Christian orthodoxy, a spirit conscious of the good against which 
he is in revolt, but akin to the Evil Principle of the older dualistic 
systems, with their conception of the eternal antagonism between 

food and evil, light and darkness, creation and destruction. (See 
AUST.) (W. AP.) 

MEPPEL. a town in the province of Drcnte, Holland, 16) m. by 
rail N. by E. of Zwolle. Pop. (1903), 10,470. It is favourably 
situated at the confluence of a number of canals and rivers which 
communicate hence with the Zuidcr Zee by the Meppcler Diep, 
and rose rapidly into prominence in the iQth century. The chief 
business is in butter, eggs, cattle and pigs, while bleaching, 
dyeing and shipbuilding arc also carried on here. 

MEQUINEZ (the Spanish form of the Arabic Miknasa), a city 
of Morocco, situated 1600 ft. above the sea, about 70 m. from 
the west coast and 36 m. W.S.W. of Fez, on the road to Rabat, 
in 33* 56' N., s* 50' W. The town wall with its four-cornered 
towers is pierced by nine gates, one, the B4b Bardain, with fine 
tile- work. A lower wall of wider circuit protects the luxuriant 
gardens in the outskirts. Mequinez at a distance appears a city 
of palaces, but it possesses few buildings of any note except the 
palace and the mosque of Mulai Ismail, which serves as the royal 
burying-placc. The palace, founded in 1634, was described in 
182 1 by John Windus in his Journey to Mequinez (London 1825) 
as " about 4 m. in circumference, the whole building exceeding 
massy, and the walls in every part very thick; the outward one 
about a mile long and 25 ft. thick." The interior is composed 
of oblong court-yards surrounded by buildings and arcades. 
These buildings are more or less square with pyramidal roofs 
ornamented outside with green glazed tiles, and inside with 

and lopheJ.li^T (Faust, ed. 1R86, i. 25), which is certainly supported 
by the fact that almost all ihc n.imi>s of devils in the magic-books, 
01 the 1 6th century are derived from the Hebrew. 
* AUes was entstekt ist wertk doss c» iu Grunde ffkt. 



148 



MERAN— MERCANTILE SYSTEM 



richly carved and painted woodwork in Maureaque style. The 
walls are tiled to a height of 4 or 5 ft., and above they are finished 
in plaster, whitewashMi or carved into filigree work. The popu- 
lation numbers being between thirty and forty thousand. Idiisi, 
writing in a.o. xioo, calls the place Takarart, and describes 
it as an ordinary citadel, frotn which the town gradually 
developed, taking its name from the Miknasa Berbers. 

MBRAN, the. chief town of the administrative district of the 
same name in the Austrian province of the Tirol, ao m. by rail 
N.W. of Botzen on the Brenner line, while the Vintschgau railway 
connects it with Mais, 37 m. N.W. It is the chief town in the 
upper Adige valley, a region which bears the special name of the 
Vintschgau, and is on the high road either to Landeck and the 
Lower Engadine by the Reschen Scheideck Pass (4902 ft.), or 
more directly to the Lower Engadine by the MUnster valley and 
the Ofen Pass (7071 ft.). In 1900 Meran had 9284 inhabitants 
(or, with the neighbouring villages of Untermais and Obermais, 
I3,20x), mainly German-speaking and Romanist. The town is 
picturesquely situated, at a height of looi ft., at the foot of the 
vine-dad Kttchelberg, and on the right bank of the Passer River, 
just above its junction with the Adige or Etsch. Meran proper 
consists mtinly of one long narrow street, the Laubengasse, 
flanked by covered arcades, but the name is often used to include 
several adjacent villages, Untermais and Obermais being on the 
left bank of the Passer, while Gratsch is on its right bank and 
north-west of the main town. The most noteworthy buildings are 
the parish church (14th to x 5th centuries) and the old residence 
(iSth century) of the counts of the Tirol. Meran is best known 
as a much-frequented resort for consumptive patients, for whom 
it is well suited by reason oif the purity of the air and the compara- 
tive immunity of the place from wind and rain in the winter. It 
is also visited in spring for the whey cure and in autumn for the 
grape cure. 

To the north-west, on the Kachelberg, is the half-ruined castle 
of Tirol (2096 ft.), the original seat of the family which gave its 
name to the county. Meran may have been built on the site of a 
Roman settlement, but is first mentioned in 857. From the 1 2th 
century to about 1420 it was the capital of the ever-extending 
land named after it Tirol, but then had to give way to Innsbruck, 
while the building of the Brenner railway (1864-X867) and the 
rise of Botzen have decreased its commercial importance. 

(W. A. B. C.) 

MERBBCK (or Mameck), JOHN (d. c. 1585), English theo- 
logical writer and musician, was organist of St George's, Windsor, 
about 1540. Four years later he was convicted of heresy and 
sentenced to the stake, but received a pardon owing to the 
intervention of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, though Gardiner 
had himself censured Merbeck for compiling an English Con- 
cordance of the Bible. This work, the first of its kind in English, 
was published in x 5 50 with a dedication to Edward VI. In the 
same year Merbeck published his annotated Book of Common 
Prayer, intended to provide for musical uniformity in the use of 
the First Prayer Book of Edward VI., which was several times 
reprinted in the 19th century. Merbeck wrote several devo- 
tional and controversial works of a strongly Calvinistic character, 
and a number of his musical compositions are preserved in manu- 
script in the British Musctim, and at Oxford and Cambridge. He 
died, probably whUc still organist at Windsor, about 1585. His 
son, Roger Merbeck (1536-1605), a noted classical scholar, was 
appointed public orator in the university of Oxford in 1564, and 
in 1565 became a canon of Christ Church and was elected provost 
of Oriel; he left Oxford on account of an unfortunate marriage, 
and took to medicine as a profession, becoming the first registrar 
of the College of Physicians in London, and chief physician to 
Qactn Elizabeth. 

MBRCADIER (d. 1200), French warrior of the 12th century, 
and chief of freebooters in the service of Richard I. of England. 
In 1x83 he operated for Richard, then duke of Aquitaine, in the 
Limousin and the Angoumois, taking castles and laying waste 
the country. We know nothing of him during the ten years 
1x84-1x94, but after Richard's return from Palestine, Mercadier 
accompanied him everywhere, travelling and fighting by his 



side. Richard eulogized Mercadier's exploits in hit lettcn, at 
gave him the esUtes left by Ad^mar de Bainac, who died wHhoi 
heirs about 1x90. During the various wars between Ricbai 
and Philip Augustus of France, Mercadier fought auccetaive 
in Berry, Normandy, Flanders and Brittany. When Riduu 
was mortally wounded at the siege of (HiAlus in March 1x9 
Mercadier avenged him by hanging the defenders of the cb&tH 
and flaying the crossbowman who had shot the king. Mercadi 
then entered the service of John, and ravaged Gascony. C 
Easter Monday, the xoth of April x2oo, he was assassinated whi 
on a visit to Bordeaux to pay his respects to Eleanor of Aquitain 
who was bringing from Spain Blanche of Castile. His murder 
was an agent of Brandin, another freebooter in the service of Joh 
See Geraud, Mercadier, in Biblioth^ue de I'ficole des Chaiti 
1st series, t. liL, pp. 417-443. 

MERCANTILB (or Commexcxal) AQEHCIES, the name givi 
in America to organizatioxis designed to collect, record at 
distribute to regular clients inforaution relative to the standii 
of commercial firms. In Great Britain and some European coui 
tries trade protectivesodeties, composed of noerchants and trade 
men, are formed for the promotion of trade, and xnembeis e 
chaxige information regarding the standing of business bouie 
These societies had their origin in the associations formed in tl 
middle of the X9th century for the purpose of ^t»«»mittyfjt 
information regarding bankruptcies, assigiunents and bills • 
sale. The mercantile agency in the United States is a moi 
more comprehensive organization. It came into ezxstence afti 
the financial crisis of X837. Trade in the United States hi 
become scattered over a wide territory. Communication was shm 
and the town merchant was without adequate informatic 
as to the standing of many business men seeking credit. Ui 
doubtedly the severity of the collapse of 1837 was due in pc 
to the insufficiency of this information. New Yoric merchant 
who had suffered so severely, determined to organize a heai 
quarters where reports regarding the standing of custome 
could be exchanged. Lewis Tappan (X788-X873), founder < 
the Journal of Commerce (X828) and a prominent anti-alava 
leader, undertook the work, and established in New York, ini84 
the Mercantile Agency, the first organization of its kind. 11 
system has been wonderfully developed and extended since. 

MERCANTILB SYSTEM, the name given to the ecoDQB 
policy which developed in Europe at the dose of the middk aft 
The doctrine of the mercantile system, stated in its moat extreo 
form, made wealth and money identical, and regarded it tber 
fore as the great object of a community so to conduct its deafini 
with other nations as to attract to itself the largest posaibfe sha: 
of the precious metals. Each country's interest was to catpo 
the utmost possible quantity of its own manufactures aad t 
import as little as possible of those of other countries, reoeivii 
the difference of the two values in gold and silver. This diflc 
ence is called the balance of trade, and the balance is favourah 
when more money is received than is paid. Governments mi^ 
resort to all available expedients— prohibition of, or hi^ duti 
on, the importation of foreign wares, bounties on the export 
home manufactures, restrictions on the export of the predo* 
metals — for the purpose of securing such a balance. 

But this statement of the doctrine, though current in ta 
books, does not represent correctly the views of all who I 
to the mercantile school. Many members of that school y 
much too clear-sighted to entertain the belief that wealth c 
exclusively of gold and silver. The mercantilists may be be 
described, as W. G. F. Roscher remarked, not by any defiai 
economic theorem which they held in common, but l^ a set 
theoretic tendencies, commonly found in combination, thoii| 
severely prevailing in different degrees in different minds. Tl 
underlying principles may be enumerated as follows: (x) tl 
importance of possessing a large amount of the precious metal 
(2) an exaltation (a) of foreign trade over domestic, and (6) of tl 
industry which works up materials over that which |»ovid 
them; (3) the value of a dense population as an ekmant ' 
national strength; and (4) the employment of state actioi : 
furthering artificially the attainment .of the cods prapoM 



MERCAPTANS— MERCATOR 



149 



Tlie dncovcries in the New Worid bad led to s large develop- 
■ent of the European currencies. The old feudal economy, 
founded principally on dealings in kind, had given way before 
tbe new ** money economy." and the dimensions of the latter were 
everywhere expanding. Circulation was becoming more rapid^ 
(fisiant communications more frequent, city life and movable 
property more important. The mercantilists were impressed by 
the fact that money is wealth sui geiuris, that it is at all times in 
universal demand, and that it puts into the hands of its possessor 
the power of acquiring allothcrcommodities. The period, again, 
was marked by the formation of great states, with powerful 
governments at their head. These governments required men 
and money for the maintenance of permanent armies, which, 
especially for the religious and Italian wars, were kept up on a 
great scale. Court expenses, too, were more lavish than ever 
\)cforc, and a larger number of civil oflficials was employed. The 
loyal domains and dues were insuflficicnt to meet these require- 
ticnts, and taxation grew with the demands of the monarchies. 
Statesmen saw that for their own political ends 'industry must 

Ilourish. But manufactures make possible a denser population 
and a higher total value of exports than agriculture; they open 
> less L'mited and more promptly extensible field to enterprise. 
Recce they became the object of special governmental favour and 
patronage, whilst agriculture fell comparatively into the back- 
ground. The growth of manufactures reacted on commerce, to 
«b;ch a new and mighty arena had been opened by the establish- 
Bcnt of colonies. These were then viewed simply as estates to be- 
vorked for the advantage of the mother countries, and the aim 
of statesmen was to make the colonial trade a new source of 
pcbLc revenue. Each nation, as a whole, working for its own 
powrr.and the greater ones for predominance, they entered into a 
Gompetiiive struggle in the economic no less than in the political 
kid, success in the former being indeed, by the rulers, regarded as 

[ instruinental to pre-eminence in the latter. A national economic 
interest came to exist, of which the government made itself the 
lepmentative head. States became a sort of artificial hothouse 
br the rearing of urban industries. Production was subjected 
to systematic regulation, with the object of securing the goodness 
and cheapness of the exported articles, and so maintaining the 

■ place of the nation in foreign markets. The industrial control 
vas exercised, in part directly by the state, but largely also 
through privileged corporations and trading companies. High 
duties on imports were resorted to, at first perhaps mainly for 
Rvcnue, but afterwards in the interest of national production. 
Commercial treaties were a principal object of diplomacy, the 
ead in view being to exclude the competition of other nations in 
foctign markets, whilst in the home market as little room as 
possible was given for the introduction of anything but raw 
Baterials from abroad. The colonics were prohibited from 
trading with other European nations than the parent country, to 
vfaich they supplied either the precious metals or raw produce 
pvchaied with home manufactures. 

That the efforts of governments for the furtherance of manu- 
factures and commerce under the mercantile system were really 
cEcctive towards that end is admitted by Adam Smith, and 
cansot reasonably be doubted, though doctrinaire free-traders 
bve often denied it. Technical skill must have been promoted 
bv iheir encouragements; whilst new forms of national produc- 
tba were fostered by attracting workmen from other countries, 
and by lightening the burden of taxation on struggling industric-s. 
Cbmmunication and transport by land and sea were more rapidly 
iopnved; and the social dignity of the industrial professions was 
nhanced relatively to that of the classes before exclusively 
dMBinant. 

The foundation of the mercantile system was at the time when 
it took its rise inspired by the situation of the European nations. 
Sadb a policy hod been already in some degree practised in the 
Mth and isth centuries, thus preceding any formal exposition or 
^efnce of its speculative basis. At the commencement of the 
Ah century it began to exercise a widely extended influence. 

(Qarles V. adopted it, and his example contributed much to its 
pndoniauice. Heniy VUI. and Elizabeth cooformcd their 



measures to it. The leading states soon entered on a universal 
competition for manufacturing and commercial preponderance. 
Through almost the whole of the 17th century the prize, so far as 
<;ommerce was concerned, remained in the possession of Holland, 
Italy having lost her former ascendancy by the opening of the 
new maritime routes, and Spain and Germany being depressed 
by protracted wars and internal dissensions. The admiring envy 
of Holland felt by English politicians and economists appears in 
such writers as Raleigh, Mun, Child and Temple. Cromwell, by 
his Navigation Act, which destroyed the carrying trade of 
Holland and founded the English empire of the sea, and 
Colbert, by his whole economic policy, domestic and inter- 
national, were the chief practical representatives of the 
mercantile system. 

See G. Schmoller. The iiertamltte System (Eng. trans.. 1896): 
al!>o the articles, Balance of Trade; Feee Trade; Protection; 
PiiYsioCRATic School, &c. 

MERCAPTANS (Thio-alcohols), organic chemical compounds 
of the type R.SII (R^^an alkyl group). The name is derived 
from mercurium captans^ in allusion to the fact that these 
compounds react readily with mercuric oxide to form crystalline 
mercury derivatives. The mercaptans may be prepared by 
the action of the alkyl halides on an alcoholic solution of potas- 
sium hydrosulphide; by the reduction of the sulpho-chlorides, 
e.g. CxH»SOsCl (chlorides of sulphonic acids), by heating the salts 
of esters of sulphuric acid with potassium hydrosulphide, and 
by heating the alcohols with phosphorus pentasulphide. They 
are colourless liquids, which are insoluble in water and possess 
a characteristic offensive smell. On oxidation by nitric acid 
they yield sulphonic acids. They combine with aldehydes 
and ketones, with elimination of water and formation of mer- 
captals and mercaplols. (See StJLPUONAL.) 

Methyl nurcabtan. CHj-SH. is a liquid which boils at S-S** C. 
(752 mm.), and forms a crystalline hvdrate with water. £/AW 
mercaptan, Ctlli.SH, is a colourless liquid which boils at 36-a* C. It 
is used commercially in the pn-naratton of sulphonal \q.v.). The 
mercury salt. Hg(SCtIU)t. crystallizes from alcohol in plates. When 
heated with alcohol to 190' C. it decomposes into mercury and 
ethyldlsulphide. 

MERCATOR, QERARDUS patinized form of Gerhaxd 
Kremer] (151 2-1 594), Flemish mathematician and geographer, 
was born at Rupclmonde, in Flanders, on the 5th of March 151a. 
Having studied at Bois-le-Duc and Louvain (where he matricu- 
lated on the 2Qth of August 1530, and became licentiate in 
October 1533), he met Gemma Frisius, a pupil of Apian of 
Ingolstadt, who at the request of the emperor Charles V. had 
settled in Louvain. F'rom Frisius young Kremer derived much 
of his inclination to cartography and scientific geography. In 
1534 he founded his geographical establishment at Louvain; in 
1537 be published his earliest known map, now lost (Terrae 
sanctac dcscriplio). In 1 537-1 540 he executed his famous survey 
and map of Flanders (Exactissima Flandriae dcscriplio), of which 
a copy exists in the AIusoc Plant in, Antwerp. At the order of 
Charles V. Mcrcator made a complete set of instruments of 
observation for the emperor's campaigns: when these were 
destroyed by fire, in 1546, another set was ordered of the same 
maker. In 153S appeared Mcrcator's m<ip of the world in (north 
and south) hemispheres, which was rediscovered in 1878 in New 
York; this work shows Ptolemy's inllucnce still dominant over 
Mercatorian cartography. In 1541 he issued the celebrated 
terrestrial globe, which he dedicated to Nicolas Perrenot, father 
of Cardinal Granvelle: this was accompanied by his Libdlus de 
usu globi, which is said to have been presented to Charles V. In 
1551 a celestial globe followed. Mcrcator early began to incline 
towards Protestantism; in ISJ3 he had retired for a time from 
Louvain to Antwerp, partly to avoid inquiry into his religious 
beliefs: in 1544 he was arrested and prosecuted for heresy, but 
escaped serious consequences (two of the forty-two arrested with 
him were burnt, one beheaded, two buried alive). He now 
thought seriously of emigrating; and when in 1552 Cassander, 
ordered by the duke of Julicrs, Cleves and Berg to organize a 
university at Duisburg, offered Mcrcator the chair of cosmo- 
graphy the offer was accepted. The organization of the 



ISO 



MERCENARY— MERCERIZING 



univenity was adjoamed, and never completed in Mercator's 
lifetime; but he now became cosmographer to the duke 
and permanently settled on the German soil to which many 
of his ancestors and relatives had belonged. Soon after this, 
however, he paid a visit to Charles V. at Brussels, and presented 
the emperor with a cosmos, a celestial sphere enclosing a terres- 
trial, together with an explanatory Dedaratio: this work marks 
an era in the observation of longitude by magnetic declination, 
perfected by Halley. Charles rewarded the author with the title 
of imperatorii domesticus {Ho/rath in the epitaph at Duisburg). 
In 1554 Mercator published his great map of Europe in six sheets, 
three or four of which had already been pretty well worked out at 
Louvain; a copy of this was rediscovered at Breslau in 1889. 
Herein, though still greatly under Ptolemy's influence, Mercator 
begins to emancipate himself; thus Ptolemy's 6a" for the length 
of the Mediterranean, reduced to 58** in the globe of 1541, 
he now cuts down to 53**. On the 28th of October 1556 
he observed an eclipse at Duisburg; in 1563 he surveyed 
Lorraine, at the request of Duke Charles, and completed a 
map of the same (Lotharingiae descriptu>)\ but it is uncertain 
If this was ever published. In 1564 he engraved William 
Camden's map of the British Isles; in 1568 he brought 
out his ChronoiogiOf hoc est temporum dcmonstratio . . . 
ab initio mundi usque ad annum domini 1568, ex edipsihus 
el observaiionibus aslronomicis. In the same year was published 
bis memorable planisphere for use in navigation, the first map 
on ** Mercator's projection," with the parallels and meridians 
at right angles iNova et aucia orbis lerrae descripHo ad usum 
navigantium accommodata). Improvements were introduced in 
this projection by Edward Wright (n 1590; the more general use 
of it dales from about 1630, and largely came about through 
Dieppese support. In 157a Mercator issued a second edition 
of his map of Europe; in 1578 appeared his Tabulae geograpkicae 
ad nuntcm Plelemaei restitutae et emendatae; and in 1585 the 
first part (containing Germany, France and Belgium) of the 
Atlas, sive cosmograpkicae meditationes defabrica mundi, in which 
he planned to crown his work by uniting in one volume his 
various detailed maps, so as to form a general description of the 
globe In 1585 he adapted his Europe to the Atlas; in 1587, 
with the help of his son Rumold, he added to the same a world- 
map (Orbis terrarum compendiosa desert ptio), followed in 1590 
by a second series of detailed maps (Italy, Slavonia, Greece and 
Candia). The rest of the regional and other plans in this under- 
taking, mostly begun by Gerard, were finished by Rumold; they 
Include Iceland and the Polar regions, the British Isles (dedicated 
to Queen Elizabeth), the Scandinavian countries (dedicated 
to Hcnr. Ranzovius), Prtissia and Livonia, Russia, Lithuania, 
Transylvania, the Crimea. Asia, Africa and America (in the last 
Michael Mercator, in Asia and Africa Gerard Mercator the 
younger, assisted) The designs are accompanied by cosmo- 
graphical and other dissertations, some of the theological views 
In which were condemned as heretical (see the Duisburg edition 
ol 1594, folio). In 1592 Mercator published, two years after 
his first apoplectic stroke, a Harmonia evangcliorum. He died 
OP the 5th of December 1594, and was buried in St Saviour's 
church, Duisburg. Besides his famous projection, he did ex- 
cellent service with Ortelius in helping to free the geography 
of the i6th century from the tyranny of Ptolemy; his map and 
instrument work is noteworthy for its delicate precision and 
admirable execution in detail. 

See the Vita Mercatorii by Gualtenis Chymnius !n the Latm 
editions of the Atlas; Cirara Mercator, sa vte el ses etuvres, by Dr 
J. van Raemdonck (St Nicolas, 1869); A. Brcusing, Gerhard Kremer 
(Duisburg, 1878), and article " Mercator " in AUtemeine deutsche 
Biograpkte; General Wauwcrmans, Hisloire de Cicde cartographique 
beige . . , au X Vl.-siide, and article " Mercator " in Biograpnie 
nationale (de Belgique). vol. xiv. (Brussels. 1897). Also the Inner 
studies of Dr J. van Raemdonck, Sur les exemplaires des grandes 
cartes de Mercator; Carte de Flandre de Mercator; Relations entre 

. . Mercator et . . . Plantin ... (St Nicolas, 1884); La Cio- 
graphie ancienne de la Palestine: Lettre de Girard Mercator . . . 
tmag^^. ij6p (St N.. 1884) ; Les Spkkres terrestre et cOesU de Mercator, 
^W - . . /jjj^ (St N., 188$); Van Ortroy, L'CEuvre eiographique 



MERCENARY (Lat. mercenarius, from merces, reward, giio), 
one who serves or acts solely for motives of personal gain, particu- 
larly a soldier who offers himself for service in any army which 
may hire him. The name is sometimes used as a term of reproach 
by nations who raise their armies by conscription, of armlet 
raised by voluntary enlistment whose members are paid a more 
or less living wage. 

MERCER (through Fr. mercier, from popular Lat. mercerius, 
a dealer, merx, merccs, merchandise), a dealer in the more costly 
textiles, especially in silks and velvets. The word formerly 
had a wider meaning. Mercery, according to W. Herbert 
{History of the Twelve Great Livery Companies, 1834), *' compre- 
hended all things sold by retail by the ' little balance ' or smaM 
scales (in contradistinction to the things sold by the * beam' 
or in gross), and included not only toys, together with haber- 
dashery and various other articles connected with dress, but also 
spices and drugs." Many of the articles in which they deah 
fell later within the sphere of other trades; thus the trade la 
the smaller articles of dress was taken over by the haberdashers 
iq.v.). The trade in silk seems to have been originally in the 
hands of the ** silkmen and throwsteres." The Mercers' Com- 
pany is the first in precedence of the twelve great livery com- 
panies of the city of London, and is also the wealthiest both in 
trust and corporate property. The first charter was obtained 
in 1393, but the mercers appear to have been formed into a gild 
much earlier. Herbert finds the mercers as patrons of a charity 
a few years after 1172, and one Robert Searle, who was mayor 
In 1 214, was a " mercer." A further charter was granted in 1424, 
with the right to use a common seal. The history of the company 
is closely connected with the name of Richard Whittington (q.t.), 
and later with that of Dean Colet, who chose the company at 
the manager of St Paul's School. (See Livery CoypANiES.) 

MERCERIZING^ the term applied to a process, discovered 
in 1844 by John Mercer, a Lancashire calico printer, which 
consists in treating cotton (and to a limited extent other plant 
fibres) with strong caustic soda or certain other reagents, where- 
by morphological and chemical changes arc brought about in 
the fibre. Thus, if a piece of bleached calico be immersed in 
caustic soda of 50** Tw. strength (sp. gr. 1-25), it rapidly changes 
in appearance, becoming stiff and translucent, but when taken 
out and well washed in running water it loses these properties 
and apparently reverts to its original condition. On closer 
examination, however, the fabric is found to have shrunk con- 
siderably both in length and breadth, so as to render the texture 
quite different in appearance to that of the original calico; it » 
also considerably stronger, and if dyed in the same bath along 
with some of the untreated fabric is found to have acquired a 
greatly increased affinity for colouring matters. This peculiar 
action is not restricted to caustic soda, similar effects being 
obtained with sulphuric acid of 105** Tw., nitric acid of 83* Tw., 
zinc chloride solution of 145* Tw., and other reagents. Mercer 
assumed that a definite compound, corresponding to the formula 
CisHtoOio-NasO is formed when the cotton is steeped in caustic 
soda, and that this is decomposed by subsequent washing with 
water into a hydratcd cellulose CuHi^io-HjO, which would 
account for the fact that in the air-dried condition mercerized 
cotton retains about 5% more hygroscopic moisture than 
ordinary cotton. This view is strengthened by the observation 
that when cotton is immersed in nitric acid of 83^ Tw.it acquires 
similar properties to cotton treated with caustic soda. If, after 
immersion in the nitric acid, it is squeezed and then dried 
(without washing) in a vacuum over burnt lime, it is found to 
have formed a compound which corresponds approximately 
to the formula CtHioO^.HNOs, which is decomposed by water 
into free nitric acid and a hydrated cellulose. 

When viewed under the microscope, mercerized cotton is seen 
to have undergone considerable morphological changes, inas- 
much as the lumen or central cavity is much reduced in siie, 
while the fibre has lost its characteristic band-shaped appearance 
and becomes rounded. 

In Mercer's time the process, which he himself termed 
" sodaizing " or " fidling," never acquired any degree of coib* 



MERCHANT— MERCIA 



'5' 



■odal success, partly on account of the expense of the caustic 
socia required, but mainly on account of the great shrinkage 
(20 to 25%) which took place in the cloth. An important 
acplication of the process in calico printing for the production 
cf permanent crimp or " cr^n " effects, which was originally 
devL<ied by Mercer, was revived in iSqo-iSqi and is still largely 
practised by calico printers (sec Textile Printing). Another 
a(^tcation, also dependent upon the shrinking action of caustic 
soda on cotton, was patented in 1884 by DcpouIIy, and has for 
its object the production of crimp effects on piece-goods consist- 
ing of wool and cotton or silk and cotton. In the manu- 
facture of such goods cotton binding threads are introduced at 
definite intervals in the warp or weft, or both, and the piece is 
passed through cold caustic soda, washed, passed through dilute 
sUphuric add. and washed again till neutral. The cotton con- 
tracts under the influence of the caustic soda, while both wool 
and silk remain unaffected, and the desired crimped or puckered 
effect is thus obtained. 

By far the most important application of the mercerizing 
process is that by which a permanent lustre is imparted to 
cotton goods; this was discovered in 1889 by H. A. Lowe, who 
took out a patent for his process in that year, this being supple- 
mented by a further patent in i8qo. Since Lowe's invention 
did not recei\'c sufficient encouragement, he allowed his patents 
to lapse and the process thus became public property. It was 
not until i8q5, when Messrs Thomas & Prevost repatented Lowe's 
inveBlion. that actual interest was aroused in the new product 
and the process became a practical success. Their patent was 
subsequently annulled on the ground of having been anticipated. 

The production of a permanent lustre on cotton bv mercerizing 
H ID principle a vci^ simple process, and may be effected in two ways. 
Acrardir.g to the nrst method, the cotton is treated in a stretched 
coadhion with strong caustic soda, and is then washed, while still 
ktretchod, in water. After the washing has been contmued for a 
•kcrt time the tension relaxes, and it is then found that the cotton 
has acquired a permanent lustre or gloss similar in appearance to 
that 01 a spun silk though not so pronounced. Acconiing to the 
Kcond method, which constitutes but a slight modification of the 
tnc. the cotton is immersed in caustic soda of the strength required 
f-r oxfccrizing, and is then taken out. stretched slightly beyond its 
oricinal lenetb. and then washed until the tension slackens. 

.Sot all classes of cotton are equally suited for being mercerized. 
Tlhit, in the case of vams the most bnlliant lustre is always obtained 
o«i tvofold or muuifuld J^ams spun from long-stapled cotton 
l,E^-ptun or Sea Island). Single yams made from the same quality 
of cotton are only slightly improved in appearance by the process, 
and are consequently seldom mercerized: and the same applies to 
t«of«ld yams made from ordinary American cotton. In piece-goods, 
l-jns-4upkd cotton also gives the best results, but it is not necessary 
*.lut the yam used for weaving should be twofold. In the great 
na^ty of cases, the mercerizing of cotton, whether it be in the 
\jn or in the piece, is done before bleaching, but sometimes it is 
('Xiod preferal>Ie to mercerize after bleaching, or even after bleaching 
i-id dyeing. The strength of the caustic soida employed in practice 
istentnlly between 5^* and 6o* Tw. The temperature of the caustic 
uda ha< a m.itcriar influence on its action on the cotton fibre, 
vny much stronger solutions being required to produce the same 
eff.tt at rievated temperatures than at the ordinary temperature, 
•iiik, on the contrary, by lowering the temperature it is possible 
to obtain a good lustre with considerably wealcer lyes. 

Cdtton yarn may be mercerized either in the hank or in the 
■arp. and a great number of machines have been patented and 
c-^iKtmcted for the purpose. The simplest form of machine for 
bilks consists c«sent sally of two superpowd strongsteel rollers, on 
»2>Hk the hanks are pbced and spread out evenly. The upper roller, 
the bearings of which run in a slotted groove, is then raised by 
f*r!ianiral means until the hanks are taut. Caustic soda of 
6/ Tw, is now applied, and the upper roller is caused to revolve 
ilo«ly. the hanks acting as a belt and causing the lower roller to 
it-.3ivT simultaneously. After about three minutes the caustic 
Mda U allowed to drain off and the hanks are washed by spurt pipes 
iKHi! they slacken, when they are taken off and rinsed, first in dilute 
wlphuric acid (to neutralize the alkali and facilitate washing), and 
tkn in water till neutral. The hanks are then bleached in the 
<rdiiiary way and may be subsequently dyed, no diminution being 
Iwoo^ht about in the lustre by these operations. Cotton warps 
are usually mercerized on a macninc similar in construction to a four 
ba dvring machine (see Dyeing), but with the guiding rollers and 
Ihrir bearings of stronger construction and the squeezers at each end 
flf the first box with a double nip (three rollers). The first box con- 
tua« caufttk: soda, the second water, the third dilute sulphuric acid, 
sad the fourth water. / 



For the continuous mercerizing of cotton in the piece much more 
complicated and expensive machinery is required than for yarn, 
since it is necessary to prevent contraction in both length and 
br»dth. The merccHzing ran^ in must common use for pieces is 
constructed do tht same principle ai> the &tentering machine used 
in firetchipg ^cce» after bEe:u:hmg, dyeifig or printing, and consists 
esiFntoliy g( tvo cndltu chaiiu r^irnecj at either end by sprocket 
wheels. The chains carry clips which run in slotted grooves in the 
horizontal frame gf the macliLiu^p wlilch ii about ^o ft. in length. 
The clips tlosse aytomaLicalSy and grip the clijth on either side as it is 
h^ ott to the nnochifie from the m^ngk, in which it has been saturated 
with caustic MdA. The «irerching of Iht piece begins immediately 
on t'nicrinfi^ the machine, the tT»o row* of clips oeing caused to 
divtf^c by EcUing the slotlcd groo^-e» in such a manner that when 
the piece has travelled about one- third of the length of the machine 
it is Etrvichcd slightly beyond it« cHeioal width. At this point the 
piece mcctfr with a spr^y of water. Which h thrown on by means of 
spurt pipes ; and in conwquence the tension slackens and the merccr- 
i/ifij? 15. ciTi-Ltcd. \Mi'^n the pifM *^ -irrivt'^ at the end of the machine 
tf ....'.. .,..;, I If Thence it passes through 

a lx>x containing dilute sulphuric add, and then through a second 
box where washing with water is effected. 

In most large works the caustic soda washings, which were 
formeriy run to waste or were partly used up for bleaching, are 
evaporated down in multiple effect evaporators to 90* Tw., and the 
solution is used over again for mercerizing. 

Cotton mercerized under tension has not as much affinity for 
colouring matters as cotton mercerized without tension, and although 
the amount of hygroscopk: moisture which it retains in the air-dried 
condition is greater than in the case of ordinary untreated cotton, 
it b not so great as that held by cotton which has been mercerized 
without tension. By drying cotton which has \xxn mercerized with 
or without tension at temperatures above 100* C. its affinity for 
colouring matters is materially decreased. 

The cause of the lustre produced by mercerizine has been variously 
explained, and in some cases antagonistic views have been expressed 
on the subject. When viewed under the microscope by reflected 
light, the irrcgubriy twisted band-shaped cotton fibre is seen to 
exhibit a strong lustre at those points from which the light is reflected 
from the surface. Cotton mercerized without tension shows a 
similar appearance. In the yam or piece the lustre is not 
apparent, because the innumerable reflecting surfaces disperse the 
light in all directions. If, howcxxr, the cotton has been mercerized 
under tension, being plastic while still containing the caustic soda, 
it is stretched and is set in this condition by the washing. Thus 
in the finished product a large proportion of the rounded fibres are 
laid parallel to each other, as in the case of spun silk, and the lustre 
inherent to the fibre becomes visible to the naked eye. 

See The Life and Labours of John Mercer, by E. A. Pamell (Long- 
mans Green & Co); Die Mercerisation der BaumwoUe, by Paul 
Gardner (Julius Springer, Berlin); Mercerisation^ by the editors of 
The Dyer -and Calico Printer (Hey wood & Co.). (E. K.) 

MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcfxant, modem marchand; from 
Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise), a trader, 
one who buys and sells goods for profit. The term is now usually 
confined to a wholesale dealer or one who trades on an extended 
scale with foreign countries. 

MERCIA, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England. 
The original kingdom seems to have lain in the upper basin of 
the Trent, comprising the greater part of Derbyshire and 
Staffordshire, the northern parts of Warwickshire and Leicester- 
shire, and the southern part of Nottinghamshire. The name 
{Mcrce) seems to denote men of the March, and presumably 
was first applied when this district bordered upon the Welsh . 
In later times Mercia successively absorbed all the other terri- 
tories between the Humber and the Thames except East Anglia, 
and some districts even beyoivd the Thames. 

The origin of the kingdom is obscure. The royal family, 
according to Felix, Life of St Cuthlac (Anglo-Saxon version), 
were called Iclingas. Icel, their ancestor, may have been the 
founder of the kingdom, but nothing is known of him. The 
family, however, claimed descent from the ancient kings of 
Angle (cf. Offa L and Wcrmund). The first Mercian king of 
whom we have any record was Ccarl, who apparently reigned 
about the beginning of the 7th century, and whose daughter 
Cocnburg married Edwin, king of Deira. During Edwin's 
reign Mercia was subject to his supremacy, though it may have 
been governed throughout by princes of its own royal family. 
Its first prominent appearance in English history may be dated 
in the year 633, when the Mercian prince Penda joined the Welsh 
king Ccadwalla in overthrowing £dw\iv. Kccai^\tv% vc> N\vt^w«t^ 
Chronicle^ Peoda began to w^ Ui 6261 Mk^ \o\^^V «;i;52i»a\. >^ 



'52 



MERCIE 



West Saxons at Cirencester in 6a8. In the Mercian regnal 
tables, however, he is assigned a reign of only twenty-one years, 
which, as his death took place in 654 or 655, would give 634 as 
the date of his accession, presumably on the overthrow of 
Edwin, or perhaps on that of Ceadwalla. During the reign of 
Oswald Penda dearly reigned under the suzerainty of that king. 
In 642, however, Oswald was slain by Penda in a battle at a 
place called Maserfcid, which has not been identified with 
certainty. During the early part of Oswio's reign the North- 
.umbrian kingdom was repeatedly invaded and ravaged by the 
Mercians, and on one occasion (before 651) Penda besieged and 
almost captured the Northumbrian royal castle at Bamborough. 
At the same time he extended his influence in other directions, 
and expelled from the throne of Wessex Coenwalh, who had 
divorced his sister. Indeed, at this time nearly all the English 
kingdoms must have acknowledged his supremacy. The king- 
dom of Middle Anglia, which appears to have included the 
counties of Northampton, Rutland, Huntingdon, and parts of 
Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Leicestershire and Lincolnshire, 
was formed into a dependent principality under his son Peada. 
At this time also the territory corresponding to the modem 
counties of Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire seems to have 
been occupied. The last of these counties is said some time 
later to have been under the government of another son of Penda, 
named Merewald. In 654 or 655 Penda again invaded North- 
umbria, with a huge army divided into thirty Ugiones, each under 
a royal prince, among whom were iEthelhere, king of East Anglia, 
and several Welsh kings. He was defeated and slain, however, 
by Oswio, at a river called the Winwaed. Merda then came 
again under Northumbrian rule. Peada, the eldest son of Penda, 
was allowed to govern the part sguth of the Trent, while north 
Mcrda was put in charge of Northumbrian officials. Penda, 
although he did not prohibit the preaching of Christianity, had 
remained a heathen to the end of hb life. His death was 
followed by the conversion of his kingdom. Peada had embraced 
Christianity on his marriage with a daughter of Oswio, and under 
him the first Mercian bishopric was founded. Shortly afterwards 
Peada was murdered; but in 658 the Merdans rose under his 
younger brother Wulfhcre and threw off the Northumbrian 
supremacy. 

Wulfhcre seems to have been a vigorous ruler, for. he extended 
the power of Mercia as far as it had reached in the days of his 
father, and even farther. According to the Chronicle he invaded 
Wessex as far as Ashdown in Berkshire in the year 661. At the 
same time he conquered the Isle of Wight, which he gave to 
i£thelwalh, king of Sussex. Between the years 661 and 665 
he was defeated by the Northumbrian king Ecgfrith and had to 
give up Lindsey. In 675 he again fought with the West Saxons 
under Aescwine, and shortly afterwards died. His brother 
iEthclred, who succeeded him, invaded Kent in the following 
year, and in 679 fought a battle on the Trent against Ecgfrith, by 
which he recovered Lindsey. After this, however, we hear little 
of Mercian interference with the other kingdoms for some time; 
and since it is clear that during the last 1 5 years of the 7th cen- 
tury Wessex, Essex. Sussex and Kent were frequently involved 
in strife, it seems likely that the Mercian king had somewhat lost 
hold over the south of England. In 704 iEihclred resigned the 
crown and became a monk, leaving his kingdom to Coenrcd, the 
son of WuUhere. Coenred also abdicated five years later and 
went to Rome. Ceolred, the son of i£thdred, who succeeded, 
fought against the West Saxon king Ine in 715. On his death 
in the following year ./f^thelbald, a distant relative, came to the 
throne, and under him Mercian supremacy was fully restored 
over all the kingdom south of the Humber. He reigned for 41 
years. After his murder in 757 the Mercian throne was held for 
a short time by Beomred. He was expelled the same year by 
Offa, who soon restored the power of Mercia, which seems to 
have suffered some diminution during the later years of JE\hc\- 
bald. OfTa's policy was apparently the extinction of the depen- 
dent kingdoms. In his reign the dynasties of Kent, Sussex and 
the Hwicce seem to have disappeared, or at all events to have 
given up the kingly title. In 787 be associated his son Ecgfrith 



with him in the kingdom, and after his death (796) Ecgfrith 
rdgned alone for a few months. On the death of Ecgfrith the 
throne passed to Coenwulf, a descendant of Pybba, father of 
Penda. In 821 Coenwulf was succeeded by his brother 
Ceolwulf, who was deprived of the throne in 823, being succeeded 
by Beomwulf. In 825 Beomwuif was defeated by Ecgberfat, 
king of Wessex, and in the same year he was overthrown and 
Slain by the East Angles. The supremacy now passed to 
Wessex. 

In 827 Ludeca, the successor of Beomwulf, was slain in battle 
with five of his earls. Wiglaf, who succeeded him, was expelled 
two years later by Ecgberht, but regained the throne in the 
following year. He died, probably in 839, and was succeeded by 
Berhtwulf, who reigned until 852. Under these later kings 
Mercia seems to have extended from the Humber to the Thames, 
including London, though East Anglia was independent, and 
that part of Essex which corresponds to the modem county d 
that name had been annexed to Wessex after 825. Berhtwulf 
was succeeded in 852 by Burgred, who married iEthelswith, 
daughter of iEthelwulf . His power seems to have been more or 
less dependent on the West Saxons. In 853, with the assistance 
of iEihelwulf he reduced North Wales to subjection. Again 
in 868 he called upon the West Saxon king ^thelred for assist- 
ance against the Danes under Lo^rok's sons, who at this 
time invaded Mercia after their overthrow of the Northumbrians 
at York. No battle took place, and the Mercians subsequently 
made peace with the Danes. In 872 the Danes occupied London 
on their return from invading Wessex, after which a truce was 
again made. In 873 the Danes encamped at Torksey in Lincoln- 
shire, and although another truce ensued, they advanced in the 
following year to Repton, and Burgred was driven from the 
kingdom. He went to Rome, where he remained until his death. 
In 874 Ceolwulf, a king's thegn or baron, was made king by the 
Danes, and definitely acknowledged their overlordship. In 877, 
after the second invasion of Wessex, the Danes seem to have 
taken the eastern part of Mercia into their own hands. How k»g 
Ceolwulf reigned over the western portion is unknown. About 
the year 884 the most important person in English Merda was 
an earl, iEthelred, who accepted the suzerainty of Alfred, and 
in or before the year 887 married his daughter /Ethelflaed. 
i£thelred and iEtbclflaed appear to have had practically regal 
power, though they did not use the royal title. In 886 London, 
which had been recovered by Alfred from the Danes, was re- 
stored to iEthclred. During the invasion of 893-97 English 
Mercia was again repeatedly ravaged by the Danes; but in the 
last of these years, by the united efforts of Alfred and iElhdred, 
they were at length expelled. With this exception. Watling 
Street, the Ouse and the Lea, continued to be the boundary 
between Mercia and the Danish kingdom of East Anglia down to 
the death of iEthclred, between 910 and 912. The government 
was then carried on by /Ethclflacd, who built a number of fort- 
resses, and in conjunction with her brother, King Edward the 
Elder, succeeded in expelling the Danes from Derby and Leicester 
by the year 917-18. After her death in the latter year her 
daughter yElfwyn was soon deprived of the government by 
Edward, and Mercia was definitely annexed to Wessex. 

From this time onwards its existence as a separate kingdom 
was at an end, though during the last years of Ead wig's reign 
the Mercians and Northumbrians set up Eadgar as king. In the 
last century of the Saxon period the earls of Mercia frequently 
occupied a semi-royal position. The most important of these 
were iElfhcre under Eadgar, Edward and iCthclrcd, Eadric 
Streona, under the last -mentioned king, and Leofric, under the 
Danish kings. 

Authorities.— Bcdc, Ilistoria eecUsiastica (cd. C. Plummer, 
Oxford, 1896): Angio-Saxon Chronicle (c-d. Earle and Plummer, 
Oxford. 1899); W. dc G. Birch, Carttdarium saxonicum (London, 
1885-1893). (F.G.M. B.) 

MERCll MARIUS JEAN ANTONIN (1845- ). French 
sculptor and painter, was born in Toulouse on the 30lh of October 
1845. He entered the £cole des Beaux Arts, Paris, and studied 
imder Falguiere and Jouffroy. and in 1868 gained the Grand Prix 



MERCIER, H.— MERCK 



«53 



deRomc His first great popular tuccesses were the " David " 
and " Gloria Vktis," which was shown and received the medal 
of honour of the Salon. The bronze was subsequently placed 
in the Square Montholon. " The Genius of the ArU " (1877), a 
relief, is in the Tuileries, in substitution for Barye's " Napoleon 
UL"; a similar work for the tomb of Michelet (1879) is in the 
cemetery of P^ la Chaise ; and in the same year Merci£ produced 
the statue of Arago with accompanying reliefs, now erected at 
Pbpignan. In x88a he repeated his great patriotic success of 
1874 with a group " Quand M£mel" replicas of which have been 
set up at Belfort and in the garden of the Tuileries. " Le 
Souvenir " (1885), a marble statue for the tomb of Mme Charles 
Ferry, is one of his most beautiful works. " Regret/' for the 
tomb of Caband, was produced in 189a, along with " William 
TcU,** now at Lausanne. Merd£ also designed the monuments 
to ** Mctssoaier " (1895), erected in the Jardin de Tlnfante in 
the Louvre, and ** Faidherbe " (1896) at Lille, a statue of 
** Thiers " set up at St Germain-en-Laye, the monument to 
" Baudry " at Pere-la-Chaise, and that of " Louis-Philippe and 
Queen Am£lie " for their tomb at Dreux. His stone group of 
" Justice " b at the H6tel dc Ville, Paris. Numerous other 
statues, portrait busts, and medallions came from the sculptor's 
band, which gained him a medal of honour at the Paris Exhibi- 
tjoo of 1878 and the grand prix at that of 1889. Among the 
paint ing!< exhibited by the artist are a " Venus," to which was 
awarded a medal in 1883, "Leda" (1884), and "Michael- 
ai^do studying Anatomy" (1885) — his most dramatic work 
in this medium. Merd£ was appointed professor of drawing and 
Kulpture at the ficole des Beaux Arts, and was elected a member 
of the Academie Francaise in 1891, after being awarded the 
biennial prize of the institute of £800 in 1887. 

■EBCIEB, HONORfi (1840-1894), Canadian lawyer and 
statesman, was the son of Jean Baptiste Mercicr, farmer, and 
of Uarie Kimcner, his wife. He was bom in the village of 
St Atbanase dlberville on the isth of October 1840. The 
lamfly came from France, and settled in the district of Mont- 
nagny, and later removed to Iberville. Mercier entered the 
Jesuit College of St Mary, Montreal, at the age of fourteen, 
and throughout his life retained a warm friendship for the 
lociety. He married, firstly in 1866 Leopoidine Boivin, and 
Kcoodly in 1871 Virginie St Denis. On the completion of his 
course at St Mary's he studied law in the office of Laframboise 
UkA Papineau, in St Hyacinthe, and was admitted to the bar of 
the province in April 1865. At the age of twenty- two be became 
the editor of the Conservative Courricr de St Hyacinthe, and 
ia this journal supported the policy of the Sicotte administration, 
«hich then represented the interests of Quebec, under the Act 
of Union (1840); but when Sicotte accepted a seat on the bench 
Merdcr joined the Opposition, and contributed largely to the 
defeat of the Ministerial candidate. In 1864 he vigorously 
opposed the scheme of confederation, on the ground that it 
voaU prove fatal to the distinctive position held by the French 
Canadians. He resumed the editorship of the Courrier in 1866; 
t«t after a few months retired from journalism, and for the 
Bext five years devoted all his energy to his profession. At the 
coBUDczicement of the year 187 1 the national party was organized 
in Qoebec, and Mercier supported the candidates of the party 
OQ the platform. In August 187 2 he was elected as a member of 
ibe House of Commons for the county of Rouville, and proved 
i viprous opponent of Sir John A. Macdonald on the question 
cf separate schools for New Bninswick. He was a candidate 
at the general elections in 1874; but retired on the eve of the 
tantst in favour of another candidate of his own party. Mercier 
ctured the arena of provincial politics in May 1879 as solicitor- 
fcieral in the Joly government, representing the county of 
S: Hyacinthe; and on the defeat of the ministry in October 
he passed, with his leader, into opposition. On the retirement 
of IL Joly from the leadership of the Liberal party in Quebec 
ia ]d$3 Mercier was chosen as his successor. Towards the dose 
of 1S85 the French-Canadian mind was greatly agitated over the 
ciecutioo of Louis Riel, leader of the north-west rebellion, and 
of the attitude of Mercier on this question the 



Liberal minority in the Legislative Assembly, which had been 
reduced to fifteen, rapidly gained strength, until at the general 
elections held in October x886 the province was carried in the 
Liberal interest. In January 1887 Mercier was sworn in as 
premier and attorney-general, and from this moment he exer- 
cised an extraordinary influence in the province. He succeeded 
in passing without opposition the Jesuit Estates Act, a measure 
to compensate the order for the loss of property confiscated by 
the Crown. This act came before the Federal House for disallow- 
ance, but was carried on division. When Mercier appealed to 
the electorate in 1890, his policy was endorsed, and he was able 
to give effect to many important measures. Early in 1891 he 
negotiated a loan in Europe for the province, and whilst on a 
visit to Rome he was created a count of the Roman Empire by 
Leo XIII., who three years previously had conferred upon him 
the rank of a commander of the order of St Gregory the Great. 
Of commanding presence, firm, decisive, courteous in manner, 
convincing in argument, and deeply attached to his native 
province, he had all the qualities of a popular leader. For a few 
years he was the idol of the people of Quebec, and French Canada 
loomed large in the public eye; but towards the end of 1S91 
serious charges were preferred against his ministry, on the ground 
that subsidies voted for railways had been diverted to political 
use, and he was dismissed by the lieutenant-governor. At the 
subsequent elections held in March 1892 he was returned for 
the county of Bonaventure, but his party was hopelessly 
defeated. On the formation of a new government he was 
brought to trial, and declared not guilty; his health, however, 
gave way, and he never regained his former influence. 

See Biotrapkie, discours, confirences, Sfc, de I'Hon. Honori Mercier, 
by J.-O. PcUand (Montreal, 1893). (A. G. D.) 

MERCIER« LOUIS SEBASTIEN (1740-1814), French drama- 
tist and miscellaneous writer, was bom in Paris on the 6th of 
June 1740. He began his literary career by writing heroic 
epistles, but early came to the conclusion that Boilcau and 
Racine had ruined the French language, and that the true poet 
was he who wrote in prose. The most important of his miscel- 
laneous works are V An 2440 (i 770) ; L'Essai sur I'art dramatique 
(1773); Niologie (1801); Le Tableau de Paris (1781-1788); Le 
nouveau Paris (1799); Histoire de France (1802) and Satire 
contre Racine et BoiUau (1S08). He decried French tragedy as 
a caricature of antique and foreign customs in bombastic verse, 
and advocated the comidic larmoyanlc as understood by Diderot. 
To the philosophers he was entirely hostile. He denied that 
modem science had made any real advance; he even carried his 
conservatism so far as to maintain that the earth was a circular 
flat plain around which revolved the sun. Mercier wrote some 
sixty dramas, among which may be mentioned Jean Hennuycr 
(1772); La Destruction de la ligue (1782); Jennival (1769); Le 
Juge (1774); Natalie (1775) and /-a Broudtcdu vinaigrier (1775). 
In politics he was a Moderate, and as a member of t he Convent ion 
he voted against the death penalty for Louis XVI. During 
the Terror he was imprisoned, but was released after the fail of 
Robespierre. He died in Paris on the 25th of April 1814. 

See LA)n Bcchard, Sehastien Mercier, sa vie, son aevvre (Paris, 
1903); R. Doumic in the Knue des deux mondes (15th July 1903). 

MERCK, JOHANN HEINRICH (1741-1791), German author 
and critic, was born at Darmstadt on the nth of April 1741, 
a few days after the death of his father, a chemist. He studied 
law at Giessen, and in 1767 was given an appointment in the 
paymaster's department at Darmstadt, and a year later himself 
became paymaster. For a number of years he exercised con- 
siderable influence upon the literary movement in Germany; 
he helped to found the Frankfurter gclehrte Anzcigcn in 1772, 
and was one of the chief contributors to Nicolai's Allgcmeine 
Bibliothek. In 1782 he accompanied the Landgravine Karoline 
of Hesse-Darmstadt to St Petersburg, and on his return was a 
guest of the duke Charics Augustus of Weimar in the Wartburg. 
Unfortunate speculations brought him into pecuniary embarrass- 
ment in 1788, and although friends, notably Goethe, were ready 
to come to his assistance, his losses — combined with the death of 
five of his children— 40 preyed upon hii mind that he committed 



«54 



MERCGEUR— MERCURY 



suicide on the 27th of June 1791. Merck distinguished himself 
mainly as a critic; his keen perception, critical perspicacity and 
refined taste made him a valuable guide to the young writers of 
the Sturm und Drang. He also wrote a number of small treatises, 
dealing mostly with literature and art, especially painting, and 
a few poems, stories, narratives and the like; but they have not 
much intrinsic importance. Merck's letters are particularly 
interesting and instructive, and throw much light upon the 
literary conditions of his time. 

Merck's AusttwaklU SckrifUn tur ukOnen Literatwr und Kunst 
were published by A. Stahr in 1840, with a biography. Sec Brief e 
an J. H. Merck von Goethe, Herder, Widand undandem hedeutenden 
Zeilgenossen (1835), Brief e an und von J. H. Merck (1838) and Brief e 
aus dem Freundeskreise von Goethe, Herder, Hdpfner und Merck 
(1847), all edited by K. Wagner. Cf. G. Zimmermann, /. H. Merck^ 
seine Umgebung una seine Zeit (1871). 

MEROEUR, SEIGNEURS AND DUKES OF. The estate 
of Mcrcceur in Auvergne, France, gave its name to a line of 
powerful lords, which became extinct in the 14th century, and 
passed by inheritance to the dauphins of Auvergne, counts of 
Clermont. In 1426 it passed to the Bourbons by the marriage 
of Jeanne de Clermont, dauphine of Auvergne, with Louis de 
Bourbon, count of Montpensier. It formed part of the confis- 
cated estates of the Constable de Bourbon, and was given by 
Francis I. and Louise of Savoy to Antoine, duke of Lorraine, 
and his wife, Rente de Bourbon. Nicolas of Lorraine, son of 
Duke Antoine, was created duke of Mcrcceur and a peer of 
France in 1569. His son Philippe Emmanuel (see below) left 
a daughter, who married the due de Vend6me in 1609. 

MEROEUR. PHIUPPE EMMANUEL DE LORRAINE, Due 
DE (1558-X602), French soldier, was bom on the 9th of Septem- 
ber 1558, and married Marie de Luxemburg, duchesse de Pen- 
thi^vre. In 1582 he was made governor of Brittany by Henry 
III., who had married his sister. Mancceur put himself at the 
head of the League in Brittany, and had himself proclaimed 
protector of the Roman Catholic Church in the province in 15S8. 
Invoking the hereditary rights of his wife, who was a descendant 
of the dukes of Brittany, he endeavoured to make himself 
independent in that province, and organized a government at 
Nantes, calling his son " prince and duke of Brittany." With 
the aid of the Spaniards he defeated the due de Montpensier, 
whom Henry IV. had sent against him, at Craon in 1592, but 
the royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon re- 
covered the advantage. The king marched against Mercccur 
in person, and received his submission at Angers on the 20th of 
March 1598. Mercccur subsequently went to Hungary, where 
be entered the service of the emperor Rudolph II., and fought 
against the Turks, taking Stuhlweisscnburg (Sz£kes-Feh£rv&r) 
in 1 599. Mercccur died on the 19th of February 1602. 

MERCURY (Mercurius), in Roman mythology, the god of 
merchandise {merx) and merchants; later identified with the 
Greek Hermes. His nature is more intelligible and simple than 
that of any other Roman deity. In the native Italian states 
no trade existed till the influence of the Greek colonies on the 
coast introduced Greek customs and terminology. It was no 
doubt under the rule of the Tarquins that merchants began to ply 
their trade. Doubtless the merchants practised their religious 
ceremonies from the first, but their god Mercurius was not 
officially recognized by the state till the year 495 B.C. Rome 
frequently suffered from scarcity of grain during the unsettled 
times that followed the expulsion of the Tarquins. Various 
religious innovations were made to propitiate the gods; in 496 
the Greek worship of Demctcr, Dionysus and Persephone was 
established in the city, and in 495 the Greek god Hermes was 
introduced into Rome under the Italian name of Mercurius 
(Livy ii. 21, 27), as protector of the grain trade, especially with 
Sicily. Prellcr thinks that at the same time the trade in grain 
was regulated by law and a regular college or gild of merchants 
instituted. This college was under the protection of the god; 
lis annual festival was on the x sth (the ides) of May, on which day 
the temple of the god had been dedicated at the southern end of 
the Circus Maximus, near the Aventine; and the members were 
called mercwiala at well at mercatpres, Mommaen, however, 



considers the mercuriaki to be a purely local gild— the pagudtt 
the Circus valley. The xsth of May was chosen as thefeattol 
Mercury, obviously because Mala was the mother of Hcnae^ 
that is of Mercury; and she was worshipped along with her son Iqr 
the mercuriales on this day. According to Preller, this idigioat 
foundation had a political object; it established on a legitimate 
and sure basis the trade between Rome and the Gredc rriMinff 
of the coast, whereas formerly this trade had been expoaed to 
the capricious interference of government officials. Lake aB 
borrowed religions in Rome, it must have retained the rites and 
the terminology of its Greek original (Festus p. 257). Meiaiiy 
became the god, not only of the mercatores and of the grain tnde^ 
but of buying and selling in general ; and it appears that, at leatt 
in the streets where shops were common, little chapeb and imafes 
of the god were erected. There was a spring dedicated to 
Mercury between his temple and the Porta Capena; every 
shopman drew water from this spring on the xsth of May, and 
sprinkled it with a laurel twig over his head and over his goods, at 
the same time entreating Mercury to remove from his head and 
his goods the guilt of all his deceits (Ovid, Fastif v. 673 aeq.). 
The word mercurialis was popularly used as equivalent to 
" cheat." 

Roman statuettes of bron2e, in which Mercury is refneaented, 
like the Greek Hermes, standing holding the camiccus or staff in 
the one hand and a purse in the other (an element very lare in puidy 
Hellenic representations), are exccedii^ly common. 

MERCURY, in astronomy, the smallest major planet and the 
nearest to the sun; its symbol is Q. Its proximity to the sun 
makes the telescopic study of its physical constitution extremely 
difficult. The result is that less is known on this subject than 
in the case of any other planet. Even the time of rotation on 
its axis is uncertain. J. H. Schrdter inferred a period of rotation 
of 24 h. 5 m. 30S., which was in seeming agreement with the obser- 
vations of K. L. Harding. This period was generally accepted, 
though Herschel had been unable to see any changes indicating 
rotation. In 1882 G. Schiaparelli began a careful study of the 
face of the planet with a refractor of 8 in. aperture, subse- 
quently replaced by one of x8 in. His unexpected coado- 
sion was that the rotation of Mercury resembles that of the 
moon, in having its period equal to that of its orbital revolution. 
As the moon always presents the same face to the earth, so 
Mercury must, in this case, always present very neariy the saiae 
face to the sun. Schiaparelli also announced that the axis <rf 
rotation of the planet is nearly perpendicular to the plane of its 
orbit. The rotation being uniform, while the orbital motion, 
owing to the great eccentricity of the orbit, is affected by a 
very large inequality, it would follow that there is a litwatioB 
in longitude of nearly 24* on each side of the mean position. 
Percival Lowell in 1897 took up the question anew by combining 
a long series of measured diameters of the planet with drawings 
of its apparent surface. The seeming constancy of the surface 
appearance was considered to confirm the view of SchiapaidU 
as to the slow rotation of the planet. But there is wide rooa 
for doubt on the question. 

The period of orbital revolution of Mercury is nearly 88 days^ 
or somewhat less than three months. Consequently, the period 
of synodic revolution is less than four months, during which 
the entire round of phases is completed. When near greater 
elongation Mercury shines as a star of the first magnitude, or 
brighter; but in the latitudes of central and northern Europe 
it is so near the horizon soon after sunset as to be generally 
obscured by vapours or clouds. 

The eccentricity of the orbit, 0-20, is far greater than that of 
any major planet, and nearly the average of that of the minor 
planets. Consequently, its distance and its greatest elongatioa 
from the sun vary widely with its position in its ortnt at the 
time. 

The mass of Mercury can be determined only from its actioi 
upon Venus; this is so small that the result is doubtlsL 
Lcverricr adopted in his tables i: 3,000,000 as the ratio of tk 
mass of Mercury to that of the sun. S. Newcomb, from the actioi 
upon Venus, reduced this to one-half its amount, or z : 6,ooo^ooa 



MERCURY 



155 



C W. KU, baamg Us ooodusioos oa the probabfe densty of 
tltt pfanct, estimated the mass to be less than 1 : 10,000,000 The 
adopt i o n of a mass even as large as that of Newcomb implies a 
grnter density than that of the earth, but it is not possible to 
atnaatc the probability that such is the case. 

ne most interesting phenomenon connected with Mercury is 
thst off its occasional transit over the disk of the sun at inferior 
ooajoKtion. These occur only when the planet is near one of 
its nodes at the time. The earth, in its orbital revolution. 
pBSBCs throogh the line of the nodes of Mercury about the 8th of 
May and the loth of November of each year. It is only near one 
of these times that a transit can occur. The periodic times of 
Mextary and the earth are such that the transits are generally 
repeated in a cyde of 46 years, during which 8 transits occur in 
May and 6 in November. The following table shows the Green- 
wich mean time of the middle of all the transits from 1677, the 
date off the first one accurately observed, until the end of the 
present century. 





k 


h. 
8 


1*77 


Nov. 


7 





:g 


May 8 


1690 


N<Jv. 


9 


18 


Nov. 9 


a 


1697 


Nov. 


2 


18 


Nov. 11 


ao 


1707 


May 


I 

9 


II 


1868 


Nov. 4 
May 6 
Nov. 7 


19 


1710 
1736 


Nov. 
Nov. 


II 
5 


:iif 


7 
3 


Nov. 


10 


aa 


1891 


May 9 


14 


1740 


May 


2 


II 


1894 


Nov. lo 


7 


1743 


Nov. 


4 


22 


1907 


Nov. 14 







May 


1 


18 


1914 


Nov. 7 





I7g 


Nov. 


16 


1924 


May 7 


\i 




Nov. 


9 


10 


1927 


Nov. 9 


J^ 


Nov. 


2 


10 


1940 


Nov. 11 


II 


Nov. 


J2 


.1 

3 


1953 


Nov. 14 


5 


17S6 
1789 


May 

Nov. 


3 
5 


:% 


May 5 
Nov. 7 


13 
5 


1815 


May 
Nov. 
Nov. 


1 

II 


I 
ai 
15 


1970 


May 8 
Nov. 9 
Nov. I a 


30 


i8aa 


Nov. 


4 


14 


1993 


Nov. 5 


16 


183a 


May 


5 





1999 » 


Nov. 15 
May 6 


9 


1835 


Nov. 


7 


8 


aoo3 


»9 



A perplesdng proUem is offered by the secular motion of the 
penbdion of Mercury. In 1845 Levenier found that this motion, 
a derived from observation of the transits, was greater by 35' 
per ontury than it should be from the gravitation of all the other 
pianets. This conclusion has been fully confirmed by subsequent 
JBvntigations, a recent discussion showing the excess of motion 
to be 43' per century. It follows from thh either that Mercury 
n acted upon by some unknown masses of matter, or that the 
istosity of gravitation does not predsely follow Newton's law. 
The most natural explanation was proposed by Leverrier, who 
•ttriboied the excess of motion to the action of a group of intra- 
Monuial planets. At firat this conclusion seenaed to be con- 
fimed by the fact that occasional observations of the transit of 
t dui object over the sun had been observed. But no such 
•bicnratioa was ever made by an experienced astronomer, and 
tbe frequent photographs of the sun, which have been taken at 
tk Greenwich observatory and elsewhere since 1870, have never 
ibo«B the existence of any such body. We may t herefore regard 
it at certain that, if a group of intra-Mcrcurial planets exists, its 
■enbers axe too small to be seen when projected on the sun's 
Sik. During the eclipses of 1900 and 1905 the astronomers of 
tk Harvard and Lick Observatories photographed the sky in 
lie scigfabourbood of the sun so fully that the stars down to the 
Jth or 8th magnitude were imprinted on the plates. Careful 
(Bfflination failed to show the existence of any unknown body. 
It fcUowB that if the group exists the members must be so small 
« to be entirely invisible. But in this case they must be so 
s sm eio us that they should be visible as a diffused illumination 
OS the sky after sunset. Such an illumination is shown by the 
SDducsl light. But such a group of bodies, if situated in the 
pine of the ccBpClc, would produce a motion of the node of 
Jfaoiy equal to that of its perihelion, while the observed motion 
^ Mercury grazes sun's limb. 



of the node of Mercuiy 2s somewhat less than that computed 
from the gravitation of the known planets. The same is true 
of the node of Venus, which might also be affected by the same 
attraction. To produce the observed result, the inclination of the 
ring would have to be greater than that of the orbit of either 
Mercury or Venus. In 1895 Newcomb showed that the observed 
motions, both of the perihelion of Mercury and of the nodes of 
Mercury and Venus, could be approximately represented by the 
attmction of a ring of inter-mercurial bodies having a mean incli- 
nau'on of 9* and the mean node in 48'' longitude. He also showed 
that if the ring was placed between the orbits of Mercury and 
Venus, the inclination would be 75* and the longitude of the 
node 35*. The fact that the aodiacal h'ght appears to be near 
the ecliptic, and the belief that, if it were composed of a lens of 
discrete particles, their nodes would tend to scatter themselves 
equally around the invariable plane of the solar system, led him 
to drop these explanations as unsatisfactory, and to prefer 
provisionally the hypothesis that the sun's gravitation is not 
exactly as the inverse square. (See Gsavitatign.) 

In 1896 H. H. Seeliger made a more thorough investigation 
than his predecessor had done of the attraction of the matter 
producing the xodiacal light, assuming it to be formed of a series 
of ellipsoids. He showed that the motions of the nodes and 
perihelion could be satisfactorily represented in this way. The 
following are the three principal elements of the hypothetical 
orbits as found by the two investigators: — 





Newcomb. 


Seeliger. 


Intra- 

Mercurial 

Ring. 


Ring between 

Mercury and 

Venus. 


Zodiacal Light 
Matter. 


Inclination , . 
Node . . . 
Mass . . . 


I 


1/37.000,000 


400* 
i/a,86o,ooo 



The demonstration by E. W. Brown that the motion of the 
moon's perigee is exactly accordant with the Newtonian law of 
gravitation, seems to preclude the possibility of any deviation 
from that law, and renders the hypothesis of Seeliger the most 
probable one in the present state of knowledge. But the ques- 
tion is still an open one whether the zodiacal light has an inclina- 
tion of the ecliptic as great as that computed by Seeliger. This 
is a diffiodt one because the action on Mercury is produced by 
the inner portions of the matter producing the zodiacal light. 
These are so near the sun that they cannot be observed, unless 
possibly during a total eclipse. (S. N.) 

MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight « 200), in chemistry, a 
metallic element which is easily distinguished from all others by 
its being liquid at even the lowest temperatures naturally occur- 
ring in moderate climates. To this exceptional property it owes 
the synonyms of quicksilver in English (with the Germans Queck' 
silber is the only recognized name) and of hydrargyrum (from 
!!5up, water, and Apyvpot, silver) in Graeco-Latin. This metal 
does not appear to have been known to the ancient Jews, nor 
is it mentioned by the earlier Greek writers. Theophrastus 
(about 300 B.C.) mentions it as prepared from cinnabar by 
treatment with copper and vinegar; Dioscorides obtained it 
from the same mineral with the aid of iron, employing at the 
same time a primitive distillation app>aratus. With the alche- 
mists it was a substance of great consequence. Its appearance 
commended it as a substance for investigaU'on; many of its 
compounds, especially corrosive sublimate and calomel, were 
studied, and improved methods for extracting and purifying 
the metal were devised. Being ignorant of its susccptibiUty 
of freezing into a compact solid, they did not recognize it as a 
true metal, and yet, on the authority of Geber, they held that 
mercury (meaning the predominating clement in this metal) 
enters into the composition of all metals, and is the very cause 
of their metallicity (see Element). When, about the beginning 
of the i6th century, chemistry and scientific medicine came to 
merge into one, this same mysterious element of " mercury " 
played a great part in the theories of pathology; and the metal. 



156 



MERCURY 



in the free as in certain combined states, came to be looked upon 
as a powerful medicinal agent. 

Occurrence. — Mercury occurs in nature chiefly in the form of a 
red sulphide, HgS, called cinnabar (q.v.), which, as a rule, is 
accompanied by more or less of the xcgulinc metal — the latter 
being probably derived from the former by some secondary 
reaction. The most important mercury mines in Europe are 
those of Almaden in Spain and of Idria in Illyria; and in America 
those of California and Texas. Deposits also occur in Russia, 
the Bavarian palatinate, in Hungary, Italy, Transylvania, 
Bohemia, Mexico, Peru and in some other countries. 

Mercury occurs in formations of all aj^cs from the Archcan to 
the Quaternary, and it has been found in both sedimentary and 
eruptive rocks of the most varied character, e.g. conglomerates, 
sandstones, shales, limestones, quartzites, slatcn, serpentines, 
crystalline schists, and eruptive rocks from the most acid to 
the most basic. It appears that nearly all known deposits occur 
along lines of continental uplift, where active shearing of. the 
formations has occurred. Large deposits are seldom lound in 
eruptive rocks, but generally near such formations or near active 
or extinct hot springs. The deposits are of many types, simple 
fissure veins being less usual than compound, reticulated, or linked 
veins. Segregations and impregnations are very common. The 
form of the deposit seems to depend chiefly on the physical properties 
and structure of the enclosing rocks and the nature of tnc fissure 
systems that result from their disturbance. The principal ore is 
ctnnatMur, though metacinnabaritc and native mercury are often 
abundant; the sclenide (tiemannitc), chloride, and iodide are rare. 
Of the associated heavy minerals, pyrite (or marcasite) is almost 
universal, and chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, blende and realgar are 
frequent. Many deposits contain traces of gold and silver, and some 
deposits, as the Mercur in Utah, are more valuable for their gold 
than their mercury content. The usual ganguc>forming minerals 
are quarts, dolomite^ calcite, baritc, fluorspar and various seolitcs. 
Some form of bituminous matter is one ot the most universal and 
intimate associates of cinnabar. Formerly auicksilver deposits 
were sunpo»ed to be formed by sublimation, but from a careful study 
of the California occumrnci?* b. Li. ■Lhristy ^'T]-! toni^incttl as tnrly 
as 1875 that this was unUlcelyi and that dtpo^ition from hot alkaline 
sulphide solutions wu more firobablc. By cnatin^ the black 
mercuric sulphide wth such wmiions, hot and under prcs^vrc, he 
succeeded in producing artifirisl cinnabar and mctacinrmbdrtte^ tie 
also showed that the mineral water at tl^e Ntw Almaden mine*, 
when charged with sulphylric acid and heattd uadtr pf^wufe, wai 
capable of effecting the !^ilmc changift and that ihi* mcihrjd of pr^j- 
duction agreed better v■'^^h a.]] tbe iacU than the frubltiruiUDn thi-onir. 
(See "Genesis of Cinnabar DcfKwits," Am^* J&m* Scifnvt, rvii. 
453.) The invcstig.^tiont of Dr C. F. Betkrr on the " Qukksilv^r 
Deposits of the Pacirk " {V.S. Gt&l. Surviy, Mon. xni.t iflSS) estab- 
lished the correctncf^- tif tWfc vii'ws tw^yund doubt. 

Production. — At one time the worid's supply of mercury was 
almost entirely derived from the Almaden and Idrian mines; 
but now the greater proportion is produced in California and 
Texas, where dnnabar was used by the Indians as a pigment, 
and first turned to metallurgical purpose in 1845 by Castcllcro. 
In the United States mercury has also been found in Utah, 
Nevada, Oregon and Arizona. In the i6th century the Almaden 
and Idrian mines were practically the only producers of this 
metal; statistics of Almaden dating from 1564 and of Idria 
since 1535 are given in B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904). Spain 
produced 1151 metric tons in 1870, and in 1889 its maximum 
of 1975 tons; since then it has, on the whole, been decreasing. 
The Austria-Hungary output steadily increased to about 
550-600 tons at which it appears to remain. In 1887 Russia 
produced 64 tons, and has steadily improved. The United 
States output was over 1000 tons, in 1871, and declined to 
800-900 in the period 18S9-1892; it has since increased and 
surpassed the supply from Spain. The following table gives 
the production in various countries for selected years. — 





Spain. 


United 
Sutcs. 


Russia. 


Austria- 
Hungary. 


Italy. 


.Mexico. 


Total 
(Metric 
Tons). 


I90I 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 


754 
1425 

914 
1020 

800 


1031 
1208 
1288 
1 192 
1043 


36« 
416 


558 

? 

581 
564 


278 
259 
3»4 
357 
370 


128 

190* 
190' 


3130 
4056 
3633 
3733 
3285 



* Estimated. 



Mercury is transported in steel bottles dosed by a taev 
stopper; the Almaden and Idrian bottles contain 76 lb; 
until the ist of June 1904, the Califomian bottles < 
76^ tb of mercury; they now bold 75 lb. From tbe amaOcr 
works the metal is sometimes sent out in sheepskin bags bolding 
55 lb of mercury. 

A/«/a//Mr^.— ChemUally speaking, the extrsction of mercunr 
from its ores b a simple matter. Metallic mercury is eauly volatP 
lized, and separated from the gangue, at temperatures far below 
redness, and cinnabar at a red heat u readily reduced to the metallic 
state by the action of iron or lime or atmospheric oxygen, tbe sulphur 
beinjs eliminated, in the first case as iron sulphide, m the seoondas 
cakium sulphide and sulphate, in the third as sulphur dioxide. A 
close iron retort would at first suggest itself as the proper kind of 
apparatus for carrying out these operations, and this idea was, at 
one time, acted upon in a few small establishments — for instance, in 
that of ZweibrQclccn in the Palatinate, where lime was used as a 
decomposing agent; but the method has now been discarded. In 
all the large works the decomposition of the cinnatMir is effected by 
the direct exposure of the ore to the oxidizing flame of a furnace, 
and the mercury vapour, which gcU diffused through an immense 
mjL«« of cqmbuiftioo gases* it recovered in more or less imperfect 
CO ndf risers. 

With the exccptipft of the ina:&9ive depoalti of Almaden in Spain 
and a (ew of those in Calif om:ia and Idria, cinnabar occurs in forms 
*o disifrmtnatcd as to make ita mininf; vci> expensive. Rude hsond- 
^riin^ of the or» is usually pmctiiwd. virt concantretion has not 
bcuFi tucccWui, becnu^ i( nccesoiiLateft art cru'^Hing and extensive 
si tint lo^H^ of the brittle cinnabar. Ai a ruir luw-grade ores can 
be roaiLcd dicnectlv with Ima lou and irxptia&e. At Almaden in 
Spain the orea average from 5 to 7 %, but in otKer ^rts of the worid 
much poorer ores have to be tit^atcd^ In California, in spite of the 
hii^h co%i uf labour K improved furEiarc^ ceuiihic art.^ containing not 
mort than } % to be mined and roasted at a profit. 

The furnaces originally used at Almaden and Idria differ only in 
the condensing plant. The roasting was carried out in internally 
fired, vertical shafts of brickwork, and, at Almaden, the vapours 
were led through a series of bottles named oiu^/i, soarrangcathat 
the neck of one entered the sole of the next ; and at Idria the vapouis 
were led into large brickwork chambers lined with cement, and there 
condensed. The aludel furnace, which was designed in 1633 by 
Lopez Soavedra Barba in Huancavelica, Peru (where cinnabar was 
discovered in 1566), and introduced at Almaden in i6a6 by Busts* 
mente, by whose name it is sometimes known, has now been entirdy 
given up. The Idrian furnace was designed in 1787 by von Ldthner; 
It was introduced at AInwdcn in 1800 by Larraflaga. and used side 
by side with the aludel furnace. The crude mercury b purified by 
straining through dense linen or chamois leather bags. 

.The most important improvements in the metallurgy of 
mercury are the introduction of furnaces for treating coarse ores, 
and the replacement of the old discontinuous furnaces by those 
whkh work continuously. The most successful of these continuous 
furnaces was a modification of Count RumftHd's continuous lime* 
kiln. This furnace was introduced at New Almaden by J. B. 
Randol, the author of many improvements in the metalunn^ of 
mercury. The success of the continuous coarse-ore furnace at New 
Almaden led Randol to attempt the continuous treatment of fine 
ores also, and the Huettner and Scott continuous fine-ore furnace, 
which was the result of these experiments solved the problem com* 
pletcly. It contains several vertical shafts in which tne descending 
ore is retarded at will by inclined shelving, which causes it to be 
expowd to the flamrs as long as may be necessary to roast it thor- 
ou({hly. The time of treatment is determined by the rapidity with 
which the roasted ore is withdrawn at the bottom. Several similar 
furnaces are in use, as the Knox and Osborne, the Livermore and 
the Cormak-Spirek. The fumes from the roasting furnaces are 
received in masonry chambers, usually provided with water-cooled 
pipes; from these tney pass through earthenware pipes, and finally 
through others of woodf and glass. Not all the yield is in Ikiuid 
mercury ; much of it is cntansled in masses of soot that cover tbe 
condenser walls, and this is only recovered after much bbour. 

The conditions for effective condensation are: (i) The furnace 
gases should be well oxidized, to avoid the production of an excess 
of soot. Gas firing would meet this requirement better than the use 
of wood or coal, (a) The volume of permanent gases passing through 
the furnace should be reduced to a minimum consistently with 
complete oxidation. (3) The cross-section of the condensers shouM 
be sufficient to reduce the velocity of the escaping gases, and tba 
surface large enough for cooling and for the adhesion of condensed 
mercury. The latter requirement is best provided for by hanging 
wooden aprons in the path of the cooled eases. (4) The temperature 
of the escaping gases should not exceed 15* to 30* C, but cooling 
below this temperature would not give any adequate return for the 
expense. Cooling by water is quicker, but more expensive than by 
air. Water sprays, acting directly on the fumes, have not given 
good results, on account of the difficulty of recovering " floured ** 
quicksilver from the water. (5) The use of an artificial inward 
draught is absolutely necessary to control tbe operation of tbt 



MERCURY 



157 



fonocn and cottfeium and to avoid the Mlivation of the workmen. 
(6) The coodenaer should be easily and quickly cleaned during the 
ppcntioa of the furnace. (7) Bo«h furnaces and rondensers should 
■ 'n their * ■ 



uvc inclined iron plates in t 



r foundations to prevent the infiltra- 



tion of mercury. 78) There is a great need of •onw substance for 
of c * ' 



the ooBSCructaon of qukksilver condensers which shall be strong 
enough to be made thin, be a good conductor of heat, and resistant 
to abrasion and the alternate action of heat and cold. It should 
also resist the action of mercury and warm dilute sulphuric add, 
and be not too expensive. 

Quicksilver is best removed from the " soot." not by presMize, but 
bjr the ofqioaite treatment. A machine in use for tnis purpose at 
New Almidcn, devised by Colonel von Leicht, consists of an iron 
bowl, perforated at the bottom, in which revolved a vertical shaft 
carrying a propeller blade which tosses the soot (mixed with wood 
ashes and a little cool oil) into the air, so that the entangled mercury 
ii free to run out through the bottom of the bowl. The residue 
from which no more mercury can be extracted mechanically is 
retomed to the rosuting furnace. 

The losses of treatment are: (i) Furnace loss, which b eaaly 

itd uce d to nothing, and (2) condenser loss, which can never be lero. 

The latter consists of mercury lost as vapour and as mist, and its 

miaiaum amount b determined not by tne richness of the ore but 

by the volume of escaping gases, theu* velocity and temperature. 

The percentage of loss willbe higher with a poor than a rich ore. 

On a 3 % ore the losses need not exceed 3 or 4% ore content. On a 

] % ofe they win run from 5 to 10%. But in poorly arranged plants 

onder bad management they may easily be doubled or even trebled. 

The Huettner and Scott fine-ore furnace costs with condensers in 

Califomia about fjo.ooo, and roasts from 30 to 45 tons of ore 

CEnn j| in. to dust) in 34 hours at a cost of from f i to |0'6a per ton. 

Pwfi£aiiom, — Commercial mercury, as a rule, only needs to be 

farced through cbamob leather or allowed to run though a very fine 

hole to become fit for all ordinary apolications; but the metal, 

having the power of dissolving most otner metals, b very liable to 

gee contaminated, and requires then to be purified. For this purpose 

many chemical methods have been proposed; the commonest 

eonsuC in allowing the metal to fall in a very fine stream through a 

Mbum of a mixture of nitric acid and mercurous nitrate, or of 

■dphuric acid, or of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid ; the 

Bttal being subsequently dried and filtered through a perforated 

paper filter. The only really exhaustive method b distillation in a 

vacnam out of a glass apparatus. Many forms of apparatus have 

been dev is ed to effect this. Recent researches have shown, however, 

that the metal so obtained b not chemically pure, there being found 

ia the dbtillate traces of other metals. Absolutely pure mercury 

docs aot at all adhere to any surface which does not consist of a metal 

nhUe in mercury. Hence the least Quantity of it, when placed on 

s iheet of paper, forms a neatly roundcd-off globule, whicn retains 

its (arm on being rolled about, and, when subdivided, breaks up 

itto a number of equally perfect globules, which tend to coalesce 

■hen sufficiently near to each other. The presence in it of the 

niastest trace of lead or tin causes it to " draw tails." A very 

iiBpue metal may adhere even to glass, and in a ^lass vessel, instead 

of the normal convex, form an irregular flat meniscus. 

hpptrties. — Pure mercury u a freely flowing liquid, which 
doci not wet objects placed in it, and has a silvery white colour 
tod perfect metaUic lustre; in very thin layers it transmits a 
Undi-violet light. It freezes at about - 39' C. (Mallet gives 
~ 38'SS*; HutdUns, - 39'44'') with contraction, and the forraa* 
(in of a white, very ductile and malleable mass, easily cut with 
a knife, and exhibiting crystab belonging to the cubic system. 
Wbea heated the metal expands very uniformly, and vaporizes 
It about 360*; the volatility b generally increased by the 
pnence of impurities; its high expansion and the wide range 
of temperature over which it u fluid render it especially valuable 
IS a thermometric fluid (see Tuermometry). The vapour b 
colourless, and its density points to the conclusion that the mole- 
cules are monatomic. Its specific gravity at o** b i3*5959f *•«• 
i( ii about half as heavy again as copper volume for volume, a 
qauter as heavy again as lead, and nearly twice as heavy as 
Boc; thb property b turned to account in the construction of 
buometen and air-pumps. Its specific heat is about 0-0333 
(tee Caxx>simetry); its electrical conductivity b involved in 
(ke definition of the ohm (see Conduction, Electric) ; and its 
thermal conductivity b about tiKi'o thirds that of silver. 

Pure mercury remains unchanged in dry air, oxygen, nitrous 
ttidc, carbon dioxide, ammonia and some other gases at ordinary 
tcoycratures; hence its application for collecting and measuring 
Ittcs. In damp air it slowly becomes coated with a film of 
■eicuroas oxide; and when heated for some time in air or 
«]rpB it becomes transformed into the red mercuric oxide, 
lUch dccompoaes iato mercury and oxygen when heated to 



a higher temperaturej this mctiort b of greil historical impgr* 
tancc, since ti led to the discovery of ojcygen at the hand* of 
Fri^tlcy aad Schede. The halogen etementi and sulphur 
a>mbji]e direclly willi the melaL Mefcuiy is unit tacked by 
dilute sulphuric acid; the strong addi however, dissolve it oa 
hcaLing with the fomutloa oE sulphur dlotide and mercurous 
or mercuric sulphate accordiog is mercuiy is in excess or fioi. 
H>'drod]loric acid has no action. Dilute niiric add readily 
attJtckj it, mercurous mtrate bting formed m the ojld wiih cicrM 
of mercury, mercuric nit rate wilh eiceas ol add, or nilh slron^ 
add^ in the warm.. The nietal dl^isiolvcs in solutions contaioias 
chlorine or bromine, and coasifquently in aqua fcgia. 

Mercury readily dissolves many mi:taJs to form a class of com^ 
pounds termed amalgjims, whicib have considerable applicationi 
ia the arts. 

Ofmpoujuh of Meratfy. 

Mercury forms two wtU-deiintd Kxit'i ot ults--the mFreurmii 
saU^ deriv-cd from th? odd? HgiO, and the mercuric uJb Ui^m the 
Oxide l^gO^ th« (Tiistrncr of these salti cdn lurdly be iiiBtparably 
cunriccteij wUb a v^irijbke valency, i^,^. thit mercury ii monovalent 
in incji;^un3LiA, And div.ilcai Ui ineixuric compounds, for acci>fding to 
Batci" mfrruroiis chloride _oc c4k>meJ {q") ha* the form u La HgiCli* 

Mcfturaiu Qiiiie, ii^^, Li an uiut^bk' dark^ brown powder formed! 
when caufttk potdjh acta oi> calomel ; it a decern powd by !tjfthc or 
on iritunition inlo mercury and mercuric oxide UeTctuic oxidi, 
HgOi occurm in two fornu: it lb Gbtain^ed ai a bri|;lit-ncd cryiUtliline 
powder (alio known as '* ml precEpkate,'" or a.i merturiui ptatiipi* 
tai^^ pfT if) by heatine the mcEal in air, or hy caicltiing the nitr^te^ 
and aj on orang^e-ydlow powder hy precipitating a wlLition cf a 
mercuric salt with potaah ^ the difierence is probably cvne of jubdivt* 
aion. Thf yetlow iDrni it the moat reactive and \a transformed Into 
the red when heated to 400^. If the red oidde be heatied it becomes 
black, regaining itt cotpkir on cooling, and oci iLuther heating to ^3 JO* 
it decompoHA Into mftcury and ojiygen* It i* ^lightly tol utile 
in. water^ io which It lin|arta an alkaline reaction and i^tronfly 
{netatlic taste- A peroddei» obtained a» a brown solid from mtcrcury 
and i^tighil^r acid va% hydrogen pcfOJtidc at 1o« terttftcfatufet. 

Mercuroufr and mercuric chloridQ, known fTe»p« lively ai calomd 
{q.B.} and cttfTfo«ve sublimate tq.v.], are two of the mo*t Importiint 
ij!t4 of mercury^ itf^oifaaa hntmid^t HgjBrth i* a yeUowi*h-whiie 
pijjwder^ ipi^luble in water, Mertmk iirswiide, HfiBn, form» white 
cryjtjls, t^fiaringty soluble ia cold water, readily Jn hot, ftnd pftpared 
by the dtrect owon of itt components^ Merotrgin ufdidi, HbiIi, It 




- UjSl 

Hgik oiists la two crystalline forms. By nUKin^ toluticnii 
— ^ cbtoride and pota«$ium iodiiJe undtr a micmcope, 

jic platet are »tcn to be form*^ wbkb art ttansJofmed 

very quicldy Into fcarlcE quadratic octahedra. On heating to about 
I j6 the red form is transformed into the yetbw modifTc^ttion , on 
cooling the revcne emdual^ occur*, and tmmefiialely if the yellow 
iodide M touched. Mcjxuric iodide ia inwlubte in viter. but wluble 
in abiolute alcohol: and alu in potaaium Iodide ^tution, with ibe 
formation of Kr^ffiE^t which may be obtained ifl lemon- yellow cryitalt. 
A ^tnngly alkaline folution of this salt is known a« Ne^er'» reagent, 
ond is spcciaUy usetl for determintn^ trace* ol ammonb (pec below), 
Mcrcunc iodide dlwolvc* In other iodide solution^ to irwm timilar 
compounds!: th«e aolution^ are characterised by their excepticnaJty 
biph ipecttic gravity, and hence are em^'loyM in density deter- 
minationi (nee DENSITY), It fllso f<7rmi many other double ultt. 
Oxtdation with ttrong nitric acid giY-es the iMate^ UgftOt)]. An 
iodide, H(;j[j^ intcrmedtatc between menrurouB and mrrcuric iodlcSei, 
is obtained at a yellow in^tlyble powder by preci pi rating menrurout 
nitrite with a tomtioa of iodine m potatitum iodide, MfrtuTitus 
Jlittirufc, HgjFi, and mercitric Jtwxfnde, HgFi, are unliable Eubsuncet 
obt lined from the corresponcling oiidr and h^'drofluoric acid, 

Merctirifus Nitratf, Hei(NOi)j ^ jHjO, is obtained as a white 
crystalline «alt toluble in water by di^^solviFiK the metal in cold dilute 
nitdc acid: if the metal be in nx/Ltvi a basic talt HRi(NO])f . jHG^, 
3lIfO is obt^ined^ Several other baste Hlt> are known. Ey iddinjE 
aniTnonia to 3 AoTution of mercuroui nitrate ■ black precipitate in 
v^iri^ble cornpD«ltion, known in pharmacy ai mirmireia jotn&UU 
flakmrttntMi, ii obtained, 

MfrcurU NiiwdH^—liy tVif^vtJig mercune oxide in itmng nitric 
acid there is obtained a thick liqmd which will not cryttallire, and 
which Eivri on th* addition of itrnng nitric acid a white precipitate 
ol iIldNOi), . HA Water decompoficj it to give basic salts ol 
variable composition. By disso^virig the otide in dikte- nitric acid, 
the ba*ic *ak H£(NO<)i . NgO . M A cryttallidnf in needlea, it 
obtaifted. 

MfrCMrtfus Sulpkidt, H^iSh ^a an unstable black powder obtained 
by acting with tulphuretted hydrofen, diluted with carbon dioKide* 
on calomel at -io\ It decomposea into mercuric sulphide and 
mcrrury at o', Mtrcitrie tidpkide» HgS» is one of the mot; imporuuit 



158 



MERCURY 



neicury compoundf ^ it » the priiKiiaT en, Doevrrin^ in nature h% 
tht itiinctbit cinryibar^ \^-V.), Avd 'n extensively f]io4 a» i pigment, 
vrrn^ilian (f.f.). It i» Dbtainctl at a blaclc po«v:Jer by triturmin^ 
mercury wi^h sul^ihur, the compound thus furmed bcia'f known in 
phaiTnacy as Aethwpi mintralis^ and also by precipitaiine a 
mercuric salt with Mjlphuretted hydrogen. It ia only sligntly 
2cicd upon by nicnc acid; k dissolves, m aqua trgia; tliforine 
gives a yellov compound, a'H^ . HgCli; and it diswlvva in 
potasaium culpbide lolutions to fcmo double lalta ^\ variable 
compouEion. 

hletcureui SidphnU. HgiSQi, ta a white h Epanngly HJubSe, cryptal' 
line Aubstaiice obuinL-d by addine ^itiixi sulphate to s. Hohitian 
of tucrcurous nttratc- Mercuru iiJpha£t, Hg^Oi, i& a white, soluble 
mIc obtained by' di«;Aolvine mercury in hot strong iulphuric 
acid! on dige^tiun ^~kh water, it decompoEcrfi into a baue salt 
HfSOi * sH^ kn^wn as itifiiith or tatpilk minerai, aod iato an 

Mtftury Fhgiphidi, H^iPj, is obtained aa bnlliant fed, heKaEortat 
cryAa1» by hciitlng mercury wirh pboBphorufl iodide to 300 A nd 
FcmtivjniE tbc mercuric iodide £imuitaneousJy Formed by m^na of 
potauium iotljde snluti^in. Mtrturous pmtsphatty HgiFOii ajid 
PUnvri^ ptms^koic, HgiiVOt)i, are obtained a* white p'ecipitatcv 
by addin^^ HMJium phosphate to bolutioni of m^ciiroijfl and loercuric 
nitrates respectively. 

MercuramrrKmitim Compoundt. — By che action of ammonia and 
ammonium Ealt£ mercury compounds yield a number of bubstance^^i 
many of which have long been useil in medidne. By the action 
of dry ammonia on calomel inercurc4i>«mfnorLium chloride, 
NH|HfCI, ia cbcaineiJ; aqueous ammonia on calomitl £1^"^^ di- 
mercuroso^ammoatum chloride, NH|H£iCL By flddirsg ammonia 
to a KilutJon of mfreuric chloridet mcfeurammoniuiti chloride* 
known in pharmacy as *' infusible white precipttaEeT'^ NHjKeCIi 
is obtainecT; '" fu^lbV white precipitate " is mefcum-dlammonium 
chloride* Hg(NHjCl]iiH and is obtained by adding a solution of 
cni-reuric chloride to hot solutions of ammonium chloride and 
ammonia » long a» the precipitate firat formed nrdEtsolves; the 
»ub^ancc ecparaie^ out on cooling* By predpitotinK a fttrcnEly 
alkaline toluiion of mercuric iodide in potawum iodide (Neiskr s 
Boktion) thcfie i» ohuined a yellow precipitate of NKiH^I; ihii 
reaction ii the most delicate test for ammonia^ a yellow coloration 
being given by minute traces. By {^bifslng dry ammonia over pny 
ci^iidted mercuric oude at 130", a nitride NiHgi Is obtainctL The 
oxide and ammnnia snludon give* tlu^ stable and basic mercur- 
hydrtixylamine, NMg^H. The {jonsiitution of these compounds 
baa been espccUilly studied by K. A. Hofmann and E£. C, Marburg 
{Zeit. Ariorr. Chrm. i^, p. T26); these chemifte formulate " infutible 
precipitate Bi He[NHi)C1, " fuuUle precipitate '' as IfgfNHiCl)! 
^' Nfitlon 9 base" as (HO . llfi>,:NHiOH. thus post u latin e; three 
distinct typei of compounds, {]) amidochloridei; {i} amines^ (3) 
substituted ammonium derivatives. 

Anaiytu, — Mercury compounds, when heated in a closed lube 
with iMium carbonate, yield a grey to blaok sublimate of metallie 
mercury, which readily unites to form visible elobule^L The :|Tiet^1 
IS precipitated from wlutiona by dij;e5tion witn brifiht copper-foil, 
a coatinf[ beinR formed on the copper^ which beromei silvery on 
rubbingn and disappears when the quicksilvered copper ie heated 
in a subUmation lube. 

Solutions of mcrcumus salts wiih hydrochloric add give a white 
pfecipiute of calomel, which becomes jct-bUck on treatment with 
mnmonia. Stannous chloride^ in its twofold capacity as a chloride 
■od a reducing agirnt, prK:ipiE4i.cs l>cjih mercurous and mrrc^ric 
■elutiofl*, at first a^ calomel, and on addition of an e^ccesii. of reinvent 
the precipitate l>«xjcm*s grey through coni^^rgon Into finely divided 
quicksilver. Sulphurttttd hydropen, when addi-d very gnidiially 
to an add mcrcufic: M>tLEtiont fiivL's at first an almost wliitc pre- 
cipitate, whichi on addition of more and more reagents assumet 
succesuvely a yellow, orani^e and at last ict-hbtk colour* The 
black precipitate Is HpS. whtrb is identified by its grcar hraviriessH 
and by being insoluble in boiling nitric And in boiling hydrochloric 
acid. A mUture of the tw[> (aqua rrfjia) diwiolvt^ it a^ chloride* 

" Mcrcurous " merrury is duantitati^xly estimated by pfedpitat' 
Ifiw as calomel and weighing the pTecipitate on a tared filler at loo"* 
The metal may also be estimated by disitillation in a doecd tnlic with 
lime» the metal being collected and Weighed, Of by precipitating 
the solution with an excess of stannous chloride. ^foTe tonvtnient 
Is the method of precipitating as sulphide by a nexce» of sulphureii«d 
hydronen, and n-eighing the prKipitate on a tared filter; or by means 
of ■ Goqch crudbic. 

Fkarmacifiasy tini Tk^fapeuHcs 
Tbs use of mercury at n^ them|>euiic agtnl u of comp&iativ^Iy 
reornt date. To th« Dteeks; dund Romans tti value wu unkoowa, 
and the Ambiat^ physidarts only used it for akin affections* It 
was not tlLl the middle of the 16th century that the spcdal pro- 
pet tics of mercury were fully appreciated^ but since thai lime 
Ihe (tletal has continued to hold a high though fluduaiing value 
M a medidne. At first the metal In a tinsly divided ^tate or in 
vapour wu lued; but vcty soon iu vanous <otBpouadi were 



found to be endowed with powers even greater than those of 
the metal itself, and with the discovery of new compounds the 
number of mercurial medicines has largely increased. 

The British Pharmacopeia contains some twentv-five mercurial 
preparations, including those of cabmel (9.9.)* Otdy the uefid 
pinMrations will be mentioned here. Free mercury u contained 
in Hydrargyrum cum Creta, or " grey powder," which consists of 
one part ol mercury to two of prepared chalk. The power of tins 
valuable and widely used preparation varies somewhat with its age. 
as old specimens contain some mercuric oxide, which makes thoa 
more active. The dose is 1-5 gr.. and the preparation is usoally 
employed for children. The Pilula Hydrargyri. or "blue piU.** 
containi one part of mffcyry in lhii?e, and the dose U 4-S gr. It 
ii usually employed for adults, Thrnt are a 1*0 five preparatKHU 
of free mercury for culemal utt Of tbew the mo*t ukIuI ii the 
Unguentum Hydrtirgydi "or blue ointment," which dontLiinj ooe 
part of mercury in twOr Wc;*kcr ointments are also prepared from 
the red and the yelli^w form» of mercuric oude. The perchloride 
of mrrcury or corrowvc jubUmate is therapeuiicalty the mo« im- 
portant salt of mercury. The dose is ^^ fr. It is incompatible 
with alkalies, alkaline carbonates, pot^iKium iodide, albumen and 
m^ny other sub^lancc«, and should therefore bft prescribed alone. 
It is decomposed by impon; water, and distilled water is ihcntfofe 
used in making the Liquor Hydnirff>'ri Pcrchlcridi, Ln which form 
it ia usually prescribed- This contaims half a grain of the perchloridc 
to the fluid ounce and it« do^ Is 30-60 minims. The perchloride 
is also compounded with lime- water to form iht Loiio Hydra rtyri 
Fbva* or ' yellow washn'- which contains two grains of the fait 
to the Auid ounce. Mercuric iodide It an equally potent Eilt and 
has come into wide u^ of bte yearn. It has the Ame dose ai 
the perchloride and is largely prescribed in the Liqiiur Anenit ec 
Hydrai^ri lodidi, or Donovan^s solution, which contains i % of 
artenious iodide and I % of nvercuric todid£i the dose being 5-J0 
minims. An ointment widely used in prepared frr>m the mcrcur- 
ammonium chloride {Unguentum Hydratgyri ammoniatum} of whkh 
it contains one part in ten. It is known as " white precipitate 
ointment." 

In diicuMing the pharmacology of mwcury and ks compounds 
it ii of the first impottance to observe that metallic mercury is inert 
as such, and that the same may ptactic4ally be said of mcrcunnis 
salts generaJ]>^. Biith mercur>' iisclf and mcrcurous salts tend to 
be converted in the body into mercuric salts, to which the action 
is due. A^^en metallic mercury is triturated or exposed lo air it 
LB partly oxidizedn the firat wtage of its transformation to an actiw 
condition being thus reached. 

Metallic merrury can be absorbed by the ildn, pauin^ in mtnuie 
globules through the ducts of the ew&at^glaadj. The mercury 
contained in "bJuf ointment " i» certainly inai absorbed, actually 
circulating in the blood in a very different form, as described below. 
There it nq local action on the 4kin. The mercuric sit 4, and ttpt- 
cially the chloride and Iodide, are pmbably the most powerful of all 
known anti^epiicsn One part of the perchloride in 500,000 will 
prevent the growth of anthrax bacilli^ and one prt in aooo— the 
iTfcngth commoflly employed in surgery — ^kills aU known bacteria. 
The action is apiijarently spfecific and not due to the faet that pet" 
chloride of mercury prvcipitates albumen, including the albuminou* 
bodies of bacttria, for the iodide is still nione powerful as a gercntcide* 
chough it doci not coagulate albumen. These saks cannot be 
employed for steriliring mctallfc initrumenta, which they tami^ 
As these dni^ ate essentially poi»un« ihev must be used wiib the 
greatest care in surgical pmcttce, and as tr>ey are parttcularly dd^ 
tefiotis to the secreting structure of the kidney they must not be 
employed as antiseptics in dtfcase^ where renai inflammation is 
already prtsent or probable. They are therefore contra indicated 
fatr ^ppTicnhiKTii Tn rhe rhrrj-ji in sr^rln^t-lfivi^f nr t" tl'e yt>T!f>i m 
eclampsia. The stronger mercurial ointments kill cutaneous |ara- 
sites and also possess some degree of antipruritic action, especially 
when the cause of the itchmg is somewhat obscure. Mercuric 
salu. when in strong solution, are caustic. It is important to observe 
that the volatility of metallic mercury and many of its compounds 
causes their absorption by the lungs even when no such enect is 
intended to follow their external application. This fact exf^laittt 
the occurrence of chronic mercurial poisoning in certain trades. 

Single doses of mercury or its compounds have no action upon 
the mouth, the charactenstic salivation betn^ produced only alter 
many doses. Their typical action on the bowel is purgative, the effect 
varymg with the state of the mercury. So relatively inert u meuUic 
mercurv that a pound of it has been given without ill effects in 
cases of intestinal obstruction, which it was hoped to rdieve by the 
mere weight of the metal. Half a grain of the perchknide. on the 
other hand, is a highly toxic dose. The action 01 mercurials on the 
bowel is mostly exerted on the duodenum and jejunum, though 
the k>wer part of the bowel is slightly affected. Hence a dose of 
mercury usually needs a saline aperient to complete its action, aa 
in the blue pill and black draught " of former day*. Mercurials 
do not cause, in therapeutic dows, much increase in the intestinal 
secretion, the action being mainly exerted on the muscular wall of 
the bowel. The bile is rapidly removed from the duodenum, 
before any re-absorption can occur, and the bacterial action whi^ 



MERCY, F.— MERCY-ARGENTEAU 



teoBiponi tte bae-pigmait b aiTMted by the antiaepck^^ 
amg. ao that the excreta are of a very dark colour. The classical 
npernnents ol WiUiam Rutherford (1859-1899). of Edinburgh. 
tkamtd that calomel does not increase the amount of bile formed 
by the liver. Corrosive suUimate does, however, stimulate the 
fiver to a alii^t decree. The value of calomel in hepatic torpor is 
as aa excretory, not a secretory, cholagogue, the gall-bladder being 
scinndated to ex^ iu stagnant contents. In large doses mercuriaU 
sooewfaat d iminis h the secretion of bile. The greater part of the 
ninistered by the mouth, in whatever form, is excreted 
sulphide. Prior to this decomposition the mercury 
amiplez soluble compound with sodium, chlorine and 
When perchloride of mercury is injected sutxuuneously 
chloride in the blood similarly prevents the precipitation 
•f the albuminate of mercury, and it is therefore desirable to add a 
iittleso<£umcliloridetothesolutionforinjection' : ::. r 1 r. . ! : nJc. 
Soae ooaerven assert that mercury is a hae[r,AtJnict IncreA^inK, 
She ifoo, the amount of haemoglobin in the blocKl WhHst thii ia 
doubtful it is certain that large doses, when ^antinued. produce 
aarkBd anaemia. The excretion of the druf: is accompUiJied by all 
the secreting glands, including the breasts, if the£# air functioning, 
AB Che aecretMHis of the body, except that of 1:1 p peptic glands a\ 
Ae stofnach, are stimulated, but the excretion of mercury U 4J0W, 
aad it is tmcaUy one of the drugs that are cumuCaiiv?, Ulce anenk 
aad (figitaltSL 

Mercury b largely used in affections of the alimentary canal, and 
las aa obacure but unquestionable value in many cases of heart- 
disease and arterial degeneration. But its value in syphilis (tee 
VnsKBAt. DiSBASEs) faroutweifthsall its other uses. 

r«xicsil0gy. — Acute poisoning by mercurials usually occurs in the 
case of corrosive sublimate, tnere is intense gastro-intestinal 
influniBation. with vomiting, frequent " rice-water " stools and 
citreme collapse. The treatment, except when the case is seen 
•t oooe. is very difficult, but white-of-egg or other form of albumen 
is the antidote, forming an insduble compound with the perchloride. 
Qmrnic po«aoning (hydrargyrism or mercuriaUsm) u of great 
iaportaiice. aince any indication of its symptoms must be closely 
vatched for In patients who are under mercurial treatment. Usually 
the first symptom is slight tenderness of the teeth whilst eating, and 
mne foetor of the breath. These symptoms become more marked 
aad the gums become the seat of severe inflammation, bung spongy, 
«ucnlar and prone to bleed. The salivary glands are swollen and 
leader, and the saliva pours from the mouth, and may amount to 
piats ia the course of a day. The teeth become quite loose and may 
id out. The symptoms are aggravated until the tongue and moutn 
doerace, the jaw-bone necroses, haemorrhages occur in various 
puts of the body, and the patient dies of anaemia, septic inflamma- 
tioa or eadiaustion. The treatment consists, besides stopping the 
istake of poison and relieving the symptoms, in the admimstration 
cf pocaftium iodide in nnall, often repeated doses. 

BtBUOcaAPHY.— For the history of mercury see B. Neumann, 
Dit Mttatte (1904); A. Rossing, Ctschichte der MetalU (1901). The 
leflcxal chemistiy is treated in detail in O. Dammer, Handbuch der 
tmrpunscken Ckemie, and H. Moissan, TraiU de chimie mitUraU. 
For the metallurgy reference nuy be made to Cari Schnabel, Hand- 
Mt tf MeiaUurgy, voL ii. (1906), translated by H. Louis. 

nSIGT (or Mero), FRANZ, Freihers von, lord of Mandre 
and CoUenburg (d. 1645), Gennan general in the Thirty Years' 
War, who came of a noble family of Lorraine, was bom at 
LoDgwy between 1590 and 1598. From 1606 to 1630 he was 
engaged in the imperial service. By the latter year he had 
attained high military rank, and after distinguishing himself at 
the first battle of Brdtenfcld (163 1) he commanded a regiment 
of foot CO the Rhine and defended Rheinfelden against the 
Swedes with the utmost bravery, surrendering only after endur- 
bg a five-months' siege. He now became a general officer of 
avalry iCeneral-FeldwacMimeistcr), and in 1635, 1636 and 1637 
took part in further campaigns on the Rhine and Doubs. In 
September 1638 he was made master-general of ordnance in 
the army of Bavaria, then the second largest army in Germany, 
la the next campaign he was practically commander-in-chief of 
tk Bavarians, and at times also of an allied army of Imperialists 
and Bavarians. He was now considered one of the foremost 
iokliexs in Europe, and was made general field marshal in 1643, 
then be won his great victory over the French marshal Rantzau 
at Tattlingen (Nov. 24-25), capturing the marshal and seven 
thousand men. In the following year Mercy opposed the French 
armies, now under the duke of Enghien (afterwards the great 
Coode) and the vicomte de Turenne. He fought, and in the end 
lost, the desperate battle of Freiburg, but revenged himself next 
year by inflicting upon Turenne the defeat of Mergcntheim 
(Marienthal).' Later in i645> fighting once more against Enghien 
and Turenne, Mercy was killed at the battle of Ndrdlingen (or 



159 



AUerhdm) at the crisis of the engagement, which, even without 
Merc/s guiding hand, was almost a drawn battle. He died on 
the 3rd of August 1645- On the spot where he fell, Enghien 
erected a memorial, with the inscription Sta viator, keroem caicas. 
His grandnephew Claudius Florimond, Count Mercy de 
ViLLETS (1666-1734), Imperial field marshal, son of his brother 
Kaspar, who fell at Freiburg, was born in Lorraine, and entered 
the Austrian army aa a volunteer in 1682. He won his com- 
mission at the great battle of Vienna in the following year; and 
during seven years of campaigning in Hungary rose to the rank 
of Rittmeister. A wound sustained at this time permanently 
injured his sighL For five years more, up to 1697, he was 
employed in the Italian campaigns, then he was called back to 
Hungary by Prince Eugine and won on the field of ZenU two 
grades of promotion. He displayed great daring in the first 
campaigns of the Spanish Succession War in luly, twice fell 
into the hands of the enemy in fights at close quarters and 
for his conduct at the surprise of Cremona (Jan. 31, . 1702) 
received the emperor's thanks and the proprietary colonelcy of 
a newly raised cuirassier regiment. With this he took part in 
the Rhine campaign of 1703, and the battle of Friedlingen, and 
his success as an intrepid leader of raids and forays became well 
known to friend and foe. He was on that account selected early 
in 1704 to harry the elector of Bavaria's dominions. He was 
soon afterwards promoted Cenerai-FcldwacklmeuUr, in which 
rank he was engaged in the battle of the Schellenberg (July a, 
1704). In the zest of the war he was often distinguished by 
his fiery coiurage. He rose to be general of cavalry in the course 
of these ten years. His resolute leadership was conspicuous at 
the battle of Peterwardein (17 16) and he was soon afterwards 
made commander of the Banat of Temesv&r. At the great 
battle of Belgrade (17x7) he led the second line of left wing 
cavalry in a brilliant and decisive charge which drove the Turks 
to their trenches. After the peace he resumed the administra- 
tion of the Banat, which after more than 150 years of Turkish 
rule needed a humane and capable governor. But before his 
work was done he was once more called away to a command in 
the field, this time in southern Italy, where he fought the battle 
of FrancaviUa (June 30, 2719), took Messina and besieged 
Palermo. For eleven years more he administered the Banat, 
reorganizing the coimtry as a prosperous and civilized com- 
munity. In 1734 he was made a general field marshal in the 
army, but on the 29th of June was killed at the battle of Parma 
while personally leading his troops. He left no children, and 
his name passed to Count Argenteau, from whom came the 
family of Mercy-Argcnteau (see below). 

MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward), 
compassion, pardon, pity or forgiveness. The Latin word was 
used in the early Christian ages for the reward that is given in 
heaven to those who have shown kindness without hope of 
return. The French word, except in such phrases as Dieu merci, 
sans merci, is principally used in the sense of " thanks," and is 
seen in the old English expression " gramcrcy," i.e. grant merci, 
great, many thanks, which Johnson look for " grant me mercy." 
In the medieval Church there were seven " corporal " and seven 
"spiritual works of mercy" {opera misericordiae); these were 
(a) the giving of food to the hungry and drink to the thirsty, 
the clothing of the naked', the visitation of the sick and of 
prisoners, the receiving of strangers, and the burial of the dead; 
lb) the conversion of sirmers, teaching of the ignorant, giving of 
counsel to the doubtful, forgiveness of injuries, patience under 
wrong, prayer for the living and for the dead. The order of 
the Sisters of Mercy is a religious sisterhood of the Roman Church. 
[t is found chiefly in England and Ireland, but there are branches 
in the United States of America, in South America and in Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand. It was founded in 1827 in Dublin by 
Miss Catherine McAulcy (1787-X841). The object was to per- 
form the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. 

MERCT-ARGENTEAU. FLORIMOND CLAUDE, Coicte de 
(x 7 27-1 794), Austrian diplomatist, son of Antoine, comte de 
Mercy-Argenieau, entered the diplomatic service of Austria, 
going to Paris in the train of Prince Kaunitx. He became 



i6o 



MERE— MEREDITH 



Austrian minister at Turin, at St Petersburg, and in 1766 at 
Paris, where his first work was to strengthen the alliance between 
France and Austria, which was cemented in 1770 by the marriage 
of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., with Marie Antoinette, 
daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. When four years later 
Lbuis and Marie Antoinette ascended the throne, Mercy-Argen- 
teau became one of the most poweriul personages at the French 
court. He was in Paris during the turbulent years which 
heralded the Revolution, and his poweriul aid was given first to 
Lom6nie de Brienne, and then to Necker. In 1792 he became 
governor-general of the Belgian provinces, which had just been 
reduced to obedience by Austria, and here his ability and experi- 
ence made him a very successful ruler. Although at first in 
favour of moderate courses, Mercy-Argenteau supported the 
action of Austria in making war upon his former ally after the 
outbreak of the Revolution, and in July 1794 he was appointed 
Austrian ambassador to Great Britain, but he died a few days 
after his arrival in London. 

See T. Juste. Lt ComU de Mercy-Arienteau (Brussels 1863); A. 
von Ameth and A. Geoffrey. Correspondances secrHu de iiarie 
Tkirhse avec U comU de Mercy (Paris 1874) ; and A. von Amcth and 
J. Flammermont, Correspondance secrhte de Mercy avec Joseph II. 
et Kaunitz (Paris 1889-1801). Mercy-Argenteau^ Corresp<nidantts 
secrets de Marie Thirise has been condensed and translated into 
English by Lilian Smythe under the title of A Guardian of Marie 
AntotneUe {1 vols.. London 190a). 



X. (From Lat. mtrus^ pure, unmixed; O. Fr. mier), 
an adjective primarily indicating something pure and unmixed; 
thus '* mere wine " implied pure and unadulterated wine, as 
" mere folly " expressed folly pure and simple. Modem usage 
has, however, given both to the adjective *' mere " and the 
adverb " merely " a deprecatory and disparaging idea, so that 
expressions like " the mere truth," a " mere statement of fact," 
&c., often convey the impression that they are far from being 
" mere " in the sense of " entire " or " absolute," but are, on the 
contrary, fragmentary and incomplete. The earlier idea of the 
word is reuined in some legal phrases, especially in the phrase 
" mere motion,'* that is, of one's own initiative without help or 
suggestion from the outside. Another legal phrase is '* mere 
right" (law lAXxn jus merum)^ t.e. right without possession. 

3. A word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic 
and other languages; cf. Dutch and Ger. Meer. From the cognate 
Lat. mare are derived the Romanic forms, e.g. Fr. mer, Span, mar, 
&c.; the word appears also in the derivative "marsh" for 
'* nuirish "; the ultimate origin has been taken to be an Indo- 
European root, meaning " to die," i.e. to lie waste; cf. Sansk. 
marut desert), an arm of the sea or estuary; also the name 
given to lakes, pools and shallow stretches of water inland. 
In the Fen countries a mere signifies a marsh or a district 
nearly always under water. 

3. (Derived from an O. Eng. source, maere, a wall or 
boundary; cognate with Lat. murus, a wall), a landmark or 
boundary, also an object indicating the extent of a property 
without actually enclosing it. A special meaning is that of a 
road, which forms a dividing line between two places. A 
** meresman " is an official appointed by parochial authorities 
to ascertain the exact boundaries of a parish and to report 
upon the condition of the roads, bridges, waterways, &c., 
within them. In the mining districts of Derbyshire a mere is a 
certain measurement of land in which lead-ore is found. 

MBRBDITH, GEORGE (1828-1909). British novelist and 
poet, was bom at Portsmouth, Hampshire, on the 1 3th of Feb- 
ruary 1828; the parish church register records his baptism 
on the 9th of April. About his early life few details are recorded, 
but there is a good deal of quasi-autobiography, derived appar- 
ently from early associations and possibly antipathies, in some 
of his own novels, notably Evan Harrington and Harry Rich- 
mond, as to which the judicious may speculate. He had, as he 
used to boast, both Welsh (from his father) and Irish blood 
(from his mother) in his veins. His father, Augustus Armstrong 
Meredith, was a naval outfitter at Portsmouth (mentioned as 
snch in Marryat's Peter Simple); and his grandfather, Mel- 
chifcdcU Meredith, clearly suggested the " Old Mel " of Evan 



Harrington. Melchisedek was 35 when in 1796 he was Initiated n 
a freemason at Porumouth; and he appears to have been knows 
locally aa " the count," because of a romantic story as to an 
adventure he once had at Bath; he was churchwarden in x8oi and 
1804; and some of the church plate still bears his name. 

Meredith's mother died when he was three years old, and 
he was made a ward in chancery. He was sent to school at 
Neuwied on the Rhine, and remained in Germany till he was 
sixteen. During these impressionable years he imbibed a good 
deal of the German spirit; and German influence, cspedally 
through the media of poetry and music, can often be traced in 
the cast of his thought and sentiment, as well as in some of the 
intricacies of his literary style. Returning to England he was 
at first articled to a solicitor in London, but he had little inclina- 
tion for the law, and soon abandoned it for the more congenial 
sphere of letters, of which he had become an eager student. At 
the age of twenty-one he began to contribute poetry to the maga- 
zines, and he eked out a livelihood for some years by journalism, 
for the Daily News and other London papers, and for the ipswick 
Journal, for which he wrote leaders; a certain number of his 
more characteristic fugitive writings are collected in the memo- 
rial edition of his works (1910). In London he became one of 
the leading spirits in the group of young philosophical and 
positivistic Radicals, among whom were John (afterwards Lord) 
Morley, Frederic Harrison, Cotter Morison and Admiral Maxse. 
But during the years when he was producing his finest noveb 
he was practically unknown to the public. In 1849 he married 
Mrs NichoUs, daughter of Thomas Love Peacock, the novelist, 
a widow, eight years his senior, whose husband had been acciden- 
tally drowned a few months after her first marriage (1844), 
and who had one child, a daughter; but their married life was 
broken by separation; she died in 1861, and in 1864 Meredith 
married Miss VuUiamy, by whom he had a son and dau^ter. 
His second wife died in 1885. Up to that time there b little to 
record in the incidents of his life; he had not been " discovered " 
except by an ** honourable minority " of readers and critics 
It must suffice to note that during the Austro-Italian War of 
1866 he acted as special correspondent for the Morning Post; 
and though he saw no actual fighting, he enjoyed, particularly at 
Venice, opportunities for a study of the Italian people which be 
tumed to account in several of his novels. Towards the dose 
of 1867, when his friend John Morley paid a visit to America, 
Meredith undertook in his absence the editorship ol the Poef' 
nightly Renew for Messrs Chapman & HalL They were not only 
the publishers of his books, but he acted for many years as tbeh: 
literary adviser, in which capacity he left a reputation for being 
not only eminently wise in his selection of the books to be 
published, but both critical and encouraging to authors of 
promise whose works he found himself obliged to reject. Thomas 
Hardy and George Gissing were among those who expressed 
their grateful sense of his assistance. He was indeed one of the 
last of the old school of " publishers' readers." In his eariy 
married life he lived near Weybridge, and later at Copsham 
between Esher and Leatherhead, while soon after his second 
marriage he settled at Flint Cottage. Mickleham, near Dorking, 
where he remained for the rest of his life. 

Meredith's first appearance in print was in the character 
of a poet, and his first published poem " Chillian Wallah,** 
may be found in Chambers's Journal for the 7th of July 1849. Two 
years later he put forth a small volume of Poems (1851), which 
was at least fortunate in eliciting the praise of two judges 
whose opinion was of the first importance to a beginner. Tenny- 
son was at once struck by the individual flavour of the verse, 
and declared of one poem. " Love in the Valley," that he could 
not get the lines out of his head. Charles Kingsley's eulogy 
was at once more public and more particular. In Fraser*s 
Magazine he subjected the volume to careful consideration, 
praising it for richness and quaintness of tone that reminded 
him of Herrick. for completeness and coherence in each aeparate 
poem, and for the animating sweetness and health of the general 
atmosphere. At the same time he censured the laxity of 
rhythm, the occasional lack of polish, and the tendeocy to 



MEREDITH 



x6i 



tfferioad the description with objective details "to the con- 

faataa of the principal effect. No doubt as a result of Kingsley's 

ntrodiictkm, two poems by Meredith appeared in Fraser*s 

Utgaaime shortly afterwards; but with the exception of these, 

tad a sonnet in the Leader ^ he did not publish anything for 

the next five years. In the meanwhile he was busy, upon his 

first essay in prase fiction. It was early in 1856 that the Shaving 

tfSkagpai, a work of singular imagination, humour aiid romance, 

made its appearance. Modelled upon the stories of the Arabian 

Nig/Us, it catches with wonderful ardour the magical atmosphere 

of Orientalism, and in this genre it remains a unique triumph 

IB modem letters. Though unappreciated by the multitude, 

its genius was at once recognized by such contemporaries as 

George Eliot and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, the latter of whom was 

one of Meredith's intimate friends. For his next story it occurred 

to Meredith to turn his familiarity with the life and legendary 

tradition ol the Rhinelander into a sort of imitation of the 

gxotcsquerie of the German romanticists, and in 1857 he put 

forth Farina^ a Legend of Cdogne^ which sought to transfer 

tt En^ish qrmpathies the spirit of German romance in the 

same way that Shagpal had handled Oriental fairy-lore. The 

result was less successful. The plot of Farina lacks fibre, its 

motive is insufficient, and the diverse elements of humour, 

terioos narrative, and romance scarcely stand in proportion 

to one another. But the Ordeal of Richard Fcvcrd^ which 

followed in 1859, transferred Meredith at once to a new sphere 

snd to the altitude of his accomplishment. With this novel 

Meredith deserted the realm of fancy for that of the philosophical 

and psychological study of human nature, and Richard Feverel 

was the first, as it is perhaps the favourite, of those wonderful 

ttudies of motive and action which placed him among the 

doaigods of English literature. The essential theme of this 

fine critidsra <rf life is the question of a boy's education. It 

defKcts the abortive attempt of a proud and opinionated father, 

hide-bound by theory and precept, to bring up his son to a 

perfect state of manhood through a " system " which controls 

aB ha early circumstances and represses many of the natural 

sod wholesome instincts and impulses of adolescence. The 

lore scenes in Richard Feverel are gloriously natural and full 

of vitality, and the book throughout marked a revolution 

ia the English treatment of manly passion. Those who have 

UA lead this novel in the original form, with the chapters 

»hidi were afterwards omitted, have lost, however, the key 

to nany passages in the story. In the following year Meredith 

eostribttted to Once a Weeh^ and in 1861 published as a book 

the second of his novels of modem life, Evan Harrington, origi- 

laOy with the sub-litle " He Would be a Gentleman " — in 

aSittioo to the hero being the son of " Old Mel," the tailor— 

which contains a richly humorous — in its unrevised form, 

^ikndidly fardcal — pk)t, with some magnificent studies of 

dnracter. Afterwards revised, a certain amount of the farcical 

dcncnt was cut out, with the result that, considered as comedy, 

It bs weak qwts; but the Coimtess de Saldar remains a genuine 

CRatioD. A year later he produced his finest volume of poems, 

coUiied Uodcrn Lave, and Poems of the English Roadside, 

TCf Poewu and Ballads, An attack upon the dramatic poem 

*kdi gives the volume its title appeared in the Spectator, 

*ad is memorable for the fact that Meredith's friend, the poet 

Sviaburne, with one of his characteristically generous impulses, 

npGrd {Spectaiar, June 7, 1862) in a spirit of fervent eulogy. 

W of the individual " sonnets " (of sixteen lines) into which 

^dem Lave is divided arc certainly worthy of being ranked with 

tlienost subtle and most intense poetic work of the 19th century. 

Kctoming to fktion, Meredith next published Emilia in 

U^md (1864), afterwards renamed Sandra Belloni. His 

P"*crful story Rkoda Fleming (1865) followed soon afterwards. 

^iskria, published in the Fortnightly Review in 1866, and in 

i>ook form in 1867, is a sequel to Emilia in England. Four years 

hter appeared The Adventures of Harry Richmond in the pages 

^ConthUl (1870-1871). Its successor was Beauchamp's Career 

iftrttti^y Review, 1874-187 5), the novel which Meredith usually 

dooibcd as his own favourite. Its hero's character is supposed 



to have been founded upon that of Admiral Mazse. Sandra 
Belloni, Rhoda Fleming, Vittoria and Beauchamp arc all master- 
pieces of his finest period, rich in incident, character and work- 
manship. " The House on the Beach " and " The Case of 
General Opie and Lady Camper " {New Quarterly Magazine^ 
1877) were slight but glittering exercises in comedy; the next 
important novel was The Egoist (1879), which shows an increase 
in Meredith's twistedncss of literary style and is admittedly 
hard to read for those who merely want a " story," but which 
for concentrated analysis and the real drama of the human spirit 
is an astounding production. In an interesting series of lectures 
which Meredith delivered at the London Institution in 1877 
his main thesis was that a man without a sense of comedy 
is dead to the finer issues of the spirit, and the conception 
of Sir Willoughby Patterne, the central figure of The Egoist^ 
is an embodiment of this idea in the flesh. The Tragic Comedians 
(1880), the next of Meredith's novels, slighter in texture than 
his others, combines the spirits of comedy and tragedy in the 
story of the life of Ferdinand Lassalle, the German Socialist. 
The appearance of Diana of the Crossways (1885), a brilliant 
book, full of his ripest character-drawing, though here and 
•there tormenting the casual reader by the novelist's mannerisms 
of <!xpression, marks an epoch in Meredith's career, since it 
was the first of his stories to strike the general public. Its 
heroine was populariy identified with Sheridan's granddaughter, 
Mrs Norton, and the use made in it of the contemporary story 
of that lady's communication to The Times of the cabinet 
secret of Peel's conversion to Free Trade had the effect of 
producing explicit evidence of its inaccuracy from Lord Dufferin 
and others. As a matter of historical fact it was Lord Aberdeen 
who hin^lf gave Delane the information, but the popular 
acceptance of the other version of the incident gave a factitious 
interest to the novel. 

Meanwhile further instalments of poems— /*oeif» and Lyrics 
of the Joy of Earth (i88j)— had struck anew the full, rich 
note of natural realism which is Meredith's chief poetic 
characteristic. "The Woods of Westermain," in particular, 
has a sense of the mysterious communion of man with nature 
unapproached by any English poets save Wordsworth and 
Shelley. Ballads and Poems of Tragic Life (1887) and A 
Reading of Earth (1888) gave further evidence of the wealth 
of thought and vigour of expression which Meredith brought 
to the making of verse. To *' the general," no doubt, 
Meredith's verse is prohibitive, or nearly so — for, after all, 
he has written some poems, like " Martin's Puzile," " The 
Old Chartist," and " Juggling Jerry," which anybody can read 
with ease. But his most characteristic style in verse is so 
concentrated that any one accustomed to " straightforward " 
writing, and unwilling to read with the mind rather than with 
the eye, must needs, to his loss, be put off. His readers, of 
the verse even more than of the prose, must be prepared to 
meet him on a common intellectual footing. When once that 
is granted, however, the music and magic of such poems as 
" Seed-time," " Hard Weather," " The Thrush in February," 
" The South- Wester," ** The Lark Ascending," " Love in the 
Valley," " Mcbmpus," " A Faith on Trial," are very real, 
amid all their occasional obscurities of diction. 

Meredith had'now completed his sixlicth year, and with his 
advancing years the angles of his individuality began to grow 
sharper, while the difRcultics of his style became accentuated. 
The increase in mannerism was marked in One of Our Conquerors 
(1891), otherwise a magnificent rendering of a theme full of 
both tragedy and comedy, and in the poem of " The Empty 
Purse " (1893). Neither Lord Onnont and His Amiuta (1894) 
nor The Amazing Marriage (1895) reached the level of the 
earlier novels, though in the latter he seemed to catch an after- 
glow of genius. In 1898 appeared his Odes in Contribution 
to the Song of French History, consisting of one ode (" France, 
December 1870") reprinted from Ballads and Poems (1871), 
and three others previously unpublished; a fine ex.imple of 
his lofty thought, and magnificent- if often difiicult— and 
individual diction. In 1901 another volume of verse, A Reading 



l62 



MEREDITH 



of Life, appeared. In later years too he contributed occasional 
poems to newspapers and reviews and similar publications, 
which were collected after his death (Last Poems, 1910). His 
comedy, The Sentimentalists, was performed on the ist of 
March 1910; his early but unfinished novel, Ceit and Saxon, 
was also posthumously published in that summer. 

From the early 'nineties onward Meredith's fame had been 
firmly established. His own literary contemporaries still living 
could join hands with the younger generation of enthusiastic 
admirers in insisting on a greatness of which they themselves 
had been unable to persuade the public. He was chosen 
to succeed Tennyson as president of the Authors' Society; 
on his seventieth birthday (1898) he was presented with a 
congratulatory address by thirty of the most prominent men 
of letters of the day; before he died he had beien included by 
the king in the Order of Merit; and in various other ways bis 
position as the chief living English writer had come to be popu- 
larly recognized. The critics discussed him; and new editions 
of his books (both prose and verse), for which there had long 
been but scanty demand, were called for. One of the results 
was that Meredith, with very doubtful wisdom, recast some o^ 
his earlier novels; and in the sumptuous " authorized edition " 
of 1897 (published by the firm of Constable, of which his son, 
William Maxse Meredith, was a n^ember) very large alterations 
are made in some of them. In fact, a reader who compares 
the first and last editions either of Richard Feverel or Evan 
Harrington vrVH notice changes little short of revolutionary. 
Even in the previously current editions of 1878 onwards, pub- 
lished by Chapman & Hall, Richard Feverel had been consider- 
ably shortened as compared with the original three-volume 
edition; but it was now robbed again of some of its best-known 
passages. It b no doubt competent to an author himself to 
revise his earlier published work even to the extent to which 
Meredith in the 1897 edition revised these novels; but certainly 
it is not necessary to accept his judgment when this involves 
the excision in old age of some of the most virile passages of 
books that were written in the full glow and vigour of his prime. 
In Constable's memorial edition (1910) of his complete works 
the excisions were published separately, and are therefore on 
record for those to consult who care. But the wise will read 
Richard Feverel and Evan Harrington in the original versions. 

Meredith's literary quality must always be considered in 
the light of the Celtic side of his temperament and the peculiar- 
ities of his mental equipment. His nature was intuitive rather 
than ratiocinative; his mental processes were abrupt and far- 
reaching; and the suppression of connecting associations fre- 
quently gives his language, as it gave Browning's, but even 
to a greater extent, the air of an impenetrably nebulous 
obscurity. This criticism applies mainly to his verse, but is also 
(rue of his prose in many places, though there is much exaggera- 
tion about the difficulties of his novels. When once, however, 
his manner has been properly understood, it is seen to be insepar- 
able from his method of intellection, and to add to the narrative 
of description both vividness of delineation and intensity of 
realization. The essential respect in which Meredith's method 
of describing action and emotion in narrative differs from that 
of convention is that, while the ordinary method is to relate 
what happens from the point of view of the onlooker, Meredith 
frequently describes it from the point of emotion of the actor; 
and his influence in this direction has largely modified the art 
of fiction. Herein lies the secret of the peculiar brilliancy of 
his style, derived from his combination of the narrator with 
the creator, or— in its strict sense — the seer. The reader, 
by the transference of the interest from the audience to the 
stage, is transported into the very soul of the character, and 
made to feel as he feels and act as he acts. Moreover, Mere- 
dith's instinct for psychology is so intimate, and his sense of 
motive and action so true, that the interaction of character 
and character directly dominates the sequence of events depicted 
in his imaginaiy world, and discloses the moral idea or criticism 
of life, instead of the preconceived " moral " being merely 
illustrated by the plot. In building up the minds, actions, 



creeds, amd tragedies or comedies of his imaginary penonaStiet 
amid the selected circumstances, and inspiring them with the 
identical motives and educational influences of life itself, Mere- 
dith spent an elaboration and profundity of thought and an 
originality and vigour of analysis upon his noveb which in 
ezplicitness go far beyond what had previously been attempted 
in fiction, and which give to his works a philosophical value 
of no ordinary kind. Simplicity can scarcely be expected of 
his language, for the interplay of ideas is in itself original and 
complex, and their interpretation is necessarily original and 
complex too. But when Meredith is at his best he is only 
involved with the involution of his subject; the aphorisms 
that decorate his style are simple when the idea they convey 
is simple, elaborate only in its elaboration. Pregnant, vividly 
graphic, capable of infinite shades and gradations, his style 
is a much finer and subtler instrument than at first appears, 
and must be judged finally by what it conveys to the mind, 
and not by its superficial sound upon the conventional ear. 
It owes something to Jean Paul Rlchter; something, too, to 
Carlyle, with whose methods of narrative and indebtedness to 
the apparatus of German metaphysics it has a good deal in 
common. To the novelist Richardson, too, a careful reader 
will find that Meredith, both in manner and matter (notably 
in The Egoist and in Richard Feverel), owes a good deal; 
ih " Mrs Grandison " in Richard Feverel he even recalls 
" Sir Charles Grandison " by name; and nobody can doub^ 
that Sir Willoughby Patterne, both in idea and often in 
expression, was modelled on Richardson's creatbn. Careful 
students of the early 19th-century English novel will find 
curious echoes again in Meredith of Bulwer-Lytton's (Baroa 
Lytton's) literary manner and romantic outlook.' But he 
was, after all, an originator, and at first suffered in csti- 
mation on that score; he wrote in his own way, and what 
is most characteristic in Meredith renutins individuaL Like 
all the great masters, he has his own tone of voice, his own 
fashion of expressing an idea. Feeling, perception, reflectioo, 
judgment, have equal shares in determining his architectonic 
relation to a problem or a situation. He rings changes on the 
changing emotions of humanity, but every chime rings true. He 
is a literary artist. He takes great themes, not little ones; 
the characters in his fiction are personalities, human beings, 
neither " heroes " nor " sports "; and he does not descend 
to pander to lubricity or cater for the " reading public.'* His 
gallery of portraits of real human women, not doUs, would 
alone place him among the few creators in English literature. 
It is beyond our scope here to enter into details concerning 
the philosophy which represents Meredith's " criticism of life.** 
Broadly speaking, it is a belief in the rightness and wholesome- 
ness of Nature, when Nature — " Sacred Reality " — is lovingly 
and faithfully and trustfully sought and known by the pure 
use of reason. Man must be "obedient to Nature, not her 
slave." Mystical as this philosophy occasionally becomes, 
it is yet an inspiring one, clean, austere and practical; and it 
is always dominated by the categorical imperative of self-know* 
ledge and the striving after honesty of purpose and thought. 
A strong vein of political Radicalism runs through Meredith'^ 
creed. It is, however, a Radicalism allied to that of the French 
philosophcs, rather than to the contemporary developments 
of British party politics, though in later life he gave his open 
support to the Liberal party. In spite of his German upbringing 
Meredith was always strongly French in his sympathies, and 
his appreciation of French character at its best and at its worst 
is finely shown in his Napoleon odes. In the main his politics 
may be summed up as a striving after liberty for reason and 
conscience and the constant progress of humanity — 

The cry of the conscience of life; 
KfeO the younf^ i>enerahons in hail, 
A nd bequeath them no tumf^ed house. 



' The fact that Bulwcr-Lytton'* son, the 1st Earl of Lyttbn, 
Meredith's junior by throe years, took the pen-name of " Own 
Meredith." led occasionally to some confusion among untnstructcd 
contemporaries, and even the suggestion of a family c 



MEREJKOVSKY— MERGANSER 



163 



It is part of Meredith's philosophy— and this must be remem- 
bered in considering his diction— that verbal expression is 
iisdj a test of right thought and action. Hence is derived 
his pa«ioa for verbal analysis. Hence also his impulse towards 
and vindication of poetry— meaning still " the best words in 
the best order "; and hence his own dictum, otherwise perhaps 
hard to undisccming minds, that Song itself is the test by which 
truth may be tried. The passage occurs in "The Empty 
Purse '* — • poem which throughout is a careful though mannered 
exposition olf Meredith's general views on life— 
Aak of thyself: This furious Yea 
Of a speech I thump to repeat, 
In the cause I would have prevail. 
For seed of a nourishing wheat, 
1$ it aaepud cf Song t 
Does it sound to the mind through the car. 
Right sober, pure Ane ? has it disciplined icct ? 
Thou wilt 6nd it a test severe; 
Unerring whatever the theme. 
Rings it for Reason a melody clear, 
We have bidden old Chaos retreat, 
We have called on Creation to hear; 
All forces that make us are one full stream. 
Meredith is generally ranked far less high as a poet than 
as a novdist. But he can only be understood and appreciated 
properiy by those who realize that not prose (in the ordinary 
sense) but poetry was to him the highest form of expression, 
and that only in it could he fully deliver his message, as a 
writer who aspired to contribute something more to the common 
stock of ideas than could be embodied dramatically in prose 
ficlioo. 

On Meredith's Both birthday in 1908, the homage of the 
English literary world was again paid in an address of con- 
gntulation. But his health, which for many years had been 
precarious, was now failing. He died at Flint Cottage, Box Hill, 
Sartcy, on the i8th of May IQ09. A strong feeling existed 
ihat he should be buried in Westminster Abbey, and a petition 
to that effect, which was approved by the prime minister, 
Mr Asquith, was signed by a large number of men of letters. 
Bat this was not to be. A memorial service was held in the 
abbey, but Meredith's own remains, after cremation, were 
tntcRcd at Dorking by the grave of bis second wife. He had died 
edy a brief q>an after his old friend Swinburne, his alTection 
for whom had never suffered abatement, and it was felt 
tittt, with them, a great epoch in English literary history 
bd ckised. They were the last of the great Victorians; and 
in Meredith went the writer who had raised the creative art of 
tbe novel, as a vehicle of character and constructive philosophy, 
to its highest point — a point higher indeed than most contem- 
ponry readers were prepared for. The estimate of his genius 
ionned by " an honourable minority," who would place him in 
t&e highest class of all, by Shakespeare, has yet to be confirmed 
by the wider suffrage of posterity. 

A carefully compiled bibliography by John Lane was included in 
Gewfr Mertdiik: Some Characteristics, by R. Lc Galliennc (1800). 
This symoathetic essay in criticism was the first substantial publi- 
cstioa aildresscd to that stimubtion of a wider appreciation of 
Meicdith which was carried on by several later books, perhaps the 
bw of which is M. St urge Henderson's George Meredith: Novelist 
Pen, Reforimer (1908); but such earlier testimonies to Meredith's 



as Justin McCarthy's, in his History of Our Ovan Times, 
■ait mx be forgotten. See also J. A Hammerton, George Mere- 
HA m AmedoUs and Crilicism {\<^09). (H. Ch.) 

MkREJKOVtKT (or Merkzhkovskiy), DMITRI SERGYBB- 
VICH (i86s' ), Russian novelist and critic, was born at 
St Petersburg in 1865. His trilogy of historical romances, 
coOectivefy entitled Christ and Antichrisif has been translated 
iato many European languages, notably English and French. 
It comprises Smert Bogov (Eng. trans. "The Death of the 
Gods," iLondon, xqoi), the central figure in which is Julian 
the Apostate; VoskresenU Sogi ("The Forerunner," London, 
1903), which describes the life and times of Leonardo da Vinci; 
and Amiikkrist: Pitr i AUksyey (" Peter and Alexis," London, 
■90S), which is based on the tragic story of tbe relations between 
Peter the Great and his son. The influence of Sienkicwicz 
can be traced in mapy of Merejkovsky's writings, which include 



critical studies of Pliny the Younger, Calderon, Montaigne, 
Ibsen, Tolstoy {Tolstoy as Man and Artist^ London, 1902), 
and of Gorki and other Russian writers. Merejkovsky married 
Zinaida Nikolaevna, known in Russia for her poems, essays 
and short stories written under the pseudonym of Zinaida 
Hippius (or Gippius); her collected poems (1880-1903) were 
published in Moscow in 1904. 

MERES, FRANCIS (i56s-i647)> English divine and author, 
was born at Kirton in the Holland division of Lincolnshire 
in 1565. He was educated at Pembroke College, Cambridge, 
where he graduated B.A. in 1587, and M.A. in 1591. Two 
years later he was incorporated M.A. of Oxford. His kinsman, 
John Meres, was high sheriff of Lincolnshire in 1596, and appar- 
ently helped him in the early part of his career. In 1602 he 
became rector of Wing in Rutland, where he had a school. 
He died on the 29th of Januafy 1647. Mercs rendered immense 
service to the history of Elizabethan literature by the publication 
of his Palladis Tamia, Wits Treasury (1598). It was one of 
a series of volumes of short pithy sayings, the first of which was 
PoiitfMphuia: Wits Commonweaith (1597), compiled by John 
Bodenham or by Nicholas Ling, the publisher. The Palladis 
Tamia contained moral and critical reflections borrowed from 
various sources, and embraced sections on books, on philosophy, 
on music and painting, and a famous " Comparative Discourse 
of our English poets with the Greeke, Latin, and Italian poets." 
This chapter enumerates the English poets from Chaucer to 
Meres's own day. and in each case a comparison with some 
classical author is instituted. The book was issued in 1634 
as a school book, and has been partially reprinted in the Ancient 
Critical Essays (1811-1815) of Joseph Haslewood, Professor 
E. Arber's English Garner, and Gregory Smith's Elizabethan 
Critical Essays (1904). A sermon entitled Gods Arithmeticke 
(1597)1 and two translations from the Spanish of Luis de Granada 
entitled Cranados Devotion and the Sinners Guide (1598) com- 
plete the list of his works. 

MERGANSER, a word due to C. Gesner {Hist, animalium 
iii. 129) in 1555, and for long used in English as the general 
name for a group of fish-eating ducks possessing great diving 
powers, and forming the genus Mergus of Linnaeus, now regarded 
by ornithologists as a sub-family, Merginae, of the family A italidae. 
The mergansers have a long, narrow bill, with a small but 
evident hook at the tip, and the edges of both mandibles beset 
by numerous homy dent iculat ions, whence in English the name 
of "saw-bill " is frequently applied to them. Otherwise their 
structure docs not much depart from the Anatine or Fuliguline 
type. All the species bear a more or less developed crest or 
tuft on the head. Three of them, Mergus merganser or castor, 
M. serrator, and M. albellus, are found over the northern parts 
of the Old World, and of these the first two also inhabit North 
America, which has besides a fourth species, M. cucullalus, 
said to have occasionally visited Britain. M. merganser, 
commonly known as the goosander, is the largest species, being 
nearly as big as the smaller geese, and the adult male in breeding- 
attire is a very beautiful bird, conspicuous with his dark glossy- 
green head, rich salmon-coloured breast, and the upper part 
of the body and wings black and white. This full plumage 
is not assumed till the second year, and in the meantime, as 
well as in the post-nuptial dress, the male much resembles 
the female, having, like her, a reddish-brown head, the upper 
parts grey and the lower while. In this condition the bird 
is often known as the " dun diver." This species breeds abun- 
dantly in many parts of Scandinavia, Russia, Siberia and North 
America, and occasionally in Scotland. M. serrator, commonly 
called the red-breasted merganser, is a somewhat smaller bird; 
and, while the fully-dressed male wants the delicate hue of 
the lower parts, he has a gorget of rufous mottled with black, 
below which is a patch of white feathers, broadly edged with 
black. Both these species have the bill and feet of a bright 
reddish-orange, while the much smaller M. albellus, known as 
the smew, has these parts of a lead colour, and the breeding 
plumage of the adult male is while, with quaint cresccntic 
markings of black, and the flanks most beautifully vermiculated. 



164 



MERGENTHEIM— MERIAN 



M. aietittaiuSf the hooded merganser of North America, is in 
size intermediate between M. alheUus and M. serraior; the male 
b easily recognizable by his broad semicircular crest, bearing 
a fanshaped patch of white, and his elongated subscapulars of 
white edged with black. The conformation of the trachea 
in the male of M, merganser, M. serraior and M. cucuUatus 
is very like that of the ducks of the genus Clangulaf but 
M. albdlus has a less exaggerated development more resembling 
that of the ordinary Fuligula} From the southern hemisphere 
two species of Mergus have been described, M. octosetaceus or 
brasUianus, L. P. Vieillot {N. Diet. d*Hist. natureUe, cd. a, vol. xiv. 
p. 222; Gal. des oiseaux, tom. ii. p. 209, pi. 283), inhabiting 
South America, of which but few specimens have been obtained, 
having some general resemblance to M. serrator, but much more 
darkly coloured, and M. australis, Hombron and Jacquemont 
{Ann. sc. not. tociog^e, ser. 2, vol. xvi. p. 320; Voy. an Pol.Sud, 
oiseanXf pi. 31, fig. 2), known only by the unique example in 
the Paris Museum procured by the French Antarctic expedition 
in the Auckland Islands. 

Often associated with the mergansers is the genus Merganetla, 
the so-called torrent-ducks of South America, of which six 
species have been described; but they possess spiny tails and 
have their wings armed with a spur. These with HymendaefHus 
Malaeorkynchns, the blue duck of New Zealand, and Salvadorina 
waigiuensis of Waigiou are placed in the sub-family Mergan- 
eUinae. (A. N.) 

MBRGENTHEm, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of 
WUrttemberg, situated in the valley of the Taubcr, 7 m. S. 
from Lauda by rail. Pop. (1905), 4535. It contains an Evan- 
gelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a Latin and other 
schools, and a magnificent castle with a natural history collection 
and the archives of the Teutonic order. This is now used 
as barracks. The industries of the town include tanning, the 
manufacture of agricultural machinery and wine-maldng. 
Near the town is a medicinal spring called the Karlsbad. 

Mergenthcim (Mariae domus) is mentioned in chronicles 
as early as 1058, as the residence of the family of the counts 
of Hohenlohe, who early in the 13th century assigned the greater 
part of their estates in and around Mergentheim to the Teutonic 
order. It rapidly increased in fame, and became the most 
important of the eleven comroanderies of that society. On 
the secularization of the Teutonic Order in Prussia in 1525, 
Mergentheim became the residence of the grand master, and 
remained so until the final dissolution of the order in i8oq. 

See Hdring, Das Karlsbad bet Mergentheim (Mergentheim, 1887); 
and Schmitt, Carnisongesckichle der Stadt Mergentheim (Stuttgart, 
1895). 

MERGER (Fr. merger , to sink), in law, the sinking or 
" drowning " of a lesser estate in a greater, when the two come 
together in one and the same person without any intervening 
estate. . In order to effect a merger the two estates must vest 
in the same person at the same time, must be immediately 
expectant one on the other, and the expectant estate must be 
larger than the preceding estate. The term is also used for the 
extinguishment of any right, contract, &c., by absorption in 
another, e.g. the acceptance of a higher security for a lower, 
or the embodying of a simple contract in a deed. 

MERGUI, the southernmost district of Lower Burma, in the 
Tcnasserim division, bounded on the W. by the Bay of Bengal 
and on the E. by Siam. Area 9789 sq. m. Two principal 
ranges cross the district from north to south, running almost 

Hybrids between, as is presumed, M. albellus and Clangula 
glaucion, ihc common golden-cyc, have been described and figured 
(Eimbrck, Isis, 1831, 300. tab. iii.; Brchm, Natureesch. oiler Vdg. 
Deutschlands, jp. 930; Naumann. Vog. DaitscUands, xii. 194, 
frontispiece; KjxrbuUing, Jour, fur Ornithologie, 1853. Extraheft, 
p. 29. Naumannia, 1853. p. 327, Ornithol. danica, tab. Iv., suppl. 
tab. 20) under the names of Mergus anatarius, Clangula angustirostris, 
and Anas {Clangula) mergoides, as though they were a distinct 
species; but the remarks of De Selys-Longchamps {Bull. Ac. Sc. 
Bruxelles, 1845, pt. ii. p. 354, and 1856. pt. ii. p. 21) leave little 
room for doubt as to their origin, uhich. when the cryptogamic 
habit and common ranee of their putative parents, the former 
unknown to the author Last-named, is considered, will seem to be 
still more likely. 



parallel to emch other for a considerable distance, with tht 
Tenasserim river winding between them till it turns south 
and flows through a narrow rocky gorge in the weatemmost 
range to the sea. The whole distria, from the water's edge 
to the loftiest mountain on the eastern boundary, may be 
regarded as ahnost unbroken forest. The timber trees found 
towards the interior, and on the higher elevations, are of great 
size and beauty, the most valuable being teak {Tectona grandis), 
then-gan {Hofea odorala), ka-gnyeng {Dipterocarpns laevis), &c 
The coast-line of the district, off which lies an archipelago of 
two hundred and seven islands, is much broken, and for several 
miles inland is very little raised above sea-level, and is draii^ 
by numerotis muddy tidal creeks. Southwards of Mergui 
town it consists chiefly of low mangrove swamps alternating 
with small fertile rice plains. After passing the mangrove 
limits, the ground to the east gradually rises tiQ it becomes 
mountainous, even to the banks of the rivers, and finally cul- 
minates in the grand natural barrier dividing Burma from 
Siam. The four principal rivers are the Tenasserim, Le-nya, 
Pakchan and Palauk, the first three being navigable for a 
considerable distance. Coal is found on the banks of the 
Tenasserim and its tributaries, but is still unworked. CcAd, 
copper, iron and manganese are also found in various parts 
of the district, and there are tin mines at Maliwun. upon whidi 
European methods have been tried without much profit, owing 
to the cost of labour. 

From the notices of early travellers it appears that Mergui, 
when under Siamese rule, before it passed to the Burmese, 
was a rich and densely peopled country. On its occupation by 
the British in 1824-1825 it was found to be almost depopulated 
— the result of border warfare and of the cruelties exercised 
by the Burmese conquerors. At that time the entire inhabitants 
numbered only 10,000. It had a population of 88,744 in 1901, 
showing an increase of 20% in the decade and giving a density 
of 9 inhabitants to the sq. m. Mergui carries on a flourish- 
ing trade with Rangoon, Bassein and the Straits Settlements. 
The chief exports consist of rice, rattans, torches, dried fish, 
areca-nuts, sesamum seeds, molasses, sea-slugs, edible birds* nests 
and tin. The staple imports are piece goods, tobacco, cotton, 
earthenware, tea and sugar. The climate b remarkably healthy, 
the heat due to its tropical situation being moderated by land 
and sea breezes. The rainfall is very heavy and usually ezccecb 
150 inches. 

Mergui town has risen into prominence in recent years as 
the cclhtre of the pearling trade in the neighbouring archipelagou 
The pearling grounds were practically unknown in 1890, but 
in the following decade they produced pearls and mother-of- 
peal shell of considerable value. In 1901 the population was 
11,987; but the census is taken at a time when many of the 
fishermen and their families are away in the islands. There is 
a considerable coasting trade with other Burmese ports and 
with the Straits Settlements. 

MERGUI ARCHIPELAGO, a cluster of islands in the Bay 
of Bengal, near the southern coast of Lower Burma. They 
are chiefly noted for their picturesque beauty, some of them 
rising to 3000 ft. They are only sparsely inhabit*^ by the 
island race of Selungs. 

MERIAN, MATTHEW (1593-1650), Swiss engraver, was 
bom in Basel, on the 25th of September 1593. The family 
came originally from near Del^mont, but in his grandfather's 
time settled in Basel, where in 1553 it obtained the burghership 
of the city. As Matthew early showed signs of artistic tastes, 
he was placed (1609) under the care of Dietrich Meyer, a painter 
and engraver of Zurich (1572-1658). He went on to Nancy 
in 1613, where he already displayed considerable talents as an 
engraver on copper. After studying in Paris, Stuttgart (1616) 
and the Low Countries, he came to Frankfort, where in 1618 
he married the eldest daughter of J. T. de Bry, who was a 
publisher and bookseller as well as an engraver. Merian worked 
for some time with his father-in-law in Oppenheim, bat then 
returned to Basel, whence he came back (1624) to Frankfort 
after Bry's death (1623), in order to take oyer bis busioest; 



MERIDA— MERIDIAN 



165 



tUi Rflumed in his faxnily tiD 1736, when, after a great fire 
that destroyed most of the books in stock, it came to an end. 
In i6j5 Merijin became a burgher of Frankfort, then the great 
centre off the book trade in Germany, and lived there till his 
death on the aiod of June 1650. Among his many works two 
de s er ve to be specially mentioned. The first is the long series 
of works, each en^tled Topographia^ which contained descrip- 
tions of various countries, illustrated by copper plates, largely 
done by Merian himself, while the accompanying text was due 
to Martin Zeiller (1589-1661), an Austrian by birth. The 
first vcrfume was published in 1642 and described Switzerland, 
with the Grisons and the Valais; it contains the first known 
view of the gladers of Grindclwald. " Austria '* appeared 
in 1640, bat the volume relating to Upper Saxony and Bohemia 
(1650) was the last issued by Merian himself. " France " 
appeared in 1655-1656, while in 1688 the series (extending to 
30 parts, in 18 vds.) came to an end with ** Italy," the volume 
as to Rome having appeared in x68i. The other great enter- 
prise of Blerian was the series entitled Tkeatrum Ewopaeum^ 
which appeared in 21 ports between 1635 and 1738 — ^it is a 
historiod chronicle of events in Europe from 16 17 onwards. 
In 1625-1630 Merian published a series of illustrations to the 
Bible, and in 1649 a Dance oj Death. But he is best remembered 
by his views of towns, which have very considerable historical 
value. His best pupil, Wenceslaus Hollar (1607-1677), of 
Ptague, settled in London (1635-1643, 1652-1677), and worthily 
carried on the Merian tradition. (W. A. B. C.) 

See Life, by H. Eckardt (Basel, 1887). 

HtelDA* a dty of Mexico and capital of the state of Yucatan, 

23 m. by rail S. of Progrcso, its port on the Gulf of Mexico. 

?op. (1900), 43,630, the Ma3ra element being predominant. 

Mirida is the centre of an isolated railway system, connected 

with the ports of Progreso and Campeche, and having short 

fines radiating in all directions to Peto, Valladolid and Izamal. 

It stands on a broad, partly open plain near the northern 

border of the peninsula, where the thin loose soil covering 

s limestone foundation permits the rapid percolation and 

evaporation of the rainfall, and therefore supports a compara- 

tivdy scanty vegetation. It is highly favourable to maguey 

colthrstion, however, and M6rida is the centre of the henequ6n, 

0; sisal fibre, industry. There is an imposing x6th-century 

athedial facing upon the principal plaza, together with the 

fovtrament and episcopal palaces. There are also an old 

BoiverBty, with schools of law, medicine and pharmacy, an 

c^scopal seminary and other educational institutions. The 

Bost interesting building in the city is a Franciscan convent, 

dating from 1547, which covers an area of 6 acres and is sur- 

toandcd by a wall 40 ft. high and 8 ft. thick. It once harboured 

00 ksB than 2000 friars, but has been allowed to fall into com- 

piete decay since the expulsion of the order in 1820. The 

iBinufactures include straw hats, hammocks, cigars, soap, cotton 

fabrics, leather goods, artificial stone, and a peculiar distilled 

beverage called estabentun. The exports are henequ6n, or 

nsal fibre, hides, sugar, rum, chicle and indigo — all products 

of the vicinity. M^rida was founded in 1542 by the yoimger 

Francisco de Montejo on the site of a native city called Tihoo, or 

Tb6, whose stone pyramids furnished building material in abun- 

d anccf or the invaders. It became an episcopal see in 156 1. 

MiRIDA (anc Augusta Emerita^ capital of Lusitania), a 
town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, on the 
jight bank of the river Guadiana, 30 m. £. of Badajoz. Pop. 
(1900), xx,x68. M6rida is an important railway junction, 
for here the Biadrid-Badajoz railway meets the lines from 
Seville, Hudva and C&ceres. No Spanish town is richer 
io Roman antiquities. Most of these are beyond the limits of 
modem Mirida, which is greatly inferior in area to the ancient 
dty. Chief among them is the Roman bridge, constructed 
of granite under Trajan, or, according to some authorities, 
andcr Augustus, and restored by the Visigoths in 686 and 
by Philip III. in 1610. It comprised 81 arches, 17 of which 
were destroyed during the siege of Badajoz (181 2), and mea- 
nred 3575 ft. in length. There are a few remnants of Roman 



temples and of the colonal wall which endrded the dty, 
besides a Roman triumphal arch, commonly called the Aioo 
de Santiago, and a second Roman bridge, by which the road 
to Salamanca was carried across the small river Albarregas 
{Alba Regia). The Moorish akdtar or dtadd was originally 
the chief Roman fort. From the Lago de Proserpina, or Charca 
de la Albuera, a large Roman reservoir, 3 m. north, water was 
conveyed to M6rida by an aqueduct, of which 37 enormous 
piers remain standing, with ten arches in three tiers built of 
brick and granite. The massive Roman theatre is in good 
preservation; there are also a few vestiges of an amphitheatre 
and of a drcus which measured 485 yds. by 1 20. Other Roman 
remains are exhibited in the archaeological museum, and much 
Roman masonry is incorporated in the x6th century Mud£jar 
palace of the dukes of La Roca, the palace of the counts of 
Los Corbos, and the convent of SanU Eulalia, which is said 
by tradition to mark the spot where St Eulalia was martyred 
(c. 300). 

Augusta Emcrita was founded in 25 B.C. As the capital 
of Lusitania it soon became one of the most splendid dties 
in Iberia, and was large enough to contain a garrison of 90,000 
men. Under the Visigoths it continued to prosper, and was 
made an archbishopric. Its fortifications indudeid five castles 
and dghty-four gateways; but after a stubborn resistance 
it was stormed by the Moors in 713. Its Moorish governors 
frequently, and sometimes successfully, asserted their indepen- 
dence, but M£rida was never the capital of any large Moorish 
state. In X129 its archbishopric was formally transferred to 
Santiago de Compostela, and in 1228, when Alphonso IX. of 
Leon expelled the Moors, Mdrida was entrusted to the order 
of Santiago, in whose keeping it soon sank into decadence. 

MBRIDBN, a dty of New Haven county, Connecticut, U.S.A., 
in the township of Meriden, S.W. of the centre of the sute, 
about 18 m. N.N.E. of New Haven and about the same distance 
S.S.W. of Hartford. Pop. of the township, induding the dty 
(1900), 28,695; (i9io)» S»f066; of the dty (1900), 24,296, of 
whom 72x5 were foreign-bom; (19x0), 27,265. Meriden is served 
by the New York, New Haven & Hartford raflway and by an 
inter-urban electric line. The dty is bisected by Harbor Brook, 
a small stream, and through the S.W. part of the township 
flows the Quinnipiac river. A short distance N.W. of the dty, 
in Hubbard Park, an attractive reservation of more than 900 
acres, are the Hanging Hills, three devations (West Motmtain, 
South Mountain and Cat-Hole Mountain) in a broken range 
of trap ridges, which have resisted the erosion that formed the 
lowlands of the Connecticut valley; they rise to a hdght of 
about 700 ft. above the sea. In thdr vicinity, near the boundary 
of Berlin township, is Merimere, one of the city's four reservoirs. 
Meriden is the seat of the Connecticut School for Boys (Reform- 
atory). There are also a public library (1899), ^ state armoury, 
a hospital, the Curtis Home for orphans and aged women, 
and a tuberculosis sanitarium supported by the dty. Meriden 
is one of the most important manufacturing dties of Connecticut, 
and in X905 produced 59*9% of the plated ware manufactured 
in the state, and much sterling silver. In 1905 the factory 
product was valued at $13,763,548, an increase of i7-i% over 
that of X900. Meriden was originally a part of the township 
of Wallingford, but a tract in the northern part of this township 
was designated as Merideen by an Indian deed of 1664. It 
was made a separate parish under that name in 1728, but did 
not become a separate township until 1806. The dty was 
chartered in 1867. 

Sec G. W. Perkins. Historical Sketches of Meriden (West Meriden, 
1849); C. H. S. Davis, History of WaUingford (Meriden, 1870), 
and G. M. Curtis and C. Bancroft Gillespie. A Century of MeruUu 
(Meriden, 1906). 

MERIDIAN, a dty and the county-seat of Lauderdale county, 
Mississippi, U.S.A., about 90 m. E. of Jackson. Pop. (1890)1 
20,624; (1900), 14,050, of whom 5787 were negroes; (1910 
census), 23,285. It is served by the Southern, Uie Alabama 
Great Southern, the Mobile & Ohio, and the New Orleans 
& North Eastern and the Alabama & Vicksburg (Queen & 



i66 



MERIDIAN— M£RIM£E 



Crescent Route) laflways. It is the leat of the East Misiinippi 
Insane Hospital, of the state Masonic Widows and Orphans' 
Home and of the Meridian Women's College (non-sectarian, 
opened in 1903), the Meridian Male College (opened in xgoi), 
and, for negroes, the Lincoln School (Congregational) and 
Meridian Academy (Methodist Episcopal) . The dty is an impor- 
tant market for cotton grown in the surrotmding country, and 
is the principal manufacturing dty in the state. Its factory 
products, chiefly railway supplies and cotton products, increased 
in value from $1,924,465 in 1900 to $3,267,600 in 1905, or 
69-8% in five years. Mineral waters (especially lithia) are 
bottled in and near the dty. Meridian was kid out in 1854 
at a proposed railway crossing, and was chartered as a dty 
in x86o. In February 1864 General William Tecumseh Sherman, 
with an army of about ao,ooo, made an expedition from Vicks- 
burg to Meridian, then an important railway centre and d6p6t 
for Confederate supplies, chiefly for the purpose of making 
inoperative the Mobile & Ohio and the Jackson & Selma 
railways; on the Z4th of the month his army entered Meridian, 
and within a week destroyed nearly everything in the dty 
except the private houses, and tore up over no m. of track. 
In the " Meridian riot " of 1871— a prominent episode of recon- 
struction—when one of several negroes on trial for urging 
mob violence had shot the presiding judge, the whites, especially 
A party from Alabama interested in the trial, killed a number 
of negroes and burned a negro schooL On the and of March 
X906 a cydone caused great loss of life and property. 

MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianust pertaining to the 
south or mid-day), in general a direction toward the south or 
toward the position of the sun at mid-day. The terrestrial 
meridian of a [dace is the great circle drawn on the earth's 
surface from either pole through the place. As determined 
astronomically the celestial meridian is the great drde passing 
through the celestial pole and the zenith. The terrestrial 
meridian as practically determined is the circle on the earth's 
surface in which the plane of the celestial meridian cuts that 
surface. Owing to local deviations of the plumb-Une the 
meridian thus determined does not strictly onndde with the 
terrestrial meridian as ordinarily defined, but the deviation, 
though perceptible in mountainous regions, is so minute that it 
is generally ignored. 

MfalMBE, PROSPER (1803-1870), Frendi novelist, archaeo- 
logist, essayist, and in aU these capadties one of the greatest 
masters of French style during the Z9th century, was bom at 
Paris on the 28th of September 1803. His grandfather, of 
Norman abstraction, had been a lawyer and steward to the 
mar6chal de Broglie. His father, Jean Francois Lionor M^rimfe 
(1757-1836), was a painter of repute. M6rim6e had En^h 
blood in hb veins on the mother's side, and had English pro- 
clivities in many ways. He was educated for the bar, but entered 
the public service instead. A young man at the time of the 
Romantic movement, he felt its influence strongly, though 
his peculiar temperament prevented him from joining any of 
the c6teries of the period. Nothing was more prominent 
among the romantics than the fancy, as M6rim6e himself puts 
it, for " local colour," the more unfamiliar the better. He 
exhibited this in an unusual way. In 1825 he published what 
purported to be the dramatic works of a Spai^ lady, Clara 
Gazul, with a preface stating drcumstantially how the supposed 
translator, one Joseph L'Estrange, had met the gifted poetess 
at Gibraltar. This was followed by a still more audadous 
and still more successful supercherie. In 1827 appeared a small 
book entitled la Guxla (the anagram of Gazul), and giving 
itself out as translated from the Ulyrian of a certain Hyadntbe 
Ma^novich. This book, which has greater formal merit 
than Clara Gaxul, is said to have taken in Sir John Bowring, 
a competent Slav scholar, the Russian poet Poushkin, and 
some German authorities, although not only had it no original, 
but, as M£rim6e declares, a few words of Ulyrian and a book 
or two of travels and topography were the author's only 
materials. In the next year appeared a short dramatic romance. 
La Jacquerie, in which are visible M£rim6e's extraordinary 



faculty of local and historical colour, his command of bagnafle^ 
his grim irony, and « certain predilection for tragic and tenible 
subjects, which was one of his numerous points of contact with 
the men of the Renaissance. This in its turn was followed 
by a still betUr piece, the Ckromque de Charles IX. (1829), 
which stands towards the x6th century much as the Jacquerie 
does towards the middle ages. All these works were to a 
certain extent second-hand. But they exhibited all the future 
literary qualities of the author save the two chiefest, his wonder- 
fully severe and almost classical style, and his equally *-*f— **^l 
solidity and sUtuesqueness of constructioiu 

He had already obtained a considerable position in the dvil 
service, and after the revolution of July he was ekrf de cabkut 
to two different ministers. He was then appointed to the more 
congenial post of inspector-^neral of historical monumenta. 
M^iim6e was a bom archaeologist, combining linguistic faculty 
of a very unusual kind with accurate scholarship, with remark- 
able historical appreciation, and with a sincere love for the arts 
of design and constraction, in the former of which he had some 
practical skilL In his official capadty he published numerou 
reports, some of which, with other similar pieces, have been 
republished in his works. He also devoted himself to history 
proper during the latter years of the July monarchy, and pnb> 
lished numerous essays and works of no great length, dUefly 
on Spanish, Russian and andent Roman history. He did 
not, however, neglect novel writing during this period, and 
numerous short tales, almost without exception masterpieces, 
appeared, chiefly in the Revue de Paris. The best of all, Calomba, 
a Corsican story of extraordinary power, appeared in 184a 
He travelled a good deal; and in one of h^ jourikeys to ^Min, 
about the middle of Louis Philippe's reign, he made an acquaint- 
ance destined to influence his future life not a little — that of 
Mme de Montijo, mother of the future empress Eugenie. 
Mhimht, though in manner and language the most csmical 
of men, was a devoted friend, and shortly before the acceasioa 
of Napoleon III. he had occasion to show this. His friend, 
Libri Camcd dalla Sommaja, was accused of having ttokn 
valuable manuscripts and books from French libraries, and 
Mfrim6e took his part so warmly that he was actually sentenced 
to and underwent fine and imprisonment. He had been elected 
of the Academy in X844, and also of the Academy of Inscriptions, 
of which he was a prominent member. Between 1840 and X850 
he wrote more talcs, the chief of which were Ar shite GmUlai 
and Carmen (1847), this last, on a Spanish subject, hardly 
ranking bdow Colomba. 

The empire made a considerable difference in M£rim6e*s 
life. His sympathies were against democracy, and his habitual 
cynicism and his irreligious prejudices made legitimism dis- 
tasteful to him. But the marriage of Napoleon m. with 
the daughter of Mme de Montijo at once enlisted what was 
always strongest with M6rim£e — the sympathy of peiaonal 
friendship— on the emperor's side. He was made a senator, 
but his most important r61e was that of a constant and valued 
private iriend of both the " master and mistress of the bouse," 
as he calls the emperor and empress in his letters. He was 
occasionally charged with a kind of irregular diplomacy, and 
once, in the matter of the emperor's Caesar, he had to give 
literary assistance to Napoleon. But for the most part be 
was strictly the ami de la maison. At the Tuileries, at Com- 
pidgne, at Biarriu, he was a constant though not always a 
very wUling guest, and his influence over the empress was 
very considerable and was fearlessly exerted, though he used to 
call himself, in imitation of Scarron, " le bouffon de sa majesty" 
He found, however, time for not a few more talcs, of which 
more will be said presently, and for correspondences, which 
are not the least of his literary achievements, while they have 
an extraordinary interest of matter. One of these consists 
of the letters which have been published as LeUres d urn tucMmiM, 
another of the letters addressed to Sir Anthony Paniasi, librarian 
of the British Museum. After variotu conjectures it seems 
that the inconnue just mentioned was a certain MQe Jenny 
Daqin of Boulogne. The acquaintance extended over maoy 



MERINO 



167 



jiMi, it pMtoofc It one tfaie of the character of tovg, It another 
ol tittt of aiiiiple fiiendahip, and Mftrimte is exhibited in the 
kctcEa UBdcr the most surprisingly diverse lights, most of them 
more or ksa amiabSe, and all interesting. The correspondence 
vith Faxuni has somewhat leas personal interest But Mdrimie 
often visited F.ngland, where he had many friends (among 
wfaom the late Mr ElHce of Glengarry was the chieQ) and certain 
rimilaxities of taste drew him closer to Panizzi personally, 
while during part of the empire the two served as the channel 
for a kind of unofficial diplomacy between the emperor and 
certain Engfish statesmen. These letters are full of shrewd 
aperfms on the sute of Europe at different times. Both series, 
and othecs since published, abound in gossip, in amusing anec- 
dotes, in sharp literaiy criticism, while both contain evidences 
of a cynical and Rabelaisian or Swiftian humour which was very 
ttnoginM^cimfe. This characteristics said to be so prominent 
in a uin e sponde n c e with another friend, which now lies in the 
Hxary «t Avignon, that there is but little chance of its ever 
being printed. A fourth collection of letters, of much inferior 
catent and interest, has been printed by Blaze de Bury under 
the title of Ldires d ume atUre incotmnte (1873), «^ others still 
by d'Hauasonville (1888), and in the Rgme des Deux Mondes 
(1896). Li the latter years of his life Mirimte suffered very 
much firom ill-health. It was necessary for him to pass aU his 
winters at Cannes, where his constant companions were two 
aged EngUah ladies, friends of his mother. The Terrible Year 
ioond him completely lm»ken in health and anticipating the 
worst for France. He lived long enough to see his fears realized, 
and to eapieas his grief in some last letters, and he died at Cannes 
CD the 93rd of September xSja 

Mfrimfe's character was a peculiar and hi some respects 
aa onfostunate one, but by no means unintelligible. Partly 
by tcmpcnunent, partly it is said owing to some childish ezperi- 
cace, when he discovered that he had been duped and determined 
never to be so again, not least owing to the example of Henri 
Beyle (Stendhal), who was a friend of his family, and of whom 
ke saw modi, M£rim^ appears at a comparatively early age 
to have impoaed upon himself as a duty the maintenance of 
IB attitude of sceptical indifference and sarcastic criticism. 
Ahbou^ a man of singularly warm and affectionate feelings, 
ke obtained the credit of being a cold-hearted cynic; and, 
thoogli both independent and disinterested, he was abused 
as s hanger-on of the imperial court. Both imputations were 
vboOy undeserved, and indeed were prompted to a great extent 
bjr political spite or by the resentment felt by his literary equals 
OD the other side at the cool ridicule with which he met them. 
Bat he deserved in some of the bad as well as many of the 
food senses of the term the name of a man of the Renaissance. 
He had the warm partisanship and amiability towards friends 
lod the scorpion-like sting for his foes, he had the ardent delight 
ID kambg and especially in matters of art and belles lettres, 
be had the scepticism, the voluptuousness, the curious delight 
ffi the contemplation of the horrible, which marked the men 
of letters of the humanist period. Even his literary work has 
this Renaissance character. It is tolerably extensive, anraunt- 
iog to some seventeen or eighteen volumes, but its bulk is not 
freat for a life which was not short, and which was occupied, 
at kast nominally, in little else. About a third of it consists 
of the letters already mentioned. Rather more than another 
third consists of the official work which has been aheady alluded 
t o rep ot ts, essays, short historical sketches, the chief of which 
htter is a history of Pedro the Cruel (1843)1 ^^ another of 
the curious pretender known in Russian story as the false 
Demetrius (1852). Some of the literary essays, such as those on 
Beyle, on Tuxgueniev, &c., where a personal element enters, 
Kt excdlent. Against others and against the larger historical 
sketche»— admirable as they are— Taine's criticism that they 
want life has some force. They are, however, all marked by 
M^rimCe's admirable style, by his sound and accurate scholar- 
ship, his strong intellectual gra^ of whatever he handled, his 
cool onprejodind views, his marvellous faculty of designing and 
yr^pn^iffwiTu the treatment of his work. In purely archaeo- 



logical matters hit Description des peiniures de SointSanm 
is very noteworthy. It is, however, in the remaining third 
of his work, consisting entirely of tales either in narrative or in 
dramatic form, and e^>ecially in the former, that his full power 
is perceived. He trazislated a certain number of things (chiefly 
from the Russian); but his fame does not rest on these, on 
his already-mentioned youthful supcrcheries, or on his later 
semi-dramatic works. There reniain about a score of tales, 
extending in point of composition over exactly forty years 
and in length from that of CoUmba, the longest, which fills 
about one hundred and fifty pages, to that of PEnlhemeni de 
to retfMf^e (1829), which fills just half a dozen. They are unques- 
tionably the best things of their kind written during the century, 
the only runtveties that can challenge comparison with them 
being the very best of Gautier, and one or two of Balzac. The 
motives are sufficiently different. In CUomha and Mateo 
Falcone (1839), the Corsican point of honour is drawn on; in 
Carmen (written i^>parently after reading Borrow's Spanidi 
books), the gipsy character; in la Venus d'lOe (1837) and Loki» 
(two of the finest of all), certain grisly superstitions, in the 
former case that known in a milder form as the ring given to 
Venus, in the latter a variety of the were-wolf fancy. Arshie 
Guillot is a singular satire, full of sarcastic pathos, on popular 
morality and religion; la Ckambre bUue^ an 18th-century conkf 
worthy of C. P. J. Cr6billon for grace and wit, and superior to 
him in delicacy; The Capture of the Redoubt just mentioned 
is a perfect piece of description; PAhhtau bain is again satirical; 
la Double miprise (the authorship of which was objected to 
M£rim6e when he was elected of the Academy) is an exercise 
in analysis strongly impregnated with the spirit of Stendhal, 
but better written than anything of that writer's. These 
stories, with his letters, assure M^rim^e's place in literature 
at the very head of the French prose writers of the century. He 
had imdertaken an edition of Brant6me for the Biblioth^ue 
Elz^virienne, but it was never completed. 

M6riro6e's works have only been gradually published nnce his 
death. There is no uniform edition, but almost everything is 
obtainable in the coHecdoni of MM. Charpentier and Calmann 
L6vy. Most of the sets of letters above referred to from those to 
the first inconnue, where the introducer was Taine, have essay- 
prefaces on M6riro6e. Maurice Tourneux's Prosper MMmie, sa 
bMiograpkie (1876) and Prosper MtrinUe^ ses portraits (1879), are 
useful, while £mile Faguet and many other critics have dealt 
with him incidentally. But the best single book on him by far is 
the Mhimie et ses amis of Aueustin Filon (1894). M. F. Chambon's 
Correspondance iiUdiie (1897) gives little that is substantive, but 
supplies and corrects a good many raps or faults in earlier editions. 
English translations, especially of Coiomba and Carmen, arc numer 
ous. The Ckronique de Charles IX. was translated by G. Saintsbury 
in 1889 with an introduction; and the same writer has also prefixed 
a much more elaborate essay, containing a review oi Merim^'s 
entire work, to an American translation. (G. Sa.) 

MERINO, the Spanish name for a breed of sheep, and hence 
applied to a woollen fabric. The Spanish word is generally 
taken to be an adaptation to the sheep of the name of an official 
{merino) who inspected sheep pastures. This word is from the 
medieval Latin majorinus, a steward, head official of a village, 
&c., from major t greater. 

The merino is a white short-wool sheep, the male having 
spiral horns, the ewes being generally hornless. It is bred 
chiefly for its wool, because, though an excellent grazer and very 
adaptable, it matures slowly and its mutton is not of the best 
quality. The wool is dose and wavy in staple, reaching 4 in. 
in length, and surpasses that of all other sheep in fineness; 
it is so abundant that little but the muzzle, which should be 
of an orange tint, and hoofs, are left uncovered. The best 
wool is produced on light sandy soils. 

The merino is little known in Great Britain, the climatic 
moisture of which does not favour the growth of the finest 
wools, but it predominates in all regions where sheep are 
bred for their wool rather than their mutton, as in the western 
United States, Cape Colony, Australia, New Zealand and 
Argentina. In Australasia, especially in New Zealand, the 
merino has been crossed with Lincolns, Leicesters, Shropshires 
and other breeds, with the result of improving the quality 



i68 



MERIONETH— MERISTEM 



of the mutton whfle ttaifidng to tome extent that of the 
WOOL 

The merino sheep appeals to have originated in Africa, whence 
it was brought by the Moors to Spain and thence spread over 
Europe, espedaily to Austria-Hungary, Germany and France. 
The best-known breeds are the Rambouillet, a large merino 
named after the vilUge near Paris, to which it was imported 
towards the end of the i8th century, and the Negretti, which 
stands in closer relationship to the old Spanish stock and has 
shorter wool but a more wrinkled fleece. Imporutions to 
America be|^ about the beginning of the 19th century. The 
to-called American merino, the Delaine, the Vermont and the 
RambouiUet, are well-known breeds in the United Sutes. 

The term "merino" is widely employed in the textile in- 
dustries with very varied meaningk Ori^nally it was restricted 
to denote the wool of the merino sheep reared in Spain, but 
owing to the superiority of the wools grown on merino sheep 
and shipped from Botany Bay, the name as applied to wool 
was replaced by the term " botany." In the dress-goods and 
knitting trades the term "merino" stiU impliei an article 
made from the very best soft wool The term " cashmere," 
however, is frequently confused with it, although cashmere 
goods should be made from true cashmere and not, as is. often 
the case, from the finest botany wooL In the hosiery and 
remanufactured materials trades the term " merino " is applied 
to fibre-mixtures of cotton and wool in contradistinction to 
" aU wool" goods. 

MBRIONBTH (Wdsh, Ueirumydd), a county of North Wales, 
bounded N. by Carnarvon and Denbigh, £. by Denbigh and 
Montgomery, S.E. by Montgomery, S. by the Dovey {Dyfi) 
estuary, dividing it from Cardigan, and W. by Cardigan Bay. 
It is nearly triangular, its greatest length from N.E. to S.W. 
being about 45 m., its greatest breadth about 30 m. The 
relief is less bold than that of Carnarvon, but the scenery is 
richer and more picturesquely varied. The highest summits 
are the peaks of Cader Idris (q.v.) including Pen y gader (the 
head of the chair; 2937 ft.); Aran Fawddwy (2970 ft.); 
Arenig fawr (2600 ft.); Y Llethr (247s ft.), and Rhobell fawr 
(2313 ft.). Perhaps the finest of the valleys are those of D3rfi 
(Dovey) Dysyni, Tal y llyn (forehead of the lake). Maw 
(Mawddach), and Festiniog. The Dyfrdwy (Dee) drains 
Bala Lake {Uyn Tegid or PimbUmere), which is fed by two 
brooks rising at the foot of the Berwyn Hills. The Dyjfrdwy 
leaves the lake at the north-east corner, near Castell Coronwy 
(erected 1202, hardly traceable), flowing slowly to Corwen, 
after which it is rapid, and receives the tribuUries Alwen, 
Ceiriog, Clywedog and Alun. The Dyfi (Dovey) rising in 
a small lake near Aran Fawddwy, passes Machynlleth, and 
expands into an estuary of Cardigan Bay. Rising north of the 
Aran, the Mawddach (Maw) runs south-west some 12 m., 
being joined by rivulets. Traeth bach is formed by the 
Dwyryd streamlet among others. Other streams are the 
Wnion, Eden, Cain (variously spelled). Besides BaU and 
Tal y Uyn lakes, there are among the hills over fifty morej e.g. 
Llyn MwyngiL Among the waterfaUs may be mentioned 
Rhaiadr y glyn (cascade of the glen), near Corwen, Rhaiadr 
du (black), and Pistyll Cain (Cain's waterspout), some 150 ft. 



Here and there akmg the eastern boundary Llandovery and 
Wenlock strata are included. The ttnicture 01 the Silariu tmct 



•^v 



. J. mount jiin tract of tht councy, 15 en. from north to south by 
10 Irotn Oit to wHt, stretching Jrojti the coAst inland, is of the 
CatnbrUf) iiEc, compoKd of griti, quart^ito^ And slates, and com- 
f>ri9iiie the ^terionethfthirF anlklirol- The cei-itral portioa of this 
tract IS occupied mainly by H4r!«h Grits and Menevian beds; it 
U bcntjered on the nonh, cast and south by thf- Lingula, Tremadoc 
and Aftnic teds, which ore oitrced by niimi th. .. dikes and intrusive 
tti»tAn. mostly Etwrntontr Tht andL-air .■ r - ' ■! Rhobcll-fawr is one 
of theJ:^KlLt^st lencous masse* in iht ^r,' :■ j;i j of the Lin^la beds. 
The Uoftilii beds arc quarried and min^^ iuf s^Ltc at Festiniog, and 
near Dnvelly gold it obtained from a quam vein, while near Bar- 
■mitH maiiEanirse ha* t*en worked- Bordering the Cambrian area 
arr the Ordavitlan rockA, The Arenig bcdi are interstratified with 
and DYcrUid by actuinulation» vi volcanic a*,h«, felspathic traps or 
lava-flowt, whiE;h form tht rugB^d heights of Cader Idris, the Arans. 
(he Arenig*. MAflod arvJ Moelwyn: and that are in turn overlaid 
by the Lhtndeilo and Bjda be^s the latter including the Bala Ume- 
slDfie. Lead atK] c«>pper ons* haw been worked near Towyo. 



b synclinal; in the Berwyn mountains the Ordovidan roda ania 
appear with aawxiated andetitic and felsitic lavas and tuffs* West 
of Llangar, near Cocwen, u a small patch of Carboniferous K m r s l on c . 
Gladal drut with bouMer clay is a prominent feature in the vaJkys 
and on the mountain sides. A eood deal of blown sand frinMs tac 
coast north and south of Harlech. At the Uyn Anaig Bach a 
deposit of kieselguhr has been found. 

The climate varies much with the elevation, from bfeak to 
genial, as at Aberdyfi (Aberdoveyf. Grain crops cover a amaU 
area only, green crops being poor, and fruiu practically niL 
While the soil is generally thin, there are fertile tracts in the 
valleys, and there is some reclaimed land. The small, hardy 
ponies (known as of Llanbedr, Conway Valley) are now almost 
restricted to this cotmty and Montgomeryshire. Manufactures 
include woollen stockings, &c., at and near Bala, flannels at 
DolgeUau (Dolgelley), Towyn, and a few other places. Skte is 
the chief suple. The Cumbrian railway skirts the coast from 
FOrtmadoc to Aberdyfi. At Barmouth junction a branch riosn!! 
to Dolgelley, where it is joined by a branch of the Great Western 
raflway. Bala and Festiniog are also imited by the Great 
Western, and Festiniog is further joined with Llandudno junction 
by the London & North Western railway, and with Portmadoc 
(Minffordd) by the narrow gauge railway, a light line, opened in 
1865, running between Portmadoc and Duffws, rising 700 ft. in 
13 m. The tourist traffic is a source of livelihood to many of the 
inhabitants. The coast is almost uimavigable, owing to sand- 
banks, and the only havens are Barmouth and Aberdyfi. 

The area of the ancient county is 4271810 acres or 670 aq. m^ 
with a population in 1891 of 49,212 and 1901 of 49,149. la 
the 19th centtiry, however, the population nearly doubled. 
The area of the administrative county is 422,0x8 acres* Wdsh 
is the tongue ^ excdUnce of Merionethshire. The county 
returns one member to parliament, and has ndther parliamentary 
nor mimidpal borough. The urban districts are: Bala (pop. 
1544), Barmouth (Abcrmaw, 2214), Dolgelley (Dolgellau, S437), 
Festiniog (zi ,435)1 Mallwyd (885), Towyn (3756). The shire 
is in the north-west circuit, and assizes are hdd at Dolgellan. 
It is partly in the diocese of St Asaph and partly in that of 
Bangor, and has 37 ecdesiastical parishes and districts, with 
parts of four others. 

History and Antiquities. — ^This is the only. Wdsh county 
retaining in English its primitive British name, latinised into 
Mervinia, a subdivision of Britannia Secttnda, and in the Ordo- 
vices' territory. The poet Chtirchyard in 1587 described the 
county as remote and difficult of access in his day, and it was 
never made the fidd of battle in Saxon, Danish or Norman 
times, nor indeed tmtil close on the period of Welsh loss of 
independence. There are not many remains, Cdtic, Roman 
or medieval. Caer Drewyn, a British fort on the Dee, is near 
Corwen, where Owen Gwynnedd was posted to repd Henry IL 
and whither Owen Glendower retired bdore Henry IV. The 
numerous cromlechs are chiefly near the coast. The Roman 
via occidentalis ran through the county from south to north 
and was joined by a branch of Watling Street at Tomen y mur 
(perhaps Heriri Mons) on Sam Hden, not far from Castdl 
Prysor. Tomen y mur {detritus of the wall) and CasteU Piysor 
have yielded Roman bricks, tiles, urns and coins. Castdl y 
here, an extensive ruin, and once one of Wales's largest castles, 
has not been inhabited since the time of Edward I. Cymmer 
Abbey (K Fanner) near Dolgellau, a Cisterdan esuhlishment 
founded about 1200, and dissolved by Henry VIII., is most 
perfect at the east end, with lancet windows, and against the 
south wall there are a few Gothic pillars and arches. The 
architecture varies from Norman to Perpendicular. Towen 
y Bala, east of Bala, is supposed to be a Roman encampment. 
It was afterwards occupied by the Welsh, to check the English 
lords marchers. Mod Ofifrwm is near Dolgellau. Among 
the county families may be mentioned that of Hengwrt, since 
the Hengwrt Wdsh MSS. are famous in north Wales and 
among all Cdtic scholars. 

MERISTEM (Or. tupurrin, divided or divisible), a botani- 
cal term for tissue which has the power of developing new 



MERIVALE, C— MERLIN, P. A. 



169 



fonns of tOBiie, such as the cambium from which new wood 
B developed. 

MERIV4LB. CHARLES (180&-1893), English historian and 
dean of Ely, the second son of John Herman Merivale and 
Louisa Heath Drury, daughter of Dr Drury, head master of 
Harrow, was bom on the 8th of March 1S08. His father 
(i779~t844) was an English barrister, and, from 1831, a com- 
missioner in bankruptcy; he collaborated with Robert Bland 
(1771)- 1825) in his CoUectioHS from ike Greek Antkology, and 
published some excellent translations fiom Italian and German. 
Charles Merivale was at Harrow School (181 8 lo 1824) under 
Dr Butler. His chief friends were Charles Wordsworth, after- 
wards bishop of St Andrews, and Richard Chenevix Trench, 
afterwards archbishop of Dublin. In 1824 he was offered a 
vritcrship in the Indian civil service, and went for a short 
time to Haileybury College, where he was distinguished for 
pro6ciency in Oriental bnguages. But he eventually decided 
against an Indian career, and went up to St John's College, 
Cambridge, in 1826. Among other distinctions he came out 
as fourth classic in 1830, and in 1833 was elected fellow of St 
John's. He was a member of the Apostles' Club, his fellow 
members including Tennyson, A. H. Hallam, Monckton Milncs, 
W. H. Thompson, Trench and James Spedding. He was fond 
of athletic exercises, had played for Harrow against Eton in 
1824. and in 182Q rowed in the first inter-univcrsity boat-race. 
«hen Oxford won. Having been ordained in 1833, he undertook 
cotlrge and university work successfully, and in 1839 was 
appointed select preacher at Whitehall. In 1848 he took the 
college living of Lawford, near Manningtree, in Essex; he 
married, in 1850. Judith Mary Sophia, youngest daughter of 
George Frere. In 1863 he was appointed chaplain to the 
Speaker of the House of Commons, declined the professorship 
of modem history at Cambridge in 1869, but in the same year 
Kccpted from Mr Gladstone the deanery of Ely, and until his 
dntb on the a7th of December 1893 devoted himself to the 
best interests of the cathedral. He received many honorary 
academical distinctions. His principal work was A History 
tftke Romans under tke Empire, in seven volumes, which came 
Mt between 1850 and 1862; but he wrote several smaller 
bislorical works, and published sermons, lectures and Latin 
>erMs. Merivale as a historian cannot be compared with 
GibUm for virility, but he takes an eminently common-sense 
ud appredative view. The chief defect of his work, inevitable 
at tbe time it was composed, is that, drawing the materials 
from coDtemporary memoirs rather than from inscriptions, 
be rriies on literary gossip rather than on numismatics and 
(pijSrai^y. The dean was an elegant scholar, and his rendering 
fif the Hyperion of Keats into Latin verse (1862) has received 
high praise. 

See Autobiograpky of Dean Merivale, with selections from his 
cantgjoodmre. edited by his daughter. Judith A. Merivale (1899); 
ud Fkmtly Memorials, by Anna W. Merivale (1884). 

lERIVALB. HERMAN (i 806-1 874). English civil servant 
>Bd author, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Dawlish, 
DrvoDshire, on the 8th of November 1806. He was educated 
It Harrow School, and in 1823 entered Oriel College, Oxford. 
la 1825 he became a scholar of Trinity College and also won 
tbe Ireland scholarship, and three years later he was elected 
fcOow of Balliol College. He became a member of the Inner 
Tnnple and practised on the western circuit, being made in 
iS4r recorder of Falmouth, Helston and Penzance. From 
1537 to X843 he was professor of political economy at Oxford. 
Ib this o^kadty he delivered a course of lectures on the British 
Coloaies in which he dealt with questions of emigration, employ- 
cvnt of labour and the allotment of public lands. The reputation 
be iecured by these lectures had much to do with his appointment 
b 1847 as assistant under-secretary for the colonies, and in 
tbe next year he became permanent under-secretary. In 1859 
be was transferred to the permanent undcr-sccretaryship for 
ladia, receiving the distinction of C.B. In 1870 Merivale 
was made D.C.L. of Oxford. He died on the 8th of February 
1874. Besides his Lectures on Colonisation and Colonies (1841), 



he published Historical Studies (1865), and completed the 
Memoirs of Sir Pkilip Francis (1867); he wrote the second 
volume of the Life of Sir Henry Lawrence (1873) in continuation 
of Sir Herbert Edwardes's work. 

A tribute to his powers as an original thinker by his chief at the 
Colonial Office, Sir Edward 3uIwer-Lytton, is printed with a notice 
of his career which his brother contributed to the Transactions 
(1884} of the Devonshire Association. 

MERKARA, the capital of the province of Coorg, in Southern 
India, situated on a plateau about 4000 ft. above the sea. Pop. 
(1901), 6732. It consists of two quarters: the fort, containing 
the public offices, the old palace, and the residence of the com- 
missioner; and the native town of Mahadevapet. Here are 
the headquarters of the Coorg and Mysore Rifles, a body of 
volunteers chiefly composed of coffee planters. 

MERUN, ANTOINB CHRISTOPHB (1762-1833), French 
revolutionist, called " of Thionville " to distinguish him from 
his namesake of Douai (see below), was bora at Thionville on 
the 13th of September 1762, being the son of a procureur in 
the bailliage of Thionville. After studying theology, he devoted 
himself to law, and in 1788 was an avocat at tbe parlement 
of Metz. In 1790 he was elected municipal officer of Thionville, 
and was sent by the department of Moselle to the Legislative 
Assembly. On the 23rd of October 1791 he moved and carried 
the institution of a committee of surveillance, of which he 
became a member. It was he who proposed the law sequestrat- 
ing the property of the imigris, and he took an important part 
in the fmeule of the aoth of June 1792 and in the revolution 
of the loth of August of the same year. He was elected deputy 
to the National Convention, and pressed for the execution of 
Louis XVI., but a mission to the army prevented his attendance 
at the trial. He displayed great bravery in the defence of 
Mainz. He took part in the reaction which followed the fall 
of Robespierre, sat in the Council of the Five Hundred under 
the Directory, and at the coup d*ilai of the i8th Fructidor 
(Sept. 4, 1797) demanded the deporUtion of certain repub- 
lican members. In 1798 he ceased to be a member of the 
Council of Five Hundred, and was appointed director-general 
of posts, being sent subsequently to organize the army of Italy. 
He retired into private life at the proclamation of the con- 
sulate, and lived in retirement under the consulate and the 
empire. He died in Paris on the 14th of September 1833. 

Sec J. Rcynaud, Vie et correspondance de Merlin de rkionville 
(Paris, i860). 

MERLIN, PHILIPPE ANTOINB, Count (1754-1838), French 
politician and lawyer, known as Merlin " of Douai," was born 
at Arleux (Nord) on the 30th of October 1754, and was called 
to the Flemish bar in 1775. An indefatigable student, he 
collaborated in the Repertoire de jurisprudence published by 
J. N.Guyot, the later editions of which appeared under Merlin's 
superintendence, and also contributed to other important 
legal compilations. Elected to the states-general as deputy 
for Douai, he was one of the chief of those who applied the 
principles of liberty and equality embodied in the decree of 
the 4th of August 1789 to actual conditions. On behalf of 
the committee appointed to deal with feudal rights, he presented 
to the Convention reports on the seignorial rights which were 
subject to compensation, on hunting and fishing rights, forestry, 
and kindred subjects. He carried legislation for the abolition 
of primogeniture, secured equality of inheritance between 
relations of the same degree, and between men and women. 
His numerous reports to the Constituent Assembly were supple- 
mented by popular exposition of current legislation in the 
Journal dc Ugislation. On the dissolution of the Constituent 
Assembly he became judge of the criminal court at Douai. 
He was no advocate of violent measures; but, as deputy to 
the Convention, he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and 
as a member of the council of legislation he presented to the 
Convention on the 17th of September 1793 '^he infamous 
law permitting the detention of suspects. He was closely allied 
with his namesake Merlin " of Thionville," and, after the 
counter-revolution which brought about the fall of Robespierre, 



170 



MERLIN 



he became president of the Convention and a member of the 
Committee of Public Safety. His efforts were primarily directed 
to the prevention of any recrudescence of the tyranny exercised 
by the Jacobin Club, the commune of Paris, and the revolution- 
ary tribunal. He persuaded the Committee of Safety to take 
upon itself the closing of the Jacobin Club, on the ground that 
it was an administrative rather than a legislative measure. 
He recommended the rcadmission of the survivors of the Girondin 
party to the Convention, and drew up a law limiting the right 
of insurrection; he had also a considerable share in the foreign 
policy of the victorious republic. With Cambac^res he had 
been commissioned in April 1794 to report on the civil and 
criminal legislation of France, with the result that after eighteen 
months' work he produced his Rapport et projet de code des 
diiits et des pcines (10 Vend^miaire, an. IV.). Merlin's code 
abolished confiscation, branding and imprisonment for life, 
and was based chiefly on the penal code drawn up in September 
1791. He was made minister of justice (Oct. 30, 179s) under 
the Directory, and showed excessive rigour against the emigrants. 
After the coup d'ital of the i8th Fructidor he became (Sept. 
5, 1797) one of the five directors, and was accused of the various 
failures of the government. He retired into private life (June 
18, 1799), and had no share in the revolution of the i8th Bru- 
maire. Under the consulate he accepted a modest place in the 
court of. cassation, where he soon became procureur-g£ncral. 
Although he had no share in drawing up the Napoleonic code, 
he did more than any other lawyer to fix its interpretation. 
He became a member of the council of state, count of the empire, 
and grand officer of the Legion of Honour; but having resumed 
his functions during the Hundred Days, he was one of those 
banished on the second restoration. The years of his exile 
were devoted to his Ripcrtoire de jurisprudence (sth ed., 18 vols., 
Paris, 1 8 37- 1 8 28) and to his Recueil alphabftique des questions 
de droit (4th ed., 8 vols., Paris, 1827-1828). At the revolution 
of 1830 he was able to return to France, when he re-entered 
the Institute of France, of which he had been an original member, 
being admitted to the Academic des Sciences Morales et Poli- 
tiques. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1838. 

His son, Antoine Francois Euc^ne Merlin (1778-1854), was 
a well-known general in the French army, and served through 
most of Napoleon's campaigns. 

Sec M. Mignct, Portraits et notices hisloriques (1853), vol. i.. 

MERLIN (Welsh, Myrddhin), the famous bard of Welsh 
tradition, and enchanter of Arthurian romance. His history 
as related in this latter may be summarized as follows. The 
infernal powers, aghast at the blow to their influence dealt 
by the Incarnation, determine to counteract it, if possible, 
by the birth of an Antichrist, the offspring of a woman and 
a devil. As in the book of Job, a special family b singled out 
as subjects of the diabolic experiment, their property is destroyed, 
one after the other perishes miserably, till one daughter, who 
has placed herself under the special protection of the Church, 
is left alone. The demon takes advantage of an unguarded 
moment of despair, and Merlin is engendered. Thanks, however, 
to the prompt action of the mother's confessor, Blayse, in at 
once baptizing the child of this abnormal birth, the mother 
truly protesting that she has had intercourse with no man. 
Merlin is claimed for Christianity, but remains dowered with 
demoniac powers of insight and prophecy. An infant in arms, 
he saves his mother's life and confounds her accusers by his 
knowledge of their family secrets. Meanwhile Vortigern, 
king of the Britons, is in despair at the failure of his efforts 
to build a tower in a certain spot; however high it may be 
reared in a day, it falls again during the night. He consults 
his diviners, who tell him that the foundations must be watered 
with the blood of a child who has never had a father; the king 
accordingly sends messengers through the land in search of 
such a prodigy. They come to the city where Merlin and his 
mother dwell at the moment when the boy is cast out from 
the companionship of the other lads on the ground that he has 
had no father. The messengers take him to the king, and 
on the way he astonishes them by certain prophecies which 



are fulfilled to their knowledge. Arrived in Vortigern % picsenee^ 
he at once announces that he is aware alike of the fate destined 
for him and of the reason, hidden from the magicians, oC the 
fall of the tower. It is built over a lake, and beneath the waten 
of the lake in a subterranean cavern lie two dragons, a white 
and a red; when they turn over the tower falls. The lake is 
drained, the correctness of the statement proved, and Merlin's 
position as court prophet assured. Henceforward he acts as 
adviser to Vortigem's successors, the princes Ambrosius and 
Uther (subsequently Uther-Pendragon). As a monument to 
the Britons fallen on Salisbury Plain he brings from Ireland, 
by magic means, the stones now forming Stonehenge. He 
aids Uther in his passion for Yguerne, wife to the duke of 
Cornwall, by Merlin's spells Uther assumes the form of the 
husband, and on the night of the duke's death Arthur is en- 
gendered. At his birth the child is committed to Merlin's 
care, and by him given to Antor, who brings him up as his own 
son. On Arthur's succe^ful achievement of the test of the 
sword in the " perron," Merlin reveals the truth of his parentage 
and the fact that he is by hereditary right, as well as by divine 
selection, king of the Britons. During the earlier part of 
Arthur's reign Merlin acts as counsellor; then he disappean 
mysteriously from the scene. According to one account he 
is betrayed by a maiden, Nimue or Niniane (a king's daughter, 
or a water-fairy, both figure in different versions), of whom he 
is enamoured, and who having beguiled from him a knowledge 
of magic spells, casts him into a slumber and imprisons him 
living in a rocky tomb. This version, with the great cry, or 
Brait, which the magician uttered before his death, appears 
to have been the most popular. Another represents his prison 
as one of air; he is invisible to all, but can see and hear, and 
occasionally speak to passers by; thus he holds converse with 
Gawain. In the prose Perceval he retires voluntarily to an 
" Esplumeor " erected by himself, and is seen no more of man. 

The curious personality of Merlin is now generally recognixed 
as being very largely due to the prolific invention of Geoffrey 
of Monmouth. Nennius, upon whose Historic Geoffrey enlarged 
and " improved," gives indeed the story of Vortigern and the 
tower, but the boy's name is Ambrosius. Geoffrey calls him 
Merlin-Ambrosius, a clear proof that he was adapting Nennius' 
story. He represents the sage in his r61e of court diviner, his 
" Prophecies " being incorporated in later manuscripts of the 
Historia. Subsequently Geoffrey enlarged on the theme, com- 
posing a Vita Merlini in which we find the magician in the 
r61e of a " possessed " wood-abider, fleeing the haunts of men, 
and consorting with beasts. This gave rise to the idea that 
there had originally been two Merlins, Merlin-Ambrosius and 
Merlin-Sylvester, a view now discarded by the leading scholars. 
The Vita was so successful that Geoffrey obtained as reward 
the bishopric of St Asaph. 

Welsh vernacular literature has preserved a small but interest- 
ing group of poems, strongly national and patriotic in character, 
which are attributed to Merlin (Myrddhin). 

A few years after Geoffrey's death Merlin's adventures were 
amplified into a romance, the first draft of which is attributed 
to Robert de Borron, and which eventually took the form of 
a lengthy introduction to the ^xo&t Lancelot and cyclic redaction 
of the Arthurian legend. 

The romantic, as distinguished from legendary or historical 
McHin, exists in the following forms: (a) a fragmentary poem pre> 
ser\'cd in a unique manuscript of the Bibl. nat. (this gives no more 
than the introduction to the story); (6) a prose rendering of the 
above, of which a fair number of copies exist, eenerally found, as 
in the original poem, coupled with a version 01 the early history 
of the Gran, known as Joseph of Arimathea, and in two cases followed 
by a Perceval and Mort Artus, thus forming a small cyde; (e) the 
Ordinary or Vulgate Merlin, a very lengthy romance, of which 
numerous copies exist (sec Dr Sommer's edition) ; (d) and (e) two 
continuations to the above, each represented byr a stngle manu- 
script— (rf) the " Huth " Merlin, which was utilized by^ Makiry 
for nb translation, and also formed a part of the compilation used 
by the Spanish and Portuguese translators, and {e) a very curious 
manuscript, 337. Bibl. nat. (fonds Francais), which Paulin Paris 
calls the Litre Artus, containing much matter not found elsewhere. 
1 M. La Villemarqu6's " critical study " {Myrdhtnn, ou Cenchawkw 



MERLON— MERMAIDS 



171 



Jfirrini, 1861) cannot be regarded as much more trustworthy than 

Geoffrey humelf. The story of the tower, and the Boy without 

a Father, has been critically examined by Dr Caster, in a paper 

read before the Folk-lore Society and subsequentljr published in 

Foik-lore (voL xvi.). Dr Caster cites numerous Oriental paraUek 

to the tale, and sees in it the germ of the whole Merlin legend. 

Alfred Nutt {Rivue cdtupu, vol. xxvii.) has since shown that 

Aengus the magician oTthe Irish Tuatka de Danaan, was also 

cf unknown parentage, and it seems more probable that the Boy 

without a Father theme was generally associated with the Celtic 

magicians, and is the property of no one in particubr. Some 

years ago the late Mr Ward of the British Museum drew attention 

to certain passages in the life of St Kcntigcrn, relating his dealings 

«ith a ** pouessed " being, a dweller in the woods, named Lailokcn, 

and pointed out the prau:tical identity of the adventures of that 

personage and those aastened by Gccmrcy to Merlin in the Vita'. 

the text given by Mr Ward states that some people identified 

Lailokcn with Merlin (see Romania, vol. xxvii.). Fertl. Lot, in an 

esamination of the sources of the Vita Jderlini {AnnaUs de Bretapte, 

\tA. XV.), has pointed out the more orieinal character of the " Lai- 

k>kcn" fragments, and decides that CoofTrcy knew the Scottish 

traditioa and utilized it fn- his Vita. \\c also comes to the con- 

iCliBioii ihit the \^Vhh Merlin poems, with ihc pa&iiblc exception 

41I the £?ia£cf wr ^t^'ten Mrriin and TiUictiin, are posterior to^ amj 

Mtpirrrl by, Geoilfrcy's ^ixirk:. So f^r ihe rscarrhc^ of ichotars 

■fifttrtD poirrt lo thf result that the IcjcrmJ of iNfcrlfn^ sa wc Icnow 

ft, H of mnnplex ^Tuwth, combined irom traditions of ind'tpcnidcnt 

1/aA wrdefy dii!«mnF ori^n. Mo^t probably thcri? La a ccftaio 

Aflftmiatum of fact Beneath, all : there may baw bcen« there vay 

pnabaiyly wa<^ a band and soot buyer of that natnen and it it by no 

veana unprotable that curious storiei weft told af ht^ origidi, It fs 

wijfth rkot in^ th:tt La^'^mon^ wbo<5e transLitlon of Wace 5 Brut \i 

^ » much intcTcit, on account of the variant* he mtrodyces into 

the leat, eivu a much more favourable lotra of line " Birth " story; 

lie UHket a a glortoas and »upef naturdl being, whry anpoan to 

dt HHhH- bi her dreaiDL Layaman livx^d pi^ the VVchn bordtr, 

«d the pen^Dity cJ ha variant i beiri£ dr<iwn from genuine Qritiih 

tndition » grncrallv recoifnifcd. The pocm relating a dla1o;|uc 

Mween Merlin and his brother baix], Talicuin, may also derive 

tnjffl E«iuifK cradTtton. Further than this we can h^iirdly venture 

(a fo: the pfotubility is that anything; mart told of the character 

Ud csnrr iif Merlin rr«t> upon the imaginative powers and facuEty 

of EnmbiiistUJii of Geoffrey of Monmautb. 

5« alio G- Paris and Ulrich (S^xilFi dtj aTuitns Uzt^s fran^aii^ 
\m\ Utfiim, ed. Wheal ley f Early English T«tt Society, tSqo) I 
Afihur ami Merlin, ed. Kolbin^. 0- l- W ) 

miLOH, in architecture, the solid part of an embattled 
parapet between the embrasures, sometimes pierced by loop- 
boks. The word is French, adapted from Ital. mcrlone, possibly 
I ihorteoed form of mergida, connected with Lat. mcrgae, 
pitdifarfc, or from a diminutive mocrulus, from tnwus 
(m9tna), a wall 

nUAIDS and HERHEN. in the folk-lore of England and 

Scotland, a class of semi-human beings who have their dwelling 

in the sea, but are capable of living on land and of entering 

jaw social rebtions with men and women.* They arc easily 

identified, at least in some of their most important aspects, 

»ith the Old German Mcriminni or Mccrfrau, the Icebndic 

Hafgufa, Margygr, and Marmcnnill (mod. Marbendill), the 

Daiu'sh Hafmand or Maremind, the Irish Merrow or Merruach, 

\ht Marie-Morgan of Brittany and the Morforwyn of Wales \* 

lod they have various points of resemblance to the vodyany 

sr water-sprite and the rtisalka or stream-fairy of Russian 

n>1hok>gy. The typical mermaid has the head and body 

af a woman, usually of exceeding loveliness, but below the 

vjist is fashioned like a fish with scales and fins. Her hair 

is long and beautiful, and she is often represented, like the 

Russi;>n rusalka, as combing it with one hand while in the other 

At holds a looking-glass. For a lime at least a mermaid may 

become to all appearance an ordinary human being; and an 

Irish legend (" The Overflowing of Lough Neagh and Liban 

'The name mermaid is compounded of mere, a lake, and 

■r.ti. a maid; but, though mere wif occurs in Beowulf, mere-maid 

don not appear till the Middle English period (Chaucer, Romaunt 

ef the Rose, Ac). In Cornwall the fishermen say merry-maids and 

merry-men. The connexion with the sea rather than with inland 

sraters appears to be of later origin. " The Mermaid of Martin 

Mew " (Roby*8 Traditions of Lancashire, vol. ii.) is an example of 

the ckfer force of the word; and such " mccr-womcn " arc known 

to the country-folk in various parts of England {e.g. at Newport 

IB Shropshire, where the town is some day to be drowned by the 

vonan s agency). 

•See Rhys. '^ Welsh Fairy Tales." in Y Cymmrodor (1881. 1882). 



the Mermaid," in Joyce's Old Cditc Romances) represents the 
temporary transformation of a human being into a mermaid. 

The mermaid legends of all countries may be grouped as 
follows, (a) A mermaid or mermaids either voluntarily or under 
compulsion reveal things that are about to happen. Thus the two 
mermaids (mcrewlp) Hadcburc and Sigclint, in the Nibelungen- 
lied, disclose his future course to the hero Hagen, who, having 
got possession of their garments, which they had left on the 
shore, compels them to pay ransom in this way. According 
to Resenius, a mermaid appeared to a peasant of Samste, 
foretold the birth of a prince, and moralized on the evils of 
intemperance, &c. {Kong Frederichs den andens Krdnike, Copen- 
hagen, 1680, p. 302). (b) A mermaid imparts supernatural 
pouters to a human being. Thus in the beautiful story of " The 
Old Man of Cury " (in Hunt's Popular Romances of the West of 
England, 187 1) the old man, instead of silver and gold, obtains 
the power of doing good to his neighbours by breaking the spells 
of witchcraft, chasing away diseases, and discovering thieves, 
(c) A mermaid has some one under her protection, and for wrong 
done to her ward exacts a terrible penally. One of the best and 
most detailed examples of this class is the story of the " Mermaid's 
Vengeance " in Hunt's book already quoted. (</) A mermaid 
falls in love with a human being, lives with him as his lawful wife 
for a time, and then, some compact being unwillingly or intentionally 
broken by him, departs to her true home in the sea. Here, if its 
mermaid form be accepted, the typical legend is undoubtedly 
that of Mtiusine {q.v.), which, being made the subject of a 
romance by Jean d'Arras, became one of the most popular 
folk-books of Europe, appearing in Spanish, German, Dutch 
and Bohemian versions, (e) A mermaid falls in love with a man, 
and entices him to go to live with her bdow the sea; or a merman 
wins the afcction or captures the person of an earthbom maiden. 
This form of legend is very common, and has naturally been 
a favourite with poets. Macphail of Colonsay successfully 
rejects the allurements of the mermaid of Corrievrckin, and 
comes back after long years of trial to the maid of Colonsay.* 
The Danish ballads are especially full of the theme; as " Agncte 
and the Merman," an antecedent of Matthew Arnold's" Forsaken 
Merman "; the " Deceitful Merman, or Marslig's Daughter "; and 
the finely detailed story of Rosmer Hafmand (No. 49 in Grimm). 

In relation to man the mermaid is usually of evil issue if not 
of evil intent. She has generally to be bribed or compelled to 
utter her prophecy or bestow her gifts, and whether as wife or 
paramour she brings disaster in her train. The fish-tail, which 
in popular fancy forms the characteristic feature of the mermaid, 
is really of secondary importance; for the true Teutonic mermaid 
—probably a remnant of the great cult of the Vanir— had no 
Gsh-tail;* and this symbolic appendage occurs in the mythologies 
of so many countries as to afford no clue to its place of origin. 
The Tritons, and, in the later representations, the Sirens of 
classical antiquity, the Phoenician Dagon, and the Chaldacan 
Oannes arc all well-known examples; the Ottawas and other 
American Indians have their man-fish and woman-fish (Jones, 
Traditions of the North American Indians, 1830); and the Chinese 
tell stories not unlike our own about the sea-women of their 
southern seas (Dennis, Folklore of China, 1875). 

Quasi-historical instances of the appearance or capture of 
mermaids are conunon enough,' and serve, with the frequent 
use of the figure on signboards and coats of arms, to show how 
thoroughly the myth had taken hold of the popular imagination.* 

•See Leyden's "The Mermaid," in Sir Walter Sbott's Border 
Minstrdsy. 

* Kari Blind, " New Finds in Shctlandic and Welsh Folk-Lore," 
in Gentleman's Magazine (1882). 

'Compare the strange account of the quasi-human creatures 
found in ihe Nile given by I'hcophylactus, Historiae, viii. 16, 
pp. 999-302, of Bekkcr's edition. 

*Scii the paper in Journ. Bril. Arch. Assoc., xxxviii., 1882, by 
H. S. Cuming, who points out that mermaids or mermen occur in 
the arms of Larls Calcdun, ilowth and Sandwich, Viscounts Boyne 
nind Hood, Lord Lyttelton and Scott of Abbotsford, as well as in 
those of the Ellis, Byron. Phen6, SIceffington and other families. 
The English heralds represent the creatures with a single tail, the 
French and German heralds frequently with a double one. 



172 



MEROBAUDES— MEROVINGIANS 



A mermaid captured at Bangor, on the shore of Belfast Lough, 
in the 6th century, was not only baptized, but admitted into 
some of the old calendars as a saint under the name of Murgen 
(Noles and Queries, Oct. ai, 1882); and Stowe {Annales, under 
date 1 187) relates how a man-fish was kept for six months 
and more in the castle of Orford in Suffolk. As showing how 
legendary material may gather round a simple fact, the oft-told 
story of the sea-woman of Edam is particularly interesting. 
The oldest authority, Joh. Gerbrandus a Leydis, a Carmelite 
monk (d. 1504), tells {Annales, &c., Frankfort, 1620) how in 
X403 a wild woman came through a breach in the dike into 
Purmerlake, and, being found by some Edam milkmaids, was 
ultimately taken to Haarlem and lived there many years. 
Nobody could understand her, but she learned to spin, and 
was wont to adore the cross. Ocka Scharlensis {Chronijk van 
Friestand, Leeuw., 1597) reasons that she was not a fish because 
she could spin, and she was not a woman because she could 
live in the sea; and thus in due course she got fairly established 
as a genuine mermaid. Vosmaer, who has carefully investigated 
the matter, enumerates forty writers who have repeated the 
story, and shows that the older ones speak only of a woman 
(see " Beschr. van de zoogen. Meermin der stad Haarlem," 
in Verh. van de HoU. Maatsch. van K. en Wet., part 33, No. 

I7M). 

The best account of the mcrmaid-myth is in Baring-Gould's 
AfylAi ofjthe Middle Ages. See also, besides works already men- 
tioned, Pontoppidan. who in his logically credulous way collects 
much matter to prove the existence of mermaids; Maillet, Telliamed 
(Haffue, 1755); Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, i. 404. and AUdHn. 
HdHenlieder (181 1); Waldron's Description and Train's Hist, and 
Stat. Au. of the Ide of Man: Folk-lore Society's Record, vol. ii.; 
Napier, Hist, and Trad. Tales connected with the South of Scotland; 
SdbiUot. Traditions de la haute Bretagne (1882), and ConUs des 
marins (1882). 

MEROBAUDES, FLAVIUS (5th century A.D.), Latin rhetori- 
cian and poet, probably a native of Baetica in Spain. He was 
the official laureate of Valentinian IIL and AStius. Till the 
beginning of the 19th century he was known only from the 
notice of him in the Chronicle (year 443) of his contemporary 
Idacius, where he is praised as a poet and orator, and mention 
is made of statues set up in his honour. In 18 13 the base of 
a statue was discovered at Rome, with a long inscription belong- 
ing to the year 435 (C.I.L. vi. 1724) upon Flavius Mcrobaudes, 
celebrating his merits as warrior and poet. Ten years later, 
Niebuhr discovered some Latin verses on a palimpsest in the 
monastery of St Gall, the authorship of which was traced to 
Merobaudes, owing to the great similarity of the language in 
the prose preface to that of the inscription. Formerly the only 
piece known under the name of Merobaudes was a short poem 
(30 hexameters) De Christo, attributed to him by one MS., to 
Claudian by another; but Ebert is inclined to dispute the claim 
of Merobaudes to be considered either the author of the De 
Christo or a Christian. 

The " Panegyric " and minor poems have been edited by B. G. 
Niebuhr (1824); by I. Bckkcr in the Bonn Corpus scriptorum hist. 
Byt. (1836) ; the " De Christo " in T. Birt's Claudian (1892), where the 
authorship of Merobaudes is upheld; see also A. Ebert, Ceschichte 
der LiUratur des Mittelalters im Abendlande (1889). 

MEROE, the general name (as Island of Meroe) for the region 
bounded on three sides by the Nile (from Atbara to Khartum), 
the Atbara, afid the Blue Nile; and the special name of an 
ancient city on the east bank of the Nile, 877 m. from Wadi 
Haifa by river, and 554 by the route across the desert, near 
the site of which is a group of villages called Bakarawiya. The 
site of the city is marked by over two hundred pyramids in 
three groups, of which many are in ruinous condition. After 
these ruins had been described by several travellers, among 
whom F. Cailliaud (Voyaged Mfroi, Paris, 1826-1828) deserves 
special mention, some excavations were executed on a small 
scale in 1834 by G. Ferlini (Cenno sugli scati operati nclla Nubia 
t catalogo degli oggetti ritrovati, Bologna, 1837), who discovered 
(or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form 
of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich. The 
ruins were examined in 1844 by C. R. Lepsius, who brought 



many plans, sketches and copies, besides actual antiquitiet, to 
Berlin. Further excavations were carried on by £. W. Budge in 
the years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his 
work, The Egyptian Siddn: its History and MonumenU (London, 
1907). Troops were furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate, 
governor of the Sudan, who made paths to and between the 
pyramids, and sank shafts, &c. It was found that the pyramids 
were regularly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the 
remains of bodies either burned or buried without being mummi- 
fied. The most interesting objects found were the reliefs on 
the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, and containing 
the names w^ith representations of queens and some kings, with 
some chapters of the Book of the Dead; some steles with inscrip- 
tions in the Mcroitic language, and some vessels <rf metal and 
earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone 
by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum and 
partly in the museum at Khartum. In 1910, in consequence of 
a report by Professor Sayce, excavations were commenced in the 
mounds of the town and the necropolis by J. Garstang on behalf 
of the imiversity of Liverpool, and the ruins of a palace and 
several temples were discovered, built by the Meroite kings. 
(See further Ethiopia.) 

Meroe was probably also an alternative name for the dty of 
Napata, the ancient capital of Ethiopia, built at the foot of jebd 
Barkal. The site of Napata is indicated by the villages of Sanam 
Abu Dom on the left bank of the Nile and Okl<Merawi on the right 
bank of the river. New Merawi, x m. east of Sanam Abu Dom 
and on the same side of the river, was founded blithe Sudan govern* 
ment in 1905 and made the capital of the mudina of DonjgcMa. 

(D. S. M. } 

MEROPE, the name of several figures in Greek mythologjr. 
The most important of them are the following: (i) The daughter 
of Cypselus,.king of Arcadia, and wife of Cresphontes, ruler 
of Messenia. During an insurrection Cresphontes and two of 
his sons were murdered and the throne seized by Polsrpbontes, 
who forced Mcrope to marry him. A third son, Aepytus, 
contrived to escape, and, .subsequently returning to Messenia, 
put Polyphontes to death and recovered his father's kingdom 
(Apollodorus ii. 8, 5; Pausanias iv. 3, 6). The fortunes of 
Mcrope have furnished the subject of tragedies by Euripides 
{Cresphontes, not extant), Voltaire, Maffei and Matthew Arxrald. 
(2) The daughter of Atlas and wife of Sis3rphus. She was 
one of the seven Pleiades, but remained invisible, hiding her 
light for shame at having become the wife of a mortal (ApoUo- 
dorus i. 9, 3; iii. 10 1; Ovid, Fasti, iv. 175). 

MEROVINGIANS, the name given to the first dynasty which 
reigned over the kingdom of the Franks. The name is taken 
from Merovech, one of the first kings of the Salian Franks, 
who succeeded to Clodio in the middle of the 5th century, and 
soon became the centre of many legends. The chronicler 
known as Fredegarius Scholasticus relates that a queen was 
once sitting by the seashore, when a monster came out of the 
sea, and by this monster she subsequently became the mother 
of Merovech, but this myth is due to an attempt to explain 
the hero's name, which means " the sea-bom." At the great 
battle of Mauriac (the Catalaunian fields) in which Aetius 
checked the invasion of the Huns (451), there were present 
in the Roman army a number of Prankish foederati, and a later 
document, the Vita lupi, states that Merovech (Merovaeus) 
was their leader. Merovech was the father of Childeric I. 
(457-481), and grandfather of Clovis (481-511), under whom 
the Salian Franks conquered the whole of Gaul, except the 
kingdom of Burgundy, Provence and Septimania. The sons 
of Clovis divided the dominions of their father between them, 
made themselves masters of Burgimdy (532), and in addition 
received Provence from the Ostrogoths (535); Septimania was 
not taken from the Arabs till the time of Pippin, the founder 
of the Carolingian dynasty. From the death of Clovis to that 
of Dagobcrl (639), the Merovingian kings displayed considerable 
energy, both in their foreign wars and in the numerous wars 
against one another in which they found an outlet for theif 
barbarian instincts. After 639, however, the race began tc 
decline, one after another the kings succeeded to the throne 



MERRILL— MERSEBURG 



173 



bat none of them reached more than the a^ of twenty or twenty- 
five; this was the a^ of the *' rots faitUatOs." Henceforth 
the real lovereign was the majror of the palace. The mayors 
of the palace belonging to the Carolingian family were able 
to keep the throne vacant for long periods of time, and finally, 
in 75X the mayor Pippin, with the consent of the pope Zacharias, 
tent King Childeric III. to the monastery of St Omer, and shut 
np his yoang acm Thierry in that of St Wandrille. The 
Merovingian race thns came to an end in the cloister. 

BimocaAPBT.— See P£cigny. £iud€s sur Npoque miranngieime 
(Pans, 1851) ; G. Richter. AnmUen des frdnkischen lUkks im ZeiialUr 
4tr Merominun (Halle, 1873); F. Dahn, Die Kifttite dtr Ctrmanen, 
vii. (Leipxig, 1894): by the same author. VrntsckickU der 
:W mmi romaniscktn Vdlker, iU. (BerUn. iSSt); W. 
• " " oli 



hultm, DtulsclU C txhic k tt sm ier UneU his m dtm KaroliHgemt 

(Stuttpart, 1896). 

iiermtngiam Intend. — It has long been conceded that the 



iL (Stuttpart, 1896). 

Mermtngiam Leiend. — It has long been conceded that the great 
Ffench national epics of the nth and I3th centuries mutt nave 



been founded on a great fund of popular poetry, and that many of 
the epindes of the ckansmu de teste refer to historical events anterior 
to the Carolingian period. Floovant is obviously connected with 
the CfMla DaioSerii, and there are traces of the influence of popular 
•oogs on the Frankish heroes in Gregory of Tours and other 
chro n iclers. See G. Kurth, JliU. poll, des Afirovingiens (Paris, 
Brussels and Leipsig, 1893); A. Darmcstcter, De Floaoante vetusticre 
MUico poem$al€ (Paris, 1877); Floovant (Paris, iSu); ed. MM. F. 
Guesurd and H. Michelant; P. Rajna. DtUe Online delF epopea 
frwese (Florence, 1884), with which cf. G.Paris in Romania, 
WL 609 seq.; F. Settegast. Qnetlenstudien Mur taUo-romanisckeH 



Bptk (Leipzig. 1904); C. Voretz&ch, Epiuke Sludien (Halle, 1900); 
H.(;racber. Gnuidriss d. romau. PkU, (BcL II., abt. L pp. 447 seq.). 

(CPp.J 



a dty and the county-seat of Lincoln county, 
WHcoQsin, U.S^., 185 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, on both sides 
d the TK'iaooDsin river. Pop. (19x0 census), 8689. It is 
( Krvtd by the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railroad. The 
dij B situated about 1 370 ft. above the sea and has an invigorat- 
u% dimate. Brook trout and various kinds of game, including 
deer, abound in the vicinity. Grandfather Falls and the 
Ddks of the Prairie river are picturesque places near the city, 
lad furnish good water-power. The principal public building 
ii the Lino^ county court house, and the dty contains the 
T. B. Scott free library, a fine high-school, and the Ravn 
bospital, a private institution. Riverside Park is maintained 
by a corporation, and a park along the Prairie river is owned 
lad maintained by the dty. Merrill is an important hardwood 
luaber market, and its prindpal industry is the manufacture 
of lumber and lumber products. The manufacture of paper 
ud paper pulp and of lathes is also important. In 1905 the 
hctory products wero valued at $3,360,638. There are granite 
<|iarries and brickyards in the vidnity. Merrill was settled 
in 1875, incorporated as a village in z88o, and chartered as a 
dty in 1883. 

MKBRIMAC,* a river in the north-eastern part of the United 

States, having its sources in the White Mountains of New Hamp- 

ibire, and flowing south into Massachusetts, and thence cast 

tod Dorth'east into the Atlantic Ocean. With its largest branch 

it has an extreme length of about 183 m. The Mcrrimac proper 

h honed at Franklin, New Hampshire, by the junction of the 

Pbnjgewaaiet and Winnepesaukcc rivers. The former is the 

hrga branch and rises in the White Mountains in Grafton 

onoty; the latter is the outlet of Lake Winnepesaukee. The 

^ nliry of the Merrimac was formed before the gbdal period 

tnd was filled with drift as the ice retreated; subsequently 

the high flood plain thus formed has been trenched, terraces 

bave been formed, and at different places, where the new 

ckumcl did not conform to the prc-glacial channel, the river 

hu come upon buried ledges, relativdy much more resistant 

titan the drift below, and waterfalls have thus resulted. The 

river faDs 969 ft. in a dbtance of zio m. from Franklin to its 

mouth. The greater part of the total fall is at six points, and 

at cadi of four of these is a dty which owes its importance in 

peat Bkcasure to the water-power thus provided, Lowell and 

■The name is an Indian word said to mean "swift water." 
b popular usage the spelling " Merrimack " is used at places along 
the river above Haverhill. 



Lawrence in Massachusetts, and Manchester and ConCordin 
New Hampshire; at Lowell there is a fall of 30 ft. (Pawtucket 
Falls), and at Manchester there is a fall of 55 ft. (Amoskeag 
Falls). The region drained by the river is 4553 sq. m. in extent, 
and contains a number of lakes, which together with some 
artificial reservoirs serve as a storage system. On the navigable 
portion of the river, which extends 17) m. above its mouth, 
are the dties of Newburyport, near its mouth, and Haverhill, 
at the head of navigation. In 1899-1908 the Federal govern- 
ment dredged a channd from Newburyport to Haverhill 
(14*5 m.) 7 ft. deep and 150 ft. wide at mean low water; vessels 
having a draft of zs'S ft. could then pass over the outer bar 
of Newburyport. 

MBRRIMAN. HEHRT SETOIf (d. 1903), the pen-name of 
Hugh Stowell Scott, English novelist. He was a member of 
the firm of Henry Scott & Sons, and was for some years an 
imderwriter at Lloyd's. His literary career began in 1889 with 
The Phantom Future^ and he made his first decided hit with 
his Russian story, The Sowers (1896), which was followed by 
many other well-constructed novels remarkable for excellence 
of plot and literary handling. The author was an enthusiastic 
traveller, many of his journeys being undertaken with his 
friend Stanley Weyman. He was about forty when he died 
at Mdton, near Ipswich, on the Z9th of November 1903. Among 
his most successful books were Roden*s Comer (1898); The Isle 
of Unrest (1899); In Kedar's Tents (1897); The Velvet Clove 
(1901); The Vultures (1903); Barlasck oj ike Guard (1903); 
and The Last Hope (1904). 

■BRRirr, WESLEY (1836- ), American soldier, was 
born in New York City on the i6th of June 1836. He graduated 
at West Point in x86o, and was assigned to the cavalry service. 
He served in Utah (1861) and in the defences of Washington 
(1861-62); learnt the fidd duties of his arm as aide (1862) to 
General Philip St George Cooke, who then commanded the 
cavalry of the Army of the Potomac; became brigadier-general. 
United States Volunteers, in June 1863; and in September 
1863 was placed in command of a brigade of regular cavalry 
in the Army of the Potomac He won great distinction in 
the Virginian campaigns of 1864-65 and in Sheridan's Valley 
campaign, being brevetted major-general of volunteers for his 
conduct at Winchester and Fiber's Hill, and brigadier-general 
of the regular army for his services at Five Forks. In the 
final campaign about Richmond he did such good service in 
command of a cavalry division that he was brevetted major- 
general in the regular army and was promoted major-general 
of volunteers. With two other Federal commissioners he 
arranged with the Confederate commanders for the surrender 
of the Army of Northern Virginia. He was mustered out of 
the Volunteer Service in February 1866, and in July became 
lieutenant-colonel of the 9th cavalry in the regular army, being 
promoted gradually to major-general (1895). He served in the 
Big Horn and Yellowstone Indian campaigns (1876) and in the 
expedition to relieve the command of Major Thomburgh, who 
was killed in 1879 by the Utes; was superintendent at West 
Point (1882-S7); and commanded the military department 
of Missouri in 1887-95, and that of the Atlantic in 1897-98. 
He was assigned in May 1898 to the command of the United 
States forces that were sent to the Philippines, after Admiral 
Dewey's victory; stormed Manila on the 13th of August; and 
was military governor of the islands until the 33th of August, 
when he left Manila for Paris to join the peace commission. 
From 1899 imtil his retirement from active service in June 
1900 he commanded the Department of the East. 

MERSEBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province 
of Saxony, on the river Saale, 10 m. by rail S. of Halle and 15 m. 
W. of Leipzig. Pop. (1905), 20,024. It consists of a quaint 
and irregularly built old town, a new quarter, and two extensive 
suburbs, Altcnburg and Neumarkt. The cathedral, which was 
restored in 1884- 1886, has a choir, a crypt and two towers of the 
nth, a transept of the X3th and a late Gothic nave of the i6th 
century. Among its numerous monuments is one to Rudolph 
of Swabia, the rival of. the emperor Henry .IV. It contains 



174 



MERSEN, TREATY OF— MERTHYR TYDFIL 



a great organ dating from the X7th century. Near the cathedral 
is the Gothic palace, formerly the residence of the bishops of 
Merscburg, and now used as public offices. The town hall 
and the Stindehaus, where the meetings of the provincial 
estates were held, are also noteworthy buildings. The industries 
include the manufacture of machinery, paper and celluloid, 
and tanning and brewing. 

Merseburg is one of the oldest towns in Germany. From 
968 until the Reformation, it was the seat of a bishop, and in 
addition to being for a time the. residence of the margraves of 
Meissen, it was a favourite residence of the German kings 
during the loth, izth and 12th centuries. Fifteen diets were 
held here during the middle ages, when its fairs enjoyed the 
importance which was afterwards transferred to those of Leipzig. 
The town suffered severely during the Peasants' War and also 
during the Thirty Years' War. From 1657 to Z738 it was 
the residence of the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg. 

See E. Hoffmann, Historische Nachrichien aus AU-Mersehttrg 
(Merseburg. 1903). 

MERSEN (Meerssen), TREATY OF, a treaty concluded 
on the 8th of August 870 at Mersen, in Holland, between Charles 
the Bald and his half-brother, Louis the German, by which 
the kingdom of their nephew Lothair IL (d. 869) was divided 
between them. Charles received a portion of the kingdom 
of Lothair afterwards called Lorraine, extending from the 
mouths of the Rhine to Toul, together with the town of Besan^on, 
the Lyonnais, the Viennais, the Vivarais, and the Uzege, i.e. 
the lands acquired by Lothair II. in 863 at the death .of his 
brother Charles of Provence; while Louis had the cities of 
Cologne, Trier and Metz, together with Alsace, the Escuens, 
and the Varais, i.e. the greater part of the diocese of Besan^on. 
The boundary between the two realms was marked approxi- 
mately by the valleys of the Mouse and Moselle and by the 
Jura. Great importance has been attached to the determina- 
tion of this frontier by some historians, who consider that it 
coincided with the dividing line between the Teutonic and 
Romance races and languages; but nothing is known of the 
bases upon which the negotiations were effected, and the 
situation created by this treaty came to an end in 879. 

MERSENNE, MARIN (i 588-1648), French philosopher and 
mathematician, was bom of peasant parents near Oiz£ (Sarthc) 
on the 8th of September 1588, and died in Paris on the ist of 
September 1648. He was educated at the Jesuit College of 
La Fl^che, where he was a fcUow-pupil and friend of Descartes. 
In 161 1 he joined the Minim Friars, and devoted himself to 
philosophic teaching in various convent schools. He settled 
eventually in Paris in 1620 at the convent of L'Annonciade. 
For the next four years he devoted himself entirely to philosophic 
and theological writing, and published Quaestiones celeherrimae 
in Gencsim (1623); VImpiit€ des diisUs (1624); La ViriU des 
sciences (1624). These works are characterized by wide scholar- 
ship and the narrowest theological orthodoxy. His greatest 
service to philosophy was his enthusiastic defence of Descartes, 
whose agent he was in Paris and whom he visited in exile in 
Holland. He submitted to various eminent Parisian thinkers 
a manuscript copy of the Meditations, and defended its orthodoxy 
against numerous clerical critics. In later life, he gave up 
speculative thought and turned to scientific research, especially 
in mathematics, physics and astronomy. Of his works in this 
connexion the best known b L'Harmanie univcrselle (1636), 
dealing with the theory of music and musical instruments. 

Among his other works are: Eudidis dementomm libri, &c. 

i Paris, 1626); Universae ftom^riae synopsis (16x4): Les Mfckaniques 
e GaliUe (Paris, 1634); Qwstions tnouies ou ricriations des savants 
(1654): Questions tkiologiques, physiques, &c. (1634); Nouvetles 
dUouveries de Galilic (1639); Cogilata pkysico-mathematica (1644). 
Sec Baillct, Vie de Descartes O691); Potd, Eloge de Mersenne 
(1816). 

MERSEY, a river in the north-west of England. It is formed 
by the junction of the Goyt and the Ethcrow a short distance 
below Marple in Cheshire on the first-named stream. The 
Goyt rises in the neighbourhood of Axe Edge, south-west of 
Buxton, and the Ethcrow in th« uplands between Penistone 



and Glosaop, watering the narrow Longdendale in nUdi an 
several reservoirs for the Manchester water supply. The 
Mersey thus drains a large part of the Ptek district of Derby- 
shire and of the southern portion of the Pennine system. The 
general direction from Marple is westerly. At Stockport the 
river Tame joins from the north, rising in the moors to the 
north-east of Oldham, and the Mersey soon afterwards debouches 
upon the low pUin to the west of Manchester, which lies oa 
its northern tributary the IrwelL The BoUin joins from the 
south-east near Heatley, and the main river, passing Warringtoo. 
begins to expand into an estuary before reaching Runcorn 
and Widnes, which face each other across it. The estuary, 
widening suddenly at the junction of the Weaver from the south- 
east, a| m. below Runcorn, is 3 m. wide off Ellesmere Port, but 
narrows to less than } m. at Liverpool, and hardly exceeds a 
mile at the mouth in the Irish Sea. The fall of the Mersey is about 
1600 ft. in all and about 300 from Marple; its length, induding 
the Go]rt, is 70 m. exclusive of lesser windings, and it drains 
an area of 1596 sq. m. The estuary is one of the most important 
commercial waterways in the worid. (See Liveipool and 
Birkenhead.) The Manchester Ship Canal (q.v.) joins th^ 
estuary throu^ Eastham Locks, skirts its southern shore up 
to Runcorn, and crosses the river several times. From the name 
of the river was taken the title of Lord Mersey in 1910 by 
Sir John Bigham (b. 1840), on his elevation to the peerage after 
serving as a judge of the high court from 1897 to 1909 and 
president of the divorce court 1909-19x0. 

MER8INA, a town on the south-eastern coast of Asia Minor, 
and capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of Adana. Pop. about 
15,000 including many Christians, Armenian, Greek and 
European. Its existence as a port began with the silting up 
of the harbour of Tarsus and Pompeiopolis, east and west, in 
the eariy middle ages; but it did not rise to importance till the 
Egyptian occupation of Cilicia (1832). It is now the busiest 
port on the south coast, beiiig the terminus of the railway from 
Tarsus and Adana, by which (but still more by road) the produce 
of the rich " Aleian " plain comes down. It is served by most 
of the Levantine steamship companies, and is the best point 
of departure for visitors desiring to see TaAus, the Cilidan 
remains, and the finest scenery of the East Taurus. There 
is, however, no enclosed harbour, but only a good jetty. The 
making of a breakwater has long been under consideration. 
The anchorage in the roadstead is good, but the bay shoals for 
a long way out, and is exposed to swell from south-west and 
south. Mersina is an American mission centre, and the seat 
of a British vice-consul. Like all lowland Cilida, it has a 
notoriously bad summer climate, and all inhabitants, iri>o 
can do so, migrate to sUtions on the lower slopes of Taurus. 

(D. G. H.) 

MERTHYR TYDFIL, or Merthyx Tydvil, a municipal, 
county and parliamentary borough, and market-town of Glamor- 
ganshire, south Wales, situated in a bleak and hilly region on 
the river Taff, on the Glamorganshire Canal, and the Brecon 
and Merthyr, Great Western, North Western, Taff Vale and 
Rhymney railways, 25 m. N.N.W. of Cardiff, 30 E.N.E. of 
Swansea, and 176 from London. Pop. (1901), 69,298. The 
town is said to have derived its name from the martsrrdom of 
St Tydfil, daughter of Brychan, who was put to death by 
Saxons in the sth century. It is for the most part irregularly 
built and was formeriy subject to severe epidemics due to 
defective sanitation; but it now possesses a supply of the purest 
water from the lesser Taff on the southern slope of the Brecon- 
shire Beacons. The town owes its early industrial prosperity 
to the abundant ironstone and coal of the district, and it thus 
became at an early date the chief seat of the iron industry in Wales. 
Four great ironworks were established here between 1759 and 
1782. With the eariiest, that of Dowlais, the Guest family 
were associated, first as partners and later as sole owners frost 
1782 to iQoi when the works were disposed to the company 
of Guest, Keen and Nettlefold. In 1765, Cyfarthfa was started 
by Anthony Bacon, and when firmly established, sold in 1794 
to Richard Crawshay by whose descendants the worl^ w^ 



MERULA— MERV 



175 



f 



cuifcd 00 UU the owners formed themselves in iSgo into a limited 
company (CnwshAy Brothers Cyfarthfa Limited), the controlling 
iateictt in which has since been acquired by the Dowlais 
Company. The Plymouth works, started soon after Cyfarthfa, 
by WUkinson and Guest, passed later into the hands of Anthony 
HiD from whose descendants they were purchased in 1863. 
They were closed down in 1883, but the collieries belonging 
to them continue to be worked on a large scale, yielding over 
soob tons of coal a day. The fourth great ironworks were 
those of Pen-y-darran which were carried on from 178a to 1859. 
It «M at Dowlais (in i8s6) that Bessemer steel was first rolled 
into raib, but the use of puddled iron was not wholly abandoned 
at the works till 1883. It has now eighteen blast furnaces, 
and extensive collieries are also worked by the company, and 
large branch works were opened on the sea-board at Cardiff in 
X891. Cyfarthfa was converted into steel works in 1883. The 
faon ore used is mainly imported from Spain. Merthyr Vale 
is slmost entirely dependent on coal-mining and has one of the 
laifesK collieries in south Wales (Nixon's Navigation). The 
popolation of this district more than quintupled between 1881 
and 1901. 

From i8so the government of the town was vested in a local 
hoard of health which in 1894 became an urban district council; 
by charter granted on the sth of June 1905, it was vested in a 
coqwation consisting of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 34 coundllora. 
It «u made a county borough from the ist of April 1908. It 
ooBprises about 17,759 acres, is divided into eight wards and 
besides the older town, it includes Penydarran (i m. N.E.), 
Dovliis (3 m. N.E.). Plymouth (i m. S.) and Merthyr Vale 
(S ■. S.). It has a separate commission of the peace, and in 
ooojtinctioo with Aberdare and Mountain Ash, has had a 
Kipodiary magistrate since 1839. The parliamentary borough 
vUcli was created and given one member in 1833 and a second 
ia 1867, indudes the parish of Aberdare and parts of the parishes 
of UsBvonnt, Merthyr Tydfil and Vainor (Brecon). 

There is an electric tramway (completed in 1901) from the 
town to Cefn and Dowlais. In 1901 about 50% of the population 
ibove three years of age spoke both Welsh and English, f\% 
spoke Welsh only, and the remainder English only. The 
udent parish of Merthyr Tydfil has been divided into five 
ecdoiastical parishes (Merthyr, Cyfarthfa, Dowlais, Pentre- 
badi. and Penydarran) and part of another parish (Trcharris). 
These ax ptr«f>»»* form the rural deanery of Merthyr in the 
aidideacDary and diocese of Llandaff, and in 1906 had nine 
(fcnhes and fifteen mission rooms. An inscribed stone 
fAitbeo) has been bmlt into the east wall of the parish church; 
asd two other inscribed stones removed from Abercar Farm 
ifl the greater Taff valley now lie in the parish churchyard. 
The old structure of the parish church has been entirely removed 
ooepc the base of the tower. There is a Roman Catholic 
draich in Penydarran Park and another at Dowlais. The 
MbocoDformlsts, of which the chief denominations are the 
Biptists, CoogregationalisU and Methodists— Wesleyan and 
CaNieistic — ^had in 1906 83 chapels, 49 of which were used for 
Vdsh services and 33 for English. 

The public buildings include, besides the churches, a town 
hn and law courts (1898), drill hall (1866), library, market 
kooe, a county intermediate school, general hospital built 
IB 1887 and enlarged in 1897, and an isolation fever hospital, 
•theatre (1894) and a fountain presented by Sir W. T. Lewis as 
to the pioneers of the town's industry. At Dowlais 



there are public baths (1900) and a free library which have 
been provided by the owners of the Dowlais Works, Oddfellows' 
hifl (1878), and a fever hospital (1869). At Thomas Town 
there b a recreation ground of 16 acres, formed in 1903. In 
1908 the corporation purchased Cyfarthfa Castle (formeriy the 
BCMleooe of the Crawshay family) with a park of 63 acres 
iadoding a lake of 6 acres. 

The Roman road from Cardiff and Gelltgaer to Brecon passed 
throiq;h Merthyr and the remains of a tuppoaed fort were discovered 
ii Pteydanan park in 1902. Three miles to the north of Mertlurr. 
«■ a bmestooe reck about 470 ft. above the les^r (eastern) Taff 
m tha raias ol Moclais CasJc, buUt about 1286 by Gilbert de Clare 



on the northern limits of his k>rdship of Glamorgan, its erection 
causing a aetiout feud between him and de Bohun, cari of Hereford, 
who claimed its site as part of the lordship of Brccknork. 

(D. Ll. T.) 

MERULA* GBORGIUS (the Ladnlzed name of Giorgio 
MiRLANi; c. X43o-I4Q4)> Italian humanist and classical scholar, 
was bom at Alessandria in IMedmont. The greater part of his 
life was spent at Venice and Milan, where he held a professorship 
and continued to teach until his death. To Mcrula we are 
indebted for the editio princepsof Plautus (1472), of the Scriptorcs 
ret rusticaCt Cato, Varro, Columella, PaUadius (1473) and 
possibly of Martial (1471)- He also published commentaries 
on portions of Cicero (especially the De finibus)^ on Ausonius, 
Juvenal, Curtius Rufus, and other classical authors. He wrote 
also Bellum scodrense (1474), on account of the siege of Scodra 
(Scutari) by the Turks, and Aniiquitates ticecomitum, the 
history of the Visconti, dukes of Milan, down to the death of 
Matteo the Great (1333). He violently attacked Politian 
(Poliziano), whose Miscellanea (a collection of notes on classical 
authors) were declared by Merula to be either plagiarized from 
his own writings or, when original, to be entirely incorrect. 

See monograph by F. Gabotto and Badini-Gonfalonieri (1894) 
with bibliography; for the quarrel with Politian ace alio C. Mcincrs 
Lebenshesc^wungen der beruhmUn Manner (1796), iL 158. 

MBRV, Meru or Maur, an oasis and town of Asia, in the 
Transcaspian province of Russia. The oasis is situated on the 
S. edge of the Kara-kum desert, in 37** 30' N. and 63** E. It is 
about 330 m. N. from Herat, and 380 S.S.E. from Khiva. Its 
area is about 1900 sq. m. The great chain of mountains which, 
under the names of Paropamisus and Hindu-Kush, extends from 
the Caspian to the Pamirs is interrupted some 180 m. south of 
Merv. Through or near this gap flow northwards in paralld 
courses the rivers Heri-rud (Tcjend) and Murghab, until they 
lose themselves in the desert of Kara-kum. Thus they make 
Merv a sort of watch tower over the entrance into Afghanistan 
on the north-west and at the same time create a stepping-stone 
or (tape between north-east Persia and the states of< Bokhara 
and Samarkand. The present inhabitants of the oasis are 
Turkomans of the Tekke tribe. In 1897 they numbered 
approximately 340,000. The oasis is irrigated by an 
elaborate system of canals cut from the Murghab. The 
country has at ail times been renowned throughout the East 
for its fertility. Every kind of cereal and many fruits grow 
in great abundance, e.g. wheat, millet, barley and melons, 
also rice and cotton. Silkworms are bred. The Turkomans 
possess a famous breed of horses and keep camels, sheep, 
cattle, asses and mules. They are excellent workers in silver 
and noted as armourers, and their carpets arc superior to 
the Persian. They also make felts and a rough cloth of sheep's 
wool. The heat of summer is most oppressive. The least wind 
raises clouds of fine dust, which fill the air, render it so opaque 
as to obscure the noonday sun, and nuikc respiration diflicult. 
In winter the climate is very fine. Snow falls rarely, and when 
it does, it melts at once. The annual rainfall rarely exceeds 
5 in., and there is often no rain from June till October. While 
in summer the thermometer goes up to 97° F., in winter it 
descends to 19-5**. The average yearly temperature is 60°. 
Here is a Russian imperial domain of 436 sq. m., artificially 
irrigated by works completed in 1895. 

History. — In Hindu (the Puranas), Parsi and Arab tradition, 
Merv is looked upon as the ancient Paradise, the cradle of the 
Aryan families of mankind, and so of the human race. Under 
the name of Mouru this place is mentioned with Bakhdi (Balkh) 
in the geography of the Zend-Avesta {Vendidad, ed. Spiegel, 
1852-1863), which dates probably from at least 1 200 B.C. Under 
the name of Margu it occurs in the cuneiform (Behistun) inscrip- 
tions of the Persian monarch Darius H>'staspis, where it is 
referred to as forming part of one of the satrapies of the ancient 
Persian Empire. It afterwards became a province (Margiana) 
of the Graeco-Syrian, Parthian and Persian kingdoms. On the 
Margus — the Epardusof Arrian and now the Murghab — sloo<l the 
capital of the district, Antiochia Margiana, so called after Anti- 
ochus Soter, who rebuilt the city founded by Alexander the Great. 



176 



MERX— MERYON 



About the 5th century, during the rule of the Persian Sassanian 
dynasty, Merv was the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the 
Nestorian Church. The town was occupied (a.d. 646) by the 
lieutenants of the caliph Othman, and was constituted the capital 
of Khorasan. From this dty as their base the Arabs, under 
Kotaiba (Qotaiba) ibn Moslim, early in the 8th century brought 
under subjection Balkh, Bokhara, Ferghana and Kashgaria, 
and penetrated into China as far as the province of Kan-suh. 
In the latter part of the 8th century Merv became obnoxious to 
IsUm as the centre of heretical propaganda preached by Mokanna 
(q.v.). In 874 Arab rule in Central Asia came to an end. During 
their dominion Merv, like Samarkand and Bokhara, was one of 
the great schoob of learning, and the celebrated historian 
Yaqut studied in its libraries. In 1040 the Seljuk Turks crossed 
the Oxus from the north, and having defeated Masud, sultan of 
Ghazni, raised Toghrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, to the throne 
of Persia, founding the Scljukian dynasty, with its capital at 
Nishapur. A younger brother of Toghrul, Daud, took possession 
of Merv and Herat. Toghrul was succeeded by his nephew Alp 
Arslan (the Great Lion), who was buried at Merv. It was about 
this time that Merv reached the zenith of her glory. During 
the reign of Sultan Sanjar or Sinjar of the same house, in the 
middle of the nth century, Merv was overrun by the Turkish 
tribes of the Ghuzz from beyond the Oxus. It eventually passed 
under the sway of the rulers of Khwarizm (Khiva). 

In z 231 Merv opened its gates to Tule, son of Jenghlz Khan, 
chief of the Mongols, on which occasion most of the inhabitants 
are said to have been butchered. From this time forward the 
dty began to decay. In the early part of the 14th century the 
town was made the seat of a Christian archbishopric of the 
Eastern Church. On the death of the grandson of Jenghiz 
Khan Merv was induded (1380) in the possessions of Timur-i- 
Leng (Tamerlane), Mongol prince of Samarkand. In 1505 the 
dty was occupied by the Uzbegs, who five years later were 
expeDed by Ismail Khan, the founder of the Safawld dynasty of 
Persia. Merv remained in the hands of Persia until 1787, when 
it was captured by the emir of Bokhara. Seven years later the 
Bokharians razed the dty to the ground, broke down the dams, 
and converted the district into a waste. When Sir Alexander 
Bumes traversed the country in 1832, the Khivans were the 
rulers of Merv. About this time the Tekke Turkomans, then 
living on the Heri-rud, were forced by the Persians to migrate 
northward. The Khivans contested the advance of the Tekkes, 
but ultimately, about 1856, the latter became the sovereign 
power in the country, and remained so until the Russians 
occupied the oasis in 1883. 

The ruins of Old Merv cover an area of over 15 sq. m. 
They consist of a square dtadd (Bairam Ali Khan kalah), i\ m. 
in drcuit, built by a son of Tamerlane and destroyed by 
the Bokharians, and another kalah or walled inclosure known as 
Abdullah Khan. North from these lies the old capital of the 
Seljuks, known as Sultan Kalah, and destroyed by the Mongols 
in 1 2 19. Its most conspicuous feature is the burial mosque of 
Sultan Sanjar, reputedly dating from the 12th century. East 
of the old Seljuk capital is Giaur Kalah, the Merv of the Nestorian 
era and the capital of the Arab princes. North of the old 
Seljuk capital are the ruins of Iskendcr Kalah, probably to be 
identified with the ancient Merv of the Seleucid dynasty. 

New Merv, the present chief town of the oasis, founded in 
the first quarter of the 19th century, is on the Transcaspian 
railway, 380 m. by rail south-west from Samarkand. It 
stands on both banks of the Murghab, 820 ft. above the Caspian. 
Pop. (1897), 8727, including Russians, Armenians, Turkomans, 
Persians and Jews. It has a meteorological observatory. 
Corn, raw cotton, hides, wool, nuts and dried fruit are exported. 

Sec E. O'Donovan, The Merv Oaxis (2 vols., London. 1882); 
C. Marvin. Aferv (London, 1880); and H. Lansddl, The Russians 
at Men and Herat (London, 1883). (J. T. Be.) 

MERX, ADALBERT (1838-1909), German theologian and 
orientalist, was born at Bleicherode near Nordhausen on the 
and of November 1838. He studied at Jena, where he became 
extraordinary professor in 1869. Subsequently he was ordinary 



professor of philosophy at Tubingen, and in 1873 profcwar of 
theology at Giessen. From 1875 till his death he was profasor 
of theology of Hdddbeig. In the course of hit researches he 
made several journeys in the East. Among hit many works 
are: Grammatica syriaca (1867-1870); Vocabulary of the Tipi 
language (1868); Das Gedicht vom Hiob (1871); Die PropketH 
des Jod und ikre Ausleger (1879); Die Saadjaniscke Obersetxumi 
der Hokenlieder ins Arabiscke (1882); Ckreslomalkia targjumica 
( 1 888) ; Historia arlis grammaticde apud Syr as ( 1 889) ; £u» MSMri- 
tanisches Fragment (1893); Idee und Grundlinien einer allgemeimer 
Geschichte dor Mystik (1893). ^^rx devoted much of his later 
research to the duddation of the Sinaitic palimpsest discovered 
in 1892 by Mrs Agnes Smith Lewis (see Bible, iv. 321, adjin.), 
the results being embodied in Die vier kanonischen Evangdien 
nack ikrem Oltesten bekannten Texte (1897-1905). His last work 
was an edition of the books of Moses and Joshua. He died 
at Heiddbcrg on the 6th of August 1909. 

M^YON, CHARLES (1821-1868), French etcher, was bom 
in Paris in 182 1. His father was an English physician, his 
mother a French dancer. It was to his mother's care that 
M^ryon's childhood was confided. But she died when he wu 
still young, and M6ryon entered the French navy, and in the 
corvette " Le Rhin " made the voyage round the world. He was 
already a draughtsman, for on the coast of New Zealand he made 
pencil drawings which he was able to employ, years afterwards, 
as studies for etchings of the landscape of those regions. The 
artbtic instinct developed, and, while he was yet a lieutenant, 
M6ryon left the navy. Finding that he was colour-blind, he 
determined to devote himself to etching. He entered the wofk 
room of one Blery, from whom he learnt something of technical 
matters, and to whom he always remained grateful. Miiyon 
was by this time poor. It is understood that he might have had 
assistance from his kindred, but he was too proud to ask iL 
And thus he was reduced to the need of executing for the sake 
of daily bread much work that was mechanical and irksome. 
Among learners' work, done for his own advantage, are to be 
countMl some studies after the Dutch etchers such as Zeeman and 
Adrian van de Velde. Having proved himself a surprising 
copyist, he proceeded to labour of his own, and began that series 
of etchings which are the greatest embodiments of his greatest 
conceptions — the series called " Eaux-fortes sur Paris." These 
plates, executed from 1850 to 1854, are never to be met with as a 
set; they were never expressly published as a set. But they 
none the less constituted in M£ryon's mind an harmonioaa. 
scries. 

Besides the twenty-two etchings " sur Paris," characterisei^ 
bdow, M£ryon did seventy-two etchings of one sort and another- 
— ninety-four in all being catalogued in Wedmore's Mlry&m and. 
Miryon's Paris; but these include the works of his af^rentice-; 
ship and of his decline, adroit copies in which his best success 
was in the sinking of his own individuality, and more or less duH 
portraits. Yet among the seventy-two prints outside his pro- 
fessed series there are at least a dozen that will aid his fame. 
Three or four beautiful etchings of Paris do not belong to the 
scries at all. Two or three etchings, again, are devoted to the 
illustration of Bourgcs, a city in which the old wooden houses 
were as attractive to him for their own sakes as were the stone* 
built monuments of Paris. But generally it was when Paris 
engaged him that he succeeded the roost. He would have done 
more work, however — though he could hardly have done better 
work — if the material difficulties of his life had not pressed upon 
him and shortened his days. He was a bachelor, unhai^y in 
love, and yet, it is related, almost as constantly occupied with 
love as with work. The depth of his imagination and the sur- 
prising mastery which he achieved alnM>st from the beginning is 
the technicalities of his craft were appredated only by a few 
artists, critics and connoisseurs, and he could not sell his etchmgs, 
or could sell them only for about lod. apiece. Disappointment 
told upon him, and, frugal as was his way of life, poverty must 
have affected him. He became subject to haUudnatkmt. 
Enemies, he said, waited for him at the comers of the ttrecti; 
his few friends robbed him or owed him that which they 1 



MESA— MESHED 



177 



never pftx. A iew yean aftjv the oompletioii of his Paris series 
he was lodpd in the madhouse of Charentoih Iks order and care 
icstond him for a while to health, and he came out ^d did a 
Eitk mote wocfc, but at bottom he was exhausted. In 1867 he 
Btomed to his assrhmi, and died there in 1868. In the middle 
ytaa of his life, just before he was placed under confinement, 
he was much associated with Bracquemond and with Flameng, — 
skilled practitioners of etching, while he was himself an unde- 
niable genius— and the best of the portraits we have of him 
is that one by Bracquemond under which the sitter wrote 
that it represented " the sombre M€xyon with the grotesque 



There are twenty^two pieces in the Eauz-fortes sur Paris. 

Some of them are insignificant. That is becatise ten out of the 

twenty-two were destined as headpiece, tailpiece, or running 

commentary oni some more important plate. But each has its 

iralne, and certain of the smaller pieces throw great light on the 

aim of the entire set. Thus, one little plate — not a picture at all 

-is devoted to the record of verses made by Mfryon, the purpose 

el which is to lament the life of Paris. The misery and poverty 

of the town Micyon had to iUustrate, as well as its splendour. 

Tbc art of Mfryon is completely misconceived when his etchings 

aie !pok& of as views of Paris. They are often " views," but 

thtjr are so just so far as is compatiUe with their being likewise 

tk visioos of a poet and the compoations of an artist. It was 

la epic of Paris that M£ryon determined to make, coloured 

snm^ by fab personal sentiment, and affected here and there 

bjr (lie occurrences of the moment-^ more than one case, for 

ivtiace, he hurried with pazticular affection to etch his im- 

pnaioB of some old-world building which was on the point of 

dotractioa. Nearly every etching in the series is an instance 

if tehaical skill, but even the technical skill is ezerdsed most 

^ipily in those etchings which have the advantage of impressive 

■ibJRts, and which the collector willingly cherishes for their 

■litcfwas suggestiveness or for their pure beauty. Of these, 

tk Abskfe de Notre Dame is the genoal favourite; it is com- 

■0Bl]r heU to be M£ryon's masterpiece. Light and shade play 

vwderfiiDy over the great fabric of the church, seen over the 

9Kes of the river. As a draughtsman of architecture, M^ryon 

*u cofloplete; his sympathy with its various styles was broad, 

4d his wock on its various styles unbiased and of equal perfec- 

tioo—ft point in which it is curious to contrast him with Turner, 

«k, ia drawing Gothic, often drew it with want of appreciation. 

It ii evident that architecture must enter largely into any 

RpRscntation of a dty, however much such representation may 

be t visoo, and however little a chronicle. Besides, the archi- 

tatuEsl portion even of Moon's labour is but indirectly 

intgioative; to the imagination he has given freer play in hh 

Unp with the figure, whether the peoi^ of the street or of the 

Anr or the people who, when he is most frankly or even wildly 

^■boUcal, crowd the sky. Generally .speaking, his figures are, 

» Rgaids draughtsmanship, "landscape-painter's figures." 

They are drawn more with an eye to grace than to academic 

cometaeas. But they are not " landscape-painter's figures " at 

•I when what we are concerned with is not the method of their 

■inaentation but the purpose of their introduction. They are 

■m then to be in exceptional accord with the sentiment of the 

tBeae. Sometimes, as in the case of La Morgue, it is they who 

Ul the story of the picture. Sometimes, as in the case of La 

Kae des Manvais Gucona— with the two passing women bent 

together in secret converse— they at least suggest it. And 

iwirfimfi, as in L'Arche du Pont Notre Dame, it is their expres- 

sie gesture and eager action that give vitality and animation 

to the scene. Dealing perfectly with architecture, and perfectly, 

8 far as concerned his peculiar purpose, with humanity in his 

lit, hUiyon was little called upon by the character of his subjects 

to deal with Nature. He drew trees but badly, never represent- 

iag fofiafe happily, either in detail or in mass. But to render 

tke fharaftmstfca of the dty, it was necessary that he should 

bow honr to portray a certain kind of water— river-water, 

Mttly shiggialhr-and a certain kind of sky— the grey obscured 

aail lower sky that broods over a world of roof and chimney. 

xvin 4 



This water and this sky M6ryon is thoroughly master of; he 
notes with observant affection their changes in all lights. 

Mfryon's excellent draughtsmanship, and his keen apprecia< 
tion of light, shade and tone, were, of course, helps to his becom- 
ing a great etcher. But a Uving authority, himself an eminent 
etcher, and admiring M^ryon thoroughly, has called M6ryon by 
preference a great original engraver— so little of Moon's work 
accords with Sir Seymour Haden's view of etching. M6ryon 
was anything but a brilliant sketcher; and, if an artist's success 
in etchjng is to be gauged chiefly by the rapidity with which he 
records an impression, M6ryon's success was not great. There 
can be no doubt that his work was laborious and deliberate, 
instead of swift and impulsive, and that of some other virtues 
of the etcher— " selection " and "abstraction" as Hamerton 
has defined them — he shows snudl trace. But a genius like 
M6ryon is a law unto himself, or rather in his practice of his art 
he makes the laws by which that art and he are to be judged. 

It is worth while to note the extraordinary enhancement in the 
value of M^rvon's prints. Probably of no other artist c^ genius, 
not even of Whistler, could there be dted within the same period 
a rise in prices of at all the same proportion. Thus the first state 
of the ''Strygc"— that "with the verses,"— selling under the 
hammer in 1873 for £5. sold again under the hammer in 1905 for 
£100. The first state of the " Galdrie de Notre Dame." seUinc in 



:hed in 
years 



1873 for £5, and at M. Wasset's sale in 1880 for £11. fetcl 

'905.. £5^- A "Tour de rhoriose," which two or three , 

after it was first issued sold for haU a crown, in May 1903 fetched 
£7a A first state (Wedmore's, not of course M. DeltdT's " first 
state," which, Hke neariy all his first states, is in fact a trial proof) 
of the " Saint Etienne ou mont," realizing about (^ at M. Burty's 
sale in 1876, realized £60 at a sale in May 1906. The second state 
of the " Morgue " (Wedmore) sold in 1905 for £65 ; and Wedmore's 
second of the " Abside." which used to sell throughout the 'seventies 
for £1 or £5, reached in November 1906 more than £300. At no 
period have even DQrers or Rembrandts risen so swiftly and steadiU 

BiBLiOGXA PHY.— Philippe Burty, CcuUe des beaux arts (1865^ 
DescripHoe Catalogue of the Works of iitryon (London, 1879* 
AglaQs Bouvenne, Notes et souvenirs sur Charles Miryon; P. G. 
Hamerton, EUhing and Etchers (1868); F. Seymour Haden, Notes 
on Etckini; H. B^raldi. Les Peintres graveurs du dix-neimime sHcle; 
Baudelaire, Lettres de Baudelaire (1907) ; L. Deltdl, Charles Miryom 
(1907); Frederick Wedmore, Mtryou and Miryon's Paris, with a 
descriptive catalogue of the artist's work (1879; and ed., 1892); 
and Fine Prints (1896; and ed., 1905). (F. Wb.) 

MESA (Span, mesa^ from Lat. meiua, a table), in physical 
geography, a higl\ uble-land capped with hard rock, being the 
renmant of a former plateau. "This type is general where strata 
are horizontal In the process of denudation the hard rock acts 
as a flat protective cap preserving the regions between stream 
valleys or other places where denudation is especially active, 
in the form of " table-mountains " or " fortress-hills." Many 
examples are found in Spain, North and South Africa, the Bad 
Lands and Colorado regions of North America, in Arabia, India 
and Australia. 

MESHCHERTAKS, or Meshcheks, a people inhabiting eastern 
Russia. Nestor regarded them as Finns, and even now part of 
the Mordvinians (of Finnish origin) call themselves Me^chers. 
Klaproth, on the other hand, supposed they were a mixture of 
Finns and Turks, and the Hungarian traveller Reguli discovered 
that the tatarized Meshchers of the Obi dosdy resembled 
Hungarians. They formerly occupied the basin of the Oka 
(where the town Meshchersk, now Meshchovsk, has maintained 
their name) and of the Sura, extending north-east to the Volga. 
After the conquest of the Kazan Empire by Russia, part of them 
migrated north-eastwards to the basins of the Kama and Byelaya, 
and thtis the Meshchers divided into two branches. The western 
branch became russified, so that the Meshcheryaks of the govern- 
ments of Penza, Saratov, Ryazan and Vladimir have adopted 
the customs, language and religion of the conquering race; 
but their ethnographical characteristics can be easily distin- 
guished in the Russian population of the governments of Penza 
and Tambov. The eastern branch has taken on the customs, 
language and reUgion of Bashkirs, with whom their fusion is still 
more complete. 

MESH^ (properly Mash-had^ " the place of martyrdom "), 
capital of the province of Khorasan in Persia, situated in a plain 
watered by the Kashaf-rud (Tortoise river), a tributary of the 

1.0. 



178 



MESHREBIYA— MESMER 



Hari-nid (river from Herat, which after its junction with the 
Koshaf is called Tejen), 460 m. E. of Teheran (550 by road) and 
200 m. N.W. of Herat, in 36* 17' N., 59* 36' E., at an elevation 
of 3800 ft. Its population is about 70,000 fbced and 10,000 
floating, the latter consisting of pilgrims to the shiine of Ixnam 
Reza.i 

The town is of irregular shape, about 6 m. in circumference 
and surrounded by a mud wall flanked with towers. In the 
south-western comer of the enclosure stands the citadel (ark), 
within a wall 25 ft. high and a broad dry ditch which is 40 ft. 
deep in parts and can be flooded from neighbouring water- 
courses. The city has five gates, and from one of them, called 
Bala iChiaban gate (upper Khiaban), the main street (Khiaban), 
as yds. broad, runs in a north-west-south-east direction, 
forming a fine avenue planted with plane and mulberry trees 
and with a stream of water nmning down its middle. The 
shrine of Imam Reza is the most venerated spot in Persia, and 
yearly visited by more than xoo,ooo pilgrims. Eastwick thus 
describes it (Journal of a DiphnuU's Three Years' Residence in 
Persia, London, 1864): — 

" The Quadrangle of the shrine seemed to be about 150 paces 
square. It was paved with large flagstones and in the centre was 
a beautiful luosk or pavilion, covered with gold and raised over the 
reservoir of water for ablutions. This pavilion was built by Nadir 
Shah. AU round the northern, western and southern sides of the 
(quadrangle ran, at some 10 ft. from the ground, a row of alcoves, 
similar to that in which I was sitting, and filled with mullas in white 
turbans and dresses. In each of the sides was a gigantic archway, 
the wall being raised in a square from above the entrance. The 
height to the top of this square wall must have been 90 or 100 ft. 
The alcoves were white, seemingly of stone or plaster; but the 
archways were covered with blue varnish or blue tiles, with 
beautiful inscriptions in white and gold. Over the western arch- 
way was a white- cage for the muazzin, and outude it was a 
gigantic minaret I30 ft. high, and as thick as the Duke of York's 
column in London. The beauty of this minaret cannot be cxancr- 
atcd. It had an exquisitely carved capital, and above that a light 
pillar, seemingly 10 ft. high; and this and the shaft below thecapital, 
or about 30 ft., were covered with gold. All this part of the mosque 
(shrine) was built by Shah Abbas. In the centre of the eastern 
side of the quadrangle two gigantic doors were thrown open to 
admit the people into the adytum or inner mosaue (shrine) where 
is the marble tomb of Imam Reza, surrounded by a ulver railing 
with knobs of gold. There was a flight of steps ascending to these 
doors, and beyond were two smaller doors encrusted with jewels — 
the rubies were particularly fine. The inner mosque would contain 
3000 persons. Over it rose a dome entirely jcovered with gold, 
with two minarets at the sides, likewise gilt all over. On the right 
of the Imam's tomb is that of Abbas Mirza, grandfather of the 
reigning Shah.' Near him several other princes and chiefs of note 
are buried. Beyond the golden dome, in striking and beautiful 
contrast with it, was a smaller dome of bright blue. Here begins 
the mosque of Gauhar Shdd.* The quadrangle is larger than that 
of Shah Abbas; and at the eastern side is an immense blue dome, 
out of which quantities of grass were growing, the place being too 
sacred to be disturbed. In front of the dome rose two lofty minarets 
covered with blue tiles. In the boulevard of the Bala Khiaban is 
a kitchen supported by the revenues of the shrine, where 800 
persons are fed daily.*' 

The buildings of the shrine together with a space extending 
to about one hundred yards beyond the gates of the shrine on 
each side is sanctuary (bast). Within it are many shops and 
lodgings, and criminals, even murderers, may live there in safety. 
The only other notable buildings in the place are some colleges 
(meJresseh), the oldest being the M. Do-dar, i.e. " college of two 
doors," built in 1439 by Shah Rukh, and some fine caravan- 
serais, two dating from I680. 

' Abul Hassan Ali, al Rcz&, commonly known as Imam Reza, 
the eighth imam of the Shiites, a son of Musft al Kftzim, the seventh 
imam, was the leader from whom the party of the Alids (Shiites) 
had such hopes under the caliphate of Mamun. Gold coins (dinars) 
of this calipn are extant on which al Rcza's name appears with the 
title of heir-apparent. The imam died in March 819 in the village 
Sanabad near Tus, some miles north-west of Meshed. To the 
Shiites he is a martyr, being believed to have been poisoned by 
MamQn. 

■This refers to Nasr-ud-din (d. 1896), grandfather of Shah 
Mahommed Ali (1907). 

' Gauhar ShAd was the wife of Shan Rukh (1404-1447), and was 
murdered by that monarch's successor Abu Said, August i, 1457. 
Her mosque was built in 1418. 



Without the pilgrims who come to visit it, Meshed would be i 
poor place, but lying on the eastern confines of Persia, dow to 
Afghanistan, Russian Central Asia and Transcispia, at the point 
where a number of trade routes converge, it is very impoctaat 
politically, and the British and Russian governments have mala* 
tained consuUtesrgeneral there since 1889. Meshed had 
formerly a great transit trade to Central Asia, of EmopeaD 
manufactures, mostly Manchester goods, which came by way ci 
Trebizond, Tabriz and Teheran; and of Indian goods and pio> 
duce, mostly muslins and Indian and green teas, which came by 
way of Bander AbbasL With the opening of the Ruidaa 
railway from the Caspian to Merv, Bokhara and Samaricand ia 
1886-1887, Russian manufacturers were enabled to compete in 
Central A^ with their western rivals, and the value of European 
manufactures passing Meshed in transit was much reduced. 
In 1894 the Russian government enforced new customs regula- 
tions, by which a heavy duty is levied on An^o-Indian manufac- 
tures and produce, excepting pepper, ginger and drugs, imported 
into Russian Asia by way of Persia; and the importation of 
green teas is altogetJier prohibited except by way of Batum, 
Baku, Uzunada and the 'Transcaspian railway. Since then the 
transit trade has been practically oil. In 1890 General Madcan, 
the British consul-general, reported that there were 650 nlk; 
40 carpet and 330 shawl looms at work. The carpet-looms at 
work now number several hundreds, while looms of silk and 
shawl nimiber less than half what they did in 1890. 

Meshed has telegraph (since 1876) and post (since 1879) 
offices, and the Imperial Bank of Persia opened a branch here in 
1 891. The climate is temperate and healthy. The coldest 
month is January, with a mean temperature of about 3a* F., 
while the hottest month is July, with a mean of 78^. The 
highest temperature recorded in a period of six yean was 91*, 
the lowest 15**. The mean annual rainfall during nine yean 
(1899-X907) was nearly 9) in., about one-eighth of it bemg 
represented by snow. (A. H.-S.) 

MESHREBIYA (drinking places), the Arabic term givoi 
to the projecting oriel windows in Cairo, enclosed with lattice- 
work, through which a good view of the street can be obtained 
by the occupants without being seen; the term was derived 
from the small semicircular bows, in which poxons wlUer- 
bottles are placed to cool by evaporation in the air. 

MESMER, FRIEDRICH (or Franz) ANTON (X733-X8X5), 
Austrian doctor, from whose name the word " Mesmerism " was 
coined (see Hypnotisii), was bom at Weil, near the point at 
which the Rhine leaves the Lake of Constance, on the a3rd o< 
May 1733. He studied medicine at Vienna under the eminent 
masters of that day. Van Swieten and De Haen, took adcgne, 
and commenced practice. Interested in astrology, he ima^ned 
that the stars exerted an influence on beings living on the eaith. 
He identified the supposed force first with electricity, and then 
with magnetism; and it was but a short «tep to suppose that 
stroking diseased bodies with magnets might effect a cure. He 
published his first work (De planetarum inftuxu) in 1766. Tea 
years later, on meeting with J. J. Gassner in Switzerland, he ob- 
served that the priest effected cures by manipulation alone. Thk 
led Mcsmer to discard the magnets, and to suppose that some kind 
of occult force resided in himself by which he could influence 
others. He held that this force permeated the univene, and 
more especially affected the nervous systems of men. He re- 
moved to Paris in 1778, and in a short time the French capital 
was thrown into a state of great excitement by the marveOool 
effects of mesmerism. Mesmcr soon made many converts; 
controversies arose; he excited the indignation of the medkal 
faculty of Paris, who stigmatized him as a charlatan; still thi 
people crowded to him. He refused an offer of 90,000 francs 
from the government for the disclosure of his secret, hut it it 
asserted that he really told all he knew privately to any one for 
100 louis. He received private rewards of large sums of money. 
His consulting apartments were dimly lighted and hui^ with 
mirrors; strains of soft music occasionally broke the profound 
silence; and the patients sat round a kind of vat in which ^ 
chemical ingredients were concocted. HoldlAg each 



MESNAGER— MESOPOTAMIA 



179 



or jotaed by cords, the pAtlents lat in expectancy, and 
then M earner, dothcd in the dxess of a magidan, g^ded amongst 
them, affecting this one by a touch, another by a lode, and 
making "puses" with his hand towards a third. Nervous 
ladies b ecai nc hysteiicai or fainted; some men became conviilsed, 
or were seized with palpiutions of the heart or other bodily 
disturbances. Hie government appointed a commission of 
phyndans and membeis of the Academy of Sciences to investi- 
gate these phenomena; Franklin and Baillie were members of 
this commission, and drew up an eUiborate report admitting 
ttaay of the facts, but contesting Mesmer's theory that there 
was an agent called animal magnetism, and attributing the 
tfiects to physiological causes. Mesmer himself was undoubt- 
ftOy a mjrstic; and, although the excitement of the time led 
kin to indulge in miunmexy and sensational effects, he was 
honest in the belief that the phenomena produced were real, and 
aQed for farther investigation. For a time, however, animal 
—gtttWwi fell into disrepute; it became a system of downright 
JBO^ery, and Mesmer himself was denounced as a shallow 
ODpiric and impostor. He withdrew from Paris, and died at 
Meenburg in Switzerland on the 5th of March 1815. He left 
nany Ji«*^pi<»*j the most distinguished of whom was the marquis 
dePaysegur. 

MBNAGER (or Lk Mesacnek), NICOLAS (i658-x7X4)> 
French diplomatist, belonged to a wealthy merchant family. 
He gave op a commercial career for the law, however, and 
became advocate before the parlement of Rouen. In 1700 he 
nt sent as deputy of Rouen to the council of commerce which 
ns established in Paris for the extension of French trade. 
Here he made his mark, and was chosen to go on three missions 
to Spain, between the years 1704 and 1705, to negotiate financial 
anangementa. In August 17x1 he was sent on a secret mission 
to London to detach Eni^and from the alliance against France, 
isd SQOceeded in securing the adoption of eight articles which 
facaied the base of the later Treaty of Utrecht. As a reward for 
b skiD he was made one of the three French plenipotentiaries 
scot to Utrecht in January X712, and had the honour of signing 
the treaty the next year. As he had used much of his own 
\ax^ fbrtime to keep up his state as ambassador, he was granted 
1 pension by the grateful king of Prance. His portrait by 
H yadnthe FUgaud b in the gallery of Versailles. 

nun (an Anglo-French legal form of the O. Fr. meien, 
Bod. wuyat, mean, Med. Lat. medianus, in the middle, cf. 
" mean '0, middle or intermediate, an adjective used in several 
legal phiues. A mesne lord is one who has tenants holding 
loder him, while himself holding of a superior lord. Mesne 
process was such process as intervened between the beginning 
sad end of a suit (see PaocESS). Mesne profits arc profits 
derived from land whilst in wrongful possession, and may be 
diinied in damages for trespass either in a separate action or 
joioed with an acticm for the recovery of the land. The plamtiff 
BMtst prove that he has re-entered into possession, his title 
doiiBg the period for which he claims, the fact that the defendant 
his been in possession during that period, and the amount of 
the mesne profits. The amount recovered as mesne profits need 
lot be limited to the rental value of the land, but may include 
a Kon to cover such items as deterioration or reasonable costs of 
letting posses sion, &c. 

HBOCEPHAUC, a term applied by anthropologists to those 
ikoUs which exhibit a cephalic index intermediate between the 
do&cfaocephalic and brachyccphalic crania (see Csaniometky). 
Taking the longer diameter of a skull, i.c. the one from front to 
hack, as 100, mesocephalic skulls are those of which the trans- 
veae < fiaxnete r varies between 75 to 80. 

nmnDES of Crete, Greek lyric poet, who lived during 
the md centuxy aj>. He was a freedman of the emperor 
Hadrian, on whose favourite Antinous he b said to have written 
a psBcgyric Two epigrams by him in the Greek anthology 
I (islW. pfd. xiv. 63, xvi. 323) and a hjrmn to Nemesis 
\ ate extant. The hymn is of special interest as preserving 
the ancient musical notation written over the text. Two 
sther hymns— to the muse Calliope and to the sun^fonnerly / 



assigned to Dionysius of Alexandria, have also been attributed 
to him. 

See J. F. Bellermann, Die Hymnen des Dumysius und Mesomtdes 
(1840); C. de Jan, Musici scrtptores gj^aeci (1899); S. Reinach in 
Raiut des Uudes grecques, ix. (1896) ; Suidas, s.v. 

MBSONERO R0HAN08, RAM6H DB (1803-X883), Spanish 
prose-writer, was bom at Madrid on the 19th of July 1803, and 
at an early age became interested in the history and topography 
of his luitive dty. His Manual de Madrid (x83x) was publisjied 
when literature was at a low ebb in Spain; but the author's 
curious researches and direct style charmed the public, and next 
year, in a review entitled Cartas espaHolas, under the pseudonym 
of " El Curioso parlante," he began a series of articles on the 
social life of the capital which were subsequently collected and 
called Panorama matritense (X835-X836). Mesonero Romanos 
was eleaed to the Spanish Academy in 1838 and, though he 
continued to write, had somewhat outlived his fame when he 
issued his pleasing autobiography, Memorias de un seienUhi, 
natural y vecino de Madrid (1880). He died at Madrid on the 
30th of April 1883, shortly after the publication of his Obras 
compUtas (8 vols., 4to, x88i). 

■ESOPOTAMIA (Mcoomoro^, sc. x<^PO or Svpfa, from /iloof, 
middle, irora/i6t, river), one of the Greek renderings of the earlier 
Semitic names for the river-country that stretches 
eastward from northern maritime Syria. The earliest 
appearance of a Semitic xiame of this kind is in the last para- 
graph of the biography of Abmtee of el-Kib, the aged ofiiccr 
of Tethmosis (TbutmOse) I. As early therefore as the late x6th 
century B.C. the name Naharin (N'k'ryn') was in use. That the 
name was connected with nakar (a river) was plain to some 
of the Egyptian scribes, who wrote the word with determinative 
for " water " in addition to that for ** country." 

The scribes show no suspicion, however, of the name's being 
anythine but a singular.^ is it possible that a consciousness that 
the word was not a plural can have surv-ivcd till the early Christian 
centuries, when the Targum of Onqelos (Onkelos) rendered Naharaim 
by " the river Euphrates " (Pethor of Aram which is on the 
Euphrates' Deut. xxiiL 4 [5])? The Naharin or Naharen of the 
Egyptian texts appears some five generations later in the Canaanitic 
of the Amama letters in the form Nabrim(a), which would seem 
therefore to be the pronunciation then prevalent in Phoenicia 
(Gcbal) and Palestine (Jerusalem). About the same time Naharin 
(N-h-ry-n) is given as the northern boundary of Egypt's domain 
(year 30 of Amenbotep or Amenophis III.)* over against Ku&h in 
the south (tomb of Khamhct : Breasted, Anc. Rec. ii. 350). 

The origin of the name is suggcjttcd by the Euphrates being 
called " the water of Naharin," — on the Karnak strie more fully " the 
water of tlwe Great Bend {pkr wr) of Naharin (N-h-r-n) " (Breasted, 
Anc. Rec. ii. 263), or on the Constantinople obelisk simply " the 
Great Bend of Naharin " {loc. cii. note d). The precise mean- 
ing of pliT wr is not certain. When Breasted renders " Great 
Bend " of the Euphrates he is probably thinking of the g^rcat 
sweep round between Blrcjik-Zcugma and Ral^^a-Nicephonum. 
W. M. Miiller, on the other hand, rendering Kreislauf, explains it 
of the Euphrates water system as a whole, thought of as encom- 
passing Naharin. The S«i of the Great Bend would seem to be 
the sea fed by the north-to-south waters of Naharin, just as the 
Mediterranean, fed by the south-to-north waters of tne Nile, is 
called the Great Circle (in wr). 

For many centuries after Amenophis IV. the name cannot be 
found. The next occurrence is in Hebrew (Gen. xxiv. 10 "J), 
where the district from which a wife for Isiac is brought is called 
Aram- Naharaim. The diphthongal pronunciation of tne termina- 
tion aim is probably a much later development. We should 
probably read something like Aram-Naharinu The meaning is: 
the Nanarim portion of the Aramaic speaking domain.' Probably 
the author thought primarily of the district of HarrSn.* Some 

fenerations later Aram-Naharim is used of the dihtrict including 
'gthSr. a town on the west bank of the Euphrates* (Deut. xxiii. 



»The threefold n after Nahar in a stele of Persian or Greek 
times (healing of Bentresh) is probably only the determinative 
for " water," a fourth n being accidentally omitted (Breasted, 
Ancient Records, iii. $ 434). 

' Cf. Aram-Damascus, which means, the Damascus portion of 
the Aramaic domain; and har-Ephraim. which means, the Ephraim 
portion of the (Israelitish) highlands — EV " Mount Ephniim.' 

' Hal^vy's suggestion that we are to look towards the Ijaur&n, 
and think of the rivers of Damascus, has not met with favour. 

* Padan-Aram (Rev. Vers, better Paddan-Aram), On. xxv. 20,&c.» 
rendered by the Septuagint " Meso^tamvai ol ^^'na," \s Oo^c.wcti. 
Paddan has been connected phonctKaWv w\xV\ Palin. ^csx CkV vVt 
Eupiinites, and explained by others as a svnotvvm\ot HaTiaw. 



i8o 



MESOPOTAMIA 



. Ji^^i^u^l ^'^iy^, IS 49 ►, 50). B^h ia probably the Syriac eqtiiva- 
\ th« Asi^yri^rv BU d.^ in BU^Adini (see belowr | 3 viii.),'a5 is 
I by such ndm&f a? B^h 'ArMy^^ *' district at Arabians," 



4 *« DL The Syriic T^fnan of tlie Old Teitament (and cent, a,C, ?) 
UK3 BIth Nanrin, Ttit:> fnay or niay not imply the belief that 
N^bdn ii a plural. Eventually that belief was gc;iiurai, as i« p^vcd 
by the subaititLjtion ot the normal feminine plural (lor the (uppcifird 
masculitic) in the alternative form Beth Nahraw&tlia (f,£. Wrifht, 

Ckrm..'' " ' " -"■ "^'^ ^-^. .^-^ 

teat af 

■JiGwn _. _. , , 

Btth ArmAyii^ " district of Ai"ajnaean!w" The Parapoiamia of 
Stnbo ivi. 2 II. would be a eu iia l>lc G r«ck equivalent. Mesopotamia 
Kcmt to imply ibc view that UOt is the pfeposJtion " amid/ which 
ha* the same form,'^ but need iwt imply the mciining " between/' 
that t*, the idea that thcne wen? pneciscly twiJ fivtr^ Th^re i^ 
evidence of the use of this fonn he early aa the Septu^gitit Eransla- 
tion o\ the Pentateuch (3rd cent. B.C.). It U natural to suppoiw^ 
h wu adopted by the G^cetu who accompanied AJexandef^s expedi- 
tion. Xenophon doti not u&e it. 

Ai early as the time of Ephraem (d. a.d. ^73) the ur of the 
SyriAC GisirtM, " i^nd/' had come in. and over a. century earlier 
Philostratus reported [Life af Aptdlonius, i. Jo) that the Ambi 
designated McsopotaiPia as an liland.* Tbla term in the form 
td-Gatira became, and still a, the usual Arabic name. 

The absence ol any «^ulvalent name} in Babylonian or Assyrian 
documents is noiewwihy,' espediilly as the Babyloriian} spoke 
of the " 5ea-Country " {m4t TdmHm)* The name was not dis- 
tinctive enough from the point of view of Babylonia, which beton^cd 
to the lame watef syitcm. TiE^th-pilesrr L (Octagon Prism, 
6» 4O4 4J Keq.) sumi up the result a of the military operations of bit 
first five yean qj reaching from the Low«t Zab Riviera to the 
Euphrates Riviena idnrtan FurcJti, well rendered " Parapotamia " 
by Wjnckler*) and Ijatte-land; but thla is obviously not a proper 
name in the same senate as Naharin.* That probably onemated 
in the maritime district of Syria. 

Whilst the names we haw mentioned are derived from physical 
feognipby» there are related narne^ the meaning and origin of 
which art not ao clear. Tcthmwiis llf. is said^ in a tomb which 
contains a picture of " the chief of Kheta/' to have '" ovi^rthrown 
the land* of My-tn " (Breasted, Anr. Rec. ii. f 773)^ which laiid» 
atB mentioned also in hi* hymn of victory (Bnia-^tedi Ani:^ Ra, 
Li. I 6sQiJ- Amenophia IE. receives tribute from the " chief* of 
My-tn (Br<:'asn?dH Anc. Rr^. ii 5 i^fvil. fn Mk- liiliiik?>i,^l Hictite 
inKriptinn of Tatqudimme tiv ' ■ ; 111 > ^d of the 

dty 01 Metan," just as in the Hittite documents the Hittite country 
in Asia Minor is called " the land of the city of Khatti." Metan 
is clearly the same as Mitanni, over against Khatti, mentioned 
e.g. by Tiglath-pileser I. (vi. 6^), which is the same as Mitanni, 
several letters from which are m the Areama collection. Since a 
Mitanni princess of these letters b called in Egyptian scarabs a 
princess of Naharin, it is clear that Mitanni and Naharin are more 
or less equivalent, whilst in the Amama letters even Tushratta, 
the king of Mitanni, seems to use in the same way the name Khani- 
galbat. A shorter form of this name is Khani, which it b difficult 
not to connect with Khana, the capital of which at one time was 
Tirqa. on the Euphrates, below the Kh&bQr (see f 4). The slowly 
accumulating data have not yet made it possible to determine 
precisely the probably varying relations of these varifni^ names. 
The great astrological work uses a term of still wider significatii^n, 
Subartu, eventually Suri (written Su. Edin; see especially Winckler's 
discussion in Or. LU.-ZeU., 1907). This represented one of the 
four quarters of the world in the early Babylonian view, thve other 
three being Akkad («'.«. Babylonia) in the " north," Elam in the 
" south," and Amumi in the " west." It appears to have denoted 
the territory above Babylonia stretching from Anshan in the south- 
east north-westwards, across the Tigns-Euphrates district, inde- 
finitely towards Asia Minor. At an early time it ieems to have 
formed along with Anshan a distinct kingdom. 

Strabo (xvi. 746) makes the south limit of Mesopotamia the 
Median wall; Pliny (v. 24 § 21) seems to extend it to the Persian 
Gulf. The Latin term naturally varied in meaning 
with the changing extent of Roman authority. For 
example, imder Trajan Mesopotamia reached the gulf and was 
bounded by Assyria and Armenia. In modem times it is often 

* There may be further evidence of the prevalence of the inter- 
pretation " amid " if the difficult hain6ih athrawOiha of Cureton, 
Anc. Syr. Doc. p. 112, 1. 21, is correctly rendered in Payne Smith, 
Thesaurus Syr. 469, " Mesopotamia," and if we mayjissume a 
reading Nahrawdtha for AthrawOtha. 

'Compare the use of the adjective, Ephr. Op. Cr. u. 403 (cf. 
B. O. i. 145, 168, 169). and the noun, B. 0. ii. 108, 109. 

' Mcsopotamian personal names like Na-ha-ra-c-u occur (cf. 
Johns, Deeds and Documents, ilL 127) ; but these may be connected 
with a divine name Nachor. 

*Austug vorderas. Cesch. 34: on the meaning see Alt.-crieni. 
Forsch. iii. 349. 

' It seems worth considering, however, whether ebir nari (see 

tohns, Assyr. Doomsday Book, 69; Winckler, i4A.-0f. Forsch. 212; 
lommel, Anc. Heb. Trad., index) is not f'y* origin practically a 
Beg^ff equivalent to Naharin. 



used for the whole Euphrates-Tigris countiy. That would pro- 
vide a useful name for an important geographical unit, hut is 
too misleading. In view of historical and geographical facts 
there is much to be said for applying the name Meaopotamia 
to the cotmtry drained by the KhibOr, the Belikh, and the part 
of the Euphrates connected therewith. It would thus indude 
the country lying between Babylonia on the south and the 
Armenian Taurus highlands on the north, the iharitime Syrian 
district on the west, and Assyria proper on the east. That It 
practically the sense in which it is treated in this artide.* We 
may begin, however, with the definition of Jahra by the Aralnc 
geographers, who take it as representing the central part of 
the Euphrates-Tigris system, the part, namely, lying iMetween 
the alluvial plains in the south and the mountainous country fai 
the north. Measured on the Euphrates, this would be from the 
place where the river, having bored its way through the rocks, 
issues on to the high ph&in a little above Samsit (Samosata) 
only 1500 ft. above the sea, to somewhere about Hit (Is* Id), 
where, probably less than 150 ft. above the sea, it begins to 
make its way through the alluvial deposits of the last few 
millenniums. In these 750 m. it has descended less than 1400 ft. 
Measured on the Tigris Mesopotamia would stretch fimn some- 
where between JezIret-ibn-*Omar and MO$ul to somewhere below 
Tekrit. 

In the tract defined, physical changes unconnected witb 
civilization have been slight as compared with those in Babjr- 
lonia; the two great rivers, having cut themselves deep ^'h^ww^if^ 
could not shift their courses far. 

L Natural Divisions. — ^The stretch from Samsit and JcadnetJbii- 
*Omar to the alluvial plain seems to divide itself naturally into 
three parallel belts, highland watershed district, un- ^ 
dulating plains and steppe, (i) The Taurus foothill '■^^'*^^ 
barrier that shuts off the east to west course of the Euphrates and 
Tigris culminates centrally in the rugged vc^canic ^araja-Dlch 
(6070 ft.) which blocks the gap between the two rivers, ooatinued 
eastwards by the mountainous district of Tflr-*Abdin (the modern 
capital Midyftt is at a height of 3500 ft.) and westwards by the 
elevated tract that sends down southwards the promontory of 
J. Tektek {c. 1950 ft.). (2) At the line where this cast to. west 
wall ends begins the sea of undulating plains where there is enooi^ 
rain for abundant wheat and barley. (3) From the alluvial flats 
II I :rd thise undulating plains u an extensive ttretch 

Qt ^Li i>-^^ [^.\d alnLo>>t destitute of rain. Not far above the tranai- 
tion from the barren steppe is a second mountain wall (las. m. 
between extremities} roughly parallel with the first, oonsiiidag of 



BxUaL 



the Sinjar chain (about 3000 ft., limestone. M m. kmg. 7 m. bfoad). 
continued westwards alter a marshy break: by the volcanic Tdl 
K6kab (bnaalt, about 1 300 ft.), and then the *Abd al-*AA anfe 
(limestone), veering upwards towards its western end as if to meet 
Che Tektek promontory from the north. 

ii Drainage, — The water system is thus determined. West of 
Tektek drains it^Eo the Belikh, east of Tektek into the KhlbOr. 
All this draLTt.^t <\ . .>llectcd into two rivers, the Belikh and the 
Kh&bQr, ia to^^.ii . ihe left bank of the Euphrates, for the Meso> 
potamian watershed seems to be only some i^ m. or less from the 
Tigris until, south of the Siniftr range, it lies fartho' west, and the 
Tharthftr river is possible. The BelilEh (Balich, Bilechas. B«XIrvw'X 
a stream some 30 ft. wide, has its mam source some 50 m. north 
in the *Ain Khalil ar-Rabm&n, but receives also the waters of the 
united Nahr al-KQt (in its upper course formeriy the Dsifia, 
ZiUprot) from Edessa and Kdpru D&gh, and the Jullib fraoi 
Tektek D&gh about as much farther north. The KhlbQr (Chafaor, 
Chabdras*); 80-100 ft. wide, before its last ao m. reach in a south- 
west direction, has a 70 m. reach due nortn and south from Td 
Kdkab (about 1300 ft.), near which are united the Jaghjaffh (earlier, 
Hirmfts, 20 ft. in width), which has come w m. from Na^bin in the 
north-east, bringing with it the waters of the many streams fraa 
theTflr 'Abdin highlands; the north 'Awij, which at certain seasons 
brings much water due south from M2rdin, and the main sueaa 
of the Kh&bQr, which has come 60 m. from Ras al-'Ain in the north- 
west, after flowing 50 m. by way of WSrftnshahr from ijCaFSJa Dls^ 
in the north. The Tharthfir (Assyrian Tartar, in Tukulti-Ntnib IPs 
inscription) begins in the Sinjftr range and runs southwards* to 
k>ae itself in the desert a little above the latitude of Hit. So it 
was two generations before Ahab (Annates de Tukulii Ntrnp, V. 
Schcil, 1909). The Arabian geographers r epr ese nt the Tharthir as 
connected at its upper end (by a canal?) with the KhibOr ) — ' — 



* In general the Tigris is considered to belong to Assyria or Babf 
Ionia, and all west of the Euphrates to Arabia or Syria. 

' Cf . Rittcr, Erdkundt, v. 250-^53. 

• Ibid, xi. 253-265. 



MESOPOTAMIA 



i8i 



S. Ckvaeier «/ Snrfaee}^ii) The tract between the Belikh and 
the Eupthnces n in its middke section exceedingly fertile, as is 
implied in the name Antkemusia, and according to v. Oppenhcim 
(Z. d. Ceselisik, /. Erdkunde, 36. 1901. p. 80) the same is true of the 
southern ponion also. Tlie plain extending from Urfa to a dozen 
wika telow ^arrin has a rich red-brown humus derived from the 
NimrOd DSgh east of Edeaaa. (2) The rolling plains north of the 



'Abd at *Acu Sint&r mountain wall are intersected by the many 
streams of the KhU>ar system (the Arab geographer Mustauti 
qxaks of 300 feeders), which under favourable pofitiol and admini- 



BUativc conditions would pvoduce a marked fertility. At Na^ibin 
(NisAns) rice b cultivated with success. (3) The country south 
of the mountain range is steppe bnd, impmectly known, and of 
Ettle nse except for nomadic tribes, apart from the banks of 
the rivers (on which see Euphrates. Tigris). It consists 
nainly of grey dreary flats covered with aelenite; and a little below 
the sorCaoe. gypsum. Bitumen is found at Hit, whence perhaps 
its aame (Babylonian Id in Tukulti Ninib II.'s inscription referred 
to above), and near the Tigris.* 

hr. Clitmale.* — Mesopotamia combines strong contrasts of climate, 
tnd is a connecting hnk between the mountain region of western 
Au and the desert of Arabia. At DCr ex-Zdr, for example, the 
keat is intense, (i) In the steppe, during the sandstorms which 
frequently blow from the West Arabian desert the temperature 
oay rise to 12a* F. On the other hand, in winter the warm 
currents coming; in from the Persian Gulf being met to a large ex- 
tent by northerly currents from the snow-covered tracts of Armenia, 
SR condensed down on to the plain and discharge moisture enough 
U) cover* the gravel steppes with spring herbage. (3) In the higher 
cbios. in mid winter, since the high temperature air from the gulf 
» drawn up the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris there may 
be, e.g. at MdMil, a damp mildness." In spring the grass on the 
roBicK t>Uins> is soon parched. So when the hot sandstorms blow 
^ hie;it ii carried right up to the foot 
U liit tn'j'j.fi.nirTL. L/ii i,.^ uEhcr hand, since the spurs of the 
Tiunis bring the wimcf coLdI a lon^ n^ay tfouth, and the cold increases 
rnMi tt^A 10 caft 4'$ fve leave the mild coaat of the Mediterranean, 
(Ir (jorwu into the Meaopoti^mun plain the influence of the snow- 
KMstd ridsM can be felt, tnd in the higher puth of the plain snow 
1^ k^ are not tnf reqiKDi ; and although there is no point of sufficient 
jJtkkXle to retain snow (or long^ the temperature may fall as low 
Mi 14* F«t especiaHy If the txld north winds are blowing. 

tif cycle of vEzeiatton begins tn November. The flrst winter 
akm dotbe the pbin with vfirdure. and by the beginning of the 
jnr vsriotH tmtbaus pUfit$ are in btoom. The full summer develop- 
Kttt b reached in June. By the end of August everything is 
banit vp; Aii^vt and September are the low-water months in the 
rims, hlanJi to May the time off flood. 

t /IrffiL*— fi) Bounkal hits have been published by von 
0»»i)lKtm tV9m MHidmetr euik Peftiiciwn ColL ii. 373-38«) of 
la^ki^icm made in 1^03 containing 43 entries for Mesopotamia, 
iKJ by E. Herrfdd (//i^&affl«/iiflfM*it am Kal'at-Ser^at-Assur, 
r. S?iLflf II. rsr Or. Lit-Zril, ifj^H, pp. t</-Ti7) of a collection made 
!- ^f\-:--- ■•'•:■ ^i ',1 '.•■■■: '.■ ■■■:■.[ ,■^ ■-..-, containing 181 entries. 
(2) The following are among the more important products of the 
cestral cone of Mesopotamia: wheat, barley, rice {e.g. at Sartlj, 
tke Kttbflr). millet, sesemum ((or oil, instead of olive), dura {Ilokus 
imkam and U. bkctor) ; lentils, peas, beans, vetches; cotton, hemp. 
nflower, tobacco: Medkago satna (for horses); cucumber, melons. 
tfiter-melons. 6gs (those of Sinj&r famed lor sweetness), dates 
i>kiw, 'Ana and Tekrit); a few timber trees; pbne and white 
poplar (by streams), willow and sumach (by the Euphrates). The 
Bdes of l^araja-Digh. J. *Abd el-'Aziz and Sinjftr. are wooded, 
but not DOW the neishbourhood of Nisibis. (3) In the steppe the 
KgfCation is that which orevails in similar sou from Centrail Asia 
10 Algeria: but many 01 the arborescent plants that grow in the 
lodtier and more irregular plateaux of western Asia, and especiallv 
of Penia. have been reported as missing. Endless masses of tall 
veeds. belonging to a few species, cover the face of the country— 
hne Cmciferae, Cjnareae and Umbelliferae — also large quantities 
cf bqnorice (dycyrrkita glabra and echiruUa) and Lagonychium, 
sad the white ears of the Imperata. In autumn the withered 
weeds are torn up by the wind and driven immense distances. 

TL FaiHM.' — ^Tne following abound: wikl swine, hyaena,. jackal, 
cheetah, fox; gazelle (in herds), antelope species On the steppe); 
)ertxia, mole, porcufMne, and especially the common European rat 
Ga tiie desert); bat, kmff-haired desert hare. The following arc 
me: wild ass; beaver, saicfto have been observed on the Euphrates; 
wdf, among others a variety of black wolf (Cants lycaon), said to 
be (bund in the plains; lion, said to roam as far as the Kh&bilr. 
Or the Euphrates are the following: vulture, owl, raven, &c., 
abo the falora {Timumctdus alamdarius). 



. trained to hunt. Among 

KDtms are: wild ducK ana goose, partridge, francolin. some 
of dove, and in the steppe the buzzard. The ostrich seems 
afawit to have disaroeared. Large tortoises abound, and, in the 
'Aia cl-'ArlJs pool, nrsh-water turtles and carp. Of domestic 



^Kitter. Erdkunde, xi. 493-498- 

'See CMf. Jwm. Ix. 52S-532 (with map). 

'Kilter, xL 49M99- * Ibid., xi. 499-S02. * Ibid., xi. 502'Sia 



animals in the steppe the first place bdongs to the caond; next 
come goat and sheep (not the ordinary fat-tailed variety); the 
common buffalo is often kept by the Arabs and the Turkomans 
on the Euphrates and the Tigris; on the Euphrates is found the 
Indian zebu. 

vii. Towns.* — The towns that have survived are on the rivers. 
Such are Sams&t (see Samosata). Rakka (Nicephorium) above the 
mouth of the Bcltkh. IX-r cz-ZOr, a rising town on the right bank, 
where tlnctt h (&ince tSiqy) a itone brid^e^ 'Ana (on an isLind; see 
Ana)* Hit (Ii* Bab. ld)t on the Euphrates; Jeztret ibn 'OnuXi 
^t^4u| {q.9.}, Tekrtt^ on the Tijgrii; Eklessa fo.v.), l^arrfin (f.v.), 
On <:onl!ueTit$cf the IJetikh: Vfr&nshehr (Tela) 4 RAi al-'Ain (Rhc&ae- 
n^), MlniJIri (haU-way up the mountain waH), and Na^ibin (Aseyr, 
Na^ibinrtr NifJbL&}H act conJiluenti of the KhAbilLr; Sin/jy" fSingsim] 
On the ThdrthAf, Villages are more numerktu^ than ha» often oeen 
siippo^- Von Qppenheim counted in the diatrkt wc$t oC fulesaa 
and l.lTirrlui, in d ^treich of two dfiys* marizh^ 300 Nourishing villages. 

At OTIC time, htrwevTf „ Mcsopotiifnla wns tec-ming with ufc- The 
Imn of the Tivorfr are narked at frequent intervaiii by the mint ol 
dourifhinfe tciih'n<i of Astvrian* Roman and Caliphate times. Such 
are UircjiV. JcjiLblCts, TeU Abmar, lydJ *at en'N'ajm, BUi*^ Karkiuyf 
{yan^i^wa, CifresiMctiJ, on the F.uphrats; f^uyunjik/ Nimrdd 
on the Tipra ; Kbo.-%lVbad on 3 small tributary ; ^Arli*n, Tell Khalaf, 
on the IvhAbtlr- The intert^ting umaU town cl't;iU<ir (Hatra) is 
nrar the Tharthilr* Ewavatioo Tias hardly begun. The country 
19 covered with count ]c«i mounds ikiii}, each of which markt the 
lite o^ a town* The riocumenta from the aurit-nt Tirqa said to 
have been found at 'hh&ra, a few jnUes betow^rkij^ylLH are referred 
to below (Jj 4), Ac Artfti^i ^ Dllt of Tislathpiles^r IV} wa* found 
in igcii a slab (PognonH InKript. jtm. deta Sjnnw, PUre Jtxvi, No. w) 
with a bafl-relicf and an inscription of ihecovefnorof Ddr. MushSfib* 
Shama^h.' The iUk tth'md to below {fj, end) s^A being t>robahly* 
Nabo nidus's was found In twtt some i$-3o' W^ of Eaki-lHArTim 
a littfc nearer to it ihan to Hmeiran which \s west of Eski-darrin, 
an hour and a hali florth-east of the ruiia of tlatrfn* 'Pjrii 
of Mi'scpotani]:! have prgbalily always harboured wandering tribes. 
Exactly how far iht inif rvcnln^ land* beyond reach of the stfcami 
have done so it i« difflcuU to make out, Fraaer {Short Cai ia India^ 
p. IS4) iniifts that in ihe yndulatine pUins the direct rainfall ti 
quite sufficieni for a^cukural purpoae^ 

viii. Foiitiad DmiUns. — On the whole the lUijtttraf lie of tbe 
country has been reflected in the political divisiani^ whkb have 
of cour» varied in detaiU We only mcfltioa loinfl ol thow mott 
often occurring, lo the pre-Persian period, besidies tboic rderrcd 
to cbiewhcre, we may cite Kaihyari (Tflr 'Abdin), Gufiflu (Gacui 
of a KtnKs ivli. 6; in ilw KhSbQr district), Bit Adiftl (OKKxne], 
Kummukh (oorth-wtst corner and beyond)^ in the Roman period^ 
Osroene (y.p.). Mvpdoiiia fin the eaat). and m Syriac usage Btth 
'Arbiye (between >iiiabis and Mftful)* in the Arab period, Diarbcki 
(Tflr "Abdin). Dilr Rcbi'a (MyedfjntaJ, Dilr ^tuUar fOtriicrte), 

It JEtKutr.*— The routes of communication have probably changed 
little in the last 5000 years* \t has not yet been proved that 
Edessa is an ancient city fiec Edessa: i 3) but it probably wa#, 
and iti neighbour Yj&nfin, the tower of which can be teen frum it, 
bears a name which seems to indicate it* potitioD as a high way 
centre^ (i) An obvious *ri» of routes fotkrwed iJw course of the 
rivers^ from Thapsacus ^;Diba^> down tbe EmphmteSt from Jc^irel 
ibn "Omar down the Tigris, f mm Circe$iurn up the Kh^Qr. The 
Euphrates was cro5fsed at Biit^jilf (Til tUnnp?)^ or jer^iblu^ CCai> 
chc-mtAhO. or Tell Abmar {unidenti&cd>, or ThatMticus." (ij 
Probably tbe modem route Iron Samosata ea^twanis behind th* 
Karjja Dich to Diirb^kr was aUo well known. The same t$ «!otibt< 
Icis true of t[ie route firoTn Orrjene by Ri* al 'Ain and Najibin, 
and that by Vfrbnshchr and Mardin to the Tigris. About other 
rnjsi-madi. such as tho*t from Harffin to Tell Shadd^U on th* 
[ftwcr KiiitjQr, or from *Ana by al H tflr to MOful it is di^cult 
to say. 

Functionally, Mesopotamia is the domain that lies between 
Babylonia and the related trans-Tigris districts on the one hand, 
and the west Asian districts of Maritime Syria and itiBtoryt 
Asia Minor on the other. Its p<Kution has given it a BarmMt 
long, complicated and exciting history The great ^'■»* 
rivers, in later times theoretically regarded as its boundaries, 
have never really been barriers (cf. e.g. Winckler, Altcrient. 
Forschungen, iii. 348), whence the vagueness of the geographical 
terminology in all times. Its position, along with its character, 
has prevented it often or long, if ever, pla>nng a really indepen- 
dent part. 

Wlio the earliest inhabitants of Mesopotamia in approximately 
historical tiroes were is not yet clear. It is possible that its 

• Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 270-492. 

' For the interpretation cf. Or. Lit.-Zeit. xi. 242-244. 

• On the interpretation see P. Dhorme, Rev. BM. (Jan., 1908). 

• Ritter, Erdkunde, xi. 265-278. 

">0n these and other crossing places, see Ritter, Erdkunde, x. 
95^1004. 



l82 



MESOPOTAMIA 



connexion with the north, and Asia Minor, goes back to a very 
early date. It may be that some of the early north Babylonian 
kingdoms, such as Kish, extended control thither. The earliest 
Babylonian monarch of whose presence in Mesopotamia there is 
positive evidence b Lugalzaggisi (before 2500 B.C.), who claims, 
with the help of En-Iil, to have led his countless host victorious 
to the Mediterranean. His empire, if he founded one, was 
before long eclipsed, however, by the rising power of the Semites. 
Excavation in Mesopotamia may in time cast some light on the 
questions whether the Semites really reached Babylonia by way 
of Mesopotamia,* when, and whom they found there, and 
whether they partly settled there by the way. Whether 
Sharni-GI, Manishtusu and Remush (often called Uru-mush; 
really preceded, and to some extent anticipated, " Sargon " i.e. 
Shargani-sharri, as L. W. King now* plausibly argues, is not 
certain; nor whether the 3a kings who revolted and were con- 
quered by Manishtusu, as we now learn, were by the Mediter- 
ranean, as Winckler argued, or by the Persian Gulf, as King 
holds. That Sargon was or became supreme in Mesopotamia 
cannot be doubted, since there is contemporary evidence that 
he conquered Amurru. The three versions of the proceedings 
of Sargon (Sharru-GI-NA) in Suri leave us in doubt what really 
happened. As he must have asserted himself in Mesopotamia 
before he advanced into the maritime district (and perhaps 
beyond: see Sarcon), what is referred to in the Omens and the 
Chronicle 26,472 may be, as Winckler argued (Or. LU.-ZeU. 1907, 
coL 296), an immigration of new elements into Suri — in that 
case perhaps one of the early representatives of the " Hittite " 
group. According to the Omens text Sargon seems to have 
settled colonies in Suri, and suggestions of an anticipation of 
the later Assyrian policy of transportation have been found 
by King {op. cit.) under the rulers of this time, and there are 
evidences of lively intercommunication. Mesopotamia certainly 
felt the Sumero-Babylonian civilization early. It was from the 
special type of cuneiform* developed there, apparently, that the 
later Assyrian forms were derived (Winckler, AltorierU. Forsch. 
i. 86 seq.). What the " revolt of all lands " ascribed to the later 
part of Sargon's reign means is not yet clear; but he or his son 
quickly suppressed it. Mesopotamia would naturally share in 
the wide trade relations of the time, probably reaching as far as 
Egypt. The importance of Qarr&n was doubtless due not only 
to its fame as a seat of the Moon-god Sin, honoured also toest of 
the Euphrates, and to its political position, but also to its trade 
relations. Contemporary records of sales of slaves from Amurru 
are known. 

When the Semitic settlers of the age of Sargon, whom it is now 
common with some justice to call Akkadians (see Sumer), had 
become thoroughly merged in the population, there appeared a 
new immigrant clement, the AmurrQ, whose advance as far as 
Babylonia is to be traced in the troubled history of the post- 
Gudean period, out of the confusion of which there ultimately 
emerged the Khammurabi dynasty. That the AmurrQ passed 
through Mesopotamia, and that some remained, seems most 
probable. Their god Dagan had a temple at Tirqa (near 
'Ishara, a little below Circesium), the capital of Khana (several 
kings of which wc now know by name), probably taking the place 
of an carh'cr deity. At Tirqa they had month names of a peculiar 
type. It is not improbable that the incorporation of this 
Mcsopotamian kingdom with Babylon was the work of Kham- 
murabi himself. 

Not quite so successful eventually was the similar enterprise 
farther north at Asshur [or Assur {q.v.)] on the east margin of 
Mesopotamia, although we do not know the immediate outcome 
of the struggle between Asshur and the first Babylonian king, 
Sumu-abi. Possibly the rulers of Babylon had a freer hand in a 
city that they apparently raised to a dominant position than the 
Semitic rulers of Asshur, who seem to have succeeded to men of 
the stock which we have hitherto called Mitanni, if we may judge 

* On the theory that it was climatic changes in Arabia that drove 
the Semites to seek new homes along the route mentioned above, 
see L. W. King, History a/ Sumer and Akkad (1910). which appeared 
after this artirle was written. 

* See the preceding note. 



from the names of Ushpia who, according to ShalmaneMr I 
and Esarhaddon, built the temple, and Kikia who, acconfiiv 
to Ashur-rem-nisheshu, built the city wall.' The coDsideraUe 
number of such names already found in First Dynasty records 
seems to show that people of this race were to be found at bmne 
as far south as Babylonia. Whether they were really ctOed 
ShubarO, as Ungnad suggests, we may know later. 

When Khammurabi's fifth successor saw the fall of th« Amorite 
dynasty in consequence of an inroad of " Hittites," these may 

have been Mcsopotamian ShubarQ-Mitanni; but 

they may, as Ungnad suggests, represent rather an- nmi 
cestors of the Hittites of later times. It is difficult 
in any case not to connect with this catastrophe the carxyii^ 
away to Khani of the Marduk statue afterwards recovered by 
Agum, one of the earlier kings of the Kassite dynasty. Whether 
Hittites were still resident at Khana we do not know. The 
earlier Kassite kings of Babylon still maintained the Amorite 
claim to " the four quarters; " but it is improbable that there 
was much force behind the claim, although we have a document 
from Khana dated under Kashtiliash. It is just as uncertain 
how long Asshur remained under the Babylonian suzerainty 
of which there is evidence in the time of Khammurabi, and what 
the relation of Asshur to western Mesopotamia was under the 
eariy kings whose names have lately been recovered. All these 
matters will no doubt be cleared up when more of the many 
tells of Mesopotamia are excavated. Only two have been 
touched: 'Arb^n on the Khftbar, where remains of a palace cL 
uncertain date, among other things an XVIII. dynasty scarab, 
were found by Layard in 185 1, and Tell Khalaf, where the con- 
fluents join, and remains of the palace of a certain Kapar, son 
of Hanpan of " Hittite " affinities but uncertain date, were 
found by von Oppenheim in 1899. A long inscription of a 
certain Shamshi-Adad [Samsi-Hadad], extracts from which aie 
quoted byDelitzsch (MiU. d. Veutsck Or.-GeseUsckafi No. ai 
p. 50), unfortunately cannot be dated exactly, or with certainty 
even approximately; but if Delitzsch and Ed. Meyer are right, it 
belongs to a time not many generations after Agum recovered 
the Marduk statue. Shamshi-Adad's claims extend over the 
land between the Tigris and the Euphrates, and he says that be 
erected memorials of himself on the shore of the Great Sea. 

The mystery of the Hyksos has not yet been solved; but it 
is not impossible that they had relations with Mesopotamia. 
After they had been driven out of Egypt iq.t.), when A^unflae, the 
officer of Tethmosis (Tbutmose) I., mentions Naharin (late i6th 
century), he does not say anything about the inhabitants. He 
seems to imply, however, that there was more than one state. 
The first mention of Mitanni, as we saw, is under Tethmods 
III., who clearly crossed the Euphrates. It is at least posabk 
that common enmity to Mitanni led to a treaty with Aasyrit 
(under Ashur-nadin-akhe).^ Victorious expeditions into Naharin 
are claimed for Amenophis II., Tethmosis IV. and Ainenc^>his 
III. The Egyptian references are too contemptuous to name the 
rulers; but Shaushatar may have begun his reign during the lift' 
time of Tethmosis III., and from cuneiform sources we know 
the names of six other Mitanni rulers. As they all bear Aryan 
names, and in some of their treaties appear Aryan deities 
(Indra, Vanma, Mithra, &c.), it is dear that Mesopotamia had 
now a further new element in its population, bearing apparently 
the name Kharri.* Many of the dynasts in North Syria and 
Palestine in the time of Tushratta bear names of the same type. 
The most natural explanation is that Aryans had made their way 
into the highlands east of Assyria, and thence bands had pene- 
trated into Mesopotamia, peacefully or otherwise, and then, like 
the Turks in the days of the Cah'phate, founded dynasties. Tie 
language of the Miunni state, however, was neither Aryan nor 
Semitic, and may very well be that of the mysterious " Hittite " 
hieroglyphic inscriptions (see Hittites). Mitanni was one of the 
great powers, alongside of Egypt and Babylonia, able to send to 
Egypt the Ninevite 'Ishtar; and at this time as much as at aiqr 

* Ungnad. Beitr. t. Assyr. VI. v. 13- 

* See e.q. P. Schnabel. Stud, t bab.-ass. Chron. p. 25 (1908). 

* Winckler has identified the Kharri with the Aryans, to wbom be 
assigns a state in Armenia (Qr. Lit.-Z€iL, July 1910). 



MESOPOTAMIA 



183 



oilwr, ve ranat think of common political relations binding the 
dat rict s east and west of the Euphrates. The king mentioned 
above (Shaushatar) conquered Asshur (Assur), and Assyria 
lemaixied subordinate to Mitanni till near the middle of the 14th 
century, when, on the death of Tushratta, it overthrew Mitanni 
with the help of Alshe, a north Mesopotamian state, the allies 
ifividing the territory between them. The Hittite king's inter- 
fiereace restored the Mitannite state as a protectorate, but with 
a smaller territory, probably in the north-west, where it may have 
sarvivedkmg. 

Assyria was now free, and Ashur-uballit [Assur-yuballidh 
ace to Sayce] knew how to make use of his opportunities, and, in 
the words of his great grandson, " broke up the forces of the 
widespread Shubari " {A KA , p. 7, L 33 scq.). Knowing what we 
know of the colonizing power of the Assyrians, we may assume 
that among the " Mitanni " knd other elements in the Mesopo- 
tsfflian pc^Milation there would now be an increase of people of 
" Assyrian '* origin. On the tangled politics of this period, 
c^jedally Mesopotamia's relations with the north-west, the 
Bofhaz-Keui documents may be expected to throw a great deal of 
liglit. We know already a little more of the chequered history of 
tk Amofites in the Naharin district, beset by great powers on 
tbee sides. When Mitanni fell Babylon no doubt adhered to 
its older claims on Mesopotamia; but the Kassite kings could do 
Kttle to contest the advance of Ass3rria, although several rectifica- 
tioos of the boundary between their spheres are reported. 

Ititanni's fall, however, had opened the way for others also. 
Heaoe when Ashur-ubaUlfs grandson, Arik-dcn-ili (written 
Ag^^^g^ PU.DIJli), carried on the work of enforcing Assyria's 
claim to the heirship of Mitanni, he is described as 
eooqnering the warriors * (?) of the Akhlame and the Suti. The 
Rferences to these people, who practically make their first 
appearance in the Amama correspondence,' show that they 
icie unsettled bands who took advantage of the loosening of 
ntbority to introduce themselves into various parts of the 
csontxy, in this case Mesopotamia. Gradually settlements 
sac made, the names of many of which are given by the various 
Aaiyriaa kings who had at one time or another to assert or 
fOMcrt supremacy over them — such as Chindanu, Laqe, Subi 
aki&g the South Euphrates boundary of Mesopotamia, and various 
districts bearing names compounded with Bit » settlement 
{see above), such as Bit-Adini (nearly equal the later Osrocne; 
w Eoessa), or Bit-Zamani in the north near Dijlrbckr. 
The specific name Aramaean first appears in the annals of 
Tigiaih-fMleser I., unless we identify the Arimi of Shalmanescr I. 
ID T^ *Abdin with the Aramu;' but the name may probably 
viik fitness be applied to a very large number of the communities 
■cntiooed from time to time. Their position in Mesopotamia 
■vst have been very like that of the Shammar at the present 
time (see ad fin.). As they gradually adopted settled life in 
various parts of the country the vac of Aramaic spread more 
and more (see below, § " Persians "). 
Meanwhile Mesopotamia continued to be crossed and re- 
1 by the endless marches of the Assyrian kings (such as 
Adad-nirari. Shalmaneser I. and his son), building 
and rebuilding the Assyrian empire (see Babylonia 
AND Assyria), and eventually pushing their con- 
s towards Asia Minor at the expense of the Hittite domain. 
If . 00 the fall of the Kassites, Nebuchadrezzar I. established 
MR direct relations between Mesopotamia and Babylon, his 
vofk was presently undone by the vigorous campaigns of 
Ti«iath-pileser I., who seems to have even won Egypt's sanction of 
ha saocession to the Hittite claims. The newly recovered (1909) 
tshirt of Tukulti-Ninib, the grandfather of Shalmaneser II., 
ii iotefcsting from its account of an expedition down the 
cwse of the Tharthir to Hit « Id (river and town now first 
■eBtkmed in cuneiform sources) and up the Euphrates to the 
UibOrdistria. 

*S« M. Scrrck. Zeit. Assyr., 18. 157. 
^"^ a wroiwly wppoied much eariier occurrence of the name 
«Mn. tee AA*, vi. 193 n. a. 

'Sofor ca0|ili A. Suida, Dh Anmdtr, 5 (1903). 



Now that Mesopotamia had passed out of the hands of 
Babylon, all that the later kings could do was to encourage local 
Mesopotamian riders in their desire for independence (Nabu- 
apluiddin). These were convinced that Assyria was master, 
but refused their tribute when they thought they dared. To 
thoroughly overpower the troublesome Bit-Adini (see above, 
{ 3,Ariii.), which had naturally been aided by the states west of 
the Euphrates, Shalmaneser II. (860-825) settled Assyrians in 
their midst, ^znin was one of the few places that remained 
on his side during the great insurrection that darkened his last 
days. Similarly the province of Guzanu (Heb. Gozan,rouf ovTrts), 
on the KAhbOr, held with the capital Asshur in the insurrection 
that occurred in 763 (the year of the eclipse), when evidently 
some one (an Adad-nirari ?) wore the crown, at least for a time. 
9arran was clearly closely associated with Asshur in the rights 
and institutions that were the subject of so much party struggle 
in the new Assyrian empire that began with Tiglath-pilcser IV. 
(see Babylonu and Assyria). When the polity of transporting 
people from one part of the empire to another was dcvcloIx^d, 
new elements were introduced into Mesopotamia, amongst them 
Israelites, of whom perhaps traces have been found in the neigh- 
bourhood of ^arr&n at Kannu'.^ These new elements may have 
been more organically attached to the Assyrian state as such 
than the older inhabitants, to whom the affairs of state at 
Nineveh would be of little interest. On the conditions at 
9arr2n some light is thrown by the census partly preserved in 
Ashurbanipal's library.* The governors of several Mesoix>tam- 
ian cities, such as Na^ibin, Amid, took their turn as eponyms; 
but this would not have much significance for the people. 
Hence even the fall of Nineveh (607 b. c), apart from what such 
cities in Mesopotamia as held by its last kings suffered through 
the invasion, first perhaps of Nabopolassar, who in 609 b.c. 
claims to be lord of ShubarA, and then of the Medes, would be a 
matter of comparative indifference; tribute paid to Babylon was 
just as hard to find as if it were going to Nineveh. Necho did 
not succeed, like his great XVIIIth dynasty predecessor, in 
crossing the Euphrates. He was defeated by Nebuchadrezzar 
at Carchemish (605 B.C.), and Mesopotamia was confirmed to 
Babylon. Its troubles began again shortly after Nebuchadrezzar's 
death; the Medes seized Mesopotamia and besieged J^arrin. 
Before long, however, the overthrow of Astyagcs by Cyrus 
cleared Mesopotamia, and Nabonidus (Nabu-naid) was able, 
drawing on the resources of the whole of Syria for the purpose, 
to restore the famous temple of Sin at Uarr&n, where a few 
years later he erected in memory of his mother, who seems 
to have been a priestess there, the side published in 1907 by 
Pognon. 

The fragmentary nature of the records docs not enable us to 
follow the steps by which C>tus became master of Mesopotamia, 
dn which he probably met with little or no resistance. ptnlaas. 
How much of Mesopotamia was involved in the 
revolt of what the Persian inscription calls Assyria (Alf'::tr) is 
not clear. Nor does it appear with certainly to which of tlie 
twenty satrapies into which, according to Herodotus, the 
Persian empire was divided, Mesoiwtamia belonged; probably 
it was included in 'Abar naliArd. The fact is, we have no infor- 
mation from native sources.* The probability is that conditions 
remained very much what they had been; except that the policy 
of transportation was not continued. The satrapts and other 
high officials would naturally be of Persian extraction; but local 
affairs were probably managed in the old way. and there was 
no important shift of population. The large Aramaic infusion 
had by this time been merged in the general body of the people. 
These settlers doubtless influenced the " Assyrian " language;' 
but gradually, especially in the west, their own language more 

<S. SchiflTer, KrilinschriftUcke Spuren der in dtr sweiUn Ildlfle 
des 8. Jahrhunderts von dfn Assyrern nock Mesopolamien drporti^rtm 
Samarier {10 Stamme) (1907); C. H. V\'. Johns in Proc. Soc. Bib. 
Arch. (March, May, 1908). 

*C. H. VV. Johns. An Assyrian Doomsday Book (1901). 

' For the history from the time of Herodotus onwards, sec 
Ritter, Erdkunde, x. 6-284. 

' M. Streck« Kiio, vi. 222 leq. 



1 84 



MESOPOTAMIA 



and more prevafled. Although Aramaic Inscriptions of the 
Assyrian period, like those of Zanjlrli or that of King ZKR of 
Hamath, have not been found in Mesopotamia, already in the 
time of Shalmaneser II. mention is made of an Aramaean letter 
(Harper, Ass. Bab. Letters, No. 873, obv. L 10), and Aramaic 
notes on cuneiform documents begin to appear. Weights with 
Aramaic inscriptions (the oldest from the reign of Shahnaneser 
IV., 737-32) were foimd at Calah. By the Achaemenian period 
Aramaic had become the international language, and was 
adopted officially. 

How Mesopotamia was affected by the passing of Persian 
armies on their way to suppress revolts in Syria or Egypt', or to 
conquer Greece, we do not know; on the whole it probably 
enjoyed unwonted peace. The expedition of Cyrus the Younger, 
with which Xenophon has made us so familar, only skirted the 
left bank of the Euphrates. The route followed by Alexander, 
though he also crossed at Thapsacus, took him unresisted across 
the northern parts; but the poor people of Mesopotamia suffered 
from the measures taken by their satrap Mazaeus to impede 
Alexander's progress. In spite of this, where Cyrus failed 
Alexander succeeded. 

What would have happened had Alexander lived we can only 
guess. Under the Seleucids Babylon was moved across the 
ffrl fr iffrnr. P**^** ^** Selcucia; but before long the central author- 
ity was transferred to the other side of Mesopotamia, 
Antioch or elsewhere — a fateful move. It is improbable that 
cuneiform and the Babylonion language continued to be used 
in Mesopotamia during the Hellenistic period, as it did in 
Babylonia, where it was certainly written as late as the last 
century B.c.;^ and may have been a learned language till the 
second Christian century.* Unfortimately there are no native 
documents from the pre-Christian Hellenistic period. That the 
Hellenizing process went as far as it did in Syria is imlikely; 
and even there Aramaic remained the language of the people, 
even in the towns (cf. Edessa). Still, Greek influence was con- 
siderable. This would be mainly in the towns, the growth of 
which was quite a feature of the Macedonian rule in Mesopotamia 
(Pliny, vi. 30, § XX7).* This is seen in the Greek names which 
now appear: such are Seleuda opposite Samos&ta, Apamea 
(*-BirejiV) opposite Zeugma, Hierapolis (^Membij), Europe^, 
Nicatoris, Amphipolis ( » Thapsacus, or near it), Nicephoriuin 
(er-RaVV^,) Zenodotium (stormed by Crassus), all on or by the 
Euphrates; Edessa {q.v.) on the upper waters of the Belikh, 
Ichnae (perhaps KhnCs, above the junction of the Qaramuch 
with the Belikh). These are all in the Osrocne district; but 
Na$lbln became an Aniioch, and as its district was known as 
Mygdonia (from Macedon) there were doubtless many other 
Greek settlements. To a less extent the same influences would 
be at work in towns called even by Western writers by their real 
names, such as Batnae, Carrhae (Charran), Rhesaena. 

Mesopotamia naturally had its share of suffering in the 
struggles that disturbed the time, when Eumenes or Seleucus 
traversed it or wintered there. It was invaded and temporarily 
annexed in 345 by Ptolemy III. Euergetes in his rapid expedition 
to beyond the Tigris. When Molon revolted on the accession of 
the youthful Antiochus III. (334 B.C.) he entered Mesopotamia 
from the south. Antiochus skirted the northern highlands by 
way of Na^bln. How far the natives of Mesopotamia shared the 
desire of the Greek settlers (Joseph. Antiq. xiii. Si ". § 184-186) 
to help Demetrius II. Nicator in checking the aggressions of the 
rising power of Parthia under Mithradates J. we do not know. 
It was in Mesopotamia that a large part of the army of 
Antiochus VII. Sidctcs was destroyed in 130 B.C., and the Syrian 
kings did not again seriously attempt to assert their rule beyond 
the Euphrates. When Phraates II. turned the Scythians against 
himself, however, even Mesopotamia suffered from the plunderers 
{Jok. Antioch, in MilUer iv. 561). The immigration of Arabs 

* Probably the latest cuneiform document <of certain date b a 
contract of 68 B.C. (cf. Klio, vi. 333 n. 3). 

« See G. J. F. Gutbrod. Zeitsck, f. Assyr. vi. 36-33; cf. M. Streck. 
Klio, vi. 333 n. I. 

*See E. R. Bevan, House of Seleucust L 319-333, and references 
given there. 



must have been going on for long. About this time ibef 
founded a dynasty in Aramaean Osroene (see Edessa). 

Under Mithradates II. Mesopotamia was a definite pi 
the Parthian empire, of which the Euphrates became 
the western boundary; but in 93 B.C. on that river his Jj 
ambassador met Sulla, though the long duel did 
not begin immediately. 

It was (Perhaps a Parthian governor of Mesopotamia tha 
called in to help Strato of Beroea against Demetrius III.; but I 
long Mesopotamia (especially the district of Nistbis) was att 
to the growing dominions of Armenia under its ambitious 
Tigranes, perhaps with the consent of Sinatniccs (Sanatr 
The lost territory, however, was recovered by Phraates III. 
Mesopotamia was guaranteed to Parthia by the treaties of Lu 
and Pompcy (66 B.C.). It ^as traversed, however, several 
by Roman troops crosMuff from Armenia to Syria, and Pai 
declaration of war against Armenia involved it with Rome. Ga 
crossed the Euphrates (54); but the command was assumi 
Crassus, who, though he seized Ichnae, &c., and Raqqa (Rj 
fell near Carrhae (53), and the Parthian dominion was confi 
The tragedy of the Ides of March saved Mesopatamia an 
East from a great campaign by Julius Caesar, and it was at the 
of Ventidius Baasus, and west of the Euphrates, at Gindana ( 
east of Antioch), that the Parthians received the check that | 

ITHI To .ifV-, . " I "■. :' ^ ■.v':"_ . ,-. ■ ""Jv .; " : ... ■ ■ '> CI 

tH?ing tIkL' m.ijiiiv ut ihv ni'Tii^^lv vs h<. ri AjiLu'iiius ill ju tiiuiLy 4* 
to ouikc htB diuMTDUs at tempt again !!t Ptiriates IV. by * 
Armefiia. In A.D. 36, TiiidarFs fuund support in hid AEten 
Efcure the throticr of Artabaituv l[t. in Mesopataniia, and l 
therp thjit he »w hit army me\t away. The atf^irA dI At 
ccmtinued to be the fiourinc of friction between Part ti id and 1 
and Ni^ibiii changed hands Eeveral times. The expedition m 
Rome of Voiogariirfii ir (^.v,} of A.D. 63 reached no further 
wardt than Ni^fbis, and in 66 a peaceablt jurancement was 
tQ. Qf the hal^ccntury chat preceded Trajan 9 great ot 
Lj'rtdeirtakLng not much Is known. When in 115 Trajan cj 
Mehipotamia from the north no seriaua reiktanc? was offered 
it became a province as tar aa Bingara. The voodi at ft 
the hradquarters^ prDvided nLaterial for the boat a with vh 
n6 ht crossed the Tigris. Hainip an interesting fortreu 
^CCini to have been Aramaean^ fell^ and tho army advanced ti 
where it foijfvd the fleet that was aubsequently tranirerred > 
Tigris. For the revok that occurred while Trajan was o 
Pcnirin GulU in which the Jewi. had an impoftant hand. ^ 
and EdcssA siilfertd capture and destruction. Hatr* tucce 
withstood sicji:, howev^jT. and Hadrian abandoned Mnopof 
«ttinfF the boundary at the Euphrates. Acai£f for haU a o* 
there 13 not much 10 retait* Then, when Voloeacje*, yields 
his growing discontent, look advants^ of the death of AntortI 
invade Armenia the Roman* *tiT vkrioriom (16^ J, and all* 
nioreninf of places luch as Nicrphdriupi, Edcisa, Nitibis, w 
Me^v]^}OtanTia wa& once more Ronvin a« far as tht Khiiy:>ar, O 
btcomifig a fnse city and Osroene a dependency. 

By this time Christianity had secured a foothold, perfaap 
among the Jews (see Edessa), and we enter upon the et 
period from which documents in the Edessan dialect of Axa 
known, as Syriac, have been preserved. Unfortunately 
contain practically nothing that is not of Christian 01 
On the death of Aurelius Hatra aided Niger against Sept 
Sevenis in 194; Osrocne rose against Rome, and Ni^Ibi* 
besieged and other Roman places taken; but Septimius Se 
appeared in person (195), and from Ni$lbis as headqu 
subdued the whole country, of which he made Ni$Ibis metro 
raising it to the rank of a colony, the Sinj&r district, ^ 
Arabs from Yemen had settled, being incorporated. O 
retiring everything was undone, only Ni^Ibis holding out 
on his reappearance in 198 the Parthians withdrew. ; 
the Euphrates bore a Roman fleet. Hatra, however, 
besieged twice in vain. Peace then prevailed till Can 
unprovoked attack on Parthia in 316, after he had rc< 
Osroene to a province. On his assassination near Carrhae ( 
Macrinus was defeated at Ni^Ibis and had to purchase ( 
though he retained Roman Mesopotamia, reinstating 
princely house in Osroene. 

The power of Ardashir, the Sassanian, however, was al 
rising, and the Parthian Artabanus died in battle in 224 (or 
and Ardashir proposed to prove himself the successor 
Achaemenidae. Hatra resisted the first Persian attack 

* The earliest inscription in Syriac yet known dates from A- 
and was found at Scrrin (opposite i^al'at en-Najm) by 
Oppenhcim. 



MESOPOTAMIA 



i8s 



kd resitted RoBe: but Mesopotamia was overran, Ni$Ibb and 
Carrbae being taken (233)- It was immediately, indeed, recov- 
ered by Alexander Severus, and retained, whauvcr 
was the precise success of the war ; but Ni^Ibis and 
Carrhae were retaken by the Persians in the reign of 
Under Gordian III. in 342 Mesopotamia was entered 
by a great Roman army which recovered Carrhae and Ni$ibiSp and 
defeated the Persians at Rhesaena; but when Gordian, aiitr a 
dificult march down the KhibQr, was murdered at Zaitha b<rlow 
Cvoeaiuni, Philip the Arabian (244) made the best terms he couIeJ 
with Slu^nxr L Whatever they were, the Roman garrisons it^tn 
aot to have been really withdrawn. A rest for Mesopotamia sec cn» 
to have followed; but in 258 Shapur, tempted by the troubled in 
the Roman empire, overran the country taking Ni^Ibis :ind 
Canhae, and investing Edessa, and when Valerian invaded 
llcsopoCamia be was eventually made prisoner, by Edessa (jto). 
After Shapur*s cruel victories in Syria, however, he was defeiited 
by Odaeoatfaus, who relieved Edessa, and Mesopotamia becainr 
for ten years practically part of an Arabian Empire (see Falicvr^)^ 
B it was to be four centuries later. In consequence of th? 
Rvolt of Zenobia Mesopotamia was lost to Rome, and the 
Eophrates became the frontier. Aurelian overthrew the 
Mmyran rule; but he was assassinated before he could carry ^ 
est his intended expedition against Persia, Probus was as^su- 
■sated before he was able to do anything (or much), and 
iltlinn| fr Cann easily overran Mesopotamia, which became 
losna again, and even took Ctesiphon, the Romans retreated 
on his death (283-4). The next incident is the defeat of 
Gflkrios, between Carrhae and Callinicus, where he had entered 
Mbopolamia (about 296), in the war provoked by Narscs in 
of his relations with Armenia. When it was 



I 



ntrievcd by a signal victory, Diocletian advanced to Ni^lbii 
aid thence dictated terms of peace by which Mesopotamia to 
tk Tigris was definitely ceded to Rome (298). 

One result of the connexion with Rome was, naturally, th&t 
Maopotamia came within the range of the Dedan, and Imtr 
tk Diocletian persecutions (see Edessa: § Sassanian Period}. 
At the Nicene Council there were bishops from Ni$Ibis (Jacob). 
Uesaena, Macedonopolis (on the Euphrates, west of Ede^-sa), 
aid Persia (Hamack, Mission and Expansion of Christianity, 
i. 146; see generally 142-152). 

After a forty years' peace the struggle was resumed by 
Shapor IL Nifibb thrice endured unsuccessful siege (338, 34^1 
330). although meanwhile Constantine had suffered dckat 
A Singaia (348). Then Mesopotamia enjoyed two short n^i s 
(leparated by a sharp struggle) whUe the rivals were engaged 
diewbere, when in 363 Julian (q.v.) made his disastrtitis 
attempt, and Jovian bought peace at the price, among other th i itj^s, 
cf Stngara and Ni|Ibis — i.e. practically all eastern MesopotamiLi 
The surrender of Ni^Ibis, which had been in the posse^sic^n 
of Roae for so many generations, caused consternation among 
the Christians, and Ephracm {q.v.) moved to Edessa, where his 
*ichool of the Persians " soon became famous (see Edessa). In 
tlic m <d 421. in which the north-east of Mesopotamia was 
diefly concerned, the Romans iailed to take Ni$Ibis, atid it 
bcoBe a natural rallying point for the Ncstorians after the 
decision of E{^iesus (431). Matters were still more coroplicottd 
vka the Western Christians of Edessa found themselves unahEe 
ta accept the ruling of Chalcedon against Monophysitism in 4^^ 
dee IIOKOPHYSITES), and there came to be three parties: 
Kertorians (9.?.), Jacobites (see Jacobite Church) and Mcl- 
diies (f v.). 

la the beginning of the 6th century there was another severe 
<rqg|)e in Mesopotamia, which found an anonymous Syriac 
kiitorian (lee Edessa), and in infringement of agreement the 
strongly fortified Dftri against Ni^Ibis. The Persian 
of Syria under Kavadh I. (q.v.) was driven back by 
. but the latter was defeated in his pursuit at Rakl^a 
(S3>). The peace begun by Chosroes I. (532) was not long 
Icqit, and Roman Mesopotamia, except the pagan Qarrftn. 
Kietcd severely (540), Edessa undergoing a trying siege C544) 
Ik fifty yean' peace also (562) was short lived; the Romans 



again failed in an attempt to recover Niflbis (573), whilst 
Ch<»rocs' siege of Dirt was successful. Mesopotamia naturally 
suffered during the time of confusion that preceded and followed 
the accession of Chosroes II., and the Romans recovered their 
old frontier (591). 

With the accession of Phocas (602) began the great War which 
shook the two kingdoms. The loss of Edessa, where Narses 
revolted, was temporary; but the Roman fortress of Dirft fell 
after nine months' siege (c. 605) ; ^arrin, R2s al-*Ain and Edessa 
followed in 607, many of the Christian inhabitants being trans- 
ported to the Far East, and Chosroes carried the victorious arms 
of Persia far into the Roman Empire. Finally Hcraclius turned 
the tide, and Kavadh II. restored the conquests of his pre- 
decessor. The Syrian Christians, however, found that they 
had only exchanged the domination of a Zoroastrian monarch 
for an unsympathetic ecclesiastical despotism. In the confusion 
that followed, when men of letters had to live and work in exile, 
Ni$ibis set up for a time (631-632) a grandson of Chosroes II. 
Finally all agreed on Yazdcgerd III.; but, while Chosroes II. and 
Heraclius had been at death grips with each other a great 
invasion had been preparing in Arabia. 

The Arab tribes in Mesopotamia were Christian, and Hcraclius 
at Edessa hoped for their support; but I^ar^Isiya and Hit 
succumbed (636), and then Tekrit; and Hcraclius 
retired to Samos&ta. When in 638 he made another 
attempt, it is said at the entreaty of the Mesopotamian 
Christians, Arab forces appeared before RaVk^i Edessa, Na$lbln 
and other places, and all Mesopotamia was soon in the hands of 
the Arabs. Henceforth it looked to Damascus and to KQfa 
and Ba^ra, instead of to Constantinople or Ctesiphon. The 
new r6gime brought welcome relief to the Christian part of the 
population, for the Arabs took no note of their orthodoxies or 
heterodoxies. (Moawiya is said to have rebuilt the dome of the 
great church at Edessa after an earthquake in 678.) Fortunately 
for Mesopotamia the seats of the factions which immediately 
broke the peace of Islam were elsewhere; but it could not escape 
the fate of its geographical position. 

The men of Ralf:^ were cotnpcltcd to help 'All, .^^(^r hh rfkarch 
across Mesopotamia fn?m near MCi$ul, in gr[tin^ u ^>hi[■,:^l• m^v\t at 
Raliil^ to convey his men to 5*Ef'nr^ Not Sonu .iru'rwi.Ln]s thctie 
was a new excitement in Moawiya^s incui^ion airrn^s. in ilie TiKrlt. 
The discontent under Yaiid 111. nis Ict^n id Mt-t^Ji|><it.irTis.i, mnirre 
Merw&n in fact got a footine, and vli^n the tr(iul)'lL''i ir>rr^-.L^vil after 
he became calipn he abandoned DanuKrus In tnuur of I1I9 nfJiC 
at Harrftn. His son wai bosttgcd by Djbb&k anil ini Khirijitct 
and §afTarids in NaffbTn; but a ^esxe tattle nt MUrdln endued in 
Mcrw&n's favour (745). The cnjcltira tTiat accompanied tbt ovcf'' 
throw of the Omavyad dynasty excited a r^vdU, which fnread to 
Mesopotamia, and Harrfln had to underKo a sicgt by otic of Mcrw5.o*» 
ecnerals. It was next beiic^pd by aL-MansGr'* brother; but the 
battle between the broihera was fouehc at N'jiisibtn. It wm decisive, 
but there were further risfn^^n involving Mc*iipnUnJiaJ 

An inevitable effect of the reign of Islam had been that the 
kindred language of the Arabs gradually killed the vernacular 
Syriac of Mesopotamia (see Edessa) as the alien Greek and 
Persian had shown no tendency to do, and the classical period 
(4th to 8th centuries) of the only Mesopotamian literature we 
know, such as it is, useful but uninviting, came to an end (see 
Syriac Literature). This naturally encouraged grammatical 
study. Among the Aramaic-speaking people the revolution 
which displaced the Arabian court of Damascus in favour of 
a cosmopolitan world centred at the Babylonian scat of the 
civilizations dealt with in the preceding paragraphs naturally 
gave an impulse to the wider scholarship. Translations were 
made from Greek, as, e.g. by Thabit b. Qurra of ^arrin (d. 901), 
and from Pahlavi. 

Man$ar built a castle at Rfifiqa opposite Rakl|:a to control 
the country round, and his son Hariln al-Rashid actually resided 
during most of his rciRn, not at Bagdad but at Ral^lFa, where two 
generations later al-BattSni of Harrftn was making the astronomical 
observations on which his tables were based (see Aldatecnius) 
Abu Qurra, bishop of HarrSn, and acquaintance of the caliph 
Ma'mQn. who was one of the earlier Aramaean Christians to use 
Arabic, has been thought to have contributed to the influences 

•For this and following section sec further Caliphate and 
Persia : History. 



i86 



MESOPOTAMIA 



that dpvtloped tht Mu*t«3litt (Motnillte) «ct. NiMlbTrt wat th* i 
scene of anather rervolt (79JJ under a. Kblrijite leader. Hirun * 
son Mousim displeased the people by creating a bodyg^rtJ of 
Turkfif and thcftiurt transfcrml hi^ K4t to Sjiaiarri. This pyt 
the caliph* fatilly at the mercy o( ihcir gaardii. 

Mt^opoiamia tell partly under th« [wwcr of JShmud itm T^lfln 
of Egypt and hi* »on; but bdom ttie end of the 9th century the 
IJamd^nidi, descendant! of tKi; Arab tribe of T&ghlibp 
2*?2SJlJr **:rc in poftfieaaion of M&rdiiii and io 919 one of them 
*^"P^'**' ^is govL-rnor of Dillr FUbi'a. Later ihc brt>thcr» 
Nijir ad- Da u Id and SaJ ad- Da u la ruled owf McjiopaUma and 
North Syria nrspeftivcly. Meanhwilf the caliph M«ttsoi appeartHl 

were followed by the *f>q^ytid«, who had thctr ns^Xi at vnriouis 
p43cef> such as M^j^uL Na^tbinK R.a'^l^a, Ijj.rnlnf between 996 and 
1096. Bv '055 thv St-^tjalfis had taken the caliph uitdcr thtnr charge, 
Thty amved at Jcru^^lfm in 1076, the fin&t cruudcra reached Ai^li 
la ItiQ'?* ^nd Bu Adiin.L became the countAhip of Edcssa (^-v.). 
The power of the .SoljO](;:s quickly disintegrated. The ton of A 
slave of the third ScljOt sultan,. Zangi, RH^vcrnor of "J rife, made 
himiclf gradually (Moduli SinjtLr, Jczara, I^^amln) mniftter erf Meso 
potaniia. (mjBJ, rapturing Eociiia in II44. Mesopotamia fell to 
gfic of hU sons, Saif dd^Din^ an^d branches sprang up at Sinjir and 
Jeika, To the H:mc pcrif^ belong other AtlJbeg dynasties; 
Bwtiginida at liJarriin. Tekdtj, &c- » Orto^ds at Edesu. 'Ana, &c., 
wttH ^iJLrdin a» thwf bcadquarteri By iiS^-iiM Saladin had 
tnadc Egypt supreme over all lhc» principcLliiies. thus achtevingf 
what the XVtf Ith and XlXth f^e^pt'^" dvna&tjes had attempt^ in 
vain. Mesopotamia remaicicd in the hands of the Ayyubiie family 
till the appearance of the MonsttEs. The petty princi|yi1it1e9 were 
unabJe to unite to mist the terrible attack, and Jciira, Edes&a. 
Nnffbin, Mnridm. &c,t fell in iiiSO-fiO- The leading men ot 
Ijarrln emigrated into Syria, the rat were carrit>d into sla^-eTy, 
and the ancient town w^ij$. laid in niinii. ]t was the Mamluk miora 
of Egypt that checkvfi the de^th-bringing flood. Near Dira waj 
the icene of one of their victorieji (in IJ'^), and their authority 
extended to Karl^i^iyi^ The Orti^i^id dynai^ty survived the Monj;ol. 
inundation, and it wa^ in the t4th ccntu^ that its laureate ^fiy 
3d' Din al-1)i1li flourished. From the Niongol invnaions of the 
lAlh century wrtlem Asia has never recovered. Thrn, before 
the next ctntury wai out, came the mvobion of Timuf (IJ93^4K 
The Orl«lfiii* were followed by the l^ral^uyunK. In 15^ Meso- 
potamia rios^i^ for a time into the hands of^ the ^i^awid fthah, 
Ishm4L.'h vMt in 1516 it came under the Osmianli Turk^ to whom it 
has Uelongnl ever ilncc. The inroad of the Pcniani in the I7lh 
century wa* confined to the south. 

Since MesofsotaiTiifi fiimlly came into the power of the Ottoman 
sultans consideiJibk changes in the popuLilioti have occun-cd. 
About that tiine parts of a confederation of tribe* 
vrhich had taken the nan^c o£ Shamtxiiir from a moua- 
tain m their neighbourhood, moved northwards 
from Centnl Arabia in ^^rdi of better pasture, lee. Successfully 
dbphcing their forerunners, tfaey made thcmsdvei at borne in 
the Syrian steppe— until their possession was in turn disputed 
by a later emigrant from Arabia, for whom they finally made 
room by moving on into ^tcsopotamIa, over which they spread, 
driving before them their predecessors the Jai (whose name the 
MesopotaTnian Aramaeans had adopk-d as a. dcsifn^ation for 
Arab in general), partly north of the 5inj3,r, partly over the 
Tigris, dihcrs tbty forced lo abantlon the nomadic life, and 
settle by the Rhibilr {f,g, the Jcbur) or the Euphrates. These 
adjustments, it is supposed, had been effected by 1700* 

In li^i 'All. a tiewly appointed Turkish govTmor erf BagdAd, 
inducer! ^^fflg the chief of tne Jerbi}, the more important division 
of the 5hammaj. to holp him to di sludge his predcccstior, D&Dd, 
who wcHjld not vacate his po&ition, but then lefuied them the 
promi^ payment. To defcod himself from the enraged Sham mar 
*AIi summonnf the 'Anaia from across the Euphrates. Having 
also luccecded in detaching port uf the Shammar under Shl5sh. he 
told the "AnajKi he no longer needed tlicir help, tn the futile 
attempt of the thn-e partks to dislodee the 'AnaEa Sble«h lost hia 
life; but with the help of the Zubeid the other two «icc«d«l, and 
§ufug was n'jw s^ipircme " King of the Steppe," levying hlaelrmAil 
as he pleaded, Otht^r method* of dLwiosing of him having failed, 
the Porte made hi* rurphcw a rival xkfikk\ but he ba%ely a^Ufi^^inated 
him. SufCig then aullertd the same fate himself at the hands of 
the pasha, but ha* since t*cwme a hero. Two of hi* sons tjecame 
involved in a qiuanxl with the govern mtnt, in consequence of which 
. for years all Mesopotamia was in dangert till the second was put 
to death in [a6a. and Fer^ln, the eldest son, a peaceable man who 
had been made pasha. became supfeme. One of ^fflg's widows 
had flrd to her Tai kindred in Central Arabia with her youngest 
son Fifls; but when he grew up ^he hfought him bdck in the seven- 
ties, and he tmmedijtcly attracted a grejit folio wing. He kept 
to the far osrth dI Mesopcrtanfua to avoid, his bcothcr Fcr^ni but 



Armbu* 



finally half-sedentary tribes on the Khibflr and the BeHkh I 

tributary to him. and a more or less active warfare aprang up 
between the brothers, which ended in a partition of Meaopocamia. 

Ferbin and the South Shammar claimed the steppe south-cast 
of a line from M6$ul to Mayftdin (just below l^arl^yft), and 
Firis and the North Shammar the north-west. Since Ferbln't 
death the Porte has favoured one after another of his many mkis, 
hoping to keep the South Shammar disunited, especially as they 
are more than the others. The Shammar have been in undis> 
puted mastery from Urfa to the neighbouihood of Bagdid, 
practically all tribes paying khmtrwa to them, and even the 
towns, tiU the government garrisoned them. Some 60 of these 
more or less nomadic communities, of one or two thousand 
tents (or houses) each, representing a population of several 
hundred thousands are described by Oppenheim. Each has its 
recognized camping ground, usually one for summer and another 
for winter. Most of them are Arab and Mahommedan. Some 
are Christian and some are not Arab: viz. Kurds, Turkomans 
or Circassians. For some years the Porte has been applying 
steady pressure on the nomads to induce them to settle, by 
increasing the number of military posts, by introducing Circas- 
sian colonies, as at Ras al-* Ain, sometimes by forcible settlemcnL 
More land is thus being brought under cultivation, the disturbing 
elements are being slowly brought under control, and Ufe and 
property are becoming more secure. 

Security is what the country chiefly needs. Hence its 
primary interest in the railway scheme, with a view to agri- 
cultural development and perhaps the growth of 
cotton; Sir W. Willcocks' irrigation schemes had 
not up to 19 10 affected " Mesopotamia " directly. 
Apparently the real problem is one of population adequate to 
effect the improvements demanded. The new regime introduced 
in 1908 seems to justify a hopefid attitude. Apart from the 
disturbing effects of recent events in Persia, an exposition of 
present conditions would show progress. Exact statistics are not 
available because the vibyct of MO$id (35, I30sq. m., 3 5 1,300 pop.) 
takes in on the east territory with which we are not concerned, and 
omits the Osroene district, which goes with Aleppo. Urfa is a 
town of ss.ooo; M5$ul, 61,000, Bagd&d, 145*000. The exports of 
M5$ul for 1Q08 were (in thousands of pounds sterling): United 
Kingdom 195, India 43, other countries 52, parts of Turkey 218; 
the imports: United Kingdom 56, India 16, other countries 3$, 
parts of Turkey 24. The language is in most parts Arabic; but 
Turkish is spoken in Bireji^ and Urfa, Kurdish and Armenian 
south of Diarbckr, and some Syriac in jQr 'Abdin. There are 
Christian missionary institutions of European origin in various 
places, such as Uria, M&rdin, MO$uL An interesting survival 
of early faiths is to be found in the Yeddls of the Sinjir 
district. 

AuTHOEjTTES — L&iid And Propit: full references to Creek, Latin, 
Arabic and other writers are given in Ritter^ Brdk^nA.t %, ^--fSU, 
921-1149^; XI. j!A7'5io, 660-762; for the conditions since Lhe Arab 
conqutit, Guy le StnuiR7,_ Lf^ndi of Ihe Eastern Coiipkai* (igo^), 
chiefly pp. S6-114, is eaoecially useful. Of recent works the follow* 
ing are valuable: £. SachAu, RrUe i« Syritm «, Mfsffffoiamitit (i&ij>; 
\r V, Oppenheim, V&m MUiflmtrr tfiwi FrriUikm. Caif, vol. ii (iftS9>, 
We may mcniioii further 0+ G, tbi^artb, Tht Nrarrr Easl (i^^K 
pasiimi K* Hcghng. " Zur hUtonschen Geo^faphie dcs cncso- 
potamischefl Parallploirrams "* (Sarug district), in KH^. I. 44J-476: 
M+ Syke*, " Journey 4 in Sorth Mesopotamia " in Otpj^. Jeumai, 
RiX- 2J7-3^, 384-305: "The Western B<:nd of the tuphratcv' 
if^. iii. Mxiv. 61HS5 ^ptans of two castloj ; D, Krawtr, Sk&rt C*S i$ 
Indh fiw^?; W. Kurz. ** BeurteiJung der Aussifhten auf cine 
Wicdcrbelcbung der Kultur der Euphrat- und Tigrisnk-dening/' 
in Dcvlschf e^onrapkitthf 3la^€r, jltoo.. 147-179 (tj^iSJ; E, Pear* 
'The Bagdad Railway/* in Conttmp. Art., i^^ 57p^S9t; K, 
Baedelcer, Foietiim attd Syria (1906). pp. 1^9-417* The anouiH 
Consular Reports niost neaiiv bearing on MesopoLamia are ihosB 
fiir Aleppo. M&9u1h B^ -'i'^-l itii^l l\i-^r\. 

Mapi. — The folln. ! il mention: v. OppcnheTifl, 

ffp. t iJ^H a moat val tj : 1 ' -.^ map in poc kets of vol u mes ; 

Sachau. op. ciL\ M. Sykcs, Geog- Joum.xxx. opp. p. 356, andxxxiv, 
opp. p. 120: Hogarth, op. cit., orographic, &c. 

Excavations at 'ArbUn: A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (i849~ 
1851). pp. 230-242; at Tell Khalaf: M. v. Oppenheim. Der Tdi 
Ifalaf (1908), in the Der alte Orient series (sec an account by J. L. 
Myres in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, ii. 139-144; 
at Asshur: SendschrijUn der deuUch, or. CeseUsck., and W. Andne, 



MESOXALIC ACID— MESOZOA 



187 



Dtr Amu Adad Temtel (1909). See also D. G. Hogarth. " Car^ 
cheroesh and its Neighbourhood " {Annals, &c. ii. 165-184), ancJ 
W. Andrae's Die Ruinen ton Hatra (1908). 

History. — Early period: besides the histories of Babylonia and 
Assyria se« Winckler. various essays in his AUor. Forschungen. 
" Vorliafige Nachrichten fiber die Ausgrabungen in Boghaz-koj 
im Sommer. 1907." in Mittetlungen der Deutsch. Orient. CesfUsckaft. 
i 'VSuri - • 



No. 35. and 



in Oriental. LU.-Zeit, x. 381-299. 345-357. 



401-413, 643; O. Weber, the notes to Knudtzon's Die El-Amama 
Taf^l A. Ungnad, Untersnckunten tu den . . . Urkunden aus 
Dtiial (1909). pp. 8-3 1 : P. Schnabel. Studien tur bab.-assyriscken 
OtronaUgk (1908): A Sanda. Die Aram&er (1903) in the Der AUe 
Orient aeries; M. Streck. " Uber die ftlteste Geschkhte der Aramfier " 
in Klto, vi. 185-225. For the later periods sec Persia: History, 
Hellenism; Rome- /fij/0fy;PARTHiA;SYRiAcLiTERATURE;CALi> 
NATE and authorities there given. (H. W. H.) 

■ESOXAUC ACID (dioxymalonic acid), (H03C)tC(0H)> or 
CiH/V is obtained by hydrolysis of alloxan with baryta water 
0- ▼. Liebig, Ann.^ 1838, 26, p. 298), by warming caffuric acid 
vith lead acetate solution (E. Fischer, Ann., 1882, 215, p. 283), 
or from glycerin diacetate and concentrated nitric add in the 
cokl(£.Seeiig, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 3471). It crystallizes indeliquc- 
Kent prisms and melts with partial decomposition at ii^i 20° C, 
It behaves as a ketoru'c acid, being reduced in aqueous solution 
by sodium amalgam to tartronic acid, and also combining 
vith phenylhydrazine and hydroxylamine. It reduces ammo- 
uacal silver solutions. When heated with urea to 100° C. it 
iorms allantoin. By continued boiling of its aqueous solution it 
tt decomposed into carbon dioxide and glyoxylic acid, CjHA. 
MEM)ZOA. Van Beneden * gave this name to a small group 
of minute and parasitic animals which he regarded as inter* 

mediate between the 
Protozoa and the Meta- 
zoa. TheMesozoacom* 
prise two classes: (i) 
the Rhomboioa, which 
are found only in the 
kidneys of Cephalopods, 
and(2)the Orthonedida, 
which infest specimens 
of Ophiurids, Poly- 
chaets,Nemertines,Tur- 
bellaria and possibly 
other groups. 

Class I. Rhombozoa 
(E. vanBeneden ).--Thesc 
animals consist of a 
central cell from which 
certain reproductive cells 
arise, enclosed in a single 
layer of flattened and for 
the most part ciliated 
cells: some of them are 
modified at the anterior 
end and form the polar 
cap. The Rhombozoa 
com prises t wo orders : (a ) 
Dicyemida, ciliated ver- 
miform creatures whose 
polar cap has 8 or 9 cells 
arranged in two rows 
(Dicyema, Koll.. Dicye- 
mennea, Whitm.) ; {b)He- 
terocyemida, non-ciliated 
animals with no polar 
(fiomCmmtndft S'ctmni Hitbfy. vol- H. "Wonm. cap. but whose anterior 




CMkk) 

Frc. I. — Dicyemennea eledones Wag. 
from the kidney of Eledone moschata. 

A Full-grown Rhombogen with in- 
fmoriform erabr>os (emb). 
^ t Part ci endoderm cell where forma- 
tkm of the embryos is actively proceeding. 

n.ea. Nucleus of ectoderm cell. 

*.emd. Nucleusof endoderm cell. 

p. " Calotte." 

D. DevekKoing infusoriform embryo. 

C One fully devek)ped. 

0. ** Calotte " of nine cells. 



B ol ^ijcTiMlian ft Co. Ltd. Aiier ectodermal cells contain 
rcfringent bodies and 
may be produced into 
wart-like processes (Con- 
ocytma. v. Ben. in Octopus 
vulgaris; Microcyema in 
Sepia officinalis). Unlike 
the Dicyemida, which are 
fixed in the renal cells of 
their host by their polar 
cap, the Heterocyemida 
are free. The number of 
ectoderm cells apart from 
the polar cap is few. some 
fourteen to twenty-two. 

^BtiLAt,Mg$sm*(i876lp.S5' ' 



The central cell is formed bv the layer of the first two blastomcres. 
and remains (quiescent until surrounded by the micromeres or 
products of division of the smaller blastomcre. It then divides 
unequally, and of the two cells thus formed the larger repeats the 
process. Each of the two small cells are now called primary 
germ cells," and they enter into and lie inside the large central 
cell. The primary germ cells divide until there are eight of them 
all lying within the axial cell. At this stage the future of the 
parasite may take one of two directions. Following one path, 
the animal (now called a " Nematogen ") gives riM^ by the segmenta- 
tion of its primary germ cells to vermiform larvae which, though 
smaller, are but replicas of the parent form. Following the other 
path, the animal (now termed a " Rhombogen ") gives origin to a 
number of " infusoriform larvae," several of these arising from each 
prinury germ-cell. The vermiform larvae leave their Nematogen 
parent and swimming through the renal fluid attach themselves to 
the renal cells. They never leave their host, and die in sea-water. 
The infusoriform brvae have a very complicated structure; they 
escape from the Rhombogen, and, unlike the vermiform larvae 
they can live in sea-water. They possibly serve to infect new 
hosts. 5>ome authorities look upon thc^c infusoriform larvae as 
males, and consider that they fertilize some of the Ncmatc^ens, 




(From Cambridgt Natural Risforv, rol. ii.. "Wonn«. &c.." by prnnissioo of 
Mdcmillan & Co. Lid. Alia Julio.) 

Fig. 2^—Rhopalura giardii Mctschn. from Amphiura squamata. 

Full grown male. 
/I. Flattened form of female. 
^2. Cylindrical female. 

which then give rise to males again, whereas the females which 
produce the vermiform embryos arise from unfertilized vermiform 
larvae. After the infusoriform larvae have left the parent's body, 
the Rhombogen takes to producing vermiform offspring, and thus 
becomes a secondary Nematogen. Thus, if the above views be 
correct, a Rhombogen is a protandrous hermaphrodite. 

E. Nercscheimer has recently described under the name of 
Lohmanella catenata an organism parasitic in Fritillaria which shows 
marked affinities with the Rhombozoa. The genus Haplozoon of 
which two species have been found in the worms Travisia and 
Clymene by Dogiel is classed as a new group of Mesozoa. 

Class 11. Orthonectida (A. Giard). — 1 he Orthonectida contain 
animals with a central mass of eggs dentinal to form male and female 
reproductive cells surrounded by a single layer of ciliated ectcnlerm 
cells arranged in regular rings which contain var>ing numbers of 
rows of cells. Muscular fibrils occur between the outer and inner 
cells. The sexes are separate and unlike, and there arc two kinds 
of females, cylindrical and flat. There are but two genera, Rhopalura 
and Staechar thrum, the latter found in a Polychaet. The male 
R. giardii lives in the body-cavity of Amphiura squamata, has six 
rings of ectodermal cells all ciliated except the second, whose cells 
contain rcfringent granules. The ectoderm encloses the testis, a 
mass of cells which have arisen from a single axial cell in the embr>'o. 
The female differs from the male in appearance, and in size it is 
larger. It occurs in two forms: (1) The cyUmlrlcxiV "«»j\vVv % Vw ^ 

, rows of ectoderm cells; here as \tv tV\e rc\;v\c \W «^ot\A tS.w^X'* ^ojc\A 
of cilia. (2) The flat (ema\es art btoadet, >itvv\oTmVj cCCvax^j^tA 

Aave not ringi of ectoderm ceWs. T^t cstvxnX tiA» «\ ccv^Voitc* 



i88 



MESOZOIC ERA— MESSAGER 



qva whicti art free in tho c^tmdrical rorma: they leave the mottier 
tjirougli tlir di^hlMiiris of the dells of the non-ciliated nnv, a.ic 
fertilized and dewtop parthcrtogtMKticalty inta females both flat 
oju) cylindricaL 

R. ptlitn€tri and 5. liardi are said to be hrrmaphrodite* The 
parasites Ar^ make ihc'ir appearance Jei a ho«t in the iotm of a 
plasEnodiam rompaiablc with the sporucyst of a Trenaitotiu^ By the 
KgrcBation of nuclei and some of ihc sutTOUnding prmopLaftm. 
perni ceiti aiise which develop into ciliated bryae ana tillinutdy 
into malej and fcm^k-s which only diiKrharsc thrir s^prrmatocoa and 
Q<va when they' reach sca'watcr The ^cxJuct of the consequent 
fcrtiliaAiicftn is unknown; prcsumabty it infects oew hosts, entcnng 
th^iTt in the form of a nucleated Plasmodium. 

The original idea that in the Rhombozoa and Drthonectidi we 
lutd a^imnli intermediate between the Protozoa and Metjaioa It no 
lon^^r Widely heJd. The modem view ii that the lintplicky ol 
their ^rircturc: i^ 5«oiKla«y aod not primaryt and h com-llited 
Willi their pdr^siiic habit of life. They are probably denved from 
tome rULyh elm in thine an>cestor and perhaps com« itcartr to the 
Trematoda than to any other group. 

Li T ERATO HE.— [£. van Bencden. BaU. At. Briti^r (3). {iSj6) xli. 
8s. 114^: (1876), xlii. 35; alw ArrL Biot, (i&Sj). iii. 197: C. O. 
Whitman. Ml. SkiS, Ntapd. (iflStJ. iv. i : W. M. VVhedcr, Zocl. 



An%., <i^)p xxii. ]6g; A. Ciardf, Jour. anat. pkysitA, i,i^7^), 
u9; Quart. Jour. Mkr. Set. (i^So), xil. 22s: St Jowph. BuU. 
Zm,^ FraruM (1896}, xxi. 58; CauKery and MesniU C. R. at. set. 



(1B94), exxviu. 457 and 516; C. juUn, Arck. Biol,{t&^i}^ iit. 
E, NtfeKheimerf Ztiisckr^ mji. Zoot. (1904)* Ixxvi. 13J; V- A. 
Docieli* Trmf* joc. Vw^. lui^af. J?( Ptt^nbourg (1907), xxxviiL. 38^ and 
Z<vl. Attt. (1906), x«e^ ^95* ^ (A. E. S) 

HESOZOtC ERA» in g[!o1ogy, the natne given to tht period 
of tinie between the Falicosoic and Cainozoic erast it Is synony- 
tttous with the older &Dd Less satisfactory term " Secondary ** 
AS applied to the mnjor divisions of geological time ai^d wjlh 
the *' Fldfgebirgc " of the Werneriitn schooL This era is sub- 
divided into £ lower, TriiLsstCj a middle, Jtiraissic, and an upper, 
Cretaceoiia period or epoch. The di^ralion of the Mcsoioic 
era iras not more than one fourth of that of the Palaeozoic era, 
measured by the thickness of strata formed during these pcnods. 
It vfOA an era marked by peaceful condiLiotis in the earth's crust 
aind by a general freedom from volcanic aclivily. The sediments 
*s a whole are charactrrizcd by the prevalence of limestones 
u compared with those of the preceding era; they are aeldonl 
much altered or disturbed except in the younger mountain 
n!;gions. Mammals, represented by small marsupials, and 
primitive forms of birds and bony fishes make their first appear - 
ftnu in rocks of Mesozoie age. Sauriari reptiles played an 
citremely prominent part; ammonites and belemnites lived tn 
ejtttaordinaiy vanely in the seas along with the echinoids and 
pelecypodi, which had to a great extent supplanted the crinoids 
and brachiopods of the preceding periods. The first dear 
indjtationj of monocDtyl<^dono^5 and dicotyledonous angio- 
$pcrms made their appearance, while Cycads and Conifcra 
coiisiituied the bulk of the land flora. 

HEKl^lfltE, or IfONEV Loctisr, in botany, a tree, native of 
the wuthern United States and extending southwards through 
MeJiio? and ihti Andt-an region to Chile and the Argentine 
Rcpubljc. It is known bolanieally as Proiupis juiifiifrd^ and 
bdongs to the natural order Leguminosae (suborder Mimoscac). 
It reaches 40 or 50 ft. In height with a trunk usually not more 
thai) 6 tc? I } in. in diameter, and divided a short distance above 
the ground into numerous irregular crooked branches forming 
A loose St railing head. The remarkiible development of its 
main root in relation to water-supply renders it tnost valuable 
as a dry-country plant; the root descends 10 a great depth in 
search of water, and does not branch or decrease much in 
diameter till this is reach^l. It can thus flourish where no 
other woody pknt can exist, and its presence and condition 
alTord almost certain indications of the depth of the water- level. 
When the plant attains the si/e of a tree^ water will be found 
within 40 or jo ft, of the surface; when it grows as a bush, 
between go or fe ft,; while, when the tools have to descend 
below 60 ft., the stems are only i or 3 ft. high. These woody 
roots supply valuable fuel in regions where no wood of fuel value 
il produced above ground. The leaves arc compound, the 
main aus bearing two or sometimes four secondary axes on 
vhich uv borne a number of pairs of narrow bluntish leaflets. 
Tbc miQaLe peenish-white fragrant floweri are densely crowded 



on slender cylindrical spikes from x| to 4 in. long; the loQf 
narrow pods are constricted between the seeds, of which they 
contain from ten to thirty surrounded by a thick spongy layer <d 
sweet pulp. The wood is heavy, hard and dose-grained, but 
not very strong; it is almost indestructible in contact with soil, 
and is largely used ior fence-posts and railway ties. The ripe 
pods supply the Mexicans and Indians with a nutritious food; 
and a gum resembling gum arabic exudes from the stem. 

An allied species Prosopis pubescens, a small tree ot tall shnih^ 
native of the arid regions of the south-western United States, 
is known as the screw-bean or screw-pod mesquite from the 
fact that the pods are twisted into a dense screw-like apiial; 
they are used for fodder and are sweet and nutritious, but 
smaller and less valuable than those of the mesquite. 

For a fuller account of these trees see Charles SpragueSafgeat, 
Siiva of North America, iii. p. 99 (189a}. 

MESS (an adaptation of O. Fr. mer, mod. mets; Ital. jmssv ; 
derived from the Late LaL missum, past participle of milten 
" to send or place in position "), a service of meat, a dish sent to 
table. The term is also used of the persons who are in the habit 
of eating thdr meals together, and thus pattlculariy <>f the 
parties into which a ship's company or a regiment is divided, 
either according to their rank, or for convenience in eatering. 
Originally, a mess in this sense was a group of four persons 
sitting at one Ubie and helped from the same dishes. In the 
Inns of Court, London, the original number is preserved, four 
benchers or four students dining together. 

In eaHy times the word mess was applied to food of a more or kn 
liauid character, as soup, porridge, broth^ &c It b probably in 
allusion to the sloppy nature of semi-Hquid messes Of food that a 
chess has come also to mean a state of disorder, confusion and 
discomfort. Skeat takes the word in this sense to be a variant of 
" mash," originally to mix up. 

MESSAGE (a word ocoirring in slightly dififerent forms in 
several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span, mensaje, ItaL messagi*', 
adapted from the Low Lat. missaiicHm, from miUere), a com- 
munication either verbal, written or printed, sent from one 
person to another. Message is the term generally applied to the 
official commimications addressed by the heads of states to their 
legislatiu'es at the opening of the session or at other times. These 
also, though written, are borne and delivered by special messen- 
gers and have the force of a face to face speech. The sessional 
and other messages to Congress of the president of the United 
States of America are printed state documents. Washington 
and John Adams delivered them in person but the practice was 
discontinued by Jefferson. 

" Messenger " is of the same derivation; the earlier form of 
the word was messager (cf. passenger, scavenger). In ordinary 
language the word means one who is charged with the delivery 
of a message. In Scottish hw a messenger-at-arms is an 
official appointed by Lyon-King-at-Arms to execute summonses 
and letters of diligence connected with the Court of Sessions 
and Court of Justiciary (see WRrr: § Scotland). Technically 
the term ** messenger " is given to an endless rope or chain, 
passing from the capstan to the cable so that the latter may be 
hauled in when the messenger is wound round the capstan; 
also to a similar contrivance for hauling in a dredge. 

MESSAGER, ANDRE CHARLES PROSPER (1853- ), 
French musician, was born at Montlucon on the 50th of December 
1853; he studied at Paris, and in 1874 became organist at 
St Sulpice. He was for some time a pupil of Saint-Safins. In 
1876 he won the gold medal of the Societ6 des Compositeurs 
with a symphony. In 1880 he was appointed music director 
at Ste Marie-des-Batignolles. In 1885 he completed Firmin 
Bernicat's comic opera Francois des has bteus; and in 1885 
produced his own operettas. La Fauvelte du temple and La 
Biamaise, the latter being performed in London in 1886. His 
ballet Les Deux pigeons was produced at the Paris Op^ra in 1886. 
But it was the production of his comic opera La Basocke in 
1890 at the Op^ra Comique (English version in London the 
following year) that established his reputation; and snbn- 
quently this was increased by such tuneful and tasteful light 



MESSALLA CORVINUS— MESSAPII 



189 



•s iiaiame Ckrysanlkime (1893), MireUe (1894), Les 
Fdites Mickus (1897), and Vlronique/\%<iS), the latter of which 
had a great success in London. Besides conducting for some 
jcan at the Op6ra Comique in Paris, Messager's services were 
ako secured in London in igox and later years as one of the 
Erectors of the Covent Garden opera. 

yf«^«»^ CORVINUS. MARCUS VALERIUS (64 B.C.-A.D. 8), 
Roman general, author and patron of literature and art. He 
was educated partly at Athens, together with Horace and the 
yoonger Qccro. In early life he became attached to republican 
principles, which be never abandoned, although he avoided 
offending Augustus by too open an expression of them. He 
Boved that the title of pater patriae should be bestowed upon 
Augustus, and yet resigned the appointment of praefect of 
the dty after six days' tenure of office, because it was opposed 
to Ids ideas of constitutionalism. In 43 B.C. he was proscribed, 
but managed to escape to the camp df Brutus and Cassius. 
After the battle of Philippi (42) he went over to Antony, but 
nfasequently transferred his support to Octavian. In 31 
MfssaPa was appointed consul in place of Antony, and took 
put in the battle of Actium. He subsequently held commands 
ia the East, and suppressed the revolted Aquilanians; for this 
btter feat ht celebrated a triumph in 27. 

Messalla restored the road between Tusculum and Alba, and 

nany handsome buildings were due to his initiative. His 

influence on literature, which he encouraged after the manner 

q{ Maecenas, was considerable, and the group of literary persons 

whom he gathered round him — including TibuUus, Lygdamus 

lad the poet Sulpida — has been called " the Messalla circle." 

With Horace and TibuUus he was on intimate terms, and Ovid 

np i UMis his gratitude to him as the first to notice and encourage 

las work. The two panegyrics by unknown authors (one 

priated among the poems of Tibullus as iv. i, the other included 

u the CataUpUmt the collection of small poems attributed to 

Virgil) indicate the esteem in which he was held. Messalla was 

kinnetf the author of various works, all of which are lost. They 

indoded Manoirs of the dvil wars after the death of Caesar, 

ved by Suetonius and Plutarch; bucolic poems in Greek; 

ttaaslations of Greek speeches; occasional satirical and erotic 

verses; essays on the minutiae of grammar. As an orator, he 

foDoved Cicero instead of the Atticizing school, but his style 

ns affected and artificial. Later critics considered him superior 

to Cicero, and Tiberius adopted him as a model. Late in life 

k wrote a work on the great Roman families, wrongly identified 

vith an extant poem De progenie A ugusti Caesaris bearing the 

ttaeof Messalla, but really a i5th<entury produaion. 

Moooeraphs by L. Uricae (Beriin. 1829). J. M. Valet on (GrOnlngen 
l«74). L. Fontaine (Versailles, 1878): H. Schuiz, De M. V. aelaU 
(1W6): " Messalla in Aquitania " by J. P. Postgate in Claxsicoi 
ibnw^ March 1903; W. Y.Scilar. /tom«ii PoeU of the Augustan 



(IW6J: " Messalla in Aquitania " by J. P. Postgate in Classical 
Bakm, March 1903: W. Y. Scllar. Roman PoeU of the Augustat 
Aff. Heraa and Ike Elegiac Poets (Oxford. 1892). pp. 313 and 22 



(0258; the qMirious poem cd. by R. Mccenate (1820). 

Tvo other members of this distinguished family of the Valerian 
fcfli may be mentioned: — 

I. Marcus Valerius Messalla, father of the preceding, 
CBRsal in S3 B.C. He was twice accused of illegal practices 
IB annexion with the elections; on the first occasion he was 
icqoitted, in spite of his obvious guilt, through the eloquence 
flf his onde Quintus Hortensius; on the second he was con- 
dcBoed. He took the side of Caesar in the civil war. Nothing 
ippean to be known of his later history. He was augur for 
iitj-tft years and wrote a work on the science of divination. 

Good. Ad Fam. vi. 18, viii. 4. ad Auicum, iv. 16; Die Cassius xl. 
17. 45: Belium africanum, 28; Maicrobius, Satttmalia, i. 9, 14; 
Aahi GeUius xiiL 14, 3. 

t. Maktos Valerius Maximus Corvinits Messalla, consul 
2(3 BX. In this year, with his colleague Manius Otacilius 
(or Octadlius) Crassus, he gained a brilliant victory over the 
Caithaginiatts and Syracusans; the honour of a triumph was 
teccd to him alone. His relief of Messana obtained him the 
OfBoraen Messalla, which remained in the family for nearly 
loo yem. To commemorate his Sicilian victory, he caused it 
to be piftorislly represented on the wall of the Curia Hostilia, 



the first example of an historical fresco at Rome. He is said 
also to have brought the first sun-dial from Catana to Rome, 
where it was set up on a column in the forum. 

Polybius i. 16; Diod. Sic. xxiii. 4; Zonaras viii. 9; Pliny, NaL 
HisLt vii. 60, XXXV. 4 (7). 

MESSALUNA, VALERU. the third wife of the Roman 
emperor Claudius (q.v.). She was notorious for her profligacy, 
avarice and ambition, and exercised a complete ascendancy 
over her weak-minded husband, with the help of his all-powerful 
freedmen. During the absence of Claudius from the city, 
Messallina forced a handsome youth named Gains Silius to 
divorce his wife and go through a regular form of marriage with 
her. The frcedman Narcissus, warned by the fate of another 
freedman Polybius, who had been put to death by Messallina, 
informed Claudius of what had taken place, and persuaded him 
to consent to the removal of his wife. She was executed in the 
gardens of LucuUus, which she had obtained on the death of 
Valerius Asiaticus, who through her machinations had been 
condemned on a charge of treason. She was only twenty-six 
years of age. By Claudius she was the mother of the unfortunate 
Britannicus, and of Octavia, wife of Nero. 

,See Tacitus, Anfuils, xi. 1-38; Dio. Cassius Ix. 14-31 ; Juvenal vi. 
l«5-»35. X. 333. xiv. 33»5 Suetonius, Claudius; Mcrivale, i/u/. 0/ 
the Romans under the Empire ch. 50; A. Stahr, " Agrippina " in 
Bitder aus dem AUertkume, iv. (1865). 

MESSAPn, an ancient tribe which inhabited, in historical 
times, the south-eastern peninsula or " heel " of Italy, known 
variously in ancient times as Calabria, Messapia and lapygia. 
Their chief towns were Uzentum, Rudiae, Brundisium and Uria. 
They are mentioned (Herod. viL 170) as having inflicted a serious 
defeat on the Greeks of Tarentum in 473 B.C. Herodotus adds 
a tradition which links them to the Cretan subjecU of "King 
Minos." Their language is preserved for us in a scanty group 
of perhaps fifty inscriptions of which only a few contain more 
than proper names, and in a few glosses in ancient writers 
collected by Mommsen {Unteritaliscke DiaUkU, p. 70). Unluckily 
very few originals of the inscriptions are now in existence, 
though some few remain in the museum at Taranto. The only 
satisfactory transcripts are those given by (i) Mommsen (Joe. 
cit.) and by (2) I. P. Droop in the Annual of the British School 
at Athens (1905-1906), xii. 137, who includes, for pur[)oses of 
comparison, as the reader should be warned, some specimens 
of the unfortunately numerous class of forged inscriptions. A 
large number of the inscriptions collected by Gamurrini in the 
appendices to Fabretti's Corpus inscriptionum italicarum are 
forgeries, and the text of the rest is negligently reported. It is 
therefore safest to rely on the texts collected by Mommsen, 
cumbered though they are by the various readings given to him 
by various authorities. In spite, however, of these difficulties 
some facts of considerable importance have been established. 

The inscriptions, so far as it is safe to judge from the copies 
of the older finds and from Droop's facsimiles of the newer, are 
all in the Tarcntine-Ionic alphabet (with [ for v and h for h). 
For limits of date 400-150 B.C. may be regarded as approxi- 
mately probable; the two most important inscriptions— those of 
Bindisi and Vaste — may perhaps be assigned provisionally to 
the 3rd century B.C. 

Mommsen's first attempt at dealing with the inscriptions and 
the language attained solid, if not very numerous, results, chief 
of which were the genitival character of the endings— aiAf and 
ihi\ and the conjunctional value of in6i {loc. cit. 79-84 sqq.). 
Since that time (1850) very little progress has been made. 
There is, in fact, only one attempt known to the present writer 
to which the student can be referred as proceeding upon 
thoroughly scientific lines, that of Professor Alf Torp in Indoger- 
manische Forschungcn (1895), v., 195. which deals fully with the 
two inscriptions just mentioned, and practically sums up all 
that is either certain or probable in the conjectures of his pre- 
decessors. Hardly more than a few words can be said to have 
been separated and translated with certainty — kalatoras (masc. 
gen. sing.) " of a herald " (written upon a herald's staff which 
was once in the Naples Museum); aran (ace. sing, fem.) " arable 



IQO 



MESSENE— MESSENIA 



land "; masuSt " greater " (neut. ace. sing.), the first two 
syllables of the Latin maiest(u\ while Upise (3rd sing, aorist 
indie.) " plaeed " or " offered "; and forms corresponding to the 
article (to- — Greek rb) seem also reasonably probable. 

Some phonetic characteristics of the dialect may be regarded 
as quite certain; (i) the change of the original short 6 toU (as 
in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras); (2) of final -m to -n 
(as in aran) ; (3) of -ni- -ti- -si- resj)cctively to -n»- -^- and -ss- 
as in dazohonnes " DasOnius," dasohonnihi " DasOnii "; dazelBes, 
gen. dazeWihi "Dazetius, Dazetii," from the shorter stem daset-; 
VaUasso for VaUasio (a derivative from the shorter name Valla); 

(4) the loss of final <f (as in Upise), and probably of final / (as in 
-dtSy perhaps meaning "set," from the root of Gr. r\$rnu)\ 

(5) the change of original dh to d (anda >■ Gr. *v6a and bh to If 
{beran >- La,t.feranl); (6) -au- before (at least some) consonants 
becomes -d- {Bdsta, earlier jSowrra). (7) Very great interest 
attaches to the form penkahek — which Torp very probably 
identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio — which is a derivative 
of the Indo-European numeral *penque " 5." 

. If this last identification be correct it would show that in 
Messapian Oust as in Venetic and Ligurian) the original velars 
were retained as gutturals and not converted into labials. The 
change of to a is exceedingly interesting as being a phenomenon 
associated with the northern branches of Indo-European such 
as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not appearing in any 
other southern dialect hitherto knowzL The Greek 'A^pofiira 
appears in the form AprodUa (dat. sing., fem.). The use of 
double consonants which has been already pointed out in the 
Messapian inscriptions has been very acutely connected by 
Deecke with the tradition that the same practice was introduced 
at Rome by the poet Ennius who came from the Messapian town 
Rudiae (Festus, p. 293 M). 

It should be added that the proper names in the inscriptions 
show the regular Italic system of gentile nomen preceded by a 
personal praenomen; and that some inscriptions show the inter- 
esting feature which appears in the Tables of Heradea of a 
crest or coat of arms, such as a triangle or an anchor, peculiar 
to particular families. The same reappears in the lovilae {q.v.) 
of Capua and Cumae. 

For further information the student must be referred to the 
aourccs already mentioned and further to W. Deecke in a series of 
articles in the Kheinisches Museum, xxxvi. 576 sqq. ; xxxvii. 373 sqq. ; 
xl. 131 sqq.; xlii. 226 sqq.; S. Bugec, Betxenbergers BeUrdge, vol. 18. 
A newly discovered inscription has been published by L. Ccci 
Notizie degli Scavi (1908). p. 86; and one or two others are recorded 
by Professor Viola, ibid. 1884, p. 128 sqq. and in GiornaU degli Scan 
d% Pompei, vol. 4 (1878), pp. 70 sqq. Tne place-names of the district 
are collected by R. S. Conway, Ths Italic DialedSt p. 31 ; for the 
Tarentinc-Ionic alphabet see ibid, ii., 461. 

For a discussion of the important ethnological question of the 
origin of the Mcssapians see W. Helbig. Hermes, xi. 257; P. 
Kretschmer, EinUUunt in die GeschichU der griechischen Sprqche^ 
pp. 262 sqq., 272 sqq. ; H. Hirt, Die sprachliche Stellung der Illyrischen 
iFestscknft fur H. Kiepert, pp. 179-188). Reference should also 
be made to the discussion of their relation to the Veneti by C. Pauli 
in Die VeHeter,j). 413 sqq., especially p. 437; and also to R. S. 
Conway, Italic Dialects, i. 15. (R. S. C.) 

MESSENE, an ancient Greek city, the capital of Messenla, 
founded by Epaminondas in 369 B.C., after the battle of Leuclra 
and the first Theban invasion of the Peloponnese. The town 
was built by the combined Theban and Argive armies and the 
exiled Messenians who had been invited to return and found a 
state which should be independent of Spartan rule. The site 
was chosen by Epaminondas and lay on the western slope of 
the mountain which dominates the Messenian plain and cul- 
minates in the two peaks of Ithome and Eua. The former of 
these (3630 ft.) served as the acropolis, and was included within 
the same system of fortifications as the lower city. Messcne 
remained a place of some importance under the Romans, but 
we hear nothing of it in medieval times and now the hamlet of 
Mavromati occupies a small part of the site. 

Pausanias has left us a description of the city (iv. 31-33), its 
chief temples and statues, its springs, its market-place and 
gymnasium, its place of sacrifice {UpoOOaiov) , the tomb of the 
hero Aristomenes {q.v.) and the temple of Zeus Ithomatas on the 



summit of the acropolis with a statue by the famous ArgiTe 
sculptor Ageladas, originally made for the Messenian helots 
who had settled at Naupactus at the dose of the third Messenian 
War. But what chiefly exdted his wonder was the strength of 
its fortifications, which excelled all those of the Greek world. Of 
the wall, some si ^- in extent, considerable portions yet 
remain, especially on the north and north-west, and almost the 
entire circuit can still be traced, affording the finest extant 
example of Greek fortification. The wall is flanked by towers 
about 31 ft. high set at irregular intervals: these have two 
storeys with loopholes in the lower and windows in the upper, 
and are entered by doors on a levd with the top of the wait which 
is reached by flights of steps. Of the gates only two can be 
located, the eastern or Laconian, situated on the eastern side 
of the saddle uniting Ithome and Eua, and the northern or 
Arcadian gate. Of the former but little remains: the latter, 
however, is excellently preserved and consists of a drcular 
court about 20 yds. in diameter with inner and outer gates, 
the latter flanked by square towers some 11 yds. apart. The 
lintel of the inner gate was formed by a single stone x8 ft. 
8 in. in length, and the masonry of the circular coiut is of 
astonishing beauty and accuracy. The other buildings which 
can be identified are the theatre, the stadium, the council 
chamber or Bouleuterion, and the propylaeum of the market, 
while on the shoulder of the mountain are the foimdations of 
a small temple, probably that of Artemis Laphria. 

Sec E. Curtius, Pehponnesos, ii. 138 sqq. : \V. M. Leake, Travels in 
the Morea, i. 366 sqq.; J. G. Frazer, Pausanias* s Description <k 
Greece, iii. 429 sqq. ; W. G. Clark, Peloponnese, 23 * '^' 

- - . . „ , yrU, I07 sqq.; C 

Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland, ii. 165 sqq. (M. N. T.) 



232 sqq.; A- Blouet, 
Pla -- - - •* 



latcs 38-47 ; E. P. 
C 



MESSENIA (Gr. Mc<r(r^in7 or U€aarivla), the S.W. district 
of the Peloponnese, bounded on the E. by Mt Ta^getus, on the 
N. by the river Neda and the Arcadian Mountains, on the S. 
and W. by the sea. Its area is some 825,000 acres, ccmsiderably 
less than that of Shropshire or Wiltshire. Historically and 
economically its most important part is the great plain, 
consisting of two distinct portions, watered by the river Pamisus 
(mod. Pimatza) and its affluents. This is the most fertile tract 
in Greece, and at the present day produces oranges, dtrons, 
almonds, figs, grapes and olives in great abundance and of 
excellent quality. The plain is bounded on the north by the 
Nomian Mountains (mod. Tetrisi, 5210 ft.) and their westerly 
extension, on the west by the mountains of Cyparissia (4000 ft.), 
a southern continuation of which forms the south-west peninsula 
of the Morea, attaining its greatest height in Mt Mathia (rood. 
Lyk6dimo 3160 ft.). Off the south coast of this peninsula 
lie the three Oenussae islands and the islet of Theganussa 
(Vcnetik6). In spite of its long coast-line, Messenia has no good 
harbours except the Bay of Pylos (Navarino), and has never 
pbyed an important pan in Greek naval history. 

The earliest inhabitants of Messenia are said to have been 
Pelasgians and Ldeges iqg.v.), of whom the latter had their 
capital at Andania. Then came an Aeok>-Minyan immigration, 
which apparently extended to Messenia, though the Pylos of 
Nestor almost certainly lay in Triphylia, and not at the site 
which in historic times bore that name. In the Homeric poems 
eastern Messenia is represented as tmder the rule of Mendaus 
of Sparta, while the western coast is imder the Neldds of Pylos. 
but after Menclaus's death the Messenian frontier was pushed 
eastwards as far as Taygetus. A body of Dorians under 
Cresphontes invaded the country from Arcadia, and, taking as 
their capital Stenyclarus in the northern plain, extended first 
their suzerainty and ihcn'their nde over the whole district. TT* 
task apparently proved an e^sy one, and the Dorians Mending 
with the previous inhabitants produced a single Messenian race 
with a strong national feeling. But the fertility of the soil, 
the warm and genial climate, the mingling of races and the 
absence of opposition, combined to render the Messenians no 
match for their hardy and warlike neighbours of Sparta. War 
broke out — in consequence, it was said, of the murder of the 
Spartan king Tdedus by the Messenians — which, in spite of 



MESSIAH 



191 



thebeioisinof RingEuphaesandhb successor Aristodemus (q.v.) 

coded in the labjection of Messenia to Sparu (c. 720 B.C.). 

T«o gencntioos later the Messenians revolted and under the 

leadcnhip of Aristomenes (q.v.) kept the Spartans at bay for 

some seventeen years (64S-631 b.c, according to Grote): but 

the stronghold of Ira (Eira) fell after a siege of eleven years, 

and thoae Messenians who did not leave the country were reduced 

to the condition of helots. The next revolt broke out in 464, 

when a severe earthquake destroyed Sparta and caused great 

loss of life; the insurgents defended themselves for some years 

on the rock-citadel of Ithome, as they had done in the first war; 

but eventually they had to leave the Peloponnese and were 

settled by the Athenians >at Naupactus in the territory of the 

Locri Ozolae. After the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.) Epaminondas 

mvited the exiled Messenians scattered in Italy, Sicily, Africa 

ud elsewhere to return to their country: the city of Messene 

(ff.) was founded in 369 to be the capital of the country and, 

Iflie Megalopolis in Arcadia, a powerful check on Sparta. Other 

tovns too were founded or rebuilt at this time, though a great 

put of the land still remained very sparsely peopled. But 

tixmgh independent Messenia never became really powerful 

or able to stand without external support. After the fall of 

tbe TlKban power, to which it had owed its foundation, it 

became an ally of Philip II. of Macedon and took no part in 

the battle of Chaeroneia (338 B.C.). Subsequently it joined 

tk Achaean League, and we find Messcnian troops fighting 

along with the Achacans and Antigonus Doson at Sellasia in 

322 B.C Philip V. sent Demetrius of Pharos to seize Messene, 

bat the attempt failed and cost the life of Demetrius: soon 

afterwards the Spartan tyrant Nabis succeeded in taking the 

city, but was forced to retire by the timely arrival of the Philo- 

poeotfn and the Megalopolitans. A war afterwards broke out 

vith the Achaean League, during which Philopocmcn was 

opcured and put to death by the Messenians (183 B.C.), but 

Ljrcortas took the city in the following year, and it again joined 

tbe Achaean League, though much weakened by the loss of 

Ahia, Thuria and Pherae, which broke loose from it and entered 

the League as independent members (see Achaean League). 

In 146 B.C. the Messenians, together with the other states of 

Greece, were brought directly under Roman sway by L. Mum- 

nuos. For centuries there had been a dispute between 

Messenia and Sparta about the possession of the Ager 

DtntkdiaUs on the western slope of Taygctus: after various 

decisions by Philip of Macedon, Antigonus, Mummius, Caesar, 

.\ntony, Augustus and others, the question was settled in 

AJ>. 25 by Tiberius and the Senate in favour of the 

Messenians (Tac. Ann. iv. 43). 

In iht middle ages Messenia shared the fortunes of the rest 
of the Peloponnese. It was overrun by Slavic hordes, who have 
left their traces in many village names, and was one of the chief 
battlefields of the various powers — Byzantines, Franks, Vene- 
tians and Turks — who struggled for the possession of the Morea. 
Stnlcing reminders of these conflicts are afforded by the extant 
nuos of the medieval strongholds of Kalamata, Coron (anc. 
Attnt, mod. Korone), Modon {Methane) and Pylos. At the 
present day Messenia forms a department with its capital at 
Kalamata, and a population numbering (according to the census 
of 1907), 127.991- 

See W. M. Leake, Travels in ike Morea (London, 1830), i. 324 sqq. ; 
E. Curtius, Pdoponnesos (Gotha, 1852). it. 121 sqq ; C. Bursian, 
Gt»p9pki€wnCriech€nland (Leipzig. 1868), ii. i^sqq.; E. P Bob- 
hyt, Kakerches giof^aphiques sur Us ruints de la Morie (Paris, 1835), 
M^sqq.; Strabo viu. 358 sqq. ; Pausanias iv., and the commentary in 
J- G . Fraxer, Pausanias's Description of Greece, vol. iii. ; and 
artides by W. Kolbe. Alhenische MtUetlungen (1904), 36A sqq.. 
aad M. N. Tod, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxv. 32 sqq. Physical 
^ares: A. Philippson. Der Peloponnes (Berlin, 1892), 340-381. 
iGKTiptkHn: Inscrtptiones rraecae, v.; Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage 
»(ydo%ique: Inscriptions, Nos. 291-326 A; Collitz-Bechtel, Samm- 
bai 4er griech. Dialektinschriften, lii. 2, Nos. 4637-4692. 

(M. N .T.) 

nSSIAH (Dan. z. 9$, 26), and Messias (John i. 41; iv. 25), 
Uaiacriptions (the first form modified by reference to the 
etynob^J oi the Greek Vliffalat, (Mealas, Mtceias), which in i 



turn represents the Aramaic "T^ (misklkd)^ answering to the 
Hebrew PTW, " the anointed." * There can be no doubt that 
a magical power was ascribed to the anointing oil (cf.Frazer, 
Golden Bough, 2nd ed., ii. 364 sqq.). The king was thereby 
rendered sacrosanct (i Sam. xxiv. 6 sqq.; 2 Sam. i. 14 sqq.; iv. 9 
sqq.), and he was considered to be endowed with a special virtue. 
Thus whosoever curses the king is stoned as though God Himself 
had been cursed (2 Sam. xix. 22). In ancient Egyptian cultus 
the priest, after he has solemnly saluted the gods, begins the 
daily toilet of the god, which consists in sprinkling his image, 
clothing it with coloured cloths, and anointing it with oil (Erman, 
Die aegyptischt Religion, p. 49). In the magical texts of 
Babylonia a similar virtue was attached to oil: "bright oil, 
pure oil, resplendent oil that bestows magnificence on the Gods 
... the oil for the conjuration (liptu) of Marduk" (Tallquist, 
Makia series, tablet vii. col. i, 31 sqq.; cf. Gressmann, Der 
Ursprung der israditischjiidischen Eschatologie, p. 258, sqq.). We 
have, in Schrader's K.l.B. v. letter 37 (p. 98), evidence from 
the Tell el-Amama tablets that the anointing of kings was 
practised in Egypt or Syria in 1450 B.C. (c.) in a letter addressed 
to the Egyptian king by Ramman-nirari of Nuba§ii. On the 
Intimate relation which in primitive times subsisted between the 
sorcerer and the king see the citation from Frazer's Early 
History of Kingship, p. 127, in the article Priest, and cf. p. 29: 
" Classical evidence points to the conclusion that in prehistoric 
ages ... the various tribes or cities were ruled by kings who 
discharged priestly duties" (p. 31). Thus the early kings of 
Assyria were priests of Assur (ASur), the tutelary deity of 
Assyria. Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1 100 B.C.) calls his predecessors, 
Samsi-Ramman and llmi-Dagan, iUakku (pa-te-si) of the God 
Assur (Prism-insc. col. vii. 62, 63). Later kings, e.g. Shal- 
maneser II. (Nimrud-obelisk, line 15, monolith, line 11) and 
Assur-bani-pal (Rassam cyl. coL vii. 94) call themselves by the 
more definite title of Sangu of Assur. The Hebrew word with 
the article prefixed occurs in the Old Testament only in the 
phrase '* the anointed priest " (Lev. iv. 3, 5, 16; vi. 22 [15I), but 
" Yahweh's anointed " is a common title of the king of Israel, 
applied in the historical books to Saul and David, in Lam. iv. 20 
to Zedekiah, and in Isa. xlv. i extended to Cyrus. In the 
Psalms corresponding phrases (My, Thy, His anointed)' occur 
nine times, to which may be added the lyrical passages i Sam. ii. 
10, Hab. iii. 13. 

In the present attitude of literary criticism it would be most 
difiicult to assert, as Robertson Smith did in the 9th edition of 
this work, that " in the intention of the writers it [i.e. the term 
messiah or " anointed "1 refers to the king then on the throne." 
Nor would most recent critics agree with Professor Driver 
{L.O.T., 8th ed. p. 385) in considering Pss. ii. and Ixxii. as " pre- 
sumably pre-exilic" G. Buchanan Gray (J.Q.K., July 1895, 
p. 658 sqq.) draws a parallel between the " king " in the Psalms 
and the " servant " in Deutcro-Isaiah or Yahweh's " Son " 
(in Hos. xi. i, &c.) which is applied to Israel either actual or 
idealized. It would be possible so to interpret " king " or 
" anointed " in some Psalms, e.g. Ixi., Ixiii. and Ixxxiv., but 
hardly in Pss. ii., Ixxii. and Ixxxix., where the Messianic reference 
is strongly personal.' In the Psalms the ideal aspect of the 
kingship, its religious importance as the expression and organ 
of Yahweh's sovereignty, is prominent. When the Psalter 
became a liturgical book the historical kingship had gone by, 
and the idea alone remained, no longer as the interpretation of 
a present political fact but as part of Israel's religious inherit- 
ance. It was impossible, however, to think that a true idea had 
become obsolete merely because it found no expression on earth 
for the time being; Israel looked again for an anointed king to 
whom the words of the sacred hymns should apply with a force 

^ The transcription is as in TtoaoOp Ttff^lp for ttj, Onomaslica, 
cd. LaR.. pp. 247, 281, Ba«r. /Jii. 3. For ihc tcrminatiun -01 for wn, 
see Lanaruc. Psalt. Mem^h., p. vii. 

•The plural is found m Ps. cv. 15, of the patriarchs as conse- 
crated persons. 

* In Ps. Ixxxiv. 9 [10] It \s d\sputcA ^\v«1\v«t \\v^ ^.Tvc>vTvV«^ Ck^^fc 
IS the king, the priest, or the naUoiv M 9k "wYvo\*. "W^ *w;ovx^n\v« ">» 
perhaps the best. 



192 



MESSIAH 



never realized in the imperfect kingship of the past. Thus the 
Psalms were necessarily viewed as prophetic; and meantime, in 
accordance with the common Hebrew representation of ideal 
things as existing in heaven, the true king remains hidden with 
God. The steps by which this result was reached must, however, 
be considered in detail. 

The hope of the advent of an ideal king was only one feature 
of that larger hope of the salvation of Israel from all evils, 
which was constantly held forth by all the prophets, from the 
time when the seers of the 8th century B.C. proclaimed that the 
true conception of Yahweh's relation to His people could become 
a practical reality only through a great deliverance following 
a sifting judgment of the most terrible kind. The idea of a 
judgment so severe as to render possible an entire breach with 
the guilty past is common to all the prophets, but is expressed 
in a great variety of forms and images. As a rule the prophets 
directly connect the final restoration with the removal of the 
sins of their own age; to Isaiah the last troubles are those of 
Assyrian invasion, to Jeremiah the restoration follows on the 
exile to Babylon, to Daniel on the overthrow of the Greek 
monarchy. But all agree in giving the central place to the 
realization of a real effective kingship of Yahweh; in fact the 
conception of the religious subject as the nation of Israel, with 
a national organization under Yahweh as king, is common to 
the whole Old Testament, and connects prophecy proper with 
the so-called Messianic psalms and similar passages which speak 
of the religious relations of the Hebrew commonwealth, the 
religious meaning of national institutions, and so necessarily 
contain ideal elements reaching beyond the empirical present. 
All such passages are frequently caUed Messianic; but the term 
is more properly reserved as the specific designation of one 
particular branch of the Hebrew hope of salvation, which, 
becoming prominent in post-canonical Judaism, used the 
name of the Messiah as a technical term (which it never is 
in the Old Testament), and exercised a great influence on 
New Testament thought— the term " the Christ " {6 XP*<""^) 
being itself nothii}g more than the translation of " the 
Messiah." 

In the period of the Hebrew monarchy the thought that 
Yahweh is the divine king of Israel was associated with the 
conception that the human king reigns by right only if he reigns 
by commission or " unction " from Him. Such was the theory 
of the kingship in Ephraim as well as in Judah (Dcut. xxxiii.; 
a Kings ix. 6), till in the decadence of the northern state Amos 
(ix. ii) foretold* the redintegration of the Davidic kingdom, 
and Hosea (iii. 5; viii. 4) expressly associated a similar prediction 
with the condemnation of the kingship of Ephraim as illegitimate. 
So the great Judaean prophets of the 8th century connect the 
salvation of Israel with the rise of a Davidic king, full of Yahweh's 
Spirit, in whom all the energies of Yahweh's transcendental 
kingship are as it were incarnate (Isa.ix. 6 seq. ; xi. i scq. ;J^Iicah v.). 
This conception, however, is not one of the constant elements 
of prophecy; other prophecies of Isaiah look for the decisive 
interposition of Yahweh in the crisb of history without a kingly 
deliverer. Jeremiah again speaks of the future David or 
righteous sprout of David's stem (xxiii. $ seq.; xxx. 9) and 
Ezekiel uses similar language (xxxiv., xxxvii.); but that such 
passages do not necessarily mean more than that the Davidic 
dynasty shall be continued in the time of restoration under 
worthy princes seems clear from the way in which Ezekiel 
speaks of the prince in chs. xlv., xlvi. As yet we have no 
fixed doctrine of a personal Messiah, but only material from 
which such a doctrine might be drawn. The religious view of 
the kingship is still essentially the same as in 2 Sam. vii., where 

* Most recent critics regard Amos ix.9-15 as a later addition, and 
the same view is held by Nowack, Harper and others respecting 
Ho*, iii. ^, though on grounds which seem questionable. Isa. 
ix. 1-7, XI. I sqq. are held by Hackmann, Cheyne, Marti, and 
other critics to be post-exil*an. Duhm and others hold that they 
are genuine. It may be admitted that Isa. xi. i seq. might be hold to 
be contemporary with Isa. Iv. 3, 4, and lu refer to Zcrubbabel. 
Cf. Haggai ii. 21-33, composed seventeen years afterwards. Mic. v. 
1-8 can with difficulty be regarded as genuine. 



the endless duration of the Davidic dyntsty ii let forth at put 
of Yahweh's plan. 

There are other parts of the Old Testament— notably i Sank 
viii., ziL (belonging to the later slralum)—in which the voy 
existence of a human kingship is represented as a departuxe from 
the theocratic ideal, and after the exile, when the monucfay 
had come to an end, we find pictures of the latter days in whkh 
its restoration has no place. Such is the great prophecy of 
Isa. xl.-xlviii., in which Cyrus is the anointed of Yahweh. So too 
there is no allusion to a human kingship in Joel or in Maladu; 
the old forms of the Hebrew state were broken, and rdigioai 
hopes expressed themselves in other shapes.* In the book of 
Daniel it is collective Israel that, under the symbol of a " son of 
man," receives the kingdom (viL 13, 18, 22, 27). 

Meantime, however, the decay and iiltimate sOence oi the liv- 
ing prophetic word concurred with prolonged political servitude 
to produce an important change in Hebrew religion. To the 
prophets the kingship of Yahweh was not a mere ideal, bat an 
actual reality. Its full manifestation indeed, to the eye of sense 
and to the unbelieving world, lay in the future; but true faith 
found a present stay in the sovereignty of Yahweh, daily 
exhibited in providence and interpreted to each generation by 
the voice of the prophets. And, while Yahweh's kinipdi^wu 
a living and present fact, it refused to be formulated in fixed 
invariable shape. 

But when the prophets were succeeded by the scribes, the 
interpreters of the written word, and the yoke of foreign oppres- 
sors rested on the land, Yahweh's kingship, which presupposed 
a living nation, found not even the most inadequate ezpccasioB 
in daily political life. Yahweh was still the lawgiver of Israd, 
but His law was written in a book, and He was not present to 
administer it. He was still the hope of Israel, but the hope 
too was only to be read in books, and these were interpreted 
of a future which was no longer the ideal development of fones 
already at work, but wholly new and supematuraL The present 
was a blank, in which religious duty was summed up In patient 
obedience to the law and penitent submission to the Divine 
chastisements. The scribes weit mainly busied with the law; 
but no religion can subsist on mere law; and the systemntixatioB 
of the prophetic hopes, and of those more ideal parts of the 
other sacred literature which, because ideal and dissevered fron 
the present, were now set on one line with the prophecies, went 
on side by side with the systematization of the law, by means of a 
harmonistic exegesis, which sought to gather up every pro|4xlic 
image in one grand panorama of the issue of Israers and the 
world's history. The beginnings of this process can probably 
be traced within the canon itself, in the book of Jod and the 
last chapters of Zechariah;' and, if this be so, we see from Zcch. 
ix. that the picture of the ideal king claimed a place in such 
constructions. The full development of the method bdongs, 
however, to the post -canonical literature, and was naturaUy 
much less regular and rapid than the growth of the legal tradi- 
tions of the scribes. It was in crises of national anguish that 
men turned most eagerly to the prophecies, and sought to 
construe their teachings as a promise of speedy deliverance (lee 
Apocalyptic Literature). But these books, however influen- 
tial, had no public authority, and when the yoke of oppresnoo 
was lightened but a little their enthusiasm lost much of its 
contagious power. It is not therefore safe to measure Vbtt 
general growth of eschatological doctrine by the apocalyptic 
i>ooks, of which Daniel alone attained a canonical position. In 
the Apocrypha eschatology has a relatively small place; but there 
is enough to show that the hope of Israel was never forgotten, 
and that the imagery of the prophets was accepted with a 
litcralness not contemplated by the prophets themselves. 

It was, however, only very gradually that the figure and name 
of the Messiah acquired the prominence which they have in 

* The hopes which Hagcai and Zcchariah connect with the name of 
Zerubbabcl, a descendant of David, hardly form an exceptioo totlus 
statement. There may even be a reference to himin I«. Iv. A, 4. 

•See Stadc's articles " Deuteroiacharja," Z./.i4.-r.-ltc*e M^Mf.. 
1881-1882. Cf. Dan. ix. 2 for the use of the older piup h e cks 
in the solution of new problems of faith. 



MESSIAH 



193 



htcr Jewish doctxioe of the last thinp and in the offidil ezegnis 
of the Taigunu. In the very developed eschatology o! Daniel 
they vc, as we have seen, altogether wanting, and in the 
Afwaypha, both before and after the Maccabean revival, the 
cvcriasting throne of David's house is a mere historical reminis- 
cence (Ecdos. ilviL xx; i Mace ii. S7)- So long as the wars 
«f independence occupied the Palestinian Jews, and the Hasmo- 
Mean sovereignty promised a measure of independence and 
fdidty under the law, the hope that connected itself with the 
Hoose of David was not likely to rise to fresh life, especially as a 
coHiderahfe proportion of the not very numerous passages of 
Saipture which speak of the ideal king might with a little 
fltraining be applied to the rising star of the new dynasty (cf. 
X Ma r^ ziv. 4~xs). It is only in Alexandria, where the Jews 
wett still subject to the yoke of the Gentile, that at this time 
if, 140 BX.) we find the oldest Sibylline verses (iii. 653 seq.) 
pndaiming the approach of the righteous king whom God shall 
nae up from the East (Isa. jdL a.) The name Messiah is still 
hcking. and the central point of the prophecy is not the reign of 
tke deliverer but the subjection of all nations to the Uw and the 
Umpie.' 

With the growing weakness and corruption of the Hasmonaean 
princes, and the alienation of a large part of the nation from 
tkir canse, the hope of a better kingship begins to appear in 
Jidaca also; at first darkly shadowed forth in the Book of Enoch 
(ckap. xc), where the white steer, the future leader of God's 
hod after the deliverance from the heathen, stands in a certain 
OBtrast to the actual dynasty (the honwdktmbs); andthenmuch 
MRckarly, and for the first time with use of the name Messiah, 
ii the PmOct «f Solomon, the chief document of the protest of 
Atraaism against its enemies the later Hasmonaeans. The 
traole between the Pharisees and Sadducees, between the party 
«( tke Kiibes and the aristocracy, was a struggle for mastery 
between a secularized hierarchy whose whole interests were 
tkie of their own selfish politics, and a party to which God 
ad the ezaa fulfihnent of the law according to the scribes 
scie an in alL This doctrine had grown up under Persian and 
Gicdan ruk, and no govenunent that possessed or aimed at 
poKtical independence could possibly show constant deference 
-JO tlK punctiUos of the schoolmen. The Pharisees themselves 
omU pot but see that their principles were politically impotent; 
ik OHSt scrupulous observance of the Sabbath, for example 
—tad this was the culminating point of legality — could not 
tkrst back the beathexL Thus the party of the scribes, when 
tkj cane into conflict with an active political power, which at 
tke laoM time claimed to represent the theocratic interests of 
bcKl, were compelled to lay fresh stress on the doctrine that the 
trac ddivcranoe of Israel must come from God. 

Bat now the Jews were a nation once more, and national ideas 
cune to the front. In the Hasmonaean sovereignty these ideas 
took a politkal form, and the result was the secularization 
of the kii^dom of God for the sake of a harsh and rapacious 
imtoaacy. The nation threw itself on the side of the Pharisees ; 
lot ia the spirit of punctilious legalism, but with the ardour of 
t satknd fnthusiif** deceived in its dearest hopes, and turning 
for belp from the delusive kingship of the Hasmonaeans to the 
trie kii^dup of Yahweh, and to His vicegerent the king of 
Iknfs house. It is in this connexion that the doctrine and 
auae of the Messiah appear in the PsaUor of Solomon. The 
ctcrail irtw plwp ci the House of David, so long forgotten, is 
Kiied on as the proof that the Hasmonaeans have no divine right 
"ThoQ, Lord, art oar long for ever and ever. . . . Thou didst 
chooie David as king over Israel, and swarest unto htm concerning 
lii ned for ever that his kiivnhip ^ould never fail before Thee. 
Aad far our lins sinners (the Hasmonaeans) have risen up over us, 
Hkbtt with force the kingdom which Thou didst not promise to 
tkn, proCanina the throne of David in their pride. But Thou, O 
U«i win cast them down and root out their seed from the land, 
«*«a a Bun not of our race (Pompey) rises up aeainst them. .... 
Bikid, O Lord, and raise up their king the Son of David at the time 
tkttTboa hast appointed, to reign over Israel Thy servant ; and sird 
^ viib ouengtn to crush unjust rulers; to cleanse Jerusalem from 
*e keatbca that tre ad it under foot, to cast out sinners from Thy 

^USih^ SL 775* »«^ nw* undoubtedly be read for oUr. 



inheritance; to break the 
OS potter's vesarls with a 



of sinners sad all tkdr itfrni^th 
(Ps. ii. 0); to deaLroy the Uw- 



less nations with the word of his mouth (lu. eI. 4k; to eat her a 
holy nation and lead them in righteousness. . . . Ht iha.\\ divtd« 
them by tribes in the land, and no stranger and rarcig^iicir «kiAtl dwcD 
with thiem; he shall judge the nations in wi^dDrn and lighu-ou^nffts. 
The heathen nations shall serve under hb yoke; he shall glonf/ 
the Lord before all the earth, and cleanse JitLisdltm in h alines, »* 
in the beginning. From the ends of the ii3.t\h ail nauoctai »htU 
come to see his glory and bring the wcar> sons of lion &* pttt 
(Isa. be ^ seq.); to see the glory of the Lord whh whkh CwJ Mih 
crowned nim. for he is over th«n a righteous king taught of Cod^ 
In his days there shall be no unrighteousni!rs9 m their mid»t £ for 
they are all holy and their king the anointed of iJtMt Lord0i^«#T4i 
rti^iat, mistranslation of fnr rrwo). — Psalt. ScL xvii 

This conception is traced in lines too firm to be those of a 
first essay; it had doubtless grown up as an integral part of the 
religious protest against the Hasmonaeans. And while the 
polemical motive is obvious, and the argument from prophecy 
against the legitimacy of a non-Davidic dynasty is quite in the 
manner of the scribes, the spirit of theocratic fervour which 
inspires the picture of the Messiah is broader and deeper than 
ihdr narrow legalism. In a word, the Jewish doctrine of the 
Messiah marks the fusion of Pharisaism with the national 
religious feeling of the Maccabean revival. Thb national feeling, 
claiming a leader against the Romans as well as deliverance from 
the Sadducee aristocracy, again seu the idea of the kingship 
rather than that of resurrection and individual retribution in 
the central pUce. Henceforward the doctrine of the Messiah 
is the centre of popular hope and the object of theological 
culture. The New Testament is the best evidence of iu influence 
on the masses (see especially Matt. xxL 9); and the exegesis 
of the Targums, which in iU beginnings doubtless reaches back 
before the time of Christ, shows how it was fostered by the 
Rabbins and preached in the synagogues.* lu diffusion far 
beyond Palestine, and in circles least accessible to such ideas, is 
proved by the fact thatPhilohunself (De proem, et poen. § 16) 
gives a Messianic interpretation of Num. xxiv. 27 (LXX). It 
must not indeed be supposed that the doctrine was as yet the 
undisputed part of Hebrew faith which it became when the fall 
of the state and the antithesis to Christianity threw all Jewish 
thought into the lines of the Pharisees. It has, for example, 
no place in the Assumption of Moses or the Book of JubUets. 
But, as the fatal struggle with Rome became more and more 
imminent, the eschatological hopes which increasingly absorbed 
the Hebrew mind all group themselves roimd the person of 
the Messiah. In the later parts of the Book of Enoch (the 
" sjrmbols " of chap. xlv. seq.) the judgment day of the Messiah 
(identified with Daniel's " Son of Man ") stands in the fore- 
front of the eschatological picture. Josephus (B. J. vi. s, § 4) 
testifies that the belief in the immediate appearance of the 
Messianic king gave the chief impulse to the war that ended in 
the destruction of the Jewish state; after the fall of the temple 
the last apocalypses {Baruch, 4 Ezra) still loudly proclaim the 
near victory of the God-sent king; and Bar Cochcbas, the leader 
of the revolt against Hadrian, was actually greeted as the 
Messiah by Rabbi Aqiba (cf. Luke xxi. 8). These hopes were 
again quenched in bloiod; the political idea of the Messiah, the 
restorer of the Jewish state, still finds utterance in the daily 
prayer of every Jew (the Shemdni Esre), and is enshrined in 
the system of Rabbinical theology; but its historical significance 
was buried in the ruins of Jerusalem.' 

• The Targumic passages that speak of the Messiah are registered 
by Buxtori, Lex. Ckald., s.v. 

•False Mesuahs have continued from time to time to appear 
among the Jews. Such was Scrcnus of Syria (c. 720 A.p.). Soon 
after, Messianic hopes were active at the time of the fall of the 
Omayyads, and led to a serious rising under Abu 'Isa of Ispahan, 
who called himself forerunner of the Messiah. The false Messiah 
David Alrui (Alroy) appeared among the warlike lews in Arcrbijan 
in the middle of the 12th century. The Messianic claims of Abraham 
Abulafia of Saragossa (bom 1240) had a cabalistic basis, and the 
same studies encouraged the wildest hopes at a later time. Thus 
Abarbanel calculated the coming of the Messiah for 1503 A.D.; the 
year 1500 was in many places observed as a preparatory season ol 
penance; and throughout the l6th century the Jews were much 
stirred and more than one false Messiah appeared. See also 
Sabbat At, Sebl 



194 



MESSINA 



But this proof tHat the true kingdom of God could not be 
realized in an earthly state, under the limitations of national 
particularism, was not the filial refutation of the Old Testament 
hope. Amidst the* last convulsions of political Judaism a new 
spiritual conception of the kingdom of God, of salvation, and 
of the Saviour of God's anointing, had shaped itself through 
the preaching, the death, and the resurrection of Jesus of 
Nazareth. As applied to Jesus the name of Messiah l<»t all iu 
political and national significance. Between the Messiah of the 
Jews and the Son of Man who came to give His life a ransom 
for many there was on the surface little resemblance; and from 
their standpoint the Pharisees reasoned that the marks of the 
Messiah were conspicuously absent from this Christ. But when 
we look at the deeper side of the Messianic conception in the 
PsaUer of Solomon^ at the heartfelt longing for a leader in the 
way of righteousness and acceptance with God which underlies 
the aspirations after political deliverance, we see that it was 
in no mere spirit of accommodation to prevailing language that 
Jesus did not disdain the name in which all thie hopes of the 
Old Testament were gathered up. 

Messianic Parallels. — ^Within the limits of this article it is im* 
possible to attempt any extended survey of parallels to Hebrew 
Messianic conceptions drawn from other religions. One interest- 
ing analogy communicated by Professor Rapson, may, however, 
be cited from the Bkaeavad-gitd, iv. 5-8, in which Krishna says: — 

5 " Many are the births that have passed of me and of thee 

Ariuna. 
All tncsc I know: thou knowest them not, O conqueror of 
thy foes. 

6 Unborn, of imperishable soul, the Lord of all creatures. 
Taking upon mc mine own nature, 1 arise by my own power. 

7 For whensoever, O son of Bharata, there is decay of righteous- 

ness 
And a rising up of unrighteousness, then I create myself, 

8 For the protecting of the good and for the destroying of 

evil-doers, 
And for the establishing of righteousness I arise from age 
to age." 

"Somewhat similar are the avatars of Vishnu, who becomes 
incarnate in a portion of his essence on ten occasions to deliver 
mankind from certain great dangers. Krishna himself is usually 
regarded as one of these avatars. ' This we may consider as one 
of the striking parallels which meet us in other rclicions to that 
" hope of the advent of an ideal king which was one of the features 
of that larger hope of the salvation of Israel from all evils, the reali- 
zation of perfect reconciliation with Jehovah and the felicity of the 
righteous in Him," to which reference was made in an early portion 
oithis article and which constitutes the essential meaning of Messiah- 
ship. The form in which the Indian conception presents itself in 
the above quoted lines is more closely analogous amid many differ- 
ences to the later and apocalyptic type of the Messianic idea as 
it appears in Judaism. 

The interesting parallels between the Babylonian Marduk 
(Merodach) god oflight and Christ as a world saviour are ingeniously 
•et forth by Zimmem in KA.T., 3rd ed., pp. 376-391, but the 
total impression which they leave is vague. 

It would carry us too far to consider in this place the details of 
the Jewish conception of the Messiah and the Messianic times as 
ihey aftpear in the lattr Dpocaiypies or in T,]li . > '■■^V' 

See for ihe former ttit enctllent iummary of Scharrr, Kit'sCHnihie 

55^ Scv al^ci Weber t Jitdti^kt Theolatitr ch, jlxuu Fur the whole 
tubiKt «fi alio Djruirttniondi Tk£ JriLuh Afraiak, and Kucncrnt 
i^/tfroin of Iir{ifl, ch, »** For the Mcss^iank hopn of the 
PhaHieci and the Ps^Ur of Soiomon ste espcci^Uy WellhauscFi, 
Pkariitkr und Sadduider {Grtifswaldt 1874). m tta ultimate forra 
the Mcssunic hope of the Jews h the cum re of the whole e^chatoloeyi. 
embrifirtff the doctrine of the bs^t trouble* of l^tael (cAlted by inc 
Rabblnn the " birth panics ol the Mn»ia.ti *'), the appearing of the 
aiKunted kiiijf, ihq an nih Elation of the hostile enemy, the return of 
the dispcr»P-d of Umel, the filory and world-^ovcreignty ol iho 
elect, the new wotUi, the resurrection of the dead aiul the Li*t 
iudfitncnt. But even the final form of Jewish iheotofy «howt 
much vncilbtiati at to these detaU$p cipccblly ai repTdj their 
Kqtience and mutual relation, thus bEtmyina the inadequacy of 
the harmonistic method by which they were derived from the Otd 
Testament and the stormy excitement in which the Meuianic idea 
was developed. It ia, for tjuimple, an open qut^tion among the 
Rabbins whether the days of the Messiah l>c1ong to the old or to 
the new worid ("nn oJ'Htj or my? oj'iyo). whether the resurrection 
embraces all men or only the righnM)us, whether it precedes or 
follows the Messianic age. Compare Millennium. 

We must also pass over the very important questions that arise 
as to the gradual extricatioa of the New TcsUroent idea of the 



Chnst from the elements of Jewish political doctribe whkfa hid 
so strong a hold of many of the first disciples— the relaiioo, for 
example, of the New Testament Apocalypse to contempomy 
Jewish thought. A word, however, is necessary as to the RabUiuau 
doctrine of the Messiah who suffers and dies for Israel, the Mcadsh 
son of Joseph or son of Ephraim, who in Jewish theology is dis- 
tinguished from and subordinate to the victorious son oif David. 
The developed form of this idea b almost certainly a product of 
the polemk: with Christianity, in which the RaU>tns were laid 
pressed by arguments from passages (espedally Isa. liiL) which 
their own exegesis admitted to be Messianic, though it did not 
accept the Christian inferences as to the atoning death of tke 
Messianic king. That the Jews in the time of Christ believed ia 
a suffering and atoning Messiah is, to say the least, unproved sad 
highly improbable. S^, besides the books above cited, De Wettc, 
Opuscula; Wansche. Die Leiden des Messias (1870). 
See the articles on " Messiah " in Hastings's D. B. (together with 



and Times of Jesus the Messiah, 2nd ed., i. 160-179, ti. 434 sqq., 
710-741; Sunton, The Jewish and the Christian Messiah (i8w); 
Wendt, Teaching of Jesus, i. 60-84. 176-181, ii. 122-139; Hoks- 
mann, N. T. Theologie (1897), pp. 81-85, 234-304: Baldenspencr, 
Das Selbstbemtsstsein Jesu; Wellhausen, Israel, u. jud. Ceschuhk 
(i89S)> PP' 198-201; Charles's Booh of Enoch and Apecalytst ef 
Baruch (especially the introductions); Bousset, Relition des j uden 
turns, 2nd ed.. pp. 245-277 ; Vols, Jiidische EschatoUtie von Damd 
bis Ahiba,jpp. 55-68, 213-237: Dalman, Der Uidende u. sterbend$ 
Messias; Gressmann, Ursprung der isroflitisch-jiidiukem Eschal^' 
logie, pp. 250-3451 A fuller survey of literature will be found ia 
Schttrer. op. cit., p. 496 sqq. (W. R. S. ; O. C. W.) 

MESSINA, a city of Sicily, 7 m. S.S.W. of the promontoiy of 
Faro (anc. Promonlorium Pelorum)^ which forms the north- 
eastern angle of the island, the capitsil of the province ol Messina 
and the seat of an archbishop. Pop. (1850), 97,074; (1881), 
126,497; (1901), i49i778; (i9os)» isMia. The site of the town 
curves round the harbour, between it and the strongly fortified 
hills of Antennamare, the highest point of which is 3707 ft. 
The straits, which take their name from the town, are here aliout 
3} m. wide, and only a little over 2 m. at the promontory of Fazo. 
The numerous earthquakes from which the city had niffeied, 
notably that in 1783, had left it few remains of antiquity. But 
it was a flourishing and beautiful city when in 1908 one of the 
most disastrous earthquakes ever recorded destroyed it totally. 
The earthquake occurred early in the morning of Deccmbet 28, 
and so far as Messina was concerned the damage was done chiefly 
by the shock and by the fires which broke out afterwards; the 
seismic wave which followed was comparatively innocuous. But 
it did vast damage elsewhere along the strait, notably at Reggie, 
Calabria, which was also totally destroyed. Many other smaller 
towns suffered both in Sicily and in Calabria; the loss of life wis 
appalling and the distress widespread, in spile of the prompt 
assistance rendered by Italian naval and military forces and by 
the crews of British, Russian and German warships and other 
vessels^ and the contribution of funds for relief wo^ks from cveiy 
part of the worid. The immediate seismic focus appeared to be 
in the straits, but Dr E. Suess pointed out that it was surrounded 
by a curved line of earth-fracture, following an arc drawn from 
a centre in the Lipari Islands, from Catanzaro to Etna, and 10 
westward; within this arc he held that the crust of the earth is 
gradually sinking, and is in an unstable condition. According 
to an official estimate the earthquake caused the loss of 77f28j 
lives.* (See also Earthquake.) 

The facades of buildings at Messina in great part withstood 
the earthquake, but even when they did so the remainder of the 
buildings was destroyed. The cathedral, which was completely 
wrecked, was begun in 1098 and finished by Roger II. It bad 
a fine Gothic fagidc: the interior had mosaics in the apses dating 
from 1330, and the nave contained 26 granite columns, said to 
have been brought from a temple of Poseidon near Faro, and had 
a fine wooden roof of 1260. The rest of the edifice was in the 
baroque style; the high altar (containing the supposed letter of 
the Virgin Mary to the people of Messina), richly decorated with 
marbles, lapis lazuli, &c., was begun in 1628 and completed in 
X726. The importance of Messina was almost entirely due to iU 

» See S. Franchi, " II Tcrremoto ... a Messina . . . ," in BeXL K 
Comii. geifiofii^ d'lUii . 4Lh series, vol. x. (1909)- 



MESSUAGE— METABOLIC DISEASES 



195 



barboor, a circuLur bum open on the north only, formed by a 
strip of land curving round like a sickle, from which it took its 
grjl^nal name, Zandc i^hyKXop, or rather 66rfKKo¥, the Sicilian 
equivalent of the Greek 6pkw<uw,^ according to Thucydides, 
TL4). 

Zande was first founded, no doubt on the site of an earlier 
lettknient, by pirates from Cumae, and again more regularly 
settled, after an unknown interval, by settlers from Ciunae unda 
ftrieres. and from Chalcis under Crataemenes, in the first 
quarter of the 8th century B.C. Mylae must have been occupied 
as an outpost very soon afterwards, bul the first regular colony 
of Zande was Himera, founded in 648 B.C. After the capture 
of Miletus by the Persians in 494 B.C. Skythes, king of Zande, 
mvited the lonians to come and settle at KoXi) 'Akt^, then 
in the occupation of the Sicels (the modem Marina -di Caronia, 
15 m. east of Cefalu) ; but at the invitation of Anazilas of Regium 
the ^miawK proceeded instead to the latter place. About 488 B.C. 
Anszilas and the Samians occupied Zancle in the absence of 
SkytheSi and it was then that the name was changed to Messenc, 
it the existence of coins of the Samian type, bearing the new 
time, proves. About 480, however, Anaxilas thoroughly estab- 
bhed his authority at Messene, and the types of coinage intro- 
doced by him persevere down to about 396 B.C.,* when Anaxilas 
IdiDself zealouky supported his son-in-law Terillus in inviting 
tk Carthaginians' invasion of 480 B.C. In 426 the Athenians 
gained the alliance of Zande, but soon lost it again, and failed 
to obtain it in 415. 

Uesuna fell into the hands of the Carthaginians during their 
via with Dionyaius the elder of Syracuse (397 B.C.). The 
Cazthaginians destroyed the dty, but Dionyslus recaptured and 
icbuih it. During the next fifty years Messina changed masters 
aevexal times, till Timoleon finally expdled the Carthaginians in 
343 B.a In the wars between Agathodes of Syracuse and 
Cuthage, Messina took the side of the Carthaginians. After 
Apihodes* death, his mercenaries, the Mamertincs, treachcr- 
coly seised the town about 282 B.C. and held it. They came to 
«tr with Hiero II. of Syracuse and appealed for help to Rome, 
«Uch was granted, and this led to a collision between Rome and 
Carthage, which ended in the First Punic War. Messina was 
ilaost at once taken by Rome. At the dose of the war, in 
241 B.c, Menina became a free and allied city iciviiasfoederata), 
\ ud obtained Roman dtizenship before the rest of Sicily, probably 
from Caesar himself. During the civil wars which followed the 
doth of Caesar, Messina held with Sextus Pompeius; and in 
55 BX. it WIS sacked by Octavian's troops. After Octavian's 
pndamatkm as emperor he founded a colony here; and Messina 
coDtiaued to flourish as a trading port. In the division of the 
Kooan empire it belonged to the emperors of the East; and in 
lA ^7 Bdisarius collected his fleet here before crossing into 
Cakbria. Tbe Saracens took the dty in a.o. 831 ; and in 1061 it 
«is the first permanent conquest made in Sicily by the Normans, 
lo 1190 Richard L of England, with his crusaders, passed six 
BOBths in Messina. He quarrelled with Tancred, the last of the 
Banteville dynasty, and sacked the town. In 11 94 the city, 
vith the rest of Sicily, passed to the house of Hohenstaufen under 
I tbe emperor Henry VI., who died there in 11 97; and after the 
UI of the Hohenstaufen was contended for by Peter I., king of 
Aragon, and Charles I., count of Anjou. At the time of the 
Sicilian Yapen (1282), which drove the French out of Sicily, 
Ifessna bravely defended itself against Charles of Anjou, and 
Rpshed his attack. Peter I., through his commander Ruggiero 
di Loria, defeated the French off the Faro; and from 1 282 to 1 7 13 
MesBBa remained a possession of the Spanish royal house. In 
IS7I the fleet fitted out by the Holy League against the Turk 
awmbled at Messina, and in the same year its commander. Don 
John of Austria, celebrated a triumph in the dty for his victory 
It Lepanto. Don John's statue stands in the Piazza dell' 
*""»^Ti For one himdred years, thanks to the favours and 

'Fran this wofd Trapani derives its name. 

*TUi aoooont is at variance with the literary evidence and 
KR> OB that of the coins, as set forth by I. H. Dodd in Journal of 
"' " 'v.JDmia. (I908)56sqq. 



the concessions of Charles V., Messina enjoyed great prosperity. 
But the internal quarrels between the Merli, or aristocratic 
faction, and the Malvezzi, or democratic faction, fomented as 
they were by the Spaniards, helped to ruin the city (1671-1678). 
The Messim'ans suspected the Spanish court of a desire to destroy 
the ancient senatorial constitution of the dty, and sent to France 
to ask the aid of Louis XIV. in their resistance. Louis despatched 
a fleet into Sicilian waters, and the French occupied the city. 
The Spaniards replied by appealing to Holland, who sent a fleet 
under Ruyter into the Mediterranean. In 1676 the French 
admiral, Abraham Duquesne, defeated the combined fleet of 
Spain and Holland; but, notwithstanding this victory, the French 
suddenly abandoned Messina in 1678, and the Spanish occupied 
the town once more. The senate was suppressed, and Messina 
lost its privileges. This was fatal to the importance of the city. 
In 1743 the plague carried off 40,000 inhabitants. The city was 
partially destroyed by earthquake in 1783. During the revolu- 
tion of 1848 against the Bourbons of Naples, Messina was bom- 
barded for three consecutive days. In 1854 the deaths from 
cholera numbered about 15,000. Garibaldi landed in Sicily 
in i860, and Messina was the last city in the island taken from 
the Bourbons and made a part of united Italy imdcr Victor 
Emmanuel. 

Messina was the birthplace of Dicaearchus, the historian 
(c. 322 B.C.); Aristoclcs. the Peripatetic: Euhemerus, the rationalist 
(r. 316 B.C.): Stefano I^tonotarto, Mazzco di Kicco and Tommaso 
di Sasso, poets of the court of Frederick II. (a.d. 1250); and Anto- 
ncllo da Messina, the painter (1447-1490), of whose works one is 
prc9cr\'ed in the museum. Durine the i sth century the grammarian, 
Constantine Lascaris, taught in Messina; and Bessarion was for a 
time archimandrite there. (T. As.) 

MESSUAGE (from Anglo-French mesuage, probably a cor- 
ruption of misuage, nUnage, popular Lat. mansionaticum, from 
mansio, whence mod. Fr. maison, from tnanere, to dwell), in 
law, a term equivalent to a dwelling-house, and including out- 
buildings, orchard, curtilage or court-yard and garden. At one 
time " messuage " is supposed to have had a more extensive 
meaning than that comprised in the word " house," but such 
distinction, if it ever existed, no longer survives. 

MESTIZO (adopted from the Spanish, the Portuguese form 
being mesli<io, from Lat. miscere, to mix), a term originally 
meaning a half-breed, one of whose parents was Spanish, and 
now used occasionally of any half-breed, but especially to denote 
persons of mixed Spanish (or Portuguese) and American Indian 
blood. The offspring of such half-breeds are also called mestizoes. 
The feminine form is mestiza. 

MESUREUR. GUSTAVE EMIL EUG^E (1847- ), French 
politician, was born at Marcq-en-Barocul (Nord) on the 2nd of 
April 1847- He worked as a designer in Paris, and became 
prominent as a member of the municipal council of Paris, 
rousing much angry discussion by a proposal to rename the 
Parisian streets which bore saints' names. In 1887 he became 
president of the council. The same year he entered the Chamber 
of Deputies, taking his place with the extreme left. He joined 
theL. Bourgeois ministry of 1895-1896 as minister of commerce, 
industry, post and telegraphs, was vice-president of the Chamber 
from 1898 to 1902, and presided over the Budget Commission of 
1899, 1901 and 1902. He was defeated at the polls in 1902, but 
became director of the Assistance Publique. His wife, Am^lie 
de Wailly (b. 1853), is well known as a writer of light verse and 
of some charming children's books. 

META, the Latin word for the goal which formed the turning- 
point for the chariot races in the Roman circus. The mctae 
consisted of three conical pillars resting on a single podium. 
None have been preserved, but they are shown on coins, gems 
and terra-cot ta bas-reliefs. 

METABOLIC DISEASES. All disease is primarily due to 
alterations (Gr. furafioX^, change), quantitative or qualitative, 
in the chemical changes in the protoplasm of some or all 
of the tissues of the body. But while in some pathological 
states these modifications lead to structural changes, in others 
they do not produce gross lesions, and these latter conditions 
are commonly classified as Functional Diseases. When such 



196 



METABOLIC DISEASES 



functional disturbances affect the general nutritioa of the body 
they have been termed Metabolic Diseases {Stoffweckselkrank- 
keiUn). It is impossible to draw a hard and fast line between 
functional and organic disease, since the one passes gradually 
into the other, as is well seen in gout. Nor is it always easy to 
decide how far the conditions are due merely to quantitative 
alterations in the metabolism and how far to actual qualitative 
changes, for it is highly probable that many of the apparently 
qualitative alterations are really quantitative disturbances in 
one part of the protoplasmic mechanism, -leading to an apparent 
qualitative change in the total result of the activity. 

Obesity. — It is as fat tlut the surplus food absorbed is stored 
in the body; but the power of storing fat varies enormously 
in different individuals, and in some it may be considered patho- 
logical The reasons of this are very imperfectly understood. 
One undoubted cause of obesity is taking a supply of food in 
excess of the energy requirements of the individual. The 
amount of food may be absoliUdy large, or large rdatwdy to the 
muscular energy evolved in mechanical work or in heat-produc- 
tion; but in either case, when fat begins to be deposited, the 
muscular activity of the body tends to diminish and the loss of 
heat from the surface is reduced; and thus the energy require- 
ments become less, and a smaller diet is sufficient to yield the 
surplus for further storage of fat. Fat is formed from carbo- 
hydrates, and possibly indirectly from protcids (see Nutution). 
Individuals probably vary in their mode of dealing with these 
substances, some having the tendency to convert them to fat, 
some to bum them off at once. Carl von Noorden, however, 
who has studied the metabolism in cases of obesity, finds no 
marked departure from the normal. It may be that in some 
persons there is a very perfect absorption of food, but so far no 
scientific evidence for this view is forthcoming. In all cases the 
fat stored is available as a source of energy, and this circum- 
stance is taken advantage of in the various fat " cures," which 
consist in giving a diet containing enough proteids to cover the 
requirements of the body, with a supply of fats and carbohydrates 
insufficient to meet the energy requirements of the individual. 
This is illustrated by the dietaries of some of the best known of 
these " cures ":— 





In Grms. per Diem. 


Proteid. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Calories. 


Banting's cure . . 
Oerters „ . . 
Fbstein's „ . . 


172 

156-170 

102 


ih 


81 
75-t20 

47 


III3 

1 180-1608 

1401 



In a normal individual in moderate muscular activity about 
3000 Calories per diem are required (see Dietetics), and there- 
fore under the diets of these " cures," especially when accom- 
panied by a proper amount of muscular exercise, the fats stored 
in the body are rapidly used up. 

Diabetes, as distinguished from transitory glycosuria, is pro- 
duced by a diminution in the power of the tissues to use sugar, 
which thus accumuktes in the blood and escapes in the urine. 
One great source of energy being unavailable, the tissues have to 
use more fats and more proteids to procure the necessary energy, 
and hence, unless these are supplied in very large quantities, 
there is a tendency to emaciation. 

The power of storing and using sugar in the tissues is strictly 
limited, and varies considerably in healthy individuals. Normally, 
when about 200 grms. of glucose are taken at one time, some 
of it appears in the urine within one hour. In some individuals 
the taking of even 100 grms. leads to a transient glycosuria, 
while others can take 250 grms. or more and use it all. But even 
m the same healthy individual the power of using sugar varies 
at different times and in different conditions, muscular exercise 
markedly increasing the combustion. Again, some sugars are 
more readily used than others, and therefore have a less tendency 
to appear in the urine when taken in the food. Milk-sugar and 
laevuJose appear in the urme more readily than glucose. This 
power 0/ using sugar possessed by an individual may depend to a 



small extent on the capacity of the liver to store as ^yoogea uq 
excess of carbohydrates absorbed from the food, and 1 
cases of transient glycosuria may be accounted f or Iqr a < 
nution of this capadty. But the typical form of diabetes ( 
be thus expUined. It has been maintained that inrirm^ 
production of sugar is a cause of some cases of the <' 
this view has been supported by Claude Bernard's 
experiment of producing glycosuria by puncturing the floor o( 
the fourth ventricle in the brain of the rabbiL But after lOcl 
puncture the ^ycosuria occurs only when glycogen is pieoeat k 
the liver. It is transient and has nothing to do with tiai 
diabetes. The faa that various toxic substances, €^.€ 
monoxide, produce glycosuria has been used at an i 
in support of this view, but they too seem to act by '^««*'*^ a 
conversion of glycogen to glucose, and are effective only when th 
liver is charged with the former substance. At one time it wm 
thought that the occ\irrence of glycosuria under the i 
stration of phloridzin proved that diabetes is due to a 1 
But the fact that, while sugar appears abundantly in the uiiM 
under phloridzin, it is not increased in the blood, diows that tbi 
drug acts not by diminishing the power of the tissues to use nftf , 
but by increasing the excretion of sugar through the kidneys and 
thus causing its loss to the body. Hence the tissues have to fal 
back upon the proteids, and an increased excretion <^ mtrogei 
is produced. This, however, is a totally different condition fraa 
diabetes. 

Anything which produces a nuurked diminution in tbe nonnall) 
limited power of the tissues to use sugar will cause tbe diseisi 
in a lighter or graver form. As age advances the activity of tbi 
various metabolic processes may diminish irregularly in oertiii 
individuals, and it is possible that the loss of the power of ariai 
sugar may be sooner impaired in some than in others, and tb« 
diabetes be produced. But Minkowski and von Mering htw 
demonstrated, by experiments upon animals, that patbolofkil 
changes in the pancreas have jprobably a causal relationsh^ 
with the disease. They found that excision of that oigan k 
dogs, &c., produced all the symptoms of diabetes — tbe appcM^ 
ances of sugar in the urine, its increased amotmt in tbe bloo^ 
the rapid breaking-down of proteids, and the resulting emacJatJM 
and azoturia. At the same time the absorption from the intesliift 
of proteids, fats and carbohydrates was diminished. How tU 
pancreatic diabetes is produced has not been explained. It hil 
been suggested that the pancreas forms an internal seocdoi 
which stimulates the utilization of sugar in the tissues. Iboag^ 
in a certain number of cases of diabetes disease of tbe pancrau 
has been found, other cases are recorded where grave disesii 
of that organ has not produced this condition. But the appareol 
extent of a lesion is often no measure of the depth to wbkb tbi 
functions of the structure in which it is situated are altered, «Bi! 
it is very possible that the functions of tbe pancreas may ii 
many cases be profoundly modified without our methods ol 
research being able to detect the change. The pancreas consirti 
of two parts, the secreting structure and the epithdial islets, ami 
one or other of these may be more specially involved, and tba 
alteration in digestion and absorption on the one band, aM 
changes in the utilization of carbohydrates on the other, may b 
separately produced. The subcutaneous injection of large doM 
of extracts of the supra-renal bodies causes glycosuria and ai 
increase of sugar in the blood, but the relation^p of this ooo 
dition to diabetes has not yet been investigated. 

The disease may be'(Uvided into two forms: — 
I. ^tgkt Cases. — ^The individual can use small quantities of so^ 
but the taking of larger amounts causes glycosuria. Sopposoi 
that the energy requirements of an individual are met by a dk 
of— 

Proteid . 100 grms. 410 Calories. 

Fat . too „ . . 93a M 

Carbohydrate 400 „ . . 1640 ^ 

then if only 100 grms. of jflucose can be used, the energy vaSat < 

300 grms., i.e. 1230 Calones, must be supplied from proteids a» 

fats. To yield this. 300 grms. of proteids or 13a grms. of fats wod 

\ be requvctd. U \hcse are not forthcoming in tbe diet, they 0MM 



METABOLIC DISEASES 



197 



from the titraes. and the individual will become emacf- 
a diabetic on an ordinary diet is badly nourished, an<l 
mamx the hiMe appetite characteristic of the disease. 

2. Gimm Caies. — From the producu of the splitting of proteids 
wtfu can be formed, probably in the liver, and in the more serioui 
Ibni of the disease, even when carbohydrates are excluded fror 



the food, a greater or lesvr quantity of the sugar thus formal 
ocapes consumption and may be excreted. Theoretically, 100 gmu . 
if jnitead can yield 1 13'6 grms. of slucose, i.e. i grra. of nitrogen- 
mi be set free for each 7*5 grms. oTelucose formed. In the unnc 
of irave cases of diabetes on aproteid diet, the proportion of nitrogen 
10 mnr is about i to 2. This may mean that the theoretically 
Bonifile amount of sugar is not yielded, or that some of the sugar 
laraKd b used in the economy. Both hypotheses may be correa, 
te the latter is supported by the fact that even in grave cases the 

A ;.:^^ ^a - --- • j ... t^ J!_:_:.i ■ i •.5 * 



tkit in muscular exercise the p roportion of sugar may fall. 

la the course of the disease the amount of sugar which tl , 

I from day to day. It is in the utilization of glucose— 



of proteid may be diminished by giving sugar, anj 

fa" 
ch 
les irom oay to oay. it is in tne utilization ot glucose— 
fk normal sugar of the body — that the tissues chiefly fail. Many 
dbbeCics are able to use laevulose, or the inulin from which it i» 
dohrcd. and lactose (milk-aogar) to a certain extent. It has. 
knvevcr, been observed that under the administration of the«c 
iq»s the excretion of glucose may be increased, the tissues, 
anarcMly by using the foreign sugar, allowing part of the glucoic 
nich they would have consumed to escape. 
The increased decomposition of proteid, rendered necessary to 
nppiy the energy not forthcoming in the sugar, leads to the appear- 
nceof a Urge quantity of nitrogen in the urine — asoturia — and it 
lb leads to the formation of various adds. Sulphuric acid and 
lAaspboric add an formed by oxidation of the sulphur and pho&- 
pkorus in the proteid molecule. Organic acids of the lower fatty 
add Kries ft oxybutyric and aceto^cetic acid with their derivative 
Iso appear in the coune of diabetes. They are in part 

jm tne disintegration of proteids and in part from iat&. 

nthe result of a modified metabolism induced by the withdrawal 
d ctfbohydrates. To neutralize them ammonb is developed and 
kribe the proportion of ammonia in the urine is increased. By tho 
nt of these various adds the alkalinity of the blood U 
L The development of these adds in large quantitic:% 
ii associated with extensive decomposition of protdd, and is some- 
tisics indicative of the onset of a comatose condition, which seem? 
to be due rather to an add intoxication than to the special toxic 
actioa of any particular add. 

M y 2oed € wta.—The thyroid gland forms a material which has 
die power of increasing the metabolism of proteids and of fats ; 
tod when the thyroid is removed, a condition of sluggish metabol - 
in, with low temperature and a return of the connective tissues 
to an tmbryonic condition, supervenes, accompanied by the 
appearance of depression of the mental functions and by other 
■ovoos symptoms. The disease myxocdema, which was first 
described by Sir William Gull in 1873, was shown by Ord in 1878 
to be doe to degenerative changes in the thyroid gland. It 
afhcts both sexes, but chiefly females, and is characterized by a 
pccnSar paffy appearance of the face and hands, shedding of the 
bur, a bw temperature, and mental hebetude. The symptoms 
IXC similar to those produced by removal of the thyroid, and arc 
indicative of a condition of diminished activity of metabolism. 
The nervous sjrmptoms may be in part due to some alteration in 
the metabolism, leading to the formation of toxic substances. 
The administration of thyroid ghind extraa causes all the 
lyvptoms to disappear. 

Oefiiiijiii may now be defined as myxoedema in the infant, 
tad it has been definitely proved to be assodated with non- 
^vdopment or degeneration of the thyroid gland. The char- 
■ctea of the disease are all due to diminished metabolism, leading 
to Ktazded development, and the treatment which has proved of 
KTvice, at least in some sporadic cases, is the administration of 
various th>Toid preparations. 

Eupkikalmic CoUre — Craves^s Disease or Basedow* s Disease. — 
Tbi disease chiefly affects young women, and is characterized 
bjr three main symptoms: increased rate and force of the heart's 
sctioD, protrusion of the eyeballs, and enlargement of the thyroid 
ibod. The patient is nervous, often sleepless, and generally 
bKooes emaciated and suffers from slight febrile attacks. The 
iBneaicd action of the heart is the most constant symptom, and 
Ihe ealargement of the thyroid gland may not be manifest. 
Various theories as to the pathobgy of the condition have 
kco advanced, but in the light of our knowledge of the physio- < 
hcjr of the thyrcrid the most probable ejq>laasthn is an increased j 
hiUSiim^ acti^ty of i^t glaad or of changes in the partbyroids. '< 



Gout has often been divided into the typical and atypical 
forms. The first is undoubtedly a clinical and pathological 
entity, but the second, though containing cases of less severe 
forms of true gout, is largdy constituted of imperfectly diagnosed 
morbid conditions. The acctmiulalion of urate of soda in the 
tissues in gout formerly led physicians to bi'licve in a causal 
relationship between an increased formation of that substance 
and the onset of the disease. Sir A. Garrod's investigations, 
however, seemed to indicate that diminished excretion rather 
than increased production is the cause of the condition. He 
found an accumulation of uric add in the blood and a diminution 
in iu anoount in the urine during the attack. That uric acid is 
increased in the blood is undoubted, but the changes described 
by Garrod in the urine, and considered by him as indicative of 
diminished excretion and retention, are rendered of less value 
by the imperfections of the analytic method employed. More 
recent work with better methods has thrown still further doubt 
upon the existence of such a relationship, and points rather to the 
accumulation of uric add being, like the other symptoms of the 
condition, a result of some jmknown modification in the metabol- 
ism, and a purely secondary phenomenon. The important fact 
that in leucaemia (von Jaksch), in Icad-poisoning (Garrod), and 
in other pathological conditions, uric acid may be increased in the 
blood and in the urine without any gouty symptoms supervening, 
is one of the strongest arguments against the older views. That 
the gouty inflammation is not caused by the deposit of urate of 
soda, seems to be indicated by the occurrence of cases in which 
there is no such deposition. The source of the uric acid which 
is so widely deposited in the gouty is brgcly the phosphorus 
containing nuclcins of the food and tissues. These in their 
decomposition yield a series of di-ureides, the purin bodies, of 
which uric acid is one. Their excretion is increased when 
substances rich in nudein, e.g. sweetbreads, &c., are ad- 
ministered. While uric acid itself has not been demonstrated 
to have any injurious action, the dosely allied adenin has 
been found to produce toxic symptoms. After the discovery 
of this source of uric acid, physiologists for a time inclined 
to regard it as the only mode of production. But it must 
be remembered that in birds uric acid is formed from the 
ammonia compounds coming from the intestine and muscles, 
just as urea is formed from the same substance in mammals. 
Uric add is a di-urcide — a body composed of two urea molecules 
linked by acrylic add — an unsaturated propionic acid. It is 
therefore highly probable that in many conditions the con- 
version of ammonia compounds to urea is not complete, and 
that a certain amount of uric acid is formed apart from the 
decomposition of nudeins. 

Sir William Roberts has adduced evidence to show that uric 
acid circulates in the blood in a freely soluble combination or 
quadurate — that is, a compound in which one molecule of an acid 
salt BHC is linked to a molecule of the acid BHC. HjU. These 
compounds are said to be readily decomposed and the bi-urates 
formed, which are at first gelatinous but become cr>-stalline. 
The deposition of urate of soda in joints, &c., has been ascribed 
to this change. Francis Tunnidiffe, however, has published the 
results of certain investigations which throw doubt upon this 
explanation. The most recent investigations on the metabolism 
of the gouty have shown that there is undoubtedly a slowing in 
the rate of elimination of uric acid and also of the total nitrogen 
of the urine with occasional sudden increases sometimes connected 
with a gouty paroxysm, sometimes independent of it. Whether 
this is due to the action of some toxin developed in the body or is 
caused by a constitutional renal inadequacy is difficult to decide. 
Certain it is these renal diseases often develop in the course of 
gout. 

Rheumatism. — Rheumatic fever was formerly regarded as due 
to some disturbance in the metabolism, but it is now known to be 
a specific micro-organismal disease. The whole clinical picture 
is that of an infective fever, and it is closely related to ^ovvox- 
rhoeai rheumatism and to ccTlam lyves oV v^^uvivv;^.. K Tvw\^\i« 
of Independent observers have svictceA^ uv \s»\^\atv?, ^^^^ 
cues of rheumatic (ever a dip\ococ<cu& -wYivOa ^toAv^te* vroaax 



198 



METABOLISM— METAL 



symptoms in the rabbit to those which dumcterize the disease 
in man. 

Excluding the pecuUar changes in the joints which occur in 
rkeumaloid artkrilis and in Charcot's disease^ and which are alm<»t 
certainly primary affections of the nervous system, it is found 
that a large number of individuals suffer from pain in the joints, 
in the muscles, and in the fibrous tissues, chie6y on exposure to 
cold and damp or after indiscretioYis of diet. This so-called 
chronic rheumatism appears to be a totally distinct condition 
from rheumatic fever; and although its pathology is not deter- 
mined, it looks as if it were due either to a diminished elimina- 
tion or an increased production of some toxic substance or 
substances, but so far we have no evidence as to their nature. 

Richets is undoubtedly a manifestation of a profound alteration 
of the metabolism in childhood, but how far it is an idiopathic 
condition and how far a result of the action of toxins introduced 
from without is not yet definitely known. Kassowitx long ago 
showed that the bone changes are similar to those which can be 
produced in animals by chronic phosphorus poisoning, and that 
they are really irritative in nature. Spillmann, in his work 
Le RachitismCt discusses the evidence as regards the action of 
various conditions, and comes to the conclusion that there is no 
evidence that it is due to a mere primary disturbance of the 
metabolism, or to excessive production of lactic acid, or to any 
specific micro-organismal poisoning. But he adduces evidence, 
perhaps not very convincing, that in the disease there is a specific 
intoxication derived from the alimentary canal and provoking 
inflammatory lesions in the bones. 

See generally Carl von Noorden, Metabolism and Practical 
Medicine (IQ07). (D. N. P.) 

METABOLISM (from Gr. lurafioXii, change), the biological 
term for the process of chemical change in a living cell (see 
Physiulocy). 

METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metaUum, mine, quarry, 
adapted from Gr. tikraXKop, in the same sense, probably con- 
nected with /leroXXoy, to search after, explore, /lerd, after, 
ftXXof, other). Originally applied to gold, silver, copper, iron, 
tin, lead and bronze, i.e. substances having high specific gravity, 
malleability, opacity, and especially a peculiar lustre, the term 
" metal " became generic for all substances with these properties. 
In modern chemistry, however, the metals are a division of the 
elements, the members of which may or may not possess all 
these characters. The progress of science has, in fact, been 
accompanied by the discovery of some 70 elements, which may 
be arranged in order of their " metallic " properties as above 
indicated, and it is found that while the end members of the scale 
are most distinctly metallic (or non-metallic), certain central 
members, e.g. arsenic, may be placed in either division, their 
properties approximating to both metallic and non-metallic 
One chemical differentia utilizes the fact that metals always form 
at least one basic oxide which yields salts with acids, while non- 
metals usually form acidic oxides, i.e. oxides which yield acids 
with water. This definition, however, is highly artificial and 
objectionable on principle, because when we speak of metals we 
think, not of their chemical relations, but of a certain sum of 
mechanical and physical properties which unites them all intq 
one natural family. 

All metals, when exposed in an inert atmosphere to a sufficient 
temperature, assume the form of liquids, which all present the 
following characteristic properties. They are (at least practically) 
non-transparent; they reflect light in a peculiar manner, produc- 
ing what is called " metallic lustre." When kept in non-metallic 
vessels they take the shape of a convex meniscus. These liquids, 
when exposed to higher temperatures, some sooner than others, 
pass into vapours. What these vapours are like is not known in 
many cases, since, as a rule, they can be produced only at very 
high temperatures, precluding the use of transparent vessels. 
Silver vapour is blue, potassium vapour is green, many others 
(mercury vapour, for instance) are colourless. The liquid metals, 
when cooled down sufliciently, some at lower, others at higher, 
temperatures freeze into compact solids, endowed with the 
(icUtJve) non-transparency and tbt lustre of their liquids. These 



frozen metals in general form compact manes consisting of 

(more rarely) the quadratic system. Compared with dod- 
metalbc solids, they in general are good conductors of heat and of 
electricity. But their most characteristic, though not perbaps 
their most general, property is that they combine in themselves 
the apparently incompatible properties of elasticity and rigiditj 
on the one hand and plasticity on the other. To this remarkable 
combination of properties more than to anything else the ordinary 
metals owe their wide application in the mechanical arts. In 
former times a high specific gravity used to be quoted as one of 
the characters of the genus; but this no longer holds, since we 
now know a series of metals lighter than water. 

NoH-Transparency.^Tlns, in the case of even the solid metak, 
is perhaps only a very low degree of transparency. In regard to 
gold this has been proved to be so; gold leaf, or thin films of gold 
produced chemically on glass plates, transmit light with a green 
colour. On the other hand, infinitely thin films of silver which 
can be produced chemically on glass surfaces are abioluidy 
opaque. Very thin films of liquid mercury, according toMehens, 
transmit light with a violet-blue colour; also thin- films of copper 
are said to be translucent. 

Colour. — Gold is yellow; copper is red; silver, tin, and tome 
others are pure white; the majority are greyish. 

Reflection of It;A/.— Polished metallic surfaces, like those of 
other solids, divide any incident ray into two parts, of which one 
is refracted while the other is reflected— with this difference, 

latter, in regard to polarization, is quite differently affected. 
The following values are due to Rubens and Hagen (Atm. dee 
Phys., X900, p. 352); they express the percentage of incident li|^ 
reflected. The superiority of silver is obvious. 


Name of Metal. 


Vk>let. 


YeUow. 


Red. 


X-450 


X-550 


X-650 


Silver 

Platinum 

Nickel ....... 

Steel 

Gold 

Copper 

Glass backed with silver 
Glass backed with mercury . 


90-6 

S 

368 

488 

79.3;.^57 


63-6 
59-4 
747 


81 

88a 

71S 


Crystallitie Form and Strudure.—Mosl (perhaps all) metab an 
capable of crystallization. The crystals belong to the following 

copper, iron, lead; quadratic system— tin, potassium; rkomhk 

haps all metals are crystalline, only the degree of visibility of 
the crystalline arrangement is very different in different metab, 
and even in the same metal varies according to the slowness of 
solidification and other circumstances. 

Antimony, bismuth and zinc exhibit a very distinct crystalUae 
structure: a bar-shaped ingot readily breaks, and the crysul faces 
arc distinctly vbibic on the fracture. Tin also is crystaUine: a 
thin bar, when bent, " creaks " audibly from the slidinf of the 
crystal faces over one another; but the bar is not easily broken. 
and exhibits an apparently non-crystalline fracture.— Class I. 

Gold, silver, copper, lead, aluminium, cadmium, iron (pan), 
nickel and cobalt are practically amorphous, the crystals Iwfacre 
they exist) being so closely packed as to produce a virtually jkhbo* 
geneous mass.— Class 11. 

The great contrast in apparent structure between cooled ingots 
of Class I. and of Class 11. appears to be owing chiefly to the fact 
that, while the latter crystallize in the regular system, metab of 
Class 1. form rhombic or quadratic crystals. Regular crysub 
expand equally in all directions; rhombic and quadratic expand 
differently in different directions. Hence, supposing the crystab 
immediately after their formation to be in absolute contact with 
one another all round, then, in the case of Class 11., such contact 
will be maintained on cooling, while in the case of Class I. the 

values in any two neighbouring crystab, and the OTBtab con- 
sequently become slightly detached from one another. The crystal- 
line structure which exists on both sides becomes visible only in 
the metals of the first class, and only there roanifesU haelf M 
brittbness. 



METAL 



199 



CloHljr rdated to the ilr uc t ure of metab h thdr degree of 
" pitttidty " (susceptibility of being ooostnined into new forms 
vithoot breadi of continuity), lliis term of course includes 
IS spednl cases the qualities of ** malleability " (capability of 
boas tbtteneH out under the hammer) and " ductility " (capa- 
bffity oi being drawn into wire); but these two spedal qualities 
4» not always go parallel to each other, for this reason amongst 
otbera— chat ductility in a higher decree than malleability it 
determined by the tenacity of a metaL Hence tin and lead, 
tkoghirery malleable, are little ductile. The quality of plasticity 
ii developed to very different degrees in different metals, and 
even In the same spedes it depends on temperature, and may 
be modified by mechanical or physical operations. 

A bar of sine, for instance, a* obtained by casting, b very brittle; 
btt when heated to 100* or i«o* C it becomes suffidently plastic 
tDbc rolled into the thinnest soeet or to be drawn into wire. Such 



dMct or 



wire then remaint Bexible after cooling, the orinnally 
I crystab having got intertwisted and forced 



ttif looKly cohering _.,_._ ^ ^ 

iato absolate contact with one another--an explanation supported 
by the fact that rolled zinc has a somewhat higher specific giravity 
(7'a) thaa the original ingot (6^). The same metal, when heated 
to MS* C becomes so'bnttle that it can be powdered in a morUr. 
Pire mm. copper, silver and other metab are easily drawn into 
ive, or rolled into sheet, or flattened under the hammer. But alt 
itiotw render the roetab harder, and detract from their 
Their original softness can be restored to them by 

j/* ue, by heating them to redness and then quenching 

thesB is cold water. In tne case of iron, however, this appKe» 
Miv if the metal b perfectly pure. If it contains a few parts of 
Ctfboo per thousand, the annealing process, instead of softening 
the owtaL gives it a " temper," meaning a higher degree of hardness 
•Ml daticTty (see below). 
Hint we have called plasticity must not be confused with the 
wion of ** softness," which means the degree of facility with 
vbicfa the plasticity of a metal can be discounted. Thus lead 
ii br s^ter than silver, and yet the Utter b by far the more 
phstlc <rf the two. The famous experiments of H. E. Treses 
d»w that the plasticity of certain metab at least goes consider- 
ably brther than had before been supposed. 

He operated with lead, copper, silver, iron and some other metab. 
Sound disks made of these substances were placed in a closely fitting 
cvEadrical cavity drilled in a block of steel, the cavity having a 
orcubr aperture of two or four centimetres below. By an hydraulic 
prea a pressure of 100,000 Idlos was made to act upon the disks, 
vhea the metal was seen to " flow '* out of the hole like a viscid 
EqmL In spite of the immense rearrangement of parts there was 
10 breach 01 continuity. What came out below was a compact 
cyfiader with a rounded bottom, consisting of so many byers super- 
'opon one another. Parallel experiments with layers of dough 
ptas some connecting material proved that the particles 
n au cases moved along the same tracks as would be followed by a 
lowing cylinder of liquid. Of the better known metab potassium 
lad sodium are the softest; they can be kneaded between the fingers 
ike wax. After these follow first thallium and then>lcad, the btter 
beiag the softest of the metab used in the arts. Among these the 
atfiMss decreases in about the following order: lead, oure silver. 
pm gold, tin. copper, aluminium, pbtinum, pure iron. As liquidity 
sight be looked upon as the m plus ultra of softness, thb b the right 
place br statii^ that, while most metals, when heated up to their 
■ddag points, pass pretty abruptly from the solid to the liquid 
mae. platinum and iron first assume, and throughout a long range 
«i tenperatures retain, a condition of viscous semi-solidity which 
caablcs two pieces of them to be " welded " together by pressure 
iato one continnoos mass. 

AccovdSng to Prechtl, the ordinary metab, in regard to the 

depee of facility or perfection with which they can be hammered 

Itt ga the anvfl, rolled out into sheet, or drawn into wire, form 

tk faOowing descending series.— 

Bmmurmg' RpUing into SkeeL 

Lead. GoM. 

Ttt. Silver. 

Gold. Copper. 

Ziac. Tin. 

saver. Lead. 

Copper. Zinc 

Phtmom. Pbtinum. 

Iran. Iron. 

^five an idea of what can be done in thb way, it may besUted 

tbt gold can be beaten out to leaf of the thickness of tVqt mm.; 

nd that platmum, by judidous work, can be drawn into wire 

TvhvBll. thick. 



Drawing into Wire. 
Pbtinum. 
Silver. 
Iron. 

Zinc 
Tin. 



By the ** hardnesa ** of a metal we mean ibe rcsbtancc which 
ft oHera to the fib or engravrr'a tool Taking it b thij acoie^ it 
does not nccasarily measure, t.g, the reufUncc of a mei^Ll to 
abrasion by fricEioD. Thu£^ tat Ln^tauce^ i£3% alumimum broixse 
ti scmtchcf] by an ojdinary st^rd k&ife- blade, yet the sets ol 
nerdlcs used for perfonting pdGtage stamps bst longtr if made 
of aJumlmmn bronze than if made of stecL 

Btcstkity.—M\ metab are elastic to thb extent that a change of 
fofm, brought sbcKUt by stmsor not cxrcedtng oertsin Umit valuei, 
will disappenr on the stress bnn^ remoivied^ Straini exceeding the 
"limit of tiaitictty" result in iKTmanent HcfDrm,iii*>fi or (if mffi- 
ckatW great) in iMpture. Referring tht reader tt3 the artick: Et^ASti- 
ciTV fof the thconticil and to the St se so ill of Mate nuts for ihe 
practical j:]!>prct5 of tWn tubjjcft, we rive tiere la table of the " modutut 
of elasitcity,'' E (oQluma 3 J, fof iriEnimetre and kilDcramfnc^ Hefife 
TDOO/E hi the dooj^tion in rnillimeTm per metre length per JUlix 
Columq J chowB the chaf]^ cauking m permanent elohiiiTiofi of 
0^05 mm. per m«iTF. which, for prtctical purpoH^, Weftheitn takes 
mm giviFis tne limit of elasticity; column 4 give* the breaking itrain. 
These values nay vary vithin ccrtiLUi [imU« for diflnent ■ 







For Wif^ ol I K|. mm. 






Section, WeifihUin 






KiJo*} 


cauung 


Name of MetaL 


E. 






P^maaertt 








F-longstion 


BrcakiRt. 






of .iIm- 




Lead, dfa*n .... 


1.S0J 


o-jj 


a-1 


„ annexed , . . 


1.717 
4.14K 


O-JO 


i-fl 


Tin, drawn 


04s 


3 -45 


„ annealed , . . , 


1.700 


0*30 




Odmiutii » , , . . 


5.5B5 




3-34 


Cold drawn . . . , 


US 


*7 


,^ anoaJed ^ ^ . . 


30 


10 


Silver, drawn .... 


7-3S7 


l» J 


39 


„ Annealed . , . 


7.140 


*6 


16 


Zinc, pure, cut in mould. 


9.cai 






,. ordinary, drawn 


8.73S 


0'7S 


13 


Pairadium. drawn . . . 


Hh75* 


m 




., annealed * . 


gjog 


uckder $ 


37 


Copper^ drawn . . . h 


t^H44^ 


12 


40 


annealed . . . 


I0i3«9 


undo: 3 


30 


Flat mum wite^ medium 








thltkiie*5. drawn . . 


aiJ,S69 


36 


34 


Pbtinum. annealsl . . 


U 


?1 


f run, drawn . . , , 


^- 


61 


,. annealed .... 


^?n 


uiiders 


47 


Nickel, drawn , , . , 


i^.95^ 




1X61 


Aluminium « » . . 


7.JOO 






bronie 


to.700 1 






BTa»CZr)Cut) .... 


.i-m 






German i ilvef fZniCuiiNi,.^ 







Sp^ifU Cramty.^Tha varies in metaU from -594 (lithium) to 
^2 4II {oimtumK and in one and the name species is a function of 
temperature and of prtviouj physical and mechanical treatment. 
It h4S^ in ifenerJi! one v^ilue for tlw powdery metal as obtained by 
rcducrtian ti! the oxide in hydiogen below (he melting point of the 
metal, another for the metal in the state which it as^umc^ tpon- 
taneousjy on freezing, and thit latter value, in general, it modi lied 
by hammerings rollii^, drawtng,^ &tr. Th«e mechainical opexBtioni 
lio not necMsarily add to th* density; •titmpiei£, it i* true, does n 
necessarily, but roUiiig; or drawmg occasioruilly causes a diminution 
of the density. Thus, for instance^ cbcmical[y pure iron in the ingot 
has the specific gra>nty 7-^44; when ii is rolled out into thin sheets 
the value falls to 76; when drawn into thin wine, to 7-75. The 
lotlowlng table gives the specific gravities of many metajs. Where 
Kptxbl xtAtements are not made^ the numbers hold for the ordinary 
tempcmturc (15" to 17" or 20' C), refeored to water ol tbe Kime 
ttimpciaiure ai a standard,, nnd tu hold for the natural frozen tnetat. 



Name of MetaL 



Lithium 

Potassium 

Sodium s ^ , « . . . . 
Rubidium ^ . * * * * , 

Calcium / . 

Migne^Sum ...,..« 
Caesium .. + .,.., 
Rerylliym ,,..»., 
Strontium ,.,...* 
Alum I mum, p\im, iilgiit . . 

ofiiifiaTy, hammered , 



Specific Gravity, 



■978 

I-57B 
l'74l 

3-1 



200 



METAL 



Name of MetaL 



Barium 

Zirconium 

Vanadium, powder 

Gallium 

Lanthanum 

Cerium 

Antimony 

Chromium 

Zinc, ingot 

,. rolled out 

Manganese . . ; 

Tin, cast 

,. crystallized by electrolysis from solutions 

Indium 

Iron, chemically pure, ingot 

„ thin sheet 

,, wrought, high quality 

Nickel, ingot ' 

„ forged 

Cadmium, ingot 

„ hammered 

Cobalt 

Molybdenum, containing 4 to 5% of carbon . 

Copper, native 

•„ cast » . . . 

„ wire or thin sheet 

„ electrotype, pure 

Bismuth 

Silver, cast 

„ stamped 

Lead, very slowly frozen 

„ (luickly frozen in cold water . . . 

Palladium 

Thallium 

Rhodium 

Ruthenium . . . . < 

Mercury,' liauid 

w solid 

Tungsten, compact, by Ht from chloride ) 

vapour S 

,j as reduced by hydrogen, powder 

Uranium 

Gold, ingot 

„ stamped 

„ powder, precipitated by ferrous sul- } 

phate { 

Platinum, pure 

Iridium 

Osmium 



Specific Gravity. 



375 
415 
5-5 

6-68 
6-63 
6-50 

6915 

7-2 

7*39 

729 to 7299 

7-178 

7-S4 
7'8 to 7*9 

8-6 
8-6 

8-94 
8>9a 
8*94 to 8*95 

9'8J3 at 12* 
iO'4 to 10*5 
10-57 
11-254 
"•303 

12-1 

12-26 at o* 
«3-595ato* 
1439 I 
16-54 

19-265 at 13* 
i9-3« to 19-34 
1955 to 19-72 
21-50 

32-3 

22-477 



40- 



uncertainty these metals were employed aa co m preiwd powdnk 
The cubical expansion of mercury from o* to lOO* C is -oiSiS) 



Thermal Properties. — ^The specific heats of most metals have been 
<)etermined. The general result is that, confohnably with Dulong 
and Petit's law, the " atomic heats " all come to very nearly the 
same value (of about 6-4) ; i.e. atomic weight by spedu: heat ■■6-4. 
Thus we have for silver by theory 6-4/108 ■> -0593, and by expen- 
ment -0570 for lo* to loo* C. 

The expansion by heat varies greatly. The following table gives 
the linear expanaons from o** to loo** C. according to Fizeau {Comptes 
rendus, Ixviii. 1125), the length at o* being taken as unity. 



Nbtqc q[ Mctat. 



Platinum^cafS. -.-.-.,,, 
Gold. C3*t ........... 

St! wr, cast . . , . . \ . , * . 
Copper, naiivc. from Lake Superior . ^ * 

Ti artificial . , . ^ . ^ . * 

Iron, Bof t , as uwd for electTiocDagncts , . , 

„ reduci^d by hyf\togfn and compress^ . 

Cait etcfl, EnjiUih annctkd . . . . . 

Biifnuth, in the direction of the axi* 

t, at ri^ht3ii|;1ps to aids .... 

,, ineanenpaiiiioii.calcwlattd . , . 
Tin, oC Malacca. cotnpre«ed powder . . . 
|,^ead, can . . . r , . , ^ . . . 
2liic.diitillcd»commtM«l powder . - . . 
Cadmitiin, di*lill«J, ftjmprosed powder . . 
Aluminium, cart ......... 

Rrmiftt7i 5%toppt:r28'S%iTnc) , . . , 
Bt<ititi; Cft6 3 % eopper. 97 % tin, 4-0 % anc) 



Expaniiiop 
o" to loo". 



'OQO 907 
■001 451 
■001 936 
'001 joS 
■00* B69 
■coi 33k 
■001 20% 
■001 IfO 
■001 643 
■001 339 
■001 374 

■□03 ?64 
■ODJ 948 
■00^ 905 

■ooa 336 
■UQ] H79 
■001 §02 



The coefficient of expanaon is constant for such metals only as 
crystallize ia the r^ular system; the others expand differently in 
iAe directlaoM of the different axeg. To eliminate this source of 



■K^$&»'"JL^.I^^""^«''' ■ 



, , -The fusibility in different metab is 

very different, as shown by the following table, idiich, besides 
including all the fusing points (in degrees C.) of metals which have 
been determined numerically, indicates those of a sdectioa of odwr 
metals by the positions assigned to them in the table. 



Name of Metal. 



Mercury . . . 

Caesium . . . 
Gallium . 

Rubidium . . 

Potassium . . 

Sodium . . . 

Indium . . . 

Lithium . . . 

Tin ... . 

Bismuth . . . 

Thallium . . 

Cadmium . . 
Lead .... 
Zinc- .... 
Incipient red heat 

Anumony . . 
Magnesium . 
Aluminium . 

Cherryredheat . 

Calcium . . . 

Lanthanum . . 

Barium . . . 

Silver . . . 
Gold .... 

Copper . . . 

Ydhwheai '. . 

Iron . . . 

Nickel . . . 

Cobalt . . . 
Datdini white heat 

Palladium . . 

Platinum . . 

Rhodium. . . 

Iridium . . . 

Ruthenium . . 

TanUlum . . 
Osmium . . 



Melting Point. Boiling Point. 



-38-8 

26-27 

30-1 

2:| 

95-6 

180-0 

231-9 

269-2 

290 

320-7 

3277 

419 

Si 

655 
700 

810 

1064 
1083 
1100 
1300-1400 



ISI( 



(?) 

1500-1600 
1500 
1760 
above Pt. 

„ 3300 

.. Ir. 

In electric 

furnace 



zsrz 



719-731 
861-954 



1450-1600 
1090-1450 

780 

1450-1600 
929-954 



about ixoo 



For practical purposes the volatility of metals may be stated as 
follows: — 

1. Distillable below reaness: mercury. 

2. Distillable at red heats: cadmium, alkali metals, xinc, maf* 
nesium. 

3. Volatilized more or less readily when heated beyond their 
fusing points in open crucibles: antimony (very readily), lead, 
bismuth, tin, silver. 

4. Barely so: gold, (copper). 

5. Practically non-volatile: (copper), iron, nickd, cob«lt, afah 
minium ; also lithium, barium, strontium and calcium. 

In the oxyhydrogen flame silver boils, forming m blue vapow, 
while platinum volatilizes slowly, and osmium, though infuaUe, 
very readily. 

Latent Heals of Liquefaction.— Oi these we know little. The fol- 
lowing numbers are due to Person — ice, it may be stated, being 8a 



Name of MeUl. 


Latent 
Heat. 


NameofMeuL 


Latent 
Heat. 


Mercury .... 

Lead 

Bismuth .... 


282 
5*37 
124 


Cadmium .... 

Silver 

Zinc 


13^ 

21-1 
28-1 



The latent heat of vaporization of mercury was found by Marignac 
to be 103 to 106. 

Conductivity. — Conductivity, whether thermic or electric, is very 
differently developed in different metals; and, as an exact kn^wtedgB 
of these conductivities is of great importance, much attentioo has 
been given to their numcr^ determination (see CoifDUCTlQM, 
Electric; and Conduction of Heat). 

The following table gives the electric conducti^ties^ m nmnber 
of metals as determined by Matthiesen, and the relative internal 
thermal conductivities of (nominally) the same metals as^letemined 
by Wiedemann and Franz, with rods about 5 mm. thick, of lAadk 
one end was kept at 100* C, the rest of th& rod in a " vaoraa ** 
(of 5 mm. tension) at 12* C. Matthiesen's results, except ia the twQ 
cases noted, are from his memMr in Pogg- ^m>>» 1858, diL 428 



METAL 



20I 



NameofMeCaL 



Copper.amimerdal, No:3 . . . 
« „ No.a . . . 

« chemically pure, hard drawn 



absolutely pure 



Tin,pttre . 
Piuof orte wire 
Iraorod 
Sled 
Uad.pure 



German aOver 
Binaath . . 



Mcfcury . 
Silver, pure 



Relative Conductivities. 



Electric Thermic. 



•774 ati8*8* 
•721 ,. 23-6 
•93* 



•553 
•73* 



"5 
•144 



•0777 
•10* 
0767 
•01 19 
196 
•0163 
I -000 



, ai*8 
> 19*0 



, 3I*0 
. 304 



« 1 7-3 
.. 207 
., 18-7 
.. 13 8 
.. 19*6 
.. 33-8 



.748 
•548 

•25 
•154 

•lOI 

•103 
•079 
•094 
•073 



MapuHc PropertUs. — Iron, nickel and cobalt are the only metals 
vlich are attracted by the magnet and can become magnets them- 
tAftL But in regard to their power of retaining their magnetism 
sooe of them comes at all up to the compouncf metal steel. See 
Magmetism. 

Chemical Changes. — Metals may unite chemically both with 
Betab and with non-metals. The compounds formed in the first 
ose, which may be either definite chemical compounds or solid 
Khtiotts, are discussed under Alloys; in this place only com- 
bioations with non-metals are disctissed, it being premised that 
tbe free metal takes part in the reaction. 

JCekfic Smbstamces Produced by Ike Union of MeUtU trilk Small 
Proportions of Non-MietaUic Elements, 
Hjiro^tn, as was shown by Graham, is capable of uniting with 
or beittg occluded by certain metab, notably with palladium (g.v.). 
ioo metal-like compounds. 

Ox^tn. — Mercury and copotx and some other metals are capable 
d dusolving their own oxides. Mercury, by doing so, becomes 
viscid and unfit for its ordinary apolications. Copper, when pure 
to start with, suffers considerable deterioration in pla^icity. But 
the presence of moderate proportions of cuprous oxide has been 
found to correct the evil influence of snull contaminations by arsenic, 
aotifflooy, lead and other foreign metals. Commercial coppers 
somecimes owe their good qualities to thu compensating influence. 

Arsenic combines reulily with all metals into true arsenides, which 
hiter. in ceoeral. are soluble in the metal itself. The presence in 
a metal 1^ even small proportions of arsenide generally leads to 
CBoaderaMe deterioration in mechanical qualities. 

Pkospkans. — ^The remark just made misht be said to hold for 
phnsplionia were it not for tne existence of what is called " phos- 
pbcNras-broiue," an alloy of copper with phosphorus {i.e. its own 
pbosphkle), which p o ss e ss e s valuable properties. According to 
Abd, the most favourable effect is produced by from i to ii% of 
pbosihorusb Such an alloy can be cast like ordinary bronxe, but 
CBcu the latter in hardness, elasticity, toughness and tensile 
stxcngth. 

Carbon, — ^Moat metals when molten are capable of dissolving at 
least snail proportions of carbon, which, in eeneral, leads to a 
deterioration in metallicity, except in the case of iron, which by the 
sddttion of small percentages of carbon gains in elasticity and tensile 
sticsfth with little km 01 plastkity (see Iron). 

StScon, so far as we know, behaves to metals pretty much like 
cvbon. but our knowledge of facts is limited. What is known as 
CMC iron is esKntially an alloy of iron proper with 3 to 6 % of carbon 
•ad more or less of ulicon (see Iron). Alloys of copper and silicon 
voeoRpared by Deville in 1863. The alloy with I3% of silicon 
iivkite. hard and brittle. When diluted down to 4-8%. it assumes 
tkcokmr and fusibility of bronze, but, unlike it. u tenacious and 
dodile like iron. 

Action of the More Ordinary Chemical Agjtnls on 
SimpU Metals. 
The netab to be referred to are always understood to be given 
k the conpact (frosen) condition, and that, wherever metals are 
csBoerated as being similariy attacked, the degree of readiness in 
tibe action is indicated by the order in which the several members 
•Kauned — the more readily changed metal always standing first. 

IFsfcf, at ordinary or slightly elevated temperatures, is decom< 
Pwd more or less readily, with evolution of hydrogen gas and forma- 
tin of a basic hydrate, by (i) potassium (formation of KHO), 
•dam CNafiO). lithium (LiOH), barium, strontium, calcium 
(BiHA,Ac.); (3) magnesium, rinc, manganese (MgOtHt, &c.). 



' Phbidbcd in i860, and declared by Matthieaen to be more exact . 
ihtt dm old Bonbcnb / 



In the case of group J the action it more nr Im* \4olentt and the 
hyflroxide] fornw^ arr sotubW in watt-f and ve^ry ^trun^ly buk; 
metaU of group } arr onXy sldwly aitackod, wtUi lorirutioo of rela- 
tively feebly buic and Icsfr Hluble bydnsidet. Dtkrcf^niliEig (be 
rarvr eEemcntiiH the inculi not named so tar nay be uiti La b^ prodf 
ag^inft thff action ol pure waci-r in the abience of lr« o^yeen Uir). 

By the jr^int' action of water and air, thalfiym, {(."ad. uij4TiutK an 
Dnidii^, with forma Linn oF more or lc*.i sparinj^ly soluble hydroxides 
(ThHO, PbH^, BiiIiO»}j wEiich^ in the pncitnce uf carbonEic acid, 
pui9 into ttill \fhs mi\u\Ac LiJi^ic: carbDnates. Iron^ vtirn cxpotcd la 
mDL&rur? and air, " ruiU " ; bat thi* prqcesn never t^kt^i place m the 
abicnce of ^if, and a 45 qucTitLotsable wbi^thcr It ever «t* m in the 
ab»Tice of carbonitr acid t»cc Ri^r^tJ^ 

Copper, in the pn^scnt connexion^ it [ntcrmediate between mm 
and ih« following group of metals*, 

Mercury , if pur?, and a El th<r " noble '* metals Myer« ^ald< pCa((* 
num and platinum-metalxj, are absoiutely proof agitlnst water even 
in the presence of oxygen and carbonic acid. 

The metalft ^rauped Fo^etber above, under I and 3, act on stcatn 
pretty m^ch a^ they do on liquid v^ater. Df the rest, the following 4.re 
r^djly ox:idtEed, by stc^m ai a red heat, witti formatian of h^idrogcn 
gaj — bnc* l:ron, cadmium, cobzilt, nkket, tin. EjisniuLh ii. iiimibrly 
attacki?d, but «l:owly« at a white hesit. Alurainiucn !& barely alfcctcu 
cvtn at 4 white htAXt if it ii pure ; the oniLnary impure metal ii liable 
to bQ very readily oxtdUed- 

Aqtttaus Sviphurk or Ifydrockloric Acid rea^Uy dissolves groupa 
I and 1, with evQlution of hydroaen and fDrmati.on of chlondes or 
lulphat€s. The time hold* for the fcillowing grnup (A): [manga- 
new. zinc, inaenc^iunij iron, alutnimum, cabaX nicleel, cadmium^ 
Tin dissolves readily in itrong hot b>d/ochtofic acid a4 SnCli; 
aqueoui BulphuTie acid doea not aft on it appre*;i*bly in the cold ; 
Bi 150* it attack* it mort or ka* *jaickiy( accordinj; 10 the strtDgxh 
of tjfic acid, with evolution of *u)^u retted hydrogen or^ when the 
acid if stroneer. of vukthurous acid gai aad depwtion of Aulphur 
(Calvert and Jfohnson). A group (B), eomprlsiog copper, is, 
fiubstant tally, attacked only in the pcaeace of oiiyvra or mr. Lead^ 
in tuf^icjcntly dilute acid, or iti stitriigeractd if trort loo hot, remains 
unchanged. A group (C) cnay be lormed d mentuy, silver, eold 
and platinum, which are not touched by dther aqueous acid ia 
anv circumitances< 

Hot (concentrated) tulphuric acid does not attack gold* ptatiniiiD 
and platinum-metab generally; all other nietal^ (Including nil^Tr) 
are converted into sulphates, with ni^olutiofi oi sulphur dioude^ 
In the fsse of iroEi, ferric sulphate. F(^(50iL. it produced ; tin yields 
a somewhat indefinite sulphate of itd o»de SnC^. 

Nitric Acid {Afweotts} — Gold, pUtinum, tridiuni and rfiodiuni 
only are proof agamst the action of thi^ poweiful oxidiKr. Tin and 
antimony (alioarwnic) are converti^ by it (tiltimately] intohydntet 
of their hieheft oxides SnOi, SbjOi (.K'JcOi} — the oxides of tin and 
antimony being insoluble ia water aruJ in the acid itself. All othtf 
metala^ including paUadium, are dtssolv'ied as nkralei, the oxidizing 
part of the reagent being geneiaJly reduced to oudei of nitrogen. 
Jrun^ Minc^ cadfnium, also tin under cenajn conditions, reduce the 
dilute acid, partially at least* to mtroua qudde, N^, or ammoniuio. 
nitrate, NH*NO^ 

Aqtta Htffi&f a miitture of nitric and hydrochloric aci^, convertm 
all tnetals teven gyld, the *' king of metal*," whence the name) into 
chloridca, C](fept only rhoditim, jiiiiuni and ruthenium, which^ 
when pure, are not attacked, 

CauiiH Aikdlii.—i^H ttjctal* not fjccompoiing liquid pure water, 
{)n]y :i few di»oive \n aqueiLJUi caustic putanh or t^Kfn, with evolution 
ol hydrpgenn The mo»t importari of these are alumiTitum and xinc, 
which arc converted into aluminat^;, .^KOK,NaJ|* and aincate, 
Zn(OK(Na)f. respect ively. But of the re*t the majority, when 
tfuat^ ^ith boiling eudiciently strong alkali* are attucked at least 
typcrftrialry; of ntttiiiary tnctal^ only gold, platinum, and wiver are 
perfectly prwjf against the rtajicots undtr canuderation*. and these 
accordinglv are used pTcimbly for the conatniction of vesiclj 
ifitcifided for analyticsf opeTatton* involving the? tim of aqueouit 
caustic alkalis. For commetviat purpose* iron i^ tiniveraally em- 
ployrd and works well; but it h not avaibbic a.nalytii:alty, hccauie 
a superficial oxidation of \hc empty part of the vt-^c] (by the water 
and air) cannot be pte^-tnted- Basins rtiade of puft malleable nickel 
art free from this drawback; thfv wo<rk as well as pUtinum, And 
rat her bet tei* t han siK-cf ones do- THene I s hardly a li ng le metal which 
hold* out ngainAt the alkalis ihem^lv«« when in the *t4te of fiery 
fusion: even platinum h moat violently attacked. In chemical 
laboratoriei fuaiomt with caustic alkalis are always effected in vessels 
made of ffold or silver, these metals holding out fairly *^U even in 
the presence of air. Gold h the better of the two. Ifon, which 
standi so welS against aqurouialkalit, is most violently aturkofj by 
the fused rta^nti. Vet tonft of caustic soda are f^scd diiilv ifl 
chemical wcu-lci in irwn pots without thereby lufferinjfeontaminationp 
which ieemf to show that (clean J iron^ hke gold an^ silver. Is at- 
tacked only by the joint action of fused alkali and air^ the influence 
of the latter W^iig of course minimized tn lar^e-tcale opcmtionv 

Oxytfit or Ait- — The noble metal* (from sitvcr up.\Nirds.\ da ** 
combine directly with oxv^eti gi.vt:n a^ mtv^n i?tv ^O-^, ^iVwsw^x, 
like sili'er, they may absorb thii* %ii.^ X^T^'i *Vi*t\ m \Vft Vmi^ 



202 



METALLOGRAPHY 



m certain range of temperatures situated close to its boiling point, 
combines slowly with oxygen into the red oxide, which, however, 
breaks up again at higher temperatures. All other metals, when 
heat«d in oxygen or air, sjk converted, mon; or leti rcidUy^ in To 
stable DKidt^L PotAssium, for Qumplp, yiclda peroxide, K^^ or 
K^t; sodtuiii eivei N^aO^; the banum-j^raup metals, as HftW a« 
magTiO^iun], c^ifdmlum, z'mc, lead, copper, are ccmveitioJ into their 
monoxides MeO. BitniLiLli and ai^ticnony give (the Litter veiy 
icadily) tfe^uloKtde (Bi^Oj and SbjOj, the latter bring capable df 
pofsing intoSbjOi). Aluminium, when pure and kept out of contact 
with «iiic?ou» ntattcri ii- only oxidized at a white bcat^ and then very 
ilowly, into aJuminan AlfU^. Tin, at high tempcratyres, pa;uea 
flowEy into oxide, SnO^^ 

SuiprkKr.^Amon^si the bctler known mctali, go\d and aluminium 
Eire the only ones which, «hcn heated with fiurphur or in milphur 
vapoiir remain unchangixl. All the ftH, undcf thc^e ci^unutancee^ 
are converted into sulphide!*. The meuU ot the alkalii and alkaline 
earihii, alw mat^ne^ium^ burn Ln sulphur vapcKira^thcy do inOKy|en« 
Of ihr heavy metals copper is the one *htch exhibits by (ar the 
frtatejht avidity for sulphur, its subiulphidc CuiS being the stablest 
of all hea^'y metallic sujphidei in opposition to dry nsoctioni. 

Chiortnt.^-^Ml rtietalj* wheti treated with chlorine gas at the proper 
temperatures, paM icito chlorides. Iti some cases the ch tonne ii 
taken up in t*o inatalrticrttSt » bwer chloride being produced br«, 
to pass ultimately Into a higher chloride. Iron, for instance, is 
converted first into FeOi. ulinriatdy into FcCh, which practically 
me^ni& Jr mixture of the two chlorides* or pure FeClj as a final product. 
Of the several products, the chlorides of tM ^^'i plitmum (Autli 
and PtCli) are the onh on* - -i i i i ''■'. I - yond their 

tcmpcratureof formatiDsi diMo* i, . ; ■■. The ulti- 

mate chlorination product of copper, CuCl», when heated to redness, 
decomposes into the lower chloride, CuCI, and chlorine. All the 
test, when heated by themselves, volatilize, some at lower, others 
at higher temperatures. 

Of the several individual chlorides, the following are liquids or 
solids, volatile enough to be distilled from glass vessels: AsCls, 
SbCli, SnCU, BiCls, ngCli, the chlorides of arsenic, antimony, tin, 
bismuth, mercury respectively. The following are readily volatilized 
in a current of chlorine, at a red heat: AlCIi, CrCU, FeCh, the 
chlorides of aluminium, chromium, iron. The following, though 
volatile at higher temperatures, are not volatilized at dull redness : 
KCl, NaCl, LiQ, NiCl,, CoCl,, MnCI,, ZnCl,. MeCl,. PbCI,, AgCl, the 
chlorides of potassium, sodium, lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, 
sine, magnesium, lead, silver. Somewhat less volatile than the 
last-namra group arc the chlorides (MCU) of barium, strontium and 
calcium. 

Metallic chlorides, as a class, are readily soluble in water. The 
following are the most important exceptions: silver chloride. 
AgCl, and mercurous chloride, HgCl, are aosolutcly insoluble; lead 
chloride, PbCls, and cuprous chloride, CuCl, are very sparingly soluble 
in water. The chlorides AsClj. SbCU. BiClj, arc at once decomposed 
by niquid) water, with formation of oxide (AsjOi) or oxychloridcs 
fSbOC, BiOCl) and hydrochloric acid. The chlorides MgCl,. AlCl,, 
CrCli, FeCli, suffer a similar decomposition when evaporated with 
water in the heat. The same holds in a limited sense for ZnCU, 
CoClt. NiClt, and even CaCU. All chlorides, except those of silver 
and mercury (and, of course, those of ({old and platinum), are 
oxidized by steam at high temperatures, with elimination of hydro- 
chloric acid. 

For the characters of metals as chemkal elements see the special 
articles on the different metals. 

See generally A. Rossing Gfschichle der AfeUUU (1901); B. 
Neumann, DU Metalle (1904); also treatises on chemistry. 

METALLOGRAPHY. — The examination of metals and alloys 
by the aid of the microscope has assumed much importance in 
comparatively recent years, and it might at first be considered 
to be a natural development of the use of the microscope in 
determining the constitution of rocks, a study to which the name 
petrography has been given. It would appear, however, that 
it is an extension of the study of the structure of meteoric irons. 
There can be no question that in the main it was originated by 
Dr H. C. Sorby, who in 1864 gave the British Association an 
account of his work. Following the wqrk of Sorby came that 
of Prolessor A. Martens of Charlottenburg, presenting many 
features of originality. F. Osmond has obtained results in 
cormexion with iron and steel which are of the highest interest. 
A list of the more important papers by these and other workers 
will be found in the appended bibliography. 

Preparation of the Specimen. — Experience alone can enable the 
operator to determine what portion of a mass of metal or alloy 
will afford a trustworthy sample of the whole. In studying a 
series of binary alloys it has been found advantageous in certain 
cases to obtain one section which will show in a general way the 
va/iaa'on in structure from one end ol the scries to the other. 



This has been effected by pouring the lighter constituent caiefally 
on the surface of the heavier constituent, and allowing solidifica- 
tion to take place. A section through the culot so obtained win 
show a gradation in structure from pure metal on one side to 
pure metal on the other. A thin slice of metal is usually cut by 
means of a hack-saw driven by mechanism. The thickness of 
the piece should not be less than \ in. and in order that it may 
be fixmly held between the fingers it should not be less than i in. 
square. The preliminary stages of polishing are effected by 
emery paper placed preferably on wooden disks capable of being 
revolved at a high rate of speed. The finest grade of emeiy pi^xr 
that can be obtained is used towards the end of the operation. 
Before use the finer papets should be rubbed with a hard sted 
surface to remove any coarse particles. The completion of the 
operation of polishing is generally effected on wet doth or parch- 
ment covered with a small amount of carefully washed jeweller's 
rouge. Various mechanical appliances are employed to minimise 
the labour and time required for the polishing. These usually 
consist of a series of interchangeable revolving dkks, each of which 
is covered with emery paper, cloth or parchment, mccofding to 
(he particubr stage of polishing for which it.is required. In the 
case of brittle alloys and of alloys having a very soft constituent, 
which during polishing tends to spread over and obliterate the 
harder constituents, polishing is in many cases altogether avoided 
by casting the alloy on the surface of glass or mica. In this way, 
with a little care, a perfect surface is obtained, and it is only 
necessary to develop the structure by suitable etching. In 
adopting this method, however, instances have occurred in which 
the removal of the cast surface has shown a structure diffcriog 
considerably from the original. 

Polisking in Bas- Relief. — If the polishing be completed with 
fine rouge on a sheet of wet parchment, pbced upon a compara- 
tively soft base such as a piece of deal, certain soft constituents 
of an alloy may often be eroded in such a manner as to leave the 
hardest portions in relief. For the later stages of polishing H. L 
Le Chatelier recommends the use of alumina obtained by the 
calcination of ammonium alum; and for the final polish of soft 
metals, chromium oxide. 

Although in some cases a pattern becomes visible after polish- 
ing, yet more frequently a mirror-like surface is produced in 
which no pattern can be detected, or if there is a pattern it is 
blurred, as if seen through a veil or mist. This is due to a thin 
layer of metal which has been dragged, or smeared, uniformly 
over the whole surface by the friction of the polishing process. 
Such a surface layer is formed in all cases of polishing, and the 
peculiar lustre of burnished silver or steel is probably due to this 
layer. But to the mctallographist it is an inconvenience, as it 
conceals scratches left by imperfect polishing, and also hides the 
pattern. It b therefore desirable to conduct the polishing so as 
to make this layer as thin as possible: it is claimed for alumina 
that it can be so used as to produce a much thiimer surface la)Tr 
than that due to the employment of rouge. The surface layer is 
very readily removed by appropriate liquid reagents, and, the 
true surface of the metal having been laid bare, the etching 
reagent acts differently on the individual substances in the alloy 
and the pattern can thus be emphasized to any required extent. 
Osmond div'idcs etching reagents into three classes — acids, 
halogens and salts. As regards acids, water containing from 2 to 
10% of hydrochromic acid is useful. It is made by mixing 10 
grams of potassium bichromate with 10 grams of sulphuric acid 
in 100 grams of water. The use of nitric add requires mudi 
experience. It is frequently employed in the examination of 
steels. Sir W. C. Roberts- Austen preferred a 1% solution in 
alcohol, but niany workers use concentrated add, and effea the 
etching by allowing a stream of water to dilute the film of add left 
on the surface of the spedmen after dipping it. Of the halogens, 
iodine is the most useful. A solution in alcohol is applied, so that 
a single drop covers half a square inch of surface. The specimen 
is then washed with alcohol, and dried with a piece of fine linen or 
chamois leather. Tincture of iodine also affords a means of 
identifying lead in certain alloys by the formation of a ydOow 
iodide of lead, while the vapour of iodine has in certain c 



METALLURGY 



203 



Bsd to tint the constituenti. Thb coloured films may often be 
prednccd by the oxidation of the specimen when heated in air. 
This, MS a means of developing the structure, in the case of the 
copper alloys is specially useful Tinted crystals may thus be 
distinguished from the investing layer caused by the presence 
of a minute quantity of another constituent. The temper colours 
produced by heating iron or steel in air are well known. Carbide 
of iron is las oxidizable than the iron with which it is intimately 
aswdated, and it assumes a brown tint, while the iron has reached 
the blue stage. These coloured films may be fixed by covering 
vith thin films of gelatine. 

In some cases the alloy may be attacked electrolytically by 

-Tv*""C it for a few minutes to a weak electric current in a bath 

of very dilute sulphuric add. Certain organic bodies give very 

satisfactory results. The Japanese, for instance, produce most 

icmarfcable effects by simple reagents of which an infusion of 

ctrtain forms of grass is a not unimportant constituent. In the 

case' of iron and steel a freshly prepared infusion of liquorice 

not has been found to be most useful for colouring certain 

constituents of steel Osmond, who was the first to use this 

icftgent, inssted that it should be freshly prepared and always 

Bed under identical conditions as regards age and concentration. 

Ha method of appl3ring it was to rub the spedmen on parchment 

Boistened with it, but he has subsequently modified this ** polish 

auack " by substituting a 2% solution of ammonium nitrate for 

tbe fiquorice infusion. In each case a small quantity of freshly 

precipitated caldum sulphate is used on the parchment to assist 

tbe polishing. 

Appliances used in Micrography,— Tht method of using the 
nicToscope in connexion with a camera for photographic purposes 
wifl now be considered. Every micrographer has his own views as 




) 



Micrographic Apparatus. 

to the fonn of an installation to be adopted, and it will therefore 
be weO to give an illustration of a definite apparatus which has 
been found to give satisfactory results. It consists of a micro- 
Kope A with a firm base placed in a horizontal position. The 
nicroscope can be connected by a tube B with the expanded 
camoa CC, at the end of which is the usual frame to receive the 
photographic plate. A practised observer can focus on a plate 
of dear ^ass by the aid of a subsidiary bw-power microscope 
lens. If a semi-transparent plate is employed it should be as fine 
u possible. The surface of the table is cut in such a way near H 
tkat the observer who is seated may conveniently examine the 
object on the stage of the microscope, the portion B turning 
tiide for this purpose. Tbe subsequent focusing- is effected by a 
nod, FFF, and gearing attached to the fine adjustment of the 
nicnscope, GA; flap J when raised forms the support of the 
hap iBed for illumination. As an illuminant an arc light has 
■uy advantages, as the exposure of the plate used will seldom 
CKeed 10 seconds. The filament of a Nemst lamp can be used 
u tbe source of light; though not so brilliant as the arc it pos- 
•OKs the great advantage of perfect immobility. For the best 
Knks, especially with high powers, the source of light must be 
■BoH, 10 that iu image can be focussed on to the surface of the 
object; this advantage is possessed by both of these illuminants. 
Hen in value comes the acetylene flame, and an incandescent 
■BP or a gas lamp with a mantle will give good results, but with 
y^ longer exposure. Actual illumination is best effected by a 
^ venicd iDuminator or a Zeiss prism. It is necessary that 
^ hot used for concentrating the hght on tbe Wuminator 



should be an achromatic one, as cobur effects cause trouble in 
photographing the objects. For lower powers the Licberkuhn 
parabolic illuminator is useful. Certain groups of alloys show 
better under oblique illumination, which may be effected by the 
aid of a good condensing lens, the angle of inddence being 
limited by the distance of the object from the objective in the 
case of high magnification. As regards objectives, the most 
useful are the Zeiss 2 mm., 4 mm. and 24 mm.; two other useful 
objectives for low powers being 35 mm. and 70 mm., both of 
which are projecting objectives. A projecting eye-piece, prefer- 
ably of low power, should be empbyed with all but the two latter 
objectives. The immersion lens, the Zeiss 2 mm., is used with 
specially thickened cedar oil, and if the distance from the 
objective to the plate is 7 feet, magnifications of over 2000 
diameters can easily be obtained. As regards sensitized plates, 
excellent results have been obtained with Lumi^re plates sensitive 
to yellow and green. The various brands of " process " plates 
are very serviceable where the contrasts on the specimen are 
not great. Some reproductions of photo-micrographs of metals 
and alloys will be found in the plate accompanying tbe artide 
Alloys. 

AuTRORiTiBS.— H. C. Sorby, "On Microscopical Photoerapht 
oi Various Kinds of Iron and Steel." Brit. Assoc. Report (1864), 

?t. ii. p. 189; " Microscopical Structure of Iron and Steel," Journ. 
ron and Steel Inst. (1887), p. 355; A. Martens, " Die mikroskopiKrhe 
Untersuchung der Metalle," Glaser's AnnaUn (1893), xxx. 30i; 
H. Wedding, " Das GefOge der Schicnenkdpfe." Stahl und Eisen 
(May 15. 1893), xiL 478; F. Osmond, " Sur la metallographie 
microscopique," Rapport prhenti d la commission des mitkodes 
d'essai des matMaux de construction le jo fhrier 1892; et ii. 7-17 
(Paris, 1895); "Microscopic Metallography," Trans. Amer. Jnst, 
Minint Eng. xxii. 343; J. E. Stead, " Methods of preparing Speci- 
mens for Microscopic £xaminatbn," Journ. Iron and Steel InsL 

g ten and F. Osmond, 

" "On the Structure 

of Metals, its Origin 
and Causes," Phil, 
Trans, Roy. Soc, 
clxxxviL 41 7-433 ; 
and Bull, de la Soc. 
d'tncouragement 
pour rindustrie no- 
tionale, $• sMe, L 
1136 (AoOt 1896); 
G. Charpy, " Micro- 
scopic Study of Me- 
tallic Alloys," Bull, 
de la soc. d" encouragement pour Tindustrie nationale (March, 1897) : A. 
Sauveur, " Constitution 01 Steel," Technology Quarterly (June. 1898); 
Metallographistt vol. i. No. %; " Metallography applied to Foundry 
Work," The Iron and Steel Magazine, vol. ix. No. 6, and vol. x. No. I ; 
J. E. Stead, " Crystalline Structure oJ Irrjcj nnj Sttcl, ' Jaurn. iron 
and Steel Inst. (1898), i. i^y, " Pnurtical MptaMographyH" Frac* 
Cleveland Inst, of Engineers (trb. 26. 1900); Ewing and RoscnKain, 
" Crystalline Structure of Metals r" Phil. Trans, Eoy. Soc* CNcilU 
353 and cxcv. 279; F. Osmond^ "" CTyBtalJography of iron," AnnaJer 
des Mines (January 1900); Le Ckattlicr, "' Tec>ino)it>gy of M^tallo- 
graphy," Mctallcgraphist, voL iv. No^ i ; C&ntfihitiian d i'Huie dei 
alliages. Socicte d encourage atent p&ur rinduMrit natTOnate (1901); 
Smeaton, " Notes on the Euhing of SttcX Sec r ion*," Iron artd Strel 
Magazine, vol. ix. No. 3. (W, C. R.-A.j F. H Xe ) 

METALLURGY, the art of extracting metals from their ores; 
the term being customarily restricted to commercial as opposed 
to bboratory methods. It is convenient to treat electrical 
processes of extraction as forming the subjects of Electro- 
chemistry and Electrometallurgy {qq.v.). The following table 
enumerates in the order of their importance the metak which our 
subject at present is understood to include; the second column 
gives the chemical characters of the ores utilized, italics indicat- 
ing those of subordinate importance. The term " oxide " includes 
carbonate, hydrate, and, when marked with*, silicate. 
Metal. Character of Ores. 

Iron Oxides, sulphide. 

Copper Complex sulphides,^ also oxides, metal. 

Silver Sulpnide ana rcguline metal, chloride. 

Gold RejfuHne metal. 

Lead Sulphide and bas\c cas^oonaXi^^ svI^V^^os- 



Zinc Sulphide, OKide.* 

Tin Oxide, 



204 



METALLURGY 



Metal. Character of Ores. 

Mercury Sulphide, rcguline metal. 

Antimony .... Sulphide. 

Bismuth Rcguline metaL 

Nickel and cobalt . . Arsenides. 
Platinum, iridium, &c. . Reguline. 

General Sequence of Operations. — Occasionally, but rarely, 
metallic ores occur as practically pure compact masses, from 
which the accompanying matrix or " gangue " can be detached 
by hand and hammer. In most cases the " ore " (see Mineral 
Deposits; Veins), as it comes out of the mine or quarry, is 
simply a mixture of ore proper and gangue, in which the latter 
not unfrequcntly predominates. Hence it is generally necessary 
to purify the ore before the liberation of the metal is attempted. 
Most metallic ores are specifically heavier than the accompanying 
impurities and their purification is generally effected by reducing 
the crude ore to a fine enough powder to detach the metallic 
from the earthy part, and then washing away the latter by a 
current of water, as far as possible (see Ore-dressing). 

The majority of ores being chemical compounds, the extraction 
of their metals demands chemical treatment. The chemical 
operations involved may be classified as follows: — 

1. Fiery Operations. — ^The ore, generally with some " flux," 
is exposed to the action of fire. The fire in most cases has a 
chemical, in addition to its physical, function. Moreover the 
furnace (g.v.) is designed so as to facilitate the action of the heat 
and furnace gases in the desired direction. It is intended either 
to bum away certain components of the ore — in which case it 
must be so regulated as to contain a sufficient excess of unbumed 
oxygen; or it is meant to deoxidize (" reduce") the ore,when the 
drau£;ht must be restricted so as to keep the ore constantly 
wrapped up in combustible flame gases (carbon monoxide, 
hydrogen, marsh-gas, &c.). The majority of the chemical 
operations of metallurgy fall into this category, and in these 
processes other metal-reducing agents than those naturally 
contained in the fire (or blast) are only exceptionally employed. 

3. Amalgamation. — The ore by itself (if it is a reguline one), 
or with certain reagents (if it is not), is worked up with mercury 
so that the metal is obtained as an amalgam, which can be separ- 
ated mechanically from the dross. The purified amalgam is 
distilled, when the mercury is recovered as a distillate while the 
metal remains. 

3. Wet Processes. — Strictly speaking, certain amalgamation 
methods fall under this head; but, in its ordinary acceptance, the 
term refers to processes in which the metal is extracted either 
from the natural ore, or from the ore after roasting or other 
preliminary treatment, by an acid or salt solution, and from this 
solution precipitated — generally, in the reguline form — by some 
suitable reagent. 

Few methods of metal extraction at once yield a pure product. 
What as a rule is obtained is a more or less impure mctsil, which 
requires to be " refined " to become fit for the market. 

Chemical Operations. — Amalgamation and wet- way processes 
have limited applications, being practically confined to copper, gold 
and silver. Wc therefore here confine ourselves, in the main, to 
pyro-chemical operations. 

The method to be adopted for the extraction of a metal from its 
ore is determined chiefly, though not entirely, by the nature of the 
non-metallic component with which the metal is combined. The 
simplest case is that of the reguline ores where there is no non- 
metallic element. The important case is that of gold. 

Oxides, Hydrates, Carlnmates and Silicates.— An iron and tin ores 
proper fall under this heading, which, besides, comprises certain ores 
of copper, of lead and of zinc. The first step consists in subjecting 
the crude ore to a roasting or calcining process, the object of which 
is to remove the water and carbon dioxide, and bum away, to some 
extent at least, the sulphur, arsenic or organic matter. The residue 
coDMsts of an impure oxide of the respective metal, which in all cases 
is reduced by treatment with fuel at a high temperature. Should 
the metal be present as a silicate, lime must be added in the smelting 
to remove the silica and liberate the oxide. 

The temperature required for the reduction of sine lies above the 
boiling point of the metal; hence the mixture of ore and reducing 
a^nt (charcoal is generally used) must be heated in a retort combined 
with condensing apparatus. In all the other cases the reduction 
is effected in the fire itself, a tower-shaped blast furnace being pre- 
/erab)y uited. The furnace is charged with alternate layers of fuel 
mm/ ore (or rather ore and Hux, see Mow), and the whole kindled 



of Cupper and Lfrin): boumDEiiiPt ^ cDmpLci sulphide oJ leadi aati* 
mony and copper; rothgikifcrz, Bulphlue of slrver, antlrnony aad 
artfnlci fahlciz, sulphides 01 arpcnk and antifnony, coTRbined witk 



from below. The nxUlVic oicide* partly by tbe dinert action of the 
carbcn *ith which it ii in contacts but principally by that of tht 
carbOEi mono^iide produced in the Iowit strata from the oxyfen of 
the blast and th« hot carbon thert, it r^uced io the metallic state; 
the metal fua» and run* down, with the ila^. to the bociom of the 
(urnactr, wticncc both are withdrawn by opening pluK-holei. 

Si4t>huie3,—lTon, copper^ lead, tint, mercury, silver and aatimoay 
vt^ry frequently pr«eiit thtm^lves in this iViVt of co[nblnatioa.at 
componrntB of a family of ores which may be dividi?d into two 
sFCtionfi: (r) such as sub»Ur>tially consist of nmpk sulphides, as 
iron pyrites (FtSj), ealcna [PbS)^ nnc blende [XnSt), cinnabar (HgS); 
and \i} complex sulphides , such as the various kinds of sulphufeoiia 
copper ottA (alf substantially {rompqundi or mixtures of 1 
of cyppcf and ifrin): boumoniiPt ^ complc 
mony and copper; rothgikifcrz, Bulphlde t 
OLrsink] fahlcfz, sulphides 01 arpcnk and a 
sulphides of ctiippcr, eilvcn iron, line, mercury, tilver; asd 1 
of theie and other sulphides with one Another. 

tn treating a iulphu^eous ore, the Er$4 tttp as a rule U to mifaiecC 
it to oxidation by roaatin^ it in a rcvrrtjctatoty or other furnace. 
whkrh leads to the burning away of at kjist part of the xrsenic and 
part of tJie sulphur* The effect on the ievcral individual mftalBc 
sulphides [nipfrnfirig otity one o^ these to be present J is as roOowsr— 

I. Those of Silver (AgiS) and mercury ^HgS) ^neld sulphur dknide 
gas and meml^ tn the caw of iiijvcr. sulphate is foroicd at knr ten^ 
peratures, Mfiallk: menrurv-, in the eircumstancrs, got* off aa a 
va iiouT, wbic h [$ col letted a nd condensed ; silver remains m a refohilk 
but pure sulphide of ulvcr is hardly ever worked. 

3, Sulphides of iron dud zinc yield the oiddes Pei^i and ZnO iS 
(in^l pfndijct^, some basic Eulphatc beinc formed at the earlier H 
e^ipCirkiUy in thr case of zinc. The oi-ideiiican bo ntduccid by C" 

^. The sulphides ol lead and copper yield » the ronmcr a i 
of oxide and normjil iulphate, the Lstter one of oxide and 
sulphate. Sulphate of lead ii atahlf at a red heat ; $uf[]>liaie of c 
breaks up into oKide, bulphur dioxide and oxy^Tk In practne. 
neither oiddation procc^ » ever flushed to the end; it is itonpea 
as siK>n ai the muture of roasting -product and unchanged nil|^ude 
contains aicygen and «ulphur m Ui& ratio ol Oi ; S. The aoocM of 
air is then stopped and the whole heated to a bighe:r tcmpentvre. 
whpn the whole of the sulphur and oxygen is diminated. This 
irtethod i» largely utilized tn the smelting oT lead from galena and of 
copper frnm copper p^rit'Ps, 

4. Sulphide of antimony, when roasted in air, is converted into 
a kind of alloy of sulphide and ovdc; the same holds for troa, ocdv 
its oxy^ulphide is quite readily cots verted into the pure onde FeJOt 
by further roast i ng . OKysu I phide of a n ti mony » by s u ii a bk ptxx zma 
can tK: reduced to metal, but tht-«e processes are rarely used, became 
the same end hi far more easily obtained by ''* precipitatMm," id. 
wittidrawini^ the sulphur by fiision with meUllic iron, Cormiiig 
metallic antimony and sulphide of iron. Both products fuse, bat 
readily part, becaui^ fused antimony tK far heavier thanfued 
sulphide of iron, A preci^ly similar method is used occainonallf 
for the reduction of lead ftom galena. Sulphide of lead, when fnsea 
together with tnetalHc iron in the proportion of 2Fe : tPbS yiddf 
a regului (= (I'b) and a " mat " FeiS, which, however, on cooling, 
decomposes Into the ordinary sutphide FeS, and finely divided int. 
What we have been exphinmg are specbl cases of jt inone generd 
mf-t^lltirgic proposition ; Any one of the metals, coppcr,^ iron, tin, 
tiacn Icadi, silver, antimony^ arsenic, in generaln is capable off de- 
Eulphunzing {at least partially) any of the otheri that followB it ia 
the scries just given, and it does » the more nudity and completely 
the gieatcr the number of inlerv'tninB term*. Hence, MippiMiar 
a complete mixture of these metaU to be meked do*n undercucuB- 
Etance& admitting of only a partial sutph oration of the whole, the 
copper }ia.s the best chance of passinE into tlie " mat," while dn 
arsenic Is the fir^t to be eliminated as such, or, in the ] 
oxidants, as oxide. 

jirfffrKfer.-— Although arsenides art amongst the 

impurities of ores ifeiwrall y, ore* consisting essentially of a 

arc compantlvely r^re. The ttiost important are certain double 
arsenides of to\ni\t and nickel, which in practice arr always con* 
laminated with the arsenides or other frompoundsolforFininietala, 
Hch u iron, manganese. &c. The general mode of working thne 
ores ii at (olbws. The ore is hrst roasted by itself, when a put of 
the appenic goes off as such and as oxide, while a eomplex 01 lowi 



arsenides remains. This residue Is rww subjected to cartful < 
ing fusion in the presence of some solvent for metallic baaes. The 
effect is that the several mretals are oxidized away and pom into tk* 
eJag (as silicate!^) In the following order— manga nt». iron, r-*^"^ 
nickel; anil at any stage the as yet unoiddized residue of ai 



atAurrc^ the form of a fused tfgulus, whirh slnk» down throiwli tlMi 
flag at a *' ipeis.*' [Thi* terrn has the same meaning in re fm nM 
to arsenides a4 " mat " has in regard to sulphides^) By ito 
the process at the right ■noment, we can produce a tptn < 
contains only robalt and ntcktl, and if at this stage al» the flva ll 
renewed we ran fi/fthcr pro^Jyce a apcis which contains oiUy nickd 
and a sJaRr ^hich lubstanTially is one of cobalt only. The co mp orf- 
tion of the speisrs generally vark^ from A»Me tft to AsMei. when 
" Me " meattsi one atomic weight of metal im toto^ so that in 
iMc - *Fe + >Co + tNi, wEete * + /+•-!. Tlie 



METAL-WORK 



205 



9md m • Uoe iMcroeat cafled " nnalt '*; tht nickd-tpeis 
M loc BWtaL 

Bajfiifi.— Bciidf the oxidinng and reducing agenu 
the fire, and the " flusn " iddcd for the production o( 
MM miaor reagents may be noticed. Metallic iron as a 
KT loM alresdv been referred to. 

laed, PbO (litnarge), u brgely u^d ai an oddUlns ag&nt- 
eet« when it mrits, it readily ^ttjcka M mrtiiU, exrcpt 
■jDld, the general result bein^ tht? rornvjiion of i mbicd 
■ a mlaed regulus. a distributicrt. iit uihrr woirds, of both 
id the metal acted on betweer "I rcguluA, More 

ia its action on metallic sulp; >.^iicliT in |E«nrniL 

le formation of three things n "li^hur diouck> vu, 

ide slaw including the eacess of JiLharjji^^ a rt^ului a[ Kc^d 
y include bismuth and other more riiadjly reducible 
a. if the litharge is not sufhdem far j r^j.TEifjk'Ct^ oxidjiMon, 
mnprising the more readily sul I ■:'i"''<' < |<.. ;. 

am a moat powerful advent for metallic oxides generally, 
xfy used for the separation of silver or gold irom base 
idea, 
laad is to metals generally what oxide of lead is to metallic 

accordingly b available as a solvent for Uking up 
des of metal diffused throughout a nuss of slag, and 
■m into one regulus. This leads us to the process of 
m.** which serves for the extraction of gold (q.v.; see 
ing) and silver from their alloys with base metals. 
-An ores are amuminated with more or less gangue. 
enecal consists of infusible matter, and if left unheeded 
KtioQ of the metallic part of the ore would retain more 
the metal diaseminatcxl through it, or at best foul the 
To avoid this, the ore as it goes into the furnace is mixed 
aa " so selected as to convert the gangue into a fusible 
tich readily runs down through the fuel with the regulus 
lea from the latter. The quality and proportion 01 flux 
KMsible, be so chosen that the formation of the slag sets 
sr the metal has been reduced and molten; or elic part of 
■ode of the metal to be extracted may be dissolved by 
nd its reduction thus be prevented or retarded. Slap 
lecesssry evil ; if an ore were free from gangue we should 
e and nux from without to produce a slag, because one 
tioas is to form a layer on the regulus which protects it 
t further action of the blast or furnace gases. Fluxes 
tanged under the three heads of (1) fluor-spar, (3) basic 
($) add fluxes. 

ar fi].M?f up ai a red hvAi with sllicA, sulpbaEcs of calcium 
tu and a few E^tlicr infuaibl? lubttinctrs into honiaKcneous 
t shows tkllc tendfTtcy to dissolve baibc oxide*, ^uch as 
One part of duoT'ipar liqturEies about hall a fxirt of &ilica, 
of csk.ium sulphate and one and a hail part* ol barium 

Upon theie faftf its cxlnemtly wide application in 
' s foundt.'d. Carbonate o\ soda [or potash) is the most 
4si£ Auk, It dl^solfV^c% u\\ca anrj a\\ silicates into fusible 
fn the other hand^ borax may be tJlurn ai a type for the 
. At a red heit^ when it forms a vk&cid flijid„ it ftadily 
iH biuic oxides into lusibk oortplex borates. Now the 
in ore in cenera) con!»i5t* either of some basic material 
jtonste ot limt [or magnt^la], (erne oxidi^, alumina, &c., 
1 (quarti) or some more or less acid silicite, or d^ of a 
tht two clashes of bodies. So any kind ol gangue n light 
d by meara of borax or b)r means of alkaline carbonate; 
r 01 the two is used otherwise than for assaying; what the 
Iter does is to add to a basic gan^^ue the proportion of 
to an acid ore the proportion of lime, or, indirectly, of 
perhaps manganous oxide, which it may need for the 
of a slag of the proper qualities. The slag must possess 
" ^'- ee of saturation. In other words, taking SiOi + 
ieO means an eauivalent of base) as a formula for 
ial slag, n must have the proper value. If 11 is too small, 
slag b too acid, it may oisaolve part of the metal to be 
if s is too great, i.e. the slag too basic, it may refuse to 
x instance, the ferrous oxide which is meant to go into 
s oxide will then be reduced, and its metal (iron in our 
amtaminate the regulus. In reference to the problem 
ttssion. it a worth noting that oxides of lead and copper 
cadily reduced to metals than oxide of iron FetOi is to 
sttcr nxMe readily to FeO than FeO itself to metal, and 
readily to metal than manganous oxide is. Oxide of 
me) is not reducible at all. The order of basi ity in the 
ir readiness to go into the slag) is precisely the reverse, 
gs being, as we nave seen, complex silicates, it u a most 
problem of scientific metallurgy to determine the relations 
m of bodies between chemical composition on the one 
usibility and solvent power for certain oxides (CaO, FeO, 
>!• SiQi, &c) on the other. Their general composition 
eap r eastd as ii(MO+xSiC)0+»»l(fe or al)0-fxSiOjl 
Mg. Fe, Ki, &C.: fe-fFe. al-IAI) The following 
sauying and naming composition in silicates is mctallurffi- 
fic chemists des^nate Class 1. as orthosilicates. Class If. 
cates. Cbss III. as sesquisilkrates. In the formulae M 
Kfc Ca, Fe. &c., or for al - iAl, fe- iFe, &c. 



Name. 


Formula. 


Ox> enRatia 


X 


I. Singulo-silicates . 
II. Bi-silicates . . 
III. Tri-silicatcs . 


iSiOi+iMO 
iSiOi+iMO 
iSiO,+iMO 


"Base. Acid. 
I I 
I a 
I : 3 


1 
1 



It should be posuble to represent each qualitv of a silicate as a 
function of x, n/m, and of the nature of the individual bases that 
make up the MO and (fe or al) O rnpectively. Our actual knowledge 
falls far short of this possibility. Tne problem, in fact, is very diffi- 
cult, the more so as it is complicated by the existence of alummates, 
compounds such as AljOt . 3CaO, in which the alumina plays the 
part of acid, and the occasional existence of compounds 01 fluorides 
and silicates in certain slags. The formation of sbgs, or, what comes 
to the same thing, of metallic silkrates, was especially studied by 
Percy, Smith, Bischof, Plattner and others, and in more recent times 
by Vogt, Doelter, and at the Geophysical laboratory of the Carnegie 
Institution, Washington. 

RiBLiOGBAPHY.-— W. Roberts-Austen, Introduction to the Study 
of MetaUurty; J. A. Phillips and H. Bauerman, Elements of Metallurgy 
(1885); and L. Babu, Mltallurpe ghUraU (Paris, 1906). deal with 
the principles of metallurgy. A standard work treating the metaU 
lurgy of various metals is Carl Schnabel, Ilandbuck der lietaU- 
hUtenkundet L (1901), ii. (1904), Eng. trans, by H. Louis, 1(1905), 
iL (1907). 

METAL-WORK. Among the many stages in the develop* 
ment of primeval man, none can have been of greater moment 
in his struggle for existence than the discovery of the metals, and 
the means of working them. Tlie names generally given to the 
three prehistoric periods of man's life on the earth— the Stone, 
the Bronze and the Iron age — imply the vast importance of the 
progressive steps from the flint knife to the bronze celt, and lastly 
to the keen-edged elastic iron weapon or tool. 

The metals chiefly used in the arts have been gold, silver, 
copper and tin (the last two generally mixed, forming an alloy 
called bronze), iron and lead (see the separate articles on these 
metals). Their peculiarities have naturally marked out each of 
them for special uses and methods of treatment. The durability 
and the extraordinary ductility and pliancy of gold, its power of 
being subdivided, drawn out or flattened into wire or leaf of 
almost infinite fineness, have led to its being used for works where 
great minuteness and delicacy of execution were required; while 
its beauty and rarity have, for the m<»t part, limited its use to 
objects of adornment and luxury, as distinct from those of utility. 
In a lesser degree most of the qualities of gold arc shared by silver, 
and consequently the treatment of these two metals has always 
been very similar, though the greater abundance of the latter 
metal has allowed it to be used on a larger scale and for a greater 
variety of purposes. The great fluidity of bronze when melted, 
the slightness of its contraction on solidifying, together with its 
density and hardness, make it especially suitable for casting, and 
allow of its taking the impress of the mould with extreme sharp- 
ness and delicacy. In the form of plate it can be tempered and 
annealed till its elasticity and toughness are much increased, 
and it can then be formed into almost any shape under the ham- 
mer and punch. By other methods of treatment, known to the 
ancient Egyptians, Greeks and others, but now forgotten, it 
could be hardened and formed into knife and razor edges of the 
utmost keenness. In many specimens of ancient bronze, small 
quantities of silver, lead and zinc have t)een found, but their 
presence is probably accidental. In modern limes brass has been 
much used, chiefly for the sake of its cheapness as compared with 
bronze. In beauty, durability and delicacy of surface it is very 
inferior to bronze, and, though of some commercial importance, 
has been of but little use in the production of works of art. To 
some extent copper wa5 used in an almost pure state during 
medieval times, especially from the 12th to the xsth century, 
mainly for objects of ecclesiastical use, such as pyxes, mon- 
strances, reliquaries and croziers, partly on account of its soft- 
ness under the tool, and also because it was slightly easier to 
apply enamel and gilding to pure copper than to bronze (see 
fig. 1). In the medieval period it was used to some extent in the 
shape of thin sheeting for roofs, as at St Mark's, Venice; while 
during the 16th and 17th centuries it was largely cm^lo'^td 
for ornamental domeslic vessels ol vai\OM& miva. 



2o6 



METAL-WORK 



Iron.^ — ^Thc abundance In which iron is found in so many places, 
Its great strength, its remarkable ductility and malleability in a 
red-hot state, and the case with which two heated surfaces of 

iron can be welded together 
under the hammer com- 
bine to make it specialty 
suitable for works on a 
large scale where strength 
with lightness are required 
— things such as screens, 
window-grills, ornamental 
hinges and the like. In its 
hot plastic state iron can 
be formed and modelled 
under the hammer to 
almost any degree of re- 
finement, while its great 
strength allows it to be 
beaten out into leaves and 
ornaments of almost paper- 
like thinness and delicacy. 
With repeated hammering, 
drawing out and annealing, 
it gains much in strength 
and toughness, and the 
addition of a very minute 
quantity of carbon con- 
verts it into steel, less 
tough, hut of the keenest 
hardness. The large em- 
ployment of cast iron is 
comparatively modem, in 
England at least only dat- 
ing from the x6th century; 
it is not, however, in- 
capable of artistic treat- 
ment if due regard be paid 
to the necessities of casting, 
and if no attempt is made 
to imitate the fine-drawn 
lightness to which wrought 
iron so readily lends itself. 
At the best, however, it is 
not generally suited for the 
. finest work, as the great 
: contraction of iron in pass- 
ing from the fluid to the 
solid state renders the cast 
somewhat blunt and spirit- 
less. 

Among the Assyrians, 
Egyptians and Greeks the 
use of iron, either cast or 
wrought, was very limited, bronze being the favourite metal 
almost for all purposes. The difliculty of smelting the ore was 
probably one reason for this, as well as the now forgotten 
skill which enabled bronze to be tempered to a steel-like edge. 
It had, however, its value, of which a proof occurs in Homer 
(//. xxiii.)> where a mass of iron is mentioned as being one of 
the prizes at the funeral games of Patroclus. 

Methods of Manipulction in Mclijl-Work.— Gold, silver and 

bronze may be treated in various ways, the chief of which 

are (i) casting in a mould, and (2) treatment by hammering and 

punching (Fr. repoussi). 

The first of tliesc, casting is chiefly adapted for bronze, or 

* Analyses of the iron of prehistoric weaix>ns have brought to 

light the interesting fart that many of then.' earliest Rperimcns of 

iron manufacture contain a considerable i>ercent<»Re of nickel. This 

special alloy docs not occur in any known iron ores, hut is invariably 

found in meteoric iron, ft thu-* appears that iron was manufactured 

from mcleorolites which had fallen to the earth in an almost pure 

metallic state, possibly long before prehistoric man had learnt how 

fo dier for and smeU iron in any of the forms of ore which are found 

on this pluact. 




Fig. I. — Monstrance of Copper Gilt; 
Italian work of the 15th century. 



in the case of the more precious metals only if they are me? 
on a very small scale. The reason of this is that a Rpoii9i£ 
relief is of much thinner substance than if the same design wvre 
cast, even by the most skilful metal-worker, and so a large 
surface may be produced with a veiy small expenditure of 
valuable metal. Casting is probably the most primitive method 
of metal-work. This has passed through three stages, the 
first being represented by solid castings, such as are most 
celu and other implements of the prehistoric time, the 
mould was formed of clay, sand or stone, and the fluid 
metal was poured in till the hollow was fuU. The next 
stage was, in the case of bronze, to introduce an iron cor, 
probably to save needless expenditure of the more valuable 
metal. The British Museum possesses an interesting Etruscan 
or Archaic Italian example of this primitive device. It is 
a bronze statuette from Scssa on the Voltumo, about 2 ft. 
high, of a female standing, robed in a close-fitting chiton. 
The presence of the iron core has been made visible by 
the splitting of the figure, owing to the unequal contraction 
of the two metals. The forearms, which are extended. ha\'e been 
cast separately and soldered or brazed on to the elbows. The 
third and last stage in the progress of the art of casting was the 
employment of a core, generally of cby, round which the metal 
was cast in a mere skin, only thick enough for strength, without 
waste of metal. The Greeks and Romans attained to the 
greatest possible skill in this process. Their exact method is not 
certainly known, but it appearsprobablethat they wereacquatnted 
with the process now called d ci>e ^</Ke— the same as thai 
employed by the great Italian artists in bronze. Cellini, the 
great Florentine artist of the x6th century, has described it 
fully in his Trattato delta ScuUura. If a statue was to be cast, 
the figure was first roughly modelled in clay — only rather snalkr 
in all its dimensions than the future bronze; all over this a skin 
of wax was laid, and worked by the sculptor with modelling tods 
to the required form and finish. A mixture of pounded brick, 
clay and ashes was then ground finely in water to the consistence 
of cream, and successive coats of this mixture were then ai^lied 
with a brush, till a second skin was formed all over the was, 
fitting closely into every line and depression of the modelling. 
Soft clay was then carefully laid on to strengthen the mould, in 
considerable thickness, till the whole statue appeared like a 
shapeless mass of clay, round which iron hoops were bound to 
hold it all together. The whole was then thoroughly dried, and 
placed in a hot oven, which baked the clay, both of the core and 
the outside mould, and melted the wax, which was allowed tonm 
out from small holes made for the purpose. Thus a hollow vas 
left, corresponding to the skin of wax between the core and the 
mould, the relative positions of which were preserved by various 
small rods of bronze, which had previously been driven through 
from the outer mould to the rough core. The mould was now 
ready, and melted bronze was poured in tUI the whole spttt 
between the core and the outer mould was full. After slowly 
cooling, the outer mould was broken away from outside the statue 
and the inner core as much as possible broken up and raked out 
through a hole in the foot or some other part of the statue. The 
projecting rods of bronze were then cut away, and the whole 
finished by rubbing down and polishing over any roughness or 
defective places. I'hc most skilful sculptors, however, had but 
little of this after-touching to do, the final modelling and even 
polish which they had put upon the wax being faithfully repro* 
duccd in the bronze casting. The further enrichment of the object 
by enamels and inlay of other metals was practised at a very early 
period by Assyrian, Egyptian and Greek metal-workers, as well 
as by the artists of Persia and medieval Europe. 

The second chief process, that of hammered work (Or. 
a4>vpn\\aTOi\ Fr. repoussi), was probably adopted for bronze-woit 
on a large scale before the art of forming large castings was dis- 
covered. In the most primitive method thin plates of bronze 
were hammered over a wooden core, rudely cut into the required 
shape, the core serving the double purpose of giving shape to and 
strengthening the thin metal. A further development in the ait 
of hammered work consisted in laying the metal plate OD a wft 



METAL-WORK 



207 



tk bed of cement made of pitch and pounded brick. 
gn wss then beaten into relief from the back with hammers 
dies, the pitch bed yielding to the protuberances which 
IS formed, and serving to prevent the punch from break- 
netal into holes. The pitch was then melted away from 
t of the embossed relief, and applied in a similar way to 
:, so that the modelling could be completed on the face 
:lief, the final touches being given by the graver. This 
was chiefly applied by medieval artists to the precious 
bat by the Assyrians, Greeks and other early nations it 
riy used for bronze. The great gates of Sbalmaneser II., 
BX., from Balawat, now in the British Museum, are a 
Ue example of this sort of work on a large scale, though 



1--^;^-.. 



^=$ 




Fic. 2. — One of the Siris Bronzes. 

itment of the reliefs is minute and delicate. The " Siris 
/' in the same museum, are a most astonishing example 
iuU attained by Greek artists in this repouss^ work (see 
d's Bronzes of Siris, 1836). They arc a pair of shouldcr- 
rom a suit of bronze armour, and each has in very high 
combat between a Greek warrior and an Amazon. No 
art in metal has probably ever surpassed these little 
or beauty, vigour and expression, while the skill with 
le artist has beaten these high reUefs out of a flat plate 

I appears almost miraculous. The heads of the figures 
ly detached from the ground, their substance is little 
han paper, and yet in no place has the metal been broken 

by the punch. They are probably of the school of 
s, and date from the 4th century B.C. (see fig. 2). 
T and tin have been but little used separately. Copper 
re state may be worked by the same methods as bronze, 
inferior to it in hardness, strength and beauty of surface. 

weak and brittle a metal to be employed alone for any 

II objects. Some considerable number of tin drinking- 

1 bowls of the Celtic period have been found in Cornwall 



in the neighbourhood of the celebrated tin and copper mines, 
which have been worked from a very early period. The use of 
lead has been more extended. In sheets it forms the best of all 
coverings for roofs and even spires. In the Roman and medieval 
periods it was largely used for coffins, which were often richly 
ornamented with cast work in relief. Though fusible at a very 
low temperature, and very soft, it has great power of resisting 
decay from damp or exposure. Its most important use in an 
artistic form has been in the shape of baptismal fonts, chiefly 
between the nth and the 14th centuries. The superior beauty 
of colour and durability of old specimens of lead is owing to the 
natural presence of a small proportion of silver. Modern 
smelters carefully extract this silver from the lead ore, thereby 
greatly impairing the durability and beauty of the metal. 

As in almost all the arts, the ancient Egyptians excelled in their 
metal-work, especially in the use of bronze and the precious 
metals. These were worked by casting and hammering, and 
ornamented by inlay, gilding and enamels with the greatest 
possible skill. From Egypt perhaps was derived the eariy skill 
of the Hebrews. Further instruction in the art of metal-working 
came probably to the Jews from the neighbouring country of 
Tyre. The description of the great gold lions of Solomon's 
throne, and the laver of cast bronze supported on figures of oxen, 
shows that the artificers of that time had overcome the difficulties 
of metal-working and founding on a large scale. The Assyrians 
were perhaps the most remarkable of all ancient nations for the 
colossal size and splendour of their works in metal ; whole circuit 
walls of great cities, such as Ecbatana, are said to have been 
covered with metal plates, gilt or silvered. Herodotus, Athenaeus 
and other Greek and Roman writers have recorded the enormous 
number of colossal statues and other works of art for which 
Babylon and Nineveh were so famed. The numerous objects of 
bronze and other metals brought to light by the excavations in 
the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, though mostly on a small scale, 
bear witness to the great skill and artistic power of the people who 
produced them; while the discovery of some bronze statuettes, 
shown by inscriptions on thbm to be not later than 3200 B.C., 
proves how early was the development of this branch of art among 
the people of Assyria. 

The Metal-Work of Greece, — The early history of metal-working 
in Greece is extremely obscure, and archaeologists are divided in 
opinion even on so important a question as the relative use of 
bronze and iron in the Homeric age. The evidence of Mycenaean 
remains, as compared with the literary evidence of Homer, is 
both inadequate and inconclusive (see Aegean Cimlization; 
Greek Art; Arms and Armour, Ancient, Plate; &c.). The 
poems of Homer are full of descriptions of ebborate works in 
bronze, gold and silver, which, even when full allowance is made 
for poetic fancy, show clearly enough very advanced skill in the 
working and ornamenting of these metals. Homer's description 
of the shield of Achilles, made of bronze, enriched with bands of 
figure reliefs in gold, silver and tin, could hardly have been written 
by a man who had not some personal acquaintance with works 
in metal of a very elaborate kind. Again, the accuracy of his 
descriptions of brazen houses — such as that of Alcinous, Od. vii. 
81 — is borne witness to by Pausanias's mention of the bronze 
temple of Athena XaXicioiKos in Sparia, and the bronze 
chamber dedicated to Myron in 648 B.C., as well as by the dis- 
covery of the stains and bronze nails, which show that the whole 
interior of the so-called treasury of Atreus at Mycenae was onre 
covered with a lining of bronze plates. Of the two chief methods 
of working bronze, gold and silver, it is probable that the hammer 
process was first practised, at least for statues, among the Greeks, 
who themselves attributed the invention of the art of hollow 
casting to Thcodorus and Rhoecus, both Samian sculptors, about 
the middle of the 6th century B.C. Pausanias specially mentions 
that one of the oldest statues he had ever seen was a large figure 
of Zeus in Sparta, made of hammered bronze plates riveted 
together. With increased skill in large castings, and the dis- 
covery of the use of cores, by which the fluid bronze was poured 
into a mere skin-like cavity, hammered or te.vK>\isafe -vwV ^^'^ 
only used in the case of smaill ob\ecl& m 'w\:ic\x \v\^Vw«& -w^^ 



2o8 



METAL-WORK 



desirable, or for the precious metals !n order to avoid large 
expenditure of metal. The colossal statues of ivory and gold 
by Pheidios were the most notable examples of this use of gold, 
eq>ecially his statue of Athena in the Parthenon, and the one of 
Zeus at Olympia. The nude parts, such as face and hands, were 
of ivory, while the armour and drapery were of beaten gold. The 
comparatively small weight of gold used by Pheidias is very 
remarkable when the great size of the statues is considered^ 

A graphic representation of the workshop of a Greek scidptor 
in bronze is given on a fictile vase in the Berlin Museum (see 
Gerhard's TrinksckaUn, plates xii., xiii.). One man is raking out 
the fire in a high furnace, while another behind is blowing the 
bellows. Two others arc smoothing the surface of a statue with 
scraping tools, formed like a stn'gil. A fourth is beating the arm 
of an unfinished figure, the head of which lies at the worknuin's 
feet. Perhaps the most important of early Greek works in cast 
bronze, both from its size and great historical interest, is the 
bronze pillar (now in the Hippodrome at Constantinople) which 
was erected to commemorate the victory of the allied Greek 
states over the Persians at Plataea in 479 B.C. (see Newton's 
Travels in the Levant). It b in the form of three serpents twisted 
together, and before the heads were broken off was at least 
30 ft. high. It is cast hollow, all in one piece, and has the 
names of the allied states engraved on the lower part of the coils. 
Its size and the beauty of its surface show great technical 
skill in the founder's art. On it once stood the gold tripod 
dedicated to Apollo as a tenth of the spoils. It is described 
by both Herodotus and Pausanias. 

Marble was comparatively but little used by the earlier Greek 
sculptors, and even Myron, a rather older man than Pheidias, 




Fig. 3. — Boss from the Milanese Candelabrum. 
I to have executed nearly all his most important statues in 
metal. Additional richness was given to Greek bronze-work by 
gold or silver inlay on lips, eyes and borders of the dress; one 
remarkable statuette in the British Museum has eyes inlaid with 
diamonds and fret-work inlay in silver on the border of the chiton. 
The mirrors of the Greeks arc among the most important speci- 
mens of their artistic metal-work. These are bronze disks, one side 
polished to serve as a reflector, and the back ornamented with 
engraved outline drawings, often of great beauty (see Gerhard, 
Etruskischc Spiegel, 1843-1867). In metal-work, as in other arts, 
the Romans were pupils and imitators of the Greeks. Owing 
to the growth of the spirit of luxury, a considerable demand arose 
for magnificent articles of gold and silver plate. The finest 
specimens of these that still exist are the ver>' beautiful set of 
silver plate found buried near Ilildcsheira in 1869, now in the 
Berlin Museum. They consist of drinking vessels, bowls, vases, 
ladles and other objects of silver, parcel-gilt, and exquisitely 
decorated with figures in relief, both cast and rcpouss6. There 
are elect rot>'pcs of these in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 
When the scit of the empire was changt-d, Byzantium became 
the chief centre for the production of artistic metal-work. From 
BjkzanUum the special skJU in this art was transmitted in the 



9th and lothcenturiettotheRlieiiiihproviiioetof GcnBuqrtDd 
to Italy, and thence to the whole of western Enrope; in tUi waj 
the 1 8th century smith who wrought the HampUm Gowt ison 
gates was the hdr to the mechaniod skill of the ftadenl 
workers of Phoenicia and Greece. In that period of < 
degradation into which all the higher arts fell after the c 
tion of the Roman Empire, though true feeling for beauty and 
knowledge of the subtleties of the human form icmained for 
centuries almost dormant, yet at Byzantium at least Hmr still 
survived great technical skill and power in the prodnctioa of aB 
sorts of metal-work. In the age of Justinian (first half of the 
6th century) -the great church of St Sophia at GonstantfliO|ile «aa 
adorned with an almost incredible amount of ii|alth and ^pkn- 
dour in the form of screens, altars, candlesticks and other eodot 
astical furniture made of massive gold and sflvcr. 

Metd'Work in Italy.— It was therefore to ByanthoB that 
Italy turned for metal-workers, and eq>ecially for §■>'''■■■'* Wl 
when, in the 6th to the 8th centuries, the basilica of St Betcrli 
in Rome was enriched with masses of gold and sflvcr for dccoi^ 
ations and fittings, the gifts of many donors from Bdisaifas to 
Leo III., the mere catalogue of which reads like a tale from the 
Arabian NigkU. The gorgeous Pala d'oro, stHI In St liarfc'b at 
Venice, a gold rctable covered with ddicate leliefa and csrkhed 
with enamels and jewels, was the work of Bysantlne aitiKS 
during the nth century. This woifc was in pro gres s for mora 
than a hundred years, and was set in its place in 1106 kA^ 
though still unfinished (see Bellomo, Pala d'oiv ii Si Mmtf, 
1847). It was, however, especially for the production of bronae 
doors for churches, ornamented with pands of cast work in U^ 
relief, that Italy obtained the services of Byzantine woiiuBiai 
(see Garrucd, Artt cristiana, X872-X889). One artist, named 
Staurachios, produced many works of this class, some of irfuch 
still exist, such as the bronze doors of the cathedral at . 
dated 1066 a.d. Probably by the same artist, thou|^ hb 1 
was spelled differently, were the bronze doors of San PSolo fnori le 
Mura, Rome, careful drawings of which exist, though the oiiginab 
were destroyed in the fire of 1824. Other important examples esiit 
at Ravello (1197), Salerno (1099), Amalfi (xo6a), Atrani (1087); 
and doors at Monreale in Sicily and at Trani, signed fay an artist 
named Barisanos (end of the X2th century); the rdiefs on these 
last are remarkable for expression and dignity, in spile of tlwir 
early rudeness of modelling and ignorance of the human Sgun. 
Most of these works in bronze were enriched with fine Unei inlaid 
in silver, and in some cases with a kind of niello or cnameL The 
technical skill of these Byzantine metal-workers wai vmb 
acquired by native Italian artists, who produced isianj important 
works in bronze similar in style and execution to those of the 
Byzantine Greeks. Such, for example, are the bronae doon of 
San Zcnone at Verona (unlike the others, of repoussC not cast 
work); those of the Duomo of Pisa, cast in xi8o by Booannvii 
and of the Duomo of Troia.the last made in the beaming of tha 
1 2th century by Oderisius of Benevento. Another artist, nanwd 
Roger of Amalfi, worked in the same way; and in the year tng 
the brothers Hubertus and Petrus of Piacenaa cast the bronae 
door for one of the side chapels in San Giovanni in Latcrsno. 
One of the most important eariy specimens of mctal-mifc is the 
gold and silver altar of Sant' Ambrogio in Milan. In chancUr. 
of work and design it resembles the Venice Pala d'Oro^ but ii 
still eariier in date, being a gift to the church from A rJib ii h gp 
Angilbert II. in 835 a.d. (see Du Sommerard, and D'Aghwoot, 
Moycn Age). It is signed W0L\qKivs 11 agister FiiABU;B0tURg 
is known of the artist, but he probably belonged to the aHsi* 
Byzantine school of the Rhine provinces; according to Dr Kocfc 
he was an Anglo-Saxon goldsmith. It is a very sumptuous wk, 
the front of the altar being entirely of gold, with repouss£ idicfi 
and cloisonn6 enamels; the back and ends are of silver, with 
gold ornaments. On the front are figures of Christ and the 
twelve apostles; the ends and back have reliefo illustrating the 
life of St Ambrose. 

The most important existing work of art in metal of the xjth 
century is the great candclabnmi now in Milan Cathedral. It is 
of gilt bronze, more than 14 ft. high; it has seven branches for 



METAL-WORK 



PlaT£ I. 




Cast Bronze Gates, Adelphi Hank, Liveq^ool. 
Designed by W. I). Caroe, the figures by Stirling Lee, executed by Starkic Gardner and Co. 



Plate II. 



METAL-WORK 




Rain-Water Head, in Lead, for the Victoria Law Courts, Birmingham. Designed by Aston Wd>b 
and Ingres BcII, and executed by Dent and Heliier. 




Covered Bridge of Iron, Sheathed in Cast Lead, Grand Hotel, London. Designed by William 
Woodward, and executed by Starkie Gardner and Co. 



METAL-WORK 



209 



ciadleB, and its nprisht stem b wpported on four winged dragons. 
For delicate and spirited execution, together with refined grace- 
fulness of design, it is unsurpassed by any similar work of art. 
Every one of the numerous little figures with which it is adorned 
is worthy of study for the beauty and expression of the face, and 
the dignified arrangement of the drapery (sec fig. 3). The scmi- 
am\>entionaI open scroU-^-ork of branches and fruit which wind 
around and frame each figure or group is devised with the most 
perfect taste and richness of fancy, while each minute part of this 
treat piece of metal-work is finished with all the care that could 
bive been bestowed on the smallest article of gold jewellery. 
Thou^ something in the grotesque dragons of the base recalls the 
Byuntine school, yet the beauty of the figures and the keen 
feeling for graceful curves and folds in the drapery point to a 
B&ti\t Italian as being the artist who produced this wonderful 
*od of art. There is a cast in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 




Fig. 4.— Snvcr Repoun£ Reliefs from the Pistoia Rctable. 
I^aiing the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy the widespread 
H:cnce of Niccola Pisono and his school encouraged the sculptor 
toQae marble father than bronze for his work. At this period 
vnoght iron came into general use in the form of screens for 
uipds and tombs, and grilb for windows. These are mostly 
c^lRat beauty, and show lenarkable skill in the use of the ham- 
Btr.is wcQ as power in adapting the design to the requirements 
^ the RuterioL Among the finest examples of this sort of work 
ve the screens round the tombs of the Scala family at Verona, 
'3!>U7Sf'> >Mt of network of light cufped quatrcfoils, each 
^ op with a mall ladder (scala) in allusion to the name of the 
^u%. The most elaborate specimen of this wrought work is 
^ screen to the Rinuccini chapel in Santa Croce, Florence, of 
^oTi, in which moulded pillars and window-like tracery have 
^ viought and modelled by the hammer with extraordinary 
im (see Wyatt, Uctal-Work of Middle Ages). Of about the 
su:e date are the almost equally magnificent screens in Sta 
Tiidta, Florence, and at Siena across the chapel in the Palazzo 
^^lica The main part of most of these screens is filled in with 
trefoils, and at the top is an open frieze formed of plate iron 
pincoj. repouiit, and enriched with engraving. In the 14th 
<atuiy great quantities of objects for ecclesiastical use were 

XV lU 4^ 



produced in Italy. The silver altar of the Florence baptistery 
was begun in the first half of the 14th century, and not completed 
till after 1477 (see Gas. dcs beaux-arts^ Jan. 1883). The greatest 
artists in metal laboured on it in succession, among them Orcagna, 
Ghiberti, Verrocchio. Ant. Pollaiuolo and many others. It has 
elaborate reliefs in rcpouss^ work, cast canopies and minute 
statuettes, with the further enrichment of translucent coloured 
enamels. The silver altar and rctable of Pistoia Cathedral (see 
fig. 4), and the great shrine at Orvicto, are works of the same 
class, and of equal importance. 

Whole volumes might be devoted to the magnificent works in 
broTue produced by the Ilorcntine artists of this century, works 
such as the baptistery gates by Ghiberti, the statues of Verroc- 
chio, Donatcllo and many others, the bronze screen in Prato 
cathedral by Simone, brother of Donatcllo, in 1444-1461, and 
the screen and bronze onuiments of the tomb of Piero and 
Giovanni dei Medici in San Lorenzo, Florence, by Verrocchio, in 
1472. At the latter part of the isih century and the begiiming 
of the i6th the Pollaiuoli, Ricci and other artists devoted much 
labour and artistic skill to the production of candlesticks and 
smaller objects of bronze, 
such as door-knockers, 
many of which are works 
of the greatest beauty. 
The candlesticks in the 
Certosa near Pavia, and in 
the cathedrals of Venice 
and Padua, are the finest 
examples of these. Nic- 
cold Gross!, who worked in 
wrought iron under the 
patronage of Lorenzo dei 
Medici, produced some 
wonderful specimens of 
metal-work, such as the 
candlesticks, lanterns, and 
rings fixed at intcr\'a]s 1 
round the outside of the 
great palaces (see fig. 5). 
The Strozzi palace in 
Florence and the Palazzo 
del Magnifico at Siena 
have fine specimens of 
these — the former of Fig. 5.— WrouRht-iron Candle Pricket ; 
wrought iron, the latter in late isth-ccniury. Florentine work, 
cast bronze. At Venice 

fine work in metal, such as salvers and vases, was being produced, 
of almost Oriental design, and in some coses the work of 
resident Arab artificers. In the i6th century Benvcnulo Cellini 
was supreme for skill in the profluciion of enamelled jcweller>', 
pUte and even larger works of sculpture (see Plon's Btn. Cellini, 
1SS2), and Giovanni de Bologna in the btter part of the same 
century inherited to some extent the skill and artistic power 
of the great isth-century artists. 

Spain. — From a very early period the metal-workers of 
Spain have been distinguished for their skill, especially in the 
use of the precious metals. A very remarkable set of specimens 
of goldsmith's work of the 7lh cinturj' are the eleven votive 
crowns, two crosses and other objects found in 1858 at Guar- 
razar, and now prcscr\'ed at Madrid and in Paris in the Cluny 
Museum (see Du Sommcrard, Musi'r dc Cluny, 1852). Magnifi- 
cent works in silver, such as shrines, altar croi^scs and church 
vessels of all kinds, were provluccd in S|).iin from the 14th to 
the i6th century — especially a number of sumj^tuous tabernacles 
icustodia) for the ho^t, magnificent ex;impli:s of which still 
exist in the calhc<lrals of Tolcilo and Seville. The bronze 
and wrought-iron screens — rrjas, m<)^tly of the 15th and i6lh 
centuries — to l>e found in almost evLr>' important church in 
Spain arc very fine examples of nK-tai-work. They generally 
have moulded rails or balusters, and rich friezes of pierced 
and repousse work, the whole being often thickly plated with 
silver. The common use of metal for pulpits is a peculiarity 

la 




2IO 



METAL-WORK 



of Spain; they are sometimes of bronze, as the pairs in Burgos 
and Toledo cathedrals, or in wrought iron, like those at Zamora 
and in the church of San Gil, Burgos. The great candelabrum 
or Unehrarium in Seville Cathedral is the finest specimen of 
16th-century metal-work in Spain; it was mainly the work 
of Bart. Morel in 1562. It is of cast bronze enriched with 
delicate scroll-work foliage, and with numbers of well-modelled 
statuettes. Especially in the art of metal-work Spain was 
much influenced in the 15th and i6th centuries by both Italy 
and Germany, so that numberless Spanish objects produced 
at that time owe little or nothing to native designers. At an 
earlier period Arab and Moorish influence is no less appaxent. 




Fic. 6.— Part of the " Eleanor Grill." 

England. — ^In Saxon times the English metal-workers, 
especially of the precious metals, possessed great skill, and 
appear to have produced shrines, altar-frontals, retables and 
other ecclesiastical furniture of considerable size and magnifi- 
cence. Dunstan, archbishop id Canterbury (925-98S), like 
Bemward, bishop of Hildesheim a few years later, and St Eloi 
of France three centuries eariier, was himself a skilful worker 
in all kinds of mctaL The description of the gold and silver 
retable given to the high altar of Ely by Abbot Theodwin in 
the nth century, shows it to have been a large and elaborate 
piece of work decorated with many reliefs and figures in the 
round. In 1241 Henry III. gave the order for the great gold 
shrine to contain the bones of Edward the Confessor. It was 
the work of members of the Otho family, among whom the 
goldsmith's and coiner's crafts appear to have been long heredi- 
tary. Countless other imporant works in the precious metals 
adorned every abbey and cathedral church in the kingdom. 
In the 13th century the English workers in ^Tought iron were 
especially skilful. The grill over the tomb of Queen Eleanor 
at Westminster, by Thomas de Leghton, made about 1294, 
is a remarkable example of skill in welding and modelling with 
the hammer (see fig. 6). The rich and graceful irou hinges, 
made often for small and out-of-the-way country churches, 
are a large and important class in the list of English wrought- 
iron work. Those on the refectory door of Merton College, 
Oxford, are a beautiful and well-preserved example dating from 
the 14th century. More mechanical in execution, though still 
very rich in effect, is that sort of iron tracery work produced 
bjr cutting out patterns in plate, and superimposing one plate 
aver the other, so as to give ricbneaa 0/ effca by the shadows 



produced by these varying planes. The screen b} 
tomb at Westminster is a g^)od early specimen of 
work. The screen to Bishop West's chapel at E 
round Edward VI. 's tomb at Windsor, both mi 
the end of the 15th century, are the most magnifi 
examples of wrought iron; and much wrought-ii 
great beauty was produced at the beginning of the i 
especially under the superintendence of Sir Christ 
(see Ebbetts, Iron Work of 17th and i8tk Cent 
Large flowing leaves of acanthus and other plants 
out with wonderful spirit and beauty of curve, 
from Hampton Court are the finest examples of 
work (see fig. 7). 

From an early period bronze and latten (a wii 
were much used in England for the smaller obj< 
ecclesiastical and domestic use, but except for tombs 
were but little used on a large scale till the x6th cc 
full-length recumbent effigies of Henry III. and Qi 
at Westminster, cast in bronze by the *' cure perdi 
and thickly gilt, are equal, if not superior, in art 
to any sculptor's work of the same period (end 
century) that was produced in Italy or clsewh 




Fig. 7. — Part of one of the Hampton Court ( 

effigies arc the work of an Englishman named W 
The gates to Henry Vll.'s chapel, and the scree 
tomb at Westminster (see fig. 8), are very elaborate t 
examples of " latlcn" work, showing the great* 
skill in the founder's art. In latten also were p 
numerous monumental brasses of which a large 
exist in England (sec Brasses, Monumental). 

In addition to its chief use as a roof covering, les 
times used in England for making fonts, generally 
with figures cast in relief. Many examples e: 
Tidenham. Gloucestershire; Warborough and 
Oxon; Chirton, Wilu; and other places. 



METAL-WORK 



211 



Ctmamy.—ViiBkt England, Germany in the xoth and nth 
cntnries produced large and elaborate works in cast bronze, 
qpcdally doc»s (or churches, much resembling the contemporary 
doocs BMde in Italy under Byzantine influence. Bemward, 
bishop of Hildcsheim, 992-1Q22, was especially skilled in this 




Fic. 8. — Part of Henry Vll.'s Bronze Screen. 

*erk, and was much influenced in design by a visit to Rome in 

tW suite of Otho III. The bronze column with winding reliefs 

>0vit Hildcsheim was the result of his study of Trajan's column, 

lad the bronze door which he made for his own cathedral 

ib«s classical influence, especially in the composition of the 

drapoy of the figures in the panels. The bronze doors of 

^*pharg (1047-107 2) are similar in style. The bronze tomb 

ofKadolphof Swabia in Merseburg Cathedral (1080) is another 

ioe vorit of the same school. The production of works in 

fold and silver was also carried on vigorously in Germany. 

Ibe shrine of the three kings at Cologne is the finest surviving 

cample. At a later time .Augsburg and Nuremberg were 

tbt duef centres for the production of a'tistic works in the 



various metals. Hermann Vischer, in the xsth century, and 
his son and grandsons were very remarkable as bronze founders.' 
The font at Wittenberg, decorated with reliefs of the apostles, 
was the work of the elder Vischer, while Peter and his son pro- 
duced, among other important works, the shrine of St Sebald 
at Nuremberg, a work of great finish and of astonishing richness 
of fancy in its design. The tomb of Maximilian I., and the 
statues round it, at Innsbruck, begun in 1521, are perhaps the 
most meritorious German work of this class in the x6th century, 
and show considerable Italian influence. In wrought Iron 
the German smiths, especially during the xsth century, greatly 
excelled. Almost peculiar to Germany is the use of wrought 
iron for grave-crosses and sepulchral monuments, of which the 
Nuremberg and other cemeteries contain fine examples. Many 
elaborate well-canopies were made in wrought iron, and gave 




Fig. 9. — Brass Vase, pierced and gilt; 17th century Pcr»an work. 

full play to the fancy and invention of the smith. The celebrated 
xsth-century example over the well at Antwerp, attributed to 
Quintin Matsys, is the finest of these. 

Prance. — From the time of the Romans the dty of Limoges 
has been celebrated for all sorts of metal-work, and especially 
for brass enriched with enamel. In the 13th and 14th centuries 
nuiny life-size sepulchral effigies were made of beaten copper 
or bronze^ and ornamented by various-coloured " champlev6 " 
enamels. The beauty of these effigies led to their being im- 
ported into England; most are now destroyed, but a fine specimen 
still exists at Westminster on the tomb of William de Valence 
( 1 296). In the ornamental iron-work for doors the French smiths 
were pre-eminent for the richness of design and skilful treatment 
of their metal. Probably no examples surpass those on the 
west doors of Notre Dame in Paris — unhappily much falsified 
by restoration. The crockets and finials on the filches of 
Amiens and Rheims are beautiful specimens of a hi^hlv ott^- 
mental treatment of cast lead, ioi viYixcVi Yiaxic^ "«(«& e&^«^33^^ 
ce/ebrated. In most respecu, Ywwcv«, v\Mt d«N€k»v««»x ^\ 



212 



METAL-WORK 



the various kinds of metal-working went through much the 
.•same stages as in England. 

Parsia and Damascus.— Tht metal-workers of the East, 
especially in brass and steel, were renowned for their skill even 
in the time of Theophilus, the monkish writer on the subject in 
the 13th century. But it was during the reign of Shah Abbas I. 
(d. 1628) that the greatest amount of skill both in design and 
execution was reached by the Persian workmen. Delicate 
pierced vessels of gilt brass, enriched by tooling and inlay of 
gold and silver, were among the chief specialties of the Persians 
(see fig. 9). A process called by Europeans " damascening " 
(from Damascus, the chief scat of the export) was used to produce 
very delicate and rich surface ornament. A pattern was incised 
with a graver in iron or steel, and then gold wire was beaten 
into the sunk lines, the whole surface being then smoothed and 
polished. In the time of Cellini this process was copied in 
Italy, and largely used, especially for the decoration of weapons 
and armour. The repouss6 process both for brass and silver 
was much used by Oriental workers, and even now fine woilcs 
of this class are produced in the East, old designs still being 
adhered to. 0- H. M.) 

Modern Art Metal-Work.— The term "art metal- work " is 
applied to those works in metal in which beauty of form or 
decorative effect is the first consideration, irrespective of whether 
the object is intended for use or is merely ornamental; and it 
embraces any article from a Birmingham brass bedstead to 
works of the highest artistic merit. The term, as definitely 
distinguishing one branch of metal-working from another, 
is objected to by many on the ground that no such prefix was 
required in the best periods of art, and that allied crafts continue 
to do without it to the present day. Indeed, as long as metal- 
working remained a handicraft — in other words, until the 
introduction of steam machinery — every article, however 
humble its purpose, seems to have been endowed with some 
traditional beauty of form. The robust, florid and distinctly 
Roman rendering of the classic, which followed the refined 
and attenuated treatment associated with the architecture 
of the brothers Adam, who died in 1792 and 1794, is the last 
development in England which can be regarded as a national 
style. The massively moulded ormolu stair balustrade of 
Northumberland House, now at 49 Prince's Gate; the cande- 
labra at Windsor and Buckingham Palace, produced in 
Birmingham by the firm of Messenger; the cast-iron railings with 
javelin heads and lictors' fasces, the tripods, Corinthian column 
standard lamps and candelabra, boat-shaped oil lamps and 
tent-shaped lustres with classic mountings, are examples of 
the metal-work of a style which, outside the eccentric Brighton 
Pavilion and excursions into Gothic and Elizabethan, was 
universally accepted in the United Kingdom from the days 
of the Regency until after the accession of Victoria. Except 
perhaps the silversmiths, no one was conscious of being engaged 
in "art metal-working," yet the average is neither vulgar 
nor in bad taste, and the larger works are both dignified and 
suited to their architectural surroundings. 

The introduction of gas as an illuminant, about 1816, at once 
induced a large demand and a novel description of metal fitting; 
and the craft fell under the control of a new commercial class, 
intent on breaking with past traditions, and utilizing steam 
power, electro-deposition, and every mechanical and scientific 
invention lending to economize metal or labour. But when 
all artistic perception in Great Britain appeared lost in admira- 
tion of the triumphs of machinery and the expansion of trade, 
a new influence in art matters, that of the prince consort, began 
to make itself felt. The Great Exhibition, state-aided schools 
of design, the South Kensington Museum, and the establishment 
of a Science and Art Department under Government, were among 
the results of the important art revival which he inaugurated. 
He is credited with having himself designed candelabra and 
other objects in metal, and he directly encouraged the 
production of the sumptuous treatise on metal-work by Digby 
Wyatt, which laid the foundations of the revival. To this 
worA, and that of Owen Jones, can be traced the origin of the 



eclecticism which has laid all past styles of art under ooatii* 
bution. The Gothic revival also helped the recognition of art, 
without very directly affecting the movement. It was valuable 
in teaching how to work within definite limitations, but without 
slavish copying; it also emancipated a considerable body of 
craftsmen from the tyranny of manufacturers whose sole idea 
was that machine-work should supersede handicraft. Its 
greatest efforts were the metal chancel-screens designed by Sir 
G. G. Scott, that for Hereford Cathedral having been exhibited 
in 1862. It does not appear that the influence either of Owea 
Jones or Digby Wyatt on metal-working extended beyond 
bringing the variety and beauty of past styles to the direct 
notice of designers. Neither can the London silversmiths, 
though they employed the best talent available, particulariy 
in the decade following the Great Exhibition of 1851, be credited 
with much influencing the art metal revivaL They were rivalled 
by Elkington of Birmingham, who secured the permanent 
assistance of at least one fine artist, Morel Ladeuil, the producer 
of the Elcho Challenge Shield. Perhaps the first actual designer 
to make a lasting impression on the crafts was Thomas Jeckyll, 
some of whose work, including gates for Sandringhain, was 
exhibited in 1862. Infinitely greater as a designer was Alfred 
Stevens, whose influence on English craftsmen might be regarded 
as almost comparable to that of Michelangelo on that of his 
Italian contemporaries. Stevens's designs certainly directly 
raised the standard of production in several metal-working 
firms by whom he was employed; whilst in the Wellington 
Memorial in St Paul's Cathedral, and in Dorchester House, 
his work is seen unfettered by commercial considerations. 
Omitting many whose occasional designs have had little influence 
on the development of the metal crafts, we come to Alfred 
Gilbert, whose influence for a time was scarcely less than that of 
Stevens himself. Monumental works, such as his statue of 
Queen Victoria at Winchester and his work at Windsor, nuy 
be handed down as his greatest achievements, but judged -as 
art metal-work, his smaller productions, such as the centre- 
piece presented by the army and navy to Queen Victoria 00 
her Jubilee, have been more important. 

The charming bronze statuettes of Onslow Ford, the most 
representative of which are in the Tate Gallery; the work of 
George Frampton, as seen in the Mitchell Memorial; and the 
beautiful bas-reliefs of W. Stirling Lee, examples of which are 
the bronze gates of the Adelphi Bank at Liverpool, have all 
contributed, especially when applied to architectural decoratioa,- 
to a high standard of excellence. Painters also have frequently 
designed and modelled for metal-work, for example, Lord 
Leighton, who produced bronze sUtuettes of moat refined 
character; and Sir L. Alma-Tadema, who designed the grilles 
for his studio and entrance hall; but none so conspicuously 
as Professor H. von Herkomer, who, whether working ia gold 
and enamel, iron, or his favourite alloy, pewter, infuses a fresh- 
ness into his designs and methods which displays an unusual 
mastery over materials. 

The gift of reproducing effects of nature or art by brush 
or chisel is not necessarily accompanied by power to design; 
but a noteworthy exponent of the dual faculty is G. C Hait^ 
whose designs are widely applied. 

It is chiefly to architecture that metal-work owes its pennaneot 
artistic improvement. In England buildings of Norman Shaw 
and Ernest George demanded quiet and harmonious metal- 
work; and the custom of these architects of superintending 
and designing every detail, even for interiors, created the supply. 
The work of every worthy architect raises the standard ik the 
crafts; but beyond others Messrs Ashbee, Lethaby and Wllsoa 
have taken an active personal interest in schools of metal- 
work. The technical schools have also been of immense service 
in creating a class of self-respecting craftsmen, whose wages 
enable them to regard their work as worthy occupation abound* 
ing in interest. Home industries such as the metal-working 
round Keswick (founded in 1S84 by Canon and Mrs Rawnsley), 
executed during hours of idleness by field labourers and raUway 
porters, educate the passer-by as well as the worker. 



METAL-WORK 



213 



British uclutects and artists who design for the principal 
decorating firms are to^lay as conversant with the Renaissance 
and succeeding styles of France and Italy as medieval revival- 
tfts were familiar with the Gothic styles with which they made 
us so well acquainted. Metal-work more or less based upon 
every kind of past style is produced in vast quantities, and in 
some cases so skilfid are the workers that modem forgeries 
and reproductions are almost beyond the power of expcrU to 
detect. This large class of designers and craftsmen, to whom 
a thorough knowledge of the history of design is a necessity, 
follows and develops traditional lines. The new art school, 
on the contrary, breaks wholly with tradition, unless uncon- 
sciously influenoed by the Japanese, and awards the highest 
place to originality in design. It is not to be expected that 
an art-revival following on, and in possession of, all the results 
of a period of unprecedented activity in scientific research 
should proceed with the £ame restraint as heretofore; but the 
unfettered activity, and the general encouragement to abandon 
the traditions of art, have no exact parallel in the past, and may 
yet prove a danger. It is perhaps the very rapidity of the 
movement that is likdy to retard its progress, and to fail to 
carry with it the wealthy clients and the decorators they employ, 
or perhaps even to increase the disposition to cling to the 
reproductions of the styles of the 17th and x8th centuries. 
The multiplication of art periodicals, lectures, books, photo- 
graphs, meetings of societies and gilds, museums, schools of 
arts and crafts, polytechnics, scholarships, facilities for travel, 
ezlubitiona, even those of the Royal Academy, to which objects 
of applied art are now admitted, not only encourages many 
peiwos to become workers and designers in the applied arts, 
but exposes eversrthing to the plagiarist, who travesties the 
fmhest idea before it has well left the hands of its originator. 
Thns the inspirations of genius, appropriated by those who 
imperiectly appreciate their subtle beauty and quality, become 
hadmeyed and lose their charm and interest. The keen desire 
to be UDoonvcntional in applied art has spread from Great 
Bntain and the United States to Germany, Austria and other 
coantzies, but without well-defined first principles, or limita- 
tions. It seems agreed in a general way that the completed 
vork in mttal is to be wholly the conception and, as far as 
possible, the actual handiwork of the designer: casting by the 
(m-ftriae process, left practically tmtouched from the mould, 
ud embossing, being the two most favoured processes. The 
femak figure is largely made use of, and rich and harmonious 
ODbms are sought, the glitter of metal being invariably sub- 
dued by deadening its lustre, or by patinas and oxides. Gilding, 
«aini and lacquers, electro-plating, chasing, " matting," 
fnostiiig, burnishing, mechanically produced mouldings and 
ouichments, and the other processes esteemed in the 19th 
ttotory, are disused and avoided. New contrasts are formed 
b]r the juxtaposition of differently toned metals; or these with 
itt inlay of haliotis shell, introduced by Alfred Gilbert; or of 
obuied wax, favoured by Onslow Ford; or enamelling, per- 
fected by Professor von Herkomer; or stained ivory, pearls, 
or temi-predous stones. The quality of the surface left by 
tie skilled artist or artisan is more regarded than symmetry 
of design, or even than correct modelling. Frequently only 
de important parts in a design are carefully finished and the 
Ka merely sketched: the mode of working, whether by model- 
fing-tools or hammer, being always left apparent. 

The newer kinds of art metal-work have, until recently, 
nached the purchaser direct from the producer's workshop; 
ba they may now also be seen in the shops of silversmiths, 
jewellers, and general dealers, who are thus helping to transfer 
piDdaction from large commercial manufactories to smaller 
•tdiers under artistic control The production of the larger 
kovsehoki acceuories, such as bedsteads, fenders, gas and 
dectric fittings, clocks, &c., has hardly as yet come under the 
iBflnence of the art movement. The services rendered by 
Ifr W. A. S. Benson of Chiswick, who commenced about 1886 
to revolutionlee the production of sheet-brass and copper 
stcaab, cannot be passed over. The average ecclesiastical , 



metal-work has rather receded than progressed in merit, except 
when designed by architects and executed under their super-! 
vision. Though the demand for good domestic wrought-iron' 
work has enormously increased, adaptations from the beautiful 
work of the 17th and i8th centuries have been found so suited 
to their architectural surroundings, that new departures have 
been relatively uncommon. Of such the gates for Sandringham, 
by Jeckyll; for Crewe Hall, by Charles Barry; and for the Victoria 
and Albert Museum, by Gamble, are the earliest and best known. 
Of the vast number designed upon traditional lines may be 
cited those for Lambton Castle, Welbeck, Eaton Hall, Twicken- 
ham, Clieveden, and the Astor Estate Office on the Victoria 
Embankment. Cast iron, brought to perfection by the Coal- 
brookdale Company about i860, but now little esteemed, owing 
to the poverty of design which so often counterfeits smiths' 
work, presents great opportunities to founders possessing taste 
or willing to submit to artistic control. A very large field is 
also opening for cast -lead work, whether associated with archi- 
tecture, as in the leaden covered-way over Northumberland 
Street, in London (see Plate), and the fine rain-water heads 
of the Birmingham Law Courts (see Plate), or with the revival 
of the use of metal statuary and vases in gardens. The subdued 
colour and soft contours of pewter render it once more a favoured 
material, peculiarly adapted to the methods of the art revival, 
and perhaps destined to supersede electro-plate for household 
pmposes. In ulver-work the proportion of new art designs 
exhibited by dealers and others is still relatively small; but 
jewellers, except when setting pure brilliants and pearls, are 
becoming more inclined to make their jewels of finely modelled 
gold and enamel enriched with precious and semi-precious 
stones, than of gems merely held together by wholly subordinate 
settings. 

On the continent of Europe, France was the first to recognize 
the merits of its bygone designers and craftsmen, and even 
antecedent to the Exhibition of 1851, when art in Great Britain 
was dormant, it was possible to obtain in Paris faithful repro- 
ductions of the finest ormolu work of the i8th century. At 
the same time a most active production of modem designs 
was proceeding, stimulated by rewards, with the result that 
the supply of clocks, lamps, candelabra, statuettes, and other 
ornaments in bronze and zinc to the rest of Europe became 
a monopoly of Paris for nearly half a. century. In all connected 
with their own homes the French adhere to their traditions 
far more than other nations, and the attempt at originality 
in the introduction of metal-work into the scheme of decoration 
of a room is almost unknown. In the domain of bronze and 
imitation bronze statuary the originality of the French is abso- 
lutely unrivalled. And not only in bronze, but in Paris jewellery, 
enamek, silver, pewter and iron work a cultured refinement 
is apparent, beside which other productions, even the most 
finished, appear crude. The French artist attains his ideal, 
and it is difficult to imagine, from his standpoint, that the 
metal-work of the present can be surpassed. The best English 
metal-worker, on the contrary, is probably not often quite 
satisfied with the results he attains, perhaps because in Great 
Britain the pursuit of art has for centuries been fitful and 
individual, while in France art traditions are hereditary. The 
metal- work of Belgium is based at present entirely on that 
of France, without attaining the same standard, unless designed 
for ecclesiastical uses. In Holland these crafts have not pro- 
gressed. Italian metal-workers are mainly employed in repro- 
duction; but traditions linger in some remote parts, while the 
sporadic appearance of craftsmen of a high order is evidence 
that the ancient artistic spirit is not wholly extinct. Similarly, 
the surprising damascening by Messrs Zuluaga of Madrid in 
the monument to General Prim, and that of Alvarez of Toledo, 
give hope that the Spanish craftsman only needs to be properly 
directed. German and Austrian workers had for years shown 
more energy than originality, but they have recently embraced 
the newest English developments and carried them to extremes 
of exaggeration. For really fresh and pTO^e,«&vvt \rk,^«wi>x'^ 
art we may perhaps have, in Oic xifcw i\i\.Mie, \q VJXtL\» Kxnscvsa. 



214 



METAL-WORK 



and to Russia, where, having little artistic past to refer to, 
designers and craftsmen display unequalled individuality and 
force. It^ from the Far East, however, that the most serious 
rivalry notly be anticipated. The metal-work of China and 
Japan, so pleasantly naive and inexpensive, though becoming 
undesirably modified as to design through contact with European 
buyers, is losing none of its matchless technique, which indeed 
in Japan is still being developed. In any history of the art 
revival the influence of such firms as Barbedienne and Christofle 
in Paris and Tiffany in New York cannot be ignored. 

a.s.c.) 

Industrial Metal-Work. 
The malleability and ductility of metals lie at the basts of the work 
of the gold* and silver-smiths at one extreme, and of the boiler-maker 
at the other. Sheet metals can be nude to assume almost any 
shape under the hammer, or by pressure, provided they arc subjected 
to annealing to restore the pix>perty of malleability. The most 
awkward shapes, involving excessive extensions of metal, are pro- 
duced by drawing processes between dies of iron and steel in power 
presses. All the common domestic utensils in tinned and enamelled 
ware, and all the ordinary patterns of the silversmiths, are similarly 
done. Frequent annealings are necessary to prevent fracture of 
the metal ; but with these and the observance of certain other pre- 
cautions of a practical character the degree of extension possible 
is enormous. Another illustration of the malleability of metal is 
afforded by metal spinning. A sheet of metal set revolving at a 
high speea in a latne is bent over into cup-shaped forms, with 
numerous mouldings, by a blunt hardened tool. A great deal of 
work is done in this way, though this sphere has also been invaded 
by the draw presses, wnose output would seem incredible to those 
not familiar with the work. Objects that do not require annealing 
are produced by dozens per minute, and all the movements of feeding 
and stamping and removal are often automatic. The ductility of 
metals and alloys is utilized in wire and tube-drawing through dies 
on long benches. This work also requires frequent annealing, for 
otherwise the wires or tubes would rupture. Even hard steel is 
treated in this way to form tubes for the dighest hydraulic and steam 
pressures. 

Plaicfi' Worh {wtt BoiLEs) Is diftinguUhed from work in sl^eet , 
ineula by the fajct that plat A have conuderable thrckncas, whkh i 
flheetii have not. Pbitcs range la thickness from ^ in. to 2 iii., I 
but for mo9i purpQK^ thvy do not £0 bsyond i iTU or t in, Ovtrr 
the«e thickiieues I hey am used chiefly for the larceit marimt boileri, 
Armcur pLitct vhich art? sevcraJ [r^cb« in thtttncs* do not comt 
ui thij group, being a vpeciiit article oi msEiufi^ciunt, Sheets are 
of thkiknH9Ci uf Sesd than { Ixu Thi» di^clncriun of thickness 19 
qf importanee in it5 bearing on worktop practife^ A thin sheet 
requires a very diJTerrnt kind of tttainiCTiE [fom a ibkk pble. Not 
only is more powerful miUchijiery rtfluifed fur the UltcrK but in 
bendini; it flilowanM haj to t« made for the dilTcrence in radium of 
flutcr and inner layers, which incfejses *ith intreaec of thkkncst. 
Short, sharp benrj« which are refldllj? made in thin »hect» cannot 
be done in thick pbies, as the ^*rKA\ ivouid he «tre!»cd too much in 
the outer layers*. The methods ol union also dilU-r^ riveting being 
adapted for thirk ptate». and soldering! or bri:ulnf generally far thin^ 
CoppenmUhi* Witrk U an important section of anect-metil workings 
It 19 dkvided into two gr^t depart ments: the domestic utenail lidet 
on which the bnitief"& craft is exiMxis«l; and the engineering ride. 
whitih is eonccTfled in sonte engine-workn locomotive and marine, 
snd in the manufacture of brewers' utensilv. The method* of the 
firrt 3 re allied to ibosc of the tirwnan. thoic of the second to the 
methods of the plater* Tinsmiths' work neiemblcs the li^Hter part 
of the work of the copper&mitb. There Ia no esMntial dilierence 
in dealino with tin (i^. sheets of Iron or steel coated with tin) and 
copfier of the same thiciuiess. Hence the craft of tinmen and 
brajiera is carried on by the tame Individ tials- There are* howo-er, 
differences of treatment in dctaili because copper i« more malleable 
and Kifier than tin plate. The geofnetry of sheet -meUl work and 
of plater*' and boiler- makers* work is identical up to a certain fttage. 
Tbe divernence app(?ars when pUtei are eutrttituted for sheew. A 
thin iheet has for all practical (aurpo^e* no thickness—that i». the 
geometrical pattern marked on it will develop the object required 
after it ii bent. Nearly all patterns arc the develiipment* of the 
cnv«1ope< of Keomcirical solids of regubr or irnrgular outlines, 
few '-i p^--*r\':- f.^ccs; when thc\' atv> Tmei.. ^n r.f r-i-.mi.in.-iifiufi'^ ^F yUn** 
bi : ■ ■ ■ <■■■* curved in ''r •; ' ■ • ■ ;■• ■'■ - , .' ■■ r - :ri 

dealing with thin sheets or thick plates. ' But when curving occurs 
In different planes at right or other angles (hollowing), the metal 
has to be drawn or extended on the outside, and important differ- 
ences arise. A typical form is the hemisphere, from which many 
modified forms are derived. The production of this is always a 
tedious task. It involves details of " wrinkling " and " razing." 
if done by hand-work in copper. In thick plates tt is not attempted 
by hand, but pressing is done between dies, or segments of the sphere 
ajv prepared separately and riveted together. In tin it is enected 
hyUampUtg. In all work done in thick plates the dimensions marked 
out must have reference to tbe Baai abape of the article. GcnecaUy 



the dimensions are taken as in the middle of the pbte. but they may 
be on the inside or outside according to circumstances. But m any 
case the thickness must enter into the calculations, whereas in thia 
sheets no account is taken of thickness. 

Raised Work. — All the works in sheet metal that are bent in one 
plane only arc easily made. The shapes of all polygonal and ail 
cylindrical and conical forms are obtained by simple developntent — 
tnat is, the envelopments of these bodies are mau-ked out on a flat 

glane, and when cut, arc bent or folded to give the required envelopes. 
>nly common geometrical problems are involved in the case of 
sheets of sensible thickness, and allowances are made for thickaeaa 
But in those forms where curving must take place in difFereat 
directions the layers or fibres of metal are made to glide over one 
another, extendon taking place in some layers but not in otbcn, 
and this goes on without producing much reduction in tbe thtcknesSk 
This is only possible with malleable and ductile meuls and aDoyik 
As a general rule it is restricted to metals which are not cast, for, 
with some slight exceptions, it is impossible to produce rdative 
movements of the byers in cast iron, steel or cast brass. But most 
rolled metals and alloys can be so treated, aH>per being the best 
for the purpose. The methods employed are raiang ** by tbe 
hammer, and pressing in dies. But the severity of the treatment 
would tear the material asunder if rearrangement of tbe paniriet 
were not obtained by frequent annealing (q.v.). 

If an object has to be beaten into concave fonn from a flat thin 
sheet, the outer portions must be hammered until they oocupy 
smaller dimensions than on the flat sheet. If a circular disk » 
wrought into a hemisphere and the attempt u made to hammer the 
edges round, crumpling must occur. This in fact is the fintt open/' 
tion, termed wrinkling, the edge showing a series of flutca. These 
flutes have to be obliterated by another series of hammerings temed 
razing. The result is that the object assumes a smooth ooocave 
and convex shape, without the thkkness of the metal >>**'»^— ^ 
reduced. 

Cast Work. — The metals and alloys which are neither maBfablc 
nor ductile can only be worked into required shapes trv netting and 
casting in moulds. Abundance of remains which date from the 
Neolithic period testify to the high antiquity of this daas of work, 
and also to the great skill which the ancient founders had acquired. 
Statue-founding is a highly specialized department of metal-work, 
in which the artists of the micldle ages excelled. Two methods have 
been employed, the cire-perdue, or wax process (see above), and the 
present, or all sand method. In the latter the artist pro^des a 
model in plaster from which the founder takes a mould within aa 
encircling box. This mould must obviously be made in soors of 
little separate sections (false cores or drawbacks) to permit of their 
removal from the model without causing fracture of the sand. 
These are subsequently replaced piece by piece in the endrclinf 
frame, and a core made within it, leaving a nace of | in. or there- 
abouts into which the metal is pouredT The advantage of this 
process is that the artist's model is not destroyed as in the an-ferdmt^ 
and if a " waster " results, a second mould can be taken. A large 
statue occupies from one to three months in the nnoulding. 

The exi.n,^citi: tenuity of objects which are twimmered. drawn or 
rolkHJ Qinfiot for obvious reasons be attained by casting. Castmg 
alto if complies ted by the shrinkage which oceun in ccMling down 
from the molten state> and in sooie alloyt b^^ the formation of 
eutectics, and the liquation of lome coiutitucntL The tempentore 
of pourins is now known to be oT more importance than was Kimcfly 
«u-tpccierr The aftcr-t^Qtment of ca«ing» by annealing e x ereiMS 
great influence on result* in malleable ca$E Iroin and steel. 

There are many metaU and alloys which are malleable and ductile; 
and alKk readily fused and cast. Thi£ is the case ^ith gcM, silver, 
cofiper^ tint kid and others, and CApedally with low carboa 1 ' 
which v% fvt^ can as an ingot, then Annii^led and rolled into f^ 
as «t-U a4 the thinner sheets. The andent woote, and the products 
of the native furn;:tce» of Africa are Jirst ca«t, \i\tn hammoed out 
thinn Many of the patent bronzes are by eli&ht variatkMis ia tbe 
proportions d the constittKDts made 4*ji liable fof casting, for forging, 
and for ralUng iote dieetai But in all the tvai modem naa»> 
facturioe proceses it is true that metaU and alloy f, though of the 
fame n^me^ haw a dlfferenl compel tion according as they are 
intended for casting on the one hand, or for forging, rolling sad 
drawing on the other. Wnoug^lit or malleable ir^n has less of carfaoa 
and other clejnent» in its c^pmposition than ha,i cast iron. Seed 
intended for castings haa ^iu;hrly more carbon and other el e m e au 
than the cast-rteel ingot intended for rolling into plates. So also 
with the nvmefous bronfe^, the phosphor, the delta, thealuminhia 
and Dth{?r altr>ys o\ copper; f.tach is made in several grades to rewkf 
it suitable for difTcrcnt kindi of treatment. 

Thtre are no materiaU ii-^nJ in minulaLturp of nhich the craftS* 

nian L& able lo vary thi .. i . > . : ' qualities so C» 

tenslvely as the metaliaii i las been thiowa 

on facts which have long been known in a practical way, by the 
labours of the Alloys Research Committee of the Insutution of 
Mechank:al En^ncers (England). These, together with independent 
researches into the heat treatment of steel and iron, have opened 
up many unsolved problems fraught with deepest interest and 
importance. 

One of the most difficult problems with which the metal-wofkBr 



METAMERISM 



215 



who iMDdles ccMtr u c ti o na l forms has to deal is the maintenance 
of a due relatioa between absolute strength and a useful degree of 
chKicitv. Only after many failures has the fact been grasped that 
a very hig^ dqEne of strength is inconsistent with a trustworthy 
degree of elasticity. The reasons were not understood until the 
reKaxcbes of Wohler demonstrated the difference between the effects 
of merely dead kads and of live loads, and between repetitions of 
stress of one kind only, and the vastly more destructive effects of 
both kiacte alternating. 

The texture of metals and alloys u related to the character of 
the operatkms whkh can be done upon them. Broadly the malle- 
able and ductile metab and alloys. show a fibrous character when 
raptured, the fusible ones a crystalline fracture. The difference 
is seen both in the workshop and in the specimens ruptured in 
testiog-machines. A piece of wrought iron, or mild steel or copper, 
M torn asunder shows k>ng lustrous fibres, resembling a buncUe of 
threads in appearance. A piece of cast iron, or steel or bronze, 
shows on rupture a granular, cnrsuIUne surface destitute o^ any 
fibre. The ductile metals and alloys also extend from lo to 50% 
with reductkn of area before they fracture, the crystalline ones 
Map shortly without warning. In some instances, however, the 
method of aralication of stress exercises an influence. Wrousht 
iron and mild steel may be made to show a short and crystalline 
fracture by a sudden application of stress, while if drawn asunder 
Aywty tb^ devekp the silky, fibrous appearance. The men who 
deaiga and work m metals have to take account of these vital 
difioenoes and characteristics, and must be careful not to apply 
treatment sutuible to one kind to another of a dissimilar character. 
Tools, appliances and methods have little in common. Between 
the work of the smith, the sheet-metal worker and the founder, 
there is a grsat gulf. An artistic taste will recognize the essential 
dUkscaoes, and nctf endeavour, apart from questions of strength, 
tojpaft a design suitable for one on another. It is bad taste to 
intate the tracery of the ductile wrought iron in cast designs, the 
foUatioos of ancient wrought-iron grilles and screens in heavy 
cut iron. Severe simplicity is also most in harmony with con- 
«racikmal designs in plated work, where stress^ occur in straight 
fan. From this point of view the lattice-girder bridge is an icteat 
daip in steeL 

(ne of the most valuable characteristics of the iron alk>ys is 
their capacity for hardening, which they owe in the main to the 



e of certain small percentages of carbon relatively to minute 
^Buitities of other elements: as manganese, tungsten, ntclnl and 
fltbtn of less imporunce. The capacity for hardening is an in- 
vahuUe property not only in re^rd to cutting-tools, but also in 
pnkogiDg the fife of parts subjeacd to severe friction. Great 
advasoes have been made in the utilization of this property as a 
Rsok of the growth of the precision grinding-machines, which are 
>Ue to correct the inaccuracies of hardened work as effectually^ as 
iho« of soft materials. It is utilized in the spindles of machtne- 
ttoh, in the balls and rollers for high-speed bearings, slides, pivots 
ttdnchlike. • -•— 

jitth ois ef Vnum, — ^Tbe methods of union of works in metal are 
ootatdy varied. An advantage in casting is that the most 
ftwp lica t ed ihapes are made in one piece. But all other compli- 
otcd forms have to be united by other means — as welding, soldering, 
rimiag or bolting. The two first-named are trustworthy, but are 
[*idmtiy unsuitable for the greater portion of engineers' work, 
nr vliidi riveting and bolting are the methods adopted. Even 
the ample elements of rivets and bolts have produced immense 
drvdopments since the days when bolts were made by hand, 
win cofcd or hand-drilled, and rivets formed and closed by hand 
your . Not- and bolt-making machinery, both for forging and 
^^ cutting, operates autonutically, and drilling machinery is 
hMv specialized. Hand-riveting on larj^ contracts has been 
^■wy mspbced by power-riveting machines. The methods of 
■ua adopted are not allowed to impair the strength of structures, 
*tidi is calculated on the weakest sections through the rivet or 
Ml holes. Hence much ingenuity is exercised in order to obtain the 
*ia^pnt joint which is consistent with security of union. This 
H the eiqHanation of all the varied forms of riveted joints, which 
to carnal ob se rver s often appear to be of a fanciful character. 

PnUdion cf Surfaces. — The protection and coloration of metals 
iad alloys includes a larae number of industries. The engineer 
Ma paints for his iron and steel. A small amount of work is treated 
h)r the Bower- Bat^ and allied processes, by which a coating of 
■afneiic oxide is left on the metal. Hot tar — An^s Smith's 
inxeas— is used for water-pipes. Boiled linseed-oil is employed 
M a non-corrosive coating pnrcedtn^ the application of the lead 
ud iron oxide paints. In steam boilers artibcial pivanic couples 
ttt often set up by the suspension of zinc plates in the boiler, so 
that the corrosion of the zinc may preserve the steel boiler plates 
fiaa waste. Various artificial protective coatings are applied to 
(he plates of steel ships. Brignt suriac*^ are protected with oil 
er vnh lacquer. The ornamental bronze? and brasses are generally 
hcqueied. though in engineers' machinery they are as a rule not 

pnwBCted with any coating. For ornamental work lacquering 
JE^. - .... . . . . . ^^ 



iSto^ 



favour with colourinj; — sometimes done with 
, but often with chemical "' — ' — -^ — 
anon aalts are the chief basis. 



coloun 



but often with chemical colourings, of which the copper 



LiTBiATUU.~Prehistoric: Worsaae. Nordisht OUsaier i Kjcbem- 
kant (1854); Perrin. Etude prikistongue—Ate du bronze (1870). 
Classical: Layard. Nineveh and Babytan (1853): Pliny, Natural 
History, bk. xxxiv.; Brdndsted, Den Fikaroniske Cista (18^7); 
Gerhard, varraus monographs (1843-1867); MOller, Etrusker, &c.. 
and other works; Ciampi. veW Anitca toreutica (1815): Von Bibra, 
Die Bronzen und Kupfer-Legirungen der alien und altesten Vblker 
(1869); C. Biachoff. Das Kupfer in der vorckristlichen ZeU (1865) 
Medieval. &c.: Digby Wyatt. Metal-Work of the MiddU Ages 
(1849): Shaw. Ornamental Metal-Worh (1836); Drury Fortnum. 
S.K.M. Handbooh of Bronus (1877); King. Orfkvrerie et ouvrages 
en mital du moyen Age (1852-1854); Hefner-Alteneck, Serrurerie 
da muyfn dff. o'lf^j^; Vif>i(ei-le-duc. i'ni. du mo\'iitrr, " :xrrurtttc " 
and " Orfivrerit*,' (1658 &c.): LacToix., Triier de S. Dmis, a,nd 
L'Arl du moym ^gt ^ variant diites); Kjinrh, Die RaiksilhUder an der 
BfonrtthHre &u Au^iburg (1369); Kni^, Enhtiirft: Jiir G^d-, Stibtfu 
und BrttTtzr-Arbtiieri Lin^afl, Orf^trvr tuerooiKgktnue (1^64^ And 
Orfevrtrii du XUl^* siitte (1856); Bofdeaux^ SetTftferit du nOjAt 
dgf (JflsS); DirffoOt Manual dts ttvi'res de br^ttse fi d'orfhrerit dit 
mo^ &lt (t8s9l; Du Sommurani, AtU an m^ayt^n 4jE' 8^8-18146), 

t tfr iMfaltft 



and Mn^H de Ouny {1651)1 Rico y Sluohii?, rroiStfjp* l . 

(iS7i>; B«k, Die Cf/iduhmiedetMnst dti MiilthiuTs (1855)^ and 
Kfeinodiffi dti heii.-rOmi$i::Jien KewkeSi Jouy, Lei mnmes et Irs 
Jt>y*is4x (li^S); Texier, Dirlwnnatre d'm-firrerie (1S57); VirKil SoUii, 
DfSi^njJor Citdd- and Stkmmiiki (IJIJ), (facsimile reprwltictiofl, 
r&6jj ; MoUnipr, Lei Bronzn de la RmaisiafKt (iSSfcj , Sei-vatitt 
Les brtmzft d'art (i8&j)j Wilhi^lni Bode. Ttaiian Br^nu StaiMtttet 
of tlit Rfjidinanft cEfiki. trjmi. Ijv W. GreEor. fir;i 1 vols.. sqoqL 
Pr.i ■■■ ■ ^- ■ - *!■:■: '•■-. '■■■ ' .'-■ ■' ■■■" -'.-.■; ,.-.h 
cent.), (see QueUenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte, VII.. Vienna 1877): 
Cellini. Trattati deW oreftcerta e delta scuUura (ed. Milanesi, Florence, 
1856): Vasari, Tre arti del disegno, pu ii. (Milanesi's ed., 1882); 
Gamier, Manud du cisdeur (1859): Haas, Der Metallarbeiter (1902). 

METAMERISM (Gr. /leri, after, pifios, a part), a technical 
term used in natural science. In chemistry it denotes the 
existence of different substances containing the same elements 
in the same proportions and having the same molecular weight; 
it is a form of isomerism. 

In zoology, metamerism is the repetition of parts in an orga- 
nized body, a phenomenon which is, as E. Haeckel, W. Bateson 
and others have recognized, only a special case ojf a tendency 
to repetition of structural units or parts .which finds one expres- 
sion in bilateral symmetry. It occurs in almost every group of 
the , animal kingdom, but is most conspicuous in segmented 
worms, arthropods and vertebrates. In certain worms (the 
Cestoidea and some Planarians) metameric segmentation is 
accompanied by the separation of the completed mctameres 
one by one from the older (anterior) extremity of the chain 
(strobilation), but it by no means follows that metameric seg- 
mentation has a necessary origin' in such completion and separa- 
tion of the " meres." On the contrary, metamerism seems 
to arise from a property of organisms which is sometimes more 
(eumerogencsis) and sometimes less (dysmerogenesis) fully 
exhibited, and in some groups not exhibited at all. The most 
complete and, at the same time, simplest instances of metameric 
segmentation are to be seen in the larger Chaetopods, where 
some hundreds of segments succeed one another — each pitactically 
indistinguishable in structure from the segment in front or 
from that behind; muscles, right and left appendage or para- 
podium, colour-pattern of the skin, gut, blood-vessels, coelom, 
ncphridia, nerve-ganglion and nerves are precisely alike in 
neighbouring segments. The segment which is least like the 
others is the first, for that carries the mouth and a lobe projecting 
beyond it— the prostomium. If (as sometimes happens) any 
of the hinder segments completes itself by developing a pro- 
stomium, the chain breaks at that point and the segment which 
has developed a prostomium becomes the first or head-bearing 
segment of a new individual. Compare such an instance of 
metameric segmentation with that presented by one of the 
higher Arthropods— e.f. the crayfish. Here the somites are 
not so clearly marked in the tegumentary structures; neverthe- 
less, by examining the indications given by the paired parapodia, 
we find that there are twenty-one somites present — a limited 
definite number which is also the precise number found in all- 
the higher Crustacea. 

We can state as a First Law* of metamerism or somite formation 



* The word " Law " is used in tVis summary mexeVv aa^cowwaKcwX 
/leading for the sutement of a more or Veia ^tvenX ^JCO^cmXAua. 



2l6 



METAMERISM 



that it is either indefinite in ngurd to number of metameres 
or somites produced, or is definite. Animals in the first case we 
call anomomeristic; those in the second case, nomomeristic. The 
nomomeristic condition is a higher development, a specialiration, 
of the anomomeristic condition. 

The Second Law, or generalization, as to metamerism which 
must be noted is that the meres or.somites (excepting the first with 
its prostomium) may be all practically alike or may differ from one 
another greatly by modification of the various constituent parts of 
the mere or somite. Mctamerixed animals are either homoeomeric 
or hetcromeric The reference of the variation in the form of the 
essential parts contained in a " roctamere " or " somite " intro- 
duces us to the necessity of a general term for these constituent 
or subordinate parts; they may be called " meromes " {jtipot). The 
meromes present in a metamere or somite differ in different annulate 
or segmented animals according to the general organization of the 
group to which the animal belongs. M a matter of convenience 
we distinguish in the Arthropod as meromes, first, the tegumentary 
chitinized plates called terga, placed on the dorsal aspect of the 
■somites ; second, the similar sternal plates. In Chaetopoas we should 
take next to these the masses of cu-cular and logitudinal muscular 
fibres of the body-wall and the dorso-ventral muscles. The latter 
form the third sort of merome present in the Arthropods. The 
fourth kind of merome is constituted by the parapodia or appen- 
dages; the fifth by the coelomic pouches and their ducts and external 
apertures (coelomo-ducts), whether renal or genital. The sixth by 
the blood-vessels of the somite; the seventh by the bit of alimentary 
tract which traverses it; and the eighth by the ncuromere (nerve 
ganglion pair, commissures, connectives and nerve branches). 

The Third Law of metamerism is that heteromerism may operate 
in such a way as to produce definite regions of like modification of 
the somites and their appendages, differing in their modification 
irom that observed in regions before and behind them. It is 
convenient to ha- .,,..,.;, ^:, .xgtons of like meres, 
and we call each a i .j ^ nia i, r a-tu a , d n-f^i cueu i > . Fne word " tagmosis " 
IS applicable to tlii^ Jiormatiiqin ci sucii regiaiiB. In the Chaetopods 
tagmosis always occuri lo a finul] extent aq as to form the head. 
In some Chaetopods iuch a^ Chaeiopterui and the sedentary forms, 
there is marked tagmoufp fivlng^ rim to three or even more tagmata. 
In Arthropods, besides toe head* we find very frequently other 
tagmata developed. But it ia to be noted that in the higher members 
of each great cfa&±. or tine of dtsccnt, thi-^ HJ^mosis beromcs definite 
and characteristic ju^t a* du ihe total nupiKrof meres or somites, 
whilst in the lowtrr grades g( each great cl4h» we find what may be 
regarded as varvm^ exaini^ of tenutivL- tagmosis. The terms 
nomotagmic and anomotigniic are applicable with the skme kind 
of implication as the terms tiomoTtierisuc an' I anomomeristic. 

The Fourth Law of metamerism (auto-hetcrosis of the meromes) 
b that the meromes of a somite or series of somites may be separately 
and dis»milarly affected by heteromerism. It is common enough 
for small changes only to occur in the inner visceral meromes whilst 
the appendages and terga or sterna are largely changed in form. 
But of equal importance is the independent " heterosis" of these 
visceral meromes without an^ corresponding heterosis of the body 
wall. As instances, we may cite the gizzards of \'arious earthworms 
and the special localization of renal, genital and gastric meromes, 
with obliteration elsewhere, in a few somites in Arthropoda. 

The Fifth Law, relating zAm to the independence oi the meromes 
as compared with the whole somite, is the law of autorhythmus of 
the meromes. Metamerism does not always manifest itself in the 
formation of complete new segments; but one merome may be 
repeated so as to suggest several mctameres, whilst the remaining 
meromes are, so to speak, out of harmony with it and exhibit no 
repetition. Thus in the hinder somites of the body of Apus the 
Crustacean we find a series of segments corresponding apparently 
each to a complete single somite; but when the appendages are 
examined we find that they have multiplied without relation to 
the other meromes of a somite, we find that the somites carry 
from two to seven pairs of appendages, increasing in number as we 
pass backwards from the geniul segment. The appendages are 
autorhythmic meromes in this case. They take on a ouasi-inde- 
pendent metamerism and are produced in numbers which have 
no relation to the numbers of the body-rings, muscles and neuro- 
meres. This possibility of the independent metameric multiplication 
of a single merome must have great importance in the case of 
dislocated meromes, and no doubt has application to some of the 
metameric phenomena of Vertebrates. 

The Sixth Law is the law of dislocation of meromes. This is a 
very important and striking phenomenon. A merome, such as a 
pair of appendages (Arancae) or a neuromcre or a muscular mass 
(frequent), may (by either a gradual or sudden process, we cannot 
always say which) quit the metamere to which it belongs, and in 
which it originated, and pass by actual physical tran&lerence to 
another metamere. Frequently this new position is at a distance 
of several metameres from that to which the wandering merome 
belongs in origin. The movement is more usual from behind 
forwards than in the reverse direction; but this, probably, has no 
/»tf/ound significance and depends simply on the fact that, as a 
^K/if, eAe bead must be the chief region of development on account 
oT/cr oo tt tMia ia g the aeiue orguu Mud the mouth. 



In the Vertebrata the independence of the meromes is more fuOy 
developed than in other metamerized animals. Not only do we 
get auto-heterosis of the meromes on a most extensive scale, but 
the dislocation of ungle meromes and of whole series (tagmata) of 
meromes is a common phoiomenon. Thus, in fishes tne pelvic 
fins may travel forwards to a thoracic and even jugal position in 
front of^ the pectoral fins; the branchiomeromes lose all relation to 
the position of the meromes of muscular, skeleul, coelomic and 
nervous nature, and the heart and its ve^cls may move backm-ards 
from their original metameres in higher Vertebrates carrying 
nerve-loops with them. 

The Seventh Law of metamerism b one which has been pointed 
out to the writer by E. S. Goodrich. It may be called the law of 
" translation of heterosis." Whilst actual physical transference 
of the substance of meromes undeniably takes place in such a case 
as the passage of the pelvic fins of some fishes to the front of the 
pectorals, and in the case of the backward movement of the opis- 
thosomatic appendages of ^idersj yet the more frequent mode 
in which an alteration in the position of a specialized organ in the 
series or scale of metameres takes (dace is not by migration of the 
actual material organ from somite to somite, but by translacioa 
of the quality or morphogenetic peculiarity from somite to somite 
accompanied by correlative change in all the somites of the. series. 
The phenomenon qiay be compared to the transposition oi a piece 
of music to a higher or lower key. It is thus that the lateral fins 
of fishes move up and down the scale of vertebral somites; and 
thus that whole regions ftagmata), such as those indicated by the 
names cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral, are translated (accom- 
panied by terminal increase or decrease in the total numbor of 
somites) so as to occupy differing numerical positions in closely 
allied forms (cf. the varying number of cervical somites in allied 
Reptiles and Birds). 

What, in this rapid enumeration, we will venture to call the 
Eighth Law of metamerism is the law of homoeosis, as it b tenned 
by W. Bateson. Homoeosis is the making of a merome into the 
likeness of one belonging to another metamere^ and is the opposite 
of the process of " heterosis " — already mentioned. We ate thn 
law here because the result of its operation is to simulate the oocur^ 
rcnce of dislocation of meromes ana has to be carefully distinguished 
from that process. A merome can, and docs in individual cases of 
abnormality, assume the form and character of the correspooding 
merome of a distant somite. Thus the antenna of an insect has 
been found to be replaced by a perfectly well-formed walking leg. 
After destruction of the eye-stalk of a shnmp a new growth appears, 
having the form of an antenna. Other cases are frequent in Cnista- 
cea. as individual abnormalities. They prove the existence in the 
mechanism of metamerized animals. Of structural conditions which 
are capable of giving these results. What those structural oeo- 
ditions are is a matter for separate inquiry, which we cannot even 
touch here. 

We now come to the questions of the production of new somites 
or the addition of new somites to the series, and the convene 
problem of the suppression of somites, whole or partial. We state 
as the Ninth Law of metamerism " that new somites or metameres 
are added to a chain consisting of two or more somites 1^ growth 
and gradual elaboration — what is called ' buddine ' — of the anterior 
border of the hindcrmost somite. This hindermost somite is 
therefore different from all the other somites and is calh^ the 
' telson.' However long or short or hcteromerized the chain may 
be, new metameres or somites are only produced at the anterior 
border of the telson, except in the Vertebrata." That is the general 
law. But amongst some groups of metamerized animals partial 
exceptions to it occur, ft is probably absolutely true for the 
Arthropoda from lowest to highest. It is not so certain that it is 
true for the Chaetopoda, and would need modification in suteroent 
to meet the cases of fissiparous multiplication occurring among 
Syllids and Naidids. In the Vertebrata, where tagmosis and 
heterosis of meromes and dislocation of merones and tagmata are, 
so to speak, rampant, new formation of metameres (at any rate as 
represented by important meromes) takes jdace at more than one 
pwint in the chain. Such pwints arc found where two highly diverse 
" tagmata " abut on one another. It is possible, though the evi* 
dence at present is entirely against the supposition, that at sudi 
points in Anhropoda new somites may be formed. Such new 
somites are said to be " intercalated." The question of the inter- 
calation'of vertebrae in the Vertebrata has received some attention. 
It must be rcmfnil)ercd that a vertebra even taken with its muscular, 
vascular and neural accessories is only a partial metamere— a 
merome — and that, so far as complete metameres arc concerned, the 
Vertebrata do conform to the same law as the Arthropods. Inter* 
calation of meromes, branchial, vertebral and dermal (fin-supports) 
seems to have taken place in Vertebrata in the fishes, mta\t is 
higher groups intercalation of vertebrae in large series has bees 
acccpte(l as the only possible explanation of the structural fKta 
established by the comparison of allied groups. The elucidatioa 
of this matter forms a very important part of the work lying to the 
hand of the investigator of vertebrate anatomy, and it is possible 
that the application of Goodrich's law (the seventh of our list) may 
throw new light on the matter. 

In regard to the diminution in the number of toniitcs ia tki 



METAMORPHISM 



217 



coune of the historical devctoproent of thoae various groups of 
OMtamrriaed animals, which have undoubtedly sprung from ances- 
tors with more numerous somites than they themselves possess, 
ic appears that we may formulate the following laws as the tenth, 
dewnth. twelfth and thirteenth laws of metamerism. 

The Tenth Law is that individual somites tend to atrophy and 
finaDy disappear as distinct structures, most readily at the anterior 
and the posterior ends of the series constituting an animal body. 
This is very generally exhibited in the head of Arthropoda, where, 
however, the operation of the law is Largely modified by fusion (ace 
below). With regard to the posterior end of the body, the atrophy 
of segments does not. as a rule, affect the tclson itself so much as 
the somites in front of it and its power of producing new somites. 
Sometimes, however, the telson is very minute and nonchitinized 
(Hexapoda). 

The Elsventh Law may be stated thus: any somite in the 
series which is the anterior or posterior somite of a tagma may 
become atrophied, reduced in size or partially aborted by the sup- 
pression of some of its meromes; and finally, such a somite may 
disjp>pear and leave no obvious trace in the adult structure of its 
preiA.-nce in ancestral forms. This is called the cxcalation of a 
somite. Frequentiv, however, such " excalatcd " somites are 
obvious in the embryo or leave some merome (e.^. neuromerc. 
muscle or chitin-plate) which can be detected by mmute observa- 
tion (microscopic) as evidence of their former existence. The 
somit^ of the maxillipede (third post-oral appendage) of Affus 
camcnformu is a good example of a somite on its way to excaUtion. 
The third prae-oral and the praenuxillary somites of Hexapod 
tnvects are instances where the only traces of the vanished somite 
are furnished by the microscopic study of early embryos. The 
pnreenital somite of the Arachnida is an example of a somite 
«htf.n is preset ved in some members of the group and partially or 
entirc-ly excalated in other cases, sometimes with fusion of its 
renii;ants to neighbouring somites. 

The Twelfth Law of meumcrism might very well be placed in 
lo^al order as the first. It is the law of litomerism^ and asserts 
that )UM as the metameric condition is proriuccd by a change in 
the bodies of the descendants of uniscgmcntal ancestors, so hi^^hly 
meURKTiaed forms — i.e. strongly segmented forms with specialued 
rvfpnoA of differentiated metamcres — may gradually lose their 
Dctaoierixd structure and become apparently and practically 
sniiecinental animals. The change here contemplated is not the 
stropby of terminal segments one by one so as to reduce the size of 
the aaimal and leave it finally as a sy[ngie somite. On the contrary, 
■0 loss of size or of high organization is necessary. But one by 
onr, and gradually, the metameric grouping of the bodily structures 
divppcarv The cuticle ceases to be thickened in rings — the 
nuKtcsof the body-wall overrun their somite boundaries. Internal 
^n*A disappear. The nerve-ganglia concentrate or else become 
iffascd cquallv along the cords; one pair of renal coclomoducts 
a»d one pair of genital coclomoducts grow to large size and remain 
-the rest disappear. The appendages atrophy or become limited 
»3«;BC or two paurs which arc widely dislocated from their ancestral 
f>isiiioii. The animal ceases to present any indication of meta- 
■«ic repetition of parts in its entire stnicture. Degrees in thb 
piticws arc frequently to be recognized. We certainly can obser\e 
iurh a change m the posterior region of some Arthropods, such as 
the hermit-crabs and the spiders. Admitting that the Echiurids 
«t descended from Chaetopoda. such a change has taken place in 
tkm. amounting to little short of complete lipomerism, though 
B« «bK>lutely complete. 

Reomt suggestions as to the origin of the Mollusca involve the 
•apposition that such an effacement of once well-marked mcta- 
■mun has occurred in them, leaving its traces only in a few 
tfructaics such as the multiple gill-plumes and shell-shields of the 
Ckitons and the duplicated renal sacs of Nautilus. 

A further matter of importance in this connexion is that when 
the old laetameres have been effaced a new secondary segmentation 
■ay vise, as in the jointed worm-like body of the degenerate 
Afarid. Demodrx foUiculorum. 

Such secondary annulation of the soft body calls to mind the 
■cowlary annulation of the mrtameres of leeches and some earth- 
*oaDs. Space docs not permit of more than an allusion to this 
■•bject; but it is worth while noting th.it the secondary annuli 
■vking the somites of leeches and Lumbruidae in definite number 
*ad character are perhaps comparable to the redilnrlant pairs of 
appendages on the hinder somites of A pus, and are in both cases 
camples of independent repetition of tegumentary meromes — a 
tort of ineffectual attempt to subdivide the somite which only pre- 
*»hon the more-rradily susceptible meromes of the integument. 

The last law of metamerism which we shall attempt to formulate 
hw. as the Thirteekth. relates to the fusion or blending of neigh- 
hottnn^ somites. Fusion of adjacent somites has often b^'n errone- 
•aly interpreted in the study of Arthropoda. There are, in fact, 
wry varyinK degrees of fusion which need to be carefully distin- 
lushed. Tne following generalization may be formulated. " The 
Mokokigous meromes <A two or more adjacent somites tend to fuse 
•feh one another by a blending of their substance. Very generally, 
hut cot invariably, the fused mrromcs are foun'i a.s di^inct M:parated 
ttncuut* ia the embryo of the animal, in wbkh they unite at a ' 



later stage of growth." The fusion of neighbourins meromes it 
often preceded by more or less extensive atrophy 01 the somites 
concerned, and bv arrc-st of development in the individual ontogeny. 
Thus, a case of fusion of partially atrophied somites may simulate 
the appearance of incipient merogenevis or formation of new somites, 
and, vice versa, incipient mcrogenesis may be misinterpreted as a 
case of fusion of once si-[>arate and fully-formed somites. 

A \'ery complete fusion of somites is that seen on the head of 
Arthropoda. The head or prosoma of Arthropoda is a tagma 
consisting of one. two, or three prosthomeres or somites in front 
of the mouth and of one, two. three, up to five or six opisthomeres. 
The cephalic tagma or prosoma may thus be more or less sharply 
divided into two subtagmata, the prae-oral and the post -oral. 

(E. R. L.) 

METAMORPHISM (Gr. iiMrk, change of, and yop4f^l* 
shape), in petrology, the alteration of rocks in their structural 
or mineral characters by which they arc transformed into new 
types. In the history of rock masses changes of many 
kinds are inevitable. Loose sands, clays and heaps of shells 
arc gradually converted into sandstones, shales and lime- 
stones by the action of pcrcoLiling water and the pressure 
of over-lying accumulations. All rocks exposed at the 
earth's surface or traversed by waters circulating through 
the earth's crust, undergo changes in their component minerals 
due to weathering and the chemical action of the atmo- 
sphere and of rain. These processes of cementation and 
decomposition, though not unlike those of mctamorphism, 
are not regarded as essentially the same. They are considered, 
so to speak, normal episodes in the history of rocks to which 
all are subject. When rocks, however, are exposed to the 
heat of intrusive masses (granite, &c.) or have been compressed!, 
folded, crushed, and more or less completely rccrystallizcd, 
they assume new characters so difTcrent from their original ones 
that they are ascribed to a qiu'te distinct class, namely, the 
metamorphic rocks. 

The transformation is always gradual, so that in suitable 
districts every stage can be followed from an unaltered or 
nearly unaltered sedimentary or igneous rock to a perfectly 
metamorphic one. The transition may be slow or rapid, and 
the abundance of intermediate forms renders it impossible 
to lay down any hard and fast lines of distinction. A black 
shale with fossils may in two or three feet pass into a splintery 
hornfels; a sandstone or grit becomes a sheared grit, a granulitic 
gneiss, and a completely rccrystallizcd gneiss sometimes within 
a few hundred yards; in a thoroughly metamorphic hornblende- 
schist or chlorite-schist small kernels sometimes occur which 
can easily be recognized as little modified dolerites or diabases. 
Still, the metamorphic rocks as a class have many well-defined 
characteristics, and in perfectly typical development cover 
enormous areas of the earth's surface and must be, in the 
aggregate, of vast thickness. A great number of them are 
recognizably of igneous origin; others arc equally certainly 
sedimentary. Hence some writers have suggested that they 
are not entitled to rank as a separate class, but only as stales 
or conditions of other rocks. It is generally agreed, however, 
that when the primitive structures and the original minerals 
of sedimentary or igneous rocks are so transformed as to be no 
longer easily recognizable the rock should be included in tlie 
metamorphic class. 

Only rarely, however, docs mctamorphism produce much 
difference in the chemical composition of the rocks affected. 
Sandstones become quartzites and quartz schists, limestones 
are converted into marbles, granite passes into gneiss, and so 
on, without their bulk composition being greatly modified. 
From all that we know it seems established that however great 
the heat and pressure to which mctamor])hic rocks have been 
exposed they have very rarely been melted or reduced to the 
liquid state. Ilencc there has been no opportunity for inter- 
mixture by solution or diffusion; the changes, including the 
growth of crystals of new-formed minerals, have gone on in 
the solid rocks. The chemical molecules already present 
have aggregated into new combinations and have built up 
new minerals without travelling for more \.\\;jtTv *Ycv^\m\^s\T^A 
distances from the places ihcy occu\>\c<i \tv \.\vt cj\\^\\va\ \oOk, 
£xccptions to this occur, bui ibcy aic w> lc« v^v v\ift>| ^o waN. 



2l8 



METAMORPHISM 



invalidate the general rule. Thin bands of limestone, for 
example, may be followed for miles in belts of mica-schist 
or gneiss, never losing their identity by blending with the rocks 
on either side of them. By tracing out zones such as these 
it is often possible to unravel the highly complicated strati- 
graphy of metamorphic regions where the rocks have been greatly 
folded and displaced. Another important consequence of 
the persistence of the chemical individuality of metamorphosed 
rocks is that very often an analysis indicates in the clearest 
possible fashion what was the original nature of the rock mass. 
Sandstones, limestones, ironstones, shales, granites, dolerites 
and serpentines may be totally changed in structure and very 
completely also in mineral composition, but their chemical 
characters are practically indelible. Confusion arises sometimes 
from the fact that two rocks of different origin may have much 
the same composition, e.g. a fclspathic sandstone may closely 
approach a granite, or an impure dolomite may simulate 
a basic igneous rock. Individual specimens, consequently, 
cannot always be relegated with perfect certainty to sediments 
or igneous rocks; but in dealing with a complex containing 
a variety of types the geologist is rarely long in doubt as to 
their original nature. 

Two distinct kinds of metamorphism are recognized, namely 
contact or thermal metamorphism, and folding or regional 
metamorphism. The former is associated with intrusive masses 
of molten igneous rock which were injected at a very high 
temperature and produced extensive changes in the surrounding 
rocks. The second occurs in districts where earth folding 
and the movements attendant on the formation of mountain 
ranges have flexured and crushed the strata, probably at the 
same time considerably raising their temperature. Although 
these processes are very different in their origin, and in the 
great majority of cases produce quite different effects on the 
rocks they involve, there are instances in which the results 
are closely comparable. A sandstone may be converted into 
quartzite and a limestone into marble by either kind of meta- 
morphism. It is best, however, to describe them as phenomena 
essentially different from one another. 

Contact Metamorphism (thermo-metamorphism). — Any kind of 
rock — igneous or sedimentary — which has come in contact with an 
igneous molten magma is likely to show alteration of this type. 
The extent and intensity of the changes depend principally on two 
factors: (i) the nature of the rock concerned, and (2) the magni- 
tude of the igneous mass. It is to be expected that a^rcat intrusion 
of granite will produce more extensive effects of this kind than a 
narrow dike a few inches or a few feet broad. At the edges of such 
dikes only a slight induration may be noticeable in the country 
rock, or there may be rccrystallization with formation of new 
minerals for a few inches. Rarely does the alteration extend 
beyond this. Shales are baked and hardened, sandstones arc 
rendered more compact or occasionally arc partly fused, limestones 
may be converted into marble containing garnet. woUastonitc, 
augite or other calc-silicates. A great granite bos!>, which may be 
ten or twenty miles broad, is often surrounded by a wide aureole 
of contact alteration. This may be a few hundred yards broad 
or a couple of miles; in rare cases the breadth of the aureole is only 
a few yards. These variations may have structural causes; thus 
when the aureole is narrow the junction of granite with country 
rock may be vertical; when the aureole is broad the granite may be 
a flat-topped mass which dips at low angles outwards on each side. 
When a broad aureole accompanies a vertical junction wc may 
suppose that molten rock has flowed upwards along this boundary 
line for a prolonged period, and has gradually raised the rocks to 
a very high temperature, even at some distance away from the 
contact. Where the alteration is slight and local there is usually 
something in the composition of the rocks or in their crysullinc 
state to account for this. 

No less important is the nature of the rocks involved. Where 
a granite intrudes into a succession of various types of sedimentary 
ami igneous rocks the differences in their behaviour are often 
very marked. Sandstones alter less readily than shales or slates, 
ancl limestones, cs|x^ially if they be marly or argillaceous, are often 
full of new minerals, when purer shales on each side of them arc 
not visibly affected. Schists and gneisses, being already highly 
crystalline, arc very resistant to thermal alteration, and may show 
it only for a few inches where they are in actual contact with the 
granite, or in minute fragments which have been broken off and 
surrounded by the invading magma. Igneous rocks, since they 
consist of minerals which have forimtl at very high tvtnpcratures, 
msjr bJjow ao change whatever. It tbcy arc decomposed, however. 



their secondary products, including those which fill veins and 
amygdaloidal cavities, are often entirely recrysuUized in new 
combinations. Instances of this will be given later. 

The intensity of the alteration depends very greatly on the 
proximity to the intrusive rock. A typical aureole surrounding 
a granite boss, for example, consists of rocks in all stages of altera- 
tion, the most affected being nearest the granite, while as we travd 
outwards we pass over zones of successively diminishing meta- 
morphism. Around the granites of Cornwafl, the Lake District 
and Ireland there are tracts of altered slate which show these 
stages very well. The first sign of metamorphism is a slight increase 
in hardness and glossiness, making the slate a little brighter and 
more brittle. This is due to the formation of mica in small crystalline 
plates mostly parallel to the cleavage of the rock. Nearer the 
granite a faint spotting is visible on broken surfaces of the slates, 
ard this becomes more pronounced as we enter the middle part of 
the aureole. These spotted slates, in^ Cornwall for instance, often 
o^:cLi|■^ 1 / ■!.■ 1 ..,*'. i;^ '-■■'. Ti ■ atc Icss fissile than the 
Ufi^ilji Ti-1 '.'.U'^ .inij JiJviL' rf:'tir(di:d or ^■lliniit..il spots about a quarter 
<A An Irn h .L.-r.jK,. Tht spois arc usually darker than the body of 
rh^' >'.ifi. . i:iiiM^li v>m?unics pjicr. AnguUr. branched, lenticular 
and rhamboi'JjJ tpoE'^i sometimes occur. Under the microscope 
thc^crork^con^st m^iriily of brown mica, quartz and organic matters* 
iron oiiidciK &c.i the h><>c^ iruiy be due ta aggregation of biotitcor 
of auaniy but oticn diner Iktle in camposiLfon from the surrounding 
rock. Their dark colour is due to j&biinditncc of iron oxides or 
gnipKitc, with chtoriic and biotlLc. Sti!! closer to the granite a 
development of crystal a takes place in the slates; the commonest 
are andaluBitc, chiastotite (with cmma-aluped dark enclosures), 
corditriie, itaurolitc and garnet. At the !^ame time the mineraU 
Tormcrly enumerated cryt uIIIju^ in larj^er individuals (biotite, quartz, 
iron o^idc-s, &c.>k so that lFic rock becomes rather more coarse-grained. 
At til Li stage the d^iMty and ciciivage structurvs of the slate tend 
to be obliterated, and the rock» are dark, lustrous (from the abun- 
dance of mien), hard and »pltnLery. To thi^ type the name komfds 
it giv'cn. The innermost £ones o\ the aureole consist mainly of 
hornlelscfl^ and wherv there are d^te fnigmcnts enclosed in the 
eraniLc I hey usually show these chaiactcm in their most pronounced 
form. 

The nature of the new minerals produced depends principally, 
of course, on the chemical composition of the rocks anectedL la 
pure sandstones only quartz is formed, and pure limestones merdy 
recrystallize as marbles. Argillaceous rocks are characterized by 
abundance of alumina; hence, when thermally altered, they may 
contain corundum, or silicates of alumina such as sillimanite. kyanite. 
andalusite and chiastolite. Most rock masses, however, are far 
from pure and hence the variety of minerals which may arise in 
them from contact alteration is very great. Argillaceous limestones, 
for example, very frequently contain garnet, vcsuvianite. woilaston- 
itc, dioDfiide. tremontc, sphcne, epidotc and feldspar; that is to say, 
minerals in which lime isprcscnt along with silica, alumina, magnesia 
and other substances. Calcareous sandstones yield augite. garnet, 
sphene. epidotc ; argillaceous sandstones are characterized raum- by 
biotite, sillimanite and spinel. 

In each case the materials already present in the rock have united 
to form new mineral combinations. Crystallization has been 
stimulated by the rise of temperature, aided, no doubt, by moisture. 
Water vapour, even at comparatively low temperatures when the 

firessure is considerable, is a poweriul mineralizing agent and greatly 
acilitates crystallization. Often the rocks acquire ultimately a 
pscudoporphyritic or porphyro-blastic structure, as they contain 
large or conspicuous cr\'&tals scattered through a finer grained 
ground-mass; not only these porphyritic ingredients but the body 
of the rock shows increased crystallization, for contact alteration 
as a rule makes rocks more coarse-grained than before. 

In rare instances fusion may take place, but thb must be excep* 
tional. as the finest original structures are often very perfectly 
preserved by rocks which have been in great measure rccrystalliara. 
Finely laminated argillaceous sandstones, for example, may pais 
into cordierite — or andalusite-^hornfelscs showing a mineral banding 
which corresponds exactly with the original lamination. For this 
rci.son the newly develo|)ed minerals are not frequently of good 
crystalline form. When weathered out of the rock tney have mostly 
rough, imperfect faces, but exceptions to this occur in garnet. 
btaurolitc, tourmaline and a few others which often produce pxid 
crystals even in these adverse circumstances. 

It is only true in a general way that the rocks which are thermally 
altered experience no change in their chemical compositbn. The 
new minerals which are substituted for the original ones are such 
as are stable at high temperatures. Many ot the silicates which 
form a large part of sedimentary rocks contain combined water; 
examples arc chlorite, kaolin and clay. The water, or part of it, n 
expi'llod. forming < ilirates with little or no water, e.g. biotite, felspar, 
andalusite. Carbonic acid may be retained or driven out: in a 
siliceous limestone the silica tends to combine with the lime producing 
calc-silicates by replacing the carlranic acid. In a pure limestone 
the carbonate merely recr>'5tani2es as marble. This los» of volaiile 
ingredients must occasion a diminution in the bulk of the sedi> 
mcntary mass involved: in cooling there will be contraction, and 
fissures are produced which may be filled with igneous dikes or with 



METAMORPHISM 



219 



veins deposited by aacendtiw hot watcra. Hence contact aureoles 
are common sites for mineraldeposits of economic value. 

In some aureoles the sediments or schists have their bedding and 
foGation (^nes wedged apart by the intrusive force of the granite, 
and are penneaCtd by igneous inatLTi.:! 

fissures. In thii ti-ay a w/.jfl^f Upr- .. ■. 1 ,...■...■ r ■ .. 
vith threads and vifiJiletJ^ oi igneous riAiurt. nin^j io ^omt^ rJirori[ a 
blending of the two foclt* take* filict, though uaually each prc«rvcs 
its identity hon^^vcr iniintauly mbccd^ In mkro^copic fcciidni 
'viinaof granite fiot more IhitLn a tenth of an inch in w^Uth may be 
traced, sharply dtstinct from the s^taif^ or sthirt ihty penctratp, 
Casc^ ho»"ever, arc dpscribtd in whkh the roctti of the ^urrolc have 
been febpathixed or filled with new felspar (ferivcd from the granite ; 
this, however, is not common. Shales are often converted, when in 
contact with diat>;^'«, inro pak'-coloureflK flinty-lnDokingf rrKks known 
as adtnolcs. Tlr--' :i-^ ,..,-, <^.r..... n.. ^^^,[J jj, j^\\j\ip ^^-^ ^.-.rf-.;-n ■.-<- 
n:uchasio%of Lssnotnieiwl- 

shales. It seems probable that alkalis have been transferred from 
the igneous rock to the sedimentary, perhaps through the medium 
of the vapours exhaled. The breadth of the adinole belt is as a rule 
oolv a few inches or a foot or two. 

The vapours given off by intrusive igneous masses may contain 
substances which combine with the ingredients of the surrounding 
rocks and thus modify their composition. Boron, fluorine and 
phosphorus are the principal elements which arc transferred in this 
way, and minerals such as tourmaline, topaz and mica are the 
chairacteristic products in quartzose or argillaceous rocks; while 
apatite, fluorspar, axinite, datolite and chondrodite are commonest 
in Umestoocs. Thb is a form of pneumatolytic action (see Pneu- 

MATOLTSIS). 

Extreme cases of the mutual interaction of the intrusive rock 
with the masses invaded by it are provided by the fragments enclosed 
m the molten magma (known as xenolilhs). These are often rounded 
and eroded, as if softened or partly fused and dissolved. Similar 
danges are found in the rocks of the aurcofe for a few feet or yards 
vhcrc in actual contact with the granite. This belt of indurated 
honifelses often weathers much more slowly than the igneous rock, 
•ad stands out as a prominent, sharp-edged ridge running round the 
gniBte margin. 

>Vkere sediments are dissolved in igneous rock -we may expect to 
fiad modifications in the chemical composition and in the minerals 
produced on crystallization of the magma. Some granites, for 
cnnple, which contain many rounded, partly dissolved enclosures 
of ihle are themselves full of corundum, andalusite. cordicrite and 
otber nuoerals. which appear to indicate the effect of absorbed slate 
■atcrisL Much discussion has taken place as to the importance of 
uch pmcestses in modifying the facies presented by igneous rocks. 
Oamtei are alleged to have absorbed impure limestones and thus 
<o be changed to diorites (Pyr£n^). At the contact of the two 
Rxb J oarrow zone of diorite mtervencs between the granite and the 
HsMstone.^ In this case an acid rock has become basic (or inter- 
rHiate) in character; similarly, basic rocks — such as gabbro— are 
uid to become granitic where they have melted down large Quantities 
of hbnthic quartzite. On the other side it is argued that as 
pncsely the same modifications of the igneous rocks are known to 
wnv where these explanations cannot possibly hold good — e.^. 
toon of diorite at the contact of granite with quartzite or mica- 
Kbiit— they are really due to chemical segregation or differentiation 
is the magma and not to any admixture with foreign material. 

fvh imxiifications in the igneous rock at its contacts are often 
Bid to be endoroorphic, while those which take place in the aureole 
or country rocks are exomorphic. The endomorphic changes are not 
^a>-s strictly of the nature of contact alteration. The commonest 
^ (he prcwnce of a fine>grained. sometimes glassy, chilled edge 
<be to rapid ^Ikiification from sudden cooling of the magma. 
J^ fine-grairied marginal facies is often porphyritic, while the 
Btcnor of the mavs is granular or eugranitic. There is often a 
fndency to the development of special minerals in the edge of 
iB^«ive masMis. Some of these arise probably from absor|>tion 
of country rock, e.g. cordicrite, andalusite. iron oxides (in granite). 
At the same time there mav be a great abundance of angular or 
Riuaded enck>Mires, so that the marginal rock is brecciform. Where 
r>ute penetrates gabbro the fragments of the latter are sometimes 
nth.rd down and digested in the granite till only the crystals of 
tfer augite or diallage are left (Skye). Granite margins are not 
i^va^s more basic than the average of the mass; they may be ex- 
otdiegly rich in quartz and at the same time very coarse-grained 
« (Kgmatitic This seems to arise from the production of fissures 
u the contact after the granite has to a large extent solidified. 
In tbese fi^^rcs the pegmatites are laid down by escaping vapwurs. 
Netawmatic changes are especially common also in this situation, 
aad have often formed very valuable mineral deposits along igneous 
csttjctsw There also pneumatolytic processes often concentrate 
rtn'r attack: schorl-rock, greisen. topaz-rock and china-stone (or 
boGnized granite) are eharacteriitic products, and the active 
^apo«rs often transform the sediments around, forming schorl- 
ockiA. calc-silicate rocks and sericite-schists. 

X>fT>iM/ Metamorphism. — The^ second kind of mctamorphism 
if koovn ar ** regional " liecause it is not confined to narrow areas . 
fihi oontaci mctamorphijim, but affects widle tractt of country, ' 



rge part of 
tinent {e.g. the centre of Africa or Scandinavia and Finland). What- 
ever the causes be which produced it. they must have been of 
widespread operation and connected either with great geophysical 
processes or with definite stages of the earth's development. Where 
such rocks occur there is generally much evidence of earth move- 
ment accompanied by crushing and folding. They are very charac- 
teristic of the central axes of great mountain chains, especially 
when these have been denuded and their deeper cores exposed. 
Most geologists believe that this connexion is causal, holding that 
the contraction of the outer layers of the earth's crust, due to 
shrinkage of a nearly rigid shell upon a cooling and contracting 
interior, has bent and folded the rocks, and at the same time has 
crushed and largely recrystallized them. According to this view 
regional metamorpnism is the result of pressure and folding; hence 
the name dynamo-metamorpkism is frequently applied to it. 

A great number of observations collected in all regions of the 
globe may be adduced in support of this hypothesis, forming a mass 
of evidence so strong as to be almost overwhelming. The structural 
features which prove that there has been great folding in these 
rocks are accom{>anied by microscopic and lithological characters 
which demonstrate that extensive crushing has taken place. Through 
progressive stages a slate with fossils may be traced into a phyllitc. 
which becomes a mica-schist, or, in places, a micaceous gneiss. 
At first the fossils are distorted or torn apart, but they disappear 
as crystallization advances. Limestones under great pressure 
flow almost like plastic masses, losing their fossils and becoming 
crystalline. Grits, quartzites and granites show the effects ot 
crushing in the pulverization of their minerals and the breaking 
down of their original clastic or igneous textures, fine slabby mylo- 
nites iq.v.) and granulites being produced. Moreover, the degree 
of metamorphism in the rock can often be shown to correspond 
closely to the extent to which it has been folded and crushed. 

Another argument in favour of dynamo-metamorphism, which 
has been urged with much insistence by the extreme supporters 
of these theories, is the retention of original chemical characters in 
the metamornhic rocks. Some of them bear unmistakably the 
stamp of sedimentary origin, e.g. the limestones and marbles, 
quartzites, graphite-schists and aluminous mica-schists. Others 
have the normal composition of granites, diorites, gabbros and other 
types of plutonic igneous rocks.' This leads to the inference that 
these were originally normal sediments and intrusives or lavas, 
and that their present cr\-stalline state and foliated structure are 
the result of agencies which operated on them subse<]uently to 
their formation. Where the degree of mctamorphism is not too 
high, and the folding and dislocation not too complex, the sand- 
stones, shales and limestones may be mapped out, and igneous 
bosses, dikes and sills, with their contact aureoles, veins, pegmatites 
and segregations, convincingly delineated on the maps. This 
shows that a whole complex or terrane, consisting of diverse pctro- 
logica^ types of normal sediments and igneous rocks, may be con- 
verted by mctamorphism into a great series of gneisses and schists. 
Although recrystaliization has been complete, the original rock 
masses still retain their identity in their new state. 

The mctamorphism in a rock series may be of nearly uniform 
intcn«ty over a large area: the sediments, for example, may have 
all their clastic and organic structures effaced, and in the igneous 
rocks the porphyritic, ophitic, graphic and other textures may 
have completely disappeared. This, however, is not always the 
case, especially when the mctamorphism is not of very intense 
degree. Parts of the rock may retain original structures, while 
others are typical crystalline schists and gneisses. Kernels, lumps 
or phacoids of massive rock are often found emlx>ddcd in schists, 
and it is clear upon inspection that the phacoids represent the 
original state of the rock, while the schist is the effect of mcta- 
morphism. At other times a rock mass, such as an intrusive sill, 
is schistose at its edges and surrounded by schistose sediments, 
while near its centre it is almost entirely massive. The hard 
igneous rock has proved more rigid than the soft and plastic sedi- 
ments; in folding, the latter have yielded to the stresses, and 
internal movement has produced foliation. The crystalline rock 
of the intrusive sheet has been strong enough to withstand the pres- 
sures and has folded like a rigid mass. At the junctions the effect 
of differential movement is shown by the presence of a belt of rock 
which often has a most pronounced schistosity. Some intrusive 
dikes show foliation especially marked along their edges: or they 
may be traversed by pbnes of movement, running obliquely or 
directly across them, and characterized by the development of 
very marked schistosity. Exceedingly sudden transitions between 
normal igneous rocks and schists or gneisses have been described 
in sheared dikes. A normal dolerite, with ophitic structure and 
abundant augite, has been shown to pass in a few feet or inches 
into an epiciiorite, where hornblende has replaced the primary 
augite. and bstiv into a perfectly typical hornblende-schist, com- 

Cletcly recrystallized with development of epidote. green horn- 
lende, sphene and other minerals of mctamorphic facies from the 
original constituents of the dolerite. These phenomena arc rc?,ardcd 
as establishing that the rock had consoWAaiXcA ?l% ai tvottcv^ ^<A<:\vvft 
before the processes which caused lV\c mcxatcvoTvVvsm \s«^w xo ^^V"« 
thit these processes resulted to \ivxeTi\a\ taovettvexvv '\ti >X« ^^s^t 



220 

maas along certain narrow bdts; and that rccrystallization was set 
upalong with the devdopmen^ i re:. The optrat- 

ing cause cannot have been ,j ■;.!!, ii.; li j.-'- iirf, «pft;ialiy aa 
the foliated •rocks occur not icilTtquLnLly iii liciis k4 dUlccation 
and shear; in other cases the rulic^ted typci an: at the martini of 
the dike, and the transition from nraii&Lve Jeneous rock to met^- 
morphic schist may take place nithin the tpacjt of one Inch. Tlie 
best examples of phenomena of LhiA order an: those destnbcd by 
J. J. H. Teall from Scourie in the north-west of Scmland. 

Where rocks of any kind are tnivcncd by po^crfLjl di&locationi 
or thrusts they often present a tchi^osc f^cics in the imcitcdLatf^ 
vicinity of the planes m movement. In the Highlands of Scotland 
great thrusts occur, along whu-Ji the rocks aiv dispkced lor 
distances which may be as citjeb as ten miles; and Lmmedi&iely 
adjoining these thrust-planes verj^ perfect foliation Is induced in 
all kinds of rocks, seoimcntary^ igneous or metamorphic, which 
have been involved in the movufnents. The minute itmcture of 
these rocks is generally of the rr^yloo(tic^ p^^nulitic or fineli,f crushed 
type. In the same way the rrr;v ri*-:if ..f tfi,- l.i--iH in '<>riTw:all 
passes into fine talcosc and tremolitic schists along narrow zones 
of displacement. Many other examples of this might be dted 
from regions where folding and crushing have taken place on a 
large sc^e. As a rule, almost without exception, the foliation 
thus produced is parallel to the' direction of movement in the rock 

In the mineral transfcmnations which accomi^ny metamorphism 
the operation of pressure is no less clearly indicated. There are, 
for example, three minerals which consist of silicate of alumina, 
viz. andalusite, sillimanite and kvanite. The last of these has the 
highest specific g^ravity. In anoalusite-bcaring rocks which have 
been sheared, with production of foliation, we sometimes find 
pseudomorphs of kyanite after andalusite, retaining the character- 
istic form of the original mineral. Compression, it seems reasonable 
to suppose, would produce ttuit one of t he Lh ■ p i i '. . : ^ silicates 
of alumina which has its moteculca most cloy: I v pjiiJcrd, ind con- 
sequently the highest spjeciiic gravity. Thk expLun-s the conversion 
of andalusite into kyanite. The prindple that substances tend to 
a»ume that mineral form which hu the least molecular volume 
b of wide application among metarnorphic rockL It has been 
calculated, for example, thitt when olivine and anqrthite felspar 
are replaced by garnet (a change whtch tak4?3 pbcc pot Infrequently 
when basic igneous rocks are metamorphosed) tlic molecular volume 
ot the mineral aggregate diminishes from MS to Jit or about 17%. 
On the other hand, when garnet is fuied it recryttolllECj m a mixture 
of olivine and anorthite. This haa led ilD the stncixiti^tion that 
all minerals formed by the crystaltiutioFt of a fu<«d magma at 
high temperatures have a br^ge me.'! ""fff vilir^K, v lile those 
which are produced in mckA ai ttin_ : ' ir fusion 

points and under great pressures haVe smaller molecular volumes. 
Loewinson Lessing pointed out that some minerals have a greater 
molecular volume than the oxides which enter into their composi- 
tion; in other minerals the reverse holds good. The former group 
are, on the whole, characteristic of igneous rocks and products of 
contact alteration, both of which classes have been formed at high 
temperatures (rf. wollastonite, spind. nepheline, Icucite and 
andalusite). The minerals of the second group are often of common 
occurrence in metarnorphic schists and gneisses (e.g. staurolitc, 
kyanite. hornblende, talc, epidote and garnet). Although there 
are exceptions to this rule, there can be no doubt that it expresses 
a generalization which is of great value in the study of mineral 
paragenesis. 

The mmeral changes are usually not of so simple a kind as those 
above enumerated. Mutual interaction takes place between 
adjacent components of the rocks. Titaniferous iron oxides, for 
example, obtain silica and lime from such minerals as augite or 
lime felspar and sphene results. Felspar often breaks up into 
epidote. quartz and albite; the epidote obtains its iron from aojacent 
crystals of augite or hornblende. Equations can be written to 
show the transformation of one rock to another; thus, diabase 
flabradorite, augite. ilmcnite) may be converted into amphibolite 
(acid plagioclaae, hornblende, garnet, sphene and quartz). In this 
ca!«c, the molecular volumes arc for diabase 671 and for amphi- 
bolite 6^5-6, indicating a diminution on metamorphism. Many 
striking illustrations of this principle have been adduced. Caution, 
however, is required in applying it to concrete cases: if it was 
always strictljj correct the metarnorphic rocks should have higher 
specific gravities than their representatives among sediments and 
igneous rocks. Very frequently this is not the case, and there 
must be some counteracting process at work. We find this antago- 
nistic principle in the tendency for the minerals of metarnorphic 
rocks to contain water of combination, e.g. epidote, mu5covite. 
chlorite, hornblende, talc. This indicates that they were formed 
at comparatively low temperatures. 

We arrive then by many independent lines of reasoning (strati- 
graphical, microscopical, chemical and mineralogical evidence being 
abundantly available) at the conclusion that pretwure acting on 
sedimentarv and igneous rocks at temperatures below their fusion 
points has been able to change them into metamorphic rocks. This 
IS the theory of dynamo-metaraorphism, which has won acceptance 
from the majority of geologists who have made the petrology ol 



METAMORPHISM 



metamorphic rocks their qiecial study. It has still, howwer, 
many incisive critics, and in recent years dissent has on the whole 
gained strength. 

One of the principal objections is that by these p roc ea s ca it m 
possible to destroy original structures and to break down the 
minerals of which a rock consists, but not to induce crystallization 
and build up rock structures of a new type. It is pointed out that 
in many re^ons the rocks though intenselv folded are not highly 
metamorphic; in other places immense dislocations can be prorad 
to exist, yet the rocks are only slightly altered or are converted 
into fine-grained mylonites and not into typical schists and gneisKS. 
Cohversely^ it is argued, there are many districts where meta- 
morphism u very intense, yet evidence of folding and pressure is 
only slight. It seems clear that another factor must be taken into 
account, and in all probability that factor is the action of water ia 
rocks at a comparatively high temperature. All rock masKS 
contain interstitial water, and many also consist of minerab in 
Bome of which water exists in combination. Hence all metft> 
morphism must be regarded as taking place in presence of water. 
It is almost equally certain that metamorphism must be accom- 
panied by a rise of temperature in nearly every case — in fact it n 
difficult to imagine such a process g<Mng on without considerable 
heat. Now heated water (or water vapour) is a most potent 
mineralizer. Crystals of quartz, for example, have been produced 
in glass tubes containing a little water, heated in a furnace to a 
temperature of about 300* C. 

The heat reouired for the more intense stages of metamorphism 
may be derived from more than one source. Most regions of gneiss 
and schists contain igneous rocks in the form of ^reat intrusive 
masses. These rocks themselves are frequently gneissose, and the 
possibility must not be overlooked that they were injected into die 
older rocks at a time when folding was going on. The meta* 
morphism would then be partly of the contact type and fwrtly the 
effect of pressure and movement, " pressure-contact-mctamorphum.'* 
The vapours aheady present would be augmented by those pven 
out from the igneous rock, and intensely crystalline, foliated masses* 
often containing minerals found in contact zones (andalusite, 
cordierite, sillimanite, staurolite, &c), would be produced. Cases 
are now known where it is in every way probable that the meta- 
morphism is the result of a combination of causes of this CMder. 
Some of the Alpine schists which surround the central granite 
gneisses have been referred to this group. 

Heat must also have been produced by the crushing of the rode 
components. In many metamorphic rocks we find luird minerab 
possessing little cleavage (such as quartz) reduced to an exceedingly 
fine state of division, and it is clear that the stresses which have 
acted on regions of metamorphic rocks are often so powerful that 
all the minerals may have been completely shattered. The inter- 
stitial movement of the particles must also have generated heat. 
There are no experimental data to enable us to say what rise of 
temperature may have been produced in this way, but we cannot 
doubt that it was considerable. If the crushing was slow the heat 

Sneratcd may have been conducted away to the surface almost as 
5t as it was produced. If the belt of crushing was narrow, heat 
would rapidly pass away into the colder rocks beyond. This may 
explain why in some rocks there has been much grinding down but 
little crystallization. The heat also may be absorbed in prmnotiaf 
chemical combinations of the endothermal type, but it is not likdy 
that much was used up in this way. With rising temperature the 
rocks wouki become more plastic and fold more readily. Then if 
the crushing and folding ceased, a long period would follow in which 
the temperature graduallv fell. The minerals would cr>'SUllize in 
larger grains after the well-known law that the larger particles tend 
to grow at the expense of the smaller ones, and finely gnniditic 
aggregates would be replaced by mosaics of coarser structure. If 
there has been a considerable rise of temperature we might expect 
analogies in structure and constitution between the folded rocks 
and those which come from a contact aureole; thb has in fact beea 
noted by many geologists. 

Another factor which must have been of importance is the depth 
below the surface at which the rocks lay at the time when they were 
folded. In the deeper zones the pressures must have been greater, 
and the escape of the heat generated must have been less rapid, 
llie uppermost members of a complex which was undergoing foldiBg 
are under the lowest pressures, arc at the lowest temperatures and 
probably also contain most moisture. Hence minerals such as 
epidote, chlorite, albite. sericite and carbonates, which are often 
produced by weathering alone, might be expected to prevaiL la 
the deepest zones the temperature and pressure are high from the 
first and are increased by folding; such minerals as biotite, augite. 
garnet, felspar, sillimanite, kyanite and staurolite mi^ht be (xroduced 
under these conditions. The earth's crust might in this way be 
divided into bathymeiric zones, each of which was characterized 
by distinctive types of mineral paragenesis. Some geologists asoibe 
the greatest importance to this conception; they establi^ two or 
three tyj)es of metamorphism, each of which belongs, in their opinwn, 
to a dennitc horizon. This is to some extent a resuscitation of the 
old idea, now discarded, that the Archean rocks are sediments of 
a peculiar kind formed only in the heated waters of the primal globe: 
the first deposiu were laiq down under great heat and prcMiac am 



METAMORPHOSIS 



221 



are typical pnamtB wUch may reiemble igneous rocks; the schists 
of tater orinn exhibit a progressive transition to normal sediments. 
V^ltbout admitting that it is possible to dassifyr metamotphic roclcs 
according to the depth at which they were situated when mcu- 
morphoaed, wv may admit that there is much reason to believe that 
the more intense stages of alteration characterize as a rule the rock 
masses which were oldest or most deeply situated during the epoch 
of fokliiig. 

While rocks near the surface whkh are under comparatively slight 
pRsnrcs yield to stress by fracturing, it b conceivable that at 
greater depths the minerals would become plastic and suffer deforma- 
tion without rupture. For this zone of '' flowage," as he terms it, 
Taa Hise estinuttes a depth of not more than 13 kilometres, depend- 
ing on many factors such as the strength of the rocks and nature of 
the minerab concerned, the temperature, amount of moisture and 



tuMdicy of the deformation. Between it and the zone of fracture, 
vfuch lies above, a gradual transition must take place. Doelter, 
00 the other hand, believes that the depth at which plastic flow 
begins must be at least $$ kilometres; it is difl&cult to imagine that 
Toda which have been so profoundly buried can now be exposed at 
uv part of the earth's surface. 

la the attempt to explain the existence of large masses of meta- 
■orphic rocks which are perfectly foliated, but at the same time 
coaisdy crystalline, and show no gnnding down of their components, 
tt nteht be expected on the hypothesis of pure dvnamo-meta- 
aorphism. F. Becke brought into prominence another principle 
vfaich may prove to be widely applicable. Although known as 
RjQcke's law. it was advanced many years a{;o by Sorby. It enunci- 
ates that when minerals are subjected to unilateral pressure (acting 
is X definite direction and not like hydrostatic pressure, equally in 
an directkMis) they tend to be disbolved on those sides which face 
the pressure, while the Mdes which are not compressed tend to grow 
bvuklitkmal deposit. Minerals having platy or rod-like forms will 
tins be produced, all having a paralkil orientation, and the rock 
«i be schistose, with foliation corresponding in direction to the 
ttcttskm of the mineral pbtcs. and perpendicular to the stresses 
vfiich were in action. The solvents which dissolve the mineral on 
flttside and deposit it on the other side are the interstitial moisture 
aad vapours present in the rock. By thb means schists and gneisses 
vin be produced, whkh are perfectly folbted yet have their minerals 
booogcoeous and uncrushed. Experimental data are at present 
lastug to show how far thb prinaple is operative and what are its 
Easts. Bat as a supplementary contnbution to the theory of dynamo- 
mttamorphism it may prove to be of great importance. Thb has 
ben described as the development of " achistosity by crystalliza- 
tioa." 

Uore interesting still are E. Wnnschcnk's theories.of prcssure- 
cryst^fization ana piczo<rystallization (pressure-contact action). 
He adduces evidence to show that many gneisses arc igneous rocks 
vUch wen foIiat«l from the first, and a large body of observations 
is oaay European countries confirms his statement. In his opinion 
piutooic rcxrka crystallizing under certain conditions of pressure 
meaarily assume a banded structure, and conUin minerals whkh 
iRttot klentical with those of igneous rocks but with the components 
(f Khbts and gneisses. In tm surrounding rocks there is contact 
itoation but not of the ordinary type as the recrystallized products 
il» have a banding or foliation owing to the pressure acting on them 
Mag metamorphism. Bonney urged the hypothesis that many 
neiases are meray plutonic igneous rocks which exhibit a flow 
na£ng and an imperfect idiomorphism of their minerals owing to 
tbeir having been injected in a half-solid state; the component 
oystab by mutual attrition assume rounded or lenticular forms. 
Undoubtedly there is much truth in these hypotheses, yet in both 
cues they seem to necessitate the presence 01 extraordinary earth- 
fimsures such as accompany mountain building. We know that 
beat greatly increases the plasticity of rocks. Assuming that 
iMrenons take place during an epoch of earth movement, we may 
be certain that as solidification goes on the pressures will force 
tbe rock forward, and the structures will be very different from 
those *— MwwiH by a rock which has crystallized in a condition of 

Lastly, there are many geologists who hold that certain kinds of 
CDcia are due 'to the injectbn of plutonic igneous rocks as masses 
of aS naes into sedimentary schists forming a melange. The igneous 
nek veins the sediment m every direction; the veins are often 
eaoBetfiag^y thin and nearly parallel or branch again and again, 
b thb w^ .' a banding or foUation b set up, and the mixed rock has 
tbe appearance of a gnci»s. In the sediment, intensely heated, new 
Bcaenb are set up. The igneous rock digests or absorbs the 
■Btcfiab which it penetrates; and it is often impossible to say what 
■ ipeoas and what b sedimentary. Acid intrusions may in this 
«ty break up and partly assimibtc oldei; basic rocks. Very good 
* s of uis pro c e ss are known, and they may be much more 
i than b at present suspected. Conditions which favour 
itioa at great ocpths are the enormous pressures and the high 
Uure 01 the earth's crust; the igneous rocks may also be 
— j above their consolidation points. It b quite reasonable to 
hdewethat at deep levels absorption of sediments by igneous masses 

Son ezteanvdy. while in hnher zones there b little or none of 
•ccioa. (J. S. F.) 



METAMORPHOSIS, a term used in zoology in different 
senses by different authors, and sometimes in different senses 
by the same author. E. Korschclt and K. Heider, in their 
work on the development of the Invertebrata, usually apply it 
to the whole of the larval development. For instance, in their 
account of the Bryozoa, they say (p. 18, part 2, of the English 
translation) : " The metamorphosb of a Bryozoan larva comprises 
a more or less protracted free-swimming stage during which 
no perceptible advance b made in the development of the 
larva, and the subsequent somewhat complicated changes 
which bring about its transformation into the first primary 
zodd of the young Br>'ozoan colony." Throughout their 
accoimt of the Crustacea they use the word in the same sense, 
i.e, as applied to the whole of the changes which the larva 
tmdcrgocs in passing into the adult. On the other hand, 
in their account of Mollusca they seem to restrict the term to 
the final change by which the larva passes into the adult form 
(op. cit., part 4, p. 14). F. Balfour in hb great work on Compara- 
tive Embryology seems to limit the word to a sudden change 
in the larval history. For instance, he says: " The chief point 
of interest in the above development b the fact of the primitive 
nauplius form becoming gradually converted without any 
special metamorphosis into the adult condition " {Comparative 
Embryology, 1885, i. 463). "By the free C>'pris stage into 
which the larva next passes a very complete metamorphosb 
has been effected " {op. cit. i. 490). " The change under- 
gone by the Tadpole in its passage into the Frog is so con- 
siderable as to deserve the name of a metamorphosis" 
{op. cit. ii. 137). Finally and most decisively he says in 
hb general account of larvae: " In the larval type [of develop- 
ment] they arc born at an earlier stage of development, in a 
condition differing to a greater or less extent from the adult, 
and reach the adult state either by a series of small steps or 
by a more or less considerable metamorphosb " {op. cit. ii. 360). 
Here the term will be used in the sense of the last quota- 
tions from Balfour and will be regarded as applicable only 
to those cases of sudden and marked change which fre- 
quently occur at the end of the larval period and sometimes 
at more or less frequent intervab during its course (Crustacea). 

Some authors (sec H. G. Bronn, Tkierreich, " Myrbpoda," Bd. 5. 
Abth. 3. p. 1 13) have applied the term " metamorphosis " only 
to those cases of Urval development in which the young loaves the 
egg with provisional organs which arc lost in the later devclopracnt. 
Such authors apply the term " anamorphosis " to cases in which 
the just-hatched young is without provisional organs but differs 
from the adult in size, and in the number of segments and joints, &c. 
Such writers apply the term " epimorphosis *' when there is merely 
an acquisition of sexual maturity and increase in size after birth or 
hatching. 

The essential feature of metamorphosis is the sudden bursting 
into function of new organs, whether these organs suddenly 
arise or have been gradually formed, without becoming func- 
tional in preceding larval stages. Another feature of it is the 
disappearance of organs which have been of use to the larva 
but which are not required at all or are not required in the 
same form in the new environment. The term b only used 
in connexion with larval development and is not applied to 
the sudden changes, due to a change of cnnronment {e.g. the 
passage of the mammalian embryo from the oviduct into the 
uterus), which sometimes occur in embryos. Neither is it 
used in connexion with the sudden changes of conditions which 
occur at the birth or hatching of an embryo, although, especially 
in the case of birth, this event is frequently accompanied by 
profound morphological alteration. 

The most familiar examples of metamorphosis are the abrupt 
changes which occur at the end of the larval history of the 
frog and of many insects. In both these cases there is- a sudden 
and great change of environment; there is a sudden demand 
for new organs which would have been quite useless in the old 
environment, and organs which were of use in the old environ- 
ment and are of no use in the new have to be eliminated. The 
two examples we have chosen have the advantage of showing 
us the two methods by which the crisis in the life-history b met. 



222 



METAMORPHOSIS 



Li the frog (fig. i) the structural changes which obtain full 
fruition at the metamorphosis take place gradually during the 
previous tadpole life. They relate mainly to the alterations 
of the respiratory organs and vascular system which are required 
for the purely terrestrial life of the frog, and to the appearance of 
the paired limbs. The changes in the respiratory and vascular 




After Zieudtatt and NItsche's Wandtafeln, by penBisskn o( T G. FUicr ft Oow 

Fig. I. — Drawings illustrating the metamorphosis of the frog 
{Rana temporaria), 

A, Side view of an advanced tadpole with well-devebped posterior 
limbs; the interior limbs are present but hidden beneath the 
operculum. 

B, Ventral view of the same with operculum removed showing 
the anterior limbs in situ; the ventral body wall has also been 
removed and the heart {kt) and intestine exposed, {br) Gills; 
iKL) spiracle. 

C, A frog after the metamorphosis but before the absorption of 
thetalL 

organs are led up to in the tadpole, which during the greater 
part of its aquatic life is a truly amphibious animal, breathing 
by lungs as well as by gills; but a sudden change occurs in these 
organs at the metamorphosis. The limbs which were slowly 
formed during tadpole life— the posterior pair visibly, the 
anterior under cover of the operculum (fig. i, B)— are of no 
use to the tadpole and must constitute a pure burden to it. The 
principal events of the metamorphosis are the sudden appear- 
ance of the anterior limbs, and the complete closure of the gill 
aperture (fig. i, C). The appearance of the anterior limbs and 
the acquisition of functional importance by both pairs enable 
the frog to leave the water and pass on to the land to lead its 
terrestrial life. The other larval organs, such as the gills and 
the tail, gradually shrink in size and ultimately vanish. In the 
case of the ^lls this shrinkage had begun before the meta- 
morphosis, but the tail shows no sign of diminution until the 
frog is ready to pass on to the land. 

The distinguishing feature of this type of metamorphosis 
b that the animal is burdened for a certain period, both before 
and after, with organs which arc useless to it. In the next type, 
which is exemplified by the metabolous Insecta, this occurs to a 
much smaller extent, although the changes of habitat and the cor- 
responding changes of structure are more remarkable. In insecta 
the change is usually from a terrestrial or aquatic habitat to 
an aerial one. The larva of a butterfly is a worm-like organism 
which creeps on and voraciously devours the foliage of certain 
plants (fig. 2, C). During its life it undergoes much growth, 
but no important change in structure. When it leaves the egg 



it is adapted to live and feed on a particular spedaa of plant, 
on or near which the eggs are deposited by the parent butterfly. 
It has powerful biting jaws by which it procures its vegetable 
food. The adult, on 
the other hand, is a 
winged creature which 
also lives on plants but 
in quite a different way 
to the larva (fig. 2, A). 
It flies from plant to 
plant and obtains its 
food by sucking the 
juices of flowers and 
other parts. The power- 
fid mandibles of the 
larva have disappeared 
and in their place we 
find a suctorial proboscis 
formed by the first 
maxillae [fig. a, A (4)]. 
Between the larva and 
the adult insect there 
is interposed a resting 
stage, the so-called pupa 
(fig. 2, B), during which 
no food is taken, but very 
important changes of 
structure occur. These 




After Lettdcart and NitKhe't WamdlnttlM, by per 
nisaioa of T. G. Fisher & Co. 



Fic. 2.— Three suges in the life- 
changes consist of two history of the cabbage butterfly. Pieris 
processes: (i) histolysis, brassicae, L. 
by which most of the A. Imjgo (female), side view. 
i/r«,i »..^»« •..-. A^ ^' P"P* "**^ ^y * ^^^^ across th^ 
larval orgaM are de- middle of the body and by the taiL 



stroyed by the action of C. Caterpillar. 



phagocytes; and (3) his- 
togenesis, by which the 
corresponding organs of 
the imago are developed 
from the imaginal disks. 
The imaginal disks ap- 



(5) thoracic legs; 



(6) hind wing; 
7) the head; 



Forewing; 
2) antenna: 
\i) labial palp; (7) 

4) first maxilla; (S) the thorax; 
,9) the abdomen, some of the segments 

of which in the caterpillar carry a pair 

of prolegs (10). 

pear to arise in the embryo in which they develop, some of 
them from the epiblast and some from the hypoblast. They 
persist practically unchanged through hrval life and become 
active as cenues of growth in the pupa. The pupal stage 
in such a metamorphosis may be compared to a second 
embryonic stage in which the organs of the adult assume 
their final shape. In this kind of metamorphosis the larval 
organs are entirely got rid of in the pupal stage, during which 
the insect is as a rule incapable of locomotion and takes.no food; 
and the new formation of organs— especially those of locomotioo 
and alimentation — which is necessitated by the totally different 
habits of. the larva and mature insect, is also accomplished 
at the same period, largely, no doubt, at the expense of the 
material afforded by the disrupted larval organs. The larva 
itself, docs not form any of these organs and carry them about 
during its active life, though it does possess the very minute 
centres of growth known as the imaginal disks which burst 
into activity after the larval life is over. It must not be sup- 
posed that in all insects in which the sexual animal has a different 
habitat from the young form, there is a metamorphosis of 
the kind just described. In the may-flies and dragon-flics, 
in which the larva is aquatic, the change is prepared for tome 
time before the actual metamorphosis, the organs which an 
necessary for the aerial existence being gradually acquhtd 
during larval life. In such cases, the metamorphosis I 
to our first type and consists of the act by which the < _ 
previously and gradually acquired suddenly become functiooaL 
We have now considered in detail two typical cases ol meta- 
morphosis. In the first the change is gradually led up to and 
the larva is burdened, in its later stages at least; with ocgant 
which are of no use to it and only become functional at tht 
metamorphosis. In the other, the change is not led up to. It 
is sudden, and a kind of second embryonic period is establislied 



METAMORPHOSIS 



223 



CHbk tlie fanportant and far-reaching transformation to be 
It is dear that the two kinds of meUmorphosu 




lildkr Frilx IfAlltf is Anhtv./v NctHrgtakiekU. nA. xtbt^ it6y, CD.snd 
E afis C Clas, VmUrswch. mr Er/«rscktag CrustacumSyjUmi. 

*16. 3. — Diawings showing various stages in the larval history 

Nupbus larva, dorsal v^ew, showing the three pairs of 

Ppendafcs and the simple median eye. 

nocoroaea larva, dorsal view, the rudiments of the paired eyes 

re visible through the cuticle, by which the rudiments of the 

axillae are still covered. 

Older Protozoaea, dorsal view; the six posterior thoracic 

tments are distinct, but the five abdominal segments are still 

iddn beneath the skin. 

Zoaea larva, ventral view, with the rudiments of the thoracic 

nbs and the appendages ot the sixth abdominal segment. 

Myu st^. iide view; the thoracic and abdominal appendages 

nre been devefc>ped. 

first antenna; (9) thorax; 

Koood n' (10) abdomen: 

aaadible: 11 1 J liver; 

first maxilla; (12) frontal sense orean. just be- 

lecood ,. hind which are the compound 

first maxflUped; eyes; 

secaod ., (ai) to (a6) the sue abdominal 

thtrd M appendages. 



only differ in degree and that no line cab be drawn between 
them. _ "^ 

In the Crustacea, as has already been pointed out, many 
authors apply the term metamorphosis to the whole larval 
development, which consists of a series of changes leading to 
the adult form. But this is in our opinion an incorrect use of 
the word. The tsrpical larval development of a Crustacean 
consists of a series of small metamorphoses. At each moult 
new organs which have been developed since the preceding 
moult become manifest and some of them functionaL For 
instance, the pmvm' Penaeus leaves the egg as a nauplius larva 
(fig. 3, A). It issues from the first moult as a metanaupliua 
which has a forked tail, a beginning of the cephalo-thoradc 
shield, and a large helmet-shaped upper lip. It also possesses 
stump-like rudiments of the maxillae and two anterior pairs of 
maxiilipeds. After the next moult it is known as a protozoaea 
(fig. 3, B), in which a cephalo-thoracic shield is well developed, 
the posterior part of the body is prolonged into a tail, in the 
anterior part of which the thoracic segnoents are obscurely 
indicated, and the four pairs of stump-like rudiments have 
become functional appendages [fig. 3, B (4), (5), (6), (7)]. This 
passes into a later protozoaea stage (C) in which the rudiments 
of the compound eyes and of the abdominal segments are 
visible beneath the cuticle and in which certain functional 
changes (jointing, &c.) have appeared in the limbs. This is 
succttded by the zoaea stage (fig. 3, D), characterized by the 
stalked and functional condition of the eyes, the increased 
size of the abdominal segments, and the appearance of appen- 
dages on the sixth of them, the increase of size in the third pair 
of maxiilipeds (8) which had appeared as small rudiments in 
the preceding stage^ and the appearance of the five pairs of 
posterior thoracic limbs as small biramous appendages. The 
zoaea stage is followed by the mysis stage (fig. 3, E) in which 
the thoracic feet are biramous, as in if yr». From this the adult 
form proceeds. The transformation is more gradual than 
would be gathered from this short description, because moult» 





After Spenoe Bale fai AtmaU and 
Uagtxifu ol Nat. BiOtry, voL 8. 
tod ieriet, 1S51. 

Fig. 4.-^NaupIiu8 of Bclanus, 
balanoides. 



Afta C. dam, ViUtrtmck. ur Efffrtdumt 

Cmslaeeem-SyUtms. 

Fic. 5. — Mctanauplius larva of iBaA> 
anus (Naples), immediately pre- 
ceding the Cypris larva; ventral 
view. The six pairs of biramous 
appendages of the Cypris stage 
are visible beneath the cuticle. 
The median simple eye and the 
compound eye are both visible. 
' first antenna; 

second „ 

mandibles; 

4) rudiment of the maxilla; 

5) first pair of biramous limbs; 

6) sixth „ „ 

7) upper lip; 
,8) frontal sense organs. ^ 



A, As just hatched; 

B, After the first moult, 
(i) first pair of nauplius ap- 
pendages; 

{2) second „ •„ 

3 third „ 

(4) upper hp; 

(5) frontal sense organ. 

occur during the later stages from each of which the larva 
comes with some slight transformation. 

In the life-history of a typical Cirripede there may be ^d 
to be two distinct metamorphoses, with gradual developmental 
stages taking place between them. The animal is hatched 
as a nauplius. This undergoes a series of moults during which 
increase in siiee and slight changes in form occur (fig. 4, A, B).' 
At the Ust of them several organs characteristic of the second 



2.24. 



METAPHOR— METAPHYSICS 



or Cypris stage are discernible [fig. 5 (5), (6)] beneath the cuticle. 
When this is moulted the free-swimming cypris larva is liberated 
with its six pairs of biramoua thoracic legs, its bivalve shell, 
and its paired compound eyes (fig. 6). This is the first roetamor- 
phosis. After a certain period of free life the Cypris larva 
littaches itself by its anterior antennae to some foreign object 
and enters upon the pupal stage (fig. 7). During this the larva 
takes no food and ceases to move, and undergoes important 
changes of structure and form beneath the larval cuticle, 
which invests it like a pupal case. These changes lead to the 




After C. Cbus. Vnttrmch. tmr Erfor- 
xkmni CrnttactatSyittmt. 

Fig. 7.— Pupa of Upas pectinata 
in optical section. 



(i) first antenna 
(2) compound 



; (6) tergum; 
(7) biramous 



After C. CUns, Sekriflem dtr Cnttbth. 
mr Befird. itr gtiammttn N«tiirvfis3€». 

Fio. 6. — Cypris larva of Lepas 
faictcularu. 
iiS first antenna; 
(2) compound eye; 
13) simple eye; 
(4) biramous appendages. 

attainment of the adult form and structure. When they are 
completed the cuticle, including the shcU-valves, is cast off 
and the young cirripcd emerges. This is the second and fina) 
metamorphosis, which resembles in its main features the meta- 
morphosis of the metabolous Insecta. 

Metamorphosis occurs in most groups of the animal kingdom. 
It is generally found in attached organisms, for these nearly always 
have frec-swimming larvae and the metamorphosis occurs when 
the change of habit is effected. For the details of the procc^ the 
reader is referred to systematic works on zoology. Here only the 
most striking instances of it can be mentioned. It occurs in a 
remarkable form in some sponges, in which at the metamorphosis 
the larval epidermis, which acts as a locomotive organ, is said to 
become transformed into the colbrcd flagellated cclU of the canal 
system, the adult epidermis being a new formation. It occurs in 
the Polyzoa, and^ is, in some of these, characterized by an almost 
complete disruption of the larval organs and a subsequent new 
formation of the organs of the adult. The metamorphosis in such 
cases belongs to our second type, the new omans being new forma- 
tions at the metamorphosis and not developed from rudiments 
which make their appearance in the earlier larval history. In 
Pkoronis the metamorphosis of the larva (Actinotrocha), which 
occurs on fixation, is gradually kd up to, but the mode of dcstruc- 
tion of some of the brval organs is peculiar; the brain and sense 
organs of the larva pass into the stomach and arc digested. In the 
Tunica ta, in which fixation of the free larva is efTcctcd by the head, 
as in Cirripedia and some, if not all, Polyzoa, the metamorphosis 
occurs entirely after fixation as a rapid scries of developmental 
changes which occur ad hoc and are not 
prepared for by preceding changes. In Am- 
phioxus there is no metamorphosis though 
the brval changes arc most remarkable and 
extensive, but the brval life is a long one 
and the development very gradual, the new 
organs coming mto function as soon as they 
arc formed. 

In most Mcllusca there is also a prolonged 
and important brval life, markca by very 
interesting stages of structure (trochosphere, 
vcliger, &c.), but it is not usual to speak of a 
metamorphosis for the changes arc gradual, 
each organ dewloping with great rapidity 
and coming into function at once. In certain 
forms, however, a metamorphosis occurs, f.e. 
in the glochidium larva of Anodonia, which 
eml)cds itself in the skin of a -fish and there 
metamorphoses into the adult. 

In the Echinodermata there is a particular 
stage in the brval histor>', when the ciliary 
locomotive apparatus breaks up and is ab- 
sorbed and the animal takes to its creeping 




(After J. Mailer.) 

Fig. 8. — A ventral 

view of a bipinnaria 

carrying the body of 

the young star-fish, ^j^,^ ,jf^ j^^.^^ metamorphosis is gradually 
prepared for in the precedent brval development bv changes 
which ultimately lead to the complete e<%tablishment of the adult 
radial symmetry. The metamorphusis belongs therefore to our fint 



type, but it is icmarkabTe for the heavy burden of adult i trucUiWi 
which the larva, in its Uter stages at least, carries about (fig. 8). 
The adult body is, in the main, fashioned out of the larval Sodv,' 
and it takes over most of the organs of the latter; but as a nue 
the adult mouth, oesophagus and anus arc new formations, and 
the central nervous system of the Urva when present shares the 
fate of the brval locomotory apparatus. In Asteroids and Crino«te 
the metamorphosis is accompanied by fixation to foreign objects, 
the fixation being effected as m Cirripcdcs by the prcorailobe. 

In the Vertebrata a metamorphosis occurs in the lamprey and 
the Amphibia. The metamorphosis of the Umprey is peculiar. 
It lives for three or four years as a sexless brva, known as the ammo- 
coete. It then quite rapidly (in three or four days) undergoes a 
8(;ries of changes and becomes converted into the adult. The 
metamorphosis affects the alimentary cznal, the eyes, the respiratory 
apparatus and other organs, and especially the reproductive organs* 
which become mature. The adult lives for a few months only, 
spawning soon after the metamorphosis. This metam(Mpho«s 
belongs to our second type, but there does not appear to be any 
resting stage during the few days in which it is effected. In the 
Amphibia the metamorphosis is fairly exemplified by that of the 
frog. In many fishes there is a considerable larval developmeiit, 
but this is perfectly gradual and there does not appear to be any> 
thing of the nature of a metamorphosis. 

In most cases of metamorphosis those organs of the larva, which' 
are found also in the adult, persist through the transformatioOf 
undergoing merely the ordinary modifications of development. 
But it sometimes happens that such organs are comf^tely destroyed 
and rebuilt during the metamorphous. This is conspcuoudy the 
case in the metabolous Insecta, in some of which all the internal 
organs undergo disruption and arc reformed. It happens alto in 
those nemertine worms which develop by a larva ; in these the larval 
epidermis is cast off, a new one having been formed. It is posable 
that the same phenomenon occurs in sponges. In most Echi«>> 
derms a similar phenomenon u observed with regard to the oeso- 
phagus and the mouth and anus, ^he probable expbnation of this 
remarkable phenomenon would appear to be that in certain cases 
the brval organs become so highly specblizcd in connexion with the 
brval life that they are unable to undergo further change: new 
formation is therefore necessary. The phenomenon is one ol coih 
siderable interest, for it is found in the case of the blastopore, ia 
cases in which there is no metamorphosis, sometimes even in embry- 
onic development. There can be little doubt that the mouth and 
anus are both genetically connected with the earlier blastopore and 
that the blastopore is homologous in most animals; and yet how 
seldom does the blastopore become transformed into the adult 
openings and how various is its fate. ^ The hypothesis suggested 
above applies completely to this behaviour of the blastopore; that 
is to say, it is suggested that the primitive mouth or blastopoce 
becomes, or has become in some vanished larval history, so highly 
specialized in connexion with larval needs that it » unable to give 
nse to both mouth and anus, and in some cases to either. (A. Se.^ . 

METAPHOR (Gr. yxfa^pk, transfer of sense, from itfera^ifiKP, 
to carry over), a figure of speech, which consists in the trans- 
ference to one object of an attribute or name which strictly 
and literally is not applicable to it, but only figuratively and 
by analogy. It is thus in essence an emphatic comparison, 
which if expressed formally is a " simile " (Lat. similis, like); 
thus it is a metaphorical expression to speak of a ship ploughing 
her way through the waves, but a simile when it takes the 
form of " the ship, like a plough, moves," &c. The " simple ** 
metaphor, such as the instance given, becomes the " continued ** 
metaphor when the analogy or similitude ia worked out in a 
series of phrases and expressions based on the primary metaphor; 
it is in such " continued metaphors " that the solecism of 
" mixed " metaphors is likely to occur. 

METAPHYSICS, or Metapuysic (from Gr. /icfd, after, ^wvek, 
things of nature, <t>{fau, i.e. the natural universe), the accepted 
name of one of the four great departments of philos<^hy (q.v.). 
The term was first applied to one of the treatises of Aristotle 
on the basis of the arrangement of the Aristotelian canon made 
by Andronicus of Rhodes, in which it was placed "after the 
physical treatises " with the description rd /lictA rd ^vcucii. The 
term was used not in the modem sense of above or transcending 
nature (a sense which /xerd cannot bear), but simply to convey 
the idea that the treatise so-called comes " after " the physical 
treatises.* It is therefore nothing more than a literary accident 
that the terra has been applied to that department or disapline 
of philosophy which deals with first principles. Aristotle 
himself described the subject matter of the treatise as " Fint 

* On the true order of the AristotelUn treatises see Akistotlb. 



SCIENCE OF BEING] 



METAPHYSICS 



225 



rUMoplqr **m" Theology ," which dealt with being as being 

{Udafiik. r> L, iarlw knor^iai ris 4 Buaptl rb iif f iif xal t6, 

Toirrm iriflxo^o, kqB* oM). From this phrase is derived the 

liter tenn " Ontology " iq.v.). The misapprehension of the 

agnificanff of ptrii led to various mistaken uses of the term 

"metsphysics," e.g. for that which is concerned with the 

sopenutural, not only by the schoolmen but even as late as 

ijth-century English writers, and within narrower limits the 

terra has been dangerously ambiguous even in the hands of 

Bodem philosophers (see below). In the widest sense it may 

ioddde both the " first philosophy " of Aristotle, and the theory 

of knowledge (in what sense can there be true knowledge?), 

U. both ontology and epistemology (q.v.), and this is perhaps 

tlK most convenient use of the term; Kant, on the other hand, 

vtmld represent metaphysics as being " nothing more than the 

oveotoiy of all that is given us by pure reason, systematically 

vranged" (1^. epistemology). The earliest "metaphysicians" 

ooooemed themselves with the nature of being (ontology), 

feeking for the unity which they postulated behind the multi- 

plidty of phenomena (see Ionian School of Philosophy and 

utides on the separate thinkers); later thinkers tended to 

iDquire rather into the nature of knowledge as the necessary 

|M^requisite of ontological investigation. The extent to which 

these two attitudes have been combined or sei>arated is discussed 

in the ensuing article which deab with the various schools 

of modem metaphysics in relation to the principles of the 

Aristotelian '' first philosophy."* (X) 

1.— The Science or Beinc 

Side by side with psychology, the science of mind, and with 
kgic, the science of reasoning, metaphysics is tending gradually 
to reassert its ancient Aristotelian position as the science of 
being in general. Not long ago, in England at all events, 
Betaphysics was merged in psychology. But with the decline 
of dogmatic belief and the spread of religious doubt — as the 
ffedal idences also grow more general, and the natural sciences 
benme more ^)eculative about matter and force, evolution and 
tdeobgy— men begin to wonder again about the nature and 
origin of things, just as it was the decay of polytheism in Greek 
id^poo and his own discoveries in natural science which impelled 
Aristotle to metaphysical questions. There is, however, a 
certain difference in the way of approaching things. Aristotle 
emphasized being as being, without always sufficiently asking 
vbether the things whose existence he asserted are really 
bovable. We, on the contrary, mainly through the influence 
of Descartes, rather ask what are the things we know, and there- 
fo», some more and some less, come to connect ontology with 
cpistesiok>gy, and in consequence come to treat metaphysics in 
idation to psychology and logic, from which epistemology is an 
ofehoot 

To tha pressing question then — What is the world as we know 
itN-tbree kinds of definite answers are returned: those of 
Baterialism, idealbm and realism, according to the emphasis 
hid by oaetaphjrsicians on body, on mind, or on both. Meta- 
^pkal mtOcnalism is the view that everything known is body 
or matter; but while according to ancient materialists soul is 
ooly soother body, according to modern materialists mind with- 
out son] is only an attribute or function of body. Metaphysical 
Utelism is the view that everything known is mind, or some 
■ental state or other, which some idealists suppose to require 
a wbstantial soul, others not; while all agree that body has no 
diflerent being apart from mind. Metaphysical realism is the 
■tennediate view that everything known is either body or soul, 
■either of which alone exhausts the universe of being. Aristotle, 
the founder of metaphysics as a distinct science, was also the 
faoader of metaphysical realism, and still remains its main 
ttthority. His view was that all things are substances, in the 
UK of distinct individuals, each of which has a being of its 

' J|Tl»e article is supplemented by e.g. Idealism; Pragmatism; 
wUnviTY or Knowledge, while separate iliscussions of ancient 
*od medieval phikMophers will be found in biographical articles 
ud ankles on the chief philosophical schools, e.g. Scholasticism; 

"■OrLATOHUM. 



own different from any other, whereas an attribute has only the 
being of its substance (Met. Z 1-3; Post. An. i. 4); that bodies 
in nature are obviously natural substances, and as obviously 
not the only kind of substance; and that there is supernatural 
substance, e.g. God, who is an eternal, perfect, living being, 
thinking, but without matter, and therefore not a body. 

At the present day realism is despised on the ground that its 
differentiation of body and soul, natural and supernatural, 
ignores the unity of being. Indeed, in order to oppose this unity 
of being to the realistic duality, both materialists and idealists 
describe themselves as monists, and call realists dualists by way 
of disparagement. But we caimot classify metaphysics by the 
antithesis of monism and dualism without making confusion 
worse confounded. Not to menUon that it has led to another 
variety, calling itself pluralism, it confuses materialism and 
idealism. Extremes meet; and those who believe only in body 
and those who believe only in mind, have an equal right to the 
equivocal term " monist." Moreover, there is no real opposition 
between monism and dualism, for there can very well be one 
kind of being, without being all body or all soul; and as a matter 
of fact, Aristotelian realism is both a monism of substance and a 
dualism of body and soul. 

It is in any case unfair to decide questions by disparaging 
terms, and to argue as if the whole choice were between material- 
istic or idealistic monism, leaving realism out of court. In this 
case it would also hide the truth of things, which requires two 
different kinds of substance, body and soul. The strength of 
materialism consists in recognizing nature without cxplainfng 
it away, its weakness in its utter inability to explain conscious- 
ness cither in its nature or in its origin. On the other hand, it 
is the virtue of ideah'sm to emphasize the fact of consciousness, 
but its vice to exaggerate it, with the consequence of resorting 
to every kind of paradox to deny the obvious and get rid of 
bodies. There are in reality two spedes of substances, or 
entirely distinct things, those which arc impenetrably resisting, 
and those which are conscious substances; and it is impossible 
to reduce bodies and souls to one another, because resistance 
is incompatible with the attributes of spirit, and conscious- 
ness inexplicable by the attributes of body. So far true 
metaphysics is a dualism of body and soul. But this very 
dualism is also monism: both bodies and souls are substances, 
as Aristotle said; and we can go farther than Aristotle. Men 
are apt to dwell too much on the co-existence and too little on 
the inclusiveness of substances. The fact is that many sub- 
stances are often in one; e.g. many bodies in the one body, and 
both body and soul in the one substance, of man. So far true 
metaphysics is a monism of substance, in the sense that all 
things are substances and that all substances, however different, 
are members of one substance, the whole universe of body and 
spirit. In this case metaphysics generally will have to recognize 
three monisms, a materialistic monism of body, an idealistic 
monism of soul, and a realistic monism of substance, which is 
also a dualism of substances. But a term so equivocal, leading 
to an antithesis so misleading as that between monism and 
dualism, can never represent the real difference between meta- 
physical schools. We shall return, then, to the clearer and more 
authoritative division, and proceed to discuss materialism, 
idealism and realism in their order. 

2. — Materiausm 

I. Materialism Proper. — Materialism In its modem sense is 
the view that all we know is body, of which mind is an attribute 
or function. Several causes, beginning towards the end of 
the i8lh century, gradually led up to the materialism of Molc- 
schott, Vbgt and Bilchner, which flourished in the middle of the 
19th century. The first cause was the rapid progress of natural 
science, e.g. the chemistry of Lavoisier, the zoology of Lamarck, 
the astronomy of Laplace and the geology of Lycll. These 
advances in natural science, which pointed to a unity and gradual 
evolution in nature, were accompanied by a growth in commerce, 
manufactures and industrialism; the same kind of spirit showed 
itself in the revolutionary upheaval of 1848, and in the mate- 
rialistic publications which immediately followed, while these 



226 



METAPHYSICS 



(MATERIALISif 



publications have reacted on the industrial socialism of our own 
time. Meanwhile, philosophic forces to counteract materialism 
were weak. Realism was at a low ebb. Idealism was receding 
for the moment. Hegelianism had made itself unpopular, and 
its confusion of God, nature and man had led to differences 
within the school itself (see Hegel). 

These causes, scientific, industrial and philosophical, led to 
the domination of matqffalism in the middle of the 19th century 
in Germany, or rather to its revival; for in its main position, 
that matter and motion are everything and eternal, it was a 
repetition of the materialism of the i8th century in France. 
Thus Karl Christoph Vogt (q.v.) repeated the saying of the French 
physician Cabanis, " The brain is determined to thought as the 
stomach is to digestion, or the liver to the secretion of bile," 
in the form, " Thought stands in the same relation to the brain 
as the bile to the liver or the urine to the kidneys." But the 
new materialism was not mere repetition. J. Moleschott 
(182 2- 1 893) made a dih'gent use of the science of his day in his 
Kreislauf des Lebens (1852). Starting from Lavoisier's dis- 
coveries, he held that life is metabolism, a perpetual drculation 
MattacbUL ^^ °**^^^' ^^m the inorganic to the organic world, 
and back again, and he urged this metabolism against 
the hypothesis of vital force. Aristotle had imputed to all 
living beings a soul, though to plants only in the sense of a 
vegetative, not a sensitive, activity, and in Molcschott's time 
many scientific men still accepted some sort of vital principle, 
not exactly soul, yet over and above bodily forces in organisms. 
Moleschott, like Lotze, not only resisted the whole hypothesis 
of a vital principle, but also, on the basis of Lavobicr's discovery 
that respiration is combustion, argued that the heat so produced 
is the only force developed in the organism, and that matter 
therefore rules man. He put the whole materialistic view of 
the world into the following form: Without matter no force, 
without force no matter. L. BUchner {q.v.) himself said that he 
owed to Moleschott the first impulse to composing his important 
gj^^^ work Kraft und Stof (1855), which became a kind of 
^*^*^' textbook of materialism. Passing from Moleschott 
to Lyell's view of the evolution of the earth's crust and later 
to Darwin's theory of natural selection and environment, he 
reached the general inference that, not God but evolution of 
matter, is the cause of the order of the world; that life is a com- 
bination of matter which in favourable circumstances is spon- 
taneously generated; that there is no vital principle, because all 
forces, non- vital and vital, are movements; that movement 
and evolution proceed from life to consciousness; that it is 
foolish for man to believe that the earth was made for him, in 
the face of the difficulties he encounters in inhabiting it; that 
there is no God, no final cause, no immortality, no freedom, no 
substance of the soul; and that mind, like light or heat, electri- 
city or magnetbm, or any other physical fact, is a movement 
of matter, Sometimes he spoke of mind as an effect of matter; 
but, though his expressions may be careless, nothing is to be 
made of the difference, for he called it movement and effect 
indifferently in the same context. His definitely expressed 
view was that psychical activity is " nothing but a radiation 
through the cells of the grey substance of the brain of a motion 
set up by external stimuli." 

£. Haeckcl belongs to a slightly later time than the materi- 
alists hitherto mentioned. His book Die WcUr&thscl (Eng. trans. 
MmackaL J* ^*'^^^' ^''* Riddle of the Universe) identifies 
UmcUL substance with body. Starting like his predecessors 
with the indestructibility of matter, Haeckcl makes more than 
they do of the conservation of energy, and merges the persistence 
of matter and energy in one universal law of substance, which, 
on the ground that body is subject to eternal transformation, 
b abo the universal law of evolution. His strong point consists 
in inferring the fact of evolution of some sort from the considera- 
tion of the evidence of comparative anatomy, palaeontology and 
embryology. On the strength of the consilience of arguments 
for evolution in the organic world, he carries back the process 
in the whole world, until he comes to a cosmology which recaUs 
the rash hypotheses of the Presocratics.; 



He suppotes that all organbms have developed from die rimph 
cell, and that thU has its origin by spontaneous generation, to 
explain which he propoundt the " carbon-theory," that protopUoi 
comes from inorganic carbonates. He not only agrees with laplare 
and LvcU about the evolution of the solar system, but also sui 

that the affinities, pointed out by Lothar Meyer and Mene 

between eroups of chemical elements prove an evolution of thtm 
from a primitive matter {Prolkyl) consisting of t 



elements! . , . - - 

atoms. These, however, are not ultimate enough (or him; he t 

that everything, ponderable and imponderable or ether, is evolved 
from a primitive substance, which condenses first into centres of 
condensation {pyknatoms)^ and then into masses, which when thcv 
exceed the mean consbtency become ponderables, and when tbe>- fall 
below it become imponderables. Here he stops; aocordtne to his 
subsUnce b eternal and eternally subject to the law of substanoe; 
and God b the eternal force or energy of subsunce. What, then, it 
the origin of mind or soul? Haeckef answers that it has no oriniw 
because sensation b an inherent property of all substance. He 
supposes that aesthesis and tropesis, as rudimentary sensation and 
will, are the very causes of condensation; that they bek>ng to 
pyknatoms, to ponderables and imponderables, to chemical atoos 
and molecules. Hence, when he returns to organisms, it does not sor- 
prise us that he assigns to ova and spermatozoa cell-soub, to the 
impregnated ovum germ-soul, to plants tissue-souls, to animals 
necve-soub; or that he regards man's body and soul as bom together 
in the impregnated ovum, and gradually evolved from the bodies 
and souls of lower animals. It appears to hb imagination that the 
affinity of two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen, the attraction 
of the spermatozoon to the ovum, and the .dective affinity of a 
pair of lovers are all alike due to sensation and will. 

But has Haeckel solved the problems of mind ? When be 
applies sensation and will to nature, and through plants to the 
lowest animals, he considers their sensation and will to be 
rudimentary and unconscious. Consciousness, according to 
his own admission, b not found even in all animals, altbouf^ it 
b present not only in the highest vertebrates — men, ] 
birds — but also in ants, spiders, the higher crabs and 1 
He holds indeed that, in accordance with the law of substance, 
consciousness must be evolved from unconsciousness with the 
development of sense organs and a central nervous organ. 
At the same time he admits, firstly, that to mark the banier 
between imconscious and conscious b difficult; secondly, that 
it b impossible to trace the first beginning of consdousnen ia 
the lower animab; and, thirdly, that " however certain we an 
of the fact of this natural evolution of consciousness, we are, 
unfortunately, not yet in a position to enter more deeply inle 
the question " {Riddle of the Universe^ 191). Thus in presence 
of the problem which is the crux of materialism, the <mgio of 
consciousness, he first propounds a gratuitous hypothesis diet 
everything has mind, and then gives up the origin ^ conedoM 
mind after all. He is certain, however, that the law of substance 
somehow proves that conscious soul b a mere function of brain, 
that soul b a function of all substances, and that God b tha 
force or energy, or soul or spirit, of nature. He, in fact, retoni 
to ai dent hylozobm {q.v.), which has tended to revive from time 
to time in the hbtory of thought. He believes that mind and 
soul are inherent attributes of all bodies. Curiously enough, 
he supposes that by making mind a universal attribute ci matttf 
he has made his philosophy not materialism, but monism. It is 
really both: monbtic, because it reduces substance to one kind; 
materialistic, because it identifies that one kind of substance 
with body or matter, and reduces mind to an attribute or matter. 
It makes no difference to attribute mind to all matter, 
so long as it b attributed as an attribute. It b at least at 
materialistic to say that unconsdous mind b an attribute oi 
nature as to say that conscious mind b an attribute eA brain; 
and thb is the position of Haeckd. Materialbts seem to dieed 
the word " materialbm." BUchner also entreats us " to aban- 
don the word ' materialism,' to which (it b not dear why) a 
certain scientific odium attaches, and substitute ' monism ' for 
it " {Last Words on Materialism, 273). Hb reason, however, it 
different: it b that a philosophy, not of matter as such, but of 
the unity of force and matter, b not materialism. But if 4 
philosophy makes force an attribute of matter only, as his docS| 
it will recognize nothing but matter possessing force, and vS 
therefore be materialism as well as monism, and in short materiel- 
btic monism. The point b that neither BUchner nor Haeckd 
could on thdr assumptions recognize any force but force ol 



MATERIALISM] 



METAPHYSICS 



227 



body, or any mind but mind of body, or any distinct thing or 
sabstance except body. This is materialism. 

2. MaUrialistic Tendencies.— Besldts these direct mstances 
oC materialism, there are philosophers to whom the scientific 
te n de ncies of the age have given a materialistic tendency. In 
Germany, for example, Eugen DUhring {q.v.) was a realist, 
whose intention is to prove against Kant a knowledge of the 
thing in itself by attributing time, space and categories generally 
to the real world. But, under the influence of Trendelenburg's 
illcmpt to reconcile thought and being by assigning motion to 
both, his IVirkJicAkeiispkilosophie, in a similar effort after a unity 
of hdng. lands him in the contention that matter is absolute 
bong, the support of all reality underlying all bodily and mental 
states. So Avenarius (q.v,) was no materialist, but only an 
cnpiricist anxious to redaim man's natural view of the world 
froD philosophic incrustations, yet when his Empiriokriticismus 
cads in nothing but environment, nervous system, and state- 
aents dependent on them, without soul, though within experi- 
ence, he comes near to materialism, as Wundt has remarked. 
In France, again, positivism is not materialism, but rather the 
refusal to frame a metaphysical theory. Comte tells us that man 
fint gets over theology, then over metaphysics, and finally rests 
in positivism. Yet in getting over theology he ceases to believe 
ffl God, and in getting over metaphysics he ceases to believe in 
iouL .\s Paul Janet truly remarked, positivism contains an 
ooconsdons metaphysics in rejecting final causes and an imma- 
terial souL Now, when in surrendering theology and meta- 
physics we have also to surrender God and the soul, we are 
act free from materialism. Positivism, however, shelters itself 
behind the vague word " phenomena." Lastly, in England we 
hive not only an influence of positivism, but also, what is more 
important, the synthetic philosophy of Herbert Spencer. Thfe 
y point of this philosophy is not materialism, but 

realism. The author himself says that it is trans- 
igared realism — which is realism in asserting objective existence 
assq»rate from subjective existence, but anti-realism in denying 
that objective existence is to be known. In his Principles of 
Psychology he twice quotes his point that " what we are conscious 
of as properties of matter, even down to its weight and resistance, 
IR btit subjective affections produced by objective agencies 
vhich are unknown and tmknowable." This then is his trans- 
ficoied realism, which, as far as what is known goes, is idealism, 
bat as far as what exists goes, realism^f a sort. His First 
PriMtples, his book on metaphysics, is founded on this same 
point, that what we know is phenomena produced by an un- 
koowD noumenal power. He himself identifies phenomenon, 
appearance, effect or impression produced on consciousness 
ihnu^ any of the senses. He divides phenomena into impres- 
sioBS and ideas, vivid and faint, object and subject, non-ego and 
rg», outer and inner, physical and psychical, matter and spirit; 
al of which are expressions <^ the same antithesis among 
phowmena. He holds that all the time, space, motion, matter 
kaovn to us are phenomena; and that force, the ultimate of 
■hiflutes. is, as known to us, a phenomenon, "an affection 
of OQiudousness^" If so, then all we know is these phenomena, 
affectk»s of consciousness, subjective affections, but produced 
by aa unknown power. So far as this main point of transfigured 
Rafisn is steadily maintained, it is a compound of idealism and 
Riism, but not materialism. But it is not maintained, on the 
»de cither of phenomena or of noumena; and hence its tendency 
to Batcrialism. 

. la the firet place, the term "phenomenon " is ambi^ous, somc- 
tiaes meaning a conscious affection and sometimes any fact 
vfaatever. Spencer K-ts himself to find the laws of all phenomena. 
He isds that throushout the universe there is an unceasing rcdis- 
tribstion of matter and motion, and that this redistribution consti- 
tates evohition when there is a predominant integiation of matter 
ttd dMMpalirm of motion, and constitutes dissolution where there 
i^apRdominant absorption of motion and disintegration of matter. 
He Mppom that evolution is primarily integration, from the inco- 
hmai to the coherent, exemplified m the solar nebula evolv- 
l iato the solar system; secondly differentiation, from the more 
" to the more hetcrogcneoua. exemplified by the 



■■v'tyvtem evolving into different bodies; thirdly determina- 
Hm, fatan Che indemute to the definite, excmj 



npltfied by the 



solar system with different bodies evoMn^ into an order. He 
supposes that this evolution docs not remam cosmic, but becomes 
organic. In accordance with Lamarck's hypothesis, he supposes 
an c\'olution of oreanisms by hereditary adaptation to the 
environment (which ne considers ncccsbary to natural selection), 
and even the possibility of an evolution of life, which, according 
to him, is the continuous adhu^imcnt of internal to external 
relations. Next, he supposes that minil obeys the same law of 
evolution, and exemplim^ intcgnLtion by gencraliration, differen- 
tiation by the development of the 6vi: senses, and determination 
by the development of the order of c#)eiH-tiru''ncsR. tie holds that 
wc pass without break frtim the phtnomcna of bodily life to the 
phenomena of mental life, that conscionsntM arises in the course of 
the living being's adaptation to its environment, and that there is a 
continuous evolution from rcfl« artiL.n [hrauiib instinct and memory 
up to reason. He throwsoijt ibc I nli r - si. ' ition that the experi- 
ence of the race is in a sen*.' inhtn ■ ■ . individual; which is 
true in the sense that animal organisms (jecome hereditarily better 
adapted to perform mental operations, though no proof that any 
elements of knowledge become a priori. 

Now, Spencer has clearly, though unconsciously, changed the 
meaning of the term " phenomenon " from subjective affection of 
consciousness to any fact of nature, in re^^arding all this evolution, 
cosmic, organic, mental, social and ethical, as an evolution of 
phenomena. The greater part of the process is a change in the facts 
of nature before consciousness; and in all that part, at all events, 
the phenomena^ evolved must mean physical facts which are not 
conscious affections, but. as they develop, are causes which gradually 
produce life and consciousness. Moreover, evolution is defined 
universally as an " integration of matter and dissipation of motion," 
and yet mental, social and moral developments are also called evolu- 
tion, so that, in accordance with the definition, they are also integra- 
tions of matter and dissipations of motion. It is true that the author 
did not see that he was passing from traniifigurcd realism into 
materialism. Ha thinks that he is always speaking of phenomena 
in the sense of subjective affections; and in spite of his definition, 
he half unconsciously changes the meaning of evolution from a 
change in matter and motion, first into a change in states of con- 
sciousness, then to a change in social institutions, and finally into 
a change in moral motives. He also admits himself that mental 
evolution exemplifies integration of matter and dissipation of motion 
only indirectly. But here he becomes hopelessly inconsistent, 
because he had already said, in defining it, that " evolution is an 
integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of motion '* 
{First Principles, § 145). However, with all the author's disclaimers, 
the general effect left on the reader's mind is that throughout the 
universe there is an unceasing change of matter and motion, that 
evolution is always such a change, that it bei];ins with phenomena 
in the sense of physical facts, gradually issues m life ana conscious- 
ness, and ends with phenomena in the sense of subjective affections 
of consciousness. 

In the second place, having declared the noumenal power, which 
causes phenomena, or conscious affections, to be unknowable^ and 
havinjs left anybody who pleased to make it a god and an object 
of religion, he proceeds to describe it as if it were known force, and 
known in two respects as persistent and as resistant force. He 
supposes that the kiw of evolution is dcduciblc from the law ofper- 
sistcnt force, and includes in force what is now called energy. Then 
havine discussed force as something thoroughly material, and laying 
special emphasis on resistance, he tells us that ' the force of whicfi we 
assert persistence is that Absolute Force of which we arc indefinitely 
conscious as the necessary correlate of the force wc know " {First 
Princijples, | 62). SimilaHy, both in First Principles and in the 
Principles of Psychology, he aligns to us, in addition to our definite 
consciousness otour subjective affections, an indefinite consciousness 
of something out of consciousness, of something which resists, of 
objective existence. Thus it turns out that the objective agency, the 
noumenal power, the absolute force, declared unknown and unknow- 
able, is known after all to exist, persist, resist and cause our sub- 
jective affections or phenomena, yet not to think or to will. Such a 
noumcnon looks very like body or matter. Lastly, when a theory 
of the world supposes a noumenal power, a resistent and persistent 
force, which restults in an evolution, defined as an integration of 
matter and a dissipation of motion, which having resulted in in- 
organic nature and .organic nature, further results without break 
in consciousness, reason, society and morals, then such a theory 
will be construed as materialistically as that of Hacckcl by the reader, 
whatever the intention of the author. 

It may be urged in reply that the synthetic philosophy could be 
made consistent by tranbferring the knowable rcsiMance and persis- 
tence of the unknowable noumenon to knowable phenomena on the 
one hand, and on the other hand by maintaining tnat all phenomena 
from the original nebula to the ri!>e of con<<ciousness are only 
'* impressions produced on consciou«inei»«! through any of the senses, ' 
after all. But in that case what will Ix-come of Spencer's theory 
of evolution? It will have asserted the evolution of man and his 
consciousness out of the phenomena of his cnn.sciousness. The truth 
is that his theory of evolution can be carried through the whole 
process without a break, only by giving the fsynthetic philosophy 
a materialistic interpretation, and by adhenng consistently to 



228 



METAPHYSICS 



[METAPHYSICAL IDEAUSIC 



Spencer's own materialistic definition df evolution; otherwise there 
will be a break at least between life and mind. If everything know- 
able is an example of evolution, and evolution is by definition a 
transformation of matter and motion, then everythme knowable 
is an example of a transformation of matter and motion. As an 
exponent ot universal evolution Haeckel is more consistent than 
Spencer. 

Huxley (1835-189^) developed views very like those of Spencer, and 
similarly materialistic without being materialism, because inconsis- 
Haxkr. '*"'• ^® regarded everything known as evolved from 
matter, and reduced consciousness to a mere coUatnul 
product (" epiphenomenon ") of cerebral operations without any power 
of influencing them. Matter, according to him, impresses the afferent 
nervous system, this the brain, this the efferent nervous system, while 
consciousness remains a mere spectator. " In man, as in brutes," 
said he, " there is no proof that any state of consciousness is the cause 
of change in the nature of the matter of the organism " ; so that 
" we are conscious automata." But, in spite of these materialistic 
tendencies, he followed Hume in reducing matter aruj everything 
knowable to phenomena of con^fiou^neas^ And:, suppOEicig that 
nothing is knowable beyond phenoinefia. concludnd tkit nv? can 
neither affirm nor deny that anything trxii<t> bc^-ond, but ought to 
take up an attitude which the ancient ^rcptlcs uUcd Aphasia, but 
he dubbed b)r the new name of A^ncxistic^&m. Thus lfu\ley fint 
reduced conscbusness to a product vi matter, and then matter to a 
phenomenon of consciousness. By combining materialism with 
idealism he made consciousness a product of it&elL Tyndail {j^30- 
j y^Amm 189^)1 a^ain. came still nearer to matmaLt^m. and yet 
avoided It. In his Belfast addncsa (ii74)H while admit- 
ting that matter as understood by L>emDcriitus ii insu^citnt, bix:aufe 
atoms without sensation cannot he iirt^^ned to produce 50nution. 
he contended, nevertheless, that m^nctcr propc-fly underiitDod j» 
" the promise and potency of all tcrr^ptnal Kfe,'* tn thus endow- 
ing all matter with sensation like ILicckel he wai not avoiding 
materialism. But in the very same address, as well as on othi-r occa- 
sions, he did not identify mind with matter, but regarded them 
as concomitant. 

All these materialistic tendencies seem to have one expla- 
nation. They emanate from scientific writers who rightly try 
to rise from .science to metaphysics, but, as Bacon says, build 
a juniversal philosophy on a few experiments. The study of 
evolution, without considering how many conditions are required 
for " the integration of matter And the dissipation of motion " 
to begin, and the imdoubtcd discoveries which have resulted 
from the study of inorganic and organic evolution, have led men 
to expect too much from this one law of Nature. This tendency 
especially prevails in biology, which is so far off the general 
principles of natural philosophy that its votaries are often 
ignorant of the real nature of body as matter and force. The 
close dependency of all mental operations on brain also tempts 
them to the conclusion that brain is not only an organ, but the 
whole organ of conscious mind.^ It appears also that Darwin, 
Mving extended his theory of evolution as far as the rational 
and moral nature of man, in the Descent of Man, ended in his 
Autobiography by declaring his attitude to first and final causes 
to be that of an agnostic. Not that he was a materialist, and 
shortly before his death, in a conversation with Biichner, he 
maintained his agnosticism against his opponent's atheism. 
Still, his agnosticism meant that, though he did not assert that 
there is no God, he did assert that we cannot know whether there 
b or is not. To the evolutionary biologist brain is apt to appear 
to be the crowning object of knowledge. On the other hand, 
scientific men, such as Hcrschel, Maxwell and Stokes, who 
approach nature from mathematics and mechanics, and there- 
fore from the universal kiws of motion, have the opposite 
tendency, because they perceive that nature is not its own 
explanation. In order to exert force, or at all events that force 
of reciprocal pressure which we best understand, and on which, 
in impact, the third law of motion was founded, there are always 
at least two bodies, enduring, triply extended, mobile, each 
inert, mutually impenetrable or rcsistcnt, different yet similar; 
and in order to have produced any effect but equilibrium, some 
bodies roust at some time have differed either in mass or in 
velocity, otherwise forces would only have neutralized one 
another. Why do bodies exist, vvith all these conditions, so similar 
yet different — that is, in so harmonious an order? Natural 
sdeoct has no answer: natural theology has an answer. This 
essence 0/ bodies, this resemblance in difference, this prevailing 
'Cr. H. Maudesky, LeiSMS 0/ MaterialUm (1879). 



order of Nature, is the deepest proof of God; and it cannot be 
the result of evolution, because it is the condition of nattml 
force, and therefore of natural evolution. A second arsiunent 
for God is the prevailing goodness or adaptation of Nature to the 
ends of conscious beings, which might conceivably be »»pi«itii*ft 
by Lamarckian evolution, but has not yet been so explained, 
and if it were, would not be inconsistent with a divine design in 
evolution. Further, the very existence of conscious beings is 
the best proof of the distinct or substantial being of the souL 
existing in man with body, in God as pure spirit. It seems hope- 
less to expect that natural science, even with the aid of evolution, 
can explain by mere body the origin and nature of this fact of 
consciousness. If so, materialism is not the whole truth of 
metaphysics. 

3.— The Rise of Metaphysical Idealism 

I. Descartes to I>i6ni/k.~Metaphysical arises from psycho- 
logical idealism, and always retains more or less of an qitstemo- 
logical character. Psychological idealism assumes without 
proof that we perceive nothing but mental objects, and meu- 
physical idealism draws the logical but hypothetical condusioo 
that all we can know from these mental objecu of sense is mental 
objects of knowledge. But at first this logical conclusion was 
not drawn. Descartes, the founder of psychological idealism, 
having proceeded from the conscious fact, cogito ergo sum, to 
the non sequitur that I am a soul, and all a soul can perceive is 
its ideas, nevertheless went on to the further illogical p, umu* 
conclusion that from these mental ideas I can (by the 
grace of God) infer things which are extended substances or 
bodies, as well as thinking substances or souls. He was a psycho- 
logical idealist and a metaphysical realist. This illogicality coukl 
not last. Even the Cartesian school, as it came more and more 
to feel the difficulty of explaining the interaction of body and 
mind, and, indeed, any efficient causation whatever, gradually 
tended to the hypothesis that the real cause is God, who, on the 
occasion of changes in body, causes corresponding changes in 
mind, and vice versa. This occasionalism is not idealism, hut 
its emphasis on the will of God gave it an idealistic tendency. 
Thereupon Spinoza advanced a pantheism which supposed that 
bodies and souls are not, as Descartes thought, different sub- 
stances, but merely attributes— the one the extension and the 
other the thought of one substance. Nature or God. Taking the 
Aristotelian theory that a substance is a thing in 
itself, not in Aristotle's sense of any individual existing 
differently from anything else, but in the novd meaning of 1 
thing existing alone, he concluded, logically enough from this 
mere misunderstanding, that there can be only one substance, 
and that, as no finite body or soul can exist alone, everything 
finite is merely a mode of one of the attributes of the one infinite 
substance which alone can exist by itself. Spinozism, however, 
though it tramples down the barrier between body and sotd, il 
not yet metaphysical idealism, because it does not reduce 
extension to thought, but only says that the same substance b 
at once extended and thinking — a position more akin to material- 
ism. At the same time Spinoza maintained a parallelism between 
extension and thinking so dose as to say that the order of ideis 
is the same as the order of things, so that any mode of eztensioB 
and the idea of it are the same thing expressed in two ways, under 
the attribute of extension and under the attribute of thoii|^ 
(see H. H. Joachim's Study of the Ethics of Spinoza, 1901, p. 72). 
It remained, however, for Schelling to convert this paraUdism 
into identity by identifying motion with the intelligence of God, 
and so to transform the pantheism of Spinoza into pantheistic 
idealism. Leibnitz, again, having become eqtially dissatisfied 
with Cartcsianism, Spinozism and the Epicurean realism of 
Gassendi, in the latter part of his life came still ftg^^g^ 
nearer than Spinoza to metaphysical idealism in his 
monadology, or half-Pythagorean,half-Brunistic analysis of bodies 
into monads, or units, or simple substances, indivisible and 
imextendcd, but endowed with perception and appetite. 

He gradually fell under the dominion of two false assumptiooi^ 
On vhc oive hatvd« esscatially a mathematician, he supposed that 



SICAL IDEALISM] 



inbaity, whereas everything known to be one is merely 

individual, and that there must be sample because 
UKMiod substances, although composition only requires 
tttivdy simple elements. On the other hand, under 
of the mechanics o£ his day, which had hardly distin- 
cen inertia, or the inability of a body to change itself, 
X or the ability of bodies to oppose one another, he 
at, as inertia is passive, so is resistance, and refused 
that in collision the mutual resistance of moving bodies 
active power, of changing their movements in opposite 
From tncse two arbitrary hypotheses tibout corporeal 

it requires indivisibly simple elements, and that it 
lasive resistance, he concludeid that behind bodies there 
ts, or monads, which would be at once substantial, 
isible and active. He further supposed that the monads 
weal automata,'' not interacting like bodies, but each 
iiat was passing in the other, and acting in consequence 

or self-acting. Such mentally endowed substances 
led souls; but, as he distingubhed between perception 
Kion or consciousness, and considered that perceptions 
acooscious. he preferred to divide monads into un- 
Lelechies of inorganic bodies, sentient souls of animals, 

souls, or spirits, of men; while he further concluded 
» are derivative monads created by God, the monad of 
1 derivative monads, he allowed, are accompanied by 
b, however, are composed of other monads dominated 
1 monad.^ Further, he explained the old Cartesian 
the relation of body and mind by transforming the 
arallelism of extension and thought into a ptarallcHsm 
motions of bodies and the perceptions of their monads; 
lys proceeding from motions, and perceptions from pcr- 
dies acting according to efficient causes, and souls 
final causes by appetition, and as if one influenced the 
t actually doing so. Finally, he explained the concomi- 
se two series, as well as that between the perceptions 

monads, by supposing a pre-establishea harmony 
the primitive monad, God. 

I point, then, Leibnitz opened one of the cmef avenues 
ycal idealism, the resolution of the material into the 
the analysis of bodies into mental elements. His 
)odies involved an idealistic analysis neither into 
ts nor into mathematical units, but into mentally 
mple substances. There remained, however, his 
le nature of bodies; and here he hesitated between 
Ltives. According to one alternative, which con- 
wed from the psychological idealism of Descartes, as 
n his own monadism, he suggested that bodies are 
ncna; phenomena, because they are aggregates of 
lich derive their unity only from appearing together 
eptions; real phenomena well founded, because they 
real monads. In support of this view, he said that 
ot substances, though substantiata; ihsit their apparent 
resistance are results of the passions of their monads; 
irimary matter is nothing but passive power of their 
lat the series of efficient causes between them is 
Domcnal. According to this alternative, then, there 
but mental monads and mental phenomena; and 
a metaph>'sical idealist. According to the other 
however, he suggested that at least organic bodies 
md or corporeal substances, which are not phcno- 
ftomething realizing or rather substantializing pheno- 
not mere aggregates of monads, but something 
beyond their monads, because an organic body, 
nposed of monads, has a real unity (unto realis). 
K>int of view he believed that the real unity of a body 
m substantiaU, which gives it its real continuity and 
iple of its actions; that its primary matter is its own 
resistance; and that it has not only this passive, but 
ve, power of its own. He suggested that this theory 
tantial unity of a body might explain transubstantia- 
pposing that, while the monads and phenomena of 
in, the vinculum substantiale of the body of Christ 
:ed. He feared also whether we can explain the 
the Incarnation, and other things, unless real bonds 
re added to monads and phenomena. According to 
tive, these organic bodies are compound or corporeal 
between monads and phenomena; and Leibnitz 
r3rsical realist. He was held to this belief in the sub- 
of bodiet by his Christianity; by the infuence of 



METAPHYSICS 



229 



Aristotle, of scholasticism and of Cartesianism, as well as by his 
own mechanics. But the strange thing is that at the very end 
of his life and at the very same time, in 17 14-17 16, he was 
writing the idealistic alternative to Remond de Montmort and 
Dangicourt, and the realistic alternative to Father des Bosses. 
He must have died in doubt. We cannot, therefore, agree with 
many recent idealists who regard Leibnitz as one of themselves, 
though it is true that, when stripped of its -realism, his meta- 
physics easily passed into the meuphysical idealisms of Lotze 
and of Fechner. It is true, also, that on its idealistic side the 
philosophy of Leibnitz is the source of many current views of 
panpsychism, of psychoph3rsical parallelism as well as of the 
phenomenalism of bodies, and of the analysis of bodies into 
mental elements. 

2. Locke to Hume. — Meanwhile in England, Locke, thou^ 
differing from Descartes about the origin of ideas, followed him 
in the illogical combination of psychological idealism with 
metaphysical realism. He thought that we perceive nothing 
but ideas both of primary and of secondary qualities, and yet 
that somehow we are able to infer that, while oiur ideas of 
secondary qualities are not, those of primary qualities are, like 
the real qualities of external things. Berkeley saw the in- 
consistency of this position, and, in asserting that all we perceive 
and all we know is nothing but ideas in " mind, spirit, soul, or 
myself," has the merit of having made, as Paulsen remarks, 
" epistemological idealism the basis of metaphysical idealism." 
According to him, a body such as the sun is my idea, your idea, 
ideas of other minds, and always an idea of God's mind; and when 
we have sensible ideas of the sun, what causes them to arise in 
our different minds is no single physical substance, the sun, 
but the will of God's spirit. Hume saw that in making all the 
objects of perception ideas Berkeley had given as little reason 
for inferring substantial souls as substantial bodies. He there- 
fore concluded that all we know from the data of psychological 
idealism is impressions or sensations, ideas, and associations of 
ideas, making us believe without proof in substances and causes, 
together with " a certain tmknown, inexplicable something as the 
cause of our preceptions." We have here, in this sceptical 
idealism, the source of the characteristically English form of 
idealism still to be read in the writings of Mill and Spencer, an4 
still the starting-point of more recent works, such as Pearson's 
Grammar of Science and James's Principles of Psychology. 

3. Kant and Fichte. — Lastly, in Germany, partly influenced 
by Leibnitz and pattly roused by Hume, Kant elaborated his 
transcendental or critical idealism, which if not, as he thought, 
the prolegomena to all future metaphysics, is still ^^ 
the starting-point of most metaphysical idealists. 
Kantism consists of four main positions, which it will be well 
to lay out, as follows: — 

a. As to the origin of knowledge, Kant's position is that sense, 
outer and inner, affected by thines in themselves, receives mere 
sensations or sensible ideas ( Vorstellungen) as the matter which sense 
itself places in the a priori forms of space and time; that thereupon 
understanding, by means of the synthetic unity of apperception, 
" I think " — an act of spontaneity beyond sense, m all consciousness 
one and the same, and combining all my ideas as mine in one univer- 
sal consciousness — and under a prion categories, or fundamental 
notions, such as substance and attribute, cause and effect, &c., 
unites groups of sensations or sensible ideas into objects and events, 
e.g. a house, one ball moving another; and that, accordingly, per- 
ception and experience, requiring both sense and undcrstandmg, 
are partly a posteriori and i>artly a priori, and constitute a 
knowledge of objects which, bemg sensations combined by 
synthetic unity under a priori forms, arc more than mere sensa- 
tions, but less than things in themselves. This first position is 
psychological idealism in a new form and supported by new reasons; 
tor, if experience derives its matter from mcnul sensations and its 
form from mental synthesis of sensations, it can apprehend nothing 
but mental objects of sense, which, according to Kant, are sensible 
ideas having no existence outside our thought, not things in them- 
selves: or phenomena, not noumena. 

b. As to the known world, Kant's position was the logical deduc- 
tion that from such phenomena of experience all we can know by 
logical reason is similar phenomena of actual or possible cx^x\txvc».\ 
and therefore that the known world, vjYvtXVict YjodWj w twtTv\a\,\% 
not a Cartesian world ot bodies and «oa\%« tvot a. S^vwcswaRSK. ^«\^ 
0/ one substance, nor a LdbnitziaA itocVd o\ iDotoi^ iN^M^aac^ 



230 



METAPHYSICS 



cxeated by God. but a world of tenaatioiis, such as flume supposed, 
only comDined, not by association, but by synthetic understanding 
into phenomenal objects of experience, which are phenomenal 
substances and causes — a world of phenomena not noumena. 
This second position is a new form of metaphysical idealism, contain- 
ing the supposition, which lies at the foundation of later German 
philosophy, that since understanding shapes the objects out of 
sensations, and since nature, as we know it, consists of such objects, 
*' understanding, though it does not make, shapes nature," as well as 
our knowledge. Known nature is a mental construction in part, 
according to Kant. 

c. As to existence, Kant's porition is the wholly illogical one that, 
though all known things are phenomena, there are things in them- 
selves, or noumena: things which are said to cause sensations of 
outer sense and to receive sensations of inner sense, though they are 
beyond the category of causality which is defined as one of the notions 
uniting phenomena ; and things which are assumed to exist and have 
these causal attributes, though declared unknowable by any logical 
use of reason, because logical reason is limited by the mental matter 
and form of experience to phenomena; and all this according^ to 
Kant himself. This third position isa relic of ancient metaphysical 
realism; although it must be remembered that Kant does not 
go to the length of Descartes and Locke, who supposed that from 
mere ideas we could know bodies and souU, but su^gesU that 
beneath the phenomena of outer and inner sense the thing in itself 
may not be heterogeneous (unileichartig). In this form we shall find 
the thing in itself revived by A. Riehl. 

^ As to the use of reason beyond knowledge, Kant's pontion is 
that, in spite of its logical inability to transcend phenomena, reason 
in its pure, or a priori use, contains necessary a priori " ideals " 
(Ideen), and practical reason, in order to account for moral respon- 
ubility, frames postulates of the existence of things in themselves, 
or noumena. corresponding to these " idcab"; postulates of a real 
free-will to practise morality, of a real immortality of soul to perfect 
it, and of a real God to crown it with happiness. 

The fourth position is the coping-stone of Kant's metaphysics. 
It is quite inconsistent ^ith its foundation and structure. Kant 
first deduced that from the experience of mental phenomena all 
logical use of reason is limited to mental phenomena, and then 
maintained that to explain moral responsibility practical reason 
postulates the existence of real noumena. But what is a postu- 
late of practical reason to explain moral responsibility except a 
logical use of reason ? Nevertheless, in his own mind Kant's 
whole speculative and practical philosophy was meant to form 
one system. In the preface to the second edition of the Kritik 
he says that it was necessary to limit speculative reason to a 
knowledge of phenomena, in order to allow practical reason to 
proceed from morality to the lissumption of God, freedom, and 
immortality, existing beyond phenomena: " Ich musstc also das 
Wissen aufhebcn, um zum Glauben Platz zu machen." He forgot 
that he had also limited all logical use of reason, and therefore 
of practical reason, to phenomena, and thereby undermined the 
rationality not only of knowledge, but also of faith. 

Fichte now set himself in the Wissinschaftdehre (17O4) to 
make transcendental idealism into a system of metaphysical ideal- 
ism without Kant's inconsistencies and rclicsof realism. 
His point was that there are no things in themselves 
different from minds or acting on them; that man is no product 
of things; nor does his thinking arise from passive sensations 
caused by things; nor is the end of his existence attainable in 
a worid of things; but that he is the absolute free activity 
constructing his own worl<{, which is only his own determination, 
bis self-imposed limit, and means to his duty which allies him with 
God. In order to prove this novel conclusion he started afresh 
from the Cartesian " I think " in the Kantian form of the 
synthetic unity of apperception acting by a priori categories; 
but instead of allowing, with all previous metaphysicians, that 
the Ego passively receives sensations from something dififerent, 
and not contenting himself with Kant's view that the Ego, by 
synthetically combining the matter of sensations with a priori 
forms, partially constructs objects, and therefore Nature as 
we know it, he boldly asserted that the Ego, in its synthetic 
unity, entirely constructs things; that its act of spontaneity is 
not mere synthesis of passive sensations, but construction of 
sensations into an object within itself; and that therefore under* 
standing makes as well as shapes Nature. 

This constniction, or sc)/-determination, is what Fichte called 
poeiting (se^gtn). According to bim, the Ego posits first itteU 



[METAPHYSICAL IDEAUSU 

(thesis) ; secondly, the non-Ego^ the other, opposite to itadf (anti- 
thesis) ; and. thirdly, this non-Ego within itself (synthesis), so that 
all reality is in consciousness. But, he added, as the E^ is not 
conscious of this self-determining activity, but fcHgets itsdf, the 
aon-E^ seems to be something independent, a foreign limit, a 
thing in itself, or per se. Hence it is the office of the theory of know- 
led^ to show that the Ego posits the thing per se sm only csistinK 
for Itself, a noumenon in the sense of a prodfuct of its own thinldnc. 
Further, according to Fichte, on the one hand the Ego posits itaajf 
as determined through the non-E^o— no object, no subiect; this 
b the principal fact about theoretic^ reason; on the otber band. 
the Ego posits itself as determining the non-Ego— no subject, no 
object; this b the principal fact about practical reason. Hence he 
united theoretical and practical reason, which Kant had separated, 
and both with will, whKh Kant had distinguished; for he held that 
(he Ego, in positing the non-l^, posits both iu own limit and its 
own means to the end, duty, by lU activity of thinking which re* 
quires will. The conclusbn of nb epistemology b that we stact 
with ourselves positing subjective sensations — e.g. sweet, red — and 
refer them as accidents to matter in space, which, though mental, is 
objective, because its production b funded on a law of all reason. 
The metaphysics resulting from this epistemology b that the w> 
called thing m itself b not a cause of our sensations, but a p ro d nc t 

of one's own thinking, a determination of the Ego, a thing ka 

to the Ego which constructs it. Fichte thus transformed ue t 
scendental idealbm of Kant by identifying the thing with the c' 

and by interpreting noumenon, not in Kant's sense of sdum . 

which speculative reason conceives and practical reason postulates 
to exist in accordance with the idea, but in the new meaning of a 
thought, a product of reason. Thb dhange led to another. Kaat 
had said that the synthetic unity " I think " b in all consdoosaeM 
0tit and the &amt. meaning that I am always present to all ray idetSL 
plchtc transforined thb unity of the conscious self into a unity of al 
con»cioui sclvi», or a common consciousness; and this change enabled 
hipa ti? cxpLiin the unity of anything produced by the E|p> 1^ oon- 
tcttdii^g that it U not the different oBjects of different thinkers, bat 
the one abjort of a pure Ego or consciousness common to them aB. 
Accocduig: ta lunt. the objective b valid for all conaciousnesKs; 
Acoordine to Fichte it b valid for one consciousness. Here be was 
fw the hnt tinve (grappling with a fundamental difficulty in "— *- 
phyuca,] idealisdi which b absei ' 



ent from realbm, namely 



of crxpUinini^ the identity of a thing, «.{. the sun. . 
the ntcagre fuillsm of the Kantian thing in itself b i 
account of there being one sun b simply that one thing causa 
different phenomena in different minds. But as soon as the thiag 
in itself b converted into something mental, metaphyseal idealists 
must either say that there are as many suns as minds, or that then 
b one mind and therefore one sun. The former was the alttmadvt 
of Berkeley, the latter of Fichte. 

Thus the complete metaphysical idealism of Fichte's Wis$tih 
schaJtsUkrefoTtaed out of the incomplete metaphysical jdealism of 
Kant's Kritik, is the theory on its epistemological side that the EgD 
posits the non-Ego as a thing in itself, and yet as only a thing ewtiflf 
for it as its own noumenon, and on its metac^ysKal side that ii 
consequence all realit;yr b the Ego and its own determinations, wUck 
are objective, or valid for all. as determinations, not of you or of 
me, but of the consciousness common to all of us, the pure or abaofaite 
Ego. Lastly, Fichte called thb system realismj in so far as it positi 
the thing in itself as another thing; idealism, in so far as it posits 
it as a noumenon which b a product of its own thinking; and on the 
whole real idealism or ideal realbm. 

God does not seem to find much place in the Wisseusch^fltUkit, 
where mankind b the absolute and nature mankind's product, 
and where God neither could be an absolute Ego which posits 
objects in the non-Ego to infinity without ever completing the pio> 
cess, nor could be even known to exist apart from the moral order 
which b man's destination. Hence in his Pkilosopkical Jomruai ifl 
1798 Fichte prefaced a sceptical essay of Forberj by an tamf 
ot hb own. in which he used the famous words. " The Uving warn 
order b God; we need no other God, and can comprehend no 
Having, however, in consequence, lost hb professorship 



other." naviiiK. uuwvYa. HI «.uiM«i«4iw^u«j«, • 

at Jena, he gradually altered hb views. 



-. .>.»., — „. , --- until at length he 

decided thut Cod ts not mere moni] arder. but also reason and 
will, yet without consciouine^ and personality; that not 1 
but God ii the abiotutt; that we arc only iu direct manif 

free but finite spirits dceiLned by God to posit in 

Nature as the nutcrial a\ duty, but blessed when we idapse 
into the absolute: that Nature, thecrfctfe, b the direct nanilct* 
tation of man, and only the LiKiiFDct manifestation of God; and, 
finally, that bcinR is the divine idea or life, whkh is the ra^ 
behind appearance*, tn this esicnsion of metaphysical idcalMI 
he was nifluenced by hi* dUciple, bchelling. Neyert hclci s, he 
refused u.^ kti> a& far as Sch&liinft and cdu Id not Dring himself to iden- 
tify eithL f inan or nature with Absolute God. He wanted to b^Bevn 
in the absolute without «acTifii::in|^ pmonality and freedom. Godl 
determines man, and man dctertniiua Nature: thb b the final OOt- 
come of Fifhte'i pure idedlisTn- 

Fichte completed the process from psychological and episteiiio- 
logical to metaphysical idealism, which it has been neccMUj to 



MOOMENAL IDEAUSH] 



METAPHYSICS 



231 



lecill from its bcgumings in France, En^and and Germany, in 
Older to ondeistand modem idrilmm. llie assertion of absolute 
substance by Spinoza incited Scbelling and Hegel. The analysis 
of bodies into immaterial elemenU by Leibnitx incited Lotze. 
The Spi'nomfic parallelism of extension and thought, and the 
Labnitzian parallelism of bodily motion and mental action, 
incited Srhefling and Fechner. Berkeley and Hume produced 
the gwjfi*^ idealism of Mill and Spencer, with their successors, 
sad occasioned the German idealism of Kant. Kant's a priori 
sjaihcsts of sensations into experience lies at the root of all 
Goman idealism. But Fichte was the most fertile of alL He 
caxried metaphysical idealism to its height, by not only resolving 
the bodfly into the mental, but also elevating the action of mind 
inio absolute mental construction; not inferring things in them- 
Mbcs beyond, but originating things from within, mind itself. 
B]r changing the meaning of " noumenon " from the thing 
apprehended (pooOfta^w) to the thought (p&tina), and in the 
hypothesis of a common consciousness, he started the view that 
a thing is not yours or my thought, but a common thought of all 
msnkind, and led to the wider view of Scbelling and Hegel that 
the world is an absolute thought of infinite mind. In making the 
oacBce of mind activity and construction, in destroying the separa- 
tion of theoretical and practical reason, in asserting that mind 
thinks things as means to ends of the will, he prepared the infay 
lor Schopenhauer and other voluntarists. In making the 
CMcnce of the Absolute not mere reason, but will, action and life, 
be anticipated Lotze. In reducing the thing in itself to a thought 
he projected the neo-Kantism of Lange and Cohen. In the 
doctrine— DO object, no subject — no subject, no object— that is, 
'm the utter identification of things with objects of subjects, he 
intidpatcd not only Scbelling and Hegel, but also Schuppe and 
Wandt with their congeners. In expanding Kant's act of 
qruhess till it absorbed the inner sense and the innermost soul, 
be started the modem paradox that soul is not substance, but 
nbject or activity, a paradox which has been gradually handed 
down from Scbelling and Hegel to Fechner, and from Fechner to 
Fiubea and Wundt. Meanwhile, through holding with Kant 
that man is not God, but a free spirit, whose destiny it is to use 
his inteOigence as a means to his duty, he is still the resort of 
many who vindicate man's independence, freedom, conscience, 
aad power of using nature for his moral purposes, e.g. of Eucken 
aad ICttttsterberg (99>v.). Kant and Fichte together became the 
Bost potent philosophic influences on European thought in the 
xglh century, because their emphasis was on man. They made 
■an believe in himself and his mission. They fostered liberty 
aad reform, and even radicalism. They almost avenged roan 
«o the astronomers, who had shown that the world is not made 
for earth, and therefore not for man. Kant half asserted, and 
Fichte wholly, that Nature is man's own construction. The 
Kriiik and the WissensckaftsUhre belonged to the rcvolu- 
tioBaiy epoch of the " Rights of Man," and produced as great a 
Rvolution in thought as the French Revolution did in fact. 
Instead of the old belief that God made the world for man, 
philoiapbers began to fall into the pleasing dream, I am every- 
thisg, and everything is I — and even I am God. 

4.— NouMENAL Idealism in Germany 
Noomenal idealism is the metaphysics of those who suppose 
that aO known things are indeed mental, but not all are pheno- 
■oal in the Kantian sense, because a noumenon is knowable so 
kag IS by a noumenon we mean some mental being or other 
*hkh we somehow can discover beyond phenomena. The 
ioonienal idealists of Germany assumed, like all psychological 
ideifitts, the unproved hypothesis that there is no sense of body, 
bat there is a sense of sensations; and they usuaUy accepted 
Xatt's point, that to get from such sensations to knowledge there 
B a qrntbesis contributing mental elements beyond the mental 
data of seme. They saw also the logic of Kant's deduction, that 
afl «e can know from such mental data and mental categories 

tBttt also be mentaL This was the starting-point of their 
■etapfayncal idealism. But they disagreed with Kant, and 
4|Bed with Fichte about things in themselves or Doumena, and i 



contended that the mental things we know are not mere pheno- 
mena of sense, but noumena, precisely because noumena are as 
mental as phenomena, and therefore can be known from similar 
data: this was the central point of their noumenal idealism. 
They rightly revolted against the inconsistencies of Kant's third 
and fourth positions about the existence of unknown but postu- 
lated things in themselves, hidden from theoretical, but revealed 
to practical, reason. In a way they returned to the wider 
opinions of Aristotle, which had come down to Descartes and 
Locke, that reason in going beyond sense knows more things 
than phenomena; yet they woidd not hear of external bodies, 
or of bodies at ail. No realists, they came nearer to Spinozistic 
pantheism and to Leibnitzian monadism, but only on their 
idealistic side; for they would not allow that extension and body 
arc different from thinking and mind. Their real founder was 
Fichte, on account of his definite reduction of the noumenal to a 
mental world. This was indeed the very point — the knowability 
of a noumenal mental world. At the same time it soon appeared 
that they could not agree among themselves when they came to 
ask what it is, but in attempting to define it seem to have gone 
through the whole gamut of mind. Scbelling and Hegel thought 
it was infinite reason; Schopenhauer, unconscious will; Hart- 
mann, unconscious intelligence and will; Lotze, the activity or 
life of the divine spirit; Fechner, followed by Paulsen, a world of 
spiritual actualities comprised in the one spiritual actuality, 
God, in whom we live and move and have our being. 

I. Of these noumenal idealisms the earliest in time and the 
nearest to Fichtc's philosophy was the panlogism, begun by 
Scbelling (1775-1854), completed by his disciple .y^^^^^, 
Hegel (177&-1831), and then modified by the master 
himself. Starting from Fichte's " Wissenschaftslehre," Scbelling 
accepted the whole process of mental construction, and the 
deduction that noumena are knowable products of universal 
reason, the Absolute Ego. But from the first he was bolder 
than Fichte, and had no doubt that the Absolute is God. God, 
as he thought, is universal reason, and Nature a product of 
universal reason, a direct manifestation, not of man, but of God. 
How is this Absolute known? According to Scbelling it is 
known by intellectual intuition. Kant had attributed to God, 
in distinction from man's understanding, an intellectual intuition 
of things. Fichte had attributed to man an intellectual intuition 
of himself as the Absolute Ego. Scbelling attributes to man 
an intellectual intuition of the Absolute God; and as there is, 
according to him, but one universal reason, the common intelli- 
gence of God and man, this intellectual intuition at once gives 
man an immediate knowledge of God, and identifies man with 
God himself. 

On Schclling's idealistic pantheism, or the hypothesis that 
there is nothing but one absolute reason identifying the opposites 
of subjectivity and objectivity, Hegel based his 1^ 
panlogism. But, while he fully recognized bis ""^ 
indebtedness to his master, he differed from him profoundly 
in one fundamental respect. He rightly objected that the system 
was wanting in logical proof. He rightly, therefore, rejected 
the supposed intellectual intuition of the Absolute. He rightly 
contended that, if we are to know anything beyond sense, we 
must know it by a process of logical reason. But, unfortunately, 
he did not mean the logical inferences described in the Organon 
and the Novum organum. He meant a new " speculative " 
method, dialectic, founded on an assumption which he had 
already learnt from Scbelling, namely, that things which are 
different but similar can have the same attribute, and therefore 
be also the same. With this powerful instrument of dialectic 
in hand, he attempted to show how absolute reason differentiates 
itself into subjective and objective, ideal and real, and yet is 
the identity of both — an identity of opposites, as Scbelling had 
said. By the same dialectic Hegel was able to justify the 
gradual transformation of transcendental into noumenal ideal- 
ism by Fichte and Scbelling. If things different but similar 
have the same attributes, and arc thereby tbesa.tcvtA^«^*"«!^^^ 
first place the Kantian calegone&, vYiom^^ \itfi>x^\:i o\. xbeonsX 
on^n and therefore confined lo tmnd, wt iitN«x\kri«sA b.^^^^^^ 



232 



METAPHYSICS 



(NOUMENAL IDEAUSM 



to things, because things, though different from, are the same 
as, thoughts, and have the categories of thoughts; in the second 
place, the Fichtian Ego of mankind is not the Absolute Reason 
of God, and yet is the same Absolute Reason; in the third pUce, 
the Schellingian Nature is the "other " of Spirit, and yet, being a 
mere reflex of the Idea of Nature, is identical with Spirit; and as 
this Spirit is everywhere the same in God and men, Nature is 
also identical with our Spirit, or rather with the Infinite Spirit, 
or Absolute Reason, which alone exists. The crux of all meta- 
phjrsical idealism is the difficulty of reconciling the unity of 
the object with the plurality of subjects. Hegel's assumption 
of identity in difference at once enabled him to deal with the 
whole difficulty by holding that different subjects are yet one 
subject, and any one object, e.g. the sun, is at once different 
from, and identical with, the one subject which is also many. 
By the rough magic of this modem Prospero the universe of 
being is not, and yet is, thought, idea, spirit, reason, God. So 
elastic a solution esublished a dominant Hegelian school, which 
is now practically extinct, in Germany, and from Germany 
spread Hegelianism to France, England, America, and, in fact, 
diffused it over the civilized world to such an extent that it is 
still a widespread fashion outside Germany to believe .that the 
world of being is a world of thoughL 

The plain answer is to contest the whole assumption. Different 
things, nowevcr similar, have only Mmtlar attributes, and therefore 
C^Limmm ^# ^^ ttevef tHc samc. God created man in His own 
J^7~r~^ image, and the world in the image of the Divine Idea ; 
nwf^gpv>f, ^^^ J ^^ ^^^ ^^j^^ ^^j ^^^ transitory sun b not the 

same as God's eternal idea of it. The creatures, however like, 
are not the same as the Creator and His thoughts. Each is a 
distinct thing, as Aristotle said. Reality is not Reason. It b 
strange that the underlying assumption of panlogism was not at once 
contested in this plain way. Nevertheless, objection was soon taken 
to the unsatisfactoriness of the system reared upon it. Scheiling 
himself, as soon as he saw his own formulae exposed in the logic 
or rather dialectic of his disciple, began to reconsider his philosophy 
of identity, and brought some powerful objections against both the 
conclusions and the method of Hegel. Scheiling perceived that 
Hegel, in reducing everything to infinite mind, absorbed man's 
free but finite personality in God, and, in declaring that everything 
real b rational, failed to explain evil and sin: inaeed, the English 
reader of T. H. Green's Prclegomfna to Ethics can see how awkward 
b the Hegelian transition from " one spiritual principle" to different 
men's individual freedom of choice between good and evil. Again, 
Scheiling urged that besides the rational clement there must be 
something else; that there^b in nature, as natura naturans^ a blind 
impulse, a will without intelligence, which belongs to the cxbtent ; 
and that even God Himself as the Absolute cannot be pure thought, 
because in order to think He mii-t ce which cannot 

be merely His thought of iti ^itid i:i,;-;. jl l ^ . ;.eing is the prior 
condition of thought and spirit * Hcnr.i^ SkfivLling objected to the 
Hegelian dialectic on the ground that, OLltbouj;li reason by itself 
can apprehend notions or esscnces^, and cvun that of God, it cannot 
deduce a priori the existence cithfr ol Cod or of Nature, for the 
apprehension of which experience b required, tie now distinguished 
two philosophies: negative pbilu^iDStv stjirtincr from notions, and 
positive philosophv starting i- ^ '-mer a philosophy 

of conditions, the latter of a. - w Hegel, he saicl, 

had only supplied the logic of negative philosophy; and it must be 
confessed that the most which could be extracted from the Hegelian 
dialectic would be some connexion of thoughts without proving any 
existence of corresponding things. Scheiling was right ; but he had 
too much affinity with Hegelian assumptions, e.g. the panlogistic 
confusion of the essences of things with the notions of reason, to 
construct a positive philosophy without falling into fresh mvsticisra, 
which failed to exorcise the effect of his earlier philosophy of identity 
in the growing materialism of the age. 

3. Meanwhile, by the side of panlogbm arose the panthcUsm 

of Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Thb newnoumenal idealism 

began, like the preceding, by combining psycho* 

Htm^'' logical idealism with the transcendentalism of Kant 

and Fichle. In Die Welt als WUU und Vorstellung 

Schopenhauer accepted Kant's position that the world as 

phenomenal is idea ( Vorstellung) ; but he added that the world 

as noumcnal b will iyVille). He got the hint of a noumenal will 

from Kant; but in regarding the noumcnal as knowable, because 

mental, as well as in the emphasis he laid on the activity of will, 

he resembled Fichte. His theory of the nature of will was 

A/s own, and arrived at from a voluntaristic psychology leading 

/o a iroJunuristic metaphysics of bis own. His psycholo^cal 



starting-point was the improved asaumptbn that the only 
force of which we are immediately aware is will; hb metaphyncil 
goal was the consbtent conclusion that in that case the onljr 
force we can know, as the noumenal essence of which all die 
is phenomenal appearance, b wilL But by thb noumenal wiO 
he did not mean a divine will similar to our rational desire, a 
will in which an inference and desire of a desirable end uid 
means produces our rational action. He meant an unintelligent, 
imconsdous, restless, endless wilL In considering the force 
of instinct in animals he was obliged to divest will of reason. 
When he found himself confronted with the blind fonts ol 
Nature he was obliged to divest irrational will of feeling. As he 
resolved one force after another into lower and lower grades ol 
will he was obUged to divest will of all consciousness. In shoit, 
hb metaphysics was foimded on a misnomer, and simply con- 
sbted in calling unconscious force by the name of uncoosdoia 
will {Unhewusster WiUe). Thb abuse of language brought 
him back to Leibnitz. But, whereas Leibnitz imputed mooii- 
sdous perception as well as unconscious appetition to monads, 
Schopenhauer supposed unconscious will to arise without pcf>- 
ception, without feeling, without ideas, and to be the cause ol 
ideas only in us. Hence he rejected the infinite intelligence s 
posed by Fichte, Scheiling and Hegel against whom he 1 
that blind will produces intelligence, and only becomes < 
in us by using intelligence as a means to ends. He also rejected 
the optimbm of Leibm'tz and Hegel, and pUced the most irra- 
tional of wiUs at the base of the worst possible of worids (tee 
further Schopenhauek). Thb pessimbtic ponthelism gradually 
won its way, and procured- exponents such as J. Frauenstidt, 
J. Bahnsen, and, more recently, P. Deussen. The accident of 
its pessimism attracted F. W. Nietzsche, who afterwards, paaung 
from the philosophy of will to the theory of evolution, ended by 
imagining that the struggle of the will to live produces the 
survival of the fittest, that b, the right of the strongest and the 
will to exercise power, which by means of selection may be^^ 
after issue in a new species of superior man — the UeheimensdL 
Finally, Schopenhauer's voluntarism has had a profound effect 
on psychology inside and outside Germany, and to a leas degree 
produced attempts to deduce from voluntarbtic psychokigf 
new systems of voluntaristic metaphysics, such as those of 
Paulsen and WundL 

3. The first to modify the puro voluntarism of Scbopenhavr 
was E. von Hartmann, who {Die Pkilosopkie des UnlfewusiUa, 
1869, ist cd.), advanced the view that the world m^taM* 
as noumenal is both unconscious intelligence and 
unconscious will, thus founding a panpneumatism which fomil 
a sort of reconciliation of the panlogbm of Hegel and the pantbd* 
ism of Schopenhauer. In his tract entitled Sckdling*s ^onfJM 
Philosophie als Einheit von Hegel und Schopenhauer (1869) bl 
further showed that, in hb later philosophy, Scheiling bad 
already combined reason and will in the Absolute. Indeed, 
Fichte had previously characterized the life of the Absolute by 
reason and will i^ithout consciousness; and, before Fichi^ 
Leibnitz had asserted that the elements of Nature are momdi 
with unconscious perception and appetition. Hartmann ha 
an affinity with all these predecessors, and with Spinoza, with 
whom he agrees that there b but one substance unaltered by 
the plurality of individuab which are only its modificatiooL 
Following, however, in the footsteps of Scheiling, he idealises 
the one extended and thinking substance into one mental bdiflg; 
but he thinks that its essence consbts in imconsdous intelli- 
gence and will, of which all individual intelligent wiUs are oi^f 
activities. The merit of thb fresh noumenal idealism coossll 
in its correction of the one-sidedness of Schopenhauer: intelB- 
gence b necessary to will. But Hartmann's criticism doci 
not go far enough. He ends by outdoing the paradox of 
Schopenhauer, concluding that Nature in itself b 
will, but unconscious, a sort of immanent imconsdous God. 

As with his master, his reasons for this view are derived, not froM 
a direct proof that unconscious Nature has the mental attfibutcs 
supposed, but from human psychology and eptstemology. LUds 
Levbnitz, he proceeds from the fact that our perccptaoos aft 



XJHENAL IDEAUSBQ 



METAPHYSICS 



233 



t cooacioiis, ■oroetimea anconadous. to the inconsequent 
L, that there are beings with nothing but unconsciouit 
poeptiofls; and by a similar non sequitur, becauw there is the i<lca 
an end in will, he argues that there mu»t be an unconscious idea 
an end in instinctive, in reflex, in all action. AKain. in his Crund- 
Mem der Erkenntmisslheorie (1889) he uses without proof the 
pothesis <d psychological idealism, that we perceive psychical 
ects, to infer with merel)^ hypothetical consistency the conclusion 
aoumcnal metaphysical idealism that all we can thereby know is 
vchical causes, or something transcendent, beyond phenomena 
feed, yet not beyond mind. Rut, according to him, this transcen- 
at is the unconscious {KrafttoUes unbewtust ideaUs Gtschehen). 
i calls this epi^temoloey " transcendent realism " ; it is really 
xanscendent idealism. ' On these foundations he builds the 
U3s of his idealistic metaphysics, (a) He identifies matter with 
ml by identifying atomic force with the striving of unconscious 
D after objects conceived by unconscious intelligence, and by 
Snins causality as logical necessity receiving actuality through 
0. (b) He contends that,^ when matter ascends to the evolution 
of^anic life, the unconscious has a power, over and above its 
araK volitions, of introducing a new element, and that in conse- 
er.ce the facts of variation, selection and inheritance, pointed out 
■ Darwin, are merely means which the unconscious uses for its own 
ds in morphological dc\'elopment. ^c) He explains the rise of 
Mciousncss by supposing that, while it requires brain as a condi- 
la. it consists in the emancipation of intelligence from will at the 
oaicnt when in sensation the individual mind finds itself with an 
ea without will. Here follows his pessimism, like to, but difTcring 
tm, that of his master. In his view consciousness begins with 
lot, and pain preponderates over pleasure in every individual life, 
ith no hope for the future, while the final end is not consciousness, 
it the painlessnen of the unconscious (see Pessimism). But why 
(Aggerate? The truth of Nature is force; the truth of will is 
itional desire: the truth of life is neither the optimism of Leibnitz 
od Hegel, nor the pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, hut 
He raoderatism of Aristotle. Life is sweet, and most men have 
Km pleasures than pains in their lives. 

4. Lotze (181 7- 1 881) elaborated a very different noumenal 
dealism, which perhaps we may express by the name " Pan- 
y^ tdeologism," to express its conclusion that the known 
world beyond phenomena b neither absolute thought 
Bor ODConsdous will, nor the unconscious at all, but the activity 
of God; causing in us the system of phenomenal appearances, 
«b)ch we call Nature, or bodies moving in time and space; but 
being in itself the system of the universal reciprocal actions 
of God's infinite spirit, animated by the design of the supreme 
food. The Meiapkysik of Lotze in its latest form (1879) begins 
vilh a great truth: metaphysics must be the foundation of 
pqrcbdogy. He saw that the theories of the origin of knowledge 
u idealistic epistemology are unsound. Like Aristotle, then, 
he proposed anew the question, What is being? Nevertheless 
be was too much a child of his age to keep things known steadily 
before him; having asked the metaphysical question he proceeded 
to find a psychological answer in a theory of sensation, which 
iKrted the mere hypothesis that the being which we ascril>c 
to things on the evidence of sensation con$i!>ts in their being 
UL He really accepted, like Kant, the hypothesis of a sense 
of ieosations which led to the Kantian conclusion that the 
Natut we know in time and space is mere sensible appearances 
iiw^ Further, from an early period in his Mcdicinischc Psycho- 
ifpi (xSsi) he reinforced the transcendental idealism of Kant 
bjr a general hypothesis of " local signs," containing the sub- 
ordiaate hypotheses, that we cannot directly perceive extension 
other within ourselves or without; that spatial bodies outside 
coald not cause in us spatial images either in sight or in touch; 
bat that besides the obvious data of sense, e.g. pressure, heat 
ttd cokmr. there must be other qualitative different excitations 
of liferent nerve-fibres, by means of which, as non-local signs 
6( localities, the soul constructs in itself an image of extended 
ipKe containing different places. This hypothesis of an ac- 
flnnd perception of a space mentally constructed by " local 
■{Bs " suppUcd Lotze and many succeeding idealists, including 
Vsadt, with a new argument for metaphysical idealism. Lolzc 
condcded that we have no more reason for supposing an external 
9*ce like space constructed out of our perceptions, than we 
bcve for supposing an external colour like perceived colour. 
Afteeing, then, with Kant that primary qualities are as mental 
■ Hoondazy, he agreed also with Kant that all the Nature 
•c kwm at a qrstem of bodies moving in time and space is 



sensible phenomena. But while he was in fundamental agree- 
ment with the first two positions of Kant, he differed from the 
third; he did not believe that the causes of sensible phenomena 
can be unknown things in themselves. What then are they? 
In answering this question Lotze regarded Leibnitz as his guide. 
He accepted the Leibnitzian fallacy that unity is indivisibility, 
which led to the Leibnitzian analysis of material bodies into 
immaterial monads, indivisible and therefore unextended, and 
to the theory of monadic souls and entelechies. Indeed, from 
the time of Leibnitz such attempts either to analyse or to con- 
struct matter had become a fashion. Lotze agreed with Leibnitz 
that the things which cause phenomena are immaterial elements 
but added that they are not simple substances, self-acting, as 
Leibnitz thought, or preserving themselves against disturbance, 
as Herbart thought, but are interacting modifications of the 
one substance of God. 

In the first place, he resolved the doubt of Leibnitz about bodies 
by deciding entirely against his realistic alternative that an organic 
body is a substantia realizans phaenomcna^ and for his idealistic 
alternative that every body is a phenomenon and not a substance at 
all. Secondly, he accepted the Leibnitzian hypothesis of immaterial 
elements without aca'pting their M.'lf-action. He lielieved in recipro- 
cal action; and the \-ery essence of his metaphysics consists in sub- 
limating the interaction of bodies into the interaction of immaterial 
elements, which produce effects on one another and on the soul as 
one of them. According to the mechanics of Newton, when two 
bodies collide each body makes the other move equally and 
oppositely: but it has become a convenient habit to express this 
concrete fact in atMtract language by calling it the conscr\'ation of 
momentum, by talking of one body communicating its motion to the 
other; as if bodies exchanged motion as men do monc>'. Now 
Lotze took this abstract language literally, and had no difficulty 
in showing that, as an attribute is not separated from its substance, 
this supposed communicatitm of motion does not really take place: 
nothing passes. But instead of returning to the concrete fact of the 
equivalence of momentum, by which each bo<ly moving makes the 
other move oppositely, he denied that bodies do nK:i[>rocally act on 
one another, and even that Ixxlies as mutually resisting suostanccs 
,- ' ' a))art in collision. Having thus rejected all bodily 

mLthiiiii^jii. ad to sup|)osc that reciprocal action somehow 

takt>& pl<ii < [vn immaterial elements. This brought him to 

anylher dan. ■ . from Leibnitz as well as from Newton. According 
to Lcibniii, w]itlL each immaterbl element is a monadic substance 
arid s^lf-actiftg F^-condary caii<ic, God is the primary cause of all. 
Atirordinig tpi Lo\ic, the connexion retjuircd by reciprocity requires 
al*o that the wUole of every recipnxral action should take place 
withift ot)K ^ubttance; the immaterial elements act on one another 
mcrvly as the modifications of that substance interacting within 
it«elf ; and that one substance is God, who thus becomes not merely 
the priiTury but the sole cause in scholastic language a causa im- 
maruns, or agent of acts remaining within the agent's being. At 
this point, ha\-ing reiertetl both the Newtonian mechanism of inxiily 
substances and the Leibnitzian automatism of monadic sulMances, 
he flew to the Spinozi»tic unity of subatanre; exeept that, according 
to him. the one substance, (lOd, is not extended at alt, and is not 
merely thinking, but is a thinking, wilting and acting spirit 

Lotze *s metaphysics is thus distinguished from the theism 
of Newton and Leibnitz by its pantheism, and from the panthe- 
ism of Spinoza by its idealism. It is an idealistic pantheism, 
which is a denial of all bodily mechanism, a rc<luclion of evcr>'- 
thing bodily to phenomena, and an as^crlion that all real action 
is the activity of God. At the same time it is a curious attempt 
to restore mechanism and reconcile it with teleology by using 
the word " mechanism " in a new meaning, according to which 
God performs His own reciprocal actions within Himself by 
uniform laws, which are also means to divine ends. It is also an 
attempt to reconcile this divine mechanism with freedom. In 
his Mctaphysik (1879), as in his earlier iU/A-roitoimMi (1856-1864), 
Lotze vindicatc<i the contingency of freedom by assigning to 
God a miraculous power of unconditional commencement, 
whereby not only at the very beginning but in the course of 
nature there may be new beginnings, which arc not cfTecls of 
previous causes, though once started they produce effects 
according to law. Thus his pantheistic is also a telcological 
idealism, which in its emphasis on free activity and moral order 
recalls Leibm'tz and Fichtc, but in its emphasis on the infinity 
of God has more afhnity to Spinoza, Schelling; and lle^l. 
Hence his philosophy, like Ihc Uc^cWaiw, cotv\\t\w^^^ \.q\\cv^xvVs» 
one with the difficulty ihal lu aactVJicft oV. \}b!t ^Jk&\:\w:V\>iwsi^^V 



234 



METAPHYSICS 



[NOUMENAL IDEAUSU 



all individual substances to the universality of God entails the 
sacrifice of the individual personality of men. Our bodies 
were reduced by Lotze to the general ruck of phenomenal appear- 
ances. Our souls he tried his best to endow with a quasi- 
existence, arguing that the unity of consciousness requires an 
indivisible subject, which is distinct from the plurality of the 
body but interacting with it, is in a way a centre of independent 
activities, and is so far a substance, or rather able to produce 
the appearance of a substance. But at the end of his Metaphysik^ 
from the conclusion that everything beyond phenomena is divine 
interaction, he drew the consistent corollary that individual 
souls are simply actions of the one genuine being. His final 
view was that certain actions of the divine substance are during 
consciousness gifted with knowledge of themselves as active 
centres, but during unconsciousness are non-existent. If so, 
we are not persons with a permanent being of our own distinct 
from that of God. But in a philosophy which reduces everything 
to phenomenal appearance except the self-interacting substance 
of God, there is no room for either the bodies or the souls of 
finite substances or human persons. 

5. Fechner (i 801 -1887) affords a conspicuous instance of the 
idealistic tendency to mystcrize nature in his Panpsychism, or 
AkAmt. ^^' ^^"^"^ °^ noumcnal idealism which holds that the 
universe is a vast communion of spirits, souls of men, 
of animals, of plants, of earth and other planets, of the sun, all 
embraced as different members in the soul of the world, the high- 
est spirit — God, in whom we live and move and have our being; 
that the bodily and the spiritual, or the physical and the psychical, 
are everywhere parallel processes which never meet to interact ; 
but that the difference between them is only a difference* between 
the outer and inner aspects of one identical psychophysical 
process; and yet that both sides are not equally real, because 
while psychical and physical are identical, the psychical is what 
a thing really is as seen from within, the physical is what it 
appears to be to a spectator outside; or spirit is the self-appear- 
ance of matter, matter the appearance of one spirit to another. 
Fechner's panpsychism has a certain affmity both to Stahl's 
animism and to the hylozoism of materialists such as Hacckel. 
But, while it differs from both in denying the reality of body, it 
differs from the former in extending conscious soul not only to 
plants, as Stahl did, but to all Nature; and it differs from the 
latter in the different consequences drawn by materialism and 
idealism from this universal animism. According to Haeck'el, 
matter is the universal substance, spirit its universal attribute. 
According to Fechner, spirit is the universal reality, matter the 
universal appearance of spirit to spirit; and they arc identical 
because spirit is the reality which appears. Hence Fechner 
describes himself as a twig fallen from Schelling's stem. Schel- 
ling's adherent Oken by his Lchrbuch dcr Natur philosophic 
conveyed 10 his mind the life-long impression that God is the 
universe and Nature God's app>earance. At the same time, 
while accepting the SchcUingian parallelistic identity of all 
things in God, Fechner was restrained by his accurate knowledge 
of physics from the extravagant construction of Nature, which 
had failed in the hands of SchclUng and Hegel. Besides, he was 
deeply impressed by the fact of man's personality and by the 
problem of his personal immortality, which brought him back 
through Schelling to Leibnitz, whose Monadologie throughout 
maintains the plurality of monadic souls and the omnipresence 
of perception, sketches in a few sections (§§ 23, 7S-81) a pan- 
psychic parallelism, though without identity, between bodily 
motions and psychic perceptions, and, what is most remarkable, 
already uses the conservation of energy to argue that physical 
energy pursues its course in bodies without interacting with 
souls, and that motions produce motions, perceptions produce 
perceptions. Leibnitz thus influenced Fechner, as in other 
ways he influenced Lotze. Both, however, used this influence 
freely; and, whereas Lotze used the Lcibnitzian argument from 
indivisibility to deduce indivisible elements and souls, Fechner 
used the Lcibnitzian hypotheses of universal perception and 
parallelism of motions and perceptions, in the light of the 
ScbcJJuigiaa idcDtiBcatloa of physical and psychical, to evolve 



a world-view (WdtatuicM) containing something which vis 
neither Leibnitz nor Schelling. 

Fechner's first point was his panpsychism. Emphasiring the 
many real analogies between physical and mental agency, but under- 
rating the much strong evidences that all the mental operatiom of 
men and animals require a nervous system, he flew to the paiadoac 
that soul is not limited to men and animals, but extends j^^ 
to plants, to the earth and other planets, to the 
sun, to the woHd itself, of which, accordmj; to him, God 
is the world-soul. In thu doctrine of universal animation he was 
like Leibnitz, yet very different. Whereas Leibniu confined a 
large area of the world to wholly unconscious perceptions, and 
therefore preferred to call the souls 01 iiUMganic beings " Entdcchies.'* 
Fechner extended consciousness to the whole world ; and accordingly, 
whereas Leibnitz believed in a supramundane Creator, " au dewis 
du Monde " and " dans le Monde,' Fechner, in the spirit of ScbeUing , 
identified God with the soul of the world. Fechner's second point 
was that, throughout the animated universe, phyucal pn out a 
accompany psychical processes without interaction. In this pan- 
psychistic parallelism he was again like Leibnitz, and he developed 
his predecessor's view, that the conservation of energy preventa 
interaction, into the supposition that alongside the physiod then 
is a parallel psychical conservation of cnerjgy. Here, again, he 
went much further than Leibnitz, but along with Schdling;, m identi- 
fy in^ the physical and the psychical as outer and inner sides of the 
&a.nu' process, in which the inner is the real and the outer the appa> v 
rcMit. iliird point carried him beyond all his pre d eoe as ofs, ^ 

conidjcjii*^ ,1^ »L >i'>es the true originality ot his " workl-view." He 
advanced the in^nious suggestion that, as body b in body and all 
ijJUEnatfly in the world-lxMy, so soul is in aouland all ultimately 
in th« wary^^ul. By this means he explained immortality and 
vindkatixl personality. His fourth point was connected with this 
incluikin of pononal spirits in higher spirits and in the highest. 
U U hii so-called " synechological view" of the soul. Herbait 
jnd Lotjce* both deeply affected by the Lcibnitzian hypothcas 
of tniliviilbic mon'tds, supposed that man's soul is seated at a central 
pL>iivt in ttte brjln; and Lotze supposed that this supposition is 
necessary to explain the unity of consciousness. Fechno^s supposi- 
tion was that the unity of consciousness belongs to the umty of 
the whole body: that the seat of the soul is the living body; that 
the soul changes its place as in different parts a process rises above the 
" threshold of consciousness "; and that soul is not substance but 
the single psychical life which has its physical manifestatioo in the 
single bothly life. Applying this "synechological view" to the 
supposed inclusion of soul in soul, he deduced the condunon that, 
as here the nature of one's soul is to unite one's little body, ao here* 
after its essence will be to unite a greater body, while Cod's spirit 
uRim the whqie world by Hi- ■ <--- and he pertinently 

aikcd, in Df7fHj>«ition to the " [n.i: - : . , .,' >,<,■, whether God's sold 
14 centned in a pomtn _ Loj^Ely, thv. wiioisr 0I tfits ** world- view" 

developed by Fechner ineifSy life, under the LAflucnc'e of hisrdij, 

training, and out of a pious df.'^trc to understand chc3>&e main truths 
of ChriatiAniiy which irjich u« tlu[ vw arc children of God, that tUi 
natural body will become a spiritual hody, nnd that^ though weaiv 
different individual membcra, we live and move at^d ^re in God: 
*' in r>K^ vivifnus^ moveniufl, eE Himu&.^' It ii impoxtant to notice 
that F<>chiwr maintained thi^ '* world- view " in little book. Dtt 
B\i£k!ein POifl Lebn nxitk dtm Tode^ which he originally published 
in i8i6 under the prfudunym of Dr Ml»ei, but which he afterwanb 
repuMishL^i in bis own nome in tA66n xtnd a^^in. in [M7. asa sketdi 
tjf h\i Weiiartttrhi. Afttrw-irti* in Nannc (rS48J he diJi-ussed the 
»Lippo$i.>d Minis of pbnts, and in Zendrnvifs (1^51) the Sicipposed soids 
€}t the earth and the rrst of the world. Then in 1855 hr pubUsfacd 
his Alt^mrtdekre^ partly founded on hti physics, but tnaiiiTy on his 

TTi Ctrl physics. IJnttiT thr- inlliit-rirf nf Ij-thnir?, Rii^- iA'ich, KaSt 

:vn(t ilirtMrt. he - -■ 1 ■ ■ . ■ . , punctual 

iUtim^, whuli ;jrv : attraCtMM 

and repulsion; that impenetrability is a result of repuluve force; 
and that force itself is only law — taking as an instance that Newton* 
ian force of attraction whose process we do not understand, 1 
neglecting that Newtonian force of pressure and impact wfe 
process we do understand from the collision of bodies already ei* 
tended and resisting. But, in thus adapting to his own purposes 
the Lcibnitzian analysis of material into imniaterial, he drew his 
own conclusions according to his own metaphysics, which required 
that the supposed centres of force are not Lcibnitzian " monads,** 
nor Herl>arttan " reals." nor divine modifications such as LoCJB 
afterwards supposed, but arc elements of a svstem which in outer 
as{xx:t is bodily and in inner aspect is spirituaf, and obeying laws of 
spirit. At the same time his syncchotocical view prevented him 
from saying; that every atom has a soul, because according to him a 
soul always corrcsnon<ls to a unity of a physical manifold. TlittS 
his metaphysics is L'ibnitzian. like that of Lotze, and yet is opposed 
to the most characteristic feature of monadobgy — the perap im 
indivisible monad. 

In i860 appeared Fechner's EltmenU dcr Psychopkysik, a wwk 
which dceplv affected subsequent psychology, and almost revoln- 
tionized metaphvsics of body and soul, and of physical and psychical 
relations generally. ^ It becomes necessary, thenefofv, to aeUnaim 



MODHENAL IDEALISU] 



METAPHYSICS 



235 



ham Car Fcchncr derived hia ptydK>pli3r8ic8 from experience, how far 
from fallacies of inference, from his romantic imagination and from 
hb tbeosophic metaphysicB, which indeed coloured his whole book on 
ps ych ophysica. At the very outset he started- with his previous 
netaphysKal hypothesis of paralleiistic identity without interaction. 
He now compared the spiritual and bodily sides of a man to the con- 
cave and convex sides of a circle, as inner and outer sides of the same 
process^ which is psychical as viewed from within and phybical as 
viewed from without. He also maintained throughout the book that 
physical and psychical energy do not tnteriere. but that the ps>-chical 
u, like a mathematical quantity, a function of the physical, doiicnd- 
ing upon it. and vice versa, only in the sense that a constant relation 
accocding to law exists, such that we may conclude from one to the 
other, but without one ever beine cause of the other. By his 
psychophysics he meant the exact doctrine of the rcbtions of depen- 
dency between physical and psychicaL The name was new, but 
■oc the doctrine. From antiquity men had applied themselves to 
drtemine the relations between the physical stimuli and the so- 
called " quality " of sensations. But what was new was the applica- 
tioa of this doctrine to the rcbtions between the stimuli and the so- 
called " intensity " of sensations. He generalized Weber's law (q.v.) 
n the form that sensation generally increases in intensity as the 
stimulus increases by a constant function of the previous stimulus; 
or increases in an ahthraettcal progression as the stimulus increases 
ia a geomeuical ratio; or increases by addition of the same amount 
as the stimulus increases by the same multiple; or incrui&es as the 
iKsrahm of the stimulus. There are then, at least within the limits 
of moderate sensations, concomitant variations between stimuli and 
SBsations, not only in " quality," as in the intervals of sounds, 
i^h were understood long ajgo, but also in " intensity "; and the 
discovery of the Utter is the importance of Weber's and Fcchncr's 
hv. By the rules of induction from concomitant variations, we 
aie logically bound to infer the realistic conclusion that outer physical 
mmuU cause inner sensations of sensible effects. But, unfortunately 
for Fechner, the very opposite concluMon followed from the pre- 
SBppositions of his paralleiistic metaphysics, and from the Leibnitz- 
m view of the conservation of energy, which he was the first in our 
tiae to use in order to argue that a phyucal cause cannot produce 
a psychical effect, on the ground tnat physical energy must be 
eoctly replaced by physical energy. 

Having satisfied himself in what he called " outer psychophysics," 
that the stimulus causes only the nervous process and not sensation, 
he passed to what he called '' inner psycnophysics," or the theory 
of the relation between nervous and psychical processes. He 
ri^tly ari|ued against the old theory that the continuity of nervous 
procesKs in the Drain is interrupted by mental processes of thought 
ud wfll: there is a nervous procen for every mental process. But 
two questions then arose. What is the relation between nervous 
pnxeu and sensation? What causes sensation? The first aucstion 
K answered from his imagination by supF>osing that, while the 
edemal world is stimulus of the nervous process, the ncr\'ous 
pnceas is the immediate stimulus of the sensation, and that the 
ttaatioo increases by a constant fraction of the previous stimulus 
a ike arnvu system, when Weber's law proves only that it increases 
by a comtant fraction of the previous stimulus in the external world. 
Tfee Mcond question he answered from his paralleiistic metaphysics 
by dfEducing that even within the organism there is only a constant 
drpewlency of sensation on nervous process without causation, 
became thie nervous process is physical but the sensation psychical. 
Th» answer supposed that the whole physical process from the 
action of the external stimulus on the nervous system to the reaction 
of the organism on the external world is one series, while the con- 
nws process beginning with sensation is only [tarallcl and as it were 
kit h^ and dry. Uliat then is^ the cause of the sensation ? 
HnJey, it will be remembered, in similar circumstances, answered 
this qoestwn by degrading consciousness to . an eptphcnomcnon, 
w bye.pnxluct of the physical process. Fcchncr was saved from 
this abwrdity, but only to fall into the greater absurdity of his own 
ptap^rchism. Having long assumed that the whole world is 
uianted throughout, and that there are always two parallel series, 
fhviical and psychical, he concluded that, while a physical stimulus 
■ causing a physical nervous process, a psychical accompaniment 
of the stimulus is causing the sensation, which, according to him, 
is the pvvchical accompaniment of the nervous process; and that, 
wthe whole physical and the whole psychical scries are the same, 
dSenng only as outer and inner, this identity holds both of stimulus 
Ud 'n% psychical accompaniment and of nervous process and its 
■crooipanying sensatbn. Accordingly, he calls these and all other 
** psj-chophysical " ; and as he recognized two fxirallcl 



es, physical anci psychical, differing only as outer and inner 

,--SOI tte same energy, he called this "psychophysical enerpy." 

u wdi a philosophy all reality is " psychophysical.' At the same 



Mpcctsof tm same energy, he called this "psychophysical energy." 
ioch a philosophy all reality is " psychophysical.' At the same 
eF echner would not have us suppose that the two sides are equal : 
*^nling to him, the psychical, being the psychophysical as viewed 
«■ vithin, is real, the physical, being the psychophysical viewed 
atm witboat. is apparent ; so in oneself, though nervous process anri 
tpttical process are the same, it is the psychical which is the reality 
H «Ucfa the nervous is mere appearance ; and so everywhere, spirit 
• the naUty, body the appearance of spirit to spirit. Finally, he ^ 



supposed that one spirit is in another, and all in the highest spirit, 
God. By this means also he explained unconsciousness. In jwint 
of fact, many stimuli are beneath the " threshold " of a man's con- 
sciousness. Leibnitz, in the Nouveaux Essais, ii. 11, had also said 
that we have many " petites perceptions," of which we are un- 
conscious, and had further suggested that a perception of which 
we are, is composed of a quantitv of " petites perceptions " of which 
we are not. conscious. Proceeding on this suggestion, and misled 
by the mathematical expression which he had given to Weber's law, 
Fechner held that a conscious sensation, like its stimulus, consists 
of units, or elements, by summation and increments of which 
conscious sensations and their differences are produa^l; so that 
consciousness, according to this unnecessary assumption, emerges 
from an integration of unconscious shocks or tremors. But by the 
hypothesis ofthe inclusion of spirit in spirit, he was further able to 
hold that what is unconscious in one spirit is conscious in a higher 
spirit, while everything whatever is in the consciousness of the 
highest spirit of God, who is the whole of reality of which the spirits 
are parts, while the so-called physical world is merely outer appear- 
ance of one spirit to another. ^ 

Fechner first confused physics and metaphysics in psychophyucs, 
and next prcxxcded to confuse them again in his work on evolution 
{Einifte Ideen tur Schdp/ungs und EfUvncklungs-geschickte der Orfflnis- 
men, 1873). He perceived that Darwinism attributed too much to 
accident, and was also powerless to explain the origin of life and 
of consciousness. But nis substitute was his own hypothesis of 
panpsychism, from which he deduced a " cosmorganic ' evolution 
from a " cosmorganic " or original condition of the worid as a living 
organism into the inorganic, by the principle of tendency to stability. 
The world, as he thought, on its physical side, always was a living 
body; and on its psychical side God always was its conscious spirit; 
and, so far from life arising from the lifeless, and consciousness from 
unconsciousness, the life and consciousness of the whole world are 
the origin of the lifeless and the unconscious in parts of it, by a kind 
of secondary automatism, while we ourselves arc developed from our 
own mother-earth by differentiation. By thus supposing a psychical 
basis to evolution, Fechner, anticipating Wundt, substituted a 
psychical development of organs for Darwinian accidental variation. 
The difficulty of such speculations b to prove that things apparently 
dead and inindless are living souls. Their interest to the metaphysi- 
cbn is their opposition to physics on the one hand and to theism 
on the other. Shall we resign our traditional belief that the greater 
part of the world is mere body, but that its general adaptability to 
conscious organisms proves its creation and government by God, 
and take to the new hypothesis, which, by a transfer of design from 
God to Nature, supposes that everything physical is alive, and con- 
ducts its life by psychical impulses of its own? Fechner himself 
went even further, and together with design transferred God Himself 
to Nature. This is the subject of his bst metaphysical work. Die 
Tagesanskkt gfgenuber der Nachtansickt (1879). The " day-view " 
(Fechner's) is the view that God is the psychophysical all-embracing 
being, the law and consciousness of the world. It resembles the views 
of Hegel and Lotze in its pantheistic tendency. But it docs not, 
like theirs, sacrifice our personality; because, according to Fcchncr, 
the one divine consciousness includes us as a brger circle includes 
smaller circles. By this ingenious suggestion of the membership 
of one spirit in another, Fechner's " day-view " also puts Nature in 
a different position: neither with Hegel sublimating it to the thought 
of God's mind, nor with Lotze degrading it to the phenomena of our 
human minds, but identifying it with the outer appearance of one 
spirit to another spirit in the highest of spirits. 

We have dwelt on this curious metaphysics of Fechner because 
it contains the master-key to the philosophy of the present 
moment. When the later reaction to Kant arose against both 
Hegelianism and materialism, the ncariy contemporary appear- 
ance of Fechner's Psychophysics began to attract experimental 
psychologists by its real as well as its .apparent exactness, and 
both psychologists and metaphysicians by its novel way of 
putting the relations between the physical and the psychical 
in man and in .the world. Fcchncr saw psychology deriving 
advantage from the methods, as well as the results, of his 
experiments, and in 187Q the first psychological laboratory was 
erected by Wundt at Leipzig. But he had also to endure count- 
less objections to his mathematical statement of Weber's law, 
to his unnecessary assumption of units of sensation, and to his 
unjustifiable transfer of the law from ph>'sical to physiological 
stimuli of sensations, involving in his opinion his paralleiistic 
view of body and mind. Among psychologists Helmholtz, Mach, 
Brentano, Hcring, Dclbocuf, were all more or less against him. 
Sigwart in his Logic has also opposed the paralleiistic view itself; 
and James has criticized it from the point of view that the soul 
selects out of the possibilities oi iVvc bta.\i\ mtM\% \ft\v% 'ywxv «Asw 
iVcvcrlhclvss, largely uiidci l\v<j \xvi\\3n;xvct oV V\vR tTta:^«^>5tfsw 



236 



METAPHYSICS 



[PHENOMENAL IDEAUSM 



of the conservation of energy,' many psychologists— Wundt, 
Paulsen, Riehl, Jodl, Ebbinghaus, Mtinsterberg, and in England 
Lewes, Clifford, Romanes, Stout — have accepted Fechner's 
psychophysical parallelism, as far at least as men and animals 
are concerned. Most stop here, but some go with Fcchner to 
the full length of his meUphysical parallelism of the physical 
and psychical, as psychophysical, throughout the whole world. 
This influence extended from Germany to Denmark, where it 
was embraced by Hoffding, and to England, where it was accepted 
by Romanes, and in a more qualified manner as " a working 
hypothesis" by Stout. But the most thorough and most 
eloquent of Fechner's metaphysical disciples was F. Paulsen 
(q.v.), who spread panpsychism far and wide in his Einkitung in 
die PhUosophie. 

WtTQ rcflptwjr alt tlic cKaractwiitic: psjinti tA FecJmer'i " worid- 
Tirw "^thp pinpiyctiiafn, the univL^rsjil pamlltJijin wjlK \ht idtrnti- 
p^^.^ ficitiejrt of pli^ical and p&ycliicaJ, the incluson irf ipirit 
^^^^ in tpiriti the flvnccholo^ii:^ view of splrii, and the final 
*' day- view " that all reality t» tpirit^ and body Iht appcanincc of 
■piric to spirit. But Paulvn tricj^ to supply MtrK^iNing w^inting in 
Fcchner. The Originality <A P^ulscfl consists in tryii>g lo supply an 
cpiBtcniiolog:icalexpl;;tfUitjon oH (He metapby»ic5 of tcchncr, by npcon- 
cilipg bim with Kant and Schopenhauer. He borrows fmm Kant's 
*^rHatK>nalL»Ri '* the hypotlH»i9 of a tpontaneout artivity of the 
■ubject with the djcduction that kno^k-dac bceips rmtn seiue, but 
■rbcs from understanding; and he acctpts from Kant's 9ni:taph;i||tical 
idiaiUBtn the^ ccpn*equcnce that cvrry thine we perceive, enperivnce 
aad know about physical natuni', and the bodies ol whkh it can&iits, 
19 uhfrnomttiaH and not l>]di]iy thing? in themselves. Uut Eie has a 
difti'rfrtt [hH.v)n^ of hiimsn n.iture and wul, and -w di->e3 not attifpt 

thi' tCr.'i.-, ,'.:■.. ■:.. ■ >\- .. i- r' .•: :■..'■'■: •-> . of 
tln'\, ,■ • . : ry. 

his contention is that of Fcchner — that all knowable thincsarc inner 
psychical realities beneath outer physical appearances — the invisible 
bymbolizcd by the visible. Kant, however, had no cpistemology 
for such a contention, because according to him both outer and 
inner senses give mere appearance, from which wc could not know 
either body in itself, or soul in itself. Parting, then, from Kant, 
Paulsen resorts to a paradox which he shares with Fcchner and 
Wundt. He admits, indeed, Kant's hypothesis that by inner sense 
we are conscious only of mental states, but he contends that this 
very consciousness is a knowledge of a thing in itself. He agrees 
with Fcchner and Wundt that there is no substantial soul, and that 
soul is nothing but the mental states, or rather their unity — thus 
identifying it with Kant's synthetic unity. On this assumption 
he deduces that in being conscious of our mental states we are 
conscious of sou! not merely as it appears, but as it is in itself, and 
therefore can infer similar souls, other psychical unities, which are 
also things in themselves. 

But what is the essence of this psychical reality which we thus 
immediately and mediately know? Here he appeals to Schopen- 
hauer's doctrine that will of some sort is the fundamental fact of 
mental life. Taking, then, will to be the essential thing in itself 
of whiith we £irc izonscioug, he dt.'cjucm that we can infer that the 
uychital things in themselves beyond our^lvos arc al^o essentially 

wilU." Cpmbininji with thij the ci?ntrjl do^ma of Fcchner that 
tpirit ettends throyghont the world of bodily appisirancc, he con- 
clyd^ that the rcahtieii ol the world are ** mll^, " that bodln are 
more appcaranct^ of '" wilU»" and that there i.^ one universal and 
all-cmbrjcins fptrit which '^ " wtl]." Hi^ ultimate metaphyiica, 
then, i« thitt L^try thing i$ epint* and spirit \a " will." Lastly, 
by " will " he docs not mean ratloiial d&irct" which i* it* profwr 
nicanin^p but in.)pplic3blc to Nature ■ nor unconscious irrational will, 
whkh i» SchopenliiucTV foftcd mcanit^g; nor uncomdou* inlelligcnt 
will, which i* liarttifiano^morc correct oieaning, though inapplicable 
to Nature. Hii " will " i« inslincE. impulwvt Idling, a " will to 
live." not indc^ aneot^^out. but ofltn ^ubconsciou?, without idea, 
without ncusoning about ends Atn] r^ivirk^i, m-i fnir-sjiing ends— in 



r. 



ihoTt. what he calls, alter K, R- 

wraistent 11 ancient animism I liriir '■ l.^, ['].".•• ind Aristotle; 
Triesio. Bruno and Campanclla^ 1^ ' . 'm > ! il. t^. Silmpon- 
hauer and Hartmann. tVchner 3^' iiii^t, 

Hacnrkd — all ha\T agneeii in acct-r _ . , ••■■t\ i^j 

Nature. So prone are men to exaggerate adaptation into aim! So 
prone are thej* to transfer to Nature the j>art playcil by the 
providence of God! (sec Bacon, De augmentis, iii. 4, suhfin.). 

Noumcnal idealism is not dead in Germany. It died down for 
a time in the decline of Hcgelianism and the rise of materialism. 
It has since revived. The pure idealism of Fichte is at the 
bottom of it all. The panlogism of Schelling and Hcgcl survives 
in its influence. So still more docs the pantheism of Schopen- 
hauer. The three most vital idealisms of this kind at the moment 
sjv the panpncumalism ol HartmiUD, combining Hegel with 



Schopenhauer; the pantdeolo^sm of Lotze, reviving Leibnitx;' 
and the panpsychism of Paulsen, continuing Fcchner, but with 
the addition of an epistemology combining Kant with Scbopea-j 
hauer. All these systems of metaphysics, differ as they may, 
agree that things are known to exist beyond sensible phenomena, 
but yet are mental realities of some kind. Meanwhile, the 
natural substances of Aristoteliaa realism are regarded with 
common aversion. 

5.— Phenomenal Ideausm in Germany 

Phenomenal idealism is the metaphysics which deduces that, 
as we begin by perceiving nothing but mental phenomena of 
sense, so all we know at last from these d^ta is also phenomena 
of sense, actual or possible. So far it is in general agreement 
not only with Hume, but also with Kant in his first two positions. 
But it follows Fichte in his revolt against the unknown thing ia 
itself. On the other hand, as the speculative systems of nou- 
mcnal idealism, starting from Fichte, succeeded one another, Lice 
ghosts who " come like shadows, so depart," without produdng 
conviction, and often in flagrant opposition to the truths of 
natural science, and when, in consequence, a wave of materialism 
threatened to submerge mind altogether by reducing it to a 
function of matter, many philosophers began to despair ol the 
ambitious attempts which had been made to prove that there is a 
whole world of mind beyond phenomena, as the noumenalists 
had supposed. Thus they were thrown back on the limits of 
human knowledge prescribed by Kant, but purged of the un- 
known thing in itself by Fichte. Phenomenal idealism is the 
Kantian contention that Nature, as known to science, is pheno- 
mena of experience. Unfortunately, the word " phenomenon " 
is equivocal (see Mind, xiv. 309). Sometimes it is used for anjr 
positive fact, as distinguished from its cause. But sometimes 
also it means what appears, or can appear, to the senses, as 
distinguished from what does not appear, but can be infeired 
to exist. Now, Kant and his followers start from this second and 
narrower meaning, and usually narrow it still more by assuming 
that what appears to the senses is as mental as the sensatko, 
being undistinguishable from it or from the idea of it, and thit 
an appearance is a mental idcaiV orsteUung) of sense; and tbei 
they conclude that we can know by inference nothing but suck 
mental appearances, actual and possible, and therefore nothiaf 
beyond sensory experience. When, on the other hand, ths 
objects of science are properly described as phenomena, what ii 
meant is not this pittance of sensible appearances, but positire 
facts of all kinds, whether perceptible or imperceptible, whether 
capable of being experienced or of being inferred from, bat 
beyond, experience, e.g. the farther side of the moon, whidi 
is known to exist only by inference. Hence the doctrine of 
Kant, that Nature as known to science is phenomena, means one 
thing in Kantism and another thing in science. In the fonner 
it means that Nature is mental phenomena, actual and possible, 
of sensory experience; in the latter it means that Nature il 
positive facts, either experienced or inferred. It is most impo^ 
tant also to notice that Kantism denies, but science asserts, the 
logical power of reason to infer actual things beyond cxpeiieoce. 
But the phenomenal idealists have not, any more than Kai^ 
noticed the ambiguity of the term " phenomenon "; they fanqr 
that, in saying that all we know is phenomena in the Kantian 
sense of mental appearances, they are describing all the positive 
facts that science knows; and they follow Kant in suppos- 
ing that there is no logical inference of actual things bejnood 
experience. 

I. The Reaction to Kant— The reaction to Kant(" Zuriick n 
Kant!") was begun by O. Licbmann in Kant und die Epigonen 
(1S65). Immediately afterwards, in 1S66. appeared LAnge^ 
Geschichte dcs Materialismns. In 1870 J. B. Meyer published his 
Kants Psychologic, and in 1871 H. Cohen his more importanl 
Kants Theorie der Erfahrung, which led Lange to modify hb 
interpretation of Kant in the second edition of his own book. 
Lange (^.r.) by his History of Materialism has exercised a pro* 
found influence, which is due partly to its apparent success IB 
answering materialism by Kantian arguments, and partly t9 



rHENOUENAL IDEALISM] 



METAPHYSICS 



237 



its hagauom attempt to give to Kantism itself a consistency, 
■iiadi, however, has only succeeded in producing a new 
l^^g^ philosophy of Neo-Kantism, diflfcring from Kantism 
in modifying the a priori and rejecting the thing 
in itself. Lange to some extent modified the transcen- 
kntalism of Kant's theory of the origin of knowledge. A 
priori forms, according to Kant, are contributions of the 
mental powers of sense, understanding, and reason; but, accord- 
ing to Lange, they are rooted in " the physico-psychical organi- 
Eaiion.*' This modification was the beginning of a gradual 
csscning of the antithesis of a priori to a posteriori, until at 
last the a priori forms of Kant have been transmuted into 
" auxiliary conceptions," or " postublcs of experience." 
But this modification made no difference to the Kantian and 
Keo-Kantian deduction from the epistemological to the meta- 
physicaL Lange entirely agreed with Kant that a priori forms 
can have no validity beyond experience when he says: " Kant is 
V. any rate so far justified as the principle of intuition in space 
and time a priori is in us, and it was a service to all time that he 
sbotald in this first great example, show that what we possess a 
priori, just because it arises out of the disposition of our mind, 
beyond our experience has no longer any claim to validity " (Hist. 
^ UaUrialism, trans. E. C. Thomas, ii. 203). Hence he deduced 
that whatever we know from sensations arranged in such a priori 
favms are objects of our own experience and mental phenomena. 
Hence also his answer to materialism. Science, says the mate- 
lialist, proves that all known things are material phenomena. 
Yes, rejoins Lange. but Kant has proved that material are merely 
nenul phenomena; so that the more the materialist proves his 
case the more surely he is playing into the hands of the idealist — 
ta answer which would be complete if it did not turn on the 
equivocation of the word " phenomenon," which in science 
neans any positive fact, and not a mere appearance, much less a 
aental appearance, to sense and sensory experience. Having, 
bovever, made a deduction, which is at all events consistent, 
that on Kantian assumptions all we know is mental phenomena* 
Uage proceeded to reduce the rest of Kantism to consistency. 
But his ardent love of consistency led him far away from Kant 
in the end; for he proceeded consistently from the assumption, 
tlttt whatever we think beyond mental phenomena is ideal, to 
the logical conclusion that in practical matters our moral responsi- 
bifity cannot prove the reality of a noumenal freedom, because, 
ts 00 Kant's assumption we know ourselves from inner sense 
nly as phenomena, we can prove only our phenomenal freedom. 
UiLge thus transmuted inconsistent Kantism into a consistent 
Keo-Kantism, consisting of these reformed positions: (i) we start 
*itb sensations in a priori forms; (2) all things known from these 
dua are mental phenomena of experience; (3) everything beyond 
is idea, without any corresponding reality being knowablc. 
"The intelligible world," he concluded, " is a world of poetry." 
Ov reflection is that there is a great difference between the 
ttsence and the consistency of Kant's philosophy. Its essence, 
IS stated by Kant, was to reduce the logical use of reason to 
neotal phenomena of experience in speculation, in order to 
extend the practical use of reason to the real noumena, or things 
is themselves, required for morality. Its consistency, as deduced 
bjr Lange, was to reduce all use of reason, speculative and 
pnctical, to its logical use of proceeding from the assumed mental 
data dL outer and inner sense, arranged a priori, to mental 
pbeiwmena of experience, beyond which we can conceive ideas 
bot postulate nothing. As H. Vaihinger, himself a profound 
taiitian of the new school, says: " Critical scepticism is the 
pKoper result of the Kantian theory of knowledge." 

There is only one Nco-Kanttan way out of this dilemma, but it is 
to altrr the original assumptions of Kant's psychological idealism. 
Ty* is the alternative of \. RichI, who in Der philosopkische Krilicis- 
•^jj mus (1876, &c.) proposes the non-Kantian hypothesis 
that, though things in thcmstlvus arc unknowable 
™w»h reason alone, they are knowablc b^' empirical intuition, and 
*«»««* also by empirical thought starting from intuition. Like 
aatroc followers of Kant, Riehl prefers epistemology to metaphysics; 
jet in reality he founds a metaphysics on epistcmology, which he 
(■b " critical reahsm,'* so far as it asserts a knowledge of things 



beyond phenomena, and " critical monism." so far as it holds that 
these thmgs are unlike both physical and psychical phenomena, but 
are nevertheless the common basis of both. He accepts the Kantian 
positions that unitv of consciousness combines sensations by a 
priori synthesis, and that therefore all that natural science knows 
about matter movins in space is merely phenomena of outer sense; 
and he agrees with Kant that from these data we could not infer 
things in themselves by reason. But his point is that the very 
sensation of phenomena or appearances implies the things which 
appear. " Sensory knowledge,'^ he says, " is the knowledge of the 
relation* of things through the rcbtions of the sensations ofthings." 
Further, holding that, " like every other perception, the perception 
of a human body immediately involves the exi!>tencc of that body," 
and, like Fichte, believing in a " common consciousness," he con- 
cludes that the evidence of sense is verinod by " common conscious- 
ness " of the external world as objective in the Kantian sense of 
universally valid. He interprets the external world to be the com- 
mon basis of physical and psychical phenomena. He rightly relies 
on the numerous passages, neglected by Lange. in which Kant 
re^rds things in themselves as neither phenomena nor ideas, but 
things existing bevond both. But his main reliance is on the 
passage in the Krilik, where Kant, speaking of the Cartesian difficulty 
of communication between body and soul, suggests that, however 
body and soul appear to be different in the phenomena of outer and 
inner sense, what lies as thing in itself at the basis of the phenomena 
of both may perhaps be not so heterogeneous (ungUichartig) after 
all. Riehl elaborates this bare suggestion into the metaphysical 
Iheory that the single basis of physical and psychical phenomena 
is neither bodily nor mental, nor vet srjace and motion. In order 
to establish this paradox of " critical monism," he accepts to a certain 
extent the psychophysical philosophy of Fechner. He agrees with 
Fechner that physical process of nerve and pwychical process of 
mind are really the same psychophysical process as appearing on 
the one hand to an observer and on the other hand to one's own 
consciousness: and that physical phenomena only produce physical 
phenomena, so that those materialists and realists arc wrong who 
say that physical stimuli produce sensations. But whereas Fechner 
and Paulsen hold that all physical processes are universally accom- 
panied by psychical processes which are the real causes of psychical 
M^nsations, Riehl rejects this paradox of universal parallelism in 
order to fall into the eoually paradoxical hypothesis that something 
or other, which is neither physical not psychical, causes both the 
physical phenon}ena of matter moving in space and the psychical 
phenomena of mind to arise in us as its common effects. I n supposing 
a direct perception of such a nondescript thing, he shows to what 
straits idealists are driven in the endeavour to supplement Kant's 
limitation of knowledge to phenomena by some sort of knowledge 
of things. 

2. Tke Reaction to Hume.— When the Neo-Kantians, led by 
Lange, had modified Kant's hypothesis of a priori forms, and 
retracted Kant's admission and postulation of things in them- 
selves beyond phenomena and ideas, and that too without 
proceeding further in the direction of Fichte and the noumenal 
idealists, there was not enough left of Kant to distinguish him 
essentially from Hume. For what does it matter to meta- 
physics whether by association sensations suggest ideas, and so 
give rise to ideas of substance and causation a posteriori, or 
synthetic unity of consciousness combines sensations by a priori 
notions of substance and causation into objects which are merely 
mental phenomena of experience, when it is at once allowed by 
the followers of Hume and Kant alike that reason in any logical 
use has no power of inferring things beyond the experience of 
the reasoner? In either case, the effective power of inference, 
which makes us rational beings, is gone. Naturally then the 
reaction to Kant was followed by a second reaction to Hume, 
partly under the name of *' Positivism," which has attracted a 
number of adherents, such as C. Goring (1841-1879), author of 
an incomplete System der Kritischen Philosophie (1874-1875) and 
E. Laas {q.v.), and partly under the name of the " physical 
phenomenology " of E. Mach. 

Ernst Mach {q.v.) is a conspicuous instance of a confusion of 
physics and psychology ending in a scepticism like that of Hume. 
He tells us how from his youth he pursued physical 
and psychological studies, how at the age of fifteen he 
read Kant's Prolegomena, and bter rejected the thing in itself, 
and came to the conclusion that the world with his ego is one 
mass of sensations. For a lime, under the influence of Fechncr's 
Psychflp/iysics, he thought that Nature has two sides, a physical 
and a psychological, and added that all atoms have feeling. But 
in the progress of his physical work, which taught. Vvvrev, iM^Vvfe 
thought, to diitinguisih bclw^eu vjYiaX vj<i ^t ^wi^ \i\^\. ^^ 



Macb, 



238 



METAPHYSICS 



[PHENOMENAL IDEAUSM 



mentally supply, he soon passed from this noumenallsm to a 
" universal physical phenomenology." It retains some relics of 
Fechncr's influence; first, the theory of identity, according to 
which the difference between the pl^sical and psychical is not a 
dualism, but everything is at once both; and secondly, the substi- 
tution of mathematical dependence for physical causality, except 
that, whereas Fechncr only denied causality between physical 
and psychical, Mach rejects the entire distinction between 
causality and dependence, on the ground that " the law of 
causality simply asserts that the phenomena of Nature are 
dependent on one another." He comes near to Hume's substi- 
tution of succession of phenomena for real causality. He holds, 
like Hume, that nothing is real except our sensations and com- 
plexes of sensory elements; that the ego is not a defim'te, unalter- 
able, sharply bounded unity, but its continuity alone is important ; 
and that we know no real causes at all, much less real causes of 
our sensations; or, as he expresses it, bodies do not produce 
sensations, but complexes of sensations form bodies. If he has 
any originality, it consists in substituting for the association of 
ideas the " economy of thinking," by which he means that all 
theoretical conceptions of physics; such as atoms, molecules, 
energy, &c., are mere helps to facilitate our consideration of 
things. But he limits this power of mind beyond sensations 
to mere ideas, and like Hume, and also like Lange, holds at last 
that, though we may form ideas beyond sensations or pheno- 
mena, we cannot know things. If we ask how Mach arrived at 
this scepticism, which is contained in his well-known scientific 
work Die Mechanik in ihrer EtUwickdung (1883; ed. 1908) as 
well as in his psychological work on the Analysis of Sensations 
{Beilrdgezur Analyse der Empjindungen, 1886), we find two main 
causes, both psychological and epistemological; namely, his 
views on sense and on inference. In the first place, he displays 
in its most naked form the common but unproved idealistic 
paradox of a sense of sensations, according to which touch 
apprehends not pressure but a sensation of pressure, sight 
apprehends not colour but a sensation of colour, and there is no 
difference between the sensory operation and the sensible 
object apprehended by any sense, even within the sentient 
organism. Hence, according to him, sensations are not appre- 
hensions of sensible objects (e.g. pressures felt) from which we 
infer similar objects beyond sense (e.g. similar pressures of outside 
things), but are the actual elements out of which everything 
known is made; as if sensations were like chemical elements. 
Within the Umits of these supposed sensory elements he accords 
more than many psychologists do to sense; because, following 
the nativists, Johannes MQller and Hering, he includes sensations 
of time and space, which, however, are not to be regarded as 
'* pure intuitions " in the style of Kant. But here again he 
identifies time and space with the sensations of them {Zcil- 
empfindungen and Raumcmpfindungen). On the assumption, 
then, that time and space are not objects, but systems, of sensa- 
tions, he concludes that a body in time and space is " a relatively 
constant sum of touch-and-ltght-sensations, joined to the same 
time-and-space-sensations," that each man's own body isinduded 
in his sensations, and that to explain sensations by motions 
would only be to explain one set of sensations from another. In 
short, sensations are elements and bodies complexes of these 
elements. Secondly, his theory of inference contains the admis- 
sion that we infer beyond sensations: he remarks that the space 
of the geometer is beyond space-sensations, and the time of the 
physicist docs not coincide with time-sensations, because it 
uses measurements such as the rotation of the earth and the 
vibrations of the pendulum. But by inference beyond sense he 
does not mean a process of concluding from sensible things to 
similar things, e.g. from tangible pressures to other similar 
pressures in the external world. Inference, according to him, 
is merely mental completion of sensations; and this mental 
completion has two characteristics: it only forms ideas, and it 
proceeds by an " economy of thought." In the course of his 
learned studies on the history of mechanics he became deeply 
impressed with Galileo's app>eals to simplicity as a test of truth, 
and converted what is at best only one characteristic of thinking 



into its essence. According to him, whatever inferenoes we 
make, certain or uncertain, are mere economics of thnngi^, 
adapting ideas to sensations, and filling out the gaps of experienoe 
by ideas; whatever we infer, whether bodies, or noolecules, or 
atoms, or space of more than three dimensions, are all wiiiMMt 
distinction equally provisional conceptions, things of thougia; 
and " bodies or things are compendious nfental syinbob for 
groups of sensations — symbob which do not exist outside 
thought." Moreover, he applies the iame .scepticism to cauae 
and effect. " In Nature," says he, " there is no cause and ao 
effect. " He thinks that repetitions of similar conjunctioH 
occur in Nature, the connexion of cause and effect only in abilKic» 
tion. He refers to Hume as recognizing no causality but only 
a customary and habitual succession, but adds that Kant right^ 
recognizes that mere observation cannot teach the necessity dL 
the conjunction. But in reality his theory is neither Hume^ 
theory of association nor Kant's of an a priori notion of under- 
standing under which a given case is subsumed. He thinks that 
there is a notion of understanding (VerstandesbegnJ), under 
which every new experience is subsumed, but that it has beeo 
developed by former experience, instinctively, and by the 
development of the race, as part of the economy of thinking. 
" Cause and effect are therefore," he concludes, " thought-thingi 
of economical function {Ccdankendinge von dkonomisckr 
Function)." His philosophy, therefore, is that all known thtqp 
are sensations and complexes of sensory elements, supplemenled 
by an economy of thinking which cannot carry us beyond idcie 
to real things, or beyond relations of dependency to real causes. 

It is important to understand that Mach had developed tUi 
economical view of thought in 1872, more than ten years belaee 
the appearance of his work on the hbtory of mechanics 
as he tells us in the preface, where he adds that at a 
later date similar views were expressed by Kirchhoff in his F«dl»> 
sungen iibcr mathemaiische Physik (1874). Kirchhoff asserted tbet 
the whole object of mechanics is " to describe the motions occa^ 
ring in Nature completely in the simplest manner." This viev 
involves the denial of force as a cause, and the assertion that al 
we know about force is that the acceleration of one massdcpeadi 
on that of another, as in mathematics a function depends m 
a variable; and that even Newton's third law of motion is mct^f 
a description of the fact that two material points determine ii 
one another, without reciprocally causing, opposite acceleratioM. 
It is evident that Kirchhoff's descriptive is the same as Mach% 
economical view. " When I say," says Mach, '* that a body A 
exerts a force on a body B, I mean that B, on coming into ooatift' 
position with A, is immediately affected by a certain accelerttiot 
with respect to A." In a word, Mach and Kirchhoff agree thit 
force is not a cause, convert Newtonian reciprocal action iele 
mere interdepcndcncy, and, in old terminology, reduce mechaek^ 
from a natural philosophy of causes to a natural history of nctt 
facts. Now, Mach applies these .preconceived opinions le 
" mechanics in its development," with the result that, thougjb ke 
shows much skill in mathematical mechanics, he misrepresents ilt 
development precisely at the critical point of the discovcty of 
Newton's third law of motion. 

The true order of discovery, however, was as follows:^ 

(a) Sir Chrisiooher Wren made many experiments before At 
Royal Society, which were afterwards repeated in a corrocted bra 
by Sir Isaac Newton in the Principia, experimentally proving tbit 
bodies of ascertained comparative weights, when suspended Ml 
impelled against one another, forced one another t>ack by iinpreMn| 
on one another opposite changes of velocity invcrsdy as thew 
weights and tberc^farc moiisei; that li^ by impressing 00 one 
cqucil and Dppo^ilc clinngca of fnpmcntum. 

{bi VVAltii ahowK! that i-ach bodies reduce one another to a j 
fT\3.s& with a rommqn wicpcity equal to their joint 
divided hy thctr joint wckhts or mA«ses. This result b enilf 
d»Juciblc jiliSQ frofTt Wrrn't QvsCQVfry. If m and m' are the ibmh% 
f and v' their initlaJ velocities, and V the common velocity, ttat 
tfi[r - V} - «*(V - »'). therefore «» -|- mV - (« + i«OV, Ml 
hence (jMB Hh mY]Km + «') - V, 

(f ) Wmi 3 m) Hu^rgpits furth'^r pn>ved that the law of equal acdot 
and rcacrion, already ehpmmcnuHy established by the fonoi^ 
i± dcducible from the coTi*cn;iticn of the velocity 01 the comoMI 
centre tif gravity, *tiicb ii the »iimc a^i the common velodty of tli 
bodies, ilml ist deducibk ir^fii tk; f^t that their f 



FHENOUEKAL IDEALISM] 



METAPHYSICS 



239 



of gravity does not change its sUte of motion or rest by the actions 
of ibe bodies between tnemaclves; and they further extended the 
hv to bodies, qua elastic 

(f) Hence, first inductively and then deductively, the third law 
vas originally discovered only as a law of collision or impact between 
bodies of atcertaincd weights and therefore masses, impressing on 
ooe another equal and opposite changes of momentum, and always 
Rdodn^ one another to a joint mass with a common velocity to 
becif with, apart from the subsequent effects of elasticity. 

W. Newton in the Principia, repeating and correcting Wren's 
nperiments on collision, and adding further instances from attrac- 
tift forces of magnetism and gravity, induced the third law of motion 
aiaj^eral law of all forces. 

Thi* order of discovery shows that the third law was generalized 
from the experiments of Wren on bodies of ascertained comparative 
veizbt* or masses, which are not material points or mass-points, 
k dtows that the bodies impress on one another opposite changes of 
vriocity inversely as their weights or masses; and that in doing so 
tbey always licgin by reducing one another to a joint mass with a 
common ^ocity, whatever they may do aftcrwanls in consequence 
d their ela.«ticiiics. The two bodies therefore do not nenetrate one 
•nother, but begin by acting on one another with a force precisely 
fnficient. instead of penetratmg one another, to cause them to form 
I joint mass with a common velocity. Bodies then are triply 
eunded substances, each occupying enough space to prevent mutual 
(KMtration, and by this force of mutual impenetraDility or inter- 
RRsfance cause one another to form a joint mass with a common 
wfadty whenever they collide. Withdraw this foundation of 
Mirs as inter-resisting forces causing one another in collision to 
fmia jmnt mass with a common velocity but without penetration, 
udtke evidence of the third bw disappears: for in the case of attrac- 
litt forces we know nothing of their modus operandi except by the 
auuJa^ of the collision of inter-resisting bodies, which makes us 
h&vz that something simibr.^ we know not what, takes pbre 
ii pavtcv, magnetism, electricity, &c. Now, Mach, though he 
ocosioaally drops hints that the discovery of the Uw of collision 
copci fir«t, ytrt never exf^ns the process of development from it 
to the third law of motion. On the contrary, he treats the bw of 
cdbion with other bws as an application of the third bw of motion, 
bcutue it is now unfortunatelv so taught in books of mechanics. 
He has therefore lost sight of the truths that bodies arc triply 
eiteadcd, mutually impenetr^le substances, and by this force 
cnses which reduce one another to a joint mass with a common 
sdocity on collision, as for instance in the ballistic pendulum ; that 
thnr forces are the ones we best understand; and that they are 
nciproca] causes uf the common velocity of their joint mass, what- 
ntr happens afterwards. In the case of this one force we know 
Itf nxTC than the interdependence supposed by Mach and Kirch- 
Inff: we know bodies with impenetrable force causing one another 
to bep apart. It might have been expected that scepticism on this 
■Aject would not have had much efTert. But the idealists are only 
too {lad to get any excuse for denying bodily substances and causes; 
ud. vhile Leibnitz supplied them with the fancied analysis of 
■aicrial into immaterial elements, and Hume with the reduction 
of bodies to assembbges of sen.sations. Mach adds the additional 
vnment that bodily forces are not cau«)es at all. In Great Britain 
«ch's srrpticum m-as welcomed by Karl Pearson to support an 
iitaliitic phenomenalism derived from Hume, and by Ward to sup- 
port a noumenal idealism derived from Lotze. No real advance 
n metaphysics can take place, and natural science itself is in some 
duicer, until the true history of the evidences of the laws of mechani- 
cal iorce is restored : and then it will soon appear that in the force of 
c&aon what we know is not material points determining one 
i3Q»hcr'$ oppo»tc accelerations, but bodies by force of impenc- 
tmfale onssure causing one another to keep apart. Mechanics is a 
ittuiai philosophy of causes. 

3. Diudism viihin Experience. — Besides those philosophies 
vfcicb are reactions to Kant or to Hume, there are a number of 
otber modem systems which start with the common hypothesis 
tkal knowledge is experience. The consequence is that whatever 
is true of experience they transfer to all knowledge. One of the 
duracteristics of actual experience is that its object is, or has 
l«a, present to an experiencing subject; and of possible cxpcri- 
CKe thai it can be present. As a matter of fact, this character- 
■Kic difTcrrntiates experience from inference. By inference we 
bov that things, such as the farther side of the moon, which 
■ether are, nor have been, nor can be, present to an experiencing 
iibject on the earth, nevertheless exist. But. on the hypothesis 
Alt knowledge contains no inferences beyond experience, it 
Wows that all the objects of knowledge, being objects of 
<^*rience, are, or have been, or can be. present to an experiencing 
Abject. Hence it is common nowadays to hold that there is 
Weed a difTcrence between knowcr and known, ego and non-ego. 
^jea and object, but that they are inseparable: or that all 
bowB things are objects and subjects inseparably connected in I 



experience. This view, however, is held in difTereat forms; and 
two opposite forms have arisen in Germany, " immanent philo- 
sophy " and " cmpirio-criticism," the former nearer to Kant, the 
latter to Hume. 

Immanent Philosophy is the hypothesis that the world is not 
transcendent, but immanent in consciouitness. Among the up- 
holders of this view are Anton von Lecbir, who exprcbws , 
it in the formub— " Dcnken eines Seins « Rcoachtes 2J!!!,** * 
Sein," and R. von Schubert -Soldcm, who says that *'^' 

every fragment of the pretended transcendent world bi-longs to the 
immanent. But the best known representative of Immanent 
Philosophy is W. Schuppe, who, in his Erkenntniitheorelische Logik 
(1878), and in hb shorter Crundriss dtr Erkenntnistheorit und Logilt 
(1894). K'vcs the view a wider scope by the contention that the 
real wond b the common content or object of common conscious- 
ness, which, according to him, as according to Fichte, is one and the 
same in all individual men. Different individual consciousnesses 
pbinly differ in having each its own content, in which Schuppe 
includes each individual's body as well as the rest of the things 
which come within the consciousness of each ; but they also as pbinly 
agree, e.t. in all admitting one sun. Now. the point of Schuppe is 
that, so far as they agree, individual consciousnesses are not merely 
simibr, but the same in essence; and this supposed one and the same 
essence of consciousness .in different individuals is what he calls 
consciousness in ecneral (Bevmsstsein uberhaupt). While in this 
identification he follows Fichte, in other respects he is more like 
Kant. He supposes that the conscious content is partly a posteriori, 
or consisting of given data of sense, and partly a priori, or consiitting 
of categories ot understanding, which, being valid for all objects, 
are contributed by the common consciousness. He <liffcrs. however, 
from Kant, not only because he will not allow that the given data 
arc received from things in themselves, but also because. like Mach, 
he agrees with the nativists that the data already contain a spatial 
detcrminacy and a temporal determinacy. which he regards as a 
posteriori elements of the given, not like Kant, as a priori forms of 
sense. He allows, in fact, no a priori forms except categories of the 
understanding, and these he reduces, considering that the most 
important are identity with difference and causality, which in his 
view are necessary to the judgments that the various data which 
make up a total impression {Gesammteindruck, Totalrindruck) arc 
each different from the others, together identical with the total 
impression, and causally connected in rebtions of necessary sequence 
and coexistence. At the same time, true to the hypothesis of 
" immanence," he rigidly confines these categories to the given data, 
and altogether avoids the inconsistent tendency of Kant to transfer 
causality from a necessary relation between phenomena to a neces- 
sary relation between phenomena and things in themselves as their 
causes. Hence he stnctly confines true judgment and knowledge 
to the consciousness of the identity or difference, and the causal 
rebtions of the given content of the common consciousness. From 
this epistemology he derives the metaphysical conclusion that the 
things we know arc inrleed independent ot my consciousness and of 
yours, taken individually, or, to use a new phrase, are " trans- 
subjective "; but, so far from being independfent of the common 
consciousness, one and the same in all of us, they are simply its con- 
tents in the inseparable relation of subject and object. To the 
objection that there are objects, e.g. atoms, which are never given 
to any consciousne<«, he returns the familiar Kantian ansu-er that, 
though unpcrceivcd, they are perceptible. The whole known world, 
then according to him. is the perceived and the perceptible content 
of common consciousness. 

The " empirio-criticism " of R. Avenarius {q.v.) is the hypothesis of 
the inseparability of subject and object, or, to use his own phraseo- 
logy, of ego and environment, in purely empirical, or a _ ,^^ 
posteriori form. It is like "immanent philosophy," SSlto 
in opposing experience to the transcendent; but it "*""■"• 
.nlso op{x>ses experience to the transcemlcntnl. or a priori. 
It opposes " pure experience" to " pure rrason." while it agrees 
with Kant's limitation of knowledge to experience. Avenarius 
held a view of knowledge very like that of Mach's view of the 
economy of thinking. In his first philr»sophiral in'atise. Philoiophie 
ah Denken drr Welt eemass dcm Primip drs kieinsten Kraft maasses. 
Prolegomena zu einer Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1876), he based his 
views on the principle of least action, contending that, as in Nature 
the force which produces a change is the least that can be, so in mind 
l)eHef tends in the easiest direction. In illustration of this tendency, 
he pointed out that mind tends to assimilate a new impression to a 
previous content, and by generalization to bring as many impressions 
umler as few general conceptions as possible, and succeeds so far 
as it generalizes from pure experience of the given. Nor is there 
any ol)jcclion to this economical view of thought, as long as we 
remomlx'r what Avenarius and Mach forget, that the essence e>f 
thought is the least action neither more nor less than necessary to 
the ijoint, which is the reality of things. Afterwards, in his Kritik 
der reinen Erfahrung (1888-1800), Avenarius aimed at giving a 
dc*^rii>tion of pure exncrienrc which he idcntifvcd VwVv \V\t TvikWix^ 
view of the worid held by a\\ unpre\ud\ccd vctya^^s, V;\v;>x, \\vt^/vs 
tbts pure experience? " Evcrv WtnaA ui^vv^ua\" sa?i% \>R% 



240 



METAPHYSICS 



(PHENOMENAL IDEALISM 



" originally accepts over against him an environment with manifold 
parts, other individuals making manifold statenn^nts, and wh^t is 
stated in some way dependent upon the environmt'nt." StJitenients 
dependent upon the environment are what he mcj,ns by pure 
experience. At first this starting-point looks like duali^tk: rcaufim, 
but in reality the author only meant dualism within experJence^ 
By the environment he meant not a thing existing in itbcU, buL only 
a counterpart (Cegengliai) of ourselves as central ^in {CcnfrtttgUeii}, 
*' We cannot," he adds, " think ourselves as antrj,! part away/' 
He went so far as to assert that, where one assumes thai at same 
time there was no living being in the world, all one meant ii 
that there was besides oneself no other central part to whom one's 
counterparts might also be counterparts. The conHquencc h that 
all the world admitted into his philosophy is what he 



_ _ . , called the 

*• empirio-critical essential co-ordination " {empirio^kritii£h£ PriH- 
tipuukoordination), an inseparable correlatioii^ of ceniral part 
and counterpart, of ego ana environment. Within thli essPDiial 
co-ordination he distinguished three values: R-voiues ol the envi- 
ronment as stimulus; c-ni/i<» of the central nervous syMcrrr; and 
E-valuesoi human statements — the latter being chc-iractirrifcd bif- that 
which at the time of its existence for the individuj^l admits of bcine 
named, and including what we call sensations, &c.. which depend 
indirect! V on the environment and directly on the central nervous 
system, out are not, as the materialist supposes. In any way reducible 
to possessions of the brain or anv other part of that system- Thia 
division of values brings us to the second point in hi§ phitoficphy, 
his theory of what he called " vital series," by ivhich be Assayed to 
explain all life, action and thought. A vital si rit^ he ^up^w^d to 
be always a reaction of C against disturbance hy Rt conMstins in 
first a vital difference, or dini.i . l^ i . run intcttance- value 
of Ci,and then the recovery by v ■■! <k- -r.. i.-ino-'inMlite, in accor- 
dance with the principle of le>L-^t action. Itc lurthtir sunpoied that, 
while thi) independent vital series of C 15 lonietimes or this adTf^fdc 
kifld, ai other time* it i» complicated bv the addition ol a dtpcrideTit 
vital scries in K, by whltht in his fondncsi for too general and ^at- 
fetched e?(pb nations^ h* endeavcmrvfl to explain constiou^ action 
and ihoufti'it. (Thus, if a pain is an £-^>alu«' dirtttly dcptntknt mi 
a disturbance in C, and a ple^^uf^ attather E-vatue dirtctly depen-^ 
dent on a recovery of C, it will follow that a traniilion from pain to 
ple^afiLirL' Mv\\\ be a vital series in £ directly dependent on an inde[Kiil- 
dent vital series in C, recovering from a vital diflerejict to ita itBin- 
tenancr-nuntimtim*) Uii^tly, stippo?itn|; tint all hutn^n pTftccsscs 
ca n in ihi^i wrty be rrdufiti to vic;il ser ieii in an t-ii^cnLkal t» ordinal ion 
of oneself and environment, Avenarius held that this empirio-critical 
supposition, which according to him is also the naTujral view ol nure 
experiences, contains no opposition of physical 2nd psychical, ol an 
outer physical and an inner psychical world — ijn opposition which 
sccmea to him to be a division of the inscparaMe. He con^dered 
that the whole hypotheus that an outer physk^il thing eau^s a 
change in one's central nervous system, which ai^^iin C£tu!»ts another 
change in one's inner psychical system or soul, n a departure from 
the natural view of the universe, and is due to wliat he called " intro- 
jection," or the hypothesis which encloses soul and iti faculties in 
the body, and then, having created a false antiihesisilTtt ween outer 
and inner, gets into the difficulty of explaining huw an outvr physical 
stimulus can impart something into an inner n-iycHUal souL lie 
concluded therefore that, having disposed of tlii& fall^icy of intro- 
jection, we ought to return to the view of reality a* an essential 
co-ordination of ego and environment, of central part and counter- 
part, with R-values, C-values and E-values. 

It is curious that Avenarius should have brought fcr«-ard this 
artificial hypothesis as the natural view of the wofld, without 
reflecting that on the one hand the majoritv of mankind L^lieve? that 
the environment (R) exists, has existea, and will exl.-t, without 
being a counterpart of any living bein^ as central part (C) ; and that 
on the other hand it is so far from being natural to nun to brlicvc 
that sens.it ion and thought (E) are different from, and mcnly depen- 
dent on, his IkxIv (C). that throughout the Honn.fk pturms. th^u^h 
soul is required lor other purposes, all thinking ;is well as sensation 
is regarded a< p purely bodily operation. It i^ indeed dlihcuU to 
assign any rational place to the empirio-criiiciam of Avenarius. 
It is materiali!>tic without being materialism; it \*r realistic niihout 
being realism. Its rejection of the whole relation of physical and 
psychical makes it almost too indefinite to cKi^iily smonjiL philo- 
sophical systems. But its main point is the es-^niial co-ordinatjon 
of ego ana environment, as central part and counterpart, in experi- 
ence. It is therefore nearly connected with " imminent philofopby.'" 
Schuppc, indeed, wrote an article in the Vxi'tielJAhmchtifl of 
Avenarius to prove their essentbl agreement. At the wmc lime 
Schuppe's hypothesis of one common consciousni -i^ unitinR the givm 
by a priori categories could hardly be accepted by Avenarius as 
pure experience, or as a natural view of the wrurld. His '" empirio- 
criticism " is idealistic dualism within experience in an a pobteriuri 
form, but with a tendency towards materialism. 

4. Voluntaristic rhencmenalism of Wundf — '\Vttndl*s meta- 
physics will form an appropriate conclusion of this sketch of 
German ideaUsm, because his patient industry and eclectic 
^pu7£ Iiave 5ucd bim to assimilate many 0/ tie viewi of tm 



predecessors. Wundt proves that all idealisms are in a way 
one. He starts as a pbenomenalist from the hypothesis, whidi 
we have jtist described, that knowledge is ex- 
perience containing subject and object in inseparable 
coimexion, and has something in common wfth the premature 
attempt of Avenarius to develop the hypothesis ci dualisa 
in experience into a scientific philosophy comprehending the 
universe in the simplest possible manner. Again he agrees with 
the reaction both to Hume and to Kant in limiting knowledge 
to mental phenomena, and has affinities with Mach as well as 
with Lange. His main sympathies are with the Nco-Rantians, 
and especially with Lange in modifying the a priori, and in 
extending the power of reason beyond phenomena to an ideal 
world; and yet the cry of his phenomenalism is not " back to 
Kant," but " beyond Kant.'* Thotigh no noumenalist, ia 
many details he is with noumenalists; with Fechncr in psycho- 
physics, in psychophysical parallelism, in the independence of 
the physical and the psychical chains of causality, in redudnf 
physical and psychical to a difference of aspects, in substituting 
impulse for accident in organic evolution, and in wishing to 
recognize a gradation of individual spiritual beings; with 
Schopenhauer and Hartmann in voluntarism; and even with 
Schelling and Hcgcl in their endeavour, albeit on an artificial 
method, to bring experience under notions, and to unite subject 
and object in one concrete reality. He has a special relation to 
Fichte in developing the Kantian activity of consciousness into 
will and substituting activity for substantiality as the essence 
of soul, as well as in breaking down the antithesis betweea 
phenomena and things in themselves. At the same time, ii 
spite of his sympathy with the whole development of ideaUsa 
since Kant, which leads him to reject the thing in itself, to 
modify a priorism, and to stop at transcendent " ideals," without 
postulates of practical reason, he nevertheless has so mod 
sympathy with Kant's Kritik as on its theories of sense aod 
understanding to build up a system of phenomenalism, accordiog 
to which knowledge begins and ends w-ith ideas, and finally «■ 
its theory of pure reason to accord to reason a power of logically 
forming an " ideal " of God as ground of the moral " ideal * 
of humanity — though without any power of logically infeniog 
any corresponding reality. He constructs his system on the 
Kantian order — sense, understanding, reason — and exhibits 
most clearly the necessary consequence from psychological to 
metaphysical idealism. His philosophy is the best cxpositka 
of the method and argument of modern idealism — that »• 
perceive the mental and, therefore, all we know and concdvc 
is the mental. 

Wundt founds his whole philosophy on four psychc^ogicil 
positions: his phcnomcnalistic theory of unitary experience, 
his voluntarism, his actualistic theory of soul, and his psycho* 
logical theory of parallelism. They are positions also which 
deeply affect, not only the psychological, but also the mett* 
physical idealisms of our time, in Germany, and in the vixile 
civilized world. 

i. His first position is his phenomenalistic theory of unitary 
experience. According to him, we begin with an exneriencc ol 
ideas, in which object and idea are originally identical ( vorsklUat^ 
object); we divide this unitary expenencc into its subiective tfm 
objective factors; and especially in natural science we so tar abstract 
the objects as to believe them at last to be independent things: bUt 
it is the office of psychology to warn us against tnis popular dualifli* 
and to teach us that there is only a duality of psychical and physkdL 
which are divisible, not separable, factors of one and tnc nae 
content of our immediate experience; and experience is our whob 
knowledge. His metaphysical deduction from this psychologial 
view is that all we know is mental phenomena, " the whole oolcr 
world exists for us only in our ideas," and all that our 1 
logic.illy do beyond these phenomena is to frame 
" ideals." 

ii. His second position is his voluntarism. He agrees vkh 
Schopenhauer that will is the fundamental form of the apirifil. 
He (Iocs not mean that unll is the only mental operation; for he 
recognizes idea derived from sensation, and feeling, as wdl aa«9L 
Moreover, he contends that we can neither have idea without fecGig 
and will, nor will without idea and feeling: that idea akMic w a " " 
aaivity, and will alone wants content; tnat will is ideating 1 
activity {vorstdUnde Thatigkeii), which always includca < 



PHENOMEKAL IDEALISM] 



METAPHYSICS 



241 



Md cwb apd ctuHnjumtly idcUL He it therefoie a follower of 
Sckegaitkaiier «» anTsctcd by Kartnunn, Like these prt-deccsaors, 
ud itec taa younger o»aEempcira.[y F^iulBFn, in calling will funda- 
ifeBlil be iAdudes xnpi2l« (Tn^^). Accardinglj/ he divides will 
klD twQ Dia»9: «Mi the ou h«tKl, vimplc volition, or impulse, 
tffeji^ IB hw View jrequiref as motive 9. fcding directed to an end. 
id tfaerefore an kka, e-f . the imp^Lf^ ol a bco&t ariiung from hunger 
ind light gif prey; on t^e other uin4, complex volition issuing in a 
vdjitttary act requiring dccbion {Enischeidung) or conscious 
ifliaptkn of a nuotivc, *uli of without choice Like other German 
idufttijisti, he imputes " iniputvive will " to the whole organic 
iwlnU He foilows Fechn(?f dosdy Ift his answer to Darwin. If 
bfisro bjf hirL-^-v'ofl. 3.1 the bortom i^f .^TJ ar^anic evolution organic 
j^p^U 'Til changes, which are 

BMf,- , . . 'hus gradually becomes 

Kcoodarily automatic,' the will passes to higher activities, which 
is their turn become secondarily automatic, and so on. As now 
be lopposes feeling even in " impulsive will " to be directed to an 
od, be deduces the conclusion that in organic evolution the pursuit 
cfiiul causes precedes and is the origin of mechanism. But at what 
I COS ! He has endowed all the plants in the world with motives, 
fe^igs dWted to an end, and ideas, all of which, according to 
kirn, are required for impulse I He apparently forgets that mere 
fcdiags often produce actions, as when one writhes with pain. 
6m even so, have plants even those lowest impulses from feelings of 
paia or pleasure? Wundt, however, having gone so far, tncrc 
topib It is not necessary for him to follow Schopenhauer, Hart- 
■aan and Fechner in encbwing the material universe with will or 

3' other mental operation, because his phenomenalism already 
Dceg iaorgank nature to mere objects ol experiencing subjects. 
Waadt's volunurism takes a new departure, in which, however, he 
«M anticipated by the paradox of Descartes: that will is required 
to five assent to anything perceived (Princi^ pkilosopkiae, 1. 34). 
Wiudt supposes not only that all organisms have outer will, the will 
ta act. but also that all thinking is inner will — the will to think. 
.W there u a will to think, and Aristotle pointed out that thinking 
ii ia our power whenever one pleases, whereas sense depends on an 
(xttraal stimulus {De aninta, ii. 5). There is also an impulse to 
Aiak, e.g. from toothache. But it does not follow that thought 
s «UI, or even that there is no thinking without either impulse 
or «in proper. The real source of thinking is evidence. Wundt, 
kmrcver. having supposed that all thinking consists of ideas, next 
Rfpoaes that all thmldng is willing. What w the source of this 
paradoK ? It is a confusion of impulse with will, and activity with 
MiL He supposes that all agency, and therefore the agency of 
thiaking. is wiA. In detail, to express this supposed inner will of 
thialdiig. he borrows from Leibniu and Kant the terra " apper- 
ccptioa/' but in a sense of his own. Leibnitz, by way of distinaion 
(ron unconscious perception, ^ave the name ap]xrrception " to 
coBsciottsness. Kant further msisted that thb apperception, " 1 
ihiak." is an act oif spontaneity, distinct from sense, necessary to 
Rpnjing all my ideas as mine, and to combining them in a s>'nthctic 
uuty of apperception; which act Fichte afterwards. de\-elof)ed into 
an active construction of all knowledge, requiring will directed 
10 the end of duty. Wundt, in coni>c(|ucnce, thinking with Kant 
tkat apprfception is a spontaneous activity, and with Fichte that 
tkit activity requires will, and indeed that all activity is will, infiTs 
Vat apperception is inner will. Further, on his own account, 
he identifies apperception with the process of attention, and regards 
it u an act necessaiy to the general formation of compound ideas, 
to an association of ideas, to all imagination and understanding. 
According to him, then, attention, even involuntary attention, 
itquim inner will; and all the functions imputed by Hume to 
awdation, as wx'll as those iniputed to understanding by Kant, 
rquire apperception, and therefore inner will. At the same time 
he does not suppose that they all require the same kind of will. 
Ia accordance with his previous division of outer will into impulsive 
mi decisive, he divides the inner will of apperception into pa^o^ivc 
amcfoeption and active apperception. Appcrctrpiion in general 
ttia beco m es activity of inner will, constituting the process ol atten- 
lioa, passive in the form of impulsive will rL|quircd for asstxriation, 
aad active in the form of decisive will required for understanding 
Ud judgnent. Now, beneath these confu&ing phrases the point 
M be regarded is that, in Wundt's opinion, though we can receive 
daations, we cannot think at all be>-ond sense, without some will. 
Toiicugferatioa of the real fact of the will to think ignores through- 
eut the position of little man in the great world and at the 
WTcy «f things which drive him perforce to sense and from sense 
biiwight. It b a substitution of will for evidence as ground of 
Me«. and a neglect of our consciousness that we often believe 
•PMt our »ill (e.g. that we must die), often without even nn 
■BpBlie to bdievc, often without taking any interest, or uhcn 
tikiag interest in tomething else of no importance. " The Doan 
■ de»d (Kay. what is trumps?)." Yet many psychologists acapt 
Ae vnrvemlity of thU will to believe, and among them James, 
aiosBjrs that it is far too little recofrnizcd how entirely the intellect 
iibsili ap of practical interests." We should rather say " far too 
■«8l'* Wundt, however. |;oes still farther. According to him, 
*te vhich acts in all organisms, that which acts in all thinking, 
itat vhirh divides unitary experience into subject aad object, 
XVII I 5 



the source of self-cor.sciousncss, the unity ai our mental life, " the 
most proper being of the individual subject is will." In short, his 
whole voluntarism means that, while the inorganic world is mere 
object, all organization is congealed uill, and all thinking is 
apperceptive will. But it must be remembered that these con- 
clusions are arrived at by confusing action, reaction, life, excita- 
bility, impulse, and rational desire, all under the one word " will," 
as well as by omitting the involuntary action of intelligence under 
the pressure of evidence. It may well be that impulsive feeling 
is the beginning of mind; but then the order of mind is feeling, 
sense, inference, will, which instead of first is lost, and implies the 
others. To proceed, however, with voluntarism, Wundt, as we 
have seen, makes personality turn on will. He does not accept 
the universal voluntarism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, but 
belic>x*8 in individual wills, and a gradation of wills, in the 
organic world. Similarly, he supposes our personal individual 
will is a collective will containing simpler will-unities, and he thinks 
that this conclusion is proved by the continuance of actions in 
animals after parts of the brain ha\'e been removed. In a similar 
way he supposes our wills are included in the collective will of 
society. He does not, however, think with Schuppe that there 
is one common conscbusness, but only that there is a collective 
consciousness and^ a collective will; not perceiving that then 
the sun — in his view a mere object in the experience of every 
member of the collection — would he only a collective sun. Lastly, 
he believes that reason forms the " ideal " of (}od as world- 
will, though without proof of existence. On the whole, his vol- 
untarism, though like that of Schopenhauer and Hartmann, is 
not the same; not Schopenhauer's, because the ideating will of 
Wundt's philosophy is not a universal irrational will; and not 
Hartmann's, because, although ideating will, according to Wundt's 
phenomenalism, is supposed to extend through the world of 
organisms, the whole inorganic world remains a mere object of 
unitary experience. 

iii. His third position is his actualbtic theory of soul, which he 
shares with Fichte, Hegel, Fechner and Paulsen. When Fichte 
had rejected the Kantian soul in itself and developed the Kantian 
activity of apperception, he considered that soul consists in con- 
structive activity. Fechner added that the soul is the whole 
unitary spiritual process manifested in the whole unitary bodily 
process without being a substance. Wundt accepts Fichte s 
theory of the actuality, and Fechner's synechological view, of the 
soul. Taking substance entirely in the sense of substrate, he 
[b-tiie*; tTut there is no evidence of a substantial substrate beneath 
m^ntnl ojucrktions; that there is nothing except unitary experience 
consuting (tf ideas, feelings, volitions, and their unity of will; and 
that »OLiE E[i ^an is not substantia, but actus. He docs not see that 
this umiy ih only apparent, for men think not always, and will 
not alwa> ?. Nor docs he see that a man is conscious not of idea, 
fediit^, wit I, experience, but of something conceiving, feeling, 
wiltJnK^ and experiencing, which he gradually learns to call himseU, 
and tn^t he ts never conscious of doing all this " minding " without 
hi? bri^ly, [f, then, these mental optrations were merely actuality, 
Kh-. ■.!,<:.' be actuality (A a man's bodily substance. In truth 
t: ' und answer to Materialism, except that, bedsides bodily 

substance, psychical substance is also necessary to explain how 
man performs mental actualities consciously (see case Physical 
Realism, ch. v.). \yundt, however, has satisfied himself, like 
Fechner, that there is no real opposition of body and soul, and 
concludes, in accordance with his own phenomenalism, that his 
body is only an object abstracted from his unitary experience, which 
is all that really is of him. 

iv. Hence his fourth point is his psychological theory of parallel- 
ism of physical and psychical reduced to identity in unitary experi- 
ence. Here his philosophy is Fechnerism phenomenalized. He 
accepts Fechner's extension of Weber's law of the external stimuli of 
senile, while judiciously remarking that " the physiological inter- 
pretation is entirely nynothetical." He accepts psychophysical 
IKirallclism in the sense that every psychical process has a physical 
accompaniment, every physiolojjical function has a psychical 
meaning, but neither external stimulus nor physiological stimulus 
is cause of a r»sychical process, nor vice versa. Precisely like 
Fechner, he holds that there is a phys^ical causality and energy and 
there is a psychical causality and energ>', parallels which never 
meet. He uses this psychical causality to carry out his voluntarism 
into detail, regarding it as an agency of will directed to ends, 
causing association and understanding, and further acting on a 
principle which he calls the hcteroqony of ends; remarking very 
truly that each particular will is directed to particular ends, bi't 
that Ix-yond these ends effects follow as unexpected consequences, 
and that this heterogony pnxluces social effects which we call 
custom. But while thus sharply distinguishing the phy'^ical and 
the psychical in appearance, he follows P'ecliner in identifying thrm 
in nMlity; except that Fechner's identification is noumcnal. 
Wundt's phenomenal. Wundt docs not allow that we know bcjond 
experience any mmiIs of earth, or any other inorganic being. He 
does not, therefore, allow that there is a universal series of pnysic.il 
and psvchiral parallels. According to his ^hetvotwcwtXvwvv, \\v«i 
external stimulus and the phys\o\ogL\ca\ sX\tcvu\\\?. aite >qoV\v v^tAVX^ 
ot the same psychical procesft; vVvc cx\£xna\ \»Av, ^» '^<i\\ 'a 



242 



METAPHYSICS 



ipy hoAy, h raeniTy ad oB>Kt ■ib^fictcd from ui vAe& d[ my 
cxprncnce; and what u rcatly known tn cvicry cax in a unitary 
rxperiencc; divisible, but nol stparAble, in Ed bod ]f and soul, pti^iiml 
and p&ychital factors oF onu and the same unilary CKpcrwnoe. 
Wundt h confined hy his starting-^ point to his deduction^ that what 
wv know is mental phenomena, idicaa regarded aa object* and 
anbierts of exprnencp. ^ 

Vvith these four positioDS in hand, Wundt'a ptuloaophy ty^aeau- 
tivdy follows, beginning with his psychola*^. Hp begifu with 
psychical elements, seniAations and feelings, out he aAifltf that 
tMK always exist in a paychLcal compound^ from which (hey can 
be di^covTfcd only by an^lyais and abstraction; and h'n paradox 
'th4t a pure uniaiwn ii an ahitraciion is repeated by W- James. 
Further, Wundt declares that the psychical coitifM)und of eeniationf, 
with which, according to him, we actually &tart, U net a complex 
sensation^ but a compound idea; so that [ am otpcctcd to belu^v? 
(hatt wheo \ hear the chord of D, I am not con'sciouii of $ingle ^ensa' 
ikrns of D, F, A, and have only a compound idea of the chorct — as if 
the hearing of music were merely a uries of i<lt:as! Wanrtt, how- 
cvcft has a reason for subditituting compound idea for tcnsaiion: he 
accepts Lotxe'a hypothesis of Li^l stgn», and adds a hypothesii 
of tcmpor^ signs. He supposef that we have no sen^^tiona of space 
and lifoe, as the nativists i^uppose, but th4t» while local signs give us 
^Htkl idu4. fccUngi ot expectation are temporal signs giving us 
teoiponl ideu, ana that these ideas enier into the psychicaJ com- 
pouDd, which is our actual starting- pointy It follaws that every 
ptychica] oampound Into which temporal and tpatjal ideas enter 
must iu^ll be an Ideal ^nd, as time at any jr^te accompanies alJ our 
iefwation»> it follow^ that every psychical compound of sensations, 
containing a« it d«*^ alwayi temporal, if not also spatial, ideas, must 
be a compound ideit and notf as nativista suppose, Schuppe for in- 
stance, a Gontjuund Kftsation. The next question is, now com- 
pounded^ Wundt't answer is that inner Lmpumve will, in the form, of 
fNLsdvt appefceptiGfit fnrms compound ideas by association; fo that 
all theat opention» are necessary to the starting-point. He prefixes 
to the ordinary aavociations, which descend from Hume, an a^socta- 
tjon which hi' c^iUs fusion ( Versthmdzunf^), and suppose^ that it is a 
fundamcrntai pfoceu of fusing sensation^ with spatul and temporal 
ideas into a compaund idt^. But he abo recognLzes association 
by simiUritVi' «" MMmilation, or " apperception " tn Herbart's 
mofc confiDea kiuc oT the word, ond aisociation by contiguity^ or 
compUcation. Recogniting, then, three kindj of association in alL 
he nippota that thry arc the 6rst proce^ises, by which inner will. 
In the form of pajtlve apperception, generates ideas from eense. 
So (ar bii pcvduJogy is a further development of hlume's. But 
he does ftot livn wth Hame that mind is nothing but «ensations, 
ideas, and UiodaClo<Ui but with Kant, that there are higher 
combiaation*. Accord mg to him, inner dcdiive will, rising to 
active aiiperception, proceeds to what he calb " apperceptive 
combiiiatiuins " {ApptrcfpiioK^rbindungen); hrst to simple com- 
binations of relating and comparing, and then to complete combina- 
lionfl of synthesis and analysis in imagination and understanding; in 
coiueauf nee of which synthesis issues in an a^regate idea {Ct^ammi- 
wot$tiiiuni)^ and then at last anal;^9^ by dividing an aggregate idea 
into subject and predicate, forms a judj^ ment (see further Locic ) . The 
main point of this theory is that, if it were true, we should be for 
ever conhned to a jumble of ideas. Wundt, indeed,, is aware of 
the consequences. If judgment ia an analysis of an aggn^ate 
idea into subject and predicate, it follow^s, as he lays, tkat " as 
judgment is an immedtntr, so is Inference a mediaUf reference of 
the me miners of any aggregate of ideas to one another " {Syslem 
d^r PkiioiopkU, 66, first ed.J. He c;innot allow any infnence of 
things l>eyand ideas. His psycho^of^y poisons his loeic. 

In his logic, and especially in his epistemology, Wundt appears 
af a mediator between Hume and Kant^ but with more leaning 
to the latter. Wliile he regards a»ociation as lying at the basis 
of all know led ge« he does not think it sufficient, and objects to 
Kume that he does not account for necessity, nor for sobstance 
and causation as known in the sciencea. He accepti on the whole 
the system of synthetic understanding which Kant toperimpo$ed 
on mere association. Vet he will not proceed to the length of 
Kanf^s transcendentalism. Between Hume's a posteriori and 
Kant's a priofii hypothesis he propcnes a lopcid theory of the 
origin cf notions fieyond experience. He explains that the arrange- 
ment of facts requires "' general supplementary notions {lIvIfT- 
btgii^i), whkh are not contained in expcrieoce itself » but art: gained 
hy a process of logiKral treatment of this experierKt*' Of these 
supplementary notions he holds that the mi^t eenetal is that of 
causality, coming from the necessity o* thought thai all our experi- 
ences shall be arranged according to ground and consequent. That 
ficnse only gives to experience coexistcoccs anrj seauences of appeaf- 
ances, as Hume taid and Kant allowed, i» also Wundt's start I ng^ 
point. How then do *t Mrive at caudal ityl^ Not, says Wundi, 



by associatlorf, ai Hu 



I hut by thinking; not, however, by 



4 priori thir^king, as Kont a.Jd, but by b^ical thinking, by ap^ilyin? 
the logical principle of grounrl andf consequent (which L^ibnitt 
had called the pnncipk of tufUci^nt rvawn) as a causal law to 
empiricil a^ipearances. Now, Wundt i« awar« that this is not 
tf/M9jKr potAtShf /or he holds that the logkal principle of ground 
Afite^Fr g^iicmUy to the coaacjuoa of thougbtit ihc causal law to 



(PHENOMENAL lOEALBH 

the combination of empirical appearances. Neverthefe» he bdieva 
that, when we can apply measures to the combination of empirkaJ 
appearances, then we can apply the logical principle as caujaj tan 
to this combination, and say that one appearance ia the cause td 
another, thus adding a notion erf causality not contain4?d in the 
actual observations, but specializing the general ootiod ol Cauiahty. 
He quotes as an instance that Newton in thl$ way addtd to Ibt 
planetary appearances contained in Kepler's lawj the gravitatictf 
of the pfanets to the sun, as a nation of causality not contained it 
the appearances, and thus disco verT?d that gravitation \t ttK" came 
of the appearances. But ^[ew1on had already dUco^'ercd bi'fo^T^ 
hand in the mechanics of terrestrial bodies thai gra 'Citation con- 
stantly causes ^ntilar facts on the earth, and did not derive thai 
cause from any logical ground beyond expct^rKe, any fmxt thas 
he did the third law of motion^ Wundt does not rt^li^ that, though 
we can often use a cause or real groumi {ptajvipium fSimdi} ai 
a logical ground {principium m^noif^ndiy im dfdyfin^ eflcrts, w 
can do >o only when we have previously inf*.-rrcd fr^om cxpaTcnrt 
that that kind of cause doe* produce that kind of effort (see Logic}, 
Otherwise, logical ground remains logical ground, as Id any non- 
causal syllogism, such as the familiar one from " All men are mortal," 
which causes me to know that I shall die, without telliiw mc tibf 
cause of death. Wundt, however, having satished him«df d tl» 
power of mere logical thought beyond experience, goes on to furths 
apply his. hypothesis, and supposes that, in dealing with the physkal 
worid, logical thinking having add«J to esperiencv the 'supple 
mentary norion " of causality as the connetioit of appearanisi 
which vary together, adds afio the " syppjementary notkui ** d 
substance as substratum of the connect<>d appearances. %tA. 
using substance as he does alwayis in the KunlLin sense of permaneaf 
substratum beneath changing phenomena, and never in the Ar»- 
toteltan sense of any distinct thing, he pfocveds to make disritictiooi 
between the applications of causality anri of lubstAnce. Eve* 
in the physicaL he confines substance to matter, or what Ariitotli 
would call material causes, thus makci its power to b« mer^ 
passive, and limits substantial causality to potential energy, whw 
ne supposes that actual cau-taliiy is a relation not tA subktaoca 
but of events. On this false abstraction SiEwart has made ai 
excellent criticism in an appendix at the end of hU l^gic, where be 
remarks that we cannot isolate events from the fubsEances of whid 
they are attributes. Motions do not pause motions: one bodf 
moving causca another body to move: what we know is cann 
substances. ^ Second (y, when Wundt comea to the pfyrhiciL 
he naturally infers from his narrow fCantian definilion of substaml 
that thcfe is no proof ol a substrate over and above all mcdlt^ 
operations, and falf^ly thinks that he has proved that there is M 
substance mentally oprniting in the Aristotelian «ense. Thirdlft 
on the gtoundA that logical thinking adds the notion ol sub«t>oc^ 
as substrate. CO experience of the physical, but not of the pe>>Thici1. 
and that the most proper being of mind id will, he conclude 
that wills are not active subs^tanccs, but substance^enerati4 
activitici^ (" nkht thAtige Substanzen aondcrn sub^tatucfnugtin 
Thltigkciten," SysUm^ 429)* 

What kind of tnetapkysio, then, foUows frotn thxi cotEtpoimd 
of psychology and epistemology? As with Kajit ^^^sA 
Hucpe, *o with W*undt against Mach and AveDariu^, the world 
we know will contain something more than mete cojupleiet of 
sensations, more than pure experience: with W'uodt it wtQ be 
a world of real causes and some ^ub^tancesT constituted piJtljr 
by £xpenence and partly by logical thinking, or active inner niD. 
But OS with Kant, &o with Wundt, ihb world will be only tbc 
richer, not the wider, for ih^e notions of undenLBJidintC; because 
they are oidy contributed to the otigina) cuperience, and, bda| 
mentnlly contrib kited, only the more siircly confine knowledge 
to experience of mental pbenpnncna. Hcnoe, according ^ 
Wundt, the vt^tld we know is still uJiitaiy experienee, disdn* 
guifihcd, not separated, into subject and object, agjo'esites d 
ideas analysed by judgment and combined by inference, u 
object ol idea elaborated into causes and substances by kgiat 
thiiikiii((, at most a worid oC ouf idea$ composed out of «tt 
sensations, and arranged under our categories of our ooder 
sundiiyg by our inner wills, or « world ol our ideating 'wiUi 
but noibing else. It is Wundt 's owe statement of his solulMH 
of the cpistemological problem " that on ibe one band tbe wb«| 
outer world emts for tis only in our ideas, and that on the o()M 
hand a consciousntss without objects ol idea is an empty ab$ua£ 
lion which possessi;* no actuality" iSyittfn* j 13^*13)- Tfcrt 
remains his theory of reti.son. His pupil, Oswald Killpe (tS^ 
), who bases his Grundrhs da Piyfkvlegu on the h>pothieri 
of unitary experience, says in his Einhiiang in die FkihsftH 
(TS93; 4th cd. 1007} thoit Wundt in hit Syjltut derives the ri^ 
of metaphysics lo transcend cip«ncfice from ""'j^'- pncbbd 



BRGUSHnffiALISM) 



METAPHYSICS 



243 



vilUi the fimits of the ipedal sciences. This is Wundt's 
view, bat only in the sense that reason passes from ideas to 

* idols'' whether in the special sciences or in metaphysics. 
Kcaon, as in nost modem psychologies and idealisms, is intro- 
dooed by Wondt, after all sorts of operations, too late; and, 
vka at length introduced, it is described as going beyond 
iden and notions to " ideals " (Ideen), as an ideal continuation 
d Kiies of thoughts beyond given experience — nothing more. 
Icnm, according to Wundt, is like pure reason according to 
Xttt; eicept that Wundt, receiving Kantism through Neo- 
lAilbm, thinks that reason arrives at " ideals " not a priori, 
htt l»y the logical process of ground and consequent, and, 
kmag abolished the thing in itself, will not follow Kant in his 
iiepisequent passage from pure to practical reason in order to 
pMolate a reality corresponding to " ideals " beyond experience. 
Woadt, in fact, agrees with Lange: that reason transcends 
wperieace of phenomena only to conceive "ideals." This 
bdm so, he finds in mathematics two kinds of transcendence — 
lol, where the transcendent, though not actual in experience, 
(u become partly so, e.g. the divisibility of magnitudes; 
iM|ittary, where it cannot, e.g. n-dimensions. He supposes in 
■etaphysics the same transcendence in forming cosmoiogical, 
p sychological, and ontological " ideals." He supposes real as 
■d as imaginary transcendence in cosmological " ideals "; 
Ik former as to the forms of space and time, the latter as to 
OMdeat, e.t. atoms* But he limiu psychological and ontological 
"ideals "- entirely to imaginary transcendence. The result 
ii thst he confines metaphysical transcendence to " a process 
iMo the imaginary " as regards the substantial and causal 
fsttcat of cosmological " ideals," and altogether as regards 
p^chofegical and ontological " ideals." Thus, according to 
Ub, in the first place reason forms a cosmological ** ideal " of 

* ■iltitade of simple units related; secondly, it forms a psycho- 
hgiol " ideal " of a multitude of wills, or substance-generating 
activities, which communicate with one another by ideas so 
tkst wdl causes ideas in win, while together they constitute a 
floBective will, and it goes on to form the moral ideal of humanity 
{kssUUicAe MfeHstkkeitsideal); and, thirdly, it forms an ontologi- 
cal ** kifd " of God as ground of this moral " ideal," and there- 
with of aU being as means to this end, and an " ideal " of God 
ai worid-will. of which the worid is development, and in which 
isdhridiial wills participate each in its sphere. " Herein," 
ays Wundt, *' consisu the imperishable truth of the Kantian 
piopositioii that the moral order of the world is the single real 
pnof of the existence of God " {System, 405; cf. 439). " Only," 
he adds, " the expression proof is here not admissible. Rational 
'ideak' are in general not provable." As the same limit is 

by him to all transcendent rational " ideals," and 
to those which refer to the content of the notion 
if the world, and, like all psychological and ontological ** ideals," 
to the imaginary transcendent, his conclusion is that 
in transcending experience, logically conceives " ideals," 
logicaUy infers corresponding realities. 
Tk conclusion that reason in transcending experience can 
ihov BO more than the necessity of " ideals " is the only con- 
chnoo viiich could follow from Wundt's phenomenalism in 
p^choiogy. logic, and epistemology. If knowledge is experience 
<f ideas distinguished by inner will of apperception into subject 
lid object in inseparable connexion, if the starting-point is 
idM, if judgment is analysis of an aggregate idea, if inference 
ii a Mediate reference of the members of an aggregate of ideas 
ts one another, then, as Wundt says, all we can know, and 
il fcnoo can k^caDy infer from such data, is in our ideas, 
ad eooidousiicss without an object of idea is an abstraction; 
Mthtt icason, in transcending experience, can show the necessity 
if ideas and " ideals," but infer no corresponding reality beyond, 
vhtthcr in nature, or in Man, or In God. Wundt, starting from 

* PVchology of unitary experience, deduces a consistent meta- 
fl^iiGieC no inference of things transcending experience through- 
■l--or ruber until he came to the very last sentence of his 
90m 4er PkitcsopkU (1889), where he suddenly passes from 
tatcority oC "ideals" {Idun), to a necessity of ** faith" 



(Giauben), without " knowledge " (Wissen). He forgets appar- 
ently that faith is a belief in things beyond ideas and ideals, 
which is impossible in his psychology of judgment and logic of 
inference.- The fact is that his System may easily seem to prove 
more than it does. He describes it as idealism in the form of 
ideal realism, because it recognizes an ideating will requiring 
substance as substratum or matter for outer relations of pheno- 
mena. But when we look for the evidence of any such will 
beyond ourselves and our experience, we find Wundt offering 
nothing but an ontological *' ideal " of reason, and a moral 
" ideal " requiring a religious " ideal," but without any power 
of inferring a corresponding reality. The System then ends 
with the necessity of an " ideal " of God as world-will, but 
provides no ground for the necessity of any belief whatever in 
the being of God, or indeed in any being at all beyond our own 
um'tary experience. * 

Wundt, however, afterwards wrote an EinUitung in die 
PkUosopkie (1901; 4th ed., 1906), in which he speaks of realism 
in the form of ideal realism as the philosophy of the future. 
It is not to be idealism which resolves everything into spirit, 
but realism which gives the spiritual and the material each 
its own place in harmony with scientific consciousness. It is 
not to be dualistic but monistic realism, because matter is not 
separate from spirit. It is not to be materialistic but ideal 
realism, because the physical and the psychical are inseparable 
parallels inexplicable by one another. It is to be monistic ideal 
realism, like that of Fichte and Hegel; not, however, like theirs 
idealistic in method, a Phantastisches Begrijsgebitkde, but 
realbtic in method, a WissenschaJUiche PkUosopkie. It is to 
be ideal realism, as in the System. It is not to be a species of 
idealism, as in the System — but of realism. How are we to 
understand this change of front? We can only explain it by 
supposing that Wundt wishes to believe that, beyond the 
" ideal," there really is proof of a transcendent, ideating, sub- 
stance-generating will of God; and that he is approaching the 
noumenal voluntarism of his younger contemporary Paulsen. 
But to make such a conversion from phenomenalism plausible, 
it is necessary to be silent about his whole psychology, logic, 
and epistemology, and the consequent limitation of knowledge 
to experience, and of reason to ideas and " ideals," without any 
power of inferring corresponding things. 

What a pity it is that Wundt had committed himself by his 
psychology to phenomenalism, to unitary experience, and to 
the limitation of judgment and reason to ideas and idealsl 
For his phenomenalism prevents him from consistently saying 
the truth inferred by reason — that there is a world beyond 
experience, a world of Nature, and a will of God, real as well as 
ideal. To understand Wundt is to discover what a mess modem 
psychology has made to metaphysics. To understand pheno- 
menal idealism in Germany is to discover what a narrow worid 
is to be known from the transcendental idealism of Kant shorn 
of Kant's inconsistendes. To understand noumenal idealism 
in Germany and the rise of metaphysical idealism in modern 
times is to discover that psychological is the origin of all meta- 
physical idealism. If we perceive only what is mental, all that 
we know is only mental. But who has proved that psychological 
starting-point? Who has proved that, when I scent an odour 
in my nostrils, I apprehend not odour but a sensation of odour; 
and so for the other senses? Sensation, as Aristotle said, 
is not of itself: it is the apprehension of a sensible object in the 
organism. I perceive pressure, heat, colour, sound, flavour, 
odour, in my five senses. Having felt reciprocal pressures in 
touch, I infer similar pressures between myself and the external 
world. 

6.— English Idealism 
The Followers of Hume*s Phenomenalism. — Compared 
with the great systems of the Germans, English idealism in the 
19th century shows but little originality. It has been largely 
borrowed either from previous English or from later German 
idealism, and what originality it has possessed has been maxulv 
shown in that spirit of ecleclic comptoimse H»\v\t\v \s ^ft ^^"w 
to the Engh'sh mind. The prcdonunanl Vn&\itTic,t, on v\i^ ^^Vv^^x 



244 



METAPHYSICS 



[ENGLISH IDEAUSI 



has been the phenomenalism of Hume, with its slender store of 
sensations, ideas and associations, and its conclusion that all 
vre know is sensations without any known thinkers or any other 
known things. This phenomenalism was developed by James 

'Mill (1773-1836) and J. S. Mill (1806-1873), and has since 
been continued by A. Bain. It also became the basis of the 
philosophies of Huxley and of Spencer on their phenomenalistic 
side. It is true that Spencer's " transfigured realism" contains 
much that was not dreamt of by Hume. Spencer widens the 
empirical theory of the origin of knowledge by his brilliant 
hypothesis of inherited organized tendencies, which has influ- 
enced all later psychology and epistemology, and tends to a kind 
of compromise between Hume and Kant. He describes his 
belief in an unknowable absolute as " carrying a step farther 
the doctrine put into shape by Hamilton and Mansel." He 
develops this belief in an absolute in connexion with his own 
theory of evolution into something different both from the 
idealism of Hume and the realism of Hamilton, and rather 
falling under the head of materialism. Nevertheless, as he 
beh'eves all the time that evcr>-thing knowable throughout the 
whole world of evolution is phenomena in the sense of subjective 
affections of consciousness, and as he applies Hume's distinction 
of impressions and ideas as a distinction of vivid and faint 
states of consciousness to the distinction of ego and non-ego, 
spirit and matter, inner and outer phenomena, his philosophy of 
the world as knowable remains within the limits of phenomenal- 
ism. Nothing could be more like Hume than his final statement 
that what we are conscious of is subjective affections produced 
by objective agencies unknown and unknowable. The " anti- 
reah'sm," which takes the lion's share in " transfigured 
realism," is simply a development of the phenomenalism of 
Hume. Hume was also at the bottom of the philosophies of 
G. H. Lewes, who held that there is nothing but feelings, and 
of W. K. Clifford. Nor is Hume yet dethroned, as we see 
from the works of Karl Pearson and of William James, who, 
though an American, has exercbed a considerable influence on 
English thought. The most flourishing time of phenomenalism, 
however, was during the lifetime of J. S. Mill. It was 
counteracted to some extent by the study at the universities 
of the deductive logic of Aristotle and the inductive logic of 
Bacon, by parts of Mill's own logic, and by the natural realism 
of Reid, Stewart, and Hamilton, which met Hume's scepticism 
by asserting a direct perception of the external world. But 
natural realism, as finally interpreted by Hamilton, was too 
dogmatic, too unsystematic, and too confused with elements 
derived from Kantian idealism to withstand the brilliant 
criticism of Mill's Examination of Sir William HamiJlon*s 
Philosophy (1865), a work which for a time almost persuaded us 
that Nature as we know it from sensations is nothing but per- 
manent possibilities of sensation, and oneself only a series of 
states of consciousness. 

2. The Influence of Kant and Hegel. — Nevertheless, there 
have never been wanting more soaring spirits who, shocked 
at the narrowness of the popular phenomenalism of Hume, 
have tried to find a wider idealism. They have, as a rule, 
sought it in Germany. Before th.* beginning of the 19th century, 
Kant had made his way to England in a translation of some of 
his works, and in an account of the Elements of the Critical 
Philosophy by A. F. M. Willich, both published in 1798. After 
a period of struggle, the influence of Kant gradually extended, 
and, as we see in the writings of Coleridge and Carlyle, of Hamil- 
ton and Mansel, of Green and Caird, of Laurie, Martineau and 
others, has secured an authority over Engb'sh thought almost 
equal to that of Hume (see Idealism). Both philosophers 
appeal to the English love of experience, and Kant had these 
advantages over Hume: that within the narrow circle of sensible 
phenomena his theory of understanding gave to experience 
a fuller content, and that beyond phenomena, however incon- 
sistently, his theory of reason postulated the reality of God, 
freedom and immortality. Other and wider German philo- 

sophies gradually loMoweA that of Kant to England. Coleridge 
077^j8j4) Dot only called attention to Kant's dislincUon 



between understanding and reason, but also introdaced hi 
countrymen to the noumenal idealism of Schelling. In th 
Biographic LUeraria (181 7) he says that in Schelling's Natm 
philosophic and System des transcendenlalen Idcalismus he fin 
found a general coincidence with much that he had toiled oa 
for himself, and he repeated some of the main tenets of Sdielliii| 
Carlyle (i 795-1881) laid more emphasis on Fichte. At the ht^ 
of his career, when between 1840 and 1850 many of Fichte' 
works were being translated in the Catholic Series, he caOe 
attention to Fichte's later view that all earthly things are bn 
as a vesture or appearance under which the Divine idea of th 
world is the reality. Extravagant as this noumenalism is, i 
was a healthy antidote to the phenomenalism of the daj 
Among other followers of German idealism were J. F. Fenie 
(q.v.), who adopted the hypothesis of Schelling and Hegd tha 
there is one absolute intelligence (see his Lectures and PkSt 
sophical Remains, 1866, i. 1-33; ii. 545-568), and J. Hutcfaisn 
Stirh'ng (q.v.). About the same time Benjamin Jowett iq.v.) bai 
been studying the philosophy of Hegel; but, being a oui 
endowed with much love of truth but with little belief in fin 
principles, he was too wise to take for a principle Hegel's assump 
tion that different things 'are the same. He had, howevei 
sown seeds in the minds of two distinguished pupils, T. H 
Green and E. Caird (q.v.). Both proceeded to take HegeliaQ 
ism seriously, and between them spread a kind of Hegeliai 
orthodoxy in metaphysics and in theology throughout Grei) 
Britain. Green {Prolegomena to Ethics, ^^s)t iLOmm 
tried to effect a harmony of Kant and Hegel 
by proceeding from the epistemology of the former to th 
metaphysics of the latter. Taken for granted the Kantiat 
hypothesis of a sense of sensations requiring synthesis by unde^ 
standing, and the Kantian conclusion that Nature as knows 
consists of phenomena united by categories as objects of experi- 
ence, Green argued, in accordance with Kant's first position 
that knowledge, in order to unite the manifold of sensatim 
by relations into related phenomena, requires unifying int<A- 
gence, or what Kant called synthetic unity of apperception 
which cannot itself be sensation, because it arranges sensatiott; 
and he argued, in accordance with Kant's second position, tint 
therefore Nature itself as known requires unifying intelligence tl 
constitute the relations of its phenomena, and to make it I 
connected world of experience. When Green said that " NatvN 
is the system of related appearances, and related appearanoa 
are impossible apart from the action of an intelligence," he ma 
speaking as a pure Kantian, who could be answered only b§ 
the Aristotelian position that Nature consists of related bo(fia 
beyond appearances, and by the realistic supposition that tlien 
is a tactical sense of related bodies, of the inter-resisting membefl 
of the organism, from which reason infers similar related boiyei 
beyond sense.. But now, whatever opinion we may have abool 
Nature, at all events, as Green saw, it does not come into exiil 
ence in the process by which this person or that begins to Oitk 
Nature is not my nature, nor your nature, but one. From thi 
fact of unity of Nature and of everything in Nature, combiaa 
with the two previous positions accepted, not from Nature, In 
from Kant, Green proceeded to argue, altogether beyond Kant 
that Nature, being one, and also requiring unifying intdUgcnci 
requires One intelligence, an eternal intelligence, a single spixittt 
principle, prior to, and the condition of, our individual knoiriedfi 
According to him, therefore, Nature is one system of | 
united by relations as objects of experience, one system of r 
appearances, one system of one eternal intelligence wVk 
reproduces itself in us. The " true account " of the wocld i 
his own words is " that the concrete whole, which may be di 
scribed indifferently as an eternal intelligence healiacd in tl 
related facts of the world, or as a system of related facts reiideR 
possible by such an intelligence, partially and gnidually icpii 
duces itself in us, communicating piecemeal, but in inseparab 
correlation, understanding and the facts understood, ex p cr iei 
and the experienced world." Nobody can mistake the Scbefll 
gian and Hegelian nature of this conclusion. It b the Hccell 
view that the world is a system of absolute leason. Bvt it 



nCUSR IDEAUSH] 



METAPHYSICS 



245 



BoCa Kantian view; and it is necessary to correct two confusions 
d Kant and Hegel, which have been imported with Hegelianism 
bj-Green and Curd. Ferrier was aware that in Kant's system 
"there is no common nature in all intelligence " (Lectures, ii. 
568). Green, on the other hand, in deducing his own conclusion 
tbt the world is, or is a system of, one eternal Intelligence, 
uaatkxaly put it forward as " what may be called broadly 
tlie Kantian view " (Prolegomena, § 36), and added that he 
loSovs Kant "in maintaining that a single aaive conscious 
inidple, by whatever name it be called, is necessary to consti- 
titesuch a worid, as the condition under which alone phenomena, 
if. appearances to consciousness, can be related to each other 
ii a single universe'' (§ 3S). He admitted, however, that Kant 
ab) asMrted, beyond this single universe of a single principle, a 
voridof unknowable things in themselves, which is a Kantian not 
a Hegelian world. But Caird endeavoured to break down even 
|i ^, this second barrier between Kant and Hegel. Accord- 
ing to Caird, Kant '* reduces the inaccessible thing 
ia itself (which he at first speaks of as affecting our sensibility) 
to a noumenon which is projected by reason itself " (Essays, 
0.405); and in the Transcendental Dialectic, which forms the 
Ittt part of Kant's Krilik, the noumenon becomes the object 
af an inttiitive understanding " whose thought," says Caird, 
"it one with the existence of the objects it knows" (ibid. 4 12, 
41]). Kant, then, as interpreted by English Hegelians, already 
beieved, before Hegel, that there is one intelligence common 
to all individuals, and that a noumenon is a thought of this 
coamon intelligence, " an ideal of reason "; so that Kant was 
tiding to be a Hegelian, holding that the world has no being 
b^'ood the thoughts of one intelligence. But history repeats 
itself; and these same two interpretat ions of Kant had already 
beea made in the lifetime of Kant by Fichte, in the two Intro- 
dtctioas to the " Wissenschaftslehre," which he published in 
\k PkUosophiccl Journal in 1 797. Now, the curious fact is, that 
Kaflt himself wrote a most indignant letter, dated 7th August 
1799 (KaiWs Werke, ed. Hartenstcin, viii. 600-601), on purpose 
to repudiate all connexion with Fichte. Fichte's " Wisscn- 
ichaftslehre," he said, is a completely untenable system, and a 
ttiapfaysics of fruitless apices, in which he disclaimed any 
pinidpation; his own Krilik he refused to regard as a pro- 
paedeutic to be construed by the Fichtian or any other stand - 
paiot, declaring that it is to be understood according to the 
ktter; and he went so far as to assert that his own critical 
pUkMophy is so satisfactory to the reason, theoretical and 
poetical, as to be incapable of improvement, and for all future 
a^ indispensable for the highest ends of humanity. After 
tits letter it cannot be doubted that Kant not only differed 
vlnUy from Fichte, both about the synthetic unity of appcrccp- 
tiw and about the thing in itself, but also is to be construed 
Glerally throughout. When he said that the act of consciousness 
**! think," is in alUm Bcivusstsein ein und dasselbe, he meant, 

■ the whole context shows, not that it is one in all thinkers, 
bilonly that it accompanies all my other ideas and is one and 
the same in all my consciousness, while it is different in different 
tUakexs. Though again in the Transcendental Dialect he spoke 
flfpure reason conceiving " ideals " of noumena, he did not mean 
tint a noumenon is nothing but a thought arising only through 
tlu^ii^, or projected by reason, but meant that pure reason 
can only connive the " ideal " while, over and above the 
* ideal " of pure reason, a noumenon is a real thing, a thing in 
belf, which is not indeed known, but whose exbtence is postu- 
hted by practical reason in the three instances of God, freedom, 
aidinnioitality. Consequently, Kant's explanation of the unity 
^ a thing b that there is alwa>'s one thing in itself causing in 

■ many phenomena, which as understood by us are objectively 
viGd for all our consciousnesses. What Kant never said and 
*fatt his whole philosophy prevented his saying, was that a 
liB(fe thing is a single thought of a single consciousness; either 
^ oen, as in Fichte's philosophy, or of God and man, as in 
fcteTs. The passage from Kant to Hegel attempted by Green, 
*>d the harmony of Kant and Hegel attempted by Green and 
did, axe utihistorical, and have caused much confusion of 



thought. The success, therefore, of the works of Green and 
Caird must stand or fall by their Hegelianism, which has indeed 
secured many adherents, partly metaphysical and partly theo< 
logical. Among the former we may mention W. Wallace, the 
translator of most of Hegel's Encyklopddie, who had previously 
learnt Hegelianism from Ferrier; W. H. Fairbrother, who has 
written a faithful account of The Philosophy of Thomas Hill 
Green (1896); R. L. Neltleship, D. G. Ritchie, J. H. Muirhead, 
J. S. Mackenzie, and J. M. E. M'Taggart, who closes his acute 
Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (xqoi) with " the possibility of 
finding, above all knowledge and volition, one all-embracing unity, 
which is only not true, only not good, because all truth and all 
goodness are but distorted shadows of its absolute perfection — 
• das Unbcgreifliche, weii es der BegriflF sclbst ist.' " 

There are still to be mentioned two Englbh Hegelians, who 
have not confused Kant and Hegel as Green did: namely, 
Simon Somerville Laurie (1820-1909) and F. H. Bradley 
(b. 1846), felk)w of Mcrton College. Oxford. 

Laurie wrote Melapkysua, nova et velusla, a Return to Dualism, 
by Scotus NovantJcus (1884. 2nd ed., enlarRod, 1889). His attitude 
to Green is expressed towards the end of his bix)k, where Lsurig, 
he says: "The more recent argument for God which 
resolves itself into the necessity of a self-distinguishing one basis 
t<r which nature as a mere system of relations must be referred, is 
simply the old argument of the necessity for a First Cause dressed 
up m new clothes. Not by any means an argument to be despised, 
but stopping short of the truth through an inadequate analytic 
of knowledge." His aim is to remedy this defect by psychology, 
under the conviction that a true metaphysics is at bottom 

E<iychoIogy, and a true psychology fundamentally metaphysics 
lis psychology is founded on a proposed distinction between 
" attuition " and reason. His theory of " attuition," by which he 
supposes that wc become conscious of objects outside ourselves, 
is his " return to dualism." and is indeed so like natural realism as 
to suggest that, like Ferrier. he starts from Hamilton to end in 
Hegel. As. however, he does not suppose that we have a direct 
perception of something resisting the organism, such as Hamilton 
maintained, it becomes necessary to state exactly what he means 
by " attuition." It is, according to him, something more than 
sensation, but less than perception; it is common to us with lower 
animals such as dogs; its operation consists in co-ordinating sen- 
sations into an aggregate which the subject throws back into 
space, and thereby has a consciousness of a total object outside 
itself, e.g. a stone or a stick, a man or a moon. He carries its 
operation before reason still farther, supposing that " attuition " 
makes particular inferences about outside objects, and that a man, 
or a dog. through association " attuites " sequence and invariable- 
ncss of succes<iion. and. in fact, gets as far in the direction of causation 
as Hume thought it possible to go at all. Laurie's view is that a 
dog who has no higher faculty than " attuition." can go no farther; 
but that a man goes farther by reason. He thinks that " attuition " 
gives us consciousness of an object, but without knowledge, and 
that knowledge begins with reason. His theory of reason brings 
him into contact with the German idealists: he accepts from Kant 
the hypothesis of synthesis and a priori categories, from Fichte the 
hvpothesis that will is necessary to reason, from Schetling and 
Hegel the hypothesis of universal reason, and of an identity between 
the cosmic reason and the reason of man. in which he agrees also 
with Green and Caird. But he has a peculiar view of the nowers 
of reason ; that ( i ) under the law of excluded middle it states alterna- 
tives. A or B or C or D; (2) under the law of contradiction it negates 
B. C. D; (3) under the law of sufficient reason it says " therefore "; 
and (4) under the law of identity it concludes, A is A. In working 
out this process he supposes that reason throws into consciousness 
a priori categories, synthetic predicates a priori, or, as he also calls 
them, "dialectic percepts." Of these the most important is cause, 
of which his theory, in short, is that by this a priori category and 
the process of reason we go on from sctjuence to consequence; first 
stating that an effect may be caused by several alternatives, then 
negating all but one. next concluding that this one as sufficient reason 
is cause, and finally attaining the necessity of the causal nexus by con- 
verting causality into identity, e.g. instead of " Fire burns w«x>d," 
putting " Fire iscomburcni, wood is combustible." lastly, while he 
agrees with Kant about a priori categories, he differs about the 
knowledge to be got out of them. Kant, applying them only to 
sensations, concluded that we can know nothing l>cyond by their 
means. But Laurie, applying them to " attuitions " of objects out- 
side, considers that, though they are " reason -born." yet they make us 
know the objects outside to which thry are applied. This is the 
farthest point of his dualism, which suggests a realistic theory of 
knowledge, different in process from Hamilton's, but with the 
same result. Not so: Laurie is a Hegelian, using Kant's categories, 
as Hegel did. to ar^ue that they are true not only of thou.^Vv\.s \sw\ 
of things; and for the same reason. xV\at xV\Ws aiX\AvV\ow^^\s?^\^\V-.^ 
same. At first in his psycbo\osy V\c spcAVis o\ vVvt " *.vvu\\So\v' 



246 



METAPHYSICS 



(ENGLISH IDEALISM 



and the ntnonaf pnveptbn of tn outside ol>jcct. ^ But in hit 
metaphyiica founded tht^{^Ql^ be interprets th«^ outside object to 
mean an objei:t DLit&idf \oa And me» but am uW'Subsistent ; not 
outside univerul rcaton, but only "' 3iint reason." He quotes 



with jpprOiVil Schellirie'a phrase, *' ^'ilttl^e Li visible InteUtgence 
ind tntelligence visible Nature." I^e acrves witli Hegel that there 
■ne two tunddnientAl tdentiiiem, the identity of all reason, and 



the identity of all fea^n .md all bein([. Hence he explains, what 
11 a duality for U9 is only a " quasi -dyality " from a universal 
standpoint. In fact, hti dualism is not rc^fism. but merely the 
diatincLion of iiubject and object within idtralism. Laurie's meu- 

Ehyiics iii an attempt to supply a psyctiolojiii^jl propaedeutic to 
[egclian metaphysics, 

Bradley's Appearance and Reality (1893) is a more original 
performance. It proceeds on the opposite method of making 
iTrsifhi metaphysics independent of psychology. " Meta- 
physics," says he, " has no direct interest in the origin 
of ideas '* (354), and " we have nothing to do here with 
the psychological origin of the perception " (35). This 
metaphysical method, which we have already seen attempted 
by Lotze, is the true method, for we know more about 
things than about the beginnings of our knowledge. Bradley 
is right to go straight to reality, and right also to inquire 
for the absolute, in order to take care that his meta- 
physical view is comprehensive enough to be true of the 
worid as a whole. He is unconsciously returning to the meta- 
physics of Aristotle in spirit; yet he differs from it toto coeio 
in the letter. His starting-point is the view that things as 
ordinarily understood, and (we may add) as Aristotle understood 
them (though with important qualifications) are self-contradic- 
tory, and arc therefore not reality but appearances. If they were 
really contradictory they would be non-existent. However, 
he illustrates their supposed contradictoriness by examples, 
such as one subsUnce with many attributes, and motion from 
place to place in one time. But he fails to show that a substance 
is one and many in the same respect, and that motion requires a 
body to be in two places at the same moment of one time. There 
is no contradiction (as Aristotle said) between a man being 
determined by many attributes, as rational, six-foot-high, white, 
and a father, and yet being one whole substance distinct from 
any other, including his own son; nor is there any contradiction 
between his body being in bed at 8.1s and at breakfast at 8.4 s 
within the same hour. Bradley's supposed contradictions are 
really mere differences. So far he reminds one of Herbart, who 
founded his *' realistic " metaphysics on similar misunder- 
standings; except that, while Herbart concluded that the world 
consists of a number of simple " reals," each with a simple 
quality but unknown, Bradley concludes that reality is one 
absolute experience which harmonizes the supposed contra- 
dictions in an unknown manner. If his starting-point recalls 
Herbart his method of arriving at the absolute recalls Spinoza. 
In his Table of Contents, ch. xiii., on the General Nature 
of Reality, he says, in true Spinozistic vein, " The Real is one 
substantially. Plurality of Reals is not possible." In the text 
he explains that, if there were a plurality of reals, they would 
have to be beings independent of each other, and yet. as a plurality 
related to each other — and this again seems to him to be a contra- 
diction. Throughout the rest of the work he often repeats that 
a thing which is related cannot be an independent thing. Now, 
if " independent " means " existing alone " and unrelated the 
same thing could not be at once related and independent; and, 
taking substance as independent in that sense, Spinoza concluded 
that there could only be one substance. But this is not the sense 
in which a plurality of things would have to be independent in 
order to exist, or to be substances in the Aristotelian sense. 
"Independent" {xupi<n6v), or "self-subsistent" (ko^* avr6) 
means " existing apart," i.e. existing differently: it does not 
mean " existing alone," solitary, unrelated. This existing apart 
is the only sense in which a plurality of things need be indepen- 
dent in order to be real, or in order to be substances; and it is a 
sense in which they can all be related to each other, as I am not 
you, but I am addressing you. There is no contradiction, then, 
though Bradley supposes one, between a thing being an indivi- 
duaJ, Jadependent, seil'Subsislenl substance, existing apart as a 



distinct thing, and being also related to other things. Kocatd- 
ingly, the many things of this world are not self-discrepant, m 
Bradley says, but are distinct and relative substances, m 
Aristotle said. The argument, therefore, for one substance in 
Spinoza's Ethics, and for one absolute, the Real, which is OM 
substantially, in Bradley's Appearance and Reality, breski 
down, so far as it is designed to prove that there is only oac 
substance, or only one Real. Bradley, however, having satisfied 
himself, like Spinoza, by an abuse of the word " independent," 
that " the fim'te is self -discrepant," goes on to ask what the OM 
Real, the absolute, is; and, as he passed from Herbart to 
Spinoza, so now he passes from Spinoza to Kant. Spinoa 
answered realistically that the one substance is both extended 
and thinking. Bradley answers idealistically that the one Rol 
is one absolute experience, because all we know is experience. 
"This absolute," says he. "is experience, because that is really 
what we mean when we predicate or speak of anything." But ia 
order to identify the absolute with experience he is obliged, a 
he before abused the words " contradictory " and " indepen- 
dent," so now to abuse the word " experience." " Experience,** 
says he, " may mean experience only direct, or indirect alia 
Direct experience I understand to be confined to the given simply, 
to the merely felt or presented. But indirect experience tndttdcs 
all fact that is constructed from the basis of the * this ' and the 
' mine.' It is all that is taken to exist beyond the bare momoU ** 
(24S). This is to substitute " indirect experience " for al 
inference, and to maintain that when, starting from any " dtiect 
experience," I infer the back of the moon, which is always turned 
away from me, I nevertheless have experience of it; nay, that 
it is experience. Having thus confused contradiction and diiid^ 
ence, independence and solitariness, experience and infeience^ 
Bradley is able to deduce finally that reality is not differot 
substances, experienced and inferred, as Aristotle thought ft, 
but is one absolute super-personal experience, to which the §9- 
called plurality Of things, including all bodies, all souls, and evci 
a personal God, is appearance — an appearance, as ordinaii^ 
understood, self -contradictory, but, as appearing to one spiritsd 
reality, somehow reconciled. But how? 

3. Other German Influences. — Brief reference only can bl 
made to four other English idealists who have quarried ia tkt 
rich mines of German idealism: G. H. Lewes, W. K. Oiffeid, 
G. J. Romanes and Karl Pearson. Lewes (9.V.), starting fnMi 
the phenomenalism of Hume, fell under the spell of Kant sad 
his successors, and produced a compromise >^*»^" ajij_jia 
Hume and Kant which recalls some of the later 
German phenomenalisms which have been described (see Ui 
Problems of Life and Mind). Rejecting everything in the KriSk 
which savoured of the ** metempirical," he yet sympathised ai 
far with Hegel's noumenalism as to accept the identificatkn of 
cause and effect, though he interpreted the hypothesis pheot* 
menalistically by saying that cause and effect are two aspects of 
the same phenomenon. But his main sympathy was with 
Fechner, the gist of whose " inner psychophysics " he adoptfld» 
without, however, the hypothesis that what is conscious ia osli 
conscious in the all-embracing spirit of God. His pheiioinwBal 
ism also compelled him to give a more modified adhcsioa It 
Fechner's " outer psychophysics." It will be remembered that 
Fechner regarded every composite body as the appearance il 
a spirit; so that when, for example, molecular motion of airil 
said to cause a sensation of sound in me, it is really a 
spirit appearing as air which causes the sensation in aqr 
spirit. This noumenalism would not do for Lewes, vha 
says that air is a group of qualities, and qualities ait 
feelings, and motion is a mode of feeling. What, thai, ooaU 
he make of the external stimulus? He was obliged by Ul 
phenomenalism to say that it is only one feeling causing 1 
in me. He ingeniously suggested that the external agent is C 
feeling regarded objectively, and the internal effect anotl 
feeling regarded subjectively; " and therefore," to quote kb^ 
own words, " to say that it is a molecular movement whiA 
produces a sensation of sound, is equivalent to saying that • 
sensation of sight produces a sensation of hearing." Acoordlii|AP^ 



EHGUSH lOEALISMl 



METAPHYSICS 



247 



Ib final condusioii is that "existence — the absolute— is known 
to 01 in feeling/' and *' the external changes are symbolized as 
wxiMi, because that is the mode of feeling into which all others 
uc transbted when objectively considered: objective consider- 
atkm being the attitude of looking ai the phenomena, whereas 
adijcctive consideration is the attitude of any other sensible 
lopoDSC." He does not say what happens when we use vision 
ileoe and still infer that an external stimulus causes the internal 
natioo. But his metaphysics is an interesting example of a 
phenomenalist, sympathizing with noumenalists so different as 
Hefd and Fechner, and yet maintaining his phenomenalism, 
h this feature the phenomenalism of Lewes is the English 
pinDcl to the German phenomenalism of Wundt. At the same 
liK, and under the derivative influence of Wundt, rather than 
(Ik BMie original inspiration of Fechner, W. K. Clifford iq.v.) was 
voiking out the hypothesis of psychophysical parallelism to a 
cotdnstrai different from that of Lewes, and more allied to that 
of Ldbaitz, the prime originator of all these hypotheses. Clifford 
KC advanced the hypothesis that the supposed un- 
'Bk'* conscious units of feeling, or psychical atoms, are the 
"nind-stuff " out of which everything physical and psychical 
iiCMBposed, and are also things in themselves, such as Kant 
■ppQMd when he threw out the hint that after all " the Ding-an- 
ad might be of the nature of mind " (see Mind, 1878, p. 67). 
Alt matter of fact, this *' mind-stuff " of Clifford is far more 
fte the " petites perceptions " of Leibnitz, from which it is 
iidvcctly derived. This hypothesis Clifford connected with the 
kjpothcsis of psychophysical parallelism. He maintained that 
the physical and the psychical are two orders which are parallel 
tithout interference; that the physical or objective order is 
Mfriy phenomena, or groups of feelings, or " objects," while the 
jliycUcal or subjective order is both a stream of feelings of which 
«eare conscious in ourselves, and similar streams which we infer 
beyond ourselves, or, as he came to call them, " ejects '*; that, 
ive accept the doctrine of evolution at all, we must carry these 
cjective streams of feelings through the whole organic worid and 
beyond it to the inorganic world, as a " quasimental fact "; 
tbt at bottom both orders, the physical phenomena and the 
pqFchical streams, are reducible to feelings; and that therefore 
tlKie is no reason against supposing that they are made out of the 
■OK " mind-stuff," which is the thing-in-itself. The resem- 
biaoce of thb noumenal idealism to that of Fechner is unmistak- 
iMe. The differei>ce is that Clifford considers " mind-stuff " to 
be mconscious, and denies that there b any evidence of con- 
idoasoess apart from a nervous system. He agrees with du 
Bfltf-Reymond in refusing to regard the universe as a vast brain 
tttmtted by conscious mind. He disagrees with Fechner's 
hypothesis of a world-soul, the highest spirit, God, who embraces 
•fl psychophysical processes. Curiously enough, his follower 
Gl J. Romanes (9.0.) took the one step needed to bring Cliffordism 
completely back to Fechnerism. In his Rede Lecture on Mind 
•d Motion (1885), he said that Clifford's deduction, that the 
Al universe, although entirely composed of " mind-stuff," 
*■■■■•• is itself mindless, did not follow from his premisses. 
Afterwards, when the lecture was published in Afind and 
Union and Monism (1895), this work also contained a chapter on 
"The Worid as an Eject," in which Romanes again contended 
ipiBst Gifford that the worid does adroit of being regarded 
tiiB eject, that is. as a mind beyond one's own. At the same 
tine, Iw reftjsed to regard this " world-eject " a^ personal, 
beause personality implies limitation. He concludes that the 
incgrating principle of the whole — the Spirit, as it were, of the 
Vflivene — must be something akin to, but immeasurably superior 
10, the ** psychism " of man. Nothing can be more curious than 
tbr«ay in which a school of English philosophers, which originally 
■ttted from Hume, the most sceptical of phenomenalists, thus 
pi^aally passed over to Leibnitz and Fechner, the originators 
Bf panpsychistic noumenalism. The Spirit of the Universe 
3Bncmplated by Romanes is identical with the World-soul 
Mtcnpbted by Fechner. 

larl Pearson {The Grammar of Science, iS^a, and enlarged ed., 
900), suiting from Hume's phenomenaJ idealism, has developed 



views closely allied to Mach's universal physical phenomenology. 
What Hume called repeated sequence Pearson calls ** routine " 
of perceptions, and, like his master, holds that cause is an ante- 
cedent stage in a routine of perceptions; while he also acknow- 
ledges that his account of matter leads him very near to John 
Stuart Mill's definition of matter as " a permanent possibility of 
sensations." His views, in his chapter on the Laws of Motion, 
that the physicist forms a conceptional model of the universe by 
aid of corpuscles, that these corpuscles are only symbols for the 
component parts of perceptual bodies, and that force is a measure 
of motion, and not its cause, are the views of Mach. At the end 
of this chapter he says that the only published work from the 
perusal of which he received any help in working out his 
views in 1882 and 1884, was Mach's Die Meckanik in ihrer 
Entuncklung (r883). Mach had begun to put them forward 
in 1872, and Kirchhoff in 1874. But they may very well have 
been developed independently in Germany and in En^and 
from their common source in Hume. Their point is to stretch 
Hume's phenomenalism so as to embrace all science, by con- 
tending that mechanism is not at the bottom of phenomena, 
but is only the conceptual shorthand by aid of which men of 
science can briefly describe phenomena, and that all science is 
description and not explanation. These are the views of Mach 
and of Pearson, as we read them in the latfer's Preface. Nor 
can we find any difference, except the minute shade that Pearson 
takes up a position of agnosticism between Clifford's assertion of 
" mind-stuff " and Mach's denial of things in themselves. 

James Ward {q.v.), in Nailiralism and Agnosticism (1899), 
starts from the same phenomenalistic views of Mach and Kirch- 
hoff about mechanics; he proceeds to the hypothesi s^ 

of duality within experience, which we have traced in 
the phenomenalisms of Schuppe, Avenarius and Wundt, and to 
the hjrpothesis of one consciousness, which appears variously in 
the German idealisms, not of Kant, as Ward thinks, but of Fichte, 
Hegel and Schuppe; and somehow he manages to end with the 
noumenalistic conclusion that Nature is God's Spirit. Though 
this work evinces a thoroughly English love of compromise, yet 
it is not merely eclectic, but is animated throughout by the 
inspiration of his " old teacher, Lotze." Lotze, as we saw, 
rejected bodily mechanism, reduced known bodies to phenomena, 
and concluded that reality is the life of God. Ward on the whole 
follows this triple scheme, but modifies it by new arguments 
founded on later German phenomenalism. 

Under the first head he attacks mechanics precisely as Mach 
had done (see above) ; if this attack had been consistently carried 
out it would have carried him no further than Mach. Under the 
second head, according to Ward, as according to Wundt. knowledge 
is experience; we must start with the duality of subject and object, 
or perpetual reality, phenomenon, in the unity of experience, and 
not believe, as realists do, that cither subject or object is distinct 
from this unity; moreover, experience re<^uires " conation." because 
it is to interesting objects that the subject attends; conation is 
required for all synthesis, associative and intellective; thinking is 
doing: presentation, feeling, conation are one inseparable whole; 
and the unity of the subject is due to activity and not to a sub- 
stratum. But. in opposition to Wundt and in common with 
Schuppe. he believes that experience is (1) experience of the in- 
dividual, and (2) experience of the race, which is but an extension 
of individual experience, and is variously called, in the course of 
the discussion, universal, collective, conceptual, rational experience, 
consciousness in general, absolute consciousness, intelligence, and 
even, after Caird, " a perfect intelligence." He regards this uni- 
versal experience as the result entirely of intersubjective intcr- 
cour^, and concludes that its subject is not numerically distinct 
from the subject of individual experience, but is one and continuous 
with it, and that its conceptions depend on the perceptions of 
individual experience. He infers the corollary that univereal 
experience contains the same duality of subjective and objective 
factors without dualism. He thinks that it is the origin of the 
categories of causality, which he refers to " conation,' and sub- 
stance, which he attributes to the interaction of active subjects 
with their environment and to their intercourse with each other. 
He applies universal experience, as Schuppe does, to explain the 
unity of the object, and its independence of individual but not of 
universal experience, holding that the one sun, and the whole 
world of fntersubjective intercourse,^ or the "trans-subjective" 
world, though " independent of the individual ^^cvovttvX ^% V3l!c^^^ 
is " not independent of the umverwX expcrveiK^, W\ ^t <^\«X 
of that experience " (ii. 196-197). He av^\es uto.N«rai\ taugKoeocft^ 



248 



METAPHYSICS 



to explain how we come, falsely in his opinion, to believe that the 
object of experience is an independent thine; and he uses three 
arguments, which are respectively those of Schuppe. Avenarius 
and Wundt. He supposes first, that we falsely conclude from the 
sun being independent of each to being independent of all; 
secondly, that by " introjection " we falsely conclude that 
another's experience b in him and therefore one's own in one- 
self, while the sun remains outside; and thirdly, that by " reifi- 
cation " of abstractions, natural science having abstracted the 
object and psychology the subject, each falsely believes that its 
own abstract, the sun or the subject, is an mdependcnt thing. 
What, then, could we know from this "duality in experience"? 
He hardJy hjs n lorni^il tfirn.r>' »t i"Urcricc but miC'iitt:* tlirough- 
OUt thjit it only tran5cenJ& ptfrccptionsv and pcrtxptual wcaM- 
t\ti or phcJiorvi^n^p in order to conclude vihh kfcaa, not lacfs- 
When we cocnbinc hi* view of Nature und^r the first bead that 
whatever {• ia^emd in the natural sciv^ncea is Ideas, with his vkw 
of koowledge uoder the second head that knowledge is cxpcfwrc*. 
and eHpcriencCp lAdividiul or umvcr<jl» h of duality of subject 
and obj^-ct in the uriity of oipericftte, U lc»Ebw$ that all wc cauliJ 
know from th« dau would be one expt^ricnte of t he mcc, one subject 
ran&istmg of individual subjects, attd In Nature single objects in 
the unity □! this jniverMl experience; and beyond wc should be 
«ble to form conceptions dependent on the perceptions of individuztl 
experience in the unity of universal experience- that is all- There 
can be no doubt that Mocb, Schuppe and Wundt d^*^w the nfcht 

Rhenomcn4ili<!^[k cuncJu«ions from such phenomenal i*t Id data. 
lot M Ward, wtio proceeds to a Ndtur^l TheoJoiQ', on the groiind 
that '^Irom a. world of $pint& to a Suprirme Spirit la ti possible 
itepn" He had de^nitely conltned universal cxptricncv to the one 
experience ol the race. Out pcrhap* Caird's phra» ** a perfect 
intel] thence " has beguil&d him into thinking that the one s.ubject 
oi untvcriii) experience ii not mere mankind, but God Himstlf^ 
Umkf tHt' third hcjd, however, his guide is Lot,^, The argument 
m^\ Ii' ^. •■.\\-- \'\-i - ^ '!■ ^^s: As the Nature m-hich is the obj[^cl 
oj ir : I ; :r,il sciences is not natural !ub$tance«, 

but phenomena and ideas: as mass is not substance, and force is not 
cause: as activity is not in the physical but in the psychical world; 
as the laws of Nature are not facts but tcleological conceptions, 
and Nature is teleological, as well as not mechanical but kine- 
matical ; as the category of causality is to be referred to " conation " ; 
as. in short, " mind is active and matter inert." what then? One 
subject of universal experience, one with the subjects of individual 
experience, you would suppose, and that Nature as a whole is its 
one object. Not so, according to Ward; but " God as the living 
unity of all," and " no longer things, but the connecting conserving 
acts of the one Supreme.' What, then, is the relation of God to 
the one universal experience, the experience of the race, which 
was under the second head the unity in duality of all know- 
ledge P He does not say. But instead of any longer identifying 
the experience of the race and universal experience, he concludes 
his book by saying " our reason is confronted and determined by 
universal reason." This is his way of destroying Naturalism and 
Agnosticism. 

4. Personal Idealism. — The various forms of idealism which 
have been described naturally led in England, even among 
idealists themselyes, to a reaction against all systems which 
involve the denial of personality. English moral philosophy 
cannot long tolerate a metaphysics which by merging all minds 
in one would destroy personality, personal causation and moral 
responsibility, as James Martineau well said. A new school, 
therefore, arose of which the protagonist was Andrew Scth 
Pringlc-Pattison (b. 1856; professor of logic and metaphysics 
at Edinburgh University from 1880) in his Scottish Philosophy 
(1885), and Hegelianism and Personality (1887). 

" Each of us is a self," he says, and in another passage. " The 
real self is one and indivisible, and is unique in each individual. 
This is the unequivocal testimony of consciousness." What 
makes his vindication of conscious personality all the more inter- 
esting is that he has so much in common with the Hegelians; agree- 
ing as he does with Hegel that self<onsciousness is the highest Tact, 
the ultimate category of thought through which alone the universe 
is intelligible, and an adequate account of the ^rcat fact of exist- 
ence. He agrees also that there is no object without subject. It 
is difficult to see exactly where he begins to differ from Hegel; but 
at any rate he believes in different self-conscious persons; he does 
not accept the dialectical method, but believes in beginning from 
the personal experience of one's own self-consciousness; and, though 
he is not very clear on the subject, he would have to admit that 
a thing, such as the sun, is a diHercnt object in each person's con- 
sciousness. He is not a systematic thinker, but is too much affected 
by the eclectic notion of reconciling all philosophies. F. C. S. 
Schiller (b. 1864, fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford), in 
Middles pj the Sphinx (1891), is a more systematic thinker. He 
rvjccta the difference between matter and spirit. He aerees with 
U:ibnitz in tbeaaalytis of the material into the imraateriaf, but with 



IPERSONALIDEAUS 

Lotze in holding that the many immaterial elements coexist ac 
interact. At the same time he differs from Lotze's conduskm cbi 
their union requires one absolute substance. Again, he thinks tin 
substance is activity; differing from both Leibnitx aund Lob 
herein, and still more in not allowing the existence o( the mai 
beyond experience. Hence his personal or pluralistic idealinn 
the view that the world is a plurality of many coexisting and inte 
acting centres of experience, while will is the most fundament 
form of experience.' In connexion with these views referen 
should be made to a work entitled Personal Idealism, Philosopkm 
Essays by Eight Members of the University of Oxford (1903), cditc 
bv H. Sturt, and numbering Schiller, as well as G. F. Scon 
H. Rashdall and other? among its contributors (cf. also H. Star 
Idola theatri, 190!^}, They do not &\\ a|^ee with one anc»tlicr^ 4 
perhaps even with the title. ^»cverthcle»i, there is -at commjn tei 
dency in them, and io the univenity of Oxford, toward^ the bvli 
that, to use the words of the editor, *' We are frt« pnaral agvn 
in a sense which c^innot apply to what is merely natura.K" 1 here 
indeed much more activity of thou(^tit at Oxford than tl>e %(^d lu 
pects. Mansel and Jowett, Green and Caird, Bradley and Bo^-anqu 
arose in quick succes^'on, the prciJecc^ssors of a ^eneraiicn «bic 
aims at a new mc^iaphy^ics. The same bort of antithe'^i« bet«ix 



the one and the many haji appeared in the Linited Statues. Jq> 
Royce (b. iBss, prmetsor of philosophy. Harvard) U.'^ir%c9 1 
the absolute Iflce Cnvn and Bradley, in " the unity of 4 sic^ 
self<onsciousness, whith includes both otir own and all &nn 
conscious meaning in one final eternally present in^l^ht,*' u h 
says in The World sJid the Individual (1900; see alsa later wcn-ki 
G. T. Ladd {q.v.) al&o bcEieves in " a larger aU-inclu^ve self,'* an 
goes so far as the paradox that perfect persGnahty is onty wecm 
citable with one in finite being. While Royce ia Hegctian, Lad 
prefers Lotze, but both believe in one mind. William James iqj., 
on the other har,d, in his psychological wnrks showi that (b 
tendency of recent psychology is to perjionality, in^tei-prcted idnl 
isticallv; though without a very clear appreciation of what a ptinu 
is, and personaliiy means. Dy a cunous coificidencc, almost jj 
the time of the appearance of the Exmyi vm Per-iOKsl lirslim. 
an American writir, G, H. Htjwiiion^ published The Limttt (*r £«J» 
/ion, and other Esi.tyi iliufiraUne the Metophyiiroi Thirifry itfPm^^ 
Idealism (1901). In f.^ci ilu-rc hab btytn an increaie of pfiilnjtM^phSctt 
intercourse betwi-r f r-h'ih and American univcrEittci, »bic^ in 
a hopeful sign of progress. 

The advent of personal idealism is a welcome protest agaioK 
the confusion of God and man in one mind, and against the 
confusion of one man's mind with another's. Hie sdiod 
undoubtedly tends towards realism. I am consdous only oi 
myself as a person, and of my bodily signs. I know the eiisteoa 
of other human persons and minds only through their gfvJQg 
similar bodily signs. If the personal idealist consistently dcoiei 
other bodies, then the bodily signs become, according to hiii, 
only part of his experience, which can prove only the existence ol 
himself. To infer another mind he must infer another body, tad 
the bodily environment including his and other bodies. Agiii, 
in being conscious of myself, I am not conscious of my mind in tic 
abstract without my body. I cannot separate touching from wj 
tactile organs, seeing from my eyes, or hearing from my ean. I 
cannot think my body away. Moreover, I am not consdoisd 
my whole personal life at all. How do I know that I was bom, 
though I cannot remember it, and that I shall die, though I !■ 
not now conscious of death ? How do I know that I am tbi 
same person from birth to death? Not by my consdousnai^ 
but by knowing the bodies of others — of babies on the one baM 
and of old men on the other hand. It is usual to say that tli 
body has not enough unity 10 be part of the person: the objectSoi 
is much more true of consdous mind. 'The truth is that aol 
the unity of consciousness but the fact of its existence is Uh 
important point. The existence of my consciotisness is my evi 
dcnce for my soul. But it does not prove that I am nothing bol 
soul. As a human person, I am body and soul; and the idealistii 
identification of the Ego with soul or mind, involving the corolhi] 
that my body belongs to the non-Ego and is no part of mysetf, i 
the reductio ad absurdum of idealism. Lastly, thoui^ tk 
personal idealists are right in rejecting the hypothesis of Oil 
mind, they are too hasty in supposing that the hypothesis i 
useless for idealistic purposes. No idealism can explain faoi 
we all know one sun, except by supposing that we all have M 
mind. The difficulty of personal idealism, on the other hajid, i 
to reconcile the unity of the thing with the plurality of thinkcfl 
The unity of the sun can only be explained either idealislical 
* For Dr Schiller's views, see further Pracmatism. 



UALISM] 



METAPHYSICS 



249 



bysippounf it to be one object of one mind, or realistically by 
npporing it to be one thing distinct from the many minds which 
thiak about it. Tbe former alternative is false, the latter true. 
Penooal idealism, therefore, must end in oersonal realism. 

7.— Reausm 

I. }i€tapkysical and Psychological ^ea/Mfn.— Realism is the 
jnew that some known things are bodily, and some are mental. 
•Al its best, it is the Aristotelian view that both arc substances. 
Tbe modem misunderstanding of " substance " has been a main 
cute of the confusion of modern thought. Aristotle meant by 
it uy distinct thing; e,g. I, you, an animal, a plant, the earth, the 
nooo, the sun. Cod. He calls each of these, as existing apart, a 
Iking fer» (cotT aSrrb). It is true that, having divided a natural 
ttUtance into form and matter, he called each element " sub- 
ituce.** But these are not primary meanings; and matter, or 
npposcd substratum, in particular, he says, is not actually 
nbtance ( Jf ef. Z 3) or is only potentially substance {Met. H 1-2). 
hnodem times, Spinoza, by a rhere mistake, changed the 
KBunf of " substance " from " existing apart " to " existing 
ikae." and consistently concluded that there is only one. 
Lode mistook it to mean *' substratum," or support of qualities, 
aad naturally concluded that it is unknown. Kant, taking it in 
tk aatstaken meaning of Locke, converted it into the a priori 
atcfoiy of the permanent sutotrate beneath the changes of 
pkaoineoa, and even went so far as to separate it from the thing 
ii llsetf, as substantia phenomenon from noumenon. When it 
bd thus bst every vestige of its true meaning, Kant's successors 
utorally began to speak of things as being distinct without being 
■bitances. Fichte began this by saying that ego is activity, 
lad being is life. Hegel said that spirit is not substance but 
nbject. which to Aristotle would have meant that it is not a 
Astioa thing, yet is a distinct thing. Fechner, Wundt and 
Ptaben have fixed the conclusion in psychology that soul 
k not substance but unity of mental life; and Wundt 
coadudes from the modem history of the term that substance 
« ** substrate '* is -only a secondary conception to that of 
cnaality, and that, while there is a physical causality distinct 
bom that of substance, psychical causality requires no sub- 
ttaixeat alL 

The result of this confusion is that the modems have no name 
It lO for a distinct thing, and, being mere slaves of abstract terms, 
coastantly speak of mere attributes, such as activity, life, will. 
Ktnality, um'ty of mental operations, as if they were distinct 
tUflfs. But an attribute, though real, is not a distinct reality, 
btt only a determinant of a substance, and has no being of its 
ova apart from the substance so determined; whereas a substance, 
determined by all its attributes, is different from everything 
che hi the woHd. Though, for simplicity and universality of 
tkou^l, even in science, we must use the abstraction of attri- 
bites, and, by the necessity and weakness of language, must 
■pify what arc not substances by nouns substantive, we must 
|iud against the over-abstraction of believing that a thing exists 
a we abstract it. The point of true realism is Aristotle's point 
tlot tbe world consists of such distinct, though related, things, 
[ ad therefore of substances, natural and supernatural. Again, 
I the aethod of true realism is that of Aristotle, and consists in 
Ncqpuzing the independence of metaphysics. The contrary 
I BKbod is psychological metaphysics, which makes metaphysics 
dependent on psyxhology, on the ground that the origin of know- 
b% determines its limits. This is the method which, as we 
have seen, has led from psycholc^ical to metaphysical idealism, 
kgr the argument that what we begin by perceiving is mental, and, 
tkcRfore, what we end by knowing is mental. Now, there is no 
principle of method superior to that of Aristotle — we must 
bcpB with what is known to us. The things best known to man 
oe the thinip which he now knows as a man. About these 
bsvii thin^i there is some agreement: about the beginnings 
^ knowledge there is nothing but controversy. We do 
m know enough about the origin of knowledge to determine 
b Gmitt. Hence, to proceed from psychology to metaphysics 
ii to proceed from tbe less to the more known; and the i 



paradoxes of psychological have caused those of metaphysical 
idealism. 

The realist, then, ought to begin with metaphysics without 
psychological prejudices. He must ask what arc known things, 
and especially what has been discovered in the sciences; in 
mechanics, in order to find the essence of bodies which is neglected 
by idealism; in mental science, in order to understand con- 
sciousness which is neglected by materialism. With the con- 
viction that the only fair way of describing metaphysics has been 
to avoid putting forward one system, and even to pay most 
attention to the dominant idealism, we have nevertheless been 
driven occasionally to test opinions by this independent meta- 
physical method. The chief results we have found against 
idealism are that bodies have not been successfully analysed 
except into bodies, as real matter; and that bodies are known to 
exert reciprocal pressure in reducing one another to a joint mass 
with a common velocity by being mutually impenetrable, as 
real forces. The chief results we have found against materialism 
are that bodies evolving account neither for the origin of them- 
selves, their nature, and their fundamental order of resemblance 
and diflercnce, nor for the nature and origin of consciousness, nor 
even as yet for their becoming good for conscious beings. Hence 
we come to the realistic conclusions that among known substances 
some are bodies, others are souls; that man is body and soul; and 
that God is a pure soul or spirit. At the same time, while the 
independence of metaphysics leads us to metaphysical realism, 
this is not to deny the value of psychology, still less of logic. 
Besides the duty of determining what we know, there is the duty 
of determining how we know it. But in order to discharge it, 
a reform of psychology as well as of metaphysics is required. 
Two psychological errors, among many others, constantly meet 
us in the history of idealism — the arbitrary hypothesis of a sense 
of sensations, or of ideas, and the intolerable neglect of logical 
inference. Logical inference from sense is a process from sensible 
to insensible existence. The former error needs something 
deeper than a Kantian critique of reason, or an Avenarian 
criticism of experience; it needs a criticism of the senses. We 
want an answer to this question — What must we know by the 
senses in order to enable us to know what we infer by reason in the 
sciences? Without here aiming at exhaust ivencss, we may bring 
forward against the dominant idealism a psychological theory 
of sense and reason. By touch I perceive one bodily member 
reciprocally pressing another in myself, e.g. lip pressing lip, by 
touch again I perceive one bodily member similarly pressing 
but not another member in myself, e.g only one lip pressing; 
by inference from touch I infer that it is reciprocally pressing 
another body similar to my other bodily member, i.e. another 
body similar to my other lip. On this theory, then, founded on 
the conscious facts of double and single pressure in touch, and 
on the logic of inference, we have at once a reason for our know- 
ledge of external bodies, and an explanation of the early appear- 
ance of that knowledge. The child has only to have its mother's 
nipple in its mouth in order to infer something very like the 
mutually pressing parts of its own mouth. Having thus begun 
by touch and tactile inference, we confirm and extend our 
inferences of bodies in Nature by using the rest of the senses. 
This is not to forget that the five senses are not our whole stock 
or to confine inference to body. We have also the inner sense of 
consciousness which is inexplicable by body alone. By combin- 
ing, moreover, our knowledge of Nature with our consciousness 
of our own works, we can infer that Nature is a work of God. 
Next, finding that He gives signs of bodily works, but no signs 
of bodily organs, we can infer that God is a Spirit. Finally, 
returning to oursdves, we can conclude that, while the conscious 
in God is Spirit without Body, in us it is spirit with body. This 
final distinction between bodily and spiritual substances we owe 
to Descartes. 

2. The Undercurrent of Modern Realism.— Coming after the 
long domination of Aristotelian realism, Descartes and Locke, 
though psychological idealists, were metaphysical te.^iM»W 
Their position was so illogical v\\ai\. *a >n^ t«&^^ Vuttv^^ VcvV^i 
metaphysical idealism. But lbt\t ^^dxoVo^caX m«."CwA ^sA 



2SO 



METAPHYSICS 



IREAUSII 



idealism produced another mistake— the tendency to a modicum 
of realism, as much as seemed to this or that author to follow from 
psychological idealism. In Germany, since the victory of Kant 
over Wolff, realism has always been in difficulties, which we 
can appreciate when we reflect that the Germans by preference 
apply the term ** realism " to the paradoxes of Herbart (1776- 
1841), who, in order to avoid supposed contradictions, supposed 
that bodies are not substances, but show {Schein), while " reals" 
are simple substances, each with a simple quality, and all preserv- 
ing themselves against disturbance by one another, whether 
physically or psychologically, but not known to be either material 
or spiritual because we do not know the simple quality in which 
the nature of the real consists. There have indeed been other 
realisms in Germany. Trendelenburg (1802-1873), a formidable 
opponent of Hegel, tried to surmount Kant's transcendental 
idealism by supposing that motion, and therefore time, space and 
the categories, though a priori, are common to thought and being. 
DUhring, with a similar object, makes matter a common basis. 
While these realisms come dangerously near to materialism, that 
of the Roman Catholic A. GUnther (1783-1863), " Cartesius cor- 
rectus," erected too mystical an edifice on the psychological basis 
of Descartes to sustain a satisfactory realism. Yet Giintherism 
has produced a school, of which the most distinguished repre- 
sentative is the Old Catholic bishop in Bonn, Th. Weber, whose 
Metapkysik, completed in i8gi, starting from the ego and the 
analysis of consciousness, aims at arriving at the distinction 
between spirit and nature, and at rising to the spirit of God the 
Creator. Other realistic systems are those of J. H. von Kirch- 
mann(i8o2-i884),author,among other works, of Die Pkilosophie 
dcs Wissens (1864) and Uebtrdie Principiendes Realismus iiBy $) ', 
Goswin Uphues (b. 1841; professor of philosophy at Halle), 
directed against the scepticism of Shute's Discourse on Truth; 
and Hermann Schwarz (bom 1864). who completes the psycho- 
logical view of Uphues that we can know objects as they are, by 
the metaphysical view that they can be as we know them. But 
German realism lacks critical power, and is little better than a 
weed overshadowed by the luxuriant forest of German idealism. 
In France, the home of Cartesian realism, after the vicissitudes 
of sensationalism and materialism, which became connected in 
Frtaet the French mind with the Revolution, the spirit of 
9MUam. Descartes revived in the 19th century in the spiritual- 
istic realism of Victor Cousin. But Cousin's psychological 
method of proceeding from consciousness outwards, and the 
emphasis laid by him on spirit in comparison with body, pre- 
vented a real revival of realism. He essayed to answer Locke 
by Kant, and Kant by Reid, Maine de Biran and Schelling. 
From Reid he adopted the belief in an external world beyond 
sensation, from Biran the explanation of personality by will, 
from Schelling the identification of all reason in what he called 
" impersonal reason," which he supposed to be identical in God 
and man, to be subjective and objective, psychological and 
ontological. We start, according to him, from a psychological 
triplicity in consciousness, consisting of sensation, personal will 
and impersonal reason, which by a priori laws of causality and 
substance carries us to the ontological triplicity of oneself as ego 
willing, the non-ego as cause of sensation, and God as the abso- 
lute cause beneath these relative causes. So far this ontological 
triplicity is realism. But when we examine his theory of the 
non-ego, and 6nd that it resolves matter into active force and 
this into animated activity, identifies law with reason, and calls 
God absolute substance, we see at once that this spiritual realism 
is not very far from idealism. About 1840, owing largely to the 
teaching of E. Saissel in the spiritualistic school, the influence of 
Descartes began to give way to that of Leibnitz. Leibnitz has 
been used both realistically and idealistically in France. He was 
taken literally by spiritual realists, e.g. by Paul Janet iq.v.). 
Janet accepted the traditional ontological triplicity — God, souls 
and bodies— and, in answer to Ravaisson, who called this realism 
*' demi-spiritualisme," rejoined that he was content to accept the 
tjt}e. At the same lime, like Cousin, his works show a tendency 
io underrate body, tending as ihey do to the Leibnitzian analysis 
of the wMteruJ into the imauLtctiil, and to the supposition thai 



the unity of the body is only given by the soul. His emphuit i 
on spirit, and he goes so far as to admit that " no.spirituafist i 
engaged to defend the existence of matter." The strength o 
Janet's position is his perception that the argument from fins 
causes is in favour of an omnipresent rational will making matte 
a means to ends, and not in favour of an immanent mind o 
Nature working out her own ends. 

The p«ychc»to<£ic«il mpiApFiyuci of Cousin and of Janet was. hov 
Fvor^ too Aimay a vv^ViiTn la withaEand ita pasnge into thisvcT] 
idutiani ot mjiicr whkh h^ become the dominant French meta 
physics. EUtnnc V^chcrot [q-v.) drserted Deacartes for Head 
He accepted from H^v\ " the rtdl is rdLJon^i " without the HcfebU 
met hod » for which he ^ubiiitut^ con^rioLif {experience as a reveudoi 
of the divine- Maittrr ht hdd to be mind at the minimun of it 
action, and evolution the " e^spansion de loctiviti inoeasaote del 
CAuae finale/' God, Ofcordini^ to his Ijte^t view, b the abaohtt 
tieing JA first cju^c and final end. " Let ui leave." says he in ddkr 
ence to Janet, *' th? catt^gary ol the ideal, vhich appfies to nochisi 
real or Itving/' But Lhe most noticeable passage m Le Nmrnam 
iptrititixtisme (tH^^) it iti contract between tife old and the new 
whrre h^ ^y» that the old ipiritualiitn opposed spirit to roattM 
Gixl to Nstur^". the new EpirituaEi&m piacei matter in sfMrit, Natnfi 
in God (p J77> F. ftavaiuon {ifc Ravaisson-Mollien). by hi 
fmppuri (prepared for the Exhibition of 1867) on philotiophv ii 
Frctncc, gave a fresh impulie to the transition from spiritual mliin 
to idcatiiim, by developtnE the Arittoielian 4^«0-tt of matter and tk 
UribEiitfian :tp|3etitJon of mpnads into "I'amotir" as the very beiai 
of Ehlngs. Jutes Lachelier (born uiji) agreed with RavaitKNi tha 
b^j^uty is the last word of things, but, under the influenoe of Kaa 
and hit succession, put hia idealism rather in the form that aB i 
thought. A. Fouillee (9.7.) rightly object* that we must noC thu 
impute thought and intention to Nature, and ytt does not scrupl 
to impute to it lire^ lensation and want. Starting from < ' 
ncu, he argues that ali ktiown tNifip are phenomena of < 

Then, agreeing with evolutionism, that things 'are , 

determined by forces, but with Leibniti that body is merely nuwvc; 
he infers that force, being active, is psychical— « force, whidi bt 
describes as "id^force," and as " vouioir<vivre.** In connesioi 
with the " id^ directrices et organisatrices." suppoaed by dli 
French physiologist Claude Bernard, and the universal wiU auppoad 
by German voluntarists, Fouillie concludes that the world nasodttf 
of wills. Meanwhile, more under the influence of Kant. C. B. RcMS* 
vicr (^.v.)has worked out an idealism which he calls "Sltxntkimtt,'' 
rejecting the thing-in-itself, while limiting knowledge to p h cn oiMMS 
constituted by a priori cate^ries. Phenomena m identifies iridl 
" representations repr^ntatives et repr^nt6es.** But be tahei 
the usual advantage of this most ambiguous of terms wlies hi 
extends it to embrace God. freedom, and immortality reqi^red bvthi 
moral law. In his later work. La NouseUe momadologie (1899), hi 
maintains that each monad is a simple substance, endowed with 
representation, which is consciousness in form, phenomenos is 
matter as represented. In order to explain free wiU, he soppiMk 
contrarily to Fouillie. that the laws of phenomena are indetermuatc^ 
contingent and liable to exceptions. Here we trace the intucaa 
of Leibnitz and Lotze. which is still more marked in La Cwft'fWMt 
des tots de la nature (1874), by E. Boutroux. FouUlfe meets dtt 
mechanics of evolution by the argument that will to Uv« d ctenaiM i 
its necessary laws, Boutroux by denying the necessity. His poinc 
is. that the world only appears to be phenomena g ant r aed by 
necessary laws, and is really a spontaneity which nukn new ^is> 
nings, such as life and consaousness, tendine to good. Tutm 
examples are enough to show that the psychoTogtcaT metaplqnks 
of spiritual realism has not been able to withstand the me aad 
progress of spiritual idealism in France. 

In England, the land of Bacon and Locke, the retUtfie 
tendency has been more active, and is exhibited in Bacoa^ 
Novum organuM and De Augmentis scietUiarum, a«M 
as well as to a less degree in the Fourth Book of •"■i* 
Locke's Essay. After the metaphysical idealism, began \tf 
Berkeley, had eventuated in Hume's reduction o( the 
objects of knowledge to sensations, ideas and assodatkms, the 
Scottish school, applying the Baconian method to the study of 
mind, began to inquire once more for the evidences of Otf 
knowledge, and produced the natural or intuitive realism of 
T. Reid, Dugald Stewart and Sir William Hamilton, who, haviag 
been followed by H. L. Mansel, as well as by J. Veitch, H. 
Calderwood and J. M'Cosh, prolonged the existence o( the 
school, in which we may venture to place L.T. Hobhomeaai 
F. W. Bain, author of The Realiiotion of the Possible (1899), <!>** 
to our own time. 

Its main tenet, that we have an immediate peroeptioii of dn 
external world, is roughly expressed in the folk>wing wonls d 
Reid; "I do perceive matter objectively— that is. 



BilLISin 



METAPHYSICS 



251 



tUch li eJi l efHieJ and tolid, which may be awatured and weighed. 
^M U the immediate object of my touch and sight. And 

this object 1 ulte to be matter, and not an idea. And. 
ikmcli I have bera ui^ht by phikMophen that what I immediately 
Kmca ia an idea, and not matter, yet I have never been able to dis- 
cover this by the moet accurate attention to my own perceptions." 
No oppoatioa to idealism could be more distinct. Reid, however, 
dU not always express himself so distinctly. Moreover, he and his 
mcctw t an mixed up so many accidents with the essence of their 
Rafism that the whole system broke down under its own weight. 
Their psychology contained valuable points. It also conuined 
aracfa that was doubtful, and much that was ill-adapted to the 
■Rtaphysicf oJ rciJL.-irn. Wt tNf^y thought it the only avenue to 
■KtaphvHcv It is fuU ol appralK to common sense, and of prin- 
ciples 01 com man sense, which Rcid also called intuitive first prin- 
ciples, and sej/^vident truths. It is spoilt by Locke's hypothesis 
tku we do not perceive things hut qualities implying things. While 
it asserted a. realism ol individual, it admitted a conceptualism of 
■ui v ersa b. Stewart aUo alA that our knowledge of matter and 
■iad ia merely nrUfiv?. Hamilton went still further; he tried to 
«*r*>*^-* tbe Dil <A Rctd with thv water of Kant; and converting 
^^^^^ Che intaitive inio the A priori, he found a further reason 
^^^^^ fcpT the rcbiivity of knowledge. " Our knowledge is 
idative^" laid he. " iu-it. becaui^e existence is not cognizable abso- 
' f anH in iiw.ir bi'i /^nlv sn ■=r"-T-iaI modes; second, because thete 



■odea thus relative to our faculties are presented to and known by 
the annd,.only under modification, determined by these faculties 



_ Not only so. but in his review of Cousin (" Philosophy 

of the Uacooditioned. * in DiscussioHS, pp. 12-15). be made conccp- 
tMM the test of knowledge, arsued that ".the mind can conceive, 
Md coosequently can know, only the limited, and the conditionally 
Unted," that ** to think b to condition." that all we know either of 
Aind or matter is " the phenomenal." that '* we can never in our 
■llMst gmevaliaations rise above the finite." and concluded that %re 
caoaot oooceive or know the unconditioned, yet must believe in its 
csi a ence . Nevertheless, in spite of all this Kantism. he adhered 
10 hb natoial realism. He vacillated a great deal about our mode 
fli perceiving the external world; but his final view (edition of 
&ad*s works, note D*) consisted in supposing that (i) sensation is 
ta ai yrehe n sion of secondary qualities purely as affections of the 
mpuum viewed as ego: (a) pcrorption in general is an apprehension 
flf primary qualities as reutions of sensations in the organism 

- ' •■ ■ * o; while (3) a special perception of a so-called 

J " quality consists in the consciousness of a 
J sooething external to our organism." Hamilton's views 
both OB the absolute and on perception affected Mansel and Spencer. 
Thejr wwe not, however, received without question even by his 
blowers. H. Caklerwood. in his Philosophy of the Infinite (1854). 
ande the pertinent objection that, thouch thought, conception and 
£^l^^^^ knowledge ^re finite, the object of thought may be 
^^^^^ infinite. Hamifton. in fact, made the double mistake 
of finntinf knowledge to what we can conceive, and confusing the 
dctenniaate with the finite or limited. We never know anything 
escqx as determined by its attributes: but that would not prevent 
IS (ran inferring something determined as unconditioned, whether 
infisite or absolute. I. M'Cosh again, in The Prevaiiint Types of 
FkHtMpkyi Can theyloiuaUy reach reality? (1891). rightly protests 
afuam Hamilton's combination of Scottish and German schools 
»Y^^ which will not coalesce, and exhorts the former " to 
^^^ throw away its crutches of impressions, instincts, sug- 

Sa, and common sense, and give the mind a power of seeing 
directly." He has the merit of presenting natural or intuitive 
I ia iu purity. 

The common tenet of the whole school is that without inference 
«e iaunediately perceive the external world, at all events as a 
Rasting something external to our organism. But is it true? 
Theie are three reasons against it, and for the view that we 
pncrive a sensible object within, and infer an external object 
^boat, the organism. In the first place, there are great differ- 
taces between the sensible and the external object; they difTer 
■ secondary qualities in the case of all the senses; and even 
a the case of touch, heat felt within is different from the vibra- 
ti^ heat outside. Secondly, there are so-called " subjective 
mntkms,*' without any external object as stimulus, most 
CBBiaonly in vision, but also in touch, which is liable to formi- 
catioBfOr the feeling of creeping in the skin, and to horripilation, 
<r the feeling of bristling in the hair; yet, even in " subjective 
Katttbns," we perceive something sensible, which, however, 
■Ht be within, and not outside, the organism. Thirdly, the 
ttnnal world and the senses always act on one another by cause 
■d dfect and by pressure, although we only feel pressure by 
toodi. Now, when the thing with which touch is in a state of 
wcyrocil preisure b external, e.g. a table, we feel our organism 
1 and pressing; we do not See) the table pressing uid I 



pressed, but infer it. The Scottish School never realized that 
every sensation of the five senses b a perception of a sensible 
object in the bodily organism; and that touch is a perception, 
not only of single sensible pressure, but also of double sensible 
pressure, a perception of our bodily members sensibly pressing 
and pressed by one another, from which, on the recurrence of 
a single sensible pressure, we infer the pressure of an external 
thing for the first time. Intuitive Realism b to be replaced by 
Physical Realism. 

3. Reaction to Hypothetical Realism. — The three evidences, 
which are fatal to intuitive realism, do not prove hypothetical 
realism, or the hypothesis that we perceive something mental, 
but infer something bodily. This illogical hypothesis, which 
consists of incautiously passing from the truth that the sensible 
object perceived is not exteriial but within the organism to the 
non-sequituT that therefore it b within the mind, derived what 
little plausibility it ever possessed from three prejudices: the 
first, the scholastic dogma that the sensible object is a species 
sensibUis, or immaterial sensible form received from the external 
thing; the second, the Cartesian a priori argument that the soul 
as thinking thing can perceive nothing but its own ideas; the 
third, the common assumption of a sense of sensations. But 
notwithstanding its illogicality, its tendency to underrate Nature 
as inferred from such idealistic premises, and its certain transi- 
tion into a consistent idealism, hypothetical realbm has, with 
little excuse, revived among us in the writings of Shadworth 
Hodgson, James Martineau and A. J. Balfour. The cause of 
thb anachronbm has been the failure of intuitive realism and 
the domination of idealism, which makes short-sighted men 
suppose that at all events they must begin with the psychology 
and the psychological idealism of the day, in the false hope that 
on the sands of psychological idealism they may build a house of 
metaphysical realism. 

Shadworth Holloway Hodgson (born 1833; hon. fellow of 
Corpus Christi College, Oxford), whose chief work b The 
Mela physic of Experience (4 vols., 1898), believing ^^ 
that philosophy b an analysis of the contents of "•^'■•^ 
consciousness, or experience, and that thb is metaphysics, 
begins, like Kant, with an analysis of experience. Like Kant, 
he supposes that experience is concerned with sensations, 
distinguishes matter and form in sense, identifies time and 
space, eternal time and infinite space, with the formal 
element, and substitutes synthesis of sensations of touch 
and sight for association and inference, as the origin of our 
knowing such a solid material object as a bell. Although he 
does not agree with Kant that either the formal element in 
sense or the synthesis of sensations is a priori, yet in very 
Kantian fashion, through not distinguishing between operation 
and object, he holds that, in synthetically combining sensations 
of touch and sight, we not only have a complex perception of a 
solid body, but also know this " object thought of " as itself 
the complex of these sensations objectified. Hence he concludes 
that " matter is the name for the sensation-elements derived from 
both senses, abstracting in thought, so far as possible, from the 
extension-elements of both " (i. 296). 

Here you would expect him to stop, as the German Neo-Kantism 
of Lange stops, with the Consistent conclusion that all we know of 
Nature from such data is these complexes of sensation-elements, or 
phenomena in the Kantian meaning. Not so; like Kant himself. Hodg- 
son supposes something beyond; not. however, an unknown thing m 
itself causing sensations, but a condition, or sine aua non. of their 
existence, without being a cause of their nature, in order to malw 
this leap he supposes that we have beyond perceptions a conception 
of condition. Hisaccount of the origin of this concept ion is puzzling, 
(i. 380). Whatever its origin may be, it could not, any more than a 
Kantbn category of cause, justify us in concluding anything more 
than a relation of perceptions as conditions of one another, seeing 
that they were supposed to be the whole data, and matter itself to 
be " sensation-elements.'' But what he proceeds to suppose is 
that, having the conception, and finding that the complex of per- 
ceptions needs accounting for, we infer a real condition, e.g. the solid 
interior of a bell. What we know, however, of this condition, 
acrordine to him, has two limits: on the one hand, it is the coudv^vcNtw 
only of the existence of our pen:ep\\ow%; ot\ xVve o\V« Vv^tv\, ^ '•t^ 
know of its nature is our percevtuon^. WaUcT \Vv>i%» ^Vvvt\v V*!^ %v 
first been defined as a comviiex oH pcTcc^v\otv» <A»\BOJ&aA,t**ii vw^* 



252 



METAPHYSICS 



[HYPOTHETICAL REALISM. 



out to be a condition without which perceptions would not exist, 
but who9? nature is known only as a complex of perceptions. Finally, 
according to him. having inferred matter as the condition of our 
perceptions, we are entitled to infer that the condition of the exist- 
ence of matter is God, whose nature, however, can be inferred only 
bv practical reason from conscience. He avers that this " meta* 
physic of experience " is not idealism, or the tenet that consciousness 
IS the only reality. It is realism — but inconsequent and inadequate 
realism, something like that of Spencer; according, indeed, more 
knowledge of the distinction between Nature as condition of sensa- 
tions and God as condition of Nature; but very like in holding that 
all we know of natural forces is our perceptions. We know more, 
however, about a body, such as a bell, than either Spencer or Hodgson 
allows. We know, from the concomitant variations between its 
vibrations and our perceptions, that its vibrations are not mere 
conditions but real causes of our perceptions; and that those vibra- 
tions are not our perceptions, because we cannot perceive them, but 
are real attributes of the bell. It will be objected that they are 
merely possible perceptions. But as they really produce our real 
perceptions, they are themselves not merely possible, but real or 
actual. A possible cause could not actually produce an actual effect. 
James Martineau {q.v.) in A Study ojf Religion (1888), like 
Shadworth Hodgson, started from Kant, and tried to found on 
transcendental idealism "a return to dualism." If 
there is one thing certain in the Kantian philosophy, 
it is its author's perception that what is contributed by mind must 
not be extended to things beyond mind. Hegel only extended 
a priori forms to things by resolving things into thoughts. 
Mill also protested" against adducing, as evidence of the truth of 
a fact in external nature, the disposition, however strong or how- 
ever general, of the human mind to believe it." Yet Martineau 
adopted, as his view of the limits of human intelligence, that 
Kant was right in making space and time a priori forms of 
sense, but wrong in limiting them to sensations. But in order 
tQ make space a form of external things, Martineau had to take 
the external in space, by which Kant meant one sensation out 
of another, in the very diflTercnt meaning of the self here and the 
not-self there. He facilitated this awkward transition by adding 
to Kant's a priori forms of space and lime an " a priori form of 
alternative causality," or, as he also called it, " an intuition of 
causality involved in the elementary exercise of perception," 
which is the key to his whole philosophy. He supposed that this 
intuition of causality arises when will is resisted, and, further 
supposing that causality requires decision between alternatives, 
concluded that the intuition of will resisted is an intuition of 
will against will, mine against other (i. 65). To pass over its 
confusion of a priori and intuitive, there are two fatal objections 
to this view. In the first place, the intuition of causality docs 
not require will at all, because we often perceive one bodily 
member pressing another involuntarily; a man suffering from 
lockjaw neither wills nor can avoid feeling the pressure of his 
upper and lower jaws against one another. Secondly, though 
causality requires alternatives in the material cause, e.g. wax 
may or may not be melted, the determination between them is 
not always a decision of will, but in physical causation depends 
on the efficient cause, e.g. the fire: as Aristotle says, when the 
active and passive powers approach, the one must act and the 
other suffer, and it is only in rational powers that will decides 
(Met. e 5). 

A. J. Balfour, in The Foundations of Belief, being Notes Intro- 
ductory to the Study of Theology (1895), begins by maintaining 
A. J. that the evidence of the senses is not a foundation 
BMltour, of belief, and then expects us to believe in Nature 
and in God. He revives the " Acatalcpsia " of the New 
Academy. In Part II., ch i., he makes three assumptions 
about the senses, and, without stopping to prove them, or 
even to make them consistent, deduces from them his thesis 
that the evidence of the senses is not a foundation of belief in 
Nature. He first assumes an immediate experience of a body, 
e.g. a green tree; and then deduces that the evidence of the senses 
proves now and then to be fallacious, because we may have 
an experience indistinguishable from that of a tree but incorrect; 
and further, that our perceptions are habitually mendacious, 
because all visual experiences are erroneous, as colour is a sensa- 
iJoa whiie the thing consists of uncoloured particles, lliis 
Migumeat from m pure assumptioa is a confusion of sense and 



inference. In no case is the evidence of the senses faUadotis 
or mendacious; the fallacy is in the inference. 

He next assumes that we have no immediate experience of 
independent things— that sense perceives sensations, feelingi, 
or ideas; while all else, e.g. a tree, is a matter of inference. Ob 
this quite new assumption of a sense of sensations he deduces 
that, from a perception of these mental facts, we could not infer 
material facts, e.g. a tree; so that again the evidence of the senses 
does not aiTord trustworthy knowledge of the material univeise. 
His deduction is logical; but he has forgotten to prove the 
assumption, and now confuses sensory operation with sensible 
object. Vision docs not perceive a sensation of colour; it 
perceives a visible picture, e.g. green, which is in the organism, 
but has never been proved to be a mental fact, or not to be a 
material fact. So touch perceives not a sensation of pressure, 
but a pressure which is a material fact in the organism. From 
a material pressure within we logically infer a material pressure 
outside. He thirdly assumes an appendix to the second assump- 
tion: he assumes that sense perceives mental sensations with 
succession but without causality, l>ccause no kind of cause h 
open to observation. On this assumption of a sense of sensational 
but not of causality, he deduces that we could not from such data 
infer any particular kind of cause, or a bodily cause, e.g. a tree, 
or indeed any cause at all, or any event beyond perception, 
without assuming the principle of causation that Nature ii 
uniform in cause and effect over great intervals of time and 
space. Nevertheless he gives absolutely no proof of the assump* 
tion that there is no sense of causality. There is none in the 
subsidiary senses, because none of them perceives the pressures 
exerted on them. But the primary sense of touch percetvei 
one bodily member causing pressure on another, reciprocally, 
within the organism, from which we infer similar particular 
pressures caused between the organism and the external world; 
but without needing the supposed stupendous belief and assunq>- 
tion of the uniformity of Nature, which is altogether ignored 
in the inferences of the ordinary man. Finally, as touch per- 
ceives reciprocal pressure within, and tactile inference infers it 
without, touch is the primary evidence of the senses which is the 
foundation and logical ground of our belief in Nature as a system 
of pressing bodies. Balfour, however, having from unproved 
assumptions denied the evidence of the senses, and the rational 
power of using them to infer things beyond oneself, has to look 
out for other, and non-rational, foundations of belief. He finds 
them in the needs of man. According to him, we believe io 
Nature because it satisfies our material needs, and in God because 
he satisfies our spiritual needs. But bare need, e.g. a pang of 
hunger, is no cause of belief beyond itself; and desire, or need of 
something prospective, e.g. a desire of food, is effect, not cause, 
of a previous belief that there is such a thing, and of a present 
inference that it may again be realized. Moreover, when the 
belief or inference is uncertain, need even in the shape of desire 
is not in itself a foundation of belief in the thing desired: to 
need a dinner is not to believe in getting it; and, as Aristotle said, 
" there is a wish for impossibilities." It is fair, however, to 
add that Balfour has a further foundation for the belief in 
Nature, the survival of the fittest, by which those only would 
survive who possessed and could transmit the belief. But here 
he fails exactly as Darwin himself failed. Darwin said, given 
that organisms are fit, they will tend to survive; but he failed 
to show how they become fit. Balfour says, given that men 
believe in Nature, they will survive; but he fails to show bon 
they come to believe in it. Inference from sense is the one 
condition of all belief in anything beyond oneself, whether it be 
Nature, or Aulhoriiy, or God; and it is the one condition of all 
needs, which are not mere feelings, but desires of things. The 
result of undermining this sure foundation emerges in Balfour's 
attitude to the beliefs themselves. He holds that space, time, 
matter, motion, force, are all full of the insoluble contradiction 
supposed by Spencer; and that all our beliefs, in Nature and in 
God, stand on the same fooling of approximations. Hence hij 
really valuable arguments from Nature to God sink to tb( 
problematic form— there may be Nature; if so, there is God 



araOUC REALISM! 



METAPHYSICS 



253 



Soch is the modem " Acatalepsut," which arises from denying 
the evidence of the senses, and from citing the transfigured 
rolisaa of Spencer instead of the original realism of Aristotle, 
ibont whom Balfour speaks as follows: " It would be diffi- 
cult, periiaps impossible, to sum up our debts to Aristotle. 
Bat assuredly they do not include a tenable theory of the 
nniveree." 

4. The Past and Future of Metaphysics. — Aristotelian realism 
is tbe strong point of Roman Catholic philosophy. As inter- 
preted by Thomas Aquinas, it is now in danger of becoming a 
dogma. In 1879 Pope Leo XIII. addressed to the bishops the 
EKydica aetami pairis, which contained the words, " Sancti 
Thomae sapientiam restituatis et quam latissime propagetis." 
From the Roman Catholic point of view this reaction to 
" Thomism " was a timely protest against modem metaphysics. 
It was founded upon a feeling of uneasiness at a growing tendency 
UDong Roman Catholic writers not only to treat theology 
hceiy, but to corrupt it by paradoxes. One cannot but feel 
Rgret at seeing the Reformed Churches blown about by every 
*^ of doctrine, and catching at straws now from Kant, now 
from Hegel, and now from Lotze, or at home from Green, Caird. 
Ifartineau, Balfour and Ward in succession, without ever having 
considered the basis of their faith; while the Roman Catholics 
ve making every effort to ground a Universal Church on a 
iue system of metaphysics. However this may be, the power 
of the movement is visible enough from the spread of Thomism 
over the d\ilized world, and in England from the difference 
between the freer treatment of metaphysics by some Roman 
Catholic writers and that which has arisen under the immediate 
infliienceof Thomism. J. H. Newman (1801-1890), maintaining 
the authority of conscience and the probabilism of the under- 
ttanding, concluded to the necessity of a higher authority in 
tbe primitive church. W. G. Ward was a philosophical critic 
c( Mill St George Mivart, in The Ground-work of Science 
(1898)1 maintained the reality of an active causative power 
nderiying Nature, and the dignity of human reason, from an 
iadependent point of view. On the other hand, more under 
the influence of the Thomist reaction, Thomas Harper published 
The Metaphysics of the School (1879, &c.), describing scholasti- 
Qsn, as it appears in the wortcs of Aquinas; and T/te Manuals 
tf Catholic Philosophy, edited by R. F. Clarke, include General 
Mda^tysics (1890), by John Rickaby, who effectively criticizes 
Hegel by precise distinctions, which, though scholastic, did not 
toenre to be forgotten. 

The Thomist reaction has had a good effect in the way of cnceur- 
ifioc the study of Aristotelian philosophy in itvrif, and as modified 
by Aquinas. Nevertheless, the world cannot 4fford to surrender 
i^eif to Aristotle, or to Aquinas. Aristotle could not know enou^ht 
phyiicaUy, about Nature to understand its matter, or its rnotiona^ 
or its forces: and consequently he fell into the error ot stippoiine 
aprimary matter with four contrary primary' i^ualiiic^, hot and trtlcr 
d^r and ummsc. forming by their combinatiana Iout simple bodies^ 
tank, water, air and fire, with natural rectilineal motioaa to oir Irom 
the centre of the earth; to which he added ,1 quintPiwncc of fiher 
composif^ the stars, with a natural circubr motion round the trarih- 
Metaphysically, he did not. indeed, as is oft^n sijppo»ctJ> think iK? 
jBtureol substance to be matter and form, because in his viVw Cod 
ii a wbMance. yet with no matter; but ho did think that rvcr)' 
aitaral uibstance or body is a concrete whrJo, compcwd of matii-r 
aad form different from matter. He thought that besides proximate 
■atter, or one body as matter of another, there is a primary formless 
natter beneath afl bodies, capable of becoming all in turn, but 
itKlf potentially, not actually, substance. He thought not only 
that a form, or essence, is something different from, and at most 
Goaioiaed with, matter in a concrete body, but also that in all 
the bodies of one kind, e.g. in all men, there is one undivided form 
or coence, e^. rational animal, communicated from one member 
loaaocher member of the kind. e.g. from father to son, by what we 
sil eaJU though without any meaning, the propagation of the 
ipedes. He thought, in consequence, that ihe principium individua- 
Amu. which differentiates two members of the kind. e.g. Socrates and 
Cafiat, is their one form or essence only as conjoined with different 
Batten, e.g. different bones and flesh. He thought, moreover, that 
the one form of a kind is an original essence (r6 ri ^y tl^ai). which 
■ ■Bcreate; and. in order to avoid the " separate forms " supposed 
by PUto, he concluded that the world of Nature must be eternal. 
'» Older that each original essence may from eternity always be in 
■■e individual or another of its kind. On this assumption of the ^ 



eternity of the world. God could not be a Creator. Aristotle 
thought that God is only prime mover, and that too only as the good 
for the sake of which Nature moves; so that God moves as motive. 
Psychologically, Aristotle applied his dualism of matter and form 
t->--. ■■ ■ •■ ■ totithcsisof body and Aoul, botkiit the^oul is the form, 
or > . ■: I' I-. Ill An argjtnic body, jnd he apptied thv ^me dualism 
to cKpLiin i4^nsjiion, which he supposed to be r%:fvptiort of the sen- 
sible form or n»nc¥d without the m^tttrn of a. body, f.{ of the form 
of white,, without the matter, of a white stone. He Lhn^nght that in 
iKc *oiil there is a productive inteM^rt And a p4*«vc sntellcct, and 
ihat, when we n» from son*c by induction, ine productive causes 
rht nas-i^ive intelEect to receive the univeral form or essence, e.g. 
of aft while Things; ^nd he thought rhaf ihis ppjductive intellect 
II our immofut latulry. Lattlyn be thought that, while other 
oper^tioi\9 have, Smellect (w*^) lus not, n bodily oiYan , and hence 
be became rc*pon«Jbli? lor the fancy ihaT ihtrre is a break in bodily 
continuity bptwerft sen^e and will, while intellect i» working out 
a purely immaierial opera tian of soul, nesulting from iUe former and 
tending to the Litier. ft i^ evident that a philosophy containing 
ia many questionable opinions ls not fit tg be made into iin authorita- 
tive orthodosy in metaphysics. 

Now these, on the whole, .ir ■ tT- ■ v-r- -.-n- :i- .f \ ; inas, except 
so far aj they were clearly <■ • itian faith. 

Aquinas thought, as an article of faith, that the world began, and 
that God is its Creator. This involved a change of detail in the 
theory of essences and of universals generally. Aquinas thought 
that before the creation the one eternal essence of any kind was an 
abstract form, an idea in the intellect of God. like the form of a house 
in the mind of a builder, ante rent ; that after the creation of any kind 
it is in re, as Aristotle supposed; and that, as we men think of it, 
it is post rem, as Aristotle also supposed. Of this view the part 
which was not Aristotle's, the state of " universalia ante rem," was 
due to the Neoplatonists, who interpreted the " separate forms '* 
of Pbto to be ideas in intellect, and handed down their interpreta- 
tion through St Augustine to the medieval Realists like Aciuinas, 
who thus combined Neoplatonism with Aristotelianism. Hence 
too Aauinas opposed essence to existence much more than Aristotle 
did. Lastly, as a Christian, he supposed the whole soul to be im- 
mortal, and to form for itself a new body after death. But. with 
these modifications he accepted the general physics of Aristotle, 
the metaphysical dualism ol matter and form, and the psychoU>gy 
founded upon it. The Thomism, therefore, of our dav is wrong, 
from a metaphysical point of view, so far as it elevates Aristotelian- 
ism, a3 seriously modified but not fundamentally corrected by 
Aquinas, into an authoritative orthodoxy in metaphysics. 

Centuries elapsed after Aquinas before Galileo and his suc- 
cessors reformed natural science, and before Bacon destroyed the 
metaphysical dualism of matter and form by showing that a 
form in Nature is only a law of the action of matter, and that, as 
the action of a body is as individual as the body, the form is 
eternal only in thought (ratione). The psycholog>' of Aristotle 
and Aquinas thus became impossible; for, if the form of a body 
is only a mode of matter, to call one's soul the form of one's 
body is to reduce it to only a mode of matter, and fall into 
materialism. Hence Descartes began the reform of psychology 
not only by the appeal to consciousness, " I think," but also by 
opposing body and soul, no longer as matter and form, but as 
different substances. These great improvements, due to the 
genius of Galileo, of Bacon, of Descartes, arc the fresh beginnings 
of modern thought, from which we dare not turn back without 
falling into obscurantism. What, then, is the future of meta- 
physics? Wc must return not to the authority but to the study 
of Aristotle. The independence of metaphysics as the science 
of being, the principles of contradiction and excluded middle 
with their qualifications, the distinction without separation 
between substance and attributes, the definition of substance as 
a dbtincl individual thing, the discovery that the worid consists 
of substances existing apart but related to one another, the 
distinction between material and efficient causes or matter and 
force, the recognition both of the natural and of the super- 
natural — all these and many other half-forgotten truths are the 
reasons why we must always begin with the study of Aristotle's 
Metaphysics. But their incompleteness shows that wc must 
go forward from Aristotle to Bacon and modern science, and 
even pass through the anarchy of modern metaphysics, in 
the hope that in the future we may discover as complete an 
answer as possible to these two questions: — 

1. What is the world of things we know? 

2. How do we know it? 

For authorities see the works c\wo\ed a\x>ve, axvA x>wi. x^V^x^tvcc* 
in the articles on philosophers and pV\\\osopYv\ca\s\xV»\<:tV^. ^ .CK.^ 



254 



METAPONTUM— METASOMATISM 



MBTAPOirnJll (Gr. Mcrair6mor, mod. Metaponto), an 
ancient city of Magna Graecia situated on the Gulf of Tarentum, 
near the mouth of the river Bradanus, and distant about 34 m. 
from Tarentum and 14 m. from Heradea. It was founded by an 
Achaean colony from Sybaris and Crotona about 700 B.C. 
Metapontum was one of the cities that played a conspicuous 
part in the troubles arising from the introduction of the Pytha- 
gorism into Magna Graecia, and it was there that Pythagoras 
died in 497 B.C. His tomb was still shown in the time of 
Cicero. 

At the time of the Athenian expedition to Sicily (415 B.C.) 
Metapontum appears to have been an opulent and powerful 
city, whose alliance was courted by the Athenians; but it con- 
tented itself with a very trifling support. In ^^2 B.C., at the 
time of the expedition of Alexander, king of Epirus, into Italy, 
it was one of the first cities to enter into an alliance with him. 
The Second Punic War gave a fatal blow to its prosperity. 
After the battle of Cannae in 3x6 B.C. it was among the first 
cities in the south of Italy to declare in favour of Hannibal, 
and became for some years the headquarters of Hannibal. 
Hence, when the defeat of Hasdrubalat the MeUurus(307 B.C.) 
compelled him to abandon this part of Italy, the inhabitants of 
Metapontum abandoned their city, and followed him in his retreat. 

From this time Metapontum sank; though it was still existing 
in the days of Cicero, Pausanias tells us that in his time nothing 
remained of it but a theatre and the circuit of the walls. 

Metapontum has the remains of two temples, both of which 
seem to belong to the period 510-480 B.C. (Koldewey and Puch- 
stein, Die grieckiscken Temptl in UnUrilalien und Sicilien, 
Berlin, 1899, pp. 3S-4i)- The so-called Chiesa di Sansone, which 
lay within the ancient town, and was probably dedicated to 
Apollo Lycius, was a periptcros measuring 186 by 91} ft., of 
which only the foundations are left. The capitals were 3) ft. 
in diameter. The temple was decorated with finely painted 
terra-cottas. Of the other temple, the so-called Tavole Paladine, 
which lay outside the area of the ancient city, and was a perip- 
tcros with 6 columns, 3) ft. in diameter, in front and 12 ft. at the 
sides, 15 columns are standing, with the lower portion of the 
epistyle. It measured 105 ft. by 49 ft. without the steps. There 
are also traces of the town walls, which have served for the 
construction of farmhouses, of tombs, and of a harbour by the 
shore. Pliny speaks of a temple of Juno at Metapontum 
supported by columns of vinewood {Hist. nat. xiv. 9). An 
archaic treasure-house dedicated at Olympia by the people of 
Metapontum has been discovered there. The railway station 
is the junction of the line from Battipaglia (and Naples) with 
that from Taranto to Reggio. (T. As.) 

See M. Lacava, Topcgrafia e storia di Metaponto (Naples, 1891). 

METASOMATISM (Gr. /icrd, change, aui/ta, body), in petro- 
logy, a process of alteration of rocks by which their chemical 
composition is modified, new substances being introduced 
while those originally present are partly or wholly removed 
in solution. For example a limestone may be converted into 
a siliceous chert, a dolomite, an ironstone, or a mass of metalli- 
ferous ores by metasomatic alteration. The process is usually 
incomplete, greater or smaller portions of the original rock 
remaining. The agencies of metasomatism are in nearly all 
cases aqueous solutions; probably they were often at a high 
temperature, as metasomatic changes are especially liable to 
occur in the vicinity of igneous intrusions (laccolites, dikes 
and necks) where large quantities of water were given off by 
the volcanic magma at a time when it had solidified but was not 
yet cold. Metasomatism also usually goes on at some depth, 
so that we may readily believe that it is favoured by increase 
of pressure. On the other hand, there are many instances 
in which these processes cannot be shown to have taken place 
at temperatures or pressures above those which normally exist 
in the upper part of the earth's crust {e.g. dolomitization and 
silicification of many limestones). There are also cases of 
metasomatism in which steam and other vapours are supposed 
to have been operative; the temperatures were probably above 
tAe critical temperature of water. Changes of this sort arc 



described as pneumatolytic, being induced by gates (h 
Pneuicatolysis). 

By metasomatism new minerals replace the primitive om 
;it the same time the original rock-structures may be compleici 
obliterated. An igneous rock for example may be entire 
replaced by crystalline massive quartz, a fossiliferous limestoi 
by granular crystalline dolomite. It is equally comrao 
however, to find that the structure of the original rock 
preserved though its substance has been entirely altered. / 
oolitic limestone may become an oolitic ironstone or die 
{see Petrology, PI. IV. fig. 5.) and casts of the fosails which tl 
Umestone contained may be formed of siderite or of chalcedon 
In this case the rock resembles a pseudomorph, which a ll 
term applied to a mineral which has been entirely replao 
by another mineral without losing its original crystalline fon 
As a result of metasomatism rocks usually become no 
crystalline, especially those which have been in large part bu 
up of fossil organic remains; this is a consequence of the m 
substances having been deposited by purely inorganic procca 
from solution in water. 

The chemical change is often complete, as when a limesto 
is replaced by chert or otherwise silidfied, but it is probab 
more usually incomplete, part of the substance of the origif 
rock having been retained though possibly in new minei 
combinations. When a limestone is replaced by ironato 
{e.g. carbonate of iron or siderite) part at least of the carboi 
add may be that of the limestone. A dolomite, formed fic 
a limestone, contains more than one-half of its weight ci a 
bonate of lime presumably derived from the limestone itie 
yet in this case the mineral transformation may be peife 
as the dolomite retains none of the calcite of which the liat 
stone was formed; it is all present as the double carbom 
of lime and magnesia (or dolomite). When a granite is a 
verted by emanations containing fluorine and boron into 
quartz-tourmaline rock (schorl rock, q.v.) or a quarts ni 
rock (greisen, q.v.) it can be proved by analysis that the 
has been very little modification of the chemical compostoi 
of the original man. This resembles paramorphism in mineia 
in which one mineral is substituted for another having t 
same chemical composition {e.g. kyanite for andalusite). 

Thp relatione brtwiccn mttimDrphisin and metawnuftimi I 
very cIl^vc; in fact some AUthrora regard mclAitonuti^^ a^ a wil 
of inetjmarphi4m^ U it gtrwrally xrut^ hawfv«rt thjt in bkj 
nKirphic chjangnt there U little thcmical alteralian; sandsJonei p 
inta nuartzite^, cUy$ into mica'^fhiits and gneiues, limci&tAQei u 
m^rblc^ without Any «iential modi^cation in chemical rampoutii 
frtrr the originAl mlnl^^<lls new omrx twin^ AubAtituteil and B 
stfijciurie9i Minff produced at the &ani« time. In metaMm^ik 
on the other hiind, ehe mitral altera lion \% luppowd by nif 
g'^oU'tgists to bo an euentiai featuiv:; new minerals appear>Wtt 
original ttmcturet are ^ametimefl retained. 

The faciUiy whti which a rock undergoes meta«>m3ti&m depdi 
pu\rt|y on 11$ naiure, and partly on the circum-^tancf^ in wbidn it 
pil4ct^d, Lime^tgnea. being readily soluble under natural conditia 
art e^pc^ially liaMc. The Cleveland iron ores of VorkshkR J 
Itmciitonifs ivfibced by liderite and limonite^ the Wliitehavva ir 
Drc^ A Ft iti4,*iji^m^tic replarementa of lime«tone by h^em^ti 
The fofffltf art u( Me^oicnc^ the latter ol Pabeoioic agic, bm b£ 
have bf^n ch^tifi^d in very much the ume way hy penco^EJ 
wlutions containing salt* of iron- In wme cmcj UmiODite * 
mugnctite are the phncicial onj*. Often the chants have tal 
place very irrcguLaHy, abng btddjng planeijaulti and fnfcctuf 
An ironitone may in many putes be traced laterally into a limesta 
the amount of iron in the rock irmduiHy diminiiliini;, Soiw in 
ttc^nes {Carbon if eroui^ Junisk. dt,) ft tain the oolitic ttn*rtii 
of the original limestone: othen *how coraU, shtlJsand other c»ka 
oua fps&ila replaced by Iron ores. ttTien bod* of tKalt or *udil< 
sreintercAlated amanu the limeitonn they usually show Utittdua 
a fact which indicates that the read^ wlubiliry of th* cakire 
rocks was a dotninaiins factor in dttemiining iht mctaiofiil 
deF)OFlt&, It is believed that the Whitcha^tn \mn or^ may 
dvn V4rd from the ironstones of the CoaU^leasurts vhiclt anoe cdmc 
the limestone districts. 

Dolomitization of limestones is even more common than fCfib 
ment by iron ores. That it is ^ing on at the present day is evid 
from the fact that cores obtained by boring in recent coral n 
have shown that these may be extensively dolomiciaed in d 
deeper parts, and the older limestones such as the Triassic of 
Alps, the Carboniferous Limestone of England and the Cambi 



METASTASIO 



255 



of Scodaod an? wfiKtimo converted into dolomUe owr 

vide aiCH. There lu* bei-n in mtivduaton of mognesia, i^itH 
■aetincta little ■ilicji imJ kon; the nxk rr<rv4Ulli^<4 owing 10 
tke foraatioo ot un»\\ rbDmtM>hpdrii ot doloiniie; it rrrqueFiily 
bnonetpofous and futl dt itru^y Ciivitin, owinii: 10 ihe coniniciion 

■ voloae which takrt pl^e. jtid the fOHil« and other org^inic 
tfractms of the original mck diidpptar. The chanci^ procecdt 
Mmrds from fissures ioA bedding ptj net and iprcads gradually 
dHowfa the naaa of the limevtone; o^ten tbc tninirormation i% 
fsapiete and no unaltered rock renuini. SiliciAcation or the 

' cement of limestcne by chalcedony, rhert or quarti, i» often 
Rted on a large scale. The lormation of flint noduln and chert 
laadiisof this nature: the silica is noi really an introdifttion Trom 
vkboBt, but is merely the material of the hne tiliceous ^keleions ot 
ipoo|et, radiolana and other organiimti, which at firtt were widely 
KUttted through the limestone and at a later lime were devolved by 
pncohtiog waters, percoUted throujfh the rof k and wcr* depcwited 

■ certain situations as bai^diir nrKJu^e^ and tabular masfCKof crypio- 

oyiunifle silica. In hmr^iTones e^te naive deposit 1 of tine ore may 

SKW, usually calamine. The^ atv tm^finni wi^fm d the metal 

•ad there b little room ior doubt that they havt Tofmed by a process 

<f actasomatic repUcemeni, <-£. CdithaerTia, RaibI (in Carimhta) 

isd Belpum. In many pant oT wevtcrn r^orth America (Nevadi:i, 

AriBNa.Ac.) great deposit 1 ofcoppcrr lead and silver om are ^ofked 

is crystalline limestones. They art often highly liNcified, and ai^ 

nisted with them are intrusive ig:neouii me lis tuch as a ran it e^ 

dkite, porphyry and diabaie. The orei occur not only in vein* and 

ihMSt but also in great rnanses replacing' ihe limeatone^ ai^d the 

|Bila|ists who have eiamined theie mirtinjg districU are nearly 

■MBMnous as to the met^aomatic nature of a Lirfte port of thr%e 

dipaati. Other rocks $urh a» tu^, volcanic brrccU, shd!e, porphyry 

■so nanite may also be imprecated «ith metalliferoui ores, bm 

tk niffest ore bodies are found in the limetionei. Secondary 

carichment has often taken place on a considerable Kale. The 

QMaat praence of igneou* fock« indicate* that thej^ are connected 

•idk the introduction of the meEaU, and the depotiti are often of 

wA a kind as to show that po$t-volcanic diH:har)gci of maifmatic 

nesaad water have been the actual mineralicine agents, Biibee, 

Ciftoa and the Globe district in Arizona. Fbcstaff in Utah, and the 

Earcka district in Nevada are good examples of the depoftts in 



As indicated above, »ha(f4, t«ifvdftcnet and igneous rocki may be 
dkified and mineraliaed under suitabk tonditioni. RhyollTea and 
ifcyoGtic tuffs are often ifnptvgjnated i^iih sitica to «uch an extent 
iBt they become almost masatve quarti;, and the fluidal. porphy- 
rilic« spheroi d al and other igneou* utructures (A the original rock 
■ay be retained in the ^flicroua pseudomorph. Thecc are many 
eouBples of this in Nort h Wa let a nd t he Pent b nd Hills. I n a n^ieni tes, 
■rpemines and trachytes aihci heat ion is frequentEy lotiivd in circiim- 
Maaces indicating that the changes are not due to weathering but 
ire the effect of poA-voIca nk cmj na r ions of hea ted wa 1 m. ^il icificd 
Aales may accompany mineral deposits, e f. in the Cornbh tin mines 
tke Unas or grey slate may be convened into fjUitrti *nd brown 
tovaaline and conuln« vm^U rju^nciiie^ d tin ttone. In the 
copper mines of Par\« Mountain^, Anglesey; formerly of great 
■nponance as producers of this metal, there are lainge areas ^of 
Moied slate and silicilred porphyry. While mica, kaolin, 
pSicrtite, chlorite and eptdote are frequently preernt in silicificd 
VKoas rocks. ^ As a further instance of mineral depo$ilion in 
■etasooatixed igneous nocks we may fjuote the Cripple Cteek gold- 
Wd in Colorado, where syenites latitea* phonolite?^ breccias. &c.^ 
have been filled with p>Tlte, dolonaite, liuorite, caUverite and other 
aev minerab together with qtjaru, 

Aaother type of nic-taH>matic alteration ti phmphatizatjon. 
This is most comrrtan in limeEtones, and many of the rno^t irri'^ 
portant bedded plio^phate deposes are of this origin. Ttftthyteii 
aad other igneoufr rock* are occauotially pho^phatitrd- The fcource 
«f the phosphate is for the m(>st part the tketrtons of animals, 
vcftebrate bones and teeth, ihcll* of ceitiin brachiopodf, thbbiiei 
«sd other organitmA. Gii^no, the etcreta <A birds, is rich in pho»- 
phates and these are washed downwards by fain producing meta- 
■NBStic changes in the underlying roclis. Ph«phatijcd limeaiones 
W obtained in great fiuantitics In Christmas Island, Sombifro, 
Car^oa and othej- uninhabited limestone islands. (J. S- F.} 

nriSTASIO (1608-1782). Piclro Trapaasi, the Italian 
poet who is better known by his assumed name of Metiitasio, 
•M bom in Rome on the ijlh of January i^gS. ]li% father, 
FeficeTrapassi. a native of Auiti, came io Rome and look service 
IB the Corsican regimeni of the papal forces, He subsequcr^tly 
■Mried a Bolognese woman, called Fninccsca GalasEl, and 
cAiblished himself in business as a grocer in the Via del Cap- 
pdari. Two sons and two daughters were the fruit of this 
■aniage. The eldest son, Lf^poldo, must be mentioned, since 
fce pbyed a part of some importance in ihe poet's Jifc. Pictro, 
■Me quite a child, often heJd a crowd nttcntiye in ihr siterts 
vhiie be recited impmoiptu vetscs on a ^inr subject, h so , 



happened that, while he was thus engaged one evening in the 
year 1709, two men of distinction in Roman society stopped to 
listen to his declamation. These were Gian Vincenzo Gravina, 
famous for legal and literary erudition, famous no less for his 
dictatorship of the Arcadian Academy, and Lorenzini, a critic of 
some note. Gravina was at once attracted by the boy's poetical 
talent and charm of person, interested himself in the genius he 
had accidentally discovered, made Pietro his prot^g^, and in the 
course of a few weeks adopted him. Felice Trapassi was glad 
enough to give his son the chance of a good education and intro- 
duction into the world under auspices so favourable. Gravina 
hellenized the boy's name Trapassi into Metastasio; and 
intended his adopted son to be a jurist like himself. He there- 
fore made the boy learn Latin and begin the study of law. At 
the same time he cultivated his literary gifts, and displayed the 
youthful prodigy both at his own house and in the Roman 
coteries. Metastasio soon found himself competing with the 
most celebrated improvisatori of his time in Italy. Days spent 
in severe studies, evenings devoted to the task of improvising 
eighty stanzas at a single session, were fast ruining Pictro's 
health and overstraining his poetic faculty. At this juncture 
Gravina had to journey into Calabria on business. He took 
Metastasio with him, exhibited him in the literary circles of 
Naples, and then placed him under the care of his kinsman 
Gregorio Caroprcse at a little place called Scal6a. In country . 
air and the quiet of the southern seashore Metastasio's health 
revived. It was decreed by Gravina that he should never 
improvise again, but should be reserved for nobler efforts, when, 
having completed his education, he might enter into competition 
with the greatest poets. 

Metastasio responded to his patron's wishes. At the age of 
twelve he translated the Iliad into octave stanzas; and two years 
later he composed a tragedy in the manner of Seneca upon a 
subject chosen from Trissino's Italia liberala — Gravina's 
favourite epic. It was called Ciuslino. Gravina had it printed 
in 1 7 13; but the play is lifeless; and forty-two years afterwards 
we find Metastasio writing to his publisher, Calsabigi, that he 
would willingly suppress it. Caroprese died in 1714, leaving 
Gravina his heir; and in 1718 Gravina also died. Metastasio 
inherited bouse, plate, furniture and money, which amounted 
to 1S.900 scudi, or about £4000. At a meeting of the Arcadian 
Academy, he recited an elegy on his patron, and then settled 
down, not it seems without real sorrow for his loss, to enjoy what 
was no inconsiderable fortune at that period. Metastasio was 
now twenty. During the last four years he had worn the 
costume of abb6, having taken the minor orders without which 
it was then useless to expect advancement in Rome. His 
romantic history, personal beauty, charming manners and 
distinguished talents made him fashionable. That before two 
years were out he had spent his money and increased his reputa- 
tion for wit will surprise no one. He now very sensibly deter- 
mined to quit a mode of life for which he was not bom, and to 
apply himself seriously to the work of his profession. Accord- 
ingly he went to Naples, and entered the office of an eminent 
lawyer named Castagnola. It would appear that he articled 
himself as clerk, for Castagnola exercised severe control over 
his time and energies. While slaving at the law, Metastasio in 
1721 composed an epithalamium, and probably also his first 
musical serenade, Endimione, on the occasion of the marriage 
of his patroness the Princess Pinelli di Sangro to the Marchese 
Belmonte Pignatelli. But the event which fixed his destiny 
was the following. In 1722 the birthday of the empress had to 
be celebrated with more than ordinary honours, and the viceroy 
applied to Metastasio to compose a serenata for the occasion. 
He accepted this invitation, but it was arranged that his author- 
ship should be kept secret. Under these conditions Metastasio 
produced Cli orli esperidi. Set to music by Porpora, it won 
the most extraordinary applause. The great Roman prima 
donna^ Marianna Bulgarelli, called La Romanina from her birth- 
place, who had played the part of Venus in this drama, s^tcd 
no pains until she had d\^oveicd \\.% «.MV\vQt. \a ^%jsisv^xv\xsa. 
/ortbwjtb look pos$c»ioxi.ol Yvvttv, 'uv^>ml«& Wm v^ Qc^wXaa 



256 



METASTASIO 



lawyer's oflicc, and promised' to secure for him fame and indepen- 
dence, if he would devote his talents to the musical drama. 
In La Roroanina's house Mctastasio became acquainted vrith 
the greatest composers of the day — with Porpora, from whom he 
took lessons in music; with Hasse, Pergoiese, Scarlatti, Vinci, 
Leo, Durante, Marccllo, all of whom were destined in the future 
to set his plays to melody. Here too he studied the art of 
singing, and learned to appreciate the style of such men as 
Farinelli. Gifted himself with extraordinary facility in compo- 
sition, and with a true poetic feeling, he found no difficulty in 
producing plays which, while beautiful in themselves, judged 
merely as works of literary art, became masterpieces as soon 
as their words were set to music, and rendered by the singers of 
the greatest school of vocal art the world has ever seen. Reading 
Metaslasio in the study, it is impossible to do him justice. But 
the conventionality of all his plots, the absurdities of many of 
his situations, the violence he does to history in the persons of 
some leading characters, his " damnable iteration " of the theme 
of love in all its phases, are explained and justified by music. 

Metaslasio resided with La Romanina and her husband in 
Rome. The generous woman, moved by an affection half 
maternal half romantic, and by a true artist's admiration for 
so rare a talent, adopted him more passionately even than 
Gravina had done. She took the whole Trapassi family- 
father, mother, brother, sisters — into her own house. She 
fostered the poet's genius and pampered his caprices. Under 
her influence he wrote in rapid succession the Didone ahban- 
donala. Calotte in Utica, Ezio, AUssandro nclV Indie, Semiramide 
riconosciuta, Siroe and Artaserse. These dramas were set to 
music by the chief composers of the day, and performed in the 
chief towns of Italy. But meanwhile La Romanina was growing 
older; she had ceased to sing in public; and the poet felt himself 
more and more dependent in an irksome sense upon her kindness. 
He gained 300 scudi (about £60) for each opera; this pay, though 
good, was precarious, and he longed for some fixed engagement. 
In September 1729 he received the offer of the post of court poet 
to the theatre at Vienna, with a stipend of 3000 florins. This he 
at once accepted. La.Romanina unselfishly sped him on his way 
to glory. She took the charge of his family in Rome, and he set 
off for Austria. 

In the early summer of 1730 Metastasio settled at Vienna in 
the house of a Spanish Neapolitan, Niccold Martinez, where 
he resided until his death. This date marks a new period in his 
artistic activity. Between the years 1730 and 1740 his finest 
dramas, Adriano, Demeirio, Issipile, DemofoonUt (Himpiade, 
CUmenza di Tito, AchilleinSciro, Temistocle and AUilio Regolo, 
were produced for the imperial theatre. Some of them had to be 
composed for special occasions, with almost incredible rapidity — 
the Achille in eighteen days, the Ipermneslra in nine. Poet, 
composer, musical copyist and singer did their work together in 
frantic haste. Metastasio understood the technique of his 
peculiar art in its minutest details. The experience gained at 
Naples and Rome, quickened by the excitement of his new career 
at Vienna, enabled him almost instinctively, and as it were by 
inspiration, to hit the exact mark aimed at in the opera. 

At Vienna Metastasio met with no marked social success. 
His plebeian birth excluded him from aristocratic circles. But, 
to make up in some measure for this comparative failure, he 
enjoyed the intimacy of a great lady, the Countess Althann, 
sister-in-law of his old patroness the Princess Belmonte Pigna- 
telU. She had lost her husband, and had some while occupied 
the post of chief favourite to the emperor. Metastasio's liaison 
with her became so close that it was even believed they had been 
privately married. The e\'en tenor of his existence was broken 
in the year 1734 by the one dark and tragic incident of his 
biography. It appears that La Romanina had at last got tired 
of his absence. Could not Metastasio get her an engagement 
at the court theatre? The poet at this juncture revealed his 
own essential feebleness of character. To La Romanina be 
owed almost everything as a man and as an artist. But he was 
ashamed of her and tired of her. He vowed she should not come 
/o V/enitM, Mjjd wrote dJssusding her from the projeaed visit. 



The tone of his letters alarmed and irritated her. It is prolNibk 
that she set out from Rome, but died suddenly upon the rotd. 
All we know is that she left him her fortune after her husbandl 
life interest in it had expired, and that Metastasio, overwheliiMd 
with grief and remorse, immediately renounced the legacy. 
This disinterested act plunged the Bulgarelli-MetasUsio boul^ 
hold at Rome mto confusion. La Romanina's widower married 
again. Leopoldo Trapassi, and his father and sifter, nm 
thrown upon their own resources. 

As time advanced the life which Metastasio led at Yieui, 
together with the climate, told upon his health and spirits. 
From about the year 174s onward he wrote but little, thov^ tlie 
cantatas which belong to this period, and the canzonet Ecco fti 
fiero islanle, which he sent tc his friend Farinelli, rank among the 
most popular of his productions. It was dear, as Vernon Lee 
has phrased it, that " what ailed him was mental and monJ 
ennui." In 1755 the Countess Althann died, and Metastno 
was more than ever reduced to the society which gathered 
round him in the bourgeois house of the Martinez. He luk 
rapidly into the habits of old age; and, though his life wu 
prolonged tilt the year 1783, very little can be said about it. 
On the 1 2th of April he died, bequeathing his whole fortune of 
some 130,000 florins to the five children of his friend Mtrtioei. 
He had survived all his Italian relatives. 

During the long period of forty years in which Metastaao 
overlived his originality and creative powers his fame west 00 
increasing. In his library he counted as many as forty cditMU 
of his own works. They had been translated into Freodi, 
English, German, Spanish, even into modern Greek. They hid 
been set to music over and over again by every composer of 
distinction, each opera receiving this honour in turn from sevenl 
of the most illustrious men of Europe. They had been sung bf 
the best virtuosi in every capital, and there was not a Utenvy - 
academy of note which had not conferred on him the honour of 
membership. Strangers of distinction passing through Vicnu 
made a point of paying their respects to the old poet at hii 
lodgings in the Kohlmarkt Gasse. But his poetry was intended 
for a certain style of music — for the music of omnipotent 
vocalists, of thaumaturgical soprani. With the changes effected 
in the musical drama by Gluck and Mozart, with the development 
of orchestration and the rapid growth of the German manner, a 
new type of libretto came into request. Metastasio's plays fd 
into undeserved neglect, together 5^-ith the music to which he 
had linked them. Farinelli, whom he styled *' twin-brother,** 
was the true exponent of his poetry; and, with the abolitioD of 
the class of singers to which Farinelli belonged, Metastasio's 
music suffered eclipse. It was indeed a just symbolic instioa 
which made the poet dub this unique soprano his twin-brother. 

The musical drama for which Metastasio composed, and in 
working for which his genius found its proper sphere, has so 
wholly passed away that it is now difficult to assign his. true place 
to tl» poet in Italian literary history. His inspiration was 
essentially emotional and lyrical. The chief dramatic situatkms 
are expressed by lyrics for two or three voices, embodying the 
several contending passions of the agents brought into cooffict 
by the circumstances of the plot. The total result is not pure 
literature, but literature supremely fit for musical effect. 
Language in Meustasio's hands is exquisitely pure and limpid. 
Of the Italian poets, he professed a special admiration for Taao 
aTid for Marioi. But he avoided the conceits of the latter, and 
was no master over the refined richness of the former's dictioB. 
His own style reveals the improvisatorc's facility. Of the 
Latin poets he studied Ovid with the greatest pleasure, and Irom 
this predilection some of his ovi*n literary qualities may be 
derived. For sweetness of versification, for limpidity of diction, 
for delicacy of sentiment, for romantic situations exquisitely 
rendered in the simplest style, and for a certain delicate beauty 
of imagery sometimes soaring to ideal subUmity, be deserves to 
be appredated so long as the Italian language lasts. 

There ane -numerous editions of Metastasio's works. That by 
Calsabigi (Paris. 1755. o vols. 8vo) published under hbown wperia- 
tendence, was the poet s favourite. Another of Turin (i757) *"d a 



METAURUS— METCALFE 



257 



tkini of Fub (1780) dcKfre mentkm. The posthumous works 
were printed at Vieniia, 1795. The collected editions of Genoa 
(itoa) and PtMlua (181 1) will probably be found most useful by the 
feaeral student. An edition of the letters, by Cardacci, was published 
at Bd ogne in 1883. Metastasio's life was written by Aluigi (Assisi, 
17Q3): by Charles Bumey (London. 1796): and by others; but by 
br tae moat vivid sketch of his biography will be found in Vernon 
Lee's Studies of Uu i8tk Century in Italy (London, 1880) a work 
vhicfa throws a flood of light upon the development of Italian 
iranatic music, and upon the place occupied by Metastasio in the 
utiBtk movemoit of the last century. (J* A. S.) 

■BTAURUS (mod. iietauro; the form Mataiirus is later, and 
k more frequent in inscriptions of the imperial period), a river 
of Italy, which flows into the sea a little south-east of Fanum 
Foilunae (mod. Fano). On its banks Hasdrubal, while marching 
to the aid of Hannibal in 207 b.c, was defeated and slain by the 
Roman army, this being the decisive battle of the Second Punic 
War. The exact site of the battle is uncertain; tradition places 
it between Fossombrone and the Furio Pass, but it is probable 
that it occurred nearer the sea-coast. 

■ETAZAS, ANDREAS (i 786-1860), Greek politician, was 

bon in the island of Cephalonia. During the latter part of the 

War of Independence (1824-1827) he accompanied Gapo d'Istria 

to Greece, aind was appointed by him minister of war. When 

Capo d'Istria was murdered in 1831 Metaxas became a member 

of the provisional government which held office till the accession 

of King Otho in 1833. During the minority of Otho he was 

naoed privy counciUor and minister at Madrid and Lisbon. In 

I 1S40 he was recalled and appointed minister of war. In 1843- 

j XS44 he was president of the council of ministers, and he 

I abaequently held the post of ambassador at (Constantinople 

60a 1850 to 1854. He died at Athens on the 19th of 

September i860. 

iftrATAGB SnTEM, the cultivation of land for a proprietor 
bjr one who receives a proportion of the produce. The system 
kis sever eiusted in England and has no English name, but in 
cotain provinces of Italy and France it was once almost univer- 
I alfiiid is still very common. It is also not unusual in Portugal, 
j b (fleece, and in the countries bordering on the Danube. In 
Italy and France, re^>ectively, it is called mazeria and mitayage, 
or halving— the halving, that is, of the produce of the soil 
between landowner and landholder. These expressions are 
Bot, however, to be understood in a more precise sense than that 
b which we sometimes talk of a larger and a smaller half. They 
■oely signify that the produce is divisible in certain definite 
pnportions, which must obviously vary with the varying fer- 
tSty of the soU and other circumstances, and which do in prac- 
txe vary so much that the landlord's share is sometimes as much 
as two-thirds, sometimes as little as one-third. Sometimes the 
ludlord supplies all the stock, sometimes only part — the cattle 
ttd seed perhaps, while the farmer provides the implements; 
or perhaps only half the seed and half the cattle, the farmer 
fiadiog the other halves — taxes too being paid wholly by one or 
the other, or jointly by both. 

English writers were unanimous, imtil J. S. Mill adopted a 
dVcreot tone, in condemning the mitayer system. They. 
JBdied it by its appearance in France, where it has never worn 
»wy attractive aspect. Under the ancttn rigime not only were 
*1 direct taxes paid by the miUyer, the noble ftndowner being 
ttmpt, but these taxes, being assessed according to the visible 
Pndnce of the sofl, operated as penalties upon all endeavours 
to augment its i»oductiveness. No wonder, then, if the m6tayer 
luded that his interest lay less in exerting himself to augment 
the total to be divided between himself and his landlord, than 
ii Undying bow to defraud the latter part of his rightful share; 
asrifhefaasnotyetgotridof habits so acquired, especially 
*he& it is considered that he still is destitute of the fixity 
if tame without which metayage cannot prosper. French 
■^yers, hi Arthur Young's time, were *' removable at pleasure, 
adofafiged to conform in all things to the will of their landlords," 
Md 90 in general they are stilL Yet even in France, although 
■^tqrage and extreme rural poverty usually coincide, there are 
^iv^ues when the contrary is the fact, as it is also in Italy. 
[ I>deeiS» to every tourist who has passed throi^ the phins of , 



Lombardy with his eyes open, the knowledge that m6taya^ 
has for ages been there the prevailing form of tenure ought to 
suflke for the triumphant vindication of mitayage in the ab- 
stract. An explanation of the contrasts presented by metayage 
in different regions is not far to seek. Mcuyage, in order to be 
in any measure worthy of commendation, must be a genuine 
partnership, one in which there is no sleeping partner, but in the 
affairs of which the landlord, as well as the tenant, takes an 
active part. Wherever this applies, the results of mitayage 
appear to be as eminently satisfactory, as they are decidedly the 
reverse wherever the landlord holds himself aloof. 

In France there is also a system termed mitayage par grouses, 
which consists in letting a considerable farm, not to one mitayer, 
but to an association of several, who work together for the 
general good, under the supervision either of the landlord him- 
self, or of his bailiff. This arrangement gets over the diffvculty 
of finding tenants possessed of capital enough for any but very 
small farms. 

See further the section Agriculture in the articles France, Gkeecb, 
Italy, &c; and consult J. Cruvcilhier, £lude sur le mitayage (Paris, 
1894). 

METCALF, WILLARD LEROY (1858- ), American artist; 
was bom at Lowell, Massachusetts, on the ist of July 1858. He 
was a pupil of the Boston Normal Art School, of the Boston Art 
Museum School, and of the Acadimie Julien, Paris. After early 
figure-painting and illustration, he became prominent as a land- 
scape painter. He was one of the " Ten American Painters '* 
who in 1897 seceded from the Society of American Artists. 
For some years he was an instructor in the Woman's Art School, 
Cooper Union, New York, and in the Art Students' League, 
New York. In 1893 he became a member of the American 
Water Colour Society, New York. 

METCALFE, CHARLES THEOPHILUS METCALFE. Baron 
(1785-1846), Indian and colonial administrator, was bom at 
Calcutta on the 30th of January 1785; he was the second son 
of Thomas Theophilus Metcalfe, then a major in the Bengal 
army, who afterwards became a director of the East India 
(Company, and was created a baronet in 1803. Having been 
educated at Eton, he in 1800 sailed for India as a writer in the 
service of the Company. After studying Oriental languages 
as the first student at Lord Wellcslcy's College of Fort William, 
he, at the age of nineteen, was appointed political assistant to 
General Lake, who was then conducting the final campaign of 
the Mahratta war against Holkar. In 1808 be was selected by 
Lord Minto for the responsible post of envoy to the court of 
Ranjit Singh at Lahore; here, on the 35th of April 1809, he con- 
cluded the important treaty securing the independence of the 
Sikh states between the Sutlcj and the Jumna. Four years 
af teiiwards he was made resident at Delhi, and in 18 19 he received 
from Lord" Hastings the appointment of secretary in the secret 
and political department. From 1820 to 1S25 Sir Charles (who 
succeeded his brother in the baronetcy in 1822) Vas resident at 
the court of the nizam, and afterwards was summoned in an 
emergency to his former post at Delhi. In 1827 he obtained a 
seat in the supreme council, and in March 1835,. after he had 
acted as the first governor of the proposed new presidency of 
Agra, he provisionally succeeded Lord William Bcntinck in the 
governor-generalship. During his brief tenure of office (it 
lasted only for one year) he carried out several important 
measures, including that for the Uberation of the prc^, which, 
while almost universally popular, complicated his relations 
with the directors at home to such an extent that he resigned 
the service of the Company in 1838. In the following year he 
was appointed by the Melbourne administration to the governor- 
ship of Jamaica, where the difficulties created by the recent 
passing of the Negro Emancipation Act had called for a high 
degree of tact and ability. Sir Charles Metcalfe's success in 
this deHcate position was very marked, but unfortunately his 
health compelled his resignation and return to England in 1842. 
Six months afterwards he was appointed by the Peel mvtvvsVrj 
to the goveraor-generaishlp oi C^naeAa., wvdVv\^«vic«siYR.^Atrfvxw^ 
out the policy of the home govtmmcxix. viai- xt'«^x^^^ nrcCcv ^ 



2sS 



METELLUS 



peerage shortly after his letttm in 1845. He died at Bfalshanger, 
near Basingstoke, on the 5th of September 1846. 

See J. W. Kaye's Lift and Camspondtnee ef Ckarks Lord lidealft 
Qjoadoa, 1854). 

■STBLLUS, the name of a distinguished family of the 
Caedlian (plebeian) gens in andent Rome. The following are 
the most important: — 

1. Lucius Ca£Cilius Metellus, general during the nrst 
Punic War. Consul in 351 B.C., he was sent to Sicily, and gained 
a decisive victory over Hasdrubal, who, trusting to his numeri- 
cally superior forces and the alarm inspired by his elephants, 
ventured to attack him. Metellus's victory was in great measure 
due to a panic caused amongst the elephants by his clever 
manceuvring. A ntimber of these animals were sent in specially 
constructed rafts to adorn his triumph, and from this time the 
elephant frequently occurs as a device on the coins of the 
MetdlL In 241, when the temple of Vesta was destroyed by 
fire, Metellus succeeded in bringing out the Palladium uninjured, 
but lost his eyesight. As a reward, he was granted permission 
to ride to the senate-house in a carriage, a privilege hitherto 
unheard of. But the story of his blindness is doubtful, since it 
is hardly consistent with his appointment as dictator in 224 
" for the purpose of holding the comitia," nor is anv mention 
made of it in the extract [Pliny, Nai. Hist. yii. 43 (45)] from the 
funeral oration pronounced over him by his son. 

2. QiTiMTUS Caechjus Metellus, son of (x), became consul 
in 206 as a reward for his services at the Metaurus. In 205 he 
was dictator for holding the comitia; in 201 one of the com- 
missioners for dividing the public land in Samnium and Apulia 
amongst the Roman veterans; in x 86 he conducted an embassy 
to Macedonia, afterwards proceeding to Peloponnesus to inves- 
tigate the quarrel between Sparta and the Achaeans. He is 
the Metellus who caused the poet Naevius {q.v.) to be imprisoned 
and enled for having attacked him on the stage. 

3. Lucius Caeciuus Metellus, possibly son of (i), when 
the disastrous news -of the battle of Cannae (2x6) reached Rome, 
proposed to a number of young nobles that they should leave 
Italy and offer their services to some foreign ruler, but they 
were prevented by the threats of the younger Scipio Mm carry- 
ing out their purpose. For this offence, when quaestor two years 
later, he was d^raded by the censors from his tribe to the class 
of aerarii. Nevertheless, he was elected one of the tribunes JTor 
the following year, but his attempt to call the censors to account 
for their action proved unsuccessful in the face Of the opposition 
of his colleague. 

4. QuiNTUS Caecilius Metellus MACEOOhacus (d. 1x5 b.c), 
praetor X48 B.C., defeated the usurper Andriscus (q.v.) in Mace- 
donia and forced him to surrender. Under his superintendence 
the country was made a Roman province. In 146, he attacked 
the Achaeans to avenge an insult offered to a Roman embassy 
at Corinth. He gained decided successes over them at Scarpheia 
and Chaeroneia, but was superseded by L. Mummius. On his 
return to Italy he received the honour of a triumph and the 
title of Macedonicus. Consul in 143, he reduced the Celti- 
berians in northern Spain to obedience. In 13X, when censor 
with Q- Pompeius (they were the first two plebeian censors), 
he proposed that ail citizens should be compelled to marry. 
He expelled a number of senators, one of whom, the tribune 
C. Atinius Labeo, proposed that he should be hurled from the 
Tarpeian rock; his life was only saved through the intervention 
of another tribune. He was an opponent of the Gracchi, 
although not averse from moderate reform. He was a strict 
disciplinarian, a good general, and a type of the ancient Roman 
both in public and private life. He erected a splendid colonnade 
in the Campus Martins, and two temples dedicated to Jupiter 
Stator and Juno< 

5. QutNTus Caeciuus Metellus Numtoicus, consul 109, 
and commander in the Jugurthine War. He defeated Jugurtha 
(q.v.) by the river Muthul, and after a difficult march through the 
desert took his stronghold, Thala. Marias, however, who bad 
been iatnguing for the command, accused Metellus of protracting 

tAe war, mnd received the coasulship tot 107 with the province 



of Numidia. MeteDus received a splendid triumph and tlift 
title of Numidkus. Satuminus, whom as a censor ht tried to 
remove from the senate, passed in xoo an agrarian law, imrrting 
a provision that all senators should swear to it within five days. 
All complied but Metellus, who retired to Asia. After Saturn- 
inus was killed he returned, and died (probably in gx). He was 
a man of the highest integrity, a strict and efficient general, and 
one of the chief leaders of the aristocratic party. He was a man 
of education and learning, and Cicero speaks highly of him as an 
orator. 

6. QuiNTUs Caeciuus Metellus Pius, so called from his 
efforts to bring about the recall of his father Numidicus from 
exile. He was one of the commanders in the Social War, and 
defeated Q. Pompaedius Silo, the Marsian leader (88). Sulla, 
on his departure for Asia, gave hira proconsular command over 
south Italy. When Marius returned to Italy and joined Cinna, 
the soldiers, who had no confidence in the consul Gnaeus Octa- 
vius, wished Metellus to take command, but he refused. Hie 
soldiers deserted in large numbers, and considering it impossible 
to defend Rome, Metellus retired to Africa and afterwards to 
Liguria, resuming his former proconsular command on Sulla's 
return. In the war against Marius he gained several important 
successes, and after his victory over C. Norbanus at Faventia 
(82) he subdued the whole of upper Italy. Consul in 80 with 
Sulla, he went to Spain next year against Sertorius, who pressed 
him hard .till the arrival of Pompey in 76. Next year Met^us 
defeated Sertorius's lieutenant Hirtuleius at Italica and Segovia, 
and joining Pompey rescued him from the consequences of a 
check at Sucro. From this time Sertorius grew weaker till his 
murder in 72. In 71 Metellus returned to Rome and triumphed. 
He became pontifex maximus, and died probably at the end of 
64. He was an upright man, of moderate ability. 

7. QuiNTus Caeciuus Metellus Celek. legate of P6 mp ey 
in Asia 65 B.C., praetor 63. He was despatched to cut off tht 
retreat of Catiline to the north by blocking the passes, and in 
62 went into the province of Cisalpine Gaul with the titJe of 
proconsul, although he did not become consul till 60. A stroiif 
supporter of the optimates and an enemy of Pompey, be strenu- 
ously opposed the agrarian law brought forward by the tribune 
Lucius Flavins, to provide for Pompey's veterans, and stood 
firm even though imprisoned; the law had to be given up. He 
also tried, though fruitlessly, to obstruct Caesar's agrarian law 
in S9' He died suddenly in the same year— it was usually 
supposed from poison administered by his wife Clodia. 

8. QuiNTUs Caeciuus Metellus Nepos, son of a Metdlus 
of the same name, so called because he was the grandson of (4). 
He was legate to Pompey in the war against the Mediterranean 
pirates (67), and took part in the Syrian campaign. In 63 he 
returned to Rome, to assist Pompey in carrying out his plans. 
He violently attacked Cicero, and refused to allow him to deliver 
the customary speech on laying down office as consul; be even' 
threatened to impeach him for having executed Roman dtisens 
(referring to the Catilinarian conspirators) without a triaL In 
62 his proposal that Pompey should be summoned to Italy to 
restore order was bitterly opposed by Cato, and on the day act 
down for the bill a fight took place in the forum. Metellus ikd 
to Pompey, but soon returned with him to Rome. In 60, when 
praetor, he proposed a law for the abolition of the tecUiaiia in 
Italy. In 57 he was consul, but offered no opposition to the 
return of Cicero from exile. In 56 he was governor of Hither 
Spain, where he was engaged in hostilities against the Vaccaci 
with indifferent success. He appears to have died in Rome in 
the following year. He was a mere creature of Pompey. 

9. QuiNTUS Caeciuus Meteuus Pius Scmo, son of P. 
Scipio Nosica, was adopted by (6). He was accused of bribery 
in 60 B.C., and defended by Cicero, to whom he had rendered 
valuable assistance during the Catilinarian conspiracy. la 
August 52, he became consul through the influence of Po mp ey, 
who had married his daughter Cornelia. In 49 he proposed 
that Caesar should disband his army within a definite time^ 
under pain of being declared an enemy of the state. After tha 
outbreak of the civil war, the province of Syria was asajyiwi to 



METEMPSYCHOSIS 



259 



tioi, and he was about to plunder the temple of Artemis at 
Eptiesos when he was recalled by Pompey. He commanded 
the centre at Pharsalus, and afterwards went to Africa, where by 
Gate's 'influence he received the command. In 46 he was 
defeated at Thapsus; while endeavouring to escape to Spain he 
fdl into the hands of P. Sittius, and put himself to death. His 
connnrion with two great families gave him importance, but he 
was selfish and licentious, wanting in personal courage, and his 
vioknce drove many from his party. 

101. QuDTTUS Caeciuus Metellus, sumamed Creticus, 

Koman generaL Consul in 69 b.c, he was appointed to the 

command of the war against Crete, the headquarters of the 

pirates of the Mediterranean. Its subjugation proceeded 

dowly bat surely until 67, when Pompey claimed the control of 

affairs in virtue of the powers conferred upon him by the Gabinian 

law. Thereupon the Cretans, who had been treated with 

great harshness by Metdlus, offered to surrender to Pompey, 

who enjo3red a reputation for leniency towards the conquered. 

Pompey accepted the offer and sent instructions to Metellus 

to suspend operations. Metellus refused and completed the 

conquest of tlw island, which was annexed to Cyrene and became 

a Roman province. On Metellus's return to Rome the partisans 

of Pompey succeeded in keeping him out of a triumph until 

after the Catilinarian conspiracy, when he made his entry into 

the dty and received the name Crelicus in honour of his achieve* 

Bents. Metellus naturally joined the senatorial party in their 

opposi t ion to Pompey, and had the satisfaction of preventing 

the ratification of what he had done in Asia. He was one of a 

commission 'of three sent (60) to investigate the state of affairs 

in Ganl, where disturbances were apprehended. He appears 

to have been alive in 54, but nothing further is known of him. 

On the family of the Metelli generally, ace M. Wcnde, De CaecUiis 

MHtUis, L (Bonn. 1875). for its history up to the time of the Gracchi 

the new edition by P. Grftbe of Dniroann's CtsckichU Roms, ii. ; and 

the aitide sj9. ''Caecilius'* by F. MQnzer in Pauly-Wissowa's 

Ktaiemeydopddie der classisckem AUertumswissensckaft, ilL pt. i (1897). 

■BraiPSTCHOSIS (Gr. furtii4f{nc<^ti)i or Tsansiucxation 

or THE SoiTLy the doctrine that at death the soul passes into 

SBOther living creature, man, animal, or even plant. This 

doarine, famous in antiquity and still held as a religious tenet 

by certain sccu of the dvilized world, has its roots far back in 

primitive culture. It is developed out of three universal 

lavage beliefs: (x) that man has a soul, connected in some 

ngue way with the breath, which can be separated from his 

■aterial body, temporarily in sleep, permanently at death; 

(3) that aninials and even plants have souls, and are possessed 

to a laige extent of human powers and passions; (3) that souls 

caa be transferred from one organism to another. Innumerable 

exafflpks might be mentioned of the notion that a new-bom 

ddld is the reincarnation of someone departed, as in Tibet the 

ml of the Dalai-Lama is supposed to pass into an infant born 

aiae months after his decease. Transmigration of human souls 

into non-human bodies is implied in totemism {q.vJ), for, as 

Profemor Frazer says, " it is an article of faith that as the clan 

VODg from the totem, so each clansman at death reassumes 

tk totem form." All these savage notions are to be regarded 

tt presuppositions of metempsychosis, rather than identified 

•HI) that doctrine itself as a reasoned theory. 

Tm fuU investigation of Egyptian records put us in possession 
of the (acts, it was supposed that the Egyptians believed in 
iManpsychous, and Herodotus (ii. 123) explicitly credits them 
•ith it. We now know that he was wrong. All that they 
Ivfievcd was that certain privileged souls might in the other 
*orid be able to assume certain forms at pleasure, those of a 
9vrow-hawk, lily, &c. Herodotus misunderstood the Egyp- 
titts to hold beliefs identical with those which were current in 
b day in Greece. In India, on the contrary, the doctrine was 
'hiio^ihly established from ancient times; not from the most 
ttoem, as it is not in the Vedas; but onwards from the Upani- 
i^xh. In them it is used for moral retribution: he who kills a 
Bnlmian is, after a long progress through dreadful hells, to be 
^^^>on as a dog, pig, ass, camel, &c. This we always find in 
■rtcmpsychosis as a reasoned theory. It is fanned by combitut' I 



tion of two sets of ideas which belong to different planes of 
culture: the ideas of judgment and punishment after death 
elaborated in a relatively cultured society by a priestly clus 
are combined with ideas, like that of totem-transmigration, 
proper to a savage society. In India we may explain the whole 
phenomenon as an infusion of the lower beliefs of the non-Aryan 
conquered races into the higher religious system of their Aryan 
conquerors. In later Hinduism metempsychosis reached a 
monstrous development; according to Monicr-Williams it was 
believed that there were 8400,000 forms of existence through 
which all souls were liable to pass before returning to their 
source in the Deity. Buddhism appeared as a reacUon against 
all this, and sought by a Subtle modification to harmonize 
the theory with its own pessimistic view of the world. According 
to Buddhism there is no soul, and consequently no metem- 
psychosis in the strict sense. Something, however, is trans- 
mitted, i.e. Karma (character), which passes from individual to 
individual, till in the perfectly righteous man the will to live is 
extinguished and that particular chain of lives is brought to an 
end. 

We do not know exactly how the doctrine of metempsychosis 
arose In Greece; it cannot, as was once supposed, have been 
borrowed from Egypt and is not likely to have come from India. 
It b easiest to assume that savage ideas which had never been 
extinguished were utilised for religious and philosophic purposes. 
The Orphic religion, which held it, fint appeared in Thrace upon 
the semi-barbarous north-eastern frontier. Orpheus, its legen- 
dary founder, is said to have taught that '* soul and body are 
united by a compact unequally binding on either; the soul is 
divine, immortal and aspires to freedom, while the body holds it 
in fetters as a prisoner. Death dissolves this compact, but only 
to re-imprison the liberated soul after a short time: for the wheel 
of birth revolves inexorably* Thus the soul continues its jour- 
ney, alternating between a separate unrestrained existence and 
fresh reincarnation, round the wide circle of necessity, as the 
companion of many bodies of men and animals. To these 
unfortunate prisoners Orpheus proclaims the message of libera- 
tion, that they stand in need of the grace of redeeming gods and 
of Dionysus in particular, and calls them to turn to God by ascetic 
piety of life and self -purification: the purer their lives the higher 
will be .their next reincarnation, until the soul has completed 
the spiral ascent of destiny to live for ever as God from whom 
it comes." Such was the teaching of Orphism which appeared 
in Greece about the 6th century B.C., organized itself into private 
and public mysteries at Eleusis and elsewhere, and produced a 
copious literature. 

The earliest Greek thinker with whom metempsychosis is 
connected is Pherecydes; but Pythagoras, who is said to have 
been his pupil, is its first famous philosophic exponent. Pytha- 
goras probably neither invented the doctrine nor imported it 
from Egypt, but made his reputation by bringfing Orphic 
doctrine from North-Eastem Hellas to Magna Graeda and by 
instituting societies for its diffusion. 

The real weight and importance of metempsychosis is due to 
its adoption by Plato. Had he not embodied it in some of his 
greatest works it would be merely a matter of curious investiga- 
tion for the anthropologist and student of folk-lore. In the 
eschatological myth which closes the Republic he tells the story 
how Er, the son of Armenius, miraculously returned to life on the 
twelfth day after death and recounted the secrets of the other 
world. After death, he said, he went with others to the place 
of Judgment and saw the soub returning from heaven and from 
purgatory, and proceeded with them to a place where they chose 
new lives, human and animal. " He saw the soul of Orpheus 
changing into a swan, Thamyras becoming a nightingale, 
musical birds choosing to be men, the soul of Atalanta choosing 
the honours of an athlete. Men were seen passing into animals 
and wild and tame animals changing into each other." After 
their choice the souls drank of Lethe and then shot away like 
stars to their birth. There are myths aivd VYvtorvci Vft >J^!t ^axtv^ 
eReci in other dialogues, ihc Phacdnis, Xleiio, PKaeAo, T\mo«u\ 
and Laws. In Plato*ft view iht iiuitv\>et <A w»^ ^«»* ta«^\ 



26o 



METEOR 



birth therefore is never the creation of a soul, but only a trans- 
migration from one body to another. Plato's acceptance of the 
doctrine is characteristic of his sympathy with popular beliefs 
and desire to incorporate them in a purified form into his system. 
Aristotle, a far less emotional and sympathetic mind, has a doc- 
trine of immortality totally inconsistent with it. In later Greek 
literature the doctrine appears from time to time; it is mentioned 
in a fragment of Mcnander (the Inspired Woman) and satirized 
by Lucian (Callus § i8 seq.). In Rom^ literature it is found as 
early as Ennius, who in his Calabrian home must have been 
familiar with the Greek teachings which had descended to his 
times from the cities of Magna Graeda. In a lost passage of his 
Annals, a Roman history in verse, Ennius told how he had seen 
Homer in a dream, who had assured him that the same soul 
which had animated both the poets had once belonged to a pea- 
cock. Persius in one of his satires (vi. 9) laughs at Ennius for 
this: it is referred to also by Lucretius (i. 124) and by Horace 
(Epist. II. i. 52). Virgil works the idea into his account of the 
Underworld in the sixth book of the Aeneid (vv. 724 sqq.). It 
persists in antiquity down to the latest classic thinkers, Plotinus 
and the other Ncoplatonists. 

AitcmptB have bcncn mndc with little succetft to Jind mfrt'tm' 
psycbo^ia in cnrly JcH'iiih litcraturr. Sut llicnc arr tmceiof it in i^hllo, 
and it i^ {^eftniU'l^' adopUTl in the Kabbiila. Wkhin the Chrittlon 
Church it wai hrld during the first cvnlyrici by isotaied GnjD«ttc 
ficfts. and by the Miinicha^^^n^ in the 4th and 5th citi^turies, but ivas 
invariably rpptidbtc'd by arfhodox thcoli&gn^nj. In the middle Agrs 
th«e traditions wrrt^ cQMtinuct! by ihe iiiinii,vrou$ Hct9 kno^vn col- 
Itctivfly as Cathnrir At the RertalssafHTe we find thf doctrine in 
Glurdano Bnino, and in the tytb century in the the&sophi»t van 
HflfnanE. A modified form ol \i wa^ adopted by Sw^dcnbor^r 
DurinR the cbssical period of German literature mctcmpfvchosii 
attracted much attention; Go#th« played with tbc idea, ^ndit was 
taken up mofr seriou«ly by Loving, who borrowed it fmotn Chjirlcs 
Bonnet, and by HtrdcT^ it ba* been menlioned with rrspoct by 
Hume and by Schofjonhauer- Modern thoosophy, which draws 
itB inspiration from India, has ufcen melempiycK&si* a» a cardinat 
tenet; it is, says a recent ihcoaaphical writer, "the master-key to 
iDodern prwblems>" and among them to the probkm of heredity. 

Outudc the somewhat namjiw cirdc of theosophists there i« little 
diipo^itidn to accept the doctrine: btit it (nay bo worth while to 
inint out that there are two fatal objections to iU The first \\ that 
perv?ndl identity depends on memory t and we do not remember 
ouf previotta incamafioni. The i«-*3nd J3 that the soul, whatever 
it may be, i* infllu. -r. ' t',.,. . ^ . \x r.\* ;+-. ,-:,'-;. . J-v the qualities 
oj the body: mf.-il! | . i ihc^oul ih 

a metaphysical essence which can pass indifferently from one body 
to another. If (to suppose the impossible) the soul of a dog were 
to pass into a man's body it would be so changed as to be no longer 
the same soul ; and so, in a less degree, of change from one human 
body to another. 

See A. Bertholct, The Transmigration of Souls (trans, from the 
German by H. J. Chaytor) ; E. Rohdc, Psyche. (H. St.) 

METEOR (Gr. iitritapa, Uterally " things in the air," from lOri, 
beyond, and &dpaPf to lift up), a term originally applied 
by the ancient Greeks to many atmospheric phenomena — 
rainbows, halos, shooting stars, &c. — but now specially restricted 
to those luminous bodies known as shooting stars, falling stars, 
fireballs and bolides. Though these objects only become visible 
in the atmosphere they are extra-terrestrial planetary bodies, 
and properly belong to the domain of astronomy. The extra- 
terrestrial bodies which happen to find a resting-place on the 
earth are studied under the name of meteorites {q.v.). 

In ancient times meteors were supposed to be generated in 
the air by inflammable gases. Isolated fireballs and star 
showers had been occasionally observed, but instead of being 
attentively watched they had been neglected, for their appari- 
tions had filled mankind with dread, and superstition attributed 
to them certain malevolent influences. It was the brilliant 
exhibition in November 1833 that, in modem times particularly, 
attracted earnest students to investigate the subject of meteors 
generally, and to make systematic observations of their appari- 
tions on ordinary nights of the year. Historical records were 
searched for references to past meteoric displays, and these 
were tabulated and compared. The attention devoted to the 
matter soon elucidated the phenomena of meteors, and proved 
tAcm to be small planetary bodies, practically infinite in numl^ers 
mad illimitable in tbc extent and variety of their orbits. 



The various kinds of meteors are probably bnt different 
manifestations of similar objects. Perhaps the most important 
meteors are those which, aitfer their bright careers and loud 
detonations, descend upon the earth's surface and can be sub- 
mitted to close inspection and analysis (see Meteout£S). The 
fireball or bolide (Gr. /3oX2s, a missile) comes next in order from 
its size and conspicuous effects. It may either be interq>ersed 
with many smaller meteors in a shower or may be isolated. 
The latter usually move more slowly and' approach rather near 
to the earth. The ordinary shooting stars vary from the brilli- 
ancy of a first- to a sixth-magnitude star. They exhibit a great 
dissimilarity in paths, motions and colours. The smallest and 
most numerous class are the telescopic meteors invisible to the 
naked eye. They range from the 7th magnitude to the smallest 
object perceptible in large telescopes. 

The altitudes at which these bodies are visibly presented to us 
differ in individual cases. More than a thousand observations 
in duplicate have been made of the paths of identical meteon 
seen from two stations many miles apart. These pairs<of obse^ 
vat ions have shown a parallax from which the elevation of the 
objects above the earth, the lengths and directions of thdr 
courses, &c. could be computed. The average heights are from 
80 to 40 m. A few, however, first appear when higher thaa 
80 m. and some, usually slow-moving meteors, descend below 
40 m. But altitudes beyond 100 and within 30 ol ue 





Average 


Heights. 


Length of 
Path. 


Velority 
per sec. 


Beginning. 


Ending. 


Swift fireballs . 


iir 


50 m. 


55 m. 
116 „ 


38 m. 


Slow fireballs. . 


3S» 


15.. 


Slow fireballs 










(radiants near 










horizon) . . 


59.. 


48.. 


131 „ 


13.. 


Swift shooting 










stars .... 


81 „ 


56.. 


4^ .. 


41 H 


Slow shooting 










stars .... 


63.. 


49.. 


36.. 


17.. 



30 of the November Leonids give a mean height of 84I to 57) ffl. 
40 of the August Perscids „ „ „ 80 to S4 ">• 

When the length of a meteor's course is known and the 
duration of its flight has been correctly estimated it is easy to 
compute the velocity in miles. The visible life of an ordinary 
shooting star is, however, comprised within one second, and it is 
only rarely that such short time intervals can be accurately 
taken. The real velocities derived from good observations are 
rarely, if ever, imder 7 or 8 m. per second, or over 60 or 70 n. 
per second. In a few exceptional cases abnormal speed hu 
been indicated on good evidence. The slower class of n»etcois 
overtaking the earth (like the Andromedids of November) have 
a velocity of about 8 or 10 m. per second, while the swifter 
class (meeting the earth like the Leonids of November) have a 
velocity of about 44 m. per second. 

When the members of a shower are observed with q>edal 
regard to their directions it is seen that they diverge from a 
common focus. The apparent scattering or diversity of the 
flights is merely an efiFect of perspective upon objects really 
traversing parallel lines. The centre upon which the observed 
paths converge is called the radiant point or, shortly, the radicmL 
On every night of the year there are a great number of these 
radiants in action, but the large majority represent very attenu- 
ated showers. In 1876 the number of radiants known was 850^ 
but about 5000 have been determined up to the present time. 
These are not all the centres of separate systems, h o we v er ; 
many of the positions being multiple observations ol the same 
showers. Thus the August Perseids, the returns of which have 
been witnessed more frequently than those of any other meteoric 
stream have had their radiant point fixed on more than 250 
occasions. 

There appear to be moving and stationary radiants, contiactcd 
and diffused radiants, and long-enduring and brief radiants. 
The Perscids are visible from about the xxth of July to tbe aoth 



METEOR 



261 



tbe radiant having a daily motion of about z* R.A. to 
[he Lyrids also vary in the position of their radiant, 
fMMuds form a stationary position from about the 9th 
th of October. A large proportion of the ordinary 
vers also appear to be sUtionary. 
idies (chiefly stone or stone and iron) enter the atmo- 
iB without at all conceivable angles and at a velocity 
16 m. per second, while the earth's orbital velocity is 
t m. per second. In thus rapidly penetrating the 

generated, the meteor becomes incandescent, and the 
a of the streak or train is produced. Before the object 
: the dense lower strata of air its material is usually 
, but on rare occasions it withstands the fiery ordeal, 
lents of the original mass fall upon the earth. 
des of meteors infest space. On a clear moonless 

person may count eight or ten shooting stars in an 
It there are more than twice as many visible in the 
ning hours as in the evenings, and during the last half 
ir there are also more than twice as many visible as 
e first half. It is computed that twenty millions of 
ntcr the atmosphere every day and would be visible 
ited vision in the absence of sunlight, moonlight and 
iiile if telescopic meteors are included the number will 
sed twentyfold. Ordinary meteors, in the region of 
s orbit, appear to be separated by intervals of about 
In special showers, however, they are much closer, 
h display of the 12th of November 1833, the average 
t^ the particles was computed as about 15 m., in 
e a7th of November 1885 as about 20 m., and in that 
th of November 1872 as about 35 m. 
leors, whatever their dimensions, must have motions 
le sun in obedience to the law of gravitation in the 
iner as planets and comets — that is, in conic sections 
the sun is always at one focus. The great variety in 
rent motions of meteors proves that they are not 
rom the plane of the ecliptic; hence their orbits are 
le orbits of planets and short -period comets, which are 
ined, but like the orbits of parabolic comets, which 
e great inclinations. 

3I records supply the following dates of abundant 
iisplays: — 



1. 13. 


iioi.Oct. 17. 


1602, Oct. 28. 


1833, Nov. 13. 


1. 14. 


1202, Oct. 19. 


1698, Nov. 9. 


1866, Nov. 14. 


1,14. 


1366, Oct. 23. 


1799. Nov. 12. 


1867, Nov. 14. 


1. 15- 


1533. Oct. 25. 


1832, Nov. 13. 


1868, Nov. 14. 



>wcis occurred at intervals of about one-third of a 
rhile the day moved along the calendar at the rate of 
1 in a thousand years. The change of style is, however, 
e for a part of the alteration in date. The explanation 
ecurring phenomena is that a great cloud or distended 
meteors revolves around the sun in a period of 33 1 
1 that one portion of the elliptical orbit intersects that 
th. As the meteors have been numerously visible in 
successive years it follows they must be pretty densely 
d along a considerable arc of their orbit. It also 
at, as some of the meteors are seen annually, they must 
•ed around the whole orbit. Travelling at the rale of 
T second, they encounter the earth moving 18J m. 
1 in an opposite direction, so that the apparent velocity 
ieors is about 44 m. per second. They radiate from 
ithin the Sickle of Leo and are termed Leonids. In 
remarkable discovery was made that Tempel's comet 
I revolved in an orbit identical with that of the Leonids, 
comet and meteors have a dose physical association 
Lain. The disintegrated and widely dispersed material 
met forms the meteors which embellish our skies on 
:rober nights. 

eteoric showers occurred in 1798 (Dec. 7), 1838 (Dec. 
(Nov. 27), 1885 (Nov. 27), 1892 (Nov. 2i) and 1890 
and 24), and the dates indicate an average period of 
(or fifteen returns. The metco/s move very slowly, j 



as they have to overtake the earth, and their apparent velocity 
is only about 9 m. per second. They are directed from a point 
in the sky near the star y Andromedae. Biela's comet of 1826, 
which had a period of 6-7 years, presented a significant resem- 
blance of orbit with that of the meteors, but the comet has not 
been seen since 1852 and has probably been resolved into the 
meteoric stream of Andromedids. 

Rich annual displays of meteors have often been remarked 
on about the loth of August, directed from Perseus, but they do 
not appear to have exhibited periodical maxima of great strength. 
They are probably dispersed pretty evenly along a very extended 
ellipse agreeing closely in its elements with comet 1862 : III. But 
the times of revolution are doubtful; the probable period of the 
comet is 131 years and that of the meteors ios\ years. This 
shower of Perseids is nouble for its long duration in the 
months of July and August and for its moving radiant. 

There was a brilliant exhibition of meteors on the 20th of 
April 1803, and in other years meteors have been very abundant 
on about the 19th to the aist of April, shooting from a radiant 
a few degrees south-west of a Lyrae. The display is appar- 
ently an annual one, though with considerable di^erences in 
intensity, and the cycle of its more abundant returns has not 
yet beeii determined. A comet which appeared in 1861 had a 
very suggestive agreement of orbit when compared with that of 
the meteors, and the period computed for it was 415 years. 

Apart from the instances alluded to there seem few coinci- 
dences between the orbital elements of comets and meteors. 
Hallcy's comet conforms very well, however, with a meteoric 
shower directed from Aquarius early in May. But there are 
really few comets which pass sufficiently near the earth to give 
rise to a meteoric shower. Of 80 comets seen during the 20 
years ending 1893, Professor Herschel found that only two, 
viz. Denning's comet of 1881 and Finby's of 1886, approached 
comparatively near to the earth's path, the former within 
3,000,000 m. and the latter within 4,600,000 m. 

Radiants of Principal Shovxrs. — The following is a list of 
the chief radiant points visible during the year: — 



Date. 


Radiant 
R.A, Dec. 


Date. 


Radiant 
R.A. Dec. 


Jan. 3-5 
Ftb. 10-15 ■ 
Majch 1-4 . 
March 34 
April 19-32 . 
Apr;i-May . 
^fay 1-6 , 
Mayll-ia . 
May- July . 

JUflt 13 H 

Lily J5-19 
uty 38-30 

Aw^. 10-1 S 
Aug. 21-^5 


130*+ S3' 
7S'+4(: 
iW'-H 4* 

i6i"+si- 

^7("+3j" 
193" +5S" 

231+27; 

253" -3 I " 

3io''+6i- 
3i4;+48: 


july-Sepl. . 
Sept. 5-15 ' 
^pl. 3'W . 
Oct. J . . 
Oct. 4 ^ i 
Oct. iS-34 . 
Oct. 20-35 ■ 
Oct. 3&-N0V. 1 
Nov. 3 . . 
Nov. 11-16 . 
Nov. j6-3a . 
Nov. 30-23 ■ 
Nov, 17-33 . 
D«,4 ^ ■ 
Dec, 9-12 


471+43* 
61* +37; 
74'+1»; 

330' +5*; 

9^' + IS' 
loo' +13* 

43'+'"! 

s^;+9; 



Many meteors exhibit the green line of magnesium as a 
principal constituent. Professor N. von Konkoly remarked in 
the fireball of 1873 (July 26) the lines of magnesium and 
sodium. Other lines in the red and green have been detected 
and found by comparison with the lines of marsh gas. Bright 
meteors often emit the bluish-white light suggestive of burning 
magnesium. In addition to magnesium and sodium the lines 
of potassium, lithium and also the carbon flutings exhibited in 
cometary spectra, have been seen. 

Meteoric observation has depended upon rough and hurried 
eye estimates in post years, but the importance of attaining 
greater accuracy by means of photography has been recognized. 
At several American observatories, and at Vienna, fairly suc- 
cessful attempts were made in November 1898 to photograph 
a sufficient number of meteor-trails to derive the Leonid radiant, 
and the mean position was at R.A. 151® 11' Dec. + 22^* 12'. 
But the materials obtained were few, the *:VvovJt\ VvaNvwj^ 
proved inconspicuous. The p\vo\.og,Ta\i\\\t mtvVwA ^v^cw^ v> 
have practically fuled duiiDf^ itottiV. '^cax%, vxiKft >i«x«^ \«a 



262 



METEORA— METEORITE 



been no brilliant display upon which to test its capacity. 
Really large meteors can be satisfactorily photographed, but 
small ones leave no impression on the plates. 

Meteors look larger than they are, from the glare and flaming 
effect due to their momentary combustion. The finer meteors 
on entering the air only weigh a few hundred or, at most, a 
few thousand pounds, while the smallest shooting stars visible 
to the eye may probably be equal in size to coarse grains of 
sand, and still be large enough to evolve all the light presented 
bythetn. (WTf. D.) 

METEORA* a group of monasteries in Thessaly, in the 
northern side of the Peneius valley, not quite 30 m. N.E. 
of Trikkala, and near the village of Kalabaka (the ancient 
Aeginium, medieval Stagus or Stagoi). From the Cambunian 
chain two masses of rock are thrust southward into the plain, 
surmounted by isolated columns from 85 to 300 ft. high, 
" some like gigantic tusks, some like sugar-loaves, and some like 
vast stalagmites," but all consisting of iron-grey or reddish- 
brown conglomerate of gneiss, mica-slate, syenite and green- 
stone. The monasteries stand on the summit of these pinnacles; 
they are accessible only by aid of rope and net worked by a 
windlass from the top, or by a series of almost perpendicular 
ladders climbing the diff. In the case of St Stephen's, the peak 
on which it is built does nor rise higher than the ground behind, 
from which it is separated by a deep, narrow chasm, spanned by 
a drawbridge. Owing to the confined area, the buildings are 
closely packed together; but each monastery contains beside 
the monks' cells and water-cisterns, at least one church and a 
refectory, and some also a library. At one time they were 
fourteen in number, but now not more than four (the Great 
Monastery, Holy Trinity, St Barlaam's and St Stephen's) are 
inhabited by more than two or three monks. The present 
church of the Great Monastery was erected, according to Leake's 
reading of the local inscription, in 1388 (BjOrnstihl, the Swedish 
traveller, had given 1371), and it is one of the largest and hand- 
somest in Greece. A number of the manuscripts from these 
monasteries have now been brought to the National Library at 
Athens. Aeginium is described by Livy as a strong place, and 
is frequently mentioned during the Roman wars; and Stagus 
appears from time to time in Byzantine writers. 

See W. M. Leake, Northern Greece (4 vols., London. 1835) ; Professor 
Kricffk in Zeiischr. /. aUg. Erdk. (Berlin, 18^8): H. F. Toicr, Re- 
searches in the Highlands of Turkey (1869) ; L. Heuzey and H. Daumet, 
Mission archiologique ,de Macldoine (Paris, 1876), where there is a 
map of the monasteries and their surroundingit; Guide' Joanne \ 
Crtce, vol. iL (Paris, 1891). 

METEORITE, a mass of mineral matter which has reached 
the earth's surface from outer space. Observation teaches 
that the fall of a meteorite is often preceded by the flight of a 
fireball (see Meteor) through the sky, and by one or more loud 
detonations. It was inferred by Chladni (1794) that the fire- 
ball and the detonations result from the quick passage of the 
meteorite through the earth's atmosphere. 

The fall of stones from the sky, though not credited by 
scientific men till the end of the 18th century, had been again 
and again placed on record. One of the most famous of meteor- 
ites fell in Phrygia and was worshipped there for many genera- 
tions under the name of Cybele, the mother of the gods. After an 
oracle had declared that possession of the stone would secure to 
the Romans a continual increase of prosperity, it was demanded 
by them from King Attalus about the year 204 B.C., and 
taken with great ceremony to Rome. It is described by the 
historian as "a black stone, in the figure of a cone, circular below 
and ending in an apex above." Plutarch relates the fall of a 
stone in Thrace about 470 B.C., during the time of Pindar, and 
according to Pliny the stone was still preserved in his day, 500 
years afterwards. Both Diana of the Ephcsians " which fell 
down from Jupiter," and the image of Venus at Cyprus, appear 
to have been conical or pyramidal stones. One of the holiest 
relics of the Moslems is preserved at Mecca, built into a corner 
of the Kaaba; its history goes back far beyond the 7th century; 
the description of it given to Dr Partsch suggests that the stone 
. Asd /alien from the sl^y. The oldest existing meteorite of which 



the fall is known to have been observed is that v 
Ensisheim in Elsass on the loth of November 1492. 
to strike the ground and was immediately dug 
penetrated to a depth of 5 ft. and was found to w 
It was long suspended by a chain from the roof o 
church, and is now kept in the Rathhaus of the toi 
It was not till scientific men gave credence to tt 
the fall of heavy bodies from the sky that steps wt 
the formation of meteorite collections. The Briti 
(Natural History) at South Kensington now contaii 
belonging to 566 distinct falls; of these falls 325 
actually observed; the remaining specimens are infe 
come from outer space, because their characters ai 
those of the masses which have been seen to fal 
meteorites the following twelve have fallen within 
Isles:— 



In England. 



In Scotland. 
In Ireland. 



Place. 



Wold Cottage, Thwing, York- 
shire 

Launton. Oxfordshire 
Aldsworth, Gloucestershire i 
Rowton, Shropshire t 

Middlesbrougn, Yorkshire 
High Possil, ula»ow 
Perth . . . 
Mooresfort, Tippcrary . 
Adare, Limericic . 
KUleter, Tyrone .• 
Dundrum.Tipperary , i 
Crumlin, Antrim . 



Dec 
Feb 
Au{ 

Auf 
Sep 
Api 
Aut 
Sep 



Meteoritic falls are independent of thundersto 
other terrestrial circumstances; they occur at all ] 
day and nighty and at all seasons of the year; the 
particular latitudes. The number of ston<» whic 
ground from one fireball is very variable. In eaci 
Yorkshire falls only one stone was found; the Guen 
meteor yielded 30; at Toulouse, as many as 350 ai 
to have fallen; at Hessle, over 500; at Knyahinya 
1000; at L'Aigle, from xooo to 3000; at both ] 
Mocs no fewer than 100,000 are estimated to have 
earth's surface. The largest single mass seen to i 
those which came down at Knyahinya, Hungary, i 
weighed 547 lb; but far larger masses, inferred from 
acters to be meteorites, have been met with. The 
Cranboume masses, now in the British Museu 
History), before rusting weighed 3) tons; the la 
masses brought by Lieut. Peary from western 
weighs 36 1 tons. A mass found at Bacubirito in Mc 
long, 6 ft. wide and $ ft. thick, and is estimated 
tons. 

From observations of the path and time of flight 
nous meteor it is calculated that meteorites enter 
atmosphere with absolute velocities ranging from 
a second; but the speed of a meteorite after the < 
resisting atmosphere has been traversed is extreme 
comparable with that of an ordinary falling body. . 
Professor A. S. Herschel's experiments, the mcteori 
at Middlesbrough must have struck the ground wit 
of only 412 ft. a second. In the case of the Hessle 
stones fell on the ice, which was only a few inche 
rebounded without breaking the ice or being broken 
The depth to which a meteorite penetrates depends < 
form, weight and density of the meteorite and 01 
of the ground. At Stannern a meteoric stone w 
entered to a depth of only 4 in.; the large Knya 
already mentioned made a hole 11 ft. deep. 

The area of the earth's surface occupied by towns 
being comparatively small, the probability of a sho' 
falling within a town is extremely minute; the lik 
living creature being struck is still more remote 
Yorkshire stone, that of Wold Cottage, struck the 
10 yds. from a labourer; the second, that of Middle 
on the railroad only 40 yds. away from some p! 



METEORITE 



263 



work; a itone coinpletety buried itself in the highway at Kaba; 

oae fdl between two carters on the road at Charsonville, throwing 

llie ground up to a height of 6 ft.; the Tourinnes-la-G rosso 

ncleorite broke the pavement and was broken itself; the 

Kilhenberg stone fell within a few paces of a little girl; 

the Angers stone fell ckst to a lady standing in her garden; 

the Braunau mass went through the roof of a cottage; at 

If acao, in Brazil, where there was a shower of stones, some oxen 

are said to have been killed; at Nedagolla, in India, a man was 

•0 near that he was stunned by the shock; while at Mhow, also 

in India, a man was killed in 1827 by a stone which is a true 

meteorite, and b represented by fragments in museum collections. 

' Thougli the surface of a meteoric stone becomes very hot 

during the early part of the flight through the air, it is cooled 

agun during the later and slower part of the flight. Meteorites 

are generally found to be warm to the touch if immediately dug 

out; at the moment of their impact thr y are not hot enough to 

dttr woody fibre on which they chance to fall, nor is the surface 

theosoft, for terrestrial matter with which the surface comes into 

contact makes no impression upon the meteorite. Where many 

ttOBcs fall at the same time they are generally distributed over 

ihife area elongated in the direction of the flightof theluminous 

■etcor, and the largest stones generally travel farthest. At 

Hosle, for instance, the stones were distributed over an area of 

10 BL long and 3 m. broad. 

Meteorites are almost invariably found to be completely 
covered with a thin crust such as would be caused by intense 
healing of the material for a short lime; its thinness shows the 
flight depth to which the heat has had time to penetrate. They 
lie presumably cold and invisible when they enter the earth's 
ttnospbere, and become heated and visible during their passage 
through the air; doubtless the greater part of the superficial 
mterial flicks off as the result of the sudden heating and is left 
behind floating in the air as the trail of the meteor. The crust 
nries in aspect with the mineral composition of the meteorite; 
it ii generally black; it is in most cases dull but is sometimes 
hntraiis; more rarely it is dark-grey in colour. Each stone of a 
iboweris in general completely covered with crust; but occasion- 
•Dy, u in the case of the Butsura fall, stones found some miles 
I aptit fit each other closely and the fitting surfaces are uncrusted, 
liwving that a meteorite may break up during a late and cool 
stage of the flight through the atmosphere. A meteorite is 
Itacrally covered with pittings which have been compared 
ia siae and form to thumbmarks; the pittings are probably 
earned by the unequal conductivity, fusibility and frangibility 
of the soperfidal material. As picked up, complete and covered 
•itk cnist, meteorites are always irregularly-shaped fragments, 
ncfa as would be obtained on breaking up a rock presenting 
■0 Rgnlarity of structure. 

AbMt one-third, and those the most common, of the chemical 
dements at present recognized as constituents of the earth's 
' cnist have been met with in meteorites; no new chemical 
ckncnt has been discovered. The most frequent or plentiful 
in their occurrence are: aluminium, calcium, carbon, iron, 
■agncstum, nickel, oxygen, ph(»phorus, silicon and sulphur; 
*Ue ten frequently or in smaller quantities are found 
ittimony, arsenic, chlorine, chromitmi, cobalt, copper, hydrogen, 
bhium, manganese, nitrogen, potassium, sodium, strontium, 
tm, titanium, vanadium. The existence of minute traces of 
mcral other elements has been announced; of these special 
■ention may be made of gallium, gold, iridium, lead, platinum 
iod lihrer. Iron occurs chiefly in combination with nickel, 
ttd phosphorus almost always in combination with both nickel 
iod iron (schreibersite) ; carbon occurs both as indistinctly 
QyitaDized diamond and as graphitic carbon, the latter generally 
hdag amorphous, but occasionally having the forms of cubic 
OftUk (cliftonite); free phosphorus has been found in one 
Meocite; free sulphur has also been observed, but may have 
miited from the decomposition of a sulphide since the fall of the 



' Of the mineral constituents of meteorite*, the foVowing are by 

■■■jr ■■■eralo^sts regarded a» gcH/ unrepreteated among native i 



terrestrial products: difUmiU, a cubic form of graphitic carbon t 
phosphorus', various alloys of nickel and iron; motssaniie, silicide of 
carbon: cohenite, carbide of iron and nickel (corresponding to 
ccmentite, carbide of iron, found in artificial iron}; schreibersite 
phosphide of iron and nickel ; troilUe, protosulphide of won ; oUhamite, 
sulphide of calcium : osbomite, oxysulphide od calcium and titanium 
or zirconium; daubtidiU, sulphide of uon and chromium ; lowrmctfr, 
protochloride of iron; asmaniU, a species of silica; maskelynite, a 
singly refractive mineral with the chemical composition of labrador- 
ite; weinbergerite, a silicate intermediate in chemical composition 
to pyroxene and nepheline. 

Ot these troilite is perhaps identical with some varieties of 
terrestrial pyrrhotite; asmanite has characters which approach 
very closely to those of terrestrial tridymite; maskelynite, according 
to one view, is the result of fusion of labradorite, according 
to another view, is an independent species chemically related to 
leucitc. Other compounds are present corresponding to the follow- 
ing terrestrial minerals: olivine and forsterite; enstatite and 
bronzite; diopsidc and augite; anorthite, labradorite and oligoclase;' 
magnetite and chromite; pyrites; p)rrrhotite; breunnerite. Quartz 
(silica), the most common of terrestrial minerals, is absent from the 
stony meteorites; but from the Toluca meteoric iron microscopic 
crystals have been obtained of which some have certain resem- 
blances to quartz, and others to zircon. Free silica is present in 
the Brcitcnbach meteorite but as asmanite. In addition to the 
above there are several compounds or mixtures of which the nature 
has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained. 

Meteorites are convem'ently distributed into three classes, 
which pass more or less gradually into each other: the first 
(siderites or meteoric irons) includes all those which consist 
mainly of metallic iron alloyed with nickel; only nine of them 
have been actually seen to fall; the second (siderolites) includes 
those in which metallic iron (alloyed with nickel) and stony 
matter are present in large proportion; few of them have been 
seen to fall; those of the third class (aerolites or meteoric stones) 
consist almost eutirely of stony matter; nearly all have been 
seen to fall. 

In the meteoric irons the iron generally varies from 80 to 
95% and the nickel from 6 to xo%; the latter is generally alloyed 
with the iron, and several alloys or mixtures have been distin- 
guished by special names (kamacite, taenite, plessite). Troilite 
is frequently present as plates, veins or large nodules, sometimes 
surrounded by graphite; schreibersite is almost always present, 
and occasionally also daubr^elite. The compositeness and 
the structure of meteoric iron arc well shown by the figures 
generally called into existence when a polished surface is etched 
by means of acids ot bromine-water; they are due to the inequality 
of the etching action on thick and thin plates of various con- 
stituents, the plates being composed chiefly of two nickel-iron 
materials (kamacite and taenite). A third nickel-iron material 
(plessite) fills up the spaces formed by the intersection of the 
joint plates of kamacite and taenite; it is probably not an 
independent substance but an intimate intergrowth of kamacite 
and taenite. The figures were first observed in 1808 and are 
generally termed " WidmanstStten figures " in honour of their 
discoverer; the plates which give rise to them are parallel to 
the faces of the regular octahedron, and such masses have 
therefore an octahedral structure. A small number of the 
remaining masses have cubic cleavage; instead of WidmanstStten 
figures they yield fine linear furrows when etched; the furrows 
were found by Neumann in 1848 to have directions such as 
would result from twinning of the cube about an octahedral 
face; they are known as " Neumann lines." For meteoric 
irons of cubic structure the percentage of nickel is lower than 
6 or 7; for those of octahedral structure it is higher than 6 or 7; 
the plates of kamacite are thinner, and the structure therefore 
finer the higher the percentage of that metal. A considerable 
number of meteoric irons, however, show no crystalline structure 
at all, and have percentages of nickel both below and above 7; 
it has been suggested that each of these masses may once 
have had crystalline structure and that it has disappeared 
as a result of prolonged heating throughout the mass while 
the meteorite has been passing near a star. 

An investigation of the changes of the magnetic permeability 
of the Sacramento meteoric Itou "w\V.Vv t\vwv^\Tv^ V,wcv\«\^v>wfc 
led Dt S. VV. J. Smith lo inlet vVa.\. v\vt nv^vv^Wt \>«?RaN\«« 
can only be ezpUdned by \m»^\T\vn^ v\it mtXtofvXt V» «w«aaX 



264 



METEOROLOGY 



largely of plates of nickel-iron containing about 7% of nidLd 
(kamacite), separated from each other by thin plates of a 
nickel-iron constituent (taenite), containing about 27% of 
nickel and having different thermomagnetic characters from 
those of kamadte; he suggests, however, that taenite is not 
a definite chemical compound but a eutectic mixture of 
kamacite and a nickel-iron compound containing not less than 
37% of nickel 

About eleven out of every twelve of the known meteoric 
stones belong to a division to which Rose gave the name " chon- 
dritic" (xMpot, a grain); they present a very fine-grained 
but crystalline matrix or paste, consisting of olivine and enstatite 
or bronzite, with more or less nickel-iron, troilite, chromite, 
augite and triclinic feldspar; through this paste are disseminated 
round chondrules of various sizes and generally with the same 
mineral composition as the matrix; in some cases the chondrules 
consist wholly or in great part of glass. Some meteorites 
consist almost solely of chondrules; others contain only few; 
in some cases the chondrules are easily separable from the 
surrounding material. In mineral composition chondritic 
meteorites approximate more or less to terrestrial Iherzolites. 

A few meteorites belonging to the chondritic division are 
remarkable as containing carbon in combination with hydro- 
gen and oxygen; those of Alais and Cold Bokkeveld are good 
examples. 

The remaining meteoric stones are without chondrules and contain 
little or no nickel-tron; of these the following may be mentioned 
as illustrative of the varieties of mineral composition: Juvinas, 
consisting essentially of anorthite and augite; FeUrsburgi, of anor- 
thite, augite and olivine, with a little chromite and nickel-iron (both 
Juvinas and Petersburg may be compared to terrestrial basalt); 
SherthoUy, chiefly of aueitc and maskelynite; Angra dos ReiSt almost 
whofly of augite. but olivine is present in small proiwrtion ; Buslee, 
of diopside, enstatite and a little triclinic feldspar, with some nickel- 
iron, oldhamite and osbomite ; BiskopviUe, of enstatite and triclinic 
feldspar, with occasional augite. nickel-iron, troilite and chromite; 
Roda, of olivine and bronzite: and Ckassigny, consisting of oQvinc 
with enclosed chromite; and thus mineralogically identical with 
terrestrial dunite. 

Almost all meteoric stones appear to be made up of irregular 
angular fragments, and some of them bear a close resemblance 
to volcanic tuffs. In the large group of chondritic stones, 
chondrules or spherules, some of which can only be seen under 
the microscope while others reach the size of a walnut, are 
embedded in a matrix apparently made up of minute splinters 
such as might result from the fracture of the chondrules them- 
selves. In fact, until recently it was thought by some mineralo- 
gists that the chondrules owe their form, not to crystallization, 
but to friction, and that the matrix was actually produced by 
the wearing down of the chondrules through frequent collision 
with each other as oscillating components of a comet or during 
repeated ejection from a volcanic vent of some small celestial 
body. Chondrules have been observed, however, presenting 
forms and crystalline surfaces incompatible with such a mode 
of formation, and others have been described which exhibit 
features resulting from mutual interference during their growth. 
The chondritic structure is different from anything which has 
yet been observed in terrestrial rocks, and the chondrules are 
distinct in character from those observed in perlite and obsidian. 
It is now generally believed that the structural features of 
meteoric stones arc the result of hurried crystallization. 

No organized matter has been found in meteorites and they 
have brought us, therefore, no evidence of the existence of 
living beings outside our own world. 

AUTHORITIBS.— The literature consists chiefly of memoirs dis- 
persed throuKh the journals of scteatific societies. The folbwii^ 
separate works may be consulted: A. Brezina, Die MeUonten- 
Sam'mlung d. k-k. mm. Hofkabineies in Wien (Vienna, 1896); A. 
Breana u. E. Cohen, Die Structur und die Ztuammensettung der 



Meleoriten (Stuttgart, 1886-1887) ; P. & Bigot de Morogues. Mimoire 
kistorique et pkysique sur Us chutes des pierres (Orleans, 1 813); 
Chladni. Ueberden Ursprungder von Pallas gefvndenen und anderer 



emarks emieeming SUmes said to kme fatten from At Oomii 
t Days and in Ancient Times (London, 1796) ; S. Meuoicr* 
(Pans. j88a) ; C. Ramroelsberg, Die ckemuche Nainr dtar 
(Berlin, 1870-1879); G. Roae, Besckreihnni nmd Em- 



ikr dhnlicker Eisenmassen (Riga. 1794). ana ^'**»' Feuer-MeUore, 

Mmd tl^gr die mil densdben herabgefelUnen Massen (Vienna. 1819): E. 

Coben, JfeleortUnkunde (Stuttgart, 1894-IQ05); L. Fletcher, An 

^MiratUiaeom to iMe Study of MeUorUts, lotb ed. (London, 190B); 



E. King. Remarks eoneeming Stones said to kem fatten f 

itotk in these Days a " • ' ~ '- 

MiUorites (Pans, j 

Meteoriten (Berlin, 1870-1879); 

theilung der Meteoriten (Berlin, 1864) : G. Tschermak,~I>M trnftr*- 

skopische Beschaffenheit der Meteoriten (Stuttgart, 1883-1M5) : E. A. 

wolfing. Die Meteoriten in SammlungM und tkre LitenSttr (Tubingen, 

1897). (L.^ 

MBTEOROLOOT (Or. /leriwpa, and X67ot, ijt. the science 
of things in the air), the modern study of all the pheno- 
mena of the atmosphere of gases, vapours and dust that 
surrounds the earth and extends to that tmknown outer surface 
which marks the beginning of the so-called interstellar space. 
These phenomena may be studied either individually or col- 
lectively. The collective study has to do with statistics and 
general average conditions, sometimes called normal values, 
and is generally known as Climatology (see Clzmats, where the 
whole subject of regional climatology is dealt with). The study 
of the incUvidual items may be either descriptive, explanatory, 
physical or theoretical Physical meteorology is again sub- 
divided according as we consider either the changes that depend 
upon the motions of masses t>f air or those that depend upoo 
the motions of the gaseous molecules; the former belong to 
hydrodynamics, and the latter are notwtly oimptised under 
thermodynamics, optics and electricity. 

History. — The historical development of meteorology from 
the most ancient times is well presented by the quotatiooi 
from classic authors compiled by Julius Ludwig Idder {MdeorO' 
hgia veterum graecorum et romanorum, Berlin, 1832). We owe 
to the Arabian philosophers some slis^t advance on the know- 
ledge of the Greeks and Romans; especially as to the optical 
phenomena of the atmosphere. The Meteorohgia of Arhtotle 
(see Zeller, Phil, der Griecken) accords entirely with the 
Philosophica of Thomas Aquinas, the poetic songs of the 
troubadours, and the writmgs of Dante (see Kuhn's Treatment 
of Nature in Dante* s Divina Commedia; London, 1897). Dante*s 
work completed the passage from the ancient mythologial 
treatment of nature to the more rational recognition of one 
creator and lawgiver that pervades modem science. The 
progress of meteorology has been coincident with the progress 
of physics and chemistry in general, as is shown by considering 
the works of Alhazen (1050) on twUight, Vitellio (1250) 00 the 
rainbow, Galileo (1607) on the thermometer and on the laws 
of inertia, on attractions and on the weight of the air, TorkeDi 
(1642) on the barometer, Boyle (1659) on the elastic pxennre 
6f the air in all directions, Newton (1673) on optics; Cavendisk 
(1760), eUstic pressure of aqueous vapour; BUck (i7ss)i separa- 
tion of carbonic add gas from ordinary air; Rutherford (x77a), 
separation of nitrogen; Priestley and Scheele (1775) and Cavca- 
dish (i777)> separation of oxygen; Lavoisier (1783), genend 
establishment of the character of the atmo^here as a atofit 
mixture of gases and vapour; De Saussure's measaremcat 
of relative humidity by the accurate hair hygrometer (1780), 
Dalton's measurement of vapour tension at various temperatoici 
(1800), Regnault's and Magnus's revision of Dalton's tcnsios 
of water vapour (1840), Marvin's and Juhllns's measureoients 
of tension of ice vapour (1891),. and the isolation of -aisoa bf 
Rayleigh and Ramsay (1894). 

Theoretical meteorology has been, and always must be, vboUy 
dependent on our knowledge of thermodynamics and oa mathe- 
matical methods of dealing with the forces that produce the 
motions within the atmosphere. Progress has been due to 
the most eminent mathematicians at th£ following apfuon- 
mate dates: Sir Isaac Newton (1670), Leonhard Eukr (1736), 
Pierre Simon Laplace (1780), Jean Baptiste Joseph Fooikr 
(1785), Simon Denis Poisson (18x5), Sir George Gabriel Stokes 
(1851), Hermann von HeLoiholta (1857), Lord Kelvin (x86o), 
C. A. Bjerknes (1868), V. Bjerkncs (1906), and to their maay 
distinguished followers. ' 

The earliest systematic daily record of local vetthct 

phenomena that has survived is that kept by William lieik, 

rector of Driby, during seven years X33X-1338: the manoacnpt 

\ is yccwivtd in the Digby MS., Merton Cdlege, QifiBi^ tad 



msroRY] 



METEOROLOGY 



265 



was pabfished in facstmfle by George G. Symonsin 1891. Doubt- 
le« many simiUr monastic diaries have been lost to us. In 
Z653 Fezdinand II. of Tuscany organized a local system of 
statioos and daily records which extended over and beyond 
northern Italy. This was the first fairly complete meteorological 
system in Europe. The records kept during the years 1655-1670 
at the Cloister Angdus near Florence were reduced by Libri, 
inx>fcssor of mathematics at Pisa, and published in 1830. 

The history of meteorology is marked by the production of 

comprehensive treatises embodying the current state of our 

knowledge. Such were Louis Cotte's Traiti de miUcrologie 

(Paris, 1774) and his Mimoires sur la miUordogUf suppllment 

tt traiU (1788); Ludwig Klimtz's Lekrbuch der Metecrologie 

(HaUe, 1831-1836) and his Vorlcsungen (1840; French 1843, 

En^sh 1845); Sir John Herschel's MeUorology (London, 

1840); the splendid series of memoirs by H. W. Brandes in 

Gdiler's PkysikalUckes Wdrterbuck (Leipzig, 1820-1840); £. £. 

T. W. Schmid's Crundriss dtr MHeorologie (Leipzig, 1862); 

Fmd's JUcent Advances in Meteorology (Washington, 1885); 

the great works of Julius Hann, as summarized in his Handbuck 

ier KlimaUdogu (1883; 2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1897; vol. i. English 

1903) and his Lekrhuck der MeUorologie (Leipzig, 1901, 2nd ed. 

1906); the extensive studies of J. E. Woeikoff (Voeikof), as 

pitsented in his Klima der Erde (Russian 1883, (German 1885) 

and his MeUorologie (Russian 1904). 

The devek>pment of this science has been greatly stimulated 
by the regular publication of special periodicals such as the 
Zeitsckrift of the Austrian Meteorological Society, 1866-1885, 
ToL 21 apfiearing with vol. 3 of the Mcleorologiscke ZeUsckrift 
of the German Meteorological Society in 1886, and since that 
due this journal has been jointly maintained by the two societies. 
The SDaJogous journals of the Royal Meteorological Society, 
London, 1850 to date, the Scottish Meteorological Society, 
i860 to date, the Meteorological Society of France, 1838 to 
dale, the Italian Meteorological Society, and the American 
Meteorok)gicaI Journal, 1885-1895, have all played important 
parts in the history of meteorology. On the other hand, the 
iimdiof the Central Meteorological Office at Paris, the Arckiv 
of the Deutsche Seewarte at Hantburg, the Annals and the 
Rtfertmum of the Central Physical Observatory at St Peters- 
boig. the Annates of the Central Meteorological Office at Rome, 
B^dUtin of International Simultaneous Met. Obs. and the Montkly 
Watker Review of the Weather Bureau at Washington, the 
Ahkudlung^ of the Royal Prussian Meteorological Institute 
at Berlin, the Meteorological Papers of the Meteorological 
Office, LcHidon, and the transactions of numerous scientific 
•odetics, have represented the important official contributions 
of the respective national governments to technical meteorology. 
The recent international union for aerial exploration by 
^ ind balloons has given rise to two important publications, 
u. the Verdffentlickungen of the International Commission 
far Scientific Aerostatics (Strassburg, 1905, et seq.), devoted to 
wcwds of observations, and the Beitrdge sur Pkysik der freien 
Mmsfkare (Strassburg, 1904, et seq.), devoted to research. 

The necenity of studying the atmosphere as a unit and of 
iKwii^ uniform accuracy in the observations has led to the 
ionnation of a permanent International Meteorological Com- 
■ittee ( of which in 1909 the secretary was Professor Dr G. Hell- 
Baoo of Berlin, and the president Dr W. N. Shaw of London). 
Voder its directions conferences and general congresses have 
^ held, beginning with that of 1872 at Leipzig. Its Inier- 
^ttiMd Tables, Atlas of Clouds, Codex of Instructions, and 
ftmsfor Climatological Publications illustrate the activity and 
OMfuhiess of this committee. 

Modem meteorology has been developed along two lines 
^itody, based respectively on maps of monthly and annual 
•'■ages and on daily weather maps. The latter study seems 
to lave been begun by H. W. Brandes in Leipzig, who first, 
ibott 1820, compiled maps for 1783 from the data collected 
B the B^merides mannkeimensis, and subsequently published 
■ops of the European storms of 1820 and 1821. Simultane- 
9t^ with Brandes we find William C. Redfield in New York 



compiling a chart of the hurricane of 1821, which was published 
in 1 83 1, and was the first of many memoirs by him on hurricanes 
that completely established their rotary and progressive motion. 
Soon after this Piddington and Sir William Reid began their 
great works on the storms of the Orient. About 1825 James 
Pollard Espy, in Philadelphia, began the publication of his views 
as to the motive power of thunderstorms and tornadoes, and 
in 1842 was appointed " meteorologist to the U.S. govern- 
ment " and assigned to work in the office of the surgeon-general 
of the army, where he prepared daily weather nuips that were 
published in his four successive ** Reports." In 1848 the three 
American leaders united in letters to Professor Joseph 
Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, urging that 
the telegraph be used for collecting data for daily maps and 
weather predictions. Favourable action was taken in 1849, 
the Smithsonian maps began to be compiled about i8sx and 
were displayed in public from 1853 onwards. Meanwhile in 
England James Glaisher, with the help of the daily press, 
carried out similar work, publishing his first map in 1851 as 
soon as daily weather maps of sufficient extent could be promptly 
prepared by the help of the telegraph. The destructive storm of 
the 14th of November 1854, in the Crimea gave U. J. J. Le Ver- 
rier, at Paris, an opportunity to propose the proper action, and 
his proposals were immediately adopted by the secretary of 
war. Marshal Vaillant. On the 17th of February 1855 the 
emperor ordered the director-general of government telegraph 
lines to co-operate completely with Le Verrier in the organization 
of a bureau of telegraphic meteorology. The international 
daily bulletin of the Paris Observatory began to be printed 
in regular form on the ist of January 1858, and the daily map 
of isobars was added to the text in the autumn of 1863. The 
further development of this bulletin, the inclusion of British 
and ocean reports in z86z, the addition of special storm warnings 
in 1863, the pubh'cation of the Atlas des mouvemenls gfnfraux 
covering the Atlantic in 1865, the study of local thimderstorms 
by Hippolyte Mari^-Davy, Sonrel, Fron, Peslin, in France, 
and the work of Fitzroy, Buys-BaJIot, Buchan, Glaisher and 
Thomson in Great Britain, parallel the analogous works of the 
American students of meteorology and form the beginnings 
of our modem dynamic meteorology. 

The df tailfi of th« historical devploprneiil of fhi* tubject arc vcH 
eivcn b)^ Hugo HUdcbrand'-HLld^brmriidsfton and L^Fi Teuacrtnc 
de Dart in Lhtir jaijii work> Lis Bmfs dr la mfiior^^^^ie dynamiqiu 
(ParU. 1^911-1907). The technical mattrUi ha b(>fn colWted by 
HAnn in hli Lzhrbuih^ Many of ttie original mfmoin hjvc been 
reprDciuc^ bv Brilioijia in hiift Mtmoim ofi^inaux [parit, 1900), and 
in Clevf iafld Abbe 'ft MechoHks Qftke Earth' i A Ittwspktrf (vol. L, 1891 ; 
vol. ii-, IQ00X 

The pubfjcation of daily weather charts and rdr«:ast» ii now 
earned on by all civilieed nations. Ttit- li^i oi government bureaux 
anil ihcsr pubUcationa h Riven in Bartholomc**? Atias{vD\. iiL, 
London t 1899), SpccinI esublishTncnLs lor I be cJtplciratifln of th^ 
upper atmospheric ccndiEions an? maintained at P*ifi*t Berlin^ 
Copenhaijcn, Si Petcreburir, HVathiigion and 5ira««bur£' 

The gpneral problems d\ climat^o^ (1900) anr best pftstntcd in 
the Uii-ndbQQk ol Dr Julias Hann (and ed.» StuEt^an, ifS97). The 
general distribution ol temperature, winds and prc^iur* owr 
the whole |[lobe Was first g^ivea by Duchaa In chart* pubbshed by 
the Royai bocicty of Edinbursb in 1 86d, and ai^in g really revised and 
improvt?d in tbe volume of lh<? Ckaittngfr ruportsdyvoKt] to meteoro- 
logy. The most complete atlat of meteorolntT.' if Buchan and 
H cfbert fon*t voL is i . ol Bartholomew 's A tiaj i Lofldpti . 1 BjW ) Ext rn- 
ftivq ih'Ofb& of a. mor^ special ckaracttr have been puhlUhtd by the 
Lfjndlon MeteDrotoEtcal Office, aad tbe LlsutHrhc Seewarte for the 
At Untie- Pflcilic and Indian Oceans. Daily cKsrt* of atino*phortc 
ronditioni of tbe whole northern hemisphere wtrrt publiihtd by the 
US- Weather Bureau from iS^s to 1SS3 incluMve^ wifK monthly 
charts, the Utter were continued through 1SB9. The physicjil 
problems of meteorology were diicussed in Ferrer* Recent A^ivtiKfF5 
in Mtieor^ogy (Wa^hmij^ton, 1S&5). Mathema[lcaJ papers on this 
snbjcft will be found tn the author's collection known a» The 
Mcrhantcs ttf She Earth's Atttwsphere; the memoirs by Hclmholt* 
and Von B«iEt>ld contained in this collection have bef^n made the 
basEfl of a most Impanant wcjfk by Brillouin {Vim. i8^>, enTiikd 
Venti contiiKs et njuiies, A general iummary of our knowlt^ie 
of the mechanics and physics <?! the atmosphere i» contained tn lae 
Rtp&ri nw the JnUmaiianai Cttrnd Work, by F. H. Bi^eln'*! <^^is^\y^ 
ton. 1900). The cxteniive Ijtltrbuf k UjcV^tilt' ^'^^* ^"^ ^-^ ^'^X 
by Dr JuUua Haan la an aiuihodxaXiXti ykvs^ , TW tstfjc» 



266 



METEOROLOGY 



(Pm^CALDMA 



phenofnena of the atinospliere are well tseated by E. Maacart in 
his Traitid'ephque (Pkris. 1891-1898). and by J. M. Penter. Meteoro- 
iotiscke Optii (1904-1907). Of minor treatiaes especially adapted to 
collegiate courses of study we may mention those by Sprung (Berlin. 
1885) : W. Ferrel (New York. 1800) : Angot (ParU. 1898) ; W. M.Davis. 



(Boston, 1893); Waldo (New 



; Van Bebber (Stuttnirt. 

,. The 

izig, 

_,_-, , „^.— the 

new hydrodynaroic methods of Bjerknes are developed. 

I. — Fundamental Physical Data 

There can be no proper study of meteorology without a 
consideration of the various physical properties of the atmo- 
spheric gases and vapours, each of which plays an independent 
part, and yet also reacts upon its neighbours. 

Atmospheric air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, aqueous 
vapour, carbonic add gas (carbon dioxide), ammonia, argon, neon, 
helium, with slight traces of free hydrogen and hydro-carbons. 
The proportions in which these gases are present are quite 
constant, except that the percentage of aqueous vapour is subject 
to large variations. In an atmosphere that is saturated at 
the temperature of 90^ F., as may occur in such a climate as 
that of Calcutu, the water may be 2|% of the whole weight 
of any given volume of air. When this aqueous vapour is 
entirely abstracted, the remaining dry gas is found to have a 
very uniform constitution in all regions and at all altitudes 
where examination has been carried out. In this so-called 
dry atmosphere the relative weights are about as follows: 
Oi^gen, 33-16; nitrogen and argon, 76*77; carbonic acid, 0-04; 
ammonia and all other gases, less than o«oi in the lower half 
of the atmosphere but probably in larger percentages at great 
altitudes. Of still greater rarity are the highly volatile gases, 
argon {q.v.), neon, krypton and helium (q.v.). 

Outer Limit. — ^Thcat pxcerdinglv vobtilc compancnti ol the Atirio- 
sphere cannot apparent ty l^lieldfdown to the i;;itih by ihv attncUon 
of gravitation, but art cantinuAlly dilTuaing through tht atmoiphere 
outwards into intenstellar spacv, ;iiid poi»ibly alto from tKat nekton 
back into the atmosphcn. Therr are doubt l^m othi?|- voUtUe gasn 
filling interstellar apace and accauDriAJIy entering into the atmosphcrr 
of the various plancti oa well ilg ot the mn kself; r^ossibly the livdru- 
gen and hydro-carbcns that escape from I be eanh into ttit lower 
atmosphere ascend to rej^ions inacceuible to man and slawly di^u5« 
into the outer space. The law* of diffu^on *how that for each gas 
there is an altitude at which as many m<]1^ul<-<» diffuw inA-^rds a^ 
outwards in a unit of timt. This cnnditiori d^ftfic^ the outer timit 
of each particular cajoouA aimoipherg, 4c that wc my*t not imaKin^ 
the atmosphere of the ea n h 10 ha v e a ny gjuntral bo u n cU ry . The o nly 
intimation we have aa to the prem:nrt of «,^c$ far above the surface 
of the globe come from tJie phenomena nfthj? AuTTOni, the nrfraction 
of light, the momincf and evening twilight, jsnd <-aF*daMy from the 
shooting stars which suddenly bi-come tuminout when they paw 
into what we call rmr atmofpheir. (5« C. C. Trowbridge. 'On 
Luminous Meteor Tram* " and " On Movement* of the Atmoapbere 
at Very Great Heightfi;' hfimihly Wi^ihfr Rnfirw. Sept, 1907.} 

Such obsenration-i arc supposed to &Sow that there h an appreci- 
able quantity of ta* at the hrfght of [oo m.. where it may have 
a density of a miltiontK part of that which prevails at the earth* 
surface. Such matter is not a gas in the ordinary- use of that 
term, but is a collection of pankfc* moving independently of each 
other under those rnnuenct:s that emanate from mn and earthy 
which we call radiant enemf, ActordinK to StOrtner this radiant 
energy b that of clfc troa* from the sun, and theij movements in 
the magnetic field Eunoundine the earth give hic to out auroml 
phenomena. 

According to Professor E. W. Morley, of Geveland, Ohio, the rela- 
tive proportions of oxygen and nitrogen vary slightly at the surface of 
the earth according as the areas of nigh pressure and low pressure 
alternately pass over the point of observation ; his remarkably exact 
work seems to show a possible variation of a small fraction of i %, and 
he suggests that the air descending within the areas of high pressure 



^ bly slightly poorer in oxygen. The proportion of carbonic 
acid gas varies appreciably with the exposure of the region to the 
wind, increasing in proportion to the amount of the shelter; it is 
greater over the land than over the sea. and it also slightly increases 
by night-time as compared with day, and in die summer and winter 
as compared with the spring ana autumn months. During the 
year 1896 Professor S. Arrhenius in the Phil. Mat., and in 18^ 
ProfeasorT.C.Chamberlin Inthe Amer.Geol. 7M<r.,puDlidied memoirs 
in which they argued that a variation of several per cent, in the 
proportion of carbonic acid gas is ouite consistent with the existence 
of animal and vegetable life and may explain the variations of 
tA'ioate during gvoJogicai periods. But the specific absorption of 
tat0 gaa for solar ndiations i» too uaall (C. G. Abbot, 1903) to 



support thb argument. The Quettioo whether f ree oaoae tAtM 
in toe atmosphere is still 4r bated, but there wcm* to be no tatis^ 
factory evidence of its pn^H-nce, except pouibly lor a f«w minytet 
in the neighbourhood ofr and immediately after, a discharge of 
lightning. The general proportlgni of the principal gaaes up to 
considerable altitudes can be calculated with cLoie approhinution 
by assuming a quiescent atmotipherc and the ordinary ta^t Of 
diffusion and elastic pressune : on the other hand, actual obscr^-aiioffls 
show that the rapid convection KO'fg on in rhc iimfMphrfe changes 
these proportions and brir:. J'.«.: '\ fv;V. i.r:,f .ri3i pufct-TiLj^t d 
oxygen, nitrogen and car [.," '. i . .;...] |h, ^i. 

Aqueous Vapours. — ^Tbedistribution of aqueous vapour isomtraBed 
by temperature quite as much as by convection and has very Uttle to 
do with diffusion: the law of its distribution in altitude has been wdl 
expressed by Hann by the simple formula: bgc — kic «s~ A/6517 
where h is the height expressed in metres and e and c^ are tke 
vapour pressures at the upper station and sea-level respectively. 
Hann's formula applies especially to <4>servations made oo mom- 
Uins, but R. J. Siiring. WissenschafUiche Luftfahrten, III. (Bcrin, 
1900) has deduced from balloon <4>servations the foUowiog forauili 
for the free air over Europe — 

k)g c - log ft -&(! +hf2000o)/6ooo. 
He has also computed the specific romsture of the atmoapbere or 
the mixing ratio, or the number of grams of moisture mind wiA 
I kik)gram of dry air for which he finds the formula 

log m- log «•-*(! +3*/40)/9«». 
The relative humidity varies with altitude so irregulaffy Aat k 
cannot be expressed by any simple formula. The computed vahM 
of c and m are as given in the following tibU: — 



Altitude 


RelaUve 


Rehtive 


Metres. 


Vapour Pressure. 


Specific Moisture. 


k. 


ele^ 


mlm^ 





1000 


1000 


1000 


665 


759 


2000 


^\ 


555 


3000 


266 


391 


4000 


158 


264 


5000 


91 


"72 


6000 


50 


108 


8000 


27 
14 


% 



In addition to the gases and vapours In ihe atmosphere, the 
mo tea of doit and the aqueous particles that ccnstitute cloud, fog 
and ha^e are al§a important, Ai^ll thew fIcAt in the air, slowly de- 
scending, but resi Sited by the visn»j.ty of the atmosphere, their whole 
weight js ddd«<d lo the atmosphere and becomes a part of the baro* 
metric record. When the air i^ cooled ta the dew-point and co»> 
dc nation of the vapour begins, it takes place hrst upoo the atooa 
of dust HA nuclei; consequently, air that Li free from Oust is scarcely 
to be found eiccept within 3 mass of cloud or foe- 

J/ojr.— Ancctding to a calculation pubiisJie^ m the VS, lioaAif 
XVeaihfr Rn>itrw fqf Februaary tB'^, the rcial mass of the ataMh 
pphtre ti i/i.iz^.ooo of the ma&& of the eaUh itself but, m 
to ProfL-ssfir R. S, Woodward (set Science for Jan. 1900), 

dynamic-! dhows that there may possibly be a gaseous 1 

who^- woiL;lit i-: not felt ^t the earthV turfacc, amoe it is held m 
dynamic equilibrium abov^ the atmosphere; t:be mass of this outer 
atmosphere cannot excee<] jt^th of the n^^ at the eazth, and ii 
probably far less, if indeetj ii bt at af] apprciriable. 

Conductivity.— Dry air i a - _t --.iJi^ior of heat, its co- 
efficient of conduction being expressed by the formula: o-oooogfiS 
(I +0-00190 t) where the temperature (/) b exprctsed in centigrade 
degrees. This formula states the fact that a plate of air i centimetre 
thick can conduct through its substance for every square oentiaietre 
Of its area, in one second of time, when the diflerence of tempen> 
ture between two faces of the plate b I* C. enough heat to warm 
I gram of water o-ooo 0568* C, or i gram of air okmo 239* C.,or a 
cubic centimetre of air 0-1850* C, if that air b at the standard deiisity 
for 760 millimetres of pressure and o* C The figure 0«i850* C. 
is the thermometric coefficient as distinguished from the first or 
calorimetric coefficient (0-000 0568* C), and shows what great effect 
on the air itself its poor conductivity may have. 

Diathermancy.— Dry air is extremely diathermanous or timnipareat 
to the transmission of radiant heat. For the whole moist atmo- 
sphere the general coefficient of transmission increases as the wave* 
become longer: and for a zenithal sun it b about 0-4 at the violet 
end of the spectrum and about 0-8 at the red. By specific absorp- 
tion many specific wave-lengths are entirely cut off by the vapours 
and gases, so that in general the atmosphere may appearto be won 
transparent to the short wave-lengths or violet end 01 the nectram, 
but tnb b not really so. When the zenithal sun's rays tall iqMB 
a station whose barometric pressure is 760 mm., then only from 90 
to 80% of the toul heat reaches the earth's surface, and thm tut 
general coefficient of transmission for the thickness of one atmoapbcre 
is usually estimated at about 60%. Of course when the rays ate 
more oblique, or when haze, dust ordoud inteffere.thMetnnMiiimiaa 



ICALDATA] 



METEOROLOGY 



267 



InfeneralooehalTof the heat received 

im man by the iUaminated terrestrial hemisphere is absorbed 
I deuctt atmosphere, leaving the other half to reach the 
e of the ground, provided there be no intercepting clouds. 
MfOMl oooditions aauallv observed at the immediate surface 
gkriie daring hazy and cloudy weather are therefore of minor 
taaoe ia the mechanism of the whole atmosphere, as compared 
he ?wO«i**»«'^ of the heat retained within its mass. 
traaamission of solar radiation through the earth's atmosphere 
foadaniental problem of meteorology, and has been the subject 
■IT scodies* bnrinning with J;,,H. Lambert and P. Bou^er. 
'"^erofC"*'"' 



, f C. S. M. PouiUet gave us our first idea of the 

■1 eqittvalent of solar radiation outnde of our atmosj^iere or 
<aHed ** aolar constant." the value of which has been variously 
I at from a to 4 calories per sq. cm. per minute. At present the 
t of the argument is in favour of 2*1. with a fair presumption 
nth the intensity and the quality of the soUr radiation as it 
• the upper layers of our atmosphere are slightly variable. It 
I Ekely tnat this " constant " does not represent the sun proper, 
he lemaining energy after the sunbeam has sifted through 
» of matter be t ween the sun and our upper atmosphere, so that 
f thus come to have appreciable variations, 
e oocfficientt of absorption for specific wave-lengths were first 



1 by L. E. Jewell, ofjohns Hopkins University, for numer- 
spoor lines in iSoa (see W. B. Bulletin, Na 16). In 1904 C. G. 
t published a table based on holograph work at Washington 
iflg the coefficient of atmospheric transmission for solar rays 

a through a unit mass of air — namely, from the senith to the 
He showed that thb coefficient increased with the wave- 
k; hence any change in the quality of the solar radiation will 
t the geoeraicoeffiaent oi transniission. The following table 
I Ins averages for the respective wave-lengths, as deduced from 
kar days w 1901-1903 and nine clear days in 1903: — 



^Length. 




I90I-I902. 


1903. 


Mean by Weights. 


■kNK 
)-40vk)let 


__ 


0484 


_ 


»-45 


0765 


0-S57 
0.627 


0.700 


0.769 
0.857 


0.692 
0-753 


lis 


o.«97 


0.797 
0-825 


0-847 


>^ 


0.910 


0-856 
0-884 


l-CO 


0.921 


0847 


I'M 


0.933 


0874 


0903 


i-te 


0-930 


0.909 


0-920 


(-00 


0.950 


0912 


0-919 



ty variation in the energy that the atmosphere receives from 
am will have a co r re sp onding influence on meteorological 
omena. Such variations were simultaneously announced in 
by Charles Dufour in Switzerland and H. H. Kimball in Wash- 
m {UcntUy Weather Review, May 1903) ; the latter was then 
actmg a series of observations with AngstrOm's electric com- 
stion pyrheltoroeter. and his conclusions have been confirmed 
K work of L. Gorc^ski at Prague (1901-1906) and C. G. Abbot 
l^aihtngton. IGmball's pyrheKometric work on this problem 
being continued; but meanwhile Abbot and Fowie from their 
oMtric observations at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa- 
bavc deduced preliminary values of the observed total energy, 
a Kibr constant, for numerous dates when the sky was very clear, 
io«B (see Smiiksonian Mis. Coll., xlv. 78 and xlvii. 403, 1905) : — 



1 Date. 


Abbot. 


Fowle. 


CakMies. 


Calories. 


1902 Oct. 9 


219 


2- 19 


.. 15 


2-19 


— 


.. 32 


216 


— 


1903 Feb. 19 


228 


2-27 


.. 19 


225 


— 


^ March 3 


2-26 


— 


» 25 


227 


223 


^ .. 26 


2- 10 




I ,. .. 26 

7. rii 


207 
199 


J:?l 


227 


— 


.. 29 


1-9; 


196 


M July 7 
.. Oct. 14 




V4 


.. Dec. 7 


— 


1-94 


., , ., 23 


— 


199 


1904 Jan. 27 
„ Feb. II 


— 


202 


— 


226 


.. May 28 


— 


209 


„ Oct. 5 

„ Nov. 16 


— 


2-32 
'98 



If the relative accuracy of these figures b I %, as estimated by Abbot, 
then they demonstrate irregular fluctations of •$%. But different 
observers and localities vary so much that Abbot estimates the 
reliability of the mean value, 2- 12. to be about 10%. The causes 
of this variation apparently lie above our tower atmos|>here and 
move slowly eastward from day to day, and as the variability is 
comparable with that of other atmospheric data, therefore con- 
servative meteorologists at present confine their attention to the 
explanation of terrestrial phenomena under the assumption of a 
constant solar radiation. The Urge local changes oi weather and 
cUmate are not due to changes in the sun, but to the mechanical 
and thermodynamic interactions of earth and ocean and atmosphere. 
Excellent illustrations of this principle are found in the studies of 
Blanford, Eliot and Walker on the monsoons of India, of Sq^er 
(1892^ on the contrasts of temperature between Europe and North 
America, of Hann (1904) on the anomalies of weather in Iceland, 
of Meinardus (1906) on periodical variations of the icedrift near, 
Iceland. 

The absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere is apparently 
explained by the laws of diffuse reflection, selective diffusion and 
fluorescence in accordance with which each atom and molecule and 
particle becomes a new centre for the diffusion in all directions of 
the energy represented by some specific wave-length. The specific 
influences of carbon dioxide and water vapour are less than those 
of the liquid particles (and of cloud and rains) and of the great mass 
of oxygen and nitrogen that make up the atmosphere. 

Specific Heat. — ^The capacity of dry air for heat varies according 
as tne heat increases the volume of the air expanding under constant 
pressure, or the pressure of the air confined in constant volume. 
The specific heat under constant pressure is about 1*4025 times the 
specinc heat under constant volume. The numerical value of the 
specific heat under constant pressure is about 0-2375 — that is to say, 
that number of gram-calories, or units of heat, is required to change 
the temperature oi i gram of air by i" C. This coefl&cient holds 
good, strictly speaking,between the temperatures — 30" and + 10* C, 
and there is a very dight diminution for higher temperatures up 
to 200". The speafic heat oi moist air is larger than that of dry 
air, and is given by the expression C/'« (0-2375 + 0-4805 «) 
where x is the number of kilograms of vapour associated with 
I kilogram of dry air. As x does not exceed 0*030 (or 30 grams) the 
value of C.'' may increase up to 0*2519. The latent heat evolved 
in the condensation oi thb moisture is a matter of great importance 
in the formation of cloud and rain. 

RadiattHi Power. — ^The radiating power of clean dry air is so small 
that it cannot be measured quantitatively, but the spectroscope 
and bolometer demonstrate its existence. The coefficient of radia- 
tion of the moisture diffused in the atmosphere is combined with that 
of the particles of dust and cloud, and is nearly eoual to that of an 
equal surface of lamp-black. From the normal oiumal change in 
temperature at high and low stations, it should be possible to deter- 
mine the general coefficient of atmospheric radiation for the average 
condition of the air in so far as this is not obscured by the influence 
of the winds. This was first done by J. Maurer in 1885, who obtained 
a result in caknies that may be expressed as follows: the total 
radiation in twenty-four houra of a unit mass of average dusty and 
moist air towards an enclosure whose temperature is l" lower is 
sufficient to lower the temperature of the radiating air by 3-^1* C. 
in twenty-four hours. This very small quantity was. confirmed 
by the studies of Trabert, published in 1892, who found that i gram 
of air at 278* absolute temperature radiates 0-1655 calories per 
minute toward a black surface at the absolute aero. The direct 
observations of C. C. Hutchins on dry dusty air, as published in 
i8qo, gave a much larger value — evidently too large. Snght changes 
in water, vapour and carbon dioxide affect the radiation greatlv. 
The investigation of this subject prosecuted by Professor F. W. 
Very at the Allegheny Observatory, and published as " Bulletin G ** 
of the U.S. Weather Bureau, shows the character and amount of 
the radiation of several gases, and especially the details of the process 
going on under normal conditions in the atmosphere. 

Density. — ^The absolute density or mass of a cubic centimetre 
of dry air at the standard pressure. 760 millimetres, and temperature 
o*C.,iso-ooi 2930^ grams: that of a cubic metre is 1-29305 kilograms; 
that of a cubic foot is 0-08071 lb avoirdupois. The vanations 
of this density with pressure, temperature, moisture and j^vity 
are given in the Smithsonian meteorological tables, and give rise 
to all the movements of the atmosphere; they are, therefore, of 
fundamental importance to dynamic meteorology. 

Expansion. — The air expands with heat, and the expannon of 
aqueous vafwur is so nearly the same as that of dry atr that the 
same coefficient may be used for the complex atmosphere itself. 
The change of volume may be expressed in centiffrade degrees by 
the formula V-Vc (i-l-oooo 3665/), or in Fahrenheit degrees 
V-V.(H-o-ooo2370. ... 

Elasticity. — The air is compressed nearly in proportion to the 
pressure that confines it. The pressure, temperature and volume 
of the ideal gas are connected by the eouation pr»RT, where T 
is the absolute temperature or 273* plus the centigrade temperature 
p is the barometric pressure in millimetres at\d % \V« NT>\>MOfc ^A%. 
unit mass of gas. or the reciptocaX oX l\»e ^Ti«\>f <A ^\ift 13^ v^ 
coostaot R is a9«272 foe dry atmoa^kenc wi ^Y«u \!hft w»tom«»^^ 



268 



METEOROLOGY 



[PHYSICAL DATA 



the gram, the second and the centigrade degrtea are adopted as 
units of measure, and differs for each gas. Tor aqueous vapour 
in a gaseous state and not near the point of condensation R has the 
value 47 '061. For ordinary air in which x is the mass of the aqueous 
vapour that is mixed with the unit mass of dry air, the above 
equation becomes pp- (29-373 +47-o6ix) T. This eguation u 
sometimes known as the equation of condition peculiar to the 
gaseous state. It may also be properly called tne equation of 
elasticity or the clastic equation tor gases, as expressing the fact 
that the elastic pr^surc p depends upon the temperature and the 
volume. The mose exact cnuations given by Van der Waals, 
Clausius, Thiesen, are not needed by us for the pressures that occur 
in meteorology. 

Diffusion. — In comparison with the convective actions of the 
winds, it may be said that it b difficult for aqueous vapour to diffuse 
in the air. In fact, the distribution of moisture is carried on 
principally by the horizontal convection due to the wind and the 
vertical convection due to ascending and descending currents. 
Diffusion proper, however, comes into play in the first moments 
of the process of evaporation. The coefficient of diffusion for 
aqueous vapour from a pure water surface into the atmosphere 
b 0'i8 according to Stefan, or 0*1980 according to Winkelmann; 
that b to say, for a unit surface of i sq. centimetre, and a unit 
gradiient of vapour pressure of one atmosphere per centimetre, as 
we proceed from the water surface into the stfll dry air, at the 
standard pressure and temperature, and quantity of moisture 
diffused b 0*1980 grams per second. This coefficient increases 
with the temperature, and is 0*2827 at ^9-3*' C. But the gradient 
of vapour pressure, and therefore rate 01 diffusion, diminishes very 
rapidly at a small distance from the free surface of the water, so 
that the most important condition facilitating evaporation b the 
action of the wind. 

Viscosity. — ^When the atmosphere is in motion each layer is a 
drag upon the adjacent one that moves a little faster than it does. 
This drag is the so-called molecular or internal friction or viscosity. 
The coefficient of viscosity in gases increases with the absolute 
temperature, and its value is given by an equation like the follow- 
ing; 0*000 2a8 (1+0*00^6650 I, which is the formula given by 
Carl Bams {Ann. Phys., 18S9, xxxvi.). This expression implies 
that for air whose temperature is the absolute zero there is no 
viscosity, but that at a temperature (0 of o* C, or 273* on the 
absolute scale, a force of 0*000 2^8 grams is required in order to 
push or pull a layer of air i centimetre square past another layer 
distant from it by i centimetre at a uniform rate of i centimetre 
per second. 

Friction. — ^The general moliont of the atmo*phcrc are opposed 
by the viscosity otth? air !> a resiiti^j; force, but t^H is an cxci^Fd- 
ingly feeble resistance 3$ Erompaf^d wrih tKe obst^tk^ eneokiritfred 
on the earth's surface and the inert i:L of the ri^^ini; and fajlmg maMc-s 
of warm and cold air. The cocfhcicnE dC rricliDn used in nict(r>oro- 
logy is deduced from the observations ol the winds atid results 
essentially not from viKusityn^ but from the Tesistdncn d all kinds 
to which the motion ci the atmoaphere i» Bubjccted. Tlie greater 
part of these ret^stanf es consi^s e^sentiiiMy in a dts&ipation al the 
energyof the moving Tria::£ie4 by thck ctmbion inio !^nullll:r masses 
which penetrate the qnMt sir in all dippctions, Tht 1ub» uI energy 
due to this process and the conversion of kinetic into potential 
energy or pressure, if it must be called friction, should perhaps 
be called convective friction, or, more properly, convective- 
resistance. 

The coefficient oi rnietance for the frre air was dctennLnctJ by 
Mohn and Ferrel by the f allowing caaiiderationa. When ihe 
winds, temperature* and banjfnetric prewunca are steady for a 
considerable time, as in rbe Lr^d« windi, monsooft^ and stationiiry 
cyclones, it is the barometric Ef^dient that overcomes the rmiit- 
ances. while the irsuUIng wind le deDcttcd to the right (in the 
northern hemisphere) by ihc tn^luence of the ccntrifyjjal fnrce of 
the diurnal rotation (u) ol the earth. The wind, thereiDrc, matcef 
a constant angle (o) with the dlircLion. af th<r ffradient (C). There 
is also a slight cenirifir^Lil kirce? (o 1:* con^iiltRd if the winds are 
circulating with velocity v and radius (r) about a storm centre, 
but neglecting this we have approximately for the latitude 
G sin a « 2010 sin ^, G cos a = kv, 

where («) b the coefficient connecting the wind-velocity (v) with 
the component of the gradient pressure in the direction of the wind. 
These relations give «»■ 20 sin ^/tan o. The values of a and v as 
read off from the map of winds and isotherms at sea level ^ve us 
the data for computing the coefficients for oceanic and continental 
surfaces respectively, expressed in the same units as those used 
for G and v. The extreme values of this coefficient of friction 
were found by Guldbcrg and Mohn to be 0-00002 for the free ocean 
and 0-000I2 for the irregular surface of the land. For Norwegian 
land stations Mohn found ^ - 6i*a - ^6-5' k - 0*0000845. For 
the interior of North America Elias Loomis founds - 37'5*« = 422* 
« - o*oooo8qt. 

Gravity. — ^The weight of the atmosphere depends pnmarily upon 

the action of gravity, which gives a downward pressure to every 

pgrticle. Owing to the ela^ic compressibility of the air, this 

dommward prvstmre ia converted at once into an elastic pressure 



in all directions. The force of gra\^ty varies with the latitttde and 
the altitude, and in any exact work its variations must be takes 
into account. Its value b well represented by the formula due to 
Helmert. g - 980*6 (i - 0*0026 cos 2*) X (1 - /A), where ^ 
represents the latitude of the station and A the altitude. The 
coefficient f is nnall and has a different value according as the station 
b raised above the earth's surface by a continent, as, for instance, 
on a mountain top, or by the ocean, as on a ship sailing over the 
sea, or in the free air, as in a balloon. Its different values are 
suflhciently well known for meteorological needs, and are utilized 
most discreetly in the elaborate discussion of the hypsometric 
formula published by Angot in 1899 in the memoirs of the Centrd 
Meteorological Bureau of France. 

Temperature at Sea-Level.— The temperature of the air at the 
surfaces of the earth and ocean and throughout the atmosphere 
is the fundamental element of dynamic meteorology. It is bett 
exhibited by means of isotherms or lines <rf equal temperature 
drawn on charts of the globe for a series of level surfaces at or 
above sea-level. It can also be expressed analytically by sfrfierical 
harmonic functions, as was first done by Schoch. The normal 



distribution of atmospheric temperature for each month of the 
year over the whole globe was first given by Buchan in his charts 
of 1868 and of 1888 (see also the U.S. Weather Bureau " Bulletin A." 



of 1893, and Buchan's edition of Bartholomew's Physical AtUs, 
London, 1899). The temperatures, as thus charted, have ben 
corrected so as to represent a uniform special set of years and the 
conditions at sea-level, in order to constitute a homogeneom 
system. The actual temperature near the ground at any altitude 
on a continent or island may be obtained from these charts by 
subtracting o*s*C. for each 100 metres of elevation of the ground 
above sea-level, or 1" F. for 350 ft. This reduction, however, 
applies specifically to temperatures observed near the surface of 
the ground, and cannot be used with any confidence to determine 
the temperature of points in the free air at any distance above the 
land or ocean. On all such charts the reader will notice the high 
temperatures near the ground in the interior of each of the con- 
tinents in the summer season and the low temperatures in the 
winter season. In February the average temperatures in the 
northern hemisphere are not lowest near the North Pole, but in 
the interiors of Siberia and North America ; in the southern hemi- 
sphere they are at the same time highest in Australia, and Africa 
and South America. In August the average temperatures are 
unexpectedly high in the interior of Asia and North America, but 
low m Australia and Africa. 

Temperature ai Upper Levels. — ^Thc vertical distribution of tem- 
perature and moisture in the free air must be studied in detail in 
order to understand both the general and the q^cci^l systems of 
circulation that characterize the earth's atmosphere. Many 
observations on mountains and in balloons were made during the 
19th century in order to ascertain the facts with regard to the 
decrease of temperature as we ascend in the atmosphere; but it u 
now recognized that these observations were largely affected by 
local influences due to the insufficient ventilation of the thermo- 
meters and the nearness of the ground and the balloon. Strenuous 
efforts are being directed to the elimination of these disturbing! 
elements, and to the continuous recording of the temperature oif 



Jlany 

since 1800, and a large amount of information has been secured. 
The development of kite-work in the United Sutes began ia 
October 1893, at the World's Columbian Congress at Chicago, 
when Professor M. W. Harrington ordered Professor C. F. Marvin of 
the Weather Bureau to take up the development of the Haigrave or 
t>ox kite for meteorological work. At that time W. A. Eddy of 
Bayonne, New Jersey, was applying his " Malay " kite to raising and 
displaying heavy objects, and m August 1894 (at the suggestion of 
Professor Cleveland Abbe) he visited the private observatory of 
A. L. Rotch at Blue Hill and demonstrated the value of hn Malay 
kite for aerial research. The first work done at this observatory 
with crude apparatus was rapidly improved upon, while at the same 
time Professor Marvin at Washington was developing the Hargrave 
kite and auxiliary apparatus, which he brought up to the point 
of maximum efficiency and trustworthiness. When he reported his 
apparatus as ready to be used by the Weather Bureau on a hige 
scale. Professor Willis L. Moore, as the successor of Professor Har^ 
rineton, ordered its actual use at seventeen kite stations in July 1898L 
This was the first attempt to prepare isotherms for a special hour 
over a large area at some high level, such as I m., in the free air. 
Daily meteorological charts were prepared for the region covered 
by these observations; but it became necessary to discontinue 
them, and nothing more was done by the Weather Bureau in thb 
line of work until the inauguration of kite work at Mount Weather 
in 1906. Meanwhile a special method for the reduction and ttndy 
of such observations was devised by Bjerknes and Sandstrom. 
and was published in the Trans. American PkHosopkiesl Saeidf 
(Philadelphia, 1906). The general average results as to tenpefatuie 
gradients were compiled by Dr H. C. Frankenfield and fmbtbhed ia 
the United Sutes Weather Bureau "Bulletin F.*': from tbcM 



PBTSICALDAT^ 



METEOROLOGY 



269 



the fdHovbg tables, pabllaHcd in the Monthly W^aiktr 

_ _A<nfNff CrndiatU in dtgnei Fahrenk^ 
from iMe tround up to tkt rtipccitpg tUtili 






544tK>A». 



Ca^oTiD- ... 
Cndfimti, O. . , 

KDor^^Ue. Tcnn. 
Wen3ph«fr„ Tenn. , 

thiluth. Mtpa. . . 
l^inine^ Midi, ■ 
SatLltSie MariCi Mich, 

DubiKiap. Iowa 
NathFlattc, Neb* * 
On»Ka. Neb. . . 

TopEkA, H^ns. . . 



1000 1500 :moo 30€io 4000 5000 6000 

ft* It. ft. ft* It. ft. rt 



56 

9-7 
7-2 

;:j 

7-6 
5-7 
5 J 
7 5 

59 
7"+ 



7-4 5-a 



Statiocu 



Ciijni . . 
FortSmitb 



CmUiid 



Saif ti StE llacie 

^ ■ ■ ■ 
thtbniac 

f^liFlatte 

OmikA . , 

Pime . . 



Attitude. 



Feet* 



3 TO 

3J5 
940 
5J7 

1107 

72a 
3471 

^^\\ 
1341 
1595 
97J 



Tpirpe rat lire. 



Gfadtent. Reducikhn. 



'F. 
—3 do 
—430 
—5.15 

— s-w 
— jSs 

—4- 10 

— jS 

— J-45 
-41a 

—h-m 



'F* 

— 153 
-JS6 

—173 

-I7-& 

— 17'0 
"i5-7 
—1 1-6 
-14-S 
— IJJ 
— ja-9 
-U + 
—16 s 



In Lbii table the lecofid cola in A gjviw the alritude of thp groutid 
« ibd feci fia which the kite wire wa» wound. The third culumn 
*p»i tbt avenge eradieiit in tj^recs Fahretihclt per Joot> ft* 
hsiTOfli tke reel at the respective Jtatioft*, and a onUorm altitude 
!lHlo fL abow ica-levd. The fourth colmim shows the tdtal 
miuciki>a to be applied to the (empcraturc Jat the rwl in m^^r 
to eiUxin the temperature at the t Hfl. kvel above ««- Thc« 
^i^ti aod irduciionj are bawd upod obscrvationii oude only 
wiqg tike lik varm m^nthft from May to October 169&. 

Hie Idre^wcrlc at the Blue Hill OWrvarcry hai 
We publuhed id full in the Aucc<^';ivi£ AnnaU of the 
HifTwd Cflll*^ Obwrvatoryt bcgExici!n£ with iSoj, 
^ idJL It Ilu been discussed especially by K. li. 
CV™ »ith rcfenciice to *prtbl meteortilcigicai 
WHoeoa. pidh »a uw of hifih and b« prt'ssurt, 
t*ii jod doudy weather, the winds and their 
vdodties at different elevations, in^tilnliortt mdi- 
«fe(i, ^, and hafi served a* 4 stimuJu* and modd 
Wf EhPfcan mcteoroloi;i4t-L Kiu-vi'Ork has also 
« niGci^dlly prtuttuttd at Trappcb* HamburE, 
aHia* St Petersburg, and many other European 
^ciofti. The higheit flights that have been attained 
v^iiem about 8000 nietnr& 

Tbpiat work of L* TeUwrcnc dc Bort bcsau with t8g7t when 
"•btuded bit pnvatc observatory at Trappcs near Pari* divotrd 
^^lljt pusfcfcim of dyaamk mcioprolcgy. Hia result » afe pub- 
ft»d is fall in the Mcrnoirs of the Central Meteorological Bun:BU 
of Farm for 1S97 and subsequent ycara, Bej^lnnin^ with the 
*i«ting balloons deviBcd by Hernnte, he »ii|>9cqiicnlly added 
ntc »«t aa supplementary to theae. Jn the CpmpUs nn-dui 
O^f be gives the m«an temperature as they rtEult from hve 
r^Ji f^ ifork, J8<;f^i*)03* at Trapped. Out ul 5^1 aacenniona of 
i_---^ I ■ '-^li:, tliere were lii lh,i ,f' ,'-.■' r^ km. or morr. 
w the following table g;ives the average temperatures recorded 

> tkcae aaoeiuaoas. It will be seen that there is a slow decrease 

> teB|Knte op to 3 km.; a rapid decrease thence up to 10 km., 
nd a Am decreaie, alnioet a stationary temperature, between 



II and t4 km.] 
calM by him. 



tbb ts the '* thcfnnal tane " as diacoiiTted atkj so 



Altitude 


Winter. 


^ Spring. 


Summer^ 


Autumn. 




Dec.jM., F*b. 


W*f,Ap(,M»T. 


Jiior.July.AB, 


SrF<.f>d,Nu» 


Krl 


•a 


•C 


«C* 


•e 


Ground 


t t*9 


+ 5-" 


+ 11-0 


+ 7-S 


05 


+ 1*4 


+ 4-7 


+ U'6 


+ 7-7 


to 


- 0-3 


■1- 14 


+ 1(1 


+ 6-1 


1*5 


- QI 


■t- 01 


97 


+ 4'0 


2Q 


- 1-4 


— 2-1 


7 '3 


+ 2-2 


35 


-U 


zn 


50 


+ 0-4 


30 


31 


- 1-7 


AS 


- S-7 


- 91 


+ a 


-n 


40 


-IO-9 


— laa 


^ 37 


4$ 


-14-2 




~l\ 


- 9-3 


50 


-170 


-13 4 


60 


-23-7 


-25 a 


^I4'3 


-187 


J:S 


-31S 


-320 


- = 1-7 


-JS'8 


-3^0 


-390 


-ao-3 


-335 


90 


-46-9 


-46-7 


-^B^o 


-41-4 


100 


-54-6 


-53-7 


45 J 


-4»'3 


IL'O 


-57-9 


-53-6 


50J 


-54-4 


120 


-57-9 


-Ml ' 


527 


-57- 1 


130 


-569 


-saa 


5(5 


-571 


140 


-55-5 


-53-5 


'SI3 


-S7-1 



It ks evident that the annual a^^craGe vertical gradient of tem^iera^ 
tune over Paris is betwt.>en 4' and 6" C, per 1000 metrifs fif 
ftfccnt In the fr«e air, a^nMidg closely with tht? value 5' per tooo 
mcLrcs, which hat come loto eJitensive uw »nce the year iS^Ot an 
the recommendation and «iuthunly of Hann, for the reduction of 
land ntm^ru-ations to sea-level* The winLer gracficnts are less than 
tbo^.' fiT -ummcr, pc4^l)r owtn^ to the iitfluenee of the canden^a^ 
tiuri iniM I I'ud aM rain duHng the winter season in France ; the 
^ww: v.LhH rnay tiot muU front obcervations in the United States, 
where iiit E:lqiid« and prcdpiution of wirrter do not n greatly 
exceed those of iummtr. The wofk at Trappci Is thenrforc not 
necessarily feprcientalive of the general average ol the nortbcm 
hemisphere, but l-^clongs ro a coastal re^on in which during the 
summer time, at ^rcat nciGhtt^ the air is cooler than in the winter 
time» sifM* during the latter teuon there is an ejitcnsive Bow of 
warm ioulh minds from the ocean over the coM east windi from 
the land- Sounding balloons have also been used elsewhere with 
preat Euttess* The greaiest heights attained by them have been 
75,989 metres at Uctlc, Belgium, on the 5tb of September 1907, 
and as. 800 metres at Straasbur?* Augu&t 190s* 

The most extennve meteofologiral explorations of the free 
atmoEphere have been those aceompli&hed in Germany by Richard 
Assmannand Arthur Bctionp bc$innin^ (iS*;) in ci[M>pcration with 
the German Venfin for the Promotion of AeronAUiks and the Aero- 
nautic Section of the Orman Anrnvp altervardf under the auspices 
of the Prusabn Meteoreloeical Omoc, but later as a wholly inde- 
pendent in^ititution at Lindcnberr* AU the details of the work 
during 1887-1 SS9 ^^d the ideatific renilts of seventy balk^n 
voyaRea were published in three larg* volumes, Wimniikajtlkks 
Lnjtstikiffahrim (l^erlin, (900}, The work done at Tc^cl at the 
Aeronautical Observatory of the Berlin MeteoroloBioal Office, 
the 1st of October 1890 to April (905, wa* publiihed 10 three volumc5 
of Ergtbnisst. But the location at Tcficl had to be ^iven up arn^ 





Annual Tcmpcmturei and Wind. 


Tegel 


1903^ 


Tegel 1904. 


LindenbcrjE, 1905. 


Lindcnbergn 1905. | 


AldMif. 


tt^ 


1 'C. 


lf*n. 


*C. 


D*^ 


X* 


n^r% 


MeimmiK. 


Ground 


.^&?i 


9'jj 


m 


91 


305 


85 


.l6s 


4fi5 


500 in. 


m 


*7 


364 


f-5 


365 


b2 


iti 


2'S^ 


1 .000 „ 


344 


4';j 


3^1 


4-2 


352 


40 


^S 


Sti5 


1.500 :> 


251 


20 


279 


22 


294 


2t 


3<3* 


8-55 


2. WW „ 


170 


00 


]B6 


-0-2 


242 


o-S 


H7 


9-5 


2.500 „ 


^ 


_j*8 


131 


-17 


179 


— II 


■95 


10-0 


3 ►'WO „ 


55 


"33 


751 


^36 


It9 


-2B 


137 


10*7 



a new independent cstabtishnicnt, the " Royal Prus^^tan Aeronautic 
Observatory," was founded at Lindenbef|:, under the direction of 
Dr A-^i^Ftiann, who has pubhshcd the results of his work in annual 
volumes of the Efgebnusi ol tliai institution, considt^ring it as a 
cDnriTiu4ti[>n of the work done at Berlin And Teget. In addition 
to thE>5e eUtK>rate official publications various Summaries ha\>c brea 
pubUsbfd+ the niost inatnjctivc of which is the chart embody tnff 
daily obscrvatbn» with corresponding isotherms at all attain*ible 
.^IritLjUis, publi^hM monthly since January 1903 in Das WriUr^ 
'II. I i. "i 1.1 this jitri.il work and the reliabihty of the rt-^ulta 
may l>c inferred from a statement of the number of ascensions 
made each year: 1899,6; 1900,39: 1901,160; 1902.261; 1903,481; 
1905. 513. This large number, combined with 581 von^%^% ^ 
Teisserenc de Bort at Trapped and man^ oV\v&t« TGA)i<&\xk. iLtci^\A« 



27© 



METEOROLOGY 



Holland and Rutsia, amountine in all to over 2000, enabled Aasmann 
to compute the monthly and annual means of temperature and 
wind velocity for each altitude; the German results are given in 
table at foot of page 769. 

The results of these numerous ascents, dudng these six years, 
have also been grouped into monthly means that have a reliability 
proportionate to the number of days on which observations were 
obtained at a given level, and we are now able to speak of the annual 
and even of the diurnal periodicity of temperature at different 
altitudes in the free air with considerable confidence. 

Some of the most important conclusions to be drawn from the 
best recent work were published by Hann either in special memoirs 
or in his Lehrhuch^ from which we take the following table. The 
actual temperatures given in thb table have only local importance, 
but the differences or the vertical gradients doubtless hold good 
over a large portion of Europe if not of the world. 



[PHYSICAL DATA 

the highest cirrus, from which Cleveland Abbe inferred chat k hid 
something to do with the absorption of the solar and icncalrU 
heat by dissolving cirri. But the most plausible explanation b that 
published simultaneously in September 1908 by W. J. Humphicya 
of Washington, and Ernest Gold of London. 

The daily diagrams in Das WeUer show that both the irregaltf 
and the periodic and the geographic variations of temperature m 
the upper strata are unexpectedly large, almost as large as at the 
earth s surface, so that the uniform temperature of space that was 
formerly supposed to prevail in the upper air must belooked for, 
if at all, far above the level to which sounding balkxMis have m 
yet attained. It is evkient that both horixontal and vertkal 
convection currents of great importance really occur at tbcK 
great altitudes. These upper currents cannot be due to any very 



Temperature in Free Air over Europe 1890-1004. 



local influence at the earth s surface, but only to the intercl . 

the air over the oceans and continents or between the polar and cqua* 
torial regk>ns. They constitute the 



Altitude. 


Annual Avtfjgei, 


Int^fuibiul. 


combined r 


Bcrtin. 
15 Asccrtti. 


Jntcr- 

lutiotiaL 

130 Asftrfiis, 


MannH 
j6 Axentft. 


Trappei. 
5S1 AaCTOts, 




Feb, 


Aug. 


Km 
a 
1 

3 
4 

1 

I 

9 

ID 


- 50 
-J4J 


17 
^ 3 3 
- 9'0 

"153 


'C 1 

+ 5^5 

+ 03 
- 4 4 

-iO'3 

--13 

-JO? 

-370 


+ S-3 
+ 0'7 

- 40 

- 9 4 
-15-4 

-3&3 
-43S 
-49 3 


•C. 
■I-0-3 

Eg 

-147 

-43-7 
-S5'4 


+ 151 
+ 102 
+ 4^8 

- t-o 

- 7* 
-133 

-„, 

-395 


■c. 

50 

- 40 

- ^1 

-15 4 

— Jt-O 

-431 
-491 1 



The differences of temperature between any layer and those 
above it and below it. or the vertical gradients at each level go 
through annual periodical changes quite analc^ous to those derived 
from mountain observations; the most rapid falls of temperature, 
or the largest vertical gradients in the free air occur on the following 
dates over Europe : — 



Altitude. 


Over 
Germany. 


Over 
Trappes. 


1, 2, 3 km. 
3. 4. 5 
5. 6. 7 
7. «. 9 
9. 10. 1 1 


May, June 
Mafch 
April 
July 


May 15 
Feb. 15 

idy % 
Sept. 14 



The values above given as deduced from 141 high ascensions at 
Trapped show that between 11 and 14 km. there was no appreciable 
diminution of temperature, in other words, the air is warmer than 
could be expected and therefore has a higher potential temperature. 
This fact was first confirmed by the Berlin ascensions, and is now 
recogntxed as wellnigh universal. The altitude of the base of this 
warm stratum is about 12 km. in areas of high pressure and 
10 km. in areas of low pressure. It is higher as we approach the 
tropics and above ordinary balloon work near the equator if indeed 
it exists there. At first this unexpected warmth was considered 
as possibly a matter of error in the meteorographs, but this idea is 
now abandoned. Assmann suggested that the altitude is that of 



important feature 01 the ao^alkd 
general circulation of the atmo- 
sphere, whkh we have hithcno 
mistakenly thought of as confined 
to tower levels; their general dine- 
tbn u from west to east over afl 

Esrts of the globe as far as yet 
nown. showing that they are con- 
trolled bv the roution of the eaith. 
It is likefy that masses of air having 
special temperature conditions or 
clouds of vapour dust such as cane 
from Krakatoa. may be carried ia 
these high currents around the gbbe 
perhaps several times before Eciflc 
dissipated. 

The average eastward moveaeat 
or the west wind at 3 km. above 
Germany b lo-j m. per sec or l*ol 
longitude (at 45* latitude) in 4>*4 
minutes, or such as to describe 
the whole circumference of this small drde in ID'S dky%. At the 
equator above the calm belt the velocity westward or the cast 
wind as given by Krakatoa vokanic-dust phenomena was 34-5 m 
per sec., on 30* of a great circle daily, or around the equator ia 
12*5 days, while its poleward nnovement was only i*per d^y or 
1*3 metre per second. The average motion of the storm cmtiea 
moving westward in northern tropical and equatorial regiotts but 
eastward in the north temperate cone is at the rate of one drcuoH 
ference or a small circle at latitude ^5* in 19 days. Obaervatiow 
of the cloud movements gave Professor Bigetow the foOowiag 
rtsults for the United States: — 



Altitude. 


Moving 
eastward. 


Moving 
westwaA. 


lo-okm. 
7-5 
50 
30 
I-o 



36 m. p.s. 

30 

8 

. ., 4..« 


2-om.p.s. 

a-o 

1-5 

I-o 

o-s 



Evidently, therefore, the great west wind (that James H. Cofta 
deduced from his work on the winds of the northern hemisphere and 



that William Ferrel deduced from his theoretical studies) reprr- 
sents with its gentle movement poleward a factor of fundamental 
importance. We must consider all our meteorological phenomena 
except at the equator as existing beneath and controlled, if not 



Month. 



Average temperature gradient 
per 100 metres. 



Altitudes. 



From o to 
1000 metres. 



From 1000 to 
3000 metres. 



Altitude 
(metres). 



Total Fall of Temperature from Ground upward. 



October to March. 



Cloudiness 
0-7. 



Cloudiness 
8-10. 



April to September. 



Cloudiness 
0-7. 



Cloudinem 
8-ia 



January . 
February 
March . 
April 
May . 
June 
July . 
August . 
September 
October 
November 
December 

Vcjr. 



•c. 

o-ii 
0-39 
0-33 
0-73 
0-90 
099 
0-96 
0'86 
0-77 
0-57 
036 
0-30 

061 



•c. 

0-58 
o-'30 
0-40 
048 
0-66 
072 
0-67 
0-62 
0-58 
0-43 
0-53 
0-53 

0-53 



2000 
1800 
1600 
1400 
1200 
1000 
800 
600 
400 
200 
o 



•C. 

824 

7-22 
628 

5-35 
448 
3-62 

2-20 

1-54 
0-65 

0-35 

0-00 



•c. 


•c. 


763 


>5-33 


6-60 


14-20 


604 


I3-OI 


5»5 


11-66 


4-35 


10-32 


|:S 


913 


7-55 


\i\ 


,?:8 


105 


1-88 


o-oo 


OK)0 



•c. 

I4i» / 
"■97 ' 
11-75 
10-S9 
9-3* 

OS 



PHYSKALDATAI 

L by t hb gener a l deep twift upper cttirent of air that bcmn as an 
' I cast wind above the calm equatorial air but H)ecdily over- 

^ west wind senling down to the sea-level in the temperate 

and polar regions as great areas of high pressure and dry clear 
cool' weather containing air on its return passage to the equator. 
TW npper air is thrown easily into great billows, and wherever it 
rises the warm equatorial wind flows in beneath it, but when it 
ilfff^tif^ we have Uioards and dry clear weather. It b a covering 
for the lower strata of air, it flows over them in standing waves 
and soroednies mixes with them at the surface of contact. It 
l ece i ves daOy accessions from below and gives out corresponding 
actessiona to the lower strata, by a process of overturning such as 
has been studied theoretically by Maigules and Billow. 

At the fifth conference of the lutcmattonal Committee on Scientific 
Aerooautics (Mibn« October 1906) Rykatchef presentea the results 
af kite-woric during 1904 and 190^ at Pavlosk, near St Petersburg. 
faun which we select the results for these two years given in table 
at bot of page aTOw 

Many uvcniona occur during January Im^Iow 1000 metres. 
Thedccraase is more rapid in tummcr than mi wirntcr and in clear 
weather than in doudy, bur of caaru; these otkaervatlijns did not 
cnead above the upper level of the cumulus cloud layer A general 
ssrvey of the existing state of knawtcdg? of the upper atmosphere 
haven ia the lUpcH of the Briiiah At^xjciatian fur 1910. 

Ovtnbmiim ^ Agmeous t'o^r— The distribuiifjn of iqueous 
npwr is best shown by lines vt equ^l dew- point or vi^f^ur tension, 
OoB^ for some purposes Umt ol equal rcbttve humjdity ore con* 
waienL The dew-point Ure-^ .ire not usually «hr],wt) on charts, 
pmhr because the lines of vapour pressure' are approximately 
nauel to the lines of mean temperature of the air, and partly 
becuue the observations are of very unequal accuracy in different 
ponioas of the globe. In general we may consider any isotherm 
as speeing with the dew-point line for oew-points a few degrees 
lower than the temperature of the air. The distribution of moisture 
ii (|nite irregular both in a horizontal and in a vertical direction. 
Os darts 01 the world we may draw lines based on actual observa- 
lioss to rep r essnt equal degrees of relative humidity, or equal dew- 
poists and vapour pressures; but as regards the distribution of 
MHtoie ia a vertical direction we are, in the absence of specific obser- 
mSomt generally forced to assume that the vapour pressure at any 
ibitade a follows the average law first deduced from a limited num- 
ber of observations by Hann, and expressed by the logarithmic 
cqntioB, log «"log C»~A/65I7. which is quite analogous to 
Ike deoMntary hypsometric formula, log p-log ^-A/iA400- 
Tkrekxe, in genefal, the ratio between the piessure of the vapour 
sad the pressure of the atmosphere at any altitude is represented 
bjr the approadmate formula, log e/p^log eolpt—k/ioogi. Of 
come tneae relations can only represent average or normal 
OMtfidoos. which may be cfeparted from very widely at any 
■Kmeat; they have, however, been found to agree remarkably 
vttk all obsctvations which have as yet been published. The average 
mshs are given in the following table, which b abbreviated from 
ose pobli^bed by Hann, but with the addition of the work done by 
tlie \}S. Weather Bureau, as reduced by Dr Frankenfield in 1899. 
The vapour constituent oi the atmosphere is not distributed accord- 
isK.to the law of gaseous diffusion, but, like temperature and the 
ntio between oxygen and nitrogen, b controlled by other laws 
PRKxibed t^ the winds and currents, namely — convection. 

DmsHMlioH of the Relative Vapour Pressure with Alhtude. 



METEOROLOGY 



271 






BdloDu, 
(Hupo.) 

(HUQJ 



{Ibnn.) 
Cfnnputcd 
fay Hilt FU 



fldir 



T 



0-97 
0-89 

0-85 



o>7a 
0-96 

O'So 



070 

o-So 
066 

o 71 



0^61 

0-7S 

q-66 
065 



0-5? 
0*44 
0-67 
050 
o-6j 



040 
0-46 

OS J 



OJ9 
044 

047 



altitudes 

From 

dedacxd 



044 



037 
0-47 

042 



4 
6 



the first bne of the table at foot of this page (see Wissensekafltickg 
l^ahrt*n,Bd.llL, and Hann, Lehrbuch, 1906. p. 169). The obser- 
vations on mounuins gave Hann the pressures in the second 
line. Saring's figures result from the use of AssmanA's ventilated 
psychrometer and are therefore very reliable. 

The vapour pressure in mm. in free air over Europe is best given 
by Soring s formuU 



Iog#»-Iogr.-J(i+A) 



The \^pDur pressure at any altiLu^ Li tupposed to be 
as a fraction of that observed at the ground. When the 
are given in ft. Hann's formula becomes log ele»^k/2g$^9. 
78 high balloon voyages in Germany. 1887-1899, Siinng 
the average vapour, pressure in millimetres as found in 



where the altitude b to be expressed in kilometres. From thb 
formula we derive the " specific moisture " or the mass ol vapour 
contained in a kik)gram of mobt air as given in the following table 
whose numbers do not appreciably differ from " the mixing ratio " 
or quantity of mobture associated with a kilogram of dry air. 
The relative humidities vary irregulariy depending on convection 
currents, but in clear weatner when descending currents prevail 
they have been observed in America and over Beriin as shown in 
the third and fourth columns of the following table: — 
• 
Observed Specific Moisture and Rdative Humidity. 



Alt. 


Specific 
moisture. 


Relative 


Humidity. 


U.S.A. 


BerUn. 


Km. 




% 


% 


00 


1*00 




77 


0-5 


•^ 


65 


7> 


I-O 


0-76 


65 


7« 


1-5 


0.65 


S9 


6a 


2*0 


055 


S9 


IS 


2$ 


0-47 


45 


30 


0-39 




55 


3-5 




•^ 


49 


40 


026 


— 


53 


4-5 


— 


— 


54 


50 


017 


— 




5-6 


O-II 


— 


— . 


U 


007 


— 


— 


0.04 


— 


— 



The total amount of vapour in the atmosphere, according to Hann'a 
formula, b between one-fourth and one-fifth of the amount re- 
quired by Dalton's hypothesis, as b illustrated by the following 
table taken from an artk:le by Cleveland Abbe in the Smithsonian- 
Report for 1888, p. 410:— 



Tclai VapQtif in a 


Vertical Column that 


is saiurdled tU its ^ur. 






Actual Wrichf Cr. tier 








I atrf. 


;»*r 


iiarw 


S«*F. 


itTf 


re"r ftfl'Fjsa'F] 






I IO-95 


7W 


576 


409 


OG 


o-o 


DO 


00 


6000 


O5J4 


5-75 


419 


3'M 


*'U 


13 


10 


0'7 


ti 


12.000 


0';J75 


3-oj 


JJO 


X 


J la 


z'k 


1-5 


11 


iS.OOO 


0144 


15M 


J'J5 


0-59 


3& 


IS 


1 M 


OQ 


34,000 


0075 


Q«i 


0-63 


0-4.1 


on 


J-7 


I'Q 


I ^ 


JO 


30.000 


040 


0-43 


O'll 


0-2S 


16 


i-a 


it 


ts 


II 







DitminutioH of Pressure of Aqueous Vapour tit the Free Air. 






Alt 


km. 
0-5 


km. 

l-O 


km. 
1-5 


km. 

2-0 


km. 
a-5 


km. 
30 


km. 
3-5 


km. 
40 


km. 
4-5 


km. 
50 


km. 
60 


km. 
70 


km. 
80 


,» 


mm. 
0.J3 
0.83 


mm. 
0-68 


051' 
o-5« 


mm. 
0.41 
0.48 


mm. 
0-34 
0-40 


mm. 
0-26 
0-34 


mm. 

0-20 
th28 


mm. 
017 


mm. 
014 
o-ig 


mm. 

O-II 

0-16 


mm. 
0^54 


mm. 
o>028 


mm. 
©•013 



A heavy rainfall results from the predpitation of only a small 

Ecrcentage of the water contained in the fresh supplies of air brought 
y the wind; if all moisture were abstracted from the atmosphere 
it could only a^ect the barometer throughout the equatorial regions 
by 3'8/i^'6 inches, or about two-tenths of an inch, while at the 
polar regions the diminution would be much less than one-tenth. 
Evidently, therefore, it is idle to argue that the fall of pressure in 
an extensive storm b to be considered as the simple result of the 
condensation of the vapour into rain. 

Barometric Pressure. — The horizontal distribution of barometric 
pressure over the earth's surface b shown by the isobars, or lines 
of equal pressure at sea-levej ; it can also be expressed by a system 
of complex spherical harmonics. As the indications of the mercurial 
barometer must vary with the variation of apparent gravity, 
whereas those of the aneroid barometer do not, it nas been agreed 
by the International Meteorological Conventions that for scientific 
purposes all atmospheric pressures, when expressed as barometric 
reaaings. must be reduced to one standard value of gravity, namely, 
its vaUie at sea-level and at 45* of latitude. In this locality its 
value is such as to give in one second an 
acceleration of 980-8 centimetres, or 32*2 
English ft. per second. The effect of the 
variation of apparent gravity -with latitude is 
therefore to make the mercurial barometer 
read too high, between 45* and the equator, 
and too low, between 45* and the v^\«* '^^ 

curiaV baTotncxnc-Te^AXtvi ax ox tv«m %«^->«n^ 
in Older to ^cx t.V« aXTnoe.\^uex>c v^«»wt >»> 



272 



METEOROLOGY 



tPHYSICAL DATA 



standard units, should be given on the edge of a meteorological 
chart, unless the isobars shown thereon already contain this correc- 
tion. On such charts it will be perceived that the barometric pressure 
at sea-level is by no means uniform over the earth's surface, and daily 
weather charts show very great fluctuations in this respect, the 
lowest pressures being storm centres and the highest pressures 
areas of clear cool dry weather. But even the normal average 
charts show high pressures over the continents in the winter and 
low pressures over the oceans, these conditions being reversed in 
the summer time; moreover, Schouff (Po^f- Ann,, 1832} first demon- 
strated t hat the average pressure in the neighbourhood of the equator 
is slightly less than under either tropic, and that there is a still 
more remarkable diminution of pressure from either tropic towards 
its pole. The exact statement of these variations of pressure with 
latitude was subsequently worked^ out very precisclj^ by Ferrcl, 
and forms the basis of his explanation of the general circulation of 
the earth's atmosphere and its influence on the barometer. The 
scries of monthly charts for the whole globe, compiled by Buchan 
and published by the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1868, as well 
as Buchan's later and more perfect charts in the meteorology of the 
" Challenger " Expedition, Edinburgh, 1889, and in Bartholomew's 
Atlas, first revealed clearly the fact that the distinct areas of high 
and low pressure which are located over the continents and the 
oceans vary during the year in a fairly regular manner, so that the 

t)rcs8ure is higher over the continents in the winter season and 
ower in the summer season, the amount of the change depending 
principally^ upon the size of the continent. A part of this annual 
variation in pressure is undoubtedly introduced by the methods 
of reduction to sea-level ; indeed, if the data of the lower stations 
are reduced up to the level of 10,000 or 15,000 ft., we sometimes 
find the barometric conditions quite reversed. These annual 
changes are intimately connected as cause and effect with the annual 
changes of temperature, moisture and wind; it i$ quite errcneous 
to sajr that the observed charted pressures control the winds; 
there is a reaction going on between the wind and the barometric 
gradient, the resistance and rotation of the earth's surface, such 
that the true relation between these factors is a complex but funda- 
mental problem in the mechanics of the atmosphere. 

The vertical distribution of pressure as deduced from observation 
Bhows a rate of diminution with increasing altitude very closely 
but not entirely accordant with the laws of static equilibrium, as 
first elaborated by Laplace in his hvpsometric formula. The 
departures from this law of static equilibrium are sufficient to show 
that, if our atmosphere is really in a state of equilibrium, it must 
be a matter of dynamics and not of statics. Tne general average 
relation of the density of the air to the altitude and temperature, 
and the total pressure of the superincumbent atmosphere, are 
shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. i), which is taken from 
a memoir on the equations of motion by Joseph Cottier, published 
in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review tor July 1897. The diminu- 
tion of pressure with altitude, as shown in this diagram for average 
conditions, but not for the temporary conditions that continually 
occur, follcfws a logarithmic law, and can undoubtedly be extended 
upwards for the normal atmosphere only to a height of 20 or 30 m., 
owing to our uncertainty as to the actual conditions in the 
upper portions of the atmosphere. This diagram is based upon 
the assumption that the atmosphere is in a state of convective 
equilibrium such that the ascending and descending masses expand 
and cool as they ascend, or contract and warm up as they descend, 
nearly but not quite in accordance with the adiabatic law of the 
change of temperature in pure ^ases. 

The departure of atmospheric temperatures from the strictly 
adiabatic law, as shown bv Cottier, is undoubtedly due largely to 
the heat absorbed by and radiated from moist or hazy or dusty 
air. In 1890, Abbe snowed that a very moderate rate of radiation 
from the atmosphere suffices to explain the coolness of slowly 
descending air. The absorption by the atmosphere of radiations 
from the earth and sun, or the balance between warming by 
absorption and cooling by radiation, is the basis of the arguments 
of VV. J. Humphreys (Astrophysics, Jan. 1909), and E. Gold (Proc. 
Roy. Soc, 1908, Ixxxii., 45 A.), explaining the existence of the 
•• thermal layer." 

The direct evaluation of this radiation and absorption has been 
attempted by many. The genuine law aiq-p) is adopted by Gold as 
clo«icly representing nature, whence it follows that (1 ) the adiabatic 
rate of cooling in convection currents must cease at a height corre- 
sponding to one-half of the barometric pressure at sea-level; (2) an 
isothermal layer must exist at the level where the absorption of 
solar radiation equals that of the terrestrial and atmospheric radia- 
tion ;(3)within this thermal layer convection isdifhcult or impossible ; 
(4) above this region the vertical temperature gradient must depend 
essentially on radiation and is less than that needed for convective 
equilibrium ; (5) below this level the atmospheric radiation exceeds 
the atmospheric absorption and venical currents can only be kept 
up by the convection of heat or aqueous vapour from the earth's 
surface to the adjacent layer of air. 

Limit of the Atmosphere. — The limiting height of the atmosphere 

/ni/st heat some unknown elevation above 20 m. where the tcmpera- 

tt/rr falla to absolute zero. But the uncertainty of the various 

hypotbeacs as to the physical propcrticB 0/ the upper aimospbere 























l\ 




T 




* 4 




f 




%i \v 


1 


'"5" 








'^s"^ 




-^^?-- 




i^^JJ 




^md 



Fig. I. 



forbids us to entertain any positive ideas on this subject at the 
present time. If we define the outer limit of the atmosphere as 
that point at which the diffusion of gases inwards just tralanftt 
the diffusion outwards, then this limit must be determined not by 
the hypsometric formula, but by the properties of gases at low 
temperatures and pressures under conditions as yet uninvestigated 
by physicists. 

Cloudiness. — It is evident that the clouds (q.w.) are formed from 
clear transparent air by the condensation of the invisible moistiifr 
therein into numerous minute par- 
ticles of water, ice or snow. Not- 
withstanding their transparency, 
these individual globules and 
cry*talft when collccud in large 
ma^»en, diipersc 1 he solar ray^ by 
rejection to such an exfent th^ir 
direct ti:^ht from t he sun is unable 
to pcncirate fog or cloud » afld 
partial darkntsB rp^uUs. In a 
Kcncral Burvcy of the atmosphere 
the geographical diatrlbuiion of 
xhc amount of cloudy ^ky is im- 

fjortant. When the wUr heal 
alia upon the turface of the cloud 
it is so ah»orb«d and reflected 
that, <tn the one handt et-iixcly 
any penetrate) to iht ground 
bencaib, white on the other hand 
the upper surface of the cloud 
bf^coTti e» y nd u I y hea t ed . £ v en If 
thii wppc-f feurface la cpmplcEf ly 
evapofaitd, it may continually be 
retiewcd from below, and, njore- 
ovt-fi, the evaporated tnoitture 
mixing with the ajr_ renderi it 
yerymuchlighter speciScn ] I y t kan 
1 1 voti Id otherw i *e or. H eiwe 1 he 
upprr^urfaccoftheclnLnLlrfiiLiccs 

the surface of tht l ' ■ ' <^t 

the ocean ; the air i , .1 h it acauires a higher temperature 

and greater buoyancy, while the ground and air beneath it reroaia 
colder than the^ would be in sunshine. The average cloudiness 
oyer the globe is therefore intimately related to the density and 
circulation of the atmosphere; it was first charted in geaeral terns 
by L. Teisserenc de Bort of Paris, about 1886. The roanif(dd 
modifications of the clouds impress one with the conviction that, 
when properly understood and interpreted, they will reveal to us 
the most important features of the processes going on in the atmo- 
sphere. If tne farmer and sailor can correctly judge of the weather, 
several hours in advance by a casual glance at the clouds, what 
may not the professional meteorologist hope to do by a more careful 
study? Acting on this idea, in 1868 Abbe asked from all of his 
correspondent observers full details as to the quantity, kind and 
direction of motion of each layer of clouds; these were telegraphed 
daily for publication in the Weather Bulletin of the Cincinnati 
Observatory, and for use in the weather predictions made at that 
time. Since January 1872 similar data have been regularly trie- 
graphed for tne use of the U.S. Weather Bureau in preparing fore- 
casts, although the special cloud maps that were compiled thrice 
daily have not been published, owing to the expense. These data 
were alio published in full in the Bulletin of the International Simwl^ 
taneous Meteorological Observations for the whole northern hemi- 
sphere during the years 1875-1884. Abbe's work on the U.S. 
Eclipse Expedition to the West Coast of Africa in 1889-1890 was 
wholly devoted to the determination of the height and motioia 
of the clouds by the use of his special form of the marine nephoscope. 
The use of such a nephoscope is to be strongly recommended, as 
it gives the navigator a moans of determining the bearing of a 
storm centre at sea by studying the lower clouds, better than be 
can possibly do by the observation of the winds alone. The im* 
portance of cloud study has been especially emphasized by the 
International Meteorological Committee, which arranged for a 
complete year of systematic cloud-work by national weather 
bureaus and individual observatories throughout the world frois 
May 1896 to June 1897. In this connexion H. H. Clayton of 
Blue Hill Observatory published a very comprehensive report ot 
cloud forms in 1906. The complete report by Professor F. H. 
Bigelow on the work done by the U.S. Weather Bureau fonas • 
part of the annual report for 1899, and constitutes a remarkable 
addition to our knowledge of the subject. Some prelimiaary 
account of this work was published in xYie American Jamaiif 
Science for December 1 899. 

Ah hough all the international cloud-work of 189^1897 has now 
been published in full by the individual institutions, as m thecaM 
of the International Polar Research Work of 1883, yet a compre- 
hensive study of the results still remains to be made. Some of tMfl> 
have, however, been brought together in Mohn's discusuoa of tJis 
observationsby Nanscnduring the voyage of the"Fram"and also ia 
Hann's Lehrbuch and in Bigelow's Report on Cloud-work. The men 
aliiiudcs of cirrus and strato-cumulus clouds resulted as foUowik 



fPnUUmiS AND HETHODq 



METEOROLOGY 



273 



Place* 



CtpeTbofthm. , 

SuiiMta. ... 
UpBli, 1BS4-1SS5. 

Ekatzic- , ^ , , 
litutik 

Fldtfiiiin, ftuoimcT- 

» winter ♦ ^ 

GbE HiD, ivminer* h 

„ vLntcr * . 

wJEttcr H I 
WuhJBftoQt »ummer j 
^ «iiiicr 

Albhalwd . . . ! 



tude. 



78-5 


l^ 


70 


S-.1 


6.VS 


SA 


60 


S<) 


6a 


Sj 


60 


8S 


545 


ID-1» 


53-3 


lo-g 


4^1 


9-0 


5i 


^t 


bi 


St 


4iS 

4J3 


?:| 


43^6 


10-9 


J9 


m 4 
«'5 


25-5 


IJ4 


15 


ta^9 



1-5 
a i 

f-2 

* 5 

35 

JO 



Htgh«t 
Cirrus. 



'34 
(1-7 



150 
16^5 



Lcwett 
Cirrus. 



16 

4-7 



5"+ 

50 

40 



Hk annual avmge velocity of hourly ciwvement in m«im 
to itfwvA wilboul regard to difCClion mAy be tumniarkKl aa 





wo-iaaw 


1-4<MD 


|-4™» 


v*^ 


i-.o.mi 


j-Q-l i.oija 


lt-[4,Otia 




a. 


DL 


flL 


BL 1 


m. 


m. 




B«^. . 


6-5 


?\t 


115 


15-4 


190 


J4-4 


— 


L$»U , . 


91 


»-7 


[60 


30-4 


36-6 







PWahni . . 


u 


tO^ 


16-9 


30'^ 


254 


— 





Blw HiU . . 


14-3 


17-1 


M^ 


34a 


Ul) 


— 


TWTJUID . . 


9 4 


i7't 


rtf'4 


12 


,V>B 


aS-fl 


^ 


WtihlnftoQi 


<»2) 


'|:J 


I7-.1 


MM 


J.V8 


U*9J 


ih'& 


AlUhjlad . , 


34 


il-o 


i7'6 


ja-j 


ao-7 


340 


^liLiii . . 


3-5 


M 


65 


8-0 


t36 


130 


134 



I^ movuwfitt of the upcicr clouds arc more rapid Ln winter 
tiiii m wittDtf At thc^e nDrthcrn Italians, but ajnong tht mHlufi 
U(t bw doiHb 1 rc^t^nlation takn place Apparently due to thtt 
mxadsm cumoti that lorm rain and snow. Above Sodo metrvv 
V Upiu tile avcngv vdocity in winter exceed 1 31& metres per 
■ML vbRcas in lurnmcr it is 30: at Tomnto and Blue Hill the 
^■bte M^aeiiici are larger but in the same ratio. In the t'nitcd 
Wbtbc Dauicnum vdociTies from tbe vv%t attain too mtinrs 
KTkandud over 60 or to metm per Kcond ane not rare, btit in 
E«)p tht QMrapofidiof bguns are 70, 60, 50. (See jlso CiOUpJ 

U,— MtTEoaoLOCiCAL Apparatus and Methods 

Tie ob&eTvittonai basis of meteorology ia iht fttquent and, 
J p(Hi"ble, contlnuoiu record of the icmpemture, moistmrc 
lid buF^roctric pressure at difTeretil altitudes m tbi^ free 
iiw^kcn, Ihe direct bn and vclodiy of the wind, tbe raJti 
Mf iBQw-faU, and ibc kind, amount and motion of thi^ doud^. 
f« Euiopc these data have been furnished wilb mart or less 
Konfy and cofniimihy by thousands of observers evtr since 
J*Si. irben FerdiiOfid Ih^ grand duke of Tuscany, organki-d 
t tj^piuB «f daily observiiions in Italy under the genera] auptr- 
f'oioiof Uiigj Antinorin During the i^Lh century great eEorts 
*H* made to obtain eqtiaJJy fuU records from alL parts of the 
l"d ind otcan, and ihouiands ol navigators were nddcd to the 
V^ cofp* ol observers. Other matters have also been invcsti- 
^icd, ibe inost impoit^t being the intensity of radiation 
ba tbfr einb at nJght-iime 4ad from the sun by day time, 
Ih epikftl phenomena of the sky, the amount of dtut in the 
iif, tbt ckctrical condition and the chemical constitution of 
Ike KaoipfaeTe. Although all the instruments u^d belong 
U (ha oUfCtfy <d physical apparatus, yet certain points mutl 
be eemidcfed as peculiai to their use tn connejdcin with 



r. — Id using the thermometer to determine the 
of the free air it a nece^&ary to consider not 
■ody hi intrinsJc accuracy 05 conn pared with the standard 
pi thctmoiDeter of the International Bunrau of Weights and 
W a iHtu Al Paris, but especially its sluggishness, the iafliience 
rfanHQl rtdi^tioni, the gradual change of Its zero point with 
iiac, aid ihe iei3ueiicc of atmospheric ptESsure, 

r^ ha*e hew uwcited the Washington data a» interpolated 
■in tl« %iiif« grvei by flaan< Ltkrbmk, 1906^ p. 232.) 



Settsiiitentts.—Tht: thermometer indicates the tempeiatare of 
the outside surface of its own bulb only when the whole mass of 
the in-itrucnrnt ha& a uniform temperature. Assuming that by 
appropriaie convectirjn we can keep the surface of the thermometer 
at the temperature ol the air, we have still to remember that ordin- 
arily thi§ Itself i» piTptrtually changing both in rapid oscillations 
of teveral degms and in diurnal periods of many degrees, while 
Che thermomLter, on account of its own mass or thermal inertia, 
always Ugs behind the changes in the temperature of its own 
surface- On the 01 her hand, radiant heat passes easily through 
the air, strikeji the thermometer, and raises its temperature quite 
independently ol thi? influence of the air whose temperature we 
wish to inudire^ The internal sluggishness or the sensitiveness 
of the thrrmiPFneier is usually different for rising and for falling 
temperatures, and i* mea^urt^d by a coefficient which must be deter- 
mined aiperirncrt tally for each instrument by observing the rate at 
which its indications change when it is plunged into a well-stirred 
bath of water whose tcmperatufe is either higher or lower than its 
own^ This ccpcfHricnt indicates the rate per minute at which the 
reading? change when the temperature of the surface of the bulb 
i$ one degree warmer or coldi?r than the temperature ol the bath. 
Such cwHicicrtis usually vary between Ath of a degree centigrade 
for ^lufsi^h thermometera^ and one or two degrees for very sensitive 
therntnmeters. Suppose, Cor instance, that the coefficient is one- 
half decree, then vih^n th-^ p^te of change in the temperature of 
the air is one degree ; r ' this is exactly the same as the rate 

of change which tht' ^er itself undergoes when its own 

tempfrature is two dc^i' ■ f'erent from that of the air; conse- 
quently, the thermomeLer wilt lag behind the air temperature to 
that errent and by the {.-orre^ponding amount of time, assuming 
that the air itself flows fast eniyugh to keep the surface of the bulb 
at the air temperature. When the air temperature ceases to rise 
or fall, and bef^ina to change at the same rate in the opposite direc- 
tion, the thermometer wul fail to record the true maximum or 
minimum temperature by an appreciable error depending upon the 
rapidity of the chance^ and will follow the new temperature changes 
with the same la^. For example, in the case just quoted, if a rising 
cempterature suddenly changes to a falling tempnaturc, the error 
of the thermometer at the maximum temperature will be two 
degrees^ and yet the iheirmometer may be absolutely correct as 
compared with the standard when it is allowed five or ten minutes' 
time to overcome the sluggishness. It is very difficult to obtain 
the temperature of the free air at any moment within ^th of a 
degree Cenii|;rade^ owing to the sluggishness of all ordinary thermo- 
metera and the perptiua! variatioiu in the temperatures of the 
atmoMiheric currents. 

KadititioH. — When a thermometer bulb is immersed in a bath of 
liquid all radiant heat is cut off, but when hung in the open air it 
11 subject (o a perpetual interchange of radiations between itself 
and all its surrounding; conseouentlv its own temperature has 
only an indirect eonnexion with that 01 the air adjacent to it. One 
of the most difhcuU problems of meteorology is so to expose a 
thermometer as to cut off noxious radiations and get the true 
tempera tuiY of the atmosphere at a specific place and time. The 
fol lowing are a few of the many methods that have been adopted 
to secure this end: Mclloni put the naked glass bulbs within open 
sheltering caps of perforated silver paper. Flaugergues used a 
protect ion consisting of a simple verticaf cylinder of two sheets of 
Silver paper enclosing a thin layer of non-conducting substance, 
like eoi ton or wooL The influence of radiation upon a thermometer 
dtr-^i^^nds upon the radiating and absorbing powers of its own surface; 
a roujjhmed surface of lamp-black radiates and absorbs perfectly; 
one of chalk pownier does nearly as well; glass much more im- 
twrfijcilys while a polished silver surface reflects with ease, but 
rJidbtc^ and abiniros with the greatest difficulty. Fourier pro- 
po^ to URtf two thermometers side by side, one of plain glass 
and the other of bhickened glass; the difference of those would 
indicate the e^ect of radiation at any moment; but instead of 
plain ^1^^ he should have used polished silver. His method was 
quite indepeodedtCy devised and used by Abbe in 1865 and 1866 at 
t'oulkova, where iRe thermometers were placed within a very light 
sheher of oiled paper. In order to use this method successfully, 
both the black and the silvered thermometers should be whirled 
side by- side inside the thermometer shelters (see Bulletin of the 
Pkiioiofihicai Society ttf Washington for 1883). Various forms of 
open liiiticC'\tork and louvre screens have been devised and used 
by Clatihcf, Kupffer, Stevenson, Stowe, Dove, Renou, Joseph 
Henry and others, in all of which the wind is supposed to blow 
freely through the scrcc^ns, while the latter cut off the greater part 
of the direct sunshine and other obnoxious radiations by day, and 
a1u3 jjrcvent obnoxious radiation from the thermometer to tfie sky 
bv ni^ht. The ftalLan physicist Belli first proposed a special 
artificial ventilation drawing the fresh air from the outside and 
mftking it Row rapidly over the thermometer. Even before his 
day de Sau^^iore, Espy, Arago and Bravais whirled the thermometer 
rapidly either by a tniall whirling machine, or by attaching it to 
a ttring and swivel and whirling it like a sling. When this whirling 
if diine in a ahidy pl:ice excellent results are oVavaJwvvA. "^^tvow 
and Craig placed the ihermometcT '\tv a X\\\u vtveXaWvc. ewcXo^cvw^ «t 
thciter, ami whifVed the latter. VJM ekUUvAveA \>ci<t v\kCttw>tc«x«t 



274 



METEOROLOGY 



in a fixed louvre shelter, but by means of a ventilating apparatus 
drew currents of fresh air from below into the shelter, where they 
circulated rapidly and passed out. In Germany, since 1883, Dr 
Assmann has developed the apparatus known as the ventilated 
psychromcter, in which the dry-bulb thermometer is placed within 
a double shelter of thin metallic tubing, and the air is drawn in 
rapidly by means of a small ventilating fan. In the observations 
made by Abbe on the cruise of the ** Pcnsacola " to the West Coast 
of Africa, the dry- and wet-bulb thermometers were enclosed within 
iMmiboo tubes and rapidly whirled. The inside of the wet-bulb 
tube was kept wet, so that its surface, being cooled by evaporation, 
could not radiate injuriously to the thermometer. In the system 
of exposure adopted by the U.S. Weather Bureau the dry and 
wet bulbs are whirled by a special apparatus fixed within the 
louvred shelter, which is about %k ft. cube, and is placed far 
enough above the ground or building to ensure free exposure to 
the wind. In using the whirling and ventilating methods it is 
customary to take a reading after whirling one minute, and a 
second r^ing at the end of the second minute, and so on until 
no appreciable changes are shown in the thermometer. Of course 
in perfectly calm weather these methods can only give the tempera- 
ture of the air for the exact locality of the thennometer. On the 
other haiuL when a strong wind is lilowjnfc iht irndkafcd tempera^ 
ture is an avfragr that rrpresenti the Icing n^irraw tireatn of air 
that has blown past the thcnnonictcr during; thi:; ii:w minuter 
that are nocfssary Lit order that its bulb nuy obuin j^pproxinuEcly 
the temperature ol the air. 

Change of Zere. — All thennDmeters having |[laa9 bulbv especially 
those of cylindrical shape, ate wnsitLve to changci oi aimoaphertc ' 
pressure. The frtHiiing' point, determined under a barDmcrric 
pressure of 3.0 in., or s.\ nca- level, stands higher on tht.' glau 
tube thaii if it lud tx'^n. di^tcrmin[>d. under a lower pressure on a 
mountain tcjpn Therelore delicate iheririDinFtcrfi, when tnin&ported 
to great hi;ight>, or ev«^n during the very low piessurv of a storm 
centre, n^d ttio law and need a correction for p^rcsE^ure. The £ercp' 
point alsc> changt^s with time and with the method of treatmrnt that 
the bulb K4^ rn-ccived as to tempers turr. Owing to the tlow ad' 
justment c]( the mok-culcs ot the i^la&s bulb to the state cC stable 
equilibriumT tlu:ir rcia Lions among themselves are disturbed wheri' 
ever the bulb i» freshly heated. Ac this time the frecfing-paint is 
tem|X>rariLy depreitsed to an amount nearly p(rppdrtionul to the 
heating. The normal method of treatment oonsists in fift?i deter- 
mining the boiling-point of the thermomctci, and. after a few 
minutes, tht Irtexing-point. If this method is uniformly foUowed 
the two fictiitiiil points will stay in permanent relation to each oth^f. 
A thermumcritr that has been used for many years by a faithful 
meteorolijs^Lc^il observer has almost inevitably been Sjoiiig through 
a steady ^'^rics of changes; in the course ol ten years its fn;>cilng- 
point may have risen by a* or 3' F., and, mornuvcr, it changes by 
fully a tenth of a degree between sumtncr and winter. The only 
way comp^letely to eliminate this source of error from meteorological 
work is to discard tlie meicurial thermometer altogether; but 
instead of adopting that course, the uh is ecnefally rccoinmended 
of thermometers whose bulbs are made ol a special glas?> upori 
which he^^ting and cooling have comparatively very little InKuence- 
Any argument as to secular change in the tempeniture of the 
atmosphere is liltely to be greatly weakened by the unknown Influ* 
ence of thi^i sounie of error, as well as by changes in the methods ol 
exposure and in the hours of observation. 

Barometer. — The barometer (q.v.) indicates the elastic pressure 
prevailing in gas or liquid at the surface of the mercury in the 
open tube or cistern, provided that the fluid at that point is 
in a state of quiet relative to the mercury. 

■ Any motion of the air will have an influence upon the reading 
quite independently of the prevailing elastic pressure. The pressure 
within a mass of gas apany point is the summation of the effects 
due to the motions of the mvnad molecules of the gas at that point ; 
it is the kinetic energy of the molecules striking against each other 
and the sides of the enclosure, which in this case is the surface of 
the mercury in the cistern of the instrument. If the barometer 
moves with respect to the general mass of the gas there is a change 
in the pressure on the mercurial surface, although there may be 
none in the general mass of the free gas, and a barometer giving 
correctly the pressure of the air at rest within a room will give a 
different indication if the instrument or the air is set in rapid motion 
so that the air strikes violently against it. If the barometer moves 
with the air it will indicate the elastic pressure within the air 
When the wind blows against an obstacle the air pressure is increased 
slightly on the windward side and diminished on the leeward side. 
It IS thus obvious that in determining the pressure within the free 
atmosphere the exposure of the barometer must be carefully con- 
sidered. The influence of a gale of wind is to raise the elastic 
pressure within a room whose window faces to the windward, but 
to tower the pressure if the window faces to the leeward. The 
influence of the draught up chimney, produced by the wind blowing 
over its summit, is to lower the pressure within the room. The 
maximum effect o! the wind in raising the pressure is given by the 
formula, P—Pg =0-000 038 J X V, where the prewure i» given 



lAPPARATOS AND METHODS 

in inches and the vetoctty in rnile^ per hovi-- Tliis uaouflEi It 
about one-tenth of an inch in a So-m. wind* and to neuty (qb^ 
tenths in a loo-in- wind. The diminuiian by a leenfll viaAiv 
or a draught up chimney is u«uat]y less than this araeual. Tlii 
alieraiii^fi m pre$sure» due to the local effect of miodt doa m 
belong to the frw atmosphere but to the method of expeinR d 
the t^ritjmetcr, and can be diminated only by methods fiM d^ 
»cribed by Abbe in iSSj; it t& a very different trtattcr from ikt 
gcneial diminution oi pnes&ure in the atmoiiphcre productd bjf lit 
movement of the wind over a roidting earth and by the centnfi^ 
force within a vortex. The Utter is an atmxHpheric phcnOBCMiL 
independent of instruments and loraliiVt wbk:1i ifi hurricasb IM 
tornadoei may amount to several inchts of ihe inercurial tddiL 
It is, however,, quite rommon to fiftd in the conitrtuous recdf^rf 
pressure during a hurricane evidence of tf>C fact that the low ( 
due to the hurricane and the special diminutii^n due to the el , 
of the barometer arc combiried toecth<;;» &o that when the 
centre of a hurricane parses ovQt a section the pre^une tempdmiff 
rises by the amount due to the sudden Stoppage of the wiod tm 
the local exposure effect. 

The other sourcei of error that give rise to discrepannei tl 
meteoro]of;ica.1 work relate to the temperature of the ir 
-the &lug:g[4hness of the movement of the mcmury, and the 
Urfv secular changes in the correction for capillarity, due ( 
to the changes in the condition of the surfaces ol the gLus aad tli 
mercury, especially those that are cx|K}«^ to the open air. Tilt 
interitational comparisons of barometers show that disciepudd 
exist between the best normals or standard i^ and that ordiAllI 
baromtterK must always be compared with su^h standards at lit 
tempcraturL-i and pressures for which they an; to be used^ 

Anemometer. — The wind is meAsurFrl dlber by means d itt 
preutire i^ainst any obstacle or by revolving appantm tbtf 
gives some Idea t>f the velocity of lis movemeni. The pfcnaM 
is &uppo«cd to interest the engineer and navigator, bat th 
velocity is the fundamental meteorologkal datum; In fact, 
the pressure of the wind varies with the nature of the oiBtsdi^ 
the method of exposure» the density ol the iir, and cvm tk 
mass of rain carried along with it* 

Pressure am^mometfri date from the pendulotn Cablet 
by Sir Christopher Wren about 1*67, and *tich pfUH 
continue to be u»ed in an improved form by Rusoan 

Normal pfessgre platti art used at a few English and C ^_— 

stationSf I'he windmill anemometers devijcd by Schoter >■ 
Wokmann were modified by Combes and CaselLa so a4 lo inl4lt 
evcecdlrigty dtlicate instrument for laboratory use; arkother mvS^ 
cation hy Richard is extensively used by French ob^emn. Il 
the early part of the iqth century Edge worth dc vised and T 
perfected a windmitl system in which hemispherical cups ._ 
arounrl a vertka! axis, and these have come into general tiK m 
Europe and America- Many studies have been made of tbe coa 
riitio between the velocity of the wind and the rotatkws d rti 
Robln^n anemometer. The factnor j is usually adopted and i^ 
corponiTcd into the mechanism of the apparatua^ but m mlii ii f 
circumstifice* this factor is entirety too lar^, tnd the racow 
velociEicsare thcrefonr too Urge. The whirling cup* do 
with any simple relation to the velocity of the wind, even 
this is perfectly steady. The relation varies with the ^' 
of the cups and arms and the speed of the wind, bat 
with the sttsaditicsa or futtuicsa o( the wind. The c 
must alw^iya be determined cxpedcncDUllv for each specific tyiitj 
instrument t in roo*t Instninucntt in actuiil uio the factor tor 
wi nd varici between 1*^ and 2 -6* When I hv wind i* gx*5ty the 11 . . 
of inertia of the moving parts of the instrument ncceseiiiiid ■ 
appreciable correction! thu** when the gunt is at iu hei^hl tl 
volving parti nxeive an impetus that la&ts afier the gust ha* 
down, BO chat the actual i-clocity of the cups is too hi^h,. 
this leason, also, compariM>ns and studies ol aHmomrters pu 
the irrei^ular natural wind* ol a Iree air are un^iatUfactory. fir 
the average natural and eUTty winds at Washington, D.C^ *wl 
Mount Wa^hington^ NJIk and the small type of Rd' 
anemometer used in the U S- Weather Bureau Service. Fsxdi 
F, Rl;irvin deduced the table {*« p. a 75) lor reduction from r. . 
to true velocity. This table involves the moment of inertia <Sf 
rcwtlvirij; parts of the insirument and the gustiness of the 
at Washinnion, and will therefofe* of course, not a^ply itrirtir 




blthei[ 



Qthcr types of instruments or winds, for which specu 
be made^ 

About ]i4J a commiftee of the American Academy of AxUJ 
Sciences experi mental 1) determin*^, for a lar^e variety dt t"^' 
rjips, or cowls, or hoods, the amount of suction that prr^ 
draug^ht up a chimney, and shortly akerwardu a similar i 
rnadf^a similar inveitit;ation at Philadelphia (see Proc. Amv, 
I. J.07, and Journal of FraKtiin twilitvir, iv. rot )- The* iQ 
gationa showed that the open end of the chimney^ actiflf ta I 
obstacle in tbr wirid, is covered by a layer of air mffvf" * 
rapidly than the free air at a little distance, And that 
between ttiti layer and the aperture of the chiouiey tlicr* k a 1 



n> METHODS] 



METEOROLOGY 



275 



Mietric preHurc U Ics^ than in tbt neighbDuring 
osht up ihc chimney is due to the pmsuri: ol rh« 
n or prcpibcc^ pu&liinf up tht Rljc into thit rir^on 
luUe as much a* k ii due tr.> the buoyancy of the 
the flu*. From «utb expi;rimenii as tNew there 
d tbc VEfticHl frtict ion-tub? anctnomciert aa devised 
fiy, n^invtntcd by Haeectiann in tSjb, and jniro- 
isd by DiDo. In hit AfeteerQic^icoJ Appafniui 

ff fj^f Rtdstttion of tWcif ifiVjTr frtfH ^> She tmoU- 
^ishimi^S A fuifiumtiar in gusty windM^ 



True V^docity 


^ 


! f 


J 


* 


s 


b 


r 


ft 


« 


„ 








—. 


51 


6q 


6-9 


7a 


&J 


:j 


fiM 


11-1 


129 


UW 


r4& 


15-4 


ja? 


170 


'9 4 


30 J2 


31 


2l'H 


33 -6 


J.\-4 


J43 


34-9 


~fl 


^7-5 


3S0 


?i$et 


39' ft 


303 


^i* 


JIH 


3? 'ft 


-I 


.H^ 


J5'<* 


J*»3 


371 


37H 


3»'S 


J9'3 


400 


\1 


43' 


430 


437 


44-4 


45 1 


4S^ 


4(>6 


47-3 


■7 


40 4 


yij 


509 


5t6 


5J'J 


5.10 


S^t 


54 '5 


■9 


g:S 


57 3 


,S»'r) 


Sil7 


S9-4 


to 1 


^jO^ 


bt5 


^ 


643 


6iQ 


65*1 


trf>'4 


bri 


67.H 


6«5 


■" 




— 


" 


— 


— 


— 




^' 



LihinfTton, 1SB7) Abbe givu-* the theory ol thh 
recii and develops ihe f^ficFwing additional form^^ 
it wVioic iipcrtun» are i^^pectively direct i^d to the 
^ leeward, ^nd wiLhin which dnc two independent 
,he means of determining the bjiromrlric pressure 
riisure and minus the wind pmturc re^prctivdy, 
veiviiy of the wind and the true bbrofnetric 
etermiwd- If instead of a iimpJe opcninv at the 
r pUce iNnre horiionialSy the contracied Venturi'i 
I ifiaKimum wind effect, which. £ive» an accurst te 
find velocity, and i* the form TecommendKl by 
prw-ement on vhat oC Arson. In *tl aneniDnictcrii 
K'tiaof the moving p^rtK i« reduced no a minimuniH 
lent of rapid cHatibcs \ti velocity «ind of \hc mayih 
I ^ujts becomes Teasibic, On the nthcr hand, 
uvc shown hcpw to expose A b^icimeter »o tUstt 
om I hi? dynamic or wind effect even in 3 gale- 
plaeeii within a room or box that is connected 
by a lube that end^ in a pair of pjrjUcI plane 
? vind blciw$ past, ihc end of ihi« tul>e it flcurt 
itei in ittady linear mc^Eion, and cjn produce 
pea^ure at the mouth ol the tube if the pljtc5 
diiktanre apart. This condition ol stable flow, as 
«rmanent flaw, wa* fir>t defined hy Sir William 
>lvin) (see PhiL Mat. ^Pt i^^7h Such a pair 
plates can easily be applied to a lube Krewed 
It the back of any anerf>id barometer, and thui 
poc of the influence of the wind, 
nufe ol the anemometer, no uniform rules have 
?d. Since the wind is tubject to csceedingly Brrat 
he obsidclcs near the Rround, an obscrvir wiho 
e of the wind by noticing all tiiat goes on over 
ml him ha» some advantage o^er an instrument 
cd the wind preVtiiling at one spot. The prjctice 
ler Bureau has bcco to insist u|K>n the perfectly 
I ancfuometers Ai high as am poi^^ibh te attained 
rec* and hills; but, of courK, in such case* they' 
n elevated pdnt and not for the around. Tht.-^ 
jrecibcly appropriate for use in local climrti'jlogicil 
EMt (leedt'd iot !^eT>eral dynamic mcitnrolopy, and 
i&on with the isubars and the movemeois uf the 
he daily we^thet map, 

^foiaiun: floats in the atmosphere either as 
ir at visible haze, mist and cloud. The prestnce 
Tally asr^ures us thai the air h fully saturated. 
I of both visible and invisible vapoiif contained 
r of cloud or mist is direclly de'crmiFLtd by 
r or Svcnson hygromjlcr, or il mi^y be asccr- 
ng a definite portloti of the ;itr and fog and 
tision of the vapour by Edctmann's apparalui^. 
lods, however H are in praciitre operi to many 
If only invisible aqueous vapour is pre^^jn 
ne Us amount by w viral mtlhoils: [uj I be 
, by abwrhing and weighing it; (ft) I he dcw^ 
y Ltpoling I he air down lo ihe temperature 
311 begins; (0 Eddmann's method, by abwurbinfi 
rnkaJly uid micasunj?^ the chuogo iti v^po^t j 



tension; (i) by adding vapour untfl the air is saturated, 
and measuring either the increased tension or the quantity of 
evaporation; (e) the psychrometric method, by determining the 
temperature of evaporation. 

The wet -bulb thermometer, which is the essential feature of the 
last method, was used by Baumi in 1758 and de Saussure in 1787, 
but merely as giving an index of the dryness of the air. The correct 
theory of its action was elaborated by many early investigators: 
Ivory. 1822; August, 1825; Apjohn. 1834; Belli. 1838: Regnault, 
1845. From the last date until recent years no important progress 
was made in our knowledge of the subject, and it was supposed 
that the psychrometer was necessarily crude and unsatisfactory; 
but in its modern form it has become an instrument of much greater 
orecision, probably quite as trustworthy as the dew-point apparatus 
or other method of determining atmospheric moisture. In order 
to secure this accuracy the two bulbs must be of the same sise. 
style and sensitiveness; the wet bulb must be covered with thin 
muslin saturated with pure water; both thermometers must be 
whirled or ventilated rapidly, but at the definite prearranged rate 
for which the tables of reduction have been computed: and, finally, 
both thermometers must be carefully sheltered against obnoxious 
radiations. In order to attain these conditions European observers 
tend to adopt Assmann's ventilated psychrometer, but American 
observers adopt Arago's whirled psychrometer, set up within an 
ordinary thermometer shelter. By either method the dew-point 
lihould be determined with an ii<.<. . " , .. ..',. .,,-.. C. 

or two ten I hi F. Aa a crude ap[>ri]KPFTt.jtpnT», wc Tn.iy ii^Mime 
that the temperature of the dew'^point is bcli^w the temperature 
of the wet butb as far as that i± below the dry bulb- A Greater 
accuracy can be attained by the lue of Ferrers or Marvin's psychro- 
metric tat^li^s or Groa««iman'B formula. But the v^pciur ten-^ioa 
over ice and over water as measured by Marvin and by Juhlio tnuit 
be carefully distinguished and allowerl for. The ^miEhv^niafl 
McteornliwiL^al Table* (ed- of 1908) and the new psycbnftmeter 
tables by Bjcrktland fur ictnperatOfCS' below frerfing ( Christ iania, 
190^) reprcvt-nt the present condition of our kuowtedic of this 
subjects GUisher dediKed empirically fnim a isj^t moss of ob* 
ccrvaLion$ certain factors for computing the dew-point, but these 
do not represent the accuracy that on be attained with the whirted 
psychrometer, nor are they thoroughly satisfactory when used 
with Reg ftiu It's table* and the (tationiary psychrometer. Esperially 
should their use fee discarded when the wet bulb i» greatly depreswd 
bctow the dry bulb and the atmofphere correspondingly dry. For 
occasional uw ut ttitloni, and especially for daiTy use by traveller! 
and explorers. notbinEi: can exceed the convenience and accuracy 
of the sling psychrometer, especially if the bulbs are protected 
from radiation by a slight covering of non-conducttne material, 
or even metal, ai was done by Craig in ]866-ttt&g for tne stationt 
of the U.S. Army Surgeon-Generah The hatr hyE">mcter givei 
directly the relative humidity or the ratio between the motstun 
in the air and that which it would contain if Katurated- The 
very best forms perform very well for a time, and are strongly 
recommended by Pcrnter. and must be used in self-recording 
apparatus for balloons and kites; they are standardized by com- 
parison with the ventilated psychrometer, which itself must be 
dependent on the standard dew-point apparatus. 

Rain and Snow Gauge. — The simple instrument for catching 
and measuring the quantity of rain, snow or hail that falls 
upon a definile horizontal area consists essentially of a vertical 
cylinder and the measuring apparatus. The receiving mouth 
of the cylinder is usually terminated by a cone or funnel, so that 
the water running down through the funnel and stored in the 
cylinder is protected from evaporation or other loss. The 
cylinder is firmly attached to the ground or building, so that 
the mouth is held permanently at a definite altitude. 

The sources of error in its use are the spattering into it from the 
ground or neighbouring objects, and the loss due to the fact that 
when the wind blows against the side of the cylinder it produces 
eddies and currents that carry away drops that would otherwise 
fall into the mouth, and even carries out of the cylinder drops 
that have fallen into it. As a consequence all the ordinary rain- 
gauges catch and measure too little rainfall. The deficit increases 
with the strength of the wind and the smallness or lightness of 
the raindrops and snowflakes. If we assume that the correct 
rainfall is given by a gauge whose mouth is flush with the level of 
the ground and is surrounded by a trench wide enough to prevent 
any spatter, then, on the average of many years and numerous 
ol)scrvations with ordinary rain-gauges in western Europe, and for 
the average character of the rain in that region and the average 
strength of the attending winds, the deficit of rain caught by a 
rain-gauge whose mouth is i metre above the ground is 6% of the 
proper amount; if its elevation is I ft. above ground, the deficit 
will be 3} %. This deficit increases as the gauges are hi^Kec ^Vjom^ 
the ground in proportion approx\maie\'y lo \.\\<& w\\vax^ tocA c\ >X«ft 
a/fitudc, provided that they are luW'y cxxxwed xo \Y« Vivcreaafc «k 
wind that prevails at lho« alUtude^. U » wd«ax >3d»X «»w»^ w 



276 



METEOROLOGY 



(APPARATUS AND II 



altitudes of 5 or 10 ft. the records become appredably discrepant 
from those obtained at the surface of the ground. Tne following 
table shows in the last column the observed ratio between the 
catches of gauges at various altitudes and those of the respective 
standards at the level of the ground. Unfortunately, there are no 
records of the force of the wind to go with these measurements; 
but we know that in general, and on the average of many years, 
corresponding with those here tabulated, the velocity of the wind 
increaies very nearly as the square root of the altitude. Although 
this deficit with increasing altitude has been fully recognized tor 
a century, yet no effort has been made until recent years to make 
a proper correction or to eliminate this influence 01 the wind at 
the mouth of the gauge. Professor Joseph Henry, about 18^0, 
recommended to the observers of the Smithsonian Institution the 
use of the " pit-gauee." About 1858 he recommended a so-called 
shielded gauge, namely — a simple cylindrical gauge 2 in. in diameter, 
having a wide horizontal sheet of metal like the rim of an inverted 
hat soldered to it. This would undoubtedly diminish the obnoxious 
currents of air around the mouth of the gauge, but the suggestion 
seems to have been overlooked by meteorologists. In 1878 Prof. F. E. 
Nipher of St Louis, Missouri, constructed a much more efficient 
shield, consisting of an umbelliform screen of wire-cloth having 
about sixty-four meshes to the souare inch. This shield seems to 
have completely annulled the clashing, and to have broken up 
the eddies and currents of wind. With Nipher's shielded ^uges 
at different altitudes, or in different ntuations at the same altitude, 
the rain catch becomes very nearly uniform; but the shield is not 
especially good for snow, which piles up on the wire screen. Since 
1885 numerous comparative observations have been made in Europe 
with the Nipher gauge, and with the " protected gauge " devised 
by Boernstem, who sought to prevent injurious eddies about the 
mouth of the gauge by erecting around it at a distance of a or ^ ft. 
an open board fence with its top a little higher than the mouth of 
the gauge. The boards or slats are not close together, but apparently 
afford as good a protection as the shield of Professor Nipher. and 
give good results with both snow and rain. 

Altitude and Rdative Catch of Ratn. 



SituaLLan and Size of Gaii,^. 



Calne. s-in. aud S-in. . . , 
CaittciDn, 5-in. and fi^in^ . 
Ri^thcrhiim, 5-111, .... 
St Pcicrsiburg; Central Physical 
Ob«crvator>, io-lel , ^ ^ 

London: WcEtniLDater Abbey 
EincJ*n + + ,..,, 
St Pttcmbuff : Central Phyii- 

cal Obiervatory , - _ . 
YofkE Mu«um . , . . . 
Cikuttas Alipore Observatory 
Wood&lde ; \Valton'On-Tha mcs 
Philadelphia: Franklord 

Ar«nal ...... 

ShecrntBs: WaterwDrki 
Whitehaven : St Jamc»*s 

Church * 

St Pt'tertbuff t Central Phy^ial 

ObKrv-jiiory ... 
Paris: Astranomkat Observi- 



tory ....... 

Du IjI I n : M onkftQ wn 
Oxford; Radcllffe Obsrrvalory 
Cupjcnh.'igcn: Oliwrvalory 
LonHoo 2 W*?*tmiristcr Abbey , 
Chr^icr: L^dworks , , 
Wolvcrhs m ptcin ; Wa icrworkt 
York Minuter 
Bo*foii;St Botolph's CbiiTrh 



Ytars of 
Record, 



8 
4 
I 

3 
3 
3 

7 



Altitude^ 



Metres, 
ft* 



1 


6a 


3 


86 


4 


81 


S 


H 


6 


a* 


9-1 


77 


11 


72 



IS 

ts 

t5 



n 

it 

46 
49 
55 
6S 
77 



R<rlarive 
Catch. 



% 



68 
80 
«7 
7J 

95 
5i 

66 
59 

59 
67 
ST 
6[ 
69 
6G 
47 



In general it is now conceded by several high authorities that 

the measured rainfall must be corrected for the influence of the 

wind at the gauec, if the latter is not annulled by Nipher's or 

Boernstcin's methods. A practicable method of measuring and 

allowing for the influence of the wind, without introducing any very 

hazardous hypothesis, was explained by Abbe in 1888 (see Symons's 

MeUorologiccd Magazine for 1880, or the U.S. Monthly Weather 

Review for 1899). This method consists simply in establishing 

near each other several similar gauges at different heights above 

the ground, but in otherwise similar circumstances. On the 

assumption that for small elevations the diminution of the wind. 

like that of the rainfall, is very nearly in proportion to the square 

root of the altitude, the difference between the records for two 

different altitudes may be made the basis of a calcalatton which 

fv^ d»e comctioa to be applied to the record of the lower g^ufe, 



in Dfder la obtain the rainfall that would have been < 
were no wind* It is only when the catch of the L _ 
properly corrupted for the effect of the wind on the gauf 
obtain n lumbers that are proper to serve for the purtKM 
minini; tIic variation of the rainfall with altitude ».na lo 
in.rtLi4 !', . r f ests and the periodical changes of climate. 
of nil ' dew, frost, hail, sleet, glaUeif and othei 

pr4L^i|M..: ., till remain to be devised; each of these ha 
modyn^mic importance and must eventually enter 
ralciil.iiioTij(. 

It has been common to consider that the rain-gauge 
properly Lsed on ships at sea, owing to the rolling and | 
the vc&4el and the interference of masts and rigging; bu 
are mauntHl on gimbals, so as to be as steady as th 
mariner'^ compass, their records will be of great ii 
EjcpcFirtitnt^l work of this sort was done by Mohn, and 
in iSilJ by Priifessor Frank Waldo; but the roost extensi 
haa t^ta ihn o( Mr W. G. Black (see Journal Manchester G 
Si^iifty, ]S9g, vol. xiv.), which satisfactorily demons 
prattkabiliiy and importance of the marine rain-gauge. 

Evaporoaieter. — The moisture in the atmosphere cc 
I he surface of the earth or ocean by evaporation, 
which go^ on continually, replacing the moisture tt 
cipiiated u rain, hail, snow and dew, and mainu 
total quantity of the moisture in the atmosphere at a vei 
figure. The rate of evaporation depends on the tci 
I he drync!S5, and the velocity of the wind. It is not so 
to meteorologists to know where the moisture come 
to know ils amount in the atmosphere, and in fact i 
bu yet been devised for determining bow much 
is ^vcn up by any specific portion of the earth, or 
forest. Out evaporometers measure the quantity ol 
given of! by a specific surface of water, but it is so « 
maintain this water under conditions the same as 
nature that no conclusions can be safely deduced as to 
evaporation from natural surfaces. The proper met* 
use of these evaporometers is, as integrating hygro 
give the average humidity of the air, the psychromi 
the conditiiunH prevailing at any moment. 

Among the many forms of evaporometer the most 
14 thAC tkviitd by Piche, which may be so constructed a 
ceedingly accurate. The Piche evaporometer consists 
of atlatfi tube, whose upper end is closed hermetically 
the To«cr end is covered by a horixontal disk of bibul 
whitb h kfpt wet by absorption from the water in the 
tbe water rv:iporates its descent in the tube is observi 
the volume evaporated in a unit of time becomes knowi 
as tbe paper remains clean, and the water is pure-, the 
the instrument depend entirely upon the evaporating • 
drynei» c^ the air, and the velocity of the wind. Ca 
pari^ni between the Piche and the various forms c 
cvnpofomeitri^ were made by Professor Thomas Rusad 
multj were published in the U.S. Monthly Weather 
September (flS8 pp. 235-239- By placing the Piche 
upon a tflt^ whirling machme he was able to show th 
the T<ind up^n the amount of evaporation. This import 
enabled him to explain the great differences rerordi 
apparatus ei^ubUshed at eighteen Weather Bureau stati 
upon tbew rifsults; he prepared a table of relative e 
K-ithin thermometer shelters at all stations. The actui 
tbui from ground and water in the sunshine may run 
thcw, but cjnnot be accurately computed. It is pro 
ProfrSMr Ru^hcH's computations are smaller than the e% 
from shallow bodies of water in the sunshine, but larg< 
deep bodies, like the great lakes, and for running river 
elaborate studies of evaporation have been undertaker 
and in South Africa-^but perhaps the most interesting < 
in southern California. Here the Colorado river, havi 
throug^h IfK liounds. emptied itself into a great natural 
and fyrrprf] the so-called " Salton Sea." about 80 m. lor 
Afid [oa ft. deep, before it could be brought under con 
Ka is nciw i^ahted. and will, it is hoped, dry up in eight 01 
Meanwhile the U.S. Weather Bureau has establishc 
number of evaporation stations in and around it, 
begun the j>Tudy not only of the relation between e^ 
wind and temperature, but of the eventual dispositi 
evaporatiDa throughout the atmosphere in the neighb 
the Ha (nee the Reports of Professor F. H. Bigelo 
Munihly IVeather RevtetB, 1907-1909, as also the elaboi 
^r^Lphy ol evaporation in the same volumes). Alt 
influence of the evaporation on local climate is scarcely i 
to OUT hyp^romctric apparatus, yet it is said to be so in tl 
ment and ripening and drying of the dates raised on 

. governownt enperunental *' date farm " • few milea oc 

\ tbe%a^totL^«^ 



RATUS AND METHODS) 



METEOROLOGY 



277 



iMfiofc— Hie directioa and apparent velocity of the 
I of a doud are best observed by means of the nephoscope, 
has now become a necessary item in the outfit of any 
■IB meteorological station. Among the various forms 
instrument are the nephodoscope of Fomioni, the marine 
icope of Fineman, the simple mirror with attachments 
t>y Clayton, the cloud camera of Vettin, and the alt- 
ths of Mohn and Let try. The most perfect form for 
1 land is that devised by Professor Marvin in 1896 for 
f.S. Weather Bureau stations (see fig. 2); while the 
caovcnient for use at sea is that devised and used 




Fig. 2. — Marvin's Ncphoscopc. 

iSg by Professor Abbe on the cruise of the U.S. ship 
sacola" to the west coast of Africa, but first described 
e report of the International Meteorological Congress 
it Chicago in August 1893. 

ooostruction of this instrument is shown in figs. 3. 4. 5. In 
it the (^server looks down upon a horizon^ mirror and 
es the reflection of the doud. Bv movine his eye he brings 
body point into coincidence with the reflection of a small 
nhoical knob K above the mirror, and keeps the images 
knob and the cloud coincident as they pass from the centre 
mirror to its edge. This line of motion shows the azimuth of 
riaontal component of the cloud's motion. The course of 
■kI is shown by the compass card and lubber line AF seen 
the mirror. Tne apparent angular velocity of the cloud, as 
ki be if the cloud started from the zenith, is obtained by 
ag the seconds that 1 1 ! [ ■. 1 . '-.i ■ -i m:. j- , ■.■■■ frcpm the centre 
edge, or to a small cjrc:lc iii'Mifltjc-L:! v^'ithin the ^j^c. With 
I's nephoscopc two obKrvcn a short distaiicc ^ipart may easily 
ine tne apparent altituttp, and,ax:imuth, and motion o( any 
whence its true altiEude and velocity may be dainputcd. 
lien the ob server usca Abbe'i maritie npphaicope on A vct^vcl 
m kself in motion he obf^rvea thr rciuknanc ol his own motion 
at of the cloud. If hts v«acl is under hij con trot, «> that 
r change its velocity or din?ction at wilU he ea&ily determines 
mitant for two dint'rrnt courwra, and obtains data by which 
1 to calculate the icaJ altitude and velocity of the cloud 



as of his own velocity. An the marine ntphofcopc can b? 
B a wagon moving rapidly over a smooth road, or in a small 
I a smooth pond, almoit jj wvli as on n lirg}er se^-eoing vesset, 
mes an instrument of universal applicatton for doud iCudy. 
so equally convenient for obierving the positions of aurprai, 
netcors, and other spHial phtrnomena. ror the international 
mdertaken during the yc^r tiUjH the photographic camcn 
Aed upon an alt-azcenuth mounting, or the w-c^itlcd photo- 
neter, was especially developcf). In this apparatus photo- 
of the clouos are taken simulraneou^ly at two or more 
s, and in each case the centre of the photographic ptate has 
itode and azimuth detet-mlned. From this centre one can 
le on the plate the additional angles required in order to fix, 
ituffe and azimuth of any point that is photographed, and 
lie dimensions of the uhnfe vi^sf^l*! tluutl and its int<.Tn,il or 
BtiaJ motions can be >'-= r '!'-:' I . ■ 1: ^■i-i.'" 

r the years 1 896-1 898 at)out twenty stations were occupied 
bout the worid for the purpose of determining accurately 
itudes and motions of every layer of cloud. 

skime Recorder. — ^The ordinary meteorological record 
es the im>portion of sky that appears to be covered with 

Of the so-called cloudiness, usually expressed in tenths. 
bserver generally confines his attention to that portion 

sky within sixty degrees of the zenith, and ignores the 
jBomt, since the douds that are foimd therein are often 



at so great a distance from Um that their record is not supposed 
to bdong to his locality. As the cloudiness — or its reciprocal, 
the sunshine — is supposed to be the most important item in 
agricultural climatology, and b certainly very important for 
d3mamic meteorology, it is usually considered desirable to obtain 
more complete records than are given by only one or two 
specified hours of observation. To this end ai^>arattis for 
recording sunshine, or, rather, the effect of cloudine», is widely 
adopted. At least three forms are worth describing as being 
extensively used. 

The Jordan pkotogra^kic sunskine recorder consists of a cylinder 
enclosing a sheet of sensitive paper; the sun's nys penetrate through 
a small aperture, and describe a path from sunrise to sunset, which 
appears on this sheet after it has been properly washed with the 
fixmg solution. Any interruption in this path, due to cloudiness 
or haze, is of course deariy shown, and gives at once the means of 
estimabna what percentage of the day was clear and what ck>udy. 
The modified form of the instrument devised by ProfesscM* Marvin 
has been used for many years at about forty Weather Bureau stations, 
but the original construction is still employed by other observers 
throughout the worid. The Stokes-Campbell recorder consists of a 
globe of glass acting as a burning-glass. A sheet of pasteboard or 
a block of wood at the rear receives the record, and the extent of 
the chanina gives a crude measure of the percentage of full or strong 
sunshine. Many of these instruments are used at stations in Great 
Britain and the British cok>nies. The Marvin Ikermometric suiukitie 
recorder consists of a thermometer tube, having a black bulb at the 
lower end and a bright bulb at the other. The excess of temperature 
in the black bulb causes a thread of mercury to move upwards, and 
for a certain standard difference of temperature of about 5* F., such 
as would be produced by the sun shining through a very thin cloud 
or haze, a record b made by an electric cunest on a revolving dnim, 
and simply shows when during the day sunshine of a certain inten- 
sity prevailed, or was prevented by cloudiness. D. T. Maring, in 
the u^. Monthly Weather Reeiew lor 1897, described an ingenious 
combination of uie thermometer and the photographic register of 
cloudiness which is worthy of further development. It gives both 
the quantity of cloudiness and intensity of the sunshine on some 
arbitrary relative scale. 

The intensity of the sunshine, as sometimes employed in general 
agricultural studies, is crudely shown by Viollc's conjugate bulbs* 
wnich are thin copper balb about ^ in. in diameter, one of them 
being blackened on the outside and tne other gilded. When exposed 
to the sunshine the difference in temperature of the two bulos in- 
creases with the' intensity of the sunshine, but as the difference is 
dependent to a considerable extent on the wind, the Violle bulbs 
have not found wide appUcation. The Arago-Davy actinoroeter, 
or bright and black bulbs in vacuo, constitutes a decided improve- 
ment upon the Violle bulbs, in that the vacuous space surrounding 
the thermometers diminishes the effect of the wind. The physical 
theory involved in the use of the Araeo-Davy actinometer was fully 
developed by Ferrel, and he was able to determine the coefficient 
of absorption of the earth's atmosphere and other data, thereby 
showing that this apparatus has considerable pretensions to accuracy. 
In using it as contemplated by Arago and Davy and by Professor 
Ferrel, we read simply the stationary temperature attained by the 
bright and black thermometers at any moment, whereas the best 
method in actinometry consists in alternately shading and exposing 
any appropriate apparatus so as to determine the total effect of the 
solar radiation in one minute, or some shorter unit of time; thiai 
method of using the Arago- Davy actinometer was earnestly recom- 
mended by Abbe in 1883, and in fact tried at that time; but the 
apparatus and records were unfortunately burned up. This so-called 
dynamic, as distinguished from the static, method was first applied 
by Pouillet in 1838 in using his pyrheliometer, which was the first 
apparatus and method that gave approximate measures of the 
radiant heat received from the sun. In order to improve upon 
Pouillet's work more delicate apparatus has been constructed, out 
the fundamental methods remain the same. Thus AngstrOm has 
applied both Langley's bolometer and his own still more sensitive 
thermoelectric couple and balance method ; Violle uses his absolute 
actinometer, consisting of a most delicate thermometer within a 

goHshed metal sphere, whose temperature is kept uniform by the 
ow of water; while Crova, with a thermometer within an enclosure 
of uniform temperature, claims to have attained an accuracy of one 
part in a thousand. Chwolson has reviewed the whole subject 
of actinometry, and has shown the greater delicacy of his own ap- 
paratus, consisting of two thin plates alternately exposed to and 
shielded from suiishine. whose differences of temperature are 
measured by electric methods. 

As none of the absolute methods for determining the solar radia- 
tion in units of heat lend themselves to continuous registration, it 
is important to call attention to the possibility of accomplishing 
this by chemical methods. The best of these appears to oe lV^\ 
devised by Marchand. by the use o( a devkft "^tvv:^ \vt caS\* >^^ 
Phot-antitupimeter. In this tV\e actxotv ell lV« wxt^nsj^cvX. '^^^^ 
solution of ferric-oxalate and cUlonde ol vron>5Jowax<% cw^JoxflR *oa 



278 



METEOROLOGY 



gas,- the amount of which can be measured either continuously or 
every hour; but in its present form the apparatus is affected 1^ 
several serious sources of error. 




Fid. 3. — ^Abbe's Marine Nephoacope. Horizontal Projection of 

Mirror. 
The electric compensation pyrheliometer, as invented by Knut 
Angstr6m {Ann. Phys., 1899). offers a simple method of determin- 
ing accurately the quantity of radiant energy. He employs two 
blackened platinum surfaces, one of which receives the radiations to 




Fig. 4. — Abbe's Marine Nephoacope. Horizontal Projection of 
Compass, 
be measured, white the other is heated by an electric current. The 
difference of temperature between the two disks is determined by 
a thermocouple, and they are supposed to receive and lose the ume 
amount of energy when their temperatures arc the same. A Hefner 



I 



Section 



,on line a' V 



TTTTI 



11 




Fio. 5.— Abbe's Marine Nephoscopc. Vertical Section. 

bmp is used as an intermediate standard source of radiation, and 

ahemate observations on any other source of radiant heat give the 

meaaa of determiniug their relation to each other. By means of 

tmcf aucb matnimeata AagatrOm aecured aimultaocous oWrvalions 



(APPARATUS AND III 



on the intensty of the solar radiation at two points. res| 
360 and 33sa metres above sea-level, and determined thi 
of heat absorbed by the intermediate atmosphere. An 
of i-iooo appears to be attainable, and this apparatus » 1 
widely used. The records of 1901-1905 have already givi 
the belief that there is a vanation in our insolation t 
eventually be traced back to the sun's atmosphere. 

Meteorograph. — ^The numerous forms of apparatus 
to keep frequent or continuous register of the prevailing 
temperature, moisture, wind, rainfall, sunshine, eva 
and other phenomena are instruments that belong i 
to meteorology as distinguished from laboratory physic 
apparatus may be broadly divided into several classes 1 
as the records are obtained by the help of photogi 
electricity, or by direct mechanical action. The p 
tendency at present is in favour of apparatus in « 
work of the recording pen is done by a falling weigh 
action is timed and limited by the making and breaking < 
currents by the meteorological apparatus proper. 1 
serious defect in such instruments, even when kept 
working order, is a want of sensitiveness comroensui 
the desired openness of scale. It is very importan 
fraction of a minute of time should be as recognizable as c 
of a degree of temperature; one thousandth of an 
barometric pressure, and velocities of one hundred i 
hour, as well as rapid changes in all these elements, 
measurable. But instruments whose scales are large e; 
record all these quantities are usually so sluggish m 
time that the comparison of the records is very unsati 
In order to study the relationships between tempoi 
fleeting phenomena, it is necessary that all instrumeni 
record upon the same sheet of paper, so that the same ti 
will answer for all. 

The instruments that respond most nearly to the gene 
of meteorology are the various forms of meteorograph: 
bv Wild for use at St Petersburg, by Sprung and Fuess f 
Hamburg and Berlin, and by Marvin for Washinf^ton. TI 
graphic systems for pressure and temperature mtroduc 
years a^o at stations m Great Britain and the British col 
not quite adequate to present needs. The ponable 1 
manufactured by Richard Frdrcs at Paris is in use at a >i 
number of land stations and on the ocean, and by givir 
care to regular control-observations of time, pressure and 
ture, important results may be obtained ; but in general 
scales arc too small, and the unknown sources of error too i 
to warrant implicit reliance upon the records. 

Polarimeter. — ^Thc brightness and blueness of the s 
and especially its polarization, have been observ 
increasing interest, as it seems possible from these de 
ascertain something with regard to the condition and 
of the moisture of the air. With a simple Nicol's pi 
in the hand and turned slowly about the axis of visioo 
quickly recognize the fact that the sky light is polarized, 
the polarization is largely due to the air or dust lying 
us and the clouds in the distant horizon. Arago, wit] 
delicate form of polariscope, determined the existence 
called neutral region near the sun. Babinet located 1 
point or zone about as far from the anti-sun as wu 
from the sun itself. Brewster discovered a neutral p 
the sun and horizon, disappearing when the sun is m 
15" above the horizon. Finally, Brewster explored 
sufhciently to draw lines of equal polarization, which he i 
in Johnston's Physical Atlas, and which were confii 
Zantedeschi in 1849. Since those days far more deUc 
ha5 been done — first by Bosanquet of Oxford, aften 
Prof. E. C. Pickering of Harvard University and Pro 
Wright of Yale University. A later contribution to th 
is by Jensen (sec Met. Zeit. for Oct.-Dec. 1899), 
observed the brightness as well as the polarization, 1 
completed the data necessary for testing the various 
theories that have been proposed for the explanatioi 
phenomenon. We owe to Tyndall the discovery tk 
a beam of white light penetrates a mass of fine aqoc 
the latter sends off at right angles a deUcate blue ligl 
is almost wholly polarized in a plane at right angles to 



imUtATOS AND HEIHOD^ 



METEOROLOGY 



279 



of fdkctioii. As the particles of mist grow larger, the blue 
1^ becomes whiter and the polarization disappears. The 
ocipjttl vapour particles are undoubtedly so small as to be 
eompanblc in size with a fraction of the wave-length of ordinary 
fight, and Rayleigh was able to show that molecular as well 
as minute particles must have a power of selection, and that 
tk diffused sky light comes to us by selective reflcctbn. On 
this basis we should expect that in the driest air at great heights, 
where the temperature is low and condensation has but just 
begun, and the dust particles are rare, there would occur the 
smtlest aqueous particles reflecting light of the feeblest 
intensity but the largest percenuge of polarization. Rayleigh 
has shown that it b quite possible that the molecules of oxygen 
and nitrogen constituting the atmosphere may also exercise 
a diffuse selective reflection, and contribute to the brightness 
and polarization that aie mainly due to aqueous vapours. 
(SeeSn.) 

We thus see the thftirvtiul Importantly of aiJJmG fibotornctiy 
and polarimctry to the work ol a. mtiairDlopcal obwrvatory* The 
auHntus to be used an this cxmniriioii will v^iy iorncwh:it with 
tse exact character of the observiitions 10 be cnddc The most 
extensive mcarchcs that hjve yet bocn <:arrit.>d out in this Lin? with 
a neceoroiogical appheitiryn in view are tha»:r of Tenscn, Crova, 
Corau, Pickering, Kimball „ NichoEt^ and cipccuiUy RubfrnsGn, who 
ia bet Rcommendcd that poLarimctry and photomrtry shouEd f^o 
hand in hand. In ofdet ta measure the petition of the plane of 
prfariadon the Ar£i|;o pobrisco^ may be uied, but, in onjtr to 
the perceni^iie of pobrued lights Masc^rt'i fnodification 



Wtberphott ., 

Bethodto die mcaj-urrmrnt cf thr diylight. The rcmplete worlt 
ofWnwaspublis:. ■■ i ■ •'-■ r h^^/:.-.. ■/ r',.. S" <i-\ ■ \ ■.■ r.ilctn 
of Sdileswig-Holstein in 1890, and, like the memoir published by 
Kabemoa in 1863, it gives the meteorolo^cal conditions in full as 
a ban (or the investigation of the connexion between sky light and 
tJKinsture in the atmospheie. In his work during 1906-1909 with 
Aaptrtm's pyrheliometer Mr A. H. Kimball of Washington has 
advutageousfy used the Pickering polarimcter, and has shown that 
the tran^arency of the air and the polarization of light go hand in 



Cjww««fer.— The cyanometer devised by Arago to measure 
the blueness of the sky consisted of an arbitrary scale of blues 
00 a strip of porcelain, with which one could compare the blue 
«f the sky. This comparison, however, is open to many sub- 
jective errors. A more satisfactory apparatus is Zollner's 
photometer, or some equivalent, in which a patch of white 
surface is fliuminatcd by any partictilar tint or combination 
that Bsay be desired. In fact. Maxwell's colour-box admits 
of ready application to the analysis of sky light, and reveals 
at once the proportions of red, yellow, and blue that may be 
cootaioed therein. 

IhaUaunUr. — ^The importance of observing the dustiness 
of the atmosphere has been especially realized since the invention 
and use of various forms of apparatus for counting the number 
of particles of dust in a small volume of air. These inventions 
are due to Mr John Aitken, of Edinburgh. 

The latest form of his apparatus is the very convenient " pocket 

dcrt-counter." In this the air contained in a small receiver is 

Rodered dustle» by repeated expansions; the cooling due to expan- 

sioa farces the vapour to condense upon the dust, u-nich, becoming 

heavy, fiUs to the bottom, so that m a short time all is removed. 

A snail stop-cock is now turned, so as to allow a definite small 

Qvantity at air to enter and mix with the dustlcss air in the receiver. 

■be dusty and the dustless airs are now thoroughly mixed, and 

afain the whole quanrity within the receiver is expanded, and the 

dust nudd fall down by the condensation of vapour upon them. 

Ajsaming that every particle of dust is represented by a minute 

dropiet of water, we nave but to count the latter; this is easily done 

bf earning all the drops to fall upon a polished plate of black glass. 

which tt divided into small squares by fine lines rUled with a diamond 

panL* Usually each of these squares represents a small fraction 

of a cubic centimetre of air; thus in one case the number of iog 

panicles avera^ 2-6 per square millimetre of the glass plate, and. 

*i the multiplymg factor was 100, this correspondea to 260 particles 

cf duit in a cubk centimetre of air. The-cleancst air has been found 

m the West Highlands of Scotland, where 16 particles per cub 

e^atinctre was once reomied as the minimum, while 7600 was the 

Radxnam. On the Rigi Kulm, in Switzerland, the cleanest air 

f.yt 310^ and the dustiest 16.500. On comparing the records of 1 

the daat<ountcr with the record of the apparent fUte of the tur, l 



Mr Aitken found that 500 partfcles per cubic centimetre corresponded 
to clear air, and 1900 to a thkk haze in which distant mountain 
tops were hidden. In the cities the particles of soot and eflluvta 
of all kinds act as dust, and both in London and Paris the numbers 
ran as high as 80, 1 16, 150 and 210 thousand per cubic centimetre. 

Electrical Apparatus. — ^The electrical phenomena of the atmo- 
sphere tmdoubtedly belong to meteorology, and yet the methods 
of observation have been so unsatisfactory and the diflSculty 
of interpreting the results has been so baffling that regular 
observations in electricity are only carried out at a very few 
meteorological institutions. A general summary of our know- 
ledge of the subject was prepared by J. Elster and H. Geitel 
for the International Congress held at Chicago in 1893, but 
since that date the methods and apparatus of observation 
have received important modifications. 

In general the water-dropping collector of Lord Kelvin, arranged 
for continuous record by Mascart, continues to be the best apparatus 
for continuous observation at any locality, and a portable form of 
this same apparatus is used by explorers and in special series of local 
observations. In order to explore the upper air the kite continues to 
be used, as was done by A. J. McAdie for the Weather Bureau in 1885 
and by Weber at Kiel in 1880. The difference of potential between 
the upper and lower end of a long vertical wire hanging from a 
balloon has been measured up to considerable altitudes by Elster 
and Tuma. In general it is known that ncjpitive electricity must 
be present in the up()er strata just as it is in the earth, while the 
intervening layer of air u positively electrified. The explanation of 
the origin of this condition of affairs is given in the recent researches 
of Sir J. J. Thomson iPkil. Mag., Dec 1899), and his interpretatran 





^^ 






t^- ■ ■"'■ ^r^ 


'^^^^'^f'^'C^^^ 


4 


0i 


\BM 


^^A 


1 


mm 


m 


^fe 



Fig. 6. — Marvin-Hargrave Kite, with Meteorograph in position. ; 

Is almost identkral with that now recognized by Elster (see Terrestrial 
Ma^tism, ]zxi. 1900, iv. 213). According to these results, if 
positive and negative ions exist in the upper strata and are carried 
up with the ascending masses of moist air, then the condensatran 
of the moisture must begin 6rst on the negative ions, which are 
brought down eventually to the earth's sunace; thus the earth 
receives its negative charge from the atmosphere, leaving a positive 
charge or an excess of positive ions in the middle air. (See G. C. 
Simpson, " Atmospheric Electricity," Monthly WetUher Review, Jan. 
1906, p. 16.X 

The observations of atmospherK electricity consist es&ntially iii 
determining the amount and character of the difference of potential 
between two points not very far distant from each other, as, for 
instance, the end of the pipe from which the water-drops are dis* 
charged, and the nearest point of the earth or buildings resting on 
the earth. The record may have only an extremely local value, 
thus the 'nvestigations of Professor John Trowbridge of Harvard 
University, made in conjunction with the U.S. Weather Bureau in 
1 882-1 885, show that the differences vary so much with the winds, the 
time of day, and the situation of the water-dropper that the mere 
comparison of records gives no correct idea of the general electrical 
relationships. It has been suggested that possibly daily telegrams 
of electric conditions and daily maps of cquipotcntial curves over the 
North American continent would be of help in the forecasting of 
storms, but it is diown to be useless to attempt any such system 
until some uniform normal exposure can be devised. Indeed it has 
not yet been shown that atmospheric electricity is of importance in 
dynamic meteorology. (See Atmospheric Electricity.) 

Aerial Research. — ^The exploration of the upper atmosphere is 

to be regarded as the most important field of research at the 

present time; the kite and the balk>on enable ob- 

**■ servers and apparatus to be carried to considerable 
heights, though by no means so far as is desirable. The kite 
was first used in meteorological work by Alexander Wilson 
at or near Glasgow in 1749, and bas svtvoi \.Vvwv\iCft^Vt^^^Xi>\'^ 
used by English observcts. ll "was »se^ Vsl VW>n Vi Kciofc \a. 
studying the winds under «k \X»iiiA!et^>i^> *sA ^sl 'v^Tl ">^ 



28o 



METEOROLGY 



[APPARATUS AND METHODS 



studying tlie depth oJF tbe ocean breexe on tlie coast of New 
Jersey, but the later revival of interest in the subject 
dates from tbe work done 
in England in 1882 by 
£. D. Archibald, who used 
the kite to carry up anemo- 
meters to very considerable 
heights, and thereby deter- 
mined the relative move- 
ment of the air in the free 
atmosphere. In 1883 Alex- 
ander McAdir used the kite 
in his studies of atmospheric 
electricity, Professor Cleve- 
land Abbe proposed to use 
it for a complete explora- 
tion as to temperature, 
moistiu« and wind, but 
W. A. Eddy of New York 
first forced its varied capa- 
bilities upon public atten- 
tion, and accepted the 
suggestion of Professor 

Ro. 7.~Marvin Kite R^ for hand ^k/*^^, ^bbe to employ 
power. >^ '^' meteorological work. 

Having flown his kites 
at the Blue HOI Observatory, and having carried up with 
them the self-registering apparatus devised by Mr Ferguson, 
Eddy left the further prosecution of this work. to Mr Rotch, 
who has made this a prominent feature of the work at his 
observatory, having carried up meteorographs to the height 
of 15,000 feet by means of a series of kites flying in ^andem. 
The offidab of the U.S. Weather Bureau have developed the 
admirable cellular kite, invented by Hargrave of Australia, 
and Professor Marvin's works on the theory and construction 
of this form are well known. 

The general appearance of the Marvin or Weather Bureau kite, 
his reel and other apparatus that ^o with it, and his meteorograph, 
are shown in Figs. 6, 7, 8. The size ordinarily used carries about 
68 aq. ft. of supporting surface of muslin tightly stretched on a 
light wooden frame. Tne. line, made ot the best steel piano-wire, is 
wound and unwound from a reel which keeps an automatic record 





Fic. 8.— Marvin Kite Meteorograph. 

of the intensity and direction of the pull. The reeling in and out 

may be done by hand, but ordinarily demands a small gas-engine. 

The observer at the reel makes frequent records of the temperature, 

pnesfurv and wind, the apparent angular elevation of the kite, and 

th eiengtb of win that is played out. At the kite itself the Marvin 

meteongnpb keefm a continuous record ot the pressure, tempera- 



ture, humidity and velocity of the wind. The meteoragraph, wkk 
its aluminium case, weighs about two pounds, and is so secanl^ 
lashed behind the front cell of the kite that no accident baa ever 
happened to one, although the kites sometimes break loose and settb 
to the ground in a broken country many miles away from the ndL 
On four occasions the line has been completely destroyed by sli|^ 
discharges of U^htning; but in no case has the kite, the observer, or 
the reelbeen injured thereby. Of course, such lightning is oreceded 
by numerous rapidl); increasing sparks of electricity from tnekmer 
end of the wire, which warn the observer of dan{;er. During w 
six months from May to October 1898, seventeen kite stations wen 
maintained by the U.S. Weather Bureau in the resion of the hfcei^ 
the Upper Mississippi and the Lower Missouri vaileyS| in order to 
obtain data for the more thorough study of atmon>henc conditioiiB 
over this particular part of the country. During these months 1217 
ascents were made, and as no great height was attempted they were 
mostly under 7000 or 8000 feet. There was thus obtained a larae 
amount of informarion relating to the air within a mile of the eartrs 
surface. The general gradients of temperature, which were promptly 
deduced and published by H. C. Frankenfield m 1899 in a buUetm of 
the Weather Bureau, gave for the first time in the history of 
meteorology trustworthy observations of air temperatures in tbtt 
free atmosphere in numbers sufficient to indicate tbe nonnal 
condition ot the air. 

The kite and meteorograph have now been adopted for use by al 
meteorologists. The highest flight seems to be that of the yd of 
October 1907, at Mt Weather in Virginia, when 33>iio ft. above 
sea-level or 31,385 ft. above the reel was attained by the use of 
37,300 ft. of wire and 8 kites tandem. 

The balloon was used for the scientific exploration of the 
atmosphere quite freely during the X9th century. Tbe first 
important voyages were those of Gay-Ltissac and j^^.^^^ 
Biot at Paris in August and September of 1804. 
The next important ascent was that of Bixio and Barral m 
1850 at Paris. Tbe most remarkable high ascents have been 
those of James Glaisher, and of September 1862, and Bcnoa 
at Berlin in 1889; on both of these occasions the acronants 
attained altitudes of from 30,000 to 35,000 feet. Systematic 
ascents at many points in Europe simxiltaneously on pre-arranged 
dates were made during the years 1895-1899, and led to the 
development of a general international system of ascension ob 
pre-arranged days of the year that is now a very impoftaBL 
feature in the study of the atmosphere. 









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V s^ 


L_ _t_ 


1. ^2L£^, 


^ A -^ ^'— 


L. pk,^ 


= e=^ -^ 


v-ti* 


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Fic. 9.— Chart of Isotherms in Free Air above TYappci^ 
This diagram shows the height at which the is o t h e rm s of 
o*, — 25*, —40", —50** C. were encountered on the respective data. 
Below the ground-line are given both the dates and the tempecs* 
tures of the air observed at the ground when the baUooo started 
on each ascent. The isotherms of — ao* and —50* are not given for 
certain ascents, because in these the balloon did not nse Up 
enough to encounter those temperatures. 



Owing to the great risk of human life in these high 1 

especially to the fact that we desire records from still greater I, _ 
enorts have been made to devise self-recording apparatus that 1 . 
be sent up alone to the greatest heighu attainable by free bydnfOi 
balloons carrying the least posnble amount of ballast. The okmett 
in this new field of work. was L6on Teisserenc de Bort oi Fwifc 
As these ascensions are made with great velocity, and thercfoce 
neariy vertical as possible, he calkd them *' soundings," becaasi 
of their analogy to the mariner's usage at sea, and his baOooa is 
called a " sounding balloon." The balloons of silk collapse, those ol 
tndia-Tubbex cxvbde« and descend about as rapidly aa th^ M c rndr ^ 



PBYSICAL AND THEORETICALI 

Sicii baUooB •oondingt have been made not only individually, but. 

by pre-arranged ayatem, ■amultaneoualv in combination with the 

mot of fne-manoed balloona above referred to; and at some placet 

Utet have been aimultaneously used in order to obuin record* for 

tbe k>«cr atmomhere. The first experiments in simultaneous work 

lot made in 1896 and 1897, when ascenu were made at ei^ht or 

MR points in France. Germany and Russia. These experiments 

ud toe discuaions to which they gave rise have emphasized the 

iapoctance of increasing the sensitiveness of the self-recording 

tKaratiu, and u far as pCacticabSc the rapidity of the vrntLlation 

a tbc tbicrmodicteri, and of providing more perfect protection 

ipJKt i^df^tion from the lun or to the «ky+ ft is bchevcd that 

iramt* Ttcordji cnay be sttnined up to at least 30,000 iTMMrcs, but 

li jr«t ddy ?6,ooo hi* been attains, ood the r^ofda broyght \:^^ck 

ajt 4iU uii<kr consii^tr^bk ctinasm on acc[:»ijnt of initrumcntarl 

ddem. In fitnrral Khc wind thai su^pona A kite abo ftirnlshi^t 

^'cntlldiion for tta* thtrtnoratrcr,- but in the ca*e of the 

nEbjJVoon, which as soon b£ it* rapid rate ol ascent dimirti^h^ 

umg hDnxOtntiLlly in th? full iunshtncT a strong aititicial 

wnUtitioa must be provided. Moreover, the sluggish ncia of tlte 

ttA thcnaDfoetm is such thiit during the rapid me the Ticex>Rls 

ti teinperacure that arc heine made at anv moment really bckms 

iDimeidiieude considerably below the balloon, and a meat ciitkal 

wtej^ietatiDii of the record* is required. Notwithstanding all 

oitklnnt, however, the brilloon work in all locslities agrees in showing 

theeostencF of a cv^ioii above the 10,000- metre levels whf re tempera- 

tnro cease to dimixush rapidly, and may even become stationary. 

in.— Physical and Theoketical Meteokology 
The ultimate aim of those who are devoted to any branch 
of scteoce is to penetrate beyond the phenomena observed on 
the surface to their ultimate causes, and to reduce the whole 
complex of observations and empirical rules based upon limited 
operiences to a simple deductive system of mechanics in which 
the pbenomena observed diall be shown to flow naturally from 
the few simple laws that underlie the structure of the universe. 
A oontct " theoria " or physical and logical argumentation 
dnbdng from primary laws all the phenomena constitutes 
the noblest achievement of man in science. It is by such works 
that Newton and Laplace distinguished themselves in astronomy. 
The devetopment of the true physical and mechanical theories 
of atmosplwric phenomena has made great progress, but is still 
toferior in completeness to astronomical work, owing to the 
|Rit complexity of the meteorological problems. The optical 
tad the thermal phenomena have been very satisfactorily 
duddated, the electrical phenomena promise to become clear, 
ktt the phenomena of motion or aerodynamics have only been 
dockiated to a limited extent. We must, however, introduce 
the reader to some of the works that have been published on 
the subject, in the hope that thereby he will himself be persuaded 
to further study and stimulated to contribute to our knowledge. 
Between the years 1853 and 1861 Professor William Ferrd pub- 
fabed in Gcuid's Astronomical Journal, RunkU's Mathematical 
MonMj, and the American Journal oj Science several treatises on 
the nmions of solids and fluids relative to the earth's surface. His 
*Brk resulted in the elucidation of the problems of the atmosphere, 
•ad in ingenious ways, applicable approximately to such complex 
CSKS. and analytkraily eguivalent to the arithmetical method of 
qudntures or the graphic methods of geometry, he deduced im> 
ponant relatkxis between the density of the air, the barometric 
prasare, and the attending winds. His essays seemed to show that 
it nMt be possible to treat the complex problems of mcteorolo^ 
loKkaby and deductively by analytical, numerical and graphic 
processes, and his memoirs were the first in which observed average 
BEteorologkal conditkms were properly co-ordinated with the 
(ndamental formulae of mechanics. A beautiful memoir on the 
■tcsdy motions of the atmosphere was published in 1868 in the 
Aslrnomiscke Nachrickten by Professor Adolph Erman, and is 
■09 reprinted in voL ii. of Abbe's Mechanics of the Earth's A tmosphere. 
Eifqr's, Coffin's, Henry's and Ferrel's ideas were made the basis of 
Ike system of daily weather predictions published bv the present 
•ntcr in 1869 in the Daily Weather Bulletin of the Cincinnati 
Ofawrvatory. Subsequently this work was taken up by the eovem- 
Mat, and greatly enlarged during 1871-1891 by the chief signal 
ofieen of tbe army, and after 1891 by the chiefs of the U.S. Weather 
fineao. Ferrel's writings first attracted the attention of European 
■eteoialopits in consequence of reviews published by Hann in the 
Zatdmifl of the Austrian Meteorological Society in January 1875, 
bat ennally after they had been reprinted in a convenient form 
bf the U.Sw Signal Office as " Bulletin No. VIII." In 1881 Ferrel. 
^Ks works on the tides for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic 



METEOROLOGY 



281 



Savey, began a new and extensive scries of meteorological con- 
tribMsooa, three of which were published by the U.S. Coast Survcv 
Jad the Rit by tbe Signal Office. Stimulated by the urgent aeedk 



of the modem weather btiirain thnnighout the woHd, and by the 
beauty of the mathematkal problemi prHented. [mmerous mathe^ 
matifCiah» have Uiely taken up the ttudy of the earth's gtmcApberet 
bQ thai the literature of the lubjcct is now far fnofe extensive thaa 
i& generally sufi posed r including mcmoui by KekoboltE, KdVLiv 
Bjcrknes and other fjimoui men. 

in addition to the purely mechanical problems, the numerous 
physical problems have also been CAit:fulW treated^ both cxpcri* 
ms^ntally and nu^lhematically^ The ptttUUna o( radiation have 
b«?n etuctd^ted by Langlt^y, Hutchiti», Angst rOm» PaEchcn, Vloile, 
MAurer, Crova, ChwolK>n, Very^ Homiiii Tamura, Trabort snd 
Coblcndz. The therniodynamtc probkm* hive been especially 
developed by KeJvin, HcjtXt von BtJold* F«Tfl, Bnllouin, Neuhoff, 
Bigelowr and MiiigulM. Tbe phynjoil problems involvrd in the 
rormation of raiji-drof^ have been studied by an optical method 
by Carl B^rui. and wkh brillk^nt »ui:cc«»h rrocn an eWcrkral point 
01 view, by C. T. R. Wilson and Sir J, J. Tbomsoii at the Cavendiik 
Laboratory, CambrideeK [England. 

Id a Complete Etudy of the mechanic's of the earth's atmcsphers 
we naturally begin by cxprcstLng in sample anal>'tic formulae all 
the variouG conditions and laws jccordin|t to which every particiA 
of the air mutt move. Some of thcH? conditions arc locaU drpenrJing 
upon the resistances at vanous points of the earth's surface; othcrv 
a jv of the nature of discontinuoLii Junctions, oi, for instance, when 
the ascent ol moist air above a certain level suddenly kIvci rise lO 
cond'eniLatioii and clouds, to the evolutLi^n of latent heat, to the 
precipitation of rain, to the f hading of the aJrand the ground below 
the cloudsn. and to the ludden interception of all the nolai heat St 
the upper titiface of the cloud. It scems^ therefon:, incredible that 
the prabk-niii of the atmosphere can ever be resolved by purely 
analytical methodi \ there muit be dc^iwd combinations of numerical 
and graphical, and pDsstbly even mechanical nwthods to reproduce 
the eomhtioni and ^ive us special tolufioni adapted to particular 
c^sc^H But even these ipecial methods can only be perfected in 
pfopurtion as vc attain apprQximate solutions of the simi>tcr 
problems, and It is in this preliminary work that a good beginning 
has abeadiy been made. 

The present state of theoretical physical and mechanical 
meteorology ca^nnot be fully prcscDted m non'technical Engtish 
text. It is necessary to employ algebraic formulae, or nutneticaX 
tabl«» or graphic diagrams^ the former bdng ccrtsLjnLy the leajst 
cumbersome and the im>st generally avaiUthle. The tmiform 
system ol notatioa devised by Professor F. H. Blgdow^ mud a 
very complete sutstimiy of the formulae ol phydcol rqeteorology 
expresamg the results of many recent studenU will be fotind 
ia chapters x, and xi. oJ his Report on the International 
Cloud Observations, published as voL ii* of the annual report 
of the thief of the U.S. Weather Bureau for j Bg«-iS9g. 

The fundamental laws tti which the atmoBphcfe h subject 
ate as follows: — 

A, The Eqvi^itm a/ Elatlk JWjfltrr!— The presAiirfi shown and 
measured by the bgirometer is an clastk pre»ur¥ acting in all dirvc- 
thons equally at the point where it is cneaaured. By virtue of this 
elastic pfTMUft a Ufiit volume of air will expand in all dirtttJoni if 
not rigidly eticlo«icd» but will cool in so doing. On the other hand, 
if forcibly cotopressed within smaller dimensions. It will becorre 
warmer, Fof a given icniperature and pressure a unit volufiie of 
air of a pre^toriKd chemical constitution wili have a prescribed 
definite wetsht* The general relations between absoltite temper- 
ature, pressurt: and volume are eapceascd by the formula 

#P - RT {0 

where T expKiiet the abioltite tempcraturt, p the clastic ptiMsnrc, 
F the volume, and R ti a constant which diUers for^ach gM, being 
aqjf7i3 for ordinary jiure dry air and 47 060 for pure aqueous 
vapour, if we; u*e as fandamental units the kilosrfim, itictrc and 
centigrade degree. This equation is sometimes called the law of 
Boyle and Charles, Of of Cay-Lussac and Marriotte, and it is ftlso 
koQiwn as the equation td condition for true gases, meaning ihejrtby 
that it oLpresses the fact that the ideal gas would change? its volume 
dtre^tly in proportion to its absolute temperature and invrrstly 
tn praportion to it 9 elastic prewurt:. All gases depart Jnsm this law 
in pri.n>ortL.jn as they approach the vaporous ctjndition 00 the one 
hand, which is brought about by gTcat pressure and low tempcrat urc, 
or the utt Hi -gaseous condition on the other hand, which obuins 
under high tcmp*^raturea and low piresiurcs. The more accurate 
law of Van dcf Waal* would complicate our problems loo much. 
In place of the abMlute temperature T we may substitute the 
cxpreuioo 273" C. X (i -f » JI)p where a Is the coeflicicni of volu- 
metric expansion of t he gas for a u r it degree of teOJ perat u re - 000567 
and / is the temperature e^tprf wed on the centigricle scale. 

B, Uypiometric CondUi^m.—l^a prpwure of the atmosphere at 
any place depends primanly on the weight of the superincumbent 
Tn:iss of air^ and therefore diminishfi as we ikctA Vg ^^ttaVM \a\^\a. 
Jf the air is in motion, t^t at^ii o^^Vvct tott^ArraxvatA cnmfc v^^ 
alcct the pteiwre; but U Iht ak u t^^aks. t^aXvit ^ *» *as«i% 



282 



METEOROLOGY 



[PHYSICAL AND THEORETICilL 



surface, then the preaMireat any altitude it exprewed by the acxalled 
barometric or hypsometric formula 

P^iL-nih (a) 

where 9 is the denntv and f the apparent gravity for each layer of 
air whose vertical thickness b dk. The mtegral of this formula 
depends upon the vertical distribution of temperature, and moisture, 
and gravity; but under the simplest possible assumptions as to 
these vertical gradients, the fdfowin^ formula was deduced by 
Laplace and is generally known as his hypsometric formula: — 

k-K" 18400(1 +0 003670 (i + 0-378 1^ (I + 0-0026 cos 3^) 

In this formula I is the average temperature, e the average vapour 
tension of the layer of air, p the barometric prnuure at the top of 
the layer. P* the pressure at the bottom. ^ the latitude of the station. 
h xhv elevation above 5i:a-]i'vt^l of the lower limit of the stratum, and 
k, ch^it cl the upper limit. The modifications which this formula 
need 3 in order to Adapt it to mhef hypotheses representing more 
nearly the actual diAtnbution of temperature, mouture and gravity, 
have been elaborately investigated by Angot in a memoir published 
Jn 1B99 in ParE 1. of the Mcrnoirs of the Central Meteoroiogkal 
Bureau ot France lor the year \^^. Angot, Hergesell and Rykat> 
cheR have a.\so bhown that for hypsometric work m any oretensions 
to accuracy it is simplest and best to use Laplace's formula for 
Aticce^ivc thin itraLs ol air. and add tocher the individual results, 
rmther than attempt a more complcjc single formula for the whole 
stratum; yet the latter seems to be essential for work in aero- 
dynamics. 

C. Thermodynamic Relations. — ^The temperature of the air is due 
to the quantity of molecular energy that is present in the form of 
heat, but usually there b also present a quantity of molecular enersy 
that is spoken of as latent heat. This latent heat is said to do 
internal work, such as melting ice or boiling water, while the sensible 
heat does external work, such as expanding and pushing in all 
directions. These molecular energies can be transformed into each 
other over and over again without appreciable loss, and this power 
of transformation is expressed by the various equations of thermo- 
dynamics, of which the fundamental one for our purpose is 

dQ^C^ + Apd9 - C,(ft + ART dv/v, (3) 

This equation escpresses the fact that when a quantity ot lieat 
measured in calories, ifQ, is added to or taken from a mau of dry air^ 
there may result both a change of temperature, di. correspondinc: 
to one portion of the heat, C^m, and a quantity of external work 
corresponding to the remaining portion of the heat iApdv). It 



does not remain the same for any length of time; it h diminUhed 
by radiation or is increased by absorption, and a certain quantity 
is lest when rain, snow or hail drops down from the air, while 
a Quantity is added to the atmosphere when moisture evaporates 
ana mbccs with the dry air as invisible vapour, even the passage 
of rain-drops down through a lower layer alters the thermal con- 
ditions appreciably. The changes due to increase and diminution 
of moisture are usually small as compared with the great gain 
due to absorption and convection 01 solar heat or with the 
loss by radiation. If these losses and gains are to be taken 
account of, then the Quantity dO in the above equation Ib finite 
and important. On the other band, in some cases atmospheric 
processes go on so rapidly or under such peculiar circumstances 
—for instance, in the interior of a cloud — ^that the change in 
the quantity of heat may be considered as temporarily negligible. 
In these cases dQ is zero; the changes in temperature balance the 
changes in external work, and the thermal process is said to be 
adiabatic. 

D. The Condition of Continuity.— When a mass of liquid or gas 
goes through several motions and changes without being disrupted 
or otherwise broken into smaller portions, and without the formation 
of either local condensations into solid or liquid masses or of bubbles 
and vacuous spaces in its interior, and when all the changes that 
go on proceed by gradual continuous processes as to time, then the 
mass of the fluid is subject to the law of continuity as to mass, and 
the motion of the fluid is continuous as to velocity. These condi- 
tions are assumed in elementary hydrodynamics, and are implied 
in the process of integration, and in the equation of continuity 

where p is the density, I is the time and d the ordinary symbol for 
partial differentiation. But the fact is that mete<m>lo^ts have 
to deal entirely with discontinuous external forces such as insolation 
ceasing at sunset and renewed daily; radiations of heat chan^ng 
abruptly with land and ocean and cloudiness and snow covering; 
discontinuous boundary conditions and resistances at the earth s 
suH'ace altering at every chanj^e from mounUins to plains; di»- 
continuous masses changing with additions and abstractions of 
moisture, rain and snow— all which lead to discontinuous vortex 
nnHlmu and overtumlnga and rearrangements of the atmospheric 
stiatM. Tbe only facton that are continuooB tot any length of time 



or extent of area are the rotation of the forth and the attractiM 
of gravitation. In the pKxact ol auth dil^cukict as these we muH 
at present confine outkIvcs to the solution ol very t**^| Iocs 
definite problems tu" to the general siatiitici] problems of oa 
atmoflphcre. 

£. Cundilions at i& KntTfy and Motiim^ -^ When the total qiiantit] 
of heat, both latent and scniiblcn remains constant or r**^fftr 
in a continuous manner, and when the motions are continttoui 
the mechanical and thermal procesfin are eKpr««sible by ordinary 
ditfcrentiaU and iniegTAls, Motions of tliiids involve both eodg; 
and inertia F and are subject to canditjons £iprc9i6ed by tbe folknrini 
equation] ol hydrodynamici: — 

a, Bquations of enerii'. Let the kinetic energy be T, th 
potential energy V, the intrinsic: energy W: f, m, ». be ooai 
the an^Ie between the pre^ure p^ and S the inwacdly directed 1 
to the boLJiid-aiy Aurlace. Then will 

b. Equatiani of acccliffaiian and inertia. Let P be tbe poteatii 
of the etLL-rful (ajrfts, acting dn a unit m4!i9 ol the atmosphere; m b 
the codifici^nt of viKO^ity or int^rmal Irktioti. Then will 



aJ' 


■pai"aF + "'^+*'5]^ + '^*^ 






ap 






rah , as . asi 

^''LaP^^ + ^J 


ap 


i# aw , „ awj_« *w . ^a» 


af- 




^ r^'w , a«ip . a^-i 



Approximate Anumpiions and Stjiitii^ns. — -After introducing int 
the preceding system of lundamrnial i^uati^ns (I-6) the actui 
conditions as accurately at they arc known reiL^tive to gravity, soli 
radiation, the rotjUion of the earth, the viscouiy of the air, its mai 
or inertia, its absorpt iQn and radiation of htai, its variable cootei 
ol moisture, the pr(.-cipitaiion of min and cloud, the mutual iote 
conversions of latent and vtru^ible hc^t» a sjKniail difficulty oocn 
when we attempt to inlt--fi^mte the« eqti4tion», because we have sti 
to c^pnss anHifytic:;3Ltiy th<s initial conditions ol the atmombere J 
to pressure ancl tcmperatur?, atid itj boundafy conditions as oetwec 
the ruugh earth surface on it^ lo*cr side jind the unknown outwat 
surface on its upper tide* An tbe true earth's surface cannot t 
rt^presentcd by any sirripk zlgfibt^lc lorrnuU, it is customary I 
assume that it is A unthitm sphere, iteElecting at least partially, 
not wholly, the jphercijiUl Bhapc Wit may 6r»t assume that tna 
ia no friction between the earth and the air, btit must afterwan 
make allowance for k> inniieociC, Thirdly, we assume that tl 
action of the earth's auda<ce to heat tU<; air and to throw rooistin 
by evaporation into tht atmoaphere it perfectly uniform. Final!] 
in many case* we go *o far m to aaiuime that the atmosphere is a 
irLcopnpn^^i^ible rarr lii^ijid liaving a unirorm dLnnity and a unifon 
depth ol al^out ikioo metres corresponding tt> the average standar 
iknsity of dnr air untkr a pressure oi 760 millimetres and a tempa 
oturtr ol 0*C, Even under thne simpiificationf the analytic difli 
euUia have been too gmt to admit of rigorous solutions, cxccf 
ia a lew of the ilmplett caa«. 

Tht tfratrnt-nt of atmcisphtric problems by Fenel was followed b 
an ixjuatly inc^-nlouj maiheniatical treatment by Prof easors Guktber; 
and Mohn, ^ Christian^^ in two papers published by them in 187 
and i8fio resptctively. These authors, like Ferrel. treat iaolate 
portions d the atnio«phejre and obtain special solutions, whkl 
howevet, have not the generality that must eventually be^ 
in A Hgoroga and general discuision of the atmorHphere roc. 
EK-g3nt mathematfcal solutions of our problems were first gives 1 
1&H3 by Obcrbcck, ol the university ol H^lle, in the Ann. Pkys. m 
iiS, But even Oberbeck's solutions are obtained under varioa 
fiiiTiplifyine as&umptions that n.'strict their sati^actory appUcatia 
tf} the daTly we^tner conditions. Oberbeck's Arst memoar treat 



of the mechanics of stationary cyclonic movements. 

that the iioban are concentric afrJL-s, and that in the outer portio 
of A cyclone the air hat only horizon ul movements, while ia Ik 
inne? portion It has only vertical movements, he solves his sysM 
of equations lor the inner and outer rrgion.? of tht? cyclone sepantcl) 
He ^howa that in j^eneral the pirs^urr ijicrcaf<es on all wtdtk OM 
wardi Irom the centre ; the ^mdjent alw incrvases from the ceati 
outitardA to the limit of the inner region, whence it diminishes ia tl 
outer titgioa an4 at a Krcat distance becomes inappreciable. Ia bol 
rcgionq the p«iths iif {he wind are curved Linct^ logarithmic spiral 
which cut tht: lAobjirt or the radial {gradient everywhere at the saa 
angle; Ihcrefote the movement of the air can be considered as 
fpiral inHow from att side* toward^ the centre. But the aog 
between the Wind and the gradient Tollowi dlffervnt laws in the out 
and inner F^ioju, depending in the formier on the roUtkm of l) 



FBirSICAL AND THEORETICAIJ 



METEOROLOGY 



283 



wth and the friction, but in the latter also on the intensity of the 
uceMtinc current of air. In passing from the outer to the inner 
Ruisce the wind experiences a sudden change of angle, so that the 
d if e c t io ns of the winds are not continuous, although the movement 
aad the barometric pressures are assumed to be continuous. This 
Inter peculiarity does not occur in nature, and is undoubtedly an 
aaalvtical result peculiar to Oberbeck's method of treating the 
(uattncntal equations. 

Ab hoproivcnient in the mathematical analyas was introduced 
bv Dr F. Pockels of Gdttingcn in a memoir published in the Met. 
ioL, 1893, pp. 9-19. He deduces equations showing the continuous 
dosiip of temperature, pressure, gradient, wind direction, and 
veknty from the centre of the cyclone to the outer edee of the anti- 
cydooe, or, more properly, the pcri<yclonc: these, therefore, mav 
icasoubly be supposed to have their counterparts in nature. Such 
Butbematica] solutions, however, are based upon the assumption 
that we are dealing with a comparatively small portion of the earth's 
nrface. which may be considered as a plane having a uniform diurnal 
natioa and a umform coefficient of friction. Moreover, the move- 
neots b the cyclones and anti-cyclones are assumed to be steady 
aad permanent by reason of the perfect balance of all the forces 
isvolvcd therein. Of course these conditions are not exactly 
(sifilkd. but in general Pockels shows that his theoretkal results 
agree (airly wdl with the observed conditions as to wind and pressure. 
He computes the actual distribution of these elements under the 
assofflption that the centre of the anti-cyclone is at latitude 55*5, 
and that the coefficient of friction is o-oooo8. Whereas viscosity 
proper would require only <yooo2. An elegant mathematical pre-. 
Mtatioa of these studies in cvclonic motion is given by W. Wien, 
Uhr^k ier Hydrodynamik (Leipzig, 1900). 

Notwithstanding the fact that these difficult mathematical 
invntigations still lead us to unsatisfactory results, they are yet 
ooioestlv instructive as showing the methods of interaction of the 
various loroes involved in the motions of the atmosphere. We 
Bust therefore mention the interesting attack made by Oberbeck 
■poo the problem of the. general arculation of the atmosphere. 
Ha memoir on this subject was published in the Sitntntsberickle 
of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin in 1888. The fundamental 
asnmptioa in ttiis memoir implies that there is a general and simple 
Vfttm of drculatifni between the equatorial and the polar regions, 
m the eventual solution of the problem leads Oberbeck to two 
isdepeadent systems of winds, an upper and a lower, without any 
*eO-defined connesdon at the polar and equatorial ends of these 
tvo cnrrents, so that after all they are not rigorously re-entrant. 
haot^ the hypotheses introduced in the course of his mathematical 
vork, the most important, and perhaps the one most open to objcc- 
tioB, » that the aistribution of temperature throughout the atmo- 
tphere in both the um>er and lower strata can be represented by 
the equation T ■■ A+B (l -3co8^*). Undoubtedly this equa- 
tion represents observations in the lower strata near the surface of 
the eanh, but the constants that enter into it, if not the form itself, 
■MM be changed for the upper strata. The solution arrived at by 
Oberbeck gives the following equations representing the components 
flf the movement of the atmosphere toward the zenith V, toward 
Che north N, and toward the east O:— 
V-C(i-3cos»«)/«f 
No-eCcosOsina^v 
O- D Isin • (I -3 cos? tf) f«r -f 6 COS? Byo]. 
la accordance with these equations he deduces the general circu- 
htioB of the atmosphere as follows: In the lower current the air 
lows from the polar regions eastward until it reaches the parallel 
<f JO* or 40*; it then turns directly towards the equator, and eventu- 
aBy westward, until at the equator it becomes a strong east wind 
(or a socallcd west current). In the npper layer the movement 
bcgias as an east wind, turns rapidly to tne north at latitude 20* 
or JO*, and then becomes a south-west wind (or north-eastern current) 
ia the northern hemisphere, but a north-west wind (and south- 
eastera current) in the southern hemisphere. Of course in the higher 
itiata of air the currents must diminish in strength. In a second 
paper in the same year, 1888, Oberbeck determines the distribution 
of pressoie over the earth's surface as far as it is consistent with his 
svstem of temperatures and winds. His general equation shows 
thac as we deport from the equator the pressure must depend upon 
tbe square and the fourth power of the cosine of the polar distance 
or the sine of the latitude, and in this respect harmonizes with 
FerreTs work of 1859, although more general in its bearinn. By 
cooparii^ his formulae with the observed mean pressure in different 



H. Hikiebrandsson (IQ06) showed that observations do reveal an 
tut wind prevailing above the equatorial belt of calms. 

Cbmeraporaiy with Oberbeck's admirable memoirs are those by 
Pmle s wji Diro Kitao. of the university of Tdkyd, who, as a student 
of outberaatics in Germany, had become an expert in the modem 
trestment of hydrodynamic problems. In three memoirs published 
bjrthe ^ricultural College of the university of TdkyO in the German 
boyoafe in the years 1887. 1889 and 1895. he develops with great 
^ticnce many of the minutiae of the movement of the earth's 
' and cydonic storms. The asgumptiotu under which 



he conducts his investnpitiont do not depart from nature quite so 
far as those adopted by other mathematicians. Like Ferrel, he 
adheres as closely as possible to the results of physical and meteoro- 
logical observauons; and although, like all pure mathematicians, 
he considers Ferrel as having departed too far from rigorous mathe- 
matical methods, yet he also unites with them in acknowledging that 
the results attained by Ferrel harrooniie with the meteorology of 
the earth. 

The fact is that the solution of the hydrodynamic equations is 
not single, but multiplex. Every system of initial and boundary 
conditions must give a solution appropriate and peculiar to itself. 
The actual atmosphere presents us with the solution or solutions 
peculiar to the conditions that prevail on the earth. Entirely 
different conditions prevail on Jupiter and Saturn, Venus and Mars, 
and even on the earth in January and July, and therefore a wholly 
new series of solutions belongs to each case and to each planet of 
the solar system. It matters not whether we attempt to resolve 
our equations by introducing terrestrial conditions expressed by 
means of analytical algebraic formulae, and integrate the equations 
that result, or whetho- we adopt a graphic process for tM repre- 
sentation of observed atmospheric conditions and integrate by 
arithmetical, geometrical or mechanical processes. In all cases 
we must come to the same result, namely, our resulting expressions 
for the distribution of pressure and wind will agree with observations 
just as closely as our original equations represented the actual 
temperatures, resistances and other attending conditions. 

In the last portion of Kitao's third memoir he gives some attention 
to the interaction of two cyclonic systems upon each other when 
they are not too far apart m the atmosphere, and shows how the 
influence of one system can be expressed by the addition of a certain 
linear function to the equations rejpresenting the motions of the other. 
He even gives the basis for the further study of the extension of 
cyclonic storms into higher latitudes where conditions are so different 
from those writhin the tropks. Finally, he suggests in general terms 
how the resistances of the earth's surface, m connexion with the 
internal friction or viscosity of the air, are to be taken into considera- 
tion, and shows under what conditions the assumptions that underlie 
his own solutions may, and in fact must, very closely represent the 
actual atmosphere. 

The General Circulatum of the Atmosphere. — If the meteorologist 
had a sufficient number of observations of the motions of the air to 
represent both the upper and lower currents, he would long since have 
hccn able to present a satisfactory scheme showing the average 
movement of tne atmosphere at every point of its course, and the 
paths of the partkles of air as they flow from the poles to the equator 
and return, but hitherto we have been somewhat mi^ed by being 
forced to rely mainly on the observed movements of clouds. This 
motion has been cafled the general circulation of the atmosphere; 
it would be a complex matter even if the surface of the earth were 
homogeneous and without special elevations, but the actual problem 
is far different. Something like this general circulation is ordinarily 
said W be shown by the monthly and annual charts of pressure, 
winds and temperature, such as were first prepared and published 
by Buchan in 1868, and afterwards in Barthobmew's Physical Atlas 
of 1899. We must not, however, imagine that such charts of 
averages can possibly give us the true path of any small unit mass 
of air. The real path is a complex curve, not re-entrant, never 
described twice over, and would not be so even if we had an ideal 
atmosphere and globe, it is a compound of vertical and undulatory 
movements in three dimennons of space, variable as to time, which 
cannot properly be combined into one average. 

"The average temperatures, winds and pressures presented on these 
charts suggest hypothetical problems to the student's mind ouite 
different Kom the real problems in the mechanics of the atmosphere 
— problems that may, in fac(, be impossible of solution, whereas 
those of the actual atmosphere are certainly solvable. The mo- 
mentary condition presented on any chart of simultaneous ob«er- 
vations constitutes the real, natural and important problems of 
meteorology. The efforts of mathematicians and phyucists have 
been devoted to the ideal conditions because of their apparent 
simplicity, whereas the practical problems offered by the daily 
weather chart are now so easily accessible that attention must be 
turned towards them. The most extensive system of homogeneous 
observations appropriate to the study of the dynamics of the atmo- 
sphere is that shown in the Daily BiuUtin oj International Simultane- 
o«s Observations, published by the U.S. Signal Service in the years 
1875-1884, with monthly and annual summaries, and a general 
summary in " Bulletin A." published by the U.S. Weather Bureau 
in 1893. The studjr of these daily charts for ten years shows how 
the eeneral circulation of the atmosphere differs from the umple 
problems presented in the idealized solutions based on monthly 
and annual averages. The presence of a great and a small continent, 
and a great and small ocean, and especially of the moisture, with its 
consequent cloud and rain, must enter into the study of the problem 
of the general circulation. The most prominent features of the 
general circulation of the atmosphere are the system of trade winds, 
north-easterly in the northern tropics and south-easterly in the 
southern tropics, the system of wwXerXv ^tA% Xse^joxA Vofc \x*&»!» 
wind region, namely, nonVi-itrcsletVy vtv \V» tvox^ \.«ac^«nXft wA. 
south-westerly in the wuth temyenAit lonie, wA »!Bwa >^ witwm 



284 



METEOROLOGY 



IPHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL 



of upper winds thown by the higher clouds, namdv, louth-wetterly 
in the northern hemisirfiere and north-westerly in the southern. 

Halley in 1680, ana Hadley in 1735, gave erroneous or imperfect 
explanations of the mechanical principles that bring about these 
winds. As some errors in regard to this subject are still current, 
it is neoenary to say that it is erroneous to t^uJi that atmospheric 
air weighs las on being heated, or by reason of the infusion of 
more moisture, and that therefore the barometer falls. The addition 
of more moisture must increase iu weight as a whole; heat, being 
imponderable, cannot directly affect its weight either way. We are 
liaole to disseminate error by the careless use of the worldf " lighter," 
MQce it means both a diminutbn in absolute weight and a dimmution 
in relative weight or specific jg;ravity. Heat and moisture may 
diminish the specific gravity ota given m^iu of air b^ jntzrcjsing 
its volume, or of a given volume by diminbhinj;; iti mau, but neiihcr 
oif them can of themselves affect the pressure Hhowa by the baromptcr 
so far as that is due to the weight of the nimjospherc. It i» not 
proper to say that by warming the air^ thereby diminL&hirig its 
specific gravity and causing it to rise, so that colder air Rowb into 
take its place, we thereby diminish the barometiic prtsisun.'. It is 
easily seen that in the expression p^^RT/t^^ which, as we have boroRr 
said, is the law of elasticity, T and v may ao vary u to cou niLTbala t\cc 
each other, and allow the pressure p to rcfnain ihc ume. WitTiin 
any given room or other enclosure hot air mny riiie on one side, flow 
over to the opposite, cool and return, and the circulation he kept 
up indefinitely without any necessary change in pres<>ure. The 
problem of tne relation between wind and pressure in the Tree 
atmosphere is more complex than this, and involvs thi? confildera- 
tion 01 the inertia of the masses of air th-^t r^rf En rr-'iion with ihe 
earth around its axis. Theair issoexti< I, :■ -'iil it moves 

quickly in response to slight differences in' pressure that cannot 
be detected by ordinary barometric measurement. The gradients 
or differences of pressure that are shown on meteorological charts 
are not directly, but only very indirectly, due to buoyancv, as caused 
by beat and mobture. The pressure gradients, so-calfcd, are not 
merely the prime causes of the winds, but are equally and essentially 
the resulu <^ the winds. They are primarily due to the fact that 
the atmosphere is rapidly revolvii^ with the surface of the earth 
around the earth's axis, while at the same time it may be circulating 
aboi! . - : T . "' Iffcrences of pressure start 

thev,;.! if. ::i-.i- ■. ••..';.■■■ i;:- rr .v,=. t ■vL^,r'^ - tl-.r- r.rp-ri nf low 
pressure, just a-, i •■ .■: uiTiatic di^iL-pjich tubes the tloiaf of air 
towartlt the low i . i.[ries the packaf^ca alon^. But in the 

free air* where th" r. ^i.- '.■... important rtrai^Eances 10 be overcome, 
the Jftodom ol moiirm i^ gnjatcr than in these pneucnatic tubes. 
No sooner i» the atmo*phtrt ihsii set in motion hy prrssun; from 
all fiidi-H to^H-arda the central lov pressure than it rapidly acquires 
a spiral circutaiion, and thcttby there i* mpcrimp(M«! (In the 
northern hemisphere) a decided dimiduiion ol pressune cm the left 
hand Pidt of the wind, and an efiually rapid incftuse on the right 
hand sidw^* The gmdient of pressure m tfle dlfection ol the wind 
overcomr* r«iiiances, but the fnidient of pivisure, perpendicular 
to the directbci of the wind, is far srcilCT than thii inihir dinxrtion 
of the wind, and !■ that whkh produce? the artas of decided low 
pressures that appear as storm centre* on the di^ily weather map. 
Therefore, in gtfnpra^t the wind cum across the chart i^i ijj:)barB m 
oblique directions and at an^jlea which are nearly qo° for the feeble 
viooi far removed from the centres, but which arc almost ttro for 
the iMft vicptent wind* nc^r the low centre. The winds acquire 
this fpiral ctrc Illation for two ivasi:>iiB— (a) all straight line, gusts 
m jet» in fluids, subject tQ any form of reustance, necessarily break 
up into rtnatinK spirals whenever the velocity exceeds a certam limit, 
tKcause the resistances deprive some particles of the fluid of a little 
more of their ora^nal velodty and energy than the other particles 
near by them, ajid thus the whole series ts drawn away from linear 
into curvilinear paths; {b) in addition to their rectilinear motions 
Che particles of air have a rapid circular motion in common with the 
whole atmosphere diurnalty around the earth's axis. Therefore 
every particle of moving au- coEne* under the influence of a set of 
torca depending on its own rate of motion relative to the earth's 
fiirface and its poaiiion ruLtivc thereto. If the particles are moving 
eaitward, vii. in the same direction as the earth's diurnal roution, 
then tht? nsult is as thoogb the atmiMphcre were rotating more 
•" ■ ' quently the particles 

mosphere were 
„ ! corresponding 
. to' its greater"^ velocity of rotation.' If the panicles are moving 
westward, on the other hand, it is as though the atmosphere were 
revolving less rapidly than the earth, and as though the flattened 

Spheroid of revolution due to the present rate of rotation were more 
ccidedly flattened than need be'^ consequently the particles of air 
push towards the poles. If the wmds blow toward cither pole, then 
their initial moment of inertia about the earth's axis, due to the 
initial radius and the eastward movement of the air, must be re- 
tained ; consequently, as the air advances into higher latitudes and 
to smaller circles of diurnal rotation its velocity must increase, and 
must carry the particles to the east of their initial meridians. If 
the wind blow towards the equator its initial moment of inertia 
mi/st be appYied to a larger radius, and its velocity correspondingly 
\mo that it it Jeft behind or /alls away somewhat to the 



cnen int? resujt u as inouj^n tne ainii»pncre wcrr ruiaiini 
rapidly than does the earth at present; conseouently the p 
of wind push toward the equator as thoush the atmosphei 
trying to adopt a more flattened spheroidal figure corrcsp 



west. *' The reasomng of those who in attempting to czplaia the 
trade winds assume that the atmosphere in moving toward or fioa 
the equator has a tendency to retain the same original Unear vdodty 
is erroneous "(Ferrel's Motemenls of Fluids^ 1859}. In general the 
winds tend to retain their moments of inertia, and in the nortbcra 
hembphere must necessarily always be deflected continuomljr 
toward the right hand. The exact amount of this deflection «as 
first distinctly stated by P<Msson.* as applied to the movements of 
projectiles; it was also announced by Tracy of New Haven in 1^3, 
but was first applied to the atmosphere by Ferrel, who deduced its 
metcordogical conscouences. This law is not to be confounded 
with that of Buys Ballot, who in 1861 deduced from his <4Mervatk>BB 
in Holbnd the rule that the gradient of pressure between two 
itations for any day would be followed in twenty-four hours by a 
wind perpendicular to that gradient, and having the lower presMire 
on the left hand. Buys Ballot's law was in the nature of a rule for 

f>rcdiction, and was modified by Buchan i868{ who enunciated the 
ollowing: " The wind blows towards the regions of low pressure. 
but is inclined to the gradient at an angte which is less than 90*. 
In this form Buchan is law was an improvement upon the laws 
current ^imonL; 1 ; ' 1 1 r^hli, who had assumed that, in a rough 
way, the wind :-\< " i^ ■■ in,:lc-5 around the low centre, and was thefe^ 
fi>re scn^ihty at n^ht an[;£ke£ to the gradient. It ought, howrveTp 
to be said that Red field throughout the whole course of hts studies, 
from t^J] to 1^57, never gave adherence to this view, and in fact 
far the severer portions of hurricacKS determined thv aver^^ 
inclination of the moiTments of the lower clouds at New Y'ork City 
to be about 7^ in^Tirds as compared with the truly circular theory. 
Now Ferrtl'i law explains mectianically the reason why the vinda 
do not blow either ladially or circularly, and gi\"cs the means lot 
determining their inclination to the isobars in all portions of the 
tvxione and for various degrees of mistance by the earth^s surfaA. 
The general proposition that the ba.ro metric gradients on the veathtf 
map are UEJt thoise that cause the wind, but are, propei^y speaking, 
the rc^'^uU of the conf^birved action cf the wind^ the rotation of the 
earth. And the rcti^tance at the earth 'a surface, as fii>ft etpbioHi 
by Ferret. **,iEn& to hjve been neglected by uiettorologisls until 
brought to their attention repeatedly^ by Professor Abbe between 
i&bg nnd 1875, and Cigedally by Profe*wr Hann in a review of 
Ferrel's work (we MtL £fit. 1874). The independent in^titigatioiis 
of Sprung, Kocppciit Finger* and erppcci^lly Guybej;g &M Moha« 
confirm in general the correct ne« of Ferrel'* Uw. 

It 15 quite erroneous to imagine tliat the low prrssufa in ctom 
areas and in the polar re^ioM, and esperiaily the belt ol low pncsscre 
at the equator arc due stmply to the diminution of the density md 
*-iTtght of the air by the action of it* wannth or its nioisture, or to 
the abundant rainfall a* relieving the aimri:7pbere of the WL-ight of 
v,.l^■^. It has been 'rl^.-Tfy -l....^,! i^. .ri i>.-.f,^F r^M 4- ..|h : -• .■>•, ci* 
directly affect the barometric pressure to any appreciable extent* 
but that high and low pressure areas, as we see them on the weather 
map, owe their existence entirely to the mechanical intenctioo of 
the diurnal rotation of theearth and the motions of the atmo s phere . 
The demonstration of thb point by Ferrel in 1857 is considered to 
have opened the wav for modem progress in theoretical meteorology. 

Both Espy and Hann have abundantly shown that the formatioa 
and downfall of rain do not produce any low barometric piis s uw 
unless they produce a whirling action 01 the wind — that, in fact, 
the latent heat evolved by the condensation of vapour into nm 
rnay to warm up the cloud as to l ' - i.^urtry rise in presMOf 

evon at the surlaci^of the ground. 1.1 ui lv ',":■>'. out vara push prodooed 
by the sudden exfansion of the cloud. {The detjiils of the tbenM^ 
dynamics of this operatJLjn have been elucidated by Wm. voa 
Ijczold.] The force with whirh the wind pte^Mcs to the right off 
tends to bcdef?L'^te<] in T^hat direction is im P ain «, wtiile the CurvatOR 
of the path ol the wind is measured by its radius of curvatttf^ 
which IS vfiH sin ^, where p is the velocity of the^ wind, » is tht 
equatorial velociiy of the earth's rotation, and ^ is the latitudft 
It will be seen from ttii» that there is no deflection at the equator! 
therefore, aa Ferrel stated, there is no tendency to the formatioa 
of gnst whirlwinds at the equaioft hence hurricanes and ty^KMMI 
are rarely found within lo" of the<^uator. 

Ferrel frequently apeaks uf an antiHrydonCt whereby be mea« 
the area of Ki^h pressure just Outside d a strong cyoooic «hU: 
the expression pen-cyclone would have ticen morw appropriate aad 
is sometimes subfitiiutcd. The term crsii-iyfhnt. u first mtmdoceJ 
by Galton in iK^^ri. i-i apfilieti to a system oi wind* Uowing out inm 
a central area of high pressure, and this is the common usage of tht 
term in modem meteorology. The term cyclone among melMMO> 
logists and throughout English literature, except only a few ctsa 
in the United Sutes, is equivalent to the older usage of whirhriai 
and it is unfortunate that misundersundings often arise becaMI 
local usages in America apply the word cyclone to what has fol 
centuriesbeen called a tornado. The mechanical principles diacvnn 
by Ferrel led him to an algebraic relation between the baroawtrii 
gradient G, the wind velocity v. the radius of curvature of the isobai 
r, and the inclination i between the wind and the bobar, wluch i 



* Rtckerche sur It mouvement des projectiles da$u- Fair m fl^M 
inard d I' influence du mouoemenl diume de la tern ; dated 1837. pritttfl 
Paris, 18J9. 



mrSICAL AND THEORETICAL] 

by the following fonnub for the 



METEOROLCXJY 



28s 



that prevail 

; - [(2n fin ^-Hcos fp/f)f lec i]/[83,ooo.ooo]. 

ajpOHtkm of this and other results of Ferrers work is 
m 1^ Archibald in* Nattm (May 4, 1882). and still better in 
Fcml's TrwatiM m Ou Winds (New York. ^889. &nd Uter editions). 

The charts of mean annual pressure, temperature and wind above 
Rfcrred to show certain broad features that embrace the whole 
lyitan of atmospheric circulation, via. the k>w pressures at the 
equator and the poles, the high pressures under the tropics, the 
tnde winds bebw and the anti-trades above, with comparative 
aim under the belts of equatorial few pressure and tropical high 
prman. The first effort of the mathematician was to explain how 
tkaejnean avcrase conditions depend upon each other, and to 
deviie a system ol general circulation of the wind consistent with 
the pressures, resistances and densities. But, as we have already 
wd, wch a system may be very far from that presented by the 
teal stmosphere, and little by little we are beins led to a different 
viev of the question of the general circulation. The earlier students 
of ttonas generally accepted one of two views as to the cause of 
«tirlwiiKls. They were either (i) formed mechanically between two 
principal currents of air flowing past each other, the iO<alled polar 
ladctmatorial currents; or (2) tliey were due to the ascent of buoyant 
airvtule the heavier air flowed in beneath, the whirling motion being 
csanuiiicated by the influence of the rotation of the earth, or by 
thefraatcr resistances on one <ide than on the other. In order 
to oplain why hurricanes and typhoons exist continuously for 
Buy days, or even weeks, it is necessary that there should be a 
■Mice of energy to maintain a continued buoyancy and risins 
cmnt at the centre, and thb was supposed to be fully provided 
br by Eepy's proof of the liberation of latent heat consec|uent on 
the {onnaiion of cloud and rain. To this latter conuderation Abbe 
is 187Z added the important influence of the sun's heat intercepted 
at the npper surface of the cloud. At this stage of the investigation 
the whirlwind- is but an incident in the general circulation of the 
atODipbere, but further consideration shows, that it ought rather 
to be regarded as an essential portion of that circulation, and that 
«hn temperature gradients and density gradients exceed a certain 
fattt the formation of great whirlinnds is inevitable. Therefore 
asatmocphere containing several whirlwinds is just as truly a system 
«f tmeral circulation in the one case as an atmosphere without a 
vhirivind is in the other. The formation of rain, the evolution 
flf latent heat, and even the absorption of heat at the upper surface 
of die ckMd really constitute a normal general circulation in this 
ipcdal cue. We rruiy therefore consider a system of vortices, which 
m a system of discontinuous motions, as the most natural solution 
t( iheequatKMU of motion — but the mathematical treatment of this 
fam of motion has not yet been suflkiently well developed, for the 
(Eioouinuity relates not only to the motion but to the thermal 
conditions and the interchanee of vapour and water. 

h 1890 Professor Hann published a careful anal^'sb of the actual 
tMpentare oMiditions prevailing over an extensive area of high 
prasure in Europe, and showed that the temperatures of the upper 
«nu in both high and k>w areas, namely, in anti-cyclones and 
cydones are often directly contrary to those supposed to prevail 
by Eapy and Ferrel. This study necessitated a more careful ex- 
awnation into the radiation of heat from the dust and moisture of 
the atmoiphere, and Professor Abbe seems to have shown that 
a areas of^high pressure and clear weather a very slow descending 
aovtnent throughout each horizontal layer gives time for a radia- 
tion of heat that explains the anomalies of temperature, but the 
dyaaaic phenomena still remained uncxolaincd. On the other 
baad, von Helmholu in several memoirs of 1888-1891 showed that 
«av«s or billows may be formed in the atmosphere of great extent 
at the dividing surface between upper and lower strau moving in 
different directions and with different velocities. Under specific 
coDdicioas these billows may become like the breakers and caps of 
«av«s of the ocean when driven by the wind. The hypothesis that 
thew aerial breakers correspond to our troughs of low prcs&ure 
and the storms experienced in the bwer atmosphere seemed very 
piosible. As these billows are formed between upper and lower air 
cunentt of great extent, which themselves represent a large portion 
of the horiiontal circulation between the poles and the equator, it 
nwhs that if von Heknholtz's suggestion and Hann's hypothesis 
are correct then all general storms must be considered as essentially 
a pan of the generalcirculation rather than as caused by the vertical 
cucuhtion over any locality. It must occur to ever>'one to adopt 
die intermediate view that, on the one hand, the local vertical 
cifcdatJon, with its clouds, rain, hail and snow, and evolution of 
bleat heat. and. on the other hand the waves and whirls in the 
feocfal drculation, mutually contribute toward our storms and fair 
^^ather. It only remains to allot to each its proper importance 
ia aay necial case. 

UMouDtcdly aerial tullows, and the clouds that must frequently 
aceoopany them, exist everywhere in the earth's atmosphere, 
l^rhaps tncir extent and importance are not properly appreciated. 
A rofya^ around the Atlantic Ocean in 1 889-1 890. made by Professor 
Abbe, specifically to study cloud phenomena, revealed many re- 
■tfkaUe cafes, such as the cumulus rolls that extend tn a 



nnnarlLably lynifnetrical serin from the inland of Ascension west- 
wir^i for loo m. in the wnth-^aittrly trades, or the delicate 
ficU« of cirrQH^iimuk tlut extend frvm iti«^ islands of Santa Lucia 
and Barbados for joo in. eaBtwaM» u rider favourable cumlitions. 
The mixtures add vortico*o moiiprfc* j:oing on within aerial 
bilk>w9 to form lh«* doudi have Ut-rt interpreted by Hrilluuin. 
In. the further tlucld^tiofi of the m«r}ijnliTn of storms Hann showed 
tb#i every study fA obwrnr-atiunal outcrial confirms the conclusion 
tbji the d«crnt of dentcr cool dry air ii-as important as the ahcent 
erf wiirm moist air, and that akhoucb tht evolution of latent heat 
wiikin tkt douds of a storm may explain the local cloud phenomena, 
yet it will not expUin the btcirm as a wtiolc. The first ** norther 
or blLzzi^rd " tfiai ■aui* ch^Lrud Jt \V i^hirsjton in November 1871 
was at once seen to be a case of the underflow uf a thin Liyer of cold 
dry air descending from high altitudes above Canada on the eastern 
slope of the Rocky Mountains, but driven southward by an exci-«s 
of centrifugal energy added to a moderate barometric gradient. It 
was seen that in such grand overturnings the descent of maiM'S 
implies energy communkrated by the action of eravity, but the whole 
mechanks <x this process was not clear until the publication by 
MarKulcs of hb memoir Ober die Energie^der Sturme (Vienna, 1905;, 
whtcn will be referred to hereafter. 

Mathematics have, almost without exception, assumed a so-called 
steady condition in the motion of the atmosphere in order to achieve 
a successful intention of the general equations of motion. The 
restrictions within which Helmholtz and others hax-c worked, and 
the limits within which their results are to be accepted, have been 
analysed b^ Dr E. Herrmann in a memoir of which a translation is 
published m the bulletin of the American Mathematical Society for 
June 1896. Of course Herrmann's own investigation is aliio based 
upon certain simplifying hypotheses, such as the absence of outside 
disturbing forces and of viicosity and friction, a- homogeneous 
ellipsoidal surface, and a uniform initial temperature and rate of 
revolution correspondin|[ to an initial state of equilibrium. If now 
the initial static equilibrium be disturbed by introducing a different' 
distribution of temperature, viz. one that v:«ries with altitude and 
latitude, but is uniform in longitude along any circle of latitude, 
then the fint question is whether the atmosphere can settle down 
to a new state of static equilibrium. . Herrmann shows that in general 
it cannot do so, but that the new state and the future sutcs can only 
be those of motion and dynamic equilibrium. If, however, there 
be no external forces acting on the atmosphere, then in one case 
static equilibrium reUtive to the earth can occur, lumely, when the 
liew temperatures are so distributed in the atmosphere as to satisfy 
the equation 

Jpr«wdV-M, 

in addition to the ordinary equations of elasticity, inertia and 
continuity previously given, and to those reprewnting the boundary 
conditions, M being the total amount of inertia of the atmo?phtre 
relative to the axis of rotation. In general, the movements in the 
atmosphere must consist not only of an interchange between the 
poles and the equator, but also of east and west motions, and there 
must therefore bieadifferent rateof diurnal rotation for each stratum* 
The second step in this inquiry is. Can these movements become 
perfectly steady with this unvarying or steady distribution of 
temperature? In other words. Can the temperature and the 
movements be so adjusted to each other that each shall remain 
invariable within any given zone of latitude? The reply to this is, 
that if they are to become thus adjusted they must satisfy a certain 
differential equation, which itself shows that steady motions and 
stationary temperatures cannot exist if there be any north or south 
component. Apart from the fact that Herrmann assumes no 
friction, it would seem that he has proved that steady motions and 
stationary pressures cannot exist in the atmosphere over a homo- 

f^eneous spherical surface, and presumably the tame result would 
ollow of a rotating globe for the uregular surface of the actual globe. 
The motions of the real atmosphere must therefore consist of irreKular 
and periodic oscillations and discontinuous whirls and rolls super- 
imposed upon more uniform, regular projjressions, but never repeat- 
ing themselves. Consequently, the conclusions deduced by those 
who have assumed that steady conditions are ix>«.sible must dejiart 
more or less from meteoroloRical ol>scrvations. There is a general 
impression that the belt of low pressure at the equator and the low 
areas at the poles and the high pressures under the tropirs arc 
pseudo-stationary, and really represent what would be steady 
conditions if we had an ideal smooth globe; but Herrmann's resea re hirs 
show that the unsteadiness observe*! to att.ich to these areas under 
existing conditions would also attach to them under ideal conditions. 
They really have and must have irregular motions, and we, by 
taking annual averages, obtain an ideal annual distribution of 
pressure, temperature and wind that does not represent any s|KTific 
dynamic problem. The averages represent what is considered proi»er 
in climatology, but are quite improper and misleading fr..in a 
dynamic point of view, and have no logical mechanical connexion 
with each other. 

Closely connected with this study of steady motions under a 
constant supply and steaily distribution o( sikA^t Vv^iax. co'roes >\>fc 
further question as to vrnal tc^vAat v^rvaL\.\oTv\ \tv -axxcvw^w"*. 
pa'ksure and wind can be produced Ni"^ te^^^^^ «aaot«\ N*i>a.vvot»^ 



286 



METEOROLOGY 



(PHYSICAL AND THE(» 



In %ht Beat ncclvi?dl fiiom ttic «iii*, fof Instance, what ^'aria^ 
tion in ihe eanliV atmosphrre ejocrripondi lo chr periodic 
varUtipnt of the aoUr «pot4< Tht (central current of Hclmhchc's 
InvestEfatioiit g1ii3w$ thaf no periodic clunj^ in thf earth 'li at mo 
•phcfc can be meinraifieMJ for any length of time by a givfrn pcnadic 
Inflyrnce outride of Iht^ atmoaphcrc. On the other hand, it \a barely 
pot&ihlc that wave and vortei^ pticnomena on the aan\ fturfacc may 
ndve the !^mc pi.'riodicUicfl at regular phenomena in the earth's 
atmofpNcrv, so thai thcfo may bk a pa railelisjo without any direct 
ccmn^uon bci**en the two. 

An important paper on the application of hytirodynamtcs to 
the ktmosiphere is that by Profcssar V. Ujrrkne^, of Stockholm, 
Sweden, which was read in September i&og at Munich, and ti now 
published in an Encli^h. tranaLatLon in tfie U.S. Mmlhiy Wtmhir 
Ketfitvt, Oct. 1900 1" On th«r Dynamic Principle of CircaUlory 
Movements in the Atmosphere "J. In thii memoir BJerlcn»Appliei 
certain fundamental theortins in fluid motion by HelmnoUtt 
Kelvin and Silbcrstcin, and others of hts own discovery to the 
atn-hjsnhcnc circtilation. He ^ittiphfies the hydrodynamic concept 
tjons by dealing with d^^n^ity directly instead of temperature and 
pr^iiaiire, and u*es char Lit of '* isftstcres," or lines of equal density, 
^er\' tm'-h n« H-i* pr"j— -^i-f l^y A^'!-" In fJ^^^'j '•'^ '^^'^ Pi-/-__j^,i*'^r^.ry 
Studies, where he utilized lines' of eaual buoyancy or " isostaths, 
and such as Elkholm published in 1891 as " isodenses" and which 
were called " isobyks by MUller-Hauenfcls. B|erkne8 has thus 
made it practicable to apply hydrodynamic principles in a simple 
manner without the necessity of analytically integrating the equa- 
tions, at least for many ordinary cases. He also Rives an important 
criterion by which we may judge in any given case oetween the physi- 
cal theory, according to which cyclones are perpetually renewed, and 
the mechanical theory, according to which they are simply carried 
along in the general atmospheric current. Bjerlcnes's paper is 
illustrated by another one due to Mr Sandstrdm, of Stockholm, who 
has applied these methods to a storm of September 1898 in the 
United States.^ The further development ot Bjerknes's methods 

Bromises a decided advance in theoretical and practical meteorology. 
lis profound lectures at Columbia University in New York and in 
Washington in Dfcembpr 1905 aroust'd sued an in if rent that the 
Carnegie Institution at once asjii^ncd the funds needed to enable 
him to complete and pubti&h the applications to metcorolofty of the 
methods 01 anaty&i!^ given in dttai'I in Bjerknes's Vonfsuni/tn 
(Leipzig, i. 1900, iL 190^), and in his Recherche sur iei champs de 
force kydrodynamiquts (SiDClcholm]^ AfH^ Maiematita (Oct. 1905). 
In his lectures of 1905 at Coltitnbia Univcrtity Bierknes treated 
the atmosphere as a continuous hydrodyriamic fklJ of aerial sole- 
noids and forces actinc on them, to whkh vector analysis can be 
applied, as was done by 1 f ca ^ i 1 h r^ f ~ r ri r r - -- - r{ ma^ net ic problems. 
Every material poiiit is a 5n ■ nf iiir ffce to extend 

or contract with pressure, temperature or moisture; free to rotate 
about each of three movable axes passing through its centre and to 
move along and revolve about three fixed axes through the centre 
of the earth. These numerous degrees of freedom are easily ex- 

fressed in Bjerknes's notation and by his typical eauations of motion, 
he density at any point is recognized as the funaamental " dimen- 
sion " controlling inertia and movement. The observed atmospheric 
conditionat j!^^ n.,.:LJL ri L . !... ^:. Lv .1 ■.■•,:■ ■■' ■/■■■ - ■•'•J ^ <';^ 
intersecting fjoi^nti^l iurface& of tt^ual i;r.ivity and thu-i foriiiing a 
continuous tnnia, of unit solenoids. This field bccoinei_ either nn 
electric, magnetic or hydrodynamic field according to the interpitU' 
tion assigned to the tvotatTOn*— in cither raw the analytical pra- 
cesses are idtntical. The tutaloeics of homologies of these three 
sets of phenoraena are complete tntdtrghout, and those of one field 
elucidate or ilEu^traie those ol the two othflr fields. This la the out- 
come of the itudy of such analoeic* beeun by Euler, Helmholtx. 
Hoppe.and tutcnsivcly furthtred by Maxwell and Krlvinn but cspe- 
cially by C. An Bjerktae*. The homoltjuie* or analogies by V. flierfcne^ 
are given at p. 1^3 ol his Reckiirtke (1905). and include the following 
six triads: — 

. velocity of unit mass 

. magnetic induction 

. electric induction 

. intensity of the field 



fH 



II. 



III. 



IV. 



V. 



VI. \ 



H>'drodyni 
Nfagnetics 



namics 
agnetics . . 

Electrics . . 

Hydrodynamics 

Magnetics 

Electrics 

Hydrodynamics 

Nfagnctics . . 

Electrics 
' Hydrodynamics 

Magnetics . . 
^ Electrics . . 
■ Hydrodynamics 

Magnetics ; 

Electrics 
' Hydrodynamics 

Magnetics . 

Electrics 



. velocity of energy 

. intrinsic magnetic polarization 
electric „ 

. velocity of expansion per unit volume 

. density of the true magnetic mass 
„ „ electric „ 

. density of the dynamic vortex 

„ „ steady magnetic current 
„ M t, magnetic •• 

. specific volume 

. magnetic permeability 

. dielectric constant 



' "On the Construction ot Isobaric Charts for High Levels in the 
Earth's Atmosphere and their DyoAmic Significance," Trans. Am, 
/'M. SiTc. O906). 



whsrh ha%T; been Ellghtly rectified by Df C, H* Lity;, 
M\iih- \\^^^^. In the application of Ujerknei's methods 1 
the daily weather map SSndsCrom draws special maps tl 
the solenoids and the forces^ Barometric p:ressures A 
from the observing stations not only down to sca^lc^nd 
other Level surface?! of gravity. The differencei betiiecn 
surfaces represent the work done in rai£in|[ a unit mau fn?i 
to (he neiit (t-ce HjerkiieA and Sfindstruni, A Tre^iie ffi 
Mett0rpiitgy and NydrD^^fitiyt WasihingtunH 19^(1 J. 

The Dimnnji ata Srf"-aiurttal Ptri^uiitfi in Barfimeii 
— For a long timo aittniptft were made to cxpbin tt 
variatfont of the banimetcf by a consideration 01 »iat>c 
but it is now evident that this problem, like th^t of the 
of the atnujsphere. is a question of aerodynamics, A mOf 
scries of rcscanrhfra into the character of the phcnomjirn 
observational point of view ha« been made by Mann^ v 
summary of our knowledge of the i^ub/ect in t'le AfrL Zti 
translatHC^l by R. H. Scott in the (^aart. Jt'ur, Jiay. Mrt. 
1%^) (^ce aha an impariant addition by Hann and Tral 
Mii^ Zeit.t Nov. itk^i And the summary ^A his results e 
hii l^htbnck, 1906). Ilartn has «hown that at the cart 
three TTgular periodic variali<jii» are eitiibllsht^f by q\ 
V IjCh the diurnal . »c mi-d i u rnal a nd ter-d I u rna L On the hig 
tains these variations change their chsr^ctiT with ^kituc 
the equator the diurnal variation is rcpre^'nti-d by tl 
O'^o mm. sin {5'+ jrj. where x is the Jofal hotjrangle t 
In higher latitudes either north or south the roiHJiclcnt Af 
diminiyif^. but the pha» an{;le, S% varies Krcaiiy, K^ncral 
Larger. It is therefore e%'ident that this diurnal cMrilUtit 
directly on the hour angle of the sun, and probably 1 
principally on the amount of heat and vapour rrcci^'^'d by 
sphere from the ocean and the eround at any locality aiu 
(ne year, ft Ia apparently but little affected by the wind, 
what by altitude above sea; the amplitude diminishes it 
certain elevation^ and (hen reappears and increases with tl 
BJ^n ; the pha^se angle does not change, (a) SupcrimpoMK! 
dLLifEial fv<Jllatlon is a larger semidiurnal one. which ^ 
its ma^tlmum and minimum phiw* twice in the coLfw ol i 
The amplitude of tbi* variation U h.r^t in equatorial n 
i*e^?pr^^^^ed by the fomiula Aj-to^*!^ mm.— 0-573 n* 
cos *^ as civen by Hann, or Ai"(0"92 mm.— o'495 Mil 
a.'^ revised by Trabert, This amplitnde also uiay be cot 
variable alonK each fone of latitude having a maximui 
certain ccntr'aT local meridians. The limei at which the sc 

fthaies of maiiimum and minimum occur are subject to lai 
rom those for the diurnal period. Within the trupics 
angle is 160' and at 50'' N. it is 1*7% and between the 
feeniji. to Lie the j»amc over the whole glotie, so that the pha 
drpend citarly upon the hour angle of the sun or on the 
The amplicudrt appear to dtpend on the excess of Is 
northern hemisphere 35 rnctipared wlih the water and el 
Eouthcrn hEmi?iphere+ The amplitude also ^^afiea duHni 
Ljeing Rn^tcst at pcnSefiofi and le.iil at aphelion. Hao 
that ihii ts an indinxt ctTect of the ^un'* hrAt on the ei 
northern hemisphere is hotter when the earth is In dphet 
the sou I hern hemisphere when the earth is »n pcrihetion 
the prepofldcrance of land in the north and water in 



Latitude. Both pha** and amplitude have a proctaunc 
pcriud which is as remarkable as that ol the semi-diurnal 1 
the maximum amplitude occurs In Janiiary in the nortl 
sphere ( and in July in the tout hem. 

The physics of the atmonphere has not yet been e 
e\haustiv*:ly m to eJipUin fully these three systematic 
variations, but iKilher have we as yet any neces*ity Con 
to ftome nnknow li cosmic action as a possible cau^c of theii 
The act ion of the wbr hi-at upon the illuminated hemis 
the many cortwquenres that reimult therefrom, may be c 
eipEain the barometric peritids- The vartation.iof sutiiUiiDi 
must inevitably produce periodic variations of irmperatun 
pressure and motion,^ who«e esact laws wt; have not as yet 
Among the mziny mtihods of action that have bceo stud 
jetted in connexloii with the barometric ^-ariations the rr 
lant of all is the w-called lidal wave of prcTs^ure due to te 
Laplace applied hij inve5ti£.^Ticn4 on the tide* to the ^ 
tide of the ocean, and when he pa-asd to ihecorrespondit^ 
lunar gjravitiitional tides of the atmosphere he w:as able tt 
they mutit be iruppreciab^e. unless, indeed, ecrrain 1 
relations existed littwiccn the cireumfprence of the can 
depth of the atmo^phtrc. As these relations do not 
Rjcnerally conceded as irertain that the gravitational i 
diurnal a ad semi-diurnal, cannot escerd A Jew thousan 
inch of barometric prtiiure. On the other hand^ the sA. 
of mathematical rrawjnlng enable* u* to investigate the u 
sun's heat in prwiucinR a wave of pressure that has be 
pressur^l tide, due to the eipansinn of the Jo»cr la>er ol 
illuminated hatf E>f the globe. The Laws that must ge 
I pteAfUTil tkks havu been inveatigatcd by Kelvin, Rayl 



FBVSICAL AND THEORETICAL) 



Jfifn Ftb, 1890), and especially by Margulcfl (Vienna Sitx, Ber. 



1890-1893). The two latter have shown the truth <^ a proposition 
fiwnriaitcH by Kelvin in 188^, Without demonstration, to tM effect 
iktt the (ne oadllatjon produced by a relatively small amount of 
titk-OTodocuig fofce will have an amplitude that is larger for the 
half-day term than for the whole-day term. They therefore explain 
Ike dioraal and Kmi-diumal variations of the barometric pressure 
ai anple pressural tides or waves of expansion, originally produced 
by 9obr beat, but magnified by the resonance between forced and 
free waves in an atmosphere and on a globe having the specific 
dismsions of our own. The analytical processes by which Laplace 
ud Kelvin arri\Td at this special solution of the tidal equation were 
ot^ectcd to by Airy and Ferrcl, but the matter has been, as we think, 
BKKt fully cleared up by Dr G. II. Ling, in e memoir published in the 
AuaU if liaihematus in 1896. He seems to have shown that, 
sitbosfh a literally correct result was attained bjt Laplace in his 
fint bvestigation, yet his methods as presented in the Micanique 
tHak were at fault from a rigorous analytical point of view. The 
process by which a diurnal temperature wave produces a aemi- 
dumal pressure oscillation, as explained by Rayleigh and Marbles, 
■sy be stated as follows: The diumal temperature wave having a 
t«tBty-four hours period is the generating force of a diumal pressure 
tide, which is essentially a forced and small oscillation. The natural 
period of the free waves in the atmosphere agrees much more nearly 
vitk twehre than with twenty-four hours. In so far as the forced 
asd the free waves reinforce each other, the semi-diurnal waves are 
msforoed far more than the other, so that a very small scmi-diumal 
term in the temperature oscillations will produce a pressure oscilla- 
lioa two or three times as large as the same term would in the diurnal 
period. These reinforcements, however, depend upon the elastic 
PRtmr within the atmosphere, just as does the velocity of sound. 
H tbe prevailing barometric pressures were slightly increased, the 
adjustment of the twelve-hours free wave of pressure to the forced 
•aw of temperature could be so perfect that the barometric wave 
vonld increase to an indefinite extent. For the actual temperatures 
Aepcriodidtv of the free wave is about thirteen hours, or somewhat 
M^ than the forced wave of temperature, so that the barometric 
gjla t ioB does not become excess ve. It would seem that we have 
hot a wggestion to the effect that if in rast geological ages the aver- 
se temperature at any time has been about 268" C. on the absolute 
nie, thin the pressure waves could have been so brge as to produce 
naaitable and perhaps disastrous conse(]ucnccs, involving the loss 
«f a portion of the atmosphere. A modification of this idea of 
■taonance has been developed bv Dr Jarrisch. of Hamburg (Met. 
2iii, 1907). but the general tnitn of the Kclvin-Margulcs-Raylcigh 
theocen «tiU abides. 

Tie Thermodynamics of a Moisl Atmosphere. — ^The preceding 
■ection deals with an incompressible gas, and therefore with simple, 
pore bvdpodynamics. if now we introduce the conception ol an 
Mansfmere of compressible gas, whose density increases with alti- 
tude, so that rising and falling currents change their temperatures 
bjr reason of the expansion and compression of the masses of air, 
«e take the first step in the combination of thcrmodjrnamic and 
fcfdrodynamic conditions. If we next introduce moisture, and 
take precipitation into consideration, we pass to the difficult prob- 
kas of doud and rain that correspond more nearly to those which 
aauaOy occur in meteorology. This combination has been eluci- 
duedby the works of Espy and Ferrel in America. Kelvin in Eneland, 
Hana and Margules in Austria, but especially by Hertz, Helmnoltz, 
ud von Bezold in Germany, and bjr Brtllouin in France. A general 
Knew of the subject will be found in Profci^sor Bieclow's report on 
the dood work of the U.S. Weather Bureau and his subsequent 
■enoirB ** On the Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere " (Monthly 
WtaAer Review, 1906-1909). 

The proper treatment of this subject began with the memoir of 
IWvin on convective equilibrium (see Trans. Manchester Phil. Soe., 
iKi). The most convenient method of dealing approximately 
*ith the problems isj^raphic and numerical rather than analytical, 
■ad n this field the pioneer work was done by Hertz, who published 
bis digram for adiabatic changes in the atmosphere in the Met. Zeit. 
■ 1881, He considers the adiabatic changes of a kilogram of mixed 
•ir and aqueous vapour, the proportional weights of each being X 
■ad # respectively. In a subsequent elaborate treatment of the 
■ne subject by von Bezold in four memoirs published during 1889 
aad 1899, the formulae and methods arc arranged so as to deal easily 
vilh the ordinary cases of nature which are not adiabatic; he there- 
fnv prepares diagrams and tables to illustrate the changes going 
M m a onit mass m drj^ air to which has been added a small quantity 
■f aqueous vapour, which, of course, may vary to any extent. Botn 
Hertz and von Bezold consider separately four stages or conditions of 
qrfiere: (A^ The dry stage, where aqueous vapour to a limited 
It only is mixed with the dry air. (B) The rain stage, where both 
— ated vapour and liquid particles arc simultancou<i1y present 
fC) The hail stage, where saturated aqueous vapour, and water, and 
keaie all three present. (D) The snow stage, where ice vapour and 
»ow itself, or crystals of ice. are present. The expressions aqueous 
~ d ice vapour do not occur in Hertz's article, but are now 

. . «nce Marvin, Fischer and luhlin have been able to show 
.npour from water and vapour from ice exert different elastic j 



METEOROLOGY 



287 



liquid wateri According to Hertz, we may easily follow this mass 
of moist air as it rises in the atmosphere, if by expansion it cools 
adiabatically so as to go successively through the four preceding 
stages. For a few thousand feet it remains dry air. It then becomes 
cloudy and enters the second stage. Next it rises higher until the 
cloudy particles begin to freeze into snow, sleet or hail, which charac- 
terizes the third stage. When the water has frozen and the cloud 
has ascended higher, it contains only ice particles and the vapour of 
ice, a condition which characterizes the fourth or snow stage. If 
in this condition we give it picntv of time the precipitated ice or snow 
may settle down, and the cloudy air, l)ecoming clear, return to the 
first stage; but the ordinary process in nature is a circulation by 
which both the cloud and the air descend together slowly, warming 
up as they descend, so that eventually the mixture returns to the 
first sugc at some k;vcl lower than the clouds, though higher than 
the starting-point. 

The exact study of the ordinary non-adiabatic process can be 
carried out by the help of Professor Bigclow's tabkrs, and especially 
by the very ingenious tables published by Ncuhoff (BeHin, 1900). but 
the approximate adiabatic study is so helpful that in fig. 10 we have 
traced a few lines from Hertz's 
diagram sufficient to illustrate its 
use and convenience. The reader 
will perceive a horizontal line at 
the base representing sea-level; 
near the middle of this line is zero 
centigrade; as we ascend above 
this base into the upper regions 
of the air we come under k)wer 
pressures, which arc shown by 
the figures on the left-hand side. 
The scale of pressures is logar- 
ithmic, so that the corresponding 
altitudes would be a scale of 
equal parts. The temperature 
and pressure at any height in 
the atmosphere are shown by 
this diagram. If the air be satur- 
ated at a given temperature, then 
the unit volume can contain only 
a definite number of grams of An^r iinti. 
water, and this condition is repre- Fig. 10. — Diagram for Graphii 
sented by a set of moisture lines. Method of following Adiabatii 
indicated by short dashes, show- Changes, 
ing the temperature and pres- 
sure under which 5. 10 or 20 grams of water may be contained in 
the saturated air. Let us now suppose that we are following the 
behaviour of a kilogram mass of air rising from near sca-lcvel. inhere 
it has a pressure of 750 millimetres, a temperature of 27' C., and 
a relative humidity of 50 /I,. A pointer pressing down upon the 
■ 27 C. will represent this initial con- 



Afrc 


\ 


Kr^ 


,tj' 








'N 




'. 'f' 










\ 




\t 


* 






' \. \h 










H 


\\ 


111 






im 


•^.W .1 


^ ^i ^ ^ 


tfVWls 



diagram at 750 millimetres and 27° C 
dition. A line drawn through that | 



represent t 
point parallel to the moiMurc 
lines will show that if this air were saturated it would contain aliout 
22 ^ms of water; but inasmuch as the relative humidity is only 
50%; therefore it actually contains onlv 11 grams of water, and an 
auxiliary moisture line may be drawn tor this amount. If now the 
mass rises and cools by expansion, the relation b(?twecn pressure and 
temperature will l)e shown by the line a o. When this line inter- 
sects the inclined moisture line for II grams of water we know that 
the rising mass has cooled to saturation, and this occurs when the 

Eressure is al>out 640 millimetres and the temperature I3-2* C. 
iy further rise and expansion a steady condensation continues, 
but by reason of the latent heat evolved the rate of cooling is dimin- 
ished and follows the line fi fi. The condensed vapour or cloud 
particles are here supposed to be carried up with the cooling air, 
but the temperature of freezing or zero degrees centigrade is soon 
attained — as the diagram shows — when the pressure is about 472 
millimetres. At this point the special evolution of latent heat of 
freezing comes into play; and although the air rises higher and more 
moisture is condensed, the temperature does not fall lK>cause the 
water already converted into vapour and now becoming ice is giving 
out latent heat sufficient to counteract the cooling due to expansion. 
This illustration from Hertz's diagram therefore bhows that the 
curve for cooling temperature coincides with the vertical line for 
freezing, and is represented on the diagram by the short piece y. 
By this expansion due to ascent the volume is increased while the 
temperature is not changed; thercforc, the quantity of aqueous 
vapour has increased. When the ascending mass has reached the 
level wherc the pressure is 463 millimetres it has also reached the 
moisture line that represents this increase in aqueous vapour. As 
this shows that the aqueous particles have now all been frozen, and 
as the air is now continuously rising, while its temperature is always 
below freezing-point, therefore at levels above this |X>int the vapour 
that condenses from the air is supposed to pass dirc-ctly over into the 
condition of solid ice. Therefore from this point onwards the falling 
temperatures follow along the line 7 7. and continue along it in- 
definitely. From these considerations it follows that the clouds 
above the altitude of freezing temperatures aiie e«*iTv\X;v>\>i «v<ir« 
crystals, and if the air rises s\ow\v tV«tc ttv^v ^ ^^"^^^ ^^^ ^^'^ ^^vyx 



.Slid moat therefore repreaent differeot modiScathtu ot and ice to settle down towards the ^TO\iiid\Va xYCv& cawi VV^ ^^tcCvV) 



288 



METEOROLOGY 



[PHYSICAL AND THEORETICAL 



of snow leTt within the clouds muit be very mall, and the cloud 
has the delicate appearance peculiar to dmis. Hertz's original 
diagram is quite covered by these systems of a, /I, y and i lines, and 
the m<nsture lines. The lum show the density of the moist air at 
any stage of the process. The improved diagram by Neuhoff, pub- 
lished in 1900, is reprinted in the second volume of Abbe's Mtchamus 
of the Earth's Atmosphere, and its arrangements help to solve many 
problems suggested by the recent progress of aerial research. 

In von Bezold's treatment of this subject only illustrative di^iami 
are published, because the accurate figures, drawn to scale, are 
necessarily too large and detailed. He preKnts graphically the exact 
explanation of the cooling by expansion, the loss of both mass and 
heat by the rainfall and snowfall, and the warmth of the remaining 
air when it descends as foehn winds in Switzerland and chinobk 
winds in Montana. Even in the neighbourhood of a storm over low 
lands and the ocean, the warm moist air in front, after being carried 
up to the rain or snow stage, flows away on the upper west wind 
until a corresponding portion of the latter descends drier and warmer 
on the opposite side of the central low pressure. In order to have 
a convenient term expressive of the fact that two masses of air in 
different portions of the atmosphere having different pressures, 
temperatures and moistures, would, if brought to the same pressure, 
also necessarily attain the same temperature, von Besold introduced 
the expression " potential temperature," and devised a simple dia- 
gram by which the potential temperature may be determined for 
any mass of air whose present temperature, pressure and moisture 
are known. In an ascending mass of- air, from the beginning of the 
condensation onwards, the potential temperature steadily increases 
by reason of the loss of moisture, but in a descending mass of air it re- 
mains constant at the maximum value attained by it at the highest 
point of its previous path. In general the potential temperatures 
of the upper strata of the atmosphere are higher than those of the 
lower. In general the so<alled vertkal temperature gradient is 
smalksr than would correspond to the adiabatic rate for the dry 
sUge. This latter gradient u 0*093* C' P^r hundred metres for the 
dry stage, but the actual atmospheric observations give about 0*6*. 
Apparently this difference represents primarily Uie latent heat 
evolved by the condensation of vapour as it is carried into the upper 
layers, but it also denotes in part the effect of the radiant neat 
directly reuined in the atmosphere by the action of the dust and the 
surfaces of the clouds. Passing from simple changes due to ascent 
and descent, von Bezold next investigated the results of the mixture 
of different masses of air, having different temperatures and 
humidities, or different potential temperatures. -The importance of 
such mixtures was exaggerated by Hutton, while that of thermo- 
dynamic processes was maintained by Espy, but the relative 
significance of the two was first dearly shown by Hann as far as it 
relates to the formation of rain, and further details have been con- 
sidered by von Bezold. The practical tables contained in Professor 
Bigelow's report on clouds, and those of Neuhoff as arranged for the 
use of those who follow up von Bezold's train of thought, complete 
our methods of studying this subject. 

A most important application of the views of von Bezold, Hertz 
and Helmholtz was published by Brillouin in his memoir of. 1898. 
Just as we have learned that the motions of the atmosphere are 
not due cither to the general distribution of heat or to local influences 
exclusively, but in part to each, and just as we have learned that the 
temperature of the air is not due cither to radiation and absorption 
or to dynamic processes exclusively, but to both combined, so in the 
phenomena of rain and cloud the precipitation is not always due to 
the cooling by mixture, or to the cooling by expansion, or to radia- 
tion, but IS in general a complex result ot alL The effect of the 
evaporation of cloudy particles in the production of descending 
cold currents has always been understood in a general way, but was 
first brought to prominence by Espy in 18^8, and periiaps equally 
forcibly by Fa ye in 187^. Helmholtz, in his memoire on billows in 
the atmosphere, showcdf how contiguous currents may interact on 
each other and mix together at their boundary surface; but Brillouin 
explains how these mixtures produce cloucf and rain — not heavy 
rains, of course, but light showers, and spits of snow and possibly haif. 
He says : " When the layers of clear or cloudy air are contiguous, 
but moving with very different velocities, thdr motion, relative 
to the earth because of the rotation of our globe, assumes a much 
more complicato<l character than that which obtains when the air 
has no horizontal but only a vertical motion. We know in a general 
manner what apparent auxiliary forces must be introduced in order 
to take into account this rotation, and numerous meteorologists 
have published important works on the subject since the first memours 
by Fcrrel. But their points of view have been very different from 
mine. The subjects that I desire to study are the surfaces of 
discontinuity as to velocity, tempcYature and cloudiness in one 
special case only. Analytical methods permit us to resolve complex 
questions only for limited areas in longitude and for contiguous ' 
zones within which the movrments are steady, but not necessarily 
uniform nor p-imllrl. But it is evident that one can learn much as 
to the condition of permanence or destruction of annular zones 
hjvinji uniform and parallel mn\'ements.' Thus simplified, the 
questions can he trfatcff hy elementary geometric methods, by means 
Of which we at oace rediscover aad complete the resulu given by 



rocatinc frktioa- 
whoae ansular 1 



Hdmholu for aonet of dear air and disoofvcr a whole aeries of aev 
results for zones of cloudy air." Aoioiig Brilloain'a renlu ait At 
following theorenls^— 

A. It the atmosphere be di^ded into uurom aonal ringt. cadi 
extending completdy around the globe, thus covering a narrow hm 
of latitude, and if each is within itself m oonvecuve equiKbrioa 
•0 that the surfaces of equal pressure shall be surfaces of levohitioa 
around the axis of rotation, then within any such complete nag 
in convective equilibrium the angular velocity of any parude of the 
air will vary in inverse ratio of the tc^uare of its dmance from the 
axis of rotation, or or* is constant ; that is to say, the air will not move 
like a rotating solid, but will have a variable angular vdodty, smaller 
far from the axis and greater near to it. 

B. The surfaces of equal pressure are more concave towards the 
centre than is the surface 01 the giabt itself, and they are 
to the latter only along the paraltel where calms prevail. 

C. A heavy gaseous atmos|4iere resting upon a 
less globe diiodes itself into concentric rings who 
ments increase as we pass from the pdar region towards the equa- 
torial ring ; the central globe rotates more rapidly than the equatorial 
atmosdhenc ring, 

D. The surface of separation be t wee n two oontiguoas oonceatrie 
rings must be such that the atmospheric pressure shall have the 
same value as one approaches this surface from dther direction, aad 
the surface of separation is stable if the differences of prmuie m 
different parts of this surface are directed towards the surface of 
equilibrium. As the distributkm of pressure along a Une paraOd 
to the axis of rotation is independent of the vekxsty of rotatian, 
the ordinary condition of stability, viz. that the sas of wnida the lower 
ring is composed shall be denser than that aoove, will bold good 
for this Une. In general, any inclination of the surface of separation 
to the horizon amounting to 10* must be associated with very saul 
differences of density and large differences of vekxity; in pcactioe 
the inclinations are far less than 10*. 

E. If the surfaces of equal pressure or isoban are neariy horizontal* 
as in ordinary cases, the calculations are comparativdy easy t» 
make. Let the inclination of the isobaric surface ascending towarda 
the pole be ^ ; let A] be a distance counted along the axis of the eaith. 
and Hi the distance measured in the direction of the attraction of 
gravity; then the angle of inclination of the isobaric surface b givcB 

«"♦— *,eo.X ■ 
where X is the complement of the angle between the directkM tf 
gravity and the line drawn to the poles, or the axis of rotation of 
the earth. The surface of separation is that over which thepreswra 
is the same in two contiguous masses or zones, and is identical 
with a vertical plane only when the dennties and vekxities in the 
two layers have certain specific relations to each other. It can never 
lie between the isobaric surfaces that Brilloum dedgnates as i and s. 
In order that the equilibrium may be suble, it is necessary that wbei 
ascending in the atmosphere along a line paralld to the polar asii 
one should traverse layere of diminishing density. In the midrt 
of any zone there cannot exist another zone of limited altitude; 
it must extend upwards indefinitely. Whenever there is any toat 
of limited altitude it must necessarily have, near its highest or lowol 
point, an edge by which it is attached to the surface of separatioi 
of two other ndghbouring zones. In other words, the sunaoesflf 
separation of the three zones, of which one is limited and the ockcr 
two are indefinite, must all run together at a common point or cdpb 
very much as in the problem of the equilibrium of thin films. 

F. When the contiguous zones are cloudless the mixtures takt 
place under the following conditions: Starting from the stdili 
conditions, the cloudless mixture ascends on tlie polar side when tki 
west wind which prevails on the equatorial side of the surface flf 
separation is warmer but descends between the pole and the cqaa* 
torial side of the horizon when- the west wind which prevails on te 
eguatorial side of the surface of separation is colder. The ouxtafCl 
of^ cloudless air rapidly occupy the whole hdght of the two toycrstkat 
are mixing. When they form along a surface that bec om es unstabb 
the whirlwind that is thus engendered is sensibly cylindrical at finU 
but finally becomes extremely conicaL This whirlwind nay bt 
limited as to hdght when the two contiguous masaes that are a — ^~~ 
are surmounted by a third clear or cloudy layer whkrh in 
the other two and whose lower surface is stable. (BrilkMiin s ^_ 
that possibly this corresponds to the formation of water-spoots taf 
tornadoes.) 

G. When the contiguous zones are cloudy and the mtztoRt 
produce decided condensations, and sometimes even prcdoitatia^ 
the study of these must follow closely in the train of thought loOoacd 
out by von Bezold. When the contiguous winds are feeble, bat tki 
temperatures are very different and the zones are near the cqvtter. 
then the position of the mixture can be inverted by condenaatiaai 
since the influence of difference of pressure becomes predoouaaAL 
At the equator, whatever may be the difference of temperatwe^ 
mixture that is accompanied by condensation alwaya rises if W 
surface of separation is stable. The condensation incrraaii by tkt 
expansion, each zone of mixture bdng an outborat of aaoca^ 
ing cumuli At the equator, whatever nay be the < lig eieDC « «l 



nniau. AMD THEORETICAM 



METEOROLOGY 



289 



^ ^ mixtare acoMnpaiiied by oondenaatioQ alwmyt 

itnadi when the mirfaoe of •epantion b unstable; moraover, the 
y***^**** compfeanon rapidly evaporatea the mixture. 

h the bat three chapters of his metnoir, Brillouin applies these 
[ ^■"r*" ^"^ other details to almost every observedf variety of 



r«. II, 




I due to the pressure of one current of air against another. 
tor the U^. Monthly Weather Renew (Oct. 

T 



gutf/y 



T 



J&t 



Cokf mr^P 




Fig. II.— Diagram illustrating Gouds due to Mixture. 
^197)1 gives five of the cases elucidated by Brillouin. In each of 
ttoe the left-hand side of the diagram is the polar side, the air 
bong cold above and the wind from the east, while the right-hand 
■de IS the equatorial side, the air being warm above 
till tltt wind from the west. The reader will see that 
is csdi case, dependii^ on the relative temperatures 
iiil winds, byers of cunid are formed of marked in- 
<*iduaUty. M none of tlwse clouds appear in the 
hitrwalAoml CUmd Atlas or the various systems of 
■otadoii for clouds, one is all the more impressed 
«ith the importance of their study and the success 
«ith which Brillouin has opened up the way for future 
kncatigatora. " We have no longer to do with per- 
aissl and local experience, but with an analytical 
faoiptioa of a small number of characteristics easy 
to co m pre hend and applicable at every locality 
throi«hout the globe." 

From a thermodynamic point of view the most 
inportant study is that published by Margules, Ueber 
Hi Baerpe der StOrm* (Vienna, 1905). This work 
eooaden only the total enersy and its adiabatic trans- 
fenaatioaa within a mass ot air constituting a closed 
■nicm. Truly adiabatic changes in dosed systems 
OD not occur within any vpeaaX portion of the earth's 
ttmonhere. neither can our entire atmosphere be 
eoawfered as one such system — but Margules' results are approxi- 
BBtdy applicable to many olnerved cases and complete the demon- 
ftntion 01 the general truth that we must not confine our studies 
to the ttimiler cases treated by Espy, Reye, Sohncke, PesUn, Fcrrel, 
Uoka. All imaginable combinations of conditions exist in our 
" *- — !, aund a method must be found to treat the whole subject 

Hvely and rigorously. 

e three equations of energy on which Margules bases his work 

"** R+«(K+P)+«A-o 

«I-»A-Q 
R-|.«(K-|.P)-H6I-Q 
*fcere R«energy lost by friction or converted into heat; K- 
looetic energy due to velocity of moving masses; P -potential energy 
jat to location and gravity and pressure heat; A -work done by 
■leraal forca when air is expanding or contracting; I -internal 
cvrgy due to the ensting pressure and temfjcrature; Q-<^uantity 
«l heat or thermal energy added or lost during any operation and 
vlsdi is aero during adiabatic processes only. 

IheK equations are applied to cases in which masses of air of 
i Miaut temperatures and moistures are superposed and then left 
Me to ■■■nroe tUble equilibrium. It results in every case that there 
fiasfraecacfgy devdopod. Any condensation of moisture by expaa- / 



■ion la counterbalanced by redistribution of potential enetgy and fay 
the work done, in the mterchange of locations. The idea that boio- 
metric pressure gradients make the storm-winds is seen to be erron- 
eous and the primary importance of gravity gradients is brought 
to light. " The source of a storm is to be aoucht only in the poten- 
tial energy of position and in the vdocity dt ascent and descent, 
although these are generally lost sieht of owing to the great horiaon- 
tal and small vertical dimensions of the storm areas The horiaontal 
distribution of pressure seems to be a forced transformation within 
the storm areas at the boundarv surface of the earth, by reason of 
which a small part of the mass 01 air acquires a greater velocity than 
it could by ascending in the coldest or sinking in the wannest 
part of the storm areas. But here we come to problems that cannot 
be solved by conudering the energy only." 

This latter Quotation emphasizes the necessity of returning to 
the equations oi motion. The thermodynamics and hydrodynamica 
of the atmosphere must be studied in intimate connexion — they can 
no longer be studied separately. Apparently we may expect this 
next step to be taken in the above-mentiorued work promised by 
V. Bjerknes, but meanwhile Professor F. H. Bigelow nas success- 
fully attacked some features of the problem in his " Studies on the 
Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere '* (Monthly Weather Review^ 

ian.-Dec. 1906). In ch. iii. of his studies (Monthly Weather Renew, 
lareh 1906) Bigelow establishes a thermodynamic formula applic- 
able to non-adiabatic prxe ss es by introducing a factor » so that the 
pressure (P) and absolute temperature (T) are connected by the 
formula 

P. /T\««(«-i) 
V'KTJ 
In our fig. I above given, Cottier has assumed « — 1«3, but as the 
values have now been computed for all altitudes from the observa- 
tions given by balloons and lutes, and have a very seneral importance 
and interest, we copy them from Bigelow's Table 16 as below: — 

The existence of such brge values of n shows the great extent to 
which non-adiabatic processes enter into atmospheric physics. 
Heat is being radiated, absorbed, transferred and transformed on all 
occasions and at all altitudes. Knowing thus the thermodynamic 
structure of areas of high and low pressure we find the modifications 
needed in the energy formula for non-adiabatic processes — and 
Bigelow applies the resultii^ formula most satisfactorily to a famous 
waterspout of the 19th of Ausust 1896 over Nantucket Sound, for 
which many photographs and measurements are available. The 
thermodynamic study of this waterspout being thus accomplished, 
it was followed by a combined thermohydrodynamic study of all 



Altitudes. 




Wluei of 


R between sticcessiv* levels. 




AtL 


America, 


Europe. 


Both A. and E, 


Winter. 


Summer. 


ttlmer. 


SuitlRICf- 


Wintw. 


Sunimcr. 


kit. 
16-14 


304 


a-Sa ' 


l'*H 


3-59 


304 


3» 


311 


14-13 

I2-IO 


tM , 


I7» 


tM 


1*64 


j:S 


t:S 


i-as 


10- 9 


1 53 


1*47 


IS* 


141 


1 ja 


in 


■'*5 


9-8 


tj9 


1*41 


I-4J 


j*3a 


140 


i'3a 


u 


t'4l 


!:|? 


1-41 


t*4l 


i'4i 


X 


144 


t-45 


I-4I 


ISJ 


!:8 


i-sa 


^5 


t-^ 


153 


t-4i 


J-Ga 


l'57 


I" 5a 


5-4 1 


t-79 


141 


i'h 


r-To 


!:Si 


11 


T^ 


4- 3 


t97 


ni 


t-79 


t-94 


3- I 


a- 10 


a 01 


a 30 


306 


a-oa 


2- 1 


1 3-5J 


J»3 


3-74 


t'67 


3'gS 


1*75 


j.„ 


1- 


3-30 


JB3 


J-47 


1-64 


2M 


t*74 


2 06 



storms (Monthly Weather Review, November i907~March 1909) 
with considerable success. 

We haw thas passed in review the steadv progress of mathe- 
maiiciil phy^lckf & in their efforts to unravel tne complex dynamics 
of our atmosphere. The profound importance of this subject to 
governmcfita! we'ather bureau's, and through them to the whole 
Civilised v^orld, stimutateA diligent effort to overcome the inherent 
difBc:ukies of Lhe probk'EiiB. An elaborate system of study and 
Uboratory expcrinKnUiLion leading up to research in meteorology 
Km bten devised by CVcvcland Abbe, culminating in experiments 
on m^els of the atpofipbere as. a whole by which to elucidate 
boih the local and the general circulations on globes whose oro> 
graph y ami diitribution ol land and water is as irregular as that 
ol the earth. 

The formaiifm of Rain, — Kot only has dynamic meteorology 
made the proijresa delineated in the nrevious sections, but one of 
tilt niijivi imiH^rNint qiiirT,tion5 In molecular phyuqs is in process 
' '/ ' , 1 J. I I- study of atmospheric nuclei and con- 
densation and the formation of clouds in their relation to daily 
meteorological work began with the appointment of Dr Carl Bams in 
1891 as physicist to the U.S. Weather Bureau, and Vv\% N»wWa.%\3«*tv 
laboriously continued and extetvded \tv>\vs\at\»T^\or>j *x'?xw\^^^^» 
Rhode Island. The {onnaitioa dl nisi, Itoxa 9k. v^'^«u»^ \owox q\ n vc«% 



290 



METEOROLOGY 



fcosifioa. 



li^HliV idtfniate ctep in the rorniatidii ol ctoui). Th? cloui;! conn'Ks, 
BIgf f(W, of eiEtivrnely Amall particlca, so light thai thry Eoat in- 
dtSnlt^f in tbe ^; rain aad ano'W reprcKnt tfaofe particle^ that 
liavc grown Co be tOQ Urge ztid heavy to be 4i.ny longer au^tJin^ 
by the air— that is to say, ihcir rate of faH thrnuj^h the air is gnraier 
than the aKcnding component of the air in which Uitry li«t. The 
pmEt$« by which taffftr drop* ^Me formKi out of [he li^flter p^rtkU^ 
that con.vtitutc a clojd has not yet been dtis/actonly ocpblned. 
it » prabable that either one of icveral processes cootdbum to 
brin^ about ih[h rc&ult, sind ihAi in. tome dse* all of these conspire 
together. The rullawine pamg^rapKin represent the hypotheses iluit 
bdVF marked iht' gradual progresn of our knowf«>dge;^ — ; 

A. Cloud partieies niay be driven together by the motions imparted 
to them by the tvindi and fnay thtu mechanically unitp into larier 
one*, whkh, ai they Jcsti-'iKt mon rapidly* overtake the fmaUcr 
oneft and ^row into niiil'drqpjL 

B. The partklca on the upper boundary of 3 cloud ftmy at night- 
time, or in the shade, cool more decided ly th^ii iheir nci^htxiura 
bck>iiv them, either by mdiation or by mijiitiirv; then the air m their 
immediate vicinity becomcH^ correspond irtcly cold, the partictcs and 
their cnwlopes of cold air »nk moine rapidly < o vena king, and theru' 
fore unit i ng^ wi t h oL her pa rticlea U n t il t he la rge min-d rop? a re formed . 

C. Some cloud particles may be supposrd to be electrified pohi^ 
tjvety and others negatively, causing them to attract each other 
aod run together into larger ones, or, again, some may be neutral 
and othirr? changed » whirh may also bring a bout attraction and union. 

D. When any vialent aEiE.3tian of the air, auch hAs the sound «'aves 
due to thunder, or cannonading, cr other explosions, sets the panicles 
in motion, they may be driven together until brought into contact, 
and united into larger drops. 

E. The ail— or, properly s^^king, the vapouf^Hsetween cloufly 
particle*— that ia to say^ within fog Of cloud, is generally in a st ace 
of lufwraaturaiion: but if it ia steadily risng to higher j^Uitudet, 
thereby expanding and coolini;, the supenaturfttion must increase 
Eteadlly until it rt'aclieii a degree at which the molecular strain gives 
way I and a sudden violent condensation takes ji'lace, in wnkh 
process both the vapour and the cloud particles within a compara- 
tively large sphere are instantaneously gathered into a kirge drop. 
The electricity that mdy im; di-veloptd in thii proc-ess may pve 
lisc to I he li^iitning tlasn, in^tc-ad of the reverse process deicnbed 
in the preceding pangraphTi {C and D)- 

r. However pbufiible the preceding f^ve hypoihewa have Reemed 
to be, it must be confessed that na une Kai ever ytt obacr^ed pre- 
cipttatjon actuaUy formed by thc-sK: pmccssrs. The labonouv 
obaervationc^ of C. T. R. Wilson of CAmt^ritlgt-, I^ngbndn puljably 
give us our first correct idea as to the imh t ul;ir processes invol^t^l 
in the formation of rain. After havin^^ r^^hnwcfJ op the mcth^ia 
inaugurated by Ait ken showing that the particles of dust AoaTing 
in the air, no matter ol what they may be coiti posed, become by pre- 
lertnce the nuclei upon which the moisture begins to condense whrrt 
air la cooled by evpansion, Wilscn then ahowed that in absolutely 
dust less ajrt having therefore no nuclei to facilirme condi'np;iti'>n. 
the latter could only occur when the air is cooled to a much grt-aur 
extent than in the ca^e of the presence of dust; in fact, ductless ak 
requires to be e4Lpaind(>d more than dusty air in the ratio of 4 to ^, 
or ] 1^ times more. The amount of this larger expansion may vary 
somcwhdt with the temperature, the moUture and the gasen. More 
remarkable still, he showed that ductless air, having no vi&ibte or pro- 
bable nuclei, acquired such nuclei when a beam of ultra-violet light, 
Df of the rOntgen rays, or the uranium raduitian, or ol ordinary 
sunlight (which po^iblv contains all of thcie radiation^), wa^i allowed 
to pasa through the moist air in his experimental tube In other 
words, these rays produce a change in the niiied ^a* and vapour 
similar to the formation of nuclei, and comjenation of aqueous 
vapour takes place upon these i Ft visible nuclei as n^dily at niwn 
t he vUible d u st n ucleL Further, t he pr^jsf nee of certain meUJs within 
the cjipefimental tube al9o produces nuclei ; but the amount of 
expanstont and therelorc of cooling, requirvd to produce condensa- 
tion OQon thc!te uietallic nuclei is rather larger than in the ease erf 
dust nucleic The nuclei thrown into the experimenial itibe by ihe 
diichnrge ^ electricity from a pointed metal *ire produced very den^r 
fogs by means of expansions ^liflhtly excieeding those required for 
ordinary dust. FinaFly, WiWn has been able to ^hnw thai when 
dust particles arc electrified nej^atively their lendtnry to conden* 
vapour upon themselves as nuclei i* much greater than *hen they 
are eWtrilied po&iti%Tly, and he wugEests that the decent of the 
raindrops to the ground^ carrying negative electricity from the 
atmosphere to the earth, may |*erhaps explain the negative charge 
of the earth and the po^tive ck-ctrici ty of the atmosphere. 

At this point we come into contact with the views developed by 
J. j. Thomson ai to the nature of electricity and the presence of 
negative and poiitjve nuclei in the atmoiphcre. According to him. 
** The molecule* made up of mhat chemists call atoms must be still 
further Mibdivided, and the atoms must be conceived ^i ttuide up 
of BKpiiicki; the mass of a corpuscle is the same as the mass of the 
oqpitive ion in ■ gas at low prewune. In the normal atom this 
uaCRibkge of corpuHzles forms a system which is electrical and 
neutral. Tliough the indivtdu,t] corpu^clt-s behave like neg.it ive 
AOTi*t tvf when thvy are aiic/ublcd in a ncwtral atom the ntirative 
effect h bal aac e d by mmetbiag which cauao Uie^pace througix whicti 



the corptucles are npnad to act as if it had a diam of poaidve 
electriaty equal in amount to the sum of the negative diarges on die 
corpuscles. I regard electrification of a gas as due to the spUttiag 
up of some of the atoms of the gas, resulting in the detacfameat 
01 a corpuscle from such atoms. The detached coipuscles bdhave 
like negative ions, each carrying a constant negative charge whidi 
vra shall call the unit charge, while the part <rf the atom left 
behind behaves like a positive ion with the units positively charged 
but with a mass that is large compared with that of the negative 
ion. In a case of the ionization ot the gas by rdntgen or uranium 
rays, the evidence seems to be in favour of the view that not more 
than one corpuscle can be detached from any one atom. Now the 
ions by virtue of their negative charges act as nuclei around whidi 
dropM of water condense when moist dust-free gas is suddenly 
expanded. . . . C. T. R. Wilson has shown that it requires a con- 
sidcrably greater expanuon to produce a cloud in dust-free air on 
positive ions than on negative ones, when the ions are produced by 
rdntgen rays." It would therefore appear that the moist atmo- 
sphere above us may, through the action of sunlight of the lightning 
Hash as well as by other means, become ionized. The ne^tive ions 
attract moisture to themselves more readily than the positive; they 
grow to be larger drops, and descending; to the earth with their 
negative charges give it negative electricity, while the atroosphcfe 
is left essentially either positive or neutral. (See also Atmosphsuc 
Electricity.) 

IV. — CosiacAL Meteorology 

Under this title have been included all possible, plausible 
or imaginary relations between the earth's atmosphere and 
interplanetary space or the heavenly bodies. The diffu^n 
to and fro at the outer limit of the atmosphere, the bombard- 
ment by ions from the sun, the explanation of auroral lights 
and of magnetic storms, the influence of shooting stars and 
comet taib, the relation of the zodiacal light and the Gegen- 
schein to the atmosphere, the parallelisms between terrestxial 
phenomena and the variations of the solar spots and protuber- 
ances, the origin of long or short climatic periods, the cause 
of special widespread cold days, the existence of lunar or solar 
gravitation tides analogous to oceanic tides, the influence of 
slow changes in the earth's orbit or the earth's axis of rotation 
—all are grouped under cosmical meteorology. 

But, in the writer's judgment these matters, while curioas 
and interesting, have no appreciable bearing on the current 
important questions of atmospheric mechanics. There seen 
to be many widespread delusions and mistakes in regard to 
these problems, analogous to the popular errors in r^ard to 
astrology, and it is hardly necessary to do more than allude to 
them here. The leading meteorologists have relegated such 
questions to the care of theoretical astronomers and physidsta 
until our knowledge is more firmly established. Undoubtedly 
the earth does come under other influences than that of the 
radiation from the sun; but in the present stage of dynamic 
meteorology we consider only this latter, and, assuming it to 
be constant as regards quantity and quality, we find the variaUc 
selective absorptions and reflections within our own atmosphere, 
and its complex internal mechanism afford us a bewildering 
maze of problems such that so long as these are unsolved it 
would be folly to sp)end time on those. 

v.— Meteorological Organizations 

Dtiring the latter half of the 19th century the prosecution 
of work in meteorology gradually passed out of the hands of 
individuals into the control of large national organiiationi 
This was the natural result of the discovery that, by the spread 
of the electric telegraph and ocean cables, it had become possible 
to compile daily weather-maps for large portions of the g}obc 
and make predictions of the weather and the storms for a day 
or two in advance, of sufTicient accuracy to be of the greatest 
importance to the material interests of dvilized nations. The 
dcvdopmcnt of ^^'irdcss tdegraphy since 1900 has even made il 
possible for isolated ships at sea to exchange weather telegrams, 
compile daily maps and study surrounding storms. One b) 
one every dvilized nation has established dther a weathea 
bureau or a meteorological office, or a bureau of hydrogtapfa] 
and marine meteorology, or an elaborate establishment fo 
aerial explorations according as its spedal interests demanded 
These governmental bureaus usually pursue both dimatoloc 
and theoretical meteorology in addition to thdr daily practia 



METER, ELECTRIC 



291 



iQ(k of tdegraphy, forecasting, and publication of charts. 
Akhoufh, of course, in most cases, the so-called practical work 
ibeorbs the greater part of the labour and the funds, yet every- 
vhere it is recognized that research and the development of a 
oocrect theory of the motions of the atmosphere are essential 
to any important progress in the art of forecasting. Among 
other important general works in which the official weather 
bureaus have united, we may enumerate the International 
Meteorol<^ical Congresses, of which the first was held in 1853 at 
Brussels, the second in 1873 at Vienna, and others more frequently 
since that date; the establishment of an International Com- 
mittee, to which questions of general interest are referred; 
the OTganization of a systematic exploration of the polar regions 
in the years 1882 and 18S3; the general extension of the meteoro- 
logical services to include terrestrial magnetism as an essential 
put of the physics of the globe; the systematic exploration 
of the upper atmosphere by means of kites and balloons; and 
the universal co-operation with the U.S. Weather Bureau in 
the contribution of simultaneous data for its international 
bulletin and its daily map of the whole northern hemisphere. 
The hydrographic offices and marine bureaus of the principal 
cmninerdal nations have united so far as practicable in the daily 
charting of the weather, but have especially developed the study 
o( the climatology of the ocean, not only along the lines laid 
down by Maury and the Brussels Conference of 1853, but also 
vilh particular reference to the tracks of storm centres and 
the hm of storms on the ocean. The condition of these 
Kovenunental organizations was discussed in the annual address 
of the HoiL F. Campbell Bayard, delivered before the Royal 
Meteon>k>gicaI Society of London in January 1899, and in tne 
text accompanying Bartholomew's Physical Atlas, vol. iii. 

The development of meteorology, in both its scientific and 

its practical aspects, is intimately dependent upon the progress 

of oor knowledge of phjrsics, and its study offers innumerable 

probtems that can be solved only by proper combinations of 

Butbematical theory and laboratory experimentation. The 

professors in colleges and universities who have hitherto lectured 

00 thb subject have not failed to develop some features of 

(^mamic meteorology, although most of their attention has been 

pvta to climatology. In fact, many of them have been engrossed 

in the study of general problems in molecular physics, and could 

pvt meteorobgy only a small part of their attention. The 

ttriy textbooks on meteorology were frequently mere chapters 

w sections <rf general treatises on physics or chemistry. The 

^prominent early cases of university professorships devoted to 

aeteorok>gy are those of the eminent Professor Hcinrich Wilhelm 

Dove at Berlin, Professor Adolphe Quelelet at Brussels and 

Professor Ludwig Friedrich Koemtz at Halle and Dorpat. In 

modem times we may point to Professor Wilhelm von Bezold 

ud George Hellmann at Berlin, Professor Julius Hann at Vienna 

sad Gratz, Professor Josef Maria Pernter at Linz and Vienna, 

Professor Alexander Wocikof at St Petersburg, Professors Hugo 

Kldebrand-Hildebrandsson at Upsala, Hcnrik Mohn at Chris- 

Uania, Elias Loomis at New Haven, Connecticut, W. M. Davis 

sad R. de C. Ward at Cambridge, Massachusetts, Alfred Angot 

ud Karcel Brillouin at Paris, Hugo Hergeseil at Strassburg, 

Arthur Schuster at Manchester, Peter Polis at Bonn, and 

Kichard Bdmstein at the School of Agriculture in Berlin. With 

these exceptions the great universities of the world have as yet 

Sivcn but little special encouragement to meteorology; it has 

WW been stated that there is no great demand for higher 

edoation on the subject. On the other hand, the existence 

of thousands of voluntary observers, the profound interest in 

the weather actually taken by every individual, and the numcr- 

Ms sdiemes for utilizing our very linutcd knowledge of the 

•object through the activities of the large weather bureaus of 

the world demonstrate that there is a demand for knowledge 

perhaps even higher than the universities can offer It would 

^ *ery creditable to a lution or to a wealthy patron of science 

if there should be established meteorological laboratones in 

connezion with important universities, at which not only in- 

Itractloa but espedally investigation might be pursued, as is 1 



done at the magnificent astronomical observatories that are so 
numerous throughout the world. Every atmospheric pheno- 
menon can be materially elucidated by exact laboratory 
experiments and measurements, theory can be confronted with 
facts; and the student can become an original investigator in 
meteorology. 

The great difficulties inherent to meteorology should stimulate 
the devotion of the highest talent to the progress of this branch 
of science. The practical value of weather predictions justifies 
the expenditure of money and labour in order to improve them 
in every detail, 

tiiBLrOfiHAPiry.— Tho« who desirr rKirnt additions to our know« 
Wgc fthculd ixit^uU firsL Hann't Lchrtvck dtr MtUittfflofi^ (2nd ed.. 
Lfipxip, 1<K?6) A.^ being Afysfetnatic enryctDpaedLa. Of i"<iLial iirpor- 
tani'i? li tJinJ yt$€mi>i<»wiscke ZciUfhrift (Berlin and Vk-nna, 1866 to 
d^te^ Thf Afias i^ Mrt^tiToloty {Banholomcw, tfjooh ihc Quarterly 
J^um^ vj the Rffytft Mrtforoioikcl Satiety ^Lotidtjh) and the 
Monikiy Wtaihtr Rtvuw (Wa^hingto^) are iht works most con- 
vert it nt to Enij;lji-^ rc^'uler* 2[il[ kiLttuntl witTi rrfirencr;? to current 
!ir. ■ •■ -n I ■ .■■■■, •: .i ■ ■ ■ .- .i the Fort- 

schritte der Physik contain short notices of all important memoirs 
and will serve to direct the student's attention toward any special 
topic that may interest him. (C. A.) 

METER, ELECTRIC. In the public supply of electric energy 
for lighting and power it is necessary to provide for the measure- 
ment of the electric energy or quantity by devices which are 
called electric meters. Those in use may be classified in several 
ways: (i) according to the kind of electric supply they are 
fitted to measure, e.g. whether continuous current or alternating 
current, and if the latter, whether monophase or polyphase; 
(ii) according to whether they record intermittently or con- 
tinuously; (iii) according to the principle of their action, whether 
mechanical or electrolytic; (iv) according to the nature of the 
measurement, whether quantity or energy meters. The last 
subdivision is fundamental. Meters intended to measure 
electric energy (which is really the subject of the sale and 
purchase) are called jouU meters, or generally. waU-kour meters. 
Meters intended to measure electric quantity are called coulomb 
meters and also ampere-hour meters', they are employed for the 
measurement of public electric supply on the assumption that 
the electromotive force or pressure is constant. Most of the 
practical meters in use at the present time may be classified under 
the following five heads: electrolytic meters, motor meters, 
clock meters, intermittent registering meters and induction 
meters. 

Eiectrolytic Meters are exclusively ampere-hour meters, measuring 
electric quantity directly and electric energy only indirectly, on 
the assumption that the pressure of the supply is constant. The first 
electrolytic house meter in connexion with public electric supply 
was described by St. CJeorge Lane-Fox. He was followed by F. J. 
Sprague and T. A. Edison, the last-named inventor elaborating a 
type of meter which he employed in connexion with his system of 
electric lighting in its early days. The Edison electric meter, like 
those of Sprague and Lane- Fox, was based upon the principle that 
when an electric current flows through an electrolyte, such as sul- 
phate of copper or sulphate of zinc, the electrodes being plates of 
copper or zinc, metal is dissolved off one plate (the anode) and 
deposited on the other plate (the cathode). It consisted of a glass 
vesjsel, containing a solution of sulphate of zinc, in which were placed 
two plates of pure amalgamated zinc. These plates were connected 
by means of a j^rman-silver shunt, their size and the distance be- 
tween them bemg so adjusted that about i-Aro part of the current 
passing through the meter travelled through the electrolytic cell 
and ^<^V of the current passed through the shunt. Before being 
placed in the cells the zinc plates were weighed. The shunted 
voltameter was then inserted in series with the electric supply mains 
leading to the house or building taking electric energy, and the cur- 
rent which passed dissolved the zinc from one plate and deposited 
it upon the other, so that after a certain interval of time had elapsed 
the altered weight of the plates enabled the quantity of electricity 
to be determined from the known fact that an electric current of 
one ampere, flowing for one hour, removes 1*2133 grammes of zinc 
from a solution ot sulphate of zinc. Hence the quantity in ampere- 
hours passing througn the electrolytic cell being known anci the 
fraction of the whole quantity taken by the cell being known, the 
quantity supplied to the house was determined. To prevent tem- 
perature from afte«ning the shunt ratio, Edison joined m series with 
the electrolytic cell a copper coil the resistance of which increased 
with a rise of temperature by the same avwowvw. vVvaX x^^«: ^«.w^>i\si 
decreased. Owing lo the cost anA UowVAe o\ n»«v^vd% ^ Ns«i»^ 
number of zinc plates, this type oi tn^xet U\\ vnXo ^vKvx^sft. 



292 



METER, ELECTRIC 



A more modem tvpe of electrolytic meter is that due to C. O. 
Bastian.^ The whole current supplied to the house flows through 
an electrolytic cdl consisting of a glass tube containing two platinum 
dectrodes; the electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid covered with a 
thin layer of oil to prevent evaporation. As the current flows it 
decomposes the liquid and liberates oxygen and hydrogen gases, 
which escape. The quantity of electrictty which is passed is esti- 
mated by the diminution in the volume of the liquid. A third 
electrolytic meter of the shunted voltameter type is that of A. 
Wright. In this meter the electrolyte is a solution of mercurous 
nitrate which is completely enclosed in a ^laas tube of a particular 
form, having a mercury anode and a platinum or carbon cathode. 
The current is determined by measuring the volume of the mercury 
delivered at the cathode. In the Long-Schattner electrolytic meter 
a solution of sulphate of copper b electrolysed. 

Motor Meters. — ^Amongst motor meters one well-known type be- 
longing to the ampere-hour species is that of S. Z. Ferranti, who 
introduced it in 1883. It consists of an electromagnet within the 
iron core of which is a flat disk-like cavity containing mercury, 
the sides of the cavity being stamped with grooves. The thin disk 
of mercury b therefore traversed perpendiculariy by lines of magnetic 
force when the magnet b excited. The current to be measured 
b passed through the coib of the dectromagnet, then enters 
the mercury dbk at the centre, flows through it radially in all direc- 
tions, and emerges at the periphery. The mass of mercury b thus 
set in motion owing to the tendency of a conductor conveying an 
electric current to move transversely across lines of magnetic force: 
it becomes in fact the armature of a simple form of dynamo, and 
rotates with a speed which increases with the strength of the current. 
The roughness of the surface of the cavity serves to reurd it. The 
roution of the mercury b detected and measured by means of a 
small vane of platinum wire immersed in it, the shaft of this vane 
being connected by an endless screw with a counting mechanbm. 
The core of the electromagnet b worked at a point far below magnetic 
saturation (see Magnbtism); hence the field b nearly proportional 
to the square of the current, and the resisUnce offered to the rotating 
mercury by the friction against the sides of the cavity b nearly pro- 
pmtional to the square otthe speed. It follows that the number of 
the revolutions the mercury makes in a given time b proportional 
to the quantity of dectriaty which b passed through the meter. 
In order to overcome the friction of the counting train, Ferranti 
ingeniously gave to the core of the electromagnet a ceruin amount of 
•permanent magnetism. Another well-known motor meter, working 
on a somewhat similar principle, is that of Chamberlain and Hookham. 
In its improved form thb meter consbts of a single horseshoe 
permanent magnet formed of tungsten-steel having a strons and 
constant field. Two air-gaps are made in thb *&ld parallel to 
each other. In one of these a copper dbk, called the brake disk, 
revolves, and in the other a copper armature dbk. The latter b 
slit radblly, and the magnetic field is so arranged that |t perforates 
each half of the dbk in opposite directions. The armature b im- 
mersed in a shallow vessel filled with mercuiy. which b insulated 
from the vessel and the armature, except at the ends of the copper 
strips. The current to be measured passes transversely across the 
dbk and causes it to revolve in the magnetic field ; at the same time 
the copper brake, geared on the same waft, revolves in the field and 
has local or eddy currents produced in it which retard its action. 
The principle of the meter b to make the breaking and driving action 
so strong that the friction of the train becomes immaterial in 
comparison. Thb meter b an ampere-hour meter and applicable 
only to continuous current circuits. Another form of motor meter 
which b much used b that of Elihu Thomson. It takes the form of 
a small dynamo having an armature and field magnets without any 
iron core. The armature carries on its shaft a commutator made oif 
silver slips, and the current b fed into the armature by means of 
brushes of silver wire. The current to be measured passes through 
the fixed field-coils, whiUt through the armature passes a shunt 
current obtained by connecting the brushes across the supply 
mains through a constant re»btance. The driving force b balanced 
against a retarding force produced by the rotation of a copper dbk 
fixed on the armature shaft, which rotates between the poles of a 
permanent magnet. Induced or eddy currents are thus created in 
the copper dbk, and the reaction of these against the magnetic field 
offers a resbtance to the rotation of the disk. Hence when a current 
b passed through the meter, the armature rotates and increases its 
speed until the driving force is balanced against the retarding force 
due to the eddy currents in the copper brake disk. In these cir- 
cumstances the number of routions made by the armature in a 
given time b proportional to the product ot the strength of the 
current flowing through the armature and that flowing through the 
fivld-cotb, the former Doing the current to be measured. Hence the 
meter is a watt-hour meter and measures electric energy. In order 
to overcome the friction of the train the field-coils are wound with an 
auxiliary shunt coil which supplies a driving force sufficient to over- 
come the friction of the counting train. This last is geared to the 
shaft of the armature by an endless screw, and the number of revolu- 
tions of the armature is reckoned by the counting-dials, which arc 

'See E/lgt/rician, 41, 112, and Journ. Inst. EUc. Eng. (London, 



so arranged as to tndkate the oonsomption In Board-of-Trade a«i 
(I Board-of-Trade unit-" 1000 watt-hours). A modificatioa of d 
above meter with some mechanical improvements has been deviii 
by S. Evershed.* 

Clock Meters. — ^Among clock meten the best known b that 
H. Aron, which b based upon a principle described by W. E. Ayrtf 
and J. Perry in 1883. It can be constructed to be other an amper 
hour meter or a watt-hour meter, but b usually the latter. I 
principle b as follows: Suppose there are two pendulum dock 
one having an ordinary pendulum and the other having a pendulni 
consbting of a fine coil of wire through which a current b passe 
proportional to the potentbl difference of the supplv mains — i 
other words, a shunt current. Below this pendulum let there I 
placed another coil through which passes the current to be measuTM 
then when currents pass through these coib the pendulum 4 
the second clock will be dther accekaated or retarded rebtivri 
to the other clock, since the action of gravity b supplemented by thi 
of an dectric attraction or repulsion between the coils. Hence tl 
second dock will gain or lose on the other. The two clock motioi 
may be geared to a single counting mechanbm which records tl 
difference in the rates ot going of tne two docks. If the different 
of the number of oscillations made by the two pendulums in a give 
time b small compared to the numbo* made by dther of them sepat 
atdy, then it is easy to show that the power given to the circuit 
measured by the gain or loss of one dock over the other in a give 
time, and can therefore be indicated on a counting mechanism < 
registering dbls. By the use of a permanent magnet instead of 
shunt coilas the bob of one pendulum, the meter can be made np 1 
an ampere-hour meter. In thb form it has the advantage that : 
can be used for dther continuous or alternating currents. 

In IntermUient Registering Meters some form of ampere-meter < 
watt-meter registers the current or power pasdng into the booa 
and a clock motion electrically driven b made to take readings < 
the ampere-meter or watt-meter at definite intervals — say, every fi 
minutes — and to add up these readings upon a set of registered did 
The arrangement therefore integrates tne ampere-hours or wat 
houn. The^ meters, o\ wW\.f'.\ : ell-known form b that < 
JDhnson and Phillips, have thu d^ j< 'vantage of being unsintf 
[or the measurernt^nt ot electric ifrupply in those cases in idiidi it 
LrrtguLar or intcrmiittent — as in a theatre or hoteL 

/nJiifiiVn Meters are applicable only in the case of altematii 
current supply. One Of the m^M widc-ly used forms U the Westiai 
housfi-SbadcnKf^cr. It conbstA of a bisk of aluminium, the ax 
of which i$ Rcarrd to a counting n^ech^nism and which runs betwR 
the pole* ol puntiatient magiwli that create eddy currenu in 
and therefore cMrt a rvtmding forte. In proximity to the unp 
»de of the diak ii pUcrd a coil of wtft having an iron core, wtuc 
IE a shunt coiU the ends of the ci^il bcin^ conn«:ted to the termiat 
of the supply cnatns. Under the dhk are two other coib wUc 
arc pLic«l in series with the supply.' When these last coib ai 
traversed bv an altematLn^ current they induce local or edd 
currents in Oie diik. The ciim:nt In the shunt coil lags 90 degm 
bdiind the impt^^sed electromotive force of the circuit to b 
measured: hence if the main current is in step with the poteatii 
difference of the tcrminab of the supply mains, which b the en 
when iha supply i:^ . . \ ■ > cctric lamps, then the fidi 

duEf to the miim col I dirii^^r^ trusn xh;a due to ttie shunt co3 b) 
90 defrees. Since the eddy curfrnT^ induced in the disk are 9 
degrees in phase behind the inducing field, the eddy currents |I0 
duced by the main coil are in step with the magnetic fidd duett 
the 4hunt coil, and hence the di^k is driven round by the revdotioi 
due to the action of the shunt coil upon the induced currents il 
the ditk. Htnre the dUk wUJ be accderated until the drivi^i 
fcHTte is habnced by the retarding force due to the induced cnrmu 
oxrat^ in the disk by the (jermiinent magnets. When thb km 
cji?c, the number of roolutir>n4 of th^- meter in a given time ii« 
me^iure of the watt -hours or enefigy which b passed through^ 
meter. The countin)^ mechanism and dbb may be so arnflfH 
as to indicate thi* jniTfr^' i-ilr^^tr^ in watt-hours. The meters 
made up al*o in 1 I r ase with two or three (ad 

electric currents. (See Elbctrokinbtics.) 

Requirements of a good House Meter. — A gas meter whidi his M 
error of more than 2% in favour of the seller or 3% in fsvova 
the customer b not passed for use. An ekctridiy meter shosU 
therefore have approximately the same accuracy. As a mitai 
of fact, it b difficult to rely upon most electric meters to Ttwtm 
correctly to less than 4% even between quarter-k>ad and M 
load. Out of nearly 700 current motor meters of various sttlw 
tested at Munich in 190a, only 319 had an error of less than 4% 
whilst 259 had errors varying from 4^ to 10%. If possible, bcw 
ever, the departures from absolute accuracy should not be wj 
than 2% at quarter-load, nor more than 3% at a full load. Th 
accuracy of a meter b tested by drawing calibration curves *hoM| 
the percentage departure from absolute accuracy in its reading M 
various decimal fractions of full load. Such a test b ma de Pj 
determining with an accurate ammeter or watt-meter the cunta 
or power supplied to a circuit for a period measured by a g^ 
clock and comparing with this the a ctual reading of the men 

« See Journ. Inst. EUc. Em. Lond. (1899). 29. 743. 



METHODISM 



293 



tei^t the mms timeH ' A I»«ip i 0n sMcree of trouble u the ahsrt 
CBCintinf of The ^hqiti coiit owing to the ihctUced cottouL covering 
of die wlte bcCi^raing moUtd 

K S«>d oaettf thould iCart with m. current which h not mo^ than 

a%of iiA full Und currents With a »upF>ly prnwure ot 200 voha 

a S cpL afbofi frUmem Limp taktri only o-i anrpen;; hence unlHs 

t mctQ' will b^ia to regiiicr ,^itli |^ anvprne it vill fiil to record 

the tuirrnt cociwmed by a «ing:k BmAlT incandescent Lin^p. In 

ft ^rs/t tavply lyatem mch failure would mean a acriout loH ol 

Rfcoue Tne rwistance o( the meter coils caitArm sl UII in voltigc 

dial the terie* coil which reduces the supply pmune to the con- 

MHT^ On 1 bo 01 her hand the rctistAiicc of th« ^unt coil absorbs 

cmtf wtud9 genera lliy varica from i lo j wat t» &nd is a 1o» ell her 

to lie coii^tifncr or to the supply conipajiy, accor;iinff to ihc manner 

a irhkh the ihant coil i$ connected. In those n>cter!f which arc 

CHpDiiiided^ — chat it^. have a shunt coil wound on the field magncls 

l4CMlpMlilTe (or the friction ol the train — it is important to notice 

vbthtf Cbc meter will operate or continnc operatinje when there 

ittamrmic in the lenei coil, since a meter which ' nini on the 

•imt ** rona up a debt a^nst the consunier for which it giva no 

GonafDiidiiig: advanrtage. 

Ge^nlly ■pricing, the ptke of the meter is a subordinate 
MadsatkiD. Since the revengt-esrning pcsia-er of a suppV 
<tttkid depends entii^ly upon it* rtie(cr*K inaccurary tn nicter 
McnA ■ K Kfious matter^ The cost of measuring current by the 
id da inrter i\ cnade up of thrt« pATta (i) the ^riitie cost of 
ftt ■clcr, which varies from £a to £6 for an ordinary 35- light 
■Kdnctric meter; U) the oipiial value of the encqgy ab&orbed 
«Ti» vfatch if the c«t of the cnerigy is taken at 2d- per Board-of- 
Tade unit, with interest and depreciation at %, may amount to 
^ per custoroer; and (3) the annual working costs for repairs 
uJalso the wa^^ of the »caff of meter mco« who ta1(c the required 
mtkly or quarterly readings^ In the case ol small and irregular 
QBtuners, $iicK a the in habitants of model dwellings and Bats 
MtJokttd chiefly by workings tau tenants, coin-in- 1 he-slot meters 
■ tnurh ^in ployed. The customer cannot obtain current for 
■Kkni: light int^ until he haa placed in a slit a certain coin^ — say, a 
iilijll — entitling him to a certain number of Ekurd-of'Tradeiinit^ — ' 
Bf, to 1 Of h4, ai the Case may be^ 1 n the Long-Schattner elect roly lie 
K(f4. the insertion nf the coin depresses a copper pUtc or platen 
■w^M electrolytic ex 1 1 conti^ining a solution of sulphate of copper; 
(W jpasnie of the current di'^iorvt-i the copper off one of the plates^* 
UelgsfriD veig^ht beinc determined by the quantity of the electricity 
pMsd. As scton as the plate ham lo^t a certain amaunt of weight 
mmBHidlng to the value of the eln^tric energy repreiSenlcd by 
l^oani, the plate rises out of the lioutd and cuts off ihe curtent. 

A^TBOUTtes^ — H. C Solomon^ Electricity Mrter^ (London^ 1906I ; 
C H. W, Gerhardi, EUctricUy XfrUn: tkeir C<tnitrviiUm and 
tfodc^mnsi (London, 1906) : L. C Recdf AmeriniJi MtUr PrQctke 
^ww York, 1904); J. A. Fleming, A Handhwh lift ike Eitttruai 
S^^m^y and TfHtnf Room (London, (904)1 T. P. Wilmthurst, 
^Electriptv Meters, ' EUctfUiaM {1897}^ 39, 499; G. W, D. Ricks, 
On the Variation of the Constants of Etectricity ^pply Meten, 
*tdi Teio{!«!ratut« suul Cufirem," EUcArky^ (i^7). ,J9, 57J. 

tr. A, F.) 
KEfHOOtSM, K term* denotmg tlie reli^ous organl^tiona 
Tttidi tnce their origifi to the evangdistic Leaching of John 
Wciky, The name " Melhodlst " was given in deri^oo to those 
fhJonlftudc£ita who in compafiy with the We&Icys tued to oieet 
iofcthet for splHlujtJ fellowship; and bter on when John We^ey 
hA Qffanued his foQowen into " sodctics " the name was 
*ppCed to them to the same spirit* It was however accepted by 
^, ind in olficint documents he usually styles them "the 
Fople called Methodists. " The fact that standards of Methodist 
torine ane laid down a» consisting of ** Mr Wesley's Notes on 
tfcc NW Tes^luiieiit and the tst Setia of his Sermon* " {filly- 
tbtt sfl ntimbef)^ might »ecai to mdicate a departure from 
■yMeflii» but jl was not so* He fully accepted the 
toching of the Church of England, and publicly 
^^okA to the Ptmyer Book a^nd the Thirty-nine Articles 
* >9dicitioii of the doctrines be preadjcd, ilethodism 
b«u in a revival of pet»onal religion, and tt professed 
to lavfr but one aim, via. ** to spnsid Sciiptural holiness 
flm the IeimL" In docirinea were in no sense new. It was 
lie sal with which ihey wepc laught, the dear disanction 
■iiKt they drew between the profession of godliness and the 
aicnrmem of its power — added to the emphasis they bid upon 
tkkuxwdiatc ioEucnce of the Holy Spirit on the consciousnos 

'" Metiiodism " ii derived from " method "' (Gr. ^fAfiorL a 
fjt A *■ methodist '" is OM who f^tbwa a " method." the term 
0^ a^fitied HOC only to the Weskyan body, but inarlier to the 
asid La the J 71b century to certain Roman Catholic 



of the Christian— which attracted attention, gave them dis- 
tinction, and even aroused ridicule and opposition. Wesley and 
his helpers, finding the Anglican churches dosed against them, 
took to preaching. in the open air; and this method is still 
followed, more or less, in the aggressive evangelistic work of all the 
Methodist Churches. As followers rapidly increased they were 
compelled to hold their own Sunday services, and this naturally 
led them to appoint as preachers godly laymen possessing the 
gift of exhortation. These followed their ordinary avocations 
on week-days, but on Sundays preached to congregations in thdr 
own immediate ndghbourhood, and hence were called local 
preachers as distinguished from travelling preachers. The extent 
to which the employment of the local preacher is characteristic 
of Methodism may be seen from the fact that in the United 
Kingdom while there are only about 5000 Methodist ministers, 
there are more than 18,000 congregations; some 13,000 con- 
gregations, chiefly in the villages, are dependent on local 
preachers. 

In the organization adopted to foster spiritual life the very 
characteristic ** Class-meetings for Christian fellowship " take % 
prominent place. Membership in the church depends solely 
upon bdng enrolled as a member of one of these meetings for 
Christian fellowship, and thus placing oneself under pastoral 
oversi^t. 

The WesUyan Methodists now represent the original body as 
founded by John Wesley in Great Britain and Irdand; but in 
America those who looked upon him as thdr founder adopted 
the episcopal mode of Church government after the Wax of 
Independence, and have since that time been known as Episcopal 
Methodists (see bdow). It should be noted that the Welsh 
Calvinistic Methodists are only slightly connected with the original 
body. They were indirectly the outcome of the evangelistic 
efforts of Howell Harris and Rowlands. Their work received 
the sympathy of Wesley and liberal financial help from the 
Countess of Huntingdon (see Calvinistic Methodists). For a 
time Whitefidd was leader, and we find a reference to the 
" Whitefieldian and Wesleyan Methodists " in the Supplement 
to the Gentleman* s Magazine for 1747, p. 619. The theological 
views of these teachers proved quite incompatible with the 
Arminianism of Wesley, and a definite breach between them and 
him took place in 1770. The Wdsh Calvinistic Methodists are 
now a branch of the Presbyterian Church. Other divisions have 
been formed at various times by secessions from the Wesleyan 
Methodists (see separate artides). They are: Methodist New 
Connexion (founded 1 797-1 798); Bible Christians (181 5); United 
Methodist Free Churches* (about 1836); Primitive Methodists 
(founded 1 807-1 810); Independent Methodist Churches (about 
1806); Wesleyan Reform Union (1850, reorganized 1859). 
These bodies have separated solely on matters of Church govern- 
ment and not on points of doctrine. The Primitive Methodists 
in Ireland were a small body who in 181 7 seceded because they 
wished to maintain that dose connexion with the Church of 
England which existed at the time of Wesley's death, but in 1878 
they rejoined the parent body. Methodism has always been 
ag^essive, and her children on emigrating have taken with them 
their evangelistic methods. (For the American branches see 
bdow.) 

The statistics given in the following table (not including Junior 
Society ' ■ IrLim the Minutes of the Conference of the 

Wciley.iii, .-.,■ t. hunch for 1909. At the death of Wesley the 

h^tirt^ WL-rv :^ J] J preachers, 119 circuits and mission stations, and 
?6.T»6S mcmUrs. In the United States: 97 circuits, 198 preachers 
and 4J.J65 membefs. 

In 1B57 ihe membership in Great Britain and Ireland was 318,716; 
in foreign mission stations, 66,007; in Upper Canada, 14,000; while 
the American Conferences had charge of 650,678 members. Total 
for the world: 1,049,401, ^ith 4478 ministers. 

Three Oecumenical Conferences have been held — two at City 
Roadp London, in i^^i and 1901, and one at Washin^on in 1891. 
Xh-, .^■.ti^^;,., ppr..,a^*r„i| -ff the last showed that the Church during 
the preceding decade had gained about a million members and three 
million adherents. At the same time there has been a steadily 



« These first three were joined m 1901 \xtkditc >^ tAxoit ^ ^Cftft 
United Methodist Church. 



294 



METHODISM 



growing feeling in favour of union. Canada and Australaaa led 
the way, for in these countries the Methodist Church was undivided, 
and the sentiment was greatly strengthened by the formation in 
the United Kingdom of the United Methodist Church in 1907. 

See A New History of Methodism, ed. W. J. Townsend, H. B. 
Workman, George Eayrs (2 vols., London, 1909). (J« A. V.) 



local and travelling preachers, and the orguaiiatioa of to 
societies with class leaders, stewards and trustees. The intcnti 
was to make American Methodism a facsimile of that in Englai 
subject to Wesley and the British Conference — a society and t 
a Church. Pilmoor and others objected to Asbury's stij 



Denomination, , 


Ministers. 


Preachem 


Church 
Mcntbcra and 
Probit loners. 


Sundiy 
Schools. 


Ofticers 

and 

Teaciicrft. 


Sunday 
ScboU«. 


Chutcha, 


Wesleyan Methodists:— 
















GrcAt BriuiEi. ...... 


"n 


I9,fia6 


J20.ft6» 


7-5S9 


133. <^ 


937,953 


S.6d6' 


trclind 


63 1 


KJ.467 


35,1 


3.557 


25 .^J9 


4U' 


Foreljrn Missions 

French Confcrencp 


6^7 


4.9^5 


1.7S4 


7-651 


9J-"3 


J,5M 


^5 


^ 


1.675 


70' 


U3 


1.996 


itl 


South AMcjh Con fpjieiice . . . 


253 


m^ 


n7.i4& 


7a« 


2. 89 J 


39,3J9 


3flJ* 


Primitive McthcidliU ..... 


IM^ 


aij.i6* 


4J55 


59.557 


465-53 1 


5,<<« 


Unkrd Methodist Church . . . 


891 


MliJ 


ifi6,90S 


3.404 


43-169 


323-675 


3.tM 


WtsJeyan Reform Union .... 


21 


537 


i.4B9 


1»L 


3. 76 J 


25,512 


196 


tnddp^ndcTit Mcthctditt Churehca . 


424 




9.44J 


15J 


3.041 ! 


27,J19 


156 


Austnibsun Methodist Church . . 


975 


4*S7* 


150.751 


3h97J 


34.pi 


331,553 


641a 


United Slates^— 
















Methodist HpiKopal* .... 


1943 1 


14h743 


J.376.888 


34.&19 


^^m 


3,0^.24^ 


39.765 


Union A merican M e \ hod isL EpLKia|ul 


U8 




ta,soo 






— - 


35a 


Afocan Slclhodiit Episcqpil . 
African Union Ktcihoditi Pnoicstant 


6.07" 


J5.a8S 


Sso.oofi 


— 


— 


__ 


e^ats 


200 


750 


^.ooo 


350 


900 


3,77ti 


"5 


African Methodist EpiKopal Zion. 


3.9 M 


t.530 


57H,3to 


J-OJ4 


14.404 


I2:r.407 


3,141 


Methodist Troiciiant .... 


i.55( 


*H^35 


jai.f^>4 


J-OJ4 


t^6J}o 


IshjO^l 


J.ilJ 


Wcileyan ^fclbQdi*t .... 

Methodist fipiscoiMl (South) . . 
i Congregational ^ft I haiUl . 
1 CongrcKJliona] MclboditlfcoJourcd) 


a.S3 , 




19, '5^4 


4f'5 


— 


llf,344 


5^ 


4.aoo 


1,675.69* 


i4rS93 


I ",137 


15496 


415 




J4.*'<» 


— 


- — 




4^5 


5 


— 


319 


— 


— 


— 


5 


New ConEFciiational Methodist . 


2JS 


— 


4,0 J J 


— 


— 


— 


4*7 


^Lon Union Apostolic .... 
Coloured Mithodiat Episcopal . 


JO 


— 


:J,J46 


— 


— 


— 


3^ 


2p673 


3.7sa 


ai9,7J9 


4,007 


7,098 


79,876 


2j6l» 


Primiiivt Methodtit .... 


71 


IJ8 


7,01 J 


lOS 




J* ,75+ 


la^ 


Free Methodist ...... 


1,126 


i'J99 


Jlr43S 


M7S 


7r37* 


4".660 


M17 


Independent Methodic . . . 


8 




J.S«»9 








15 


Evongeli&tic Missionary . _ . 


gi 


27 


5,014 


— 


. — 


I, TOO 


*T 


Canadian Mpthudist Church. . . 


J,J84 


Z.^ 


339 .W4 


3.5S6 


35,P3 


305.^9 


J.7*J 


Japan Methodic Church* . , .. 
Touli .... 


47 


J5 


4.0il3 


12T 


544 


ii,ij6 


J« 


5J.97a 


105.669 


«J1S.4J4 


ft4,78i 


fij3.4«9 


T.oSq.OJJ 


9S>JO 



Methodism in the United States 
There are in the United States sixteen distinct Methodist 
denominations, all agreeing essentially in doctrine. John Wesley 
had been conducting his United Societies for more than twenty 
years before the movement took root in North America. 

k.— Episcopal Methodist Ckurcftes, 
Philip Embury (17 29-1 77 5), a VVesleyan local preacher, 
emigrated in 1760 from Limerick to New York. Robert Straw- 
bridge (?-i78i), a local preacher and native of Ireland, settled 
in Maryland. In 1766 Embury was stimulated by his relative, 
Mrs Barbara Heck, to begin Methodist preaching, and a society 
was soon formed, which grew rapidly. Embury was reinforced 
by the firrival of Hiomas Webb (1724- 1796), an English local 
preacher and a captain in the British army. Webb and Thomas 
Taylor, a layman of superior ability, appealed to Wesley to 
send over missionaries, and the 3^th annual British Conference, 
held in 1768, sent to the society in New York £50 and furnished 
passage money for two missionaries, Richard Boardman and 
Joseph Pilmoor (1739-1825). Three years later Francis Asbury 
was sent over, and was made as^tant superintendent. Mean- 
while Strawbridge had been preaching with success in Maryland 
and in Virginia. 

These " advance agents " of this spiritual propaganda brought 
with them Wesley's Arminian Theology. They brought also 
" the means of grace " on which Wesley placed the greatest 
stress; such as personal testimony in private and public, class 
and prayer meetings, watch-nights, love-feasts, the direct and 
fervent preaching of the Gospel and the singing of Wesleyan 
hymns, carried on by means of circuits and stations, exhorters, 

* Seating accommodation, 2.374425. 

' Other preaching-places, 1561. ' Sunday and Thursday Schools. 

* Methodism is also represented in several European countries by 
Conferences and Missions affiliated to the Methodist Episcopal Church 

of America, and their membenbip i§ included in the figures given 



discipline, and Wesley, hearing of the disagreement, in 177 
appointed Thomas Rankin (c. 1 738-1810) superintendent of tl 
entire work of Methodism in America. 

The First American Conference. — The first American CooIb 
ence was held in 1773, and consisted of ten preadiers, all of itei 
were bom in England or Ireland. Asbury came to Amelia t 
remain permanently; but Rankin, unable to identify hime 
with its people, to take the test oaths required in the Revdada 
or to sympathize with the colonies, returned to England, as d 
all the English preachers except Asbury. By May 1776 the 
were 24 preachers and 4921 members; but in the first ytir( 
the Revolution there was a loss of 7 preachers and neariy tot 
members. Tlie next year saw extensive revivals, in sedki 
removed from the seat of war, which added more than afo) t 
the number of members. 

The preachers in the South determined upon adminbtntit 
of the sacraments, and a committee was chosen whose membe 
ordained themselves and others. The Northern preachers appoM 
this step and for several years the Connexion was on the vo) 
of disruption. An agreement was fiiuUy made to suspend U 
administration until Wesley's desires and judgment coaU i 
ascertained. He perceived that the society would disintcfH 
unless effective measures were speedily taken, and, aided by t* 
presbyters of the Church of England, eariy in 1784 be onbin 
Thomas Coke (174 7- 18 14), already a presbyter of that Chuick, 
superintendent. He likewise ordained two of his lay prcadii 
as deacons and elders, to accompany Coke, whom Wesley se 
to America as his commissioner to establish, for the Me^od 
Society, a system of Church government, whidi should indi 
the administration of Baptism and of the Lord's Supper. Coi 



above. The 190S returns arc: Bulgaria, 546 memben; 
1771; Finland and St Petersburg, 1367; France. 321 ; Italy, 56! 
North Germany, 12.886; Norway, 6054; South Gcnnaay, ilji 
Sweden, 15430; Switzerland, 9419. 
* Western Conference only. 



METHODISM 



295 



m iiinudied by Wesley with a document setting forth the 
graimds on which he had taken this step. Wesley also appointed 
Tliooss Coke and Francis Asbury " to be joint superintendents 
over our Ivethren in North America." Soon after Coke and his 
CDoqMnions arrived they met Asbury and fifteen preachers, and 
1 sptdal conference was called, which opened on the 24th of 
December 1784, in the suburbs of Baltimore, Maryland. This 
commtion organized itself into a Methodist Episcopal Church, 
IB which the liturgy sent by Wesley should be read, and the sacra- 
neots should be administered by superintendents, elders and 
detcotts, these elders and deacons to be ordained by a presbytery 
■iag the episcopal form. Coke and Asbury were unanimously 
dected superintendents, Coke, aided by his clerical companions 
boa Eo^nd, ordaining Asbury as deacon and elder and formally 
ooosecrating him a general superintendent. Several elders were 
ordaiaed. This convention aidopted the first Discipline of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church. It adopted the existing doctrinal 
Haadards, consisting chiefly of Wesley's Sermons and his Notes 
on the New Testament; also twenty-five of the Articles of 
Religion of the Church of England, modified so as to eradicate 
iB trace of High Church ritualism, Anglican or Roman, and the 
(fistiDctive doctrines of Calvinism. 

Hie Church thus established began its ecclesiastical career 
with 18,000 members, 104 travelling preachers, about the same 
mmbcr of local preachers, and more than 200 licensed ezhorters. 
There were 60 chapels and 800 regular preaching places. 

The energy of Asbury, and the position of Coke in the Church 
of England, his wealth, culture, and preaching power, greatly 
leiofoiced the efforts of the preachers. The administration of 
the sacraments brought peace; and many who would not unite 
«ith the *' Society " asked admission to the Church. Within 
ive years the number of preachers swelled to 227, and the 
Bembcrs to 45,949 (white) and 11,682 (coloured) 

To bind the whole body the existing method required the con- 
cmcDoe of each Annual Conference with every proposition. 
TUi was inconvenient and occasioned much loss of time; there- 
fate I General Conference was established to meet once in four 
ytUL The first was held in 1792, and therein arose a sharp con- 
icL James O'Kelly (i 735-1826), a Presiding Elder in control 
0(1 large district, proposed that, when the list of appointments 
ni read in the Conference, if any preacher was not pleased 
vith bis assignment he might appeal to the Conference. The 
notion being lost, O'Kelly and several other preachers seceded. 
The Conference in 1804 limited the power of the Bishops by 
farfaiddtng them to appoint any pastor for more than two con- 
■rathre years in charge of the same church. As all " travelling 
pRSchets " were eligible, without election, to seats in General 
Conferences, widespread dissatisfaction prevailed among the 
ittaat Conferences. The era of the steamboat and the railway 
M having arrived, it was possible for two Annual Conferences, 
adjacent to the seat of the General Conference, to out-vote all 
others combined. This led to a demand for the substitution 
of a ddegated General Conference, which was conceded by the 
Conference of x8o8 to take effect four years later. The office 
then known as the Presiding Eldership had become powerful : 
BiAops appointed the pastors to churches, Presiding Elders to 
dBtiicU; but it was the purpose of the majority to transfer to the 
AiOBal Conferences the power of appointing Presiding Elders. 
The change, though discussed for many years, has not been 
KcompUshed. 

Semd issues had been settled; but one, that of slavery, had 
tobefaced. The storm burst on the Conference of 1 844. Bishop 
Jbms OiC^ Andrew (1794-1871), a native of the South, had, 
by inheritance and marriage, become a slaveholder. After 
^(bttcs of many days, he was requested " to desist from the 
tmoK of the office of Bishop while this impediment remained." 
"Oft SoQthem members declared that the infliction of such a 
i^VDft npon Bishop Andrew would make it impossible for them 
to naintain the influence of Methodism in the South, and a 
teautivt plan of separation was adopted by the Conference by an 
ibost onanimotis vote. The result was that the Methodist 
E|iiKopal Omrch was bisected, and when the Gene/aJ Conference 



of 1848 convened it represented 780 travelling preaches and 
532,290 members fewer than it had numbered four years 
before. 

After the Civil War the increase in membership was note- 
worthy. The quadrennial Conference of 1868 represented 
222,687 members more than its predecessor; of this gain 117,326 
were in the Southern States. In 1872 lay representatives were 
admitted, the Constitution having been amended so as to make 
it legal. It was not, however, an equal representation, for though 
ministerial Conferences were represented according to their 
number, in no circumstances could there be more than two lay 
representatives from one Annual Conference. Not till 1900 were 
lay and clerical representation equalized. In 1864 the time limit 
of pastorates was lengthened to three years, and in 1888 to 
five years. This limit was taken off in 1900, and pastors can be 
reappointed at the will of the Bishop. 

Five women presented credentials as lay delegates in 1888. 
Their eligibility was questioned; and they were denied admis- 
sion. For the next four General Conferences the struggle for the 
admission of women recurred. In 1900-1904 a general revision 
of the Constitution took place, and the words " lay members " 
were substituted for " laymen " in that part of the Constitution 
which deals with the eligibility of delegates to the General 
Conference. 

The General Conference has power to make rules and regu- 
lations for the Church, subject only to restrictions which protect 
the Standards of Doctrine, the General Rules, the disposition 
of the property of the Book Concern and its income, the income 
of the Chartered Fund, and the right of ministers to trial before 
a jury of their peers, an appeal, and similar rights of the laity. 
By a two-thirds vote of a General Conference, and two-thirds 
votes of the members of the Annual Conference, and of the 
members of the Lay Electoral Conferences, present and voting, 
what is said in these " Restrictive Rules " can be altered or 
repealed, except that which deals with the Articles of Religion 
and " the present existing and established Standards of 
Doctrine." In the Annual Conferences the Bishop is the sole 
interpreter of law, subject to appeal to the General Conference. 
When presiding in the General Conference, a Bishop has no 
authority to decide questions of law, but may decide questions 
of order subject to an appeal to the body. The district super- 
intendcnt visits each charge several times annually, presiding 
in the Quarterly Conference, the highest local authority in the 
Church, and he is expected to conserve the unity of the denomin- 
ation and a regard for laws enacted by the supreme body. In 
the absence of a Bishop the district superintendent represents 
him, and may transfer any ministers within the bounds of his 
district. 

* Connexional InstUutums. — The Book Concern,'' established in 
1789, publishes the necessary devotional books of the Church, such 
as hymnal, discipline, theological works, religious experience, and 
numerous magazines and papers. ^ ^ K 

The Board of Foreign Missions carries on extensive operations 
in China, Japan, Korea, India ^nd Malaysia, Italy, South America 
and Mexico. It assists the Methodist Churches organized in Norway, 
Sweden. Denmark, Finland, Germany and Switzerland, and has 
recently established missions in Russia and France. 

The Board of Home Missions and Church Extension supplies 
the foreign peoples domiciled in the United States with ministers 
of their own tongue. It assists all English-speaking churches in 
need of help, and secures, by gifts and time loans, the erection of 
churches wherever needed: Invaluable coadjutors of these Boards 
are the Women's Foreign Missionary and the Women's Home 
Missionary societies. 

The Board of Education, with the aid of a University Senate, 
assists young people to obtain education, and raises the standard 
of seminaries, colleges and universities. The Church, in the United 
States, supports 54 colleges and universities and 10 theological 
seminaries. The Freedmen's Aid Society is devoted to the educa- 
tional needs of the negro race in the United States, in which work 
it has been very successful. 

The Sunday School Union, Epworth League. Methodist Brother- 
hood, hospitals, homes for the aged, deaconess homes and 
children's institutions are maintained by an increasing army of 
workers. 

The whole number ot mmislers ^ct«\uw*^ o\ Vom^ T^v\^\oT«^ 
in 1907, was 17,694; churches. 27 »e^\\CQiam\xti2«^tiXAx'i%S^V'^^^- 



296 



METHODISM 



The Methodist Episcopal Church South,— Mvet the adjourn- 
ment of the General Conference of 1844, the representatives of 
thirteen Conferences covering the states holding slaves appealed 
to their constituents to determine what should be done to prevent 
Methodism in the South from being deprived of its influence over 
the whites and of the privilege, till then fully accorded, of preach- 
ing the Gospel and teaching its precepts to slaves. In 1845 a 
representative Convention was called; this body, with the ap- 
proval and participation of Bishop Andrew, organized the Metho- 
dist Episcopal Church South. At its first General Conference, 
in 1846, the senior Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
Joshua Soule (i 781-1867), ofifered himself to the Church, which 
accepted him in his episcopal capacity. William Capers (179&- 
1855) and Robert Paine (179^1882) were elected to the Episco- 
pacy. The Church thus founded began with 460,000 members, 
of which 2973 were Indians, 124,961 coloured, and 1519 travel- 
ling ministers. 

A diffictilty arose on the division of the property of the Book 
Concerns, which the Methodist Episcopal Church maintained 
involved a change in the Constitution. A vote to authorize the 
division failed, and the Methodist Episcopal Church South, 
hopeless of relief, brought two suits, one against the Book Concern 
in New York, and the other against the Book Concern in Cincin- 
nati. The former was decided in favour of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church South, and the latter in favour of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. In the latter case an appeal was taken by 
the Methodist Episcopal Church South to the Supreme Court of 
the United States, which body unanimously decided that the 
Methodist Episcopal Church South was an integral part of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church which owned the Book Concerns, 
and ordered that the Southern Church should receive a pro- 
portionate part of the property of both Book Concerns. The 
amount ordered by the Court was in due time received. 

The membership of the Church in i860 was more than three- 
quarters of a million; but the Church was doomed to feel the 
force of the destructive elements of the Civil War. In April 1862 
New Orleans was in possession of the Federal Government, 
rendering it impossible to hold the General Conference due at that 
time and place. 

At the close of the war the Missionary Society of the Church 
was $60,000 in debt, the Publishing House practically in ruins, 
and of the more than 200.000 coloured members in i860 there 
remained fewer than 50,000. The Conference of 1866 convened 
in New Orleans. Radical changes in polity were effected. 
Attendance upon class meetings, which, from the origin of the 
Church had been obligatory, was made voluntary, and the rule 
was repealed which required a probation of six months before 
admission into full membership. The time limit on the con- 
tinuation of pastorates was extended from two to four years. 
The most radical change was the introduction into the General 
Conference of a number of lay representatives equal to 
the number of clerical, and the admission into each Annual 
Conference of four by delegates for each Presiding Elder's 
district. 

The coloured people, with the consent of the Church, withdrew 
in 1870, and formed a new Church called the Coloured Methodist 
Episcopal Church. 

The most striking denominational effort in its history was the 
maintenance of the solvency of the Publishing House, which 
was seized by the Federal Troops, and used as a United States 
printing office; with the damage done, and debts incurred in 
rebuilding, after a fire, interest, &c., the liabilities were $35,000. 
with debts $135,000 in excess of assets. The concern was 
declared insolvent; but the necessary funds were forthcoming, 
and the honour of the Church was maintained. 

Education has received unccasins: attention. The titles to 175 
institutions are held by the Church, and the list of collegcsi and 
their character is a credit to the denomination. The most important 
is Vandcrbilt University, at Nashville. Tennessee, founded in 1873, 
and largely endowed by members of the family whose name it 
bearg. The chief foreign missions arc in China. Mexico, Brazil. 
Japan, Korea and Cuba. Its mission in fapan and the mission of 
t^ Methodist Epiacopal Church and the Methodist Church .ol 



Canada were united in 1907 in a new orfaniation entitled tiM 
Methodist Church of Japan. A distinguishing feature of thia 
church is a practical veto power posaeswd by the bishops, to be 
exercised when the conference adapts any measure which in their 
opinion is unconstitutional. They have the right to pcaeat 
written objections and should the General Conference, by two- 
thirds vote adhere to its action, the proposal is sent down to the 
Annual Conference .for ratification ; otnerwise it is void. Fraternal 
relations between the two great Episcopal Methodist Churchei 
were fully established in 1876, and have broadened in spirit and 
scope from that time. 

The Nlcthodi^t LLpi«:opal Churuh South in 1907 had 6774 punLjCer^ 
16, 1 56 churc hes a nd 1 ,6j I ,'^79 cofntnunlcant^. 

Tiu! Afrkan Mfikodiii Eptitofml Chunfi. — -Thii body ndftinated 
In fttrained relations between the whjte and rolaured M^thodiMi ef 
PhtladfEphia. Pennaylvania. the result of which v«fl. that thtcoloiiittt 
ix.f}|>le or^FiLzed, thetn^elva, in ii)l6^ into an independeni hci4y'r 
They adopted Ai their !itandarda the doctriiifi of the hiethodut. 
Episcopal Churchy and, wiih a few modifk-ation^.tta form ot f ovem- 
ment. The Church steadily prospered^ but for scleral yriti not 
propoit innately in the dertirtrntnt of cditcation. Daniel Akunder 
Payne (tSi 1-1*93), *ho tad Uudied in the Gettysburg ThcoiCKkal 
Seminary, led a reform, whitti Invok-ed a martccd cVvaiion *f tbe 
qualjfttatbni for miniMCri, and frdm that time ihc body hai co»^ 
iia.m}y nsen In public estimationr One of lit peculioriticii a thtt 
the bisbopi are memlKri of the General Conference. It cuslaiis 
V\'ilber force University (3.1 Wilberforce, Ohio) and other educatioftil 
injtitutionft, and hai miviiont In Africa, SouLh America, the Weil 
Indies and Hawaii. Notable orators have riiicn up amonf^ iti 
jTiemberH, who have added greatly to the respect felt fof thdr 
mce and Church* The African Methodist £ptKopal Church, the 
largei^t Christian dcnominatti^n coniisting whoUy of the Ncffe 
raccn tn 1907 cotopritod 6190 ntinlsters, S^at cburchet, and i^a^n^ 
communicants. 

The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church.— Some of tkl 
eolDiire(.| people in the city <m New York, " fcctinR thcmsetx"?* op- 
prirxBcij by ca^tc prejudkc, ami tuffcntif^ the dcpri'^'ation of Churu 
privileges {icrmitted to others," orEaniEed amon^ thcimelvTS^ a 
ij9^t md in the year l6tx> built a church and named it ZiOfl. 
For twenty yean the Methodist Epiiscopat Church wppljedl t^ 
church with pa&ton. Then the memb^n induced three white 
roiTtLster« to ordain as elders three of their brethren, {already deacoiK 
Since they had Methodi&t precedents for uich ordtJiationj tbtm 
prGcec<ied ta ordain others^ and catabliihcd chmxho in Ftuli' 
dclphia and New HampAhtrv. The elders ordained one of t}>ta 
number 4 bishop, A» bte as t Mj the Church had onjy ^ mtnisttTi 
and 5000 members, but m twtlvc year* it doubled in mrtnbcr^ 
more than five timei In this Chunrh the 5***^* are equally diEiV 
to ;d\ portions. Ita educaiionil operation! at Urtt wcte failure^ 
but £r,3dually became succe&sfuL Its fortien mi^ioni vere mt&t 
a separate department in 18S4. This Church had^ in 1907, 317* 
miniatcr?, ^JC* churches and 573^107 communicantSL 

Tht Coiouffd Meihodiit Eptsu^^ Ckhrrh.~ln 1B66 the Gemiit 
Conference of the MethodisL Episcopal Church Soutl^ authoriitd 
the bishop to organiit its colounnJ meitibcrs lit to an indc/icodrttt 

tTcltf^bsnral IxKJy, il il *:hnLil(l .i]uwr<r thut llity dcsiicd IL Tit 

bishops formed a'number of Annual Conferences, comistiii( wkMr 
of coloured preachers, and in 1870 these Conferences imu a * » 
the appointment of five commissioners of the Caucasian psrt d 
the Church to meet five of their own number to create an tods' 
pendent Church. Two Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal CkaRh 
South presided, and ordained to the Episcopacy two cokmdl 
elders, selected by the eight coloured conferences. The cokmdl 
people bv vote named the organiaation the Coloured MethnSil 
Episcopal Church. 

Thf Union American Methodist Episcopal Churdt agreef ii 
doctrines and usages with other Methodist bodies. It is dMM 
into Conferences and elects its Bishops for life. It had ia ifOTi 
18,500 members, 138 ministers and 255 churches. 

B. ^Non-Episcopal Methodist Churchet. 
The MelJiodist Protestant Church.— In 1821 ministcn and hy- 
men of the Methodist Episcopal Church began to critidae fts 
polity, and when their utterances became aggressive the ad* 
herents to the regular order replied with equal vigour. Dwriag 
the General Conference of 1824, held in Baltimore, a CoovratiM 
of " Reformers " met, and established a periodical entitled 71f 
Mutual Rights of the Ministers and Members of the MdkodUt 
Episcopal Church, and made arrangements to organise UBi« 
Societies. Travelling and local ministers and laymen vcft 
expelled for schism and spreading incendiary publications. Priof 
to the Conference those expelled, and their sympathiKn^ 
formed themselves into a society named " Associate Melhodiit 
Reformers." These sent memorials to the General CoBlcKMt 
of 1828, and issued addresses to the public. After a powtifil 
and vuaImI discussion, the appeals of the expdkd mciabc i t 4 



METHODIST NEW CONNEXION— METHODIUS 



297 



OoBfeRDces were rejected. The controveny centred upon lay 
Rpmenution, the epixopocy and the presiding eldership. 

A General Cbnvention was held on the and of November 1830, 
a Coostitution was adopted, and a new organization was cstab- 
liibcd, styled the Methodist Protestant Church. Within eight 
]re»it had accumulated 50,000 members, the majority of whom 
vrnin the South and bordering states. The Methodist Protestant 
Qmrch has a presbyterial form of government, the powers being 
ia the Conference. There is no episcopal office or General 
Sqierinlendent ; each Annual Conference elects its own chairman. 
Its General Conference meets once in four years. Ministers and 
hymen equal in number are elected by the Annual Conferences, 
ii 1 ratio of one delegate for xooo members. The General 
Cbderence of the Methodist Episcopal Church of 1908 sent 
ddcgates to the Conference of the Methodist Protestant Church, 
BokLig overtures toward an organic union, but formal negotia- 
tjoof have not been instituted. This Church had, in 1907, 1551 
uusters, 2242 churches and 183,894 communicants. 

Tkt WesUyan Methodist Connection or Church of America. — ^In 
tk Methodist Episcopal Church slavery was always a cause of 
aatmlion. In 1842 certain Me'thodist abolitionists conferred 
u to the wisdom of seceding. Among the leaders were Orange 
Scott (1800-1847), Jotham Horton and Le Roy Sunderland(i8o2- 
i38s) ^d in a paper, which they had established, known as The 
rrwires/eyaii,they announced their withdrawal from theChurch, 
nd isiued a call for a convention of all like-minded, which met 
« the 31st of May 1843, at Utica, New York, and founded the 
Wdleyaa Methodist Connection or Church of America. The 
CBtoprise started with 6000 laymen and 22 travelling ministers 
of tke Methodist Episcopal Church, and nearly as many more 
hoot the Methodist Protestar * Church and other small bodies of 
Vctbodist antecedents. Its General Conference has an equal 
nnber of ministers and laymen. In less than eighteen months 
(bit body haul gained in members 250%; but as the Methodist 
Epbcopal Church had purged itself from slavery in 1844, ^and 
ihvery itself was abolished in 1862, a large number of ministers 
ad thotwands of communicants, connected with this body, 
Mnmed to the Methodist Episcopal Church. It had in 1907 
Si9 Binlsters, 609 churches and 18,587 communicants. 
, Tht ComfregiUional Mdhodists originated in Georgia in 1852 ; but 
ii polity they are not strictly Congregational. Appeals from the 
dKMion of the Lower Church may be tam?n to a District Conference, 
tkmte to the State Conference, and ultimately to the General 
OMferrace. This Church had, in 1907, chiefly in Southern states, 
34JOOO Berobers, 41^ ministers and 425 churches. 

Tkt Free Metkodtst Church. — ^This body was organized in August 
iMo. and was the result of ten years of agitation. A number of 
~^ — I and members within the bounds m the Genesee Confcr- 



toor, in Wescem New York, in 1850, began to deplore and denounce 
tk dtdine of spirituality in the Methodist Episcopal Church. The 
K<v. B. T. Roberts, the ablest among them, was rcprinianded by the 
blnp presiding in the Annual Conference, and next year he was 
cspcUoL Similar proceedings were taken against others, who 
tffealed to the General Conference of i860, but their expulMon 
*ai coafirmed. It was the purpose of the founders to conserve 
tlie oufie and the spirit of primitive Methodism. The government 
d \ht Ginrch is simple, in all but the Episcopacv and its adjuncts 
Rttmbling that of the Church whence it sprang. The Free Methodist 
Church had. in 1907, 1032 ministers, 1106 churches, and 31,376 
cwnniiicants. 

Hixer Methodist Churches.— The Primitive Methodist Church, 
tt it exists in the United States, came from Engbnd. In 1907 
it Rported 7013 communicants. The Independent Methodists sire 
OBpOKd of congreg a tions in Mar>-land. Tennessee and the District 
«f Columbia. They had fewer than ^000 members in 1907. The 
BmapHtl Missionary Church comprises ministers and members 
■iOluo,whoin 1886 withdrew from the African Methodist Episconal 
Boa Chnrch. They had in 1907 about 5000 members, the New 
Cm ptt uionai Methodists in 1881 withdrew from the Methodist 
rpirnpil Church S(Mith, in Georgia. They had A022 members in 
*m. Tie African Union Methodist Protestant Church dates from 
1I16, and dincrvd from the African Methodist Episcopal Church 
ii o^poang itinerancy, " paid ministers," and episcopacy. In 
1907 it had 3867 members in eight states. The Zion Union Apos- 
fne Outrch was organized in 1869, in Virginia. It was reported 
ii 1I90 to have 2346 communicants, and shows no gain at the 
pvmttimc. 

BauocKAPHY. — Gross Alexander, History of the Methodist 
M^otopot Church. South (New York, 1894). being vol. xi. of the 
"*- — '■ — Church History Series"; John Atkiaaoa, Ceniennial 



TTitUfry of American Mfihodhm (Nrw York, 1S84) ; Francis Asburv, 
Journal (1 vols.. Mew Ytnk, 1652)-, Nathan Bangs. A lluicry oj iht 
Mefhfldiit Eptjcopal Ckurih Jrom Uj Ortgin in //^^ to ike Genttid 
ConJcTcncMof tS40{^ vols,, New York, iSja-iBp); Hcdry B. Bairtun, 
MethiMiUm and Slavery (N^^viiEe); A. H. BlHett, tUtioty of th* 
Melhodiii Protestaml Church (Pitt^bun. ]B7R, rcvis^. i8ti;. id^7)i 



Thorrui^ E, Bondi, Homc-ffly of MethodUm, Ilittsirfiied and Defended*, 
r Mr BuckWy, niiiifty of Mtthiydism in the United States (1607); 
H. K. Cjrrtflil, fielirifiHS Forces of the United Statej {^t^w Vork, jikitx). 

1 S96h Divid VV. Oark, Life and Timet 0/ Btjak Heddini (New Vork, 
i^55K DanicJ Dorchester, Christianity ii» tki United States (New 
York, 189s): Edward J. Dunkhousn, History 0/ Methodi^i Reform 

2 vols,, BaltimofirK [899); Robert Emory, Htst^ry of the DiKtplint 
pf the Methidiit Episcopal Chmrck (New York, 1643); Wiltiam U 
Karri I, Conaiiiuiional Powers of ike Genrral C^njerence ([S60); 
L W. HtJod. One ifundttd Ytars of tke African Methoditl Episcopal 
yAcn Church (Ntw Ytirlc^ 18*35); Jc*se Lcc^ A Sh^rS Hutory of ike 
Meikisdhls in the United SUttej pf America (Baltimore, iSio^ ; 
John Lixlrtgiii, IHsIory af tke Riie and PfiM^rfu of Mttkodism in 
Arncricif (iHy})* AViuiridcr McCiinc, HtUufy tirid Alyitery of Metko- 
diit B.pitCQptn^y (ikittinwuro, 1SJ9) ; Hull.inil K. McTyeinc, A HisUffy 
9f Metkodtsm (NashvilltH 1884)5 ]o<:l M.-irnn, The Weileyan ManvaL 
or liittory <if Wedeyan Mffkedism (SyracuK-. N,Y^t 1 8^9) ; Liiclui 
C. Mai lack. Anli'Stavery Stru^gie and Triumph in the Methttdirl 
Epiicopai Church (New York. liSfli); Stephen M* MetriU. A DiieU 
of Meikodiii La-jf (New York, revised ed,, iHHIi) ; Thomas D* Necly» 
A History af ike Orif^in and DevetopmeHt of iht Covfrniitfi Conferenct 
is Mttkodiim (New York. tSgj] : id. Tke ErfdifUem ofEpiscapoey 
und Orj^nie Meikodism (New Vork, 1 8^8); Robert Painr. Life and 
Times of William McKendrte (j voli., Na^hvLlle, ]66y; rr\iscd, 
1874); Danii^l A. Payntv fiiiloryof tke African Afetkodiit Epi^i^pal 
Cknrck ([Si^t); jartics Porter » Camprehensioe Hiiiory of Mftkffdum 
(Nfw York, 1^7^); A. H* Rodford* History of ike Oreanizotion of tkM 
Mftkodiit Episfcpd Church Soutk (Naahville, 1871I; J. M. Rrld, 
Misiians and Mutimcry Society of tke Mfihodist Episcopal Ckttrck 



Dy J* 'i', oraety; Ddivid Sherman^ 
History of ike Revisions of ike Dimplinc of ike Meikodisi Episcopai 
Church (New York, 3rd ed,,. iSqo); Al«t Strvffi»+ ttiitory of Melko- 
diim (3 vols.. New York, iSs8J; id. Ilisi&ry of the ifetkodisi 
Episcopal Church (4 vols.. New York, 1864): id. Tkt Centenary of 
Ameficiitt Meikodiim (New York, 1866); John J. Tigert, A Con^ 
st national lliitory of American Episcopal Afetkodirm (Nn^hviUet 
1894)1 J. B, VVakcltVf Lost Ckapters Eiioceredjrom tkr Early History 



i?f American Methodism (New York, 1858); 'Hionia* Ware, Sketfhes 
of if it (Jam f^fe and Traoels (New York, 1859); and the Discipline 
and Jautnali^ tht varic^us Amc rtL^n Methodist Churches. And the 



rrorPcdirtii5 &f the Ccniennisl Mi.nhodi£t Conference (1884); of thfr 
First F-curtit'Siscftl Confcrencic (1881); of the stTotiq Ecumenical 
Conference (1891); arid of the third Ecymcniral Conference (igoij, 

(J, M. feu J 

METHODIST KEW COHKBinOK, a ProtesUnt Nonconformist 
Churchi formed in 1757 by setrc^ion from the l^'c^lcyati Metho- 
dist ji, and merged in 1907 into the IfnJted Mefhodlst Church 
f^.p.). The secession wj|$ led by Atcnander Kiih^m (^.b.), and 
rtsuJled from iL dispute regapdiing the position and rights oJ the 
laiiy, Kilham and hb party dcsiringinore power for the members 
of the Church and less for the.tiiinistcra. In its conferences 
mtnbters and laymea ^ere of eqml nuinber, the laymen being 
chosen by the circuits and in some cases by " guardian rtprc*- 
senUttvea " elected for life by conference. Oihcrwis* the 
doctrines and order of the Conneiion were the same as those of 
the Wesleyans, At the tinie of the union with the Bible Chris* 
lians and the United Methodist Frc<r Cbtirch in it^o? thn 
Methodist New Connexion had some js^ ministers and 45.«™ 
members. 

MFTHODIUS (c. S;s^S8£), the apo^llf of the Slavs, was a native 
of The^salonica, probably by national iLy a Cracciztd Slav, His 
father's name was Leo, and his family was socially distinguished; 
Ikfet hod 1115 him^lf had already attained high facial rank m the 
govern me nl of Macedonin before he determined to become m, 
monk, \\\% younger brother Constant inc (belter known m Cyril, 
the name he adopted at Rome shortly before his death) was a 
friend of Photius^ and hadearticd the surname " the Pbtlosophcr " 
in Constantinople before he withdrew to monastic life. Can- 
st an tine about S6obad been sent by the emperor Michael III, to 
the Khaisars, a Tatar people living north east of the Black Scaja 
response to their request for a Christian teacher, but had not 
rerniaincd long among them; after bis rclurn to iwithin the Itmits 
of the empire, his brother and he worked among the Bulgarians 
of Thrace and Moesia, bppliscing their kit\^ ^o^i^tns "to ^\» 
About S6j, at the invUalioti ol ^a^'C\^\av, Vm^ cil ''^ K^bTL^raX 
Aloravjfl," who desired Ihc ChriiU(LtB»Vaott<A\!aiwijvs**^'^'^ 



298 



METHUEN— METHYL ALCOHOL 



at the same time that they should be independent of the Gennans, 
the two brothers went to his capital (its site is unknown), and, 
besides establishing a seminary for the education of priests, suc- 
cessfully occupied themselves in preaching in the vernacular and 
in diffusing their translations of Scripture lessons and liturgical 
offices. Some conflict with the German priests, who used the 
Latin liturgy, led to their visiting Pope Nicholas I., who had just 
been engaged in his still extant correspondence with the newly 
converted Bulgarian king; his death (in 867) occurred before 
their arrival, but they were kindly received by his successor 
Hadrian II. Constantine died in Rome (in 869), but Methodius, 
after satisfying the pope of his orthodoxy and obedience, went 
back to his labours in " Moravia " as archbishop of Syrmia 
(Sirmium) in Pannonia. His province appears to have been, 
roughly speaking, co-extensive with the basins of the Raab, 
Drave and Save, and thus to have included parts of what had 
previously belonged to the provinces of Salzburg and Passau. 
In 871 complaints on this account were made at Rome, nominally 
on behalf of the archbishop of Salzburg, but really in the interests 
of the German king and his Germanizing ally Swatopluk, Rasti- 
slay's successor; they were not, however, immediately successful. 
In 879, however, Methodius was again- summoned to Rome by 
Pope John VIII., after having declined to give up the practice 
of celebrating mass in the Sktvonic tongue; but, owing to the 
peculiar delicacy of the relations of Rome with Constantinople, 
and with the young church of Bulgaria, the pope, contrary to all 
expectation, ultimately decided in favour of a Slavonic liturgy, 
and sent Methodius (880) back to his diocese with a sufifragan 
bUhop of Ncitra, and with a letter of recommendation to 
Swatopluk. This suffragan, a German named Wiching, unfor- 
tunately proved the reverse of helpful to his metropolitan, and 
through his agency, especially after the death of John VIII. in 
88i, the closing years of the life of Methodius were embittered by 
continual ecclesiastical disputes, in the course of which he is said 
to have laid Swatopluk and his supporters under the ban, and the 
realm under interdict. The most trustworthy tradition says that 
Methodius died at Hardisch on the March, on the 6th of April 
885. He was buried at Welchrad (probably Stuhlwcisscnburg). 

The Greek Church commemorates St Cyril on February 14 and 
St Methodius on May 11; in the Roman Church both are com- 
memorated On March 9. Their canonization (by Leo XIII. in 
x88i) is noteworthy, in view of the fact that Gregory VII. and 
several other popes condemned them as Arians. After the death 
of Methodius much of his work was undone; his successor 
Gosrad, a Slav, was expelled, with' all the Slav priests, and 
the Latin language and Uturgy supplanted the vernacular. On 
the 5th of July 1863 a millennial celebration of the two brother 
apostles was held by the people of Bohemia and Moravia. 

See Schafarik's Slaioische AlUrlhumer\ L. K. GOtz, Ceschichte 
der SlavenaposUl Konstantinus und Methodius (Gotha, 1897}; 
N. Bonwctsch, Cyrill und Methodius, die Lehrer der Slaven (Erianecn, 
1885), and art. in Hauck-Hcraog's ReaUncyk. fur prot, Theol. 
iv. 384, where the literature b cit<^; G. F. Maclcar, Conversion of 
the Slavs (London, 1879). 

METHUEN. BARONY OF. The English title of Baron 
Methuen of Corsham (Wilts) was created in 1838 for Paul 
Methuen (1779-1849), who had been a Tory member of parlia- 
ment for Wilts from 181 2 to 1819, and then sat as a Whig for 
North Wills from 1833 to 1838. His father, Paul Methuen, was 
the cousin and heir of the wealthy Sir Paul Methuen (1672-1 757), 
a well-known politician, courtier, diplomatist and patron of art 
and literature, who was the son of John Methuen (c. 1650-1706), 
Lord Chancellor of Ireland (1697-1703) and ambassador to 
Portugal. It was the last-named who in 1703 negotiated the 
famous " Methuen Treaty," which, in return for the admission 
of English woollens into Portugal, granted differential duties 
favouring the importation of Portuguese wines into England to 
the disadvantage of French, and thus displaced the drinking 
of Burgundy by that of port. He and his son were both buried 
in Westminster Abbey. The 1st baron was succeeded in the 
th}e by his son Frederick Henry Paul Methuen (1818-1891), and 
the latter by bis son Paul, jrd baron (b. 1845), * distinguished 
foidier, who became a, major-genersd in 1890, and general officer 



commanding-in-chief in South Africa in 1907. The srd Iw 
joined the Scots Guards in 1864, served in the Ashanti Waf 
1874 and the Egyptian War of 1882, and command 
Methuen's Horse in Bechuanabnd in 1884-85, and the t 
division of the ist Army Corps in the South African War 
1899-1902. (Sec Transvaal.) 

METHUSELAH, in the Old Testament, the seventh in dcttl 
from Adam, and father of Lamcch. According to Genens v. 21 
lived 969 years (see Bible: Old Testament, § 5, " Chrondogy' 
The name itself has been much discussed. Holzinger inteipn 
it as " man of the javelin ": Hommel prefers *' man of Sebl 
Selah being the Hebraized form of the Babylonian Sarraha (i 
the god Sin), and identifies it with the 'A/ii/x^cyof of Bcroaii 
The form Mcthushael, used by the author of Gen. iv. x8 and 
some commentators preferred for Gen. v. 21, is variously < 
pbined as meaning " man of El " (Ball), or as a transcripli 
(Sayce) of the Babylonian Mutu-$a-ili (possibly, " man of t 
goddess ")• 

METHVEN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 7} 
W. by N. of Perth by the Caledonian Railway. Pop. of par 
(1901), 1699. Only an aisle remains of the collegiate di« 
founded in 1433 by Walter Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 143 
One mile east of the village, Methven Castle, dating partly fn 
1680, occupies a fine situation in a park in which stands t 
Pepperwell oak, 18 ft. in circumference. At Dronach Hai 
near the banks of the Almond, which bounds the parish on I 
N., the earl of Pembroke defeated Robert Bruce in 1306. 
Lynedoch, his estate on the Almond, Thomas Graham (174 
1843), the Peninsular general, afterwards Lord Lynedo 
carried on many experiments in farming and stock-breedi 
He formerly owned Balgowan House, about 3 m. south-v 
of Methven, where many years after his death the propck 
discovered, during certain alterations, the portrait of L 
Lynedoch's wife, the Hon. Mrs Graham (a daughter of i 
9th Lord Cathcart), one of Gainsborou^*s masterpieces, a 
in the National Gallery in Edinburgh; 4} m. north-wot 
Methven, occupying a beautiful position in Glenalmoiid, 
Trinity College, a public school on the English model, the fl 
of its kind in Scotland, founded in 184 1 through the efforts 
W. E. Gladstone, J. R. Hope-Scott, Dean Ramsay and otb 
and opened in 1847. In 185 1 Charles Wordsworth, the I 
warden, afterwards bishop of St Andrews, added the chapcL 
Tibbermore, or Tippermuir, about 3 m. south-east of Methv 
Montrose won the first of a series of battles over the Covenaal 
on the ist of September 1644. 

METHYL ALCOHOL (CH,OH), the simplest aUphatic akot 
an impure form is known in commerce as wood-spirit, be 
produced in the destructive distillation of wood. The oa 
methyl, from Gr. /tidu, wine, Ckti, wood, explains its orii 
Discovered by Boyle in 1661, it was first carefully studied 
Dumas and P^ligot in 1831; its synthesis from its demc 
(through methane and methyl chloride) was effected by Berthi 
in 1858. It b manufactured by distilling wood in iron retc 
at about soo** C, when an aqueous distillate, containing met 
alcohol, acetone, acetic acid and methyl acetic ester, is obtaii 
This is neutralized with lime and redistilled in order to rem 
the acetic acid. The distilbte is treated with anhydrous cald 
chloride, the crystalline compound formed with the ako 
being separated and decomposed by redistilling with wa 
The aqueous product is then dehydrated with potash or fii 
To obtain it perfectly pure the crude alcohol is combined « 
oxalic, benzoic or acetic acid, and the resulting ester septral 
purified, and finally decomposed with potash. Methyl akohc 
also obtained in the dry distillation of molasses. Theano 
of methyl alcohol present in wood spirit is determined l^ < 
verting it into methyl iodide by acting with phosphorus iod 
and the acetone by converting it into iodoform by boiling wit! 
alkaline solution of iodine in potassium iodide; ethyl akohi 
detected by giving acetylene on heating with concentn 
sulphuric acid, methyl alcohol, under the same drcomaUa 
giving methyl ether. 

Vuie mtlh^l alcohol is a colourless mobile liquid, I 



METICULOUS— METROCLES 



299 



ff-67*, and having a ipedfic gravity of 0-8143 at o* C. It has 
a bimhig taste, and generally a spirituous odour, but when 
aknlile^ pure it is said to be odourless. It mixes in all pro- 
latioos with water, alcohol and ether. Its compound with 
chloride has the formuU CaCls'4CH«-0H, and with 
oxide BaO-2CIM)H. Oxidation gives formaldehyde, 
fDOuc add and carbonic add; chlorine and bromine react, but 
km leadfly than with ethyl alcohol The chief industrial 
applications are for making denatured alcohol (q.v.), and as a 
■bent, €.g. in varnish manufacture; it is also used for a fuel; a 
pan product is extensivdy used in the colour and fine chemical 
Uottries. 
Udkji cUoride CHiG, is a »•, boiling at -93*. obtained by 
better, from methyl alcohol; wood spirit 



ffcinrinating methane, or 

ii tseated with aalt and sulphuric add, or hydrochloric acid jgas 
eoadacted into the boiling spirit in the presence of zinc chlondc. 



eonicted mto the boiluig spint m the presence of zinc chlondc, 
tit evolved sas being washed with potash and dried by sulphuric 
•di It is ata> prepared by heating trimethylamine hydrochloride. 
Akdnl dissolves 3>( vdumes and water 4. Methyl bromidt is a 
Had. specific gravity 1-73. boiling point 13*; mdkyl iodid* has 
tipidfic gravity of 2-19, and boils at 43*. 

nnCULOUl (through Fr. mitiaUeux, from Lat. meiiadosus, 
tfaid, cautious; metus, fear), a term meaning pedantically or 
BBcaivdy careful of deUils, over-acrupulous, laying too much 
awiopiMttilw . 

mOGHITA* THBODORB (Theodokos Metochttes], a 
IjfBntine author, man of learning and statesnum, who flourished 
ia^ the reign of Andronicus II. Palaeologus (1282-1328). 
After the deposition of his patron by Andronicus III., Metochiu 
mdepdved of his office of great logothete (chancellor) and sent 
■loeiile. He was soon readied, but retired from political life 
toaooovent, where he died in 1332. He was a num of very great 
hning. only surpassed by Photius and Michael Psellus. His 
fipl Nicephorus Gregoras, who delivered his funeral oration, 
cdi Urn a ** Uving library." 

(My a few of his numeioos works have been preserved. The 
kot novn is TnyiripMirwiiei tml tfVM*^^''^* ywunutoL Miscettanea 
lUmfikiea «f kittonca (ed. C. G. MQller and T. Kiessling, 
itn), GOdtainittg some 120 essays; for a list of them see Fabricius, 
Mhalisco fTMca (ed. Harles), x. 417; in these he chiefly made 
■eof Syaesiua. Of his rhetorical pieces two have been published 
bf C N. Sathas in Mcrauincik /St/SXutf^ (i^I?)> >"^ ^^^ poeras 
« RSgiotts subjects by M. Treu (1895)- The poems, dealing 
Misty vith contempotary and personal matters, are written in 
km.^«. _ not in tne usual " political " verse. Metochita was 
ihs lie author of works on philosophical and astronomical subjects. 

mOHIC CYCLB, in chronology, a period of xp years during 
which there are 235 lunations, so called because discovered by 
lIctOB. Computation from modem data shows that 235 luna- 
dw are 6939 days, x6*s hours; and 19 solar years, 6939 days, 
14-5 hours. The rdation between integral numbers of months 
al years expressed by Meton's rule therefore deviates only two 
hMD from the truth. Since 19 Julian years make 6939 days, 
il koazs, the relation errs by only 1-5 hour when the Julian 
yor is taken. Meton was an Athenian astronomer (fl. 43 2 B.C.) . 

DfOITMT (Gr. lunatn^ida, change of name, from /lerd 
ifcinfiin dtange, and &>ofia, name), a figure of speech, in 
vUcfc the name of one thing is changed for that of another, to 
vlidk it is related by association of ideas, as having dose re- 
iMinship to one another. Thus " sceptre," " throne," " crown," 
■c iHd for royal power or authority, " hearth and home " is 
■ed for" country," &c 

^ 'Synecdoche" (Gr. ffUPexSox^, from cvPtiMx^^ to join 
■ mdving) is a rhetorical figure similar to meton3nny, in 
•lick the part is used for the whole or vice versa, thus " hands " 
iiaed for the members of the crew of a vessel; a regiment of 
^jBtiy is said to number so many " bayonets," &c 

■Bora (Gr. lUT&ni^ a middle space), a term in archi- 
iBCtaie for the sqtiare recess between the triglyphs in a Doric 
l itte, w hich is sometimes filled with sculpture. 

■DIB {ptrpudi, sc. rkxvUt from Gr. ykrpow, measure), 
^ piowdy, the harmonious and regulated disposition of 
Vfcbks into verse. Metrical form is distinguished from prose 
h the uniformity ct corresponding lines in relation to the 
' r of syllables and the similaxio^ oi £dm1 sound (rhyme or . 



assonance), by the repetition of certain letters at regular intervals 
(in alliterative measure), or merdy by the regular succession of 
i]ps and downs of intonation. In andent classic poetry the 
measure which creates the metrical form consists only of this last 
qiumtitative dement, which is rhythm. 

For the rules and divisions of the various metrical systems, see 
Vebsb. For the restricted use of " metre " as a unit of measure- 
ment, see Metsic Systsm below. 

METRIC SYSTEM (adapted from Gr. fdrpw, measure), 
that system of weights and measures of which the metre is the 
fundamental unit. The theory of the system is that the metre 
h a 1 BBg ' fl B B part of a quandrant of the earth through Paris; 
I he litre or unit of volume is a cube of ^ metre side; the gramme 
or unit of weight is (nominally) yoHnr of the weight of a litre of 
w^ter at 4° C. The idea of adopting sdentific measurements 
had been suggested as early as the X7th century, particularly by 
the astronomer Jean Picard (1620-X682), who proposed to take 
a.s a unit the length of a pendulum beating one second at sca- 
le' vd, at a latitude of 45*. These suggestions took practical shape 
by a decree of the National Assembly in 1790 appointing a 
committee to consider the suitability of adopting either the 
tength of the seconds pendulum, a fraction of the length of the 
equator or a fraction of the quadrant of the terrestrial meridian. 
The committee dedded in favour of the latter and a commission 
KAS appointed to measure the arc of the meridian between 
Dunkirk and Mont Jany, near Barcdona. Another commis- 
sion was also appointed to draw up a system of weights and 
measures based on the length of the metre and to fix the nomen- 
clature, which on the report of the commission was established 
in 1795. It was not until 1799 that the report on the length of 
the metre was made. This was followed by the law of the 
loth of December 1799 fixing definitely the value of the 
rnetre and of the kilogramme, or wdght of a litre of water, and 
the new system became compulsory in 1801. It was found 
necessary however to pass an act in 1837, forbidding as and from 
the I St of January 1840, under severe penalties, the use of any 
other weights and measures than those established by the laws 
of 1795 and 1799. The metric system is now obligatory in 
Argentina, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Chile, France, 
Germany, Greece, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Norway, Peru, 
Portugal, Rumania, Servia, Spain, S#eden, Switzerland. Its use 
is legalized in Egypt, Great Britain, Japan, Russia, Turkey and the 
United States. In 1875 there was constituted at Paris the Inter- 
national Bureau of Weights and Measures, which is managed by 
an international committee. The object of the Bureau is to 
make and provide prototypes of the metre and kilogramme, for 
the various subscribing countries. 

En England action has frequently been taken both by individuals 
■j.n4 by associations of commercial men for the purpose of endeavour- 
i ng to make the metric system compulsory. A Decimal Association 
wai formed in 1854. but did not make very much headway. 
A biU was introduced into parliament in 1864 to make the metric 
j^ystcm compulsory for certain purposes, but owing to government 
objections a permissive bill was substituted and subsequently 
t^ecame law as the Metric Act 1864. It was, however, repealed 
by the Wdghts and Measures Act 1878. In 1871 another bill for 
rcjmpulsory adoption was rejected by the House of Commons on 
ihtr secono reading by a majority of bvc. In 1893 a representative 
delegation of business men pre»ed its adoption on the chancellor 
of the exchequer (Sir W. V. Harcourt), but he dedined. But in 
1^97 a statute was passed, the Weights and Measures (Metric 
System) Act, which legalized the use in trade of the metric system, 
intl abolished the penalty for using or having in one's possessi o n 
u «dght or measure of that system. 

See also DsciMAL Coinage and WsicuTS and Measures. 

METROCLES, a Greek philosoper of the Cynic school, was 
a contemporary of Crates, under whose persuasion he deserted 
the views of Theophrastus. It was his sister, Hipparchia, 
whose romantic attachment to Crates is a fascinating siddight 
on the almost truculent asceticism of the Cym'cs. He was a 
man of peculiar strength of character, and esteemed the joys 
of life so low that he was deterred from an early suidde only 
by the influence of Crates. His philosophical vxt.'w^, -^VsisXi-w^^ 
identical with those ol Crates (q,«.^,\it w^MiAeA.\s^ v«s«^v 
nod ezanplc with grctt success, in^ )mA 130000% Yn^ v^v^ 



300 



METRODORUS— METROPOLITAN 



Menlppus of Sinope. Having weighed the probable pains and 
pleasures of approaching old age, he dedded that life had nothing 
left for which he greatly cared, and drowned himself. He is 
said to have written several works, which he afterwards burnt. 
Of one, e ntitled Xpdai, Diogenes preserves a single line (vi. 6). 
METRODORUS, the name of five philosophers. 

1. MEtRODORUS of Athens was a philosopher and painter who 
flourished in the 2nd century B.C. It chanced that Paullus 
Aemilius, visiting Athens on his return from his victory over 
Perseus in x68 B.C., asked for a tutor for his children and a painter 
to glorify his triumph. The inhabitants suggested Metrodorus 
as capable of dischaigihg both duties, and it is recorded that 
Aemilius was entirely satisfied (see Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxv. 135). 

2. Metrodorus of Chios was an important member of the 
Atomistic school. A pupil of Nessus, or, as some accounts 
prefer, of Democritus himself, he was a complete sceptic. He 
accepted the Democritean theory of atoms and void and the 
plurality of worlds, but held a theory of his own tfiat the stars 
are formed from day to day by the moisture in the air under the 
heat of the sun. His radical scepticism is seen in the first 
sentence of his Hcpl ^itcttoi, quoted by Cicero in the Academics 
ti* 33 § 73* He says, " We know nothing, no, not even whether 
we know or notl" and maintains that everything is to each 
person only what it appears to him to be. Metrodorus is 
especially interesting as the teacher of Anaxarchus, the friend 
of Pyrrho, and, therefore, as the connecting link between atomism 
proper and the later scepticism. It cannot be dedded whether 
a work entitled the TpulnL quoted by Athenaeus (iv. 184 a) is 
by this, or another, Metrodorus. The same difficulty is ifound 
in the case of the Hcpl icTopiw referred to by the scholiast on 
Apollonius. 

3. Metrodorus of Lampsacus was the disciple and intimate 
friend of Epicurus, and is described by Cicero (de Fin. ii. 28. 92) 
as " almost a second Epicurus." He died in 277 B.C. at the age 
of fifty-three, seven years before his master, who adopted his 
children and in his will commended them to the care of his pupils. 
The wife of Metrodorus was Leontion, herself, like many other 
women of the time, a member of the Epicurean sodety. Athen- 
aetis (vii. 279 F.) quotes from the words of Metrodorus showing 
that he was in entire agreement with Epicurus, and was, if 
possible, even more dogmatic in his doctrine of pleasure. He 
censures his brother, Timocrates, who, though professedly 
Epicurean, maintained the existence of pleasures other than those 
of the body. 

4. Another Metrodorus of Lampsaais was a pupil of 
Anaxagoras, and one of the earliest to attempt to interpret 
Homer allegorically. He explained not only the gods but also 
the heroes Agamemnon, Achilles, Hector, as representing 
primary dements and natural phenomena. 

5. Metrodorus of Stratonice was a pupil, first of Apollodorus, 
and later of Cameades. He flourished about no B.C., and is 
reputed to have been an orator of great power. His defection 
from the Epicurean school is almost unique. It is explained by 
Cicero as being due to his theory that the sceptidsm of Cameades 
was merely a means of attacking the Stoics on their own ground. 
Metrodorus held that Cameades was in reality a loyal follower of 
Plato. 

METRONOME (Gr. ykrpov, measure, and i>6/iot, law), an 
instrument for denoting the speed at which a musical composition 
is to be performed. Its invention is generally, but falsely, 
ascribed to Johann Nepomuk Maelzel, a native of Ratisbon 
(1772-1838). It consists of a pendulum swung on a pivot; below 
the pivot is a fixed weight, and above it is a sliding weight that 
regulates the velocity of the oscillations by the greater or less 
distance from the pivot to which it is adjusted. The silent 
metronome is impelled by the touch, and ceases to beat when this 
impulse dies; it has a scale of numbers marked on the pendulum, 
and the upper part of the sliding weight is placed under that 
number which is to indicate the quickness of a stated note, as 
M.Af. (MaelxcVs Metronome) /•-60, or p= 72, or^* 108, or the 

iike. The number 60 implies a. second of time for each singlle 



osdOation of the pendulum — numbers lower than t 
slower, and higher numbers quicker beats. The i 
extended from 50 to 160, but now ranges from 40 to i 
complicated metronome is impelled by dock-woi 
ticking sound at each beat, and continues its action t 
run down; a still more intricate machine has also t 
is struck at the first of any number of beats wi 
person who regulates it, and so signifies the accent a 
time. 

The earlitit instrument of the kind* a weighted 
variable Icn^h, is dcfCribcd m a paptr by Etienne I 
i&g^; AmsLcrdam, 169!!). Aitcmptt wre also made 
(17JJ) and GabDry {177 r). Ham&on^ who gained the c 
by th<^ English Ecvcmmcjit for htfr chronometer, pw 
fiiiup^'ton of^u infrtruniiCEii for the purpoK in 1775. ^ 
iVIicticr, Abel Durja (1790) and VVciake (also I7J^ 
their various cxpLTiiU'onts for measuring musical tin 
Gottfrird Weber, the compoicr, theorist and essayist 
weighted nbban grad tinted by inches or smaller div 
nii^ht he held or otherwisf RxjlhI nt any desired len^ 
ittfiillibtx D^ilbtc it th# ufnc tpcvd. &o long as the in 
St&ckcl jind Zinirskall rvodtieed «^ch an uistrument; 
made some slight modificition of that by the fomM 
end ot tSij, vfh'Kh he announce ai a new inventia 
and r}(l]ibitcd from city to cily 00 tht Continent, 
nearly as can be ascertained, in 1812 that Winkel, a 
ci^ Amsterdam^ devised a plan for reducing the inconv 
of all vxiiitinf: instrumcfitF*, on Ihv jirinciplf of thf dii^ut 
rockinB; un boib i*i\i:9 of a. OPTiEre and babucvd by # 
vaiiiiblc wdfibt* He spenr itifrc yt4r? in romplctnif 
dt^scribcd and coinmerx1c?d in 11 tic Ffpffri of the f<ii^thcrk 
of Scirncts {Aujf. 14^ 1815). Maelfel thcrtuiJon went tt 
Aaw Winkel aikI inspnited his ipvuznriQiit snd, rcc?o£TU 
fuperionty to what he called hh ofh'rt, affcrcd to buy 
title to it. Winkel refuH.'dT and so Maelfcl constructed 
i[i:$triiment> to which he added nothing but the sc^k 
tonk ihU copy to PariA^ oblain«l a patent for it, and i 
I'Lahvd XhnKy in hii o^n name, a manufactory' for 
When the impostor rcvi^it^ Amsterdam, the invent 
proceedings ac^irt»l him for hw piracy, and the Acaden 
decided in Winker* Cavcur, declaring that the pradui 
the only point in which the tnetrument of Ktafkfl diffii 
Maelzeli'i iieale was needlessly and arbitrarily complk* 
iiig by twos from 40 to 60. by thrto ffotn aa to 7?^ I 
7J to 13a. by aijics from 120 to 144 and by eights froi 
Dr Cn^tch constructed a time meaty rrrfj ana YitnT] 
violiiii^ti father of the composer of the sam^ namt'i i 
in i8ji, iHiih Irffiire ilmt rccclvi-d .1^ M.-.i-i- ■■• 
England. In 1882 James Mitchell, a Scotsman, made 
amplification of the Maelzel clock-work, reducing t 
demonstration what formerly rested wholly on the f 
performer. 

Although " Madzcl's metronome *' has universal ac 
silent metronome and still more Weber's graduate* 
greatly to. be preferred, for the clock-work of the oth< 
be out of order, and needs a nicety of regulation wh 
impossible; for instance, when Sir George Smart had 
traditional times of the several pieces in the Deuing 
he tested them by twdvc metronomes, no two of whkh 1 
The value of the machine is exaggerated, for no Hvi 
could execute a piece in unvaried time throughout, ai 
could practise under the tyranny of its beat; and < 
music, nay, compKMscrs themselves, will conduct thi 
slightly slower or quicker on different occasions, aco 
circumstances of performance. 

METROPOLIS (Gr. ix^p, mother, r&us, dty), 
mother-city, and so the name of the parent state 
colonies were founded in ancient Greece (see G 
History, A ncicnt). The word was used in post -class 
the chief city of a province, the seat of the govern 
particular ecclesiastically for the seat or see of a 
bishop (see Metropoutan). It is thus used now U 
of a country, which contains the various official bu 
administrative departments, the Houses of Parlianc 
the case of London, the term " metropolitan " 
applied to the whole area including the " City 
e.g. " Metropolitan Asylums Board "; and soro< 
" Metropolitan Police," excludes the City, which 
police force (see London). 

METROPOUTAN (Lat. metropolUanus, Gr. |i 
in the Christian church, the title of a bishop who I 
{ «ig]til ovei bishops of subordinate sees. In the Wc 



METSU— METTERNICH 



301 



tbe metropolitan is practically the same as the archbishop (g.v.) ; 
io the Eastern church be ranks above the archbishop, but below 
the patriarch iqs.). Metropolitans first appear in the East in the 
4tli century as presiding over a province (provincia or irafix^a), 
lid their see is fixed in the principal town (jairpofwiiKit) of 
the province, which remains the normal custom both in East and 
U'eit. In Africa, however, the metropoliun jurisdiction was 
oerciscd by the senior bishop (primes, primae sedis episcopus, 
ma) for the time being, a custom which prevailed for a time 
ibo in Spain. Thus, too, in the Scottish Episcopal Church 
tad the Protestant Episcopal Church of America there axe no 
Betropolitans, the primas being the senior bishop. 

■ETSU, GABRIEL (1630- 1667), Dutch painter, was the son 
of Jacob Metsu, who lived most of his days at Leiden, where he 
VIS three times married. The last of these marriages was cele- 
bnied in 1625, and Jacomma Garnijers, herself the widow of a 
piinter, gave birth to Gabriel in 1630. According to Houbraken 
Metsu was taught by Gerard Dow, though his early works do not 
ksd colour to this assertion. It is certain, however, that he was 
influenced in turn by Jan Steen, Rembrandt, and Hals. Metsu 
ns registered among the first members of the painters' corpora- 
lioo at Leiden; and the books of the gild also tell us that he 
RsuiDed a member in 1649. In 1650 he ceased to subscribe, and 
voiis bearing his name and the date of 1653 give countenance 
to the belief that he had then settled at Amsterdam, where he 
ptobably continued his studies under Rembrandt. One of his 
oiliest pictiircs is the " Lazarus " at the Strassburg Museum, 
punted under the influence of Jan Steen. Under the influence 
of Rembrandt he produced the " Woman taken in Adultery," a 
hife picture with the date of 1653 in the Louvre. To the same 
period belong the " Departure of Hagar," formerly in the Thor£ 
aDRtion, and the " Widow's Mite " at the Schwerin Gallery. 
Bnt he probably observed that sacred art was ill suited to his 
tODper. or he found the field too strongly occupied, and turned to 
other subjects for which he was better fitted. That at one time 
be was deeply impressed by the vivacity and bold technique of 
Fnas Hals can be gathered from Lord Lonsdale's picture of 
"Women at a Fishmonger's Shop." What Metsu undertook 
lad carried out from the first with surprising success was the low 
Bfe of the market and tavern, contrasted, with wonderful 
nrutih'ty, by incidents of high life and the drawing-room. In 
so sio^e instance do the artistic lessons of Rembrandt appear 
to have been lost upon him. The same principles of light and 
ihade which had marked his schoolwork in the " Woman taken 
n Adaltery " were applied to subjects of quite a different kind. 
A group in a drawing-room, a series of groups in the market- 
phct, or a single figure in the gloom of a tavern or parlour, 
•is treated ^ith the utmost felicity by fit concentration and 
indation of light, a 'warm flush of tone pervading every part, 
U)d, with that, the study of texture in stuffs was carried as far 
a it had been by Ter Borch or Dow, if not with the finish or 
the ifM of De Hooch. 

Metsu went to Amsterdam before x6ss, married in 1658, and 

became a citizen of that city in 1659. One of the best pictures of 

Metsu's manhood is the " Market-place of Amsterdam," at the 

Lowre. respecting which it is difficult to distribute praise in fair 

proportions, so excellent are the various parts, the characteristic 

■ovement and action of the dramatis pcrsonae, the selection of 

foces, the expression and the gesture, and the texture of the things 

dciHcted. Equally fine, though eariier, are the " Sportsman " 

; (dated 1661) and the " Tavern " (also 1661) at the Hague and 

\ Dresden Museums, and the " Game-Dealer's Shop," also at 

\ Dreiden, with the painter's signature and 1662. Among the five 

ftamples of the painter at the Wallace Collection, including 

; * The Tabby Cat," " The Sleeping Sportsman," which cost Lord 

Hertford £3000, is an admirable example technically considered. 

Anong his finest representations of home life are the " Repast " 

It the Hermitage in St Petersburg; the " Mother nursing her 

Sck Child " of the Steengracht Gallery at the Hague; the 

"Amatcttr Musicians " at the Hague Gallery; the " Duet " and 

the " Music Lesson " at the National Gallery, and many more 

at nearly all the leading European galleries. 



MEITBRMICH-WIlflfBBnRG, CLBHBIfS WBNZBL LOTHAR. 

Prince (1773-1S59), Austrian statesnun and diplomatist, was 
bom at Coblenz on the 15th of May 1773. His father, Count 
Franz Georg Karl von Metternich-Winneburg zu Beilstein' 
(d. x8i8), was a diplomatist who had passed from the service of 
the archbishop-elector of Trier to that of the court of Vienna; 
his mother was Countess Maria Beatrix Aloisia von Kagenegg. 
At the time of Clemens Mettemich's birth, and for some time 
subsequently, his father was Austrian ambassador to the courU 
of the three Rhenish electors, and the boy was thus from the 
first brought up under the infiuence of the tone and ideas which 
flourished in the small German courts that lay within the sphere 
of influence of the France of the ancien riginu.. In 1 788 he went 
to the university of Strassburg, where he studied German 
constitutional law; but the outbreak of the French Revolution 
caused him to leave after two years. Mettemich was a witness 
of the excesses of the mob in Strassburg, and he ascribed his 
life-long hatred of political innovation to these early experiences 
of the victory of liberal ideas. In X790, by way of striking 
contrast, he was deputed by the Catholic bench of the West- 
phalian college of counts to act as their master of the ceremonies 
at the coronation of the Emperor Leopold II. at Frankfort, a 
function which he again performed at the coronation of Francis 
II. in 1793. The intervening time he spent at Mainz, attending 
the university and frequenting the court of the archbishop- 
elector, where his impressions of the Revolution were strength- 
ened by his intercourse with the French imigris who had made 
it their centre. The outbreak of the revolutionary war drove 
him from Mainz, and he went to Brussels, where he found 
employment in the chancery of his father, at that time Austrian 
minister to the government of the Netherlands. Here, in 
August Z794, he issued his first publication, a pamphlet in 
which he denounced the " shaUow pates " of the old diplomacy 
and argued that the only way to combat the French revolution- 
ary armies was by a Uvie en masse of the populations on the 
frontier of France — singular views for the statesman who was 
destined to be the last great representative of the old diplomacy 
and the greater part of whose life was to be spent in combating 
the national enthusiasms by which the revolutionary power of 
France was ultimately overthrown. 

After a long stay in England, where he made the acquaintance 
of the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), Mettemich went 
to Vienna; and on the 27th of September 1795 he married at 
Austerlitz the Countess Eleonore von Kaunitz, a grand-daughter 
of that Austrian chancellor who in many respects was his 
prototype. This alliance not only brought him great estates 
in Austria, but introduced him into the most exalted circles of 
Viennese society. Here he was well qualified to hold his own 
by reason of his handsome presence, the exquisite courtesy of 
his address and a certain reputation for gallantry. He was 
far, however, from being a mere carpet diplomatist. .His 
interests were many and varied, and he found time for the 
serious study of natural science and medicine. In December 1 797 
he was chosen by the WestphaUan counts as their representative 
at the congress of Rastadt, where he remained till 1799. This 
was his first experience of the great world of practical politics 
and especially of those rough diplomatists of the Revolution of 
whom in his letters he has left so vivid a description. In 
January 1801 he was appointed Austrian envoy to the elector 
of Saxony. His two years' stay at the court of Dresden was 
mainly useful to him by bringing him into touch with the many 
Russian and Polish families of importance; his serious diplomatic 
career did not begin till his appointment, in November 1803, as 
ambassador at Berlin. His instructions at the outset were to 

* The family of Mettemich, originally established in the county 
of jQlich, can trace its descent to the middle of the 14th century. 
In 1637 they received from the archbishop of Trier the countshi{>s 
of Winneburg and BviUtcin. These were confiscated hi 1803, and 
the lands of the sup()rc»scd abbey of Ochscnhausen, with the title 
of prince of the Empire, were granted by the edict as compenution. 
The new principality was '* mediatized ' in 180S \twl^NQ>» o\.\s\«v- 
temberg; but m virtue of l\\c\t sVvotX leT\>XT« <A \X. vVv* ^«wt«itv^tw\A 
of Prince Mcttcrnich enjoy the v^vWe^ea cA xondAaxJox^ v^'varxa. 



302 



METTERNICH 



prevent Prussia from joining the alliance of Russia and Great 
Britain against the French Republic and to make himself 
agreeable to the representative of France; but shortly afterwards 
his part was exactly reversed, owing to the shifting of political 
forces which led to the war of the third coalition, and he laboured 
to secure the adhesion of Prussia to the alliance of Austria, 
Russia and Great Britain against Napoleon. His diplomacy was 
not successful; for though Prussia ultimately signed the treaty 
of the 5th of November 1805 with Austria and Russia, the 
influence of the emperor Alexander and the wound given to 
her pride by Napoleon's contemptuous violation of her territory 
had more to do with Prussia's decision than Mettemich's veiled 
threats. His reward was the grand cross of the order of St 
Stephen and the appointment of ambassador at St Petersburg; 
but his commission to make himself agreeable to the French 
ambassador at Berlin was carried out to such excellent effect 
that, as a result of M. Laforcst's reports. Napoleon requested 
that he might be appointed to represent Austria at the 
Tuilcries, and in August x8o6 Mettemich took up his residence 
as ambassador in Paris. 

This was the beginning of his ever growing influence jn 
European affairs. Established in the diplomatic character of 
an " honourable spy " in the very centre of Napoleon's power, 
he used his exceptional gifts of fascination not only to become a 
persona grata at the Tuileries, but to establish relations with 
thoie elements in the society of the empire which were already 
intriguing against Napoleon's power. His intimacy with Talley- 
rand and with Caroline Murat, Napoleon's sister, was destined to 
produce notable results later. Though on the look-out, however, 
for any chance of weakening the French emperor's power, 
Mettemich was not at first sanguine of success, for he bclievc4 
Napoleon to be invincible. For Austria the best policy seemed 
to him to be to temporize; he was willing, therefore, to co-operate 
with Fiance in the agreement made between Napoleon and 
Alexander I. of Russia at Tilsit for the partition of the Ottoman 
Empire; failing the success of the efforts of Austrian diplomacy 
to break the Franco-Russian alliance, this would at least secure 
for the'Habsburg monarchy a share of the spoils. With the 
postponement of Napoleon's Oriental schemes, however, the 
situation was once more changed. During the summer of 1808 
Metternich had reason to suspect fresh designs of the French 
emperor against Austria, and his suspicions appeared to be 
confirmed when, during an interview on the 15th of August, 
Napoleon indulged in one of his violent tirades, denouncing 
Count Stadion's action in strengthening the Austrian armaments. 
In November Mettemich was at Vienna, urging the Austrian 
govemment to an early declaration of war — for which the 
moment seemed to him opportune owing to the French losses 
in Spain, of which he had received exaggerated reports. On 
the I St of January 1809 he was back in Paris, but no longer as a 
persona grata. At the outbreak of the war he was placed under 
arrest, in retaliation for the action of the Austrian govemment 
in interning two members of the French embassy in Hungary; 
and in June, on Napoleon's capture of Vienna, he was conducted 
there under military guard. In July he was exchanged at 
Kom&rom for the French diplomatists, and he was present with 
the emperor Francis at the battle of Wagram. At a council 
held on the 7th of July it was decided, on Mettemich's initiative, 
to open negotiations for peace; next day Stadion tendered his 
resignation, which was provisionally accepted. Stadion was 
sent as diplomatic adviser to the headquarters of the archduke 
Charles, while Metternich took his place at the emperor's side. 
On the 4th of August Metternich was named minister of state, 
and soon afterwards was sent with Count Nugent to the peace 
conference at Altenburg, where Chamagny attended as Napoleon's 
representative. The conference, however, dragged on without 
result, and the emperor Francis decided to open negotiations 
with Napoleon direct. Count Bubna was accordingly sent to 
SchSnbmnn; the result was the French ultimatum which issued 
la the treaty of Schdnbmnn (Vienna), signed by Prince Liechten- 
s/e/u on behalf of the emperor Francis on the 14th of October 
^So9.j^ With the negotiatJoa and siigoaturc of this humiliating 



instrument Mettemich therefore had nothing to do, though 
on the 8th of October he had been definitely appointed minister 
for foreign affairs, an oflice he was destined to hold for nearly 
forty years. 

The position of the new minister was no easy one. By the 
treaty of Schdnbmnn Austria was reduced to the position of a 
second-rate power, and by secret articles undertook during the 
continuance of the maritime war to limit her force of all arms 
to 1 50,000 men, and to dismiss from her service all oflicers or 
civil officers bom in the territories of ancient France, Piedmont 
or the former Venetian republic. Weak as she had become, the 
menace of the future seemed even more disquieting. To the 
south she was divided from the French dominions by the Save; 
to the west and north the vassal states of France, traditionally 
her enemies, lay along the frontier; to the cast was Russia, 
which as the reward for her alliance with Napoleon had received 
a portion of East Galicia as her share of the spoils, and to iH 
appearance was firmly established in the Danubian princi- 
palities. Austria seemed hopelessly cut off by Napoleon fron 
any chance of re-asserting her traditional preponderance ia 
Germany, by Russia from any prospect of obtaining compensa^ 
tion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. One false move 
on the part of those who guided its destinies, and the Habsbui 
monarchy might easily have ceased to exist altogether. 

The saving factor in the situation was the improbaUlitjf 
of the alliance between Napoleon and Alexander oontinuiof; 
and the immediate task of Mettemich was to hasten its (&• 
solution, while securing Austria's safety in the East by bringiflC 
about the end of the Russo-Turkish War. It was a task d 
extreme delicacy; for any revelation of its tme tendency mititt 
have ■ thrown Uie emperor Alexander into the arms of France 
and plunged Austria into an unequal stmggle for life and dettk 
with Russia on the banks of the Danube. Mettemich wu 
helped by the rapid development of the causes of disagreenwut 
between the French and Russian emperors. Eariy in 1810 
Europe was full of contradictory mmours of war between France 
and Russia, of a marriage of Napoleon with a Russian grand 
duchess. Then suddenly came Napoleon's formal request far 
the hand of the Austrian archduchess Marie Loxxise. A pcopoiat 
so nicely calculated to forward Mettemich's plans was siupcctcd 
of being due to his inspiration; certainly it was his influence 
that decided the emperor Francis to agree to an alliance wUch 
could not but be distasteful to him and was resented as t 
crowning humiliation by the proud aristocrats of Vienna. 

On the 13th of March x8io Mettemich left Vienna for Fuii 
in company with the archduchess. His object was to use » 
favourable an occasion for obtaining the abrogation of looe 
of the more onerous articles of the treaty of SchOnbrann, and 
for coming to some arrangement whereby the serious iaooB- 
vcnicnce caused in Austria by Napoleon's coercion of the pope 
might be obviated. His* diplomacy, however, met inth bift 
slight success. His efforts to persiiaide Pius VII. to porcfaett 
a measure of liberty of action by concessions to Napoleoo bnte 
down on the gentle old man's refusal to traffic with his prindpki.' 
From Napoleon he extracted a lame apology for the execotioB 
of Andreas Hofcr, the reversal of a few sequestrations and, as 
a crowning grace, the abrogation of the article of the Sdifiobnai 
treaty limiting Austrian armaments. In the matter of itstorilC 
the access of Austria to the Adriatic, Napoleon would takt an 
concession; his answer to Mettemich's representations was oafy 
a commercial treaty which failed to obtain ratificatioa at 
Vienna. Anything further, e.g. an exchange of the IDyziaB 
provinces for Galicia, must depend on the attitude of Austria 
in the forthcoming Russian war which, in an interview of tla 
20th of September, Napoleon declared to be now inevitabfe. 

On the loth of October Mettemich was back in Vienna, what 
his presence was urgently needed. The policy of a Fnao 
Austrian entente was popular with the public and the araQTi 
resentful of the treacherous attitude of Russia in the late war, 
but in the powerful circles of the court it had scarce an adlMfaiL 
Prince Mettemich himself, who had acted as foreign ae a e tii y 
duxiivg his son's absence, favoured an understanding with T 



METTERNICH 



303 



lad vai even bdteved to be intrigning to retain the portfolio 
<tf feceign affairs, which would have meant the victory of the 
Rnssun party. On the other hand, the French party were 
daiDouring for the speedy conclusion of a definite alliance 
ffith Napoleon. By an admirably dear cxposi of the situation 
Mettanich won over the emperor Francis to that middle 
couse^ the policy of armed abstention, which was to be the 
buic principle of his diplomatic action during the crisis of the 
OMBing years. An alliance with Russia, he argued, would 
be worse than useless; Austria would at any time obtain better 
terns frob the tsar's growing needs. An alliance with France 
wmld be one with *' a power whose exclusive object is the 
dntmction of the old order of things, which has hitherto found 
iti defence in Austria." Alone of European Powers Austria 
itlD had the possibility of choice; let her work for the preserva- 
tion of peace and at the same time remain free, should war 
bnak oat, to make her own terms. It would little serve Austria's 
intefcsts to become the ally of Russia, merely to serve as a 
banner bdiind which the emperor Alexander could carry out 
\k designs on Turkey in safety. In an interview with Count 
Shnrabv, the Russian agent, Mettemich roundly declared that 
tbe maintenance of the integrity of Turkey was for Austria the 
question of supreme interest. 

With the approach of the Russo-French War the situation 
became increasini^y difficult. The partisans of a Russian 
liBance remained powerful and clamorous; but Mettemich did 
aot ihire tbe doubts as to the outcome of Napoleon's invasion 
af Rmia, which he believed would leave Austria, if she remained 
Beirtiil, isolated amid a huge European confederation. To 
btm the only safe course seemed to be to^ offer the French 
mpcror substantial assbtance, stipulating for some quid pro quo 
in the settlement to follow the war. The emperor Francis 
ibred this view; and on the 14th of March a treaty of alliance 
tB signed by which Austria agreed to support the French army 
vith an aimy corps of 30,000 men operating from Galida. This 
tieaty was ratified at Vienna on the 35th of March, the day 
flf NqMleon's passage of the Niemen. It was characteristic of 
Mettonich's diplomacy that the Austrian generals in Galicia 
vcte ordered to act only on the defensive, and that the 
omt of St Petersburg was informed that Austria would only 
take part in the war as a prindpal should Russia force her to 
doio. 

This cautious aUtitude was soon justified by the astounding 
devdopments of the Moscow campaign. When the full extent 
flf the catastrophe that had overwhelmed Napoleon's army 
became known, Mettemich realized the advantageous position 
ii which Austria lay for eii:pIoiting the changed situation. His 
fint idea was that France should commission Austria to mediate 
t peace in Russia and in England (Despatch of Otto, Novem- 
b(f 10); but, as affairs developed, this was replaced by the 
poficy oif temporizing until Austria should be in a position to 
iittenrene with decisive effect. Napoleon's demand that Austria 
Aoold raise her contingent from 30,000 to 100,000 men was, 
iideed, from Mettemich's point of view doubly opportune: for 
it .enabled him quietly to assume that the treaty of the 14th of 
Much, which stipulated only for an "alliance limit^c," had 
been abrogated by Napoleon's own act; that Austria had 
Rverted to a position of neutrality; and that, should she take 
put ia the war, it would no longer be in a subordinate character 
bat as a prindpaL "Le passage de la neutrality a la guerre," 
laid Ifettctnich to the emperor Francis, " ne sera possible que 
pBT la mediation ann6e "; which meant in effect that Austria 
Rquved time to complete her armaments. To gain this time 
Us, daring the weeks that followed, the object of his diplomacy. 
For this purpose he encouraged Napoleon to believe that Austria 
*ik|ffepiared for a settlement on terms very favourable to the 
Fseodi emperor; with the result that Napoleon, though he 
■oaU not hear of a " mediation," not only consented to, but 
ptfiiid for, Austrian "intervention" (entremise). But Mcttcr- 
iidk had made up his mind that the only chance of an effective 
■noiation of the Habsburg influence in Europe lay in using 
.tkii opportunity for datroyin^ or limking Napoleon's power, / 



and he had already opened negotiations with the allied courts; 
with a view to enforcing a common agreement as to a basis of 
peace, when the indecisive battle of Lutzen (May 2) gave him 
the opportunity of making his policy of mediation effective. 
Count Stadion was now sent to the emperor Alexander to lay 
^before him the terms on which Austria was prepared to mediate; 
he was also to " agree to the bases of an active military co-opera- 
tion on our part, in the event of the non-success of our efforts 
on behalf of peace." On the aoth of March Napoleon gained 
another indecisive victory at Bautzen, which still further 
strengthened Metternich's position; for Napoleon allowed him- 
self to be persuaded into signing the ill-omened armistice of 
Pleiswitz (Poischwitz), on the 4th of June, and to become en- 
tangled in the insincere negotiations of the congress of Prague. 
Austria thus had time to complete her armaments. Meanwhile, 
on the 14th and X5th of June, were signed at Rcichenbach the 
treaties of alliance between Great Britain, Russia and Prussia, 
by which the signatory Powers agreed neither to negotiate nor 
to conclude treaty or truce with Napoleon except by common 
consent. In an interview with the emperor Alexander, Metter- 
nich now presented the terms which he proposed to offer to 
Napoleon, and on this basis a treaty between Austria, Russia 
and Prussia was agreed to, Austria contracting to put 150,000 
men into the field, should Napoleon reject the xdtimatum, and 
not to make peace without the consent of Russia and Prussia — 
which in effect involved that of Great Britain also. 

Before this second treaty of Reichenbach was signed (June 27), 
Mettemich went on Maret's invitation to Dresden, where on the 
26th he had the famous interview with Napoleon. The whole 
scene was on his part a masterpiece of Machiavellian diplomacy. 
The terms he offered to the emperor were so favourable that 
he has been denounced by every Prussian historian since as 
the enemy of Germany; while French historians have enhirged 
on Napoleon's infatuation in rejecting them. In spite of the 
fact that the draft of the treaty of Reichcnb^ was in his 
pocket, he posed as the impartial " mediator," with a leaning 
in favour of Napoleon, assuring the emperor " on his bonour 
as a German count " that Austria was still " free from all 
engagements," which was true only in so far as the treaty was 
not signed till the next day. Mettemich's object was, in fact, 
only to gain an extension of the armistice till the xoth of August, 
on which date Schwarzenberg had declared that he would be 
ready to take the offensive. As for the terms offered to Napoleon 
his acceptance of them need not hamper the plans of the Allies; 
for the consent of Great Britain would have to be obtained, 
and, moreover. Napoleon was sure before long to provide an 
excuse for a fresh breach; his rejection of them, on the other 
hand, would be a blow to his waning popularity in France. 
The interview was long and stormy; Napoleon stmggled vainly 
in the toils; in his excitement he dropped his hat, which the 
imperturbable Mettemich did not condescend to pick up; 
" Napoleon," he records in his Memoirs, " seemed to me small." 
Mettemich, however, gained his immediate point ; the armistice 
was extended to the loth of August. At midnight on that 
date. Napoleon not having come to terms, Mettemich gave 
orders for the lighting of the beacons that signalled to the 
Austrian army in Silesia the outbreak of the war. 

Napoleon's victory at Dresden (Aug. 26 and 27) for the 
moment brought discord into the counsels of the Allies and 
threatened the ruin of Mettemich and his plans; but the suc- 
cessive defeats of Vandamme at Kulm (Aug. 28), of Macdonald 
at Katzbach (Aug. 29) and Oudinot at Grossbceren (Aug. 30) 
completely altered the aspect of affairs; and on the 9th of 
September Mettemich signed at Toplitz a treaty with Russia 
which committed Austria yet more closely to the policy of the 
Allies. Then followed the battle of Leipzig (Oct. 16-18) and 
the advance of the Allies into France. The diplomatic situation 
throughout the campaign was, from the Austrian point of view, 
one of extreme delicacy. The necessity of curbing the power 
of Napoleon and rendering \\\m ioi t\« Vcvc^v'^^ ^^ ^^^ 
oversetting the balance ol TLmtov^ 'w^ v^^Oa«U\>j Viafc «^^ 
object Austria had in common "mVii \lcr «JK«». . ^^ ^^ '^'^ 



304 



METTERNICH 



share the implacable resentment with which Great Britain 
pursued Napoleon; she watched with alarm the development 
of the ambitions of Alexander I., which threatened to substitute 
a Russian for a French supremacy in Europe; she was far from 
sympathizing with the noisy enthusiasm of the patriots of the War 
of Liberation for a united Germany, in which the traditional 
influence of the Habsburgs would be balanced or overshadowed 
by that of Prussia. Mcttemich had no wish to see the husband 
of Marie Louise ousted in favour of the Bourbons, who had 
little reason to be grateful to Austria; still less did he desire 
to see on the throne of France Alexander's prot6g6 Bemadotte, 
whose name was being whispered in the Paris salons as the 
destined saviour of his native country. But if Napoleon was 
to remain sovereign of France, it must be not by his own force, 
but by grace of his father-in-law, and hedged roimd with limita- 
tions which would have made him little more than the lieutenant 
of the Habsburg monarchy. This was the secret of the moderate 
terms of accommodation ostentatiously offered by Mettemich 
to Napoleon at various stages of the campaign. From Frankfort 
he sent, through General de Saint-Aignan, a diplomatist on 
whose indiscretion he could rely, an informal offer of peace on 
the basis of France's " natural frontier," the Rhine, the Alps 
and the Pyrenees. The famous manifesto of Frankfort, issued 
on behalf of the Allies (Dec. 4, 1813), contained no such offer of 
acceptable terms; but Mettemich's object was attained; for 
Napoleon refused to be drawn into the trap, and the French 
people cursed the emperor's infatuation in refusing a settlement 
which, from what had leaked out of Saint-Aignan's mission, 
they believed would have satisfied the legitimate ambitions of 
France. On the other hand, Mettemich did his best to oppose a 
too rapid advance of the allied forces on Paris, which woxdd have 
played into the hands of Russia and Prussia; and it was to his 
initiative that the conferences of Ch&tillon were due. Only when 
the breakdown of the negotiations made it clear that Napoleon 
had seen through his plans, and preferred the chances of war to 
the certainty of ruin or of surviving only as the puppet of Austria, 
did Mettemich join with Castlereagh in pressing upon the tsar 
the necessity for restoring the Bourbons. On the jst of March 
18x4, he set his hand to the treaty of Chaumont^ of which the 
immediate object was the restoration and preservation of the 
old dynasty in a France reduced to her " legitimate frontier." 
In other respects, however, the treaty waS a triumph for Metter- 
nich; for it laid down that at the final settlement Germany was 
to be reconstituted as a confederation of sovereign states, and it 
also did much to temper the fear of a Russian dictatorship by 
consecrating, the principle of that concerted action of the Great 
Powers, in affairs of international interest, which after Napoleon's 
fall was to govern the European system. On the xoth of April 
Mettemich arrived at Paris, ten days after its occupation by 
the Allies. He was now at the height of his reputation; on the 
30th of October 1813, two days after Leipzig, he had been 
created an hereditary prince of the Austrian Empire; he now 
received from the emperor Francis a unique honour: the 
right 40 quarter the arms of the house of Austria-Lorraine 
with those of Mettemich. At the same time (April 21) the 
countship of Daruvar was bestowed upon him. ■ On the 
30th of May Mettemich set his signature to the treaty of 
Paris, and immediately afterwards accompanied the emperor 
Alexander and King Frederick William on a visit to England. 
On the x8th of July he was back in Vienna, where the great 
congress was to meet in the autumn. The dignity of 
a Hungarian magnate was bestowed upon him before it 
assembled. 

At the congress Mettemich's charm of manner and great 
social gifts gave him much personal influence; the ease and 
versatility with which he handled intricate diplomatic questions, 
too, excited admiration; at the same time he was blamed for his 
leaning to intrigue and finesse and for a certain calculated 
disingcnuousness which led to an open breach with the emperor 
Alexander, who roundly called him a liar. In the difficult 
questions of Poland and Saxony the honest and conciliatory 
attitude of Castlereagh was of more avail in reaching an accept- 



able settlement than all Mettemich's devernesi. ' If in the 
Italian and German questions, however, Austria's viewi 
triumphed, this was due to the foresight displayed in Mettemkh's 
diplomacy during the campaigns and to the address with which 
he handled the questions at issue at the congress. The com- 
placency of Hardenberg had allowed Austria alone to negotiate 
with the states of the Confederation of the Rhine with a view 
to detaching then\ from Napoleon; and he had used this oppor- 
tunity to render impossible the idea of a united Germany. On 
the 8th of October X813 he had signed with Bavaria the treaty 
of Ried, which in the event of the liberation of Germany 
guaranteed to Bavaria a sovereign and independent status.' 
This instrument, which was reinforced by a secret treaty signed 
at Paris on the 3rd of June 18x4, served as a model for similar 
agreements with other courts; and the principle involved was, 
as mentioned above, included in the treaty of Chaumont. Thus 
all the unionist ideals, represented at the congress by Stein, 
were sterilized from the outset; and the Act of Confederation 
embodied in the Final Act of Vieima gave to Germany ezactjy 
the form desired by Mettemich as best caktilated to perpetuate 
Austrian preponderance (see Geucany: History). The same 
was tme of the settlement of Italy. The question here was 
complicated by the treaty of alliance signed by Mettemich 
with Murat as the price of his treason to Napoleon. But 
Mettemich from the first had known that the treaty was but a 
temporary expedient; that Great Britain would never recognise 
" the person at the head of the govenmient of Naples "; and 
that sooner or later Murat himself would afford excuse enough 
for tearing the treaty up. Not Murat 's dream of an Italy united 
under his own rule, but the traditional Austrian policy o( 
possession in the north and preponderance throughout the 
Peninsula was Mettemich's goal, and this he secured at the 
congress. Murat, in view of Austria's engagements, was suffered 
to survive for the time being; he himself riuittered the alliance 
during the Hundred Days; and the Bourbons returned to 
Naples, pledged by a secret agreement to attune their policy 
to that of Vieima (see Naples: History), 

Mcttemich, then, emerged from *the congress of Vienna 
confirmed in the confidence of his sovereign, and. therefore 
supreme in Germany and in Italy. To him had been due the 
marvellous recovery of the Habsburg monarchy; in spite of 
Gentz's lament that in the latter stages of the campaign of 18x4 
" Europe " had been substituted for " Austria" in his diplomacy, 
Mettemich had acted throughout first and foremost in the 
interests of Austria, as he was bound to do. This, too, gives 
the key to his policy after 1815, the policy of using the European 
concert, established by the treaty of Chatmiont and the Paris 
treaty of the 20th of November 18x5, as an instrunKsnt for 
ensuring the "stability" of Europe by suppressing any "revohi- 
tionary" manifestations by which the settlement made at 
Vienna might be endangered. 

After the campaign of Waterloo and Napoleon^t second 
ddwnfall Mettemich was again in Paris, where he co-operated 
with' the emperor Alexander and Castlereagh in securing 
tolerable terms of peace for France. A few days after the signing 
of the two treaties of the 20th of November x8x5, he left Paris for 
Milan, where he met the crown prince Louis of Bavaria and 
Baron von Rechberg, with whom he came to terms on certain 
outstanding questions between Austria and Bavaria, terms 
embodied in the treaty of Munich of the X4th of April 18x6. 
During his visit to Italy, which he repeated in 18x6 and 18x7, 
Mettemich could not but be impressed- with the general signs of 
discontent with Austrian rule. Neither was he blind to the 
true causes of this discontent: the atrophy of the administratioB 
owing to its rigid centralization at Vienna, and the pdiicy of 
enforcing Germanism on the Italians by a ruthless police Sjfsteok 
He made half-hearted proposals for removing something of both 
these grievances; but his terror of revolution from below. 1 
him fearful of reforms from above. While therefore in 1 
king and ministers were labouring hard to remodel and < 
date the monarchy, Mettemich did next to nothing to 1 
the most obvious abuses of the Austrian Empire. Yet thei 



METTERNICH 



305 



MS not wfaoQy, or mainly, his. Sir Robert Gordon/ in a letter 
o Castkreai^ (dated Florence, July xx, 1819), gives the true 
casoQ for this attitude: " How much is it to be desired that 
he superior talents of Prince Mettemich were more occupied 
iith the revision and improvement of the administration of 
dUin in his own country He is too enlightened not to perceive 
ts most palpable defect ... He might have courage to sacri- 
ke himself for the institution of effective remedies, but he fears 
that the confiding benignity of his Sovereign might afterwards 
be dissuaded from the just and vigorous application of them." 
[F.O. Austria. Cordon, Jan.-Dec., 1819.) Mettemich's power, 
liter all. was limited by the goodwill of his master, the emperor 
Fnads, and Francis trusted him precisely because he seemed 
to ihare his own fanatical hatred of all change. It is this fact 
tkit seems to explain Mettemich's feverish anxiety to justify 
kb obscurantist attitude to himself and to the world. It suited 
bim to ascribe the general discontent, of which the causes were 
not obscure, to the wanton agitation of the " sects," and his 
ifeBts all over Europe earned their pay by supplyixig him with 
pkstilul proof of the correctness of his contention. The result 
ns well summed up in another letter of Gordon to Castlereagh 
(ibid. No. 26, Florence, July la, 1819). "Nothing," he writes, 
"an surpass Prince Mettemich's activity in collectixig facts and 
iilonnatlon upon the inward feelings of the people; with a habit 
of making these tesearches he has acquired a taste for them. . . . 
Tbe secrecy with which this task is indulged leads him to attach 
too great importance to his discoveries. Phantoms are conjured 
op and m*gtiifiA*i in the dark, which probably if exposed to 
^ would sink into insignificance; and his informers natui^lly 
eaoerate their reports, aware that their profit is to be com- 
Ktsorate with the display of their phantasmagoria." The 
jodgment is instruaive, coming as it does from a diplomatist 
is intimate touch with Mettemich and in general sympathy 
vith his views. 

There was, none the less, method in this madness. Behind 
the agitations of the " sects " loomed the figures of the emperor 
Akiander and of his confidant Capo d'Istria, " the Coryphaeus 
oflibexalism," whose agents, official or unoffical, were intriguing 
in every country in Europe, and not least in Italy. The 
hctor, then, that determined Mettemich's attitude was not 
10 ntQch a dread of revolutions in themselves as of revo- 
htioBs exploited by the " Jacobin " tsar to establish his 
o«B preponderance in Europe. Mettemich's object, then, 
ia respect of the revolutionary agitations, was twofold: he 
wished to impress Alexander with the peril of this imperial 
coquetting with democratic forces; he wished to convince the 
*«ecu" that they could not rely on the tsar's support. He 
ncccedcd in both these objects during the period from the 
congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 to that of Verona in X822. 
(See Alxxasidbx I. or Russia; Europe: History.) 

Oa his way to the congress of Aix, Mettemich spent a few days 
tt Frankfort, where his presence was sufficient to settle the 
difficalt question of the constitution of the federal forces. It 
ns a signal triumph. "You can have no idea of the effect 
pndnced by my appearance at the diet," he wrote exultingly 
ts Us wife, *' I have become a species of moral power in Germany 
lad, perhaps, even in Europe" {Mem. iv. 64). This self- 
camphcency was characteristic of the man; but, if we accept 
b view oC " morality," the boast scarce seems exaggerated, 
li the main questions debated at Aix, indeed, it was Castlereagh's 
iifaaioe rather than that of Mettemich which prevailed; the 
of the supervision of French affairs by the committee 
was, for instance, carried against his opinion, 
at Aix that Mettemich was not only reconciled with 
', but laid the foundations of that personal influence 
over the tsar that was to bear notable fmit later; from Aix, 
loo, where he arrived at a complete understanding with Ring 
fiitdeick William III. and the Prussian ministers, dates his 
fRpoBdersnt influence in German affairs. 
The outlook in Europe at the beginning of 18x9 seemed to 
JSff Robert Gordon (i 791-1847), brother of the 4th earl of 
WRkcQ, was between 18x5 and i%2i asoodated with Wellington 
^mamtKX plcaipoceatiary at Vienna. 
IVUI 6 



of 
lit it 



Mettemich particulariy gloomy. In France the ministry of 
Decazes was, in his opinion, under the inspiration of the Russian 
ambassador Pozzo di Borgo, heading straight for a new revolu- 
tion; in Italy Russian agents were openly carrying on a Liberal 
propaganda; Germany, and notably the Prussian bureaucracy, 
was honeycombed with revolutionary ideas. Then came the 
news of the murder of Kotzebue (March 23). Mettemich was 
in Italy at the time; but he determined at once to take advantage 
of this senseless crime to carry his views in the matter of muzzlixkg 
the Liberal agitation in Germany. In the summer he met ELing 
Frederick William and Prince Hardenberg at Tdplitz; a con- 
ference that resulted in the indefinite postponement of the 
Prussian constitution and in a secret agreement (Aug. x) on the 
proposals to be laid before a conference of German ministers to 
be held at Carbbad in the same month. The resxdt of this were 
the famous Carlsbad Decrees (9.V.), by which liberty of q)eech 
and of the press was abolished throughout Gennany. The 
Vienna conferences that followed in November and issued in 
the Final Act of the xsth of May X820, was not so complete a 
triumph for Mettemich; but his diplomacy, none the kss, had 
succeeded in riveting on Gennany the yoke of the Austrian 
system, which it was to bear with but partial and temporary 
relaxations for nearly thirty years (see Germany: History). 

The year 1820 was marked by critical events which drew 
Mettemich's attention once more from the affairs of Germany 
to those of Europe at large. The revolution in Spain, with which 
Austria had no immediate concem, interested him little; but 
his attitude towards it is characteristic and illuminating. The 
emperor Alexander for whom the idea of the confederation of 
Europe was an article of faith, proposed a European intervention 
and offered to march a Russian army through northem Italy 
into Spain. Mettemich, to whom the remedy seemed far worse, 
than the disease, covert his dissent from this proposal with a 
great display of principle. The ills of Spain were " material," 
those of Europe at large " moral"* and the European Alliance 
was there to deal with moral, not material, troubles. The 
revolution that followed in Naples, however, necessitated a 
different attitude. Strictly speaking, it concemed Austria 
alone; but Mettemich was anxious to range Alexander openly 
against Italian Liberalism, and he therefore consented to the 
question being laid before a congress to be assembled at Troppau. 
The congresses of Troppau (1820) and Laibach (182 1) are dealt 
with elsewhere (see Europe: History; Italy: History, and the 
articles s. v.). For Mettemich they represented a signal tritmiph. 
Not only did he complete his ascendancy over the emperor 
Alexander; but he openly committed all the Powers to an 
approval of the Austrian system in Italy, a success that out- 
weighed his failure to win over Great Britain to the general 
principle of intervention enunciated in the Troppau Protocol 
His attempt, however, to crown his system in Italy by setting 
up a central committee on the model of the Mainz commission 
was defeated at the congress of Verona (X822) by the opposition 
of the Italian princes headed by the pope- and the grand duke 
of Tuscany. 

The sort or moral dictatorship which Mettemich had acquired 
on the continent was shattered by the developments of the 
Eastem Question. At first, indeed, the peril of a Russian attack 
on Turkey had drawn Austria and Great Britain closer together, 
and in a meeting at Hanover in October 1821 Mettemich and 
Castlereagh had come to an understanding as to using the Holy 
Alliance to prevent Alexander from acting independently of 
the concert. But Mettemich's hope that the Greek revolt 
would bum itself out " beyond the pale of civilization " was 
belied by events; and even before Castlereagh's death it was 
clear that Great Britain would have sooner or later^ to adopt a 
policy of intervention opposed to all Mettemich's ideas. The 
breach was hastened by the accession to office of George Canning, 
who hated Mettemich and all his ways. At Verona in 1822 the 
withdrawal of Great Britain from the system of the continental 
Allies was proclaimed to all the world; in March 1823 Canning 
recognized the Greek flag. This opened up the whole Eastem 
Question in the precise form that Mettemich had sought to 



3o6 



METTERNICH 



avoid; for the action of Great Britain involved a move on the 
part of Russia, jealous of her prestige in the Levant, and thus 
led ultimately to a rearrangement of the relations of the Powers 
which, so far as the affairs of the Ottoman empire were concerned, 
left Austria isolated. It is impossible here even to outline 
Mettemich's diplomacy during the eleven years between the 
outbreak of the Greek revolt and the signature of the treaty 
of London (183a) by which the kingdom of Greece was estab- 
lished. The principles that guided it are, however, sufficiently 
simple. In common with Great Britain he desired to maintain 
the integrity of the Ottoman Empire as a barrier against Russian 
domination in the Balkan peninsula; he wished also to avert a 
Russo-Turkish war, not only for the above reason, but also 
because this would involve the breakdown of the system by 
which he hoped to curb the revolutionary forces in the West. 
He therefore attempted, and for a while successfully, to persuade 
the tsar that the Greeks, were only " ordinary rebels against 
legitimate authority." But, when this expedient failed, he was 
the first to suggest the complete independence of Greece, which 
seemed to him less dangerous to Austrian interests than a 
tributary principality on the model of Moldavia and Wallachia. 
In the end his attitude was one of alMtention and protest, since he 
rightly considered that the action of the Powers which culminated 
in the treaty of London was fatal to the doctrine of legitimacy, 
on which his system was based. 

The Greek question was not finally settled when the outbreak 
of the revolutions of 1830 threatened the overthrow of the whole 
structure of 1815 in the West. Events which seemed to involve 
the complete ruin of Mettemich's system gave it in effect, 
however, a new lease of life. Austria, isolated by the events 
in the East, was once more brought into touch with Russia by 
a crisis that concerned both Powers equally. On the receipt 
of the news of the July revolution in Paris Mettemich hastened 
to meet G)unt Ncsseliode at Carlsbad; and, though the Russian 
statesman refused to commit himself to the idea of an immediate 
reconstitution of a league of the three autocratic Powers, a 
common basis of action was agreed upon, and the foundations 
were laid for that cordial imdcrstanding that ripened in the 
meeting of MUnchengrttz three years later. Meanwhile, though 
his language was still " European," Mettemich's attitude 
towarda the revolutions was wholly Austrian. He preached 
the sacred duty of intervention, but he refused to intervene, 
save where the interests of the Habsburg monarchy were directly 
concemed. He was even the first to recognize the revolutionary 
govemment of Louis Philippe (Sept. 8) ; he answered the appeal 
of the king of Holland for help with an ironical reference to the 
geographical situation of Austria; he did not even interfere 
with the revolutions in Germany and Poland. But when in 
Italy revolts broke out that threatened the Austrian hegemony, 
he acted with promptitude and decision, in spite of the threaten- 
ing attitude of France; in the spring of 1831 Austrian bayonets 
restored order in Parma, Modena and the Papal States. Yet 
even here Mettemich showed an im won ted moderation: not 
only did he soon withdraw the Austrian troops from Ancona, 
but he took the initiative in impressing on the papal govemment 
the urgent necessity for drastic reform. This attitude was, 
indeed, mainly determined by the uncertainty as to the relations 
of the three autocratic courts on whose co-operation the effective- 
ness of a policy of repression ultimately depended; and Metter- 
nich's next work was to attempt to re-cement the broken 
alliance. With Prussia he had little difficulty; the timidity oif 
King Frederick William III. had increased with years and the 
events of 1830, and the Pnissian and Austrian governments 
came to complete understanding on a common policy in Germany. 
Its first fruits were the additional articles appended by the 
Federal Diet (June 28, 1832) to the Vienna Final Act, by which 
the control of the diet over the state legislatures was increased. 
As for Russia, Count Nesselrode at first maintained the reticent 
attitude he bad adopted at Carlsbad; but finally, in 1833, 
Mettemich met the emperor Nicholas I. himself at MUnchen- 
grMtz And by adroit Battery won him over to his views. The 
Beriin coaveaU'on of the xstb of October 1833, which tcaffinatd 



the divine right of intervention, was a fresh triumph for Metto^ 
nich's diplomacy. This had been rendered possible by the 
change in Russia's attitude towards the Turkish question after 
x8a9, which made a co-operation of Austria and Russia possibk 
in the East (see Mehemzt Au) ; and in its turn it made pooiblt 
the maintenance for a while longer of the Austrian system hi 
Germany. 

The convention of Berlin marked the last conspicuous inter- 
vention of Mettemich in the general affairs of Europe. " Tht 
Holy Alliance of the East," as Palmerston called it, served the 
immediate purpose of securing '* stability " in the countries 
immediately subject to the Powers composing it; it made m 
attempt at more than "moral" intervention in questiooi^ 
e.g. that of Spain, that lay beyond its own ^here of influence; 
and the development of the Eastern (^estion, leading to the 
rapprochement between Russia and Great Britain, though 
Austria joined the Quadmple Alliance of 1840, tended to looses 
the cordial ties between the courts of Vienna and St Peteisbiui^ 
The Straits Convention of 1841, by which France was formaUf 
readmitted to the concert, was due largely to Mettemich^ 
initiative; so, too, was the ill-judged effort of the continentil 
Powers in 1847 to interfere in favour of the Sonderbuni.k 
Switzerland. But, on the whole, the growing crisis within tk 
Habsburg monarchy itself was sufficient to deter Mettemkfc 
from foreign adventures. So long as the emperor Frsadl 
lived all question of reform was impossible, and when he diei 
in 1835, the rusty machinery of the Austrian administratiai 
was too completely out of gear to be set right by anythiflg 
short of a complete reconstmction, to which Mettemich wis 
too old to set his hand, even had he had the inclination to do 
so. He was too experienced not to realize the sickness of the 
sute, but he was content to veil it from himself and to attenpt 
to veil it from others. The world was not deceived; but it nil 
not imtil the Vienna mob, in 1848, was thundering at the dotf 
of his cabinet that Mettemich himself realized the trath to mtiA 
he had tried to blmd himself. With his fall his S3rstem also fd; 
and his flight from Vienna was the signal for the revohitioiS 
by which in 1848 all the countries under Habsburg influcoce 
were convulsed. 

The resignation of Prince Mettemich, handed in on the ijth 
of March 1848, was accepted by the emperor on the 18th, sni 
the prince and his family at once left for En^and. Here hi 
lived in great retirement, at Brighton and London, until October 
1849, when he went to Bnisscb. In May 1851 be went to bis 
estate of Johannesberg, where he was visited by King Fredcfkk 
William IV. and Bismarck; in September he returned to Vienaa. 
The events of 1S48 had not shaken his self-complacency; tkf 
seemed to him rather to confirm the soundness of his own poiitkll 
principles, which would have scotched the evil betimes hid 
not the wea]:ness of others allowed the forces of disorder te 
gather strength. But though, in his own opinion, triumphaat|f 
vindicated, he did not again take office; he maintained, noM 
the less, as a critic and adviser no mean influence on the cuuewh 
of the Austrian court, though it was contrary to his advioi 
that Austria signed the treaty of the 2nd of December its( 
with France and Great Britain. He lived to see the beginalil| 
of the struggle of France and Italy against Austria, dyiag «■ 
the nth of June 1859. 

Probably no statesman of all time has, in his own day, ben 
more beslavered with praise and bespattered with abuse 1 
Mettemich. By one side he was reverenced as the itt" " 
oracle of diplomatic inspiration, by the other he was \ 
and despised as the very incamation of the spirit of obscaraatiM 
and oppression. The victories of democracy brought the latM 
view into fashion, and to the Liberal historians of the latM 
part of the 19th century the name of Mettemich was^ynooyBeM 
with that of a system in which they could recognise bocUm 
but a senseless opposition to the forces of enlightenment. A 
juster estimate of the man and his work has, however, bccoai 
possible as the age has moved farther away from the smoked 
controversy. On the whole, history has tended to endoTK til 
i sane ^lui^iuent. on Mettemich pronounced by Castkreagh liM 



MEtZ 



307 



II fint bfoq^t into diplomatic contact with him. Writing 
Cbaumont to Lord Liverpool, on the 26th of February 18x4, 
d: " Austria both in army and government is a timid Power, 
nontster is constitutionally temporizing— be is charged 
nan faults than belong to him, but he has his full share, 
1 vpf bowever, with considerable means for carrying forward 
ladiine, more than any other person I have met with at 
Quartets " (F. O. a France, From Lord CasUereagh). This 
the key to Mettcmich's character and policy: Austria 

timid Power, and Mettemich was an Austrian minister. 
oHcy of ''stability," so necessary for the Habsburg 
cfay, at least seciued a long period of peace for Europe 
pe. Europe, her strength renewed, passed a severe 
ent on the statesman who acted on the assumption that 
the generality of people wanted was peace, not liberty; 
■tly, in so far as his pessimism led him to convert what 
have been legitimate as a temporary counsel of expediency 
n immutable principle. But, as Demclitsch points out, 
be tinw for Austrians to condemn him when Austria shall 
arrived half a century of constitutional experiment under 
fll monarchy. 

he Uckmqiu of diplomacy Mettemich was a master. His 
ches are models of diplomatic style. If they have any 
it is that they are often over-elaborate, the work of a man 
fvidcntly loves diplomacy for its own sake and glories 
fine turn of a phrase. In this respect they are comparable 
K oC Canning, who modelled himself upon Chateaubriand; 
ac in vivid contrast to the crabbed businesslike letters 
itleieagfa. Mettemich almost invariably begins his des- 
s and his reports with a broad discussion of the principles 
ed in the case in point, and argues from these down to 
ts. In this again he is in sharp contrast with Castlereagh, 
rith characteristic British practical sense, politely sweeps 
bdples aside and prefers to argue upward from the facts, 
(ettcmich's phrase-making was often the result of astute 
itioo. His diplomatic genius was never so well displayed 
(fi^uising poilous issues in phrases that soothed even 
hey did not convince; and, like Gladstone after him, when 
askm demanded it, he was master of the art of appearing 

nmcfa when in fact he said nothing. When he wished 
be his meaning plain, no one could do so more clearly; 
he wished to be reticent, no reticence could have been 
leasingly eloquent. 

chrate life Mettemich was a kind, if not always faithful, 
id and a good father, devoted to his children, of whom 
, the misfortune to lose several before his death. He was 
times married. His second wife, Baroness Antonie von 
n. Countess von Beilstein, died in 1829; his third wife, 
ie, COttntess Zichy-Ferraris, died on the 3rd of March 1854. 
sons three survived him: Richard Clemens Lothar (1829- 
his son by his second marriage, who was Austrian ambas- 
n Paris from 1859 to 1871; Prince Paul (1834-1906), and 
Lothar (X837-X904), his sons by his third marriage. His 
90 Prince Clemens (b. X869), son of Prince Paul, married 
; T—K»il« de Sflva Carvajali daughter of the. marquis de 

Cms. 

■ocaAPBT. — ^A vast mass of unpublished material for the 
Prince Mettemich exists in pubhc and private archives; to 
' those in the F.O. Records references are given in the biblio- 
to chap. I. of vol. X. of the Cambridge Mod. Hist. Of 
ed documents the roost important are in the collection Aus 
icks nackgdassenen Papieren (8 vols.. 1880-1884). edited bv 
. Prince Richard Mettemich. There is a complete French 
ioa isBued contemporaneously, and an English version, of 
aly five volumes (down to 1835) have been published, under 
e Memoirs, Sfe. (London, 1880-1882). These Memoirs, 
Yf the autobi^;raphicaI parts, must be read with considerable 
even the omcial letters and documents, which are their 
doable contents, have been to a certain extent " edited." 
> Count Anton Prokesch-Ostcn (the younger) Aus dem 
sworn Prokesch-OsieH (2 vols.. Vienna. 1881) ; the writings and 
ladence of Friedrich von Ontz iq.v.). especially as collected 
he. title Onterreiehs Theilnakme art den Befreiungskriegen; 
I Oncken. Osterreieh und Preussen im Befreiungskriege 
179); A. Beer, Zekn Jahre dsterreickischer PdUik, 1801-18 10 1 
dU FtMomun 0$Urr*icks (tSSj); Dit cHentaliuke PotiHk ^ 



OiUj^eickt tiU I7f4 (I^3) \ T. T. de Marteni^ Htcuai ies troitit, 
&'i^, voW ill. and iv. ; Thiersp Hiii. du cottiuiiii ei lU V empire, 
which was frequently CDmmtnded b^ Mettemich hirsHtf as giving 
i^n accufiate iidcoLinl; of hit poliry, a iLatcment, however, contro* 
vertc^l b¥ Albert Sorel, wha^c i Europt tt la rhFolbium fran^se, 
give* « detailed and nuisterly account ol Mettemich'* share Itt the 
ovcrihraw qJ Napoleofu Feoor won DemeliiiL'h'i Fiiru Metternick 
MnJ stint auswfititge Pofiiik, vdL i* to JBj? tMunich, tB^), is an 
cbboratr and UfC-ful analpis of Metttrakh't foreign policy, based 
on a lar^e mas4 of unpubtiy^ed archives The be»c thort biography 
of Meitcmich is that by A. Eter in Der n*R4 FiuUirih i[H*7ji, 
vol. V. ; but both this and Colofld C Br MaUvson's Life qJ Metternnk 
(LiDndan, i 'SM) were written before tlx publk^tion of ihe Jinporunt 
work* of DcmeUlich and Soret (W. A* P.J 

METZ* a town, first-class fortress and episcopal see of 
Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, capital of 
((German) Lorraine, on the Moselle, 99 m. N.W. of Strassburg by 
rail, and at the radiation of lines to Luxemburg, Coblena and 
Nov6ant, on the French frontier (loi m. W.). Pop. (1905), 
60,396. The general appearance of the town is quaint and 
irregular, but there are several handsome modem streets. The 
Moselle, which is here joined by the Seille, flows through it in 
several arms, and is crossed by fourteen bridges. In the south- 
west comer of the town is the esplanade, with an equestrian 
statue of the emperor William I., and monuments to Prince 
Frederick Charles and Marshal Ney, commanding a fine view of 
the " pays messin," a fertile plain lying to the south. Of the 
ten city gates the most interesting are the Porte d'AUemagne, 
or Deutsdie Tor, on the east, a castellated stmcture erected in 
1445 and still bearing traces of the siege by Charies V.; the Porte 
Serpenoise, or Rdmer Tor, on the south, and the Porte Fran^aise, 
or Franzjisische Tor, on the west. Among iU ecclesiastical 
edifices (nine Roman Catholic and four Protestant churches) 
the most noteworthy is the Roman Catholic cathedral, with huge 
pointed windows, slender columns and numerous flying but- 
tresses, which, begun in the xjth century and consecrated in 
1 546, belongs to the period of the decadence of the Gothic style. 
The (jothic churches of St Vincent and St Eucharius, and the 
handsome Protestant garrison church, completed in x88z, also 
deserve mention. Among secular buildings the most important 
are the town-hall, the palace of justice, the theatre, the govemor's 
house, and the variotis buildings for military purposes. The 
public library contains 40,000 volumes, including an extensive 
collection of -works relating to the history of Lorraine. In the 
same building is the museum, which contains a picture gallery, 
a numismatic cabinet, and a collection of specimens of natuial 
history. Metz also possesses several leamed societies, charitable 
institutions and schools, and a military academy. The cemetery 
of Chambidre contains the graves of 7200 French soldiers who 
died here in 1870. The chief industries are tanning and the 
manufacture of weapons, shoes, cloth, hats and artificial flowers. 
There is a trade in wine, beer, wood and minerals. 

As a fortress, Meta has always been of the highest importance, 
and throughout history down to 1870 it had never succumbed 
to an enemy, thus earning for itself the name of La pucelie. It 
now ranks with Strassburg as one of the two great bulwarks of 
the west frontier of Germany. The original town walls were 
replaced by ramparts in 1550, and the citadel was built a few 
years later. By 1674 the works had been reconstructed by 
Vauban. Under Napoleon III. the fortress was strengthened 
by a circle of detached forts, which, after 1870, were modified and 
completed by the Germans, who treated the fortress as the 
principal pivot of offensive operations against France. The 
phms in Fortitication and Siececraft (fig. 43) show Meta as 
it was about 1900; in the years following a new outer chain of 
defences was constructed, which extends as far as Thionville 
on the north side and has its centre in front of Meta on the 
Gravelotte battleground. The old enceinte (which includes 
Cormontaingne's forts— Moselle and Bellevroix) is doomed to 
demolition, and has in part been already removed. The 
garrison, chiefly composed of the XVI. Army Corps, numbers 
about 25,000. (See Germany: ATm'y.> 

History.— Utiz, the Roman DWodxiiMm, 'w^i V\vt Oci\^ vw»^ 
0/ the Mcdiomatrid, and va& a\so ca!iie^ \»^ V\a ^^xnasa. 



3o8 



METZ 



Mediomatrica, a name from which the present form has been 
derived by contraction. Caesar describes it as one of the oldest and 
most important towns in GauL The Romans, recognizing its 
strategic^ importance, fortified it, and supplied it with water by 
an imposing aqueduct, the remains of which still exist. Under 
the Roman emperors Metz was connected by military roads 
with Toul, Langres, Lyons, Strassburg, Verdun, Reims and Trier. 
Christianity was introduced in the 3rd century of our era. In 
the middle of the 5th century the town was plundered by the 
Huns under Attila; subsequently it came into possession of the 
Franks, and was made the capital of Austrasia. On the parti- 
tion of the Carolingian realms in 843 Metz fell to the shore of 
the emperor Lothair I. as the capital of Lorraine. Its bishops, 
whose creation reaches back to the 4th century, now began to be 
very powerful Metz acquired the privileges of a free imperial 
town in the 13th centur>', and soon attained great commercial 
prosperity. Having adopted the reformed doctrines in 1552 and 
i553» it fell into the hands of the French through treachery, 
and was heroically and successfully defended against Charles V. 
by Francis duke of Guise. It now sank to the level of a French 
provincial town, and its population dwindled from 60,000 to 
about 22,000. At the peace of Westphalia in 1648 Metz, with 
Toul and Verdun, was formally ceded to France, in whose pos- 
session it remained for upwards of two centuries. The battles of 
August 1870, and the investment and capture of the army of 
Metz which followed, are described below. By the peace of 
Frankfort on the loth of May 1871 Metz was again united to the 
German Empire. 

See Westphal, CeschichU der Stadt Melt (1875-1877): Georg 
Lang. MetM und seine Umgebungen (1883), the Slatistisch^topograph- 
iuhes Handbuch fir Lothnngen ; Albers, CeschichU der Stadt MetM 
(Metz, 1903); G. A. Prost, Eludes sur Vhistoire de Metx (1807): and 
Tauber, Die Schlachifelder von Met* (Berlin, 1902). (See also Franco- 
Gbrman War: Bibliography.) 

Battles akound Metz, in the Franco-German War, 1870 

* I. Colombey-Borny {August i^).— The French army under 
Marshal Bazaine was in and about Metz. The German L and 
II. armies, on the march from the Saar, were heading for the 
Moselle between Metz and Pont-i-Mousson, and on the morning 
of the 14th of August the (krman I. Army (I., VII. and VIII. 
Corps, under General v. Steinmetz) lay on and east of the French, 
with outposts well to the front, watching the French camps east 
of Metz, which were little more than z m. to the front. Stein- 
metz had received from headquarters overnight instructions 
that on the 14th of August the I. Army would maintain the 
positions occupied during the Z3th, and merely passed on these 
orders to his corps commanders. In Metz, meanwhile, Bazaine 
had decided to retreat, and during the morning orders to 
that e£Fect reached his corps commanders, who commenced 
preparations for their execution. The 2nd Corps (Frossard) and 
6th (Canrobert) began to retire about midday, the 3rd (Leboeuf), 
4th (Ladmirault) and Imperial Guard (Bourbaki) were to follow. 
These preparations being observed, the German outposts got 
under arms. General von der Goltz, in command of the VIL 
Corps (7 battalions, 4 squadrons, 2 batteries) hearing from a 
passing officer that the I. Corps on his right was preparing to 
attack, and noting personally signs of retreat in the enemy's 
lines, determined at 3 p.m. to advance his whole command to the 
ridge between Colombey and Bomy (which was still occupied by 
French outposts), in order to clear up the situation. The ridge 
was captured with little resistance, but the sound of the firing at 
once set all the neighbouring troops in motion, and fortunately 
so, for the French had immediately retaliated on von der Goltz's 
audacious attack. Between 4 and 6 p.m. there was continuous 
heavy fighting on the front from Bomy to M6y, as both sides 
brought fresh troops into the field, llie convex slopes falling 
from the Prussian (>osition towards Metz gave plenty of cover to 
the French, and the setting sun shone full in the faces of the 
Prussian artillerymen. Thus the Prussian infantry encountered 
unustutny ohat'mait resistance and the troops engaged rapidly 
Ml/pped from ttll superior control The above front was held by 
^Ar FrcDcbjrd Corps, Shortly belort 6.30 the 4lh Corps (Ladmi- 



rault) suddenly began to deploy on the high ground to the bh 
west beyond M£y, thus threatening the right flank of the Proa 
I. Corps (General v. Manteufifel) . To meet this danger Mantes 
was compelled to direct his corps artillery and reserves, wl 
were now rapidly coming up, away from the hard-pressed ca 
towards the oncoming infantry masses of Ladmirault. Tb 
with the sun now almost at their backs, were shooting bd 
than usual, and Manteuffel was compelled to call on the Vl 
Corps for assistance, which its commander, under positive onj 
from Steinmetz, refused to give. Meanwhile Steinmetz 1 
been sending peremptory orders to the battlefield to stop 
battle, but neither of the corps commanders was able to enfo 
them. Fortunately for the Prussians, Bazaine had isn 
similar orders to his subordinates, who, having their men bd 
in hand, were able to obey; and as night began to close in 
French broke off the action and retired under the guns of 
Metz forts, convinced that at hist they had " broken the ipd 
of German success. 

Finding that, in spite of his orders, the firing at the fp 
continued increasing in intensity, Steinmetz at length rode 
the front himself. Meeting Manteuffel near the Braaieiil 
Noisseville, he overwhelmed him with reproaches, and at 
crisis of this scene the bands struck up " H^ dir im Siegeskrtm 
In this action the Germans brought 30,500 rifles and 150 1 
on to the battlefield only out of more than 100,000 witk , 
guns which could have been engaged before darkness. Baa 
actually deployed 50,700 rifles and 206 guns to oppose l3k 
He might, however, had he been so minded, have struck 1 
his whole army — nearly three times this force, and, fadi 
from the course events actually took, we can have UttledcMb 
to the result of such a blow. The losses on either side vol 
killed and wounded— French about 3600, Germans about 4 

The chain of causation in this action b parUcuUriy worths 
attention: A young reserve officer, seeing some troopt of 
I. Corps standing to arms, reported to von der Golts that 
corps was standing to arms and about to attack. Von der 
thereupon decided to go forward and discover what was acta 
going on, and this action unchained the whole battle povB 
all the troops within call. When, on the following noai 
Steinmetz reported von der Goltz and the commander of 
I. Corps for disobedience, the king thanked Manteuffd vu 
for the part he had played, and then turned to the yo 
brigadier who had disobeyed orders and congratulated 1 
on having twice distinguished himself in the first foctail^ 
the war. 

2. The BattU of VionnUe—Mars4a'Tour {Aupui tS 
On the following day (15th) the II. German Army appntc 
the Moselle above and below Pont-i-Mousson, with a viev 
overtaking and heading off Bazaine in his presumed retm 
the Meuse (see Franco-German War). So far, however, I 
being ahead of the Germans on the road to Verdun, the fn 
were actually, late in the afternoon of the 15th of Am| 
bivouacked on the plateau of RezonviUe, and there their outp 
were placed, not where they could see the surrounding cooR 
but at the regulation distances of 600 to zooo paces from 
bivouacs. Friendly inhabitants kept Bazaine well infonun 
to the magnitude of the danger threatening him from the to 
and a special telegram from Paris, the true origin of whkh 
never been traced, led him to believe that the I. German A 
was crossing the Moselle near Thionville and about to dcsceai 
him from the north. This telegram might have exerdsed 
most prejudicial influence on the course of the battle had 
Ladmirault (4th Corps), nearer to the seat of the imagti 
danger, taken upon himself to disregard the warning transai 
to him by headquarters. At daybreak on the i6th, no Prun 
being reported in sight by the outposts, the troops began 1 
chalantly to prepare for the resumption of the march. 

On the Prussian side, von Alvensleben's Corps (III.) she 
after daybreak was moving north-westward from the Meed 
two columns, on the right the 5th division, via Gorze and 
vigny on Vionville. on the left the 6lh division with corps arti 
by Kxna>h!lit on Mars-la-Tour, von Alvensleben himself ri 



METZ 



309 



tk h idvftiice between the twa The 6th cavalry division 
oniered to precede the right column and scout towards 
nviUe. No one was aware of the dangerous proximity of 
French army. 

Knit 9 a.m. the 5th cavalry division, reinforced by two 
! artilleiy batteries (flank guard of the X. Corps from 
Bcourt), and accompanied by von Capri vi (chief of staff, 
lorps, and afterwards chancellor of the German Empire), 
trotting up the western slopes of the ridge which runs 
een Tronville and Vionville. Reaching its summit they 



from Gorze towards Vionville, whence he could overlook the 
whole country to the north and west, had met von Rhcinbaben 
(commanding the 5th cavalry division) and had seen the surprise 
of the French camps. The soimd of the heavy firing coming from 
the eastward convinced him of what had been gradually dawning 
on him — that with barely 30,000 men he was in the presence of 
the whole French army, whose attitude at this moment suffi- 
ciently indicated their dcternunation to fight. 

In a few moments his decision was taken. Calling on the 
X. Corps, away to the south-westward, for support, he determined 




sniy found themselves in face of at least 40,000 French 
1, which were not under arms, but busied with misccUa- 
I camp duties. The temptation proved too great for the 
ery, who promptly fired into the midst of the cavalry camp 
Mk'» division) which by nearest to them. The momentary 
t was a wild panic, espedaily among the horses; but this 
: pve the alarm to the infantry all along the road, and these 
aird's 3nd Corps) at once stood to arms and moved forward, 
Ored for attack— one division to the west, another division, 
Rcaonville, to the south. The latter almost at once en- 
tered the heads of the 6th cavalry division, at that moment 
iearing the defile leading up to the Rczonvilic plateau from 
e. The Prussian cavalry promi)tly bore away to cover 
e westward, and reported what they had seen to superior 
xity, but not to the advanced guard of the sth infantry 
'en, which, emerging in its turn from the defile, ran right 
st the deployed French infantry moving to meet them. So 
n was the collision that the Prussian advanced guard 
ry had to fire case to dear its own front. 
aawUle von Alvensleben himself, ndiag on lie £eld tnck 



to screen his own weakness by a vigorous attack. By universal 
consent this is approved as the boldest resolution arrived at by 
an independent commander throughout the war. Orders were 
forthwith despatched to the 6th infantry division, at that 
moment between Puxieux and Tronville, to wheel in to their 
right and attack, and, their movement being still hidden from 
the enemy, these troops were formally drawn up for action and 
sent forward as a whole. The French meanwhile had occupied 
Vionville and Flavigny, and other troops were moving down the 
slopes from Rezonville to their support, but the united onset of 
this whole German division overbore all resistance, and the 
French began to retire eastward, suffering terribly from the shell 
fire of the Prussian batteries. 

Marshal Bazaine hod meanwhile arrived on the scene, and 
ordering forward fresh troops to relieve (not to reinforce) those 
already engaged, he rode forward with a horse artillery battery' 
to watch the operations. The retreating French troops belonged 
to Frossard's command, and as they vtw^ \ti cotv<&\^<&x^^<& caw- 
fusion Frossard called on du PtcuVL*^ \>T\\Ki.^t <A \>i^ vw^tvi\ 
guard cavalry to chaise. _ He gjatNt no Q\)\«cXi.N«« wA 'm^jsa >iA 



3IO 



METZ 



brigadier pointed out Uiat the enemy was still beyond the 
striking radius of his horses, Frossard reiterated the order, which 
was obeyed to the letter. 

The result was disastrous. The Prussians, having seen the 
cavalry whilst yet at a distance, ceased firing, formed their 
skirmishers into groups, and the closed supports standing in 
deployed lines, two deep, shattered the cavalry with volleys and 
file-firing, as with blown and exhausted horses they endeavoured 
to close with their adversaries. When in addition two hussar 
regiments struck them in flank they were driven back in wild 
disorder upon Rezonville. In the dust and confusion of the 
charge a group of the hussars approached Bazaine and his horse 
artillery battery, and almost carried off the marshal. 

Alvensleben, mistaking the withdrawal of the French for the 
banning of a retreat, had meanwhile sent orders to the 6th 
cavalry division to charge in pursuit towards Rezonville; but 
before it could reach the field the French relieving troops had 
forced their way through the stragglers and showed such a bold 
front to the Prussian horsemen that an attack held no promise 
of success, more especially since they had lost their intervals in 



\tttZ BATTLEFIELDS 


k 


ii 








j 


'' ,-:.'.4%ii 




j^A 
i^f 


-:f;i^i 

















their advance and had no room for a proper deployment. To 
steady the young soldiers, the cavalry commander (Carl von 
Schmidt) halted his men, made them correct their intervals and 
dressing as in peace, though under a heavy fire from the French 
infantry, and then withdrew them behind the cover of the 
nearest hill at a walk. 

The threat of the charge had, however, induced caution on 
the French side, and for about two hours there was a lull in the 
fighting, which the Prussians utilized on their right in bringing 
up reinforcements through the Bois des Ognons. On their left, 
however, no fresh troops were as yet available, and on being 
informed, about 2*30 p.m., that French cavalry seemed to be 
about to charge the exhausted 6th division, Alvensleben ordered 
Brcdow's cavalry brigade to charge, and if necessary to sacrifice 
itself, to save the infantry. Bredow's command (six squadrons 
of the 1 6th Ulans and 7th Cuirassiers) was at that moment drawn 
up under cover about half a mile west of Vionville, and from its 
position could see nothing of the events in progress on the battle- 
field. Nettled by the form in which the order was conveyed to 
him, Bredow drew his sword and ordered his trumpeter to sound 
the " trot," the brigade moving off in line of squadron columns 
St close interval in the direction in which they happened at the 
moment to be facing. Nc&r Vionville they took ground to 
titeir left, opening to full intervads as they did so, and Ihen 



ascended the gentle indine which still hid them firom thdr 
enemy. 

Arrived at the summit, Bredow sounded " line fo the front,'* 
but at that moment a storm of French bullets swept down oft 
them, and the men, no longer to be restrained, dashed forwaid, 
before the line could be completed, almost due east against loqf 
lines of infantry and artillery which th^ now saw for the fint 
time about 1200 yards in front of them. 

This distance was covered at the fullest extended speed d 
the horses, and reaching the infantry they swept over thea 
" like hounds over a fence " — ^in the words of an ^ewitne& 
So sudden had been their onset that very few were hit until tkt 
infantry had been passed; then the latter, recovering from tkl 
shock, turned and fired into the cavalry from behind, whilit a 
whole fresh division of French horsemen charged them in flaaLJ 
After a desperate mGl£e of some minutes^ the rally was soundsd,[ 
and the survivors of the charge, breaking their way a "^^'^'^ 
time through the French infantry, eventually reached the shdlCK ] 
of their own lines, having lost rather more than half thdr! 
numbers, but having saved the situation momentarily for thdr ^ 
own army. Again there was a lull in tlie operations. j 

Meanwhile, unknown to Alvensleben, a fresh storm mi^ 
brewing on hU left rear. 

Ladmirault, commanding the French 4th Corps bad weai 
during the afternoon of the 15th, the terrible crowd and 
sion prevailing in the defiles leading to Gravdotte, and 
to disobey his orders and to move direct from his bivouacs by! 
the road from Woippy to St Privat, disregarding altogether tlN| 
alleged danger from the Prussians supposed to be advaadic 
from Thionville. Thus, about noon on the i6th he reached thi 
high ground between St Privat and Amanvillers, and still withort 
instructions he determined to direct his corps on Bnnrille aal 
Doncourt, whence he could judge from the drift of the imntl 
clouds whether he could fall on the Prussian left. 

Much time was lost owing to the heat of the day and thi 
fatigue of the troops, but shortly after 3 p.m. be reached A 
position north of the TronvQle copses whence his guns cmU 
fire into the left rear of the long line of Prussian guns i0k 
division and corps artillery) on the heights above VioBvIl 
and Flavigny. Their fire threw the latter into serious roiifiHiM 
and he had already decided to attack with his nearest diihJM. 
(de Cissey) in the direction of the steeple of Vionville, when Mi 
attention was caught by the outbreak of heavy firing in Ihl 
copses below him, and the entry of fresh Prusdnn guns iMi 
action. 

This diversion was brought about by the arrival of the 
artillery of the X. Corps and of the 40th brigade, wbkh 
had been at once ordered into the TronviUe copnes to 
portions of Tixier's division of the French 3rd Corpis, whidi 
cover of these copses had gradually worked round the 
flank. Seeing then that the troops before him couM hold 
own, Ladmirault continued his preparations for his 
stroke, and Cissey 's division had b^gun to move into its 
alignment, facing towards Vionville, when the sudden a] 
of a closed mass of Prussian troops detaching itself 
low dust-cloud of a slow-moving infantry column, and 
to the south of Mars-la-Tour, again arrested Us atl 
Unanimously he and his staff agreed that this fresh 
could only be the advanced guard of a large Prusdai 
possibly, it was suggested, of the crown prince's army, 
Alsace and Nancy, and a fresh delay arose while the 
was investigated. Actually this body consbted only of the 
brigade (von Wedell), forming part of the X. Corps. It ~ 
knowledge of the state of affairs on the battlefield, or 
direction of Bruville, though Prussian cavalry had been 
the approach of Ladmirault's corps for some hours. It was 
ordered to deploy and to co-operate with the 40th bri^de It 
attack on the Tronville copses. This meanwhile 
delivered, and had more or less failed. 

The deployment completed, about 4 p.m. the 38th ht| 
began its advance on Uie north-west comer of the Ttm 
copses, this direction taking them diagonally acrom tlift I 



; fraal 



METZ 



3" 



BvUoB, still oat of tbeir sight but moving due south. 
th^ stepped off when Cissey's first line, catching 
m, opened a devastating fire upon their left flank, 
i this fresh danger the Prussians endeavoured to 
t half-left whilst still on the move. Without pausing 
men raced onward, but the French striking their 
rolled up the whole line in succession, the actual 
uzxing in and near the Bruville ravine, a deep-cut 
ch which, starting from the Tronville copses, here 
e plateau from west to east. Against the weight of 
bm, nearly three to one, the Prussians were unable 
nd presently they broke and drifted backwards, 
outed. Then the ist Guard Dragoons (since known 
ctoria's regiment), after a brilliant manoeuvre under 

get into the best position for deh'vering a charge, 
he whole French line of pursuers from left to right, 
r heroic self-sacrifice relieved the remnants of the 
n further pursuit. 

the scene which for the moment held the attention 
^edoick Charles when at length he reached the 
om Pont-^Mousson. All along the rest of the line 
• were still holding their own, and on the extreme 
■oops from the IX. Corps were streaming up through 
gainst the French left wing. But on the left there 
^ of incipient disaster, and to avert this only the 
t at hand. Sending, therefore, hasty orders to the 
cayalry divisions to concentrate to the west of Mars- 
prince ordered them from there to sweep round on 
r of the French army. The same idea had, however, 
Ladmirault, and he had called on the two nearest 
ilry divisions to put it into execution, and as the 
igan to reach the pkiteau west of Mars-la-Tour and 
>ok from the south, the French were deploying across 
thousand yards to the north. 
iwed a duel— the one great cavalry duel of the war — 
vards of two thousand horsemen a side. But it was 
both sides in a series of regimental charges, and in 
ingularly indecisive. For about half an hour great 
lees, hidden by dense clouds of dust, drifted aimlessly 
lain, till at length the charge of a single squadron 
nbnrg Dragoons (who had joined in on their own 
slivered on the outer French flank, brought the whole 
totion north-eastward, and, both sides sounding the 
gagement gradually ceased. 

w about 7 p.m. and night was coming on. Seeing 
ads drifting away northward, and noting the lethargy 
•d to have settled over the whole French line, Prince 
barks decided to assert his own independent will to 

1 final assault along his whole front. Guns, cavalry, 
•tything that could still stand were to take part in it. 
ley all were, his indomitable will put fresh life into 
rmy. With drums beating and colours flying, every 
can went forward for the final effort. It was almost 
be Prussians approached the French position between 
tnd the woods to the northward, and the troops soon 

in the smoke and became involved in the direst 
he firing again blazed out for a few moments, only to 
otter exhaustion at length put an end to the Pnissian 
rben the wearied troops, for the most part, lay down 

the positions they had reached. 

ed the hardest fought battle of the Franco-German 

1 9 ZJXL to 3 p.m. only 23,700 rifles, 8100 sabres 
OS had been brought into action by the Germans 
00 rifles, 6700 sabres, and 300 guns on the French 
ven at the close of the day the former had only 
,100 rifles, 8300 sabres and 227 guns against 83,000 
labres and 432 guns including 24 mitrailleuses. The 
teristic of the day's fighting was the terrible effective- 
Prussian artillery, which was handled in masses and 
le French side, by batteries. The manoeuvring power 
er attracted the admiration of the Germans, but . 
sly on the field they were generally reduced to sUeace i 



in a few minutes. Deprived of their support, not all the gallantry 
of the French infantry could avail anything. Again anid again, 
particularly on their left wing, they chased the German infantry 
before them, but the moment the retreat of the latter downhill 
uncovered the pursuing French to the Prussian guns, a tornado 
of shells shattered their order and compelled them to retreat. 
Though the cavalry were freely engaged, the training of both 
was so far beneath the standard of the present day that the 
most that can be credited to them in respect of results is that 
they from time to time averted imminent disaster, but failed 
altogether to achieve such a decision as was well within their 
potential capacities. 

3. GraveloUe—St Privai (August j8).—Tht position on to 
which the French army fell back from the field of Vionville is 
formed by a ridge some six miles long running from Rozerieulles 
almost due north to Roncourt, a little village overhanging the 
steep and wooded banks of the Ome, and connected with the 
general plateau between the Meuse and Moselle by a gentle 
saddle running from about Amanvillers nearly due west through 
the Bois de la Cusse towards Doncourt. North of this saddle 
the slopes show a slight concavity, but are passable by troops of 
all arms in dose order. To the south the rivulet of the Mance 
soon forms a formidable obstacle as its bed cuts its way through 
the sandstone. Scrub and woods with dense undergrowth line 
both its banks, and, except by the great chauss^ from Metz to 
Verdun, access to the French side becomes impossible to troops 
in ordered bodies. 

It does not appear that the position had been systematically 
examined, or apportioned to the several corps in accordance 
with any predetermined plan. The army merely swung back- 
wards, pivoting on its left wing, the corps preserving their 
rektive order as it had been on the i6th, with the exception 
that the Imperial Guard was withdrawn to the spur on which 
Fort Plappeville stands, and the 6th Corps (Marshal Canrobert) 
crossed the line of march of the 3rd and 4th Corps in order to 
gain St Privat la Montague. No lines of march were assigned 
to the several units, consequently the confusion became so great 
that though the distance to be traversed in no case exceeded six 
miles, only the right wing and centre reached their destinations 
as night was falling. Many of them had so little idea of the 
general situation that they actually placed outposts to the north 
and east, whilst the whole of the enemy's army lay to the south 
and west. No attempt was made to entrench the position syste- 
matically, but on the left the 2nd and 3rd Corps made some 
disconnected shelter trenches and gun-pits, while the 4th Corps 
in the centre began to improve available cover about an hour 
before the battle began, and the 6th corps on the right, not yet 
having received any entrenching toob, could do no more than 
improvise a few loopholes In the walls of the villages of St Privat 
and Roncourt with such tools as the sappers could obtain from 
the inhabitants. 

Fortunately for the French the Germans were too exhausted 
by the battle of the i6th to attempt to interfere with these 
movements. At daybreak on the morning of the i8th the royal 
headquarters (which now for the first time arrived at the front) 
still had no certain knowledge as to whether the French main 
army was in retreat — covered by the force which they could 
see on the high ground north of the Metz road— or whether they 
had taken up a position in order to fight. 

Hence the orders issued overnight on the presumption that 
the main force of the French was retreating to the north and 
west were allowed to stand, and the whole II. Army (Prince 
Frederick Charles) moved off in Echelon from left to right, the 
I. army under Steinmetz, consisting for the day of the I., II. and 
VII. Corps, being left in observation of the troops visible on their 
front and of the garrison of Metz itself. The I. Corps was kept 
back beyond the Moselle on the east side of Metz, the II. was not 
due to arrive at Rezonville before 4 p.m., hence the VII. only 
was immediately available if the enemy counter-attacked. 
But Steinmetz had not ordered, not h&d MQti'Z;afiXtQ'v,>Xv^ cnt\& 
commander, undertaken, any ptepatal\otv& lo tivtftX. wv tiaftx^twoj . 
About 10 a.m. the corps had itac^td vYit loVLwiVn% v«^^^** 



312 



METZ 



VIII. Corps, Rezonville; XI. near St Marcel; Guard approaching 
Doncourt; XII. towards Jamy; the III. and X., which had been 
so heavily engaged on the i6th, still in their bivouacs preparing 
to move. The cavalry of the Saxons had established the fact 
that the French had not retreated northward, but though scouts 
from the Guard had already seen the enemy on the heights of 
St Privat, this information had not yet reached headquarters, 
nor had it been transmitted to the DC Corps, which it most 
closely concerned. 

Shortly after lo a.nu Moltke, still under the impression that 
the French right extended no farther than La Folie (2 m. 
north of the Metz road), determined to attack with the IX. and 
VIII. Corps whilst the Guard executed a turning movement via 
Habonville against the French right. The IX. Corps was to 
engage, but not to push its attack home until the Guard could 
co-operate. The XII. Corps was left to its own devices, but for- 
tunately the crown prince of Saxony, who commanded it, had 
ridden forward and, seeing the French in force towards Roncourt, 
had issued orders which In the event proved decisive. 

In pursuance of his instructions von Manstein, commanding 
the IX. Corps, set his two divisions in motion towards La Folie 
and the Bois de la Cusse, and advanced to reconnoitre the French 
position. From the eastern edge of the above-named copses he 
suddenly descried the camp of a whole French Corps (the 4th), 
evidently ignorant of their danger, on the slopes trending west- 
ward from Amanvillers. Unmindful of the experience of the 
1 6th, he decided to execute an artillery surprise on a grand scale, 
and sent orders to his corps artillery to come into action on the 
long spur overlooking the French camps from the westward. 
At noon, just as the French infantry were falling in for midday 
roll-call, sufficient guns were in position, and suddenly opened 
fire. But the effect was disappointing. The French infantry 
ran to their arms, piled along the front of their positions, and 
moved forward to attack, covering their advance by a hail of 
bullets. Simultaneously the French artillery also took up the 
challenge, and from the heights near St Privat the 6th Corps, 
whose presence had been unsuspected by the Prussians, joined in 
the fight. 

In a few minutes the batteries on the extreme Prussian left 
were completely overwhelmed, and suddenly dense lines of 
French skirmishers emerged from a fold in the ground upon their 
flank and front, and the gunners were compelled to resort to 
case-shot, so imminent was their danger. But at this critical 
moment the leading companies of the Hessian infantry arrived, 
re-established the equilibrium (though not before four Prussian 
batteries had been temporarily overrun by the enemy), and a 
most obstinate fight ensued. 

Prince Frederick Charles now rode forward to a point north- 
east of Vem^ville, whence the southern boundary of St Privat 
could be seen. But the northern side of the vUlage and the 
country towards Roncourt was hidden from his view by the high 
poplars bordering the Metz-Briey road. Seeing the Hessians 
hard pressed, he now brought forward the and division of the 
Guard to their assistance, sending in the 3rd brigade immediately, 
and holding the 4th brigade in reserve. The ist division, 
warned by their own scouts that French troops were in Ste 
Marie, deployed to attack this village, and were assisted in their 
endeavour by a brigade of Saxons detached by the crown prince 
of Saxony, who from his position could see behind the poplar 
screen that limited the view of the commander-in-chief. Hence 
he was already aware that the French position extended to Ron- 
court at least, and had despatched a whole division down the 
valley of the Orne to outflank them. No news of this movement, 
however, appears to have reached Prince Frederick Charles. 

The French troops in Ste Marie were only an outpost of the 
6th corps, and seeing themselves outnumbered, they withdrew 
about 2.30, the Prussians rushing the village immediately after- 
wards. Considerable confusion arose from the convergence of 
these three brigades upon one village, and more than an hour 
passed before the troops could be disentangled and massed for 
further opersithns. The leaden of the two Guard brigades, 
Sill/ /gaorant of the extent of the French position, ralUed \iitu 



men on the main bodies of their commands (which 1 
engaged) and then lay down facing exactly as th4 
when brought forward to the attack. Thus the 
lay, facing about east-south-east, south of the c 
some five hundred yards west of the village. Tlie 
lay south-west of the village about three hundred 
from it and facing nearly north-east. 

The Saxons were on the left rear of the ist briga 
longer to recover themselves than the Guards. 
Hessians and the IX. Corps the action still drag] 
brigade of the Guards had become involved in tli 
notwithstanding the arrival of the corps artillery 
Corps in the centre the situation was still critic^ 
south also came the thunder of guns and no encoi 
from that quarter had as yet reached the prince's h 

About 4.30 p.m. the prince therefore had to c 
long it would take to obtain a decision. To pos 
the morrow seemed undesirable: to achieve it bef 
was only possible at the cost of immediate effort. 

He therefore decided to assault St Privat with al 
available, and called up the III., X. and Saxons to 

The 4th brigade of the Guards now received th 
attack Jerusalem (a hamlet a Uttle south of St '. 
the xst division was ordered to assault St Prival 

Von Pape, commanding the latter division, 
that no artillery force adequate to prepare the 1 
was as yet on the ground, and that the Saxons wc 
way to the rear. But his orders were imperati 
4th brigade was already moving off and had to 1 
at any cost. Actually all available batteries '. 
been sent for and were trotting forward from r 
towards the objective. He accordingly transmitte 
and the 2nd brigade was the first to attempt the 
It had to wheel half-right in mass to bring it in 
direction, and then to advance till its rear was 
obstruction formed by the gardens of St Marie. 
(5.30) it had sufficiently cleared this village it bcca 
that the 4th brigade in its extension for attack w 
the front assigned to the 2nd, hence a further (hal 
still in mass, had to be undertaken before room foi 
could be obtained. Almost as the commands 
the French suddenly opened an overwhelming loi 
and their bullets swept like hail through the crow 
the German troops. Nevertheless the wheel t 
the fresh direction taken, the troops extended for 
then the whole brigade dashed towards the hov 
them as their objective. Meanwhile the ist brigad 
round the north of the village and carried out i 
without serious hindrance. But emerging from 
running north from St Marie, they came under 
not only from St Privat but also from Roncourt, 
village they now saw for the first time. Instinctiv 
of their line worked to the left to face this new 
the front thus became dangerously extended, 
however, now abreast of the 2nd brigade, and tli 
raced forward to reach the effective range of 
inferior weapons, which were about equal at 200 
French rifle at 600. But the losses of the 2nd bri 
ularly in oflicers, had been too heavy, and the i 
whilst still 500 yds. from the two villages. 

It was now about 6 p.m. and a long pause ensu4 
220 guns, which by degrees had unlimbered b 
brought St Privat and Roncourt under fire. A 
the Saxon turning-movement took effect; their ii 
the Orne valley attacked Roncourt from the nortl 
7.15 the village was carried. 

Neither Prince Frederick Charles nor the troops in 
line could see what had taken place; but the f< 
other Saxons moving towards Montois and the 1 
III. and X. Corps approaching, whilst the rain < 
St Privat exceeded anything hitherto seen on an; 
I d«cidtd Vo ci\V ou vhe whole of his force to attack. 



METZ 



313 



ing hts orders when a psychological wave swept 
Vfating-Iine, and the men rose and rushed the 
point of the bayonet. It was now about eight 
e light was rapidly failing. 

artillery had already evaded the coming blow, 
;ed position, " right back," to cover the flank of 
e army, and the Prussian and Saxon artillery 
rd conformed to this new front, their shells 
^und for 2000 yds. to the south of Aman- 
onfusion in and around St Privat, where troops 
-al corps were all intermingled, became so extreme 
r infanto'-advance could be attempted; so under 
rce artillery duel the remnants of the unfortunate 
ed away towards Metz down the many ravines 
ihe river valley. The " annihilation " of the 
*rivat has become historic. Yet. heavy as were 
he ist Guard division they were not excessive 
those previously endured. In round numbers 
lieir effectives had fallen — most of them in the 
li forward at 5.30 p.m.; but actually they had 
ess under fire since about 2 p.m., and many were 
shells plunging into the turmoil about St Privat 
p.m. But the legend cannot be justified when 
ompared with the slaughter of the Seven Years' 
ileon's battles, the Crimea, and the American 

with the horrible punishment of von Wedell's 

only two days before. 
le to return to the southern theatre of the battle- 
ji entirely independent engagement had been 

afternoon. Von Goeben with the VIII Corps 
nnassed about RezonviUe when von Manstein's 

Amanviilers suddenly made themselves heard. 
:>rp8 to face the French to the eastward he imme- 
irward his artillery and prepared to support his 
I Zastrow with the VII. Corps followed his example, 
ok as their primary objective the farms of St 
Hnt du Jour, standing just above the defile made 
n-Metz road where it climbs out of the Mance 
s the French position. About 3 30 p.m. St 
rried by a confused mass of some 49 companies, 
netz, belieN-ing the main French position to have 
rdered the 4th cavalry division to cross the ravine 
iit and pursue. Simultaneously von Zastrow, 
ne impression, had ordered his corps artillery 
' the same road, and von Goeben, thinking his 

required support, had sent forward an infantry 
e same line of road. 

1 these columns converged upon the defile and 
tanglement ensued. Three batteries succeeded 
through the mass, and, in coming into action, 
ing on St Hubert. But the remainder of the 

be withdrawn, and confusion breaking out in 
osed to all the random bullets and shells of the 
ic ensued, thousands of men breaking away and 
lest confusion through Gravelotte towards the 

had they melted away when the French made 
t counter-attack from their main position between 
Leipzig and Moscow This was stopped almost 
; Prussian artillery fire, but the news of its coming 
li the stragglers in the ravine south of the great 
ive of panic again swept through the mass, many 
ting right upon the front of their own batteries, 
their fire at the most critical moment, and some- 
crisis in the battle arose. Fortunately the II 
w rapidly approaching (about 6 pm), and the 

Moltke's advice, now ordered von Steinmelz 
II. Corps had been allotted for the day) to attack 

his forces Meanwhile a third panic broke out 
I the preliminary movements and it was now 
in the ravine. At length the II. Corps, together 
; VII. that could be collected, moved down into 
ttt as the leading German troops were approaching I 



St Hubert thft French again began to fire, their bullets plunging 
down among the fresh arrivals, who knowing nothing of what 
had taken place about St Hubert (where the remnant of their 
own infantry were still offering a desperate resistance) opened 
fire into the backs of their own men, and a fourth panic began 
which soon spread to the stragglers crowding the Mance ravine. 
Fortunately, by the superb gallantry of some of the company 
officers and men, the new arrivals were induced to recognize 
their mistake, and by degrees about 10 p.m. the whole of the 
II. Corps succeeded in reaching the plateau between St Hubert 
and Point du Jour, where the debris of the VIL and VIII. 
Corps had gathered. But in the darkness and confusion no 
forward movement against the French (only 400 yds. to their 
front) could be initiated, therefore the whole mass passed the 
night where they stood until daylight disclosed that the French 
had retreated. 

Meanwhile the king, Moltke, and Bismarck, had ridden back 
behind Gravelotte where they passed two hours of intense 
anxiety. From the flash of the rifles, it was clear that the 
French main position was still intact, and as every body of 
troops within thirty-six hours' call had been engaged there 
seemed little prospect of renewing the struggle next morning. 
No news too had come in from Prince Frederick Charles. Ulti- 
mately about midnight the welcome tidings of the capture of 
St Privat arrived, and all anxiety was at an end. 

4. The Investment of Metz {Aug. ig-Oct. 14). — During the 
night following the battle of Gravelotte the French army 
withdrew within the line of the forts round Metz. The 6th 
Corps only was severely shaken, the 4th (the best in the 
whole army), though it had fought hard twice within forty- 
eight hours, losing nearly 30% of its strength, was still well 
in hand, and the 3rd, and and Imperial Guards were almost 
intact. A fresh issue of ammunition and food was all the 
men needed to nuike them a thoroughly efficient fighting force 
comprising some 100.000 troops capable, with a resolute leader 
and an efficient staff, of crossing over to the right bank of 
the Moselle, overrunning the I. German Corps, the only one 
in their direct path, and then fighting their way across the 
communications of the II and III. German Armies until they 
regained touch with the French railways to the south-west 
about Troyes. 

The mere fact of the effort being made would have given 
the battle of Gravelotte the moral effect of a victory, and the 
reaction in the German ranks from the feeling of over-confidence, 
which had mastered them after the early successes of Spicheren 
and Woerth, must have had most far-reaching consequences. 

Bazaine, however, withdrew entirely under cover of the forts, 
and set about the reorganization of his troops in the most 
leisurely manner The Metz forts, though neither sufficiently 
armed nor even completely finished in some cases, were never- 
theless, with their deep ditches and self-protecting bastion 
trace, far too formidable for any field army to attempt without 
the aid of a siege train of some 200 guns, which for the moment 
were not available. Of this fact the Germans were well aware, 
and hence they decided from the first to reduce the place by 
hunger, calculating that with the extra 150,000 men thrown 
back upon the fortress, its food supplies could not last very 
long. On the morning of the 19th the German army was far 
too exhausted for further efforts. Except the I Corps, which 
had been summoned overnight from its position about Cour- 
celles towards the battlefield of Gravelotte and had almost 
reached the Moselle before this move could be counterordered, 
the remainder kept their places of the previous night, only 
following the French retreat with a screen of outposts. They 
were sufficiently occupied in collecting the wounded and clearing 
up the confusion resulting from an accumulation of trains and 
transport in the defiles of Gorze and about Noviaut No 
eastward movement could have taken place that day. In 
the course of the afternoon of the X9th the royal headquarters, 
creating a new army under the crowu pimct qI^«lxiou^ VSjXjax^, 
J V, and XII (Saxons) Corps) tor fve\d ov«i^v\otv& Vow^t^ VJftfc 
Meuse, assigned the remainder ol vYvtll. Nxm^ , *xA x^^ ^""m^ 



314 



MEUDON— MEULEN 



of the I., to Prince Frederick Charles as commander-in-chief 
of the army of investment.^ This brought the strength of 
his command up to eight corps, numbering some 320,000 men, 
an enormous mass to feed in a district swept bare of supplies 
by the operations of the preceding week, and with only one 
railway line, terminating at Courcellcs, to depend upon. 

For the moment the chief care of the Prince was to guard 
against an attempt of the French army to break out to the 
westward. The I. Army Corps with Rummer's Landwehr 
division (which arrived during the night of the i9th-2oth of 
August) were to occupy a position to cover the rail head at 
Courcelles-Remilly, and the remainder were disposed in the 
following order: The X. Corps was on the north, with a bridge 
head at Hauconcourt-sur-Moselle, the II., VIII. and VII 
along the eastern slopes overlooking the Moselle valley, the 
latter having also a fortified bridge head at Ars-sur-Moselle. 
The III. and IX. were cantoned almost on the battlefield of 
the i8th, between Caulre Farm and Roncourt, ready to move 
o£f to the left and support the X. Corps in the event of an attempt 
on the part of the French to break out towards Thionville. 

The positions were fortified with a light outpost line, behind 
which was drawn a main position on which every art of the 
engineer was expended. Ample arrangements were made for 
obtaim'ng and circulating intelligence, and all lateral com- 
munications were improved and supplemented to the utmost. 
A light field-railway from R6milly to Pont i Mousson (14 m.) 
was also put in hand, but progress on this was very slow. The 
water-supply of the town was promptly interrupted, but the 
river water was quite drinkable. 

Meanwhile, the French in Metz had been dihgently at work. 
There was no real deficiency of ammunition and stores in the 
fortress, and provisions for forty days were reported m hand. 
Bazame was still in communication with the outside world, 
though return messages came in sparingly. On the afternoon of 
the 25th he decided to break out to the northward by the 
right bank of the river, and orders to this effect were duly issued. 
Many delays arose in their execution, and it was not till 2 p.m. 
on the 261 h that the troops were formed up ready for action. 
But at the last moment the marshal wavered. Calhng a council 
of war on the heights of Fort St Julien, he asked the opinion 
of his subordinates, who were unanimously against the proposed 
sortie, principally because the artillery " had only ammunition 
enough for a single battle!" Besides, the Germans had long 
since become aware of the movement in progress, and all chance 
of surprise was past. It was also raining very heavily. Accord- 
ingly the scheme was abandoned. 

On the 29th of August Bazaine received a despatch, dated 
the 27th, from MacMahon, according to which his army should 
have been at Stenay on the Meuse and farther to the south 
by the 30th The marshal accordmgly determined to renew 
the attempt of the 26th, and orders — almost a repetition of those 
of the previous occasion — were issued. 

At this moment (Aug. 31) the positions of von Manteuffcl's 
command (I Corps and 3rd Landwehr division) were most 
dangerously extended, and a surprise at daybreak might have 
had far-reaching results. But the habit of excessive bugling 
and band-playing betrayed the French design even before 
daybreak Not until i 30P m was the concentration completed, 
and Bazaine again assembled his commanding officers to give 
them their final instructions. This time he adhered to his 
decision, and about 4 p.m the attack opened (battle of Servigny 
or Noisseville) i but his opportunity had been allowed to shp, 
and though his first onset overwhelmed the German outposts, 
their mam line held good, and masses of guns unlimbering 
over a front of some 4 m. rendered all further attempts 
to break the German cordon abortive. Firing only ceased as 
darkness fell, and next morning the fighting was again renewed 
But the whole French army was disheartened. It was obvious 
that what they had failed to do by surprise was hopeless now 
iAal twenty-lour hours had been given in which the Germans 

'Steinmcu was shortly afterwards relieved of his command 
aaa returned to Cernuny. 



could make counter-preparations. Therefore tb 
general retirement under the guns of the forts too 
the last serious hope of the French army had vant 
120,000 men with 528 guns had been engaged af 
Germans with 222 guns, and had been beaten off 1 
3500 men. The Germans had lost about 300a 

The investment now resumed its regular course 
mans, secure in the strength of their position on t 
of the Moselle, drew more troops over to the right 
to their defences and communications. The ide 
mooted of damnung up the river near Hauconcou 
flooding out the whole of the civil population ol 
expert civil engineers, who were sent for from Germs 
against the proposal. 

As time wore on the conditions in Meu and the 
camps became deplorable. The ho^itab and pr 
had been crowded with wounded from the first, and 
to the persistent wet weather, smallpox and dysen 
epidemic. Towards the close of September rati 
be reduced, and the troops began slaughtering 
horses for food. Probably to cheer the men by 
of activity. Marshal Bazaine attempted a sortie 
scale on the xst of October in the direction of L 
and fighting continued into the 2nd, but with 
of success, and the profound depression followin 
sent up the sick list rapidly. One other sortie tow 
ville followed on the 7th, the alleged reason for wl 
hope of obtaining provisions in the neighbour 
But it was beaten off with the utmost ease by t 
troops, who were well fed and cared for, and as 
even the gun-teams had followed the cavalry b 
slaughter-house, the French army as an army — i.e. a 
of the three arms — had ceased to exist. On the p 
this fact negotiations for the capitulation of Metz w 
the 13th of October, and on the 14th the Army of tl 
rendered. Had it held out even forty-eight hours I 
before Paris and Orleans might have taken a di 

The investment of Metz had lasted 54 days, an 
roll of the civil population had risen to 3587 aga 
the corresponding period of a normal year. The 
had only lost from sickness 3600 men, or barel; 
full effective 

MEUDON, a town of northern France, in the 
of Seme-et-Oise, 6 m. E of Versailles by rail and 
S W of Paris. Pop. (1906), 9597 The remain: 
(17th century) burned during the siege of Paris i 
since been adapted as an observatory. Its terrac 
a fine view of Pans. The handsome Galliera 
on the hdl of Fleury, were founded by the duches 
for the reception of aged persons and orphans. 1 
were completed in 1885, at a cost of £560,000. 1 
a monument of Rabelais, who was cur£ there in 155, 
factures munitions of war for the artillery, and in tl 
ing park of Chalais is the Government militar 
establishment In the i6ih century the cardi 
of Lorraine, built at Meudon a magnificent ch&tea 
destroyed in 1803 The present remains belong I 
erected by the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. The wo< 
lies for the most part to the west of the town. 

MEULEN. ANTONY FRANCIS VAN DBR 
Flemish painter, born in Brussels, was called to 
1666 by Colbert, at the instance of Le Brun, to 
of battle painter to Louis XIV. His paintings 
campaigns of Flanders (1667) so delighted Loui 
that date Van der Meulen was ordered to accom 
all his expeditions. In 1673 he was received int< 
Academy, attained the grade of councillor in \(y 
full of honours in Pans in 1690. He is best repres 
series of twenty-three paintings, mostly executi 
XIV , now in the Louvre. The show that he alv 
his Flemish predilections in point of colour, altho 
\ i^)AisvQd\l^<^\>^ vViaVof the French school. 



MEUNIER— MEUSE 



31S 



OOMSTAKTIR (1831-1905), Belgian painter and 

born at Etterbeek, Brussels. His first exhibit 
r sketch, " The Garland," at the Brussels Salon 
to afterwards, on the advice of the painter Charles 
i abandoned the chisel for the brush. His first 
intlng, '* The Salle St Roch " (1857), was followed 
paintings including " A Trappist Funeral " (i860), 
■lougfaing" (1863), in collaboration with Alfred 
vine Service at the Monastery of La Trappe " 
ipisodes of the Peasants' War (1878). About 
commissioned to illustrate those parts of Camille 
description of Bel^um in Le Tour du mondc 
<f to miners and factory-workers, and produced 
My," " Smithery at Cockerill's," " Melting Steel at 
at Seraing" (1883), "Returning from the Pit," 
oken Crucible " (18S4). In i88a he was employed 
ment to copy Pedro Campana's ** Descent from the 
ville, and in Spain he painted such characteristic 
rhe Caf£ Concert," " Procession on Good Friday," 
*obacco Factory at Seville" (Brussels Gallery). 
1 to Belgium he was appointed professor at the 
lemy of Fine Arts. In 1885 he returned to statuary 
1 "The Puddler," "The Hammerer" (1886), 

(1889, Brussels Gallery), " Ecce Homo ** (1891), 
ine-Horse " (1891), " The Mower " (189a), " The 
Of the monument to Father Damien at Louvain 
dkr at the Furnace " (1893), the scheme of decora- 
oUanic Garden at Brusseb in collaboration with the 
ies van der Stappen (1893), " The Horse at the 
\ square in the north-east quarter of Brussels, and 
1 works, the " Monument to Labour " and the Zola 
collaboration with the French sculptor Charpentier. 
sent to Labour," which was acquired by the State 
els Gallery, comprises four stone bas-reliefs, " In- 
le Mine," " Harvest," and the " Harbour"; four 
^ " The Sower," " The Smith," " The Miner," and 
•r "; and a bronxe group, " Maternity," Meunier 
els on the 4th of April 1905. 
FRANCOIS PAUL (i8i»-i905), French dramatist, 
Paris on the 7th of February x8i8. In 1848 he 
ditor of the Evhtement, founded by Victor Hugo, 
e was one of the promoters of the Rapptl, a journal 
es. He was the literary executor of Victor Hugo, 
works (1880-1885). In collaboration with Auguste 
i Thfophile Gautier, he produced Falstqff (1842), 
iution of Shakespeare, and in 1843 an imita- 
intigane; and with Alexandre Dumas a Hamlet 
also wrote Bemcnuto Cdlini (1852), Schamyl 
\sie (1893), and dranutic versions of Les MisirabUs 

Dame de Paris (1876), Qua/re-9ingt-treue (x88i). 
le 1 2th of December 1905. 

[Johannes van Meurs] (157^1639), Dutch 
lar and antiquary, was bom at Loosduinen, near 

He was extremely precocious, and at the age 
xluced a commentary on the Cassandra of Lyco- 
610 he was appointed professor of Greek and 
eiden, and in the following year historiographer 
-generaL In consequence of the disturbed state 
y he welcomed the offer (1625) of Christian IV. 

to become professor of history and politics at 
and, combined with the office of historiographer 
ed at Sord on the 20th of September 1639. Meur- 

author of classical editions and treatises, many 

printed in J. F. Gronovius's Thesaurus antiqui- 
um. Their lack of arrangement detracts from their 
ey are a storehouse of information, and Meursius 
ave the epithets of " pedant " and " ignoramus " 
£r applied to him. Meursius also wrote on the 
e Netherlands and the history of Denmark. 

iition of his works by J. Lami (1741-1763). See Van 
Xrapkisck Woordenboek der Nederlanden (1869), and 
HtsL «f Oats, Scholarship (1908), iL jii. / 



MEURTHB-BT-MOSELLB, a department of oorth-eastem 
France, formed in 1871 out of those parU of the old departments 
of Meurthe and Moselle which continued French. Before 1790 
it belonged to Lorraine, or to one or other of the bishoprics 
of Toul, MeU and Verdun. Pop. (1906), 5x7,508. Area 3038 
sq. m. It is bounded £. by Lorraine, N. by Belgium and the 
grand-duchy of Luxemburg, W. by the department of Meuse, 
and S. by that of Vosget. Meurthe-et-Moselle is of a hilly, 
character, the highest elevation, the Grand Rougimont (2041 ft.), 
being in the Vosges. The valley of the Moselle runs throu^ 
it from south to north. Extensive forests, the chief of which 
is the Forest of Haye, are found in the south-western region. 
Only a small part of the drainage of Meurthe-et-Moselle flows 
into the Meuse, by far the greater part reaching the Rhine 
by way of the Moselle. The principal affluenU of the Moselle 
are the Madon and the Ome on the left, and on the right, beudes 
the Meurthe, the Seille, which in one part of its course forms 
the boundary of Alsace-Lorraine. The principal tributary 
of the Meuse within the department is the Chiers. Climatologi- 
cally Meurthe-et-Moaelle belongs to the Vosgian region, and 
has hot summers and severe winters. lu mean annual tempera- 
ture is between 48* and 49* F., being 2* tower than that of 
Paris (which has the same laritude). The annual rainfall 
averages between 38 and 32 in. The department possesses 
much fertile land, the chief crops being cereals and potatoes, 
together with clover, mangel-wurzels, tobacco, hops and beet- 
root. The vine is also cultivated, its best products being those 
of the Toul district. The most common fruit trees are the pear, 
the apple, the walnut, the cherry and the plum. 0( forest 
trees the oak and the wych-elm are most frequent in the west 
of the department, the beech and the fir in the Voeges. Tlie 
French school of forestry has its seat at Nancy. The salt- 
workings (the chief of which lie between Nancy and St NicoUs,) 
and the iron-mines (round Nancy and Longwy) of Meurthe-et- 
Moselle are the most productive in France. Other important 
industries are the manufacture of boots and shoes, straw and 
felt hats, pottery, and tanning and brewing (at Tantonville). 
Cotton and wool spiiming, and the manufacture of cotton goods, 
hosiery, embroidery, chemicals (at Dombasle, close to Nancy), 
soap, tobacco, matches, crystal (at Baccarat, which has a popula- 
tion of 5617), mirrors (Cirey), glass, army clothing and paper 
may also be mentioned. The dqpartment is served by the 
Eastern railway, the chief line being that from Paris to Strass- 
burg through Nancy. The main waterway is formed by the 
canal between the Mame and the Rhine. This canal communi- 
cates with the Moselle, which is navigable from Frouard down- 
wards, and with the Eastern canal, which unites the Meuse 
and the Moselle with the Sa6ne and the Rhone. The depart- 
ment constitutes the diocese of Nancy, has its court of appeal at 
Nancy, and forms a part of the dbtrict of the VI. army corps 
(Ch&lons-sur-Mame), and of the acad6mie (educational division) 
of Nancy. There are 4 arrondissements (Nancy, Briey, Lun6- 
ville and Toul), 29 cantons and 598 conmiunes. The principal 
towns of the department are Nancy, the capital, LunfvUle, 
Toul, Longwy, Pont-i-Mousson and St Nicolas. Other places 
of interest are Pr£ny, with ruins of an important stronghold 
(x2th and 13th centuries) of the dukes of Lorraine; and Vaud6- 
mont, seat of a famous countship, with ruins of a stronghold 
of the X2th and X4th centuries. 

MEUSE (Flem. Idaes^ Du. Haas), a river rising at Pouilly, 
in the department of Haute Marne, France. After passing 
through a great part of Belgixmi and Holland it flows into the 
Waal channel of the Rhine at Fort Loevenstein. A few miles 
below Gorinchem the Meuse, or Waal as it is then called, 
divides into two branches. The northern flows almost due 
west, and joins the Lek (Rhine) above Rotterdam, and enters 
the North Sea at the Hook of Holland. Ocean-going steamers 
for Rotterdam use, however, the New Waterway (Nieuwe 
Watenoeg), a little north of the Meuse. The southern branch 
turns south, crosses the marsh of Biesbosch bv ^^<t ^A&aficoft^ 
channel of New Merwedt, cnl«c% tiit lioYAXi<^M^ TiSR^^ wA 
reaches the sea by the anns caWei Hsann^i^x. «iA^ShXtfBSB»* 



3i6 



MEUSE— MEWS, P. 



The length of the Meuse is neaily 560 m., of which 360 are 
navigable, and probably its traffic is only exceeded by that of 
the Rhine. Near Bazeilles it disappears under ground for a 
distance of over 3 tn. The Chiers, the Semois, the Lesse, the 
Sambre, the Ourthe and the Roer are its most important 
tributaries. In Belgium it is canalized between Li^ and 
Vise, and the Dutch are engaged on the same operation below 
Maestricht. The principal towns on the Meuse are: in France, 
Verdun, S^dan, Mfzidres and Givct; in Belgium, Dinant, 
Namur, Huy, Li6ge and Maeseyck; in Holland, Maestricht, 
Roermond, Venlo, Dordrecht and Rotterdam. 

MEUSE. a department of north-eastern France, formed out of 
a part of Lorraine (portions of the Three Bishoprics, and the 
Barroisand Clermontais) and Champagne. Pop. (1906), 280,220. 
Area, 3409 sq. m. It is bounded N. by Belgium and the depart- 
ment of Ardennes, E. by that of Meurthe-et-Moseile, S. by those 
of Vosges and Haute-Mame, and W. by those of Mame and 
Ardennes. About one-half belongs to the basin of the river 
Meuse, which is enclosed on the west by the wooded region 
of Argonne, on the east by the hills known as the Cdtes dc 
Meuse. On the north-east it is watered by the Ome, a tributary 
of the Moselle, and the Chiers, which runs by Montm6dy to 
join the Meuse. The other half sends its waters to the Seine 
by the Aire, a tributary of the Aisne, both of which take tifeir 
rise here, and by the Omain, an affluent of the Saulz, the two 
last being tributary to the Mame. The highest elevation 
(1388 ft.) occurs to the south-west, on the line of the ridge 
which separates the basin of the Meuse from that of the Seine. 
The heights gradually sink from south to north, but seldom fall 
bdow xooo ft. The hills of the Argonne similarly sink rapidly 
down to the valley of the Saulx, where the lowest level of the 
department (377 ft.) is reached. Its winters are less severe 
than those of the Vosges. but it is not so temperate as the Seine 
region. The average annual rainfall is about 30 in. The 
chief crops of the department are wheat, oats, rye, barley, 
clover, potatoes and mangel-wurzels. The vine is cultivated 
to some extent, the best growths being those of Bar. The 
forests, occupying more than a quarter of the area, are principally 
of oak, and are rich in game, as are the rivers in fish. Basket- 
making is prosecuted in the Argonne. The mineral wealth 
of the department includes good freestone (Euville, L^rouville). 
It has iron and steel works, wire-works, and manufactories 
of files, hardware and edge tools. Ligny-en-Barrois (pop. 4879) 
manufactures scientific instruments. There are cotton-spinning, 
wool-weaving, and hemp, flax and jute factories, saw-mills, 
carriage works, leather manufactures, glassworks, paper- 
mills, distilleries and flour-mills. The department is served 
by the Eastern railway, the prindpal lines being that from 
Paris to Strassburg through Bar-le-Duc and Commercy, that 
from Paris to Metz through Verdun, and the branch line of the 
Meuse valley. The chief waterways are the canal connecting 
the Mame with the Rhine and the Eastem canal along the 
Meuse valley; the two together have a length of 145 miles. 
Ecclesiastically the department forms the diocese of Verdun; 
it has its court of appeal at Nancy, and constitutes part of the 
district of the army corps of Ch&lons-sur-Marae, and of the 
educational division of Nancy. There are 4 arrondissements — 
Bar-le-Duc, Conmiercy, MontmWy and Verdun — 28 cantons 
and 586 communes. The principal places in the department 
are Bar-Ie-Duc, the capital, Commercy, Verdun and St Mihiel, 
which receive separate treatment. Other places of interest 
are Avioth, which has a church of the 14th and 15th centuries 
with a beautiful chapel of the xsth century adjoining it, and 
Rembercourt-aux-Pots with a fine church of the isth century. 
MEUSB-UNE. the chain of French forts closing the passages 
of the Meuse between Verdun and Toul. The total length of 
the line is 31 m., and the forts d*anH are disposed along 
the right bank. The forts are: between Verdun and St Mihiel, 
G^nicourt and Troyon; near St Mihiel, Les Paroches (left bank) 
Mad Camp des Romains; and near Commercy— Liouville St 
Agnant, GironviUc aiid Jouy-sous-les-C6tes. Above the drde 
c/tAe TouJ defences there are barrier forts on the Upper Meuse 



at Pagny 0a-Blanche-C6te) and near Neufdifttean; but thoe 
Ust are practically in second line, and between Tool and Spinal 
the frontier districU are designedly left open. At Spinal 
the "Moselle-Line" begins. These lines form part of the 
defensive scheme ' addpted by France in 1873-1875. Their 
general design is that of the French fort illustrated in Fom- 
FiCATiON AND SiEGECSAFT, fig. 43> thougfa they are vuied n 
accordance with the site. 

MEVANIA (mod. Btvagna), an andent town of Umbria, 
on the river Clitumnus and on the Via Flaminia, 8 m. W.S.W. 
of Forum Flaminii, and 5 m. W. of Fulginium (Foligno), 738 ft 
above sea-levd. There are remains of a temple near the nortk 
gate, and of an amphitheatre built into the modem houses. 
The walls, which have disappeared, were, according to Pliajr 
{Hist. Nat. xzxv. 173), built of unbaked bricks. In 3x0 1.& 
the consul Fabius broke the Umbrian forces here; but othc^ 
wise it is not mentioned until the xst century aj>. In 69 the 
army of Vitellius awaited here the advance oif Vespasian. Its 
pastures near the river and its white oxen are mentioned by 
Propertius, whose family bdonged to Asisium (mod. AauiO 
and after him by Silius ItaUcus, Lucan and Statins. The towa 
was a municipium. The churches of S. Michele Arcangeb 
and S. Nicolo are Romanesque buildings of the lath centuiy. 

MEW. (i) An inutative word, also spelled mioMi, repre- 
senting the cry of a cat or of sea-birds. The name mew, vanaSf 
sea-mew, as applied to the Larus canuSf or common seaipil, 
is, according to Skeat, also imitative. As the tumse of tht 
sea-bird it appears in Du. meeuw, Ger. Mihae, and other Ian- 
guages. (2) (Through Fr. muetf from Lat. mutare, to change), 
a term originally implied in French to the moulting of a hairtL 
or falcon, and then to the caging of the bird during that perim^ 
thus " to mew up " has come to mean to confine. The Eni^ 
word chiefly survives in the plural form mews, applied to a 
stable-yard, coach-houses, stalls for horses, and living acoomB» 
dation, found in narrow streets in large towns. This use wtt 
due to the Ro>'al Mews at Charing Cross, where the royal hawks 
were kept from X377 to 1537, when the building became tht 
royal stable s. 

MEWS, PETER (16x^1706), English royalist and dhrine, 
was bom at Caundle Purse in Dorset on the 25th of March 
16x9, and was educated at the Merchant Ta^ois' school, and 
at St John's College, Oxford, of which he was scholar and Idlow. 
When the Civil War broke out in x64a he joined the Royaliit 
army, and, having been noade a captain, waa taken priiQOcr 
at Naseby; but he was soon released and in 1648 sought icfofli 
in Holland. He became friendly with Charles L*s lecreUiy, 
Sir Edward Nicholas, and being skilful at disyiiwTig hiaseK 
was very useful to the Royalists during the rule oC Oliver 
Cromwell, undertaking two journeys to Scotland in 1653. Befora 
this Mews had been ordained. Taking the degree of D.CX. and 
regaining his fellowship at Oxford after the Restoration, be 
b^ame archdeacon of Huntiiigdon, vicar of St Maiy'a, Reading, 
and chaplain to the king; then, having obtained two other 
livings, he was made canon of Windsor, canon of St David*!* 
and archdeacon of Berkshire. In 1667, when at Breda anangiBg 
peace between England and Holland, he was chosen p tc si deal 
of St John's College, Oxford, in succession to his father-in-law, 
Dr Richard Baylie, afterwards becoming vice-chanccUor 
of the imiversity and dean of Rochester. Appointed bishop 
of Bath and Wells in 1672, Mews resigned his presidency i> 
X673, and in 1684 he was elected bishop of Winchester, a poiftion 
which this "old, honest cavalier," as Tboxnas HMme caDi 
him, filled until his death on the 9th of November 1706. The 
bishop is buried in Winchester cathedral. Mews lent his 
carriage horses to pull the cannon at a critical moment duriog 
the battle of Sedgemoor, where he was wounded whilst accom- 
panying the royal army. He was, however, in qrmpatlif 
with the seven bishops, and was only prevented by illncB 
from attending their meeting; and as visitor of Murfah i 
College, Oxford, he supported the fellows in their reaatiaoi 
to James II., admitted thdr nominee, John Hough, to thi 
i piesidency, and restored the ejected feUows in October t6lt. 



nVSBOCRAPHYl 



MEXBOROUGH— MEXICO 



317 



ft took the osths to William and Mary in 1689. Intheabsence 
of CnnptoB, bisliop of London, Mews took the chief part at the 
enseaatioQ of TiiUotson as archbishop of CanUrbury in 169 1. 
See Sl H. Canan. Lives of the Bishops of Winchester (1827): and 
tkMkkolas Papers, edited by G. F. Warner (1886-1897). 

nnOBOUQH, an urban district in the West Riding of 
Vbriohtre, England, on the Don, 11 m. N.E. of Sheffield on the 
Gicat Central and Midland railways. Pop. (i8qi), 7734; 
((901), 10,430. The Don affords water communication with 
tke Humber. The church of St John the Baptist has Early 
En^h portions. The large industrial population is mainly 
anployed in glass, pottery and iron works, and in the neigh- 
buing stone-quarries. The Castle Hill is crowned with some 
iae etfthworks ci uncertain date. 

■BUOO (Span. Mijico, or Mexico,) officially styled Estados 

Vnii9t iiexicanos and RepikUica Mexicana, a federal repubh'c 

d N«ffth America extending from the United States of America 

KNithward to Guatemala and British Honduras, and lying 

between the Pacific Ocean on the west and the Gulf of Mexico 

tad Caribbean Sea on the east. Its northern boundary line 

«n fixed by the Guadalupe-Hidalgo treaty of 1848 and the 

Gadsden treaty of 1853; it follo«>-s the Rio Grande del Norte 

liom its mouth north-westward to lat. 31° 47' N., thence on 

tkat parallel W. 100 m., thence S. to lat. 31^ 20' N., thence 

dK W. to the xiith meridian, thence in a straight line (nearly 

WJ9.W.) to a point on the Colorado river 20 m. below the mouth 

d the GiU river, thence northward to the mouth of the Gila, 

aad thence, nearly due W., along the old line between Upper 

aad Lower California to a point on the Pacific coast one marine 

kagne S. of the southernmost point of San Diego Bay; this 

Got has a total length of 1810 m., of which the Rio Grande 

conpriies 1x36 and the land route 674 m. The boundary 

Eae with Guatemala, for a long time in dispute, was fixed by 

the treaties of i88a and 1895. It is an arbitrary line and follows 

•dy two natural lines of demarcation — the Suchiate river 

horn the Pacific coast to its source, and the Chixoy and Usuma- 

ditta rivers from near the i6th parallel N.W. to a point on the 

htter 35 kilometres, S. of Tenosique (Tabasco). Between these 

riven the botmdary line is determined by the peaks of Tacana, 

Boeoavista and Ixbul, and from the Usumacinta eastward 

itfoUows two parallels of latitude, one on the point of departure 

faofli that river, and the other, the longer, on that of 17** 40' 

to the British Honduras frontier. The boundary with British 

Boaduras was determined by a treaty of 1893 and is formed 

ia peat part by the Hondo river down to the head of Chclumal 

Bay, and thence through that bay to the Boca Bacalar Chica— 

the channel separating Yucat&n from Ambergris Cay. Geo- 

inphically, Mexico extends from 14** 30' 42' (the mouth of 

the Suchiate) to 32* 42' N. lat., and from 86' 46' 08' to ii7' 

vf ji* W. long. Approximately its greatest length from 

N.W. to S.E. is 1900 m., its greatest width 750 m., and its 

kM wklth a little short of 140 m. In outline it is sometimes 

coBpared to a huge cornucopia with its small end curving S.E. 

ud N. The interior cur\-e formed by the Gulf of Mexico is 

(Boparatively regular and has a coast -line of about 1400 m. 

The Caribbean coast-line is about 337 m. long, exclusive 

<f iadentations. The outer curve facing the Pacific is less 

Rfobr, b deeply broken by the Gulf of California, and has 

& caatt-fine of 4574 m., including that of the Gulf. The 

PaOMiIaof Lower California {q.v.) lies parallel with the mainland 

(BM uid extends southward to about 22** 52' N. lat., a distance 

^ •eariy 760 m. The area of Mexico is commonly given by 

£*|U authorities as 767,005 sq. m., by German statisticians 

■ii9&7f>oi sq. kiloms. (767,290 sq. m.), and by H. H. Bancroft, 

*ho quotes official figures, as 1,962,899 sq. kiloms. (757.907 

5?i"f*M7- — ^The surface features consist of an immense 
*~~'^ plateau with a chain of mountains on its eastern and 
ourgins, which extends from the United States frontier 
rd to the Isthmus of Tchuantepec; a fringe of lowlands 
aUenUs) be t w e en the plateau and coast on either side; 
Wd. rourfily mountainous section in the south-cast, which 
10 the Central American Plateau, and a low eaady plain 



covering the fireatcr part of the Isthmus of Yucatin. The peninsula 
of Lower California is traversed from north to south by a chain 
of barren mountains which covers the greater part of its surface. 
The slopes arc precipitous on the east coast, but on the west they 
break down in nills and terraces to the Pacific. This range may 
bii? Loniidtrcd a ^ui I. ^.irl continuation of the Californian Sierra 
Ivcvadi. The £t-.i[ [iLlIi m of Mexico is very largely of volcanic 
orif^in. lit jtJpcristruiLturc consists of igneous rocks of all descrip- 
tion» with «rHich the original valleys between its marginal ranges 
hsve been Bltcd by volcanic action. The remains of transverse 
jxnd other r^ngci air to be seen in the isolated ridges and peaks 
wTiich ri^e above the \evc\ of the table-land, in some cases formtnp 
wirll drlrncd bjialni; otherwise the surface is singularly uniform it* 
cKAractcr and level. The two noteworthy de(>ressions in its sur- 
face, the Valley of Mexico and Bols6n dc Mapimf. once contained 
lar^e bodies of water, cd which only small lakes and marshv laeoons 
now ncTTtain. The hl^he&t part of this great plateau is to be found 
in the states of Mexico and Puebla. where the general elevation is 
about 8000 ft. Southward the slope is broken into small basins 
and terraces by transverse ranges, and is comparatively abrupt. 
Northward the slope is gentle, and is broken by several transverse 
ridges. At Ciudad Juarez ^adjoining El Paso, lexas). On the north- 
em frontier, the elevation is a6oo ft., which shows a slope of only 
4I ft. to the mile. Less is definitely known of the elevated regions 
of Chiapas, on the border of Guatemala, which are serrated from 
the great Mexican Pbteau by the low Isthmus of Tchuantepec 
(718 ft. at the highest point of the transisthmian railway), out 
rhcir general elevation is much lower, and they are broken by wooded 
sierras and eroded by water<ourBes. 

The mountain ranges which form part of the groit Mexican 
Plateau consist of two marginal chains known as the ^erra Madre 
Occidental, on the west, the Sierra Madre Oriental, on the east, 
and a broken, weakly-defined chain of transverse ranges and ridges 
between the 1 8th and 3oth parallels known as the Cordillera de 
An&huac All these chains are known locally under diverse names. 
The Sierra Madre Occidental consists of several parallel ranges in 
the north, where a broad belt of country is covered with a labyrinth 
of ridgcHi Anrl vjlkys. The mo^t caiLerti of li'i -■ .,-i- r 1 1 '.'.1. !-■ ihe 
Sierra Tar^ihumare and Sierra del Du range ^ aod the mtihi bc^tcrn 
as th? Sierra del Naxircna^ Sifrra Yaqui and Slenra Fuert^ These 
convi^r^e in louthcTii SfnAli^a. and Durango to form the Sierni de 
Nayant. Near the JOth parallel the great chain again divides, 
the eastern part crofisiiii^ iht- souificrn end of (he- plateau^ and the 
western, or SLcrra Mndrc d<fl Stjr, fotlo«'ing the siiore line clgnely 
to Tchuantepec The Sierra Madre Occidental Htu but few note^ 
worthy elevations^ lEf culminatirLC points being th« Nevodo de 
Colima (14*J^J f« ) and Volcin dc Co lima f 1^,750 ft) in the state of 
Jalisco. In the Sierra de Nayarit the Cerra Pimal titti t,o an eleva- 
tion of 1 14.319 ft., and in the eKireine uiuth the Cenro di'l Leone 
to 1 0,30 J ft. These ucrra? lying near the cooit have art imposing 
appciirance from the lowlands,, out when acen fncrni the plateau 
I heir gtrneral eCevjtion i* « dwarfed at to render thera com pa ra- 
ti vxly incunapiriiDus. The Siena Madre Orion Ul consisii ol a 
broken clialn of ranges dttending along the eastern margin of the 
plateau from the great bend in the Rio Grande wuth^!4rtward 10 
about the t9t:h paralleL In the north these range* arc low and 
oflTer no great impcdimeitt to railroad bulildtrte. South of Tampiro, 
however, they are conctnirated in a single lofty range. This ranj^ 
extend* south-eastTi'^ird alonB the wpwicm frontier ol Vera Crui 
(state) and in^ludr^ the snowcapped cone of OrLcaba of Citlaltepetl 
(1S.J09 ft), and the Coir* de Perote, or Nanchampapetl (13,419 l^t.J. 
The eastern dcpcs are abrupt and difficult, and are a lerious impedi- 
ment to communication wkh the cctait. Rliing from the open 
plateau ha\( way between this ranj;e and the city of Mexico it the 
iM^ited cone of Malinche, or MaLintzin ( 14,636 ftr). Cnsus^ng the 
highest part of the Mexican Platea.u is a broken series ofranges^ 
which form the water-parting between its northern and bouthi-rn 
slopes. To a part ol ihtae rangei has been given the name Oj 
Cordillera dc Anahuac, but there is no true cordillera across this 
part of Mexico. In a general sense these ranges may be considered 
part of the eastern branch of the Sierra Madre Occidental, which 
turns eastward on the 3oth parallel and crosses the plateau in a 
south by cast direction. Southward the plateau is traversed by 
many low ranges and breaks down in terraces, forming one of the 
most fertile and attractive parts of the republic. Close to the 
capital arc the Sierra dc Ajusco, whose highesP point is 13,078 ft. 
above sea-level, the Nevado dc Toluca (15.168 ft.), in a range which 
separates the valleys of Mexico and Toluca. the Monies de las 
Cruces, and that volcanic, spur-like range, running northward at 
right angles to the axis of the other ranges, whose culminating 
points, some 20 m. south-east of the city, are the gigantic, snow- 
clad volcanoes of Popocatepetl (Smoking Mountain) and Ixtacci« 
huatl (White Woman). Both of them are extinct and Popocatepetl 
no longer smokes. Their elevations, according to the Comisi6n 
Geogrifica Exploradora, are 17,888 and 17.343 ft- respeciivelY. 
that of IxtaccihuatI being the hiRhest of its three crests. This 
part of Mexico is highly volcanic in character, the transverse tvd^jt 
lust described having a large number o^ enxXtvcX No\catv«3«.% ^xv^ jiX. 
least three (Colima, JoruUo and Cebon^c«>^ iVvax. att cvx^^« ^cv\v^ 
or semi-active. Colima waa m a siavt ol w\xv^^ovv ^%\ax«. ^ ^SF*i» 



3i8 



MEXICO 



tPHYSIOCRAPHY 



Jorullo (4263 ft.) b said to date from 1759, when It* cone wat fonnc^, 
and Cttoonico (7100 ft.) in the territory of Tcpk* «how£ coca-iioitai 
awns of activity. Near the coast in the f,XiitM at Vera Qjm^ i^S&a 
Martin, or Tuxtla (0708 ft.), which haa hccn ^uit-^ccjit *in« iJii 
violent eruption of the 2nd of March 1793- Orizaba ■» »mctimc« 
included amoni^ the aeml-active vokranot'^r but ihi& u a misuik?. 
It has been quiescent since 1566. and h now corn pic tely ciitinct. 
Earthquakes are common throughout the greater p&n of the rrpublkt 
especially on the western coast. They arc mc»t vioSerit Uom San 
Bus southward to the Guatemala frontier. ^niS wme of thv Spanish 
towns on or near this coast have suflferctl scvcrrly. ChilpiirtcingD. 
in Guerrero, was badly shattered in 1002, and in 1907, and in 1909 
was reduced to a mass of ruins. The carthqu^kL^ shocks of tht 
30th and 31st of July 1900 were unusually hcvprc throughout 
southern Mexico, reducing Acapuico and ChllpancingD to mini 
and shaking the city of Mexico severely. In Acapuico a tidal wave 
followed the shock. Slight shocks, or lemblores, are of almost daily 
occurrence. According to Humboldt's theory there is a deep rent 
in the earth's crust about the 19th parallel through which at dlRerent 
periods the underground fires have broken at various points between 



the htrge^ of this ctus, and hii dvltl^ «nd port of Cinttea at 

iu wtslcm CKtRrnity, On \hc northem coast of Yucaiir» b tbe 
tmalh inhabited iiiand of tlolboK or HoTbf}^\ and on Ihr easteta 
coast the ^Ufidt ol Mujcrc*, Cancum and Caxutn^L, of which the 
firsit. and U^t have a considcmblv population <ind ^ood pons. Oa 
(he Pacifk coa^t thtrt arc a nuenber of ■ standi oif thf JTMrky shofii 
of Lower CaliforniJi and in ihc Gulf or CjiEirornia — rm»t of the^ 
barren and unirthabitj^blc Uke the adjacent coast. The largest oC 
fhcse, some ot ihcm inhftbiced, arr; LiuadalupL- — abotjt 75 m- wes^^ 
of the coo-it on WiQ jqth iMir^lkl, which is fertile and utockod nirt^L 
cattle; Ccmoi, off Vixaino Bay, and Siinta Mai^aHitA. whkh pard^^ 
shelters Mn^dalcna Bay, on the Pacific side: and An^t de la Guarda.^ 
Tihuron^ San Marcos, Cirmen^ Mon^rrate. Santa Catalirm. Sant^^ 
Cnii, San Joa^^ E^piritj Sanio and Cc-rralvo in the Gulf. Lyia^^ 
off San Bias in the broad cntraoce lo the Gulf atv the Tm Mariaa^ 
and directly west of Colima, to which it belongs, is the acattcfc^ 
volcanic group of Revillagigedo. 

The peculiar surface formation of Mexico — a high ptateaa shtaf 
in by mountain barriers, and a narrow lowland rc^on betweea it 
and the coast— does not permit the development of laxfe river 




the Gulf of Mesiro and the Riviltaglimcln fsLmdi. ** Only on tlio 
■uppDiiiion that thc« volcarit»«, which art- nti the iurffice connjt-ctciJ 
ty a ikelcton of volcanic rocki, ane alw umn-cl imckT the vurfuce hy 
a chain of volcanvc elcmrnls in continua! aeuviiyn may »e aircount 
foe the eartht^uakcs which In the dinriitm mentiuncd cau?c the 
Ameriizan com incut, from ihe Gulf of ML-nico to tht Pacific Ocean, 
to oscillat? AX the aanw tiiiw? " {Ej:,k'^€\ifiH, p. ^^). 

The lowland or iiprra C£S^ ' i i. which lies between the 
Hcrraa and coast on both sui = ronnisii of a ftstntly lonc 

of var>'ing width along the Khorc-tinc, which is practically a tiilc- 
watcr plam broken by inland channels and ln);oons. and a higher 
belt of land rising to an elevation of about 3000 ft. and formed in 
great part by the d6bris of the nelKhbourin;; mountain slopes. On 
the Pacific side there arc places where the mountain «purs extend 
down to the coast, but in general this lowland region ranees from 

?> to 40 m. in width, except in southern Vera Oujc. Tabasco, 
ampcche and Yucat&n. where it extendi f,',rt*^cr into the interior. 
The talus zone of this rcKion, c^fx.'cially n« riovalions of 1000 to 
3000 ft., is noted for its great fertility and tl:c luxuriance of its 
vegetation. 

There are no large inlands on the roift of Mexico, and most of 

the smaller ones are unimportant. Many of those that fringe the 

Culf coast are sand-keys, or part* of a new cfia-t fonnation. Tin y 

mre commonly tmrrvn and lininhabit.ihlc. The Ula drl Cdrmen, 

which p»nly shut» in the Laguna cic Terminos (Ciropechc), is one of 



basins. Add tn ihks the lii^ht niinf^U on the plateau and 1 lajck of 
fnniiiis, atid WL" ha%-t: rtmriitinns w^ilch make large riv^tr* imp 
The hydfU|jr:iphy of Mfxii-o, therefore, u of the simple^ de 
— 3 nuEnpcf of (sniill arrt-aini flowing from the plateau or ( 
Bibpcs eastward tn the Gulf of Meiiico and westward to the Pwd6c^ 
hlo^t of thLSi*': are bale mon; than mountain torrenit*^ but one biiS 
a rourrf cictMidin^ ^^i*^ m., and few have navigable chajioefcL Tb^ 

IarinctpGl \^ ii' ' ! • ^'irm*{i by the sirrnis of the stair of Mcw»» 
jTJin whit 1 1 v north-east to the Gulf of Mnko. nctflV— 

west to the Pacific and south-wxst to the same coast below its gicaC 
eastward curve. The Kio Grande del Norte, or Rio Bravo, on the 
northern frontier, is practically an American river, as it rises iO 
American territory and receives very little water from the Mental 
side. Its lareer Mexican tributaries are the Rio de los Co n cho^* 
Salado and Pesqueria. Of the Suchiate and Hondo, which fan** 
part of Mexico's southern boundary, the first is a short, impetno** 
mountain torrent flowing into the Pacific, and the other a uatgi>^ 
lowland stnam ri^-ing m north-eastern Guatemala and few ia^ 
north-east thruuKh a heavily forested region to Chetumal BajT* 
The peninsul.i of Yucatan has no rivers, and that of Lower Califora*^ 
only a few insr^riifirant btnams in the north. This is due to tN^ 
porosity of (he M>il m the former, and the very limited rainfall B^ 
the Utter, llir Lirijest rivers of Mexico are: tne Rio Grande J* 
San:i3co. calleii ibi; I^:rnia alxn-e Lake Chaoala. rising in the sia^ 
of Mexico and flowing wc&tward across Guanajuato, Jalitoo tl^ 



GEOLOGY :CUMATE| 



MEXICX) 



319 



TcfMC to the V^$c mn%, with 1 iiamI l«mlh of Afo m,, nkbnted 
for iu deep canyon t ami waicrfdlts ; the Rio deki Baluiyor McicaU, 
which fifes in TUjtuLi and flowt wuih end weit to thr Pacilk 



withncourieof 4J6m. :ihe Viiqui, which r 



CttihuahuA 



and. after breaking tKmihu^h the northern ranEn of ihr Siem 
Madre Occidents L ai}%i south-vntcrly acrou So norm ta the Gulf 
«if California, with a kngth of ^qo m.; the Grijalira. alio called the 
Chiapas on its upper f?ourie, which hoj ita KiUircn in (he ftate of 
Chiapas and flows nonh-wnt and iiorth across Tabasco to the 
Gulf of Mexico, with a total len[^h of 350 m.: the puerte^ whkh 
rim in southern Chihuahua and, after br-eakinf through th« ufrras. 
flows MMjth-west across Sinaloa to the Gulf of Callramia, with a 
coune of ^40 m.; thr Ufumacinta^ which a formtd by th<^ confluence 
of the Chixoy and PaiiAfi on the cost frontierof Chtap^fl* and Rowt 
Borth-west across Tabascv to the Grijalva^ with a course of 330 m-; 
and the_ P&niico, whkh has its sourcC' in the north ^we$t of tW ttiOLte 
of Mexico and IIowb north-eastward to the Gulf of Mexico, The 
liven of the Pacific coaAt have no navigable^ channeLs worth ni«nt!on^ 
tng. but many on the Gulf coait are navtfable for contiderable 
iSstancrs. The more important of these are In Tabasco — the 
Grijalva. navigabk for about 93 m., and the Usumadnta, for about 
370 m. The country about the Lacuna de T^mina* i» low and 
lit, and is travtrwd in 4.II direction* by deep, «Lugci«h stream** 
Many of the rivcr& cro^ng the lowlands bordcrUie the Gyli have 
ihort navigable channels, (he pio?l impoftonc « which k the 
Pinuco and its trihtit^ries. The Rio Grande h tkavifnble for small 
vessels up to Matamorc* (jt m.Kand for tmalkr cnift 65 m, farther* 
Nearly all the Gulf coa*t rivers, ho*ev<)r, are obstructed by bars 
owing to the qiuniiry of tih brought down fiom tht sierras and 
theprevailing winrf* and current* on the coast. 

The bkes of Mriico atif i^mull and few in number. TTiey may be 

(Tivid^-d into two fla^4C4^ tho^ of the plateau rc^^jon which occupy 

lacustrine deprc^ian^ and rccri^T the drairage of (he lurroundinn 

country; and the tide- water hf^oons of the coast formed by the 

building up of new ^nd be^iclies arrT>i« the indentations in the 

coast-line. Of the former, the best knnwn are the Lakes of the 

Valley of Me:«ico — ^Tcircco, Chaico, XochimilcoK 2um^ngD, 

Xahocin and San Cristobal — which art probably i he rem;iins of 

a lalce once occupy injr ihe w hole valley, ^They mrti^ie con.<iderab]e 

Hirface drainage, but are &!owly diniini^hin]; in area. Some of 

them, like Xoch»miko, wilt evenlually dir.ippear. The laq^est, 

Tcxcoco, has an area of about 1 1 1 ^. m. (30 sq. kJlams.)^ but it 

covered a much krger arva at the time of the Spani^-Lh conquest. 

Its surroundings are bleak and sterile and iti waler^ bracki«,h and 

polluted with the dmlnagc of ihe neishbounng city far nearly four 

centuries. The other laltn are wholly difTt-rent m char^ct^r and 

Kirroundings, especially Chaico and Xochimilro. Texcoco U now 

connected with the new drairugt^ works of the ca|)it;il and is no 

king|<Er a menace to its ptopulatian ihrouRh inundations and pe^illl- 

lentLil (e\xrs. Another group of lakes is to be found in the Lacuna 

district of south' western Coahuila^ wrhtre the Tlahualija^ Mair^rii 

Parra* and others occupy a Urge Lacustrine drpre^sion and fcccive 

the uaters of the Naiaa and A|fuanav:il rivcm from the wuih-wcit 

(Durango). The wie of thi* UoUted drainage baniu is very lar^c. 

the Naza* River aJone havirig a length of about 370 m. The great 

Mapimi de?ert ot w^ttern Coahuila is another lacustrine depreseion, 

but only marshy L^oons remain. In eastern Coahuila, near 

Morctexa, are the A^ui Verde and Santa Maria lakei, and in eastern 

Chihuahua there j« a similar eroop. The largest and most attractive 

of the pbicau lakes is Chapala, in the state of Jalisco, about So m. 

Icns{ by 10-35 ™' wide, which receives the waters of the Lerma 

and divharges into the Pacific thmugh the Santiago. On the 

lower terraces of MichoacSn are Patrcuaro and Cuitifo lakt-^^ and 

•liewhere among the sierra 1; are numerous other small bodies of 

»at£r. Among the tide-water lagoons* of which there are mnny 

»bnjf the Gulf coast, the be«t known are the Laguna de T^rminoe 

nCampcche, T.iiriiahua in Vvra Crut, Madre (uo m, longi^ Pes- 

^oerias (21 m. lon(jJ and Chjlrel I near Tampico) in TamauJipa*, 

AB ihr^ lagoont are luvigablc, and those of nonhem Vera Crui 

and Tamaulipas. whcFi connected an*J Improved, will afford a lafe 

•wand route for some hundreds of miles abng the coast. The 

jwh coast of YucaiAn is remarkable for the extensive banks 

wilt up by the Gulf current from 5 to 7 m. from the shore- line. 

'"Pide the present undy coast is a peculiar tide^ water channel 

t»lM the Rio L.aeart09^ which followi almost the whole northern 

•''we, with occ^ional openings or bocas. connecting with the open 

*>• It 16 apjpari'ntly of the lame character as the lagooni of 

UmuUpas. Thtrc arc a number of these Laj^oons on the Pacific 

*»st— such as Superior and Inferior near Sal ma Crux, Pap(acayo+ 

jQr Acapulco, CayuiUn. near Man^nillo, and Tecapan in Tepic— 

t^t they are usually shallow, »metimcs swampy, and have no 

**jiie for commerce. 

There is a marked difTerence between the Gulf and Pacific coost- 
wscif Mexico in regard to their minor indenution^and harbours, 
»* »onth-west ptart of the Gulf of Mexico ii called the Gulf of 
^mpeche {Campeachy)» but no distinction is necessary. This 
J*»t has no bays of importance, its rivers arc obstructed by ^nd- 
{*".and it has only one natur^il harbour— that of Cirmen and the 
j ffua de T6nriin[>ii^ which hun sufficient depth for the larger 
OMKt of vtMcls and ia sbeltuncd by the ialaixb oi CAnnea and. 



Puerto Real. Of the principal perti on thb cout. Matamoros. 
Tampico, Tuxpan, Coatzacoalcm and Frontera are on rivers, 

which axe obstructed hy [utT.. T;]rnpiiLO and Ci>.itr.t€c>ati:;c/*, htiw- 
ever, have been impruvtd by brtattwjror^ or jvuM-^i. awA (hr- rK'^-p- 
enUg of the Channels across the b.jT^, iniu viN,- iitn\ (rjnniiiiwlujijs 
harbours. Vera Cruz is an open an^' ImnU;^!.-^ in^uir .1 ^rii'* >>! vrK-fm 
whjch afford no protect i,on to ve^bi^la fri^m the " [^orthcrt/^ A 
breakwater has remedied tbU defect and Vert Crut is no longer 
considered a dangeroj* port. Cam pur he hat a small arti^cial 
harbour^ which ia, &o i^ilted up that veueU drawing 9 fn mus^l anchof 
1 m. outiiii:k ind larger veu^ls Kiill farther away. JVogrem, 
Vucatio. has onty an open roadstead, and large vessels cannot: 
approach its landing-ptace nearer than 6 m. On the east coiti. of 
Yucatan thi-^re are (wo deeg. well-theUered bays, Aicentidn and 
Espiritu Santo, which affora cood anchorages, and at the nortli 
end of the island of Craumel Ihe bay of Sania Maria offers an ex- 
cetlent harbour* The FaeifK coast ha« several deep and well- 
sheltered bays; but they areceparated from the interior by the nougli 
and difficult ranges of the sWrra Madnt Decide ntal. There irt 
two Large iruJen til ions of the coast— the Gulfs of Tchuanlepec and 
Califomfo- The former is opposite the Gulf of Cimfwtihc, and 
pMsesoes no di^fiinguishing chatucteristic. The Gulf of California* 
on the other hand, pewtraies the cominent for a distance of 739 m., 
from south-east to north-west, with a maximum br^idth of 190 m* 
Its area i» usually restricted to the waters north of the latitude of 
Cape San Lttcu, but it shoukj be extended to the outer waters 
erKtoitd by a ILrw from Cape San Lucas lo Cape Corrientes, tu 
upper vaten are not much navigated because of the aridity of iu 
coiseSt bm there are two or three important ports towards the 
touth, + The Gulf has a considerable numlwr of inlands, most of 
them nfiir the peninsular coos!, and «rveral deep, well protected 
bays^lbmr of 1^ Paz and Santa tnes in t^wer California, i[Suaymas 
in SonoTB, Aj^iohampo, Topolobampo and A I lata Salinas in Sinafoa. 
On the Pacific coast ol Lower California are the &n:<>enada de 
Todos Santos and the bays of San Quentinn Viscainaand MagdaleniLr 
The principal bays o,, iht- mainland Coast are Olas AtLas, which ia 
the harbour of xMaratlAn, San Bias, Banderas, Manaanillo, AcapuJeo^ 
Salina Crur and Tonuli, Several of these are being imnnoved. 

[Gitfiegy. — By far the greater part of Mexico is covered by deposits 
of Cretaceous and Liter date, the pre-Cretaceoys rocks occurring 
only in comparatively small and isolati'd patches. At the southern 
CMtrcmity of the great table-bnd* however* in the stale of Puebla. 
there 11 a can&idemble mass of cryslalline rocks which is believea 
to be of Archaean age. Similar rocks occur alwi in Chiapas, OaJtaca* 
Guerrero and elsewhere; but owing to the absence of any early 
fossil if crous deposits, the age of these rocks is very uncertain. 
Silurian and Devonian fossils have been reported at one or two 
localities, but for the present the observations are open to doubt. 
The earliest fossilifcrous beds which have been proved to exist in 
Mexico belong to the Carboniferous system. They are found on 
the borders of Guatemala and consist of limestones and dolomites 
with Productus. 

The^ Mcsozoic beds are of (greater importance. The Triassic and 
Jurassic systems are met with only m scattered patches. The 
former con«iists of sandstones and clays, and the fossils found in 
them are chiefly plants, including Gangamof^ris and Macrotaeni- 
optcris, two characteristic genera of the Indian Gondwana system. 
The Jurassic beds are marls, sandstones and limestones, which 
contain marine fossils. The Cretaceous rocks take a far larger 
sl'.crc in the formation of the country. They form the greater part 
of the Sierra Madre Oriental and also cover most of the central 
plateau. They contr.in many fossils, including Hippurites and 
Ammonites. The sedimentary deposits of the Tertiary era do not 
occupy a very wide area. They occur, however, along the coasts, 
where they are marine, and also on the central plateau, where they 
are of lacustrine origin. But by far the most important of the 
Tertiary rocks are the volcanic lavas, agglomerates and ashes, which 
cover so much of the country. It is in the western half of Mexico 
that they are most fully develoixHJ, but towards the southern 
extremity of the plateau they spread nearly to the eastern coast. 
The eruptions are said to have begun with the ejection of syenites, 
diorites and diabases, which probably took place at the close of 
the Cretaceous or the beginning of the Eocene period. In the 
Miocene period andcsitcs of various kinds were erupted, while at 
the close of the Pliocene began the great eruptions of basalt which 
reached their maximum in Quaternary times and continue to the 
present day.> (P. La.)| 

Climate. — Mexico stretches across 17 parallels of btitude, with 
the Tropic of Cancer crossing her territory about midway. This 
implies tropical and sub-tropical conditions. The relief of the land 
and varying degrees of rainfall and vegetation, however, serve to 
modify these conditions in many important particulars. The 
elevation and extent of the great central plateau, which penetrates 



* See J. G. Aguilera, Sinopsis de geologia mexicana; " Bosquejo 
geol6gico de Mdxico," segunda parte, Bol. inst. gcol., Mexico, N(M. 
4-6 (1897), pp. 189-270. with map-ya summary of this paper will 
be found in Science Progress, new scries (1897). vol. i. ;i^. 6oqr<»^V 
Sec also the Lmtt-iuidt q1 lV« T<:ti\ii CJotM^. ^jfe^A. VoXKroaX. 
(J906;. 



320 



MEXICO 



deeply into the eropical half of the oountry. carry with them temper- 
ate and Hib-tropi(^l conditions over much the {[teater part of the 
republic. Above the plateau riie the marpoal sierras, while a few 
iaolated peaks in the region of perpetual snow give to Mexico a 
coastderable area of cold temperate and a trace of arctic conditions. 
Doranding to the lowlands on cither side of the plateau, the tempera- 
ture rises steadiljr until the upper limit of the tropical region, called 
tierras calientes, is reached, where the climate is hot. humid and 
unhealthy, as elsewhere in the forested coasul plains of tropical 
America. 

The tunas calientes (hot lands) of Mexico include the two coastal 
nmeSithe Isthmus (^Tehuantepcc. the states of Tabasco, Campeche, 
and part of Chiapas, the peninsula of Yucat4n and a part of eastern 
Oaxaca. The mean temperature ranges from 77* to 82* F., 
seldom falling below 6o\ but often rising to 105*. and in the sultry 
districts of Vera Crua, Guaymas and Acapuico to and even above 
no*. The rainfall is hea\^ in the south, except Yucat4n, but 
diminishes gradually toward the north, until on the Pacific and 
Gulf of Cauifomia coasts it ainost disappears. These lowland 
districts are densely forested in the south, except Yucat4n, and 
large areas are covered with streams, swamps and lagoons, the 
abode of noxious insects, pestilential fevers and dysentery. On 
both coasts yellow fever epidemics appear at frequent intervals. 
The great fertility of these regions ana the marvellous wealth of 
their ^ forests are irresistible attractions to industrial and com- 
mercial enterprise, but their unhealthiness restricts development 
and is a bar to any satisfactory increase in population. The heavy 
rainfall on the Gulf coast, however, which reaches a maximum of 
QO to too in. in the Huatusco district of Vera Crua. causes the 
flooding of large areas of lowlands, and will make improvement 
very difficult. The peninsula of Yucat&n, whose general level does 
not rise above 130 to 200 ft. above the sea. consists almost wholly 
of an open, dry, calcareous plain. The temperature ranges from 
66* to 89*, but the heat is tempered by the cool sea-breezes which 
sweep unobstructed across its plains. The rainfall is abundant in 
the rainy season, but in the long dry season it is extremely rare. 
In the wet season the rain is quickly absorbed by the dry, porous 
soil ; consequently there are no rivers and no lakes except near the 
forested region of the south-east. These exceptional conditions 
give to Yucat4n a moderately hot. dry. andcomparativelyhealthful 
climate. Another hot. dry climate is that of the tierras calientes 
of Sonora. The coast is low and extremely arid, and would be 
uninhabitable were it not for the proximity of the Sierra Madre. 
where a light rainfall is experienced, and for the numerous rivers 
that cross the arid belt between the mountains and the sea. The 
maximum temperatures in this region are 98* at Hermosillo and 
no* at Guaymas. 

To a large extent the climate of Mexico is determined by \Trttca1 
zones. According to H. H. Bancroft iRtsouTc/s of Mrxiio^ pp. 3-4). 
the tierras calientes, which intliude a rtaital zone y> la ^o m wid^ 
and the low-lying states already mentioned, riic from wa- level to 
an elevation of 3280 ft. The tterrtt ttirplado., or iub-trofntil #o^^. 
rises to an elevation of SS77 't r, and campriaes " the gneattr por( itina 
of Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n,i^Sdn LuitPotiiHln nearly half of Tam^uliptss^, 
a small part of Vera Cruz, nearly I he whale of Chiapj^, nt^^dy aU 
of Oaxaca, a large portion ol Cuerrtro, /alasco, Sinaloo and Sonora/' 
together with small parts of the inknd ataiei of Pucbb, Meiico, 
Morelos and Michoacin. The mean snnoal tenipcraiure is ubout 
75*. Above this is the i hfrrm fria. which ro ngcs from 557 7 lo ^ JOO 11 . , 
and includes all the higher portions of iht M^^jikan plateau, and 
which corresponds to the t4:'mpcTate TCgjton* of Central United 
States where frosts are vt-ry rartJy exptrirnced. Even here the high 
sun temperatures give -^ fttiii-rr.ir^ii-Al (-K-Tnf-frr tn tU-- .-f.mn*,^^ in 
the sierras, above the : " ' ' ! " at 

all. are the colder citma ■ rf al*. 

grazing and forest industries, and, farther up, the isolated peaks 
which rise into the regions of snow and ice. 

Speaking generally, the four seasons are clearly marked north of 
lat. 28* N. only. South of that parallel they merge in the esta- 
din de las aguas, or rainy season, from May to October, and the 
estaciin seca, or dry season, which prevails for the rest of the year. 
The rains generally begin on the east coast and gradually move 
northwards. The windward slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental 
receive the greater part of the rainfall, and the winds, deprived of 
their mmsture, pass over the northern plateau without further 
precipitation. On the Pacific coast the belt of calms, known as 
the northern horse btitudes, crosses the northern parts of Lower 
California and Sonora. which accounts for their extreme aridity. 
The southern terraces of the plateau have no high mountain barriers 
between them and the moist winds uf the Caribbean, and they too 
receive an abundant rainfall in the wet season, especially during the 
[wevalence of heavy " northers " on the Gulf coast. The precipita- 
tion varies widely, that of the western side of the northern plateau 
(Chihuahua and Durango) being about 39 in., that of the Valley of 
Mexkro about 25 in., and that of the whole republic 59 in. Long 
droughts are common in many parts of the country, and on the 
barren surfaces of the plateau the rains drain away rapidly, leaving 
but slight beneficial results. 

.^hra atid Fauna. — The types of animal and vegetable life found 
ia Mexico behng, ia m gcnenl xnte, to those of the northern temper- 



(FLORA Ah 



aie regioniH and ihoae of the tropical regions of Centn 
Ameriai+ The ereai central plateau and its borderi 
lorm an interm<?dLate territory in which these disnmiL 
found side by side, the tropical species extendins noitl 
the cooit to the United States, while the northern 1 
found thtrir vay to the sauthern limits of the plateau, 
and puma have found their way into the United Stati 
wolf, cDyDteH bear and beaver have gone far souths 
plateau, and the bufTalo was once found in large nut 
more favoured northern plains. This intermingling ol 
noi apply to eouth^easti^rn Mexii^o. where animal lite is 
by many of the yencra and ipt-cies found in the forest 
of the gpeat Am9Lt4:>n basin- 

A»[k from h\i origin, the fauna of Mexico includes 
!«pecic» of unonkty, the j^cuarn puma, ocelot {Felis pat 
coyote, lynXi bade?r» oitir (.Lvira felina), bcsiver. mi 
raccoon IfriKyoJt), eoiTi {Ncma), tapir, two specie! 
( DuotyUs isrquaius and D. labiatus), skunk {Mepkitis, J 
CtmffiaiHi}, mart en K several species of opossum (includ 
sipecies of the Tr^s Maria» i'&Eands). sloth, two species 
{Myrmtcopkaia ^r^radaetylu^ ai^d Cydothurus didact^m 
t,Dasyptis nevtmcitittiti)^ a small arboreal porcupine 
mexUanus), the k^nkajou {Cettdeptes caudivolvulus) , 1 
of dietr — the white- tailed Can^cus toltecus, the little 
hrockett C«ujuj fu^nuiy which is also found in Bra 
Sononi deter {Odmoiieui €oum\—i}\e Mexican bighorn 
ttxnui) of Chihuahua, at leaH two species of hare {Lept 
L. p<il%kAlr\s), rabbi li, LLack, gray, red and groun 
gaphera, and many sm^Ll rodents. Alligators, and a 
tiirmtroiJ» iri f h^ bgoon^ and rivers of the coast and the is 
found everywhere ihrou ghaut the tropical lowUnoi 
black CUnaivtn a^QnthfnHruf being partly arboreal in ha 
erowTi, MejiJcD is a ptradi^ of lizards, which are no 
diversity tn farm as well as f€>r their remarkable coloun 
and toadt atir reprewnied by vores of species, some c 
the tree-frogs {Hylidar}^ are extremely interesting. T 
are alio very nuincmus^ ran];in|$ from the comparativ 
boa^eonitrictor to the deadly " palanca " or " fer 
{Lackgiii Uinceifiaiui) and ratileuiake {Crotalus), of wh 
several upLicieiH In southern Mexico in 1902 and 1904 1 
rnllcfted fpeelmens of 44 different kinds of snakes, wl 
tnau-d to be only about 45% of the species in the st 
The arbort^al life of the ;mpieal forests has develop 
climbing ba^bit amciits ^n^kei^ as well as among frogs an 
alio the h^bii of mimicry, thtir colour oein^ in harm< 
foli^igc of bark of ttie trees which form their " huntit 
Bats ii re itumcroiii, both in species and individuals. Th 
vampwe {DfimodMS rujui) ha$ an extensive range 
iifrriis celiejilri and turras Umpiadas of the^ southern 
coasts of Mexico, together with their accessible lagoon 
afford innumerable oreedine-places for turtles, which 
large gr^en and tortoiso-shdl species. In some places 
of the latter is the nurc? of a considerable export trad 
«helL The coast of Lower California is a favourite r 
fur- bearing seal, and pearl oysters find a congenial k 
south waters ol the Gulf- There are some good fishin] 
the eo3tt$, but hahine as an organized industry dot 
The inland water*, witn the exception of Lake CnapaL 

Earatively few specie*, but the government has intn 
rook'trout and sjImon-trotitH 

Th;:: avifauna cf Meiico includes most of the species o 
and tern penile regions of America — such as parrots 
yellow -headed Qr^j^lij), parakeets {Conums canict 
{Ara maaao and Ar m^iiiaTVj), toucans, trogons. herons 
spoon bilK boat 'bill 1 {Can^roma), ducks, pelicans, 
bittefni, stilts, sandpipers* curlews, grackles, Idngfi^e 
" ChacHabcai " {Ortahda potiocfphah), woodpeclurs. j; 
" garrapateros " {Crotophti^a aukirostris), the ingenious 
(hietuM), and anoihtr «pi.-eie« iCassicus), whose curie 
sack like i^^is are BusfKnded from the slender limbs - 
iomefimen even from telegraph-wires. scarlct<rested 
{Mu^fitvui m^xitftnu.), innngeni, mocking-birds (called ' 
turkeys, partridfiCi fiuail (CnHnus, Lophortyx, Callipej 
tonyx), doves, pigeons, eaeles, caracara hawks (rMi 
hawks, falcontr crows, and turkey-buzzards (both t 
'" aura " ol North AmeriEia and the black-faced " zopi 
i,fop*cs>, which are the scaven|;ers of the country. The 
ouiv perhaps, are the humming-birds, of which thei 
genera and spwries, each one distinct in form and colov 
called "' huitzilin " {5i>ikelel) by the 'Aztecs, and " colib 
flor ^' and " chupa-miel " (flower- or honey-sucker), a 
mosca " f fly -bird] by the Spanish-speaking Mexic 
deflcriptive* namie^s are highly poetic, as also that of th( 
" brijii-flor *' ( flower- kisBCt) ; hut the hummine-bird is i 
and thrusts his long bill into flowers in search of inset 
honey, Mexico is credited with a great variety of so 
these are to be found chiefly in the partly ^forested « 
titrrai temptadaj and li^rfai ffuis. Her chief distinct! 
is in birds of varied and (^rrri^^cus feathering. The w 
mage of the " quetzal " ( rrogon resplendens) was, it is 



UXtA AND FAUNA] 



MEXICO 



321 



f tie Astec nilen for their own exclusive use. Of the indigenous 
■dSk the turkey has been fully domesticated, and the musk-duck 



• are easily reauxKl. Sea-fowl are most numerous 

n the coasts of Lower Calnomia, where certain islands in the arid 
ek are frequented at night by countless numbers of them. It 
nold be added that many of the migrating birds of North America 
MS the winter in Mexico. 

The insect fauna of Mexico covers a very wide range of genera 

id species which, like the other forms ot animal life, is largely 

ade up of migratory types. No complete studjr has ever been 

ade of this fauna, but much has been, and is being done by the 

S. Biological Survey and Plant Industry Bureau. To the traveller, 

e most cons^ncuous amone the Mexican insects, perhaps, are the 

itterflies, beetles, ants and the myriads of mosquitoes, midges, 

as and chinches. ^ Among the mosquitoes, which are extra- 

dinarily numerous in some of the hot lowland districts, are the 

ccies credited with the spread of malarial and yellow fevers. 

he midges are even more numerous than the mosquitoes. In 

easing contrast to such pests arc the butterflies of all sizes and 

lours, beetles of an inconceivable variety of size, shape and 

iloiuation, and ants of widelv dissimilar appearance and habits. 

D interesting' species of the Last is the leaf-cutting ant {Eciton) 

bicfa lives in large underground colonics and feeds upon a fungus 

xxluced by leaf-cuttings stored in subterranean pas.sages to pro- 

ote fermentation. These ants will strip a tree in a few hours and 

V very destructive to fruit plantations. Some of the native trees 

ivc developed ingenious methods of defence, one of which is that 

: attracting small colonies of another species to drive away the 

aiaudcTB. Most destructive, also, are tne termites or white ants, 

hose ravages are to be seen in the crumbling woodwork and fumi- 

ire of all habitations in the hot zones. Some species build their 

csts in trees — great globular masses sometimes three feet in 

lianeter. supported on the larger branches, and connected with the 

Houod by covered passages on the outside of the tree. These 

aaects are blind and avoid the light. Bees find a highly congenial 

b^tat in Mexico, and some honev is exported. Spiders are also 

icpRsented by a large number of genera and species, the most 

(headed being the venomous " tarantula " and the savage " mygale." 

Few countries, if any, can present so great a diversity in plant 

life as Mexico. This is due not only to its geographical position 

aad its vertical climatic zones, which give it a range from tropical 

to arctic types, but also to its peculiar combination of humid and 

uid conditions in which we find an extensive barren table-land 

inerpoeed between two tropical forested coastal zones. These 

widely divergent conditions give to Mexico a flora that includes the 

pma and species characteristic of nearly all the zones of plant 

■e on the western continents — the tropical jungle of the humid 

caiital plains with its rare cabinet-woods, dye-woods, lianas and 

pbs; tne semi-tropical and temperate mountain slopes where oak 

MRittare to be found and wheat supplants cotton and sugar-cane; 

ud above these the regnn of pine forests and pasture lands. Then, 

<Imr are the mangrove-fringed coasts and the dripping wooded 

liopes where rare orchids thrive, and above these, on the inland 

liiKof the sierra, a treeless, sun-scorched table-land where only the 

cactus, yucca, arid other coarse vegetation of the desert can thrive 

vitbout irrigation. 

For convenience of description, the flora of Mexico may be 
divided into four great divisions: that of the comparatively barren 
phtcau and the arid coast regions, the humid tierras calietUes, the 
vtcnoediate tierras templadas and tierras frias^ and the higher 
Rpoos of the sierras. The line of demarcation cannot be very 
dwply drawn, as the zones everywhere overlap each other and 
|k« climatic conditions f.:!-;L]> .,.,Ji:'>- pLiii: Ly^----^- I'l t,u.^,:-!. 
pe aspect of the great cc-nir.Lil pldreau fjorth oi thu An^hu^c ^itTr^s 
■ that of a dusty, treelesK^ pEAin. There is but Iktl? oaturinl vi^et^-^ 
^ to be seen— ragged yucca trees, nuny species of a^ave ^nd 
*^*(tus, scrubby mcsquite bushes, sage- pusiies and occjj^ionjiL 
^apsof coarse glasses. The i^iny scA%ityn comnleti'ly chanf^es the 
*P|)taianoe of these plains, new crasA appears, and wheat and 1 ndlan 
*ni are cultivated. The raioi do not Uat lone, howevcTn and frnme- 
^|>>ea (ail altogether. The mo^t common plants of the Mfiican 
wteau are the agaves, yucca* anil cacti, each of which is repint- 
*Wed by a number of ipccici. The first t* cliJcJly known m the 
•whhy the " magueys,^' from which the nalionai drinks " putqki^^ " 
•■d ** mescal " are extracted. There Is some CDnruiion in the 
^fo^ names of these airaves^ the '* pulque ^'-pnoducinj; plant h 
*^y detcribed as the .i^oiv amtricona, thaufh A. atrv^inns and 
•'•'sil others are also credited with the proauct. The niescal- 
Mndng magueys have \ ^ f . i . r leaf and are not cuUlvatedf with 
^exception of the spe< : ':■ ing^ the " tfjiuila " niescaL The 
^ value of the agaves, however, is in their fibres, of which a 
2^ variety is produced. The principal plateau agaves producing 
^ ue the i4. leckuguiUa and A. lophantha and A. univiUala ot 
** Jaumave Valley, Tamaulipas, which furnish what may be 
^■w the genuine ixtle fibre. The " tapemcte " fibre of western 
J^oeo is credited by Mr E. W. Nelson to the A. vroipara, which is 
1^ chiefly in the warmer and lower elevations of the Pacific 
•pe. There are many other fibre-producing agaves, including 
•■e of those from which pulque is derived. The cactus is un- 
I^MioQaUy the charactenatic plant of Mexica About one 



thousand species have been described, a very laige percentage of 
which are to be found on the Mexican plateau. 
Uni 



Exploratbns by botanists of the United States Department of 
Affriculture have been made in many localities, in Jal<sco, Zacatecas, 
Michoac&n and Tamaulipas, but many years must elapse before the 
whole ground can be covered. In central and ^uthcrn Mexico the 
mountain slopes arc forested up to 12,500 to 13,500 ft., juniper 
bushes continuing up to 14.000 ft. The forests consist oi several 
species of evergreen and deciduous oaks, "oyamcl " {Abies relitiosa). 
the arbutus or strawberry tree, the long-leaved Pinus lUtphyua and 
the short-leaved " ocote or Pinus montezumae and the alder, with 
an undergrowth of elder (Sambucus mexicana), broom and shrubby 
heath. In the Southern Sierra Madrc. the " oyamcl " and " ocote 
pine are the giants of the forest, sometimes rising to a height of 
100 ft. Oaks are to he found over a wide area and at lower cicva- 
tions of the sub-tropical zone as well. They arc represented by a 
number of species, and arc called " roblc " and " encina " by the 
natives. 

In the intermediate zones between the higher uerras and the 
tierras calietUes the flora a very largely composed of species 
characteristic of the .bordering hot and cold regions. Oaks are 
everywhere common and the ^' ocote " pine on the Gulf coast is 
found as far down as 6300 ft. In southern Mexico the pine b 
found at even lower elevations where the tropkral growth has been 
destroyed by cultivation and fire. The k>wcr slopes of the sierras, 
especially those of southern Mexico, arc well forested and include an 
immense number of species. The most common families on the 
eastern slopes, where tne precipitation is heavy, arc the magnolias, 
crotons, mimosas, acacias, myrtles, oaks, plane-trees and bamboos. 
Palms arc common, the chestnut abounds in many places, the cacti 
arc almost as numerous as on the open plateau. On the southern 
slopes of the Ajusco and other sierras considerable forests of the 
" atiuehuete " or cypress {Taxodium dislickum) are to be found. 
The " higuerilla "' or castor-oil plant {Ricinus communis) is widely 
distributed throughout the plateau and the open plains of the lower 
zones. In some locah'ties the characteristic types of the two 
climatic extremes, the palm and the pine, are to be found growing 
side by side. 

No brief description can adequately portmy the marvellous 
variety and magnificence of the nara of tlie Jitrrroj caJienia. Its 
forests are not composed of one or a few dominatirbi; species* as in 
the cold temperate zone, but of countless genera an<i species 
closely interwoven together — a confused ma\3 of ^nt tmtt lianas 
and epiphytes struggling to reach the sunlight. This ttm^le fcf 
existence has completely changed the habiti of some planis, tumina: 
the palm and^ the cactus into climbrri, and even »<ime normal 
speoes into epiphytes. Among the more impcrtant and conKik^uous 
trees of these tropical forests are mahognnvi roaewood, Spanls^h 
cedar (Cedrela), cassias, ceibas {Bambax). rubber {CastilliHi), palms 
of many species including the Dli-produdn^ A Haifa of MancaniUo 
and Acrocomia of Acapulco, guayacan (Gvauiium), laewood {HHtma- 
toxylon campeckianum), braztlwood (//. bortnle) which $hciij|d not be 
confounded with the Brazilian Cafjialffinta, palo bianco {LyiHima. 
Candida), the cascalote and divi-divi trees {Cofioipini^ii C^aloio 
and C. coriaria), the " zapote chica " {Achroi supttU^) from which 
chicle b extracted, " zapote prieto " (Dieipyros eSetuLsur). wild fig. 
myrtles, bamboos and many of the types aJrrady Rientioned in 
connexiofi with the sub-tropical zone. Of the 114 nwcK> erf tten 
and cabinet-woods, 17 of oil-bearing pUntSi and over 60 <^ juiediciral 
plants and dyewoods indigenous to Mexico, by far the larger part 
are represented in the tterras calientts. Amonj^ th« wclT-known 
forest products of this zone ai? arnotEni, jalap, ipecacuanha^ 
sarsaparilla, rubber, orchids and a great variety of gums. 

Of the economic plants and products of Mexico, the list b sur- 
prisingly long and interesting. The cercaU, fruits and vegetables 
of Europe have been introduced and some of them have done well. 
Wheat is widely cultivated and a considerable part of the population 
depend u{>on it for their bread. Indian com, which b believed to 
have had its origin in Mexico, also provides food for a large part of 
the population. " Tunas " or cactus fruit, red peppers, " zapotes " 
(the fruit of various trees). " arrayan " {Myrlus arayan), " ciruelas " 
or Mexican plums (Spondias), guavas, " huamuchil " iPitkec(^bium 
duke), tamarinds, aguacates (Fersca gratissima), bananas, plantains, 
pineappks, grapes, oranges, lemons, limes, granadillas, chirimoyas. 
mammccs {Mammea amcricana), coco-nuts, cacao, mangoes, olives, 
gourds and melons, are among the fruits of the country, and rice, 
wheat, Indbn com, beans, yams, sweet potatoes, onions and 
" tomatoes " (Physalis) are among its better-lcnown food products. 
The food of the common people is chiefly made up of Indian com, 
beans, red peppers and " tomatoes," There are about 50 known 
species of beans (Pkaseolus) in Mexico and Central America, and 
probably a dozen species of red peppers (Capsicum) which are u»d 
both in seasoning and in making ctiili sauce. The "tomato" or 
'\ tomatillo " mentioned, is the fruit of the Physalis ixocarpa, some- 
times called the " strawberry tomato " and the " Mexican ground- 
cherry," which b used with red peppers to make chih sauce. 
The common potato (Solanum tuberosum), of which wild varieties 
arc found, is not commonly used as a vc^ctabV&,W\.^%'^^V3^>^^'^lk 
for soups and othnr dishes. Ktnon^ oV\\ct wioxvotcvvc. \J^tv\% vt >>e» 
fibre-producing agaves, the bcsX Vudohiu cA H*\w\Oft \& >l>rr A. Tv^^An. 



322 



MEXICO 



fPOPULATIOH 



var. elonnUa which produces the "henequen" fibre, or sisal hemp, 
of Yucatan, silk or tree-cotton (C«i6a casearia), sugar-cane, cotton 
(Gossypium), indigo and " canaigre " {Rumex kymenostpalus) 
whose root contains a large percentage of tannin. 

Mexico has suffered much from the reckless destruction of her 
forests, not only for industrial purposes but through the careless 
burning of grassy areas. The denuded mountain slopes and plateaus 
of southern Mexico arc due to the prehistoric inhabitants who cleared 
away the tropical forest for their Indian corn fields, and then left 
them to the erosive action of the tropical rains and subsequent 
occupation by coarse grasses. Fire was generally used in clearing 
these lands, with the result that their arboreal vegetation was 
ultimately killed and their fertilitv destroyed. In the valleys of 
some of these denuded slopes oak and pine are succeeding the 
tropical species where fires have given them a chance to get a good 
foothold. 

Population. — According to the census of 1900 The population 
of Mexico numbered 13,607,259, of which less than one-fifth 
(19%) were classed as whites, 38% as Indians, and 43% as 
mixed bloods. There were 57,507 foreign residents, including 
a few Chinese and Filipinos. Since then the Japanese have 
acquired an industrial footing in Mexico. Under the constitu- 
tion of 1824 all race distinctions are abolished, and these diverse 
ethnic elements are nominally free and equaL For many 
years, however, the Indians remained in subjection and took 
no part in the political activities of their native country. Since 
about 1866, spurred on by the consciousness that one of their 
own race, Benito Juirez, had risen to the highest positions 
in the gift of the country, they have taken greater interest 
in public affairs and arc already making their influence felt. 
In southern Mexico the Zapotecas furnish schoolmasters for 
the village schools. Peonage, however, is still prevalent on many 
of the larger estates, and serious cruelties are sometimes reported. 
The government itself must be held i)artly responsible, as for 
the transportation of the mountain-bred Yaquis to the. low, 
tropical plains of Yucat&n (see Herman Whitaker's The Planter ^ 
Z90C), but the influence of three and a half centuries of slavery 
and peonage cannot be shaken off in a generation. 

According to Humboldt, the census of 1810 gave a total 
population of 6,122,354, of which the whites had 18%, the 
mestizos 22% and the Indians 60^^ The census of 1895 
increased the whites to 22%, which was apparently an error, 
the mixed bloods to 47%, and reduced the Indians to 31%. It 
is probable that the returns have never been accurate in regard 
to the mixed bloods and Indians, but it is the general conclusion 
that the Indians have been decreasing in number, while the 
mixed bloods have been increasing. Neglect of their children, 
unsanitary habits and surroundings, tribal intermarriage and 
peonage are the principal causes of the decreasing Indian popula- 
tion. Recent obser\'ers, however, deny the assertion that 
the Indians are now decreasing in number except where local 
conditions are exceptionally unfavourable. The death rate 
among their children is estimated at an average of not less than 
50%, which in families of five and six children, on an average, 
permits only a very small natural increase. The larger part 
of the population is to be found in the southern half of the 
republic, owing to the arid conditions prevailing in the north. 
The unhealthfulness of the coastal plains prevents their being 
thickly populated, although Vera Cruz and some other states 
return a large population. The most favourable regions are 
those of the tierras templaJas, especially on the southern slopes 
of the great central plateau which were thickly populated in 
prehistoric times. 

The dissimilar races that compose the population of Mexico 
have not been sufTiciently fused to give a representative type, 
which, it may be assumed, will ultimately be that of the mestizos. 
Mexico was conquered by a small body of Spanish adventurers, 
whose success in despoiling the natives attracted thither a 
large number of their own people. The discovery of rich 
deposits of gold and silver, together with the coveted commercial 
products of the country, created an urgent demand for bbourers 
and led to the enslavement of the natives. To protect these 
adventurers and to secure for itself the largest possible share 
/a these new sources of wealth, the Spanish crown forbade 
the admission of foreigners into these colonies, and then harassed 



them with commercial and industrial restrictions, burdened 
them with taxes, strangled them with monopolies and even 
refused to permit the free emigration thither of Spaniards. 
Out of such adverse conditions has developed the present 
population of Mexico. It was not till after the middle of the 
19th century that a long and desperate resistance to foreign 
intervention ' imder the leadership of Benito Ju&res infused 
new life into the masses and initiated the creation of a new 
nationality. Then came the long, firm rule of Porfirio Diaz, 
who first broke up the organizations of bandits that infested 
the country, and then sought to raise Mexico from the state-= 
of discredit and disorganization into which it had fallen. Sus- 



picion and jealousy of the foreigner is disappearing, and habitj 

of industry are displacing the indolence and lawlessness that 

were once universally prevalent. 

The white race is of Spanish descent and has the chazac^^ 
teristics common to other Spanish-American Creoles. Their — 
political record previous to liie presidency of Porfirio Dias^ 
was one of incessant revolutionary strife, in which the idle^. 
unsettled half-breeds took no unwilling part. The Indian. 
element in the population is made up of several datinct race s 
the Aztec or Mexican, Misteca-Zapoteca, Maya or Yucateco^ 
Otomi or Othomi, and in smaller number the Totonac, Tarasco^ 
Apache, Matlanzingo, Chontal, Mixe, Zoque, Guaicuro, Opau — 
Pima, Tapijulapa, Seri and Huavi. As the tendency amon^ 
separated tribes of the same race is to develop dialects and a^ 
habitat and customs tend still further to differentiate them » 
it may be that some of these smaller families are branches 
of the others. In 1864 Don Manuel Orozco y Berra found n^ 
fewer than 51 distinct languages and 69 dialects among th^ 
Indian inhabitants of Mexico, to which he added 62 eztincc 
idioms— making a total of i8a idioms, each representing ^ 
distinct tribe. Thirty-five of these languages, with 69 dialect^^ 
he succeeded in classifying under 11 linguistic families. A late v 
investigator, Don Francisco Belmar (Lenguas indigeiuu ^^ 
Mexico, Mexico, 1905), has been able to reduce these nuznerouk^ 
idioms to a very few groups. None of them were written ezccf^t 
through the use of ideographs, in the making of which tla« 
Aztecs used colours with much skill, while the Mayas used ^s.11 
abbreviated form, or symbols. 

The Aztecs, who called themselves Mejica or Mexicans af^ «r 
they had established themselves on the high table-land of MezL^:= o, 
belong to a very large family or group of tribes speakin gg: s 
common idiom called Nahua or Nah6a. These Nahua-q>eak.m^ 'Sf 
tribes were called the Nahuatbca, and compose a litUe im.^c3n 
than one-fourth of the present Indian population. They •*b'— l>it 
the western Sierra Madre region from Sinaloa southwardly to 
Chiapas, the higher plateau states, which region was the cear-sitre 
of their empire when Cort£s conquered them, and tmliw of 
V^era Cruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca, Morelos, Agmiscalientes ^ud 
San Luis Potosf. They were energetic and warlike and evide iKrslilx 
had not reached the zenith of their power when CortCs tt"" TOt- 
They had been preceded on the same plateau by the Chichinrsca^ 
possibly of the same race, who were conquered by the Aacf «i 
sometime in the X5th century after a supposed occupati(»ra of 
the territory about 400 years. The characteristic dviUxm-tke 
of prehistoric Mexico, however, antedates both of these perioA 

An Aboriginal race called the Toltecs is said to have occv/wk/ 
Vera Cruz and Tabasco and to have extended its empire west- 
ward on the plateau to and perhaps beyond the present capittL 
They were the builders of the pyramids of Choluls and TeoliJhi- 
acan, near the city of Mexico, and of Papantla, Huatusco and 
Tuzapan, in Vera Cruz. One of their towns was ToUan (now 
Tula) 50 m. north of the national capital, and it is not improb- 
able that the people of Cholula, Texcoco and TlaxcaU at the 
time of the Spanish invasion were occupying the sites of older 
Toltec towns. There has been much discussion in regstd to 
the origin of the Toltecs, some assuming that they were a distinct 
race, and others that they belonged to the Nahiutlaca. Another 
and perhaps a better supposition is that they belonged to the 
Maya group, and represented a much earlier civilization than that 
of the builders of Palcnque, Quirigua and Copan. Coafinnatoty 



fOUnCAL DIVISIOKq 



MEXICO 



323 



evidence of this is to be found, not only in the character 
of their constructions, but in the circumstance that a tribe 
doaely akin to tlie Blayas (the Huastecos) still occupies a retired 
mountain valiey of Vera Cruz, entirely separated from their 
kinsmen of the south, and that a dialect of the Maya language 
is stin spoken in northern Vera Cruz. There is evidence to 
show that the Aztecs adopted the civilization of the Toltecs, 
including their religion (Quetzalcoatl being a god of the Toltecs 
and Ma3ras), calradar and architecture. Perhaps the most 
remaxkable of the Mexican races are the Mayas, or Maya- 
Quich£ group, which inhabit the Yucat&n peninsula, Campeche 
tad parts of Tabasco, Chiapas, and the neighbouring sUtes 
of Central America iq.v.). The remarkable ruins of Palenque, 
Vzmal, Chichenitza, Lorillard, Ldnch^, Ukal, Copan and 
Quirigua, with their carved stonework and astonishing archi- 
tccttiral conceptions, show that they had attained a high degree 
of civilization. They were agriculturists, lived in large, well- 
built towns, cultivated the mountain sides by means of terraces, 
and had developed what must have been an efficient form of 
government. 

The Mistecas, or Mixtecas, and S^potecas, who occupy the 
footbem slopes of the central plateau, specially Puebla, 
liorelos, Oaxaca and Guerrero, form another distinct race, whose 
traditional history goes back to the period when the structures 
now known as MiUa, Monte Alban, Xochicalco and Zaachila 
were built. Their prehistoric civilization appears to have been 
oot inferior to that of the Mayas. They were an energetic 
people, were never subdued by the Aztecs, and are now recov- 
ering from their long subjection to Spanish enslavement more 
rapidly than any other indigenous race. The Otomis comprise 
I large number of tribes occupying the plateau north of the 
Anihuac sierras. They are a hardy people, Jand are the least 
dvOized of the four principal native races. 

The Totonacs inhabit northern Vera Cruz and speak a language 
(dated to that of the Mayas; the Tarascos form a small group 
living in Michoac&n; the Matlanzingos, or Matlaltzincas, live 
near the Tarascos, the savage Apaches, a nomadic group of 
tribes ranging from Durango northward into the United States; 
the Opata-Pima group, inhabiting the western plateau region 
from Sonora and Chihuahua south to Gxiadalajara, is sometimes 
daaaed as a branch of the Nahuatlaca; the Seris, a very small 
family of savages, occupy Tiburon Island and the adjacent 
'Finland of Sonora; and the Guaicuros, or Yumas, are to be 
found in the northern part of the peninsula of Lower California. 
In southern Mexico, the Chontales, Tapijulapas, Mixes and 
Zoques inhabit small districts among and near the Zapotecas, 
the first being considered by Belmar a branch of that family. 
The Huavis inhabit four small villages among the lagoons 
on the southern shore of Tehuantepec and have been classed 
by Belmar as belonging to the Maya stock. The census of 
189s S^ve these Indian races an aggregate population of nearly 
iAOOfioo, of which nearly 3,450,000 belonged to the first four 
IRwps. Three of these four had made important progress 
toward civilization. Some of the others had likewise made 
MUbk progress, among which were the Tarascos, Totonacs 
ud Zoques. 

The builders of Casas Grandes (q v.), in Chihuahua, evidently 
Hmged to the Pueblo tribes of Arizona and New Mexico. 
As (or the builders of Qucmada, in Zacatecas, nothing positive 
is known. The ruins apparently are of an earlier period than 
^ of Mitla and Xochicalco, and have no inscriptions and 
udatectural decorations, but the use of dressed stone in the 
*)&, rather than adobe, warrants the conclusion that they 
^i^oofiti to the civilization of southern Mexico. 

FrotD the recoids made at the time of the Spanish conquest, and 
JjW.lhe antiquities found in the abandoned cities of prehistoric 
'Icxico. it IS certain that the Indians lived in substantial houses, 
"'"nines using dreawd stone, inscriptions and ornamental carvings 
•the more pretentious edifices; they cultivated the soil, rudely 
PBreaps, and produced enough to make it possible to live in large 
^*itt; they made woven fabrics for dress and hangings, using 
^vMnin their manufacture; they were skilful in making and orna- 
*^Kiflg pottery, in making gold and silver ornaments, and in 
"■tkenrork; they used the Bbret that Nature lavishly provided / 



in weaving baskets, hangings, mats, screens and various househoM 
utensils. Copper was known to them, and it is possible that they 
knew how to make cutting instruments from it, but they generally 
used stone axes, hammers and picks, and their most dangerous 
weapon was a war-club into which chips of volcanic glass were set. 
Many of these primitive arts are still to be found in the more secluded 
districts, and perhaps the best work in pottery moulding in Mexico 
to-day is that of uneducated Indian artists. 

Of the half-breed element which has become so important 
a part of the Mexican poptilation, no safe estimate can be made. 
Education, industrial occupation, commercial training and 
political responsibility are apparently working a transformation 
in a class that was once known chiefly for indolence and criminal 
instincts, and many of the leaders of modem Mexico have 
sprung from this race. Settled government, settled habits, 
remtmerative employment and opportunities for the improve- 
ment of their condition are developing in them the virtues of 
the two parent races. Brigandage was formerly so common 
that travel without an armed escort was extremely dangerous; 
under President Diaz, however, not only has such lawlessness 
been repressed but the brigands themselves have been given 
regular employment as rural guards under the government. 
This class is also furnishing the small traders of the towns, 
overseers on the. plantations and public works, petty officials, 
and to some extent the teachers and professional men of the 
provincial towns. 

Political Divisions. — The republic of Mexico is politically 
divided into 27 states, one federal district, and three territories. 
The states are generally subdivided into distritos (districts) 
or ^arSidos, and these into municipios (mtmidpalities) which 
correspond to the townships of the American system. The 
state of Nuevo L^on, however, is divided into municipios only, 
while some other states tise entirely different titles for the 
divisions, the larger being described as departamentos, cantons 
and municipios, and the smaller as partidos, directorias and 
vecindarios ruralcs. The Federal District consists of thirteen 
municipalities. The territory of Lower California is divided 
into two large districts, northern and southern, and the latter 
into partidos and munidpios — the larger divisions practically 
forming two distinct territories. 

The states and territories, with their areas, capitals and popula- 
tions, are as follows: — 



Name. 


Area, 
sq. m. 


Pop. 
1900. 


Capital. 


Pop. 
1900. 


Aguascalicntes . 


i8!o87 


102,416 


Aguascalientes 


35.052 


Campeche . . 


86.542 


Campeche . . 
Tuxtla Gutierrez 


17.109 


Chiapas . . . 


27.222 


360,799 
327,784 


9.395 


Chihuahua . . 


87.802 


Chihuahua . . 




Coahuila . . 


63.569 


296,938 


SaltUlo . . . 


Colima . . . 


2,272 


65.115 


Colima . . . 


20,698 


Durango . . 


38.009 


370.294 


Durango . . 


l\% 


Guanajuato. 


".370 


1,061,724 


Guanajuato. 


Guerrero 


2d.996 
8.917 


479.205 
605,051 


Chilpancingo . 


7.497 


Hidalgo . . . 


Pachuca . . 


37.487 


Jalisco . . . 
Mexico . . . 


31.846 


1. 153.891 


Guadalajara. . 


101,208 


9.247 


934.463 
935.808 
160.115 


Toluca . . 


25.940 


Michoac&n . . 


22,874 


Morelia . . . 


37.278 
9,584 


Morclos . . . 


2,773 


Cuernavaca 


Nuevo Le6n . 


23.592 


327.937 


Monterrey . . 


62,266 


Oaxaca . . . 


35.382 


948.633 


Oaxaca . . . 


35.049 


Puebla . . . 


3^556 


1.021,133 


Puebla . . . 


93.152 


Qucr6taro 
San Luis PotosI 


232.389 


Qucrdtaro 
San Luis Potosf 


33.152 


25.3»6 


575.432 


61,019 


Sinaloa . . 


33.671 


296,701 


Culiac&n . . 


10,380 
10,613 


Sonora . . . 


76,900 


221,682 


Hermosillo . 


Tabasco. . . 


10,072 


159.834 


San Juan Bau- 




Tamaulipas. 


32,128 


218.948 


tista 
Ciudad Victoria 


:s;pi 


TIaxcala . . 


1.595 


172.315 


TIaxcala. . 


2o',388 


Vera Cruz . . 


29.201 


981.030 


M6nda ! *. '. 


Vucat&n . . 


35.203 


309.652 


t^z 


Zacatecas . . 


24.757 


462.190 


Zacatecas . 


Distrito Federal 


463 


54».5»6 


Mexico . . . 


344.721 


Territories:— 










Baja California 


58.328 


47.624 


La Paz . . . 


5.046 


Tcpic 


11,275 


150.098 


Tepic . . . 


V \^A^ 


Quintana Roo . 




— \^tvv^ ^rvix ^« 


\ 




1.420 


\ ^TViQ. 


\ """^ 


Islands . . . 


\ - \ 


\ 



\ 



3H 



MEXICO 



(COMMUNICATIONS 



The area and population of Yucatin include those of the territory 
of Quintana Roo, which formed part of that sute at the time of 
the census. 

Baja, or Lower California, is divided into two districts for 
administrative convenience. The Distrito del Norte is credited 
with a population of 7583 and has its capital at Enscnada (pop. 
JD36)t V\^ Dktrlta del Sur hu ^ poputjlton uf 40,041 and bai ^U 
capUai at La. Pox. 

Tepic was drtschcd from the north- w^t part of Jalisco and 
OTV^riixcd 3.S a. tPrriEory in 1&89. 

Qgintana Roo iras detached Irom tht ttate vi Yucat4a ifk t^M 
ana received a territaciAl Eovprnment, 

The principal, cities of Mvika, Oth^f Lhon the capitalj above 
mentioned, arr as fctllcTwa, the populnti^ons t>clng those 01 [900cxDirpc 
when oihcfwisc utatedt Ac*pulco (pop. ^^j?!. a famous port on 
the Pdcitic coast ifli Cm^trcro, which wm wrwktd hy (lnj evthqMakc 
of 1909; Ci^i'mt^n, ot L^gi^ina dc T^rminoa ^ About 6(xki}h a thnvuig 
commcrtiaj town and port on the Culf etKut in C^mpt^zhe; CeLayA 

{15,565), a railway centre and monufjctLinn^ town of GuAnajtiato; 
riucaq Gurman, or Zapotli^n (about I 7,S0(>)f an interesting otd iawa 
cf ralisco; CholuEa {at>Dut gooo), nn ancK^nt native town of t'u?bla, 
wioety tnown for its jfirat pyramid; ComiLan (9316), thccorntnrn'Ul 
centre of Chiapas; Cordoba i7974 in iSajL a pi<:tijivsctue Spanish 
town irt the aiKvTAn oi Vcfti Crui; Cuautla (6J69), tht centre of a 
ri;:h tuEar-pfodurirtg district of Mnrttca; Giiaymaa (M4«)( a Hoariili' 
tug fwrl nf &onora on the Gulf of CalLfomla ; Lton i62tb2j)^. the Liir(je;»t 
city In Guanajuato and diatin^i^ed for it« commercial activity, 
manufatturesi and wealth; I.inarts (20,6*^0}^ the SDC^uid city of 
NoevoLeiSn in uec and importance; Atatamoros {^^4,7), a prominent 
commercial centre and rivcj- port of Tanuyliiias; MitatfAti f J7,85J), 
the foremost Mexican port on the Pacific co^t; Ori^iba {p,8^), 
I city of Vera CrujE fain>7U9 for ifs dtliifhtful diinatc and pictureique 
iurrounding»: Parrel (14^74!^)^ a M'^dl-koown mining centre of iouth- 
emChihualiu^; S^n Cristobal (about it.OiM}}, once capital of Chiapas 
and ricli in histEUticat n^wciationi; Tampico (16,31 j), a Gulf port 
und railo^y terminus of Tanj^ulipas; Tchuantcpec (io,j3il>j, the 
largest town on the Tehuantrpcc mil way in O^Mca; Vera Crm 
(39,164), the oldest and best known Gulf port of Mexico. 

Ommunications. — Railway began in Mexico with a line of four 
kilometres between the capital and Guadalupe, which was finished 
in 1854 and afterwards became a part of the Ferrocarril Mexicana 
The latter dates from 1857, when a conccssbn was granted for the 
construction of a railway from the city of Mexico to Vera Cruz. 
The French invasion of 1862 found only 10 m. in operation outside 
of Vera Cruz and military needs led to its immediate extension to 
Paso del Macho, at the foot of the sierras, about 3^ m. At the same 
dme the English company holding the concession extended the 
Guadalupe line to Puebia. Nothing more was accomplished until 
after the downfall of Maximilian, and with a liberal subsidy from 
the Mexkan government the Ferrocarril Mexicano was pushed to 
its completion in 1873. It b celebrated because of the diificulties 
overcome on the precipitous eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre, 
the beauties of the mountain scenery through which it passes, and 
the rapid transition from the hot, humid coastal plain to the cool, 
arid plateau, 7924 ft. above the sea at Boca del Monte. The railway 
extends 363 m. between Vera Cruz and Mexico City, to which 58 m. 
were addra in branches from Apizaco to Puebia, and from Ometusco 
to Pachuca. The line was capitalized at $46,000,000 and has paid 
a good profit on the investment. The period o( a- '. . "' . con- 
stniction, however, did not begin until 1878, durin^^ Li?., [ic-i i.Em of 
President Porfirio Diaz. In 1874 a conccssbn Uiis granfi.^ for a 
line from the port of Progreso to Mdrida (22 1 m.), and in 1 @^S four 
concessions were added under which 806 m. ^i-i^e constructed. 
The principal of these four concessions was the FL-j-rocami Intw- 
oce&nico running from Vera Cruz to Mexico City and across the 
republic toward Acapulco. In 1880 concessions «vre >^.f3.mtd to the 
F.C. Occidental, F.C. Central Mexicano, F.C. ^ ' ' -licano 

and three others of less importance, aggregating nearlv 3500 m. 
The first three of these have become important factors in the develop- 
ment of Mexico. The first runs southward from the capital to 
Oaxsca through the rich sub-tropical states of Puebia and Oaxaca, 
and the other two run northward from the same point to the 
American frontier. These two lines, popularly called the Mexican 
Central and Mexican National, have their northern termini at 
Ciudad Ju&rez and Laredo on the Rio Grande and connect with 
American trunk lines at El Paso and Laredo. These two great lines 
were merged in 1908, with an aggregate capital of $460,000,000 Mexi- 
can money, of which the Mexican government holds $230,004,580, or 
a controlling interest. Important branches of these lines extend 
to Tampico on the Gulf coast, to Manzanillo on the Pacific coast, 
and westward and southward into Michoac4n and Guerrero, with 
a coast terminus at or near Acapulco. The next important line 
b the F.C. Intemacional Mexicano, running from Ciudad Porfirio 
Diaz, on the Rio Grande, south-westward across the plateau to 
Durango, and is to be extended to Mazatl&n, on the Pacific coast. 
This line was built with American capital and without a subsidy. 
Another line built with American capital and in connexion with 
American railway interests extends southward from Nogalcs. on the 
northern frontier, to Hermoaillo, Guavmas and MazatlAn; it is to be 
extejfdvd to CiudaUjan aad possibly to other points in toulhiexu 



Mexico. Monterrey is connected with Tampico by a Belgian lint 
known as the F:C. de Monterrey al Golfo Mexicano, and the capital n 
to have direct connexion with the Pacific, other than the F.C 
fntctocE^^nioo, by a line through Cuemavaca and Iguala to the coast. 
1 ndiiecLly the capital has a Pacific coast connexion by way of Cor- 
doba and the F.C. Vera Cruz al Pacifico to a junction with the 
Tehuantcpcc line. One of the most important railways in Mexico 
ii the F.C. Nacional Interoceinico de Tehuantepec, also called the 
Tehuantcpec National, and the Mexican Isthmus railway, which is 
193 tn, long and was formally opened in 1907. This fine crosan 
tile Isthmus of Tehuantepec From Coatzacoalcoa (officially Puerto 
Mejtico) 00 the Gulf coast to Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast, and 
hai bfsn under construction many years. The railway was first 
completed in 189a, but light and defective construction, together with 
lack of shipping facilities at its terminal points, rendered it uselesSi 
To rofirct these defects the line was completely rd>uilt and tenniaal 
porU cc^nainicted. In 1909 the ports were ready to receive larg* 
ocean ste^amships, and regular traffic was begun, including cargoes 
of Hawaiian sugar for New York. The highest point 00 the line 
(Chivtia P,^ss) is 735 ft. above sea-level. The railway has been built 
by the Mexican government as a transcontinental route for inter- 
national commerce. Its final construction together with that of its 
two porta were executed by S. Pearson & Sons, Ltd., of London, sHw 
Aiso undertook the working of the line when open. It was estimated 
in iw>7 tl^nt the total cost of the railway and ports when completed 
would be about £13,000,000. The line is connected at the station of 
5anta Lucnxia (10^ m. from Salina Cruz) with the Yen Cruz and 
Pacific railway which gives an all-rail connexion with Vera Cruz 
and Meuco City, the distance between the letter and Salina Cnu 
being 5fO tn. Accordins; to the President's Message of April 191:^ 
thcfe were 14,857 m. of railway in operation, of which 11^^51 m. 
belDFtged to or were controlled by the govi^nment. tt is the evidcni 
policy of the Mexican government to prevent the ab»rptiDn ti its 
mllwayi by private monopolies, and thu, \a eStct&l by state ownei^ 
ihjp of a controlling share in most of ttie trunk lino. 

Mejcico ii well provided with tramway lines in it* lamr dtRet. 
A Briiiih consular report for 1904 stated that Mcmm City and 
Tomron only were using electric tmction. but that Guadalajan, 
MciTitemry. Aguascalientes, Laeos, CipJitra, Vera Crui and San Luii 
Pot{3?fl would soon be using it. No offit lA rtpoi t c anr a va i] ^hW. Tbe 
telegraph lines had an aggregate letir^, <:i ^^i/j-^'-" -t n* («v ^r* ri 
tgio;, of which 33,000 m-Mlongedtolhenatioiialgoyenunent. The 
Prenidont reports an addition of i6a6 m. in 1908. Wirdesa tde* 
^raphy was represented in 1908 by a connexion between Mazatlia 
and Lower California, which was in successful operation. Telepbooe 
|[nes wcTir in use in all the large cities and in connexion with the large 
industrial enterprises and estates, beskie which the government had 
500 [fu of its own in 1908. 

CommtTfx. — In 1005 the mercantile marine of Mexico comprised 
only 33 steamers, of 13,199 tons, and 29 sailing vessels, of 8451 tons. 
The ocean-carrying trade was almost whdiy in the hands of 
foreifrnen, the government wisely refraining from an attempt to 
dn-clap an occupation for which its citizens had no natural apatude. 
The coastwise trade is principally under the Mexican flag, out the 
steamen are owned abroad. An official publication entitled 
" Mciika : Yesterday and To-day, i87fr-i904," sutes that while the 
nuTTit>tr al -iteamers engaged in the foreign trade increased from 841 
to 969 in the 17 years from 1886 to 1003, the number of Mexican 
steamers dccrca «ed from 55 to 4. For the year 1906-1907 the entries 
of ve«&eU from foreign ports numbered 1697, of ^,282,125 tons, and 
the cleanini:r5 «'cre^ 1669, of 3,257,932 tons. SuDventiona are paid 
for rrgylar stt-jniship service at the principal porta, the total expen- 
diture in (907- [Q08 being £42,876. These ports are well saved by a 
large nurciber af foreign steamship companies, which nve direct com- 
iitunicatiDn with the principal ports of the United atatea, EumpCb 
and the west coast of South America, and the initiation of a Jananoe 
line in 190A also brings Mexico into direct communicatiaa 
with the far East. The larger ports for foreign trade are Vera 
Cniz,^ Tampico, Progreso, Carmen and Coatzacoalcoe on the Gulf 
CK^kst. ajid Guaymas, La Paz, Mazatl&n, Manzanillo, San Blas^ 
Acapuka and Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast. Some of the s e 
Vera Crux, Tampico, Coatzacoalcos, Salina Cruz, Manzanillo and 
Ma£,ttl^n — have been greatly improved with costly port worka. 
Aitioni; the smaller ports, some of which are open to foieign trade, 
are Nfatamoroit, TuicpAi, A*. ■• ■ ■. T* j ..^'*,. . ,,, T. , , ... . ^Am^ 
pec he and the island of Muji'rvii ni'jjast ot Vuratanji on me uoM 
flide. and Enscnada, Alttiia, Santa KossUa and Soconuaco on iW 
Facific 

The foreign trade has shown a steady increase duiiftf the ptncd 
of iaduitriafdcvcFopnient. to wHith better mean^ of tcin^pon fai^^ 
been an Invaluable aid. In 1906-1907 the impon* w^n valued *t 
Sui,?j,4,Q6a t'.S, cold, and the expiorti at $1^^,512,969, of »hich 
VL^r!r' ntf^rly one hi^ff eon^sted of predoufi metals. Accordine lo in 
dBid^i rL-poit i^ui.'d early In 1909 there had been a hea\^ decrease 
in bflih impdrtji and ejcport^s the former being returned Jt *36,I9Sf4^ 
and Lht LiLter at 1^,300,996 for the tin. months ending Uu: ^tit « 
DecciTitfCT igo& Too rapid d«rlr>pment and overtrnding wh^ P^y** 
a* n^aitGnsi for this dee line. Innp<:>rt aivi export dutift art kiird. 
the former in many cases for the protection of national industrink 
The imporu largely insist of railway material, industrial 1 — ^-—^^ 



LTURC3 



MEXICO 



32s 



t and linen textiles and -yaras for national factories, 
furniture, building material, mining supplies, drugs and 
wines and spirits, wheat, Indian com, paper and military 
nd eauipment. The exports include gold, silver, copper, 
aequen or sisal, ixtle and other fibres, cabinet woods, 
iber and other forrst products, hides and skins, chickpeas, 
id sugar. 

wre. — ^The agricultural resources of Mexico are large and 
varied, as they comprise some of the cereals and other 
nets of the temperate zone, and most of the leading pro- 
he tropics. Agriculture, however, received slight atten- 
g to the eaHy development of the mining industries. An 
suit of the industrial development of Mexico, which began 
\ last quarter of the 19th century, has been an increased 
I agriculture, and especially in undertakings requiring 
itjncnts of capital, such as coffee, su^r and rubber planta- 
largc part 01 the country is too arid for agriculture, and 
irrigation the water supply b sufficient for only a small 
t dry area. This region nas, for the most part, a temperate 
ad produces wheat, barley, Indian com and forage crops. 
ghts often destroy the wheat and Indian com and compel 
rtation in large quantities to supply the people with food, 
tainty in the wheat crop cxtcnas to the soutnem limits of 
' plateau, and u a serious obstacle to the increased pro- 
this cereal. Indian corn, also, is a comparatively uncer- 
ict on the plateau, and for the same reason. As it is a 
I with the poorer classes, the deficiency is made up through 
►n. These drawbacks tend to restrict agriculture on the 
comparatively limited areas, and the country people are, 
, eaLtrtrirn. . ; . . . ; . ., nouri&hcd. \ -■- .,: ii^cly 

irt in ihi^ i^kii-Mi- i^ \\\^\ ul rdjuigrt, which \:, -^wjww un ih? 
nd in its ixtot. it is a 11:1 Etve of th'e arid regions and ii m>\v 
with tucctu. The district ^baut P^irras,^ in southern 
produrei ^rapes^ which are principally used vd (he manu- 
vinf and brandy. An important product of the plalcau 
\ open dii&tricla of the /i>rrai csditniti^ growine in the mo^t 
«, is the *" nop^l " nr prickJy pear cactus KUpunlm ficuj 
its tmiti called *' tuna " by the natives^ is refneiiriing 
!»me and h a staple fi»d in spke of 'm fipiny coverine. 
ras iiUifftt£i of Mc4:ico» howtver» better condiiionii prr^'ail. 
oil, abijndant raJififaH and high tdnperatuirei havo covcrefj 
ntaJn slopc^st and lo*Uod pliin* witli a wealth ol vegetation, 
era for thr agriculturist hert is not irrieatiun, bm drainage 
nf down ^potttaneout growths. \n tnc^« rv^lonsi sugar, 
todisa, cacao, rice, sweet potatoes, albKa, beans and 
n: produced, and Indian c^rn fields two and thirc cn>p« a 
uits al-so arB plentifuU both wild and euttivalcd^ Annonff 
the barmna, pbnt;iin, tuna+ chUi pepper, olive, tocw-nut, 
rmon, lime, mangD, pomegranate, ' pina *' or pineapple 
cultiv-atedK fig, ahuacail {Prrsfa itiiiisiimti), chirimoya 
kirim^lin), papay^, gourd, melon, guavn. cirueta (plum), 
KTeral " z^pole " fruits, including *' chico zaciotc ' from 
u ^fiola, wnkb produces the " chicta "^ or chick-gum of 
^ " lapote bianco" from the Cajimirpa fdviis^ " hi pole- 
" (or amarillo ''} Irom the Liu.uma iolkifoiiii, " zapote- 
ur " ne^ro ") fiom the Diospyres obtusjftfiio, and " la pot e- 

The production of rubber is becoming an important 
Urge planutton? having been set with both i/rwd and 
r\(bpcr tfces. Lying between these two rc|[ions is the? 
il belt where coRee of an ejtcelient quality is produced, 
c fottqn la cultivated. Coffee ha a become an important 

fxr-" , ^- :' r i"n fi^-^---- r-'t '.'■■■!-l p^^'^-n-H ^i"- !hn ri^^ifinf-itic 

• ■ I , ' , • apul 

! it an article of export. A 'peculiar and highly profitable 
f Mexican agriculture is the cultivation of the Agave for 
ly different purposes — one for its fibre, which is exported. 
>ther for its sap, which is manufactured into intoxicating 
ailed " pulque " and " mescal." In Yucalin immense 
n% of the Agave rigida var. elongata are cultivated, from 
ge quantities of " hcnequ6n " or " sisal," as the fibre is 
e exported. It is produced on light shallow soils overlying 
s nxrk. It is also cultivated in Campcche and Chiapas, 
ue industry is located on the plateau surrounding the city 
>, the most productive district being the high, sandy, arid 
ipam, in the state of Hidalgo, where the " maguey " {Agave 
V) finds favourable conditions for its growth — a dry cal- 
urface with moisture sufficiently near to be reached by its 
s culrivation is the chief industry of the states of Mexico, 
Puebla and TIaxcala. Of the 308 plantations in the 
iidalgo in 1897, 129 were devoted to maguey. The plant 
ated from suckers and requires very little attention after 
ting to the field where it is to remain, but it takes six to 
rs to mature and then yields an average of ten gallons of 
\g a period of four or five months, after which it dies. 

is the fermented drink made from this sap: " mescal " 
tilled spirit made from the leaves and roots of the plant. 
i other agaves used both in the production of drinks and 
It they are not cultivated. The " ixtle " fibres shipped 
npico and Chiapas arc all obtained from the agaves and 
und growing wild. 



The natural and forest prcxlucts of Mexico include the agave and 
yucca (ixtle) fibres already mentwned: the " ceib6n " fibre derived 
from the silk-cotton tree (Bombax pentandria) ; rubber and vanilla 
in addition to the cultivated producu; palm oil; castor beans; 
ginger: chicle, the gum extracted from the " chico-xapote " tree 
{Ackras sapota); logwood and other dye-woods; mahogany, rose- 
wood, ebony, cedar and other valuable woods; " cascalote " or 
divi-divi; jalap root {Ipomaea); sarsaparilla (Smilax)', nuts and 
fmits. 

Stock-raising dates from the earliest Spanish settlements in Mexico 
and received no slight encouragement from the mother country. 
For this reason much importance has always been attached to the 
industry, and stock-raising of some sort is to be found in every 
state of the republic, though not always to a great extent. The 
Spaniards found no indigenous domestic animals in the country, 
and introduced their own horses, cattle, sheep and swine. From 
these are descended the herds and flocks of to-day, with no admix- 
ture of new blood until toward the end of the 19th century. The 
horses and cattle are of a degenerate type, small, ungainly and 
inured to neglect and hard usage. The horse is chiefly used for 
saddle purposes and is not reared in large numbers. The mule is 
more ^nerally used in every part of the country, being hardier, 
more intelligent and better adapted for service as a draft and pack 
animal. The transport of merchandise and produce was wholly 
by means of pack animals before the advent of railways, and is 
still the common means of transport away from the railway lines. 
For this purpose the sure-footed mule is invaluable. In tome dis- 
tricts, however, oxen and ox-carts are employed, especially in the 
southern states, and always in the open, level countiy. The varying 
climatic conditions of Mexico have produced brceos of cattle that 
have not only departed from the original Spanish type, but likewise 
present strikingly different characteristics among themselves. 
Those of the northern plateau are small, hardy and long-lived. 

tomed to long joumeys in H-A/ch of water and pasture^ In the 
Eouth they arc larger and better nourished, owing to the permancat 
{rharjcter of the pasturage, but hfq Icis vigorous uerauK ol the h^t 
and insect plagucK. tn Vucatin the open plain^i rich pasture, and 
comparative freedom fram moist heat, inicctt and vampire t^tt* 
have been particularly favourable to cattle^rai^ing, and the animaU 
are generally rated amang the best in Mexico- Notwithstanding 
the frequency of long, destructive droughts, cactIlf^-raUiing !» a pre- 
f erred industry among the landowners of the northern states, and 
especially nenar the American frontier. Aimott total lo$$cs are 
frequently experienced, but the profits of a favourable year arc so 
great that Ias»s seldom deter ranchers from trying agaui. Iti the 
sierra regions of n-eatem Chihuahua and Duranco, Nutvo Lc6n, 
CoahuiLa^ Aguascalicntei., San Lui* FotosI, and the pUEcau states 
farther south, the rainfall is mere abundant and the conditiond more 
favourable. The Largest herds are to be found in Chihuahua and 
Durango. Above 5000 ft. the wild pasturage Is short, tender and 
reproduces itself annually, U ts exteptionaity nutritious, but it 
disappears altogether in the dry season tieeau» of its short roots. 
The lowland! pasture, from jooo to 5000 ft., ts composed of more 
vigofou* gms^iesi with an undrrgfowlh of an eiceptionally succulent 
character. The stock raiser on the border pastures his herdj on the 
uplands during the rainy seawnt and oti the bwer paituirrs during 
the TCtnainder of the year. Ncit in importante is ihe brveding 01 
sheep, which is largely coi^fined to the cooler siem* disiricis. They 
are commonly of the Spani&h merino breed, and sulTcr in many 
looilitict on account of in^iufficient pasturage. Some attjfntion is 
given to the breed I rig of ^oal* because of the local demand for tbdr 
skins, but the industry w appanfntJy sUtionary. The raising of 
swine, however, it increasing, (rt the lust decade of the icjth cen- 
tury the capital invested in U\tse li\i^-stock industries wai estimated 
(by Bancroft J to exceed f 700,000,000, but £kn official return of the 
ioth of June 1 901 gave an segregate valuation of only f iTO,5J^,l^S 
f Mexican), or about 111,052,316. According to this report, which ii 
not s.irictly trustworthyt there were in the republic 5,14^457 cattle, 
S59.3t7 horses, 3^4-4^5 mules, 387.991 asses, 3,474,430 sheep* 
4,206,01 1 goats and Cift,tii5 swine. Two year* later home consump- 
tion retumi noted the tlaushier of 758,058 cattle fi?9,9jS in the 
Federal District), 561,0^^ sheep, 991,263 goals and &a7,l30 hdgs^ 
the bit item being larger than the ccniU'i return of 1903, The 
greater part is cofiiymed in the <:<.■'•■■■". i-...i ;!.. :, i , , ..n.-iderable 
export of cattle to the United States, Cuba and Central America, 
and of hides and skins to the United States and Europe. A few 
mules are sent to Central America, but the home demand usually 
exceeds the supply. 

Other Industries. — ^There are no fisheries of importance except the 
pearl fisheries on the eastern coast of Lower California, and the 
tortoise fisheries on the coasts of Campcche. Yucat&n, and some of 
the states facing the Pacific. The pearl fisheries have been worked 
since the arrival of the Spaniards, and were once very productive 
notwithstanding the primitive methods employed. Since the closing 
vears of the last century pearl fishing in the Gulf of California has 
been carried on with modern appliances axvd VseXXtt t«»:\\%\si "ww 
English company under a conccssXon Vrom X.\« ^overcvttvwvv. \^q"^«- 
of-pearl or abalone and other %\\e\\s are aXso VoutvA, wvA»^\xV wjo«B^ 
are exported. Fiahins tot th« toctoVamktfd^ X>xt^ V^«» tsckv^^rsi^w®- 



326 



MEXICO 



fpOHsmvmo^ 



to a Uuve number of natives In the teaaon, and considerable quan- 
titles CI the shell are exported. Other industries of a desultory 
character include the collection of archil, or Spanish moss, on the 
western side of the Califomian peninsula, hunting herons for their 
plumes and alligators for their skins, honey extraction (commonly 
wild honey), and the gathering of cochineal and nt-in insects. The 
<;ochtneal insect was once an important commercial product, but the 
industry has fallen into decay. The " ni-in " (also known as " axe ") 
b a small scale insect beloneing to the genus Couus, found in 
Yucatan, Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Michoac&n and other southern states, 
where it inliEkbiis the spondia trccf^and pv*.'<\! ■ s-y siLbstance 

called "' ni'inc;!,*' which is much UMrtJ by ih'- v,n\:.. j,§. a. vamUb* 
eipecUIIy fardomE>«tic uicrn^ilt, as it n:^sts fire ^s \vv\[ a& water. 

Mining. — The bcst^Ecnc^wn and moat pfoductive of the industries 
qI Mcxicq a that of niLnin^r It was the chitrt objf?ct of Spanish ex- 
ploratiQiiH and the prij;ci[jal «:Cupatii:»n of European refridents and 
OLpitaJ during thm: ccnturi^ d1 Spanrah rule. Agricultural and 
pa^tOfaL indubtii^ gradually gained foothalds hvrc and there, and 
m tiEnc became importajit, but mining continued far in advance 
until near the end of the J^th century. MincE of bome dcscripiion 
are to be found in ibof the ji itatcs and tcrritcrics, nnd of these the 
great majority yitld ailvcr. Accardingto the official rccordB^ therr 
were n^isttrcd in S^fptembcr iejo6, ^3.191 mining properties, of vhkh 
very [iiMrly 6ve-$UTh$ were descrilred a^ producing silver, either 
by iiieHf or in combinatiori with other metaJ^, The properties were 
cLi»5cd as 1573 gold, S46t silver, 970 copper, 383 iron, 151 mercury 1 
94 Icjrf, 8t> suTp^ur, s? antimonyf 49 iLnc, 4ej i>n, 3i opals, 9 man- 
KAnci-e, 6 " sal serrUl, 5 tDurmaliflc&^ 1 bumuth and I turquoise — 
the remainder being variouA combinatiana of these minerals. The 
abxncc of coal from ttii^ h^t is due to the circumstance that coal 
mines were at thnt tiEnc coniiUcred a& private property and Were 
not registertd under tbe general mining law*. A comparison with 
ifll^i']A89> when 89:^0 profwrtie* were regiitcied, will show haw 
rapidly the mining induftrie$ have been developed durinj^ that 
period. Beildca the above, the mineral rewurces df Mejuco include 
coal^. petroleum, asphalt, nUtlnuiTi> graph ite» &ada and marble. In 
1906 the productive inin«4 tmrnbcrwd 1786, of which 491 were in 
Sonona^. iSi in Chihuahua> lit to Duraneo, ttji in Oaieaca and 105 
in Nuevo Leon. Gold is found in Chihuahua, Durango, Guana- 
juato, Ouerrejo, Jab^o, Mejcico, Moreloi, OaKaca^ Puebia, Sinai oa, 
Sonora,. Vera Crut, Zocaieca** and to a limited extent in other 
stat(»; silver in every stale and territory except Cam pre he, Chiapas, 
Tabasco. Ttaxcala and the Vucat^D peniniula; copper in Lower 
California, Guanajuato, Guerrero, Jalisco* Miehoac^n, Sonora, 
Tamaulipaj and mme other itM<:*; mercury chiefly in Guanajuato, 
GucTTEro, San Luis Totosl, Vera Cruz and Zacatecas; tin in Guana- 
juato i coal, petroleum and aj.phalt in ao states, but chiefly in 
Coahuila,. tlidalgo, Michoac&n, Oaiaca, Puebla, Sonora* Tabasco, 
Tama u Upas and Vcm Crut; Iron in Durango, HEdaljjfo, Oaxaca and 
other states; and lead in HidAlgo+ QuerSiaro and in many of the 
silver- producing dtstrici*. The iflost celebrated iron dcpailt h that 
ot the Ccrrrj del Mcrtado, in the ouLskirts of the city of Durango 
— a mountain 640 ft, in height, t too in breadth, and 4800 in lengtn, 
reputed to be almost a soKtl mass of iron. Laree masfipes of the me tat 
are also said to cjtlst in the sierra* of Lower CalLfomia. The prin- 
cipal coalfields that have been developed are in the vicinity of 
Sabioaa, Coahuila. They have been opned up by American capi- 
talists and the coal is used on the railways pajumg through that 
region. Mexican coal is of a low grjiie— 9iiniiar to that found in 
Texai, but aa an ofhcial gwlfgical report qf 1908 atimatea the supply 
in sight at 300,000,000 toos its industrial value to the country cannot 
be considered inferior to that of the preelouj metals. The same is 
true of the petroleum deposit* in Taniauljpa#, near Tampico, and in 
southern Vera Crui, An investigation by the U.S. GeioWical Survey 
in 1909 finds that the crude Mexican oils a^e of low grade, but that 
while not equal to tho« found in the upper Mississippi basin for 
refining ptirpo«rs, they furnuh an excellent fuel for railway engines 
and other industrial purpo^ Many of the Mexican railways 
arc using these fuel oik which are superseding imported coal. In 
1909 a *tII was opcntd in the touthern ollGeld} whose yield was 
equal to the best American product. 

AfanH/ac^rBrrjF.— Although Mexico is usually dcwrrilKd as a non- 
man u lac tu ring country, its industrial development under President 
Porfirio Uiai will warrant some modhflcation oi this characterLstion. 
Manufacturing for international trade has not U^n and may never 
be reached, but the induntvy c*:rtalnly has rearhed the stage of meet- 
ing a great part of the home demand for manufactured Eood*, where 
the raw materiali can be produced in the counlfy. There were of 
cour«! some crude industries in CKisECncc before the arrival of the 
Sipaniafd^, such as weaving and dyi:ring of fabrics made ffoiti various 
fibres, and making earthenware utensik, images, ^c^ The Spaniards 
introduced their own industries, including iugar-nxaVing, ueaviiig^ 
tanning, and leather- and metal -workings some of whacn still esist. 
The early methods of making cane sugar, clarified with clay and dried 
in conic^^ moulds, are to be found all over Me^co, and the annual 
output of this brown or rnuscovado sugar (called " panela " by the 
natives) h still viery large. The sugar crop of 1907-1908 was 
reported as ijj^iSs naetrie tons, in addition to which the moUsses 
atitptit «Tjj enn'm^ticd At 70.e?j7.5 meirw tons, pind " piancla '' at 
S^wa imm. Other t^ifsmt^ jfiiJw ^m " 



largcf, the product bring lar^ly eonsunsed In the rut^l distrk* 
snu never apiiK'aring in the larger markets. The csii mated numb^ 
of sugar milEs in 1 904 was about aooo, of wMch pnly ^boui ^'^ 
Wen: important for size and equipment. Merino shcvp iv^crc inir^ 
duced in 1541 and woollen manufactures date from that time. Largl 
factofics are now to be found in all parts of Mexicu, and jgood %xM 
serviceable grades of brmdcloths, ca^meres, blankets and otlud 
fabrics are turned out. There \a also a considerable quantity i£ 
carpeting, underwear and houEry manufactured. An ImpDrtacr 
branch of this industry is the manufacture ol "" zampes *' (csDei 
*' ponchos "" in other parts of Spanish America^ — ii bUnket stit ji 
the centre for the head to posA tnrough, and wcrfi in p4a£C of a COA 
by men of the lower cla&ses. The most Irnportant tei^lile ir^dustr 
is cotton manufacture, which has becortie a higtily succe^^ul fc4tur 
in the industrial life of the revubltc* There were 146 lact«rk 
in tgoj, of which t9 were idlei and these were distributed over a ver 
laj^e part of the country. About one- half the raw cottcm en 
sumed was produced in Motico^ and the balance tmpootcd in fibr 
or as yarn. The industry is protected by * high tariff* as is al^ 
the production of raw cotton ^ and further encouragjement is oflcrp 
through a rernission of internal revtnut tases where Mcxicxn ratnlc 
are exported for foreign con:«^umptioo< The cottoa (ACtoria di i^ 
were equipped with 3^,0] I looms having 67S,ti{^SiptniOtt, and wir 
jB stampirag machines, employeij ^o,i6j operatives, And tumsi ou 
Mi73tf^J^ pieces of cloth. Sutii^tical relurni, howrwr, ane sone 
TftTiat incomplete and conflicting, and cannot be use4 *itli coaAdcm 
Coarse fabrics chiefly are manufactured, but the pcoduet also con 
prises percale*, fine calicoes, ginghams, shirtings, toweling*, cbcrtiw 
and other kinds of goods- Considerable attention is givea to tS 
manufacture of " rebo*o«," the long shawU worn oy vouwc 
Another very important manufacturing industry b that « tobocoa 
the consumption of its various products being targe among all clasttt 
of the populationr There were ^Cj tobacco factories reported in 
1^^ to DC engaged in thcmanafaetureof cytars, thefoots^cigarettni 
snul! and cut tobaccos for the pipc^ The number of Tactorics 
report^'d for 1399 was 745, but as the consumplion oC leaf tobaecD 
increa^ from 5tS4&,677 (0 8,5*71^56 kilogrammes, it miy be 
a^umed that the uccrea» in factories is due to the absorption oc 
di»ppcarancc of the small shops using old-fashioned methodk 
Other imriorlaTit manufactories are flour mills, of which there wen 
over 500 in \^\\ iron and steel works, of which there art- 7 laige 
establishment, mckding the immense plant al MontertTf-; 9D 
smelters for the teduclion of precious metals; tanneric*, pottefio, 
and factories for the manufncture of hats, paper, linen^ hamntodb, 
harneu and snddles, matcheti, explosives, aerated waters, scap, 
f u rn it u re, chocolai rand sweetmeat s. The« are also a lar^e number 
of distilleries, birwerics, and establishments for the manufacture of 
"pulque,'* " mescal." and imitation or counterfeited Itquorss la 
addition to these arf the mj,ny small domestic industries, such ai tlw 
making of straw hats» mats, baskets, pottery* ropes and rough 
tenttlesw The policy of the Mexican goveiTiment is to encoura^ii 
national manufactures, and protective duties arc levied for llut 
purpose. Oiher favours include exemption from taxation and 
ejtemption from import duties on machinery and raw materials 
Ttnese inducements have attracted large sums of forrign capital 
and have brought into the countr^r large numbers of skilled 
operatives, especially in the cottoo^ udd aod steclt and ameltiT^g 
industries. 

CiWj/i7H/i£?n.— Under the Constitution of the sth of Fcbruaiy 
1S57, subsequently modified in many Irnportant portietiUn, 
the government of McJtico is desctibed as a fedcntioti of free 
and sovereign states in vested wiih representative and dcmocrelk 
imtiLutions. Practically it is a Federal Republic with central 
ixed executive powers. Its political divisions consist of 17 stata 
(oriKiiiaUy ig) having independent local gtaveroments^ j tertl- 
todes and i federal districi jn which the national capital stands. 
The ceniral government consists of dim co-ortlinate branched — 
eicccuiivi!, legislative And judicial— each nominally Lnd^pendeot 
of the other. The eiccutivc branch cousisls of 1 president and 
vice-president, assisted by a cabinet of S secret^rica of state: 
(i) foreign alaira; (j) inlcrior; (j) justice; (4) ptiblic instn&clioii 
and fine arts; (5) fomenlo, cobnizaiioti add industry; (6) com* 
munications and public works; (7) £tumce and public credit; 
(3) war ind marine. The president wid vice-president 4it 
elected indirectly through an electoral college chosen by popular 
voten nnd serve for a period of six yean (the term was four ycati 
previous to 1004I, the vice-president succeeding to the office fe 
case of the death or permanent dtsinbility of the president 
The oEIJce of vice-president was created on iht fith of May. iqq# 
and that ofEcial serves as president of the senate* A cortstitih 
tional amendment of 1890 permits the re-election of the president 
without limit, the originoJ clause pmhibiting such ^ er-dccLion 
^ A CAOciLdAte for Uu pretideocy mu&L be a ik^ve^bpm M«xi»i 



ASMY: EOUCATION] 



MEXICO 



327 



dtizcn in the full exercise of bis political rights, 35 years of age, 
not an ecclesiastic, and a resident of the republic at the time of 
the election. Although the authority of the president is care- 
fully defined and limited by the Constitution, the exercise of 
dictatorial powers has been so common that the executive may 
be considered practically supreme and irresponsible. Previous 
to the presidency of General Porfirio Diaz in 1877 political 
disorders and changes in government were frequent. 

The legislative branch of government consists of a Congress 
of two chambers — a senate and a chamber of deputies. Two 
ordinary congressional sessions are held each year — April i to 
May 31 and September 16 to December 15 — and a perma- 
nent committee of 39 members (14 senators and 15 deputies) 
sits during recess, with the power to confirm executive appoint- 
ments, to give assent to a mobilization of the national guard, 
to convene extra legislative sessions, to administer oaths, and 
to report at the next session on matters requiring congressional 
action. The senate is composed of 56 members— ^r two from 
each state and from the federal district — who are elected by 
popular vote for a term of four years, one-half the number 
retiring every two years. A senator must be not under 30 years 
of age, a Mexican citizen in the full enjoyment of his rights, 
a resident of the state he represents, and not an ecclesiastic. 
The chamber of deputies is composed of popular representatives, 
in the proportion of one deputy for each 40,000 inhabitants or 
fraction over 30,000, who are elected for a term of two years. 
A deputy must be not less than 35 years of age, other quah'fica- 
tions being the same as those for a senator. The salary for either 
senator or deputy is $3000 and that of the president $50,000. 
Federal offidals and ecclesiastics are ineUgible for election to 
either chamber. 

Mexican citizenship includes all persons bom of Mexican 
parents, all naturalized aliens, and all foreigners owning real 
estate in the republic or having children by Mexican mothers 
unless formal declaration is made of an intention to retain the 
dtizenship of another country. In some cases exemptions 
are granted from specified taxes and military duties, otherwise 
aaturalized citizens are treated the same as native-bom. Aliens 
are granted the civil rights enjoyed by Mexicans, but the 
government reserves the right to expel those guilty of pernicious 
conduct. Suffrage is extended to all Mexican citizens who 
p(»sess honest means of livelihood, the age limit being 18 for 
the married and si for the unmarried. 

The judicial branch of the government consists of a supreme 
court of justice, three circuit courts, and 33 district courts. The 
supreme court is composed of 11 " ministros " or justices, four 
alternates, a " fiscal " or public prosecutor and the attorney- 
general — all elected by popular vote for a term of six years. 
It has jurisdiction in cases arising from the enforcement of 
the federal laws, except cases involving private interests, in 
admiralty cases, in cases where the republic is a party, in those 
between two or more states, or between a state and the citizens 
of another state, in those originating in treaties with foreign 
states, and in those affecting diplomatic and consular officials. 
There are Hkewise supreme, and inferior courts in most of the 
states, governed by the civil and criminal codes in force in the 
federal district. The territories arc governed by federal laws. 
The department of justice has oversight in matters relating to 
the enforcement of the federal laws and the administration of 
justice through minor courts. The police service is both muni- 
cipal and federal in character. In some states a local police 
service is maintained, but in most states the federal government 
maintains a very efficient force of mounted " rurdcs" 

The states arc organized very much like the federal govem- 
ment, each with its own governor, legislature, laws and judiciary. 
Elections are generally indirect, like those for the national 
executive, and official terms correspond closely to those of 
similar offices in the national organization. The state is nomi- 
nally sovereign within its own boundaries, and the authority of 
its officers and courts in local questions is supreme except in cases 
where federal intervention or supervision is provided lor by the | 
federal constitution. The hrger poliUcal divisions ol the state ' 



{partidos, distriios, &c.) are governed by */</« polUico, or prefect, 
and the smaller bv a municipal council called an ayuniamicnto. 

Defence.'-Tht Mexican army consisted in 1908 of 3474 officera 
and 34,133 men, organized on modem lines, and commanded by 
a general sUff at the capiul. There were 30 battalions of infantry 
and 4 battalions cadres with an effective strength of 730 officers 
and 14.898 men; 14 regimenu of cavahy and 4 regimental cadres 
with 493 officers and 6058 men; 3 regiments and 3 cadres of field 
artillery; one regiment and one cadre each of hone and mountab 
artilleiy, 4 sections of garrison artillery, and one mitrailleuae com- 
pany, m all 147 officers and 1647 °^": *"^ ^^ remainder divided 
amon^ other services. Administration and headquarters staffs 
compnsed 885 officers and 531 men. This force represented the 
peace footing of the army, which is recruited in part by voluntary 
enlistments and in part by a form of conscription that might be 
called impressment. Mauser rifles (1901 mooiel) and carbines are 
used by the infantry and cavahry, and Schneider Canet quick-firing 
guns by the field and horse artillery. The nominal war streneth 
of ihp army \* rattfd at 3510 officers and 81.934 mm. Fjctoriea Tof 
arnii and ammiLmitJion have iKca eiLabUahi-cJ witb inadern machinery* 
an<i tiniforma and other raumnic^nt arc mad? in the country. The 
(iniliury schod in the capital occupttrs a part of th« histoni: cnstk 
of Ch4pult*;pec and has ittun th^mygbly i^Dr^anifcd on modem 
lines* There is al*j tin artiUtry k\wo\ at Vera Utuz and 4uboi^irute 
scKodIs in_oihi:r pAtt^ of tHe hrpublici. The natianal gUiirdi to whicb 
reference h sQrrtctirnpi mii{iir« no^ Jio effective orgainlEatioiih 

Mexico may be said to have no navy, the ten siiLaU vesH-H Ln com- 
mission in 1903 hardty nveriling such a idc«ignaciofU There vere 1 
old despatch boat* and 2 old unArmaured gunboats^ a cteet timbiinff 
cruiser, the '* Zaragoxa,'* and 5 small modern Eunboats.. The per^ 
»onncl consisted ol 198 ofhcere and 965 mco* ^x new cruiseiis were 
projcrtcdt but the republic has no prtiting nwd ol a navy. Small 
naval «hoob are niaintained at Campecht and Mai^atlin. 

Eiiuca/idtt— Education in Mcatico may be uid to have entered 
upon a progTCSsiive phaie. The institutions founded by the Spun- 
iirds were wboUy under tixlcsiastit;^! control. The Jirst colli^ge in 
Mtnico was foundEd during the ad mini?.! ration of Viceroy Mi-rnrtoxi 
(1 535"' 550), but it taught vtry little beyond Latin^ rheiorict gram-' 
mar and theology. Th* universtity of ^leKscOn planned by Mendoxa 
and founded on the Slat of September 1^51. whs formally open^ 
on the ^5th of January 15S:J. with faculties of l^Wi philosijphy and 
theology* Practically noi>iing was dope lor th^ natives beyond oral 
instruction in the catechism. The university of Mexico received 
much support from both church and state, but it never gained 
a position comparable to the universities of South American-Cor- 
doba, Lima (San Marcos) and Bogoti. The overthrow of Spanish 
rule in Mexico was the t>eginninK of a new period, and efforts were 
made to introduce educational reiorms, but tne colonists and ecclc«i- 
astics were still governed by their fears and prejudices, and little was 
accomplished. In 1833 the university of Mexico suspended work, 
and in 1865 passed out of existence altogether. In ift«7 the adop- 
tion of a more liberal and democratic constitution pavedf the way for 
a new period in the educational history of the country. Its realiza- 
tion was delayed by the wars that devastated the country down 
to the overthrow of Maximilian, but the leaven was at work, 
and with the return of peace a marked increase in the number of 
primary and secondary schools was noted. Colleges of law, medi- 
cine and engineering were created in Mexico City in 1865 in place 
of the old university and were successful from the beginning. 
Professional schools were also established in several of the more 
important provincial capitals, and everywhere increasing interest 
in educational matters was apparent. The best proof of this was 
to be found in the development of the primary schools, of which there 
were 8226 in 1874. with an attendance of 360,000 pupils. Of these. 
603 were supported by the national government. 5240 by municipali- 
ties, 2260 by private enterprise, 117 by the Catholic church, ana the 
remainder by Protestant denominations. Handsome schools were 
built in the cities and larger towns, and schools were opened in all 
the villages and hamlets. In some parts the natives made most 
creditable progress in all branches of learning. This was especially 
true of the Mixtccos and Zapotccas of Oaxaca, from whom have come 
some of the leading men of the republic. The national school 
laws now in force had their origin in tne recommendations made by 
a national congress of public education convened on the 1st of 
December 1889, and agam on the 1st of December 1890. The first 
result was a law regulating free and compulsory education in 
the federal district and national territories, which came into 
effect on the 17th of January 1892. From 1822 to this time the 
government primary schools nad been under the supervision of the 
Compaftia Lancastcriana, but they were now placed under charge of 
the Department of Public Education. On the 19th of May 1896 
a general public education law was promulgated, which provided 
further regulations for the public schools, and outlined a com- 
prehensive system. Compulsory attendance had been adopted 
m 1888, but did not come into effect until after the enactment 
of the law of 1896. It provides for uniform, (rest axvA. taatv-'wsxarcM^. 
primary instruction, and compw\?or^ aXXtTv^axyR* Vox ^^^w^^^ ^ 
to 12 years of age. PtcpaTatorv co\\tw»VoT v^«a«»^'«\^'^^^'J^^S 
the government schooU ^cte s\m> xnaAfc Viwe wA wo^ax. r^ ^ 



328 



MEXICO 



(REUGION: FINAMCB 



«t»tei ham Contrcl of ttw «:hool* witliiii thdr own boundaries 
tJKn WftA at lir^t a grtat tack of unifanniity, but thf naEkanal system 
Is being KC^nfrally ad!upte<i' in thc^ tifficu] report for 1904 the num- 
ber 13I public Achook, c:xc!u-9.lve or infant bcnook, was rL-turned at 
9194 (iJi^^init. 5S4J in tl3?^), with an enrolment at 6J0476. Of 
these 64H3 were tupportKi by the rLational ^nd tLate governments 
and 3706 by the municipaEitles. The private, reUgioyu; and associa* 
tioji Kbnsola ri umbered 33&t, with liSnBlS pupilji. F^r secondary 
initrqctiDn t^c (laliona] and state tchMU aumb«fcd 36 with 464a 
pupiii, and for professional Instruction 65 v^ith 901 S students, of 
whotn 5790 wpre wom^n. Norma I « h ooU (or t he tral ni ng of teachers 
are al&o niB'mtained at publlic expense and ^rc giviniF good results. 
Bctldei tht»sc, the Kovcrnment mainLains ichooTs of uw^ medicine, 
agtkulture and vcterinaiy practice^ enpntrcrin^, minin};, commerce 
and ad tniniit ration, muiAc and ^ne arts. There ta also a mechanics' 
train ini; Khool {arlfi y uficiaj) tor men and a umilar school for 
women, schfjcU for the blind and for deaf-mutes, reftirm schools, 
and garti^n tthoola for wldiers. Early e^ti mates wcrt that 
90% of tK? ^-A^-ilirl'-ii ^^-^r" ilUt'T.v'r. fri is^i; ^Y'-- TM-rr^-ftagc was 
reduced i; ■ ' ■ ; ■.-. ■ ' ' ■ ' ■'■ ' ■ ' ' ': luttinffit 

down. Mention must be made of the National Library in Mexico 
City with about 325,000 volumes, and 138 public libraries (in 1904) 
in other parlfi of tlie rcpuljlic, 34 muse: u ma lyf etienlifH;, cdiK^tion^l 
and art purposc-i, and ii nu [ctjrolargicat ob^crvatorivs. Newspaper* 
and periodicjts, whose cduc^itipaal value varies widely, numbered 
4501 in 1904, of whkrh 439 ^ctc in Spanish and 13 in English, 

fe/fjFJflm.— The people of Mexico arc almost wholly oftht Roman 
Catbouc faith, the census of 1900 tcturnine 1 3,533 fOi^ communicants 
of that cHurch. 51,795 Fmtesiants (in errat part fori:i£nen)i 361 [ of 
other faiths, and 18,640 of no l;^ttk. Ihx^ constitution of i^S7 lExant^ 
toleration to all religions, ^nd pince 1&6I! 5cver>d Frotcstant denomi- 
oation* have establithed mii^sions in the towns, but their numbers 
are still compamtively Email. The Roman Catholic religiGn was 
^nfofced H-t the time of the conquest, but a l^irge percent j^ of the 
natives may ctil] be considered ismi^paean, the gods of their ances- 
tor! bein^ wgrshipped in secret, and tlie formal and tenets of the 
domiiuint faith, which they but faintly comprehend, bein^ lar^-^Ey 
■dultcTated with superstitions and practices of pagan origin. The 
church hierarchy couiists of X anchbiihops and J3 suffra^E^ii bi^hop^. 
It dates from the cfvation of the bishopric of Mexico in 1530, wuh 
Fray Juan de ZumArfaga as bishop, although two previous ertation^ 
bad! been oroclaimed at Rome, that of Yucatan in 1518 and Puebia 
in 15J5. In 1545 the bishopric of Mtidco was elevated to anarrh- 
b^hopric. which in 1863 was oividcil into three archdioce^^rs— M r 1-, 
Michoac^n and Guadalajara. An InQuisition tribunal wne - 
liahed in the capital in [571* and in 1574 its dm anltt-dti J 
iO^kbrated with the burning of *' twcnt^-on* pf^tilent Lutht:id.i.-. ' 
The Inquisition was active in Mexico during two and a half centuries* 
aiid was finally suppressed on the 31st of iMay iflJOv The great poiM-r 
exccciftcd by the Roman Catholic church during the colonial period 
cmblad it not only to mould the spiritual bclierof the whole peopk-, 
but iko to control their education, tax their industrle^^ and shape 
fbe political policies governing their daily life. In thiB w^y it ac- 
quired gi^at wealth, bteominK the owner of extensive estates in 
every part of the country and of highly productive properties in the 
town?;. 1l ^\:ss a^tid in i^«ia thiit the church owned oriL'-thlrd of 
thu r ■ • ' = ■ r ■ .! .r. ■. i-, . 1 the republic The rvi .^^■' '.■■■ - -i 
tha_ , . , y, aboUsJied Us ntj!i , 

and institutions and deprix'ed it of state support and of all participa- 
tion in political affairs. Subsequent legislation removed clerical 
influence from public instruction, made marriaee a civil ceremony 
and closed all conventual establishments. The church still exercises 
a boundless influence over the Mexican lower classes, and is still the 
most influential organization in the republic.^ 

Finance. — ^The national revenues are derived from import and 
export duties, port dues and other taxes levied on foreign commerce; 
from excise and stamp taxes and other charges upon internal business 
transactions: from direct taxes levied in the federal district and 
national territories, covering a land tax in rural districts, a house 
tax in the city, commercial and professional licences, water rates, 
and sundry taxes on bread, pulque, vehicles, saloons, theatres, &c. ; 
from probate dues and registry fees; from a surchar^ on all taxes 
levied by the states, called tne " federal contribution," which is 
paid in federal revenue stamps; from post and telegraph receipts; 
and from some minor sources of income. The most fruitful revenue 
b the duty on imports, which is sometimes used for the protection 
of national industries, and which yields from 40 to 45 % ot the total 
receipts. The excise taxes in 1905 were levied on tobacco, alcohol 
and alcoholic beverages, and on cotton goods. Mining taxes, which 
are subject to periodfic changes, consist of an initial or registry tax 
on the claim i^ttnencta), an annual or rental tax on each claim, 
and a tax of 3|% (1905) on the export of unrefined gold and silver, 
2^ % on partially refined ores, and i } % on pure silver. The expen- 
ditures are chiefly for the services of the public debt, military 
expenses, public works and internal affairs (Department of the 
Interior). The public debt service alone required $26,201,873 
(^2.620,187) in 1908. 

^or the iiacal year igoO-1907 the revenue produced a total of 
'i4»^S6.i^^ pesos (dollan), or, approximMtely, /l 1428,612, and the 
^'fP^aditure waa 85»076A4i ptsos, or IBtyyjfi^. ffie estimatea lor 



1908-1909 show a marked decline owing to the commercial depcca* 
sion. the revenue being computed at io3.385/)oo pesos^ and the ex- 
penditure at 103.203,830 peioi. Of the former 46.500,000 pesat 
are credited to import duties, 31.930,000 pttos to stamps, excise 
taxes, &c., 10,930.000 ptios to direct taxes, and the balance to 
various sources. Owing to the circumsUnce that the great 
majority of the Mexican people own no property, carry on no 
industry, and are not even to be considered regular productive 
labourers, the revenues are small in relation to the population and are 
comparatively inelastic. 

Tne revenues and expenditures of the states and muntdpalitiet 
in 1904, the latest date available, aggregated as foUows : — 

Revenue. Expenditure. 

?£*'<?. .: . • • • 24.519.926 pesos a3.557.968 pesos 
Mumapalities . . 14,605,022 .. 14,160,132 „ 

The taxH cover a treat variety of ocru pat ions and property, often 
to a minute and vcicatious degree, and the eKpcndiiure includes the 
expenses of local admtnittrationT achook, police^ streets and other 
objects of purely local intemt. 

The public ind^btedneaof Mckico includes a foreign debt payable 
in ^old, an internal debt payable in siK^er, and a floating debt 
covering unpaid balaDCCd on appropriations, unpaid interest, and 
other credits and obligatioiiL The paper money isauct are by banks 
and not by the government, and the national treasury keeps no cash 
in its vaults and has no sinking fundi to offi^t thii indebtcdnev. 
The fonpign debt diati^s from 1^25. when jrto,cmc,ooo were borrowed 
in London through two loans, tnterest oefaulti led to a conversion 
of the debt in 1S51, ^he interest rate bein^ jrdiieed from 5% to 3%. 
Further dt^faultiL followed and in 1SA8 anoibef adjustment was made 
by the issue of ^% gold-bearing bond^. From this time the 
Mexican Hovcmment has met its obligations promptly, in conse- 
quence of which its credit is rattd high and its bonds have even been 
Quoted at a premium. In 1^99 the government placed a kan of 
32,700 jQOO in Europe at 5% for the conversion of its 6% bcmds, 
securing it by the hypotheeatinn of 6j% of its import and export 
duties. Further I -a- V ". l- .. , 1 1. ■ x\\^ m..]. ■■lJ :he debt once 
then, but it is still within the normal resources of the country. 
According to Matias Romero {Mexico and the United Stales, 1898), 
a new type of indebtedness was inaugurated in 1850 in the shape of 
an internal debt payable in silver. Other loans and obligations con- 
tracted during penods of disorder were afterwards consolidated 
under this type, and later on unpaid railway subsidies were also 
included. The rate of interest is from 3 % to 5 %, ami both prin- 
cipal and interest are payable in silver. The rapid development 
of railway construction nas largely increased this part of the public 
debt, the revenues of the country being insufficient to meet the sub- 
sidy obligations, but as the railways are built for the dev^opment 
of valuable resources and the opening of needed trade communica- 
tions, the increase has occasioned no loss of credit. At the end of 
1908 the total public indebtedness of the republic was: — 

Foreign, or gold debt, including 

City of Mexico loan . . . £30,9^7^4$ 

Internal, or silver debt . . . $130,892,100 
Floating debt 860,495 

J131.752.595 or £i3.i75.a59 

Total £44.102.607 

The fiscal or tax valuation of property throughout the republic 
in 190a was computed to be — the bscal value being two-thirds of 
the real value . — 

Urban J3I2,9«>.983 

Rural 488,182.009 

Federal District 252,716.454 

Total Ji .053,849,446 

Previous to 1905 all monetary transactions in Mexico were based 
in practice on a fluctuating silver standard and free coinage. By a 
law of the 9th of December 1904, promulgated by an executive 
decree of the 25th of March 1905. the gold sundard was adopted, 
and the silver peso, '9027 fine and containing 24*438 grammes of 
pure silver, was made the monetary unit with a valuation of '75 
grammes of gold. At the same time the free coinage of silver was 
suspended, the government reserving to itself the sole privilege of 
coininj{ money. The coinage of Mexico, now concentrated at the 
mint in the capital (all others having been closed) is baaed (since 
November 28, 1867) on the decimal system — the peso being divided 
into 100 centaaos — and consists of gold, silver, nickel and bronae 
coins, whose weight and fineness are determined by. the monetary 
law of 1904. The coins minted under this law are: — 

Gold: 10 pesos, -900 fine, weighing 8-333} grammea. 
S pesos, „ .. .. 4-1 161 „ 
(the first called a " hklalso '^ and tbt 
wcoiMd & " medio hidalgo *> 



AHCIENT HISTORYl 



SiLVKi.; 



MEXICO 



329 



t ^10, '9037 fine. contaiiung 9443^ gramma 
Cii. pure aJlvtr^ 

NtcvBL : 5 ,t 

BmoKZK: t and a ctnimas, 95 parts ci?pprr ^ 4 tin, 1 tine, 

Pinvmons wrv iho made for continuing ihc coinage of '* trad? 
tloUjini " fgr export, which hAVe a wide circuLaEion in tbc Orient 
bui^ »f? not ctuTf^nt a:t hcniCi PrjciJanal silver coin 14 not k^ai 
tender abcrt^ 20 pfidi, and bronie and njckel coins nat above | pem^ 
bill the ^vemnicnt £naitit:iini canversion aflice;! niKerc tuch coin« 
can be convtrted into silver pfmi without losa. The aenDunt of 
^oid m circuUtion in sittAlL the bank natei cunvenibb into gold 
t^ldng ks pUce» FotciKit coins are permitted to circulate in ihe 
republic 

Thefe were ^4 chartered banks in Mexico in t^oS, of which jg 
enjov^ the pnviIeGeof issufng bank notct; the total nDtctirculation 
<>n the 3 let of December 1906 was 97,787, 67 & pvJflj, These note 
-issues are e\'eiy where current at fuU nomninal value, being secured 
under the pro^-uions of the natiomt ba (iking law of 1896 hy metallic 
nserve^ The notea are not lepal ncndcr, and it ii forbidden to 
Gonut them as *' ca§h on hand ' ifi bank returns, but aniple fiale- 
«»rds both aa tn i$siie and r(^dCTnption inspire full confidence in 
Ueir rmployiTwnt as 3 uib^litutc for gold. ReitrictLoni on specula - 
Ciwe OjpenCions in real »t4te aind en the u«e of hypothecated and 
<lkc(KiiUeit [uperas security for othcrr Ininsartions. together with the 
publicatioa of detalkd monthly habnce iheetSn have kept thcv banks 
Irrr trpm tJitaouod methods, and their reconl thus far 09O(^) haa been 
coovpfCuouily Nod* Morfeagc and loan banks have alta beene^tab' 
lulbni in aceonkncc with the law of 1^96, and are ^abject to olftcial 
Aipervi^ton. Piivatc banlu arc numerous, but foreign banks are 
sot encouraged to open agcneies. The use of chcqtici i^ vtry limited 
because dI the stamp tajc 

Wnikis and litasures.—Mcsska Eidopted the toetnc tyMetn in 
i562, and it a used in all official traniiactiDtin, land mcnsurcmcnt^i 
railway cslculationi and public school work* The old SpmnisK 
i^hts and measure!, mo^ifi^ in many t><^riiculars4 continued in 
pri\-att tt«, however* and in 1895 it became nrccsstry to declare 
tbt nsetric system the only Ji^gal ^y^icm and to make iti use 
^am^uUoty after the i6th of l^cpitmber 1896. 

BiSLioi-^ KA Piiv.— The hi^toriral ±tudc?nt will find valuable material 
in Bernal Dial del CaittUo, Cf^mca dr fa citHquistA de Na/vj Eif^aiia 
(lUdrid, i6jj, and other dates) r Antonio Hcrrera Hisi^ria gmtraidi 
m hetkoi di iai C^itdi^jiQi tn lot uiai y tierTa firma dfl mm ccedno 
U V0L4 , ^(Jd^^d, lOoi J ; F* C. Mac Sutt. Ulteu of CoriH to Chmifi V. 
(Ldfldon, 1908) ; W, H. Prescott, CffuyiM-jio/ MeiUo {^ vols., London, 
1B45); and the works of Gomara, Helps, Kingftborough^ Lai Caus, 
Saia^un and Justin Winsor. 
Among the more popular works on Mexico are Baedeker's The 

Bucioft, Rri^MFcrs and Devtlopttttnt 0/ Af^xn-<7 (^n FranciscOt 

T>9U); M, Chevalkr* L« Mtiiqjii an£un $t madctm (Paris, 1886)1 

A- Gaicia Cybas, Eiude gi&graphiqtu, jtntisiiquf, dtseripim «* 

luiknigwdlc? ^ti'UntM Mtriiaim [Mixlcio. [8^9; in English, 1893J; 

C. B Dahli:reen, Mtnas kisioruaj dt ia JUPu^im AfexUan^ (tr* 

hwn Eng,, 1*87); L Domencchi Cuia eenirtii dmriptwa dt la Rrpiitf- 

ttca jitminna fvoL i,, Mexico, 1839); F* W, Egloff^tcinH Cfffflribu- 

iiav it the GwrffFfy ^nd Pky steal Cfi^Sifcphy 0/ lirxko (New ^'ork, 

Jl64>j C Reginafd Fnock, Mexico, ii$ Amuntand Modem CivHitO' 

^, ifc, CLondon, 1909); Horn* Gadow, Traifh im Southern Afrnro 

jLqadoo. 190*); EfTTst von Hesw WjrtcBgn A/mVo, Land und LcxU 

(VlMiH, liqo}; W. T* Homaday, Camp Fir^rs an Desert and Lam 

(LcNidoii, J90&); AlCK. von Humboldt, Voyaie auic rij^ions fquinoxi- 

dn dm movusait foitiinint (Paris, [§07 tm-); A. H. Roane, 

''Mc3tico" in Stanford's Cpmpersdium of Gco]>fopky and Ttavei 

fLoaidon, 1904]; H, Kesster^ Noiii^n li&er J/cjfff^ (Berlin^ t^^): 

wri LumholtJ, Unkntmn Mexico (New Vork^ ijP^}: CI- F- Lummis, 

The A^feaktnint t*Jet Nation (New York, 1*98); P. F. Martin, Afexko 

efthe Twwrtliiik Cfntury (London, 1907J; A. H. NolL A Skefi History 

1/ Mexico (Chicago, tgO^U; Santiaf^o RAmira .Nuiieui kiilorica ds ta 

ruuesi mineira de Mciko (Mexico, tS84J ', Fried rirh Ratzel, Auj 

Mti.ico: Riiitikii^sen osd d*n Jukf^n 18/4-1^/6 {Brwiau, 1678) ► 

HaXSa^ Romem. Ceoaraphieat OJtd Siathikul Natet on Afeum (New 

Yofk. 1898); idem, Mexko and the United StaUs (New York, 189SJ: 

E^ Stler, Mfxtco ynd Gxattwuiia [Gtrlin, 1S96) ; Juato Scrra (ediLor), 

Mtxiio: I(sS&eiaJ Esoiution^ Icfc. {2 vols., Mexico, 1904I ; J. Rr South- 

worth. ifwiei^Af^xtfafg vols., Mexico, 1905} ; Frederick Starr, Indians 

e/^MfAcm: Affzi^o (ChkaM, iJiwh l^fa V. S(cvenMjn_. Maximilian 

%M Uesieo (New Vork. (69^1 T Philip Terry, Metiar (Boston, 1909: 

ah ttcelieni guide) ; David A. Well*, A Study of Mexico (.New York, 

itSj); W. E, WeyL lobar Conditions in Mexico (Wa^hingtont (90*), 

BgIL No iS, Bureau of Labor; Nevin O, Winter. Mexico o«d ktr 

Pmfit «f To-dity (Boiton, 19&7): Marie R. Wright. Fictutaqiif 

Maicm {Philadelphia, 1^98)^ and Rafael dc Zayas Enriquci, Us 

Efatt-ttntt imxicains (Ntexiro, t8Q9)+ 

Im porta nt work* of irefcrenrc arc; Attuari^ eitadislko de la 
fUpmbica AfrariMiia (Mexico) 1 M^M^mn Year-lvok (London, 1908I: 
BMijicml Mtd M&Mtcai pubticatsans of till! VS. Deptrttucnt yf 



Agriculture (Waahimj^n): StaUtnum'g Year-book (London); Hand- 
book of Mexico (Washington), published by the Bureau of American 
RepuSiics; Monthly Bidtetin of the Bureau of American Republics 
(Washington): British Foreign OJke Diplomattc and CoHSiUar 
Reports (London) : and the U.S. Consular Reports (Wa^ington). 

(A.J.L) 

History 
t.^- Ancient Mexico. 

The name Mexico is connected with the name of the group of 
American tribes calling themselves Mexica (sing. Mexicati) or 
Azteca. The word is related to or derived from the name of the 
Mexican national war-god, Mexitl, better known as Huitzilo- 
pochtli. The Aztecs from the 12th century appear to have 
migrated from place to place over the moimtain-walled plateau 
of Anahuac, the country " by the water," so called from its salt 
lagoons, which is now known as the Valley of Mesdca 
About 132s they founded on the lake of Tezcuco the permanent 
settlement of Mexico Tenochtitlan, which is still represented by 
the capital city, Mexico. The name Mexico^ was given by the 
Spanish conquerors to the group of countries over which the 
Aztec power more or less prevailed at the time of the European 
invasion. Clavigero (Storia arUica del Messico, vol. i.) gives a 
map of the so-called " Mexican empire," which may be roughly 
described as reaching from the present Zacatecas to beyond 
Guatemala; it is noticeable that both these names are of Mexican 
origin, derived respectively from ^ords for " straw " and 
" wood." Eventually Mexico and New Mexico came to desig- 
nate the still vaster region of Spanish North America, which 
(till cut down by changes which have limited the modem 
republic of Mexico) reached as far as the Isthmus of Panama on 
the south and took in California and Texas on the north. Mexico 
in this wide sense is of high interest to the anthropologist from 
the several native American civilizations which appear within its 
limits, and which conveniently if loosely group themselves round 
two centres, the Mexican proper and the Central American. 

When early in the i6th century the Spaniards found their way 
from the West India Islands to this part of the mainland of 
America, they discovered not rude and simple tribes like the 
islanders of the Antilles, but nations with armies, official adminis- 
trators, courts of justice, high agriculture and mechanical arts, 
and, what struck the white men especially, stone buildings 
whose architecture and sculpture were often of dimensions and 
elaborateness to astonish the builders and sculptors of Europe. 
Here was a problem which excited the liveliest curiosity and 
gave rise to a whole literature. Hernandez and Acosta shared 
the opinion of their time that the great fossil bones found in 
Mexico were remains of giants, and that, as before the deluge 
there were giants on the earth, therefore Mexico was peopled 
from the Old World in antediluvian times. On the other hand 
the multitude of native American languages suggested that the 
migration to America took place after the building of the tower 
of Babel, and Sigucnza arrived at the curiously definite result 
that the Mexicans were descended from Naphtuhim, son of 
Mizraim and grandson of Noah, who left Egypt for Mexico 
shortly after the confusion of tongues. Although such specula- 
tions have fallen out of date, they induced the collection of 
native traditions and invaluable records of races, languages and 
customs, which otherwise would have been lost for ever. Even 
in the 19th century Lord Kingsborough spent a fortune in 
printing a magnificent compilation of Mexican picture-writings 
and documents in his Antiquities of Mexico to prove the theory 
advocated by Garcia a century earlier, that the Mexicans were 
the lost tribes of Israel. Modern archaeologists approach the 
question from a different standpoint, but the origin of the 
American aborigines and of Mexican civilization remaint 
extremely obscure (sec America, where the primitive Mexican 
cultures are fully illustrated, and Central America). 

Real information as to the nations of Mexico before Spanish 

* In this, as in all other Aztec names, the x (or J) represents the 
English sound sh; hence Mexitli and Mexico should oe pra^tW 
pronounced Meshilti, Meshico. But vV\^>} Ao tvox ^'^^'w Vi vaN^ 
ever been so pronounced bv vYve Sva.Tvv^\A'&, Vtvo waxoxsKci v^^ ^R 
the X its ordinarv Spanish «ouu<i ol \^« densAsi Ou 



330 



MEXICO 



{ANCIENT HISTORY 



times is very imperfect, but not altogether wanting. The 
accurate and experienced Alexander von Humboldt considered 
the native Americans of both continents to be substantially 
similar in race-characters. Such a generalization will become 
sounder, if, as is now generally done by anthropologists, the 
Eskimo with their pyramidal skulls, dull complexion and flat 
noses are removed into a division by themselves. Apart from 
these polar nomads, the American indigenes group roughly 
into a single division of mankind, of course with local variations. 
If our attention is turned to the natives of Mexico especially, 
the unity of type will be found particularly close. The native 
population of the plateau of Mexico, mainly Aztecs, may still 
be seen by thousands without any trace of mixture of European 
blood. Their stature is estimated to be about 5 ft. 3 in., but 
they are of muscular and sturdy build. Measurements of their 
skulls show them mcsocephalic (index about 78), or intermediate 
between the dolichocephalic and bracbycephalic types of man- 
kind. The face is oval, with low forehead, high cheek-bones, 
long eyes sloping outward towards the temples, fleshy lips, nose 
wide and in some cases flattish but in others aquiline, coarsely 
moulded features, with a stolid and gloomy expression. Thick- 
ness of skin, masking the muscles, has been thought the cause 
of a peculiar heaviness in the outlines of body and face; the com- 
plexion varies from yellow-brown to chocolate (about 40 to 43 
in the anthropological scale); eyes black; straight coarse glossy 
black hair; beard and moustache scanty. Among variations 
from this type may be mentioned higher stature in some districts, 
and lighter complexion in Tehuantepec and elsewhere. If now 
the native Americans be compared with the races of the regions 
across the oceans to their east and west, it will be seen that their 
unlikeness is extreme to the races eastward of them, whether 
white Europeans or black Africans. On the other hand they 
are considerably like the Mongoloid peoples of north and east 
Asia (less so to the Polynesians); so that the general tendency 
among anthropologists has been to admit a common origin, 
however remote, between the tribes of Tartary and of America. 
This original connexion, if it may be accepted, would seem to 
belong to a long-past period, to judge from the failure of all 
attempts to discover an affinity between the languages of Ame- 
rica and Asia. At whatever date the Americans began to people 
America, they must have had time to import or develop the 
numerous families of languages actually found there, in none of 
which has community of origin been satisfactorily proved with 
any other language-group at home or abroad. In Mexico 
itself the languages of the Nahua nations, of which the Aztec 
is the best-known dialect, show no connexion of origin with the 
language of the Otomi tribes, nor either of these with the 
languages of the regions of the ruined cities of Central America, 
the Quich6 of Guatemala and the Maya of Yucatan. The 
remarkable phenomenon of nations so similar in bodily make 
but so distinct in language can hardly be met except by supposing 
a long period to have elapsed since the country was first inhabited 
by the ancestors of peoples whose language has since passed into 
so different forms. The original peopling of America might then 
well date from the time when there was continuous land between 
it and Asia. 

It would not follow, however, that between these remote ages 
and the time of Columbus no fresh immigrants can have reached 
America. We may put out of the question the Scandinavian 
sea-rovers who sailed to Greenland about the loth century. But 
at all times communication has been open from east Asia, and 
even the South Sea Islands, to the west coast of America. The 
importance of this is evident when we consider that late in the 
X9th century Japanese junks still drifted over by the ocean 
current to California at the rate of about one a year, often with 
some of the crew still alive. Further north, the Aleutian islands 
offer a line of easy sea passage, while in north-east Asia, near 
Bering's Strait, live Chukchi tribes who carry on intercourse 
with the American side. Moreover there are details of Mexican 
civilization which arc most easily accounted for on the suppo- 
siu'oa that they were borrowed from Asia. They do not seem 
mnct'ent enough to have to do with a remote Asiatic origin of the 



nations of America, but rather to be results of comparatively 
modem intercourse between Asia and America. Humboldt 
( Vues dts CordiUireSf PI. xxiii.) compared the Mexican calendar 
with that in use in eastern Asia. The Mongols, Tibetans, 
Chinese and other neighbouring nations have a cycle or series 
of twelve animals, viz. rat, bull, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, 
horse, goat, ape, cock, dog, pig, which may possibly be an imita- 
tion of the ordinary Babylonian-Greek zodiac familiar to our- 
selves. The Mongolian peoples not only count their lunar 
months by these signs, but they reckon the successive days by 
them, rat-day, bull-day, tiger-day, &c., and also, by combining 
the twelve signs in rotation with the elements, they obtain a 
means of marking each year in the sixty-year cycle, as the wood- 
rat year, the fire-tiger year, &c. This method is highly artificial, 
and the reappearance of its principle in the Mexican and Central 
American calendar is suggestive of importation from Asia. 
Humboldt also discussed the Mexican doctrine of four ages of 
the world belonging to water, earth, air and fire, and ending 
respectively by deluge, earthquake, tempest and conflagration. 
The resemblance of xhis to some versions of the Hindu doctrine 
of the four ages or yuga is hardly to be accounted for except on 
the hypothesis that the Mexican theology contains ideas learnt 
from Asiatics. Among Asiatic points of resemblance to which 
attention has since been called is the Mexi6an belief in the nine 
stages of heaven and hell, an idea which nothing in nature would 
suggest directly to a barbaric people, but which corresponds to 
the idea of successive heavens and hells among Brahmans and 
Buddhists, who apparently learnt it (in common with our own 
ancestors) from the Babylonian-Greek astronomical theory of 
successive stages or concentric planetary spheres belonging to 
the planets, &c The Spanish chronicles also give accounts of a 
Mexican game called patoUi, played at the time of the conquest 
with coloured stones moved on the squares of a cross-shaped 
figure, according to the throws of beans marked on one side; the 
descriptions of this rather complicated game correspond dosely 
with the Hindu backgammon called pachisi (see Tylor in Jour, 
Anikrop. Inst.f viii. 116). 

The native histor>' of Mexico and Central America is entitled 
to more respect than the mere recollections of savage tribes. 
The Mexican pictures so far approached writing proper as to set 
down legibly the names of persons and places and the dates of 
events, and at least helped the professional historians to remem- 
ber the traditions repeated orally from generation tp generation. 
Thus actual documents of native Aztec history, or copies of 
them, are still open to the study of scholars, while after the 
conquest interpretations of these were drawn up in writing by 
Spanish-educated Mexicans, and histories founded on them 
with the aid of traditional memory were written by Ixtilxochitl 
and Tczozomoc. In Central America the rovra of com(dez 
hieroglyphs to be seen sculptured on the ruined temples probably 
served a similar purpose. The documents written by natives 
in later times thus more or less represent real records of the past, 
but the task of separating myth from history is of the utmost 
difficulty. Among the most curious documents of eariy America 
is the Popol'Vuh or national book of the Quich€ kingdom of 
Guatemala, a compilation of traditions written down by native 
scribes, found and translated by Father Ximenez about 1700, 
and published by Scherzcr (Vienna, 1857) and Brasseur de Bour- 
bourg (Paris, 1861). This book begins with the time when there 
was only the heaven with its boundaries towards the four 
winds, but as yet there was no body, nothing that dung to any- 
thing else, nothing that balanced itself or rubbed together or 
made a sound; there was nought below but the calm sea alone 
in the silent darkness. Alone were the Creator, the Former, 
the Ruler, the Feathered Serpent, they who give being and whose 
name is Gucumatz. Then follows the creation, when the crea- 
tors said " Earth," and the earth was formed like a doud or a 
fog, and the mountains appeared like lobsters from the water, 
cypress and pine covered the hills and valleys, and their forests 
were peopled with beasts and birds, but these coxild not ipcak 
the name of their creators, but could only chatter and croak. So 
man was made first of clay, but be was strengthless and sensden 



AMCIBNT HISTORYI 



MEXICO 



33 > 



And mdted in the water; then they made a race of wooden 
mannikins, but these were useless creatures without heart or 
mind, and they were destroyed by a great flood and pitch poured 
down on them from heaven, those who were left of them being 
turned into the apes still to be seen in the woods. After this 
comes the creation of the four men and their wives who are the 
ancestors of the Quiche, and the tradition records the migrations 
of the nation to Tulan, otherwise called the Seven Caves, and 
thence across the sea, whose waters were divided for their passage. 
It is worth while to mention these few early incidents of the 
national legend of Guatemala, because their Biblical incidents 
show how native tradition incorporated matter learnt from 
the white men. Moreover, this Central American document, 
mythical as it is, has an historical importance from its bringing 
in names belonging also to the traditions of Mexico proper. 
Thus Gucumatz, *' Feathered Serpent " corresponds in name to 
the Mexican deity Quetzalcoatl; Tulan and the Seven Caves are 
familiar words in the Aztec migration traditions, and there is 
even mention of a chief of Toltecat, a name plainly referring 
to the famed Toltecs. Thus the legends of the Popol-Vuh 
confirm what is learnt from comparing the culture of Central 
America and Mexico proper, that, though these districts were 
not connected by language, the intercourse between them had 
1)een sufficient to justify the anthropologist in including both 
districts in one region. Historical value of the ordinary kind may 
be found in the latter part of the Popot-Vuk, which gives names 
of chiefs down to the time when they be^n to bear Spanish 
names and the great city of Quiche became the deserted ruin of 
Santa Cruz. The Maya district of Yucatan has also some vestiges 
of native traditions in the manuscript translated by D. Pio Perez 
(in Stephens, Incidents of Tra9d in Yucatan) and in the remark- 
able i6th century Rdacion de las cosas de Yucatan by Diego de 
Landa, published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (Paris, 1864). As 
in the Guatemala traditions, we hear of ancient migration from 
the Mexican legendary region of Tula; and here the leaders are 
four famous chiefs or ancestors who bear the Aztec name of the 
Tutul-Xiu, which means " Bird-Tree." Unfortunately for the 
historical standing of these four ancestors, there are in the Aztec 
picture-writings representations of four trees, each with a bird 
perched on it, and placed facing the four quarters, which make 
it probable that the four Tutul-Xiu of tradition may be only 
mythic personifications of the four cardinal points (see Schultz- 
Sellack in Zeitsckr.f. Ethn., 1879, p. 209). Nevertheless, part of 
the later Maya records may be genuine — for instance, when they 
relate the war about three centuries before the Spanish conquest, 
when the king of Chichcn-Itza destroyed the great city of Maya- 
p&n. Though the Central American native kings have too little 
interest for traditions of them to be dwelt on here, they bring 
into view one important historical point — that the ruined cities 
of this region are not monuments of a forgotten past, but that 
at least some of them belong to history, having been inhabited 
ap to the conquest, apparently by the very nations who built 
them. 

Turning now to the native chronicles of the Mexican nations, 
these are records going back to the 12th or 13th century, with 
some vague but not worthless recollections of national events 
from times some centuries earlier. These traditions, in some 
measure borne out by linguistic evidence of names, point to the 
immigration of detachments of a widespread race speaking a 
common language, which is represented by the Aztec, still a 
spoken language in Mexico. This language was called nahuatl, 
and one who spoke it as his native tongue was called nahuatiacail, 
so that modem anthropologists are following native precedent 
when they tise the term Nahua for the whole series of peoples 
DOW under consideration. Earliest of the Nahua nations, the 
Toltecs are traditionally related to have left their northern 
home of Huehuetlapallan in the 6th century; and there is other 
evidence of the real existence of the nation. Their name ToUccail 
signifies an inhabitant of ToUan (land of reeds), a place which 
has a definite geographical site in the present Tulan or Tula, 
north of the volley of Anahuac, where a Toltec kingdom seems 
to have had its centre. To this nation was due the iatroduclion 



of maiie and cotton into Mexico, the skilful workmanship in gold 
and silver, the art of building on a scale of vastness still witn^sed 
to by the mound of Cholula, said to be Toltec work, and the 
Mexican hieroglyphic writing and calendar. With the Toltecs 
is associated the tradition of Quetzalcoatl, a name which presents 
itself in Mexican reUgion as that of a great deity, god of the air, 
and in legend as that of a saintly ruler and dvilizer. Hb brown 
and beardless worshippers describe him as of another race, a 
white man with noble features, long black hur and full beard, 
dressed in flowing robes. He came from Tulan or from Yucatan 
(for the stories differ widely), and dwelt twenty 3rears among 
them, teaching men to follow his austere and virtuous life, to hate 
all violence and war, to sacrifice no men or beasts on the altars, 
but to give mild offerings of bread and flowers and perfumes, 
and to do penance by the votaries drawing blood with thorns 
from their own bodies. Legend tells stories of his teaching men 
picture-writing and the calendar, and also the artistic work of the 
silversmith, for which Cholula was long famed; but at last he 
departed, some say towards the unknown land of TUpallan, but 
others to Coatzacoalcos on the Atlantic coast on the confines of 
Central America, where native tradition still keeps up the divine 
names of Gucumatz among the Quichds and Cukulcan among 
the Mayas, these names have the same meaning as Quetzalcoatl 
In Aztec, viz. " Feathered Serpent." Native tradition held that 
when Quetzalcoatl reached the Atlantic he sent back his com- 
pam'ons to tell the Cholulans that in a future age his brethren, 
white men and bearded like himself, should land there from the 
sea where the sun rises and come to rule the country. That 
there is a basis of reality in the Toltec traditions is shown by the 
word loUecatl having become among the later Aztecs a substan- 
tive signifying an artist or skilled craftsman. It is further 
related by the Mexican historians that the Toltec nation all but 
perished in the nth century by years of drought, famine and 
pestilence, a few only of the survivors remaining in the land, 
while the rest migrated into Yucatan and Guatemala. After 
the Toltecs came the Chichimecs, whose name, derived from 
ckicif dog, is applied to many rude tribes; they are said to 
have come from Amaquemecan under a king named Xolotl, 
names which being Aztec imply that the nation was Nahua; at 
any rate they appear afterwards as fusing with more cultured 
Nahua nations in the neighbourhood of Tezcuco. Lastly is 
recorded the Mexican immigration of the seven nations, Xochi- 
milca, Chaica, Tepaneca, Acolhua, Tlahuica, Tlascalteca, Azteca. 
This classification of the Nahuatlac tribes has a meaning and 
value. It is true that Aztlan, the land whence the Aztecs traced 
their name and source, cannot be identified, but the later stages 
of the long Aztec migration seem historical, and the map of 
Mexico still shows the names of several settlements recorded in 
the curious migration map, published by Gemelli Careri (Giro del 
mondo, Venice, 1728) and commented on by Humboldt; among 
these local names are Tzompanco, " place of skulls," now Zum- 
pango in the north of the Mexican valley, and Chapultcpec, 
" grasshopper hill," now a suburb of the city of Mexico itself, 
where the Aztecs are recorded to have celebrated in 1195 the 
festival of tying up the " bundle of years " and beginning a new 
cycle. 

The Aztecs moving from place to place in Anahuac found little 
welcome from the Nahua peoples already settled there. One 
of the first clear events of the Aztec arrival is their being made 
tributary by the Tepanecs, in whose service they showed their 
wariike prowess in the fight near Tepeyacac, where now stands 
the famous shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. Thus they over- 
came the Acolhuas, who had made Tezcuco a centre of prosperity. 
By the 13th century the Aztecs by their ferocity had banded 
their neighbours together against them; some were driven to 
take refuge on the reedy lake shore at Acoculco, while others 
were taken as captives into Culhuacan. The king of this district 
was Coxcoxtii, whose name has gained an undeserved reputation 
even in Europe as " Coxcox, the Mexican Noah," from a scene 
in the native picture-writing where his name appears to^etK« 
with the figure oi a mtitv ^o;iV\tv% \tv ^ ^w^-wsX v««., niV\^ V-a^ 
been mwUk^n even by HxjkmXyA^lv Vox ^ \tvx««»x^<>siTw ^V Viw 



332 



MEXICO 



[ANCIENT CIVILIZATION 



Mexican deluge-mytb. Coxcoxtii used the help of the Aztecs 
against the Xochimilco people; but his own nation, horrified at 
their bloodthirsty sacrifice of prisoners, drove them out to the 
islands and swamps of the great salt lagoon, where they are said 
to have taken to making their ckinampas or floating gardens of 
mud heaped on rafts of reeds and brush, which in later times 
were so remarkable a feature of Mexico. As one of the Aztec 
chiefs at the time of the founding of their city was called Tenoch, 
it is likely that from him was derived the name Tenochtitlan or 
" Stone-cactus place." Written as this name is in pictures or 
rebus, it probably suggested the invention of the well-known 
legend of a prophecy that the war-god's temple should be built 
where a prickly pear was found growing on a rock, and perched 
on it an eagle holding a serpent ; this legend is still commemorated 
on the coins of Mexico. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, founded about 
1335, for many years afterwards probably remained a cluster of 
huts, and the higher civilization of the country was still to be 
found, especially among the Acolhuas in Tezcuco. The wars 
of this nation with the Tepanecs, which went on into the 15th 
century, were merely destructive, but larger effects arose from 
the expeditions under the Culhua king Acamapichtli, where the 
Aztec warriors were prominent, and which extended far outside 
the valley of Anahuac. Especially a foray southward to Quauh- 
nahuac, now Cuemavaca, on the watershed between the Atlantic 
and Pacific, brought goldsmiths and other craftsmen to Tenoch- 
titlan, which now began to rise in arts, the Aztecs laying aside 
their rude garments of aloe-fibre for more costly clothing, and 
going out as traders for foreign merchandise. In the 14th cen- 
tury the last great national struggle took place. The Acolhuas 
had at first the advantage, but Ixtlilxochitl did not follow up the 
beaten Aztecs but allowed them to make peace, whereupon, 
under professions of submission, they fell upon and sacked the 
city of Tezcuco. The next king of Tezcuco, Nezahualcoyotl, 
turned the course of war, when Azcapuzalco, the Tepanec 
stronghold, was taken and the inhabitants sold as slaves by the 
conquering Acolhuas and Aztecs; the place thus degraded 
became afterwards the great slave-market of Mexico. In this 
war we first meet with the Aztec name Motcuczoma, afterwards 
80 famous in its Spanish form Montezuma. About 1430 took 
place the triple alliance of the Acolhua, Aztec and Tepanec 
kings, whose capitals were Tezcuco, Mexico and Tlacopan, the 
latter standing much below the other two. In fact the rest of 
native history may be fairly called the Aztec period, notwith- 
standing the magnificence and culture which make Tezcuco 
celebrated under Nezahualcoyotl and his son Nezahualpilli. 
When the first Moteuczoma was crowned king of the Aztecs, 
the Mexican sway extended far beyond the valley plateau of 
its origin, and the gods of conquered nations around had their 
shrines set up in Tenochtitlan in manifest inferiority to the 
temple of Huitzilopochtli, the war-god of the Aztec conquerors. 
The rich region of Quauhnahuac became tributary; the Miztcc 
country was invaded southward to the Pacific, and the Xicalanca 
region to what is now Vera Cruz. It was not merely for conquest 
and tribute that the fierce Mexicans ravaged the neighbour- 
lands, but they had a stronger motive than cither in the desire 
to obtain multitudes of prisoners whose hearts were to be torn 
out by the sacrificing priests to propitiate a pantheon of gods who 
well personified their bloodthirsty worshippers. (E. B. T.) 
Ancient Civilization. 

While the prairie tribes of America lived under the loose sway of 

chiefs and councils of old men. the settled nations of Mexico had 

-^ attained to a highly organized government. This may 

Zgi„, be seen by the elaborate balance of power maintained 

in the federation of Mexico, Tezcuco and Tlacopan, 

where each king was absolute in his own country, but in war or other 

public interests they acted jointly, with powers* in something like 

the proportion in which they divided conquered lands and spoil, 

which was two-fifths each to Mexico and Tezcuco and one-fifth to 

Tlacopan. The successor of the Aztec king was customarily a 

chosen brother or nephew, the eldest having the first claim unless 

■et aside as incompetent ; this mode of succession, which has been 

looked on as an elaborate device for securing practical advantages, 

ftcntM rather to have arisen out of the law of choice among the 

descendants of the female line, found in American tribes of much 

*omer culture. Something like this appean in the succession oC 



kings of Teicuco and Tlacopan, which went to tons by the principal 
wife, who was usually of the Aztec royal family. The Mcxacao 
chronicles, however, snow instances of the king's son succeeding or of 
powerful chiefs being elected to the kingship. The term republic 
18 sometimes used to describe the little state of Tlascala, but this 
was in fact a federation of four chiefs, with an assembly of noUes. 
In the Zapotec district the Wiyauo or high-priest of 2!opaa was a 
divine ruler before whom all prostrated themselves witfi faces to 
the ground ; he was even too sacred to allow his foot to touch the 
earth, and was onlv seen carried in a litter. 

The accounts of the palaces of the native kings must be taken 
with some reserve, from the tendency to use descriptive terms not 
actually untrue, but which convey erroneous ideas taken-^j^ .^ 
from European architecture: thus what are called ^*^""* 
columns of porphvry and jasper supfwrting marble balconies 
might perhaps be better described as piers carrying slabs, white 
the apartments and terraces must have been more remarkable 
for number and extent than architectural grandeur, being but k»w 
one-storied buildings. The principal palace of Mexico consisted 
of hundreds of rooms ranged round three open squares, of such 
extent that one of the companions of Cortes records having four timet 
wandered about till he was tired, without seeing the whole. Not 
less remarkable was the palace of Tezcuco. surrounded with its 
groves and pleasure-gardens; and. though now hardly anything 
remains of the buildmgs above ground; the ncightwurins tiUI of 
Tezcotzinco still has its stone steps and terraces; and the immense 
embankment carrying the a9ucduct-channcl of hewn stone which 
supplied water to basins cut in the solid rock still remains to prove 
that the chroniclers' descriptions, if highly coloured, were at any 
rate genuine. Till the i8th century the gigantic figures of AxayacatI 
and his son Montezuma were to be seen carved in the porohyry hill 
of Chapultepcc, but these as well as the hanging gardens nave bcea 
destroyed, and only the groves of ahuehuttt (cypress) remain of the 
ancient beauties of the place. That in the palace gardens flowen 
from the tierra caliente were transplanted, and water-fowl bred 
near fresh and salt pools fit for each kind, that all kindsof birds and 
beasts were kept in well-appointed zoological gardens, where there 
were homes even for alligators and snakes— all this testifies to a 
cultivation of natural history which was really beyond the European 
level of the time. From the palaces and retinues of thousands cf 
servants attached to the royal service may be inferred at once the 
despotic power of the Mexican rulers and the heavy taxation of the 
people: in fact some of the most remarkable of the picture-writifvs 
jrc Ln.^L.:. i.uJ.i Lii,j.hL[^:j-i^ U Ul.>.j.^l.:. and thousands the 
iTi^intlt^, ixelai-kilimfcf bags of eatd-du^t , Lruiize hatchets, loads of 
chocolate, &c., furniiU^ pernffkally by the towns. Below the king 
wa4 a nutnerouB and powerful cLaai of nobk-i. the highest of whom 
{ilatiHini'} were incat vas^ls owmg I it tie tnnre than homage and 
(ribLjLe to their feurtal lard, while the naiurjil result of the unrulinrss 
of the noble cUsa wafi that the king to t^etp them in check in cre ased 
their DLi niters, brought them to \hv capital as councillora. and 
baUficcd their influence by cnilitdTy and h'^uschold officers, and by 
a rich and powirrful n«^^vha^t cb&i. The nobles not only had 
privblcKes of rank and dicnityH hut substantial power over the 

f>lcbeian or peasant cb%% itHocehMalii]. I'he greatest estates be* 
onj^ffd to the king, or had been (»r.iriUi] la nilhtary chiefs whose sons 
faicciviiini th{<m, cir v€Te Oil- iw\ ■■■ r- x ■ -A ' mples, but the calpuJU 
or village community still survived, and each freeman of the tribe 
held and tilled his portion of the common lands. Below the freemen 
were the slaves, who were war-captives, persons enslaved for punish- 
ment, or children sold by their parents. Prisoners of war were 
mostly doomed to sacrifice, but other classes of slaves were nuldly 
treated, retaining civil rights, and their children were bom free. 

The superior courts of law formed part of the palace, and there 
were tribunals in the principal cities, over each of which pfesided a 
supreme judge or cthuacoaU, who was irremovable, and M^^tt,^ 
whose criminal decisions not even the king might reverse; 
he appointed the lower judges and heard appeals from diem; it b 
doubtful whether he judged in civil cases, out both kinds of suits 
were heard in the court below, by the lUuatecatl and hb two aMOC>> 
atcs, below whom were the ward-magistrates. Lands were set apart 
for the maintenance of the judges, and indeed nothing gives a higher 
idea of the elaborate civilization of Mexico than this ludinal system, 
which culminated in a general court and council ol state presided 
over by the king. The laws and records of suits were set down hi 
picture-writings, of which some arc still to be seen ; sentence of death 
was recorded oy drawing a line with an arrow across the portrait 
of the condemned, and the chronicles describe the barbaric solemnity 
with which the king passed sentence sitting on a golden and jewelled 
throne in the divine tribunal, with one hand on an ornamented skull 
and the golden arrow in the other. Among the resemblances to 
old-world law was the use of a judicial oath, the witness touching 
the ground with his finger and putting it to his lips, thus swearing 
by Mother Earth. The criminal laws were of extreme severity, even 
petty theft being punished by the thief being enslaved to the ( 



he had robbed, while to steal a tobacco pouch or twenty ears of con 
was death; he who pilfered in the market was then and there beaten 
to death, and he who insulted Xipe. the god of the jgold- and silver- 
smiths, by stealing his precious metal, was !>kinncd alive and sacrificed 
to the ottended deil'^. Though aloe-beer or " pulque " n 



ANCIENT CIVIUZATION] 



MEXICO 



333 



for feasts and to invalids in moderation, and old people over seventy 
nem to be represented in one of the picture-writings as having libcrtv 
of drunkenness, young men founa drunk were clubbed to death 
and youns women stoned. For such offences as witchcraft, fraud, 
mioving landnurks, and adultery the criminal had his heart cut 
out on cne alur, or his head crushed between two stones, while even 
ksser punishments were harkh. such as that of slanderers, whose 
hair was singed with a pine-torch to the scalp. 

Based on conquest as the Aztec kingdom was. and with the most 
Uoodthinty religion the world ever saw, the nation was, above all, 
l|. a fighting community. To be a tried soldier was the road 

* to honour and office, and the king could not be enthroned 

till he had with his own hand taken captives to be butchered 
on the war-god's altar at his coronation. The common soldiers 
*ere promoted for acts of daring, and the children of chiefs were 
regularly trained to war, and initiated by being sent into battle with 
veterans, with whose aid the youth took his nrst prisoner, but his 
future rise depended on how many captives he took unaided in fi^ht 
with warlike enemies; by such feats he gained the dignity of weanng 
cokMired blankets, tassels and lip-jewels, and reached such military 
titles as that of " guiding eagle. The Mexican military costumes 
ire to be seen in the picture-writings, where the military orders of 

E'nces. eagles and tigers are known by their braided hair, eagles' 
iks and ^wtted armour. The common soldiers went into battle 
tinlliant in savage war-paint, but those of higher rank had helmets 
file birds and beasts of prey, armour of gold and silver, wooden 
maves, and especially the ichcapiiit, the quilted cotton tunic two 
users thick, so serviceable as a protection from arrows that the 
Spanish invaders were glad to adopt it. The archers shot well and 
with strong bows, though their arrows were generally tipped only 
vith stone or bone; their shields or targets, mostiv round, were of 
enlinary barbaric forms; the spears or javelins had heads of obsidian 
orbronae. and were sometimes hurled with a spear-thrower or atlattt 
of which pictures and specimens still exist, showing it to be similar 
i> principle to those used by the Australians and Eskimo. The most 
characteristic weapon of the Mexicans was the maquakuiU or " hand- 
vood,** a club set with two rows of large sharp obsidian fbkes, 
a weO-directed bk>w with which would cut down man or horse. 
Thesetwo last-mentioned weapons have the look of highly developed 
avage forms, while on the otner hand the military organization was 
ia tome respects equal to that of an Asiatic nation, with its resular 
cnapanies commanded each by its captain and provided with its 
standard. The armies were very large, an expedition often consist- 
ing of several divisions^ l-.j J i I. Liil- ;!■:=,; -/^'.c l!-..m.: ■ r;I mli.; bu: 
the tactics of the comtnAndera were auue ruclL/n£iitiiry'» coniiAiin^ 
■crdy of attack by arrowa and ja^tiins at a diatance, gradually 
dosing into a hana-to^hdnd fieht with cIllIm and sptMrs, with an 
occanooal feigned retreat td draw the enomy into an ambuscade. 
Forti6cation was well uniien-tootit sa tnsy »i ill be seen in the fumama. 
<tf w^ed and escarped stmnghr.iHson hiUa and in utcp ravinea, while 
la2oon<ities like Mexico h^d the water appfoachea ddfenHi;*d by 
i«t»of boats and the EiJtu^eways proToct«l by tower* and diichei; 
«ta after the town wai cmercd, ibe pymmid-templf* with ih^ir 
nnoimding walls were fcri» capable of ctubthT^rn rrtiiptaiKe. It wai 
Md unrighteous to invade snoiner nation wiihout a sioU'mn embassy 
to warn tneir chief s of tht miscrie* tg which tb^y e^pr>5od rhcm^lvts 
l>y refusing the submistiion ddm i : . ■ !■' . .. f ;-.^.i 

by a declaration of war, but in Mexico this degenerated into a cere- 
Booial farce, where tribute was claimed or an Aztec god was offered to 
bewtxfshipped in order to pick a quarrel as a pretext for an invasion 
already punned to satisfy the soldiers with lands and plunder, and 
toneet Uie priests' incessant demands for more human sacrifices. 

Ainoag the accounts of the Mexican religion are some passages 
nforing to the belief in a supreme deity. The word teoU, god, has 
j^^^ been thought in some cases to bear this signification, 
^^^ but its meaning is that of deity in general, and it is 
applied not only to the sun-god but to very inferior gods. It is 
imted that Nezahualcoyotl, tnepoet-kin^ of Tezcuco, miilt a nine- 
Aoricd temc^ with a starry roof^ above, in honour of the invisible 
deity called Tloquenahuaque, " he who is all in himself," or Ipal- 
nemoani, " he by whom we live," who had no imase. and wa» pro- 
pitiated, not by bloody sacrifices, but by incense and flowers. Ttiotse 
divinities, however, seem to have had little or no pbce in the popular 
(aith, which was occupied by polytheistic gods of the ordinary 
barbaric type. Tezcatlipoca was held to be the highest of these, 
and at the festival of all the gods his footsteps were expected to 
appear in the flour strewn to receive this sign of their coming. He 
was (4ainly an aiKient deity of the race, for attributes of many kinds 
are crowded together in him. Between him and Quetzalcoatl, the 
ancient deity of Cholula, there had been old rivalry. As is relattd in 
Ike legends, QuetwakoaU came into the bnd to teach men to till the 
•oil. to work metals and to rule a well-ordered state; the two gods 
played their famous match at the ball-game, and Tezcatlipoca per- 
suaded the weary Quetzalcoatl to drink the magic puloue that sent 
kim roaming to the distant ocean, where he embarked in his boat 
aad disappeared from among men.* These deities are not easily 

*One of the roost important sources for the ancient Mexican 
traditions and myths is the so-called " Codex Chimalpn)>oca." a 
=_^ jj^ ^^ Mexican language discovered by the Abb6 



analysed, but on the other hand Tonatiuh and Metztli, the sun and 
moon, stand out distinctly as nature gods, and the traveller still sees 
in the huge adobe pyramidn of Tvotihuacan, with their sides oriented 
to the four Quarters, an evidence of the importance of their worship. 
The war-god Huitzilopochtii was the real head of the Aztec pantheon; 
his idol remains in Mexico, a huge block of basalt on which is sculp- 
tured on the one side his hideous personage, adorned with the 
humming-bird feathers on the left hand which signify his name, while 
the not less frightful war-goddess Teoyaomiqui, or " divine war- 
death," occupies the other side. Centeotl, the goddess of the all- 
nourishing maize, was patroness of the earth and mother of the gods, 
while Mictbnteuctli, lord of dead-land, ruled over the departed in 
the dim under-world. There were numbers of lesser deities, such as 
Tlozolteotl. godde>s of pleasure, worshipped by courtesans, Tczcat- 
zoncatl, god of strong drink, whose garment in grim irony clothed 
the drunkard's corpse, and Xipe, patron of the goldsmiths. Below 
these were the nature-spirits ol hills and gro\-es, whose shrines were 
built by the roadside. The temples were called UocalU or " god's 
house,' and rivalled in size as they resembled in form the temples 
of ancient Babylon. They were pyramids on a square or oblong 
base, rising in successive terraces to a small summit-platform. The 
great teocalli of Huitzik>pochtli in the city of Mexico stood in an 
immense square, whence radiated the four principal thoroughfares, 
its courtyard being enclosed by a sauare, of which the stone wall, 
called the coalepantli or serpent-wall from its sculptured serpents, 
measured nearly a quarter of a mile on each side. In the centre, 
the oblong pyramid of rubble cased with hewn stone and cemented 
375 X 300 ft. at the base, and rising steeply in five terraces to the 
height of 86 ft., showed conspicuously to the city the long proces- 
sions of priests and victims winding along the terraces and up to 
corner flights of steps. On the paved platform were three-storey 
tower temoles in whose cround-floor stood the stone images and 
altars, and before that 01 the war-god the green stone of sacrifice, 
humped so as to bend upward the body of the victim that the priest 
might more easily slash open the breast with his obsidian knife, tear 
out the heart and hold it up before the god, while the captor and his 
friends were waiting below for the carcase to be tumblml down the 
steps for them to cany home to be cooked for the feast of victory. 
Before the shrines reeking with the stench of slaughter the eternal 
fires were kept burning, and on the platform stood the huge drum, 
covered with snakes' skin, whose fearful sound was heard for miles. 
From the terrace could be seen seventy or more other temples within 
the enclosure, with their images and blaring fires, and the ttompanUi 
or " skull-place," where the skulls of victims by tens of thousands 
were skewered on cross-sticks or built into towers. There abo might 
be seen the fbt circubr temaUuatl or " spindle-stone," where captives 
armed with wooden weapons were allowed the mockery of a gladia- 
torial fight against well-armed champions. The great pyramid of 
Cholub with its hemispherical temple of Quetzalcoatl at the top, 
now an almost shapeless hill surmounted by a church, was about 
thrice as long and twice as high as the teocalli of Mexico. A brge 
fraction of tne Mexican popubtion were set apart as priests or 
attendants to the services cl the gods. The rites performed were 
such as are found elsewhere — prayer, sacrifice, processions, danc es, 

Brasaeur de Bourbourg. It is the interpretation of different mytho- 
logical and historical Mexican picture-writings, composed by 
an anonymous author some time alter the conquest and copied by 
Fernando de Alva (Ixtlilxochitl, 1568-1648). It belonged to the 
priceless collection of Mexican documents brought together in the 
i8th century by Lorenzo Boturini (see his " Catilogo del Museo 
historicoindiano," appendix of his Idea de una nueva kistoria general 
de la America septentrional, Madrid. 1746, { viii.. No. 13). It is 
named there IJistoria de los reynos de Colhuacan y de Mexico. Other 
copies of the same manuscript, made by Leon y Gama, Jos6 Pichardo, 
Aubin and Brasscur, exist in the Paris National Library in the Aubin- 
Goupil collection. Brasscur died before he could realize his pbn 
to publish the whole MS. in Nahuatl with a transbtion. Some 
extracts are to be found in his Histoire des nations civUisies du 
Mexique, and in Leon y Gama, Dos Piedras . . . , ed. Bustamente 
(.Mexico, 1832). Larger fragments of the Ixtlilxochitl copy were 
published in the Anales del museo nacional de Mexico, tom. iii., 
appx. pp. 7-70; but in this edition the Mexican text is very 
corrupt, and the two Spanish translations are by no means exact. 
The Paris MSS. and the Ixtlilxochitl copy were carefully colbted 
by Dr Walter Lehmann (sec Zeitschrift fur Etknoiogie, 1906, pp. 
752-yr6o; Journal de la Societi des Amfricanistes de Paris, nouv. sir. 
vol. lii. No. 2; Dr £. Seler. Verhandiunien des XVI. Intemationalen 
Amerikanisten-Konf^resses, Vienna, 1909. II., pp. l2;9-l5o). The 
precious Ixtlilxochitl copy was found by Lehmann in the library 
of the National Museum of Mexico, ana arrangements were made 
for the publication of the whole MS. by him in conjunction with 
Professor E. S«cler. Another very important MS. was discovered 
bv Dr Lehmann, in Guatemala. It is the MS. of Father Francisco 
Ximenez, Historia de la Provincia de San Vicente de Ckiapa y de 
Guatemala, in three bie volumes in folio, which contain the famous 
Spanish transbtion of the Quich6 my»hs or the " Popol-Vuh." 
The MS. was bought at the expense of the duke o( LKssateaXxVtv^ 
decided to preiwnt ii.aUct \\ve deaxVv oV \ix \>^tftwvtv,VQ ^^^fc'^«3^i■^^. 
Library at BcrUn. 



334 



MEXICO 



(ANCIENT CIVILIZATiaiC 



chants, fasting and other austerities, but there are some peculiarities 
of detail. Prayers and other formulas have been copied down by 
Saha^un and other chroniclers, of endless prolixity, but not without 
occasional^ touches of pathos. These prayers seem essentially 
genuine; indeed there was no European model from which they 
could have been imitated ; but at the same time it must be remem- 
bered that thev come down in Spanish writing, and not untouched 
bv Spanish influence, as in one passage where there is a mention 
of sheep, an animal unknown to the Mexicans. As to sacrifice, 
maize and other vegetables were offered, and occasionally rabbits, 
quails, &c., but, in the absence of cattle, human sacrifice was the 
cnief rite, and cannibalism prevailed at the feasts. Incense was 
constantly used, especially the copalli (copal) well known to us for 
varnish; little terra-cotta censers are among the commonest of 
Mexican antiquities. Long and severe religious fasts were customary 
at special seasons, and draikring blood from the arms, legs and bodv, 
by thrusting in aloe-thorns, and passing sharp sticks through the 
tongue, was an habitual act of devotion recalling the similar practices 
of devotees in India. The calendar of religious festivals for the 
.Mexican year has been preserved. Each 20-day period had one or 
more such celebrations. In the month of the " diminishing of 
waters " the rain gods or TIalocs were propitiated by a procession 
of priests with music of flutes and trumpets carrying on plumed 
litters infants with painted faces, in gay dothinj; with coloured 
ftaper wings, to be sacrificed on the mountains or m a whirlpool in 
the lake. It is said that the people wept as they passed by , but if 
•o this may have been a customary formality, for the religion of 
these nations must have quenched all human sympathy In the 
next month the god Xipe-totcc, already mentioned, had his festival 
called the " flaymg of men " from the human victims being fbyed, 
after their hearts were torn out, for youngmen to dress in their skins 
and perform dances and sham fights. The succeeding festival of 
Camaxtli was marked by a severe fast of the priests, after which 
stone knives were prepared with which a hole was cut through the 
tongue of each, and numbers of sticks passed through. For the 
great festival of Tezcatlipoca, the handsomest and noblest of the 
captives of the year had been chosen as the incarnate representative 
of the god, ana paraded the streets for public adoration dressed in 
an embroidered mantle with feathers and garlands on his head and 
a retinue like a king; for the last month tncy married him to four 
girU representing four goddesses; on the bst day wives and pages 
escorted him to the little temple of Tlacochcalco, where he mounted 
the stairs, breaking an earthenware flute against each step; this was 
a symbolic farewell to the joys of the world, for as he reached the 
top he was seized by the priests, his heart torn out and held up to 
the sun, his head spitted on the tzompantii, and his body eaten as 
■acred food, the people drawing from nis fate the moral lesson that 
riches and pleasure may turn into poverty and sorrow. The manner 
of the victim's death in these festivals afforded scope for variety: 
they dressed them and made them dance in character, threw them 
into the fire for the fire-god, or crushed them between two balanced 
stones at the harvest-festival. The ordinary pleasures of festivals 
were mingled with all this, such as dances in beast-masks, sham 
fights andchildren's games, but the type of a religious function was 
a sk:kening butchery followed by a cannibal feast. 

The Mexican pnesthood were much concerned with the art of 
picture-writing, wliich they used systematically as a means of record- 
ing religious festivals and legends, as well as keeping 
calendars of years and recording the historical events 
which occurred in them. Facsimiles of several of these 
interesting documents, with their translations, may be seen in 
Kingsborough ; splendid reproductions of the beautiful Mexican 
and Mixteco-Zapotecan codices have also been published at the 
expense of the duke of Loubat and by the " Junta Colombina " 
(Mexico, 1892). Gods are represented with their appropriate 
attributes — the fire-god hurling his spear, the moon-goddess with 
a shell. &c. ; the scenes of human life are pictures of warriors fighting 
with club and spear, men paddling in canoes, women spinning and 
weaving, &c. An important step towards phonetic writing appears 
in the picture-names of pbccs and persons. The simplest forms 
of these depict the objects signified by the name, as where Chapul- 
Upec or " grasshopper-hill " is represented by a grasshopper on a 
hill, or a stone with a cactus on it stands for Tenoch or " stone- 
cactus," the founder of TcnochtiUan, The system had. however, 
risen a stage beyond this when objects were drawn to represent, not 
themselves, but the syllables forming their names, as where a trap, an 
eagle, a pricker, and a hand are put together not to represent these 
objects, but in order that the syllables of their names mo-quauh' 
to-ma should spell the word Nfoquauhzoma (see Aubin's intro- 
duction to Brasiieur, Hiit. du Mexique, u 68.). The analogy of this 
to the manner in which the Egyptian hieroglyphs passed into 
phonetic signs is remarkable, and wnting might liave been invented 
anew in Mexico had it not been for the Spanish conquest. The 
Aztec numerals, which were vigesimal or reckoned by scores, were, 
depicted by dots or circles up to 20. which was represented by a flag. 
400 (a score of scores) by a feather, and 8000 (a score of scores of 
scores) by a purse ; but for convenience these symbols might be halved 
MJtd quartered, so that SM might be shown by one feather, one 
Quarter of a feather, one tidg, one-half of a flag, and four 6oi*. The 
Mexican calendar dcponded on the combination of numbers with 



picture-^igns, of which the four principal were the rabbit, reed, flint, 
haLLu;— loihih, a/cail, Ucpatl, caiit. The cycle of 52 years was reckoned 
Uy cumtiininf ihri« signs in rotation with numbers up to 13, thus: 
t nt>hii, 1 rvt^, 3 flint, 4 house. 5 rabbit, 6 reed, &c. By accident 
Khii cd lender miy be exactly illustrated with a modem pack of cards 
laid out in roraiion of the four suits, as. ace of hearts. 2 of spades, 
\ of dumondt, 4 of clubs. 5 of hearts. 6 of spades. Ac. In the 
Nlejtkan ritual c^ilendar of the days of the year, the same method 
11 carried further* the series of twenty day-signs being combined 
in rotation with numbers up to 13; as this cycle of days only reaches 
j6o. i foric? o\ nine other signs are aflixed inaddition. to make up 
the 36s-day year. It is plain that this rotation of signs served no 
useful purpose whatever, being less convenient than ordinary count- 
ing such as the Mexicans employed in their other calendar already 
mentioned, where the 20-day periods had each a name like our 
months, and their days had signs in regular order, its historical 
interest depends on its resemblance to the calendar-system of central 
and eastern Asia, where amone Mongols. Tibetans, Chinese. Ac, 
series of signs are thus combined to reckon /ears, months and days; 
for instance, the Mongol cycle of 60 years is recorded by the aodiac 
<x series of 12 signs — mouse, bull, tiger, &c .combined in rotatioa 
with the five male and female elements — fire, earth, iron, water, 
wood, as " male-fire-bull " year. &c. This comparison is worked 
out in Humboldt's Vues des CordilUres, as evidence of Mexicaa 
civilization beinff borrowed from Asia Naturally the Mexicaa 
calendar-system Tent itself to magic in the same way as the similar 
zodiac-signs of the Old World, each person's fate being affected by 
the qualities of the signs he was bom under, and tM astrologer* 

Rriests being called in to advise on every event of life. Of aB 
lexican festivals the most solemn was th^t of the xinluncipitti, or 
" year-binding," when the S2-year cycle or bundle of years came to 
an end. It was believed that the destruction of the world, which 
after the Hindu manner the Mexicans held to have already Cahea 
place three or four times, would happen again at the end of a cycle. 
As the time drew near, the anxious population cleansed their houKS 
and put out all fire, and on the last day after sunset the priestSj 
dressed in the garb of gods, set out in procession for the hiU of 
Huixachtia, there to watch for the approach of the Pleiades to the 
aenith, which gave the auspkrious signal for the lighring of the new 
fire. The finest of the captives was thrown down and fire kindled 
on his breast by the wooden drill of the priest, then the victim's 
heart was torn out, and his body flung on the pile kindled with the 
new flame. The people watchinc from their flat housetops all the 
country round saw with joy the fliame on the sacred hiU, and hailed 
it with a thank-oflering of drops of blood drawn from their ears 
with sharp stone-flakes. Swift runners carried burning brands to 
re-kindle the fires of the land, the sacred fire on the teocalU of the 
war-god blazed up again, and the people began with feasting and 
rejoicing the new cycle. 

Mexican education, at any rate that of the upper class, was a 
systematic discipline much under the control of religion, which here 

presents itself under a more favourable light. After ,, . 

the birth of a child, the tonalpouhqui or " sun-calculator " «■«■■■•* 
drew its horoscope from the signs it was bom under, and fixed 
the time for its solemn lustration or baptism, petformed by the 
nurse with appropriate prayers to the gods, when a toy sludd and 
bow were provided if it was a boy, or a toy spindle and distaff 
if it was a giri, and the child received iu name. An interesting 
picture-writing, to be seen in Kingsborouffh. shows the deuils m 
the boy's and giri's education, from the early time when three small 
circles over the child show it to be three years oki, and a drawing 
of half a tortilla or corn-cake shows its allowance for each meal, as 
they grow older the lads are seen beginning to carry burdens, 
pacfdic the canoe and fish, while the girls Icam to spin and weaver 
grind maize, and cook — good conduct being enforced by punish* 
ments of increasing seventy, up to pricking their bodies with ak)e- 
thorns and holding their faces over burning chillies. The schools 
were extensive buildings attached to the temples, where from an 
early age boys and gins were taught by the priests to sweep the 
sanctuaries and keep up the sacred fires, to fast at proper seasons 
and draw blood for penance, and where they received moral teaching 
in long and verbose formulas. Those fit for a soldier's life were 
trained to the use of weapons and sent early to leam the hardshqis 
of war; children of craftsmen were usually taught by their fathen 
to follow their trade: and for the children of nobles there was 
elaborate instruction in history, picture-writing, astrotogy. religious 
doctrines and laws. Marriag^ depended much, as they 
do still in the East, on comparison of the horoscopes of thie 
pair to ascertain if their birth-signs were compatible. Old ^ 
were employed as go-betweens, and the marriage ceremony was 
conducted by a priest who after moral exhortations united the young 
couple by tying their garments together in a knot, after which they 
walked seven times round the fire, casting incense into it: after the 
performance of the marriage ceremony, the pair entered together 
on a four days' fast and penance before the marriage was compieied 
The funeral rites of the Mexicans are best seen in the m^^i^ 
ceremonies at the death of a king. The corpse laid out ^'■""^ 
in state was provided by the priest with a jug oi water for his joaniey, 
and with bunches of cut papers to pass him safely thro^fh each 
dantser of the road — the place where the two mountains atriki 



IMCIENT CnnuZATtON 



MEXICO 



335 



MrtbCT, tlM road goanled by Oiegmt make aiid the great alUgat^^ 
■e evit deMTta and the eight hiiU; tuey gave him gannenu to 
iratect him from the cutting wind, and buned a little dog by hb tide 
o canv him acrow the mne waters. Then the nyal body waa 
anrted in the mantlea of hia patron-gods, especiaUy that of the 
•ar-fod, for Mexican kings were wamors; on his face was placed 
' "^'^ of turquoise mosaic, and a green chalchihuite-stone as a 
sen his lips. In older times the dead king was buried 



n a throDe with his (Nroperty and dead attendants round him. But 
iter cremation came in a mourning prooeauon of servants and chiefs 
airyini; the body to the funeral pyre to be burnt by the donon- 
Iraned priests, after which the crowd of wives and slaves were 
shorted to serve their kxd faithfully in the next workl, were 
acrificed and their bodies burnt. Common people woukl not thus 
» provided with a ghostly retinue, but their simpler funeral oere- 
Boniea wereasfaras they went similar to those of tneir monarch. 

The staple food of the Mexicans before the conquest has continued 
■ith comparatively little chanee among the native race, and has 
Hg^gmgg^ even been adopted oy those of European blood. Maiae 
■BtfiHA ^'^ Indian com was cultivated on patches of ground 
^^ when, as in the Hindu jilm, the trees and bushei were 
bamt and the seed planted in the soil manured by the aahet. A 
Aarp-pointed planting stick, a wooden shovel, and a bronze-bladed 
ke called a coatl were the simple implements. The Mexicana 
oadentood digging channels for imgation, especially for the cultiva- 
tka of the ca caku a U , from which they taught the Europeans to 
mpare the beverage c k ocoUa d ; these native names passed into 
h^fiih as the words cacao, <x coco and chocolate. Other veget- 
ables adopted from Mexico are the tomato {tomatl) and the chtUu 
wed as flavouring to native didies. The maize was ground with a 
aooeroUer oa the grinding stone or metiatl, still known over Spanish 
Aaerica as the mekUe, and the meal baked into thin oval cakes called 
by Aztecs tIaxeaUi, and by Spaniards tortiUa, which resemble the 
oo^^of India and the oatcake of Scotland. The Mexicans were 
ab» skilfal makers of earthen pots, in which were cooked the native 
beuM called by the Spanish frijoUs, and the various savoury stewa 
it3 in vogue. The juice extracted by tapping the great aloe 
boore flowering was fermented into an intoxicating drink about the 
xmgth of beer, eetU, by the Spaniards called pulcue. Tobacco, 
anotod in leaves or cane^inpes or taken as snuR. waa in use, 
(]^^l_^^ especially at feasts. In old times Mexican clothing 
^fx mtatt ^"^^^ ^ skins of woven aloe and palm fibre, but at the 
time of the conquest cotton was largely cultivated in 
UK hot lands, spun with a spindle, and woven m a rudimentary 
BOO without a shuttle into the mantles and breech-cloths of the 
nes and the chemises and skirts of the women, garments often of 
tte texture and embroidered in colours. Ornaments of ^old and 
*3m, and jewds of polished quartz and green chalchihuite were 
~ : only the ears and nose but the lips being pierced for 
ornaments. The artificers in gold and silver melted 
' the metals by means of a reed-blowpipe and cast them 
*oU or hollow, and were also skilled in hammered work and 
"^ ' c. as some fine specimens remain to show, though the famous 
_u modelled with gold and silver, fur, feathers and scales 
b«e disappeared. Iron was not known, but copper and tin ores 
*ere minea. and the metab combined into bronze of much the same 
<lo]ras in the Okl World, of which hatchet blades and other instru- 
■ttts were made, though their use had not superseded that of 
obiidiaa and other sharp stone flakes for cutting, shaving, &c 
Metab had passed into a currency for trading purposes, especially 
<|a3lf of gola-duat and T-shaped pieces of copper, while coco-beans 
■umahedr small change. The vast size of the market-squares with 
tbeir surrounding porticos, and the importance of the caravans of 
nerchanu who traded with other nations, show that mercantile 
M risen into some profxntion to military interests. Nor was the 
vcakh and luxury of Mexico and surrounding regions without a corre- 
Anamg •ponding development of art. The stone sculptures 
l^i^g, such as that remaining of Xochicaico, which is ngured 
^^^ by Humboldt, as well as the ornamented woodwork, 
featber-mats, and vases, are not without artistic merit. The often- 
cited poems attributed to N^hualcoyotl may not be quite genuine, 
Ur at any rate poetry had risen above the barbaric level, while the 
meotioo oi ballads among the people, court odes, and the chants of 
temple choirs would indicate a vocal cultivation above that of the 
isitnunental music of drums and horns, pipes and whistles, the 
hticr often of pottery. Solemn and eay dances were frequent, and 
s ^wrt called the bud-dance excited the admiration of foreigners 
(or the skill and daring with which groups of performers dressed as 
binds let themselves down by ropes wound round the top of a hieh 
BMnt, so as to fly whirled in circles far above the ground. The ball- 
pune of the Mexicans, called tlachtli, was, like tennis, the pastime 
tf princes and nobles; special courts were built for it. and the ball 
if india-rubber (perhaps the first object in which Europeans became 
cqoainted with thb valuable material) might not be touched by 
he hands, but wa< driven against the walls by blows of the knee or 
Ibow, shoulder or buttock. The favourite game of patoUi has been 
beady mentioned for its similarity to the paehisi of modem India. 
The accounts given by Spanish writers ol the Central Americans . 
I thdr state after the Spanish conquest are very acanty ia com' j 



pariaon with the volnmlnotts detcriptkms of Aztec life. They 

bnne out perfecily* however » the im oi dose coAnexiri^EL between 
the two avilixikcicn^, Some CuntraJ- American ptspin 
w«-e actually Mexican in thdr laniru^gc and culture, 
«p«:ially the Fipils find a Isr^ pin of ihc popuUtion 
of Nica.r3|ua- Thp tTivnitiga turns made by L>r Waller 
Lfhmai^n m Central America (ii>d7*i909)k prc^v* that ibCM Mexican 
cSciT)LTit& wrrr extended thrauj^h GuatemaU, S&jvadot, 9 tmall part of 
Nicaragua (the ttmtory of the Nicarao*) and on several pLices in the 
prnin&uUi of Nicoya (^Cofta. Rica) amoi^j^st thcautochthor.ausChoro- 
lega, or Manq[ue, U rt an oTor of the bpaawh auihoriik* to pretend 
that the Pipil civitization in Gi^t«mjiii and SflKadlor ia not okler 
than the time of King AhuiT]Ec>il {t, n&j-i^S^t)^ The lanniage 
spoken hy the PipEU of Salvador (Ealfdm Coast) is a very oW dialect 
0? the MeJtican Unifuj-Kc of thv highbiid ol Mrxitxt. It has preserved 
in the conju^atirjn and in the [Drniation of the plural older forms 
than the claMkai Nahuaitl itself. The ei?aa ration of the Fipib from 
the chief tribes of the iNahtiatl branch h^pi^cncd centuries before 
the cont^uest, and they developed a «iii^uUr and characteristic 
cLvtli£:ition, whkh can be tetn tn the wonderful rtoiir-fcUefs and 
A4.ulpturcs of Sta Luda de Coiumalhuapa aa the Paci&c coast ol 
Guatemala. 

Dr Lehmann's archaeological and lineuistic researches, especially 
in Salvador and Nicaragua, also enabled him to prove another very 
important fact, viz. that these Pipils, who may be descendants from 
the peoples of the Mexican Plateau, migrated into territories pre- 
viouriy occupied by an older race ci Mayan origin. The arclweo- 
logicaf and lineuistk: evidence proves also that a great part of 
Salvador and Honduras was once occupied by peoples of the Maya 
race — Pokomam, Chorti and perhaps other unknown tribes. They 
left typical Mayan ruins in Honduras (Tenampua) and in Salvador 
(Opico near Tehuacan, Quclepa near &in Miguel), which seem, 
however, to be destitute of Mayan hieroglyphic inscriptions. The 
eastemm<»t limit of prehistoric Mayan aviiization, on the Pacific 
coast of Central America, is Fonseca Bay, with the island of Zacate 
Grande. 

It is noteworthy that archaeological objects of the type character- 
istic of northern Honduras (Ulloa Valley) have been found on the 
Pacific coast of Salvador. A strange stone sculpture of the so-called 
Chac-Mol type, known before only from the country of the Tarascs, 
from Tlaxcala and Chichen Itza, was discovered in Salvador 
(Ahuachapan). 

In the nearly unexplored central part of Nicaragua Dr Lehmann 
found fragments of painted polychrome clay pottery umilar to 
objects known from the Ulloa Valley fHonduras) amongst other 
ceramic pieces which seem to have been left by the ancestors of the 
Sumo Indians, now extinct in that territory. It is possible that 
these remains of Mayan pottery came into central Nicaragua aa 
articles of commerce. 

It is ^tj^nitic-nnt lliat Mpynn civit[:f.iiion cannot be traced in any 
Other pirt of Nicanij;u^ of Costa Rica. 

The at>ove-mentiDned pnehEstoric ^faVlln pfopltn lived in contact 
with *' barbarou* " naiioni and with another httk^kaown civilized 
race. The barbarians bL'^ngL-d to the great family of the Sumo- 
Misquito Indijins, ih* civiEucd race wn* that of the Chofoiega or 
MangU'^ (Dirian, OmLiJUn, Ac^h The Sumi>MiK|t]iio Indians 
occupi(>J the Atbntic cwwt and the itiierior of Nicaragua and 
Honduc -.1%, where thty stil! Uvu in smAll irib**; a dialect of the hitherto 
unknown Sumo Lan^uagt'^ 1.5 the MatAealpkin, pqw e^ctinct in Nicar- 
agua, and nearly identical with the Mataeaipan i^ the la n^uagf- spoken 
by the Indians, of Cacaopera in SaJvador {Llitra-Lem^ tcTritor>'). 
There h no douln that, ai ibe time of the Pipil invaiton, tribes of 
the Sumo-Misquito fsmiiy wen.* the irnmtiidiate neighbours of the 
Pipils towards the cast and north. This fact i* proved by the names 
of som': T:\^-c^ t"_ ^^'^'"'■^'■■Tt f r '^:i"r'"r'> K>inj''h«ii>ii^ S-\a Juan 
Nonohuaico and San Pedro Nonohualco. The word NonohuaUo 
signifies in the Mexican languace a place where a language changes, 
where another idiom begins. To the cast of the three places whose 
names arc compounded with " Nonohualco," must have dwelt, in 
the time of the Pipil Indians, the Nonouaica, called also by Mexican 
tribes Chontales or Popoloca. The western neighbours olihe Sumo 
Indians were and are (though few still survive) the Lcnca Indians, 
who formerly occupied large parts of Honduras. A linguistic rela- 
tionship can be established between all the Indian languaees spoken 
on the Atlantic coast and in the interior of Nicaragua and Honduras. 
Several tribes, such as the Paya (or Poya) and the licaqucs, form 
together with the Lenca, Sumo (Matagalpa, Tauakhca and Ulua) 
ami Misquito one great family. 

The position of the isolated Xinca (or Sinca) Indians, regarded 
from this point of view, becomes very interesting. There are 
scientific reasons to believe that the Xinca also belong to the same 
great family as the Lenca, Jicaques, Paya, Misguito-Sumo. It 
may be possible either that these tnbes are tne autochthonous mhab- 
itants who dwelt in Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua 
before the immigration of the prehistoric Maya peoples; or else that 
they invaded this region after it had been deserted by a prehistonc 
oriental branch of the Maya (amvlv. . 

The Chorotega race \\ad iu ccnvte \t\ W\ca.«L^^ ^^tN'ot wsJCs ^"^^ 
at one liae extended ihcnce sa iax sa OxjAtvaxaaxu V5:.<j«a. Y^>Ka^ \ «• 



336 



MEXICO 



lANCIENT CIVILIZATION 



another time it extended as far as Honduras (actual department 
of Choluteca) and into eastern Salvador as far as the state of Chiapas 
in Mexico, where the Chorotega penetrated amon{pt the Mixe. 
The Chorotega or Mangue language^ so closely afhliated to the 
Chiapanec, is now extinct, but its former extension is to be recog- 
nized by many Indian local names. It seems that there was formerly 
a mutual interpenetratlon between Lcnca, Sumo and Chorotega 
tribes. The territories of all these tribes can be, more or less exactly, 
calculated bv the existence of Indian local names. The Misquito 
country is characterized by names terminating in Aiya, water, or 
ouala, river; the Sumo and Ulua country by names in uas, water; 
the Matagalpan by names in It, water; the Lenca by names in ligue, 
Kque, isque and (at) quin. Such Lcnca names occur on the north- 
eastern boundary of the Ultra-Lempa country of Salvador. It is 
strange that there is not a single place-name m Salvador either of 
Mayan origin, or, as it seems, of Chorotegan origin. Probably the 
Mexican elements superseded the Maya so completely that there 
remained no trace ot the Maya except archaeological objects; it 
is to be supposed that the Lenca and Sumo tribes superseded the 
Chorotega in Salvador. If we can be sure — and the linguistic 
evidence admits of no doubt — that the Chorotega had their centre 
in Nicaragua and thence extended north-westwards, it may be 
hoped that Chorotegan remains will be found in the vast territory 
occupied for many centuries by the Maya peoples in the Pacific part 
of Guatemala. These remains would, of course, be archaeological 
or place-names. 

How closely related some of the Central-American nations were 
in institutions to the Mexicans appears, not only in their using the 
same peculiar weapons, but in the similarity of their religious 
rites; the connexion is evident in such points as the ceremony of 
marriage by tying together the garments of the couple, or in holding 
an offender's face over burning chillies as a punishment; the native 
legends of Central America make mention of the ruyal ball-play, 
which was the same as the Mexican game of tlachtli already men- 
tioned. At the same time many of the Central-American customs 
differed from the Mexican; thus in Yucatan we find the custom of 
the youths sleeping in a great bachelor's house, an arrangement 
common in various parts of the world, but not in Mexico; the same 
remark applies to the Maya cxogamous law of a man not taking a wife 
ol his own family name (see Diego de Landa, Relacion de Yucatan, 
ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 140), which docs not correspond with 
Mexican custom. We have the means uf comparing the personal 
appearance of the Mexicans and Central Americans by their portraits 
on early sculptures, vases, &c.; and, though there does not appear 
any clear distinction of race-type, the extraordinarv back-sloping 
foreheads of such figures as those of the bas-reliefs of Palenciue prove 
that the custom of flattening the skull in infancy prevailed in Central 
America to an extent quite beyond any such habit in Mexico. The 
notion that the ruined cities now buried in the Central-American 
forests were of great antiquity and the work of extinct nations has 
no solid evidence; some ol them may have been already abandoned 
before the conquest, but others were inhabited by the ancestors of 
the Indians who now build their mean huts and till their patches 
ol maize round the relics of the grander life of their ancestors. In 
comparing these ruins in Yucatan, Chiapas, Guatemala and Hon- 
duras, it IS evident^ that, though they are the work of two or more 
nations highly distinct in language, yet these nations had a common 
system of pictorial or written characters. One specimen of a Central- 
American inscription may give a general idea of them all, whether 
it be from the sculptured facade of a temple sketched by Catherwood, 
or from the painted deerskin called the Dresden Codex (reproduced 
in Kingsborough), or from the chapter of Diego de Landa where 
he professes to explain and- translate the characters themselves. 
These consist of combinations of faces, circles, lines, &c., aminged 
in compartments in so complex a manner that hardly two are found 
alike. How they conveyed their meaning, how far they pictorially 
represented ideas or spelt words in the difTcrcnt languages of the 
country, is a question not yet answered in a complete way ; Landa's 
description (p. 320) gives a table of a number uf their elements as 
phonetically representing letters or syllables, but, though there may 
be a partial truth in his rules, they are insutficient or too erroneous 
to serve for any general decipherment. One point as to the Central- 
American characters is clear, that part of them are calendar-signs 
recording dates. From the accounts ^iven by Landa and other 
writers it is plain that the Central-American calendar, reckoning the 
year in twenty-ei^ht periods of thirteen days, was the same in its 

Rrinciple of combining signs as that of Mexico. The four leading 
f aya signs called kan, muiuc, tx, cauac corrcsiwnded in their position 
to the four Aztec signs r.ibbit, reed, flint, house, but the meanings 
of the Maya signs are, unlike the Aztec, very ob^rurc. A remarkable 
feature of the Central-American ruins is the frctjucncy of truncated 
pyramids built of hewn stone, with flights of steps up to the temple 
built on the platform at top. The resemblance of these structures 
to the old descriptions and pictures of the Mexican tcKxallis is so 
striking that this name is habitually given to them. The tcocallis 
built by the Nahua or Mexican nations have been mostly destroyed, 
j^ar two remain at Huatusco and Tusapan (figured in Bancroft, 
/k ^jfj, 4fC6/ wA/cA bear a strong resemblance to those of Palcnque. 
0/7 thv whole it is not too much to say that, in spite of diflerencca 
^ */^'/fV tAe best means of judging what the temples and jXklaccs 



of Mexico were like is to be gained from the actual ruins in Central 
America. On the other hand, there are features in Centrml-Ainericaa 
architecture which scarcely appear in Mexican. Thus at Uxmal 
there stands on a terraced mound the long narrow building known 
as the governor's house (Casa del Gobernador), 322 ft. Ions, 39 ft. 
wide, 20 ft. high, built of rubble stone and mortar faced witn square 
blocks of stone, the interior of the chambers rising into a sloping 
roof formed by courses of stonework gradually overiapping in a 
\' false arch." The same construction is seen in the builaingBTonn- 
ing the sides of a quadrangle and bearing the equally imaginary 
name of the nunnery (Casa de Monjas) ; the resemblance oil the interior 
of one of its apartments to an Etruscan tomb has often been noticed 
(see Fergusson, History of ArchiUciure, voL i; VioUet-le-Duc, in 
Chamay). 

The explorations made by Dr Lehmann in 1909 in tbe famotv 
ruins of Teotihuacan, near Mexico city throw new light upon certais 
chronological problems. Like the excavations nuule by Dr Max 
Uhle in Peru, they tend to determine the relative antiquity of the 
different periods of the ancient civilization. They also show that 
these various culture-periods followed one another among the 
Mexicans in much the same sequence as amone the Peruvians. At 
a considerable depth below the foundations of a temple-palace at 
Teotihuacan, Dr Lehmann discovered certain ceramic fragments of 
a type quite different from any hitherto classed as Mexican. These 
are painted on a fine stucco in beautiful colours (notably a kind of 
turquoise-green) and represent archaic forms of flowers and butter> 
Hies. The relation between the wall paintings of Teotihuacan and 
■offi.inM i;i ■ ,.r r:,;. ^. i, T-.- i. .- .:1 • r,. r .;.i, :;,-.■ . * ., . '^..^ured stone 
yoki^a in Ti:^atLhujLLaiiT m ihc^ couuiry nA the 'l\jioTiac.^ in Guatemala 
aiid in Sulvoidar, furnish important tnAttt\i\ for th« investigation 
of the obscure problemiof the ToJtec* afld Olmtcs, and of theexten- 
jiciti of May^ ptodes on the AUantic coast dJ the Mexican Gdf 
from CaiTti>cchc as far as Taliauca and Vera C rut 

AUrmpt^ to trace ilie aiuhiicciure of Central Amerkn directly 
fracn Old-VVorlJ typc» have not bi-cn successlul. while on the oth« 
hand its diXroniLiuii sliowa proof of origin j.1 invention^ eihpecially 
in the iiDJtations of woodwork which pu&scd into acuI poured oma* 
mertE when the material became itont initi^d of wtjod- Thus the 
xirchJEccturul remdins, though they fail to lolve the problem of the 
culture of the nations rouna the Gitlf of Mc^itra, thm*- much light 
tin it whctl ihtir !.■■■ !-'■. 1 ■ ■.: "■ .i •■' ■' ?■■ r-;:L .' \- \.^,'\- .-. j. [ kd CttStOm^ 

At any rate two things seem probable — first, that the civilizations 
of Mexico and Central America were pervaded by a common influence 
in religion, an, and custom; second, that this common dement 
shows traces of the Importation of Asiatic ideas into America. 

Bibliography. — Tnc most illuminating and fundamental work 
on Mexican archaeology is the Cesammelte Abhandlungeft, of Eduard 
Scler (vol. i. Berlin, 1902; vol. ii., 1904). For the eariiest descriptions 
of the ancient cities of Mexico the writings of Cogolludo, Landa. 
Antonio del Rio, Sahagun, Torquemada and others are of the greatest 
value. The account by Antonio de Leon y Gama. Descnpciom 
historica y cronoiogica de las dos piedras que . . . se kaUarom en 
la plaza principal dc Mexico el aHo de tj^ (Mexico, 1792; 2nd cd. 
by C. M. de Mustamentel), may be specially mentioiwd. Much of 
this material is to be found in Lord Kingsborough's monumental 
work in 9 vols., seq., on the Antiquities of Mexico (London, 1831- 
1848). Alexander von Humboldt's Vues des Cordillh^es ef wianu- 
ments des peuples indinhnes de I'Amerique was published in Paris in 
1816. At the beginning of the 19th century the colonial govemnent 
undertook a comprehensive exploration of the best known group 
of ruins and three expeditions were made in 1805-1808 unoer ine 
direction of Captain Guillaumc Dupaix, accompanied by Luciano 
Castaneda as artist. The reports were not publisned, however, until 
Kingsl>orough included them in his work, though some of the draw- 
ings appeared in other works. In many respects these reports are 
the best of the early accounts. Another «iriy explorer was the 
French artist Frederic dc Waldcck, who published Voyagje pittoresqm 
et archiolofitque dans la province d' Yucatan (Paris, 1838), and whose 
cdlcf-tion of drawings appeared in 1866, with the descriptive text 
by Brasseur de Bourbourg, under the title Monuments amciens im 
Mexique. Among other and later works, including some who have 
devoted themselves more especially to Maya inscriptions, are: 
Arnold and Frost, The American Egypt (London. 1909); H. H. 
Bancroft. The Native Races of the Pacific States (5 vols.. Sew York. 
1874-1K76, vol. iv. is devoted to " Antiquities "); A. F. Bandetier, 
Report on an Archaeological Tour in Mexico, i8Si (Archaeol. Inst 
of America, piiijers. Am. Scr. II.); Leo|x>ldo Batrcs. Cuadro arome^ 
lugtco y etnogrdjico de la Rf publico Mexicana (Mexico, n.d.); W. W. 
Blake. Catalogue of the Historical and Archaeological Collections §f 
tlie National Museum of Mexico (Mexico. 1884): Eug. Boban. Cuadn 
arqueuloguo v etnogrdfico de la Republica Mexicana (Paris. 1885): 
Daniel G. Brinton, The. American Race (New York, 1891) and 
Ancient Phonetic AlpJuibetsof Yucatan', Desir6 Chamay, The Ameieid 
Cities of the New World (Transl. New York.. 1 887); Chamay and 
\'iollL*t-ic-Ouc, CV/^5 et ruines amfricaines (Paris, 1863): Alfredo 
Chavcro (ed.) Antiguedadrs mexicanas (Mexico. 1892): Dupaix, 
Antiauiiiis mexicaines (Paris. 1834-1836): E. Fdrstemann (Numerous 
articles in Globus and other German publications, 189V-1897, on 
Maya in-^rripiions); E. T. llamy. Decades americanae (Paris, 1888^ 
i&'.^, \^i)\ Wta. W. \\o\tqk%« Axchaeohgical Sttidief ammlg Iki 



COLONIAL PERIOI^ 
AmiemiGlitst 



MEXICO 



337 



^iks ef Mexico CPmxU I. and II. Field Columbian Museum, 
1895-1897): W. Lehmann, Eriehnisse und Auftaben der 

mJuu Forukmmg (Arckn. fOr Anthropologu, tteue Folee, 
Sm a; I907)f Ens. trana.: Methods and Reiults tn Mexican Research, 
hf Sevmbur de Ricd (Paria, 1909) ; Theobert Malcr. Neue Enideckunt 
«M Rmmem-StddUn in Mittd-Amerika {Globus, Ixx. 149-150, Braun- 
adtveig, 1896), and. also contributions to American archaeologica! 
VvbGcationa; A. P. Maudslay, Bioloeia Centrali-Amencana-Archae- 
dotf (London. 1897): J. F. A. Nadaillac, Prehistoric America (New 

tc j;J CiJ/iiissiMTu (Arch, ajid bchn. T^pcri, J^e.ib<>dy 

' Tibrtdf^c, looi); Antonio P^riafi«^|^ Monummtos liH awit 

'■■■ .'.ffiifl {t voL test* y vol*. pUite^^; Bcrtin, iSgc); Carl 

Wb^ Auf olt^n ^Vfim in hifxiCQ wW Gmitcmohi (Berlin, IMO); 
EiWid K. Scltf* " E^r Chdrakier dcr aztekivh^n und Maya-HiiTid- 
idiraieti '* (£rUsiknfi fiir Eikncl<rrie, Berlin, i8^J, and other papers 
b tirknis Gcmittii jpublicattioiiB; Jchrv t„ Stephcji! (F+ Catherwood, 
iiti|(), Tra^aM in CenlnU Ameriia (j vols.. New York, 184 1}+ and 



iKtdaU of Tmti in Tiicsla* (3 voJi, New York, 1 843), 

(E.B,T.iW. 



L.') 



II.— Colonial Period. 1530-1821. 

The oonque&t of Mexico by the Spanish forces under Hernando 
Cones (f.?.) in 1520, and the death of the last Axtec emperor, 
Cm em oz i n, introduced what is known as the colonial period 
i( Mexican history, which lasted down to the enforced resigna- 
timof the last viceroy, O'Donoju, in i8ai. During these three 
ceaunics, after a brief but most unsatisfactory experience of 
fntnment by audiendas (1521-1535), sixty-four viceroys 
nkd over New Spain. Of these a few were ecclesiastics: two 
kid two tenns of office; only two or three were of native birth, 
ttd tbeir previous official life had always been passed in other 
puts of tbie Spanish dominions. 

New Spain was one of four great viceroyalties, the other 
tine beiiig New Granada, Buenos Aires and Peru. Its viceroy 
j^j^^ ruled over districts differing in status and with oyer- 
taSu^^Vf^^ *^^ conflicting authorities, some of these 
bdng appointed directly by the king of Spain, and 
npoouble to him. New Spain in its widest meaning includes 
tkaadiendas or judicial districts of Manila, San Domingo and 
Gauemala, and the viceroy had some sort of authority over 
tbea: bat in its narrower meaning it comprised the audiencia 
dfatrict of Mexico and the subordinate audiencia district of 
Gosdilajara, which together extended from Chiapas and Guate- 
■ila to be3ft>nd the eastern boundary of the modem stale of 
Tens and northwards, eventually, to Vancouver's Island. In 
|k course of the i8th century this came to consist of the follow- 
tm divisions: (x> the kingdom of Mexico, which included the 
poioiiila of Yucat&n but not the present state of Chiapas or a 
pot of Tabasco, these belonging to Guatemala. Approximately 
its sooth border ran from a point slightly east of Tehuantepec 
to tlK bay of Honduras, and its north limit was that of the 
■odera states of Michoacan and Guanajuato, then cutting across 
Ssn Lob Pdtosf to a point just above Tampico. ( 2) The kingdom 
d New Galidn, including the present states of Zacatecas, Jalisco 
ttd part of San Luis Potoai. (3) The Nuevo Regno de Leon 
(the present sute of that name). (4) The Provincias Intcmas, 
U. ** interior " regarded from the capital, viz. Nuevo Santander 
(Taaaolipas, and Texas to the bay of Corpus Chrisli. founded 
1749)1 the several provinces of Nuevo Biscaya or Chihuahua, 
DsnafD, Sonora with Sinaloa, Coahuila, Texas (from Corpus 
Ckristi Bay to the mouth of the Mermenton in the present state 
•f LooisiaBa), and the two Califomias. 

The audiencia councils also advised the viceroy in matters 
if adaittistration; and, as with other officials, his career was 
•MnuMMf subject at its close to a formal examination by a 
f^0» "*' commission— a process known as "taking his 
f** restdenda." Local government till 1786 was largely 
■ the hands tA alcaldes majores and corregidores, the latter 
wtiMiriied in 1531 to look after the Indians, and both appointed 
by porchasc. Towns, which were to some extent founded after 
ihr conqnctt as centres of civilization for the Indians, were 
by dvic officials appointed in the first instance by the 
of the province, but subsequently as a rule purchasing 



xvm c* 



The chnrch rapidly supplemented the work of the oonqoeroni. 
The first Franciscan mission arrived in 1524; other orders 
followed. The announcement of the apparition of TkoCkank 
the Virgin to an Indian near Mexico City provided a aadtbo 
place of pilgrimage and a patroness in Our Lady of ^^^ 
Guadalupe; and the friars ingeniously used the hieroglyphic 
writing for instruction in Christian doctrine, and taught the 
hatives trades, for which they showed much aptitude. The 
university of Mexico was founded in 1553. The Jesuits estab- 
lished themselves in 1572, devoting themselves actively to the 
education both of whites and of natives, and were a powerful 
factor in the exploring and dvilizing of the northern districts. 
The Inquisition was introduced in 1571. With the natives 
south of the latitude of Tampico there was little trouble after 
the Mixton War (in Guadalajara) in 1 540-1 562, save for occa- 
sional risings in Yucat&n, Tehuantepec, and in 171 1 in the Nayarit 
mountain region west of Zacatecas, and Tamaulipas was con- 
quered in 1748; but the wild Indians of Sonora and New Mexico 
gave constant trouble to the missions and outlying settlers. 
There were occasionally riots due to scardty of com (notably 
in Mexico itself in 1692). As in other Spanish possessions, 
Indian labour was replaced or supplemented by that of negro 
slaves, but these were almost wholly confined to the coast regions 
of Vera Cruz and Acapulco, and early in the xgth century there 
were only some 10,000 in alL 

As the Spanish conquerors brought few women, there was 
much mixture of races. Among the pure whites — who were 
practically all of Spanish extraction — there were two 
well-defined classes, the Gachupines or chapetones, 
Spaniards bom in Europe, said to be so named in 
allusion to their spurs, from Aztec words meaning " prickers 
with the foot," and the native-bom or Creoles: the former, 
though a small minority, had almost all the higher positions 
both in the public services and in commerce. Besides these there 
were five well-defined castas: mestizoes (Indian and white); 
mulattoes (negro and white); Ziambos (negro and Indian), who 
were regarded as specially vidous and dangerous; native 
Indians and negroes. But there were about a dozen inter- 
mediate " named varieties," of which the salto-atras (tending 
away from white) and tenle en Paire (tending towards white) 
may be mentioned; and many of the kst named eventually 
paued into the Creole das?, sometimes by the decree of a court. 
The fact that the trade route to Manila passed through Vera 
Cruz, Mexico City and Acapulco entailed the settlement also of 
a few Chinese and Malays, chiefly on the Padfic coast. 

The natives were subject to tribute and kept in peri>etual 
tutelage: divided at the conquest, with the land, as serfs of the 
conquerors, in repartimicntos or encomiendas, they -. ^^^^ 
were gradually freed at an early date from their otoNmUvoe. 
serfage, and allowed to sell their labour as they 
pleased; they were, however, to a great extent kept in villages 
or settlements, compelled to cultivate land which they held 
for their life only, and strictly controlled by the friars or the 
priests. Their numbers were several times seriously reduced 
by the matlazhtiotl, apparently analogous to yellow fever, but 
not attacking the whites, and unknown before the conquest. 
The negroes were allowed to buy their freedom gradually at 
rates fixed by the judicial authorities, and slavery seems never 
to have taken much hold except in the coast region. 

Of the events of this period only a bare outline can here be 
given. The term of office of the first viceroy, Antonio de 
Mendoza, was marked by the Mixton War, by an teadiag 
attempt to suppress the encomienda system, and by Breatt 
a violent epidemic among the natives. Under his '***"'*^' 
successor, Velasco, the measures taken for the relief of the 
natives provoked the landowners to a conspiracy (repressed 
with great severity) to set up Cortes' son as king of New Spain. 
In 1568 the island of Sacrificios, near Vera Cruz, was seized by 
John Hawkins (q.v.), who was surprised by the Spanish fleet 
accompanying the new viceroy, de Almansa, and escaped ^vVv 
Sir Frauds Drake (q.v.), but wilhoviX \\it Ttm«J«C\ti% ^\\ft ^K'Vca 
squadron. In 1572. and X57&, ViO'wcvti, \>iik!& VooV ^amAkcvV. 



338 



MEXICO 



[COLONIAL PERK) 



vengeance, and in 1587 Ckvendish captured the Manila gaUeonr— 
a success repeated in tlie next oentuiy. 

For the next sixty years an urgent question was the prevention 
of floods in the capitaL Situated on the lowest of four lakes, 
TAvDMto- whose waters had only one small outlet from the 
jw»o/<** valley, it was only 4 ft. above the level of the 
^•pitML lowest, and was flooded on an average once in every 
twenty-five years. It had been protected under the native 
kings by a system of dikes, which were added to under the earlier 
viceroys, but serious inundations in 1553 and 1580 flooded the 
city, and the latter suggested the relief of the highest lake, that 
of Zumpango, by a tunnel carrying its chief affluent into a 
tributary of the Panuco, and so to the Atlantic. This, however, 
was not then undertaken, and when mooted again in 1603 was 
opposed as certain to involve a heavy sacrifice of Indian life. 
Another inundation, in 1604, suggested the transfer of the dty 
to Tacubaya, but the landowners opposing and the city being 
again inundated in 1607, the Nochistongo tunnel was begun 
under the auspices of a Jesuit, Enrico Martinez, and roughly 
completed in eleven months. It passed under a depression in the 
mountains of the extreme north of the valley. Humboldt states 
that it was 6600 metres long, 3! wide and 4 high. But it did 
nothing for the southern lakes, so that a further system of dikes 
was recommended in preference, in 1614, by the Dutch engineer 
Adrian Boot; it was inadequate for its work and, not being 
lined with masonry, it was liable to be choked by falls. Repairs 
were suspended in 1623, and a further inundation, with great 
losses of life, occurred from 1629 to 1634. The removal df the 
city was again mooted and, though sanctioned by the king of 
Spain, successfully opposed by the landowners. Another flood 
occurred in 1645. -^^cr a disastrous attempt to enlarge the 
tunnel in 1675, it was eventually converted into an open cutting, 
but the work was not finished till 1789, and the bottom was then 
29 ft. 6 in. above the level of the lowest lake. The drainage was 
only satisfactorily accomplished at the end of the X9th century 
(see below). 

A negro revolt in the Vera Cruz region (1609) and an Indian 
rebellion in Sinaloa and Durango may be mentioned among the 
events of the earlier part of the 17th century. The 
2JJ^ "'regular and secular clergy had early come into con- 
flict, particularly over the tithe and the control of 
the Indians; and in 1621, the marquis de Gelves, an energetic 
reformer, who as viceroy favoiu^d the appointment of the 
regulars to deal with the natives, came into conflict with Arch- 
bishop Sema of Mexico, who placed the dty under interdict, 
excommimicated the viceroy and constrained him to hide from 
the mob. Some years later the bishop of Puebla, Juan de 
Palafox y Mendoza, transferred many native congregations 
from the friars to secular priests, and subsequently, in 1647, 
came into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he excommunicated, 
but who eventually triumphed with the aid of the Dominicans 
and the archbishop. The power of the church may be judged 
from the petition of the Ayuntamiento of Mexico to Philip IV. 
(1644) to stop the foundation of religious houses, which held 
half the property in the country, to suspend ordinations because 
there were 6000 unemployed priests, and to suppress feast days 
because there were at least two per week. 

To check the Dutch and British corsairs the Barlovento 

(" windward ") squadron had been set up in 1635; but the 

British capture of Jamaica (1655) aggravated the 

2J2J'**'' danger to the Spanish convoys. During the rest of 

the century the ports of Yucatan and Central 

America were frequently raided, and in 1682 Tampico 

suffered a like disaster; in May 16S3 Vera Cruz itself was 

captured through stratagem by two buccaneers, Van Horn and 

Laurent, who plundered the town for ten days, committed 

shocking outrages, and escaped as the Spanish fleet arrived. 

In 1685-86 the Pacific coast was ravaged by Dampier and Swan, 

and in 1709 Woodes Rogers, with Dampier as pilot, captured 

the Manila treasure galleon, a feat repeated by Anson in 1743. 

But the European wars oi the i8th century had little effect on 

Mtxtco, save Uutt tbc privileges 0/ trade given to Great Britain 



by the treaty of Utrecht facilitated smuggling. In the fit 
half of the i8th century we may note the ^pearance, intenni 
tently at first, of the first Mexican periodical— the Coccto • 
Mexico — in 1722, a severe epidemic of yellow fever in 1736, and tl 
establishment about 1750 of a standing army with a nudena > 
Walloons and Swiss, negroes and Indians being exduded ax 
the half-breeds admitted under restrictions. But the gre 
event of the i8th century was the expulsion of the Jesuits fra 
Mexico, as from the other Spanish dominions, in 1767, und 
orders from Charles III. They were arrested en masse on the nigl 
of the 26th of June; their goods were sequestrated, and the 
thems^ves deported to Havana, then to Cadiz, Genoa, and eva 
tually Corsica. They had done much to dvilke the natives an 
to educate the whites, and their expulsion, which was gieatJb 
resented by the Creoles, probably tended to increase the popnlt 
discontent and prepare for the overthrow of Spanish rule. 

In 1769 Don Jos£ de Galvez was sent out as special conunti 
sioncr to devise reforms, with powers independent of the tha 
viceroy, but without much immediate result. It 
was, however, a consequence of his work that in { 
1786 the provinces and kingdoms were replaced by 
twdve intendendas (GuadaUjara, Zacatecas, Durango, Sonoia 
Puebki, Vera Cruz, Merida, Oaxaca, Valladohd, Guaxu^ato, Sai 
Luis Potosi, Mexico), whose governors and minor ofl&dab wev 
directly dependent on the viceroy, the former alcaldes, mayoie 
and <»)rrcgidores, who were very corrupt, being abol^bcd 
Possibly it is from this reform that we may date the antitbes 
of Federals and Centralists, which is so con^icuous in the histoi; 
of republican Mexico. Among the later viceroys the Conde d 
Revillagigedo (i 789-1 794) deserves mention as a piogi c Miv 
ruler who developed commerce and improved sdminitfrstiM 
and took the first, but very imperfect, census, on whidi Hm 
boldt based his estimate of the population in X803 at s,840^o« 

The European wars of the French revolutionary paw 
interfered with the traffic with Spain, and so relaxed the bond 
of a commerdal system which hampered the manu- Bt^^^^ 
facturcs of Mexico and drained away its wealth. mtSa/mt' 
Already in 1783 the Conde de Aranda had suggested "^ 
to the Spanish king. the scheme of setting up three SpaniA 
American kingdoms bound to Spain by perpetual treaties 
alliance and redprodty and by frequent royal intennaxriagei 
and with the kinjg of Spain as overlord. The plan was deviw 
as a means of rivalling Anglo-Saxon supremacy, but was rejectee 
through fear of the mixed races predominating over the whites 
A similar fear helped to keep down the tendencies in^Mxed bj 
French revolutionary literature, though plots occurred agaiasl 
the viceroy Brandforte in X798 and 1799. But the real cawa 
of the revolution were locaL The chief was the Creole jesloo^ 
of the Spanish immigrants. There was oppressive ftTStina, 
restriction on commerce and manufacture in the interest «( 
Spain, even vineyards having been prohibited;, axid the coorti 
were very corrupL But to these grievances was added in x8q| 
the sequestration, to provide for Spain's needs, of the benevoleflt 
funds {ohras pias) in Mexico, amounting to about $45,000,000^ 
and nearly all invested on mortgage. The mortgages wen 
called in: forced sales were necessary, the mortgagers wen 
frequently ruined, and less than a fourth of the total was rcaliaeiL 
Other confiscations and exactions followed; and when the xtk 
of Fernando VII. was succeeded by that of Joseph Bonapaitt^ 
the munidpality of Mexico invited Iturrigaray, the vicercqr, (• 
declare the country independent. He proposed the convocatioi 
of a national congress, but was overthrown by a coBspirsqr «( 
Spaniards under one Yermo, who feared that they woold Vm 
their privileged position through severance from SpaiiL Tk 
two next viceroys were incompetent; further demaxidt from thi 
Spanish authorities in revolt against Joseph Boxkaparte i 
the disaffection, which was not allayed by the grant of i 
tation in the Spanish Cortes to the colonies; axui, on the ^ 
being repeated by a third viceroy, Venegas, Creole conspindd 
arose in Quer^taro and Guanajato. Their disoovery in IBM 
was followed by the outbreak of the revolution. HidalfSi I 
parish priest, and AUende, a captain of cavaky, with taci 



IRDEPBNDENT MEXICO] 



MEXICO 



339 



WiWfiting lugdy of Indians, captured a stronghold at Guanajato 
aad even threatened the capital; but the revolutionists were 
defeated in i8zi at Calderon, and the leaden executed. Another 
priest, however, named Moreloe, continued the movement, and, 
dopite defeat in the terrible siege of Cuatla (now Morelos) on 
the md of May 1812, raised the south, so that in the next 3^ear 
kb forces o^rerran most of the kingdom of Mexico and held its 
mtbem parts, and he was able to convoke a congress and issue 
t ooDStitntxon. But he also was captured, and executed at 
Mexico City in 1815. Though revolutionary movements still 
cootinued, by 18x7 only one leader, Vincente Guerrero, was left 
m the field. But in March 1820 the Spanish constitution, 
iqmdiated by King Fernando VII. soon after his restoration, 
VIS restored after a military rising in Spain. It was promul- 
lited in Mexico, and the ecclesiastics and Spaniards, fearing 
tliat a Liberal Spanish government would force on them disen- 
dovment, toleration and other changes, induced Augustin de 
Itorbide, who had already been conspicuous in suppressing the 
riangs, to take the field in order to effect what may be called a 
leactionaiy revolution. 

I I I. —Independent Mexico. 

Thenceforward, till the second election of Porfirio Diaz to 
the presidency in 2884, the history of Mexico is one of almost 
AMnf continuous warfare, in which Maximilian's empire 
OvMiHta is a mere episode. The conflicts, which may at 
^'^ first sight seem to be merely between rival generals, 

at seen upon closer examination to be mainly (i) between the 
pdvileted dasses, i^. the church and (at times) the army, and 
the mass of the other civilized population; (2) between Central- 
irti and Federalists, the former being identical with the army, 
the chorcfa and the supporters of despotism, while the latter 
Rfxcsent the desire for republicanism and local self-government. 
Snihr conflicts are exhibited, though less continuously, by roost 
of the other Spanish-American states. On both sides in Mexico 
there was an element consisting of honest doctrinaires; but rival 
■ffitaiy leaders exploited the struggles in their own interest, 
MBetimes taking each side successively; and the instability was 
iMcosified by the extreme poverty of the peasantry, which 
ttde the soldiery reluctant to return to dvil life, by the absence 
eft regular middle class, and by the concentration of wealth in a 
iev hands, so that a revolutionary chief was generally sure both 
ef Boney and of men. But after 1884 under the rule of Diaz, 
the Fedoal system continued in name, but it concealed in fact, 
vith great benefit to the nation, a highly centralized administra- 
tioB, voy intelligent, and on the whole both popular and 
■KccKfnl—- a modem form of rational despotism. 

Itnbtde eventually combined with Guerrero, and proclaimed 
the ** Flan of Iguala," which laid down, as the bases of the new 
state, the maintenance of the Roman Catholic 
religion and the privileges of the dcrgy, the establish- 
ment of a limited monarchy, and equality of rights 
for Spaniards and native-bom Mexicans. Iturbidc 
sought the co-operation of the viceroy Apodaca, who, 
however, refused; but he was presently superseded by General 
ODoDOJ^, who, being unable to get beyond Vera Cmz, rvcog- 
■Kd the independence of Mexico. O'Donojti shortly aftcr- 
«uds died; the Spanish government repudiated his act; and 
Spanish troops held the fortress of Son Juan de UlCa, off Vera 
Ona, tin 1827. A provisional Junta, nominated by Iturbide, 
inaed a dedaration of independence (Oct. 182 1), and nominated 
i Rffency of five, with Iturbide as its president. The first 
Ifc^can Congress met on the 24th of February 1822. A section 
flf it favoured a republic; another, monarchy under Iturbide; 
toother, which was broken up by the refusal of Spain (continued 
■Mil 1836) to recognize Mexican independence, monarchy under 
a Bourbon prince. A conflict now arose between the republican 
aajority and Iturbide, which was settled by a military pronuncia- 
■ieoto in his favour, and the Congress elected him emperor. > 
He was crowned on the 21st of July 1822. Fresh conflicts broke 
cat between him and the Congress, and Antonio Lopez de Santa I 
Aana, captain-general of Vera Cruz, prochdmed m republic, / 



promising to support the Plan of Iguala. . He was defeated at 
Jalapa and driven to Vera Cruz; but the army deserted Iturbide, 
who was compelled to abdicate (April zg, 1823). The Con- 
gress deported him to Italy, and granted him a pension. He 
retumed almost inmiediately, on the pretext that Spain was 
intriguing against Mexican independence, and on landing 
(having been previously outlawed) was arrested and executed 
auly I, 1824). 

The Congress had meanwhile undone much of his work, and 
had divided into Federalists and Centralists, the latter largely 
Monarchists and Freemasons. The Federalists were strong 
enough to secure the adoption of a constitution (Oct. 4, 
1824) modelled on that of the United Sutes, with additional 
clauses, notably one declaring the Roman Catholic religion 
to be alone recognized. A source of abundant discord was 
opened by the provision that each state should contribute 
its quota to the Federal revenues. No proper statistical 
basis for estimating the quotas existed, and the device gave 
each state a plausible reason for attempting secession on 
occasion. Moreover, the capital and some territory round it 
was made into a " Federal district " — another grievance intensi- 
fying the antagonism of the state to the central power. The 
Freemasons had been largely instmmental in overthrowing 
Iturbide; they now divided into the Escoceses Oodges of the 
Scottish ritual), who were Monarchist and Centralist, and the 
Vorkinos, who took their ritual from New York, and their cue, 
it was alleged, from the American minister, Joel Poinsett. An 
attempt at revolt, headed by Nicolas Bravo, vice-president, the 
Grand Master of the Escoceses, was suppressed, but dissensions 
ensued in the Yorkino party between the followers of President 
Guerrero (a man largely of native blood, and the last of the 
revolutionary leaders) and of Gomez Pedraza, the rrnMhar 
war minister. A conflict broke out, the Guerrerists Omtnwim, 
were victorious, and the pillage of foreign shops in '^^'-'W/. 
Mexico City (1828), among them that of a French baker, 
gave a basis for the foreign claims which, ten yean later, 
caused the *' Pastry War " with France. Meanwhile, attacks 
on Spanish ships off Cuba by a Mexican squadron, com- 
manded by an American, David Porter, had induced Spain 
to send an expedition to reconquer Mexico (1829) which was 
checked at Tampico by Santa Anna. During the invasion 
Vise-President Antonio Bustamante declared against President 
Guerrero; the bulk of the army supported him. Guerrero was 
deposed, and his partisans in the south were defeated at Chilpan- 
cingo (Jan. 2, 183 1); and Guerrero, retiring to Acapulco, was 
enticed on board an Italian merchant-ship, and treacherously 
seized, tried and executed (Jon.-Feb. 1831). Next year, how- 
ever, a revolt broke out against Bustamante, which was joined 
by SanU Anna, and eventually resulted in a pronunciamiento in 
favour of Gomez Pedraza. He, and his successor, Vice-President 
Gomez Farias (X833), assailed the exemption of the clergy and 
of military officers from the jurisdiction of the civil courts, and 
the latter attempted to laicize higher education and to relax 
monastic bonds. Santa Anna took advantage of the situation 
to assume the presidency. He eventually became ssmtmAmma, 
dictator, dissolved Congress (May 31, 1834) and the Dkutork 
state legislatures, and substituted creatures of his '*** 
own for the governors of the states and mayors of towns, then 
retiring into private life. A new Congress, having resolved 
itself into a constituent assembly, followed up this Centralist 
policy (Dec. 30, 1836) by framing a new constitution, the Siete 
Leyes or Seven Laws, which converted the states into depart- 
ments, mled by governors appointed by the central authority, 
and considerably reduced popular representation. Antonio 
Bustamante became the first president under it. Btttummat*, 
The French claims set up by the pillage of foreign ^f**"^ 
shops in Mexico had, however, remained unsatisfied, '**'• 
and in 1838 a French fleet blockaded the coast, bombarded 
the fortress of San Juan de Ul(ia, off Vera Cruz, and 
occupied the town. The MexIcasL ^av^ttvtwtxvV ^laN^ 'wvj, 
threatened by Federalist naiivcs «Liid «itesa\fttA ^\ tXaXt&, Vtsjs^ 
culminated in 1841. .,SanU Kniia. a.vvt;«tA» itfj«sJatf^>| ** ^ 



340 



MEXICO 



(INDEPENDENT UEZIOO 



mediator, and put forward the bases of Tacubaya (Sept. 28, 
X841), abolishing all the Siete Leyes except the pakt re- 
SaataAaam lating to the judicial system, arranging for a new 
ffrstonrrf. constituent assembly, and reserving for the presi- 
'^'* dent (himself) full power of re-organizing the 

adminbtration. The Centralist government, after a vain at- 
tempt to defeat him by professing a more thorough Federalism, 
gave way to force, and Bustamante was allowed to leave the 
country. But the new Congress was too Federalist for Santa 
Anna, and he retired, leaving the reins to Nicolas Bravo, xmdcr 
whom a new Centralist constitution was established (1843). 
This expressly retained the privileges of the clergy and army, 
and was in some respects more anti-Liberal than that of 1836. 
- But new complications were now introduced by the question 
of Texas. Though a state of the Mexican Uhion, it had been 
_^ j^^^ settled from the United States in consequence of a 
Qgggtinm ^*^^ grant given by the Spanish viceroy to Stephen 
Austin in i8ao, and had been estranged from Mexico 
partly by the abolition of slavery under a decree of President 
Guerrero, and partly by the prospect of the Centralist constitu- 
tion of 1836. It then seceded. Santa Anna attempted to reduce 
it, showing great severity, but was eventually defeated and 
captured by Houston at the battle of San Jacinto, and compelled 
to sign a treaty recognizing Texan independence, which was 
disavowed on his return to Mexico. A state of war thus con- 
tinued nominally between Mexico and its seceded member, 
whose independence was recognized by England, France and 
the Uiiited States. The slaveholders in the United States 
favoiu^d annexation of Texas, and pressed the claims due from 
Mexico to American citizens, partly perhaps with the aim of 
forcing war. Most of these claims were settled by a mixed 
commission, with the king of Prussia as umpire, in X840-184X, 
and a forced loan was raised to pay them in 1843, which stimu- 
lated the revolt of Parcdes against Santa Anna, who had returned 
to power in 1844. It resulted in Santa Anna's downfall, imprison- 
ment at Perote and eventual exile (Dec 1S44 to Jan. 1845), 
aiid the election of General Jos£ Joaquin Herrera as president. 
But Herrera was displaced in the last days of 1845 ^y ^ pronun- 
damiento in favour of Paredes, who undertook to uphold the 
national rights against the United States, and who was elected 
president on the 3rd of January 1846. Texas had meanwhile 
applied for admission into the American Union. The aimexa- 
tion, rejected in 2844 by the United States Senate, was 
sanctioned on the xst of March 1845, and carried out on the 
32nd of December X845. The Mexican minister withdrew from 
Washington, and both sides made active preparations for war. 
i The United States forces were ordered by President Polk to 
advance to the Rio Grande in January X846. They established a 
WarwMb <icpot at Point Ysabel (behind the opening of Brazos 
l/Atotf Santiago), and erected a fort in Texan territory, com- 
gy^ manding Matamoros, on the Mexican side of the Rio 
Grande. This provoked the Mexican forces into a 
defensive invasion of Texas, to cut the American communications 
with Point Ysabel. They were, however, defeated at Palo Alto 
(May 8) and Rcsaca de la Palnia (May 9). There was an out- 
burst of warlike feeling in the United States (with a counter- 
movement in the North), and an invasion of Mexico was planned 
by three routes — from Matamoros towards Monterey in New 
Leon, from San Antonio de Bexar to Chihuahua, and from Fort 
Leavenworth to New Mexico. Importance attaches chiefly to 
the movements of the first force under General Zachary Taylor. 
During the war preparations President Paredes, suspected of 
intriguing to overthrow the Republic and set up a Spanish 
prince, had to give place to his vice-president Bravo, who in his 
turn gave way before Santa Anna, who was hastily recalled from 
his exile at Havana to assume the presidency and the conduct 
of the war (Aug. 1846). He was allowed by the American 
squadron blockading Vera Cruz to pass in without hindrance. 
Probably it was thought his presence would divide the Mexicans. 
. The preparations oi the United States took some months. It 
mas not tiU the sth of September 1846 that General Zachary 
Tjtylor could leave Jus dcpdt At CuDArgQ on the Rio Grande, 



and march on Monterey. It was taken by assault on th» 
23rd of September; Santa Aima was defeated at Buenft 
Vista (near Saltillo) on the 23rd of February 1847, and 
forced back on San Luis Potosf. New Mexico was occupied 
without opposition; Chihuahua was occupied, but xwt held, 
owing to the difficulties in maintaining conmiunications; and 
Upper California was seized in the autimm of 1846 by Joba 
C. Fremont, who had been exploring a route across the continent, 
and by the United States Pacific squadron, and made secure hy 
the aid of the New Mexico expedition. But as Mexico still con- 
tinued to fight, it was determined to reach the capital via Voa 
Cruz. That city was taken by General Scott after a siege and 
bombardment (March 7 to 29, 1847) ; &nd after winning the battk 
of Cerrogordo (April x8), and a k>ng delay at PueUa, Scott 
marched on Mexico City, stormed its defences against greatly 
superior forces, and effected an entrance after severe fitting 00 
the X3th of September 1847. This virtually ended the war; 
Santa Aima was deprived of his command, and the treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluded on the 2nd of Febniaxy 1848, 
ceded to the United States Texas, New Mexico and -^. ^ 
Upper California, in return for a payment of ££[' 
$15,000,000 by the United States to Mexico, and 
the assumption of liabiliCy by it for the claims of its subjects 
which it had hitherto been pressing against Mexico. This pay- 
ment was doubtless intended to strengthen the United Stato* 
title to the conquered territory. It is generally admitted that 
Mexico was provoked into aggression in order that additional 
territory might be available for the extension of slavery. 

The American forces were withdrawn in May and June X84S 
after the ratification of the4reaty by Mexico. Under the presi- 
dency of Herrera (1848-1851) attempts were made to 
restore order and the public credit. An arrangement 
was effected with English holders of Mexican stock; 
an attempt was made to carry out a consolidation of the intcfnal 
debt, which failed; the army was reduced axul reoxganind, and 
the northern frontier was defended by military colonies, fonned 
partly of civilized Seminole Indians from the United StatOb 
But the financial situation was desperate; the federal xcvcmie, 
mostly from customs— which were evaded by extensive smug- 
gling—was not half the expenditure; and Indian revolts in 
Yucatan (1847-X850) and in the Sierra Gorda had added td thi 
strain. Arista succeeded Herrera as president (JaiL 1851), bat 
resigned (Jan, X853). 

After a sort of interregnum (Jan.-March x8s3) Santa Anna wai 
recalled (by a vote of the majority of the sUtes under the Plan of 
Arroyozarco, on the 4th of February X853, the lesult MmimAm» 
of a pronunciamiento), and made dictator in the iamamm 
interests of fed. ration. His measiures, partly in- "•^■•* 
spired by an able Conservative leader, Lucas Alanum, proved 
strongly Centralist: one is especially noteworthy, the estafalisb' 
ment of the ministry of " fomento," or encouragexnent to pobfie 
works, education, and intellectual and economic developinen^ 
which is a conspicuous aid to Mexican welfare to-diy. Bi 
also negotiated (at the end of 1853) the sale of the Medh 
valley (now Arizona) to the United States, but the pwchiw 
money was soon di^pated. On the x6th oi December xSjj 
Santa Anna issued a decree making himself dictator, with tkt 
title of serene highness. On the xst of March 1854, at Ayotk 
in Guerrero, a section of the army under Coloiiel Vilbnil 
proclaimed the Plan of Ayutla, demanding Santa Anna'k de|»> 
sition and the establishment of a provisional government !• 
secure a new constitution. Among the leaders in the mu f cma t 
were Generals Alvarez and Comonfort, and it is said that Poifiis 
Diaz, subsequently president, then a yojing soldier, made kb 
way to Benito Juarez, then in prison, and arranged with Ua 
the preliminaries of the revolt. It spread, and Santa Anna Mi 
the country (Aug. 1854).* 

Two fih'bustering expeditions at this time — one hf ^ 
Walker, afterwards notorious in Nicaragua, in T 

> Santa Anna tried to get back to politics in Medoo 1 
. Manmilian's fall, without success. He was 1 
* cxj\es\n \%7V ami dved in obscurity in X876W 



nDEFENDENT MEXIO^ 



MEXICO 



341 



(Dec. i8s3), tlie other by Count Raousset de Boulbon in Sonera 
(Joljr 1854)— added to the general disorder. 

Tbe provisional president, General Carrera, proving too Cen- 
baiist, was replaced by Alvarez (Sept. 24, 1855), two of whose 
nioisten are conspicuous in later history — Ignacio Comonfort, 
^_^_ minister of war, and Benito Juarez, minister of 

j*^ finance. Juarez (b. 1806) was of unmixed Indian 

blood. The son of a Zapotec peasant in a mountain 
vOhge ol Oazaca, he was employed as a lad by a bookbinder in 
Oizaca dty, ami aided by him to study for the priesthood. He 
soon turned to the law, though for a time he was teacher of 
physics in a small local college; eventually went into politics, 
ud did excellent work in 1847 as governor of his native state. 
Juarez almost immediately secured the enactment of a law (Ley 
Joarez, Nov. 23, 1855) subjecting the clergy and the army to 
Uk jorisdiction of the ordinary courts. " Benefit of clergy " 
vas the cuise of Mexico. Officers and soldiers could be tried only 
bjr courts-martial, the clergy (including numbers of persons in 
nJBor orders, who were practically laymen) only by ecclesiastical 
courts. The proposed reform roused the Clericals to resistance. 
Alvarez gave place (Dec. 8, 1855) to his war minister Comonfort, 
who represented the less anti-Clerical Liberals. He appointed 
a commission to consider the question of draining the valley of 
Mexico, which adopted the plan ultimately carried out in 1890- 
1900; suppressed a Clerical rising in Puebla (March 1856), which 
vas punished by a considerable confiscation of church property; 
tanctioned a law releasing church land from mortmain, by pro- 
nding for its sale, for the benefit, however, of the ecclesiastical 
woess (called after its author Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, brother 
of tbe subsequent president), and a new draft constitution, 
hifely modelled on that of the United States (Feb. 5, 1857). 
The dergy protested violently, and the Flan of Tacubaya (Dec. 
I i7i 1857), which made Comonfort dictator, provided for the 
CMstraction of a new constitution under his auspices. He was 
pRsently displaced by a thorough reactionary. General Zuloaga, 
tad expelled from Mexico early in 1858; and for three years 
Menco was a prey to dvil war between two rival governments 
"-the Republicans at Vera Cruz under Juarez, who, as Chief 
Jvtice of the Supreme Court, succeeded Comonfort; and the 
Rictionaries at the capital The latter were at first presided 
over by Zuloaga, who, proving incompetent, was replaced at 
the end of 1858 by Pezuela, who eariy in 1859 gave place to 
UilQel Miramon, a young, able and unscrupulous soldier who 
Hs shortly afterwards accepted as " constitutional " president 
kf his party. The Juarists were defeated outside the city of 
Kndco twice, in October 1858 and on the nth of April 1859, 
g^^^^ On the second occasion the whole body of officers, 

who had surrendered, were shot with Miramon's 
ttthority, if not by his express orders, together with several 
mfmos (including one Englishman, Dr Duval) (the fifty-three 
"aartyn of Tacubaya")* This atrocity caused great indig- 
■atioo in Mexico and abroad: the reactionists were divided, 
their <i«*nfial straits were extreme, as the Juarists held all the 
chief ports. Juarez was recognized by the United States, and 
allowed to draw supplies of arms and volunteers thence; and in 
hh i8s9 he published laws suppressing the religious orders, 
■«>Ww>«ii^-tig ecclesiastical property (of the estimated value of 
U5fioofioo)t establishing civil marriage and registration, trans- 
imiog tbe cemeteries to civil control, and, in short, disestablish- 
i^ the ckuzch. But the apparent hopelessness of any ending 
to the conflict, together with the frequent outrages of both 
pvtics m foreigners, afforded strong reasons for foreign inter- 
vntion. Early in 1859 President Buchanan had recommended 
theitcp to Congress, which did not respond. On the 12th of 
OlKcnbtf 1859 the MTean-Juarez treaty was concluded, which 
pn the United States a sort of disguised protectorate over 
Meooo, with certain rights of way for railroads over the Isthmus 
^rfTebnaatepec and between the Rio Grande and Pacific. The 
Amencan Senate, however, did not ratify the treaty, and a motion 
for ib reconsideration late in i860 came to nothing, owing to the 
■ppwidi of the War of Secession. 
When NapdeoD III. was in captivity Mt Hdw be dnauned ol 



a Central America civilized and opened up to modem enterprise 
by a transoceanic canal: and the clerical refugees in Paris, 
among them Labastida, archbishop of Mexico, easily influenced 
the Empress Eug6nie, herself a Spaniard, to interest her hus- 
band in the cause of centralized monarchy and the church: it 
is said that even in 1859 they had thoughts of setting up the 
Archduke Maximilian as ruler of Mexico. 

The question of a joint intervention of Great Britain, France, 
Spain and Prussia was mooted between those powers in i86a 
Early in 1859 the outrages on British subjects had ovrthmw 
caused the British minister to break off diplomatic otMkmmtk 
relations. Forced contributions had been levied by '**•• 
both sides on goods or buUion, being European property, the 
reactionaries being the worst offenders; and there were numerous 
cases of murder and robbery of Europeans. At last, on the 
17th of November i860, Miramon, under the plea of necessity, 
seized $630,000 in specie which had been left under seal at the 
British Legation and was intended for the bondholders. On 
the 22nd of December i860 his forces were routed by the Juarist 
general Ortega at Arroyozarco, and his government was over- 
thrown. 

Juarez entered Mexico City on the 1 1 th of January 1 86 1 . He 
soon found that his government was held responsible to Europe 
for the excesses of its rival as well as its own. Miramon's govern- 
ment had violated the British Legation; the Spanish minister, 
the papal legate and the representatives of Guatemala and 
Ecuador were expelled from the country for undue interference 
on behalf of the reactionaries; the payments of the Bmopema 
British loan were suspended by Juarez's Congress in imfrvm' 
July 1861 ; and various outrages had been committed *'"* '*•'• 
on the persons and property of Europeans for which no redress 
could be obtained. The French ckargi d'af aires, Dubois de 
Saligny, who had been sent out in November i860, urged French 
intervention, and took up the Jecker claims. Jecker, a Swiss 
banker settled in Mexico, had lent Miramon's government in 1859 
$750,000 (subject, however, to various deductions): in return, 
Miramon gave him 6% bonds of the nominal value of $15,000,000 
which were ingeniously disguised as a conversion scheme. Jecker 
had failed early in i860, Miramon was overthrown a few months 
later. Jecker's creditors were mostly French, but he still held 
most of the bonds, and there is reason to believe that he won 
over Dubois de Saligny by corrupt means to support his claims. 
Intercepted correspondence (since confirmed from the archives 
of the Tuileries) showed that the Due de Momy promised Jecker 
his patronage in return for 30% of the profits (De la Gorce, 
Hist, du Second Empire, IV. c. i) An imperial decree natural- 
ized Jecker in France, and Napoleon III took up his claim. A 
convention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint 
interference in Mexico was signed in London on the 31st of 
October 1861. A separate arrangement of the British claims 
was negotiated by Juarez, but rejected by the Mexican Congress, 
November 1861; and the assistance of the United States with 
a small loan was declined, Mexican territory being demanded 
as security. On the 14th of December Vera Cruz was occupied 
by Spanish troops under General Prim, the French fleet and 
troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold 
the Gulf ports and collect the customs for the three Powers till 
a settlement was effected. Great Britain sent ships, and landed 
only 700 marines In view of the unhcalthincss of Vera Cruz, 
the convention of Soledad was concluded with the Mexican 
government, permitting the foreign troops to advance to Orizaba 
and incidentally recognizing Mexican independence. But as 
the French harboured leaders of the Mexican reactionaries, 
pressed the Jecker claims and showed a disposition to interfere 
in Mexican domestic politics, which lay beyond the terms of 
the joint convention. Great Britain and Spain withdrew their 
forces in March 1863. 

More troops were sent from France. Their advance was 
checked by 21aragoza and Porfirio Diaz in the battle of CicvcA 
de Mayo, on the sth of May 1862; ?iVvA m ^v^<txtCt«.\ ^V >JBa!c 
year 30,000 more French Itooys wt\N^ mtArx Ci«iTsRxA 
f orey. Wintering al Onuiba, \:kitv w»mmcaceA. vV«a %AN^cfc 



342 



MEXICO 



PNDEPENDENT MEXICO 



(Feb. 17, 1863), besieged and reduced Puebia, and entered Mexico 
City on the 7th of June. A provisional government of Mexicans, 
AvM* nominated directly or indirectly by Dubois de 
ejrpcdMtoa, Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the crown to 
'**'"^* Maximilian of Austria, brother of the Emperor Francis 
Joseph, and should he refuse, left its disposal to Napoleon III. 

Maximilian, after some difficulty as to renouncing his right 
of succession to the throne of Austria, accepted the crown 
r subject to the approval of the Mexican people, and 
reached Mexico city on the 1 2th of June 1864. Juarez 
"*** meanwhile had set up his capital, first in San Luis 

Potosf, then in Chihuahua. The new empire was unstable from 
the first. Before Maximilian arrived the provisional government 
had refused to cancel the sales of confiscated Church lands, as 
the clericals demanded. When he came, a host of new difficulties 
arose. A new loan, nominally of about eight millions sterling, 
but yielding little more than four, owing to discount and com- 
mission, was raised in Europe, but no funds were really available 
for its service. Maximilian carried the elaborate etiquette of 
the court of Vienna to Mexico, but favouring toleration of 
Protestantism, and the supremacy of the Crown over the 
Church, he was too liberal for the clericals who had set him 
up. As a foreigner he was unpopular, and the regiments of 
Austrians and Belgians which were to serve as the nucleus of 
his own army were more so. His reforms, excellent on paper, 
could not be carried out, for the trained bureaucracy necessary 
did not exist. For a time he nominally held sway over about 
two-thirds of the country— roughly, from lat. i8* to 23*, thus 
excluding the extreme north and south. Oaxaca city, under 
Porfirio Diaz,* capitulated to Bazaine — who had superseded the 
too pro-clerical Forcy in October 1864 — in February 1865, and 
by the autumn of that year the condition of the Juarists in the 
north seemed desperate. But the towns asked for permanent 
French garrisons, which were refused, as weakening their own 
power of self-defense. Instead, the country was traversed by 
flying columns, and the guerillas dealt with by a French service 
of " contre-guerilla," who fought with much the same savagery 
as their foes. Directly the French troops had passed. Republican 
bands sprang up, and the non-combatant Mexicans, to save 
themselves, could only profess neutrality. Yet on the 3rd of 
October 1865, Maximilian, misled by a false report that Juarez 
had left the country, issued a decree declaring the Juarists 
guerillas, who, whenever captured, were to be tried by court- 
martial and shot. Mexican generals on both sides had done 
as much. But Maximilian's decree prepared his own fate. 

The American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, and a 
strong popular feeling was at once manifested in favour of 
asserting the Monroe doctrine against Maximilian's government. 
In the summer there were threatening movements of United 
, States troops towards the Rio Grande; early in 1866 
' Napoleon III. announced his intention of withdrawing 
his forces; in response to a note of Seward, the 
United States secretary of state, of the i2lh of February 1866, 
he was induced to promise their return by three instalments— 
in November 1866, March and November 1867. Maximilian 
now turned for support to the Mexican clericals; meditated 
abdication, but was dissuaded by his wife Charlotte, the daughter 
of Leopold I. of Belgium (and " the belter man of the two," as he 
had once jestingly said), who went to intercede for him with the 
emperor of the French. Finding him obdurate, she went on to 
appeal to the pope; while at Rome she went mad (end of 
September 1866). 

Maximilian had meanwhile drawn nearer to the clericals and 
farther from the French, and, to protect French interests. 
Napoleon III. had decided to send out General Castelnau to 
supersede Bazaine, arrange for the withdrawal of the French 
forces in one body, and restore the Republic under Ortega, who 
had quarrelled with Juarez, and was therefore, of all republicans, 
least unacceptable to the clericals. But fearing the prospect, 
tbey induced Maximiyian, who had retired to Orizaba for his 
' Oiaz rt'fu^rd p,irolc, and was confined at Puebla for some months, 
ifut made his escape, snd wag tooo in the field again. 



health, to remain. He yielded on condition that a congress of 
all parties should be summoned to decide the fate of the empire. 
Hereupon he returned to the capital; the Juarist dominion 
extended rapidly; the French troops left (in one body) on the 
Sth of February 1867, and shortly after Maximilian took com- 
mand of the army at C^erftaro. Here, with Miramon, be was 
besieged by the Juarists under Escobedo, and the garrison, 
when about to make a last attempt to break out, was betrayed' 
by Colonel Lopez to the besiegers (May 15, 1867). Br trrvintt 
Maximilian, with the Mexican generals Miramon and /■■riwlfn 
Mejia, was tried by court-martial, and, refusing (or '••'• 
neglecting) to avail himself of various opportunities <rf escape, 
was convicted on charges which may be summarized as rebeDioB, 
murder and brigandage, on the 14th of June, and shot, with 
Miramon and Mejia, on the 19th of June 1867, despite many 
protests from European governments and prominent individuals, 
including Garibaldi and Victor Hugo. (An effort to save him 
made by the U.S. Government was frustrated by the dilatorioea 
of the U.S. Minister accredited to Juarex's Government.) After 
considerable difficulty with the Republican Government, fats 
body was brought to Europe. 

Meanwhile Porfirio Diaz had captured Puebla (April a) and 
besieged Mexico City, which fell on the 21st of June. The last 

anti-Juarist stronghold (Inayarit) submitted on the 

aoth of July 1867. A good deal of discontent existed fUSLm. 
among the republican rank and file, and Juarez's 
election in October to the presidency was opposed by Dias^ 
friends, but without success. But so soon as Juarez was elected, 
insurrections broke out, and brigandage prevailed throughout the 
following year. There were unsuccessful insurrections also in 
i86q (clerical) and 1870 (republican), but an amnesty, passed 
on the 13th of October 1870, helped to restore peace; trouble 
again arose, however, at the 187 1 election, at which the candidates 
were Juarez, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada and Diaz. Juarez's 
continued re-election was regarded as unconstitutional, and ■» 
party obtaining a clear majority, the matter was thrown into 
Congress, which elected him. Diaz's supporters refmed to 
recognize him, and a revolution broke out, which went on 
sporadically till Juarez's death on the i8th of July amaW 
1872. Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president of Jamm, 
the Supreme Court, succeeded him, and amnestied "^ 
the rebels, but made no further concessions. In the neit yeir, 
however, laws were passed repeating in a stronger form tk 
attacks of 1857 on the supremacy of the Church, and prohibitiiV 
monastic life. The first day of 1873 was marked by the < 
of the Vera Cruz & Mexico railway. Protestant 
missions established themselves (with some opposi- 
tion) in the country, and diplomatic relations were 
renewed with France and Spain (1874). But towards 
the close of Lerdo de Tejada 's term he was suspected of ainumit 
a dictatorship, and Diaz, whom he had proscribed, made prrpuS' 
tions for a rbing, then retiring to Texas. At the beginniBftf 
1876 the revolution broke out in Oaxaca with the plu<f 
Tuxtepec, which was adopted by Diaz, and proclaimed as tk 
plan of Palo Blanco (March 21). Diaz's attempt to raise ik 
north, however, failed, and, trying to reach Vera Crut hyttk 
he was recognized on the steamer, and recaptured whik attcapt^ 
ing a four-mile swim ashore. The purser, however, made k 
appear that he had again jumped overboard, concealed !■■ 
for some days— generally inside one of the saloon soCas— lid 
helped him to get ashore in disguise at Vera Crux. He tki 
escaped to Oaxaca and raised a force. Lerdo was dedini 
re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz after the battk d 
Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876) and forced into exile (Jan. 1877), uA 
Diaz was declared president on the and of May f^f^fe 
1877. A law forbidding the re-election of a presi- Mh_ 
dent till four years had elapsed from his retirement " 
from office was passed in the autunm of that year. 



' Lopez said he acted as Maximilian's a^ent, but his iM . 
on an allci^ed tetter from Maximilian which was discredited aa • j 
fureery. The evidence of his treason was published ia Ei Nm 
i ol Memo, Se^t. II, 1887. 



IMnEPENDENT MEXICO) 



MEXICO 



343 



Diax's first presidency (1870-1880) was marked by some 
OttsucoeMful attempts at revolution notably by Escobedo from 
Tens in 1878, and by a more serious conspiracy in 1879. 
IMplom&tic relations were resumed with Spain, Germany, Italy 
and some South American states (1877), and France (1880) 
There were some frontier difficulties with the United States, 
and with Guatemala, which revived a claim dropped since 1858 
to a portion of the state of Chiapas; and there was considerable 
internal progress, aided by a too liberal policy of subsidies to 
nihrays and even to lines of steamships. The boundary questions 
were settled under President Gonzalez (1880-1884); relations 
with Great Britain were renewed in 1884. The claims of the 
lailvmys, however, necessitated retrenchment on official salaries, 
and the president's plan for conversion of the debt roused 
nexpected and successful opposition in an ordinarily sub- 
ictyieDt Congress. At the end of 1884 PorArio Diaz was again 
dected president, and was continually re-elected, the constitution 
bong inodified expressly to allow him to continue in office. 

The history of Mexico from 1884 to iqio was almost void of 
political strife. President Diaz's policy was to keep down 
^^- disorder with a strong hand; to enforce the law, to 
JjJJjJJij^^ foster railway development and economic progress, 
to develop native manufactures by protective tariffs; 
to introduce new industries, e.g. the production of silk and 
viae, of coca and quinine; to promote forestry; to improve 
denentaiy and higher education — for all which purposes the 
Mioiiterio del Fomento is a potent engine, to encourage coloniza- 
tim; and, above all, to place the national credit on a sound 
biM. The first step in this process was a settlement of the 
ihHdW British debt by direct arrangement with the bond- 
mm/uMa holders. In 1890 the Spanish bondholders* claims 
^ were satisfactorily arranged also. In 1891 the tariff 
VM made more protectionist. In 1893 the depreciation of 
liw necessitated stringent retrenchment; but the budget 
Uhnccd for the first time during many years, the floating debt 
m convertni, and a loan rahed for the completion of the 
Tefaoantepec RaOway. After 1896 substantial annual surpluses 
«oe q>ent in reducing taxation and in the extinction of debt, 
h 189s the 6% external debt was converted into a 5% debt, 
tk bonds of which remained at a premium for 1902; in 1896 
tk akabalas or interstate customs and municipal octrois were 
abolished, and repUced in part by direct taxation and increased 
ttutp duties. 

The institution by Diaz of the iuardias ruraUSf a mounted 
indarmerie complied of the class who in former days drifted 
fhrihadtointo revolution and brigandage, was a potent means 
<fM» of maintaining order, and the extension of railways 
*'*^' and telegraphs enabled the government to cope at 
ttce with any disturbance. The old local revolutions practi- 
olljr disappeared. In 1886-1887 there were some disturbances 
1b CoabuOa. New Leon, Sinaloa and Tamaulipas; subsequently 
budly anything was heard of such disorders except on the 
Toaa frontier, where in 1890 Francisco Ruiz Sandoval and in 
1991 Catarino Garza made incursions into Mexico. Occasionally 
tbe Church gave trouble — the presence of foreign priests was 
ooplained of; attempts to evade the law prohibiting conventual 
liiewere detected and foiled (1891, 1894); and there were Indian 
riaags, repressed sometimes with great severity, among the 
Miyas of Yucat&n, whose last stronghold was taken in 1891, 
lid the Yaquis of Sonora (1899-1900). Under federal and 
dnocratic forins, Diaz exerdscd a strictly centralized and 
poioaa] rule. He was invited to approve the candidates 
pnposed for state governorships; in all law cases affecting 
the Government or political matters the judges asked his 
•puon; he drafted bills, and discussed their text with individual 
■eabcn and committees of congress. Similarly, the state 
kgiriatures, as well as the judges and municipal officers, were 
KtnaBy or virtually selected by the state governors, who were 
pnctically agents of the president. Now and then the old 
broke out: in September 1898 an absurd attempt to 
tate President Diaz was made by a countryman named 
I, but discontent with Diaz's rule was apparently conBned i 



to a small minority.' In 1909 indeed there were some disquieting 
symptoms. Owing to Diaz's age the vice-presidency had been 
revived in 1904, and Don Ramon Corral elected to it, but at 
the elections of 1909 a movement arose in favour of replacing 
him by General Bernardo Reyes, Governor of Nuevo Leon, but 
he was disposed of by an official commission to study the 
military systems of Europe. It was, therefore, regarded as 
certain that, should President Diaz die in office, Sefior Corral 
would succeed him without serious difficulty. 

In foreign affairs the rule of Duu was uneventful. There 
were transient disputes with the United States (1886, 1888). 
In 1888-1890 and 1894-1895 a boundary dispute ^^^ 
with Guatemala became serious. But Guatemala ^mSH 
gave way at the threat of war (Jan. 1895) and a new 
treaty was made (April 1. 1895). Again in 1907 there was some 
friction owing to the murder of a Guatemalan ex-president by a 
compatriot in Mexico, later in the year, however, the Mexican 
government was active in stopping a war between its Central 
American neighbours. In the difficulty between England and 
the United States over the Venezuelan boundary (Dec. 1895) 
Mexico expressed strong adherence to the Monroe doctnne in 
the abstract, and suggested that its maintenance should not be 
left wholly to the Umted States, but should be undertaken by 
all American Powers. The first Pan-American congress met in 
Mexico City in 1901. and the country was represented at the 
second, held in Rio Janeiro in 1906. Mexico also took part in 
establishing the permanent Central American Court of Arbitra- 
tion, inaugurated on the 25th of May 1908 at Cartago, Costa 
Rica, under the Washington treaties of December 1907, and 
showed readiness to associate herself with the Government of 
her great northern neighbour in preserving peace among the 
Central American Sutes. On the X7th of October 1909 
President Taft and President Diaz exchanged visits at the 
frontier at El Paso, Texas. 

In brief, under President Diaz's rule the history of Mexico 
is mainly economic. In the six financial years 1893-1894 to 
1899-1900 inclusive the yield of the import duties 
increased by upwards of 80%; the revenue from 
stamps over 60%, though the duties were reduced; 
the postal revenue from 1895-1896 to 1899-1900 rose 60%; 
the telegraph revenue over 75%. Again, in 1898-1899 the 
total ordinary revenue of the state was £6.013,921; in 1906- 
1907 it had increased to £11,428,612, or by more than 90%, 
and though 1 907-1 908 was a year of depression its total revenue 
(£ii>i77ii86) exceeded that of any year save its immediate 
predecessor. The great drainage scheme which completed the 
works of the 17th century by taking out the surplus waters of 
the southern lakes of the valley of Mexico was devised in 1856, 
begun under Maximilian, proceeded with intermittently till 1885, 
then taken up with improved plans, practically completed by 
1896, and inaugurated in 1900,' the harbour of Vera Cruz was 
finished in 1902; the Tehuantepec railway, Hkely to prove a 
formidable rival to any interoceanic canal, was opened on the 
24lh of January 1906 All three were the work of an English 
firm of contractors, the head of which was Sir Wcetman Pearson. 
American, and later Canadian, capital and enterprise have also 
been very largely concerned in the development of the country; 
and its progress was not permanently interfered with by the 
great earthquakes of April 1007 and July 1909 at Acapulco, 
and the floods in August igogat Monterey In 1891 elementary 
education was reorganized, and made compulsory, secular and 
gratuitous. Great attention has been paid to higher education, 
and— at least in the hospitals— to modern sanitation and 
hygiene. 

AuTiiORiTTES. — For English readers the standard work is H. H. 
Bancroft. ColkcUd Worki (Histories of the Pacific States, Central 
America, &c., vols, x.-xiv (Mexico. 1521-1887) with vols, xv., xvi. 



» Don AuKustin Iturbidc, grandson of the emperor, godson and 
(ixjrhaps) at one time the destined heir of Maidm\V\^TV, "^^^ x>vct«A. 
out of the army and imprisoned vu ^%90 \ot aWsxtv^VnssAttvV^iSax. 

» For a full account of the wotVs ws« ^ ^. ^oA^ Vsv Ptoc«ed\ni> 
o/tke Institution of Civil En|iiteers« ciAVu. 2^,«^<e\> 



344 



MEXICO— MEXICO CITY 



(Texas), and vol. ii%ik (N*w MeikOt ftc). Mcnrion may* atsQ Itm* 
made ulf Gaston Rfjuticr't tiiHttin dt M^iqut tiSgs). Stanti*ird 
Mexican auihoriliri flret C. ^i, de Butiamantr, Qumm ht^iarico 
ie la rrtw^vft^n fWjwaTta, 6 voU, (Mexico, 1S3J-1S46); Lucas 
Alaman, Hisioria df MtKi(& tVftjdco+ rJJ|9-iS5j)- N. dc Zamacoii^ 
Historta de Afpxtiir drsd* sus U^mfufi mas ffmoiet haiia noj/rdJ Jjolj, 
19 vols. (Bimelofla, i87&-iS$2), J. E. HtrnAndtx y DavaEos, Co/fc- 
cton de docnmftftifS pGra i& kiiU*ria dt h Indipendencia (Mexico^ 
6 vols). A huge and informaiive il?j»l rated worJt, eUUisi by Jiitto 
Sierra (t, vqIs. large Jta^.fumpTuous^ly prod ud,^! and badly translated, 
b Mtxiio, til Sotml Eivitttton (Barcehna, 1000-1904); a useful and 
handy L-hrenicle ii Nkolos Leon's Comp^ndtG dt h hiitcria jfntTal 
de Mexua hasla ci aA(t de J^oo (Mexico dnd M^idnd, I902). For the 
colonial wrlod^ AlexandnT v. Hucnboldt, EiMi pnhiigue sur la 
royauntf dt la NeuFffte Eiffoxne (I'aris. i&u, 7 vols., and atia^; aUo 
an Encliih tranhiaticn). For the war w>th the Unil<^d Slates «i? 
R. S. K.plcv, rft* »'fif ifi!li Af^xifo ENi.'W York, i§40l; £, D. Mans- 
field, Tki Jlfra^^an It'flf (New York. 1S49); and Winfield Scoit'i 
Jdemotri For M^Kiimiitan^ the ^iue-boaki on M^ridcan aUaIn 
contain^-ii in Accaanis and Papers (pr«eriic.'d to parliament )» voU 
Ixv. I8<J3, And vol Uiv iS&v are valoabk^ E. de K^ratry . La CHame 
Jecker; V€mpfFFur Mamftiiifen^ job iUitatum et sa ckuif (Er7.nSilat«l into 
English l>y Venablcs); La Cf^nife-)f;uerilia fran^he au Aiexiqve, are 
specially noteworthy i Prinfc Fris* Siitm-Salm's Diarv give^ valiuble 
informs I inn SK to Mqxiim.ili:tn'sdfclmg and fall Also Dela Gorce, Hu- 
toire du ifxend tmptit, \-ols iv v : J F. D<>mentch, L'Empifv mtjti- 
catn (Mcslro. iSe>6\ snd Le Mext^ueUt qu'ilfii (Pari*, ift67): Daran, 
ElCenfTot Miivd Mtru^nn (in French) (ftome, 1SS6): Schmidt von 
Tavcra.Oif* d RfiicritM£4. Kaum MexmUian f, (Vienna, 190^). 
Ulick Ralph Qurke'^ UJe of BtnUe Juarfi (l^tidon, tSgj) 14 ol con- 
siderable value and inicrv^t. Fof the: pftitxl iint'L' i^Sj mTorma'son 
in Eneli7.h mu-t '■ -■■■■;■ ■"> \ '-1 i-i . . ■' ^ .■.:■!■: ^•.;^• 
Romero, " The Garza Raid and its Lessons iVor/A American Review 
(Sept. 1892); Don Agustin Iturbidc, " Mexico under Diaz,"^ ibtd 
(June 1894); Romero. "The Philosophy of Mexican Revolutions," 
ibid. (Jan. 1896); and C. F. Lummis. ^ The Awakening of a Nation " 
(New York, iSgS, previously in Harper's Magazine), are valuable 
as giving imormiilirjn (t'>|X"i,liliy the list flannffl) nind rxT'inf ^ of view. 
Van D^ke, " Politic* in Me\lco," Harper's Muga^Hg tiGiJ5h voL 
)jgd~ir {:iv« particuhiTfl of the opposuian to Gonial ii^f's debt convcf' 
sion Kheme of ifiH^. President Diaz's megaaj^e <A November iB^t 
sjvirrg an account of his stewardship from iK^4 to that ycit, has 
been lran*laled Into French {.Rapport da Gittcrai Parfiric Dm* ^ ► . 
d m iampairioie$ fur Its attes de son adminiitration, 6!f£,h edited 
by Aueii^ie G^nin (Pari^, i^T) The early conatkutions of the 
Republic have been f^ubU^hed fin Spanish) in three vQlumcs; a siudy 
of that of 1^57 by D. Moici (of the Univtrsity of California) u in the 
ilitna/j af ikt Amerkatt Afsdemy of Poittical Scirvce. 11. i. i8gi- 
Varioos book^ chiefly Americafl. h.ivt betn wHuen on Mexico of 
late yean from a tourist's stand DDirttH Mr* Alec Tweed ie* Mcrko 
cs / saw it (London, r 901) and Liff 0/ Pi^Jirifi Diot (iqot) contain 
valuable mfocmation pcrwnally obtglneiJ from fforsd authorities 
in Mrsko. See also Perry F. Martin. Mrxuo tsffihe Tiiettlieth Cfniury, 
3 vols. (London, 1907) ; and C. R, Enock, MriWtf US^Q). (J- &> M A, J 

MEXICOt a state of the republic of Mexico, bounded N. by 
Hidalgo, E. by Tlaxcala and Puebla, S. by Morelos and Guerrero, 
and W. by Michoac&n. Pop. (1900), 934»468, largely Indian 
Area, 9247 sq. m., a large part of which lies within that great 
depression of the Mexican plateau known as the Valley of 
Mexico. Enclosed within its boundaries, except on the south, 
is the Federal District and capital city of Mexico with an area 
of 463 sq. m., which is not included in that of the state. The 
stale is divided into two unequal parts by the Sierra de Ajusco 
and Montes de las Cruces, which form a wooded ridge across it 
from east to west, with a general elevation of about 10,000 ft. 
above sea-level, or about 2500 above the plateau level. These 
ranges are part of a broken irregular chain which sometimes 
bears the name of Anahuac. A considerable part of the northern 
plateau consists of a broad plain, once the bed of a great lake 
but now covered with swamps, sodden meadows and lakes. 
The surrounding country drains into this depression, but an arti- 
ficial outlet has been created by the opening of the Tequixquiac 
tunnel. Beyond its margin the plateau drains westward to the 
Pacific through the Lerma, and north-east to the Gulf through 
the San Juan and Pinuco. South of the Sierra de Ajusco the 
country is roughly mountainous and drains to the Pacific 
through tributaries of the Balsas. Within the lacustrine de- 
pression of the north are the lakes of Zumpango, San Cristobal, 
Xaltoc&n, Chalco, Xochimilco, and Texcoco, the latter three 
lying part)y or wholly in the Federal Distrirt. Texcoco has the 
lowest levet and its water is brackish and undrinkable, though 
tAar of the streams Bowing into it and of the other lakes is swecl. 



Lake Xochimilco b celebrated for its " floating gardens " 
chinampas (see Mexico, Feoesal Distxict of). The princtpi 
industries of the state are agricultural, and the principal pea 
ducts are cereals, sugar, maguey (from which '* ptilque ** i 
made), coffee, and fruit. Stock-raising has also had a profitabl 
development, owing to the proximity of the national ca{nla] 
The manufacturing industries are important; among th 
manufactures are cotton and woollen fabrics, flour, dairy pro 
ducts, glass-ware, pottery, bricks, wines and spirits. Tb 
making of " pulque " from the sap of the maguey plant {Agn 
americana) is the chief industry of the state, and the produc 
is exported in large quantities to the national capital. Th 
state is traversed by the CenUal, National, Mexican Intemationi 
and Interoceanic railways, and by short lines from the nationi 
capital to neighbouring towns. The capital is Toluca, and otbc 
important towns are Zumpango (pop. 5942 in 1900), 30 m. I<) 
of the national capital, Tenango del Valle (5881 in 1900), 15 n 
S.E. of Toluca, and Lerma (estimated, 7200), near the ivester 
frontier of the state. 

MEXICO, a city and the county-seat of Audrain countj 
Missouri, U.S. A., N.E. of the centre of the state, and abou 
no m. N.W. of St Louis. Pop. (1890), 4789; (1900), 509c 
including 948 negroes and zxi foreign-bom; (1910), 5939. Iti 
served by the Chicago & Alton, the Chicago, Btirlington i 
Quincy, and the Wabash railway systems. Mexico is the tea 
of Hardin College and Conservatory of Music (Baptist, 1873] 
for young women, an institution fotinded and endowed br 
Charles H. Hardin (1820-1893), governor of the state in 1872 
1874, and of the Missouri Military Academy (1889). The dty i 
situated in the blue grass region of Missouri, and is a shippini 
point for horses and mules. Among the manufaaures are flou 
shoes and fire-clay products. Mexico was laid out as " Nei 
Mexico " in 1836, and became the county-seat under its presen 
name in 1837. It was incorporated as a town in 1855, wa 
entered by the Wabash road in 1858 and by the Alton in 187] 
and was first chartered as a city in 1874. 

MEXICO CITY* capital of the Republic of Mexico and chk 
town of the Federal District, near the southern margin of tb 
great central plateau of Mexico, in lat. 19^ 25' 45' N., kni 
99® 7' W. It is about 200 m. in a direct line W. by N. of Ver 
Cruz, its nearest port on the Gulf of Mexico, with which it i 
connected by two railway lines, one of which is 264 m. long; as 
about 181 m. in a direct line N.N.E. of Acapulco, its nearcs 
port on the Pacific, with which it is connected partly by » 
and partly by a rough mountain trail (the camino reai) to th 
coast. Pop. (1900), 344,721. 

The city stands on a small plain occupying the south-wester 
part of a large lacustrine depression known as the Valley « 
Mexico {Ei Voile de Mixico), about 3 m. from the western shor 
of Lake Texcoco, whose waters once covered a consideraU 
part of the ground now occupied by the dty. The Valky 
including the drainage basin of Lake Zumpango, has an aid 
of 2219 sq. m. (1627 sq. m. without that basin). The elevatioi 
of the city above sea-level is 7415 ft., only a few feet above tkt 
level of Lake Texcoco. The general elevation of the VaDqr 
is about 7500 ft., that of Lake Zumpango being 7493 ft., aid 
of Lake Chalco 7480 ft The rim of the Valley is formed \f 
spurs of the transverse cordillera on the north and south sidet* 
the Sierra de Guadalupe (650 to 750 ft. above the dty) on tk 
north, and the Sierra Nevada with its snow-clad peaks d 
Popocatapetl and Ixtaccihuatl farther away to the south-east*- 
and by a part of the Sierra de Ajusco, known as the Monies dl 
las Cruces, from which the greater part of the dty's wattf supply 
is derived. Lake Texcoco (Tezcoco or Tercuco) is a compiit- 
lively shallow body of brackish water, with an area of aboH 
1 1 ) sq. m., and is fed by a number of small streams from tk 
neighbouring mountains, and by the overflow of the other lakei 
Its shores are swampy and desolate and show considerable bdt 
of saline incrustations with the fall in its leveL The Aztec 
settled there because of the security afforded by its islands aa 
shallow waters— their city, TenochtitULn, being so compkul 
, sutTOMud^d by water that a handful of warriors could ci4 



MEXICO CITY 



345 



defend its appnMcbes ««ainst a greatly superior force. The 
Chalco and Xochinulco lakes, 8 or 9 m. to the southward, which 
are separated by a narrow ridge of land, are connected with the 
lower part of the city by an artificial canal, called " La Viga," 
16 m. loog and 30 ft. wide, which serves as an outlet for the 
overflow of those lakes and as a waterway for the natives who 
bring in flowers and vegetables for sale. Lake Xochimilco, 
celebrated for Itsckinampas, or " floating gardens" (see Mexico, 
Federal Distuct of), is supplied very largely by fresh-water 
^wrings opening within the lake itself, which the city has partially 
Averted for its own water supply. Lake Chalco is also greatly 
reduced in size by railway fillings and irrigation works, to the 
great distress of the natives who have gained their living by 
fishing in its waters since long before the Spanish conquest. 

The climate of the city is temperate, dry and healthful. 
The tempeiature ranges from a minimimi of 35° F. in winter 
to a maximum of 79" in summer. The winter range is 35^ to 
6S*, and the summer 50^ to 79^ The nights are always cool. 
The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the former from 
April to September, the latter from October to March. The 
ndnfall, however, is h'ght, about ao to 25 in., but, with the 
assistance of irrigation, it serves to sustain a considerable degree 
of cultivation in the neighbourhood of the city. The health of 
the dty, unfortunately, does not correspond with its favourable 
dimatic conditions. With a wet, undrained subsoil and a large 
population of Indians and half -breads living in crowded quarters, 
tbe death -rate has been notoriously high, though the completion 
of the Valley drainage works in 1900, supplemented by under- 
ground sewers in the better parts of the city, and by better 
luitation, have recently improved matters. The annual death- 
meper xooo was 54 per xooo for the Federal District in 
1901, 50 in 1902, 48 in 1903, 46 in 1904, and 56 in 1905; the 
iBoease for tfa« last-mentioned year being due to an epidemic of 
typhus fever. 

The dty is laid out with almost unbroken regularity and is 

ooopactly built — the streets running nearly with the cardinal 

pobts of the compass. The new and better residence sections are 

00 the western side; the poorer districts are on the eastern side 

lesrtc the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco. As the name of 

t street changes with almost every block, according to the old 

Spanidi custom, a list of street names is sometimes mistakenly 

accepted as the number of continuous thoroughfares in the city, 

n that it has been said that Mexico has 600 to 900 streets and 

alltys. An attempt was made in 1889 to rename the streets — 

iB running east and west to be called avenidas, all running north 

ttd south calles, and all continuous thoroughfares to have but 

one name — but the people clung so tenaciously to the old names 

t^ the government was compelled to restore them in 1907. 

OsUBde the Indian districts of the eastern and southern out- 

ikirts, the streets are paved with asphalt and stone, lighted with 

dearidty and gas, and served with an eflicient street railway 

iffvice. The political and commercial centre of the city is the 

(hza Mayor, or Plaza de la Constituci6n, on which face the 

Ctthedral, national palace, and municipal palace. Grouped 

■bout the Plaza de Santo Domingo are the old convent and 

dnmh of Santo Domingo, the court of the Inquisition now 

occupied by the School of Medidne, the offices of the Department 

of Communicadones, and the old custom-house (aduana) . Close 

^ are the old church of the Jesuits and the mechanics' school 

(irtes y tficios) with its large and well-equipped shops. Among 

other well-known plaxas are: Loreto, on which faces the great 

cadosed market of the dty; Guardiola, in the midst of hand- 

sone private residences; San Fernando, with its statue of 

Vicente Guerrero; and Morelos, with its marble statue of the 

■atiooal hero of that name. The Paseo de la Reforma, the 

faai avenue of the city, is a broad boulevard extending from the 

Avenida Juirez south-west to Chapultepec, a distance of nearly 

three miles. At intervals are circular spaces, called "glorietas," 

with statues (the famous bronze equestrian statue of Charies IV., 

Mad mcmuments to Columbus, Cuauhtemoc the last of the Aztec 

onperors, and Juirez). Other notable avenues are Bucareli and 

Jites, «k1 the Aveoida de la YigB, which skirts the canal of / 



that name. The prindpal business streets runs westward from 
the Plaza Mayor toward the Alameda, and is known as the Calle 
dc los Platcros (Silversmiths' Street) for two squares, Calle de 
San Francisco for three squares, and Avenida JuArez along the 
south side of the Alameda to its junction with the Paseo. The 
Alameda, or public garden, ^ m. west of the Plaza Mayor, covers 
an area of 40 acres, and occupies the site of the old Indian 
market and place of execution, where occurred the first auto-da- 
t€ in Mexico in 1574. 

The great cathedral stands on or near the site of the Aztec 
temple (teocalii) destroyed by Cort6s in 1521. The foundations 
were laid in 1573, the walls were completed in 1615, the roof was 
finished in 1623, its consecration took place in 1645 and its dedica- 
tion in 1667, the njwera were compkicd in 17^1+ and the great 
church was Enii^hKl about tSti. It is 476 ft. in Icni^th by i*); Tt, 
in width, and iti tcwcrs riH to a height at 3a| ft. Itt geistral plan 
is that of a Crerk ctqse^ wiib two ^feat navre and three aiilem, 
twenty side<chapcls and a mas^nificcEit hi^h altar supported by 
marble columoa and KurrDunded by a tumbago baluctrade with 
sixty-two tuiDbago ttatutb carrying elaborate canddatn made 
from a rich alfoy of cold, silver ao^ copper^ The elabontety tarvcd 
choir is also encloH^ by tumbago ralbnea made in MocaOf velghinfl 
26 tons. The vaulted roof is supportca by twenty Doric eolufnnir 
I So ft. in height, and the whole inttriDr is richly carded and vitdcd. 
The walls are covered with rare paintiniA. Si^ndins^ clow beside 
the cathedral is the highly omnmented tagade ol h snutlcr chuich 
called El Sagrario ^fct^ono3iLano. The city has aliom sijiy church 
edifices, inctiidint^ La Profesa, Loreto^ Santa TciTiBa, Smto DomingD 
and San HipoElto. At the time of the seculariiati*;?!! of Chuich 
properties tnere were about 130 rdjgiotis edifiot* in the city^ 
churches, convent 3 » rnona^tenes, Ac — many d which weft turned 
over to secular uses. 

The national palace, also on the PUza Mayor, has a frontage of 
675 ft. on the east of the Plaza, and covers a square of 47, 840 sq. 
yds., or nearly 10 acres. It contains the executive offices of the 
government and those of five cabinet ministers (interior, foreign 
affairs, treasury, war and justice), the senate chamber, the general 
archives, national museum, observatory and meteorological bureau. 
The palace occupies the site of the residence of Moctezuma, which 
was destroyed by the Spaniards, and that of Hernando Cortes, 
which was also destroyea in 1692. It has three entrances on the 
Plaza, and over its main gateway hangs the " liberty bell " of 
Mexico, first nins by the humble parish priest Hidalgo, on the night 
of the i6th of September 1810, to call the people of Dolores to 
arms, and now rung at midnight on each recurring anniversary by 
the president himself. The national museum, which occupies the 
east side of the national palace, is rich in Mexican antiquities, 
among which are the famous " calendar stone," ^ supposed to be of 
Toltec origin, and the " sacrificial stone " found in the ruins of the 
great Uocaili destroyed by Cort^ Near the cathedral is the monte 
de piedad, or government pawnshop, endowed in 1775 by Pedro 
Romero de Terreros (conde de Re^Ia) with £73.000, and at one time 
carrying on a regular banking busmess includmg the issue of bank- 
notes. Its business u now limited to the issue of small loans on 
personal property — the aggregate sometimes reaching nearly 
£50,000 a month. The national library, which has upwards of 
225,000 volumes, occupies the old St Augustine Church, dedicated 
in 16^2 and devoted to its present use by lu&rez in 1867. It 
contains an interesting collection of the busts of Mexican celebrities. 
The academy of San Carlos and school of fine arts (founded in 
1778) likewise contains good collections of paintings and statuary. 

Amonc other institutions are the new post office, begun in 1^2 
and finisned in 1907; the Mineria, occupied by the schools of mining 
and engineering; the military school, occupying a part of the castle 
of Chauultcpcc; the Iturbide palace, now occupied as a hotel; the 
Iturbioe theatre, occupied by the chamber of deputies, for which 
a new legislative palace to cost 2,500,000 pesos was under con- 
struction in 1909; the new palace of justice; the old mint, dating 
from 1537; the new penitentiary, completed in 1900; the Pant^on, 
with its monuments to the most celebrated Mexicans; the new 
eeneral hospital; the ioc key club on Plaza Guardiola, a new uniNTrsity 
(1910) and new school edifices of modern design. The city is likewise 
generously provided with hospitals and asylums. 

The old Spanish edifices were very solidly constructed of stone, 
and private residences were provided with iron gates and window 
guards strong enough to withstand an ordinary assault. Private 
houses were also provided with flat roofs {azoteas) and battlements, 
which gave them great defensive strength, as well as a cool, secluded 
retreat for their inmates in the evening. The old Moorish style of 
building about an open court, or patio, prevails, and the living- 
rooms of the family arc on the second floor. The better residences 
of the old style were commonly of two storeys — the ground-floor 
being occupied by shops, offices, stables and servants' quarters. 
The more modern constructions of the Colonia JvAwx ^xv^ cAJtvcx 
new residence districts are tuotc aUtacVivt ^tA v^'^^"^'^^^^'*' ^^ 
appearance. bPUt are less so\\d\v buWt.. 



* bandelier thinks it shouUi be caWcd vYv^i " 'ivotA o\ \Sc»"^>^^" 



346 



MEXICO CITY 



Mddcp was formdrl'y one of the vorst divined Urgt^ cities ot tb^ 
New Worid, iu tubsvil being pcrnufiently utunt^d And it^attiGdaL 
drainage beine- tKrouych open dUch» iriio. tbe San Luafo Caoal 
which oominauy di^hAr^nl into Lake TexrocOr The dilfcrencc in 
level between Ibir diy And the Uke being k» :h4ci six feet mnd th? 
lake having no natural outltrt, typhua ftver becanit^ a common epi' 
demtc in its lower and pocurr BcrLiona. TTie rarLi^st effort to coirrct 
this evil was by ttic Dutch tnginwr Madrteni (Span., Martinei^, 
who planned a deep cuiiijis thrnugh NcpchistongD Hill, north of the 
city, to carry away the overflow of Lake Zumpango (7493 It. 
elevation) to the river Tula, a. tribut^^ o( the Panuco. TIiecuttinE 
was 13 m. long and la known a.% thf Tajo de Nochiatongo. It was 
begun in 1607-^ year when the city waa completely flooded — but 
was not completai until t789, and then it «ai Tound that the city 
was still subject to partial inuncbtiona, although an enormous sum 
of money and 70.000 lives of Indian labourers had been expended 
upon it. The worst inundation in the history of the city occurred 
in 1629, when its streets were covered to a depth of 3 ft. and 
remained flooded until 1634. In 1856 President Ignacio Comonfort 
invited tenders for drainage works conditional on the use of waste 
waters for irrigation purposes, and the plan executed consisu of a 
canal and tunnel 43 m. long, starting from the east side and 4I ft. 
below the mean level of the city and running north to Zumpango 
and thence eastward into a tunnel over 6 m. long, which discharges 
into a small tributary of the Panuco riv\rr near the village of 
Tequixquiac. The greatest depth of the tunnel is 308 ft. below the 
surface. The works were inaugurated in 1900. 
. For the water supply the Aztecs used the nuin causewav through 
their city as a dam to separate the fresh water from the hills from 
the brackish water of Tcxcoco, and obtained drinking water from 
a spring at the base of the hill of Chapultepcc. The Spaniards 
added three other springs to the supply and constructed two long 
aqueducts to bring it into the citj^. Three other sources were 
aaded during the 19th century, and in 1899-1900 steps were taken 
to secure a further supply from the Rio Hondo. Besides these there 
arc II public and 1375 private artesian wells in the city. All these 
sources are estimated to yield about 220 to 2^0 litres per head. 

Considerable attention has always been given to education in 
Mexico, but in colonial times it was limited in scope, and to the 
dominant classes. The old university of Mexico, with its faculties 
of theology, law and medicine (founded if m and inaugurated 15^). 
ceased to exist in 1865 and was succeeded by schools of enginecnng. 
bw and medicine, which have been tiignally successful. The 
government also maintains schools of agriculture, commerce, fine 
arts, music, pharmacy, technology, and an admirable preparatory 
or high school, besides a large number of primary and sccondarv 
scho(Ms for which modem school buildings have been erected. 
Normal and industrial schools for both sexes are maintained, the 
btter (arUs y oficios) performing a very important service for the 
poorer clashes. In 1908 there were 353 government schools in the 
city, including 13 professional and technical schools, and neariy 
300 private schools. There arc also several scientific organizations 
and societies. The Mexican Geographical Society (Soctedad mexi- 
cana de geotmfia y estadislica), founded in 1833, has rendered 
invaluable scr\'ices in the work of exploration and publication: 
there are also the Geological Society, the Association of Engineers 
and Architects, and the Society of Natural History. 

Through lack of water-power and cheap fuel Mexico has never 



large number of induHtries have ticcn addrd in recent years. The 
largest of these electric-power plants is on the Nccaxa and Tcnango 
rivers, in the state of Pucbia, 92 m._ from the city, which is designed 
to furnish 40,000 horse-power for industrial and lighting purposes, 
and a duplicate plant was decided upon in IQO^. Another plant 
is in the suburb of San Lazaro, the current being distributed by 
over 100 m. of underground mains in the city and many miles of 
overhead wires in its outskirts and suburbs. Other plants are at 
San Ildefonso, 12 m. distant, and on the Churubusco river, 16 m. 
south. According to a British consular report for 1904 there were 
153 manufacturing establishments in the city producing cotton, 
linen and silk textiles, leather, boots and shoes, alcohol and alcoholic 
beverages, beer, flour, conserves and candied fruits, cigars and 
cigarettes, Italian pastes, chocolate, starch, hats, oils, ice, furniture, 
pianos and other musical instruments, matches, beds, candles, 
chemicals, iron and steel, printing-type, paint and varnish, glass, 
looking-glass, cement and artificial stone, earthenware, bricks and 
tiles, soap, cardboard, papier mich6. cartridges and explosives, 
white lead, perfumery, carriages and wagons, and corks. To 
these should be added the foundries and iron-working shops 
which add so much to the prosperity of modem Mexico. 
Perhaps the most important of these manufactories are the cotton 
mills, of which there are 13. and the cigar and cigarette factories, 
of which there are 10. In the suburbs, oils, chemicals, cigarettes 
and bricks are made at Tacuba : cotton textiles at Contreras, San 
Angc] and Tlalpam; paper and boots at Tacubaya, and bricks at 
Mixcoac and Coyoacan. A littie farther awav are the woollen 
m///s of San Ildefonso, the paper-milU of San Rafael, and important 
,WQrlu for the manufacture wnilwAy rolling ftodc 



ly c 

port on the Gulf coast and with two on the Pacific — lines wot 
under construction in 1909 to two other Pacific porta— -and indirect 
communication with two on the Gulf. The Mencaa and lotoi- 
oceanic lines connect with Vera Crux, the Mexican Central wUk 
Manzanillo, via Guadalajara and Colinu, and the Vera Craa 9l 
Pacific (from Cordoba) with the Tehuantepec line and the port o( 
Salina Crux. The last>mentioned line also gives indirect oonnenm 
with the port of Coatzacoalcos, and the Mexican Central, via Saa 
Luis Potosi, with Tampico. A southern extension of the Meiicu 
Central, via Cuemavaca, has reached the Balsas river and win be 
extended to Acapuko. onoe the chief Pacific port of Mexico and the 
d6p6t for the rich Philippine trade. A Mexican extension of the 
(American) Southern Pacific which has been completed from Nogples 
to Mazatlan is to be extended to Guadalajara, which will give the 
national capital direct communication with the thriving potu of 
Mazatl&n and Guaymas. In addition to these, the Mexican Cential 
and Mexican National, now consolidated, give communicaton with 
the northern capitals and the United Sutes. and the Mexkaa 
Southern runs southward, via PuebU, to the dty of Oaxaca. The* 
railways, with the shorter lines radiating from the city, connect it 
with nearly all the state capitals and principal porta. 

The population by the census of 1900 was 344.721 — an incieaK 
of 14,947 over the returns of 1895. The great majority of the 
inhabitants is composed of Indians and half-breeds, from whoa 
come the factory workers, Ubourers, servants, porters and other 
menial wage-earners. In former times Mexico was overrun with 
mendkants {pordioseros), vagrants and criminals (roteroi). and the 
" Portales de las Flores " on the east of the Plaza Mayor was a 
favourite " hunting-ground " for them because of its proximity to 
the cathedral; but modem conditions have largely reduced this 
evil. The foreign popubtion includes many capitalists and ia* 
dustrial managers who are doing much to develop the country, 
the American colony being concentrated in a fine niooem r es id fW l 
district on the south-western side of the city. 

History. — The City of Mexico dates, traditionally, from tke 
year 1325 or 1327, when the Aztecs settled on an island In Lake 
Texcoco. The Aztec name of the city was Tenochtitlin, derived 
either from Tenoch, one of their priests and leaden, «r 
from lenuch, the Indiah name for the *' nopal," which is 
associated with its foundation. The modem name b derived 
from Mexiili, one of the names of the Aztec god of war 
Huitzilopochtli, which name was later on applied also to the 
Aztecs themselves. The island settlement, which was practi- 
cally a lake-village built on islets— some of them undoubtedly 
artificial, and perched on stakes— grew rapidly with the in* 
creasing F>ower and civilization of its inhabitants, who had 
the remains of an earlier civilization (Tula, Teotihuacin, Choluli. 
and other older towns) to assist in their development. Aboet 
the middle of the 15th century their mud-and-nish dwdUnfl 
were partly replaced by stone structures, grouped around Ike 
central enclosure of the great Uocalli, and bordering the can» 
ways leading to the mainland. The town had reached in 
highest development when the Spaniards appeared in 1519, whea 
it is said to have had, including suburban towns, a total of 60,000 
dwellings, representing about 300.000 inhabitants. It «u it 
that time about 12 m. in circumference, everywhere intersected 
by canals, and connected with the mainland by six long aai 
solidly constructed causeways, as shown in the plan given ia 
the edition of Cort^'s letters published at Nuremberg in 1514 
(reproduced in vol. i. of H. H. Bancroft's History of Maai», 
San Francisco, 1883, p. 280). Allowance should be made for 
the habit of exaggeration among the Spanish adventuren flf 
that time, and also for the diplomacy of Cortes in magnifying hil 
exploits to win the favour of his king. The truth is, witbort 
doubt, that the dwellings of the lower classes were still built of 
reeds and mud, and covered the greater part of the city's aiti, 
otherwise it is impossible to undersUnd how a mere handful of 
Spanish soldiers, without toob and explosives, could so taaSiJ 
have levelled it to the ground. After its almost total dcstroctioi 
in November 1521, Cort£s employed some 400,000 nativei ii 
rebuilding the city on its former site. Since then the lake hil 
decreased greatly in extent, its area being reduced to ii| sq. ■• 
and its shore-line being more than 3 m. distant from thi 
city it once surrounded. During Spanish rule the only break 
in the ordinary course of cvenU was the revolt of 169a, whid 
resulted in the destruction of the municipal buildinga. Tk 
^ ciVy via& uoV mucb disturbed by the struggle for i n d epc a de ad 



MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF 



347 



but it was aftcrwanb the scene of many a revolution until the 
dictatorUl authority of Porfirio Diaz put an end to petty 
pcomiociamenlos and partisan inlrigxies. 

In the war between Mexico and the United States the most 
deduve campaign was that of General Winfield Scott directed 
aisinst the Mexican capitaL With the advanced guard of an 
irmy of about 10,000 men he arrived on the xcHh of August 
1S47 at Ayolta, on the national road 16 m. south-east of the city; 
bat as the approaches from this direction were very strongly 
ioni&ed he cut a new road southward along the eastern shore 
of Lake Chako and westward along the southern shore of lakes 
Chiko and Xochimilco to San Augustin, where his army arrived 
OB the 17th and xSth of August. The city was now 10 m. 
disunt by a direct road to the northward, but as the village of 
Su Antonio, only 3 m. ahead, was strongly fortified, another 
iheit detour was made to the westward by cutting a road through 
a fidd of broken lava. This movement brought the Americans 
to the hill of Cbntreras, which was held by General Valencia 
with a force of some 7000 and 22 pieces of artillery, while 
Pioident Santa Anna was in the neighbourhood with reinforce- 
neats numbering 1 2,000 or more. The Mexicans were routed 
01 the morning of the 20th of August after suffering heavy 
kiMs. San Antonio was easily taken about noon of the same 
<iay, and in the afternoon the main division of the Mexican 
vmjr «as driven from the stone church and intrenchmenls at 
Cbvubusco. Three days later General Scott agreed to an 
anaistice, but Mexico rejected the terms of peace, and hostilities 
«at resumed on the 7th of September. During the armbtice 
the American troops were quartered in and about the village 
ofTacubaya, about 2} m. west by south of the city. Near 
Tmbaya, on the north by west, were some massive stone build- 
infi known as El Molino del Rey, or the King*s Mill. When 
uudwd by the Americans under the immediate command of 
Gcaoil W. J. Worth in the eariy morning of the 8ih of September 
tlioe bnildings were defended by more than 10,000 Mexicans 
uder Generals Leon, Alvarez and Perez, and they were captured 
oaiy after a most desperate fight, which cost the Americans 787 
k^ and wounded and the Mexicans at least 2000 killed, 
■ouded, and prisoners. To enter the city by way of the 
Tacabaya causeway it was still necessary for the Americans to 
optare Chapultepec. This hill, defended by about 4000 
Mexicans under General Nicolas' Bravo, was bombarded on 
tke litb of September, and was carried by assault on the 13th. 
Oi the following day the City of Mexico surrendered. It was 
Ikes occupied by the American army under General Winfield 
Scott, and held by them until the signing of the treaty of 
GuuUape-Hidalgo (May 1848). 

The French intervention of 186 1 led to a second occupation 
by t foreign power — a French military force under General Forey 
taking possession in June 1863. Maximilian, archduke of 
AiBtria, was crowned emperor of Mexico in the cathedral in 
Jue 1864, and held possession of the capital until the 21st of 
Joe 1867, when it was captured by General Porfirio Diaz. 
Earthquake shocks are of frequent occurrence, but the city 
Biciy suffen any material daimage. The great earthquake 
ibocks of the 30th and 3i5t of July iqoq. however, caused 
CBUMder^lc dama|;e in the city, and a few lives were lost. 

For further description ace H. H. Bancroft, History of Mexico 
(Svob.. San Francisco. 1883); Rolxrt S. Barrrtt. Standard Guide 
liAe City of Mexico and Vuintty (Mexico, 1900) : Thomas A. Janvier, 
n. ■#_- — Q^^f^ (-ji, ^ ^^^ Yj^Ij \9^)\ D. Charnay.i4 nrif»t 



Th 



CHet of the Sew World {Enfi. ver.. New York. 1887): and the 
Aim m la ciudad de Mixtco, in the Diccionario encicIopMico 
kspam^muricoHo (Barcek>na. 1893). xii. 740. 

IBDOO. FEDERAL DISTRICT OP. a territory set apart 
far the independent and exclusive use of the Mexican Federal 
Govcrtunsnt, occup3ring the south-eastern part of the Valley of 
Ueiko. and taken from and l>'ing within the State of Mexico, 
rtidi forms its boundaries on all sides except the south where it 
lOQches the state of Morelos. Pop. ( iqoo), 540,478, largely Indian 
and half-breeds; area. 463 sq. m., or accordingly to later com- 
puution I4q8} sq. kilom. ($78} sq. m.). The district is very 
inifilar In outline, its greatest length (N. W. to S.E.) being jo m., 1 



and its greatest breadth 25 m. It was formerly divided into one 
urban municipality and four rural prefectures, but under the law 
of the 26th of March 1903 it is divided into 13 municipalities, 
Mexico, Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Atzcapotzalco, Tacuba, Tacubaya, 
Mixcoac, Cuajimalpa, San Angel, Coyoacan, Tlalp4m,Xochimilco, 
Milpa Alta and IxUpalapa; the first of these comprises the 
national capital and its immediate suburbs, and the other 12 the 
unequal divisions of the district with a considerable number of 
towns and villages. Indians and half-breeds form more than one- 
half of the rural population engaged in agriculture and gardening, 
beside which there is a large percentage employed in manufac- 
turing industries. The government of the district is exercised by 
the national executive in accordance with the organic law of 1903, 
though some measure of popular government is vested in 
municipal councils iayuHtamic$Uos) elected by popular vote for 
terms of four years. These councils have lost much of their 
original legislative character, but they must be consulted in 
matters of local importance, such as water supply, sanitary 
works, and the exploitation or sale of municipal property, and 
in regard to all contracts affecting the municipality. They can 
veto by a two-thirds vote the execution of any contract or 
administrative project, which then, at the end of four months, 
if again vetoed must be taken before the President of the 
Republic for adjudication. The administrative oflficcrs, who 
arc appointed by the national executive, consist of a governor 
of the federal district, the director -general of public works, 
and the president of the superior board of health. The three 
form a superior council of district government which exerrises 
a supervisory and advisory power, " revising, confirming, 
reforming or revoking the acts of each one of the members of 
the council, whenever these acts are called in question." The 
council also exercises a general supervision of the making of 
contracts. The governor represents the national government, 
and has special charge of the fire and police departments, prisons, 
imposition of penalties for violation of ordinances, public diver- 
sions and festivities, civil registry, street traflfic, inspection of 
weights and measures, and the sale of intoxicating liquors. The 
director-general of public works has special charge of the water 
supply, streets and roads, parks, monuments, public lighting, 
drainage, street cleaning, public buildings not under federal 
control, cemeteries, slaughter-houses and markets, building 
operations, and all municipal or communal property. The 
president of the superior board of health has charge of all 
sanitary works, general sanitary inspection, the sanitary adminis- 
tration of markets, slaughter-houses and cemeteries, and the 
introduction of meats from other localities. The government 
of the district is copied, in part, from that of the District of 
Columbia in the United States, but its citizens are not dis- 
franchised. They elect the ayuntamienlos, which exercise no 
slight influence in local affairs, and, like any state, elect senators 
and deputies to the National Congress. 

The principal towns of the district, some of which are merely 
suburbs of the capital, are GUadalupe, Tacubaya, Tlalpim and 
Xochimilco. Within the municipal limits of Mexico City arc 
Chapultepec, Santa Anita and the hot springs of El Pcflon, which are 
popular suburban resorts easily reacncd by the ordinary urban 
tramway service. Chapultepec (Grasshopper Hill) is an iK>la'ted 
rock nearly 200 ft. high surrounded by a beautiful park and sur- 
mounted by a fortified structure called the " Castle." containing 
the summer residence of the president and the national militarv 
school. A finely graded road leads to the summit. The park 
contains a grove of old cypress trees {Taxodium distichum, called 
" ahuehuetes " by the natives), one of which is 45 ft. in circum- 
ference and nearly 200 ft. high. The hill is nearly 3 m. south-west 
of the city and once commanded one of its principal causeway 
approaches. It was assaulted and captured by the American 
forces under General Winfield Scott on the 13th of SieptemlK'r 1847, 
after a stubborn resistance. A monument to the cadets of the 
military school who died in this battle stands in the park. The 
castle, which was built by the viceroys, was greatly embellished by 
the emperor Maximilian, who planned for it the drive known as 
the Paseo de la Reforma. Of ihc neighbouring towns Guadalupe 
or Guadalupe-Hidalgo (pop. 5834 in 1900), 2f m. north bv <aflX 
from Mexico City, near tne shore ol LaVe '\«.Kicac.o,\% tVw^^ '^'"^ 
for its shrine to Our Lady ol GuaAaW^jK. >»i\\o\%s&\A\oVaNt ^^V^"^*^ 
there to the Indian ]uan Dic^o \n \^i\- "^^ ^tvt« ^fcasv^% wv \X«t 



348 



MEXICO, GULF OF— MEYER, J. L. 



principal |daza and is ^sited by many thousands of (Mlgrims during 
the year, whose pious contributions have so enriched the church that 
its sacred vessels, altar-rails, candelabra and other accessories are 
estimated to contain fifty tons of silver. The treaty of peace 
between Mexico and the united States was signed here on the and 
of February 184S. Tacubaya (pop. 18,343 in 1900), on the lower 
slopes of the Montes de las Cruces^ about 5 m. west-south-west of the 
city, with which it is connected by rail, is noted for its fine old 
rendences and beautiful gardens. The National Astronomical 
Observatory occupies a fine modem edifice. At Popotia is an aged 
tree under which, according to tradition, Cort^ sat and wept alter 
his terrible retreat from the Aztec capital on the nocki trisU. 
Farther south on the lowest slopes of the mountain range are San 
Angel and Tlalpam, the latter (pop. 4732 in 1900) standing partly 
on the plain 12 m. south by west of the capital. In both much 
attention is given to floriculture, and both are favourite country 
residences of the richer citizens. Xochimiico (field of flowers), 
(pop. 10,712 in 1900) on the west shore of the lake of that name 
ana 10 m. south by east of the city, is an Indian town dating long 
before the discovery of America. It lies in the midst of a fertile 
plain devoted to the production of fruit, vegetables and flowers for 
the city markets. Its gardens are carried out on the shallow lake 
by floating masses of water-plants covered with soil and secured by 
poplar stakes, which, taking root, soon surround them with living 
boundaries. These remarkable and productive gardens, called 
ckinamfHU, have so increased in number and extent that the lake 
is practically covered by them, with the exception of the waterways, 
which are kept open by scooping up mud from the bottom. From 
the lake a broadf canal runs northward to the eastern suburbs of 
the city. It is known as the Viga, and is believed to have been 
opened by the Aztecs for the transportation of garden produce to 
their i^nd capital. 

MEXICO. GULP OP, a mediterranean gulf almost surrounded 
by the coasts of the United States and Mexico, and forming the 
northern division of the extension westward of the west Atlantic 
trench (see Atlantic Ocean). Its southern boundary is defined 
by the partly submerged ridge which extends eastwards from 
the peninsula of Yucatin, and on which the island of Cuba is 
situated: to the east it communicates directly with the Atlantic 
by the Strait of Florida. On the western side of Yucat&n a 
southcriy embay ment is formed by the Giilf of Campcachy. The 
United States coast closely follows the parallel of 30° N., while 
the parallel of 20° N. cuts across the Gulf of Campeachy: the 
greatest length— Vera Cruz to Florida— is 11 20 m., and greatest 
width — Galveston to Campeachy — 680 m. The total area is 
approximately 716,000 sq. m. 

The deepest part of the Gulf of Mexico, the so-called " Sigsbce " 
deep, lies below the line of 2000 fathoms, between 23° and 
25J'* N., and 84P to 95* W. It is widest to the west, where the 
breadth is about 120 m., and narrows to 25 m. at its greatest 
depth (21 19 fathoms) between 86** and 88° W., widening again 
to some 80 m. farther eastward. The continental shelf is for the 
most part narrow: its breadth is 6 m. at Cape Florida, 120 m. 
along the west coast of Florida, 10 m. at the south pass of the 
Mississippi, 130 m. near the boundary of Texas and Louisiana, 
and 1 5 m. off Vera Cruz. The shores are low, sandy and marshy, 
the coast-line being frequently doubled by lagoons. There arc 
no islands except the " Keys " of Florida and Yucat&n, and 
Cuba. The tides in the Gulf of Mexico are of comparatively 
small range (springs rarely exceed 4 ft. and neaps 2\ ft.), but a 
remarkable feature is the exaggeration of the diurnal inequality 
to such an extent as almost to extinguish the semi-diurnal tide 
in the inner parts of the gulf, giving high and low water only once 
daily. The mean level of the water in the Gulf of Mexico was 
formeriy given as about 40 in. above that of mean sea-level at 
New York, but later reports on precise levellings from New 
York to Biloxi through St Louis describe it vaguely as " some- 
what higher." The current movement in the Gulf of Mexico 
consists of a rotational movement in. the direction of the hands of 
a watch, the branch of the equatorial current which enters the 
Caribbean Sea passing into the Gulf by the Strait of Yucat&n 
and issuing from it by the Strait of Florida as the Gulf Stream, 
which unites with the remainder of the northward moving 
water, forming the Antilles current. 

From March to September the prevailing winds are the north- 

east trades; these undergo considerable modification on account 

0/ tAe con/jgurat/on of the surrounding land, and the rains 

^Aicd accompaoy them are interrupted by spells of calm ibkk 



weather, and rarely by northeriy winds known as Ntrks id 
kueso Colorado and Ckocolateros, In the colder dry scuoo, 
from October to April, the climatic situation is dominated by 
the relatively high temperature of the surface of the gulf, 
causing a cyclonic inflow of air which is associated with the 
strong northerly winds or " northers " prevailing on the western 
side, more particularly along the Mexican coast. The northers 
sometimes blow with terrific force and are at times accompanied 
by rain. The form and position of the Gulf of Mexico exercise 
a profound influence on the climate of the whole of the aoutbcm 
and south-eastern sutes of the Union, and indeed of the greater 
part of North America. (H. N. D.) 

METER. CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (1801-1869), 
Gennan palaeontologist, was bom at Frankfort -on-the- Main, on 
the 3rd of September x8oi. In 1832 he issued a work entitled 
PalaeotogUa, and in course of time he published a series of 
memoirs on various fossil organic remains: moUusca, Crustacea, 
fishes and higher vertebrau. His more elaborate rexarcbes 
were those on the Carboniferous amphibia, the Permian reptiles, 
the Triassic amphibia and reptiles, and the reptiles <k the 
Lithographic slates; and the results were embodied in ha great 
work Zur Fauna der Vorwdl (1845- 1860), profusely illustrated 
with plates drawn on stone by the author. He was associated 
with W. Dunker and K. A. Zittel in the publication of the 
Palaeontograpkica, which began in 185 1. He was awarded the 
Wollaston medal by the Geological Society of London in 1858. 
He died on the 2nd of April 1869. 

METER. HQNRICH AUGUST WILHELH (1800-1873). 
German Protestant divine, was bom at (jotha on the loth of 
January 1800. He studied theology at Jena, and evcntttaOy 
became (184 1) pastor, member of the consistory, and super- 
intendent at Hanover. He died on the 21st of June 1S73. He is 
chiefly noted for his valuable Kritisckexegetiscker Kommtmlar 
turn Neuen Testament (16 vols.), which began to appear in 1832, 
was completed in 1859 with the assistance of J. £. Huthcr, 
Friedrich DUsterdieck and G. K. G. Lttnemann, and has been 
translated into English. New editions have been undertaken 
by such scholars as A. B. Ritschl, B. Weiss, H. Wendt, K. F. G. 
Heinrici, W. Beyschlag and F. A. £. Sieffert. 

Meyer also published an edition of the New Testament, witk 
a translation (1829) and a Latin version of the symboUcaft 
books of the Lutheran Church (1830). 

He is not to be confounded with ToRANN FaiBDRiCR voN Mbtvb 
(1772-18^9), the senator of Frankfort, who published a translatiom 
of the Bible in 1819 (Die keilite Sckrift in behthtigter Obersetumg 
mit kurten Anmerkungen ; and ed., 1823; 3rd ed.. 1855). 



METER, JULIUS LOTHAR (1830-1895). Gennan 
was bom on the 19th of August 1830, at Varel in Oldenbnry. 
He was the son of a physician, and went to study medidne fiirt 
at Zurich University in 1851, and then, two years later, at 
Wiirzburg, where he had R. Virchow as his teacher in patboiogjr. 
The influence of C. F. W. Ludwig, under whom be studied at 
Zurich, decided him to devote his attention to physiologicsl 
chemistry, and therefore he went, after his graduation (1854), to 
Heidelberg, where R. Bunsen held the chair of chemistry. Tbcit 
he was so influenced by G. R. Kirchhoff's mathematical teacfaio| 
that he took up the study of mathematical physics at KOnifsbd| 
under F. £. Neumann. In 1859 he became privat-doceat it 
physics and chemistry at Breslau, where in the preceding yttt 
he had graduated as Ph. D. with a thesis on the action of carboa 
monoxide on the blood. In 1866 he accepted a post in the School 
of Forestry at Neustadt-Eberswalde, but soon moved to Carbmhe 
Polytechnic. During the Franco-German campaign the Poly- 
technic was used as a hospital, and he took an active part n the 
care of the wounded. Finally, in 1876, he became pirofeawr of 
chemistry at Tubingen, where he died on the i ith of April 1895. 
His name is best known for the share he had in the perioific 
classification of the elements. He noted, as did J. A. R. New* 
lands in England, that if they are arranged in the order of their 
atomic weights they fall into groups in which similar chenicil 
and physical properties are repeated at periodic intervab; aad 
in pailVcx]^ \a ikvQHi^ that if the atomic weights ace j 



MEYER, K. F.— MEYERBEER 



349 



at oci£iiBtct and the atomic volumes ai abxassae, the curve 
tO^mimtMA proenta a aeries of tnaTima and miaima, the most 
clectio-positlve elements appearing at the peaks of the curve in 
the order of their atomic weights. His book on Die modemen 
TkurimdtrCMemiet which was first published in BresUu in 1864, 
fM«fit»« a disniwion of relations between the atomic weights 
and the properties of the elements. In 1882 he received from the 
Boyal Society, at the same time as D. J. Menddeeff , the Davy 
Dedal in recognition of his work on the Periodic Law. A 
younger brother, O. E. Meyer, became professor of physics at 
Braslan in 1864. 

METER. KOVRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898), Swiss poet and 
Bovdist, was bom at Zarich on the i ith of October 1825. After 
Kudying law at the university, he went for considerable periods 
to Lausanne, Geneva and Paris, and in Italy interested himself 
h historical research. In 1875 he settled at Kilchberg near 
Zarich, waa created in 1880 a doaor philosophiae honoris causa 
by that university, and died at Kilchberg on the 28th of Novem- 
ber 1898. After Gottfried Keller, Konrad Meyer is the most 
important Swisa poet of modem times, though as a novelist he 
Wis perhaps more successful His poetical works include 
BoUad€U (1867); Romanxen und BUder (1870); the epic poem, 
UulUns UisU Tagt (187 1); and CedickU (1882; 2olh ed., 1901). 
Among his novels must be specially mentioned JUrg Jenatsch 
(1876; 20(h ed., 1894); Der Sckuss von der Kantd (1878); Der 
Ueiliie (1880; 12th ed., 1894; English by M. von Wendhdm, 
Thomas 4 Bechei, the Saint, 188 s); Die Richterin (1885); Die 
VersMckunt des Pescara (1887); Angeia Borgia (1891). His 
shorter stories were collected in two volumes in 1885 (5th ed., 
i«9a). 

See A. Reitler, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1885); Lina Frey, 
K. P. Meyer's CedidUe und NoeeUen (1802); K. E. Kranxot. K. F. 



Meyer (1890) ; A. Frey. K. F. Meyer (1900) : H. Kraeger. K. F. Meyer: 
QudUn und Wandlungen seiner CedichU (1901): B. Meyer. K. F. 
Meyer in der Erinneruneseiner SckwesUr (1904) : Briefwechsel twischen 
Lmu 9on Praniois una K. F. Meyer, herausg. von A. Bcttelhdm 



^1905): A. Langmeaser, iC. F. Meyer (1905). 

METER. [MARIE] PAUL HTACINTHE (1840- ), French 
phik>logist, was bom in Paris on the 17th of January 1840. He 
«is educated at the ficole des Chartes, and in 1863 was attached 
to the manuscript department of the Biblioth^ue Nationale. 
Is 1876 he became professor of the languages and literatures of 
iBothcm Europe at the College de France. In 1882 he was made 
inctar of the ficole des Chartes, and a year later was nominated 
I laember of the Academy of Inscriptions. lie was one of the 
(Bonders of the Revue critique^ and a founder and the chief con- 
tributor to Romania (1872). Paul Meyer began with the study 
«f old Proven^ literature, but subsequently did valuable work 
a many different departments of romance literature, and ranks 
M the chief modem authority on the French language. He is 
the aubor of Rapports sur Us documents manuscriis de Vandenne 
^Obelwe de la Prance conserves dans les biUiothkques de la Grande 
Bntagne (187 1); Recueil d'anciens textes has4alins, provenqaux et 
h^tis (2 parts, 1874-1876); Alexandre le Grand dans la litUror 
ift franfoise dm moyen Age (2 vols., 1886). He edited a great 
■uaber of old French texts for the SocHU des anciens textes 
htf^i, the SociiU de Vhistoire de France and independently. 
Aanog these may be mentioned i4ye d* Avignon (1861), with 
^muxA\Plamen^a (1865) ; the Histoire of Guiilaume le Mar6chal 
(3 vobu, 1892-1902); Raoul de Cambrai (1882), with A. Longnon; 
frsimis d'une vie da Saint Thomas de CantorUry (1885); 
Cnttamme de la Bane (1894). 



, VICTOR (1848- 1897), German chemist, was bom at 
Beifin on the 8th of September 1848, and studied at Heidelberg 
Unveruty under R. W. Bunsen, H. F. M. Kopp, G. R. Kirchhof! 
tod H. L. F. Helmholtz. At the age of twenty he entered 
J. F. W. A. Baeyer*s laboratory at Berlin, attacking among 
Qlber problems that of the composition of camphor. In 187 1, on 
Baeycr's recommendation, he was engaged by H. von Fehling 
as hb assistant at Stuttgart Polytechnic, but within a year he 
left to succeed J. Wislicenus at Zurich. There he remained for 
llBtcen veazs. and it was during this period that he devised his 



well-known method for determhung vapour densities, and carried 
out his experiments on the dissociation of the halogens. In 1882, 
on the death of W. Wdth (1844-1881), professor of chemistiy at 
Zarich University, be undertook to continue the lectures on 
benzene derivatives, and this led him to the discovery of thiophen. 
In 1885 he was chosen to succeed Hans HUbner (1837-1884) in 
the professorship of chemistry at Gdttingen, where stereo- 
chemical questions especially engaged his attention; and in 
1889, on the resignation of his old master, Bunsen, he was 
appointed to the chair of chemistry in Hdddberg. He died 
on the 8th of August 1897. In recognition of his brilliant 
experimental powers, and his numerous contributions to 
chemical sdence, he was awarded the Davy medal by the 
Royal Sodety in 1891. 

MEYERBEER, OIAOOMO (1791-1863), German composer, 
first known as Jakob Meyer Beer, was bom at Berlin on the sth 
of September 1791,^ of a wealthy and talented Jewish family. 
His father, \i*tn Beer, was a banker; his mother, Amalie {nU 
Wulf), was a woman of high intellectual culture; and two of his 
brothers distinguished thcamsdves in astronomy and literature. 
He studied the pianoforte, first under Lauska, and afterwards 
under Lauska's master, Clemsntl. When seven years old he 
played Mozart's Concerto in D Minor in public, and at nine he was 
pronounced the best pianist in Berlin. For composition he was 
placed under Zdter, and then under Bernard Weber, director of 
the Berlin opera, by whom he was introduced to the Abb£ Vogler. 
Vo^er invited him to Darmstadt, and in 1810 recdved him into 
his house, where he formed an intimate friendship with Karl 
Maria von Weber, who also took daily lessons in counterpoint, 
fugue and extempore organ-playing. At the end of two years 
the grand duke appointed Meyerbeer composer to the court. His 
first opera, Jephtha's CdUbde, failed lamentably at DarmsUdt 
in 1811, and his second, Wirth und Cast {Alimeleh), at Vienna in 
1 814. These checks discouraged him so cmelly that he feared 
he had misukcn his vocation. Neverthdess, by advice of Salieri 
he determined to study vocalization in Italy, and then to form 
a new style. But at Venice he was so captivated by Rossini that, 
renoundng all thought of originality, he produced a succession 
of seven Italian operas — Romilda e Costansa, Semiramide ricono- 
sciuta^ Eduardo e Cristina, Emma di Resburgo, Margherita 
d'Anjou, UEsmU di Granata and // Crociato in £fi/(0— wUch all 
achieved a success as brilliant as it was unexpected. Against 
this act of treason to German art Weber protested most earnestly; 
and before long Meyerbeer himsdf grew tired of his defection. 
An inviution to Paris in 1826 led him to review his position 
dispassionatdy, and he came to the condusion that he was 
wasting his powers. For several years he produced nothing in 
public; but, in concert with Scribe, be planned hb first French 
opera, Robert le DiaUe, This gorgeous spectacle was produced 
at the Grand Op^ra in 183 1. It was the first of its race, a grand 
romantic opera, with situations more theatrically effective than 
any that had been attempted dther by Chcrubini or Rossini, 
and with ballet music such as had never yet been heard, even in 
Paris. lu popularity exceeded all expectations; yet for five 
years Meyerbeer appeared before the public no more. 

His next opera, Les Huguenots ^ was first performed in 1836. 
In gorgeous colouring, rhetorical force, consistency of dramatic 
treatment, and careful accentuation of individual types, it is 
at least the equal of Robert le Diable. In two poinu only did 
its interest fall short of that inspired by the earlier work. 
Meyerbeer had shown himself so eminently successful in his 
treatment of the supernatural that one regretted the omission of 
that dement; and, more imporunt still, the fifth act proved to 
be an anti-dimax. The true interest of the drama cuhninates 
at the dose of the fourth act, when Raoul, leaping from the 
window to his death, leaves Valentine fainting upon the ground. 
The opera now usually ends at the fourth act. 

After the production of Les Huguenots Meyerbeer spent many 
years in the preparation of his next greatest works— L' A fricaine 
and Le Prophite. The libretti of both thcst ovw^a nitx^ Vkct5^«^ 

^ Or, aoootdinft to tome aiccoua.v»% \T^ 



35° 



MEYNELI^— MEZIERES, P. DE 



by Scribe; and both were subjected to countless changes; 
in fact, the story of VAJricaine was more than once entirely 
rewritten. 

I Meanwhile Meyerbeer accepted the appointment of kapell- 
meister to the king of Prussia, and spent some years at Berlin, 
where he produced Ein Feidlager in SchUsieH^ a German opera, 
in which Jenny Lind made her first appearance in Prussia. Here 
also he compMed, in 1846, the overture to his brother Michael's 
drama, Stntensee. But his chief care at this period was bestowed 
upon the worthy presentation of the works of others. He 
began by producing his dead friend Weber's EuryatUke, with 
scrupulous attention to the compc»er's original idea. With 
equal unselfishness he procured the acceptance of Riefui and 
Derfiiegende HoU&nder^ the first two operas of Richard Wagner, 
who, then languishing in poverty and exile, would, but for him, 
have found it impossible to obuin a hearing in Berlin. With 
Jenny Lind as prima donna and Meyerbeer as conductor, the 
opera flourished brilliantly in the Prussian capital; but the 
anxieties materially shortened the composer's life. 

Meyerbeer produced Le Propkiie at Paris in 1849. In 1854 he 
brought out V£toUe du nord at the Op^ra Comique, and in 1859 
Le Pardon de Ploirmd {Dinorah), His last great work, L'Afri- 
cainCf was in active preparation at the Acad6mie when, on the 
33rd of April 1863, he was seized with a sudden illness, and died 
on the 2nd of May. VAJricaine was produced with pious 
attention to the composer's minutest wishes, on the 28th of 
April 1865. 

Meyerbeer's genius was criticized by contemporaries with 
widely different results. Mendelssohn thought his style exagger- 
ated; F£tis thought him one of the most original geniuses of the 
age; Wagner ungratefully calls him " a miserable music-maker," 
and " a Jewish banker to whom it occurred to compose operas." 
The reality of his talent has been recognized throughout all 
Europe; and his name will live so long as intensity of passion and 
power of dramatic treatment are regarded as indispensable 
characteristics of dramatic music But his work shows that these 
qualities, with the aid of an experienced stage-writer, may be 
entirely independent of genuine musical insight. 

MEYNELL, AUCE CHRISTIANA (1850- ), English poet 
and essayist, was the daughter of T. J. Thompson. Her early life 
was spent chiefly in Italy, and she was educated by her father. 
Her first volume of verse. Preludes (1875), illustrated by her 
sister Elizabeth, afterwards Lady Butler, attracted little public 
notice, but the delicacy and beauty of the poems and especially 
of the sonnet " Renunciation," were warmly praised by Ruskin. 
She married in 1877 the well-known Roman Catholic journalist 
and author Wilfrid McyncU, who became proprietor and editor 
of the Weekly Register. Under W. E. Henley's editorship she 
wrote regularly in prose for the National Observer, and also later 
for the Pall Mall Gazette, the Saturday Review, &c. Her Poems 
(1893), including much of the earlier volume of Preludes, brought 
her at last more definitely before the public; and this was followed 
in 1 901 by another slender book of delicate verse, Later Poems. 
Mrs Meynell also showed herself a fine critic of poetry by her 
admirable selection. The Flower of the Mind (1897), an anthology 
of English verse. She edited the Selected Poems (1894) of T. G. 
Hake, the Poetry oj Pathos and Delight (1896) of her intimate 
friend Coventry Patmore, and the selections from Patmore in the 
" Muses' Library." Her prose essays, remarkable for fineness 
of culture and peculiar restraint of style, appeared in successive 
volumes as The Rhythm of Life (1893), T'Af Colour of Life and 
other Essays (1896), The Children (1897), and The Spirit of Place 
(1898). Later books are London Impressions (1898) and The 
Work of John S. Sargent (1903). 

See W. Archer, Poets of Pie Younger Generation (1903). 

MBYR, MELCHOIR (i8ic^i87i), German poet, novelist and 
philosopher, was born at Ehringen on the 38th of June 1810, and 
died at Munich on the 22nd of April 187 1. He read law and 
philosophy at Heidelberg and Munich. His greatest success was 
iAe £riMungtn atis dem RUs (4 th ed. Leipzig, 1892), remarkable 
MS an accurate and sympaLthctic pictuie of rural life and 



character. He wrote also tragedies {Heraog AUr^ekt, 1851; JM 
der KUkne, 1862), novels ( Vier Deutsche, x86i ; Emge UAe^ x86«), 
and, in later life, philosophical works with a strong religioiif 
tendency. Among these were Emilie (philosophical diakfoei^ 
1863), Die Religion des Geistes (1871), Die Fortdatier naek dm 
Tode (1869), Die Religion und ihre jelxt gfbolene PorthOdung 
(1871), and Gedanken Uber Kunst, Rdigion und PkUosopUe 
(i874)> In these works he attempted to develop a D^tk 
system of philosophy. He was the author of an anonynaous work 
entitled GesprSche mil einem Grobian (1866). 

See Mekhior Meyr. Biographisches, Briefe und CedicUe^ edited by 
Graf Bothmer and M. Carri^ (Leipzig, 1874). 

METRIFAB, a small semi-nomad tribe of Africans of Semitic 
stock, settled on the east bank of the Nile near Berber. Gm- 
trary to Arab custom, it is said they never marry slaves. 

MfiZERAY, FRANCOIS EUDES DE (1610-1683), French 
historian, was bom at Rye near ArgenUn, where his father was a 
surgeon. He had two brothers, one of whom, Jean Eudes, was 
the founder of the order of the Eudists. Francois studied at the 
university of (^n, and completed his education at the college 
of Ste Barbe at Paris. His Histoire de France depuis Faramoni 
jusqu* d Louis le Juste (3 vols., 1643-1651), is a fairly accurate 
summary of French and Latin chronicles. Mdzeray was ap- 
pointed historiographer of France, and in 1649, on the death cl 
Vincent Voiture, was admitted to the Acadimie Fran^aise. His 
Abrigi chronologique (3 vols., 1667-1668) went throu^ fifteen 
editions between 1668 and 171 7; but he did not hesitate in this 
work to attack the financiers, with the result that his salary as 
historiographer was diminished by Colbert. M^zeray succeeded 
Conrart as permanent secretary to the Acaddmie Francaise 
(1675), and died at Paris on the loth of July 1683. He trans- 
lated Grotius's TraUi de la rdigion ckritienme (1640), and a 
Histoire des Turcs depuis 1612 jusqu'en 1649 (1650), whidi is an 
addition to a continuation of Chalcondyles. 

See Daniel de Larroque, Vie de Francois Eudes de MHtny (1720); 
vol. xiii. of Causeries du lundi by Sainte-Beuve, and Levavawrar's 
Notice sur les trois frires: Jean Eudes^ Frantois Eudes, et Charles 
Eudes ii6s5)' 

MfiZldRES. PHILIPPE DE (c. 1327-1405). French soldier and 
author, was born at the cb&teau of Mi^ziires in Picardy. He 
belonged to the poorer nobility, and first served under Lucchino 
Visconti in Lombardy, but within a year he entered the service 
of Andrew, king of Naples, who was assassinated in September 
1345. In the autumn of that year he set out for the East in the 
French army. After the battle of Smyrna in 1346 he was made 
a knight, and when the French army was disbanded he made his 
way to Jerusalem. He realized the advantage which the dis- 
cipline of the Saracens gave them over the disorderly armies of 
the West, and conceived the idea of a new order of knighthood, 
but his efforts proved fruitless. The first sketch of the order was 
drawn up by him in his Nova religio passionis (1367-1368: revised 
and enlarged in 1386 and 1396). From Jerusalem he found his 
way in 1347 to Cyprus to the court of Hugo IV., where he found 
a kindred enthusiast in the king's son, Peter of Lusignan, then 
count of Tripoli; but he soon left Cyprus, and had resumed his 
career as a soldier of fortune when the accession of Peter to the 
throne of Cyprus (Nov. 1358) and his rec<^;nition as king of 
Jerusalem induced M6zidres to return to the island, probably in 
1360, when he became chancellor. He came under the influence 
of the pious legate Peter Thomas (d. 1366), whose friend and 
biographer he- was to be, and Thomas, who became patriardi 
of Constantinople in 1364, was one of the chief promoters of the 
crusade of 1365. In 1362 Peter of Cyprxis, with the legate and 
M£zidres, visited the princes of western Europe in quest of support 
for a new crusade, and when the king returned to the cast be 
left M£zidres and Thomas to represent his case at Avignon and 
in the cities of northern Italy. They preached the crusade 
throughout Germany, and later M^zidres accompanied Peter to 
Alexandria. After the capture of this city he received the 
government of a third part of it and a promise for the creation 
of his order, but the Crusaders, satisfied by the immense booty, 
refused to continue the campaign. In June 1366 M<s*ifcs was 



MEZIERES— MEZZOTINT 



351 



tent to Venice, to Avignon and to the princes of western Europe, 
to obtain bdp against the Saracens, who now threatened the 
kingdom of Cyprus. His efforts were in vain ; even Pope Urban V. 
tdv^ed peace with the sultan. Moires remained for some 
time at Avignon, seeking recruits for his order, and writing his 
Vila 5. Petri Thcmasii (Antwerp, 1659), which is invaluable for 
tbe history of the Alexandrian expedition. The Prtjacio and 
EfisUia^ which form the first draft of his work on the projected 
order of the Passion, were written at this time. 

M^zi^res returned to Cyprus in 1368, but was still at Venice 
when Peter was assassinated at Nicosia at the beginning of 1369, 
and he remained there until 1372, when he went to the court of 
the new pope Gregory XI. at Avignon. He occupied himself with 
trying to esUblish in the west of Europe the feast of the Presen- 
tation of tbe Virgin, the office of which he translated from Greek 
into Latin. In 1373 he was in Paris, and he was thenceforward 
one of tbe trusted counsellors of Charles V., although this king 
bad refused to be dragged into a crusade. He was tutor to his 
ion, the future Charles VI., but after the death of Charles V. he 
was compelled, with the other counsellors of the late king, to go 
into retirement. He lived thenceforward in the convent of the 
Cdestines in Paris, but nevertheless continued to exert an influ- 
ence on public affairs, and to his close alliance with Louis of 
Orleans may be put down the calumnies with which the Burgun- 
dian hbtorians covered his name. When Charles VI. freed 
biniself from the domination of his uncles the power of M6zidrcs 
inatascd. To this period of his life belong most of his writings. 
Two devotional treatises, the ConUmplalio korae mortis and the 
Stliio^ium ptccaioris, belong to 1386-1387. In 1389 he wrote 
his SoHf/i du vieil piUrin, an elaborate allegorical voyage in which 
he described the customs of Europe and the near East, and 
advocated peace with England and the pursuit of the Crusade. 
His Oratio Iragedica, largely autobiographical, was written with 
Bmiiar aims. In 1395 he addressed to Richard II. of England an 
t^Ore pressing his marriage with Isabella of France. The 
Crusade of 1396 inspired Mizi^res with no enthusiasm. The 
disaster of Nicopolis on the 38th of September 1396 justified his 
fears and was the occasion of his last work, the £pistre lanuntable 
^comolaloire, in which he put forward once more the principles 
of hb order as a remedy against future disasters. M^i^res died 
ia Paris on the 29th of May 1405. 

Some of his letters were printed in the Revue kistorique (vol. xlix.) ; 
the two ipiUret just mentioned in Kervyn dc Lctteiihove's edition 
if Froisaart's Chronifjues (vols. xv. and xvi.). The Songe du vergier 
or Smmium viridarit, written about 1376, b tometiroes attributed 
to him, bui without definite proofs. 

See Antoine Becquet, CaUicae coeleilinorum congresaiionis 
■Mufrno. fundationes .... (1719): the AbM jean Lcbeuf's 
Uimoues in the Miwioires of the Academy of Inscriptions, vols. xvi. 
«ad avii. (175a and 1753); j. Delavillc le Koulx. La France en Orient 
tt m. sikclt (1886-1890); A. Molinicr. Manuel de tfibHographte 
hitarine vol. iv. (1904): and especially the researches of N. Jorga, 
pabGihed in ihe Bibliothkqut de I'ieole des hautes itudes vol. 1 10 (Paris 
>^): and the same wntcr's Philippe de MHikres, et la croisade 
M m. siici* (1896). jorga gives a list of his works and of the MSS. 
■ which they arc preserved, and analyses manv of them. On the 
5«|r dm vergier. sec P. Paris, in Mimoires vol. xv. (1843) of the 
Acdemy of Inscriptions. 

■fZliRES, a town of northern France, capital of the 

department of Ardennes, 55 m. N.E. of Reims by the Eastern 

nJiway. Pop. (1906), town, 7007; commune, 9393. The 

town itself, the streets of which are narrow and irregular, 

ii situated on the neck of a peninsula formed by a loop 

cf the Meuse. The river separates it from its suburb of 

Arches and the town of Charieville on the north and from 

the suburb of Pierre on the south. Adjoining Pierre is 

Mohon (pop. 5874). with metallurgical works. The fortifi- 

cubns of M^zi^rcs, as well as the citadel still dominating 

the town on the east, were built under Vauban's direction, 

bat were dismantled in 1885 and 1886. Immediately to the 

cast of the citadel runs a canal, which provides river-traffic with 

a short cut across the isthmus. The parbh church (i6th cent.) 

CBBtains inscriptions commemorating the raising of the siege of 

UbUrn in is'i and the marriage of Charles VC with the I 



daughter of the emperor MazimQian II. (1570). The north and 
south portals, the Renaissance tower at the west end, and the lofty 
vaultings, are worthy of remark. The church, which suffered 
severely in 1870-71, has since been restored. The prefecture 
and the h6tel de ville, which contains several interesting pictures 
relating to the history of the town, belong to the i8th century 
M^zidres is the seat of a prefect and of a cotirt of assizes, and 
there are manufactures of bicycles, and iron and steel castings 
for motors, railway-carriages, &c 

Founded in the 9th century, Mdzi^res was at first only a stiong- 
hold belonging to the bishops of Reims, which afterwards became 
tbe property of the counts of Rethel. The town was increased 
by successive immigrations of the people of Li6ge, flying first 
from the emperor Otto, and afterwards from Charles the Bold; 
and also by concessions from the counts of Rethel. Walls were 
built in the 13th century, and in 1521 it was defeixled against 
the Imperialists by the Chevalier Bayard, to whom a statue was 
erected in 1893. 1^^ anniversary of the deliverance is still 
observed yearly on the 27th of September. In 181 5 the Germans 
were kept at bay for six weeks, and in 187 1 the town only 
capitulated after a bombardment during which the greater part 
of it was destroyed. 

MEZOtOr, a town of Hungary, in the county of Jisz- 
Nagykun-Szolnok, 88 m. S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 
3 5 1367 • It possesses important potteries. Large herds of cattle 
are reared on the communal lands, which are produaive also 
of wheat, rapeseed and maize. Several wcU-attended fairs are 
held here aimually. 

MEZZANINE (It. nuszano; Fr. entresol; Ger. Zwischengesckoss), 
in architecture, a storey of small height introduced between two 
lofty storeys, or sometimes employed to allow of the introduction 
of two storeys equal together in height to lofty rooms on the 
same floor. 

MEZZOFANTI, GIUSEPPE CASPAR (1774-2849), Italian 
cardinal and linguist, was bom on the 17th of September 1774, 
at Bologna, and educated there. He was ordained priest in 1797, 
and in the same year became professor of Arabic in the university, 
but shortly afterwards was deprived for refusing to take the 
oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine Republic. In 1803 he was ap- 
pointed assistant librarian of the institute of Bologna, and soon 
aftertrards was reinstated as professor of oriental languages and 
of Greek. The chair was suppressed by the viceroy in 1808, but 
again rehabilitated on the restoration of Pius VII. in 1814, and 
continued to be held by Mczzofanti until his removal from 
Bologna to Rome in 183 1, as a member of the congregation de 
propaganda fide. In 1833 he succeeded Angelo Mai as chief keeper 
of the Vatican library, and in 1838 was made cardinal and director 
of studies in the Congregation. He died at Rome on the isth of 
March 1849. His peculiar talent, comparable in many respects 
to that of the so-called " calculating boys," was not combined 
with any exceptional measure of intellectual power, and pro- 
duced nothing of permanent value. It seems certain, however, 
that he spoke with considerable fluency, and in some cases even 
with attention to dialectic peculiarities, some fifty or sixty 
languages of the most widely separated families, besides having 
a less perfect acquaintance with many others. 

See Russell. Life of Ihe Cardinal Mezzofanti (London. 1857); 
A. Bclleshcim. Giuseppe Cardinal Mezzofanti (WUraburg, 1880). 

MEZZOTINT. During the 19th century two revolutions 
occurred in the British art of mczzoiinlo engraving—" la 
maniere anglaise." The original defect of the method was the 
incapacity of the mezzotint ** burr " on copper to yield as many 
fine impressions as other forms of engraving. To this defect was 
attributable the introduction, in 1823, of steel instead of the soft 
copper previously used — a change which, with the endeavour 
to avoid technical difficulties, led to the " mixed style," or com- 
bination of mezzotint with etching, and a general departure from 
the traditional form of the art, " pure mezzotint " on copper. 
The affinity of the method to painting in black and white which 
differentiates it from other kinds o( cugrtiLNviv^, ;xtA "v^s* ^^Mi ^w 
tinguishing charm of l\\c mczioVvivVs o\ V\vt \i\.\i ^xA \%"Ctv ^^■^- 
turies, was for a lime \ost, Wx. a^ itv\^ra\ oV v^^ \nKtwsC\wv wv 



352 



MEZZOTINT 



copper, beginning in 188&— a return, in fact, to the mode in which 
the classics of the art were engraved in the time of Sir Joshua 
Reynolds — ^was made possible by the invention of steel-fadng. 
By this process engraved copper plates are electroplated with a 
film of steel, renewable when, worn in course of printing; and a 
mezzotint on copper, so protected, yields more fine impressions 
than if it had been engraved on steel, whilst the painter-like 
quality remains unimpaired. 

In " pure mezzotint " the design is evolved from dark to light 
entirely by scraping away more or less of the previously laid 
*' ground, the or^uial " burr " of which is left untouched m the 
extreme darks, and no acid, etching or line- work is used in it at all. 
The usual short descriptions of the method are misleading, because 
they fail to explain that it is the " ground," and not the " burr " 
of It only, which is scraped away in greater or smaller degree to 
produce the varying tones of the design. The necessity of realizing 
that there are two constituents of the " ground," the " burr " and 
the indentations out of which the " burr is raised, will be appre- 
ciated later. The " rocking-tool," with which the " ground " b laid, 
somewhat resembln a carpenter's chisel, but the blade is 3 in. wide 
and only about 3} in. long, whilst the cutting edge, instead of being 
straight, is curved in the segment of a circle. One side of the blade 
b deeply engraved with lines from edge to handle, and the ridges 
which remain between these lines form teeth at the cutting edge 
when the unengraved tide of the tool b bevelled as an ordinary 
chisel b sharpened. 

The toob contain from 35 to 120 teeth to each inch of their 
width, those with the most teeth producing grounds of the finest 
texture. The operator rocks the curved edge of the tool from ade 
to side on the bare copper plate, causing the tool to travel forward, 
whilst each tooth makes an indentation in the copper and throws 
up a corresponding particle of metal, which b called the " burr." 
When the wnolc plate has been so rocked across in 4s to 60 different 
directions, so that no viable speck of the orieinal bright copper 
surface remains unfretted by the teeth of the rocking-tool," the 
*' eround " b termed " full and b ready for scraping the design. 
The innumerable particles of copper forming the raised " burr " 
give to a " full ground " much tne appearance of copper-coloured 
plush, and a print from it, taken before any scraping has been done 
on it, looks not unlike a piece of black velvet. The lights and 
semi-tones of the design arc produced by subsequent scraping and 
burnishing. 

Assuming that a mezzotint is to be scraped from a lady's portrait 
by Sir Joshua Reynolds in which a piece of black drapery crosses 
a white dress — the engraver begins to work on a previously laid 
*' ground " which would print uniformly black before scraping 
commences. In the extreme darks of the black drapery the raised 
•* burr " b left untouched by the " scraper "—a two-edged steel 
instrument resembling an ancient Roman sword-blade in mmiature, 
but having a longer point. Working from dark to light, the 
engTi^vLT praducci (he varying tones of the fuldj of the black 
drapery by scraping the raued *' burr " down more or Icsa, towcr^ 
Ing it in fact «o that it wiU not' hold so much ink as vhete it it 
left untouched tn (he ejttrcmc darks, in the hiahcst lights of the 
bibck drapery all the raised "* burr " wiEl have been removed and 
the originai surface of the pUte rc3chi«lt but as yet the engrai-er 
havQDt produced any tone lighter E,hvtn middle tmt (although he 
haa compleldy modbtlcd up the bUck drapt'fv)^ bee^iuse the in- 
dentations out of whith the " burr " wad rai^ ts^ill remaia in 
the pbiLe and hold ink in printing. In order 10 produce the infinite 
gradation of dolica(e ton« in the white dnrss, or In a ifcy, the 
•CTAping is continued, the indentations beinj[ thu^ nude shalJowei' 
in tJie pasagcm scraped, and thercfofc leu capable ol holding ink, 
whiltC they 4 re obliterated almost entirely in the highest l^hti. 
Whrita the mcuutint ii finUhed the black drapery will stand higher 
than the surface of the plate modelled in a relkf composed of the 
nised " burr*" whilst all the tonea of the white dreu, from middle 
tint to pun? mbilc, ^ill U- h> matty actu^J depmi^ioiis in the plate, 
the highest lights being the deepest. The speck of light in the eye, 
for instance, is a pit in the plate, surrounded by a tract of more or 
less raised " burr," which provides the intense black of the pupil 
and the half-tints of the iris. The difTcrence of surface levels js 
very appreciable where high-lights impinge on strong darks, but it 
exists in varying degree all over the plate, and the greatest technical 
difficulty in pure mezzotint is to obtain adequate " edge " and 
definition, because the tendency is to remove too much " ground " 
from the edges of adjacent darks in the course of the constant 
scrapings necessary to smooth and polish the depressed lights. 

In printing a mezzotint a non-fluid ink is tnoroughly worked 

into every part of the plate, and the superfluities wiped off again, 

leaving as much ink as possible in the darks, the raised " burr." 

If the bottom of the small lights b not quite smooth, the ink sticks 

in the roughness and they pnnt dark instead of light, or the printer 

has to wipe so hard to get the ink out of the depressed lights that 

Ae removes too much from the raised darks, fn either case loss 

cf definition and contrast {A effect results. This inherent difficulty 

ofacrMpmgtoa sharp edge catued the ute <ji the " mixed " methods, \ 



in which the dctaOs were sharpened by outruiing them with s^p^^ 
Of line etching, 

MfutQiint Is the btet form of eneraving for campletene^ ol repr 
tejitation^ but etching h better adapteo for fiketchit^ from oatv 
or for the exprcjt^iiop of any fWting idea. Tlie tvo arts ba^ 
distiiu't uses and |imiiation>. The art function of true etching . 
practiM-'d by Rernbtfindt lies in economy of expreadvive Hot 
Ei;g£t:st the actiitV tneaningi and that of meziotint in completM 
of ton a! it y to eJcpt^iin it. Artistic suggej^tion, which U ncit lobtcft 
in the svlid totieA of muzotintt has to be imparted to the «o 
entirety by the free play of the "scraper" 00 the "ground 
much a.i tne painter attains it on canvas with the bruth^ 

The fifst reputed mezzotint waA produced at Amtterdan 
1643 by Ludwig von Sfegen, an officer in the service ol tilt Lsd 
grave of Kesaic, and an amateur artist; but the work §^t^ 
was a direct drawing on copptr with an instrument of 
CDrnparative precision resenibling the n^uleiic rather than a enexi 
linU ^n>U[id laid with the mckin£-ti»l ami scrapped fiom dark 
light in the present manneT of tht art. Sicatn'* innovation ^lal 
up to by the previoLJi stipple wprk of Ciulio Campagnola ai 
Janum Lutma; the roulette appears to lave b«n used Letotr I 
time; and though he shared m the evolution ol the racking-t9 
he was not the sole inventor of it. The earliest worki referable 
the method at the print room cf the British htuwum agord ei 
dcnce^ though LrLConctu^ive^ that Prince Kiipen, to whom Sim 
lihowed his mode of work in (^54, and possibly alto their c^om 
friendt Th- Caspar von FUntciiberger, and Ru[wrt*«. MstMMt 
Vdlerant Valllant, were more or less concerned in the grsdu 
development of mcuotint engravIng^. The rocking-tool w^£ ipp 
rctitly improved by Abrtiham Otooicling, a DuccK painier SJ 
engra.v'cr of line portrait mezfotinis, who worked m Holland ai 
in England abdut the year 16^. 

RuptTt brought the new art over to England at the Restoratk 
and the portrait of Charles 11.. dated t6&9. by William Shcrw 
the fLTst tngtiab mexzot inter, bean the engraver'f acknoto'ledfeOK 
of his indc^btcrdness to Rupvrt fqr the secrets of the met Hod. mm 
tint c^^ntinued to be practised for a while on the ContinedT^ bat t: 
successors of Sh^rwin in England so ejccelled in it that It eu 
acquired abroad the title ol 'la mani^re Anglnise^" and hiu itfl 
become an cxcluEively British art. Though u&ed for I 



the subject ^pictures of the gtat Italian nustersi^ and oJ Rembcant 
Vandyck and Uubcns, almost e^'cr^' k^nd of a^Uiect being lal 
cngr3,ved in it, the staple production in meuotint Uah always he 



the portrait, t'ntii the middle of the l^tK cxntur^' the tools cs 
tlnued somen' hat archaic, cauting in the prints an appearance 
warp and woof, like that of m'Wovi.-[t m4temlt which dctraci^ 
from reality of repjt'sentation* The coancne^ji and unequal dqa 
of the *' t^ro^ndi " offered »o much n^istance to fnredom of cke 
tlnn with the *' scraper " that^ though the early engravers *i 
finite as good artists as their succe^wr^t paint rr4ike touch was s 
ronspicuou? in the work until M'Ardell and the in trr pretax 
^ir losKoa Reynolds had improved the tools and technk|ije. 

Except for the colleetor> therefore, the chief attraction ia t 
prints of F. Place and LuttrctI, Beckett and Williams, «od bl 
thofe of John Simon, John Smith and John Fal>er, jun., who wt 
the principal exponents of meuotint In the lact yean of the trvf 
tecnth and first half d the eighteenth ^nturiei, &hs in their loi 
aeries of portraits after Vandyck, f-clVf Kneller and the DtitJ 
palnten then practising in £nKliJ:nd, repre^ntinf Mich iotcrtih 
pefsor^g^ as Charles 11. andT Nell Gwynn» Addiwn and Pof 
Coogreveand Wvcherleyn Locke and the great duke ol Kf arlborouf 

Tne eUssics of mcwotint entravine a^ to be found amongst tl 
best plates iftw Sir Jo^htia Rtynwd* by James M'A/ddL J. I 
Smith and Valentine Gireon, tne Watsans, Dickinson, faht 
Dixon and some others^ who worked during the Last half ol ll 
[fith century. The brush work of Reynolds was more in hamod 



with the mfuotint method than the ilighter painting 

lighe&t techoi<; 
mea^tint to render the sharp edges of a skiHch, For (hit 



Giainsbofouoh and Romney^ who were much les rreqtiefrtlr d 
grsvedt pernaps because it is the highe&t techoicil Jli^uUy i 



a typical Gainsborough was never &ucctHAfully engraved m II 
melhtx). Though ptofesfitonal publiiher* and printerr Ki^ie^ I 
this time and earl iff , the word " ctrudtt " on an old print, imdjftn 
" published," not " engraved," the authors of the " Sir Joidaui 
mei/otints in most cast^ printed, published and sold their em 
works, and pure mezzotint. Unmixed with etching, was akia 
ejrcludvely the method they employed. Mezzotints wtft oocmB 
ally printed in colours,, notably tho«e engraved later aftef Gfoil 
Mi^rtand:, the primary object bang to conceal the wom-CMC coatlitii 
of the pUtess 

The departure from pure mtnotint and ternpcrmry decay df tl 
art began when, towards tbe end of the l&th cenltiry, RichBi 
Earlom^ otherwise a fine artist in the traditional metlhtxl, notsh 
in translations of Vandyck and Wright of Derby, began to <*alt 
the details of his platen with stipple etching in order to avoid t 
labour and dilFiruity of «rraping them to a $harp edge, using t 
" gtQund ' abne. Earlom, however, did not destroy the nvut 
of the riich velvety darks by etching into thnn. Adcfnanp ih 
arose for larger editions than the solt copper ptatcf wnuUI yifld* a 
\3ic tQ|;[aMtn ivutravved ta naut it by enwWning ibiihiIbi « 



MFUMBIRO— MIALL 



353 



potftive oe-etdiing throaghont tbe work, thus shorteninff the 
hboar of scraping the details, and fortifying the darks with lines 
nnk bek>w the surface of the pUte. The harmony of line and tone 
is some of the prints in this style by S. W. Reynokls and Charles 
Turner, Miter Sir Joshua, Hoppner and their contemporaries, was 
Bore convincing than the bter " mixed style " of Samuel Cousins. 
Vp tn ^ then was a certain artistic significance in the etched line 
itself apart from the meszotint tone, but every touch of line in a 
■enocint does something to destroy the painter-Uke quality, and 
tdecadence was in prcwress. ,„.„«, 

The same mind method on copper was used by J. W. M. Turner 

is his Uber Simdwnim series of bndscape plates, his object being 

to rival the peo-and-wash drawings of Claude's Liber Veritatu. 

Turner, however, was not so practised in etching or mezzotint as 

die engravers before mentioncid, and the etched foundation of the 

IMtr pUtes was too strong for the mezzotint tone, destroying the 

breadtD of the light, the richness of the darks, and the artistic 

" keeping '* of the whole effect. It is the grand design of Turner 

•eflected in the plates, rather than any 9uality of mezzotint or 

etching ia them, which appeals to the artist and the connoisseur. 

FWbapa the greatest success in harmonLrins line and tone in one 

plate was achieved by David Lucas in his English Landscape " 

aeries of mezzotint after John Constable, in which he sharpened 

^ details with the roulette, or with a slight line put in with the point 

Cfef fht scraper as scraping proceeded, retaining the pure " burr *' in 

Itis darks. Lucas, like Samuel Cousins and his contemporaries, 

vsaa haxudicapped by being compelled to work on the steel plates 

iotroduoed in 1823, and this was the cause of the chief defect of 

bis plates, the excessive opposition of black and white. The warm 

Svncral tone whkh assistra the picturcsqueness of the i8th century 

coezaotints was lost by the use of steel, because the ink did not cling 

to it as it does to the more porous copper. Steel being harder than 

coppe r , the roddng-tool penetrated k»8 deeply, raising less " burr," 

ajM the conseouent loss <A force in the darks necessitated the 

■craping up of the lights to a higher key to force contrast of effect, 

Vfhidi was also enhanced by the use of very white paper and a 

coarse black ink. It was soon found that the unfortified " burr," 

even on steel, would not yield the constantly increasing numbers of 

impwisioro demanded. The labour of scraping sharp lights was 

Creatly enhanced, and though some pure mezzotints were engraved 

OB stod, painter-like touch was practically unattainable on it, and 

thenneral effect was cold and uninteresting. 

Tne early work of Samuel Cousins after Lawrence in the com- 
puatively pore method, and the final development of the " mixed 
«yle " on stcd in his later plates after Reynolds, Millais and Land- 
■ecr, are referred to in the aurtide on Samuel Cousins. 

For nearly forty years pure mezzotint ceased to be practised 
likogether, and tbe revival of it, which began in 1880. was led up 
ts by the invention of steel-facing. The competition of photo- 
^vure,r which steel-fadng made a commercial possibility, for a 
tsae checked the new movement, but a photogravure, despite a mere 
tsxface nesemblance to a mezzotint, is a photograph manipulated to 
■tttate an engraving, entirely devoid 01 arti^^tic individuality. In 
1898 for tbe fiirst time a Society of Mezzotint Engravers was formed 
tD foster the art. 

AuTBOunES. — British Masotinto Portraits, by John Challoner 
Saith (London, 1878), a standard book of reference, contains a lonfc 
m of others at p. ziv., pt. i. See also Lectures on Etckint and 
MeagtisU, by Hubert von Herkomer, R.A. (London. 1890), the most 
Heful work on the technique. Etching, Eneraving and other Methods 
^Frintiui Piaures, by H. W. Singer and William Strang (London, 
1897): On the Mahing of EUhings, by Frank Short (London, 1898). 
■MUQin^ a filight prfcrtnce to mcjimint technique; Art sj En- 
MAif, by T. H, FkldinB (London , l^^)\ AlJrtd Whitman. 
BMi^j of Xffsz^tiiti (LoDdan, iS^S), Vaienline .Green (j'^cs), 
^nwf WiUv^m Riynddt (lOO^), Samud CmurRj {1904]!, tkaitei 
^taMr (10&7); Gordon Gordiin,, J'jmrs McArdell (i90t), Tkomn^ 
mtanr, JamAi Woi$on, Eiisabfih Jsdkinj (1904}; W. G. R^w1in$oirti 
Twwr't Liber Sludi^yrum, a Drscriptian and a Catalp^ite (z^rvd ed,| 
I90&): F. Wcdmore'i cataJofue of the David Lucai rm;j*otiDts. 



(97 1 1 ft.), some 10 m. further north. The eastern group contains 
several higher peaks— some rising to needle-like points, others 
being truncated cones. The most lofty, Karissimbi (14,683 ft.), 
lies in 29* 27' 20' E., i* 30' 20' S. Mikeno. a few miles north 
and west of Karissimbi, is 14.385 ^ Wgh. The most easteriy 
f4 the peaks, Muhavuru {13,562 ft.), in 29* 40* 30' E., i" 23' S., 
is an isolated sugarloaf-shaped mass with a crater filled with 
water on its summit. This is the moimtain to which the names 
Mfumbiro and Kirunga were originally applied. Some 6 m. west 
and a little north of Muhavuru is Sabyino (Sabinjo), x 1,881 ft. 
high. The eastern peaks are snowclad for a part of the year. 
North of these high mountains is a district, extending towards 
Albert Edward Nyanza, containing hundreds of low peaks and 
extinct volcanoes. It is to this region that the name Umfumbira 
or Mfumbiro is said properiy to belong. . 

Mfumbiro, i.e. Muhavuru, was first seen by a white man in 
[861, J. H. Speke.in his journey to discover the source of the 
Nile, pbtaining a distant view of the cone, which was also seen 
by II. M. Stanley in 1876. By its Baganda name of Mfimibiro 
(cook-bouse mountains) it figured on the maps somewhat east 
of its true position, first ascertained by Franz Stuhlmann in 
1891. In 1894 Count von Gdtzen travelled through the volcanic 
region, and the range was subsequently explored by E. S. Grogan, 
Major St Hill Gibbons, Captain Herrmann, Dr R. Kandt and 
others, the principal heights being determined in 1903. In 
1907-1908 the range was geologically and topographically 
examined by the duke of Mecklenberg's expedition. By 'the 
Anglo-German agreement of the ist of July 1890 " Mount 
Mfumbiro" was included in the British sphere in East 
Africa. 

See Captain Herrmann, " Vulkanzebiet des zentralafrikanischen 
Grabens, in Mitteil. v. Forsch. u. Celekrten a. d. deutschen Sehuts- 

Klneten, vol. xvii. (Berlin. 1904), and Adolf Friedrich, duke of 
ecklenburg, Ins JnnersU Afrtka (Leipzig, 1909) ; both givejnaps. 



h tittle anonymous book^ d Hiitery af ih^ Art of Eflgfavint in 
Hm t tikiO t Jfom lU Oriiin ia tke Fwjfitl Times |by f>r }amn 
Chdwni] (Win Chester. T^i6), i§. of con^dcrtible Lntemt. Work* on 



tk tectiniQijie are somewhat clciticntao', ^nd do complete Siitory of 
tbartezJatSL (G. P. R.) 

feFUMBIRO, or KnttmcA, general names for a chain of 
loioudc mountains extending across the Central African, or 
Albcrtine, rift valley immediately north of Lake Kivu. The 
BQfe, the result probably of recent geological changes, com- 
pkuly blocks the valley at this point, forming a divide between 
tk rivets flowing north to the Nile and the waten of Lake Kivu, 
through Tanganyika with the Congo system. The 
I of two groups of moimtains, surrounded by a vast 
kvB idd. Tbe western group lies directly north of Lake Kivu, 
ad cpntiint two active volcanoes, Kirunga-cha-gongo, the 
to the lake (i 2,194 ft. high), and Kirunga-namlagint 



MHOW, a town of Cqstral India, with British military canton- 
ment, within the native state of Indore, on the Molwa branch of 
the Rajputana railway, 13 ro. S. of Indore. Pop. (1901), 36,039, 
It is the headquarters of the 5th division of the southern army, 
and one of the chief military stations of India. There are two 
high schools, a Zoroastrian and a Canadian mission, the Dorabji 
Pcstonji dispensary, and a gaoL 

MIAGAO, a town on the southern coast of the province of 
Iloilo, island of Panay, Phib'ppinc Islands, about 25 m. W.S.W. 
of the town of Iloilo, the capital. Pop. (1903), 20,656; in the 
same year the neighbouring town of San Joaquin (pop. 1903, 
I4i333) ^^^ incorporated with Miagoo. It has a cool and health- 
ful climate. The neighbouring coimtry is hilly and sterile, but 
produces sibucao in considerable quantities. The weaving of 
fabrics of abadl {Musa iextilis), or Manila hemp, and pineapple 
fibre is the most important local industry. The language is 
Panay-Visa>'an. 

MIALLk EDWARD (1809-1881), English Nonconformist 
divine and journalist, was bom at Portsmouth on the 8th of 
May 1809. He was Congregational minister at Wore (1831) and 
Leicester (1834), and in 1S41 founded the Nonconformist, a 
weekly newspaper in which he advocated the cause of dis- 
establishment. Miall saw that if tbe programme of Noncon- 
formity was to be carried through it must have more effective 
representation in Parb'omcnt. One of tbe firstfruits of his work 
was the entrance of John Bright into parliamentary life; and by 
1852 forty Dissenters were members of the House of Commons. 
This was due largely to the efforts of the Anti-State Church 
Association, afterwards known as the Liberation Society, which 
Miall had founded in 1844. The long fight for the abolition of 
compulsory church-rates was finally successful in 1868, and then 
in 1870 Miall was prominent in the discussions aroused by the 
Education Bill. He was at this time M.P. for Bradford (1869- 
1874), having previously (1852-1867) sat for Rochdale. In 1874 
he retired from public life, and received from his admirers a 
present of ten thousand guineas. Ht <^t^ aX. ^tNtuQ^SiA Qa>iifc 
29th of April 1881. 

See the Lift, by A. MtaW (.1%%A,V 



354 



MIAMI— MIAOULIS 



MIAMI, a city and the county-seat of Dade county, Florida, 
U.S.A., in the S.E. part of the state, on the N. bank of 
the Miami river and on Bi8ca3me Bay. Pop. (1900), 1681 ; 
(1905), 4733; (1910)1 547i> It is served by the Florida East 
Coast railway and by lines of coastwise steamships, and is the 
point of departure of the P. & O. steamships for Nassau and 
Havana. Miami is the centre of a farming country in which 
citrus fruits, especially grape-fruit, pineapples and winter 
vegetables are raised for northern markets. There is excellent 
rod-fishing; Spanish and king mackerel and blue-fish are shipped 
from Miami in large quantities; and in Biscayne Bay there 
are important sponge fisheries. An alligator " farm " and the 
Subtropical Laboratory of the U.S. government are points of 
interest. In the dty is Fort Dallas (now abandoned), where 
American troops were quartered during the Seminole War; and 
Miami is still the trading point of the Seminole Indians, being 
immMiately south of the Everglades, their home. In 1909 a 
project was on foot to cut a channel from Miami to Lake Okecho- 
bee and from the other side of that lake west to the Gulf at Fort 
Myers, thus providing an inland waterway and draining much 
swampy but fertile land. In 1896 there were only two dwellings 
and one storehouse within the present corporate limits, but in 
that year the place was chosen as the southern terminal of the 
Florida East Coast railway, which was afterwards extended 
towards Key West. Soon afterwards Henry M. Flagler (b. 1830), 
the owner of the railway, began the construction of the piagni- 
ficcnt Royal Palm hotel, and Miami became a popular winter 
resort. Then came the development of commerce by the improve- 
ment of the harbour, by donations from Mr Flagler and grants 
by the United States government. 

MIAMI, a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian 
stock. The English called them Twightwecs^ a corruption of the 
native name, which meant the cry of the crane. They 
were first found in south-eastern Wisconsin, and in 1764 num- 
bered about 1750. Their civilization was advanced and they 
lived in stockaded towns. They took part in Pontiac's con- 
spiracy in 1764 and in the American War of Independence and 
American War of 1812 they fought on the English side. At the 
close of this war they were greatly reduced in numbers. A 
few Miami still live on a reservation in Oklahoma and in 
Wabash county, Indiana. 

MUNTONOMO ( ? -1643), chief of the Narraganset tribe of 
North American Indians, nephew of their grand sachem, Cano- 
nicus (d. 1647). He seems to have been friendly to the English 
colonists of lllassachusctts and Connecticut, though he was 
accused of being treacherous. In 1636, when under suspicion, 
he went to Boston to prove his loyalty to the colonists. In the 
following year he permitted John Mason to lead his Connecticut 
expedition against the Pequot Indians through the Narraganset 
country, and in 1638 he signed for the Narraganset the tripartite 
treaty between that tribe, the Connecticut colonists and the 
Mohegan Indians, which provided for a perpetual peace between 
the parties, and he agreed to take imder his jurisdiction eighty 
of the two hundred troublesome Pequot. In 1643 a quarrel 
broke out between the Mohegan and the Narraganset, and Mian- 
tonomo led his warriors against those of Uncas, the Mohegan 
sachem. He was defeated and captured at what is now Norwich, 
Conn., was turned over to the Connecticut authorities, and 
was later tried at Boston by the commissioners of the United 
Colonics of New England. A committee of five clergymen, to 
whom his case was referred, recommended that he be executed, 
and the commissioners accordingly sentenced him to death and 
chose Uncas as his executioner. Miantonomo, who was kept in 
ignorance of this sentence, was taken to the scene of his defeat 
and was there tomahawked in cold blood by Wawequa, the 
brother of Uncas. There is a monument to Miantonomo in 
Sachem's Park, Norwich, Conn. 

MIANWAU, a town and district of India in the Multan division 

of the Punjab. The town is situated on the left bank of the 

J^dus, 655 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 3591. The district 

mu formed in igot, after the creation of the North-West 

f^DtJcr Province, out of the Cis-Indus portions of Bannu and 



Dera Ismail Khan districts. Area 78x6 sq. m. Pop. (xgoi), 
424,588, showing an increase of 6-x% in the decade. About 
three-quarters of the district lies to the east of the Indus. Along 
the river is a low fertile tract, liable to floods. The remaining 
upland, known as the Thai, is barren and sandy, cttltivabfe only 
where irrigation is possible. In the north-east the district 
includes the western flank of the Salt Range. The put of the 
district west of the Indus is a level and fairiy fertile plain, 
enclosed by the Chichali and Maidani hills. The chief agricttl- 
tural products are wheat and other grains and oil-seeds. Hides 
and wool are also exported, together with small quantities of alum 
(abundant in the Salt Range), salt (from the Salt and Maidam 
ranges), and coal of poor quality, which is found at aeversl 
points. Petroleum has been discovered. The district is served 
by the Multan-Rawalpindi line of the North- Western railway. 

MIAOTSZB, or Miautsb, one of the aboriginal tribes of aoulben 
China. At one time they occupied a considerable portion of the 
fertile lands which now form the central province of the empire, 
but as the Chinese advanced southwards they were driven into 
the moimtain districts of the provinces of Yunnan, Kwd-cbow, 
Kwang-si and Kwang-tung, where they are found at the present 
day. As early as the reign of King Suan (about 800 B.C.) we read 
of an expedition having been sent to drive them out of Hu-nan. 
The last important campaign against them was undertaken by 
the emperor K'ien-lung, who, having completely subjugated the 
Eleuths, attacked the Miaotsze, who suffered a crushing defeat, 
and were compelled to purchase peace by swearing allegiance to 
their conquerors. They still maintain a semi-independence in 
their mountain-homes, but are a decaying race, gradually gi\-ing 
way before the Chinese. They are allowed to govern themadves 
on their own patriarchal system. The Miaotsze of both sexes 
are shorter and darker-complcxioncd than the Chinese, their 
faces are rounder and their features sharper. 

See Sketches of the Miau-tsse, trans, by E. C. Bridgman; J. Edkins, 
The Miautsi Tribes, their History, and " Quaint Customs in Kwei- 
chow," ComhiU Maiazine (Jan. 1872); Playf air. The Madtu e§ 
Kwi-chovo and Yunnan (London, 1877); A. K. Colquhoun. Atrtu 
Chrysi (1883). 

MIAOUUS, ANDREAS VOKOS or Bokos (1768-1835), Greek 
admiral and politician, was bom in Negropont. The surname 
Miaoulis, which was added to his family name of Vokos, or Bokos, 
is said to be derived from the Turkish word miaoul, a felucca. He 
settled in the island of Hydra on the east of the Morea, and wbcs 
the Greek War of Independence began was known among hb 
fcUow townsmen as a trader in com who had gained wealth, 
and who made a popular use of his money. He had been i 
merchant captain, and was chosen to lead the naval forces of ibe 
islands when they rose against the government of the Sultas. 
The islanders had enjoyed some measure of exemption from the 
worst excesses of the Turkish officials, but suffered severdy fron 
the conscription raised to man the Turkish ships; and though 
they seemed to be peculiarly open to attack by the Sultan^ 
forces from the sea, they took an early and active part in the 
rising. As early as 1822 Miaoulis was appointed navardi,or ad- 
miral, of the swarm of small vessels which formed the insaifent 
fleet. He commanded the expedition sent to take xevcDfe for 
the massacre of Chio (see Kamakis) in the same year. He coo- 
tinucd to be the naval chief of the Greeks till Lord Dundonald 
entered their service in 1827, when he retired in order to leave the 
English oQicer free to act as commander. In the interval be hsd 
had the general direction of the naval side of the Greek strofl^ 
for freedom. He had a share in the successful reUef of the fiift 
siege of Missolonghi in December 1822 and January 1823. !■ 
1824, after the conquest of Psara by the Turks, he commanded 
the Greek forces which prevented the further progrew of the 
Sultan's fleet, though at the cost of the loss of many fire ihipi 
and men to themselves. But in the same year he was 1 
to prevent the Egyptian forces from occupying Navarino, t 
he harassed them with some success. During 1825 be 1 
in carrying stores and reinforcements into Missolonghi, whtm k 
was besieged for the second time, though he could not avert its 
fall. His efforts to interrupt the sea communications oC the 
> Egyptian forces failed, owing to the enormous dispropoitioa of 



MICA 



355 



tkc two sqiuulroiif In the siege and Strength of the ships. As the 
mr went on the naval power of the Greeks diminished, partly 
owing to the penury of their treasury, and partly to the growth of 
pncf in the general anarchy of the Eastern Mediterranean. 
Wbcn M'V^'^'^ retired to make room for Dundonald the conduct 
flf the struggle had redly passed into the hands of the powers. 
Wlien independence had been obtained, Miaoulis in his old age 
lu i^t ^wgUfi in the dvfl conflicts of his country, as an opponent 
d Capodistzias and the Russian party. He had to employ his 
kill in the employment of fireships against them at Poros in 183 1 . 
He was one of the deputation sent to invite King Otho to accept 
tbe crown of Greece, and was made rear-admiral and then vice- 
idmirftl by him. He died on the 34th of June 1835 at Athens. 

nCA, a group of widely distributed rock-forming minerals, 
nae of which have important commercial applications. The 
principal members of the group are muscovite, biotitc, phlogo- 
pite and lepidolite (^.v.). The name mica is probably derived 
faon the Latin mkare, to shine, to glitter; the German word 
fiinMr has the same lAeaning. The mineral was probably 
udDded with selenite under Pliny's term la^ specularis. 

Mimrahgical Characters.— The micas are characterized by a 
nrf easy cleavage in a single direction and by the high degree of 
flodbOity, elasticity and toughness of the extremely thin deav- 
i|e flakok They all crystallize in the monodinic system, often, 
iMever, in forms dosely resembling those of the rhombohedral 
vorthofhombic systems. Crystals have usually the form of 
keafooal or rhomb-shaped scales, plates or prisms, with plane 





FZG. I. 



Fig. 2. 



iO|b of 60* and 120*, and, with the exception of the basal 
pbes, are only rarely bounded by smooth and well-defined 
hen. The crystal represented in fig. x is boimded by the basal 
piaicoid c (oox) paralld to which is the perfect deavage, the 
(finopinacoid b (010) paralld to the plane of symmetry, and the 
pyomidi m (221) and (xxs). The angles between these pyra- 
waii and the basal plane are 85}^ and 73° respectively. The 
prifiD (no) at 90* from the basal plane is not developed as a 
oyoal face, but is a plane of twinning, the two individuals of 
Uetwin being united paralld to the basal plane (fig. a). The 
ttnent spedcs of mica have very nearly the same forms and 
ktahdal angles, and they not infrequently occur intcrgrown 
taiether in parallel position. The best devdoped crystals are 
tkoK of Vcsuvian biotite. 

Wkn a deavage flake of mica is struck a sharp blow with a 
'Hat lUE^ilc-pKsiflt a six-rayed star of cracks or " percussion figure " 
l^Rvlppcd: The rays intersect at angles of approximately 60*, 
wd the pair nict^t prominently devdoped are parallel to the plane 
M^mmstry €>i the crystal. A similar six-rayed system of cracks, 
IbaitiH tbt anc^les between the rays of the previous set, is pro- 
^oA vbcfl a blunt punch is gradually pressed against a sheet of 
SBOLitbii^ ii. known as the " pressure fi^re." These cracks coincide 
Wnl pldjicf of <^sy separation or of gliding in the crystal; they are 
WpKttUy usriut in helping to determine the crystallographic oncnta- 
1^ ^ a c1ea\'n^ flake of mica when crystal faces are absent. 
ftem ci mid which have been subjected to earth-movements are 
Inqaeatly cracked and ridged parallel to these directions, and are 
w valudeas for economic purposes. 

la their optical characters the micas exhibit considerable varia- 
tidaa The mdkes of rdraction are not high, the mean index being 
sboai i«58-i-6o, but the double refraction is very strong (0'04-o-oSj 
lad ■ nqattve in sign. The angle between the optic axes varies 
bxm 70*-SO* in muscovite and lepidolite to lo-o in biotite and 
fUofopiti!; the latter are thus frequently practically uniaxial. The 
acMe nbectrix of the optic axes never deviates from the normal 
to the basal (4ane by more than a degree or two,^ hence a cleavage 
hkt of mica will always show an optic fi^re in convergent light 
vhea placed on the suge of a polarizing microscope. The plane of 
Ifce opdc axes may be either perpendicular or parallel to the plane 
r if ssnaunetry of the crystal, and according to its position two classes 
L if aica are distinguimed. To the first dasa, with the optic axial 

■ fiiae perpendicubr to the plane of symmetry, belong muscovite, 

■ T^flWiP. paragonite, and a rare variety of biotite called anomitc; 

r 



moat bbtites. Dark coloured mfeas are strongly pleochroic. Ac- 
curate determinations of the optkal orientation, as well as the 
symmetry of the etching figures on the cleavage planes, seem to 
suggest that the mkas. except muscovite, may oe anorthic rather 
than monocUnk in crystallization. 

The different kinds of mica vary from perfectly colourless and 
transparent— as in muscovite — through shades of yellow, green, 
red and brown to black and opaque— as in lepidomelane; the 
former have a pearly lustre and the latter a submetallic lustre 
on the deavage surfaces. Sheets of mica very often show 
coloured rings and bands (Newton's rings), due to the interference 
of light at the surfaces of internal deavage cracks. The spec, 
grav. varies between 2-7 and 3*1 in the different q)edes. The 
hardness is 2-3; smooth deavage surfaces can be just scratched 
with the finger-nail. The micas are bad conductors of heat and 
electridty, and it is on these properties that many of their 
technical applications depend. 

Incluuons of other minerals are frequently to be observed in 
mica. Flattened crystals of garnet, films of quartz, and needles of 
tourmaline are not uncommon. Cleavage sheets are frequently 
disfigured and rendered of little value by brown, red or black spots 
and stains, often with a dendritic arran^mcnt of iron oxides. 
Minute adcular inclusions, probabl)r of rutile, arranged parallel to 
the rays dT the percussion figure, give rise to the phenomenon of 
" astensm " in some micas, particularly phlogopite: a candle-flame 
or spot of li^ht viewed through a cleavage sheet of such mica 
appears as a six-rayed star. 

Chemical Composition. — ^The micas are extremely complex 
and variable in composition. They are silicates, usually ortho- 
silicates, of aluminium together with alkalis (potassium, sodium, 
lithium, rarely rubidium and caesium), basic hydrogen, and, in 
some spedes magnesium, ferrous and ferric iron, rardy 
chromium, manganese and barium. Fluorine is also often an 
essential constituent, and titanium is sometimes present. 

The composition of the several species Of mica is given by the 
following formulae, some of which are only approximate. It will 
be seen that they may be divided into two groups — alkali-micas 
(potash-mica, &c)and ferromagnesian micas— which oontupooA 
roughly with the division into light and dark micas. 

Muscovite . . . H|K Ali(Si04)s 
Paragonite . . . H|Na AUCSiOOs 
Lepidolite. . . . KLi[Al(OH,F^]Al(SiOi)i 
Zinnwaldite . . . (K,Li)4Al(0ri.F),lFeAl,Si,0,« 
Biotite .... (H,K),(Mg,Fe),(Al.Fe),(SiO0. 
Phlogopite . . . lH,K.(MgF)l.Mg,Al(SiO0« 
The water which is present in muscovite to the extent of 4 to 6%, 
and rather less in the other spedes, is expelled only at a high tempera- 
ture ; it is therefore water 01 constitution, existing as basic hydrogen 
or as liydroxyl replacing^ fluorine. 

Roscoclite is a mica in which the aluminium is largely replaced 
by vanadium (VjOa. 30%); it occurs as browoi<(h-|^n scaly aggre- 
gates, intimately associated with gold in California, Colorado and 
Western Australia. 

Various attempts have been made to explain the variations in 
composition of the micas. G. Tschermak, in 1878, regarded them 
as isomorphous mixtures of the following fundamental molecules: 
HtKAli(SiO0i. corresponding with muscovite; Mg«SiiOit, a hypo- 
thetical polymer of olivine; and H«Si»Ott, a hypothetical sihcic 
acid. F. Vv. Clarke (1889-1893) supposes them to be substitution 
derivatives of normal aluminium orthosilicate At4(Si04)i, in which 
part of the aluminium is replaced by alkalis, magnesium, iron and 
the univalent groups (M^F), (A1F,),(A10), (MgOH); an excess of 
silica is explained by the isomorphous replacement of H4Si04 by the 
acid H«SiA. 

Artificially formed crystals of the various spedes of mica have 
been observed in furnace-slags and in silicate fusions. 

Occurrence. — Mica occurs as a primary and essential con- 
stituent of igneous rocks of almost all kinds; it is also a common 
product of alteration of many mineral silicates, both by weather- 
ing and by contact- and dynamo-metamorphic processes. In 
sedimentary rocks it occurs as detrital material. 

Muscovite and biotite are commonly found in nliceous rocks, 
whilst phlogopite is characteristic of calcareous rocks. The best 
crystallized specimens of any mica arc afforded by the small brilliant 
crystals of biotite, which encrust cavities In the limestone blocks 
ejected from Monte Somma. Vesuvius. Large sheets of muscovite, 
such, as are of commercial value, are found only in the very coarsely 
crystallized pegmatite veins traversing granite, gnevs& ox tcvv^^- 
schist. These veins consist of (e\s\«iT. <\u;ynx ^w^ mvca., QtVXfttv ^v^^v 
smaller amounts of other crystaWvzcA n\\ncT^\%, w^cV ^» \,wwt«\^\tv^ 
beryl and garnet; they are worked lox tavia vn Viv^va* >iaft \ixas*A 



356 



MICAH 



Sutet (South Dakota. Cobrado and Alabama), and Brazil (Goyaz. 
Bahiaand Mtnas Geraes). The commerciauv valuable micas oi 
Canada and Ceylon are mainly phlo^opite (q.v.), which has a rather 
different mode of occurrence. The mica mined m India b practically 
all muscovite. The principal minins; districU are thow of Haz&ri- 
bftgh in Bengal and Nellore in Madras; in the former district the 
mica has usually a ruby tint, whilst in the latter it is more often 
creenish. In the Inikarti mine, Nellore. " books " of mica measur- 
ing 10 ft. across, and up to 15 ft. across the folia have been found, 
and rectangular sheets measuring 30 by 34 in. and free from cracks 
and flaws have frequently been obuined. 

Uses.-'On. account of its transparency and its resistance to 
fire and sudden changes of temperature, mica has been much 
used for the windows of stoves and lanterns, for the peep-holes of 
lumaces. and the chimneys of lamps and gas-burners. At one 
time it was used for window panes of houses and the port-holes 
of Russian men-of-war, being commonly known as *' Muscovy 
glass." Spangles of mica are much used for decorative-purposes 
of various kinds, and the mineral was formerly ^own as gfacies 
MaruM (Ger., Frautnglas) because of its us* for decorating 
statues of the Virgin. The lapis specularis of Hiny, scattered 
over the Circus Maximus to produce a shining iriiiteness, was 
probably mica. Large quantities of ground mica aie used in the 
manufacture of wall-paper, and to produce a frosted effect on 
toys, stage scenery, &c. Powdered mica is also^used in the manu- 
facture of paints and paper, as a lubricant, and as an absorbent 
of nitro-glycerine and disinfectants. Sheets of mica arc used 
as a surface for painting, especially in India; for lantern slides; 
for carrying photographic films; as a protective covering for 
pictures and historical documents; for mounting soft and collap- 
sible natural history specimens preserved in spirit; for the vanes 
of anemometers; mirrors of delicate phy^cal instruments; for 
various optical and many other purposes. Being a bad conductor 
of heat it is used for the paddng and jackets of boilers and 
steam-pipes. Other applications depend on the strength of its 
resistance to adds. 

The most extensive application of mica at the present day 
is for electrical purposes. Being a bad conductor of electricity 
it is of value as an insulator, and the smooth flexible sheets are 
much used in the construction of armatures of dynamos and in 
other electrical machinery. For various purposes a manufactured 
material known as " micanite " or " micanite cloth " is much 
used; this consists of small sheets of mica ceqiented with shellac 
or other insulating cement on cloth or paper. 

Muscovite and phlogopite are practically the only species used 
commercially, the former being the more common. Phlogopite 
is rarely found as colourless transparent sheets and is therefore 
almost exclusively used for electrical purposes. Many other 
uses of mica might be mentioned. The potassium it contains 
renders it of value as a manure. The species lepidolite is largely 
used for the manufacture of lithium and rubidium salts. 

Mining, Preparation and Value. — Mica mining is an industry 
of considerable importance, espedaUy in India; but here the 
methods of mining are very primitive and wastefiil. In working 
downwards in open quarries and in tortuous shafts and passages 
much of the mica is damaged, and a large amount of labour is 
expended in hauling waste material to the surface. Since the 
mineral occurs in definite veins, a more satisfactory and economi- 
cal method of working would be that adopted in metalliferous 
mines, with a vertical shaft, cross-cuts, and levels running along 
the strike of the vein: the mica could then be extracted by 
overhead stopping, and the waste material used for filling up the 
worked-out excavations. 

In dressing mica the"" books " are split along the cleavage into 
sheets of the required thickness, and the sheeU trimmed into 
rectan^es with a sharp knife, shears or guillotine, stained and 
damaged portions being rejected. The dressed sheets are sorted 
according to size, transparency, colour and freedom from spots or 
stains. Scrap mica is ground to powder or used in the manu- 
facture of micanite. 

The price of mica varies very considerably according to the 
sue, transparency and quality of the sheets. An average price 
/or cut abeets of all sizes is about 4s. per lb, but for large sheets 
/t oMjr be MS J^gb as S4S. per lb. 



RBFEftBNCES.— For the mineralogical characters to 
books of J. D. Dana and C. Hintze; for economic on 
following : T. H. Holland, " The Mica Deposits of IndBa 
^ the Geological Survey of India (1902), xxxiv. XX-1 
MerrilU The Non-Metallic Minerals (New York. 1904] 
180; "The Mining and Preparation of Mka for < 
Purposes," Bulletin. of the Imperial InstituU (London 
}78-2pi: F. Cirkel, "Mica: its Occurrence, Exploi 
Uses (Canadian Dept. of the Interior, Mines Bran 
1905. 148 pp.). 

MICAH (n3.np), in the Bible, the name prefixed ti 
in order of the books of the minor prophets.^ He ^ 
temporary and fellow-worker of Isaiah. The name 
modifications— 1/fcdiJAfl, MicaiikH, Micdidk—4s 
the Old Testament, expresung as it does a fundament 
Hebrew faith: Who is like Yahweh ?* It was also hi 
others by the Danite whose history is given in Judge 
(see separate article), by the prophet who oppoa 
expedition to Ramoth-Gilead (x Kings xxii.),* and by 
Jonathan <see Saul). 

The editorial title of the book of Micah dddares 1 
prophesied " in the days of Jotham (739-734), Ahu 
and Hezekiah (720-693), kings of Judah." Nothing i 
itself can daim to belong to the reign of Jotham, but th 
against Samaria (i. 5-8) may have been uttered origiz 
the fall of Samaria in 72 2, i.e. in the reign of Ahaz. In 
form, however, it has been incorporated in a prc^lu 
Judah, belonging, most probably, to the years 705-7 
new Palestinian rising provoked Sennacherib's camp: 
(Nowack; cf. Marti). This prophetic activity of M 
Hezekiah is confirmed by the direct statement of Jer. s 
where Mic. iii. 12 is quoted (" Zion shall be plowed 
kc). The verse quoted forms the climax of Mic. i 
which chapters only any certain conclusions as to th< 
message of the historic Micah can be drawn; the 
sections of the present book (iv.-v., vi.-vii.) consist, i 
m greater part, of writings belonging to a later perioc 

Chs. i.-iii. (with the exception of two verses, iL i 
a prediction of judgment on the sins of Judah and Ei 
Ji majestic exordium Yahweh Himself is represented 
forth in the thunderstorm (cf. Amos L 2) from Hi 
palace, and descending on the mountains of Palestine 
nritness against His people, and the executer of jud 



uns. Samaria is sentenced to destruction for i 
blow extends to Tudah also, which participates in the 
(ch. i.). But, while Samaria is summarily dismissed, 
judah is analysed at length in chs. iL and iii., in which 



* A confusion between the two prophets of the naoM 
the insertion in the Massoretic text of i Kings xxii. 28 < 
from Micah i. 2, rightly absent from the LXX. 

* Sec, however. Gray, Hebrew Proper Names, p. 157 
times they were perhaps virtually synonymous; out tli 
be assumed for early times. The shorter forms may W( 
a purely secular reference, signifying ' who is like this chiki 

* He is called " the Morashtite ' (Mic. L i ; Jer. xx^ 
his birthplace, Morcsheth-Gath. .That Micah lived in th 
or Judacan lowland near the Philistine country is clear fr 
colouring of i. 10 seq., where a number of places in this 
mentioned together (in connexion with the war in Ph 
their names played upon in a way that could hardly ha^ 
itself to any but a man of the district. The paronon 
the verses difficult, and in i. 14 none of the ancient versioc 
Moresheth-Gat h as a proper name. The word Morashtit* 
was therefore obscure to them ; but this_ only gives gn 
to the traditional pronunciation with 6 in the first syl 
is as old as the LXX., and goes against the view, ta 
Tamim both on Micah and on Jeremiah, and follow* 
mo<u;rns (including Chevne, E.B., 3198), that Micah 
Mareshah. When. Eusebtus placed liupaa$*l near El 
it is not likely that he is thmking of Mareshah (Mai 
speaks of the former as a village and of the latte 
2 m. from Eleuthdropolis. Jerome too in ihe EfiL . 
cviii.), speaking as an eye-witness; distinguishes Moa 
the church of Micah's sepulchre, from Marcsa. This 
after the pretended miraculous discoveiy of the relics 
A.D. 385; out the name of the villaee which then exsitc 
Mick.) can hardly have been part of a pious fraud. 

* These two verses are a prophecy of restoration ; 1 
mittedly an interruption in their present context (so, 
G. A. Smith); they belong in substance t* the aecoa 

;iViebooVL^\N.v.V 



MICAH 



357 



m loader dnb with ■dotatry, titit intfa tke urrgptiDd of aodety, 
and pardculariy oC its kadcr^ — the gniApini; ari&Lociracy whose 
lole cnernes are coccentratni on dcvourmg (he poor ana depriv- 
j them ol their Uttl« boldiags, the unjust }udf;i»^rLiJ prfe&t4i who 
(or fata wrest the law in favour ol the Hch^ the hirelings and gtu^ton^ 
ou prophets who makfr war t|jt«jn«t every one " iU^i puttcih not 
iato their mouth," but t-n evcf aady with a^Mjr&nrcs oT Yahwl^h'l 
Uvour to their patroctt, tlie wealthy and oobte sinrtcn that fallen 
ot the fleih of the poor. Tbe utemal di»rders of the realm 
depicted bv Micah art &ha promtneai in In tali's prcFphccics; they 
vete dowly connected', not only with th? foreign comptication^ 
due to the approach of the Assy nans, but with the break-up of the 
old agfarian system within Nrael, and with the rj^'i F n^ii L:firo]t^- 
ptaaatcd aggrandisement of the nabkes during i'-, -,-■■' rous 
Jtu% when toe conquest of Edom by Amaziah and the occupation 
of the port of Elath by his son (2 Kings xiv. 7, 22) plaoed the lucrative 
tnde be t ween the Mediterranean and the Red ^ in the hands of 
tke mlcrs of Judah. On the other hand the democratic tone 
*Uch distinguishes Micah from Isaiah, and his announcement of 
Ik impending fall of the capital (the deliverance of which from 
tbe Assyrian appears to Isaiah as the necessary condition for the 
pmervation ol the seed of a new and better kingdom), are ex- 
Phined by the fact that, while Isaiah lived in the centre of affairs, 
Micah, a provincial pnmhet, sees the capital and the aristocracy 
entirely from the side of a man of the oppressed people, and fore- 
tells the otter ruin of both. But this ruin does not present itself to 
him as involving the captivity or ruin of the nation as a whole; 
the congiegatioo of Yahweh remains in Judaea when the oppressors 
«re cast out (il 5) ; Yahweh's words are still good to them that 
Walk uprightly; the glory of Israel is driven to take refuge in 
Adullam.^ as m the days when David's band of broken men was 
the true hope of the nation, but there is no hint that it is banished 
from the land. 

Our only evidence ai to the reception of Micab's message by 
bis contemporaries is that afforded by Jer. xxvi. 27 seq., both 
directly, in the recorded effect on Hezekiah and the people; and 
lacfirectly, in the fact that the impression created was remem- 
bered t century afterwards. Micah resembles Amos, both in his 
Qountry <xigin, and in his general character, whidi expresses 
Itsdf in strong emphasis on the ethical side of religion. As the 
hsl off the four great prophets of the 8tb century be undoubtedly 
CQBtribated to that religious and ethical rdformation whose 
Btnaiy monument is the Book of Deuteronomy.* 

The remainder of the book bearing the name of Micah falls into 
tio Ruin divisions, viz. iv., v. and vi., vii. Each differs from the 
fint division (i.-iii.) In a marked degree. The second consists 
Bainly of prophecies of restoration including eschatological 
Or. 1 leq ) and Messianic (v. 7 seq.) hopes. The third is formed 
of three or four apparently unrelated passages, on the spirituality 
•Itnie worship (vi. 1-8), social immorality and its doom (vi. 9- 
i6;viL 1-6), and Israel's future recovery from present adversity 
ttnagh Divine grace (vii. 7-20). It is improbable that much, if 
ttjr, U these chapters can be ascribed to Micah himself,^ not 
«ljr because their contents are so different from his undoubted 
voriL (L-iiL), for which he was subsequently remembered (Jcr. 
Bri. 18), but because they presuppose the historic outlook of 
the Exile, or a later age {e.g. iv. 6 seq. ; vii. 7 seq.). It is neither 
pathologically nor historically impossible f6r a prophet of 
*L 15; the reference is, however, obscure and uncertain. 
'See the Introduction to the Century Bible, " Deuteronomy and 
Joitaa." by R Wheeler Robinson. 

'Mic iv. 1-3 and Isa. ii. 2-4 are but slightly modified recensions 
<f ^ same teiKt, and as Isa. ii. is older than the prophecy of Micah, 
•Uk on the other hand Mic. iv. 4 seems the natural completion 
<f the passage, it is common to suppose that both copy an older 
pephet. But the words have little connexion with the context in 
t onah, and may be the quoution of a copyist suggested by ver. 5. 
Ob the other hand it has been urged that the passage belongs to a 
httr sage of prophetic thought than the 8th century B.C. Reasons 
■doag this view the more probable one are given by Wellhauscn 
(pL 43) and Marti (p. 381). 

* Nowack thinks that iv. 9, ic^, 14 and v. 10-14 may ponibly 
bdag to Micah; Wellhausen recognizes the same possibility, 
vhich he extends, however, to vL z-^. Marti, who (iike Cheyne 
mEmy. Bib.) finds nothing by Micah in iv.-vii., thinks these chapters 
ki«c crystallised round two central passages, viz. iv. 1-4. and 
vL fr-8. whose addition to the first three chapters formed the second 
Magt in the nowth of the present book. More conservative views 
a to authordiip are taken by Driver and G. A. Smith, the former 
Win M tti g. however, that " the existing Book of Micah consists 
OB^of a collection of txcerpls, in some c^ses fragmentary excerpts, 
from the entire series of the prophet's discourses" (L. O, T., 
clLvLi6). 



judgment to be also a prophet of comfort; but the internal 
evidence of composite and (in whole or part) later authorship 
must outweigh the traditional attachment of these passages to t 
MS. containing the work of Micah. 

The sequence of thought in chs. iv. v. b really difficult, and 
has given rise to much complicated discussion. Thus iv. 11-13 
stands in direct contradiction to iv. 9, 10, and indeed to iii. 12. 
The last two passages agree in speaking of the capture of lenisalem, 
the first declares ^ion inviolable, and its capture an impossible 
profanation. Such a thought can hardly be Micah's. even if we 
resort to the violent harmonistic process of imagining that two 
quite distinct sieges, separated by a renewal of the theocracy, are 
spoken of in consecutive verses. Another difficulty lies in the 
words " and thou shalt come even to Babylon " in iv. 10. Micah 
unquestionably looked for the destruction of Jerusalem as well as 
of Samaria in the near future and by the Assyrians (i. 9), and this 
was the iudgment which Hezekiah's repentance averted. If these 
words, therefore, belong to the original context, they mark it as 
not from Micah s hand; though they might be a later gloss. The 
prophetic thought b that the daughter (population) of Zion shall 
not be saved by her present rulers or defensive strength; she must 
come down from her bulwarks and dwell in the open field ; there, 
and not within her proud ramparts, Yahweh will grant deliverance 
from her enemies. Opposition to present tyranny expresses itself 
in recurrence to the old popular local of the first simple Davidic 
kingdom (iv. 8). These olci days shall return once more. A new 
David, like him whose exploits in the district of Micah's home 
were still in the mouths of the common people (? i. 15). goes forth 
from Bethlehem to feed the flock in the strcneth of Yahweh. The 
kindred Hebrew nations are once more united to their brethren of 
Israel (cf. Amos ix. 12, Isa. xvi. i seq.). The remnant of Jacob 
npringfi up in fre^h vigour, inq>irinff terror among tbe surrounding 
pcoplca. and there ia no lack of chosen captains to lead them *to 
victory agajnst the AisYrian foe. In the rejuvenescence of the 
nation the old ttay» of that oppressive kingship which be^an with 
5olomon, the ttrgeigholds, the fortified cities, the chanots and 
horse) »ci foreign to the life of ancient Israel, arc no more known; 
they disip\x:Ar togcLhcr with the divinations, the soothsayers, the 
idul$> the mutzffiNjk and askerak of the high places. Yahweh is 
king: on Mount Zbn, and no inventions of man come between Him 
and His people. 

The Hxth chapter of Micah presents a very different Mtuation 
frotn tliai of chs. i.-iji^ or iv., v. Yahweh appcan to plead with 
Hifl people for thetr sins, but the sinncn arc no longer a careless 
and DppretxivG aristocracy buoyed up by decepti\'e assurances of 
Yahweh's help^ by pruphecies of wine and strong drink; they are 
bowL-d down by a n-ligion of terror, wearied with attempts to 
propitiate an angry God by countless offerings, and even by the 
sacrifice of the first-born. Meantime the substance of true religion 
— justice, charity and a humble walk with God— is forgotten, fraud 
and deceit reign in all classes, the works of the house of Ahab are 
observed (worship of foreign gods). Yahweh's judgments are 
multiplied against the land, and the issue can be nothing else than 
its total desolation. All these marks may be held to fit exactly 
the evil times of Manasseh as described in 2 Kings xxL Cp. vii. 
1-6, in which the public and private corruption of a hopeless age 
is bitterly bewailed, possibly belongs to the same context. 

Micah may very well have lived into Manasseh's reign, but the 
title in I. x does not cover a prophecy which certainly falls after 
Hezekiah's death, and the style has nothing in common with the 
earlier part of the book. It is therefore prudent to regard the 
prophecy, with Ewald, as anonymous. Ewald ascribed the whole 
of chs. vi., vii. to one author. Wellhauscn, however, remarks 
with justice that the thread is abruptly broken at vii. 6, and that 
verses 7-20^ represent Zion as already fallen before the heathen 
and her inhabitants as pining in the darkness of captivity. The 
hope of Zion is in future restoration after she has patiently borne 
the chastisement of her sins. Then Yahweh shdl arise mindful 
of His oath to the fathers, Israel shall be forgiven and restored, 
and the heathen humbled. The faith and hope which breathe 
in this passage have the closest affinities with the book of Lamen- 
tations and Isa. zl.-lzvi. Indeed, as Marti points out (p. 259) 
the triple division of the book of Micah (i.-iii.; iv., v.; vi., vii.) 
corresponds with that of the book of Isaiah (i.-zzxix.; xl.-lv.; 
lvi.-Uvi.) in the character of the three divisions (judgment; 
coming restoration; prayer for help in adversity) respectively, 
and in the fact that the first alone gives us prc-exilic writing 
in the actual words of the prophet to whom the whole book 
is ascribed. In both cases, it need hardly be said, the great 
literary and spiritual value of the later v^asai^es oM^V'va. "Wi'wvi 

» Regarded by Sude {Z. A. T. W.. \y>v v- v<A w\^ *» ^ti\»dr 
pendent psalm. 



3S8 



MICAH— MICHAEL 



to suffer prejudice from critical conditions u to their date and 
tuthoiship. 

LlTEMATUU. — ^Thc rb'tcF modf^m cominentarlci an: ttioH ot 
Nowack (Die KUintJi ProphcUn, 1^7; ^fid ed., i^) and Marti 
{DcdekapropkeUm, i>;;kh), wbc^rt derailed rfftreDcm to the older liter- 
ature mav be founds ci. Wcllhausen, DU KUtwfn Prophtttn (3rd rd., 
1898). In English, refertiK«t fnay t* made to Chtyne C" MWah/" 
in the Cambridge Bi^, jMh jnd rfl., 1895}. and tc^ G. A. SmitK 
(" The Book of the Twdvr/' vol, L, in The Ex^siitir's Bibie. 1^): 
alto to the articles oa " Mlcati *' fay Nowack m Ha^ing«'» Diit. of 
the Bible (1900), iii 359. 360, and by Cbeync Jn th? En^y. 
BiU. (1903)1 >"• C. 5068-3074, the latter JncDrpDratin|[ mom of 
the original artick {BtKy. Brtlu 9th ed.) by W. Robrrt&on Smith, 
which nas been reviM^d abavi^. For a review cf lecent criiki^m 
see Cheyne, introduction to W. R. Smith's The Prophets of Israel, 
and ed., pp. xxiii.-xxvii. ; also Ency. Bib. toe. cit. V. M. P. Smith 
discusses The Strophic Structure of the Book of Micah " in a 
volume of Old Test, and Semitic Studies: im memory of W, R. Harper 
(Chicago, 1908). (W. R. S.; H. W. R-») 

MICAH, in the Bible, a man of the hill-country of Ephraim 
whose history enters into that of the foundation of the Israelite 
sanctuary at Dan (Judges xvii. scq.). He had stolen from his 
mother eleven hundred pieces of silver (for the number cf . Judges 
xvi. s), and when she uttered a curse upon the imknown thief he 
restOKd the money and she consecrated it to Yahweh. A carved 
image was made and set up in his private temple together 
with an ephod-idol and tcraphim (objects used in divination, 
cf. Gtn. xxjd. 19, 30; Hos. iii. 4). He employed one of his 
sons to serve as priest, but when a Lcvite from Bethlehem 
in Judah came along he gladly installed him as " father and 
priest." When the tribe of Dan subsequently sought new 
territory and sent men to search for a suitable district they 
passed by Micah's house, recognized the Lcvite and requested 
an oracle from him. When, later, they migrated, they despoiled 
the sacred place and carried off the gods and priest to their 
newly won home at Laish. 

MICA-SCHIST, in petrology, a rock composed essentially 
of mica and quartz, and having a thin parallel-banded or foliated 
structure, with lamellae rich in mica alternating with others 
which are principally quartz. They split readily along the 
micaceous films, and have smooth or slightly imeven surfaces 
covered with lustrous plates of muscovitc or biotite ; the quartzose 
lamellae are often visible only when the specimens are looked at 
edgewise. Mica-schists are very common in regions of Archean 
rocks accompanying gneisses, crystalline limestones and other 
schists. Some have a flat banding yielding smooth slabs; others 
are crumpled or contorted with undulating foliation. Occasion- 
ally the quartz forms eUiptical Icnticles or " eyes." In some 
cases mica composes nearly the whole of the rock, in others 
quartz preponderates so that they approach quartz-schists and 
quartzites. 

The mica may be rouscovite or biotite; both arc often present, 
while paragonitc and green fuch&itc or chrome-mica are not so 
common. In addition to quartz there mav be a small amount of 
feldspar, usually albite. A great number 01 accessory minerals are 
known in mica-6chistR, and when these arc ton ■'. : ",. , 

they may be regarded as constitutirvg spcvi^S ^aricLiLS receiving' 
distinctive names. Garnet, in rounded xied cryEtals, not uncommonly 
idiomorphic, is the most frequent. Brown fltaurolite, pinktio 
andalusite, and grey or blue kyanite occur in tome kinda of miai^ 
schist, separately or together. The white mica «chi»t oi th* St 
Gothard contains kyanite and staurolite. Grapliite (or g^raphtioid) 
is also a very frequent ingredient of thcK" r<xk*< i{5^''''£ tbcm a Icadcit 
grey colour and causing them to soil tl>? ArtKcr» when handled, Ifi 
some mica-schists there is much cakhe (ak-mira-schiti*): and 
hornblende, scapolitc and augttc are often «ccn in nijcks of this sort. 
Tourmaline occurs, sometimes in large black prisms but more 
commonly in minute cr>'stal.s visible c*r>(y m mirro^c^piV wciiofia. 
Rutile in tin^ pri«ims, tlmcnite and hem:^ ' ■ ^ '^ ■ - ^ ' 

zircon, apatite, granules of 0[>idote or zoisite chlorite, chloritoid and 
pyrites occur with more or less frequency in the rocks of this group. 

Mica-schists arc in nearly all cases sedimentary rucks which have 
been rccrystallizc<l and have obtained a schistO!>e structure during 
the process. This can be proved by their chemical composition, 
which is very much the same as that of clays, shales and blates. In 
■ome districts it is possiljle to trace every gradation from a slate 
iq.v.) to a mica-schi«t. the intermediate stages being represented 
by phyWitn {g.v.) which consist of quartz, muscovitc ancl chlorite, 
»nd are neither $0 crystalline nor so well foliated as the s< hists. In 
« few places e.g. Bergen ia Norway, fo$sil» have been found \n mica- 



schists. The asnciation of qovtzitea and qnarU-cdiirtfl. mplntB- 
schists and crysulline Uroestonea with mica-echitis in the field is 
explained by the fact that all these rocks are akeicd — Himfgi*^ 

vix. undstoncs^ carbonaceoLi) ahilcs and liTncstoneL 

Under the mlcr<nicot>e the appcamrKc prr,wntcd by mlca-schisU' 
dilTerft according la whether the rock h cut parallel to or acttiu the 
planes of iiAutiian^ \n the Utter ca$c thin alternaLing Ixindt cOiA- 
pooed of black or bronhn tnica, and of q^uartz. cro» ibc ^4d o( vkw 
(sec Pc^T ke>i,ckf y , riate 4, ^g- S). The m ica icates ha ve ihtrif c Va v^^ 
arid their ftai sides f^raJIcri the quam occurs in roundt.'d^ clliptiol 
cr irfCKuUir grains^ with usually a small admlxtufie of feld»pa.T (albitr, 
gligoclaset orthoclaw}; apatite and troa oiudcs tm rwly absml 
UQm thc-Bc nocks. Lf garnet is present it may form hit^ wclUshaped 
cryEtaU containing innumerable cnclocuret of quAftCm bioti&e add 
iron ones; in some casc^ the garnets are cracked as H they had beoi 
broktrn by the pfies^urea to which the rock had been subjected. 
Oftiin the garnet I arc surrokinded by unalJ '* tyti '* of quart Zh alHt 
they may be embedded in green chloritCj which 14 probably a sccood' 
ary or decompa^ition product. Some mica,-*;Kitts are nch wi mm 
oxidt^ and poM into haem^iite^tchists (iubifitei). When i^raphits 
occur* in mica schist a it* cry stall are AmaU flat pUi£s pcrfectlr 
opaque cvrn in the thinne^^ sijctiont 

LiVe all metamorphic rock«, cnia-schists are pnocipilly foanJ 
in Archean area$; tlic gn-at majority of them arr of pre^Canbria^ 
age. There are, however. In the Alps, Himalayas, &c.^ many rorkk 
of this sort which arc believed to be secondary or even tertiary; tbt 
evideitce fcr this is not in all ca^n tatiifartory, a a of <ounc iha 
foMiis, which it pTTscr%'ed would be sufficient to prove *t^ An ncjrl^f 
Always destroyed by the mciamomhitm. Mica- schist » arc rardy 
of economic value, bcin^ too fi&aiJe for build! ng-atont-s and toobdiiw 
for roofin^'itatcs. They are of wide-tpread diitributioti in tbc 
Scottish Highlands, Norway and Sweden, Bohemia, Sftsoay, Brilraa]p« 
the Atps, many parti oJ North America^ i^e* Q. S. F.) 

MICCA, PIETRO. Piedmontese soldier (d. 1706), was bom at 
Andomo, and achieved fame by his death in the defence of Turin. 
During the siege of that city by the French in 1706 a party of 
the besiegers had succeeded in penetrating by surprise into the 
moat of the fortress on the night of Augtist 29-30, and wouki 
undoubtedly have captured it had not Micca, a soldier in the 
engineers, fired a mine, with the result that they were blown 
into the air and the rest of the force driven back with heavy- 
losses. Micca's heroism has been the subject of poems, pUya 
and romances. But, according to Count Giuseppe Solaro deUa 
Margherita, the commander of the Turin garrison at the time , 
it was through a miscalculation of the pace of the fuse, and doC 
by deliberate intent, that he sacrificed his life. 

See A. Manno Pietro Micca ed U generate ccnle SeHan ieOm ilov^ 

gherita (Turin, 1883). 

MICHAEL (Hebrew ^^9, "Who is like God?"), an Okl 
Testament name, synonymous with &Iicaiah or Micah (Numi 
xiii. 13; I Chron. v. 13 et passim). In the book of Daniel the name 
is given to one of the chief " princes " of the heavenly host, the 
guardian angel or " prince " of Israel (Dan. z. 13, >x; ziL i; d 
Enoch XX. 5 and possibly Mai iii. i), and as such he naturally 
appears in Jewish thcosophy as the greatest of all angels, tbe 
first of the four (or seven) who surround the throne of God, and 
the antagonist of Sammael, the enemy of God. He bdds the 
secret of the mighty "word" by which God created hesvcn aad 
earth (Enoch Ixix. 14), and was ** the angel who spoke to Moses 
in the Mount " (Acts vii. 38). It was through Babylonian and 
Persian influence that names were given to the angels, and 
according to Kohut {Jud. Angel, p. 24) Michael is paralld U 
Vohumano, " Ahura's first masterpiece," one of the Zoroastria' 
Amcsha-spentas or archangels. It is as guardian angel of Israe 
or of the Church, the true Israel, that Michael appears in Judc 
and Rev. xii. 7. This latter passage is of distinctly pre-Christi 
origin; it is not the Child that overthrows Satan, the figure 
the Messiah is ousted by that of Michael. There is also hei 
relic of the primeval Babylonian myth of the struggle betv 
the light god Marduk and the forces of chaotic darkness, 
the Western Church the festival of St Michael and All A' 
(Michaelmas) is celebrated on the 29th of September; it ap 
to have grown out of a local celebration of the dedicatioi 
church of St Michael cither at Mount Garganus in Apulii 
Rome, and was a great day by the beginning of the 9th ce 
The Greek Church dedicates the 8th of November to St M 
St Gabriel and All Angels. 



MICHAEL 



359 



(1596-2645), tsar of Russia, ivas the first tsar of 
the house of Romanov, being the son of Theodore Nekitich 
Bomanov, afterwards the Patriarch Phikret (.q.v.)^ and Xenia 
Cheitovaya, afterwards the nun Martha. He was elected 
unanimously tsar of Russia by a national assembly on the axst 
of February 16x3, but not till the 24th of March did the delegates 
of the council discover the young tsar and his mother at the 
Ipatievsky monastery near Kostroma. At first Martha pro- 
tested that her son was too yoimg and tender for so difikult 
la office in such troublesome times. At the last moment, 
however, Micharl consented to accept the throne, but not till 
the weeping boyars had solemnly dnJared that if he persisted 
ffl his refusal they would hold him responsible to God for the 
mter destniction of Muscovy. In so dilapidated a condition 
was the capital at this time that Michael had to wait for several 
irceks at the Troitsa monastery, 75 m. off, before decent accom- 
modation could be provided for him at Moscow. He was 
crowned on the 22nd of July. The first care of the new tsar was 
Co clear the land of the robbers that infested it. Sweden and 
Poland were then got rid of respectively by the peace of Stolbova 
CHarch xo, 1617) and the truce of Deulina (Feb. 13, 16x9). 
Tlie most important result of the truce of Deulina was the return 
from eadle of the tsar's father, who henceforth took over the 
government till his death in October 1633, Michael occupying 
<)iiite a subordinate position. He was a gentle and pious prince 
wvbo gave little trouble to any one and effaced hiinself behind 
Ifeis counsellors. Fortunately for him they were relatively 
laooest and capable men. Michael's failure to wed his daughter 
Ixene with Prince Waldemar of Denmark, in consequence of 
tht refusal of the latter to accept orthodoxy, so deeply afflicted 
him as to contribute to bring about his death on the X2th of 

See R. N'isbet Bain, The First Romanovs (Lond., 1905). (R. N. B.) 
MICHAEU the name of nine East-Roman emperors. 
MiCHABi. L Rbangabss (d. 845), an obscure nobleman who 
lad married Prooopia, the daughter of Nicephonis I., and 
been made master of the palace. He was made emperor in a 
lefolution against his brother-in-law, Stauracius (811). 

Elected as the tool of the bigoted orthodox party in the 
Qmrch, Michael diligently persecuted the iconoclasts on the 
aonhem and eastern frontiers of the empire, but meanwhile 
lUowed the Bulgarians to ravage a great part of Macedonia 
and Thrace; having at last taken the field in the spring of 813, 
he was defeated near Bersinikia, and Leo the Armenian was 
nhtted emperor in his stead in the following summer. Michael 
ns relegated as a monk to the island of Prote, where he lived 
huDoIested till his death in 845. 

MiCBAEL II., called Psellus, "the stammerer," emperor 
820-829, ^^ & native of Amorium in Phrygia, who began life 
as a private soldier, but rose by his talents to the rank of general. 
He had favoured the enthronement of his old companion in 
inns Leo the Armenian (813), but, detected in a conspiracy 
ipinst that emperor, had been sentenced to death in December 
S20; his partisans, however, succeeded in assassinating Leo and 
called Michael from the prison to the throne. The principal 
features of his reign were a struggle against his brother general, 
Thomas, who aimed at the throne (822-824); the conquest of 
Cfcte by the Saracens in 823; and the beginning of their attacks 
spoo Sicily (827). In spite of his iconoclastic sympathies, he 
endeavoured to conciliate the image-worshippers, but incurred 
Ibe wrath of the monks by entering into a second marriage with 
Euphrosyne, daughter of G>nstantine VI., who had previously 
taken the veil. 

Michael III. (839-867), " the dnmkard,'' was grandson of 
IGchael II., and succeeded his father Thcophilus when three 
yean cid (842). During his minority the empire was governed 
by his mother Theodora, who in spite of several defeats inflicted 
apon her generals maintained the frontiers against the Saracens 
of Bagdad and Crete. The regent displayed her religious zeal 
by restoring image-worship (842) and persecuting the Paulician 
heretics, but she entirely neglected the education of her son. , 
As a result MifhaH grew up a debauchee, and fell under the I 



sway of his uncle Bardas, who induced him to banish Hieodora 
to a convent and practically assumed the chief control (857). 
Bardas justified this usurpation by introducing various internal 
reforms; in the wars of the period Blichael himself took a more 
active part. During a conflict with the Saracens of the Euphrates 
(856-63), the emperor sustained a personal defeat (860), which 
was retrieved by a great victory on the part of his uncle Petronas 
in Asia Minor. In 86x Michael and Bardas invaded Bulgaria 
and secured the conversion of the king to Christianity. On sea 
the empire suffered under the ravages of the Cretan corsairs; and 
In 865 the first pillaging expedition of the Russians endangered 
the Bosporus. In 867 Michael was assassinated by Basil the 
Macedonian, a former groom, who had overthrown the influence 
of Bardas and in 866 been associated in the Empire. 

Michael IV. (d. xo4x), " the Paphlagonian," owed his eleva- 
tion to Zoe, daughter of Constantine VIII., who was the wife 
of Romanus in., but becoming enamoured of Michael, her 
chamberlain, poisoned her husband and married her attendant 
(1034). Michael, however, being of a weak character and 
subject to epileptic fits, left t^ government in the hands 
of his brother, John the Eimuch, who had been first minister 
of Constantine and Romanus. John's reforms of the army and 
financial system revived for a while the strength of the 
Empire, which held its own successfully against its foreign 
enemies. On the eastern frontier the important post of 
Edessa was relieved after a prolonged siege. The western 
Saracens were almost driven out of Sicily by George Maniakes 
(1038-40); but an expedition against the Italian Normans 
suffered several defeats, and after the recall of Maniakes most 
of the Sicilian conquests were lost (1041). In the north the 
Serbs achieved a successful revolt (X040), but a dangerous rising 
by the Bulgarians and Slavs which threatened the dries of 
Thrace and Macedonia was repressed by a triumphant campaign 
which the decrepit emperor undertook in person shortly before 
his death (1041). 

Michael V. Calaphates, or ^'the caulker," nephew and 
successor of the preceding, sumamed after the early occupa- 
tion of his father. He owed his elevation (Dec. X041) to his 
uncle John, whom along with Zoe he almost immediately 
banished; this led to a popular tumult in consequence of which 
he was dethroned after a brief reign of four montba, and relegated 
to a monastery. His impopularity seems largely due to his 
attempts at administrative reform, which were strongly resented 
by the dominant classes. 

Michael VI., " the warlike," was already an old man when 
chosen by the empress Theodora as her successor shortly before 
her death in 1056. He was unable to check the disaffection 
of the feudal aristocracy, who combined with an officer named 
Isaac Comnenus to depose him. After a successful battle 
in Phrygia, the rebels had no difficulty in dethroning Michael 
(1057), who spent the rest of his life in a monastery. 

Michael VII. Ducas, or Pakapinaces, was the eldest son 
of Constantine X. Ducas. After a joint reign with his brothers, 
Andronicus Land Constantine XI. (1067-1071), he was made 
sole emperor through his uncle John Ducas. The feebleness 
of Michael, whose chief interest lay in trifling academic pursuits, 
and the avarice of his ministers, was disastrous to the empire. 
As the result of anarchy in the army, the Byzantines lost their 
last possessions in Italy (1071), and were forced to cede a large 
strip of Asia Minor which they were unable to defend against the 
Seljuk Turks (1074). These misfortunes, which were but 
partially retrieved by the suppression of a Bulgarian revolt 
(1073), caused widespread dissatisfaction. In 1078 two generals, 
Nicephorus Bryennius and Nicephorus Botaniates, simultane- 
ously revolted. Michael resigned the throne with hardly a 
struggle and retired into a monastery. His nickname Para- 
pinaces (" starver ") was due to his causing the price of wheat 
to rise. 

Michael VOL Palaeologus (i 234-1 282) was the son of 
Andronicus Palaeologus ComneTvus axvd \wxvt Kk%,^v '^^ 
granddaughter ol Alexius Kn^e\w%, cmvwat ^iV OsMNass^Mtfi^^ 
At An early age he rose lo ^\mc\ioii, wA x^xxtna^^ "^ " 



36o 



MICHAEL OBRENOVICH III.— MICHAELIS 



commander of the French mercenaries in the employment of 
the emperors of Nicaea. A few days after the death of Theodore 
Lascaris II. in 1259, BUchael, by the assassination of Muzalon 
(which he is believed but not proved to have encouraged) 
became joint guardian with the patriarch Arsenius of the young 
emperor, John Lascaris, then a lad of eight years. Afterwards 
invested with the title of " despot," he was finally proclaimed 
joint-emperor and crowned alone at Nicaea on the xst of January 
xa6a In July X36x Michael, who had attacked G>nstantinople 
with the help of the Genoese, conquered the town through 
his general Strategopoulos. He thereupon had John Lascaris 
blinded and banished. For this last act he was excommunicated 
by Arsenius, and the ban was not removed until six years 
afterwards (1268) on the accession of a new patriarch. In 
1363 and 1264 respectively, Michael, with the help of Urban IV., 
conduded peace with ViUehardouin, prince of Achaia, and 
Michael, despot of Epirus, who had previously been incited 
by the pope to attack him, but had been decisively beaten at 
Pelagonia in Thessaly (1259); Villehardouin was obliged to cede 
Mistra, Monemvasia and Maina in the Morea. Subsequently 
Michael was involved in wars with the Genoese and Venetians> 
whose influence in G>nstantinople he sought to diminish by 
maintaining the balance of strength between theoL In 1269 
Charies of Sicily, aided by John of Thessaly, made war with 
the alleged purpose of restoring Baldwin to the throne of 
Constantinople, and pressed Blichad so hard that he consented 
to send deputies to the coimcU of Lyons (1274) and there accept 
the papal supremacy. The union thus brought about between 
the two Churches was, however, extremely distasteful to the 
Greeks, and the persecution of his "schismatic" subjects to 
which the emperor was compcUed to resort weakened his power 
so much that Martin IV. was tempted to enter into alliance 
with Charles of Anjou and the Venetians for the purpose of 
reconquering Constantinople. The invasion, however, failed, 
and Michael so far had his revenge in the " Sicilian Vespers," 
which he helped to bring about. He died in Thrace in December 
1283. In reconstituting the Byzantine Empire Michael restored 
the old administration without endeavouring to correct its 
abuses. By debasing the coinage he hastened the decay of 
Byzantine commerce. 

Michael IX. Palaeologus, was the son of Andronicus II. 
and was associated with him on the throne from X395, but 
predeceased him (1320). He took the field against the Turks 
(1301, X310) and against the Grand Catalan Company (1305), 
but was repeatedly defeated. 

^ See Gibbon's Decline and Fall (ed. Bury. 1896) ; G. Fintay, Hist, of 
Greece (ed. 1877); G. Schlumberger, I'EpopAe byaantine (1896); J. 
Bury, in Eng. Hisk Rev. (1889); Meliarakes, *l<rropla roO fiavtUlov 
viff HuctdasKolnvitcTOTiiTov r^t 'Urdpov, pp. 539HS27 (Athens, 1898). 
> MICHAEL OBRENOVICH HI. (X823-X868), Prince of Servia, 
was the youngest son of Prince Milosh, the founder of the 
Obrenovich dynasty. After the abdication of his father (1839) 
and the death of his elder brother Milan Obrenovich II. (X840) 
he ascended the throne of Servia. He wished to continue the 
work of his father, in liberating all the Servian people, and if 
possible all other Balkan Christians, from direct Turkish rule. 
But while this programme made the Sultan hostile, it also failed 
to win the support of Austria, which did not widi the Eastern 
Question to be opened by the ambitious Servian. The support 
which his aspirations found in Russia increased Turkey's and 
Austria's suspicions of the prince's activity. At the same time 
the political situation at home was not favourable to his anti- 
Turkish policy. The power was in the hands of men who had 
forced Obrenovich I. to abdicate, and feared that Obrenovich 
III. might avenge his father. They thought -it safer for them to 
replace him on the throne by a man who was not an Obrenovich, 
and who would be personally obliged to them for his elevation. 
These motives were at the bottom of the revolt, started and 
led by Vuchich in August 1842, the outcome of which was that 
JWncc MJcbael left the country and that his equerry, Alexander 
^r^geo/gevich, was elected Prince of Servia. As an enlc 
-"Mflp M/cbMtJ Jived prinapMUx *n Vienna, improving his cduoi- 



tion by studies and travels, and frequently vUtiBg 
He constantly refused to agree to suggestions for hk 1 
by forcible means. His device was Tempus d s 
" Time and my right." He supported Servian an) 
artists, and wrote himself a book in defence of his &t] 
against the attacks of Cyprian Robert. He wrote p 
and some of his songs, set to beautiful music, were vo 
amongst the Servians. He married in 1856 the 
Julia, Countess Himyadi. 

In 1858 the Servians, having dethroned Prince Kara| 
recalled Michael's father Milosh Obrenovich I. Michai 
to Servia, and on his father's death (i860) ascended i 
throne for the second time. His proclamation " that '. 
the law is the highest will in Servia," opened a new a 
legality and at the same time of entire emandpa 
foreign influences, and more e^>ecially from Turk* 
f erence with the internal affairs of Servia. The old co 
granted to Servia by the sultan as the suzerain an 
as the protector of Servia as far back as X839, was 
and reph^ed by one which limited the power of the 
senate and gave a certain share in legislation to the 
Skupshtina" (the National Assembly). He esUb 
Servian national army and increased the regular army, 
in all branches of public administration were intixx 
Servia, until then a half-oriental and half-patriarchal 
resolutely led to become a civilized country in a Euro| 
When in X862 the Turkish garrison bombarded th 
Belgrade from its citadel, Prince Michael, support 
European diplomacy, succeeded ip obtaining evacuati 
of the smaller forts in Servia, but the strong fortress c 
still remained garrisoned by the Turkish troops. Prin 
now made vigorous political and military prepai 
war against Turkey. He made secret arrangement 
Bulgarian, Bosnian and Albanian leaders, an allij 
Montenegro and an imderstanding with Greece, with 
that they all should rise if Servia declared war 
He even succeeded in obtaining Austria's promise, th] 
observe an attitude of friendly neutrality and would ha 
against an eventual annexation of the largest part 
to Servia, and he secured to himself the sympathies oi 
lU. and his government. In the beginning of 1867 I 
asked the Porte to withdraw the Turkish garrisom 
fortress of Belgrade, as well as from other two fo 
minor importance (Shabats and Smederevo (Sc 
For some time the chances were that a war woiild 
that spring (1867) between Servia and Turkey, but 
kept by the action of Great Britain, who advised 
to withdraw ^he Turkish garrisons from the Servian 
and this advice, backed by Russia, France and Austrii 
at last with the sultan. On the 26th of April 1867 th 
were delivered over to Prince Michael, who shortly 
went to Constantinople to thank the sultan personal 

Prince Michael's policy had triumphed. But 1 
was short-Uvcd. A group of young men, mostly e< 
France and Germany, now started a liberal rooven 
the leadership of Yovan Ristich (or Ristitch). Tb 
a more liberal constitution than that which Prin< 
had given; and this movement tended to quaUfy his 
Meanwhile the prince contemplated divorce fron 
Princess Julia, by whom he had no children, an< 
with the daughter of his cousin Madame Anka Consta 
and the adherents of the exiled Karageorgevich dy 
alarmed at the prospect of his eventually having 
to the throne. A former private secretary to Princt 
Karageorgevich, and two of the same prince's brotl 
formed a conspiracy, which resulted in the brutal a: 
of Prince Michael on the 29th of May (June 10 (C 
whilst he was walking in the park of Koshutnyak, i 
distant from Belgrade. 

MICHAEUS, JOHANN DAVID (1717-179O. Gem 
scholar and teacher, a member of a family which hi 
i paxl \ii T^'^V^^'^^^^t ^1^^ ^^*^ discipline in Hebxe 



MICHAUD— MICHAUX 



361 



eogDAte langoafes which distloguUied the university of Halle 
in the period of Pietism. Johum Heinrich Michaclis (i668-i7j,8) 
VIS the chief director of A. H. Francke's CoUegium orientdt 
fkdepcmm, a practical school of biblical and oriental philoloiry 
then qoite unique, and the author of an annotated Hebrew 
Khie and various exegetical works of reputation, especially 
tbe Aituiaiwmes Mbericres in kagiographos (1730). In his chief 
publications J. H. Michaelis had as fcUow- worker his sister's 
lon Christi&n Benedikt Michaelis (1680-1764), the father oE 
Johann David, who was likewise influential as professor at Ha!k. 
lad a sound scholar, especially in Syriac. J. D. Michaelis 
tu trained for academical life under his father's eye. At 
Halle he was influenced, e^[>ecially in philosophy, by Sigmund 
J. Baumgarten (1706-1757), the link between the old Pietism and 
J. S. Semkr, while he cultivated his strong taste for history unrkr 
Chancdlor Ludwig. In 1 739-1 740 he qualified as university 
lecturer. One of his dissertations was a defence of the antiquity 
tod divine authority of the vowel-points in Hebrew. Hii 
Scholarship still moved in the old traditional lines, and he wu 
alio much exercised by religious scruples, the conflict of an inde- 
pendent mind with that submission to authority at the expense 
of reason encouraged by the Lutheranism in which he had been 
trained. A visit to England in 1 741-1742 lifted him out of the 
narrow groove of his earlier education. In passing through 
Holland he made the acquaintance of Albert Schultcns (i63^ 
^7SP)* vhoae influence on his philological views became all- 
pomerfvl a few years later. At Halle Michaelis felt himKlf 
OQt of place, and in 1745 he gladly accepted an invitation 
to Gdttingen as privatdaxaU. In 1746 he became professor 
eitraordinarius, in 1750 ordinarius, and in Gdttingen he 
(cmained till his death in 1791. 

His intellect was active in many directions; universal learning 

indeed was perhaps one of his foibles. Literature— modern 

as well as ancient — occupied his attention; one of his works 

WIS a translation of four parts of Clarissa; and translations 

of some of the then current English paraphrases on biblical 

books manifested his sympathy with a school which, if not 

very kamed, attracted him by its freer air. His oriental studies 

vcre reshaped by diligent perusal of the works of Schultens^ 

for the Halle school, with all its learning, had no conception oi 

tbe principles on which a fruitful connexion between Biblical 

and Oriental learning could be esUblished. His linguistic work 

icdced was always hampered by the lack of manuscript material. 

which is felt in his philological writings, e.g. in his valuable SuppU- 

Ptnta to the Hebrew lexicons ( 1 784-1 792) .* He could not become 

tadx an Arabist as J. J. Reiske (17 16-1 774); and, though for 

naay years the most famous teacher of Semitic languages in 

Europe, he had little of the higher philological faculty, and 

Bather his grammatical nor his critical work has left a permanent 

aark, with the exception perhaps of his text-critical studin 

oa the Peshitta.* His tastes were all for such studies as history, 

antiquities, and especially geography and natural science. He 

kid in fact started his university course as a medicinae ctdtof. 

and in his autobiography he half regrets that he did not choagc 

the medical profession. In geography he found a field hardly 

toudted since Samuel Bochart, in whose footsteps he followed 

m the SpUUegiuM geographiae hehraeorum exterae post Bochart um 

(1769-1780); and to his impulse we owe the famous Eastern 

cipedition conducted by Carsten Niebuhr. In spite of his 

doctrinal writings — which at the time made no little noise, so that 

^C^mpendimmof Dogmatic (1760) was confiscated in Sweden. 

«ad the knighthood of the North Star was afterwards given 

^ m reparation — it was the natural side of the Bible that 

*edy attracted him, and no man did more to introduce (he 

■Mdem method of studying Hebrew antiquity as an integral 

Wl of andent Eastern Ufe. 

The personal character of Michaelis can be read between the \lim 

*By a ttrange fortune of war it was the occupation of GOttingc n 
^r die French in the Seven Yean* War, and the friendly relatic^ns 
Mamed with the oAkers. that procured him the Paris MS. frum 
*hich he edited Abulfeda's description of Egypt. 

*C»at im mdus apostotcrum syriacos (1755). 



of hit autobiography with the aid of the other materials collected 
by J. M. HaMencamp (I743-I797) the editor (J. D. Michaelis 
Lebfnsbeschreilmng, Ac, I793i- Tne same volume contains a fuU 
lift of his works. Besides those already mentioned it is suflicicnt 
to refer to his New Testament Introduction (the first edition. 1750, 
preceded the full devebpment of his powers, and is a very diffcrrnt 
book from the later editions), his reprint of Robert Lowth's PraeieC' 
Hones with important additions (1758-1762). his German translation 
of the Bible with notes (1773-179'). his Ortentalische und exegetischt 
Bibliotheh (1775-1785) and Neue O. and E. Bib. (1786-1791). his 
Mosaiuhes Recht (1770-1 771) and his editbn of E. Castle's Lexicon 
syrtacum (1787-1788}. His LtUerarischer Briefwechsel (I794-179<>) 
contains much that u interesting for the history of learning in his 
time. 

MICHAUD. JOSEPH FRANCOIS (1767-1839), French his- 
torian and publicist, was bom of an old family on the 19th 
of June 1767, at Albens, Savoy, was educated at Bourg-en- 
Brcsse, and afterwards engaged in literary work at Lyons, 
where the events of 1789 first called out the strong dislike to 
revolutionary principles which manifested itself throughout the 
rest, of his life. In 1791 he went to Paris, where, not without 
danger, he took part in editing several royalist journals. In 
1796 he became editor of La Quotidienne, for his connexion 
with which he was arrested after the 13th of Vend^miairc; he 
succeeded in escaping his captors, but was sentenced to death 
par contumace by the military council. Having resumed the 
editorship of his newspaper on the establishment of the Directory, 
he was again proscribed on the i8th of Fructidor, but at the 
close of two years returned to Paris when the consulate had 
superseded the Directory. His Bourbon sympathies led to a 
brief imprisonment in 1800, and on his release he for the time 
abandoned journalism, and began to write or edit books. Along 
with his brother and two colleagues he published in 1806 a 
Biographie tnodcme, ou dictionnaire des hommes qui se sont fait 
un nom en Europe depuis 1789, the eariiest work of its kind; 
and in 1811 appcaircd the first volume of his Ilistoire des croisades 
and also the first volume of his Biographie uniterselle. In 
1 814 he resumed the editorship of La Quotidienne, and in the 
same year was elected Academician. In 1815 his brochure 
entitled Hisioire des quinze semaines ou le dernier rigne de Bona- 
parte met with extraordinary success, passing through twenty- 
seven editions within a very short time. His political services 
were now rewarded with the cross of an officer in the Legion 
of Honour and the modest post of king's reader, of which last 
he was deprived in 1827 for having opposed Pcyronnet's " Loi 
d' Amour " against the freedom of the Press. In 1830-183 1 he 
travelled in Syria and Egypt for the purpose of collecting addi- 
tional materials for the Hisioire des croisades; his correspondence 
with a fellow explorer, J. J. F. Poujoulat, consisting practically 
of discussions and elucidations of various points in that work, 
was afterwards published (Correspondance d' orient, 7 vols., 
1833-1835). Like the Hisioire, it is more interesting than exact. 
The Bibliolhique des croisades, in four volumes more, contained 
the " Pi^es justificatives " of the Hisioire. Michaud died on 
the 30th of September 1839, at Passy, where his home had been 
since 1832. 

His Hisioire des croisades was published in its final form in ax 
volumes in 1840 under the editorship of his friend Poujoulat (9th ed.. 
with appendix, by Huillard-Brfholles, 1856). Michaud, along with 
Poujoulat, also edited Nouvelte collection des nUmoires pour servir 
a I'hisloire de France (32 vols., 1836-1844). See Saintc-Bcuve, 
Causeries du lundi, vol. vii. 

MICHAUX, ANDR6 (1746-1802), French botanist and 
traveller, was bom at Versailles on the 7th of March 1746. 
In 1779 he spent some time botanizing in England, and in 1780 
he explored Auvergne, the Pyr6n6es and the north of Spain. In 
1782 he was sent by the French government on a botanical 
mission to Persia. His journey began unfavourably, as he was 
robbed by Arabs of all his equipment except his books; but he 
gained influential support in Persia, having cured the shah 
of a dangerous illness. After two years he returned to France 
with a fine herbarium, and also introduced numerous Eastern 
plants into the botanic gardens of France, liv \i?><i Vvt ^^sk 
sent by the French gQvemmenl lo "t^oxWv Nxsvcnca.^ ^xv^ vt%n^?\«\ 
with his 9oa Francois Andxfe (,ino-\^^^^ vYawr^&i CMaA»»> 



362 



MICHEL, C— MICHELANGELO 



Nova Scotia and the United States. On his return to France 
in 1797 he was shipwrecked and lost most of his collections. 
In 1800 he went to Madagascar to investigate the flora of that 
island, and died there on the x6th of November 1802. His 
work as a botanist was chiefly done in the field, and he added 
largely to what was previously known of the botany of the East 
and of America. 

He wrote two valuable works on North American plants-^the 
Histoire des chines de I'Amirique septetUnonaU (1801). with 36 plates, 
and the Flora Boreali-Amencana (a volt.. 1803). with M plates. 
His son Francis published a Htstoire des arbresforestiers de I A mirique 
sepientrionale (3 vols.. 1810-1813), with 156 plates, of which an 
English translation appeared in 1817-1819 as rhe North American 

MICHEL, CLAUDE, known as Clodion (1738-1814), French 
sculptor, was bom on the 20th of December 1738 in Nancy. 
Here and probably in Lille he spent the earlier years of his life. 
In 1755 he came to Paris and entered the workshop of Lambert 
Sigisbert Adam, his maternal uncle, a clever sculptor. He 
remained four years in this workshop, and on the death of his 
uncle became a pupil of J. B. Pigsille. In 1759 he obtained 
the grand prize for sculpture at the Acad£mie Royale; in 1761 
he obtained the first silver medal for studies from models; and 
in 1762 he went to Rome. Here his activity was considerable 
between 1767 and 1771. Catherine II. was eager to secure 
his presence in St Petersburg, but he returned to Paris. 
Among his patrons, which were very numerous, were the chapter 
of Rouen, the states of Languedoc, and the Direction ginirale. 
His works were frequently exhibited at the Salon. In 1782 
he married Catherine Flore, a daughter of the sculptor Augustin 
Pajou, who subsequently obtained a divorce from him. The 
agitation caused by the Revolution drove Clodion in 1792 to 
Nancy, where he remained imtil 1798, his energies being spent 
in the decoration of houses. Among Clodion's works are a 
statue of Montesquieu, a " Dying Cleopatra," and a chimney- 
piece at present in the South Kensington Museum. One of 
his last groups represented Homer as a beggar being driven 
away by fishermen (1810). On the 29th of March 1814 Clodion 
died in Paris, on the eve of the invasion of Paris by the allies. 

Thirion's Les Adam et Clodion (Paris, 1885) contains a list of the 
sculptor's works sold between 1767 and 1884. Sec also A. Jacquot, 
Les Adam et les Michel et Clodion (Paris, 1898}. 

MICHEL, CLfiMENCE LOUISE (1830-1905), French anarchist, 
called la Vierge rouge de Montmartre, was bom at the ch&teau 
of Vroncourt (Haute-Marne) on the 29th of May 1830, the 
daughter of a serving-maid, Marianne Michel, and the son of 
the bouse, £ticnne Charles Demahis. She was brought up 
by her father's parents, and received a liberal education. After 
her grandfather's death in 1850 she was trained to teach, but 
her refusal to acknowledge Napoleon III. prevented her from 
serving in a state school. She found her way in 1866 to a school 
in the Montmartre quarter of Paris, where she threw herself 
ardently into works of charity and revolutionary politics. She 
became violently anti-Bonapartist, and is said to have meditated 
the assassination of Napoleon. During the siege of Paris she 
joined the ambulance service, and untiringly preached resistance 
to the Prussians. On the establishment of the Commune she 
joined the National Guard. She offered to shoot Thiers, and 
suggested the destruction of Paris by way of vengeance for its 
surrender. She was with the Communards who made their 
last stand in the cemetery of Montmartre. and was closely allied 
with Theodore Ferr6, who was executed in November 1871. 
This ardent attachment was [)erhaps one of the sou'ces of the 
exaltation which marked her career, and gave many handles 
to her enemies. When she was brought before the 6th council 
of war in December 187 1 she defied her judges and defended 
the Commune. She was sent as a convict to New Caledonia, 
among her companions being Henri Rochefort, who remained 
her friend till the day of her death. The amnesty of 1880 found 
her revolutionary ardour unchanged. She travelled throughout 
France, preaching revolution, and in' 1883 she led a Paris mob 
which pUlagcd a baker's shop. For this she was condemned to 
Mix yeafs* imprisonment^ but was released in x886, at the same 



time as Prince Kropotkin and other prominent ■ww-yy ^ 
After a short period of freedom she was again arrested (or »wV8«^ 
inflammatory speeches. She was soon liberated, but, bearing 
that her enemies hoped to intern her in a lunaUc asylum, she 
fled to England. She returned to France in 1895, And in 1901 
was back in London. She was touring France and lecturing 
on behalf of anarchist propaganda when she died at Maiseilici 
on the loth of January 1905. 

Her Mhnoires ( Paris, 1 886) contain accou nts of her trials. See aho 
La Bonne Louise (Paris, 1906), by E. Girault. 

MICHEL, FRANCISQUB XAVIER (1809-1887), French anti- 
quary, was bora at Lyons on the i8th of January 1809. 
He became known for his editions of French works of the 
middle ages, and the French Government, recognizing tbeir 
value, sent him to England (1833) and Scotland (1837) to 
continue his researches there. In 1839 he was ai^pointcd 
professor of foreign literature in the Facuiti dts litres at 
Bordeaux. Between 1834 and 1842 he pubh'shed editions of 
a large number of works written between the eleventh and 
fourteenth centuries in French, English and Saxon, including 
the Roman de la rose and the Chanson de Rolartd. Subsequently 
he published French translations of Goldsmith, Sterne, Shake- 
speare and Tennyson. He died in Paris •on the x8th of May 
X887. 

His original works include Histoire des races mamdiies de la Pramu 
et de I'Espagne iiSsj) ; Recherches sur le amtneru pendant U moyem 
Age (1852- 1 854); Les Ecossais en France et Us francais em Ecessi 
(1862): Etudes de philologie comparie sur I'argot (1856): Le Pays 
basque (1857); Histoire du commerce et de la navit^iou i Bordeaux 
(1867-1871} ; and. in conjunction with Edouard Foumier, Bistain 
des hdtelleries, cabarets, hStels gamis (1851-1854). 

MICHELANGELO (Michelacniolo Buonakeoti) (1475- 
1564), the most famous of the great Florentine artists of the 
Renaissance, was the son of Ludovico Buonarroti, a poor gentle- 
man of that dty, and of his wife Francesca dd Ncri. The 
Buonarroti Simoni were an old and pure Florentine stodi of 
the Guelf faction: in the days of Michelangelo's fame a connexioB 
of the family with the counts of Canossa was imagined and 
.admitted on both sides, but has no foundation in fact. Ludovico 
was barely able to live on the income of his estate, but made 
it his boast that he had never stooped to add to it by mercantile 
or mechanical pxursuits. The favour of the Media* procured 
him temporary employment in minor offices of state, amoof 
them that of podesti or resident magistrate for six montfai, 
from the autunm of 1474, at Castello di Chiusi and Caprex 
in the C^asentino. At Caprese, on the 6th of March 1475, hti 
second son Michelagniolo or Michelangelo was bora. Inune(fi- 
ately afterwards the family returned to Florence, and the ch3d 
was put to nurse with a marble-worker's wife of Settignsoo. 
His mother's health had already, it would seem, bcgtm to fsil; 
at all events in a few years from this time, after she had bone 
her husband three more sons, she died. While still a yonof 
boy Michelangelo determined, in spite of his father's oppositioo, 
to be an artist. He had sucked in the passion, as be himself 
used to say, with his foster-mother's milk. After a sliaip 
struggle his stubbora will overcome his father's pride of gentility, 
and at thirteen he got himself articled as a paid assistant in the 
workshop of the brothers Ghirlandaio Domenico Ghiiiandiio. 
bred a jeweller, had become by this time the foremost painter of 
Florence. In his service the young Michelangelo laid the fonoda- 
tions of that skill in fresco with which twenty years afterwards 
he confounded his detractors at Rome. He studied also, like 
all the Florentine artists of that age, in the Brancacd chipcif 
where the frescoes of Masacdo, painted some sixty years bcfbic. 
still victoriously held their own; and here, in reply, to a ttnt 
he had flung at a fellow-student, Torrigiano, he received tbe 
blow on the nose which disfigured him to his dying day. 

Though Michelangelo's earliest studies were directed tomidi 
painting, he was by nature and predilection much more indiBcd 
to sculpture. In that art he presently received encoungeaeBt 
and training under the eye of an illustrious patron, Lqccbsb 
dci Medici. On the recommendation, it is said, of Ghidtadn^ 
be was transferred, before the term of hb appfcntioeskip M 



MICHELANGELO 



363 



ft ptinter had expired, to the school of sculpture esublished 
bjr Lorenso in the Medici gardens. Here he could learn to match 
himself against his great predecessor, Donatello, one of whose 
popib and assistants, the aged Bertoldo, was director of the 
ichool, and to compare the works of that master and his Tuscan 
OQOtemporazies with the antiques collected for the instruction 
d the scholars. Here, too, he could listen to discourses on 
Platonism, and steep himself in the doctrines of an enthusiastic 
philosophy which sought to reconcile with Christian faith 
tk lore and the doctrines of the Academy. Michelangelo 
naained a Christian Platonist to the end of his days; he was 
ibo from his youth up a devoted student of Dante. His powers 
cf mind and hand soon attracted attention, and secured him 
tk regard and favour of his patrons in spite of his rugged 
exterior and scornful unsociable temper. 
-Michelangelo had been attached to the school and household 
cf the Medici for barely three years when, in 1492, his great 
pttron Lorenao died. Lorenzo's son Piero dei Medici inherited 
tlte position but not the qualities of his father; Florence 
Moa chafed under his authority; and towards the autiimn 
cf 1494 it became apparent that disaster was impending over 
- him and his adherents. Michelangelo was constitutionally 
mbject to dark and sudden presentiments : one such seized 
him now, and without awaiting the popular outbreak, which 
iOQii followed, he took horse with two companions and fled 
to Bologna. There, being now in his twentieth year, he 
US received with kindness by a member of the Aldovrandi 
luiDy, on whose commission he executed two figures of saints 
•ad one <rf an angel for the shrine of St Dominic in the church 
of St Fetronhu. After about a year, work at Bologna failing, 
•ad his name having been included in his absence on the list 
of irtists appointed to provide a new hall of assembly for the 
peat CDondl of Fbrence, Michelangelo returned home. The 
itnnge theocracy esublished by Savonarola was now in force, 
lad the whole character of civic life at Florence was for the 
time being changed. The influence of the fervent Dominican 
qxn the nund and character of the young Michelangelo became 
IS profound as that of the Platonists and of Dante. He was 
not left without employment. He found a friend in another 
Loitnao, the son of Picrfrancesco dei Mcdid, for whom he at 
tkii time executed a statue of the boy St John. Having also 
orved a recumbent Cupid in imitation of the antique, it was 
■ggested to him by the same patron that it should be so tinted 
lad treated as to look like a real antique, and sold accordingly. 
Without increasing the price he put upon the work, Michelangelo 
fur amusement lent himself to the counterfeit, and the piece 
vu then actually sold for a large sum', as a genuine work of 
latiquity, to a Roman collector, RaflacUe Riario, cardinal di 
Ssa Giorgio; the dealer appropriating the profits. When the 
ordinal discovered the fraud he caused the dealer to refund; 
bet IS to Michelangelo himself, it was represented to the young 
mlptor that if he went to Rome the amateur who bad just 
hiYolantarily paid so high a tribute to his skill would certainly 
befriend him. He set forth accordingly, and arrived at Rome 
far the first time at the end of June 1496. Such hopes as he 
■9 have entertained of countenance from the cardinal di 
Sia Giorgio were quickly dispelled. Neither did the banished 
hxo dei Medici, who also was now living at Rome, do anything 
tohdp him. On the other hand Michelangelo won the favour 
•f I Roman nobleman, Jacopo Galli, and through him of the 
Fttoch cardinal Jean de Viliiers de la Grolaie, abbot of St Denis. 
Frmh the former he received a commission for a " Cupid " and 
»*Bicchus,''fromthelatterfora" Pieti "or " Mary lamenting 
•m the body of Christ "—works of which the two last named 
oiiy sre preserved. Equal originality of conception and 
•iriiBcence of technical execution mark the two contrasted 
*^t^s— one aa noble and the other as nearly ignoble as any- 
tbiof Michelangelo ever did— of the mother with the dead son 
w her lap, indicating with a contained but eloquent gesture of 
krleft hand a tragedy too great for outcries, and the titubant 
■VRul young ^ne-god (a condition in which ancient art would 
levtr have exhibited the god himself, bu^ only bis satcIUtes). 1 



Michelangelo's stay in Rome at this time lasted five years 
— from the summer of 1496 till that of 1501. The interval had 
been one of extreme political distraction at Florence. The 
exciument of the French invasion, the mystic and ascetic 
regimen of Savonarola, the reaction which led to his overthrow, 
and finally the external wars and internal dissidences which 
preceded a new settlement, had all created an atmosphere 
most unfavourable to art. Nevertheless Ludovico Buonarroti, 
who in the troubles of 1494 had lost a small permanent appoint- 
ment he held in the customs, and had come to regard his son 
Michelangelo as the nuinstay of his house, had been repeatedly 
urging him to come home. A spirit of family duty and family 
pride was the ruling principle in all Michelangek>'s conduct. 
During the best years of his life he submitted himself sternly 
and without a murmur to pinching hardship and almost super- 
human labour for the sake of his father and brothers, who were 
ever selfishly ready to be fed and helped by him. Having now, 
after an illness, come home in 1501, Michelangelo was requested 
by the cardinal Francesco Piccolomini to adorn with a number of 
sculptured figures a shrine already begun in the cathedral of 
Siena in honour of the most distinguished member of his house, 
Pope Pius II. Four only of these figures were ever executed, 
and those not apparently, or only in small part, by the master's 
hand. A work of greater interest in Florence itself had diverted 
him from his engagement to his Sienese patrons. This was the 
execution of the famous colossal statue of David, popularly 
known as " the Giant." It was carved out of a huge block of 
marble on which another sculptor, Agostino d'Antonio, had 
begun unsuccessfully to work forty years before, and which had 
been lying idle ever since. Michelangelo had here a diflicult 
problem before him. Without much regard to the traditional 
treatment of the subject or the historical character of his hero, 
he carved out of the vast but cramped mass of material an 
adolescent, frowning colossus, tensely watchful and self-balanced 
in preparation for his great action. The result amazed every 
beholder by its freedom and science of execution and its victorious 
energy of expression. All the best artists of Florence were 
called in council to determine on what site it should be set up, 
and after much debate the terrace of the palace of the Signory 
was chosen, in preference to the neighbouring Loggia dei Lanzi. 
Here accordingly the colossal " David " of Michelangelo took, 
in the month of May 1504, the place which it continued to hold 
until in 1883 it was removed for the sake of protection to a hall 
in the Academy of Fine Arts, where it inevitably looks crushed 
and cabined. Other works of sculpture belong to the same 
period: among them a second " David," in bronze and on a 
smaller scale, commissioned by the mar6chal Pierre Rohan 
and left by the young master to be finished by Benedetto da 
Rovezzano, who despatched it to France in 1508; a great 
rough-hewn " St Matthew " begun but never completed for the 
cathedral of Florence; a " Madonna and Child " executed on 
the commission of a merchant of Bruges; and two unfinished 
bas-reliefs of the same subject. 

Neither was Michelangelo idle at the same time as a painter. 
Leaving disputed works for the moment out of sight, he in these 
days at any rate painted for his and Raphael's common patron, 
Angelo Doni, the " Holy Family " now in the Uffizi at Florence. 
In the autumn of 1504, the year of the completion of the 
" David," he received from the Florentine state a commission 
for a work of monumental painting on a heroic scale. Leonardo 
da Vinci had been for some months engaged on his great cartoon 
of the " Battle of Anghiari," to be painted on the wall of the 
great hall of the municipal council. The gonfaloniere Piero 
Soderini now procured for Michelangelo the commission to design 
a companion work. Michelangelo chose an incident at the battle 
of Cascina during the Pisan war of 1364, when the Florentine 
soldiery had been surprised by the enemy in the act of bathing. 
He dashed at the task with his accustomed fiery energy, and had 
carried a great part of the cartoon to completion when, in the 
early spring of 1505, he broke off the work in order to obev ^ 
call to Rome which reacYvcd \v\tcv Itotcv '^q^ ^vKvos W. Vw^ 
unfinished cartoon, in il» po^ct ovct \.)br N2cc«N:«fc wA ^tjWm^* 



364 



MICHELANGELO 



of energetic and vitally significant action, showed how greatly 
Michelangelo had profited by the example of his elder rival, 
Leonardo, little as, personally, he yielded to Leonardo's charm 
or could bring himself to respond to his courtesy. The work 
of Michelangelo's youth is for the most part comparatively 
tranquil in charaaer. His early sculpture, showing a degree 
of science and perfection unequalled since the antique, has 
also something of the antique serenity. It bears strongly the 
stamp of intellectual research, but not by any means that of 
storm or strain. In the cartoon of the " Bathers " the qualities 
afterwards proverbially associated with Michelangelo — his /atria, 
his terribilitd, the tempest and hurricane of the spirit which 
accompanied his unequalled technical mastery and knowledge — 
first found expression. 
With Mi: ^ll■ll^i^tl[^■B departure to Roms early m 1505 ttr first 

Krt of hia ^rni^tic career nuy b? Baid to end. Li will \x convenient 
re to rec;jipi:ii^late its principal resulu \n vculpture and painting, 
both thoat-^ prcw^rvcd and thow rrcc^rded but lott- 

Sculpture. — Flofrncr, ijSQ-i4Q4r — " Head of a Faun," marble j 
lost. Condi vi dcftcribea Mjchcbriec!o*» hnt essay *n aculpture aa 
a head of an a^ed inan with a front tootH knockcil out, this latter 
point having been an alterthou^^ht sagsestijd by Lofcn^o dci Medici. 
The head is somciicnes identified with opt in tbe Nationil Muvum 
at Florence^ which however bcar» no Tttirki oF Michclaii£elo'fl early 
style and h in all prDbabiliiy spunoua.— " M&donna fcactd on a 
Step," bronjc; Casa Buonarroti, Ftorcnce, Tbi* bav relief, sicctited 
in imitaticm oi the technical style of l>Dnatel]i>» i^ a e^^nuine ex^rnple 
of Michcbngelo'* early worV in the Mcdiccan sctiool under Bcf- 
toldo. — " Cfniauromachia/^ marbk; Casi Buonarroti. A fine and 

Einuine work irj full relief, of probably somewhat later datt than the 
Bt-mentioni.^t. The subject occura often inandent tarcophagua 
reliefs: Miichcl^nj^ela has lol lowed the antique in his concept ioo and 
treatment of the nu4e, but the arrangement of the ^ubjc-ft b hisowri. 

Bdogna, i4i?4-i4QS- — Statuettes of " St Petronitis," St Preeuluj/" 
and a ^' Kneeling Anjjel," loarblc; part of the decoratioDi td the 
shrine of St Dominic \n the cTiureh ol that saint at Bdognat the 
style of all threat much influenced by the work of Jacopo deUa Quercta 
in the same church; the attitude of the kneeling an|ct with the 
candelabrum imitated front an ancient bai-relief. 

Florencf, I<^9$-J4g6'. — '* St John in the WildcmeM," executed for 
Lorenzo di PterfrancMcn dei Medici, marble; probably lort. De- 
clared in ]S74 to hate been found again tn the pofvcision of Count 
Gualandi-Roi^ilniini at Pisi, Vehement and prolonged discussion 
arose'as to the authenticity of thli ncwly'lound S, Giovanntno, and 
at last it waA bought for the Berlin Muvum, where its scnuiflcnesi 
is still stoutly mainialncd. But the finicking and affect^ elegance 
of the conception denote a dt(!i?nent tenipcrament from MithtlanBcio's 
and probably a later date. With thli hgure mu*E be given up alw 
the rcslordtjon of an antique group of *' Bacchus and Ampelus " at 
the Uffizi, which ii cEc-irly by tlif same hand and is claimed also as 
an cariy worJt of MicheUtigtlo.— *' Recureibent Cupid," bouftht by 
the cardinal San Giorgio as an antitiue, marble; lost. The attempts 
to recognize it in certain extant copies or servile imitations of the 
antique, espccblly one now at Turin, must be held mistaken. 

Rome, 1495-150J. — '* Virgin lamenting the dead Christ," com- 
missioned by the abbot dc ui Grolaic; marble, St Peter's, Rome. — 
" Bacchus and young Faun," commissioned by Jacopo Galli; marble. 
National Museum, Florence. (Of these two masteroicces of Michel- 
angelo's youth enough has been said above). — " Cupid," commis- 
sioned by the abbot de la Grolaic; marble; lost; has been commonly 
identified as the " Kneeling Cupid " of the Victoria and Albert 
Museum, but this, if by Michelangelo at all, which is not quite 
certain, must in all likelihood belong to a later time. 

Florence, isoi-i . ■ 11.4 decorating the 

shrineof Pius 11.," ■.■ :i^-i ^ i-i^^J Lj :'_. I' ... '.i:iinifamily;fnarttle; 
cathedral of Siena. Thi; toEiiract for the sculptured decoraiion of 
this shrine was one of those which the prewure of other work pfif- 
vented the artist from ever taking seriouAly in band. Of the five 
saints in niches, traditionally reputed to be hii n'ork^ ttie ^t Pet?r 
alone shows any clear marks of bi« «[yle ; the other four were pr^bdblv 
designed, and certainly carri^ out, by weaker bands,—" David 
(the " Gigante "), commissioned for the city of Flotrnce by Piero 
Soderini; marble; Florence Academy. Be^>dei what bps been said 
above, it has only to h^ adekc! that a wax model in the Caia Buonar- 
roti, showing neari . '' ■■■ • ■ li a different movement of 
the legs, is probab , _ il sketch for the subject. 
" David," commissioned by Pierre Rohan: bronze, lost; a clay 
model in the National Museum, Florence, ntay probably be a sketch 
for it ; more than one bronze has been brought forward with claims 
to be the original, but none has stood the test of criticism. " Virgin 
and Child," commissioned for Taddeo Taddci; circular relief, un- 
finished, marble: London. Royal Academy. The motive of the 
Christ-child frightened by the flutterings of the bird held out by 
St John is the most playful in all Michelangelo's work; the whole 
etesign shows the influence of Leonardo in his gentler, as much as 
the i;artQQa ot the " Bathers " shows it in bia more violent, inood». 



" Virgin and Child with St John,** commtasioned fay BartoloniiaM 
Pitti; nearly circular relief, unfinished, marble; FlaTcnce, NacioQal 
Museum: a more . tranquil and very charming presencmenL 
" Madonna and Child," sold to the Mouscron family of Bru|cs 
(known in Italy as Moscheroni), and by them presented to the church 
of ^fotre Dame in that city; group in the round, mart>le; church at 
Notre Dame, Bruges. A nieditative seated Virgin with upriKfat 
head, the naked diild seated between her knees, his smootply 
fourittcd form in strone contr.isc *irli her !■■:... ; , , . -(■ct 

"St Matthew"; one ol a ?*■[ nE t^tiU'r- <,;.![ j..-. .a Aciosuei- coibt 
rnifi^ioned by the consuU t-i iln- Ati.i.- Mi l!.i l.in.i fisr the catbednt 
at Florence; marble; NLiLnm.ai Mu-HMri. f. Tinize. Unl^Diihcd 
(only roughly blocki^ out}, tlu* Mtlitr laijuin-i K^t t.Uv *et nc^xr faa^'intf 
been so much as begun i the eontnict wo^ signed in 1 50J and cancclba 
in 1505. There is an early drawint by Raphouel from this statue. 

pAiSfTiNG.— " Holy Family," paint«l for Angtlo t*onj; temper^ 
circular'. FlDncnce, llffiji. The only perfectly wclt-ai tested (xnei 
painiinit ol^ MichcEangelo whieh eicisTi^ His bveof r^ftlcss and sooic- 
what strained actions h Uhi'^tr.itnl by the ^i^ture of the Madooaa, 
who kneels on the ground l^olding tip the child on her riehi ihoiiMcr; 
his love of the nude by the intfoductioo (wherein he lolloirs Ldc%. 
Si|;norelii} of £iome othtrwdie purpOiclfsa undm^ied fieuits la tlie 
background. *' ViTEiti and Child with Four Ans^eh ': temper^; 
National Gallery, l.ondofi+ This unhnL^hed pamtiTig^ «tran£l» 
mark^ by the influence of Michelangelo io hi* wofk at thif period, 
has been eonlidcnily claimed for him^ but lack* hi* vtrenEth and 
maEtfry, and ii f^r mone probably the work ol hh imitator aM 
intimate aEsoebten. Francesco dranacci, *' Cartoon of the EitJtm '-, 
loit and utterly perished. The onlv authentic reiroali of it iit 
contained In a Tew early et^graving* by Mafcantonki and Aao^dift 
Vffnezlano and a certain numtx^r of tkefches and itudkt by Ik 
master hlmKlf, chiefly at the Albert ina, Vienna, the British Mui>u« 
and the University Gallcrie*^ Oxfords An elaborate dranri^f 4 
many tigunra at Holkham HaWt tt-ell known and often efi|f3Hii 
aeema to be a later ante destitute of real authority. 

Michelangelo had not been long in Rome before Pope JoEa 
devised fit employment for him. That capacious and had* 
strong spirit, on fire with great enterprises, had conceived tbe 
idea of a sepulchral monument to commemorate his gjory ^ca 
he should be dead, and to be executed according to Us on 
plans while he was still living. He entrusted this coogesiil 
task to Michelangelo. The design being approved, the utiA 
spent the winter of 1 505-1 506 at the quarries of Carrara, superia* 
tending the excavation and shipment of the necessary oarblo. 
In the spring he returned to Rome, and when the marbles airivcd 
fell to with all his energy at the preparations for the worL 
For a while the pope followed their progress eageriy, and wis 
all kindness to the young sculptor. But presently his dispoii* 
tion changed. In Michelangelo's absence an artist who was eo 
friend of bis, Bramante of Urbino, had been selected by Julius t» 
carry out a new architectural scheme, commensurate witb tbe 
usual vastness of his conceptions, viz. the rebuilding of St Peltf'* 
church. To the influence and the malice of Bramante Uidid* 
angelo attributed the unwelcome invitation he now itcdyed 
to interrupt the great work of sculpture which he had ju« 
begun in order to decorate the Sixtine chapel with fracocs. 
Soon, however, schemes of war and conquest interpoKd to 
divert the thoughts of Julius, not from the progress of til ova 
monument merely, but from artistic enterprises altofetbO' 
One day Michelangelo heard him say at table to his jewdkr that 
he meant to spend no more money on pebbles, either snsB ff 
great. To add to the artist's discomfiture, when he veat to 
apply in person for payments due, he was first put off f 
day to day, and at last actually with scant courtesy disitt 
At this his dark mood got the mastery of him. Convinced that 
not his employment only but his life was threatened, he soddesiT 
took horse and left Rome, and before the messengers of ibe pop* 
could overtake him was safe on Florentine territory. Midid' 
angelo's flight took place in April 1506. Once among biio«i 
people, he turned a deaf ear to all overtures made from R^B* 
for his return, and stayed throughout the summer at FloitB«i 
how occupied we are not distinctly informed, but appaicntly, 
among other things, on the continuation of his great baitk 
cartoon. 

During the same summer Julius planned and exeo rtd tk 
victorious military campaign which ended with his aDOfipoKd 
entry at the head of his army into Bologna. Thither, ttsdit 
. &u\cV. safe-conduct and promises of renewed favour, MicbdiBld* 



MICHELANGELO 



365 



«u at last penuaded to betake himself. Julius received the 
tmant artist lundly, as indeed between these two volcanic 
Batnres there eausted a natural affinity, and ordered of him 
Us own colossai likeness in bronze, to be set up, as a symbol 
of his conquering authority, over the principal entrance 
of the church of St Petronius. For the next fifteen months 
Afichelangdo devoted his whole strength to this new task. 
The price at which he imdertook it left him, as it turned out, 
hudly any margin to subsist on. Moreover in the technical 
srtof metal casting he was inexperienced, and an assistant 
whom he had summoned from Florence proved insubordinate 
and had to be dismissed. Nevertheless his genius prevailed 
over every hardship and difficulty, and on the 21st of February 
1508 the majestic bronze colossus of the seated pope, robed and 
mitred, with one hand grasping the kty% and the other extended 
in a gesture of benediction and command, was duly raised to 
its station over the church porch. Three years later it was 
destio3red In a revolution. The people of Bologna rose against 
the authority of Julius; his delegates and partisans were cast 
oat, and his effigy hurled from its place. The work of Michel- 
angelo, after being trailed in derision through the streets, was 
broken up and its fragments cast into the furnace. 

Meanwhile the artist himself, as soon as his work was done, 
had followed his reconciled master back to Rome. The task 
that here awaited him, however, was after all not the resumption 
id the papal monument, but the execution of the series of 
paintings in the Sixtine chapel which had been mooted before 
his departure. Painting, he always averred, was not his 
business; be was aware of his enemy's hopes that a great enter- 
prise In fresco-painting would prove beyond his powers; and he 
entered with misgiving.and reluctance upon his new undertaking. 
Destiny, however, so ruled that the work thus thnist upon him 
icmains his chief title to glory. His history is one of indomitable 
wiU and' almost superhuman energy, yet of will that hardly ever 
had its way, and of energy continually at war with circumstance. 
The only work which in all his life he was able to complete as 
be had conceived it was this of the decoration of the Sixtine 
ceiling. The pope had at first desired a scheme including figures 
of the twelve apostles only. Michelangelo began accordingly, 
but could rest content with nought so meagre, and soon prop(»ed 
instead a design of many hundred figures embodying the story 
of Genesis from the Creation to the Flood, with accessory 
personages of prophets and sibyls dreaming on the new dispensa- 
tion to come, and, in addition, those of the forefathers of Christ. 
The whole was to be enclosed and divided by an elaborate 
framework of painted architecture, with a multitude of nameless 
human shapes supporting its several members or reposing among 
them — shapes mediating, as it were, between the features of 
the inanimate framework and those of the great dramatic and 
pnpbetic scenes themselves. The pope bade the artist do as 
he pleased. By May 1508 the preparations in the chapel had 
heen completed and the work begun. Later in the same year 
Michelangelo summoned a number of assistant painters from 
Florma. Trained in the traditions of the earlier Florentine 
school, they were unable, it seems, to interpret Michelangelo's 
doigns in fresco either with sufficient freedom or sufficient 
loifonnity of style to satisfy him. At any rate he soon dismissed 
iliem, and carried out the remainder of his colossai task alone, 
oapt for the necessary amount of purely mechanical and 
Mbordinate help. The physical conditions of prolonged work, 
bee upwards, upon this vast expanse of ceiling were adverse 
ud tr>'ing in the extreme. After four and a half years of toil 
the task was accomplished. Michelangelo had during its 
PRfress been harass^ alike by delays of payment and by 
wle intrigue, his ill-wishers casting doubts on his capacity, 
ud vaunting the superior powers of Raphael. That gentle 
^i^t would by nature have been no man's enemy, but unluckily 
llidielangelo's moody, self-concentrated temper prevented the 
t«o artists being on terms of amity such as might have stopped 
the mouths of mischief-makers. Absolute need of funds for 
the furtherance of the undertaking constrained him at one 
; to break off work and pursue his inconsiderate patron , 



as far as Bologna. This was between September 15x0, by which 
time the whole of the great series of subjects along the centre 
of the vault were completed, and January 1511, when the master 
set to work again and began filling the complicated lateral 
spaces of his decorative scheme. 

The main field of the Sixtine ceiling — in form a depressed barrel 
vault— 4s divided in MichclanKclo's scheme into four Isu^r, altvrna- 
tifiii; *iTh five ■i-i;'.'- r... M-. ■'■■■ r-.i: .wing is the order of the 
ELjbii<cta depleted in tKcm; {i} irhe Ji^-ijliag of the light from the 
darkncu; {2} the creation of tun. mooa .mJ stars; (3) the creation 
of the waten; (4) the creation of maiij (5) the creation of woman; 
{6) the temptation and expulHon; {7 J the sacrifice of Noah; (8) the 
deluge; (9] i he dm nlctnne» of Koah, The figures in the lost three of 
the^ series arc ^n a smjiIlM^ scale than those in the first six. In 
numbers 1,3, 5^ 7 And 9 the field of the picture is reduced by the 
CficrDQChiTiCJits of the anrhLtectuial framework with its seated pairs 
of fupiportcn, commonl)^ knnwn 3i ** Slaves " or " Atlases." Funk- 
\iig th»e »Ftkalkr camixisitionsH afung the lateral spaces between 
the crown of tbe vjjit and the walU on either side, arc seated 
figures of prophets and t\hy\i alternuutly; two other prophets are 
introduced at each extreniitj^ erf the atriit^ — making seven prophets 
and five sibyls In all. In the tri<4nd«4 to right and kft of the pro- 
ph<-i3 at the two extfemltie^ are iho 4i^ih of Goliath, the death 
of Holof ernes, the brazen »fcpent and the punishment of Haman. 
In the twelve lunettei above the wtndcivrs are groups of the ancestors 
of Christ, their names deftii^natetl bv inscriptions, and in the twelve 
triariKles above thenj {bctwrtn the prophets and sibyls) other 
kindred Ei;roupi crouched or dtting. These last are all shown 
in relatively umplc human actions and household relations, 
h. ie»Kr^.fi,^| hL4t fi.^f r,^|.<iA4^J by the artist's sjcnius, and rising 
i- " ., ^ 1 mm rtjotft f]c('E) in daily human nature. 

The work represents all the powers of Michclang^elo at their bcsL 
Disdaining all the accessory allurements of the pamter's art, he has 
concentrated himself upon the exclusive delineation of the human 
form and face at their highest power. His imagination has conceived, 
and his knowledge and certainty of hand have enabled him to rcallre, 
attitudes and combinations of unmatched variety and grandeur, 
and countenances of unmatched expressiveness and power. But 
he has not trusted, as he came later to trust, to science and acquired 
knowledge merely; neither do his personages, so far as they did 
afterwards, transcend human possibility or leave the facts of actual 
life behind them. The profoundest knowledge and the most search- 
ing realism serve to embody all this inspiration and sustain all this 
sublimity; the sublimity, moreover is combined with the noblest 
elements of grace and even of tenderness. As for the intellectual 
meanings of his vast design, over and above those which reveal 
themselves at a first glance or by a bare description, they are 
from the nature of the case inexhaustible, and can never l>e per- 
fectly defined. Whatever the soul of this great Florentine, the 
spiritual heir of Dante, with the Christianity of the middle ages 
not shaken in his mind, but expanded and transcendcntalized, by 
the knowledge and love of Plato; — whatc\'cr the soul of such a man. 
full of suppressed tenderness and righteous indignation, and of 
an»ous questionings of coming fate could conceive — that Michel- 
angelo has expressed or shadowed forth in thb great and significant 
scheme of paintings. The powers of the artist seem to have expanded 
with the progress of his work. He seems to have begun (as the 
spectator entering the chapel has to begin) with what is chrono- 
logically the last subject of the series, the drunkenness of Noah, and 
to have worked backwards, increasing the scale of his figures for 
their better effect from the fourth subject (the Temptation and 
Expulsion), and rising in aKending scale of majesty through the 
successive acts of creation from the lost to the first. 

The Sixtine chapel was no sooner completed than Michelangelo 
resumed work upon the marbles for the monument of Julius. 
But four months only had passed when Julius died. His heirs 
immediately entered (in the summer of 1513) into a new contract 
with Michelangelo for the execution of the monument on a 
reduced scale. What the precise nature and extent of the original 
design had been we do not know, only that the monument 
was to be detached from the wall, and to stand four-square 
and free — ^a thing hitherto unknown in Renaissance sepulchral 
architecture— in one of the chapels of St Peter's. But the new 
design was extensive and magnificent enough. It was to consist 
of a great three-sided structure, two courses high, projecting 
from the church wall, and decorated on its three unattached 
sides with statues. On the upper course was to be placed the 
colossal recumbent figures of the pope, with a vision of the 
Virgin and Child above him, angels mourning at the sides, 
and prophetic and allegoric personages at the angles — sixteen 
figures in all. The lower course was to be enriched with twenty- 
four figures in niches and on pTO^ecl\tv% v^^^^*> "^ ^^ 
niches, Viaorics; in Ironl ol Icimtial \to.Vj«* \s«.V«w'a. ^ioea.^ 



370 



MICHELET, K. L.— MICHELL 



The coup d'itat lost Michelet his place in the Record Office, 
as, though not in any way identified with the republic adminis- 
tratively, he refused to take the oaths to the empire. But 
the new regime only kindled afresh his republican zeal, and 
his second marriage (with Mile Adde Malairet, a lady of 
some literary capacity, and of republican belongings) seems 
to have further stimulated his powers. While the history 
steadily held its way, a crowd of extraordinary little books 
accompanied and diversified it. Sometimes they were expanded 
versions of its episodes, sometimes what may be called commen- 
taries or companion volumes. In some of the best of them 
natural science, a new subject with Michelet, to which his 
wife is believed to have introduced him, supplies the text. 
The first of these (by no means the best) was Les Femmes de la 
rivolutum (1854), in which Michelet 's natural and inimiuble 
faculty of dithjrrambic too often gives way to tedious and not 
very conclusive argument and preaching. In the next, VOiseau 
(1856), a new and most successful vein was struck. The subject 
of natural history was treated, not from the point of view of 
mere science, nor from that of sentiment, nor of anecdote nor 
of gossip, but from that of the author's fervent democratic 
pantheism, and the result, though, as was to be expected, 
unequal, was often excellent. Vlnsccte^ in the same key, 
but duller, followed. It was succeeded by U Amour (1859), 
one of the author's most popular books, and not unworthy of 
its popularity, but perhaps hardly his best. These remarkable 
works, half pamphlets half moral treatises, succeeded each other 
as a rule at the twelve months' interv^, and the succession 
was almost unbroken for five or six years. U Amour was 
followed by La Femme (i860), a book on which a whglc critique 
of French literature and French character might be founded. 
Then came La Mar (1861), a return to the natural history class, 
which, considering the powers of the writer and the attraction 
of the subject, is perhaps a little disappointing. The next 
year (1862) the most striking of all Michelct's minor works, La 
SorcUrCf made its appearance. Developed out of an episode 
of the history, it has all its author's peculiarities in the strongest 
degree. It is a nightmare and nothing more, but a nightmare 
of the most extraordinary verisimilitude and poetical power. 

This remarkable series, every volume of which was a work at 
once of imagination and of research, was not even yet finished, 
but the later volumes exhibit a certain falling off. The ambi- 
tious BihU de Vhumaniti (1864), an historical sketch of religions, 
has but little merit. In La Montagne (1868), the last of the 
natural history series, the tricks of staccato style are pushed 
even farther than by Victor Hugo in his less inspired moments, 
though — as is inevitable, in the hands of such a master of language 
as Michelet — the effect is frequently grandiose if not grand. 
N OS fits (1869), the last of the string of smaller books published 
during the author's life, is a tractate on education, written with 
ample knowledge of the facts and with all Michelct's usual 
sweep and range of view, if with visibly declining powers of 
expression. But in a book published posthumously, Le Banquet, 
these powers reappear at their fullest. The picture of the 
industrious and famishing populations of the Riviera is (whether 
true to fact or not) one of the best things that Michelet has 
done. To complete the list of his miscellaneous works, two 
collections of pieces, written and partly published at different 
times, may be mentioned. These are Les Soldats dc la rivolu- 
tion and Ligendcs dimocraliques du nord. 

The publication of this series of books, and the completion 
of his history, occupied Michelet during both decades of the 
empire. He lived partly in France, partly in Italy, and was 
accustomed to spend the winter on the Riviera, chiefly at 
Hy^res. At last, in 1867, the great work of his life was finished. 
In the usual edition it fills nineteen volumes. The first of these 
deals with the early history up to the death of Charlemagne, 
the second with the flourishing time of feudal France, 
the third with the 13th century, the fourth, fifth, and sixth 
with the Hundred Years' War, the seventh and eighth with 
the estaMishmenl of the rural power under Charles VII. and 
JLoiuM XI. The i6th Mnd i^tb centuries have four volumes 



apiece, much of which is very distantly conaected vkh 
French history proper, especially in the two volumes eoiitkd 
Renaissance and Riforme. The last three volumes carry on tin 
history of the i8th century to the outbreak of the Revoluiion. 
Michelet was perhaps the first historian to devote hiimdf 
to anything like a picturesque history of the middle ages, aad 
his account is still the most vivid that exists. His inqnij 
into manuscript and printed authorities was most labocioai, 
but his lively imagination, and his strong religious and political 
prejudices, made him regard all things from a singiilarly penooal 
point of view. Circumstances which strike his fancy, or iwaUk 
convenient texts for his polemic, are handled at inordiutt 
length, while others are rapidly dismissed or passed oitr 
altogether. 

Uncompromisingly hostile as Michelet was to the en^uc, 
its downfall and tJie accompanying disasters of the comitij 
once more stimulated him to activity. Not only did he write 
letters and pamphlets during the struggle, but when it mi 
over he set himself to complete the vast task which his tm 
great histories had almost covered by a Histoire dm XIX* 
sihde. He did not, however, live to carry it farther tbii 
Waterloo, and the best criticism of it is perhaps contsiad 
in the opening words of the introduction to the last vohine- 
" I'Age me presse." The new republic was not altofetkr 
a restoration for Michelet, and his professorship at the ColK|e 
de France, of which he contended that he had never bca 
properly deprived, was not given back to him. He died at 
Hy^res on the gth of February 1874. 

Almost all Michelct's works, the exceptions being hb trsnAtimM, 
compilations, &c., are published in uniform tixe and in about ifty 



volumes, partly by Mar|>on and Flammarion. partly by < 
Ukvy. He has not received much recent attention from crida 
and monographers, but his Oriiines du droit franfaiSt ekenkSes iut 
les symboles etformuUs du droit universel was edited by £mile Fscm 
in 1890 and went into a second edition in lOpo. See G. Moml 
Jules Michelet', Eludes sur la vie et us enures (Paris, 1905). 

MICHELET. KARL LUDWIO (i8oi-x89i), German pUb- 
sopher, was bom on the 4th of December x8oi. at Berlin, what 
he died on the i6th of December 1893. He studied at tk 
gymnasium and at the university of his native town, took 
his degree as doctor of philosophy in 1824, and became pnleiMt 
in 1829, a post which he retained till his death. Educated 
in the doctrine of Hegel, be remained faithful to his early tcackill 
and spent his life in defending and continuing the HtftltMi 
tradition. His first notable work was the System der pti^ 
sophischen Moral (Berlin, 1828), an examination of the etUcri 
theory of responsibility. In 1836 he published, in Paris, a 
treatise on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, written in FitBch aid 
crowned by the Academic des Sciences Morales ct Politiqaei. 
He wrote also two other treatises on Aristotle. NikmncJutdt 
Ethik (2nd ed., 1848) and Die Ethik des AristoUUs m ikim 
Verhdllniss zum System der Moral (1827). His own views aie 
best expressed in his Vorlesungen Uher die PersOnlickkeH C«M 
(1841) and Die Epiphanie der evngen PersdnlichkeU des Gi*^ 
The philosophical theology developed in these works has beti 
described as a " Neo-Christian Spiritualism." 

Among his other publications may be mentioned CesduAle^ 
letzten SysUme der Philos. in DetUschland von Kant bis Htfd (ll^r 
1838); Anthropologic und Psychologie (1840): Esqmisse M IVP 
(Paris, 1856); Nalurrechl oder Rechlsphilosophie (1866): Befij^ 
unwiderlegte Weltphilosoph (1870), Wakrheit aus meinem ut* 
(1886). From 1832 to 1842, Michelet was engaged in | 



(1886). From 1832 to 1842, Michelet was ennged in pawyg 
the complete works of He^el, and in 18^5 he founded the BcnS 
Philosopnical Society, which has continuously r ep ce sent rd^ Pa 
Hegelianism of Germany. He was the first editor oi Der C<dt^ 
(i860), the official organ of the society. 

MICHELL, JOHN (17 24-1 793). English natural phikso^ 
and geologist, was born in 1724, and educated at Quecas 
College, Cambridge. His name appears fourth in the TrifMi 
list for 1 748-1 749; and in 1 755 he was moderator in that eiaaiBa' 
tion. He became M.A. in 1752, and B.D. in 1761. He wtf 
a fellow of his college, and was appointed Woodwardiil 
professor of geology in 1762, and in 1767 rector of Thonhitt ii 
Yorkshire, where he died on the 29th of April 179J. He itf 



MICHEL OF NORTHGATE— MICHIGAN 



371 



xted a leDoir of the Royal Society in the same year as Henry 
ivoidish (1760). In 1750 he published at Cambridge a work 
tome c^ty pages entitled A Treatise of Artificial Magnets , 
wUck it skomn an easy and expeditious method of making 
m suptrior to the best natural ones. Besides the description 
the method of magnetization which still bears his name, 
m work contains a variety of accurate magnetic observations, 
d is distinguished by a ludd exposition of the nature of 
ignetic induction. He was the original inventor of the 
aoD balance, which afterwards became so famous in 
i hands of its second inventor Coulomb. Michell described 
in his proposal of alnethod for obtaining the mean density 
the earth. He did not live to put his method into practice; 
t this was done by Henry Cavendish, who made, by means 
Ifichell's apparatus, the celebrated determination that now 
ts by the name of Cavendish's experiment {Phil. Trans., 
18). His most important geological essay was that entitled 
C4mceming the Cause and Ohservaiions upon the 
of Earthquakes (Phil. Trans., li. 1760), which 
vwed a remarkable knowledge of the strata in various parts 
Vjt^»nA and abroad. 

Hindi's other contributions to science are: " Observations on 
t Comet of Januaiv 1760 at Cambridge. Pkil. Trans. (1760): " A 
Doasmendation of Hadley's Quadrant for Surveying," ibid. 
65): ** Propool of a Method for measuring Degrees of Longitude 
MB Parallels of the Equator." ibid. (1766): " An Inquiry into the 
tebfe Pajratlax and Magnitude of the Fixed Stats,' ibid. (1767); 
In the Twinkling of the Fixed Stars," ibid. (1767). "On the 
ana of Discovering the Distance, Magnitude, ftc, of the Fixed 
n." ibid. (1784). 

nCHBL OP irORTHOATB, DAN (ft. 1340), English writer, 
t author of the Ayenbite of Inwyt. Nothing is known of him 
3^ what can be gathered from his work. It is a literal 
adation in the Kentish dialect of a French treatise entitled 
Sttmme des vices d des vertues (also known as Le Miroir du 
mie or L€ JJvre des commandemens, tic), which was written 
t279 by Laurentius Callus, a Dominican monk and confessor 
Fldlip III. of France. This work was translated into Flemish, 
tahwiian, Spanish and Italian, and appears in no less than 
, English translations. Dan Michel's autograph MS. is 
nerved in Arundel MSt 57, which states that the work was 
■pleted in the year 1340 on the eve of the apostles Simon 
d Jude by Dan Michel of Northgate, a brother of the cloister 
St Austin of Canterbury. The value of the book is chiefly 
iflological as ijo, authenticated and dated example of the 
athcm dialect. 

The Ayenbite of Imoyt was edited for the Roxburghe Club by the 
cvjoscph ^eveoson in 1855, and for the Early English Text Soc. 
r Kicfaafd Morris in 1876. 

nCHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO (1391-1472?), Italian 
cdptor, was a Florentine by birth, the son of a tailor, and in 
irijr life a pupil of DonateUo. He worked in marble, bronze 
ad tflver. The statue of the young St John over the door of 
he Duomo at Florence, opposite the Baptistery, is by him; 
ad he also made the beautiful silver statuette of the Baptist 
A the altar-frontal of San Giovanni. Michelozzo's great 
otad and patron was Cosimo dei Medici, whom he accompanied 
» Vence in 1433 during his short exile. While at Venice, 
^firhffazxo built the library of San Giorgio Maggiorc, and 
kafoed other buildings there. In 1438, together with DonateUo, 
Ktitcted an open-air pulpit at an angle of the cathedral of 
it Stq>hen at Prato. The magnificent Palazzo dei Medici at 
'loRBce built by Cosimo, was designed by him; it is one of 
he Bobkst ^>edmens of Italian 15th-century architecture, 
1 «hich the great taste and skill of the architect has combined 
k delicate h'ghtness of the earlier Italian Gothic with the 
anive stateliness of the classical style. With great engineering 
|9 Michelozzo shored up, and partly rebuilt, the Palazzo 
cochio, then in a ruinous condition, and added to it many 
Vortant rooms and staircases. When, in 1437, through 
Oiiao's liberality, the monastery of San Marco at Florence 
IS handed over to the Dominicans of Fiesole, Michelozzo . 
■ employed to rebuild the domesUc part and remodel the / 



church. For Cosimo I. he designed numenius other buildings,^ 
mostly of great beauty and importance. Among these were 
a guest-house at Jerusalem for the use of Florentine pilgrims, 
Cosimo's summer villa at Careggi, and the strongly fortified 
palace of Cafagiuolo in Mugello. For Giovanni dd Medid,< 
Cosimo's son, he built a very large and magnificent palace 
at Fiesole. In spite of Vasari's statement that he died at the 
age of sixty-eight, he appears to have lived till 1472. He is 
buried in the monastery of San Marco, Florence. Thou^ 
skilled both as a sculptor and engineer, his fame chiefly rests 
on his architectural woriu, which claim for him a position of 
very high honour even among the greatest names of the great 
Z5th-century Florentines. 

See Hans Stegmann. Michdono di Bartelommeo, eine kunsU 
teschickUicke Sludie (1888): Frits Wolff, Miehelotxo di Bartolommeo 
(1900); cf. also Hans Semper, DonateUo (1887). 

MICHIGAN, a north central state of the United Sutes, situ-^ 
ated between latitudes 41* 44' and 47^ 30' N.* and longitudes' 
83* 2^ and 90* 31' W., and consisting of two peninsulas — 
the upper or norUiem and the lower or southern— separated 
by a strait. The upper or northern peninsula is botmded N. 
by Lake Superior; E. by lakes Superior, George, Huron, and 
Michigan, and by St Mary's River, which separates it from the 
Province of Ontario, Canada; S. by lakes Huron and Michigan 
and the Straits of Mackinac, which separate it from the lower 
peninsula; and S. and W. by Wisconsin, and the Menominee, 
Montreal and Bruld Rivers, which separate it in part from 
Wisconsin. The lower or southern peninsula is bounded N. 
by lakes Michigan and Huron and the Straits of Mackinac, 
E. by bkes Huron, St Clair and Erie, and the St Clair and 
Detroit Rivers, which separate it from Ontario; S. by Ohio and 
Indiana, and W. by Lake Michigan. In size MicUgan ranks 
eighteenth among the states of the Union, its total area being 
57J980 sq. m., of which 500 sq. m. aie water surface.' 

Physical Features. — PhysiogFaphically the history of the state is 
similar to that of Minnesota. The northern part is rugged moun- 
tainous " old land," not completely worn down by erosion; and the 
southern part is a portion of the old coastal plain, whose layers 
contain salt, gypsum and some inferior coal. Lake Huron on the 
east and Lake Michigan on the west of the lower peninsula are each 
581 ^ ft. above sea-level, and Lake Superior on the north of the upper 
peninsula is 602 ft. above sea-level. For the most part the surface 
of the state is gently undulating and at a slight elevation above the 
lakes, but low marsn lands are common to many sections; the north 
part of the lower peninsula is occupied by a plateau of considerable 
dimensions, and the north-west part of the upper peninsula is ruegcd 
with hills and mountains. Crossing the lower peninsula from 
Saginaw Bay west by south through the valleys m the Saginaw, 
Maple and Grand rivers, is a depression — thcf former channel of an 
old glacial river — in which elevations for a considerable area are less 
than 100 ft. above the lakes. To the south-east of this depression 
a water-parting with summits varying from about ^00 to 600 ft. 
above the lakes extends .from a point between Saginaw Bay and 
Lake Huron south by west to the south border of the state and be- 
yond. The east slope descends quite rapidly to a low flat belt from 
5 to 40 m. wide along the east border of the state south from Lake 
Huron. From Lake Huron to the south-east shore of Saginaw 
Bay a wide sandy beach b followed northward by precipitous shores 
abounding in rocks and bluflfs. West of the clivide and south of 
the depression, south-west Michigan is occupied by the valleys of 
the St Joseph, Kalamazoo and Grand rivers, by the gently rolling 
uplands that form the parting divides between them, and by sand 
dunes, which here and there rise to a height of from 100 to 200 ft. 
or more along the shore of Lake Michigan, and are formed on this 
side (but not on the Wisconsin side) of the lake by the prevailing 
west winds. The north and north-west portions of the lower 
peninsula — including the counties of Roscommon and Missaukee, 
parts of Wexford and Ogemaw, and those to the north and north- 
west of these — are occupied by a rolline plateau which attains an 
elevation at its highest point, north of its centre, of upwards of 
1100 ft. above Lake Michigan; to the south of this plateau the 
land slopes gently down to the depression and to the low shores 
of Lake Michigan and Saginaw Bay. The surface of the upper 



*This is the northernmost point of the mainland; the most 
northerly of the islands north-east of Isle Royal and belonging to 
Michigan is more than 40' further north. 

« In addition, within the boundaries of Michigan, are a^^tcrd- 
mately 16,653 "q- ni. of Lake Sut>ct\ot, \%mi «\. m. c^ Va^» VCvtVv 



gan, 9925 sq. m. 0( Lake Huron and ^ «c\. to. c^ Naiw^'t*. Ok« 



and! 



372 



MICHIGAN 



peninMila is more irregular than that of the lower peninsula. A 
portion extending through the middle from east to west and south, 
from west of the centre to Green Bay, is either flat and even swampy 
or onlv gently undulating. Eastward from Green Ba^ are two ranges 
of hills: the one lining the south shore and rangmg from loo to 
2I0O ft. in height, the other close to or touching the north shore and 
reaching in places an elevation of Coo ft. above Lake Superior. 
The famous Pictured Rocks in Alger county on the lake shore, east 
of Munising, form the west portion of this north range; they are of 
sandstone formation, extend for several miles along the coast, rise 
almost perpendicularly from the water's edge, and display an 
interesting diversity of^ shapes as well as a great variety of tmts and 
hues, especially of ^rav, blue, green and yellow. The most rugged 
portion of the state is farther west. South and south-east of Kewee- 
naw Bay, in the Marquette iron district, is an irregular area of 
mountains, hills, swamps and lakes, some of the mountain peaks 
of the Huron Mountains (in Marquette county) riung to an elevation 
of 1400 ft. or more above the lake. These and a peak m the Porcupine 
Mountains (2023 ft. above the sea) in the north-west part of Ontona- 
gon county are the highest in the state. To the south of this is 
the Menommcc iran district, markt.'d biimcA'tiat n^ubriy bv use 
and vftH. hdgcs. Lxttndtag 10 a ^ztmrsl nofth-ea^t ancj aoutri-wrst 
dJTiectlon thrfiugh Kcwcvn^w pcnut^LiLi to the VVii^onjiirh bord^^r a]id 
beyond i$ tht middle of thri:^ appraKJrnatL'Jy p^T'ill*^] rauge^^ scpnv' 
atcd from each athcr by flat btmilf, wiLh btrt anil there an i sob led 
peak {in the Porrgpttne Mounuifis) having an ek-v;)tion of fttrni 9Cmj to 
1400 ft, above the Ukt, The nr^nh portiim of these rarvfiw, tpscthcr 
With [a!r Royab wmc di*tancc farther north, *hicb is rtwH traversed 
by scTficrtii lc*» tick's ted par^Ud rid gea, contains iht-Mich^jran fcpper- 
bearing rocki; while to the i^uth, itlons the Wi^onsin border, a 
another iron di»trirt. ihf tuiccbic. Tin*- rivers of the entire »tate 
eonaiat of num* r -^ water. In the inlericrr 

flf the upper pijM _ ^cr oC the lower peninsula, 

south from Lake iiuron, and in Saginaw valley, they arc rather 
sluggish: but many of the Urger streams of the lower peninsula 
have sufficient fall to furnish a large amount of water-power, while 
the small streams that flow into Lake Superior from the central 
portion of the upper peninsula as well as some of the larger ones 
farther west, have several falls and rapids; in places also they arc 
lined with steep, high banks. Most of the larger rivers of the state — 
the Muskegon, Grand, St Joseph, Manistee and Kalamazoo — are in 
the west portion of the lower peninsula. Several thousand lakes of 
dear water, formed by glacial action, dot the surface of the state, and 
many of them are lined with picture^/iue woodland shores. Islands 
in laiccs Superior, Michiran and Huron are scarcely less numerous. 

Fauna and Flora. — Michigan, esi>ecially the north portion, still 
abounds in game. The mammals indudle black bear, deer, lynx, 
porcupine, fox. squirrels, hares, rabbits, musk rets, minks, weasels, 
skunks and woodchucks. Among the game birds are quails (" Dob 
White ")i " partridges " (ruffed grou&e). ducks, geese, woodcocks, 
snipes and Movers. Of song birds the favourites are the robin, 
thrushes, bobolink, oriole, chickadee, meadow-lark, cat-bird, blue- 
bird, wrens and warblers. Among fishes, white fish, lake trout, 
perch, herring, sun-fish, bass, sturgeon, pickerel, suckers. German 
carp and fresh-water drum abound in the lakes. The speckled 
trout thrives in many of the streams. 

Before it was settled by the whites the area now included in Michi- 
gan was a forest, except in the south-west, where there were a few 
small prairies, possibly cleared by the Indians. The remainder of the 
south part of tnis area for about 60 m. along the southern boundary 
was a part of the great hardwood forest of the Ohio Ba«n with 
woods varying with soil and drainage: on the drier gravel lands 
were oak forests consisting of red, black and white oak. hickory, 
ash, cherry, basswood and walnut: in depressions there were maple, 
elm, ash, beech, sycamore, poplar and willow; and in the south- 
east there were a few chestnuts and tulip trees. North of this 
southern hardwood forest there were pine forests on the sandier 
land, mixed hardwoods and conifers on the loam and clay, and 
tamaracks and cedar in the swamps. The sandy lands were in 
part burnt over by Indians, and there was a growth of bcrub oak. 
aspens and huckleberry bushes. The tamarack and cedar swamps 
now have a growth, especially on thdr edges, of spruce, balsam, 
white pine, soft maple, ash ana aspens. In 1009 about 25 % of the 
area was " cut over " or " burned over " lands, mostly the old pine 
woods, the region of the old hardwood forest was almost entirely 
farmland, and alwut 40 % of the state was still in woods. Red 
oak. birch, e'm, ash. white cedar, hemlock, basswood. spruce, 
poplar, balsam, fir and several other kinds of trees are found in many 
sections; but a large portion of the merchanuble timber, espedally 
in the lower peninsula, has been cut.* Among forest shrubs are the 
willow, hazel, alder, shrub maple, birch, hawthorn. do]^ood. 
eldcrbcrT>'. viburnum and snowbcrry. Yews are common in the 
north, and dwarf juniper in the south. In 1900 the woodland area, 
including stump lands, was estimated at 38,000 so. m.. or neariy 
two-thirds of tne entire state. Huckk'berr>", blackberry and rasp- 
berry bushes are common in the north sections. Smilax. clematis. 
bonvysuckie and woodbine are the c ommoner forest vines. 

' (/ader the rcvincd constitution of 1908 the legislature is author- 
ued to provide for the reforesUtioa ot mUU laads. 



Soil.—Tht soil of south-west and south-east Michigan is for the 
most part a dark clay loam or muck; in the north central part of 
the lower peninsula it is a light sandy loam, along the Huron shore 
it is heavy with blue clay, in the mining districts of the north-west 
the rocks are usually either barren or very thinly covered: and else- 
where in the state the soil is generally rich in a variety of mineral 
elements, and varies chiefly in the proportions of vegetable loam, 
sand or gravel, and clay. 

C2ifM/«.— Although the temperatureof the entire lower peninsula 
is considerably influenced by the Ukes, yet, the prevailing winds 
being westerly, it is in the west portion of that peninsula that the 
moderation is greatest, both the summer and winter iiotherms being 
there deflected more than half the length of the peninsula. On the 
other hand, the prevailing winds of the upper peninsula being north- 
westerly, the lakes have little effect on the temperature there; and 
so. while in the south-west the extremes are not great, in the reit 
of the state they have ranged within two years from 104* F. at 
points in the south-east to 49" F. in the north-west. Throughout 
the state July is invariably the warmest month. February the coldest, 
the mean annual temperature is about 45* F. The mean annual 
predpitation is not far from 31 in., a little more than one-half of 
which falls during the five growing, months from May to October; 
the rain is evenly distributed over all parts of the state, but the snow 
is exceptionally heavy along the north shore of the upper peninsula. 

Productions.— 0( the total land surface of the state in 1000 ^08 % 
(in 1904, 47 'I %) was included in farms and 67*2 % (m 1904, 
66 9 %) of the farm land was improved; the total number of farms 
was 203.261 (in 1904, 189.167), of which 143,688 contained leas than 
100 acres, 54.556 others contained less than 260 acres, and 
136 contained 1000 acres or more, the average size being 86 4 
acres (in 1904, 91'^ acres). Of the total number of farms 
168,814 were operated by the owners (in 1904, 161,037 hy owners 
and 914 by managers), 22482 (in 1904, I9>525) hy •naire tenants, 
9731 (in 1904. 7685) by cash tenants: and 312462 of the inhabitants 
of the sute. or 34 - 5 % of all who were engaged in gainful occupations, 
were farmers. Of the total acreage in 1900 of all crops 58' 1 % was 
in cereals and 28 '8 % in hay and forage; of the acreage oi cereals 
408 %wasinwheat.3i'8 %in Indiancom.2i-6%inoatsand3'7% 
in rye. In 1907 the buckwheat crop was 852,000 bushels; rye^ 
•;4S2,ooo bushels; the hay crop. 3,2i6,ooo tons; oats, 3O,U4/i0O 
bushels; barley, 1,496,000 bushels; wheat 12.731.000 bushcU; aad 
Indian corn 57.190,000 bushels. Of livestock, sheep are the nwtt 
numerous (2.130.000 in 1907), and Michigan's wool clip in 1907 «•• 
14,080,500 lb. The number of neat cattle in 1907 was l,8|^/«'«» 
(849,000 dairy cows). The number of hogs was 1,388,000; Mid 
horses 704,000. 

Michigan produces the bulk of the peppermint crop of the Uuti 
States, and it is in the front rank as a in ' 



ruit-producing I __. 

Barley and buckwheat are grown chiefly in the cast part of th 
lower peninsula oouth of Saginaw Bay. Potatoes are grown in coa 
siderable quantities in the north-west part of the lower peninsula fa 
the vicinity of Grand Traverse Bay as well as throughout the •outbeia 
portion of the state; the largest crops of beans are grown in the tooth 
central part of the lower peninsula, and of peas in the countioi 
bordering on Lake Huron. Kalamazoo. lackson. Waditenaw, 
Lenawee. Ingham. Bay and Muskegon are the leading cekry-prodne- 
ing counties: the peppermint district is in the south-west conerof 
the state; and market gardening is an important industry both in the 
south-west and in the south-east counties. All the pnncipnl fruits 
are grown in largest quantities in what is commonly known at tlw 
fruit belt in the south-west, particularly in Berrien, the comer county. 

The fresh-water fish caught in the Great Lakes by residents in 
Michigan exceed in value those caught by residents 01 other autc^ 
and in 1907 the catch was valued at f 1.806.767. Nearly ooe-hair 
both in quantity and value are taken from Lake Michinn. and» 
although as many as twenty kinds are caught in considemble quanti- 
ties, more than 90 % of the value of the catch conoists of tnmt, 
herring, white fish and perch. Both the sUte government and the 
national government have established hatcheries within the aiate, 
and state laws protect the industry, by regulating the siae of nmh 
in the nets used, prescribing the size of fish that may be taken and 
kept, establishing close seasons for several kinds of fish, and by other 
limitations. 

Minerals. — Of the mineral products (for which the state it noted) 
iron is the most valuable. This mineral was discovered in the 
Marquette district along the shore of Lake Superior early in the 
1 8th century, but active operations for mining it did not b^n until 
1845: in 1877 mining of tne same mineral began farther south in 
the Menominee district, and seven years later farther west along 
the Wisconsin border in Gogebic county. The annual product 
steadily increased from ^000 long tons in 1854 to 11. 830.342 m 1907; 
from 1890 to 1901 Michigan ranked first in the union as an iran- 
producing state, but after 1901 its product was exceeded Iw that 
of Minnesota. Up to 1909 it was climated that 380^17.065 tons 
of ore were shipped from the Lake Superior region. N«Ttt i n ^nkm 
among the mineral products is copper; there are about twenty C0| i|wr 
mines in Keweenaw peninsula and its vidnity. The Calumet and 
Heda mine, in the central part of that peninsula, is pffobaUy ths 
most ^to&iabVe Gov^m mine in the wurkl; up to 1909 it had-paid 



1 







'. / • I 



U'r 





t a 

Y « 



MICHIGAN 



373 



about $107,850,000 in dividends. Copper mining tn the state began 
about the same time as iron mining, and the quantity mined incroued 
from 13 long tons in 1845 to 102.543 in 1906 (in i^, 97.17S long 
tons). From 1847 to 1887 the product of Michigan exceeded that 
of any other state; from 1847 to 1883 its copper product was more 
than one-half that of all the states, but after 1887 (except in 1891) 
nx>re ol that mineral was mined in Montana than in Michigan, and 
in 1906 and in 1907 the yield in both Arizona and Montana was 
greater than in Michigan. Fields of bituminous coal extend over 
an area of over 10.000 sq. m. in the central portion of the tower 
peninsula ; but its quality is inferior. The mining of coal began in 
Jackson county in 1835 and there was a slow increase in the output 
until 1882 (1^5,339 short tons) ; then there was a tendency to decrease 
until 1897. from which time the product increased from 223.592 
abort tons to 2,035.858 short tons in 1907. The principal mines 
are in Saginaw, Bay, Eaton. Jackson. Huron and Shiawassee 
counties, bait wells are numerous in the middle and south-east 
sections of the lower peninsula ; the first successful one was drilled 
in Saginaw county in 1859 and i860. For a number of years prior 
to 1893 Michigan was the leading salt-producing state, and. though 
her output was subsequently (except in 1901) exceeded by that of 
New York, it continued to increase up to 1905. when it was 9.492,173 
barrels: in 1907. the product was 10.786.610 barrels. Gypsum is 
obtained from deposits along the banks of the Grand river m Kent 
county and in the vicinity of Alabaster along the shore of Lake 
Huron in Iosco county. Operations on the deposit near Grand 
Rapids were begun in 1841. and althoush that near Alabaster was 
opened in 1862. it was not until 1902 that it became of much im- 
portance: in that year the output of the state was 208,563 short 
tons; in 1907 317,261 short tons were mined. Marl is found in the 
south part of the stale; limestone most largelv in the north part 
of the lower peninsula, and the cast part of the upper peninsula; 
and the production of Portland cement increased rapidly from 
77.000 barrels in 1898 to 5.572,668 in 1907. Besides limestones 
and dolomites, the only building stone of much commercial impor- 
tance is the Potsdam sandstone, extensive beds of which lie in the 
north part of the upper peninsula. Grindstones are produced in 
considerable quantity in Huron county. A small quantity of 
petroleum is ootained from thirteen wells in St Clair county in the 
east part of the lower peninsula; and the mineral waters at Mount 
Oemens. Benton Harbor and Alma are of considerable commercial 
value for medicinal purposes. 

Manu aclures. — In 1000 the value of the manufactured products 
of Michigan amounted to I356.944.082, which was an increase of 
28-4% over that of 1890. and by iskxa there was a further increase 
of 20i9%.» During the same period, however, the value of the 
[NTxlucts of the lumber and timber industry, which in 1870. 1880 
and iS^ was greiitcf than thai of any other state, and in 1900 ft'as 
•LiEl more thjLH t*icc a* great as ihat of the products of anv other 
mAnufscturirig industry \n the state and was exceeded only by that 
of the product of Wiwronsin, dtxrrascd from $8,UiiH9&9 in i^ 
to S5i.9rs.6.j7 (J5 1%) in 1900, .ind to $40,569.3.^5 in igo^. this 
dccnt4*e wine du« 10 ihc fact tliat the large i;^iJiiniUiea o! raw 
material (both hard wood and pine) formerly found: in the fo^^ns 
oi Mtchi^^n h^ become so far c?chausted that minli of ir had tr» be 
brought lO ffotn other statn and from Canada, '•'f- ■. !■ ■ 
prw]uci9 of I he furniture factorirf and of the planing mills, neverthe- 
le^., ha« steadily increait^: that of the furniture factories (of which 
Grand Rapids It the leading rent ne not only in Michigan but in the 
United States) rising from tto.7tj7.038 in 1890 to 814,614.506 in 
ii^:h> and $[8421735 in 1^4, and that of the planing mills from 
i 10,607,603 in 1^90 to !ia4fj<>.5.p in 1900 and $14,375,467 in 1904- 
Tbt totai value of the Itimhcr and timber products, the furniture 
products, and thtf pke^in|-rrkEll fproducts amounted in i(^ to 
|Sa.i9^,&85: the s-alue of tlios*: imanufactures based upon minerals 
tnific-rt Of quarried amounted in ihc same year to $83,730,930. 

AhtjthLT important cEass fi>f m^^nrjfactures is that based on agri- 
fultirrr: the valtic of flc^ijr tt 1 -rist mill products amounted to 
i? 1,64 1.547 in 1900^ Awi ^ 7 in 1901; that of food prepara- 

tions. Tor which Battle Creeic is noted, to $1,891,516 in 1900 and 
$6>753<699 in 1904: that of agricultural implements to $6,339'.So8 
in 1900 and $8,719,719 in 1904; and of malt liquors to $5,296,825 
in 1900 and $6,999,251 in 1904. 

Among other manufactures in which the state ranks high and in 
which there was a large increase in value during the same period 

* The 1904 census, taken by the Federal Bureau of the Census 
in co-operation with the secretary of state of Michigan, covered the 
year ending on the 30th of June 1904. and is thus not strictly com- 
parable with the " 1905 " census of manufactures for other states, 
which were for the year ending on the 31st of December 1904. But 
like the special census of manufactures in other states, it is confined 
to establishments under the factory system, and hence its figures 
are considerably less than they would have been had it been taken 
on the same basis as that of the 1900 census, which included hand 
trades and other custom work; for example, on the basis of the 1904 
census the iralue of the manufactured products in 1900 was only 
I319.691356, and as that of 1904 was $429,120,060, the real in- 
creaae was 34*3% instead of 20*19%. In the above text from this 
point the atatiatica given for 1900 are for lactorv products only. 



are: leather, carnages and waggons, chemicals, paper and wood 
pulp and beet sugar. In 1904 Michigan manufactured automobiles 
valued at $6,876,708. 

The ten leadina manufacturing centres are. in the order of the 
value of their products in 1904 : Detroit. Grand Rapids, Kalamazoo. 
Battle Creek, Saginaw, Jackson, Lansing. Muskegon. Bay City 
and Port Huron, all in the south half of the lower peninsula. 

Communications. — The building of railways in Michigan began 
in 1830, but little progress had been made in 1837 when the state 
b^;an the construction of three railways and two canals across the 
south half of the lower peninsula. The Michigan Central was 
completed from D.^,'jiE l<^ Yj,..iLj.ll .h J..j,u..j^ j.,\y-,, j p,Tii,..-n 
of the Michigan Southern, was in operation In Nuit'^mlxT ib4U, and 
considerable work waa done an the protKj^ MirhiKaii Northern 
and the two canals. By 1846, howevtr, the siaic h;id proved itself 
incompetent to cany on the work and ^M its interests to private 
companies. In 1850 there wcfr 342 m- completed, and from then 
until 1880 the milejue incrcast'd 10 393S; but the grest period of 
railway building in Nfichi^ati wu In the decade from iMo la (890. 
when the mileage was inci^aEed to 7t&B^48. By the close ol 
1908 it had furthif Incn^iLifTd to 8639-^35. The principal Uiwi 
are the Michigan Central, the P^rt MzLrquette, the Ijltu Shore ft 
Michi^n Southern, the Grand Rapids A Indiana ^ the Afin Arbof^ 
the Grand Trunks the Chicago & North-Wefc^cm, the DuLuth 
South Shore & Actaniic, the Minneapolis^ St Paul ^ Sault 
Ste. Marie, and the Chicaeo. Milwaukee &. St Paul. A board 
of railway commissioners, which in 1907 lucceefJed a oommi^siDncr 
(whoae office was created in tS7j) hear* complaiDit^. has ponw to 
issue various orders and pemutji of minor impaTtHsnte to rstlway 
companies, and report* annually to the*- go^rtfior' The Irgiilature 
is empowered to appoint a commission to fix transportation rates 
for railways and express companies. Besides railway communica- 
tion Michigan has a ct>as: " m.. along which vessels 
of 2000 tons can sail atnJ mu.! s..-%t-r u ^<<'id harbours, the water 
communication having titLn ctT(n(J>.-.J an*l improved by several 
canals, among which an> the ^irlt Srr Marie, which passes the 
rapids of St Mary's Ri^cr; ihe St Clair f-lats, at the north end 
of Lake St Clair, bv whkh a draper channel is made through 
shallow water; and the Ti^rtagv Lake, in the copper district, which 
connects that lake with IjVu Superior. The state undertook to 
construct that at Sault Sec, Marie in jiH^^7 but little had been 
accomplished in 1852 when the national go^nrnment granted 750,000 
acres of land to the state in aid of the enterprise, and three years 
after that the canal was completed. Since its completion, the 
national government has ^nlart^td its lorkj^ so as to make it navigable 
for vessels drawing 21 ft. of l•>^A^cr. 1 htj nitional government con- 
structed the canal at tli - ' ' 1871 and contributed 
land for aid in the construction of that connecting lakes Portage 
and Superior, which was completed in 1 873 and passed under natioiul 
control in 1891. 

Population. — The population of Michigan in 1880 was 
z«<^36,937; in 1890 it was 2,093,889, an increase of 27-9% within 
the decade; in 1900 it was 2,420,982, a further increase of 
15-6% and in 1910, according to the preliminary returns of 
the U.S. census, it was 2,810,173. Of the total population 
in 1900, 2,398,563 or 99-07% were whites, 15,861 were negroes, 
6354 were Indians, 240 were Chinese, and 9 were Japanese. 
1.879,329 or 77-6% were native bom and 541,653 were foreign- 
bom, 184,398 of the foreign-bom being natives of Canada 
(151,915 English; 33,483 French), 135,074 of Germany, 43,839 
of England, and 30,406 of Holland. In 1906 982,479 communi: 
cants of different denominations were reported: of these 493,135 
were Roman Catholics, 128,675 Methodists, 105,803 Lutherans, 
50,136 Baptists, 37,900 Presbyterians, 28,345 members of 
Reformed bodies, and 26,349 members of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church. In 1900 393% of the total population 
lived in places having at least 3500 inhabitants. 

Administration. — The constitution under which Michigan is 
now governed was first adopted in 1S50, when it was felt 
that the powers which the first one, that of 1835, conferred 
upon the executive and the legislature were too unrestricted. 
In 1908 it was revised, and many changes were made. 

The constitution admits of amendment by an affirmative vote 
of two-thirds of the members of each house of the legislature, fol- 
lowed at the next succeeding spring or autumn election by an 
affirmative vote of a majority of the electors voting upon the 
question; or an amendment may be proposed by an initiative 
petition signed by more than 20% of the total number of electors 
who voted for secretary of state at the preceding election, and such 
an amendment (unless disapproved by a majority vote in a joint 
meeting of the two houses of the legislature) is submitted to po^uUs 

• In i^ telegraph and teXevtViotve comva3K«& ^«c^ v^x >xoAKt ^Oofc 
supervision of the tame boaxd. 



374 



MICHIGAN 



vote at the next election and comes into effect only if it receives a 
favourable majority of the popular vote. Amendments suggested 
by the legislature have been frequently adopted, and one, adopted 
in 1 86a, provided that the Question of a general revision of the con- 
stitution shall be submitted to a popular vote once every sixteen 
years and at such other times as may be provided by law. When 
thb question was so submitted for the first time, in 1866, the vote 
was to revise; but the revision prepared by a convention called for 
the purpose was rejected at the polls The revision by the Con- 
stitutional Convention of 1907- 1908 was adopted by popular vote 
in 1908. 

In its present fonn the constitution confers suffrage upon 
every male citizen of the United States who is twenty-one 
years of age or over and has resided in the state six months 
and in his township or ward twenty days immediately preceding 
an election; and any woman may vote in an election involving 
the direct expenditure of public money or the issue of bonds 
if she have the qualifications of male electors and if she have 
property assessed for taxes in any part of the district or territory 
affected by the election in question. At the head of the execu- 
tive department is the governor, who is elected for two years, 
and who at the time of his election must be at least thirty 
years of age and must have been for five years a citizen of the 
United States, and for the two years immediately preceding 
a resident of the state. A lieutenant-governor, for whom the 
same qualifications are prescribed, is elected at the same time 
for the same term. Under the first constitution the secretary 
of state, treasurer, auditor-general, attorney-general, commis- 
sioner of the land office, superintendent of public instruction 
and the judges were all appointed by the governor, but under 
the present one they are elected and only minor officers are 
appointed. In 1893 the legbbture created a board of four 
members to be appointed by the governor, one of whom must 
be a physician, another an attorney, and made it its duty to 
investigate the case of every convict for whom a petition for 
pardon is received and then report and recommend to the 
governof what it deem expedient. The governor's salary 
is fixed by the revised constitution of 1908 at $5000 a year. 
The lieutenant-governor succeeds the governor in case of vacancy, 
and next in order of succession comes the secretary of state. 

The legislature, consisting of a Senate of 33 members, and a 
House of Representatives of 100 members (according to the 
constitution not less than 64 and not more than 100), meets 
biennially, in odd-numbered years, at Lansing. Both senators 
and representatives are elected for a term of two years by single 
districts, except that a township or city which is entitled by 
its population to more than one representative elects its 
representatives on a general ticket. Beginning in 191 3 and at 
each subsequent tenth year, the legislature, under the revised 
constitution of 1908, rearranges the senatorial districts and 
reapportions the representatives among the counties and 
districts, using as a basis the returns of the next preceding 
decennial census; the taking of a state census between the 
decennial periods is discontinued. 

No bill can pass either house except by an affirmative vote of a 
majority of the members elected to that house, and on its third 
reading the ayes and noes must be taken and recorded; for appro- 

Eriation bills a two-thirds majority of all members elected to each 
ouse is required. All legislation must be by bill, legislation by 
joint and concurrent resolutions thus being prevented. No bill may 
be passed at a regular session until it has been printed and in posses- 
sion of each house for five days; no bill mav be passed at a special 
session on any subject not expressly stated in the governor's pro- 
clamation or submitted by special message. The governor has ten 
days (Sundays not being counted) in which to exrrcise his veto 
power (which may be applied to any item or items of any bill making 
appropriations of monev and embracing distinct items), and an 
affirmative vote in each house of two-thirds of the members elected 
is required to pass a bill over his veto. Under the revised constitu- 
tion of 1908 any bill passed by the legislature and approved by the 
governor, except appropriation bills, may be referred by the legis- 
lature to the qualified electors; and no bill so referred shall become 
law unless approved by a majority of the electors voting thereon; 
no local Or special act, passed by the legislature, takes effect until 
it is approved by a majority vote .of the electors in the affected 
district. 

The admimstntion of justice is entrusted to a supreme court, 
M^coDtinuaUy incresisiDg Dumber of circuit courts (thirly-«g,\Lt 



in 1909), one probate court in each county, and not aceeding 
four justices of the peace in each township. The supreme 
court is composed of one chief justice and seven aasodaU justices, 
all elected for a term of ten years, not more than two retiring 
every two years; it holds four sessions annually, eserdses 
a general control over the inferior courts, nuy issue, hear 
and determine any of the more important writs, and has appel- 
ate jurisdiction only in all other important cases. Th«xe it 
only one circuit court judge for a circuit, unless the legislature 
provides for the election of more; the term of office is six year*. 
Circuit court judges have original jurisdiction in most nutten 
civil and criminal, hear appeals from the lower courts, and 
must hold at least four sessions annually in each county of the 
circuit. Each cotmty elects a judge of probate for a term of 
four years; he has original concurrent jurisdiction with the 
circuit court in matters of probate, and has original jurisdiction 
in all cases of juvenile delinquents and dependents. The 
legislature may provide for the election of more than one judge 
of probate in a county with more than xoo,ooo inhabitants. 
Justices of the peace are elected by the townships for a term of 
four years — there are not more than four in each township; 
in civil matters they have exclusive jurisdiction of cases in 
which the demand does not exceed $100 and concurrent juris- 
diction with the circtiit courts in contract cases in wliich the 
demand does not exceed $300. 

For purposes of local government the sute is divided into 
eighty-three counties, each of which is in turn divided regularly 
by N. and S. and £. and W. lines into several townships. In 
the more sparsely inhabited counties of the upper peninsula 
and in the N.E. section of the lower peninsula the townshipt 
are much larger than in other parts of the state. The officos 
of the township are a supervisor, clerk, treasurer, highway- 
commissioner, one overseer of highways for each highway 
district, a justice of the peace, and not more than four am- 
stables, all of whom are elected at the annual township meeting 
in April. The supervisor, two of the justices of the peace 
and the clerk constitute the township board, whose duty it 
is to settle claims against the township, audit accounts, and 
publish annually an itemized statement of receipts and dis- 
bursements. The supervisor is also the township assessor, and 
the several township supervisors constitute the county board 
of supervisors who equalize property valuations as between 
townships, authorize townships to borrow money with which 
to. build or repair bridges, are entrusted with the care and 
management of the property and business of the county, and 
may borrow or raise by tax what is necessary to meet the 
more common expenses of the county. Other county officers 
are a treasurer, clerk, sheriff, register of deeds, attorney, sur- 
veyor and two coroners, each elected for a term of two 
years, a school commissioner elected for a term of four years, 
and one or more notaries public appointed by the governor. 

Under the revised constitution of 1908 the former dassifiafc- 
tion of cities into four classes and the practice of granting 
special charters were abolished, and the legislature is required 
to provide by general bws for the incorporation of cities and 
villages; " such general laws shall limit their rate of taxation 
for municipal purposes and restrict their powers of borrowing 
money and contracting debts." Cities and villages are permitted 
— upon authorization by the affirmative vote of three-fifths 
of the electors voting on the question— to own and Operate, 
even outside their corporate limits, public utilities for supplsring 
water, light, heat, power and transportation, and may sell 
and deliver, outside their corporate limits, water, heat, power 
and light to an amount not more than one-fourth that furnished 
by them in each case within their corporate Umits; but no 
city or village of less than 25,000 inhabitants may own or operate 
transportation facilities. Under the revision of 1908 corporate 
franchises cannot be granted for a longer term than thirty 
years. 

Law.-^A wife in Michiean has the nme right to her p copef ty 
acquired either before or alter marriage as she would have if Mglt, 
1 excepl that the cannot under ordin^uy circumstances give, gnat m 



MICHIGAN 



375 



■eO it to tnotker without her hiubsfid's cfliveirt' CrouTida Tor a 
d i ^oree an adultery, physical incapacity at the time of m^rrii^gi^^ 
a Mte ac e to impriaooment for three years or moFr» de^crtjan iiit t v^ g 
yean, habhnaf drunkenneaa, extrenie cruelty, or, m cotc oi the %'ilc. 
fdFaaal of the husband to provide for her maJnten^nce when ^uf^i- 
deotl^r able to do so; but m case the parties wen num^d <fi]t«ulf 
«C Mwhigan the party seeking the divorce m^jst rcaidc within the 
Mate at leut one year oefore petitioning for the iAmv. An inwtvcnt 
debtor's homestead — consisting of not more t Una ^ acn!s of Lund with 
a house thcreoo, or a house and lot in a city ar yiSbsi' not exceed ini; 
$1500 in ii«lue, together with not less than f joo erf his pcrH>n^J 
property— is exempt from execution. For H.-vFnl ycani pnrvioui iu 
1876 a dause of the constitution prohibited the *ah of intoxjcitting 
Bquon within the state. Since then the wliole liquor btitinetfA hji^ 
been subjected to a heavy tax, and since i^li? ih« (irDhibUion &f it 
has been left to the option of each of the ftevtral coiinticB. A «t%tc 
court of mediation and arbitration, consL^TJRg of thret mcmltcn 
ap p ointed by the governor with the consul ol the seriate, wai 
created in X889 to inquire into the cause of £tkv*nce5 thrcsreDin^ 
or resulting ia ASty itrikc or bck-out and to end^vour to elfect a 
vrttlrmeiitr 

CJkaritaiiUand Ptnat fmiituiioHt, — Tlie f tite Bupportf the Mirhi^an 
Awtum tor the lunne (opened 1859), at Kalanujoo; the EAttern 
Michi^n Afylum for the Insane (opened 1(97$), at Pontile; the 
Nofthnn Michigan ^^jylum for the tnsane {opened tASjKat TraveriC 
City; the Michigan Awlum for the Dangerout mud Criminal Insane 
faattWwbed tB9Sh ^t loniiy the Uppe; Peniiuula Ha$pital for the 
inaaifT. at Newberry; a Pctychopathif Ho^riital (eKabli$Ked 1007)* at 
Abb KftfOri a State Sanjtonum fc*iablishea 1905J, at Ho*elh 
tke Michiean Siaie Priioa {estublifiJied i^A9], at Jackson; the 
Mirhigaft Reformatory (e^ubtijshf^ 1887), 01 fofila; the State Houfc 
of Cofreciion and Eranch Priauti (trtablwhcd 1*85), at Marqueitc: 
tbr Indnstriat School tof Boys, at Laniing; the Industrial Home for 
Cirls (cstAbliihed 1S79), near Adrian; ihe State Public School 
(opcBflsl i974)» at Cold water, a tempf^mry home for dependent c}iil- 
dfni iwtil homes in families cin be found for them; the School foj 
the pfsiS (atAblished 1854). at FUnt ; the School for the Blind, at 
tjkn^mgi an Emplmment tnatitution fisr the BEind (e«tahlished 
kQD3J, at Saginaw; the Hotne for the Feeb!e Minded and Epileptic 
(cstabSisbed i^ill, at Liipecr; and the Michigan Soldiers' Home 
ir;Ui'''. ! i -'- . .■'. "; .r.[ V ^ •■■■':-. V ■ \i ol theic in&titutinnji is 
und^^ niem ben appointed by 

the sovemor with the approval of the Sei..i[Ci, and at the hvad of 
the departinent is the State Board of Cum-n'umi and Charities^ 
coiwiitnng of the governor and four other rncrntKri^ :ipp*jiiiied hy 
hisn, with the approval of the Senate, for a icr^i at right yeam. ofie 
rednnK emy two years. This board is rt^uired to visit eajtrh of 
the inscitutioas at least once a year to ascertain it» condition and 
needs, and all proposed appropriations for ihcfr fupporc. plani of 
buildings, p roposed S3^enu ot sewerage, ventilation and heating 
must be suomitted to it. 

Edmeation. — Michigan was a pioneer atAtp In creatlivg the 
American educational system; she began, ihe organl/Atlf^u of 
it at the time of her admission into the Urtioo jn 1837, And hi& 
since been noted for the high standard of her school. Each 
township operating under the District Act hni two ^hool inspec- 
tors— one being elected at each town meeting for A term of 
two yean — ^who with the township clerk constitute the township 
board of school inspectors, and to this boaj-d is sLvtn authority 
to divide the township into school districts and to exercise 
a general supervision over the several schools within their 
jurisdiction; a township may be organized as a single district;, 
called a " township unit district." The qiialified electors of 
each district having an ungraded school elect a moderator, 
a director and a treasurer — one at each antiual ^Uooi mei;iin£ 
— Cor a term of three years, who constitute the district school 
board, and this board is entrusted with ample power for direct- 
ing the affairs of the school. In a district having more than 
xoo children of school age a graded school under the control 
of five trustees is formed whenever two-thirds oI the electors 
vote for it at a town meeting, and the tn^t^es of » gr^ed 
school may est&blish a high school whcTiever a mjLJority of the 
electors authoriie them to do so. A high school may also be 
fstablisbfd in any township in which ihtre is tio incorporated 
village or dty if when the question is submitted to the ejectors 
of that township a majority of the votes cast are in the afiirma- 
tive. Each county has a county school commissioner^ dueled 
for a term of four years, who exercises a. generd supervision 
over the schools within his jurisdiction, and a board of examiners, 
fomistiBg of three members (including the commiisioner) 
and appointed by the several boards of county supervisors, 
fram whom teachers receive certificates. Finally^ at the bead 



of all the public elementary and secondary schools of the state is 
the state superintendent of public instruction, elected for a term 
of two years; he is ex officio a member and secretary of the state 
board of education, and a member, with the right to speak but 
not to vote, of all other boards having control of public instruc- 
tion in any state institution. In every district having as many 
as 800 children between the ages of five and twenty the state 
requires that the school be taught not less than nine months a 
year; and a compulsory education law requires the attendance 
of all children between the ages of eight and fifteen for four 
months each year, in cities all between the same ages for the 
full school year, and between the ages of seven and sixteen if 
found frequenting public places without bwful occupation. 

The hij^hiT ttiitf iiHitit Lit ions of learning consiit of a univefsity, 
to which j;rada.ii'.-^ oi hl^h schckola on ^n a^rrv^ittd lift are admitted 
without examination, four normal ichtjols^ an agtieultuml college» 
and a (chocil of mine^ The univefiity (ai Ann Artsor) wa* c»tab- 
llj^hed in tSjT, and i* under the c^-vntrof vi a biiafd d niL-eenif elected 
by the ptMit for a teno of eight ycan^ t*o every two ycirs; the 
presidefit ot the institittlon and ihe ^i/perintendent of public ins^truc- 
tlon are loemben of the board Isiit wit Hon t the right to vutc. The 
^tAtfi nomuJ Khoott ate: the Mlchisan Sihk Nonn,tl Cullegi? at 
Yp^ilanti (organind in 1849)1 the Central Miclii^n Normal School 
at Mojnt hcsaiant (establiincd in iB^Sh the Ncirthern State NVrmdl 
School It Maniuelte (dtablishcd in f6^}: ^lul the Wcitern State 
Nornidl School at Katamaioc^ (established in 1 904). All of them are 
under the state board of education, which consist* of the slate super- 
intendent of public instruction and three othtr raembcrs ek-cledn one 
every two year*, for a term of lix Tftara; The agricultural col Eege. 
at Eaiit Landing, 3 m. eaat ot Lansing^ Is the oldest in the L^nitcd 
State*; it was provided for by the stale con^titLtion of i^sn, organ- 
itrd in l^S5 and opened in i%^7, and ia under the conlrol of the 
state bfj^Tti of ai;:fit-uliiiref eon*i4linfj of the prt-*id<?nt of the college 
.sr ' -x ■^ ^ r TT : :^'^r r <* -t^r" • y •■ i ' 'T Vi'^^^^ f ^ ?^ ■ '^n : f ^'-r y--' in, 
two every two years. ^ The cotfege of mines, at Houghton, was 
established in 1885 and is under the control of a board of six members 
a Pl^jji.u .J by the governor with the approval of the Senate, two every 
tvrij yvit^r In 1908 it had 35 instructors, 253 students, and a library 
of aa.ooo volumes. Other important institutions of learning within 

the state but r.^; 1: ,>:ed by it are: Albion College (Methodist 

EpiicopI : opened in ic^j), at Albion; Hillsdale College (Free Bap- 
tist, th^^}, At HilEHiale; Kalamazoo College (Baptist, 1855), at 
Kalamazoo; Adrian Colte^ (controlled by the Methodist Protestant 
Church tlnce tii(i^).»t Adrian ; Olivet College (Congregational. 1859), 
at Olivtt; Hope College (Reformed, 1866), at Holland; Detroit 
College (Roman Catholic, 1877), at Detroit; Alma College (Presby- 
terian; incorporated tSfi6), at Alma; and some professional schools 
&t Detroit ig.*.). 

Fitmtuf.^-Tht revenue of the state is derived almost wholly 
from tanes, about ij % from a direct or general property tax and thie 
rest from vahoiia specihc or indirect taxes, such as the liquor tax 
and the inheritance tax. The direct tax, other than that on the 
proprty of corporations, is assessed by the township supervisors, or, 
10 ntiea and incorporated villages by the officer named in the charter 
for that service, on what is supposed to be the full cash value of the 
property. The assessment roll thus prepared is reviewed bjj a local 
board of review; an equalization between the assessing districts in a 
county is made annually by the county board of supervisors, and 
between the counties in the state every five years (and at such other 
times as the legislature may direct) by the state board of equaliza- 
tion, which is composed of the lieutenant-governor, auditor-general, 
secretary of state, treasurer, and commissioner of the land ofhce. 
But at the head of the whole taxing system is the board of state tax 
commissioners and ex officio sute Doard of assessors, consisting of 
three members appointed by the governor with the approval of the 
senate for a term of six years. It exercises a general supervision 
over all other taxing officers and is itself the assessor of the property 
of railroads, express companies and certain car companies. Mainly 
through the efficiency of this board the assessed value of the taxabw 

rropcrty of the state was increased from 1968,169,087 in 1899 to 
1,418.251,8.^8 in 1902, or 46-4%, and the taxes levied on railways, 
which had hitherto been assessed on their gross earnings, were in- 
creased from $1483.907 in 1901 to 53.288.162 in 1902, or 121-6%. 
In entering upon the work of public improvements in 1837 the state 
borrowed |^,200,ooo, and the greater portion of the bonds were sold 
to the Moms Canal and Banking Company and to the Pennsylvania 
United Sutes Bank, both of which failed when they had only in 
part paid for the bonds. About this time it was seen that the cost 
of the improvements undertaken would be much greater than the 
original estimate and that several of them were impracticable. 
The difficulty of meeting the interest as it became due soon threat- 
ened to be insurmountable, but the slate finally sold the improve- 
ments made and came out of the experience with good credit 
although with a large debt — about two and a half mUlvotv%^^0&axv. 
This was further increased duntvi \.Vvc CwW^w^XiMX ^Vx« >Jcvft 0«Mfc 
of that war it was rap«d\y dunMnstoeA «it«^ ^ta\Vj '«^».x:vwvi>A«^ v«v 



376 



MICHIGAN 



the last decade of the century. The pieaent constitution (as revised 
m 1908) forbids the contraction of a sUte debt exceeding $350,000 
except for repelling an invasion or suppressing an insurrection, and 
the borrowing power of the minor civU divisions is restricted by a 
general law. 

Thi,^ early tdcpcricncr o( the sute wkh barvks wat tc^mly Leia 
■cfious thiin thut wkh publk imftrovemenn. Although there wtre 
«lreflrly fifteen banks iti the «t^tc in 1^37 yet the cry a^i\mt monu- 
poly wm loud 4 attd so in thiit year a. general hankiDe 1«^^ was pasaet! 
whereby 'iny tern or more freeholders might esUbU^ a bank with n. 
capital <A not less than fifty tJhDUbaii4 nof more than three hundrcfl 
thousand dollars and begin buiine» a» toon as yiVa oJ the camtal 
wan paki in in specie. Only a few provisions were madtf, and thoic 
InciTectualt for the prDtection of tht public : later in the iame year the 
legisJature paued an act ioT the sy5|Kn$ion of specie paynsCEUj until 
the dth of Xlay 1^38^ and the codi-cquenjcc was that the ^latt was 
flooded with irredeerfiable pitper cumJncy. Hut most of iht " wihJ 
cat " buDki had passed oui of e3u«t^nce by 1819, and in 1844 the 
bank act of iSjj wa$ dtcbiK!d tindonstitutional. Pfofittntf by this 
eaipetTence, the framers of the t^jistitution of 1850 idscrtecTa pravi- 
BJon in that document whcfrby no ffcneral banliing: \^w can have 
effect until it has bnn submitted to the people and ha i^ been approved 
by a majority of the voi« cast on the question, ThU provision id^ 
tncludi^ in the rrvi$£d coni^titution adapted in i^, with ^n addi- 
llonal provision th.)t no amendment ihaU be msde to any bankinz 
law unW# it shall receive an affirmative two-thirds vote of both 
bcaiildltej of the legisbtune. Ttie present banking law provides that 
the capital slock m a »tftte hank !*hfilt be not ley* th:in S?f>,E>oo in a 
city -' -■' r^.- '1-n i^-.-, ir!-." irv-'-. r M .- ■'■L-. r ■:: -riy in a 
tjly ■ ■ ■ . . :., ?ween 

5000 and 20,000, not less than ^ 100,000 in a city of between 20,000 
and 1 10,000, and not less than $350,000 in all larger dties. Commer- 
cial banks and savings banks arc required to keep on hand at least 
15% of their total deposits. Every stockholder in a bank is made 
individually liable to the amount of his stock at its par value in 
addition to the said stock. And all banks are subject to the inspec- 
tion and supervision of the commissioner of the state banking depart- 
ment, who is appointed by the governor with the approval of the 
Senate for a term of four years. 

History. — From 1613 until 1760 the territory now within 
the borders of Michigan formed a part of New France, and the 
first Europeans to found missions and settlements within 
those borders were Frenchmen. Two Jesuits, Raymbault 
and Jogues, visited the site of Sault Sainte Marie as early as 
164X for the conversion of the Chippewas; in 1668 Marquette 
founded there the first permanent settlement within the state; 
three years later he had founded a mission among the Huxons 
at Michilimackinac; La Salle built a fort at the mouth of the 
Saint Joseph in 1679; and in 1701 Cadillac founded Detroit 
as an important point for the French control of the fur trade. 
But the missionaries were not interested in the settlement 
of the coimtry by Europeans, the fur traders were generally 
opposed to it, there was bitter strife between the missionaries 
and Cadillac, and the French system of absolutism in govern-^ 
ment and monopoly in trade were further obstacles to progress. 
Even Detroit was so expensive to the government of the mother 
country that there was occasional talk of abandoning it; and 
so during the last fifty-nine years that Michigan was a part 
of new France there were no new settlements, and little if any 
growth in those already established. During the last war 
between the English and the French in America the Michigan 
settlements passed into the possession of the English, Detroit 
in 1760 and the others in 1 761, but the time had not yet come 
for much improvement. The white inhabitants, still mostly 
French, were subjected to an English rule that until the Quebec 
Act of 1774 was chiefly military, and as a consequence many 
of the more thrifty sought homes elsewhere, and the Indians, 
most of whom had been allies of the French, were so ill-treated, 
both by the oflScers and traders, that under Pontiac, chief of 
the Ottawas, a simultaneous attack on the English posts was 
planned. Detroit was besieged for five months and both 
Michilimackinac and Saint Joseph were taken. Moreover, 
the English policy, which first of all was concerned with the 
profits of trade and manufacture, gave little more encouragement 
to the settlement of this section of the coimtry than did the 
French. By the Treaty of Paris, in 1783, which concluded 
the American War of Independence, the title to what is now 
Michigan passed to the United States, and in 1787 this region 
became a part of the North- West Territory; but it was ;iot 
twti/ i^gd that Detroit and MackiBMc (Michilimackinac), in 



accordance with Jay's Treaty of X794, wexe sozrendered by 
Great Britain. In 1800, on the division of the Nortlk-West 
Territory, the west portion of Michigan became a part of the 
newly-esublished Indiana Territory, into whidi the entire 
area of the present sUte was embodied in 1802, when Ohio 
was admitted to the Union; and finally, in 1805, Michigan 
Territory was organLeed, its south boundary being then described 
as a line drawn east from the south extremity of Lake Michigan 
until it intersected Lake Erie, and its west boundary a line 
drawn from the same starting point through the middle of 
Lake Michigan to its north extremity and then due north to 
the north boundary of the United States. In 1812. during the 
second war between Great Britain and the United States, 
General William Hull, first governor of the Territory, although 
not greatly outnumbered, surrendered Detroit to the British 
without a struggle; in the same year also Mackinac was taken 
and Michigan again passed under British rule. This rule was 
of short duration, however, for soon after Commodore Oliver 
H. Perry's victory on Lake Erie, in September of the next year, 
Detroit and the rest of Michigan except Mackinac, which was 
not recaptured until July 181 5, were again taken into the pos- 
session of the United States. Up to this time the Territory 
had still remained for the most part a wilderness in which the 
fur trade reaped the largest profits, its few small settlements 
being confined to the borders; and the inaccurate reports of 
the.siirveyors sent out by the national government described 
the interior as a vast swamp with only here and there a littk 
land fit for cultivation. The large number of hostile Indiaas 
was also a factor in making the Territory unattractive. But 
during the efficient administration of Lewis Cass, governor of the 
Territory from 1813 to 1831, the interference of the British 
was checked and many of the Indians were removed to the west 
of the Mississippi; printing presses, established during the same 
period at Detroit, Ann Arbor, Monroe and Pontiac, became 
largely instrumental in making the country better known; 
the first steamboat, the " Walk-in-the-Water," appeared at 
Detroit in x8i8; the Erie canal was opened in 1825; by 1830 
a daily boat line was running between Detroit and Buffalo, 
and the population of Michigan, which was only 4762 in x8xo 
and 8896 in 1820, increased to 31,639 in X830 ind 2x2,267. 
in X840. In 1819 the Territory had been empowered to send 
a delegate to Congress. By X832 the question of admission 
into the Union had arisen, and in 1835 a convention was called 
in Detroit, a constitution was framed in May, that constitution 
was adopted by popular vote in October, state officers were 
elected, and application for admission was made; but a dispute 
with Ohio over the boundary between the two caused a dday 
in the admission, by Congress until early in the year 1837. 
Although the ordinance creating the North-West Territoiy 
fixed the boundary line as claimed by Michigan, yet that line 
was found to be farther south than was at the time expected 
and when the constitution of Ohio was adopted it was acooni- 
panled with a proviso designed to secure to that state a north 
boundary that was north of the mouth of the Mauxnee River. 
The territory between the two proposed lines was unquestionahly 
of greater economic importance to Ohio than to Michtgui, 
and, besides, at this particular time there were forcible political 
reasons for not offending the older sUte. The consequence 
was that after the bloodless "war" between the two sutcs 
for the possession of Toledo, Congress settled the dispute in 
Ohio's favour and gave to Michigan the territory siiure known 
as the upper peninsula. The boundaries as fixed by Congress 
were rejected by a convention which met on the 4th of September 
at Ann Arbor, but they were accepted by the conventioD of 
the Jackson party, which met, also at Ann Arbor, on the 6th 
of December; the action of this latter convention was considered 
authoritative by Congress, which admitted Michigan into the 
Union as a state on the 26th of January 1837. Since adxnissioo 
into the Union the more interesting experiences of the state 
have been with internal improvements and with hankmg, 
which together resulted in serious financial distress; in the iitili> 
latioii ol its natural resources, which have been a vast sooroe of 



MICHIGAN, LAKE 



377 



vcaltli; Vi^ in the developincat d iti eduCAtionaJ sysivm, 
In vhkh Utc KUte hu exerted a large InflucEKrf: thfuugbuut 
llic Utuoo. From the beginning ol iti governmcal UAdtr iU 
ficst state cQDstituLlaD in 183,5 untU iB;^ Micbigai bod a. Drmo- 
ovlk «d[iuiiai.mion witb the exception of the ysirs 1840- 
i&|T, wbco oppotilian to the Anancial injures of ihc DeniocTa.t5 
placed tbe W^^ in power. But it wa» in MkhigiUi that the 
Republican party f^«iv«d iu &rit offickl r«coigfutiDjk< at a 
■late convention Kdd «t Jsickson on tbe 0th of July 1857, and 
from the beginaing of the following year the ii)4miiiis.Lration 
luA been Rcpubljtin with the cicepUon of two termB frotn iRSj 
to iSS^r JBJod from i^t to li^j, when it tvus again Democratic. 

GOVEUtOM or MtCtttCAN 

»•-.*- .p ■■ Timtoriai. _ _ 

Willvam Hun ... , . 1805-1813 

tr«i»C4i« » . , ■ - - > ■ l8ij^i»jt 



ScrvttiA Tbocnnoo Muon (acting) * . tl^t 



$tev«i:)> TtwfnpMO Muon (acting) 
John Scott Homer CactingJ 

Stale. 
5te¥«tt TfaomHon Maion . 
Williani Woodbridge . 
tmoMs Wrifbi Gordoa <«Ting) 
John StcwanJ B^ny , 
AlpheLta Fekb 
WilJiUfn L. Gnenly {acting) 
Epsphmclkua RaosoiD 
Jobn Steward Bjny . 
Mcrt McCldUiid ^ . . 
Andfcw Pjirsons (acting) . 
"" ' r S. BiflghAm 



DemocFat 
Whig 

DtmoCirat 



Republtran 



A«ida Blair 
Htvy Kowland Crapo 
Ifcary Porter Baldwin 
klin ludioii Bagley 

Diaries MykrCr«rwel1 
David HowcU Jennne 
l«UliW. Begole 
fffnaTfl Alexander Alger 
CjriiH Gcmy Luce 
EdwiEi BanKh Winam 
j^n T, Ritb . . 
ni£en Stnilh Pineree . 
Airoa Thomaa Blt*i . 
Fred M. VVimcr . , 
OmcS Oiboni 



Democrat and Cicenback 
Republican 

DcmocrJt 
Rcpyblicait 



ia34'-*«JS 

1^35-1440 
t«40-lS4l 
tSil-iS^a 

1843-11146 
1A46-1347 
[847-1848 
1848-1950 
1850-1851 
1851-1853 

1859-1801 
[86i-i8«5 
1865-1869 
t 869-1 873 
t 873-1 &77 
1877-1881 
I8li-i8£3 
ia83-i»S5 
tS85-i897 
1887-18^1 
1891-1893 

1*97-1901 
1901-1905 
19(^5-1911 
t9t| 



AurKQ«tTi£S. — JTu Publicaiioju of ike MkMieam Ctalotkat Survfy 

iBeinM^, Laniiing and New York, 1838 fc<),> acM Uraely with the 

bimng di$tri^$ of the upper pptiinyuij^. Alexander WmchcHi 

JfuJUid*.* Bfimg Otndcnied Pcpulur Skttcfiii 0/ Uu Topoitapky. 

Qumaitaitd Croio^ eifikr Sititf {iS7\K h io large men»iire ra^ickicd 

ta tbe wHith half of 1 he irate. W, J . Beal niui C . F. \V hccter, Michigan 

^vnt (Laftiing. 1 89 J ), contains the n«a1t< of an e^ttenfiive atudvaf the 

^bjcct^ Src ^tto t he Tueifth C^mj tti Qftiii United Siatrt ( Waahi ngton , 

Ijtot-t^ia)*. ^la* Fanner, Miihiiutt B^ok: €t Sicjif CydiypofAiia i&iJA 

•&£^imal C<FttHf> Mapj t Detroit > 1901); Beta Hub band, Mtntfifiaif 

*f m Maif-GmtMry (New York, iftS?)^ a fccSI written account ol obstr- 

29lkttoi>L cfiirfliy upon scenery , launa, ;(1ora dnd climate ; Wfti«ur 

Oiskt Mick^tait: iti HisUtry and Caegrnmrnt (Ntw Yofk, 1905 )» 

j^* tttesi primarily fur use in schoolii and contdlning a reffrcnc€ 

^blU^raphy; A. C McLaughlin, //it itir;r f>/ /ii^A/r Eefufd/itm m 

•^ffchi^n^ in CitcubrA of [nlormation of the iJulied Staler Buire«),u 

^C EdiKaLioit (Wathinsion, iJigiJ, hein^t an account of the origin 

*** * ptiblic tfhofil iy»tetn and an individual account of each higher 

jti^n oi irarninrg; T. M. Coo ley, Afickt^an : a HisiBry nj G*M'tm^ 

- (Ec^oti, US^53- a critical but popular nirraiivc by an eminent 

■•*»Ti«i; J- V- Campbell, OHilmei of ih£ PotiUtaS History of Michigan 
LySetircrti. 1876). aUo by a jurist 0! the Hate; Henry M. Uilev and 
^>Ton M. Cuichron* Mithkiin aj a Pfopimt^ Trftitory and Sinle 
^* vols-^ Neur York. tfjK*l ; Michigan Pioneer and Hi^ionoU Society, 
^r^iarii^ CfflUVf*iV(*»; Ccit/ti:iini and Rturcfikrs (Laniing, 1877 
^■Xi .1 : an<J i^d^K^i/stfuj j?/ ^A* Michigi^n FUUuoi Scitn^ Asicciation 

MICltJQAIf^ LAKE, the only one of the gnat loke^ of Nortb 
J^toerica wboUy vritbin the bmindarics of the Unil*d States^ 
^fidi the second largest body or fresh water in tbe world. It 
ti*a S. oI Like Superior and W. of Lake HuroUt between 
%i° 37' and 46* 05' N. and 84' 4S' and 83" W.; is bounded 
«« tbe N. and £. by the ttate of Michigan, on the W. by 
Wisainun, vbile Iltindi and Tndiatia touch Its S. end. It 
*» J 10 m. long, and his an average width of 6s m. The 
depth recorded by tbe Untied Sutet Laitf &trvvy ii , 



\ 



870 ft.; the mean level of the surface is 581} ft. above mean 
sea-level, being the same as that of Lake Huron and 21 ft. below 
that of Lake Superior. Its area is 22^00 sq. m., and it has a 
basin 68,100 sq. m. in area. 

The shores of Lake Michigan are generally low and sandy, 
and the land slopes gradually to the water. The northern 
shore of the lake is irregular and more rugged and picturesque 
than the other shores, the summit of the highest peak being 
about 1400 ft. above the sea. On the eastern side arc numerous 
sand hills, formed by the wind into innumerable fantastic 
shapes, sometimes covered with stunted trees and scanty 
vegetation, but usually bare and rising to heights of from 150 
to 250 ft. The south-western shore is generally low, with sand 
hills covered with shrivelled pines and bur oaks. Along 
the western shore woods and prairies alternate, interspersed 
with a few high peaks. The cliffs on the cast shore of Green 
Bay form a bold escarpment, and from this ridge the land 
sbpes gradually to the lake. With the exception of Green and 
Traverse bays. Lake Michigan has few indentations of the coast 
line, and except at the north end it is free from islands. The 
waters near shore are shoal, and as there are few harbours of 
refuge of easy access navigation is dangerous in heavy storms. 
Around the lake the climate is equable, for, though the winter 
is cold and the summer hot, the waters of the lake modify 
the extremes, the mean temperature varying from 40° to 54* F. 
The average annual rainfall is 33 in. The finest agricultural 
land in the United States is near the hike, and there is an immense 
trade in all grains, fruits, livestock and lumber, and in products 
such as flour, pork, hides, leather goods, furniture, &c. Rich 
lead and copper mines abound, as also salt, iron and coal. 
Abundant water power promotes manufacttires of all kinds. 
Beer and distilled liquors are largely manufactured, and fine 
building stone is obtained from numerous quarries. 

The lake is practically tideless, though true tidal pulsations 
amounting to 3 in. in height are stated to have been ob- 
served in Chicago. In the water of the lake there is a general 
set of current towards the outlet at the strait of Mackinac, 
following the cast shore, with slight circular currents in the 
main portion of the lake and at the northern end around 
Beaver island. These currents vary in speed from 4 to 10 m. 
per day. Surface currents are set up by prevailing winds, 
which also seriously affect water levels, lowering the water 
at Chicago and raising it at the strait, or the reverse, so as 
greatly to inconvenience navigation. The level of the lake 
is subject to seasonal fluctuations, reaching a maximum in 
midsummer and a minimum in February, as well as to alter- 
nating cycles of years of high and low water. Standard high- 
water of 1838 was 3-36 ft. above mean level and standard 
low- water of 1895, 2 82 ft. below that datum, giving an extreme 
recorded range slightly over 6 ft. 

The northern portion of the lake only is covered with ice 
in winter, and ice never reaches as far south as Milwaukee. 
Milwaukee River remains closed on an average for one hundred 
days — from the beginning of December to the middle of March. 
The average date of the opening and closing of navigation 
at the strait of Mackinac, where the ice remains longest, is the 
17th of April and the 9th of January respectively.* Regular 
lines of steamers specially equipped to meet winter conditions, 
most of them being car ferries, cross the lake and the strait of 
Mackinac all winter between the various ports. 

No notable rivers flow into Lake Michii;an, the largest being the 
Big Manistee and Muskcf;on on the cast shore, and on the west shore 
the Menominee and the Fox, both of which empty into Green Bay, 
the most important arm of the lake. The numerous harbours are 
chiefly artificial, usually located at the mouths of streams, the 
improvements consisting of two parallel piers extending into the 
lake and protectinj? a drcd^'cd channel. Sand bars keep filling up 
the mouths of these channels, noc<ssitating frequent dredging and 
extension of the breakwaters, work undertaken by« the F"edcral 
government, which also maintains a most comprehensive and com- 
plete svstcm of aids to navigation, including lighthouses and light- 
ships, log alarms, pas and other buoys, lifc-savvtv^, tXarccv s\^tys^ •as*^ 
weather report stations. 



* Report 0/ Dup Wotensa^s Commusitm V^V#i^* 



378 



MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF— MICHIGAN CITY 



Chicago, the principal port on the lake, is at its south-west ex- 
tremity, and is remarkable for the volume of its trade, the number 
of vessels arriving and departing ex. ■.■.ilui^ thjL J jls, j^uri m the 
United States, though the tonnage i^ kii* than ih^t of Uvw Vork. 
It is a large railway centre, and the number and &E£« of the griitn 
elevators are noticeable. The port is protected by bnrakwatcn 
enclosing a portion of the lake from. The level of ihc tity above 
the lake being only 14 ft., much difficulty arose in dnLining k. 
A sanitary and ship canal 34 m. lonj w.ii ihertJore completed in. 
1900 to divert the Chicago river, a smjll stream that flowi into the 
lake, into the head waters of the Des PLiirn;^ riv-rr and ihcncc throuj^h 
the river Jolict into the Mississippi .v. V^t Lnui^. The LEii^hirne of 
water is by law so regulated that the :■ ■. ■■ , i a ■ 1 . . . 
2^0,000 cub. ft. per minute. The effect upon the permanent level 
of the lakes of the withdrawal of water through this artificial outlet 
is receiving much attention. Milwaukee, situated on the shore of 
Milwaukee Bay, on the western side of the lake, is, next to Chicago, 
the largest city on the bke, and has a large commerce and a 
harbour of refuge. Escanaba, on Little Bay de Noc (Noquette), 
in the northern part of the lake, is a natural harbour and a large iron 
shipping port. Green Bay and Lake Michigan are connected by a 
canal extending from the lake to the head of Sturgeon Bay. Lake 
Michigan is connected at its north-east extremity with lake Huron 
by the strait of Mackinac, 48 m. long, with a minimum width of 6 m. ; 
the water is generally deep and the shoals lying near the usually 
travelled routes are well marked. 

Bibliography. — Sailing directions for Lake Michigan, Green Bay, 
and the Strait of Mackinac, U.S. Navy Hydrographic office publica- 
tion No. 108 B (Washington, i^); Bulletin No. 17 : Survey &f North- 
ern and North-western Lakes, U.S. Lake Survey Office (betroit. 
Michigan. 1907): St Laurence Pilot, 7th ed.. Hydrographic Office 
Admiralty (London. 1906): Effect of Withdrawal of Waterfront Lake 
Michigan by the Sanitary District of Chicago, U.S. House of Repre- 
sentatives' Document No. 6, 59th Congress. 1st session (Washington. 
1906). (W. P. A.) 

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OP, one of the principal educational 
institutions of the United States, situated at Ann Arbor, Michigan. 
It embraces a department of literature, science and the arts 
(including industry and commerce), opened in 1841. and includ- 
ing a graduate school, organized in 1892; a department of 
medicine and surgery, opened in 1850; a department of law, 
opened in 1859; a school of pharmacy, opened as a separate 
department in 1876; a homoeopathic medical college, opened 
in 1875; a college of dental surgery, opened in 1875; and a 
department of engineering, separately organized in 1895, which 
includes courses in marine engineering, architecture, and archi- 
tectural engineering. The university was one of the first to 
admit women, having opened its doors to them in 1870 as a 
natural consequence of its receiving aid from the state (since 
1867), and since 1900 they have constituted nearly one-half 
of the student body ia the department of literature, science 
and the arts. In 1907-1908 there were in all departments 350 
instructors and 50x3 students (1796 in the department of 
literature, science and the arts; 1354 in the department of 
engineering; 391 in the department of medicine and surgery; 
791 in the department of law; loi in the school of pharmacy; 
83 in the homoeopathic medical college; 168 in the college of 
dental surgery; and 1070 in the summer sessions). Besides 
the several main department buildings, there is a library build- 
ing, a museum building, several laboratories, a gymnasium for 
men, and a gymnasium for women. The general library in 1908 
contained 172,940 volumes, 3800 pamphlets, and 3370 maps, 
and the several department libraries brought the total up to 
222,600 volumes and 5000 pamphlets. The general museum 
contains large zoological collections, geological and anthropo- 
logical collections, including the exhibit of the Chinese govern- 
ment at the New Orleans Exposition, which was given by the 
government to the university in 1885; there are besides several 
special collections in some of the laboratories. The astronomical 
observatory is surmounted by a movable dome in which is 
mounted a refracting telescope having a thirteen-inch object 
glass. The several laboratories are equipped for use in instruc- 
tion in physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, zoology, 
psychology, botany, forestry, actuarial work, engineering, 
histology, physiology, hygiene, electrotherapeutics, pathology, 
anatomy and dentistry. 

The university is governed from without by a board of eight 

regents elected by popular suSTaige, two biennially, at the same 

lime as the election of judge* oi the supreme court; irom 



within the government is to a Urge extent in the hands of • 
university senate, in which the faculty of each department 
is represented. The university is maintained by a pcnnanent 
annuity of $30,000, derived from the land set apart for it by 
the Ordinance of 1787, by the proceeds of a thrM-eighths mill 
tax, and by small fees paid by the students. Its organic rela- 
tion to the other public schools of the state was well esublisbed 
in 1870, when it was provided that graduates from such high 
schools as had been examined and approved by a committee 
of the university should be admitted without examination; 
one of the most important functions of the university is to 
prepare students for teaching in the high schoob. 

The first charter for a unfversity within what is now the state 
was granted by the governor and judges of the Territory of 
Michigan in 181 7, for a " Catholepistemiad," or University of 
Michigania, with a remarkable " Greek " system of nomenclature 
for its courses and faculties; this institution did practically 
no teaching. A second charter was granted in 1821, for a 
University of Michigan in Detroit; but little was accomplished 
until the admission of Michigan into the Union as a state ta 
1837, when by the third charter the aim was to model the institu- 
tion after the German university minus the theological depart- 
ment, and the university was entrusted to a board of regoats 
and a chancellor appointed by the governor. Br&ncho to 
correspond to the German gymnasia were established in the 
principal towns before any money was spent on the Univenitj 
proper, but the question of the constitutionality of their 
establishment and maintenance arose, and they were soon discon- 
tinued. Plans for building at Ann Arbor were begun in tSjS. 
The first class graduated in 1845. The department of literature, 
science and the arts was at first much like a New England 
college. For some time the prospects did not seem promising; 
but in 1 85 1 a new state constitution provided that the r^ents 
should be elected, and directed them to choose a president; 
and it was under the administration (1852-1863) of the first 
incumbent of that office, Henry Philip Tappan (1805-1881), 
that the present broad and liberal basis was established. 
Although he was a Presbyterian clergyman, he endeavoored 
at the outset to substitute the tests of scholarship for thoae of 
religion; at the same time a scientific course was introduced, 
courses in pedagogy followed, and in 1878 the elective system, 
which has since rapidly expanded, was established. President 
Tappan was succeeded in 1863 by Erastus Otis Haven (1820- 
1881), who resigned in 1869, and was succeeded temporarily 
(1869-1871) by Professor Henry S. Frieze (18x7-1889), and in 
187X by James Burrill Angell (b. 1829),' who resigned in 1909. 
In X87X-X872 the German seminar method was introduced in 
graduate work in history, by Prof. Charles Kendall Adams (1835- 
X902), afterwards president of Cornell University (1885-1892) 
and of the University of Wisconsin (x893-^902). 

See B. a. Hinsdale and I. N. Demmon, History of the Unwtnity 
of Michigan (Ann Arbor. 1906) ; Elizabeth M. Farrand. History of 
tne University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1885); and TTke Quarter 
Centennial of tiU Presidency of James Burrill Angell (Ann Arbor. 
X896). 

MICHIGAN CITT, a city of Laporte county, Indiana, U.SJi., 
on the S.E. shore of lake Michigan, about 40 m. E. by S. of 
Chicago. Pop. (1890) 10,776; (X900), X4,85o, of whom 366a 
were foreign-bom; (1910 census) 19,027. MiVhig an City 
is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the 
Lake Erie & Western, the Michigan Central and the Tin 
Marquette railways, by interurban electric lines, and by several 
lines of lake steamships. The city contains a United States 
Life Saving Station and the Indiana State Prison, and b the 
seat of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. Its transportatioii 

* President Angell graduated in 1849 at Brown Univentty. whcie 
he was assistant librarian in 1849^1850 and was professor of modem 
languages in 1 853-1 860; was editor of the Providence Jommel ia 
1 860- 1 866: was president of the University of Vermont in 1866-187 1, 
was United States minister to China in 1880-1881, was a meinber 
of the joint commission of 1887-1888 to settle fishery diiputcs 
between the United States and Great Britain, was chairman of tbe 
international deep waterways commission in 1896, and in i897~x898 
was \3tu\«d Slaves miaister to Turkey. 



MICHMASH— MICKIEWICZ 



379 



advanUget make it one of the principal commercial cities io 
Uie state. Its shipments of lumber are of special importance, 
and it has also a large transshipment trade in salt and iron ore. 
The total factory product in 1905 was valued at $6,314,226. 
The municipality owns and operates its water-works system. 
Michigan City was first settled about 1830, was incorporated 
as a village in 1837, and was first chartered as a dty in 1867. 

nCHHASH, a place in Benjamin, about 9 Roman miles 
north of Jerusalem {Onom, ed. Lag., p. 280), the scene of one 
of the most striking episodes in Old Testament history (i Sam 
liv.). Though it did not rank as a city (not being mentioned 
in Joshua zviii. 31 seq.), Michmash was recolonized after the 
exile (Neh. jci. 31), and, favoured by the possession of excellent 
wheat-land {Mishnc, Men. viii. i), was still a very large village 
(Maxi<^) in the time of Eusebius. The modem Mukhmas 
is quite a small place. 

The historical interestof Michmash isconnected with the strategical 
unportaoce of the position, commanding the north side of the Pas^ 
of Michmash, which made it the headquarters of the Philistines and 
the centre of their forays in their attempt to quell the fir&t rising 
under Saul, as it was also at a later date the headquarters of Jonathan 
the Hasmonaean (i Mace. 1x^73). From Jerusalem to Mount Ephratm 
there are two main routes. The present caravan road keeps the high 
|rotiod to the west near the watershed, and avoids tne Pass ol 
Mkhmaah altogether. But another route, the importance of which 
in antiquity may be judged of from Isa. x. aS sqq., led southwards 
from Ai over an undulating plateau to Michmash. Thus far the 
load is easy, but at Michmash it descends into a very steep and 
rough valley, which has to be cnwsed before reasccnding to Geba.' 
At the bottom of the valley is the Pass of Michmash. a noble gorge 
with precipitous craggy sides. On the north the crag is crowned 
bv a sort of plateau sloping backwards into a round-topp)ed hill. 
Tnis little plateau, about a mile east of the present village of Mukh- 
mas. seems to have been the post of the Philistines, lying close to the 
centre of the insurrection, yet possessing unusually good communica- 
tioa with their establishments on Mount Ephraim by way of Ai 
and Bethel, and at the same time commandmg the routes leading 
down to the Jordan from Ai and from Michmash itself. 

See farther C. R. Conder, Tentwork iL 1 12 seq. ; and T. K. Cheync 
b Emcyc Bib,, sjt, (R. A. S. M.) 

HICHOACAn. or MichoacAn de Ocampo, a state of Mexico 
touching on the Pacific, bounded N. by Jalisco and Guana- 
juato, £. by Mexico and Guerrero, S. by Guerrero and the 
Pacific, and W. by the Pacific, Colima, and Jalisco. Pop. 
(xQoo), 935,808, chiefly Indians and mestizos. Area, 22,874 
(q. m. Its territory is divided into two nearly equal parts by 
the eastern branch of the Sierra Madre Occidental, the northern 
part belonging to the great central plateau region, and the 
southern to an extremely broken region formed by the diverging 
branches of the Sierra Madre, with their wooded terraces and 
sbpes and highly fertile valleys. The general slope of the 
southern part b southward to the river Balsas, or Mcscala, 
which forms its boimdary-line with Guerrero. The narrow 
coastal zone on the Pacific is only loi m. long and has no ports 
or towns of importance, the slopes of the Sierra Madre del 
Padfico being precipitous and heavily wooded and the coast- 
bdt saildy, hot and malarial. The Lerma, on the northern 
frontier, and the Balsas on the southern, are the only rivers 
of importance of the state, their tributaries within its boundaries 
being small and swift -flowing. There are several large and 
beautiful lakes in the state, the best known of which are Patz- 
cuaro and Cuitz6o. Lake Chapala lies on the northern boundary. 
Michoac&n lies within the most active volcanic region of Mexico: 
Jorullo (4262 ft.) is near its southern line, and Colima (12,750 ft.) 
is northwest of it in the state of Jalisco. Earthquake shocks 
are numerous, and Colima was in violent eruption in 1908-1909. 
The highest summit in the state is Tancitaro (12,660 ft.). The 
climate is for the most part temperate and healthy, but it is 
hot and unhealthy on the coast. Michoac&n is essentially 
a mim'ng region, producing gold, silver, lead and cinnabar, 
and having rich deposits of copper, coal, petroleum and sulphur. 
The natural products include fine cabinet and construction 
woods, rubber, fruit, palm oil and fibres. The soil of the 
valleys b higUy fertile, and produces cereals in the higher 

«So fsa. X. 28 describes the in\'ader as leaving his heavy 
jwtggag* at Michmash before pushing on through the pam. 



regions, and sugar-cane, tobacco, coffee and tropical fruits 
in the lower. Though the plateau region was settled soon 
after the arrival of the Spaniards in Mexico, there are large 
districts on the southern and Pacific slopes that still belong 
almost exclusively to the Indians. Besides Morelia, the capital 
and largest city, the principal towns of the sute are: La Piedad 
(pop. 15,123), an important commercial town on the Lerma river 
and on the Mexican Central railway, 112 m. N.N.W. of Morelia; 
Zamora (10,373), 75 m. W.N.W. of Morelia; Uruapan (9808), 
on the Mexican National, 55 m. S.W. of Morelia in a mountainous 
district celebrated for the fine quality of its coffee; Puruandiro 
(7782), a commercial and manufacturing town 40 m. N.W. 
of Morelia; Patzcuaro (7621), on Patzcuaro lake, with a station 
on the Mexican National, 7550 ft. above sea level; Sahuayo 
(740S), 103 m. W. by N. of Moreh'a near Lake Chapala; Zitacuaro 
(6052), 60 m. S.E. of Morelia on a branch of the Mexican 
National, which also passes through the mining town of Angan- 
gueo (91 1 5) in the same district; and Tacambaro (5070), 
46 m. S.S.W. of Morelia in a fertile valley of the Rio de ]m 
Balsas basin. 

MICKIEWICZ, ADAM (1798-1855), PoUsh poet, was bom 
in 1798, near Nowogrodck, in the present Russian government 
of Minsk, where his father, who belonged to the schlachta or 
lesser nobility, had a small property. The poet was educated 
at the university of Vilna; but, becoming involved in some 
political troubles there, he was forced to terminate his studies 
abruptly, and was ordered to live for a time in Russia. He 
had already published two small volumes of miscellaneous 
poetry at Vilna, which had been favourably received by the 
Slavonic public, and on his arrival at St Petersburg he found 
himself admitted to the leading literary circles, where he was 
a great favourite both from his agreeable manners and his 
extraordinary talent of improvisation. In 1825 he visited the 
Crimea, which inspired a collection of sonnets in which we may 
admire both the elegance of the rhythm and the rich Oriental 
colouring. The most beautiful arc The Storm, Bakckiserai, 
and Grave of the Countess Potocka. 

In 1828 appeared his Konrad Wallenrod, a narrative poem 
describing the battles of knights of the Teutonic order with 
the heathen Lithuanians. Here, under a thin veil, Mickiewica 
represented thesanguinary passages of arms and burning hatred 
which had characterized the long feuds of the Russians and 
Poles. The objects of the poem, although evident to many, 
escaped the Russian censors, and it was suffered to appear, 
although the very motto, taken from Machiavelli, was signifi- 
cant: " Dovete adunque sapere come sono duo generazioni 
da combat tere . . . bisogna esserc voipe e leone." This is 
a striking poem and contains two beautiful lyrics. After a 
five years' exile in Russia the poet obtained leave to travel; he 
had secretly made up his mind never to return to that country 
or Poland so long as it remained under the government of the 
Muscovites. Wending his way to Weimar, he there made 
the acquaintance of Goethe, who received him cordially, and, 
pursuing his journey through Germany, he entered Italy by 
the Splilgen, visited Milan, Venice, and Florence, and finally 
took up his abode at Rome. There he wrote the third part 
of his poem Dziady, the subject of which is the religious com- 
memoration of their ancestors practised among Slavonic nations, 
and Pan Tadeusz, his longest poem, by many considered his 
masterpiece. A graphic picture is drawn of Lithuania on the 
eve of Napoleon's expedition to Russia in 181 2. In this village 
idyll, as Briickner calls it, Mickiewicz gives us a picture of the 
homes of the Polish magnates, with their somewhat boisterous 
but very genuine hospitality. We see them before us, just as 
the knell of their nationalism, as Briickner says, seemed to be 
sounding, and therefore there is something melancholy and dirge- 
like in the poem in spite of the pretty love story which forms 
the main incident. Mickiewicz turned to Lithuania with the 
loving eyes of an exile, and gives us some of the most delightful 
descriptions of Lithuanian skies and Lithuanian forests. He 
describes the weird sounds lo be V\tM^ \tv vV^ v^tcv^n^ -v^jrA^ 
in a country where Ihc Itcfei y<«t »ctt^. TV^ 0«i>4>^-vvK.\.>ass% 



38o 



MICKLE— MICROCLINE 



are equally striking. There is nothing finer in Shelley or 
Wordsworth. 

In 1832 Mickiewicz left Rome for Paris, where his life was 
for some time spent in poverty and unhappiness. He had 
married a Polish lady, Selina Szymanowska, who became insane. 
In 1840 he was appointed to the newly founded chair of Slavonic 
languages and literature in the CoU^ de France, a post which 
he was especially qualified to fill, as he was now the chief repre- 
sentative of Slavonic literature, Pushkin having died in 1837. 
He was, however, only destined to hold it for a little more 
than three years, his last lecture having been given on the 
aSth of May 1844. His mind had become more and more 
disordered under the influence of religious mysticism. He had 
fallen under the influence of a strange fanatic named Towianski. 
* His lectures became a medley of religion and politics, and thus 
brought him under the censure of the Government. A selection 
of them has been published in four volumes. They contain 
some good sound criticism, but the philological part is very 
defective, for Mickiewicz was no scholar, and he is obviously 
only well acquainted with two of the literatures, viz. Polish 
and Russian, the Utter only till the year 1830. A very sad 
picture of his dedim'ng days is given in the memoirs of Herzen. 
At a comparatively early period the unfortunate poet exhibited 
all the signs of premature old age; poverty, despair ai)d domestic 
affliction had wrought their work upon him. In 1849 be founded 
a French newspaper. La Tribune des peupUs^ but it only existed 
a year. The restoration of the French Empire seemed to kindle 
his hopes afresh; his last composition is said to have been a 
Latin ode in honour of Napoleon III. On the outbreak of the 
Crimean War he was sent to Constantinople to assist in raising 
a regiment of Poles to take service against the Russians. He 
died suddenly there in 1855, and his body was removed to 
France and buried at Montmorency. In xgoo his remains 
were disinterred and buried in the cathedral of Cracow, the 
Santa Croce of Poland, where rest, besides many of the kings, 
the greatest of her worthies. 

Mickiewicz is held to have been the greatest Slavonic poet, 
with the exception of Pushkin. Unfortunately in other parts 
of Europe he is but little known; he writes in a very difficult 
language, and one which it is not the fashion to learn. There 
were both pathos and irony in the expression used by a Polish 
lady to a foreigner, " Nous avons notre Mickiewicz & nous." 
He is one of the best products of the so-called romantic school. 
The Poles had long groaned under the yoke of the classicists, 
and the country was full of legends and picturesque stories 
which only awaited the coming poet to put them into shape. 
Hence the great popularity among his countrymen of his ballads, 
each of them being connected with some national tradition. 
Besides Konrad Wallcnrod and Pan Tadeusz, attention may 
be called to the poem Grazyna, which describes the adventures 
of a Lithuanian chicftainess against the Teutonic knights. 
It is said by Ostrowski to have inspired the brave Emilia Plater, 
who was the heroine of the rebellion of 1830, and after having 
fought in the ranks of the insurgents, found a grave in the 
forests of Lithuania. A fine vigorous Oriental piece is Farys. 
Very good too are the odes to Youth and to the historian Lelewel; 
the former did much to stimulate the efforts of the Poles to 
shake off their Russian conquerors. It is enough to say of 
Mickiewicz that he has obtained the proud position of the 
representative poet of his country; her customs, her super- 
stitions. her history, her struggles are reflected in his works. 
It is the great voice of Poland appealing to the nations in her 
agony. 

His son, Ladtslas Mickiewicz, wrote Vie d'Adam Mickiewict 
(Poscn, 1 890-1895. 4 vols.), also Adam Afickieuncz, sa vie et son 
atuvre (Paris, 1888) Translations into English (1881-1885) of 
Konrad Wallenrod and Pan Tadeusz were made by Miss Biegs. Sec 
also CEvvres poitiques de Mickiewict, trans, by Christien Ostrowski 
(Paris, 1845). (W. R, M.) 

MICKLE. WILUAM JULIUS (i73S-i783), Scottish poet, 

son of the minister of Langholm, Dumfries-shire, was bom on 

iAc s8th of September 173$- He was educated at the Edinburgh 

li4gb scAooI, and in bis 6/teenth year entered business as a 



brewer. His father purchased the business, and on his death 
William Mickle became the owner; but he neglected his affairs, 
devoting his time to literature, and before long became bankrupt. 
In 1763 he went to London, where in 1765 he published **a 
poem in the manner of Spenser " called the Concubine (after- 
wards Syr Martyn) ; was appointed corrector to the Clarendon 
Press, and translated the Lusiad of Camoens into heroic couplets 
(specimen published 1771, whole work, 1775). So great was the 
repute of this translation that when Mickle — appointed secretary 
to Commodore Johnstone — visited Lisbon in 1779, the king 
of Portugal gave him a public reception. On his return to 
London he was appointed one of the agents responsible for 
the distribution of prize-money, and this employment, in addition 
to the sums brought him by his translation of the Lusiad, 
placed him in comfortable circumstances. 

It has been suggested that the Scottish poem "There's nae 
luck aboot the hooee " was Mickle's. It is more likely, however, 
that Jean Adams was the author. Scott read and admired Mickle's 
poems in his youth, and founded Keniiworth on his ballad of Cumtner 
Hail, which appeared in Thomas Evans's Old Ballads . . . with 
some of Modem Date (1784). 

MICMAC* a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian 
stock. They formerly occupied all Nova Scotia, Cape Breton 
and Prince Edward Islands, and portions of New Brunswick, 
(Quebec and Newfoundland. They fought on the French side 
in the colonial wars. They are now civilized and almost all 
profess Catholicism. They number some 4000 in settled com- 
munities throughout their former territory. 

There is an excellent account of the Micmac Indians in J. G. 
Millais's Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (1908). 

MIOON, a Greek painter of the middle of the fifth century 
B.C. He was closely associated with Polygnotus of Thasos, 
in conjunction with whom he adorned the Painted Stoa, at 
Athens, with paintings of the battle of Marathon and other 
battles. He also painted in the Anaceum at Athens. 

MICROCUNB, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the 
feldspar group (see Felspar). Like orthoclase jt is a potash- 
feldspar with the formula KAlSitOt, but differs from this in 
crystallizing in the anorthic system. The name (from Greek 
lUKpbs, small, and kSImup, to incline) was given by A. Breithaupt 
in 1830, and has reference to the fact that the angle (89° 30' ) 
between the two perfect cleavages differs but little from a right 
angle: the species was, however, first definitely established 
by A. Des Cloizeaux in 1876. The crystals and cleavage masses 
are very like orthoclase in appearance, and the hardness (6) 
and specific gravity (2*56) are the same for the two minerals: 
there are, however, important differences in the twinning and 
in the optical characters. In addition to being twinned accord- 
ing to the same laws as orthoclase, microdine is repeatedly 
twinned according to the albite-law and the peridine-law, pro- 
ducing a very characteristic grating or cross-hatched structure 
which is especially prominent when thin sections of the mineral 
are examined in polarized light. This lamellar structure is 
often on a very minute scale, sometimes so minute as to be almost 
indistinguishable: it has therefore been suggested that ortho- 
clase is really a microcline in which the twin-lamellae are ultra- 
microscopic. In a section parallel to the basal plane c (001) 
of a microcline crystal the lamellae do not extinguish optically 
parallel to the edge ^ as in orthoclase, but at an angie of 15* 
30'; further, the obtuse bisectrix of the opUc axes in microcline 
is inclined to the normal of the plane b (010) at an angle of 15* 
26' . Green microcline is distinctly pleochroic 

Microcline occurs, usually with orthoclase, as a constituent 
of pegmatites, granites and gneisses; it is rare in porphyries 
and is not known in volcanic rocks. A beautiful crystallized 
variety of a bright verdigris-green colour is known as amazon- 
stone (q.^.). Chesterlite is a variety occurring as crystak on 
dolomite in Chester county, Pennsylvania. 

Gosely allied to microcline is the anorthic soda^potash-feldspar 
known as anorthoclase or natron- microcline. Here sodium prt- 
dominates over potassium and a little calcium is also often present, 
the formula being (Na. K) AlSisO». It resembles microcline in haviog 
a cleavage angle of very nearly 90* and in the cross-hatched struc- 
luie, the latter being usually very minute and giving rise to a moctkd 



MICROCOSM— MICROMETER 



381 



It is tbe characteristic feldspar of volcanic rocks which 
aft rich B soda, and is typically developed in the lavas of the idand 
of Autdleria near Sicily and those of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya 
io Esst Africa: the rhomb-shaped porphyritic feldspars of the 
"fJNNnb-porphyry " of southern Norway also belong here. 

(L. J. S.) 
MICROCOSM, a term often applied in philosophical and in 
feoeral literature to man regarded as a " little world " (Gr. 
fUfbi tabciMn) in opposition to the " macrocosm," great 
world, in which he lives. From the dawn of speculative thought 
in Greece the analogy between man and the world has been a 
common-place, and may be traced from Heraclitus and Empe- 
dodes, through Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, the Schoolmen and 
the thinkers of the Renaissance down to the present day. Thus 
Lotze's comprehensive survey of mental and moral science 
is termed Microcosmus The most systematic expression 
oC the tendency indicated by the tfrm is the monadology of 
Leibnits, in which the monad is regarded as containing within 
its own ck>sed sphere an expression of the universe, the typical 
created monad bieing the human soul. 

MICR0C08MIC SALT, or ammonium sodium hydrogen 
ortbopbosphate, NH«NaHP04 . 4H1O, so named 1^ the alche- 
mists because it is contained in the decomposing urine of man 
(tbe ** microcosm "). It is interesting historically as being the 
raw material from which Brand prepared phosphorus, whence it 
b abo called "salt of phosphorus." It may be obtained in 
large transparent crystals from a mixture of solutions of sal- 
ammoniac and disodium phosphate, or by saturating a solution 
of monosodium phosphate with ammonia. When heated to 
redness, it leaves a transparent glass of sodium metaphosphate, 
NaPOi, which like borax dissolves most metallic oxides, with 
formation of glasses that often exhibit characteristic colours, 
and which may be used in the qualitative analysis of substances. 
(See Ckexistsy, § Analytical.) 

MICROMETER (from Gr. /iMp6s, small, litrpov, a measure), 
an instrument generally applied to telescopes and microscopes 
for measuring small angular distances with the former or the 
dimensions of small objects with the latter. 

Before the invention of the telescope tht accuracy of astro- 
oomical observations was necessarily limited by tbe angle that 
could be distinguished by the naked eye. The angle between 
two objects, such as stars or the opposite limbs of the sun, was 
measured by directing an arm furnished with fine " sights " (in 
the sense of the " sights " of a rifle) first upon one of the objects 
sad then tipon the other ig.v.), or by employing an instru- 
ment having two arms, each furnished with a pair of sights, and 
directing one pair of sights upon one object and the second pair 
upon tbe other. The angle through which the arm was moved, 
or, in the latter case, the angle between the two arms, was read 
off upon a finely graduated arc. With such means no very high 
accuracy was possible. Archimedes concluded from his measure- 
ments that the sun's diameter was greater than 27' and less 
than 3a'; and even Tycho Brahe was so misled by his measures 
of the apparent diameters of the sun and moon as to conclude 
that a total eclipse of tbe sun was impossible.* Michael Macstlin 
in 1579 determined the relative positions of eleven stars in the 
Pleiades {Histaria codestis Lucii BarcUi, Augsburg, 1666), and 
A. Winnecke has shown {Monthly Notices R.A.S., xxxix. 146) 
that the probable error of these measures amounted to about 

The invention of the telescope at once extended the possi- 
bilities of accuracy in astronomical measurements. The planets 
were shown to have visible disks, and to be attended by satellites 
whose distance and position angle relative to the planet it was 
desirable to measure. It became, in fact, essential to invent a 
" micrometer " for measuring the small angles which were thus 
iot the first time rendered sensible. There is now no doubt that 
William Gascoigne, a young gentleman of Yorkshire, was the first 

* Grant. History of Physical Astronomy, p. 440. 

>This is an astonishing accuracy when the difficulty of the 
objects is conddered. Few persons can see with the naked eye — 
much less measure — more than six stars of the Pleiades, although 
all the Stan measured by Maestlin have t>ccn seen with the naked 
eye by a few individuals of exceptional powers of eyesight. 



inventor of the micrometer. William Crabtree, a friend of his, 
taking a journey to Yorkshire in 1639 to see Gascoigne, writes 
thus to his friend Jeremiah Horroclu. " The first thing Mr 
Gascoigne showed me was a large telescope amplified and adorned 
with inventions of his own, whereby he can take the diameters 
of the sun and moon, or any small angle in the heavens or upon 
the earth, most exactly through the glass, to a second." The 
micrometer so mentioned fell into the possession ot Richard 
Townley of Lancashire, who exhibited it at the meeting of the 
Royal Society held on the a 5th of July 1667. 

The pnnrtpjL- ,jj i^.,i=7t.i-ji.^jtv Ti iTil^:ruiiir.ui »> Lli.it i*n, ^lotnters 
ViJMriiij jXLHillcl cdgn at right jnElca to thi^ mtasmrLttg xrrpw, are 
niuvifl in Of'fMTiite dirwilons iymmetricaJly witK and at rJ^I'^ angles 
tr* [hr hmU Cii the tdest«>pe. The microTncttrr li at rem «hen the 
T >j, ii tNliji's Jire J>roy gh t cKact J y logti her. The tdgci a re then srparated 
uLl ihty Arc [JiEigitnt to the opposite linib& of use diik gS the planet 
in tie mtjiurwi, Of till ihey respectivtly bitect two %i3.T&t the angle 
liriwcfrt which is to be dfterminL^. The symmetrical separation 
o[ ihi^ i'4iti\y produced and mcasurpd by a single screw: iht fractions 
i>f J e\'voliitign of the screw ar? obtained by an index atuched to one 
Li'nd af the ^ti2w^ rtradin^ on a dial divided into lOd eqiml parts. 
Tfic whole arrangement 13 elegant and ini^cnious^ A steel cryiinder 
(^bout the thkkneu of d gocKie^uin), which lormi the micrometer 
screw, hih two threads cut lipon u» one- half being cut wL(h a thread 
daubk the pitch of the other. This icnrw \i. mounted on an oblonji 
boiL which Carrie* one ol the measuring ed^ei; the other edge is 
rnDved by the corner part ol the screw reutivcly to 1 he edge attached 
to the boK, whilst the bom itself is moved relatively lo the ajtia of the 
tc^lMcope by the finer icrew. This produces an opening and dosing 
ol the ^e^ ^mmctrically with respect lo the tek'scopeaxit. Flam- 
fitetylf in ihe first volume ol the Hiiitrrifi iiftlesUf^ has in'sciiMl a seqes 
of nieAHiffmcni» made hy Gascoigne euendins from ife^S to l6i»V 
Tht-ie include the mutual distances of some of the stars in the 
Plei:idc£, a few obstrv^iiont of the j:ippArent diameter of the sun, 
oiheri of the rJiitance of ibc moon from neighbouring stars, and a 
Efeat numh^r '■*. r^f-f^iiftmcnis of ihc diameltr of the mma. Dr 
JnhnliiM -j. ([773). p. t(>o] also siv» results of measure- 

Tiients b> ' I the diameti^n of the moon, J upitcr, Mars and 

Venus with his micrometer. 

Delambre gives * the following comparison between the results 
of Gascoigne s measurements of the sun's semi-diameter and the 
computed results from modern determinations: — 

Gascoigne. Conn. d. temps. 

October 35 (o.s.) 16' 11' or 10' 16' lo'-o 

„ 31 f 16' 11' r6' ii'-a 

December 2 „ .... 16' 24' 16' i6'-8 

Gascoigne, from his observations, deduces the greatest variation 
of the apparent diameter of the sun to be 35'; according to the 
Connaissance des temps it amounts to 32 '-j.* These results prove 
the enormous advance attained in accuracy by Gascoigne, and his 
indisputable title to the credit of inventing the micrometer. 

Huygens, in his Systema satumium (1659), describes a 
micrometer with which he determined the apparent diameters 
of the principal planets. He inserted a slip of metal, of variable 
breadth, at the focus of the telescope, and observed at what part 
it exactly covered the object under examination; knowing the 
focal length of the telescope and the width of the slip at the 
point observed, he thence deduced the apparent angular breadth 
of the object. The Marquis Malvasia in his Ephemerides 
(Bologna, 1662) describes a micrometer of his own invention. 
At the focus of his telescope he placed fine silver wires at right 
angles to each other, which, by their intersection, formed a net- 
work of small squares. The mutual distances of the intersecting 
wires he determined by counting, with the aid of a pendulum 
clock, the number of seconds required by an equatorial star to 
pass from web to web, while the telescope was adjusted so that 
the star ran parallel to the wires at right angles to those under 
investigation.* In the PhU. Trans. (1667), No. 21, p. 373, 
Adricn Auzout gives the results of some measures of the diameter 
of the sun and moon made by himself, and this communication 
led to the letters of Townley and Bevis above referred to. The 
micrometer of Auzout and Picard was provided with silk fibres 
or silver wires instead of the edges of Gascoigne, but one of the 
silk fibres remained fixed while the other was moved by a screw. 
It is beyond doubt that Huygens independently discovered that 
an object placed in the common focus of the two lenses of a 
Kepler telescope appears as distinct and wcU-defined as the 

* Dclambre. Hist. ast. moderne, ii. 590. 

* Mim. acad. des sciences (1717), pp. 78 a»v 



382 



MICROMETER 




image of a distant body; and the micrometers of Malvasia, 
Auzout and Picard are the natural developments of this dis- 
covery. Gascoigne was killed at the battle of Marston Moor on 
the snd of July 1644^ in the twenty-fourth year of his age, and 
his untimely death was doubtless the cause that delayed the 
publication of a discovery which anticipated, by twenty years, 
the combined work of Huygens, Malvaison, Auzout and Picard 
in the same direction. 

As the powers of the telescope were gradually developed, it 
was found that the finest hairs or filaments of silk, or the thinnest 
silver wires that could be drawn, were much too 
thick for the refined purposes of the astronomer, as 
they entirely obliterated the image of a star in the 
more powerful telescopes. To obviate this difficulty Felice 
Fontana of Florence {Saggio dd real gabinetto difiiica e di storia 
naturaU, 17SS) ^"^ proposed the use of spider webs in micro- 
meters,* but it was not till the attention of Troughton had been 
directed to the subject by Rittenhouse that the idea was carried 
into practice.' In 1813 WoUaston proposed fine platinum wires, 
prepared by surrounding a platinum wire with a cylinder of 
silver, and drawing out the cylinder with its platinum axif into 
a fine wire.' The surrounding silver was then dissolved by 
nitric acid, and a platinum wire of extreme fineness remained. 
But experience soon proved the superiority of the spider web; 
its perfection of shape, its lightness and elasticity, have led to its 
universal adoption. 

Beyond the introduction of the spider line it is unnecessary 
to mention the various steps by which the Gascoigne micrometer 
assumed the modem forms now in use, or to describe in detail 
the suggestions of Hooke,* Wren, Smeaton, Cassini, Bradley, 
Maskelyne, Herschel, Arago, Pearson, Bessel, Struve, Dawes, 
&c.. or the successive productions of the great artists Ramsden, 
Troughton, Fraunhofer, Ertel, Simms, Cooke, Grubb, Clarke 
and Repsold. It will be sufficient to describe those forms with 
which the most important work has been done, or which have 
survived the tests of time and experience. 

Before astronomical telescopes were mounted parallactically, the 
measurement of p<»ition angles was seldom attempted. Indeed, 
in those days, the difficulties attached to such measures, and to the 
measurement of distances with the filar micrometer, were exceed- 
ingly great, and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience 
of the observer. For. on account of the diurnal motion, the direc- 
tion of the axis of the telescope when pointed to a star is always 
changing, so that, to follow a star with an altazimuth mounting, 
the (^server requires to move continuously the two bandies which 
give slow motion in altitude and azimuth. 

Sir William Herschel was iht firti utrDncmier who meaiured 
position angles; the instrumcni he «mpluy«l b clMcribcd in Fkii. 
Trans. (1781). Ixxi, 500. It was iis*d by him in his tfariiut ob«TVi- 
tions of double stars (l779-irS2); but, even in his handi, the 
measurements were comparatively crude, tiecauw of rhe diflicuhin 
he*fiad to encounter from the Vrsnt of a, parallarttc mounting, in the 
case ojf close double stars he t^ElmaLcd the diittance in terms ol the 
disk of the components. For the mejitiuremrnt of wider itam ht 
invented his lamp-micrometer, in which the cumporienit of a. double 
star observed with the right rye werp made to coincide with two 
lucid points placed 10 ft. from the left eye. The diitAnte of the 
lucid points was the tangent of the rndgnifipd! angles »ubtciided 
by the stars to a radius of to ft. Thii angle^ thrrrfojx;, divided 
by the magnifying power of th*: itlcscopc pvn the rtil ani^ular dis- 
tance of the centres of a double «tar. VViui * power of 4160 the tcih 
was a quarter of an inch for every KOand. 

The Modem Filar Micrometer. 
When equatorial mountings for telescopes became more general, used, and at 
no filar micrometer was considered complete which was not fitted 
with a position circle.* The use of the spider line or filar micrometer 



became uaivena!; the methods of 9luminatk>n were Improved: 
and micrometers with screws of previously unheard of fineness and 
accuracy were produced. These facilities, coupled with the wkle and 
fascinating field of reseauch opened up by Sir William Hcrsdicl's 
discovery of the binary character of double stars, gave an impulse 
to micrometric research which has continued unabated to the 
present time. A still further facility was given to the use of the 
filar micrometer by the introduction of cK>ckwork. which caused 
the telescope automatically to follow the diurnal motk>n of a sur, 
and left the observer's hands entirely at liberty.* 

The micrometer represented in figs. i. 2, 3 is due to Troughton. 
Fig. I is a horizontal section in the direciion of the axis of tlie tde- 





Fic. 2. 



Fic. 3. 



* In 1782 (Phil. Trans. Ixxii. 16^) Sir W. Herschel writes:— 
" I have in vain attempted to find hnes sufficiently thin to extend 
them across the centres of the stars, so that their thickness might 
be neglected." It is a matter of regret that FonUna's suggestion 
was unknown to him. 

* J. T. Quekett in his Treatise on the Microscope Sk9cr\be» to Ramsden 
the practical introduction of the spider web in micrometers. The 
evidence appears to be in favour of Troughton. 

» Phil. Trans. (1813), pp. 114-118. 

* Dr Hooke made the important improvement on Gascoigne's 
micrometer of substituting parallel hairs for the parallel edges oH its 
original construction (Hooke's Posthumous Works, p. 497). 

'Hertchei Mad South {Phil. Trans., 1824, part iii. p. 10) claim that 



Kopt The eyeprece ah ton^%t^ o<f two plano-convTii; kmei Hfl» 6, of 
nearly the »arn(? fctJl length, jnd with Lht two convex tide* lating 
each othei. They are placed at a distance ipart less than the focM 
length of a, M that the wires of the micro meter, which rriu>( be 
di^iincily t«ci, arc btyond b. This is known ju RamvLen^ cve- 
[►itce, having bwn madt originally by him. The eyepiece ilidc* 
mio \\it Cutxr fdt which screws into the brass ring tf, through iwo 
o^icnings, in which the oblong frin*ke, containing ihe mi<fi?rnricf 
bbtlcT^p p4i4Cji. Thcsf liides are shown In fig. , J, and cc^ojlit 'ok hTjt%% 
fork? k And t, into which the ends of the screws o and p mt^ ri^ly 
finrd- The tliije:^ are accuratety fttied so as to have no tcnsibJe 
l^u^r^l vii^Wc^ but yet oo 33 to move cauly in the dtreniont ol tlie 
gn-Jiest length of the micnome^ier boi.. Motion i* cofliftjurncited 
M the farki by female acrews tapped in the heads ivi and * dC^inf 
fin the serf 'ih « o and p rapectivety. Two pina q^ r. with spiral tipringt 
f^uiU-d rijund them, dau loosely through holn in ihe forks k, K and 
ku<p I he btviringi al the heads m and n firmly pre«i>ed ajpin*! the 
en di oi 1 he inicirome ter Ijok. Thus the ftmalTeit ro Ca tio n of eit 'htr hfid 
comEnunicales to the corresponding slide motion, which, it the scrt^* 
are actiurate, is proportionaL to the amount through which thr held 
is turned. Each head i» graduated into 100 equal pari^oo thedrvnfs 
u and >, so that, by estimation, the reading can e^siJy be curkd 
t^ iq^tth of a revolution. The total numb^ of rrvolutian* i§ resd 
off by a BcaJe attached to the side ol the bok, but not usn lo tht 
figure. 

Two spkler webs are stretched across the forks, one (1) being 
cemented in a fine groove cut in the inner fork k, the other (s) ia a 
similar groove cut in the outer fork /. These grooves are simultane- 
ously cut in situ by the maker, with the aid of an engine capable 
of ruling fine straight lines, so that the webs when accurately lakl 
in the grooves are perfectly parallel. A wire ft is stretched acrosa 
the centre of the field, perpendicular to the parallel wires. Each 
movable web must pass the other without coming in contact with 
it or the fixed wire, and without rubbing on any part of the brasS' 
work. Should either fault occur (technically calfed " Bddling ") it 
is fatal to accurate measurement. One of the most essential points 
in a good micrometer is that all the webs shall be so neariy m the 
same plane as to be well in focus together under the highest powers 
used, and at the same time absolutely free from " fiddling. For 
measuring position angles a brass circle gh (fig. 3), fixed to the tele- 
scope by rhe screw 1, has rack teeth on its circumference that receive 
the tectKof an endless screw v, which, being fixed by the arras xx 
to the oblong box mn, gives the latter a motion of rotation roaad 
the axis of the telescope; an index upon this box points out on ibt 
graduated circle gh the angular rotation of the instrument. 

the micrometer by Troughton, fitted to their 5 ft. eauatorial tele- 
scope, is the first position micrometer constructed capable of messur* 
ing position angles to 1' of arc 

* So far as we can ascertain, the first telescope of large siae drivn 
by clockwork was the 9-in. equatorial made for Struve at Dorpat by 
Fraunhofer: it was completed in 1825. The original idea appesn 
to be due to Claude Simeon Passemant (Mem, Acad., Parts. 1746). 
In 1757 he presented a telescope to the king,, so accurately drivea 
by clockwork that it would follow a star all night k>ni> 



MICROMETER 



The EasBsh micrometer still retains the esKntial features of 

Troughtoos original construction above described. The bter 

English artists have somewhat 

changed the mode of communica-^ 

ting motion to the slides, by 

attaching the screws perman^ 

entlyr to the micrometer head and 

tapping each micrometer screw 

into its slide. Instead of making 

the shoulder of the screw a flat 

bearing surface, they have given 

the screw a spherical bearing 

resting in a hollow cone (fig. 4) 

attached to the end of the box. 

CjQ - The French artists still retain 

* ** Troughton's form. 

Fraunhefef^s Filar Micromeier. — The micrometer represented in 

6g. 5 * is tlw original Mcrz micrometer of the Cape Observatory, made 



383 





Fig. 5. 
00 Fraunhofer's model. S is the head of the micrometer screw 
proper, 5 that of the screw moving the slide to which the so<alled 
** fiied web '* is attached, s' that of a screw which moves the eye- 
piece E. p is the clamp and M the slow motion in position angle. 
L, L are tubes attached to a larger tube N ; the latter fits loosely on 
a strong hollow cylinder which terminates in the screw V. By 
this screw the whole apparatus is attached to the telescope. The 
noKzica of small lamps are inserted in the tubes L, L, for illumina- 
di^ the webs in a dark field; the light from these lamps is admitted 
throujrh apertures in the strong hollow cylinder above mentioned 
(for iflamination. see p. 385). In this micrometer the three slides 
moved by 5, s, and s* are simple dovetails. The lowest of these slides 
reposes upon a foundation-plate ^, into one end of which the screw 
s IS tapped. In the middle of this slide a stiffly fitting brass disk is 
ioaertea, to which a small turn-table motion may be communicated 
by an attached arm, acted on by two fine opposing screws accessible 
to the astronomer: and by their means the " fixed web " may be 
rendered strictly parallel with the movable one. Another web is 
Li.-..: f^;^ii^U,. l:,, ^-w.,..! ;.i.. M..L^w^''JK.rH^ -impossible in the same 
pkdiae witti It and pwi&jbine ihrcugh the a\i-i vi rotation of the micro- 
"" "■ nal s 



For the internal structural! dctaiU of the micrometer the 
iQckr is TftfTTtd to the article ^' Mkirotneter " in the 9th edition 
of the E.9cy€ifijM£dm Bntanmua. 

To u« the injtrumcnt, it i^ well Unt to adjust the web moved by 
the Mzfiew S, *o tliat it* point of (nter?*c{icin ^-ith the web (commonly 
^led the " position web "). which is para ltd to 1 he axis of the screw, 
shiU be nearly CCTficidvnt wfib tbea^ia of roiatinn of the micrometer 
btii- For tbi5 purp»e 1! is only necf^sary lo direct the telescope 
tso ititac distal nt object, bisect that object Tilth the movable wire, 
And reid the number of revDlutions and pan> of a revolution of the 
Kn-w ; now rtvcfsi' i^e niiLfiXTit'tcr han rwj* ianif repeat the observa- 
ti : , '. ■ n; ..'■■"'■■'■■■■■ :-.r- J ■'.'' !'■ ji- int required. Now 
direct the telescope to a star ncafthe equator and so that the star's 
image in its diurnal motion shall pass across the intersection of the 
two webs which mark the axis ol rotation of the micrometer box. 
Then, as the diurnal motion causes the star-ima^e to travel away 
from the axb of rotation, the micrometer box is rotated till the 
image of the star when at a considerable distance from the axis is 
bisected by the position-web. The micrometer is now clamped in 
position-angle by the clamp C, the star again brought back to 
the axis, and delicate adjustment ^iven in position-angle by the 
slow-niotton screw M. till the star-image remains bisected whilst 
it traverses the whole length of the position-web by the diurnal 
notion only. This determines the reading of the position-circle 
corresponding to position- angle 90" or 370*.* 

» When it is remembered that the measurements of the Struves, 
Dembo w ski. Secchi, the Bonds. Maclear and of most modem 
European astronomers have been made with Fraunhofer or Merz 
micrometers it is not too much to say that fig. 5 represents the instru- 
naent with which a half of the astronomical measurements of the 19th 
century were made. 

• For the corrections applicable to measures of position-angle 
in different hour angles, on account of errors of the eouatorial instru- 
ment and of refraction, see Chauvcnct's Practical and Spherical 
Astromomy, u. 392 and 450. 



The pmition-aogle* of double stars are reckoned from north 
thfough east, the 6f tEhier star being tiken as origin. To observe 
the position -a ngk of a double star it is only necessary to 
turn the pDsiLJun^wvb so th^t it shall be parallel to the line 
iaininjT the centres of the components of the double sur. 
To test this pani|lcli»n iht single web must be made to 
bi*rcT the imager of both components simultaneously, as 
in f\g. 6, becajjie k is evident that if the two components 
ot the dcjbic star are not exactly equal in magnitude, 
there will be great tendetit-y to systematic error if the web _. 
is placed on one side 01 01 ht-r of the stars. Fic. 6. 

To avoid such errur Dawes used double vnres, not spider 
w-ebi, placing the im^ee of the star symmetrically between 
these i*ines, b& in fig. t, and believed that by the use of wires, 
much thkkcr than *pidff webs, the eye could estimate 
more accurately the symmetry of the star-images with 
respect to the wires. Other astronomers use the two 
distance-measuring webs, placed at a convenient distance 
apart, for position wires. This plan has the advantage of 
permitting easy adjustment of the webs to such a distance 
apart as may be found most suitable for the particular 
observation, but has the disadvantage that it does not 
permit the zero of the position-circle to be determined with ^ 
the same accuracy: because, whilst by means of the screw f' '*'*'• 7* 
(fig. 5) the eyepiece can be made to follow the sUr for a considerable 
disunce along a position-web parallel to the screw, the bisection of 
the web by a sUr moving by the diurnal motion at right angles to the 
micrometer screw can only be followed for a limited distance, via. 
the field of the eyepiece. But, as the angle between the position- 
web and the distance-webs is a constant, the remedy is to determine 
that angle (always very nearty a right angle) by any independent 
method and employ the distance-webs as position-webs in the way 
described, using the position-web only to determine the instan- 
Uneous index error of the position-circle. 

To measure disunces with the Fraunhofer micrometer, the pOM- 
tion-circle b clamped at the true position-angle of the star, and the 
telescope is moved by its slow motions so^hat the component A of the 
star is bisected by the fixed wire; the other component B is then 
bisected by the "web, whkh is moved by the graduated head S. 
Next the star B is bisected by the fixed web andA by the movable 
one. The difference between the two readings of S is then twice 
the distance between A and B. 

The great improvement now introduced into all the best micro- 
meters IS to provide a screw *, which, not as in the Fraunhofer micro- 
meter, moves only one of the wires, but which moves the whole 
micrometer box. t.e. moves both webs together with respect to the 
star's image in the direaion of the axis of the screw. Thus the fixed 
wire can be set exactly on sur A by the screw *. while star B is 
simultaneously bisected by the movable wire, or vice versa, without 
disturbing the reading for coincidence of the wires. No one, unless he 
has previously worked without such an arrangement, can fully appre- 
ciate the advantage of bringing up a star to bisection by moving 
a micrometer with a delicate screw-motion, instead of having to 
change the direction of the axis of a huge telescopw for the same 
purpose. When it is further remembered that the earlier telescopes 
were not provided with the modem slow motions in right ascension 
and that the Struves, in their extensive labours among the double 

stars, used to complete 
their bisections of the fixed 
wire by a pressure of the 
finger on the side of the 
tube, one is puzzled 
whether more to wonder 
at such poor adaptation 
of means to ends or the 
patience and skill which, 
with such means, led to 
such results.* Dawes, who 
employed a micrometer of 
the English type (figs, i, 3 
and 3), used to bolt the 
head of one of the screws, 
and the instrument was 
provided with a slipping 
piece, giving motion to the 
micrometer by screws 
acting on two slides, one In 
right ascension, the other 
in declination, so that 
" either of the webs can 
be placed upon either com- 
ponent of a double star 
with ease and ceruinty '* 
(A/em./e.i4.5.xxxv. I 9). : 
The micrometer shown 
in fig. 8 was made by 
Fig. 9 represents the same 




Fic. 8. 
Repsolds for the Cape Observatory. 



» Professor Watson used to saV» " ^^^« ^^^ ^'^ xw«x VsKV^stva:^^ 
part of a tcletcope W xht W^T\ ^X <hft %tm\\ wAC* 



384 



MICROMETER 



micronieter with the upper side of the box removed. The letters in 
the description refer to both figures. 

S is the head of the micrometer screw, s that of the screw 
by which the micrometer box is moved relative to the plate / (fig. 8), 
s^that of the screw which moves the eyepiece slide. K is the clamp 
in position angle, P the slow motion screw in position-angle; 
fP IS the position circle, R. R its two readers. The latter are in 
lact little- microscopes carrying a vernier etched on glass, in lieu 
of a filar micrometer. These verniers can be read to 1', and 
estimated to o'*a. D is the drum-head which gives the fraction 
of a revolution, d that which gives the whole number of revolu- 
tions, I is the index or pointer at which both drums are read. 



This index is shown in hg. 9, but only its mode of attach- 
ment (X, fig. 9) in fig. B. The teeth of the pinion s, fig. 9». 
are cut on the axis of the micrometer screw. The drum d and 




Fig. 9. 

its attached tooth wheel are ground to turn smoothly on the axis 
of the screw. The pinion s and the toothed wheel d are connected 
by an intermediate wheel and pinion Y; the numbers of teeth in the 

Wiar-iL-. .nJij |,nriM»it> .tic 5*^ j Jfr^jJUjE S KfJit^J tli,li f 'iHr.-rH y ■ Juuf iC VwJuiiufk* 

oi the micrometer srrpw produce one revotution of the ■drum and 
wheel if. Tlie diVisionB of both drurnn are conveniently read, Eimul- 
tarHrausly^ by the lentf ; at n(ght the Imnp which tliuminat'es the webs 
Xind the pofiktiDn-circk al«i illuminates the drum'headi {ttr on 
lIIu mi nation p, jBj). aama i! the web-Jrame (hg. 9}, fff i^^ Ain^je rod 
con^iittng of two cylinderm accurately fitting in the ends of the micro- 
mete^r bojc^ the larger cylinder being 3.1 fi. There !« s hole in lh$ web^ 
frame which smoothly hts the lar{|vr rylin.der at fl'^ and arvdiher 
whirb fimilarly fit* the smaller cylinder at y\ A spiral fpring. 
coiled fciufid the ryljnijer -y, rr$tittg one end on the shoulder 
JofTTied by the differcnft of the diaiOE'ters of the cylinders & and y 
tfid the other on the inside ol the web^ft^me, presses the lattef con- 
tin>uou&ly towards j. Contact of the web-framr ol the micromeicr 
with the 5ide of the boi at if would ihcrrlore take place, were it not 
for the mkrometer wrrrw. This screw fits neatly in the end ol the 
box at t, paise% loo&el^ throu{;h the wt^b-lrame at *', is tapped into 
the Irame at f'^ and its end rests on a flat hardened stirtact at f^ 
Rotation of the web-franie about 0y 1% prevtEilt-'J \)y the hc^uds ut lln.' 
screws at m; the hcit) ol the screw on the ' ■■.■• r 'I- ■ 1 ■!,■ fr ■. 



necessary always to bisect the preceding star v^th the fbced vriiu 
But in A5 measures index error can be eliminated by btaectins both 
stars with the same web (or diflferent webs of known interval fixed 
on the same frame), and not employing the fixed web at all. The 
discordance in zero, when known to exist, is really of no cunseciuence, 
because the observations can be so arranged as to eliminate it. 

The box is mounted on a strong hollow steel cylinder CC (fig. o) 
by holes i|, $ in the ends of the box, which fit the cylinder dosefy 
and smoothly. The cylinder is rigidly fixed in the studs C. C. and 
these are attached to the foundation plate/. The cylinder contains 
towards if a sliding rod, and towards $ a compressed spiral spring. 
There is thus a thrust outwards of the spring upon the hoUow cap 
W (attached outside the box), and a thrust of the rod upon the ^td 
of the screw s. The position of the box relative to the plate /. in 
the direction of measurement, depends therefore on the distance 
between the end of the screw s and the fixed stud C A screwing in 
of s thus causes the box to move to the left, and vice versa. Rotation 
of the box round CC is prevented by downward pressure of the 
spring Z on a projection attached to the side of the box. The 
amount of this pressure is regulated by the screw s'. 

The short screw whose divided milled head is 9 shifts the sero 
of the micrometer by pushing, without turning, the short aiidinf 
rod whose flat end forms the pinnt d'appui of the micrometer screw 
at f. The pitch of the screw « is the same as that of the measuring 
screw (50 threads to the inch), and Its motion can be limited by a 
stop to half a revolution. 

The five fixed webs are attached to the table rr, which is secured 
to the bottom of the box by the screws p. The three movable 
webs are attached to the projections XX on the frame aa. The plane 
surfaces rr and XX are composed of a bronze of very close texture, 
which appears capable of receiving a finish having almost the truth 
and polish of an optical surface. It seems also to take a very dean 
V cut, as the webs can be laid in their furrows with an astonishing 
ease and precision. These furrows have apparently been cut in 
situ with a very accurate engine; for not the slightest departure 
froin parallelism can be detected in any of the movable weba relative 
to the fixed webs. Extraordinary care has evidently been bestowed 
in adjusting the parallelism and distance of the planes r and X, ao 
that the movablie wires shall almost, but not c^uite, toudi the 
surface r. The varnish to fix the webs is applied, not on the 
surface r as is usual, but on a bevel for the purpose,* the nMitkm 
of the webs de()ending on their tension to keep them in thdr furrows. 
The result is that no trace of " fiddling " exists, and the movable 
and fixed webs come sharply together in focus with the highest 
powers. Under such powers the webs can be brought into apparent 
contact with such precision and delicacy that the uncertainty of 
measurement seems to lie as much in the estimation of the fraction 
of the division of the head as in the accuracy of the contact. It is 



reposes on the plane iv, that on the upper side (fig. 9) touches 
lightly on the inner surface of the lid of the box. Such rotation 
can obviously be controlled within limits that need not be further 
considered. But freedom of rotation in the plane of the paper 
(fig. 9) is only prevented by good fittine of the holes 0* 7': and, 
since the weight of the slide is on one side of the screw, misfit here 
will have the effect of changing the reading for coincidence of the 
movable with the fixed web in reverse positions of the micrometer. 
With the Cape micrometer a systematic difference has been found 
in the coincidence point for head above and head below amounting 
to o'-i4. This corresponds, in the Cape instrument, with an excess 
of the diameters of tne holes over those of the cylinders of about 
rf^ffsth of an inch — a quantity so small as to imply good workman- 
ship, though it involves a systematic error which is very much larger 
than the probable error of a single determination of the coincidence 
point. The obvious remedy is to make all measures on opposite 
sides of the fixed web before reversing in position-angle— a precau- 
tion, however, which no careful observer would neslect. In measur- 
/j^ d/fferences of decl/nation, where the stars are brought up by the 
jfwrna/ motion, this precaution cannot be adbpted, because it is 




Fig. 10. 



a convenient feature in Repsolds' micrometer that the webs are 
very near the inner surface of the top of the box. so that the eye 
is not brought inconveniently close to the plate when high powers 
are used. 

Another excellent micrometer, originally based on a modd by 
Clark of Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been largely used by Bum- 
ham and others in America. The form, as constructed by Warner 
and Swasey for the 40-in. Yerkes telescope, is shown in figs. 10 and 11. 
I'he micrometer box. and of course with it the whole system of spider 
webs, is moved by the screw s, whilst the measuring web is indepen- 
dently moved by the screw S. The other parts <m the instrunent 
will be readily understood from the figure without further explana- 
tion. The method of counting the total number of revolutions 
gives more friction and is less convenient than Repsolds', and no 
provision seems to bo made for illuminating the micrometer hrad in 
the practical and convenient plan adopted oy Repsolds. 

Repsolds' more recent form of the spider-line micrometer (siaot 

* The marks of varnish so applied will be seen in &£. 9. 



MICROMETER 



38s 



i8n)rer brfe tdetcopet is shown in fif. 12. Quick motion in pod- 
Hoo-sngle for roogh setting or for the measurement of dose double 
■tan is given by the large ring R. The micrometer is clamped in 




Fig. II. 



position-angle by the screw K and slow motion in po8ition-ans[le is 
given by the screw p. The small drum-head T opposite the micro- 
■aeter Mad S turns a screw which acts upon a snort cylinder that 
cannot turn but can move only in the direction of the axis of the 
P Bie ronaetcr sciew. The end-plane of this cylinder receives the pres- 
sure of the micrometer screw, so that by turning^ the small drum-nead 
the ooincidenoe-reading of the movable web with the fixed web can 
be changed, and thus any given angle can be measured with different 




parts of the micrometer screw in order to eliminate the effects of- 
periodic error of the screw. The electric lamp a gives illumination 
of the webs in a dark field, nearly in the manner described for the 
Cape transit circle micrometer; the intensity of illumination is 
regulated by a carbon-resistance controlled by the screw h. The 
lamp c iSuminates the drum-head and also, by reflection, the por- 
tions of the position-circle which come under the microscopes d and e. 
The bead/ is a switch which enables the observer to illuminate lamp 
a or € at pleasure. These lamps, although shown in the figure, are 
in reality covered so as not to shine upon the observer's feye. The 
illumination of the field is given by a lamp near the object glass, 
controlled by a switch near the micrometer. 

Repsolds in more recent micrometers under construction give a 
second motioo to the eyepiece at right angles to the axis of the 
— ' ' this enables the <rt)server to detfirmiae the zero 



of porition-angle for his movable webs with the same accuracy aa 
he formerly could only do for the so-called position-angle webs. 
Repsolds also provide two insulated sliding contact rings instead 
of the single ring g, so that the electric current for illuminating the 
lamps does not pass through the instrument itself but may come 
to the micrometer from the storage battery through two insulated 
leads. The same firm is also constructing a micrometer in which 
the readings of the head are printed on a band of paper instead 
of being read off at the time of observation. 

Instruments have been invented by Alvan Clark and Sir Howard 
Grubb for measuring with the spider-line micrometer angles which 
are larger than the field of view of the eyepiece. In both cases two 
eyepieces are employed, one to view each separate web. One draw- 
back to this form of instrument is that the two webs cannot be viewed 
simultaneously, and therefore the observer must rely on the steadi- 
ness of rate of the clockwork and uniformity in the conditions 
of refraction whilst the eye b moved from one eyepiece to the 
other. 

Clark's micrometer was exhibited at the June meeting of the Royal 
Astronomical Society in 185^ {Monthly Notices^ R.AJS., vol. xix.). 
Grubb's duplex micrometer is described in the 9th edition of the 
Encydopaeaia BrUannica. Some examples of use of the latter are 
given by Professor Pritchard {Mem. R.A.S. xlvii. 4-12). who esti- 
mates the accuracy attainable with the duplex micrometer as equal 
to that of the heliometer; but as few measures of permanent value 
have been made with the instrument, and those made exhibit an 
accuracy far inferior to that of the heliometer, it is unnecessary to 
describe the instrument here in greater detail. 

The Reading Micrometer-Microscope. — M urometers used for sub- 
dividing the spaces on graduated circles and scales have, in general, 
only a single pair of cross-webs or parallel webs moved by a single 
screw. The normal form of the apparatus is shown in figs. 13 and 14. 
C is the objective, D the micrometer box, E 
the graduated head of the screw, G the milled 
head by which the screw u is turned, A an 





Fig. 13. Fig. 14. 

eyepfeoe sliding in a tube B, aa (fig. 14) the slide, and b, b the spiral 
ipringf. The local length of the objective and the distance between 
tte optical centre of the lens and the webs are so arranged that 
iniae« of the dtviabns are formed in the plane of the webs, and the 
pilch of the screw is such that one division of the scale corresponds 
with iome whole number of revolutions of the screw. 

There is what is technically called a " comb " inserted in the 
micrometer box at d (fig. 14)-— its upper surface being nearly in the 

fjlane ot the wires. This comb does not move with reference to the 
tQx^ and MTves to indicate the whole revolution of which a fraction 
i . r. -.<^ i: ^he head. In fig. 14 a division is represented bisected by 
cross webs, and five revolutions of the screw correspond with one 
division of the scale. In all modern reading micrometers the cross 
webs of fig. 14 are replaced by ptarallcl webs embracing the division 
(fig- 15)' The n^eans for changing the length of the tube 
and the distance of C from the scale are omitted in the 
figure. These appliances are required if the " run " has 
to be accurately adjusted. By " run " is meant the 
difference between the intended whole number of screw- 
revolutions and the actual measures of the space between 
two adjacent divisions of the scale in turns of the screw FiG. 1$, 
divided by the number of intended revolutions. In 
delicate researches two divisions of the scale should always be read, 
not merely for increased accuracy but to obtain the corrections for 
" run " from the observations themselves. 

Repsolds employ for the micrometers of their reading microscopes 
the form of construction shown in fig. 9, omitting, of course, the 
motion of the whole micrometer box given by the screw * for those 
cases in which the axis of the rhicrometer is supposed to remain 
constant in position, as, for example, in the case of the reading 
microscopes of transit circles (sec Transit Circle). 

But when the relative positions of two adjacent objects or scale- 
divisions have to be determined (as, for example, in the case of 
heliometer scales), much time is saved by retaining the motion of 
the micrometer box. One double web. fixed in the box, is pointed 
symmetrically, as in fig. 15. on one of the scales, by moving the whole 
micrometer box by means of the screw S', the pair of webs, moved 
by the screw S, is then pointed upon an adjacent division on the 
other scale. ^ If the reading for coincidence oC thft ttvcN^Xt "mvC^ >^^ 
fixed webs is known, wc tVvcn o\>\A\tv \tOTCv >jRa ««v«^^ \«a.^vwi, cX *2» 
the difference from co\nc\den.cft ol xW ^wwotva qv x>afc x,-*^ va^sa^ 



386 



MICROMETER 



It b generally possible so to arrange the method of obwrvation 
as to eliminate the effect of an error in " the reading for coinci- 
dence of the webs" from the results. This excellent time-saving 
contrivance has also been used in Gill's apparatus for measuring 
astrographic plates (see below). 

Ckost MicromeUr.—Q. E. Burton and Sir Howard Grubb (Montkiy 
Notices, xli. 59), after calling attention to J. von Lamont's paper 
{JcJirbuck der K. S. b. Munchen, p. 187) and K. L. von Littrow's 
paper (Proc. of Vienna Acad, of Sciences, xx. 251) on a like subject, 
proceed to describe a most ingenious form of " Ghost Micrometer, 
m which the image of a fine line or lines ruled *n (or rather cut 
through) a silver film deposit^ on glass is formed at the common 
fscus of an object-glass and eyepiece of a telescope. A faint light 
being thrown on the outside ot the silvered plate, there appear 
bright lines in the field of view. We have not had an opportunity 
of testing this, nor Grubb's more recent models; but, should it be 
found possible to produce such images satisfactorily, without 
distortion and with an apparatus convenient and rigid in form, 
such micrometers may possibly supersede the filar 
micrometer. Their absolute freedom from diffraction, 
the perfect control of the illumination and thickness 
of the lines, and the accuracy with which it will 
be possible to construct scales for zone observations 
will be important features of the new method. 

The Astrograpkic Micrometer or Measuring 
Machine. — The application of photography to exact 
astronomy has created the necessity for new forms 
of apparatus to measure the relative positions of 
stellar and planetary images on photographic plates, 
and the relative positions of lines in photographic 
spectra. 

Especially impoitani Ka» bc*n tlic probtcm of 
mc^uring ihe " CAul^guc pbtca " of the intcrnaitoruil 
Ciirfe du ciei — ■& "wvfk i^t^i implies the determiaatJun 
o( the po$iticiru o( pyme millions ol fitara— that is to 
tay, ul all ftar* to the tub or nth ma£nitudc^. The 
probtem baj beto haw 10 accompliih thii work with 
the mimmuiti of Ubour consiit^nt with the dcstre4 
accuracy^ The adoption di a n^ficaij photO£raph(d 
upon the plate ha* grtatly fadlitattd tile pAwcflure* 
A [ilnLc of panitkl^urfacod rIusa haA a film of silver 
deposited upon it. On this mm \i mted a system ol 
linn 5 mm., apart> and another similar system of tine* 
at right anglei to the fir^t. thu« dividing the silvered 
■iiriace of tht; pbt«i into sotiares 5 mm. on the sklc^ 
The cutter employed to nilc thtsc liia« remove* the 
silver J a fine lines Irum the surface ol the gbss, 
ThuB. it a. photoErdphic pbie, before it I* exposed in 
the telescope, is pkeed with ita icrsJtive surface nearly 
in eoittact with the silvered surface ol this fiteau, 
and if parallel light, normuLl to the surface of the plate^ 
is allowed to la 11 on the ulvercd film through the gUiS 
Qii which the film has been deposited, that light wiU 
pasa thrDugh the fine lines in the wKcf fUffi where the 
sitver has been re moved! by the Clatter* but will other- 
wise be intercepted by the silver ftlrUn Thus a 
latent inu}^ of the " rt&eau -lines " will be (omiied 
on the senBiLive plate, and, when thi? latter Ipi 
htxn ejiposed to tlw? skv in the telescope, we obtain » on develop- 
ment, a negative of the images both of the stars and of the 
r^seau-lines. If the errors of the rectangular co-ordinates of 
these lines are known, the problem of determining the co-ordinates 
of any star-image on the plate becomes reduced to the comparatively 
simple one of interpolating the co-ordinates of the star relative to the 
sides of the 5 mm. square within which that image is included. This 
interpolation can, of course, be accomplished with the aid of a 
micrometer-microscope whose optical axis is normal to the plate, 
provided that the plate is mounted on slides which enable' the 
observer to bring the r6scau-squares successively under the 
microscope. 

This system has an additional advantage beyond its convenience, 
viz. that if any distortion of the film takes place during development 
the same distortion will be communicated both to the star-images 
and to the r6scau-lines, and consequently its effect will be eliminated 
from the resulting star co-ordinates, except in so far as the distortion 
within the 5 mm. square is of an irregular character; this exception 
is hardly worth consideration. An originally unanticipated difficulty 
has arisen from the fact that the riseau-hnes have not been ruled 
on plates of optical glass with optical surfaces, and that, in conse- 
quence of irrcRular refraction in the glass plate, the rjiys do^ not 
always pass through the silver film-lines m a direction strictly 
normal to the silvered surface: therefore, if the sensitive surface of 
the photographic plate is not in contact with the silver film of the 
riseau, the undeveloped photographic copy of the r6seau may in 
si/cA a case not be an exact reproduction of the silvered r6seau. 
It da practically impossible to work with the sensitive film in conuct 



with the r^aeau-film, not only because dust partides and contact 
would injure the silver film, but also because the plate-jriass used 
for the photographic plates is seldom a perfect plane. The discre- 
pancies produced in this way are, however, very small, if care is 
taken to minimize the distance between the silver fdm and the 
photographic plate and to select a reasonably good piece of glass for 
the r&»eau. For very refined work, however, the irregularities in the 



reproduction of the r6seau may be studied by comparing the c 

of the original r6seau with the mean of corresponding measures of a 
number of photographed copies of it. 

At Greenwich, Oxford and several other observatories, instead of 
measuring the distances of the star's image from the ojiposite sides 
of the 5 mm. r&seau-square by means of a spider-line micrometer, a 
glass scale, on the plan shown in fig. 16, is employed in the common 
focus of the objective and the eyepiece. The image of the ctar is 
set upon the intersections of the lines of the central cross, and the 
positions of the r6seau-lines are read off by estimation to ^ of a 
division on the glass j^calc. As each division correspoods to 3 sec 




Cnmwkk 

Fig. i6.- 



Astrographic Catalogue, vol. i.. by pennusioa ot tbe CooUoOcr of H.M. tUfliiiij oftcB, 
—Diagram of the diaphragm in eyepieces of the micrometer used for 
measuring the plates of the Astrographic Catalogue. 

of arc. the nearest estimate corresponds with a nominal accwacy 
of '^ 0*3'. This involves a loss of accuracy because, with a spider- 
line micrometer the accidental error of pointing is of tbe oroer of 
* 01' of arc. 

In the measuring machines in general use the field of view, as in 
the case of the glass-scale micrometer, is sufficiently Urge to include 



on one r^scau-linc. then on the star, and finally on the opposite 
r6seau-ltnc in both co-ordinates. This form of micrometer is ot course 
capable of givine results of high precision, but the drawback b that 
the process involves a minimum of six pointings and the entering of 
six screw-head readings in order to measure the two co-ordinates of 
the star. 

Cill's Measuring Machine. — Sir David Gill (Monthty Ncikti, 
R.A.S. lix. 61) devised a measuring machine which combines the 
rapidity of the glass-scale micrometer with the accuracy of the spider- 
line micrometer and simplifies the rcduaions of the obs^rvatiooC 
at the same time. The essential conditions of the instrument 
are: — 

1. The object glass of the micrometer-microscope is placed midway 
between the plane of the photographic plate and the plane of tM 
micrometer webs. 

2. The micrometer is provided with a " fixed square " 5 moLX 
5 mm., the sides of this square being parallel spider webs 4' ol src 
apart ; the size of the square is reckoned from centre to ocotit of 
these double webs. 



MICROMETER 



387 



^ The two micrcMneter screws (X and Y, fif. 17)1 which actuate 
themowable didea. have heads divided into 100 parts, one revolution 
«0*5 mm.; so that ten revolutions are >s mm., or > the interval 
between two adjacent r6seau-lines, or — the interval between the 
ades of the " fiicd square." 

4. Two other screws, o, p, the heads of which are not graduated, 
nve motions to the whole micrometer box through ^ i mm. in 
mrectkMis parallel to the axes of the two micrometer screws. 

5. Each of the two micrometer screws X and Y moves a sj^em 
of six parallel webs, placed 4' of arc apart from each other. These 




Fig. 17. 

webs serve not only for pointing on stars to determine their co- 
ordinates (in manner afterwards described), but also for estimating 
the diameters of the star-imaees in terms of these ±' intervals. 

6k. AU the essential parts of the micrometer, including the slides, 
micrometer box, tube, &c., are of steel or cast-iron, so uat changes 
of temperature do not aflfect the adjustments. 

The necessary adjustments are the following: — 

1. The webs of each set of movable webs shall, inter u, be strictly 
parallel, and the two sets shall be strictly at right angles to each 
other. 

2. The double webs composing the sides of the fixed square shall 
be strictly parallel, and shall form a true square of exactly ten revolu- 
tions of the screw on the side. 

3. The two micrometer screws shall be without sensible periodic 
or other error, and exactly alike in pitch. 

4. The micrometer readings for coincidence of the movable webs 
with the webs of the fixed square shall be exactly o-oooR and io-ooqR. 



5. The image <^ a normal r6seau-square, as viewed in the micro- 
scope, shall exactly coincide with the square formed by the fixed 
webe — that is to say, the image of the sides of a normal r^seau-square 



shall measure exactly 10 screw-revolutions. 

Assuming that these conditions can be rigidly realized, we have 
the following very simple modus operandi: — 

I. By means of the quick rack motions A and B move the plate 
so as to bring the r^seau-squarc into the centre of the field of the 
micfXMaeter; then, by means of the screw heads o, p, perfect 
ibe cotncideacc oi the " fixed square " of webs, with the image of 
the r6icau»squarT, 

ji. By meaiu of ore of the micrometer screws X place the star's 
image in the middle of the six parallel webs which are moved by X. 

J, S«mltariy« place the star's- image in the middle of the webs 
fncved by Y. 

4. Ejtimate the djanw^ier of the star's image in terms of the 4' 
CDt'ervals of the fnovatile webs. 

By employing both hiinds, operation (1} can be mado a> quickly 
aa a single pointing u-ith the ordinary spider-line tnicrameter, aiia 
ons (j) and (3) C3 n be similarly performed in the I tmc required 



for a fingic painting. Thf reading (2) is then the fi^uirtd co-ordinate 
1a * and that of (jfis 1 he required co-ordinate in y ; or, il the plate is 
revericd* i8o\ the«e rr;idings have to be subtrac4:ed fmm lO-oooK, 
A general tdea of the construction of the machine can be gathered 
fnom lig. (7 aljfivc, but the reader will find a dei^iitctl account of it, 
■ad of the manner in which the requisite adjust mcnti arc made, 
ia dK paper already quoted. 



The apparatus has been used with complete toccess at the Royal 
Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, and at Melbourne, Sydney and 
C6rdoba. 

Efects of Wear on the Micrometer Screws. — The accuracy of 
this apparatus has been frequently criticized on the ground 
that errors are produced in the screws by the effect of wear. 
One reply to this is that it is not difficult to determine from 
time to time the errors of the screws and to apply the 
necessary corrections to the observations. But a little con- 
sideration will show that when the plate is reversed 180" the 
effects of errors of the screws produced by wear are practically 
eliminated. 

In discussing the effect of %irear upon a screw, it will be convenient 
to imagine the thread unrolled and forming a wedse, of which we 
can represent the unworn bearing-side by a straight line AB (fig. 18), 



:r 



Jl 



Fig. 18. 

on which rubs the block CD, which represents the female screw 
or bush, and moves between the points E and F, sometimes towaids 
E, sometimes towards F, but naving^ as often to measure short 
distances as long distances from the middle point of this range, and 
these as often towards E as towards F. Now, if CD is pressed by its 



a; 



Fig. 19. 

identical'for revolution n and for lo-n, and thus will disappear in 
their effect in the mean of observations made in reversed positions 
of the plate. At the Cape of Good Hope, after more than 200,000 
pointings had been made, the screw-errors were redetermined ; the 
results proved the truth of the above conclusions, viz. the absolute 
freedom of the derived co-ordinates from the effects of wear of the 
screws in the mean of measures made in reversed positions of the 
plate. 

Hinks*s Measuring Machine. — A very refined modification of 
the Cape machine is described by A. Hinks (Monthly Notica, 
R.A.S., vol. 61, p. 444), and the instrument contains many 
elegant mechanical and optical details due to Horace Darwin 
and Messrs Zeiss respectively. 

Its fundamental principle is that, by a combination of glass 
scales with a micrometer screw, " the chief part of the distance to 
be measured is read off on the scale; the fractional part' of the scale- 
space is not estimated but measured by the screw. Hinks claims 
that thus never more than one- or two-tenths of a revolution of 
the screw need be used in making the measure, and little time is 
lost in running the screw backwards and forwards. All this, is 
true, but three readings instead of one for each pointing, much 
more fieure-work in computation (especially if corrections have to 
be applied to the scale readings to reduce them to exact normal 
screw readings), are factors which involve a far greater expenditure 
of time than makine a few additional turns of a screw in the process 
of measurement. Hinks's further claim that, in consequence of 
the small motion of the screw, less error is produced in the screw 
by wear is not true; for, although large movements of the screw 
produce a large amount of wear, that wear is spread over longer 
parts of the screw but remains the same for any particular part 
of the screw; the resulting errors are exaKerated towards the ex- 
tremity of the range of screw employed (sec Monlhly Notices, R.A.S., 
vol. 45, p. 85), and are therefore more likely to produce errors 
which arc not eliminated on reversal of the plate in cases where 
the screw range is not strictly limited, and the wear therefore not 
strictly symmetrical. 

The excellent manner in which the scales and micrometers are 
mounted, the employment of a compound microscope for viewing 
the scales, with its ingeniously arranged and admirably efficient 
reversing prism, and the perfection of its slow motions for focusing 
and reading, combine to render this a most accurate and convenient 
instrument for very refined measures, although too slow for work 
in which the measures must depend on single pointings in each 
of two reversed positions of the plate, and where speed of working 
is essential. 

Apparatus for Measuring Star-Spectra, brc. — ^These machines 
may be divided into three classes, viz. A, in which the motion 
of the slide which carries the photographic plate is measured 
entirely by a screw; B, in which that, ta.QV\<c^Tv v^ Ts«as»>«t\ 
by combinaUon ol & wait mA wx«w\ *xA C, *\». ^\stf2tw ^^«. 



388 



MICROMETER 



photographic plate is fixed and the measuring microscope is 
moved. 

The chief drawback to ty(w A is that the errors of the screw are 
liable to change by wear, otherwise the apparatus, as made and 
used at Potscmm, is, on the whole, a convenient and accurate 
one. In determining the errors of the screw of the Potsdam form 



^ 



;x.;;;.v.;;.aBECT c 



r= 



Fig. 20, 

of machine it is necessary to have regard to the fact that the screw 
is placed at one side of the slide, as in fig. ao. 

The result is that, if the screw is bent — if, for example, the end 
of the frame next the screw-head is raised and that next the end p 
is lowered in the diagram — a twist will be given to the web-frame, 
and the centre of the web will be moved nearer to the micrometer- 
drum than it should be, whilst the reverse effect will follow when 
the head has been turned iSo**. This would, <^ course, create a 
periodic error, which would be determinable for the motion of any 
particular point (say the middle) of the web, but which would be 
smaller for a point near the axis of the screw and greater for a. pomt 
farther from that axis. In the Potsdam form of thu ap^mtu« 
the micrometer is, for convenience, provided with a mot i on at 
right angles to the axis of the screw, and it has been found ar the 
Cape Observatory that the periodic errors in this ar^^rjH'-, do 
vary very sensibly according as the microscope is directed to a 
point more or less distant firom the measuring screw. Since ?he 
discovery of this fact all measurements have been made in ihAt 
fixed petition of the microscope with respect to the axis of the 
screw for which the errors of the screw have been determined. 

In the apparatus of type B as made by Zeiss there are two 
microscopes attached to a base-plate, one of which views the 
spectrum-plate (or other object) to be measured, while the other 
views a scale that moves with the slide on which the spectrum- 
plate is mounted. In this way the scale can be viewed by a micro- 
scope of much higher magnifying [xiwer than can be employed 
for the photographed spectrum. Indeed, if the scale were sub- 
divided to iV mm. the power employed might only be limited b^ 
the sharpness of the division-lines. But for rcnned work this 
would imply the investigation of too many divisions of the scale; 
it is therefore more usual to divide the scale into single millimetres 
or half-millimetres and to provide a micrometer which subdivides 
the millimetre into looo or, by estimation, into 10,000 parts. 
For very accurate work it is desirable that the base-plate, the slide 
and the scale should be of nickel steel, having the same thermal 
coefficient of expansion as glass. 

The forms of measuring machines of type C, often seen in physical 
laboratories, should be at once rejected for refined measurements, 
because it is impossible to construct slides of such perfection that 
the axb of the microscope will remain absolutely normal to the 
surface of the plate (assumed to be a plane) throughout the range 
of measurement. Even if the slide itself is mechanically perfect, 
the irregularity in the thickness of the lubricating oil between the 
bearine surfaces of the slide is apt to produce a variable error. 

Bakhuyzen {BuUetin de Com. perm, congres. astrog, i. 164) de- 
scribed a measuring-machine by Rcpsolds, in which the micrometer- 
microscope tilts in the bearings of the chariot on which it moves, 
•o that It can view either a ^duated scale or the photoeraphic 

Elate. We have, in fact, in this instrument a combination of types 
\ and C. Even in this apparatus if the slide on which the chariot 
moves is not perfect (and no slide is pcriect), the azimuth of the 
axis of the microscope is liable to change in the course of movement 
of the slide, and thus equal spaces on the scale will not be repre- 
sented by equal spaces on tne plate under measurement. The 
remedy proposed by Repsold for this proved fault is to cause the 
whole slide to tilt insteaa ol the microscope only ; this should prove 
a complete remedy. 

The Travelling Wire Micrometer.— kn important modem 
application of the micrometer, which is not dealt with in the 
article Transit Circle, is that which is now called " the travel- 
ling wire micrometer." 

In the Astronomische Nachrirhten, No. 2940, Dr Repsold proposed 
a method of meridian observing which consists in causing a web to 
follow the image of a star in transit by motions communicated by 
the observer's hands alone, whilst electrical contacts on the drum 
«F the micrometer screw register on the chronograph the instants 
corresponding to known interva]B from the line of collimation. 
TAepuipoae <^ his paper waa to show that if the axis, by which the 



observer imparu motion to the slide on whkh the traveUing web 
is mounted, is provided with two disks at its extremities, ao that 
the observer can use the thumb and finger of both hands in rotating 
it, there is no difficulty, after a little practke. in keeping the 
web cDosLnitty bisectii^ the star in transit^ and that with a little 
practice Lhe mean of the abwiute crrora in rallowijig the itar 
bccorncs nearly zero. 

in the Asiron. Na^h.^ No, ^77^ Repmid p\-ci a detailed de- 
scription of two JormA ol eye-tnds of transit circle^ fitted with 
m^ns id observing in ihh manner, to which he givK the name of 
" the itnpcrsonal micro mcttrr" This method of obaenr^ikin was 
very »icc»$fully emptoyed, tinder Secliger at .Munich, in an ex- 
tensive series of mertdian obEcrvationa, and. under the au^pMrc^ of 
the GeodeLic [n&titute at Potsdiim^ in teEt^raphjc longitude aprfa- 
tJoos. Still more recently the ihethod has been Ufg^y employed 
at the Cape of Good Hope and eliewhf re, 

Uttder the d«tle March 1901 Dr H. Struvc published an acccxunt 
of the appticatian of clockwork as an ^d Jii Rrpsold'a method; 
and» later. Dr Cohn published a more elaliorate papc^ on the same 
subject in the A sir tm. Ntuk.. ^767, The method con^ccd in haviitf 
motion transmitted to the micfometer screw from an ajus on which 
f9 moLintcd a disk that pre»es with kicfion-coritac-t upon a cone 
that revt^lves uniformly by clockwork. The velocity of rotation 
of the micrometer-screw could thcrefofc be varied for stars of 
difTcrcnt declinatian by varying the distance from Ibc apex at 
which the revolving disk prt.-«4ca ypon the rcvdving cone. In the 
KunigEtber^ transit iniinjmcfit used by Stnive mnd Cohn. the 
clorkworlc wa^ attatheci Ko ih* ry*e-CTid of the ins t rumen t^-a 
c^.n.'>[ -n ^^■^■•■^ i- ■:.■■ ; .,,'.• !;,,.■, 'rYi.h- i.,.i'i fr,.n 1',- -. • ..rily 
ij' _ , .'■-■■- . - cal 

axis, and from the impossibility of securing the uniform goii^ of 
the clock in different positions of the instrument In more recent 
instruments at the observatories of the Cape of Good Hope and 
Paris the motion is transmitted from a separately mounted cone 
and clock byr a light rod passing through a perforatbn in the pivot 
of the transit instrument and thence through bevd-wheels in the 
cube of the axis to a second rod leading to the eyepiece. Thb 
rod turns a worm-screw which acts on a worm-whed fitted " spring 
tight " upon the axis of the micrometer-screw. 

It should be mentioned that an essential feature of the traveUing 
wire micrometer is that the eyepiece as well as the wire shall be 
moved by the micrometer-screw. Thus, if the star's image is 
kept in bisection by the wire, both star and wire will appear at rest 
in the field of view. 

The distinction between the old and new method of observatkm 
may thus, in one sense, be described as the difference between 
shooting at a moving ooject and in shooting at one at rest. In 
the case of the original Repsold plan without dockwork the de- 
scription is not quite exact, because both the process of foltowin| 
the object and correcting the aim are dmultaneously pefformed; 
whilst, if the clockwork runs uniformly and the friction-disk b set to 
the proper distance from the apex of the cone, the star will acnear 
almost perfectly at rest, and the observer has only to apply delicate 
corrections by differential gear— a condition whidi is exactly 
analogous to that of training a modem gun-sight upon a fixed 
object. It is impossible in this article to give a deuDed deacripUon 
of the apparatus, but the reader b referred to Astron. NadL, 3377, 
for an illustrated account of the original RepsoMs instrument and 
to the History and Description of the Cape Observatory for a com- 
plete descripuon of the most modem form of its application to tlie 
Cape transit circle, with and without clockwork. 

The Hartmann Spectrocomparaior. — For accurate measurement 
of the displacements of lines of stellar spectra which are produced 
by the relative motion of star and observer in the line of sight, a 
very beautiful instrument has been devised by Dr J. Hartmann 
of Potsdam, and is described by him in the Puhticati^men its 
astrophysikalischen Observatoriums zu Potsdam^ Bd. 18, St tick S3 
(1906). An English translation of this paper is given in the 
Astrophysical Journal, xxiv. 385-302. The method originally 
used by Huggins, who first conceived and proved the possibility 
of measuring stellar velocities in the line of sight, was to measure 
with a filar micrometer the displacement of some well-known 
line in a stellar spectrum relative to the corresponding line of a 
terrestrial spectrum. Vogel of Potsdam introduced the method 
of photographing stellar and terrestrial spectra on the same plate, 
and in this way obtained an immense advance in the ease and 
precision of observation. Vogd and his successors emfdoyed 
one or other form of measuring machine, provided with a micro- 
scope having single or close parallel web« which could be succes- 
sively pointed on the photographed lines of the star spectrum and 
the lines of the terrestrial spectrum. To derive the stellar 
velocity in the line of sight relative to the observer it was then 
necessary to assume that the normal wave-lengths of the sleUar 
and terrestrial spectra are accuratdy known. .But in the 



MICROMETER 



389 



cotnplez qtfctrm cf Stan of tlie aoUr type tbis a by do 
neaDi the case; fot^ as Dt Hmtmina remarks ^ '* to 
ihc tmt plajcc ibe Un^ in these ipecira arc m 
nomerious th»t ibsir complete meanirunftut and 
iKducdoa would requin m&ny cUyi, and m the 
■eoosd place jl ng^oroiis reduction of such Enatenstl 
fan liitherto not btvn at all [>o£aibI« b^nusc ihe 
«ttvei4ciigth3 of tbe lines £.» not lujown witii 
waSiCxtDt ijcrui3£y« On ihii aca>unt| obftrrver^ have 
kDlH HOT lunited tfaenudvcft to a piulJaZ tre4Unenc 
of iudi spccli^ meauinn^ only a amall auniber of 
luiea, wbeicby tJie ma^or put of ibp Hcli material 
present in ihe plate rcmuns unutjll^d." But tbe 
qpcctTEHoopes that can be employed tar stdlar ^p^lro* 
fraphs are not luffideDtly powerful to separate fully 
Uii^ wiikk Ale very doscly adjafrFtit, agd therefore a 
line^ a^umed to be of 4 kridwn wavc-tccigth, iriay be 
appi^rnily dbpUced by the Dear neighbourhood of 
mn unknowa Lme^ Hartnmnn overcame these and 
many other di^culties by directly Euperpo^ng the 
imaBe of the spectrogram of a star, having iioD 
cxttspanson lines, upon the image of a spectrogTius 
of th£ ftun taken alsci with iron compjiri&on linei. 

Tbe apparatus lor this purpose l* %homn In fig. 21, 
its imDC^ipIe ol cxiastrucvioD if vhown in fiua^ 31 and 3%. 
The ftolar ipoctinDgraph im attacked by cUnSp* icr tbe 
plite Ai, the $tttUr tpfc^Lroisraph to the pLite A|. The 
place Ai vs mouflted on the dove-tail-xl ^lide Bi. upon 
tfc* ixurtAllic «tige T, and can be mowd io rigJtl orVfE 
Illative to T by the micramtter-screw S; whjlit the 
pUse At J* luouiited on the dove-tailed thde fig and can 




■ IdtKkr.Jm hmb ■■m^wtiwif t. by pcrmJMfao ol Julfaa Sprinter. ] 

Fig. 31. 



Fic..a>, 



be moved at rwfit anglei to it* gneatart length by 
tile icrew C. The mscmtmrter Bcruw S baa a pitcb 
« 0"5 mm,.* ill head n divided into lOo paitL 
Two vpinl ipdnpi undemeatb pfcss the plate Bt 
with Lti ft^tc end-bewaring agatnvt the noiinded 
end of ih* screw Si^ The whole num;l:M>r of revolu- 
tion* of the screw k read by the Kalr X {fig. 3^}, 
The whole itiigt T* caLrrytiig bfjtb ^pcctroemnUL 
can be moved from rJEht to l*ft on the *te« 
cylinder Z« by (uming the head K* 00 the axii of 
which is a pinion that pr*f» Into a toothed rack 
attached to the lower »de of the cy tinder Z. A 
scale N on the c^Untkr Z aervei for Kttini^ the 
filide to any reqotimcl (xtfitaon. The prcbminanf 
conditional of ittc^^uremDitt are ;: — 

rThi? centn; of tioth $pcctrograpb> ibaU \m 
piarallcl to the mh of the cylindcf 2. 

a. The diitaFice between the tentfe* erf the 
two tpectroi^^ib* sbaU lie eouil. to the distance 
between the optical ake« ot the two viewldf 
microBCOpcjL. 

3* Th*r sMlfi of the inuf^es formed in the foctu 
of the cyt^piwze common to both microacopes 
Ebiill bp- irlentical. 

To fuEfil condition (r) the pSates Ai and A« am 
mounted in tircular blidea, whoce centres are £| 
and Es rcfpectively, k> that by meanj of the 
Krrewt Di, tS, witfi their cotrcAponding opposing 
apringt F| and Fi, the operation can Ise xtrf 
eajBJTy jjccompU&bed. To futfi! condition (j) tim 
two microftCDpeA whose object {{lapses are CX and 
0} (fK. i3} are attached to the plate L. thdr 
opticAJ axes being normal to the stage T. The 
Kfew Q wrvw to adjoit the aids of Oi to coii*. 
ddence with the cetiire of the line* of tbe soUf 
Bpectrograph. and the screw G then acrves to mow* 
the slide Bt tiU the optical ^m of Oi w iroiocident 
with the centre of the line* of the stelbr ppectro 
naph. SuppoiC now the miar ipectrogram (o 
be viewitd m the focut d Oii and the convpi^iflg 
tays to be refiectcd by the prisms Fi and Ft, tin oa 
image is formed in the focus of the eyepiece >t 
the point where the axis of the eye^ece intersects 



390 



MICRONESIA 



the uppec face of the prism Pt. Then if the prism P4 b cemented 
to Pi. a sharp imase of such Unes of the solar spectroffraph as are 
visible in the field of view will be seen in the eyepiece. If the stellar 
q>ectrograph is viewed in the focus of Oi and the converging 
rays are reflected by the prism Pt to P«. no imajge would be seen in 
the eyepiece, for the rays would pass out directly throueh the 
parallel glass plate which is formed by the cementing together of 
the prisms Pa and P«. But if the cemented face of P4 b silvered, 



n 



T ■ ■ ■ ■ » 

'" ' "ji^"" ' HJLJ 



fl 



">» 



!^ 



1* 


*■%' 


.• 


♦1 


d 1 1 


1 






.,1 




^ ^ ^- ^ ^^-^v, 



3^S^H 



e C e 



mD, 



WXJ 




Fnm ^dUdtr. /Or 
kmmit, hy pennisBioa 
Springer, BcrUa. 

Fig. 34. 



of JulhlS 



neighbourhood of each comparison line. For the special pnrpoae of 
determining the solar parallax thb instrument has been used in a 
most refined and perfect manner by Dr Halm at the Cape of Good 
Hope {Awtah of the Cape Observatory, vol. x. part 3). 



nmB2rfteAr./flr/Mft) 



Fkom Ztilsehr. flir tmtnmuiiltnkmmde by pennlaion of Julius SpriBflcr, Bcrlia. 
Fig. 23. 

then the lines of the stellar spectrogram would be seen in focus 
of the eyepiece and the image of the solar spectrograph would be 
obliterated. Therefore, if one-half of the cemented face of P« b 
silvered, it becomes possible to view, side by side, one-half of the 
image of the solar spectrograph formed bv Oi and one-half of the 
image of the stellar spectrograph formed by 0|. A prism half 
nlvered in this way is provided, which enables the observer tocom- 
p^ the equality of scale of both photographs. If, for example, 
It b found that Uie image of the solar spectrograph b the larger of 
the two it becomes necessary to adjust the object glass Oi farther 
from the stellar spectrograph. This 
has the effect of forming the image of 
the latter farther from the observer's 
eye, and so it becomes necessary to 
turn the handle of the rack-pinion V 
in such a way as to move the prisms 
Pi and P« nearer to Pt till the hnes of 
the stellar spectrograph are again 
sharply in focus. The effect of tum> 
ing the pinion V is, of course, to 
displace the focus both of the soUr 
ana stellar spectrographs in the 
field of the eyepiece, but this 
displacement b easily restored by 
the focussing screws Oi and Ot. By 
successive adiustments of thb kind 
condition (3) can be accurately 
realized. 

These three adjustments having been made^ the prisms Pi and P4 
are removed and replaced by another prbm in which the silvering 
b arranged as in fig. 24. where the hatched lines denote the silvered 
surfaces. The narrow tongues of the silvered uirface will now 
reflect corresponding parts of the star-spectrograph, and will 
obliterate corresponding parts of the solar spectrograph — as shown 
in figs. 35 and 26. rig. 25 shows the stellar and solar lines of 
the two spectrographs in coincidence, whilst the metallic lines 
of companson are non-coincident. Fig. 26 shows the metallic 
Unes of comparison in coincidence whilst the solar and stellar lines 
are non<oincidcnt. It is obvious that these two conditions can 
be produced at the will of the observer by simply turning the screw 
S, and that the difference of the readings of the screw-head, which 
are required to reproduce the two conditions in question, gives a 
measure of the dispbcement of the stellar lines relative to the 
solar lines. If then the screw-value in kilometres per second is 
known for the neighbourhood of each of the comparison lines 
employed, the radial velocity of the star can be independently 
ilenved directly irom coiaddeaccs made in above manner in thie 




ftaa ZtUsckr.fir Imit 



by pomkBidooC JdBoB Spriofer. Btrih. 



Fig. 26. 



Double Image Micrometers are described in the article Hsuo* 
METER iq.v.). (D. Gl.) 

MICRONESIA (from Or. fUKpbt, small, and wijcos, island), 
one of the three great divisions of the oceanic islands in the 
central and western Paafic. Lying to the north of Melanesia, 
it embraces the following groups: Mariana, Pelew, Caroline, 
Marshall and Gilbert. See articles under these headings, and 
PAcmc Ocean (section on Islands). 

The Micronesian islanders form in the main a branch of the 
Polynesian race, but dbtinguished from it by well-marked 
differences in appearance, langua^ and institutions. Many of 
the islanders, however, show signs of hybridism. The proximity 
of Japan and the Philippines^ on the west, and of the Papuan 

•There are authenticated insUnces of Japanese junks, with 
livine people in them, having been found in various paru of the 
North Pacific. In 1814 the British brig " Forester " met with one 
off the coast of California (about 30* N. bt). with three living men 
and fourteen dead bodies on board. In Decembh- 1832 a Japanese 

t'unk arrived at the Hawaibn Islands with four of the crew uyio|. 
f these junks could cross the Pacific in the btitude of Hawaii it is 
not at all unlikely that others running in a south-easterly directioo 
would reach some of the many atolls which stretch over about 35 
of longitude, forming the Caroline and Marshall archipelagoes. 
The traditions of the Gilbert Islanders tell us that their islands 



MICRONUCLEUS— MICROPEGMATITE 



3^1 



ind South Polynesian islands on the south and south-east, 
suggests, what in fact is found, a combination of races. In 
some places the oblique Mongolian eye is noticed, and (together 
with certain Indo-Chinese customs) there is often a scantiness 
of beard and general " Malay " look, which increases westwards, 
and seems to imply relations with the archipelago subsequent 
to the departure thence of the pure Polynesians. In the Gilberts 
the traces of Polynesian (Samoan) influences are evident, and 
are confirmed by tradition. Among the Carolines and the 
Marshalls darker and more savage conununities are found, 
suggesting a Melanesian element, which is further traceable in 
the Ebon (Marshall) and other languages. 

Each of the four main groups, viz. the Caroline, Marshall, 
Gilbert and Ladrone (Mariana), from long isolation, has 
developed ethnological peculiarities of its own. The most 
advanced folk were the " Chamorros " of the Ladrones, owing 
to the greater natural resources of the islands, and perhaps more 
frequent contact with influences from the west; but as a separate 
people they no longer exist, having been nearly exterminated 
by the Spaniards in the X7th century. Next in advancement 
come the Caroline islanders. The general Micronesian type is a 
well-proportioned rather slightly built figure, with small and 
regular features; bead high and Well proportioned, but forehead 
rather retreating and narrow at the temples; cheek bones and 
chin slightly prominent; straight black hair, lanker than that 
of the Polynesians, colour somewhat darker than the Polynesians, 
the Marshalls being darker and more vigorous than the Carolines, 
while the Gilbert type, though smaller than the latier, is still 
darker and coarser. The upper class greatly surpasses the 
common people in physique and intelligence. 

There » a division of society into septs or clans, the membership 
of which constitutes the closest tie. Persons of the Hune sept 
must not intermarry, and when two blands or communities meet 
in war the members of one sept, however widely separated by dis- 
tance of space or r; .■■.■. •:.,!:, .i- i;., r ;■ . iter. 
Each community h j dually cainpa-^'d (but tueru arc. luciL diA'er- 
ences) of— (l) an upper cUiss of chicfi, from amoriE whom the dead 
ilaviel or ins) is choffn; U) a. lovtr but stiU nablc claMt and (3) 
common people, moitly withc>^\it ftRhtf of property. The^e last 
are only allowed one wife- l^t^rt and rhenc ant traces, ai m Ton^, 
of a spiritual sovt^rcign^ llie dnccodanis probably of a cofiquered 
dynasty. Succession i« throueh the fecnoK tide, which aji^^ure^ to 



women a certain position, and leads besdet to some cunou» results 
(see paper by J. S, Kuti^iry in Das Ausiattd, 1S80, No. 37), The 
upper class are the kcej^r* ol tradidoiii, boat-buildfri, lifr^-idtri of 
expeditions; tattooing is RencraUy done by them, the n mount 
increasing with a man's nink; the custam ncrv ttUJ li^s definite 
religious associations. Bolh sexes arc tattooed. 

The Marshall Islanders are the boldest and most skilful navi- 
gators in the I^arific. Their voyages of^ many months' duration, 
m great canoes sailing with outrigger to windward, well-provisioned* 
and depending on the skies for fresh water, help to show how the 
Pacific was colonized. They have a sort of chart, medo, of small 
sticks tied together, representing the positions of islands and the 
directions of the winds and currents. A two-edged weapon, of 
which the blade is of sharks' teeth, and a defensive armour of 
braided sennit, are also peculiar to the islands; a large adze, made 
of the bhell of the Tridacna gigas (the largest bivalve known), was 
formerly used in the Carolines, probably by the old builder race. 

The diakcts of Micronesia, though grammatically alike, differ 
widely in their vocabularies. They have the chief characteristics 
of the Polynesian, with Malay affinities, and peculiarities such as 
the use of suffixes and inseparable pronouns and, as in Taral, of 
the infix to denote changes m the verb; in the west groups there is 
a tendency to closed syllables and double consonants, and a use of 
the palatals cA, j, sk, the dental th, and s (the last perhaps only in 
foreign words), which is alien to the Polynesian. These letters are 
wanting in the Gilbert language, which differs considerably from 
all the others, and has much greater affinities with the Polynesian. 
Most words take the accent on the penult. In some of the dialects 
there appears to be no true article, but in the Gilbert Islands the 
Polynesian le b used for both definite and indefinite article. Gender 
is sexual only. Number in the noun is either gathered from the 

were peopled from the west and also from the east. Thosewho 
came from the east are expressly said to be from Samoa. Those 
from the west were more numeoous than those from the east. 
There are also traditions of the arrival of other strangers at some 
of these islands. On the island of Peru, in the Gilbert group, in 
1869 there was still the remnants of a large proah which, from the 
description given, appears to have been like those used in the Indian 
ArcUpelaKO. 



requirement of the sense or is marked by pronominal words or 
numerals. Case is known by the position of the noun in the sen- 
tence or by prepositions, fn the language of Ebon, one of the 
islands in the Marshall archipelago, nouns have the peculiarity 
which is characteristic of the Papuan laneuages: th(»e which indi- 
cate close relationship — as of a son to a lather, or of the members 
of a person's body — take a pronominal suffix which gives them the 
appearance of inflexions. Many words are used indiscriminately 
as nouns, adjectives or verbs, without any change of form. In 
some languages the personal pronouns are singular, dual and 

{>luFal. In others there are no special dual forms, but the numeral 
or two is used to indicate the dual. In the Ebon language there 
are inclusive and exclusive forms of the personal pronouns which, 
so far as has been ascertained, do not occur in any of the other 
languages. The verbs usually have no inflexions to express re- 
lations of voice, mood, tense, number ofperson — such distinctions 
being indicated by particles. In the Ebon language, however, 
the tenses arc sometimes niiarked; but in that the simple form of the 
verb is frequently given. All have verbal directive fiarticles. In 
Ponape. one of the Caroline Islands, many words of ceremony are 
used in addressing chiefs, as they are used in Samoa. The custom 
of tabooing words is also found there as it is in the Polynesian 
languages. 

1 he rcjidous ninths afig ^nently iilentiiable with the Polynesian, 
but a belief in the godi proper is ovt^rshjtJowcd by a general deifica- 
tbci of ancestDrs, who are mppiMit^d ffoni lime tr> time to occupy 
certain blocks of stanc, set up near the family dwelling, and sur- 
rounded by cjfidta of ntuiUer ones. Thrac Etuoej are anointed 
with oil, and worshipped iftith prayer and DlFerings, and are also 
u«d for pu.fpo»e4 of dlivi nation, in whidif and in various omens, 
thfre ii a gertem) belief* In the >!ar>halls, in place of these stones, 
Cfrtain palm ti^et are si milady em:Ii3wd. The ipirits also some- 
times inhabit otrriain binia or fiehes^ whktt »rv t^en taboo, as food, 
to the family; but they will hc^p to catch them for others. Temples 
airu very rare, though these blocka of con.\ arc $oirtrt lines surrounded 
by a roofless enclosure opening to the west. The bodies of the 
dead, and umciimca even of tEe tlck^ are dcsptch^ to sea west* 
wards^ with certain riiea; thoM of the thief s, however, are buried. 
Jar the order has somtfthinir eiacntblly divine alKiiui it; their bodies 
.1,, .f,.f,.*.,. ,N^„ .-w-f...! :>M.i .1,..;^ cr.ipf.^r-^-T'-'f:.- ^'^"T*ie the position 
above described. Such a belief greatly strengthened the king's 
icestors were necessarily more 
; ' -.;,, :.. : , . :. ;i ,, 1 l.us too it comes that the chiefs. 

<i I I n^ icf them, are t^boo as regards the common people. 

M I i QMS other subject a ^od occasions of taboo, but the 

in ::i .•>■■' I -1^ n-ot the oc^re^'^ve and all-pervading character 
which it hai in Pol^neiia- m action is often economical or charit- 
ab1p> €-1^ the ripening; coco-nut? are taboo as long as the bread- 
fruit lattit thus Kcuttng th« former for future use; or it is put on 
after a death, and the nuts (bu? saved are given to the family — 
a kindne^ to them, and a mark of rcr^pect for the dead. 

The houses in the Gilberti and Marshalls (much less elaborate 
than in the Carolines) consist merely of a thatched roof resting on 
posts or on blocks of coral about ^ ft. high, with a floor at that 
Iirvel. which ii reached from an opening in the centre. On this the 
printrifxil mople sleep, nnd it serves as a storehouse inaccessible to 
rti[>, which tiircst all the isksidL 

MICRONUCLEUS, the smaller nucleus in Infusoria (^.v.). 
In fission it divides by mitosis, and in conjugation furnishes the 
pairing or gametonudci, by whose reciprocal fusion a zygote- 
nucleus is formed, which gives rise to tbe meganudei and 
micronudci of the in d ividuals of the next cycle of fission. 

MICROPEOMATITB, in petrology, a very fine intergrowth of 
quartz and alkali fekpar, occurring as the last product of consoli- 
dation in many igneous rocks which contain high or moderatdy 
high percentages of silica. It shows the same structure on a 
minute scale as certain pegmatites (q.v.) or coarse granitic veins 
do on a large scale (see Petrology, PI. 2, figs. 6 and 8); the 
quartz forms angular patches scattered through a matrix of 
felspar. In polarized light the separate areas of each mineral 
extinguish at the same time, and this proves that even though 
apparently discontinuous they have the same crystalline orienta- 
tion. The felspar may be considered an irregular crystal of 
spongy structure, the interstices being filled up by another 
spongy crystal of quartz. This kind of mineral intergrowth is 
said to be " graphic," t>ecause the coarsely graphic veins have 
triangular quartz areas dotted over a felspathic background 
resembling certain primitive inscriptions. Micropcgmatite 
diCFcrs from " graphic granite " only in being so much finer 
grained that its nature can only be detected with the microscope. 
The fekpar of micropcgmatite is usually orthoclasA^ Vxv\\. wi\s>fc- 
timcs albite, o^godaae ox mcroOliiit. OtcasftssM^^ >x \v"4& 
aystallinc loim, and tiken \V \»i \»w^ vw**^ xioax. >i>fc ce»a!v^ 



392 



MICROSCOPE 



may be so disposed that the two minerab have a definite relation 
between their crystallographic axes (parallel growth). The 
quartz typically occurs as angular patches; at other times it 
forms dub-shaped, curved or vermiform threads (vermicular 
micropegmatite, myrmekite), and then some authors consider 
that the felspar has been corroded and the quartz fills up the 
q>ace8 thus produced (quartz de corrosion of French petro- 
graphers). Micropegmatitc is often so fine grained that even 
in the thinnest sections and with high powers it cannot be 
resolved into its components. This fine micropcgmatite 
resembles threads, having a divergent arrangement In some 
rocks the whole ground mass consists of such spheruliu'c growths 
of fibrous micropegmatite (see Quajitz— PoaFHYKV); in their 
centres there is often a quartz or felspar crystal; the outer 
boundaries of the sphcrulites are not usually circular but irreg- 
ular owing to the interlocking of adjacent spherulites at their 
margins (" granophyric structure "). Micrographic structures 
may occur in other minerals, e.g. quartz and garnet, cordierite, 
epidote or hornblende, augite and felspar, but are less common, 
and the name micropegmatite is usually reserved for aggregates 
of quartz and febpar. 

In rocks where micropegmattte frequently occurs (e.f. ffranite, 
porphyry and granophyre. quaitz-dioritc) it is usually the last 
product of consoUdation. and represents the mother liquor left 
over after the other minerals had separated out in more or less 
perfect crystals. Hence it has no definite form of its own, but 
fills up the irregular interspaces between the earlier crystallizations. 
For that reason it has been compared to a eutectic, and supposed 
to be the mixture of quartz and felspar which has the lowest fusion 
point. Eutcctics are common in alloys and often have a very per- 
fect micrographic structure. The eutectic mixture of quartz and 
orthoclase has been estimated to contain 70-75% of the latter. 
This theory, however, is not without its difficulties; analyses of 
mkropegmatite prove that its composition is by no means constant 
(this may perhaps be due to small admixtures of soda and lime 
felspars); and experimental researches on the fusion points of 
mixtures of quartz and felspar have not yet shown that there is 
a definite mixture which melts at a lower temperature than any^ 
other. Furthermore micropef^atite is not always the last con- 
solidation product, as a eutectic should be, but may occur as well 



taneously. - - (J. S. F.) 

MICROSCOPE (Gr. /uxp6t, small, okokuv, to view), an optical 
instrument for examining small objects or details of such objects; 
it acts by making the angles of vision under which the images 
appear greater than when the objects themselves are viewed 
by the naked eye. 

Microscopes are distinguished as simple and compound. A 
simple microscope consists of a single positive lens, or of a lens 
combination acting as a single lens, placed between the eye 
and the object so that it presents a virtual and enlarged image. 
The compound microscope generally consists of two positive 
lens systems, so arranged that the system nearer the object 
(termed the objective) projects a real enlarged image, which 
occupies the same place relatively to the second system (the 
eyepiece or ocular) as does the real object in the simple micro- 
scope. An image is therefore projected by the ocular from the 
real magnified image produced by the objective with increased 
magnification. 

History of the Simple Microscope. — Any solid or liquid trans- 
parent medium of lenticular form, having either one convex and 
one fiat surface or two convex surfaces whose axes are coincident, 
may serve as a " magnifier," the essential condition being that 
it shall refract the rays which ^ass through it so as to cause 
widely diverging rays to become either parallel or but slightly 
divergent. Thus if a minute object be placed on a slip of glass, 
and a single drop of water be placed upon it, the drop will act as 
a magnifier in virtue of the convexity of its upper surface; so 
that when the eye is brought sufficiently near it (the glass being 
hdd horizontally) the object will be seen magnified. Again if a 
small hole be made in a thin plate of metal, and a minute drop 
0/ water be inserted in it, this drop, having two convex surfaces, 
ml/ serve as a still more powerful magnifier. There is reason 
lo believe that the tDagmfying power o( tnuisparent media with 



convex surfaces was very early known. A convex lens of xock- 
crystal was found by Layard among the ruins of the palace 
of Nimrud; Seneca describes hollow spheres of glass filled with 
water as being commonly used as magnifiers. 

The perfect gem-cutting of the ancients could not have been 
attained without the use of magnifiers; and doubtless the 
artificers who executed these wonderful works also made them. 
Convex glass lenses were first generally used to assist ordinary 
vision as " spectacles "; and not only were spectacle-makers the 
first to produce glass magnifiers (or simple microscopes), but by 
them also the telescope and the compound microscope were 
first invented. During the Thirty Years' War the sample 
microscope was widely known. Descartes (Dioptrique, 1637) 
describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its 
concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a 
lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point 
fixing it at the focus of the mirror. Antony van Leeuwei^Mek 
appears to be the first to succeed in grinding and poli^iing 
lenses of such short focus and perfect figure as to render the 
simple microscope a better instrument for most purposes than 
any compound microscope then constructed. At that time the 
"compass" microscope was in use. One leg of a compass 
carried the object, and the other the lens, the distance between 
the two being regulated by a screw. Stands were also in tise, 
permitting the manipulation of the object by hand. Robert 
Hooke shaped the minutest of the lenses with which be made 
many of the discoveries recorded in his Micrographia from small 
glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass; 
and the same method was employed by the Italian Father Di 
Torre. Early x>ptidans and microscopists gave their chief 
attention to the improvement of the simple microscope, the 
principle of which we now explain. 

Simple Microscopb 

Position and Site of the Image. — ^A person with normal vision 
can see objects distinctly at a distance varying from ten inches 
to a very great distance. Objects at different distances, however, 
are not seen (fistinctly simultaneously, but in succession. This 
is effected by the power of accommooation of the eye, which can 
so alter the local length of its crystalline lens that images of objects 
at different distances can be produced rapidly and distinctly one 
after another upon the retina. 

The anele under which the object appears deoends upon the dia> 
tance ana rize of the object, or, in other words, the size of the image 
on the retina is determined by the disunce and the dimensions ol 
the object. The ratio between the real size of the object y {f^ l) 




and the distance /, which is equal to the tani^nt of the visual angle 
w, is termed the " apparent size " of the object. From the figure, 
which represents vision with a motionless eye, it is seen that the 
apparent size increases as the object under obaervation u approadied. 
liie greater the visual angle, the more distinctly are the details 
of the object perceived. On the other hand, as the observer recedes 
from the object, the apparent size, and also the image on the retina 
diminishes; details become more and more confused, and gradually, 
after a while, disappear altogether, and ultimately the external 
configuration of the Object as a whole is no longer recognizable. 
This case arises when the visual angle, under which the object 
appears, is approximately a minute of arc; it is due to the physio> 
logical construction of the retina, for the ends of nerve fibres, 
which receive the impression of li^ht. have themselves a definite 
size. The lower limit of the resolving power of the eye is reached 
when the distance is approximately 3438 times the size of the object. 
If the object be represented by two separate points, these points 
would appear distinct to the normal eve only so long as the dis* 
tance between them is at the most only 3438 times smaller than 
their distance from the eye. Wlien the latter distance is increased 
still further, the two appear as one. Therefore when it b destred 
to distinctly recognize exceedingly small objects or deUils of such, 
they are brought as near as possible to the eye. The eye is strained 
in bringing its focal length to the smallest possible amount, and 
when this strain is long continued it may cause pain. When the 
shortest distance obtained by the highest strain of accommodation 
is insufficient to recognize small objects, distinct vision is possibte 
I at even a i&iOct,ec dvsxaivQt by placing a very small diaphragm 



MICROSCOPE 



393 



t appears at a sharp point. However, the Ion of light in this 
lire IS eztracNtiinarily larfsc, so that only most intensely 



bet w e en the eye and the object, the pendit of rays ^ 

from the obiect-points. which otherwise are limited by the pupils oi 
the eye, beuw thus restricted by the diaphragm. The object is 
then projected with such acute peiicils on the plane focused for, m this 
caae on the plane on which the eye can just accommodate itself, 
that the circle of confusion arisinij; there is still so small that 
it is below the limit of angular visual distinctness and on that 
aocoont ap 

procedure ^ 

muminated objects can be investi^ted. 
¥ A naked short-^hted eye. wbch would be corrected for distant 
objects by a spectacle glass of — lo diopters, may approach the 
object up to about a in. and have a sharp image upon the retina 
without any strain whatever. For the observation of small obiccts, 
a. myope eye is consecjuently superior to a normal eye; and the 
normal eye in its turn b superior to the hypermetrofHC one. When 
the details are no longer recognizable by the unaided eye, the 
mg^ying glass or the simple microscope is necessary. As a rule 
larae ma^incation is not demanded from the former, but a larger 
6eka of view, whilst the simple microscope should ensure powenul 
magnification even when the field is small. The simple microscope 
enlarges the angle of vision, and docs not tire the eye when it is 
arranged so that the image lies in the farthest limit of distinct 
yisi<m (the punctum remotum), A normal eye will therefore see an 
image formed by the magnifying glass most conveniently when it 
b produced at a ereat distance, i.e. when the object is in its front 
local plane. If y (fig. 2) be the object the image appears to a normal 
L 
CL 




Repdation of the Rays.^—ln unng optical tnstnimento the eye 
in general is moved just as in free vision ; that is to say, the attention 
is fixed upon the individual parts of the image one after another, 
the eye being turned in its cavity. In this case the eye is always 
directed so that the part of the image which is wished to be viewed 
exactly falls upon tne most sensitive portion of the retina, .vis. 
the macula lutea (yeUow spot}. Corresponding to the size of the 
yellow spot only a small fraction of the image appears particulariy 
distinctly. The other portions which are reproduced on the retina 
on the regions surrounding the vellow spot will also be perceived, 
but with reduced definition. These external and less sensitive 
parts of the retina, therefore, merely give information as to the 
general arrangement of the objects and to a certain extent act as 
guide-post in order to show quickly and conveniently, although 
not distinctly, the places in the image which should claim 8i>ecial 
attention. Vision with a motionless eye, or " indirect vision,'* 
gives a general view over the whole object with particular definition 
of a small central portion. Vision with a movable eye, or " direct 
vision," gives exact information as to the parts of the <^ject one 
after another. 

The rimple microscope permits such vidon. If the instrument 
has a sensible lens diameter, and b arranged so that the centre of 
rotation of the eye can coincide with the intersection of the principal 
rays, the lens can then form with the eye a centred syi^em. Such 
lenses are termed " lenses for direct vision." By moving the eye 
about its centre of rotation M the whole field can be examined. 
The margin of the mount of the lens serves as the diaphragm o( 
the field of view. The selection of the rays emerging from the lens 
and actually employed in forming the image b undertaken by the 
pupil of the eye which, in this case, is consequently the exit pupil 
of the instrument. In fig. 3 PPi designates the exit pupil 01 the 



Fig. 2. 



eTe aitaated bdiind the system L with passive accommodation at 
a very great distance under the angle «r. Since H' P» F O, ■■ y, 
from the focal length of the simpte microscope, the visual angte 
t^ b given t^ 

tantp'/y-i/y-V. (i) 

in which ft ~ H' F', b the image-side focal length (see Lens). 
Since the lens b bounded by air, the image- and object-side focal 
lengths/ and /are equal. The value i/f or V in (i), is termed 
the fewer of the lens. In most cases the number of " diameters " 
of the ample microscope b required; i.e. the ratio between the 
apparent sizes of the object when observed through the microscope 
and when viewed by the naked eye. When a person of normal 
vision views a small object, he brings it to the distance of distinct 
vision, which would average about 10 in. The apparent size is 
then (fig. I J tan w-y//, where /-lo in., whilst the apparent 
size 01 the object viewed through the magnifying glass would 
result from the formula (i) tan v/^ylf. Consequently the number 
of diancieters will be 

N-tanttr'/tanw = y//.//y-///-V./: . (2) 

it is tJiixs e<quj1 to th« ma^nifying^ power multiplied by the divLi^nce 
fif distinct ^'i^oHt or the nuniber at limss that th^ local length \f 
coouijied 'm to in. 

Sbice tbt* value f<iT the distance of distinct virion U only con- 
Tmtioial, it b understcpod that the capacity of the »impte mkro- 
KOpe ^veo in (j) holds good ^itily for tyif» accustomed to examine 
■matt objects to in. avray; and obw'rvAtion thmugH Xhit magfiffyinx 
riaaiotiA be unden^kcn by t>ie rormol ^c with pa^ve actomiiiD' 
datiiHh. A \€m of I in. focal hn^h mu^^t be spuktn of, according 
ta tJiit actalioQ, at a X *o lco». and a Itnt o( A in. focal length aa 
M X 100 lent Obviously the pcwiiiofl of a normal eye free from 
iHaaaunodaticti \i lmmiat«ml (of dticrmiTiing the m^Kr^^'i^^^^i^n- 
A X 10 nugflificatiort is, however, fay^ no rneant guaranteed to a 
myopic vyt of — lo D by a. Icni of i in. focus. Smcc thi* sHort- 
Kghted obeervtf cart view the object with the naked eye with no 
inconvenience to himself at 4 In. dittance, it fcllowi (to hitn) the 
apparent M2e is tan io'-y/4; and to aectire convetiient vision 
trir'iuv'H the Vmi tht: j^hort Hjjhli-d per^nn vtiuTLt brinjjt iht; object 

f. ■:■•'• ■'.-'■ ■ ' ■ '" i : - ;: ■ 1, I. !! .• . '^ ■ ■ ! I ! . . . ' ■'■: ■ I ' ■ [JJ"0- 

jected in his punctum remotum. In addition it will be supposed 
that the centre of the pupil of the observer coincides with the back 
focal point of the system. The apparent size of the object seen 
through the lens u then tan v/^ylj. The magnification, resulting 
from the simple microscope of i in. focus, is here N <» tan t&'/tan vo — 
ytf-^y^AU^A'. Thus, while a lens of i in. focal length assures 
to the normal-sighted person a X 10 magnification, it affords to 
the sfaort-Mghted individual only X 4. (Jn the other hand, it is 
even of yeater use to the hypermetropic than to the observer of 
normal sight. From this it appears that each observer obtains 
speciSc advantages from one ana the same simple microscope, and 
also the individual observer can obtain different magnifications by 
other using different accommodations, or by viewmg in passive 
a cc o inn iodatioo. 




IFiG. 3. 

lens, and the image of PPi, «.«. PPi, which is formed by the 
lens, limits the aperture of the pencils of rays on the object-side'; 
consequently it is the entrance pupil of the instrument. Since the 
exit pupil moves in observing the whole field, the entrance pupil 
also moves. The principal rays, which on the object-side connect 



the object-points with the centre of the entrance pupil, intersect the 
axis on the ima^e-side at the centre of rotation M of the eye. M 
is therefore the intersection of the principal rays. 



So long as the exit pupil is completely filled the brightness of 
the image will be approximately equal to that of free vision. If, 
however, we fix the points lying towards the margin of the field 
of view, the diaphragm gradually cuts off more and more of the 
rays which were necessary to fiU the pupil, and in consequence 
the brightness gradually falls off to zero. This vignetting can be 
observed in all lenses. 

In nrv ! also in corrected sj-rtcms^ the intersection <rf 

the print., I .ill .,i,-. i- no long'er a^'ailable Terr tl"? centre of rotation 
of the e>'c, and ^his kind of obwrvation is iinpo»lble. 

In som* inftraments obsrrvDtion of the «hc*le available field is 
only pc'^tiible when thv beinl and eye are moved at th« same time, 
the Wn% Tvtainine its portion, T)i M. von Rohr terms this kind 
of vision " p«p-nole observation." It hai mainly. to l>e considered 
in connexion vith powrrfuL oiiigniryipg gbssn. In most cases 
a dtaphndpn r^ijulatps the 
ray*. Fig. 4 bhowi the 
poiMtion of the diaphragms 
10 be considered in this 
kind of obiervation. PP* 
is the entrance pupil, P'P/ 
the exit pupil „ and GG 
t he diaphragm . ^ Th e in ter- 
Hction of the princi|u! ray a 
in this caAe lies in the 
middle of the entrance 
pupil or of the exit pupil. 
By head and eye motion 
the various parts of the 
whole field can be viewed one after another. The distance of the 
eye from the lens is here immaterial. In tnis case also the illumi- 
nation must fall to zero by the vignetting of the pencils coming 
from objects at the margin of the field of view. C and D are 
the outermost rays which can pass through the instrument. 

Magnifying glasses arc often used for viewing three-dimensional 
objects. Onty points lying on the plane focused for can be sharply 
reproduced in the retina, which acts as object-pbne to the retina. 




394 



MICROSCOPE 



All pQJnti ty^nf Wt iA th» pUtif ait repfodaCft] ^a circles of con- i 
fusUm, The ct^ntral projectian, of which the centre U th? midcJlf 
point of the entxanLc pupil on the pLirie fdcuud for^ wiU show in 
weikcr $yateiTiii, or tho^f v^ry much liLopped down^ « ccrt^ci 
£nit(r depth ai definitlDn ; thai is la lay^ the totality of poinlsj 
which lie out oJ the plajic focused Jot, antj which are projected 
with circles of confm.ion lo Bmall that they appear to the eye aj 
feharp points^ Hfj'i include the ibarp Dbiect rehef, and dct^rmint 
the dcpih of dctinirifjn ot the lens. With incft^ainc maj^iiicatioR 
the drpth of definitic>ii dinunishejij b^cauae the circle* of cDfifusbii 
are gTMier in conx-qoence of the Kharter focal length. Very 
powerful fiimjite micro?<;sj(;Mj» have hatdly flny depth w definiliori 
so that In fact only points lyin^ in one pUttc can be xsn Eharply 
with ojie focufiin^, 

liiumimilutn. — So 1on|r as th& pupil ol the obstn*tr abnc tiiidcr* 
tnkei the rwubttion ol tho rays thcrv i^ no perceptible diminution 
of iUumlnation in companion with th€' naked tyc virion » The 
losses of hght which occur in thisi <A^ are '^due to rc'tlcctiorii which 
Uilet place in the paf&igv of the light thfi^ugh the giBu sEirfacet., 
Id 9 \tnst wHh two Doyndln^ surfarrtf in air th^rc ii^ a \os9 of about 
9%T Aid Ui a k-n;3 «ystem con^istlnK of two jcpjimtcd lcn»s» i.c^ 
wfth four iurfacei in atr, fibout 17% Lo^aCi due to absorption 
are aJmo^ ^ix) when ti^ lenses are v^^ry thin» 45 yfli\} lenses of 
amaJl fHumttvr, A very marke<l diminuition in illumination occurs, 
however, when the exit pupil of the inttminent is smAtler than thr 
pupil of the ey& In aucn ijiatruments an afrangeinent is often 
nqutred to intensely jlluminate the objctrt. 

Forms of ifu; Simpit Mkri?srope. — If the ordinaiy convex lens 
be etciploytd as magnifyingf glass, great abenationa occur tv^n 
in medium magnifications. Thcsu ire: (i> chromaiic aberration, 
{3) spherical aberration and {3) asLigraatisrn (see Aderration), 

When thi' pupil reffulatcs the aperture of the niys produdng the 
image the abL-rr,ition6 of the ordinary len«* incrtasc consideralilv 
vith the ma an ideation, or, what amountj to the ^me thingi, with 
the increase in the cuiVature of the Hjifac<4. For k-ntt* ol short 
focus the didtfieter of the pupij is too Wgo* and diaphragms mu^ 
be emplo^'ed whrch strongly diminish the apertim of the pcncHs, 
and >o reduce itie errors, out with A falling off of Ulummation. 
To rtjuluee the abirratL>:)iit Sir David BrewAer propottd to employ 
in the plaec of ftl^sa transparent mineral of high rcfraciive ind^x 
and low dlsfHrrsian. In this manner lenses c»f ^hort focus can be 
wodured having lower curvQiunrs than glass krnscs nectsiiitate. 
The diamoiul has the requiute optical pttiiperties, lis indtrx of 
refractinii bcinft about 1^6 times as hurge as that of ordinary glass. 
The spherical iibi^rratlon of a duimonu leas can be bnDu^ht down 
to one-ninth of a j^biis lens of equal focus. Ap^in, hoH-ever, from 
the cost of the mineral and its very difficult working, a lource ol 
error lies in its want oi homogtrncity, which often causM a double 
or even a triple im'UgeH Simiuir attempts made by Pritchard with 
lapphirrs were more successful. With this mineral al» spherical 
And ehrottiatic aWrratiun are a fraction of that of a glass lens, 
but double refraction h which involv<cs a doubling of the iniag^e, is 
fatal to iis uae, Improvementji in glasa Irnses. however, have 
rendered further experiment* with precious stones unnefpssary. 
The tlmpleiit was a sphere of ^Im^ the equator of which (if, the 
mount) formed the dLiphraigm. W^olkLston altered thii by ukinc^ 
rwo pIanD-con\-ex kn^a. pbcin^ the plane surfaces toixanl!^ each 
other and employing a diaphragm between the two parts (Eg 3], 
WoUaston, Brcwrtef. Brewster (Stanhope), 



tr O 



Fig. s* Fig. 6. Fig. 7- 

Sir David Brewster found that Wolbston's form worketl best when 
the two Icnaw *tre hemisphem and the central *pat?e was flllt^ 
lip with a transparent cement having the liimi^ rt Tract ivc indejt ft* 
Ihc glasfS he therefore used a spherv and pr(jvid«l it with a groove 
ti the equator (see fig. 6). Coddington employed ih^ same con- 
•truction, and for this reason this deviec is trei|uently called the 
Coddingtoti kns; although he brought the WoU4ftion'rifew^.tcr lens 
into gi^ntral notice, he was neither the inventor nor cLiimed to be. 
Thii Icnfi r^;rtrodut:ed all points of a conctatric spherical surface 
Minultaneously sharp, A fonitructioii also emplovinH ont piece 
of glass form* the so-called Sunhopckns (fig. 7), which was n:^lly 
due to Brcwsier* This i* a glass cylindcT, the t*D ends of which 
»re spherical surfaces. The more iirongly curved surf .ice 1? pbiccd 
ne5ct ihe ey^i the other serves at the same time a? sfiecimen earner- 
This lens i* employed in ariMrk-s found in tfturisi rtsotis as a magmty' 
iof glara (or miniature photographs of the locality, 

D&itbids^ 6rc,— To remove ihc cirots iwhicb the above lenses 
shQwtd^ pantcvhT]y when very short focal lengths *ere in 
Qticstha, /tijjs coaibindiioni war*' *di»ptetL The individuaJ 



Cijmponents ttquired weatcf cuivilttres and pcnnlitcd of bdng 
more correctly manufacturcdj and, more particularly, the advan- 
tage of fed need ab<rraLion$ was the predominant factor. 

Wotiiulon^s donbtrt (hg. S) is a combination of ttvo pUno-^ionvfX 
lenses, the fgcsl lenj^hs of which are Ln the rati? of 3 ^^ 1; the plane 
WolUfton- Fraunbofer, Wilson. SteinhctL CbcvatJcr 

(BrUcke). 




^^^ 



Fig. 8. 



Fit. 9- 



Fig. idl 



Fig. u. 



Ftc- u. 



tides are turned towards the object^ and the smaller of the two 
lenses is nearer the object. Thia construction was fun her imprm-vd 
(1} by introducing a diaphragm between the two lenses; {3) by 
altering the distance between the two lenses; and fj) b>' splitting 
the lower lens into two kn^cs. Triplets are employed when th^ 
focal length of the eimple microscope was less than ^^ in- When 
welt made such con.«itrucnons are almost free from sphencal 
aberration, and the chromatic errors are very smaU. Stmilaj- 
doublets composed of two piano-con vex Lenses are the Fraunhofcr 
(fig. Q) and the Wilson (5£- to). Axial aberration is reduced by 
distributing the refraction between two lenses; and by placing the 
two tense* liirihcr apart the errors of the jtendls of tmyi prooceding: 
from (Xiint? tying outside the axis arc rt-nJuced^ The Wikcrx luii 
a greater distance between the lenses, and atso a reduction of the 
chromatic difference of magnifkutiiin^ but compared with the Frjusi- 
hofer it is at a disadvant:ige with regard to the *iiie of the fnce 
working distance, i.e. the disutice of the object from the lens surface 
nearer it. 

By introducing a dispersive lens af Hint the magiuf>iog ^laie 
could be corrected for both chromatic and sphi^rical abcrraiiopa. 
Browniit^^s " plaiyscopic '' lenn and the Sieinhcil "' aplanatic " kai 
(Af. 11} are of this type. Both yield a field of ^ood de&niiioa 
tree from colour. 

The mann*^r in which the cyt uses such a lens was firiii: effectivrly 
taken into account by M, von Rohr* These anastiematit: knae*, 
which arc manufactured up to X 40. are chromatically and spher- 
icilly corrected, and for A middle diaphra,gm the errors of literal 
pencils, difttonion, astigni^tL^m and cotna are eliminated. " P^ep- 
tote '* observation is employt.-dH observation beini; made by movinz 
the head and eje while the lens i>» held steady. Even in pawerfui 
magnifications a good image exbits in all parts of a. rebtively lar^e 
field, and the free working distance Is fairly large. 

For especially large Irce wwrklnfi diir^ncen the corrections pro- 
pas(!!d by Che\'alier and carried «ut by E, Brucke must be noticed 
(fig. I J). To an achromatic collective ktt-^, which is turn«l towards 

the ob; "^ " "" "~ '"' '" " — ^-' — ^ ^'^" '■"** ' — ' "" 

extent 

distance c, „-, , ^ ... ^ 

can be widely ^-aried. Through the Large free working distance, 
which for certain work offers great advantages^ the size of the field 
of view is diminished. 

In magnifying glasses for direct vision the eye must alwnyv be 
considerwt The Tens is brought as dose an possible to the eye ta 
as to view as large a field as |>o*5Jhle* The watch rr,akeT\ Rlaja ia 
one d the earliest forms of this kind* GuUstrand ^owed how ea 
cotrccl these lenses for direct vision, ie, to eUminate distortion and 
astigmatism when the centre of rotation of the eje coincided with 
the point where the principal tajs crossed the axis. Von Rohf 
Iut51kd this condition by construciing the Verani lens, which iie 
low power systems intended for viewing a Litige fbt field. 

Standi J— Pat dii$secting or examining oblt^ts it ii an advantage 
to have both hands ffrc. Where very short focus simple mkro- 
scopes are employed* using high maemfications, tt is imperative to 
employ a stand which pcrniits exatt focusing and the u*e uf a spc^riial 
illuminating apparatus. Since* however, only relatively low powen 
are now ernpfoyed, the ordinary rack and pinion movement for 
focusme suffices, and for illuminatii^g the object only a mirror 
below the stage Is requLt«d when the object is transparent, and a 
eoncknsing lens above the stage when opaque. 

Disi^cctmg stand ■<. v,vry as to portability, the site ol the stand, and 
the manner in which the arm-rests ane arranged, A stand ii 
shown in fig. 57 (PbieJ. Oti the heavy horseshoe loot is a coludtt 
carrying the stage. In the column is the guide for the rack-and' 
pinion movement. Ltnses of various magnifications can be adapted 
to the cjrriLT and moved about over the Ktage. The rests can tiT 
attached to the »tat;e. and when done with folded together, flkh 
mination of transpanent object* is effected by the univcrial- joi ntc^ 
mirror. By tummg the knob A, placed at the front c:QriiK=r of 



;. J3h JO an acnromatic coiietiivc ion*, wnscn is ^urnm to«arai 
! ob;«ct, a di^^persive lens is combined (this tj-pe to a. certain 
ent betongs to the compound micruhcope). By altering the 
t a nee of the colle<:ii\'e ^nri Ul^per-^ive memben the magni&catioa 



MICROSCOPE 



395 



tbe Hage* a Uack or white plate, forming a dark or liglit back- 
gnmndt can be swung underneath the specimen. 

When the recognition of the arrangement in space of small objects 
is desired a stereoscopic lens can be used. In most cases refracting 
and reflecting systenu are arranged so that the natural inter- 
pupinarv diMuxc is reduced. Stereoscopic lenses can never be 
powerful systems, for the main idea is the recognition of the depth 
of object^ so that only systems having a sufficient depth of definitbn 
can be utilised. Very often such stereoscopic lenses, owing to faultv 
construction, give a false idea of space, ignoring the errors which 
are due to the alteration of the inter-pupillary distance and the 
visual ang^ belonging to the principal rays at the objea-side (see 
Binocular Instruments). 

Compound Microscope ^ 

The view held by early oplicians, that a compound microscope 
could never produce such good images as an instrument of the 
simple type, has proved erroneous; and the principal attention 
of modem opticians has been directed to the compound instru- 
ment. Although we now know how the errors of lenses may be 
corrected, and how the simple microscope may be improved, 
this instrument remains with relatively feeble magnification, and 
to obtain stronger magnifications the compound form is necessary. 

By compounding two lenses or lens systems separated by a definite 
interval, a system is obtained having a focal length considerably 
less than the focal lengths of the separate systems. If / and f be 
the focal lengths of the combination, jTi,// and/s,// the focal lengths 
of the two components, and A the distance between the inner foci 
of the components, then /- —fifi/X /'-// /i7 A (see Lens). A is 
also equal to the distance Fi'Ft. The accented ^s are always on the 
image side, whilst the unaccented are on the object side. From this 
formula it follows, for example, that one obtains a system of ^ in. 
focal length by compounding two positive systems of i in. each, whose 
focal planes, turned towards one another, are separated by 8 in. 

A microscope objective being made in essentially the same way 
as a simple microscope, and the front focus of the compound system 
being situated before the front focus of the objective, the magnifica- 
tion due to the simple system makes the free object distance greater 
than that obtained with a simple microscope of equal magnification. 
Moreover, this distance between the object and eye is substantially 
increased in the compound microscope by the stand; the incon- 
veniences, and in certain circumstances also the danecrs, to the eye 
which may arise, for example by warming the object, are also 
avoided. The convenient and rapid change in the magnification 
obtained by changing the eyepiece or the objective is also a special 
advantage of the compound form. 

In the commonest compound microscopes, which consist of two 
positive systems a real magnified image is produced by the objective. 
Thb permits researches which are impossible with the simple micro- 
scope. For example, the real image may be recorded on a photo- 
graphs plate; it may be measured; it can be physically altered by 
polarization, by spectrum analysis of the light employed by absorl>- 
ing layers, &c. The greatest advantage of the compound microscope 
is that it represents a larger area, and this much more conipletcly 
than is posnble in the simple form.. According to the laws of optics 
it » only possible either to portray a small object near one oi the 
foci ci the system with wide pencils, or to produce an image from a 
relatively large object by correspondingly narrow penals. The 
nmple microscope is subject to either limitation. As wc shall sec 
later, one of the principal functions of the microscope objective is 
the representation with wide pencils. In that case, however, in 
the compound microscope a small object may always be represented 
b>' means of wider pencils, one of the foci of the objective (not of 
the collective system) being near it. For the eyepiece the other 
rule holds; the object is represented by narrow pencils, and it is 
hence possible to subject the relatively f;rcat object, viz. the magni- 
fied real image, to a further representation. 

History of the Compoutid Microscope. — The arrangement of 
two lenses so that small objects can be seen magnified followed 
soon after the discovery of the telescope. The first compound 
miscroso^ (discovered probably by the Middelburg lens-grinders, 
Johann and Zacharias Janssen about 1590) was a combination 
of a strong biconvex with a still stronger biconcave lens; it had 
thus, as well as the first telescope, a negative eyepiece. In 1646 
Fontana described a microscope which had a positive eyepiece. 
The development of the compound microscope essentially 
'depends on the improvement of the objective; but no distinct 
improvement was made in its construction in the two centuries 
f(rfk>wing the discovery. In 1668 the IlaUan Divini employed I 
several doublets, i.e. pairs of plano-convex lenses, and his { 
example was followed by Grietidl von Ach. But even with such 
moderate magnification as these instruments permitted many 
faults were apparent. A microscope, using concave mirrors, was 
pr o potd in 1672 by Sir Isaac Newton; and be was succeeded. 



by Barker, R. Smith,' B. Martin, D. Brewster, and, above all, 
Amid. More recently these catadioptric microscopes were 
disregarded because they yielded unfavourable results. From 
1830 onwards many improvements were made in the miscroscope 
objective; these may be best followed frocb a discussion of the 
faults of the image. . 

Position and Siu of Image. — In most microsebpic observations 
the object is mounted on a plane glass plate or slide about o*o6 ia 
thick, embedded in a liquid such as 
water, elycerine or Canada balsam, and 
covered with a plane glass plate of 
about o-oo8 to o-oo6 in. thick, called 
the cover-slip. If we consider the 
production of the image of an object 
of this kind by the two positive 
systems of a compound microscope 
shown in fig. 13, the objective L| 
forms a real magnified image O'Oi'; 
the object OOi must therefore lie some- 
what m front of the front focus Fi 
of the objective. Let OOi-y, O'O/ 
-y, the focal distance of the image 
Fi'cy-A, and the image-side focal 
length //, then the magmncation 1 
M-//y-A///. (3) 

The distance A is called the " optical 
tube length." 

Wtak and stmng microscope ohj^c- 
livrs act dLffcrently- Weak syttttnA 
4Ci likt phcitoffrapiiic objectives, la 
\h\* ca*e the oi4icaJ tube length may 
be .ilicred within ftxed limits without 
^poilin^ the imi^!e; at the ume time 
the Cibjective inagniGcatiofi M is n,]Mo 
iili«:red. This change » usually effected 
by mount ing the objective aiid eye- 

Eiece on two tc^lincapmef tixlx-s, «o thit 
y drawinE a|srt or pufrhfns in the 
tube length is mcrca»d or dimini&hed 
M w«]L For strung objocljvcs thcir tit 
hsowLM r. tJiiJy one optical tube len^h 
' i^ pfjMibie to obtnin a. 
i, _ ; mejns of wide pemiU, 

any alteration of the tube length in- 
volving a considerable spoiling of the 
image. This limitation is examined 
below. 

When forming an image by a micro- 
scope objective it often happens that 
the transparent media bounding the 
system have different optical proper- 
ties. A scries of objectives with short 
focal lengths are available, which per- 
mit the placing of a liquid between the 
cover-slip and the front lens of the 
objective: such lenses are known as 
"immersion systems-"; objectives 
bounded on both sides by air arc 
called " dry systems." The immer- 
sion liquids in common use are water, 
glycerine, cedar- wood oil. monobrom- 
naphthalene, 8cc. Immersion systems 

in which the embedding liquid, cover- .^^ . •i^„,^:.^j «.„.,«_ 
slip, immersion-liquid ind front lens !L°" *" JT^^""** JTJ?;'^ 

have equal rcfractfve indices are called ^Xr *^ 

" homogeneous immersion systems." ^cuiar.^ ^ 
In immersion systems the object-side Li -objective, Lj Lj ""eye- 
focal lencth is greater than the image- J?»ece of the Ram sdcn type, 
side focal length. Nothing is altered Fi, Fij object- and im- 
as to objective magnification, however, ap-side foci of objec- 
as the first surface is plane, and the 
employment of the immersion means 
that the value of// is unaltered. 

If we assume that a normal eye 
observes the image through the eye- 
piece, the eyepiece must project a 
distant image from the real image 
produced by the objective. This is 
the case if the image O'Oi' lies in the 
front focal plane of the eyepiece. In this case the optical tube 
length equals the distance of the adjacent focal planes of the two 
systems, which equals the distance of the image-side focus of 
the objective F/ from the object-side focus of the eyepiece 
F». The image viewed through the eyepiece appears then to the 
observer under the angle w', and as wuh the slv^^i^ vccw<«qsk«^ 

where ft is the imag^«\de locaX Xttv^Vv oV v\\ft c^v«k». 



Ujh' 



W^' 



Fig. 13.— Ray transmis- 



tive. 

Fj= front focus of eye- j 
piece. 

PTi'-exit pupil of objec- 
tive. 

P'Pj'«exit pupil of com- 
plete microscope. 

D D "diaphragm of field 
of view. 



396 



MICROSCOPE 



To obtain the magnification of the complete microscope ure roust 
eombine the objective magnification M with the action of the eye- 
piece. If we replace / in equation (4) by the value given by (3), ure 
obtain 

tanW7y-A/f»'.i//."-V. (5) 

the magnification of the complete microscope. The magnification 
therefore equals the power of the joint syvtem. 

The magnification is also expressed as the ratio of the apparent size 
of the object observed through the microscope to the apparent size 
of the object seen with the naked eye. As the conventional distance 
for clear vision with naked eye is 10 in., it results from fig. i that 
the apparent size is tan w^ylL If this value of > be inserted in 
e<^uation (5), we obtain the magnification number of the compound 
microscope: — 

N-taniir'7tanw-A///,7.'-V/. (6) 

The magnification number increases then with the optical tube-length 
and with the diminution of the focal lengths of objective and eyepiece. 
As with the simple microscope, different obscnvers see diRercntly 
in the same compound microscope; and hence the magnification 
varies with the power of accommodation. 

The image produced bv a microscope formed of two poutive 
svstems (fig. 13) is inverted, the objective Li tracins 'from the object 
OOi a real inverted image O'O'i, and the eyepiece ULt maintaining 
this arrangement. For many purposes it is immaterial whether 
the image is inverted or upright : but in some cases an upright image 
lightens the work, or may be indispensable. 

The simplest microscope which produces an ufnight image has a 
negative lens as eyepiece. As shown in fie. 14^ the real image 
formed by the objective roust fall on 
the object-side focal plane of the eye- 
piece Ft, where a normal eye without 
accommodation can observe it. But as 
the object-side focus F» lies behind the 
eyepiece, the real image is not produced, 
but the converging pencils from the 
objective are cha 

to parallels; and iu>:- point vj, m the if>p 
of the object y appear* at the tap to 
the eye, i.e. the image i* upnglit. 
The erection ol tflverted imafes by 
I prisms, which was appHtrtJ to the pimple 

telescope by Ponro» and to the bioocular 



{q.v.) by A. A. BuuljinEcr 1^1* employed 
by k. Bratuschtclt In the Orcenou&h 
double microscope; these invening 
prisnis permit a convenient adaptotion 
of the instrument ta thu interpupilbry 
distance of the iil:>'^rvLT. Double 
microscopes, which produce a correct 
impression of the solidity of the object, 
must, project upright images. The 
terrestrial eyepiece (see Tblbscope), 
which likewise ensures an upright image, 
but which involves an inconvenient 
lengthening, has also been employed in 
the binocular microscope. 
Regulation of the Rays. — ^Weak and 



medium microscope objectives work 
like photographic objectives^ in epi- 
scopic or diascopic projection j in 
the microscope, however, the projected 
image is not intercepted on a screen, but 
a real image in air is formed. This 
must lie in the front focal plane of the 
eyepiece if we retain the supposition 
that it is to be viewed by a normal 
eye with passive accommodation. The 

ftlane in the object conju^te to the 
ocal plane of the eye-piece is the plane 
Fig. 14. — Ray trans- focused for; and all points in it are 
mission in compound sharply portrayed (a perfect objective 
microscope with a nega- being assumed). Object points lyinK out 
tive eyepiece. of the focal plane, on the other hand, are 

U-weak achromatic ob- projected as circles of confusion on the 
jective plane focused for, the centre of the 

U - negative eyepiece. * entrance pupil being the centre of pro- 
Fi Fi' -object- and im- jection and the circles of confusion con- 
kge-side fod of objec- stituting. with the points of the focal 
tlVc plane, the object-side tmago. As the 

F,.F,''- object- and im- pencils used in the representations are of 
age-side fod of eye- ^»«ie aperture on the object-side, only 
pfp(^ such points as are proportionately very 

P'Pi'-exit pupil of ob- "ear the focal plane can produce such 
iectivc small dispersion circles on the plane 

FT/ -virtual image of ^ocyatd for, that they, so far as the 
PjP/^ exit pupn of objective- and eyepiece-magnificalion 
complete microscope. ?^}' »«?»»' »» R»*«*» ^? i*»/ .*>'«• 
It follows that the depth of definition 
oi the mhroacope u in geaenl very UiBang. As it ia eotirdy & 



function of the aperture and the magnification, it can be increased 
by diminishing the entrance pupil, the magnification remainins 
unchanged. A diminution ot the aperture, how«ver, would 

injure 3 vrty rttuch tnr>rc importiiflc prHpt-ny, vit. ibc reaving 
powcf (sec below). With pfjw^fful syitcm*, (jbjecl-point» lying 
quite near the plartc (omwi faf wguld te ttr^tatnted by such 
Urge duperiion circles that prrtciliraljy only thr pclnts lyidg la oee 

ftlane appear timultAneoutily absttp; ^nd ii is ottly by varyfof the^ 
ociii thnt the obj'Cct^poiTiis tying: in other planes can be otHFrved^ 

The pD&iiion of the duphn^^m limiting the pencils proceediAj' 
fron^ the ohj^n^l -points is not constant in tne coropoLind microscope. 
1 n bEI microscope^ the ray* art limi,ted, not im the i?yepie«, but in the 
objective, or before the objt^-lht whtn iisitis a c^ndeiticT. 1 1 the 
pencili anf limited in the objective, the reSLnctron of ih* pcf^dl 
proceeding; from the object -point ia effected by cither the front Icnl 
Itself t hy the boundary of a lent lyini; behind, by a rcra.1 diaphra^ 
pbrM between or behind the object ivc+ or by a diaphngni-inuge. 

The cvntfi: of the entrance pupil is the point of LntcrKction of the 
prints! pal fays: and it is therefore determinative for the prrfpective 
repncacntatioit on the plane focuied for. In figfe i; thi; centre of ibc: 




(After 11. v.Rohr.) 

Fig. 15. — Entocentric transmisuon through a microacope 
objective. 
E- plane focused for; Oi*, Oj*- projections of OiO> on *E; Z- 
oentre of projection; P Pi-a virtual image of ml diaphragm 
PPi' with reeard to the preceding part oTthe objective is the 
entrance pupil, 
entr^fice pupil lies behind the focal plane, and oexisequentty 1 



abjbcts appear larger, and farther ob/ects sinallet ('* entoD^iric 
tnasDUSiUon" we below). If a diaphragm lying in the hack f«a! 

EUne ol the obiijtrtive forms the exit pupil for the objective, as ia 
ffi, 13 and ]4» w ilut its inuigCt the entrance pgpii^ lies at itiiiDity. 
iil[ the pH net pill rays in the object -spare are pai-alld to the axu* 
and we have on the object -side " icleccntric " t(an:«mlssio'ii. The 
sixe of the iinara on the local plane h alwayi equal to its actual sixe, 
iind it luricpendent of the diitance of the object from the pla^ne focused 
iof* This fieprvicntatii>n acquires a special imfwsrtaocie if the object be 
micrometrically measurtdt fi^r aa inaccuracy in focuung docs fwl 
involve an altecation of the sia* of the image. To eMuir the tde- 
centric iTantmission, the diapbragTO In the back focu^of the objectivt 
may be replaced by a diaphragm in the [root focal plane of tbc 
condenser, supposing thai uniformly lUumindted objects aiv bemg 
dealt with : for in this case all the principal nyi la the t>bj«ct-space 
ait transmitted parjtllel to the axis. 

With uni^ortttfy illutniriatMj objecti it may happeti thst the pencil 
in the object -•r»t€ may be limited before p<Jisin^ the abject, 
eithfr through the elie of the scurre oMi^ht employed or thmugh 
a diaphragm coimected with the illuminating system. In fig. 16 




(After M.v.Rohr^ 
Fig. 16. — Hyperccntrlc transmission in a microacope 
objective. 
E, Ol*. O* and Z as in fig. 15. PPi is the entrance pupU. 

the intersection of the principal rays lies in front of the object, and 
consequently objects in front of the plane focused for will be 
projected on E magnified and the objects lying behind it 
diminished (" hypercentric " transmission). It produces a perspec- 
tive representation entirely opposed to ordinary vision. As objects 
lying near us appear smaller in the case of hypercentric trans^ 
mission than those lying farther from us. we receive a false 
impression of the spatial arrangement of the object. 

Whether the entrance pupil be before or behind the object, b 
general its position is such that it lies not too near the object, so that 
the principal rays will have in the object space only trifling inclina- 
tions towards one another or are strictly parallel. This is apedaOy 
important, for otherwise pencils from points placed aonewhat later- 
ally to the axis arrive with diminished aperture at the image. 

We see from fig. 13 that the objective's exit pupil PTi' i» 
pfoctraycdbv X^ v^^^^ c^c^mae^ the image P'Pt" limiu the peacila 



MICROSCOPE 



397 



fmacdiiHr fftmi tfw eycpleoev ThU tiimge P'Pi' it then the exit 
ptipiJ ot the combirwd syttcni. alvi cocisetiurntty ih* imaije of the 
«it»ncc pupil of th* combined iysurm. Aa tht cjiii pupil F'P/ lor 
ib« objective Um tieion the front Itxat ol the tyvpusct:, geaenilly 
at aotnc distance and near the objective, the e^-cpicc^ project a a rc4 
from It behind ill ima^e-ude focui, fo th^t if ihin point ia 

\As k is theeitit pupil P'Pi'* If, <,|r in tbe object -space the 

«t)i«<:i:ivf hjks tetc^^ntric tran^cniuLan, thr eiJt pupil must coinciiic 
with tht back focal plane of the combined tyatem, and it alwaya Uci 
behiml the Image-Mik iocu^ of the eyepiece. The cjiic pupil, often 
c^Bi-d RaTnfdcn'i tirck. is thus accessible to the olHcrver» who by 
^tad^ and eye movements rtny #urvey the mhole Iktd. 

We can now undcrs^tand the ny ^rammiAsion in the cwnpotiiid 
mlarascofx. shown in fig. Li. f^ointt oi a tmaM object (cooiparvd 
wnih the focus of the objective) send to the object ivt wide pendU. 
The diaphngm limiting them, i^. the entrmivcc pupil, h placed to 
ihat I he principal rays are either parallel or slightly incline'd, The 
pencils prijdijcitig the neal imj^c are very much more acut«:i 4nd 
thj^ir inchnation ii ihe sniiiller Ihe 4ti anger the magmfication. The 
tycpicCf. whitti by mcao^ of narrow penclU repre^nts the relatively 
hrgn red,l inuije 4t infinJiyK Transmits from a.U points of this real 

b^r'"'m*r= fun !■■ -.■'■. ■' iji- _ -i- • ■■^■- ' ■,■ ■ ^!- . ■'- 
oC the exit pupil, is accessible to the eye of the observer. In the 
case of the negative eyepiece, on the other hand, the divergence of 
the principal rays through the eyepiece is also further augmented, 
but their point of intersection is not accessible to the eye. This 
p roperty toows the superiority of the colicaive eyepiece over the 
diMXTsive. 

The increase of the inclination of the principal rays, which arises 
with the microscope, influences the perception of tne relief of the 
object. In entocentric transmission this phenomenon appears in 
genefal as in the case of the contemplation of perspective represen- 
tations at a too short disunce, the objects appearing flattened. 
Although in the case of the spatial comprehension of a perspective 
re presen tation experience plays a large part, in observing through 
a microacope it does not count, or only a little, for the object Is 
presumably quite unknown. In telecentric and hypercentric 
transmission we obtain a false conception of the spatial arrangement 
of the objects or their details; in these cases one focusaes by turns 
on the different deuils. and so obtains an approximate idea of 
their spatial arFan]{ement. 

WhUe the limiting of the pencil is almost always effected by the 
objective, the limiting of the field of view is etfectra by the eyepiece, 
«nd indeed it is carried out bv a real diaphragm DD arranged m the 
pb ne of the real image O'Oi (fig. 13) projected from the objective. 
The entrance window is then the real image of this diaphragm pro- 
jected by the objective in the surface conjugate to the plane focused 
lor, and the exit window is the ima^ projected by the eyepiece ; this 
liappens with the image of the object lying at infinity. The result 
snurt be that the field of view exhibits a sharp border. In the 
case of the dispersive eyepiece, on the contrary, no sharply limited 
'field can arise, but vignetting must occur. 

lUuminaiicH. — The dependence of the clearness of the image 
on the aperture of the system, i.e. on the angular aperture of 
the image-producing pencil, holds for all instruments. 

The brightnesses of image points in a median section of the pencil 
are proportional to the aperture of the lens, supposing that the rays 
are completely reunited. This is valid so long as the pencil is in 
air; tnit if, on the other hand, the pencil passes from air through a 
plane surface into an optically denser medium, e.g. water or glass, 
the pencil becomes mure acute and the aperture smaller. But since 
no rays are lost in this transmission (apart from the slight loss due 
to reflation) the brightness of the image point in the water is as 
large as that in air. although the apertures have become less. Fi^. 
17 shows a pencil in air, A. dispersing in water. \V. from the semi- 
aperture Ml, or a pencil in water dispersing in air from the semi- 
aperture fff. If the value of the clearness in air be taken as sin ui. 
tnen by the law of refraction N=sin tti/*in ut, the value for the 
ckamess in water is N sin Ut- This rule is general. The value of the 




Fic 17. 



Fig. 18. 



Fic. 19. 



deameas of an image-pcMnt in a median section Is the sine of the 
semi-apenure of the pencil multiplied with the refraaive index of 
the medium. 

An illustration of this principle is the immersion experiment. A 
view taken under water from the point O (fig. 18) sees not only the 
wb(^ horizon, but also a part of the bed 01 the sea. The whole 
fidd of view in air of 180* is compressed to one of 97*5* in water. 
The says from O whidi have a greater inclination to the vertical 



than 4875* cannot come out into the air, but are totaUy 
reflectesd. If pencils (»oceed from media of high optical density 
to media of low density, and have a semi-aperture greater than the 
critical angle, total reflection occurs; in such cases no pUne surface 
can be employed, hence front lenses have small radii of curvature 
in order to permit the wide pencils to reach the air (see fig. 19, in 
which P is the preparation. O the object-point in it, D the cover 
slip, I the immersing flukl, and L the front lens). 

The funaion n sin « >■ A, for the microscope, has been called by 
Abbe the numerical aperture. In dry-systems only the sine of the 
semi-aperture is concerned ; in immersion-systems it is the product 
of the refractive index of the immersion-liquid and the sine of the 
object-side semi-aperture. In the case of the brightness of large 
objects obviously the whole pencil is involved, and hence the clev- 
ness is the squares of these values, i.e. sin' u or 11* sin' u. As the semi- 
aperture of a pencil proceeding from an object point cannot excMd 
90*, the numerical aperture of a dry-system caniiot be greater than i. 
On the other hand, in immersion-systems the numerical aperture 
can almost amount to the refractive index, for A— 11 sin ii<fi. 

Dry systems of 0*08 numerical aperture, water immersion (n — 1-33) 
from A">i-2|$, oil immersion (n-i-51) from A" 1*40, and even 
a-bromnaphthalene immersions (fs-i'65) from A^i'te, are 
available. In immersion-systems of such considerable aperture 
no medium of smaller refractive index than the immersion li9uid 
may be placed between the surface of the front lens and the object. 
as otherwise total reflection would occur. This is especially in- 
crjnvinifnt in the ca^? <^ the a-bcomnaphthalene immersion.- As 
the embedding ^nd immersing .liquids must have equal refractive 
indexes, one muit use a-bromnaphthalene for embedding; but 
this Aubitancc destra>'» organu: preparations, so that one can employ 
this immersion-syitem only for examining inorganic materials, e.g. 
Ane diatoms. 

1(1 icnmerslon-systcms a very much groiter aggregate of rays is 
uicd in the rtprtrscE^tAtion than is possible in dry-systems. In 
addition to a cun^idcmble increase in brightness the losses due to 
fitflection ftnt avoided j losses which arise in passing to the back 
suffMne d the oovcT'slip »nd to the front surface of the front lens. 

The Physical Theory 

In order to fully understand the representation in the micro- 
scope, the process must be investigated according to the wave- 
theory, especially in considering the representation of objects 
or object details having nearly the size of a wave-length. The 
rectilinear rays, which we have considered above, but which 
have no real existence, are nothing but the paths in which the 
light waves are transmitted. According to Huygens's principle 
(see Difpraction) each aether particle, set vibrating by an 
incident wave, can itself act as a new centre of excitement, 
emitting a spherical wave; and similarly each particle on this 
wave itself produces wave systems. AU systems which are 
emitted from a single source can by a suitable optical device be 
directed that they simultaneously influence one and the same 
aether particle. According to the phase of the vibrations at 
this common point, the waves mutually strengthen or weaken 
their action, and there arises greater clearness or obscurity. 
This phenomenon is called interference iq.v.) £. Abbe applied 
the Fraunhofer diffraction phenomena to the explanation of 
the representation in the microscope of uniformly illuminated 
objects. 

If a grating is placed as object before the microscope objective. 
Abbe showed that in the image there is intermittent clear and dark 
banding only, if at least two consecutive diffraction spectra enter 
into the objective and contribute towards the image. If the illumi- 
nating pencil is parallel to the axis of the microscope objective, 
the illumination is said to be direct. If in this case the aperture 
of the objective be so small, or the diffraction spectra lie so far from 
each other, that only the pencil parallel to the axis. i.e. the spectrum 
of zero order, can be admitted, no trace is generally found of the 
image of the grating. If. in addition to the principal maximum, 
the maximum of 1st order is admitted, the banding is distinctly 
seen, although the image does not yet accurately resemble the 
object. The resemblance is greater the more diffraction spectra 
enter the objective. From the Fraunhofer formula * -X/fi sin u one 
can immediately deduce the limit to the diffraction constant i, so 
that the banding by an objective of fixed numerical aperture can 
be perceived. The value n sin u equals the numerical aperture A, 
where n is the refractive index of the immersion-liquid, and u is the 
semi-aperture on the object-side. For microscopy the Fraunhofer 
formula is best written 6 = X/A. This expresses 6 as the resolving 
power in the case of direct lighting. ^ All details of the object so 
resolved are perceived, if two diffraction maxima can be passed 
through the objective, so that the character of the ob\ect U^tK^Vsw 
the image, even if an exact Tesem\>\a.vvc«\vaA wjJt ^^Vaifttv ^\.\al\T«A.. 

The Fraunholer diilractioik ^tnotoittA., ^VaOoi \a2«fe ^^JoKfcXsiXSBfe 



398 



MICROSCOPE 



back focal plane of the objective, can be coAveniently seen with 
the naked eye by removing the eyepiece and looking into the tube, 
or better by focusing a weak auxiliary microacope on the back focal 
plane of the objective. If one has, e.g. in the case of a grating, 
telecentxic transmiasion on the object-side, and in the front focal 
plane of the illuminating system a small circular aperture i»arranged, 
then by the help of the auxiliary microscope one sees in the middle 
of the back focal plane the round white image O (fig. to) and to die 
right and left the diffraction spectra, the ima^ of different clours 
partially overlapping. If a resolvable graung is considoned, the 
diffraction phenomenon has the appearance shown in fig. 21. 

It is possible to almost double the resolving power, es in the case 




Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Fig. ad. 1 Fig. 27. 

CFram Abbe. ThmH$ d^r BtUtnemgamg im Mikmktp.) 

of direct liehting, so that a banding of double the fineness can be 
perceived, by inclining the illuminating pencil to the axis; this 
is controlled by moving the diaphragm laterally. If the oblkjuity 
of illumination be so great that the principal maximum passes 
through the outermost ed^e of the objective, while a spectrum of 
1st order passes the opposite edge, so that in the back focal plane 
the diffraction phenomenon shown in fig. 22 arises, banding is still 
to be seen. The resolution in the case of oblique illumination is 
given by the formula 6 - X/2A. 

Reverting to fig. 13. we suppose that a diffracting particle of such 
fineness is placed at O that the diffracted pencils of the 1st order 
make an anele w with the axis; the principal maximum of the 
Fraunhofer diffraction phenomena lies in F't ; and the two diffraction 
maxima of the 1st order in P' and P|. The waves proceeding from 
this point are united in the point O'. Suppose that a well corrected 
objective is employed. The image O' of the point O is then the 
interference effect of all waves proceeding from the exit pupil of 
the objective PiP/. 

Abbe showed that for the production of an image the diffraction 
maxima must lie within the exit pupil of the objective. In the 
silvering of a glass plate lines are ruira as shown in fig. 23, one set 
traversing the field while the intermediate set extends only half-way 
across. If this object be viewed by the objective, so that at least 
the diffraction spectra of 1st order pass the finer divisions, then the 
cf^ e of 

tht. -;■.;.•.. ■ '-' : ■,,,:; .l.^ .. I. ■.,,.., I. ^. J I . .:..'.<., ^'..^ r Frac- 
tion fi^y^e {:ci{Te^[X)iif4iinif ti2 the co^TMir ruSk»g ijip|M,-i^r9 m £i^'n in 
fiB. so. [f one cuii Dut by a diaphm^m in tiie niacE f'Ksil pbni? < [ the 
objeciivic all dif^ractJQd ^poitra e.xrept the princjfi^l matimun . one 
■ep& lit iht imn^r a Ac] J diviidcd into two halvL-^, which shou with 
different clcarnruti but no banding. By c hM^fng a sonu irhat 
hroadcr diaphraiFm, so that the spectra of itt ordrf can p:i i the 
larger divition, mere ariacs in the one h^lf of the tidd of view the 
image of the Urgef dtvifion, the other half being dvat withatai any 
■uch structure By using a yet wider disphraffm which admits 
the spectra of 3nd order of the Urjgcf divjsnn and also the *r-ectra 
of I at order of the fine division, an im^ige [9 obiniiined which « similar 
fo the object, i.e. it ihows bands one half a divif^MDn double a« fine as 
on theothrr. U now the sfwcrum of ist wder of the Wq;^ division 
be cut out fram the difTrgcHoii li^uf*, as h shown in fi|t 24, Ma image 
» obtained which over the wfiole ficlcJ shows a similar division 
tfig^ 35}, althoufli in the ot» hnlf of the object the reprc-mted 



baJidLnv doe* not occtif. Still motre etrikinilv'ij this i>henor::enon 
shown hjr AbbeV d^frwrtion plate rfifs. 36). Tbia li 

Srating tonned by two perpend icubr era tinj^a. Th 
iaphraf^m in the back focal plin^^ t^DdinK can cas'ily rjc pnx'.uced 



llt-d cross 
table 



in the i^Llg<^. which cOTitainn nctibrt the vertical nor the hcf i/ )ntal 
line* of the twa £radi>g«. but there ewst «trt:alcs> whaw dinction 
halves the angle under which the 1*0 f^r^tins^ intcrsoci (fi^. 27). 
There can thu* be shown structure} which are not pn-^nt m the 
ohjKL Colond Dt Woodward of the VnitM Statea aotiv ^hrjwcd 
that bterference effect* appear to prodace details in tkc iinage 
which do rK)t es^i^t in the object. For iLva.mple, two to five rows of 
globule* wete pfoduced, and photogTajrihccL between the bristles 
^ wcf^m'to vms^ by udj^ oblique illtimlnatioa, fn ofaamrine 
^th Btrong tyatema it U therefore necessary cautiously to distinguish 



between spectral and real marks. To detenmoe the utility of am 
objective f^r resolving fine details, one experiments with definkt 
objects, which are usually employed simultaneously (or exumniiiK 
its other properties. Most important are the fine structures 01 
diatoms such as Surirella gemma and AmphipUura pellueida or 
artificial fine dividons as in a Nobert's grating. The examinatioa 
of the objectives can only be attempted when the different faults oC 
the objective are known. 

If microscopic preparations are observed by diffused dayUght 
or by the more or fess white light of the usual artificial sources, theo 
an objective of fixed numerical aperture will only represent details 
(rf a definite fineness. All smaller details are not portrayed. The 
Fraunhofer formula permits the determination of the most useful 
magnification of such an objective in order to utilise its full resolving 
power. 

As we saw above, the apparent siae of a detan of an object must 
be greater than the angular range of vision, i.e. i'. Thoefore we 
can assume that a detail which appears under an angle of a' can 
be surely perceived. Supposing, however, there is oblique illumina- 
tion, then formula (5) can always be applied to determine Uic 
magnifying power attainable with at least one objective. By 
substituting y, the size of the object, for d, the smallest value wtueh 
a single object can have in order to be analysed, and the angle w* by 
2', we obtain the magnifying power and the magnification number: 

Vt">Un w'/d-iA un 2'/X; Nt-2A/ tan a'/X; 
where / equals the sight range of 10 in. 

Even if the details can be recognized with an apparent magnifica- 
tion of 2*, the observation may still be inconvenient. This may be 
improved when the magnification is so increased that the angle 
under which the object, when still just recognizable, is raised to 4'. 
The magnification and magnifying number which are most necessary 
for a microscope with an objective of a given aperture can then be 
calculated from the formulae: 

V4'-2A Un 4'A: N4">2A/ un 4'/X. 
If o*55 M is assumed for daylight observation, then according to 
Abbe {Journ. Roy. Soc., 1882, p. 463) we have the following uble for 
the limits of the magnification numbers, for various microscope 
objectives, m~o-ooi mm.: — 

A^nsin^f. d in 11. Nt. N«. 

•010 2-75 53 106 

0-30 0-92 159 117 

o-6o 0-46 317 635 

090 031 476 952 

1-20 0-23 635 1270 

I 40 019 741 1481 

i-6o 0-17 847 1693 

From this it can be seen that, as a rule, q^uite slight magnifications 

suffice to brin^ all rcpresentable details into obser\'ation. If the 

magnification is below the given numbers, the details can either 

not be seen at all, or only very indistinctly; if, on the contrary, the 

given magnification is increased, there will still be no more details 

visible. The Uble shows at the same time the great superiority 

of the immersion-system over the dry-system with reference to the 

resolving power. With the best immersion-system, having a 

i numerical aperture of 1-6, details of the size 0-17 ^ can be resolved, 

while the theoretical maximum of the resoK-ing power is 0-167 ^ so 

that the theoretical maximum has almost been reached in practice. 

Still smaller particles cannot be portrayed by using ordinary day- 

light. 

In order to increase the resolving power, A. Kdhler (Zeit. f. 
ilikros., 1904, 21, pp. 129, 273) suggested employing ultra-violet 
light, of a wave-length 27s ttM', he thus increased the resolving 
power to about double that which is reached with day-light, 
of which the mean wave-length is 550 mm> Light of such uion 
wave-length is, however, not visible, and therefore a photo* 
graphic plate must be employed. Since glass does not transmit 
the ultra-violet light, quartz is used, but such lenses can only 
be spherically corrected and not chromatically. For this reasoo 
the objectives have been called monochromats, as they have only 
been corrected for light of one wave-lenpth. Further, the different 
transparencies of the cells for the ultra-violet rays render it unneces- 
sary to dye the preparations. Glycerin is chiefly used as immer- 
sion fluid. M. V. Rohr's monochromats are constructed with 
apertures up to 1*25. The smallest resolving detail with oblk^ue 
lighting is A-X/2A, where X — 275 ami. As the microscopist 
usually estimates the resolving power according to the aperture with 
ordinary day-light, K6hlcr introduced the " relative resolving power " 
for ultra-violet light. The power of the nucroscope' is thus repre- 
sented by presupposing day-lJRht with a wave-length of 550 0m. 
Then the denominator of the fraction, the numerical aperture, must 
be correspondingly increased, in order to ascertain the real resolviiw 
power. In this way a monochromat for glycerin of a numerical 
aperture 1*25 jjives a relative numerical aperture of 2'5a 

If the magnification be greater than the resolving power demands, 
the observation is not only needlessly made mor^ cfifficult, but the 
entrance pupil is diminished, and with it a very considerable decrease 
of clearness, for with an objective of a certain aperture the sise of 
the exit pupil depeods upon the magnification. The ((ianietcr of 



MICROSCOPE 



399 



fSbft cadt pups of the microacope is about 0*04 in. with the magnifica- 
Cion Ns, and about 0*02 in. with the magnitication N4. Moreover, 
«kh ndi eiGceptionally narrow pencils shadows are formed on the 
ictiiu of the observer's eye. from the irregularities in the eye itself. 
Tbew disturbances are called " entopticaf phenomena." From the 
Mctkm Regulatum of the Rays (above) it is seen that the resolving 
power is opposed to the depth of definition, which is measured by 
the reciprocal of the numerical aperture, i/A. 

Dark-fiiid lUumnation.—li is sometimes desirable to make 
minutest objects in a preparation specially visible. This can 
be done by cutting off the chief maximum and using only the 
diffracted spectra for producing the image. 

At least two successive diffraction maxima must be admitted 
thro«^ the objective for there to be any image of the obiects. 
With this device these particles appear bright against a dark back- 
ground, and can be easily seen. The cutting off ofthe chief maximum 
can be effected by a suitable diaphragm in the back focal plane of 
the objective. But. owing to the various partial reflections which 
the illuminating cone of rays undergoes when traversing the surfaces 
of the lenses, a portion of the light comes again into the preparation, 
and into the eye of the observer, thus veiling the image. This 
defect can be avoided (after Abbe) if a small central portion of the 
b*ck surface of the front lens be f^round awav and blackened; this 
portkm diould exactly catch the direct cone of rays, whilst the edges 
of the kns let the deflected cone of rays pass through (fig. 28). 




Fig. 28. 



. Tbe large loss of light, which is caused in dark-field illumination 
rf the cutting off of the direct cone of rays, must be compensated 
V Onploying exceptionally strong sources. By dark-field illumina- 
^ it is even possible to make such small details of objects per- 
*PtibIe as are below the limits of the resolving power. It is a 
Umilar phenomenon to that which arises when a ray of sunlight falls 
"•to s darkemd room. The extremely small particles of dust 
Jiaotes in a sunbeam) in the rays are made perceptible by the dif- 
{^cted light, whilst by ordinary illumination they are invisible. 
'« same obs«vation can be made with the cone of rays of a 
'•flector, and in the same way the fine rain-drops upon a dark back- 
Pound and the fixed stars in the sky become visible. It is not 
Potribte to recognise the exact form of the minute objects because 
liieir apparent size is much too small; only their presence is observ- 
*We. In addition, the particles can only be recognized as separate 
objects if their apparent distance from one another is greater than 
^ ai^lar definition of sight. 

UUnmicTosco^. — ^This method of illumination has been used by 
H. Siedentopf m his ultramicroscopc. The image consists of a 
diffraction disk from whose form and size certain conclusions may 
be drawn as to the size and form of the object. It is impossible 
to get a representation as from an object. Very finely divided 
lab-microscopic particles in liquids or in transparent solids can be 
examined; and the method has proved exceptionally valuable in 
tbe investigation of colloidal solutions. 

Siedentopf employed two illuminating arrangements. With the 
(Sthogooal arrangement lor Uluaunatiag aad observing the beam 



of light traverses an extremely fine slit through a well-corrected 
system, whose optic axis is perpendicular to the axis of the micro- 
scope; the system reduces the dimensions of the beam to about 
2 to 4 M in the focal plane of the objective. For the microscopic 
observation it is the same as if a thin section of a thickness of 2 to 4 ^ 
had been shown. In this optical way it is possible to show thin 
sections even in liquid preparations. The inconvenience of ortho- 
gonal illumination, which certainly gives better results, is avoided 
in the coaxial apparatus. Care must here be taken, by u^ing 
suitable dark-field screens, that no direct rays enter the observing 
system. The only sources of light are sunlight or the electric arc. 
The limit at which sub-microscopic particles are made visible is 
dependent upon the specific intensity of the source of light. With 
sunlight particles can be made visible to a size of about 0-004 M- 

Prodtutum of the Image.— Ab shown in Lens and Aberration, 
for reproduction through a single lens with spherical surfaces, a com- 
bination of the rays is only possible for an extremely small angular 
aperture. The aberrations, both spherical and chromatic, increase 
very rapidly with the aperture. If it were not possible to recombine 
in one image-point the rays leavine the objective and derived from 
one object-point, t.e. to ehminate the spherical and chromatic aber- 
rations, the large angular aperture of the objective, which is 
necessary for its resolving power, would be valueless. Owing to 
these aberrations, the fine structure, which in consequence of the large 
aperture could be resolved, could not be perceived. In other words, 
a sufficiently ^ood and distinct image as the resolving power permits 
cannot be arrived at, until the elimination, or a sufficient diminution, 
of the spherical and chromatic aberrations has been brought about. 

The objective and eyepiece have such different functions that 
as a rule it is not possible to correct the aberrations of one system 
by those of the other. Such a compensation is only possible for 
one single defect, as we shall see later. The demands made upon 
the eyepiece, which has to represent a relatively large field by 
narrow cones of rays, are not very considerable. It is therefore 
not very difficult to produce a usable eyepiece. On the other hand, 
the correction of the objective presents many difficulties. 

We will now examine the conditions which must be fulfilled by 
an objective, and then how far these conditions have been realized. 

Consider the aberrations which may arise from the representation 
by a system of wide aperture with monochromatic light, i.e. the 
spherical aberrations. The rays emitted from an axial object-point 
are not combined into one image-point by an ordinary biconvex lens 
of fixed aperture, but the central rays come to a more distant focus 
than the outer rays. The so<anea " caustic " occupies a definite 
position in the image-space. The spherical aberrations, however, 
can be overcome, or at least so diminished that they are quite 
harmless, by formirig appropriate combinations of lenses. 

The aberration of^rays in which the outer rays intersect the axis 
at a shorter distance than the central rays is known as " under- 
correction." The reverse is known as " over-correction." By 
selecting the radii of the surfaces and the kind of glass the under- or 
over-correction can be regulated. Thus it is possible to correct a 
system by combining a convex and a concave lens, if both have 
aberrations of the same amount but of opposite signs. In this case 
the power of the crown lens must preponderate so that the result- 
ing lens is of the same sig^n, but of a little less power. Correction 
of the spherical aberration m strong systems with very large aperture 
can not be brought about by means of a single combination of two 
lenses, but several partial systems are necessary. Further, under- 
corrected systems must be combined with over-corrected ones. 
Another way of correcting this system is to alter the distances. If, 
bv these methods, a point in the optic axis has been freed from 
aberration, ?t does not follow that a point utuated only a very small 
distance from the optic axis can also be represented without spherical 
aberration. The representation, free from aberration, of a small 
surface-element, is only possible, as Abbe has shown, if the 
objective simultaneously fulfils the " sine-condition," i.e. if the 
ratio of the sine of the aperture u on the object-side to the sine of 
the corresponding aperture u' on the image-side is constant, i.e. if 
n sin tt/sin «'=C, in which C is a constant. The sine-condition 
is in contrast to the tangent-condition, which must be regarded 
as the point-by-point representation of the whole object-space in 
the image-space Xsec Lbns), and according therefore the equation 
n tan «/tan «'— C must exist. These two conditions are only com- 
patible when the representation is made with quite narrow pencils, 
and where the apertures are so small that the sines and tangents 
are of about the same value. 

Very large apertures occur in strong microscope objectives, and 
hence the two conditions are not compatible. The sine-condition 
is. however, the most important as far as the microscopic representa- 
tion is concerned, because it must be possible to represent a surface- 
element through the objective by wide cones of rays. The removal of 
the spherical aberration and the sine-condition can be accomplished 
only lor two con j ugate points. A well-corrected microscope objective 
with a wide aperture therefore can only represent, free from aberra- 
tions, one obiect-element situated on a definite spot on the axis. 
As soon as the object is moved a short distance away from this 
spot the represenution is quite use\.ea&. W^^'ct ^'t vccvvc>x\a."»K«- 
of observing the \englVv ol t\ie t>iV>e \ti ^tocv^ wji&kcoa, \\ ^ 
sine-condition U not lA^ifitted YiuX )^ v^^uenci^ ^&]KxnN>c»& >xi >^« 



400 



MICROSCOPE 



axis have been removed, then the image shown in fig. 19 results. 
The cones of rays issuing from a point situated only a little to the 





Fig. 29. — The lens is spherically corrected for 00', but the sine- 
condition is not futfilied. Hence the different magnifications of 
a point Oi beyond the axi&. 
side, which traverse difTcrcnt zones of the objective, have a 
different magnification. The sine-condition can therefore also 
be understood as follows: that all objective zones must have 
the same magnification for the plane-elcmunt. 

According to Abbe, a system 
can only be regarded as aplanatic 
if it is spherically corrected for not 
only one axial point, but when 
it also fulfils the sine-condition 
and thus magnifies equally in all 
zones a surface-element situated 
vertically on the axis at this 
point. 

A second method of correcting 
the spherical aberration depends 
Fig. 30. — O' is the virtual image on the notion of aplanatic points. 
of O formed at a spherical sur- If there are two transparent 
lace of centre C and radius CS. substances separated from one 
another by a spherical surface, 
then there are two points on the axis where tney can be reproduced 
free from error by moncxrhromatic light, and these are called 
I* aplanatic points." The first is the centre of the sphere. All rays 
issuing from this point pass unrefracted through the dividing surface; 
its image-point coincides with it. Besides this there is a second point 
on the axis, from which all issuing rays are so refracted at the surface 

of the sphere \i<.i^- .Ui. r ili. ...1 ■ •■■ 

from one point — tJic irncjgf-iHiint (^t-c dg, y*). \\ ith Hi is, the otijctt' 
point O, and consequpntly the inuige^pciinc O' ^IsOp will be at a 
Quite definite dictiincc iron the centre^. If howe\i^r the object -paint 
aocs not lie in xht jncdium witli the tndeji n^ but before It, ^nd the 
medium is, for txjmple, like n front ItnSt *tili iimitefJ by a plane 
surface, just in front tif wliiirh i* the objori-point. then in iravertitig 
the plane surfa<:c spticritaJ aberrations of tne uodtr-cotrecicd t>;ric 
again arise, and mast be n^movcd. By hoiro^rncous imn^ersiQii 
the object-point cun rfadUy be reduced to an a^jl^n^^tic point. By 
experiment Abbe proved that old, good microscope objectiics^ 
which by mere tt-sting hiid become hi corrected tliat they prmiuccd 
usable images, were not only Tree from tpherka] aberrationi, but 
also fulfilled the sine-condition, and were therefore really aplanatic 
systems. 

The second al>erration which must be removed from microscope 
objectives are the chromatic. To diminish these a collective lens 
of crown-glass is combined with a dispersing lens of flint; in such a 
system the red and the blue rays intersect at a point (sec Aberra- 
tion). In systems employed for visual observation (to which class 
the microscope belongs) the red and blue rays, which include the 

Ehysiologically most active part of the spectrum, arc combined; 
ut rays other than the two selected arc not united in one point. 
The transverse sections of these cones of ravs diverge more or less 
from the transverse section of the chosen blue and red cones, and 
pnxluce a secondary' spectrum in the imai^e, and the images still 
appear to have a slightly coloured edge, mostly grcirnish-yellow or 
purple; in other words, a chromatic difference of the spherical 
aberrations arises (sec fig. 31). This refers to systems with small 
apertures, but still more so to systems with large ones; chromatic 
aberrations arc exceptionally increased by large apertures. 

The new glasses pnKlucecl at Schott's glass worlts, Jena, possessed 
in part optical qualities which differe<i considerably from those 
of the older kinds of glass. In the old crown and flint glass a high 




Fig. 31. — Showing a system with chromatic difference of spherical 
aberration. 0'*« image of O for ml light; O'" for blue. The 
system is under-corrected for red, and over-corrected for blue rays. 



nfncdve index was always connected with a strong dispersion 

*ad the reverse. Schott succeeded, however, in producing glasses ^ 

nrhicA with a comparatively low refraction have a high (Uspenion, ii afcnutcft variations of the thickness m the glass cover are not so 



and with a high refraction a low dispersion. Bynsiog these 1, 

and employing minerals with qxdal optical properties, it is possible 
to correct objectives so that three colours can be combined, leaving 
only a quite slight tertiary spectrum, and removing the sphericu 
aberration for two colours. Abbe called such systems "apochro- 
mats." Good apochromats often have as many as twelve lenses, 
whilst systems ot simpler construction are only achromatic, and are 
therefore called " achromats." 

Even in apochromats it is not possible to entirdy remove the 
chmtnatJc difference of magnification, i.c. the images produced by 
the red rays are somewhat snuiller than the images produced by 
the blue. A white object is represented with blue stmks and 
a black one with red streaks. This aberration can, however, be 
success! Lilly controlled by a suitable eyepiece (see below). 

A lurcher aberration which can only be overcome «dtn difficulty, 
and even then only partially, is the "curvature of the field, " i.e. the 
pi^hints situated in the middle and at the edge of the plane object 
can not be seen clearly at the same focusing. 

Hhtorical Development. — ^The first real improvement in the 
EEucrosccipc objective dates from 1830 when V. and C. Chevalier, 
at fi;si after the designs of Seliigue, produced objectives, con- 
sisting of several achromatic systems arranged one above the 
other. The systems could be used separately or in any com- 
bination, A second method for diminishing the spherical 
iibc [ration was to alter the distances of the single systems, a 
mtihod Uill used. Seliigue had no particular comprehension 
of the problem, for his achromatic single systems were simply 
telescope objectives corrected for an infinitely distant point, and 
wfre placed so that the same surface was turned towards the 
object in the microscope objective as in the telescope objective; 
Although contrary to the telescope, the distance of the object 
jn the mitroscopc objective is small in proportion to the distance 
of the image. It would have been more correct to have employed 
Ihc&e objectives in a reverse position. 

These circumstances were considered by Chevalier and Lister. 
Lister showed that a combination of lenses can be- achromatic for 
only two points on the axis, and therefore that the single systems 
muBi be BO arranged that the aplanatic (v-irtual) image-point O* 
(fig. 32) of the first system coincides with the object-point of the 
n^^t syf^tem. This system will 
always be aplanatic. These ob> 
ji^ciivt^j permitted a much larger 
ap»-ture than a simple achromatic 
liyticm. Although such systems 
have been made recently for special 
purposes^ this construction was 
iLbandancd, and a more complex 
one adopted, which also made the 
TirO(lLic£ir>n of better objectives 
p):^-.it<]4:; Ehis is the principle of the 
cfniip*r]!wUion of the aberrations 
produced in the different parts of 
the olijwtive. Even Lister, who 
procetxkd on quite different lines, 
hinted at the possibility of such a 
compen^tion. This method makes it specially possible to 
overcome the chromatic and spherical aberrations of higher 
rknkfs and to fulfil the sine<ondition, and the chief merit ol 
[his irn pavement belongs to Amici. He had recognized that 
ihi: g'-tod operation of a microscope objective depended essentially 
u]j<>n the size of the aperture, and he therefore endeavoured to 
produce systems with wide aperture and good correction. He used 
chictly a highly curved plano-convex front lens, which has since 
alway-^ |>ecn cmplovcd in strong systems. Even if the object-point 
on the ii.%is cannot uc reproduced quite free from aberration through 
Euch a hm, because aberrations oif the type of an under<orrection 
ha>T been produced by the first plane outer limiting surface, yet 
the defects with the strong refraction arc relatively small and can 
be wttl compensated by other systems. Amici chiefly emplo>-ed 
cv men ted pairs of lenses consisting of a plano-conwx flint lens and 
a biconv 1 X crown lens(fig. 33),and constructed objectives with an aper- 
ture of 1.1,5**. He also showed the influence of the cover-slip on pencils 
ui 6uch wide aperture. The lower surface of the slip causes under* 
torTTCtioFi on being traversed by the pencil, with over-correction 
when k leaves it; and since the aberration of the surface lying 
farthest from the object, i.e. those caused by the upper surface 
preponderate, an over-corrected cone of rays enters the objecti\e. 
The ovtr-correction increases when the glass is thickened. In 
onjtr to counteract this aberration the whole objective must be 
corrv-^S'ondinijly under-corrected. Objectives with definite under- 
cDrrccrion can however only produce really good images with gbss 
covert of a specified thickness. With apertures of o-90-o-qS 
ditlcrrnces of even 0*004-0*008 in. in the glass covers can oe 
pplici%l by the deterioration of the image. In systems with smaller 




Fig. 32. 



Fic. 33. 



MICROSCOPE 



Plate I. 




Fig. 57. — ^Large Dissecting Stand (2ieiss), 





Fig. $8. — Stephenson's Binocular Microscope 
(Swift). 



Fig. 60. — The Demotv%lt^\\citv'Nt\«^'au3^^ 



MICROSCOPE 





KICROSCOFE 



401 



a. Tbr 'tlut rmpb Amid "com Uu c t cd objective* of a 
partiire and focus for different thicknesses of glass covers, 
ppensive mechod was simplified in 1837 by Andrew Rots 
V the upper and lower portion of the objective variable 
I of a so-^Ucd correction-collar, and so giving the objective 
oodinc under-correction according to the thickness of the 
er. Toe alteration of the focus and the aperture are little 
1. The correction-collar was improved by Wenham and 
working the upper system upon the lower, and not the 
for in this way the preparation remains almost exactly 
uring the operation (see hg. 34). 

iurious influence of the glass cover is substantially lessened 
is admitted to the space between the glass cover and the 




4.— Objec- 
dw' ' 



Fig. 36.— 
Apochromatic 
system. 



FiC- 35.— Achra 
Iwithcor^ matic objective for 
a collar homogeneous immcr* 
sion. 

I (as in the dry-system) but if the intervening space is filled 
immenion-liquid. Amid was likewise the first to produce 
and good immersion-systems. The slight difference of the 
e indexes of the glass cover and the immersion-liquid 
a diminutk>n of the aberrations, by which the objective 
*me less sensitive to the differences in thickness of the glass 
nd admits of a more perfect adjustment. Water-immersion 
xluocd by Amici in 1840, and was improved by £. Hartnack 

Ivantagcs of the immersion over the dry-systems are greatest 
e embcdding-liquid, the glass cover, the immersion-liquid 

front lens have the same refractive index. Such systems 
xalled homogeneous immersk>n were first constructed after 
of E. Abbe in 1878 in the Zeiss workshops at the instigation 

Stephenson. Cedarwood oil (Canada oalsam). which has 
: f 1.^ ^r w.rmm :. •.!.> :_.~>..:^.. 1:.....:^ tu^ ^o..^*..-. 



Ive index of I-515. is the immerBion-Uquid. The structure 
em system of thi 
» fig. 35 



em system of this type, with a numerical aperture of i'30, is 



lost perfect microscope objective was invented by E. Abbe 
in the so<allcd apochromatic objective. -In this, the 
y spectrum is so much lessened that for all practical purposes 
noticeable. In the apochromats the chromatic difference 
herical aberrations is eliminated, for the spherical aberration 
letcly avoided for three colours. Since in these 8>'stcms 
■condition can be fulfilled for several colours, the quality 
lagcs of points beyond the axis is better. There stilt remains 
cnromatic difference in magnification, for although the 
ation consequent upon the fulfilment of the sine-condition 
.me for all zones for one colour, it is impossible to avoid a 
)f the magnification with the colour. Abbe overcame this 
y using the so-called compensation ocular, made with Jena 
* Fig. 36 shows an apochrom^t of a numerical aperture of 

The Eyepiece or Oculax 
iyepiece h considerably. simpler in its construction tban 
ectivc 

irpose In a microscope is by means of narrow cones of rays 
lent at infinity the real magnified image which the objective 
s. As, however, the object represents a real image, the 
is to project a tniMparent diapositivc. It is therefore 
>le to observe this image through an ordinary lens. Since 
the rays coming from the exit-pupil of the objective would 
h the e>'e of the observer at all, it is necessary, in order to 
e of all of them, to direct the diverging rays forming the real 
) that the whole of the light enters the eye of the observer, 
effected by a collective lens; it may be compared with the 
art of the condenser system of a projecting lantern, 
wo most customary eyepieces consist in two simple piano- 
enses, whose distance one from the other is equal to half the 
he two focal lengths. One of these is the Ramsdcn eyepiece 
. If the real image produced by the objective coincides 
collective lens, only the inclination of the principal rays is 
the form of the cone being affected only to a very small 
The lens nearer the eye, which has about the same focal 
s the collective lens. 19 distant from it by about it^ focal 
.viil 7* 



length. TheeTfr-letteMnwfta'dhnerifiicpendbtntopaxan^ Both 
lenses, together form the exit-pu|>il of the objective behind the ejret 
lens, so that this image, the exit-pupil of the ttytal system or the 
Ramsden circle, is accessible to the eye of the observer. It 4i 
possible to see the whole field through this pupil by slightly moving 
the head and eye. In practice the real image b formed not directly 




Fig. 37. — Ramsden Eyepiece. 
Lf— collective-, Li -eye-lens. 
DD ""diaphragm of the field of view. 
P"P'"Ramsden'8 circle, or exit-pui>il of whole microccope. 

on the collective lens but a little in front of it, because otherwise 
tall the partick;s of dust on the collective would also be seen magnified. 



In the other type, the Huygcnian eyepiece (fig. 38), which ia 

uch more widely used, the collective lens is in front <^ the real image; 

it alters the direction of the principal rayn and somewhat diminishes 

♦ l«A «ww«1 ••««AM««k fa* «Wr^ a-«>M^k. at«M. .M...^ !...-.« 1^ .t..^..A. A. !^— 



the real image. In thb t>'pe the eye-lens is about twice as powerful 
as the collective lens, and makes the rays parallel. Here also 
the exit-pupil is accessible to the eye and through it the whole field 
can be seen by moving the head and eye. In both eyepieces micro- 
meters or cross-wires are used for measuring in the plane of the real 




Fic. 38. — Huygcnian Eyepiece* 
L| ■■collective-, Lj -eye-lens. 
DD —diaphragm of the field of view. 
P"p"-Ram8den's circle, or exit-pupil of whole microscope. 

image. The Ramsden eyepiece is the most convenient for this 
because this plane lies in front of the collective lens, and the objec- 
tive image has not yet been influenced by the eyepiece. As both 
eyepieces are used with very small apertures (about/: 20) no attempt 
has been made to o\'ercome the spherical aberrations, which are 
usually very slight; neither, as a rule, are the eyepieces chro- 
matically corrected, care has only to be taken by a suitable choKC 
of the distance of one lens from the other, that the coloured 
images derived from a colourless object should have the same 
apparent size. Since, however^ the difference of chromatic magni- 
fication cannot be overcome in powerful objectives, this error is 
still further increased by the eyepiece. The difference of chromatic 
magnification cannot even be over- 
come in apochromats, and to cancel 
this aberration Abbe devised the 
compensating ocular (fig. 39}. ' 

The weak compensation oculars 
resemble a Huygcnian eyepiece 
with achromatic eye-lens, whilst 
the more powerful ones are of a 
different construction. These eye- 
pieces are intentionally^ provided 
with a dilTercnt chromatic magnifi- 
cation, which however is in oppo- ,;^^,_^n. 
sition to that originating in the _ "" "'' , _ 

objective. They have also a shorter Fw- 39 —Compensating Eye- 
focus for red, and a longer one for pieces (Zeiss), 
blue, and thus ma(;nify the red image more than the blue; and as 
the objective gives a large blue and a small red image, the two 
cancel one another and a colourless image is produced. 

These eyepieces are very conx'enient in use, for when they are 
changed the lower focus always falls in atx>ut the same plane. In 
German and French microscopes the optical length of the tube« 
when apochromats and compcnsatvotv-evev^ce^% ^Tt \»isA,\* \Vi "w^^- 
By multiplying the fnapi\ftca,uo^ <j!l unt ciXjf^iOiM^ Vi ^^m^ \wss*« 




«x^ ^ >::; 









^SS?^^^^ 



fttt'** 



loStn' 



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MICROSCOPE 




iJIun^JEiniiTQr (Zeis), 



fea] Irrtffth ttiAt tsiy^ pex^IM to the ti^ bfllit^ upon it wcfc united 
r^actly upon, the oniect. In this caw the object Uy upon a Btape 
p^tt. whhMt cenirt fuTj w> Ear been made opAquc» st> thic the tay* 
Epmiof from tbc lUijEiiiniiitin^ pUm;: mirror ctuM not reach the objec- 
twr direct, but only the rays pa^jilni^ the fttagu pEiM? 10 the aide of ihU 
UiclDCiied portinn PcachaJ the Litherkiihr! fnirror^ and were uied 
bi Hgbtiiw, Tbe disadt^ntag^ oi ttii* method wa» ibat only jwol/ 
g[iK|itf cmfectf oould be examined. Mu^h more easily mantpuLatccI 
fa tJK pajMoiie fidfr^uaiinator tnv«ntcd by R. Bfck^ which ain be 
cwewttl^ iOed ia and used (or Dbjjvt^vei with different focat 
fryfcfc It CMiirts In ha.1f of a short focu5f?d pambolic mirror. 
Hbeb CvaeentmCH all the li^ht c»min|[ from the one (tide on to the 
ilbjeet. To examine objects with objectives ^jf high jauwct and Um 
Ipx object dtitince, the appar^tui for slde-Utuittination is not 
lutficietit, and a K-cjl1ed vcrtkal illijrtiiruioT u used* In Zcik'a 
li^'^ i^' 4J) ^ inmU pjiim p, whicJi also revolves upon a liorkontal 
aiJ5, k placpcd as near as possible to 
the bdJrk len^ of the objective- The 
edc^ whkh is the separaimg^ line of the 
horLrontal and hypothenuse sjriacct of 
ih& prism, lies approKimately over the 
rniddlie of the systctn, to that the rnys 
entering throui^h the opening in thf 
lidt after having been reHettciJ by the 
hy pot henuse &u rfacc arc co nee A t ra ted 
thpDueh one half of the objc?ctive on to 
the object, Wben obecTving only the 
ctJuer half of the objective a u«d. 
The wurce* of light used ihouEd be 
arrang^i'd so that the objective throiifi 
an iniaj£v of the light^source upon the 
obieci.^ It IS be$t if the ima^ of the 
!i|;hc 13 not lat^r than the object 
examined, and to effect ihh, an 
illuminating lens with art iiii dta^ 
phragm ij often placed beriKeen tlie 
koun.'e of li^bt and the iiiuininatof* By 
suitable aaiLJstmeat and by chan^itg 

•^ -"- ^..^— J, the iria dio^hogm the me of the 

•WDminLjfJftg field can be coqtraliled. The objecit obter*^ with 
^*ie vcrtiod illuminatof must not have a glaw cover if the dry 
*>'vtem i* ttnfjJoyed, because the upper iUfface of the glass cover 
^^f^ould send 60 mnch light back into the ob|ecii\'e by reflection, 
^^at the image would be^ Indistinct, tt is, on the coninry^ po^sibite 
^kfQ examine covered objects with the vertical illuminatar, if the 
»g uiifcfS4 on syftem be emplojred. Owing to the slight difference of 
Mlaminafion between the immersion nquxd and the covcft the 
XWtion of liffht refiected on the cover is not noticeable* 

Dcrk Fi^U JUuminiiiuiK.^A* was icen when di«cuuine the 

^hv^ical chfory* the minule dctalU of the object cau«? diffract ionii, 

9Li\d can. only be examined if ihe objective can take up at leMt two 

t^jnieajtiv^e diffraction »p!clra. These diffracting dctailt beconw 

eifrecially distinct if the direct lighting cone of rays, the spectrum of 

iTfio odder or the chief ma:!umum, is not allowed lo enter the objective 

And iTiftead only two or more diffraction maidma are taken up; 

the detaib then appear bright on a dark background. In dark field 

Shjminatioti care has to be taken that no direct ray a reach the ohjec- 

ihx. and hence a good dark field ill u ml cat ion can be produced If the 

mmJenicrr a^^em has a largiir apofture than the objective. It 4kn 

Atibt Liglitxng apparatus i& uved a d^irk fuM diaphnigm (lig. 44) 

®<an be placed in the iris diaphragm case. The central 
diaphragm disk keep away all tlte light which Would 
otherwije fall directly into the objective, and the open 
aonca send so many oblique raya through the object 
tfaat they cannot all be taken up by the objective. 
P Exactly the soine effect i^ reached when, as is shown in 

ru*. 44* p-^ ^ ^ j^jQpj porwtrfui system D is lised for a condenwr, 
viikh l»i * blae£ened section an the back of the fnont lens of such 
• see that po %ht can enter the objective A. In this vay it U 

- "-'t for diffracted rays to enter the objecti\t 

I for a ^pod dark field ill u.mi nation has received muth 
9A£taCloa| becaine m thii way ukra-mk:roAcopical particles can be 
iMiIrr viwlb This depends on the good combination of the entering 
cpMi of t^y*t vhkb should be aa oblique aj possible; this 'is most 
^aHy 6otm by mirror condf^hM^rs. A number of early invent ioii^ 
t^vc been revived for thi> purpose. 

Weai^iarn's parvboloiid illuminator (fig. ^6) it made entirely of 
riaua, and U in the form of a paraboloid, having on the top a spherical 
boWt <?r such i curvature thjt all entering rays, rf'r', parallel to the 
a*i». after ibcir reflect ion on the surface of the paraboloid, traverse 
the ipimiial ntrface perpendicularly and unice in F, the centni' of the 
l^berb A dia^pfaragm s is placed in the middle of the spherical 
wmiactt and this keeps back the feniral ray^ This diaphragm is 
' 9 Ssad to a handle pierciftg the condenser, and which can 
I up and down, » th^t the aperture of the oblique cn^erine 
I of imys can be altered. Another fprm of the paraboloid 
CTH KJenig r, iti^o due to \S'cnham, has a plane tsurface on the upper 
ride. Some immefslon fluid nm'-t ihrn be ptaced between the it age 
fbtc and the conden^-r in orderr to allow all the rayi to pass out? 
—» -— ^gjXy thow laya wouid be ai?Je- lo /um out .wbkh are ' 



dote to the axis of the condenser In the inside of the 

are smaller than the limitiog angle of the total reflection. 



403 

condenser, and 




Fig. 45. — Path of Rays for dark-ground illumination with fixed 

diaphragm in the objective. 

(Objective D can also be used as a condenser (Znss).) 

Th. Ross's " spot lens," invented in 1855, and J. W. Stephenson's 

catoptric illuminator (1879), may also be mentioned. A recent 

condenser of very high illuminating power is due to H. Siedentopf 

(fig- 47)* It is a double mirror system, whose reflecting surfaces are 

a sphere a and a cardioid b. The combination of rays is also sufficient' 

in practice if the cardioid surface is replaced by a spherical one. 



/j 




\ 


r 


r'lr- 


r r 




Fig. 46. — ^Wenham's 
Paraboloid Condenser. 



Fig. 47.— SiedentopTs 
Cardioid Condenser. 



A supplementary spherical surface e is necessary for the completion' 
of the condenser. 

Binocular Instsuments 

The stereoscopic microscope is the most suitable for finding 
out the space taken up by the separate parts of a preparation. 
(See also Binocular Instruuents and Stereoscopy.) The 
observer bos a stereoscopic impression of an object, when 
difTerent perspective representations are presented to both eyes, 
which, through the action of the central nerve system, resolve 
into one impression. 

One way of receiving a stereoscopic impression through a micro- 
scope is by fixing an apparatus as directly as possible above the last 
lens of the microscopic objective, which divides the rays passing out 
and directs half into each eyepiece. The half cones of rays have now 
semicircular sections, the diaphragms having the same form. The 
cones must be so directed through the divided system that the two 
exit pupils correspond to the intcrpupillary distance of the observer. 
The distance of the centres of the semicircular entrance pupils and 
their distance from the object regulates the difference of the two 
perspective representations, which are presented one to the right eye 
and one to the left. If the perspective centres lie too near one another 
in the object-space, as may happen with slightly opened and Hc^^^k. 
systems, the difference of the pet^ptecVvve \s \Vv<5Xv Voo ^v^\.\o \tv!^KA 
any real stereoscopic \mpTe«s\otv. On xVvt o\.Vi« Vkaxv^, «. n«>i "««*^^ 
exaggerated stereoscopic efied can \ife ^mv^ Vtom ^d«c\.\c«o»«^. 




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MICROSCX)PE 



405 




Double Lever Adjust- 
if Watson & Sons. 



(tf nun. An essential in all rough and fine adjustments 

le motion must always be parallel to the optiod axis of 

the microscope, so tnat the same 

point in the object remains in 

the centre of the field. 

Ancrthrr :::::. which jnuit 
b« fulfillni by d tiOwS stand is the 
power of iiictiDauoEL It ii only 
rarely ncc'nsaiy ta arranRe the 

ftrvpanLtionrealEyhoiizanm; and 
or easy ob*ervation, especially 
when it will 13 kt! A long timtt k m 
dI gi«dt aaistftdce if the mktty 
Kope can be inclined, so that 
the obscrviitions tin be izia^k 
in a. naturat posit Jan. The appar- 
atus Tbr inclining the micTOKope 
i> chieDy uich that the rnkro- 
BLflpe can be pUcod in all posi- 
tions between the vertical and 
the horizontal. The horizontal 
position is sometimes necessary 
if photogjraphs are to be taken 
by the microscope. 

Many devices are ' available 
for changing the objective. It is 
essential that the objective is 
always brought before the lower 
end of the tube in such a way that 
axu of the objective coincides with the optic axis of the 
e system. The fittings of the objective and the changer 
anged that little or no fine adjustment is necessary alter 
e. The most widely used is the revolving changer (fig. 
. The revolver may hold two, three or four objectives, 
ding changer the objective is. dovetailed to a sude, the 
sition beinjg: secured by clamps. 

luippcd microscopes have apparatus for moving and tum- 
)ject. In simple microscopes the stage plate lies on the 
[ by two springs, and must be moved by the hand (fig. 60, 
or elaborate work a so-called cross-table is indispensable, 
of screws the stage plate is movable in two directions at 
cs.to one another, in the plane of the stand. In many 
»tand b also movable rounci the optic axis. 
;roscope stands described above can be used for the greater 
f the naturalist's experiments. Foe very special objects 
must be expressly made; thus stands with tube carriers very 
jecting are made for examining sections of the brain, 
graphical microscope is shown in fig. 61, Plate, 
r to determine the refractive index when the thickness of 
1 b known, or the thickness of the crystal when the index 
a fine adjustment A makes it possible to measure exactly 
e« in the length of the microscope. Further, a revolving 
e provided with a graduation B is used to determine. the 
■ystals. To obviate mistakes the optical axis of the micro- 
tt coincide with the revolving axis of the plate, and the 
plate has a central position C to keep this condition ful- 
many stands the objective can be centred instead of the 
»r measuring this angle, an eyepiece with cross-threads is 
the lower focal plane of the eyepiece, at the spot where the 
which the objective fornw of the object arises, a glass plate 
red on which are two fine cross lines or even two very thin 
The eye-lens can be adjusted for the thread-plate, so that 
>b«crvers can see the cross -clcariy. The cross b alwavs 
ir»t. When observing with such an eyepiece, care must be 
: the real image of the object lies in the pbne of the cross- 
^. that there is no parallax. The adjustment b easily 
. If the eye is moved to and fro over the eyepiece and the 
kes apparently similar movements in relation to the cross 
den tne image docs not yet lie in the plane of the threads, 
sure the angle, the images of the crystal edges arc covered 
' one of the threads by turning the table, and the angle of 
1 read from the scale, A cross-table is very convenient 
culation, for with the aid of the two movable slides situated 
le of the plate and at right angles to one another, the point 
two crystal edges intersect can be quickly and correctly 
ito the re\'olving axis of the plate. This measurement can 
ide with a goniometer eyepiece, in which a row of parallel 
irks arc used instead of the cross threads. The fitting of 
ce at the upper end of the tube is provided with a graduated 
le eyepiece proper with the parallel strokes can be revolved, 
tation be read from the graduated circle. In carrying out 
ation the marks of the thread-plate have only to be placed 
rallel to the crystal edge. ^ ^ . t^. • 

mining preparations in polarized light a polarizer D is 
1 in the illuminating apparatus below the diaphragm and an 
•: above the eyepiece. The analyser can be routed, the 
kg read by a divided circle F. Very often the analyser 
n the tube, a little above the objective: it b then generally 
G, which can be put into the tube. The placing o( the 
ear the objective has the atfvaauge that the fie/d of view ^ 



i» not RitrKied, nils tfif/cafl# if'the^uttlyMr^It med above the 
e>'epiecc. Mkolj*£, Clan-ThomKiii prums or similar polarisation 
' analysers. Bek>w the analyser 



apparatiift are used at pulafizeni and 
'i (if ■ ' 



(j 3. pbte H (if •icknite or miL^a may be put in the amrse of the nya..' 
,ThL«i Fni4ll t^te c^n also 1m- l^id atK>ve thepi ' 
ing apparatus or in the eycfjiecc. 



e polariaer in the illuminate. 



To examine cr^-stals, especially In converging Ug^t, a ooodenier, 
movable in the opdc axis, is needed above tlw polanzer; The inia^ 
prodticed by ihe microdicope objective M in its back focus plane is 
iheci obser^'f'd ih rough a supplementary taiicioKOpe. The oojecdve 
of this «i]pplementar>> microscope^ the Bertrand lens, can be applied 
through a window t at the lower end of the inner tube K. By using 
a rack and pinion movement L the supplementary microscope can 
be adjusted for the images. There 11 nearly always an arrangement 
to cb^rve the prepare Eion first in convergent light and then in 
parallel polarized light. This chance can Mten be brought about 
by taking away or adding parts of the condenser. 

It h of tea rc<n)i«d m microscopical work todetermine'tlie 
wee of objects or parla of objects^ 

There are three essentia] ways qf performing this. The first 
method uses the abjective screw micTometer. The object is placed 
on a slide in the plane of the stsge plate and able to be very finely 
moved by the micrometc^f screw, which has as fipe a worm as posable. 
A divided cylindtr id fi»d to the turning knob, which thus makes it 
possible to measure fractions of tht revolution. The revolutions of 
thf: cylinder are registered by a calculator. The use of an eyepiece 
with a croH thread is esiential tD thu measurement. After the 
miciDKope has l>cen eo adiusted that the image of the obiect to bO 
measured faJLft exactly in the plane ui the cross threads, the object 
i» moved by the micrometer until one edge of the object b exactly 
covered by a thread. The mic^romcter u now read. Then the objeQt 
i* moved by tb« micrometer till the in::ige of the other edge b covrnd 
by the threu! io the e^-epiete. and the micrometer b a^in read. 
Tlie difference between the two powtitins gives the size of the object. 
Th(! objective screw micrometer is, however, not sufficiently delicate, 
and is only u»d when comparatively [jirge objects are to be measured. 
and especially for objects whoic edges do not appear at the same time 
in the field 01 vitw^ 

The second and most widdy used method employs a micrometer 
eyepiece, io this case not the object itself but a real image whkh 
h^ aJeeady been tmtgnified by the objective b measured, and 
obviouaty much more accurate results are possible. The most 
accurate calculadon^ arc obisiined by using the screw micromettf 
ocuUr Cfif. 54). Direcily^ l>e]r>w the collective lens of a Ramsden 




FlO. a4^"Screw Micrometer Ocular. Sectional elevation and 
plan (Zei^). 

eyejjiece a slide b can be movrd by a micrometer screw a; the slide 
carries a tittle gLis pbte c provided with a graduation. With the 
help of this scale the total re volutions of the screw can be read; 
frdc lions of the revolution can be read from the divided cylinder d. 
The Kale is generally divided mto hundredths of millimetres or 
ihcrUi^Lndths of inches- A fixed mark which serves as an index is 
Priced on the lower tide of the collective lens and b seen cleariy 
at the same time as the gntd nation of the movable slide. The 
riiicfDincter fita/ids at zero if the rero n)ark of the cylinder coincides 
with the index and the fiiued m:^rit is at a known division. The 
c^dnil^tion h most convenient if ihn: niicrometer is left in the pomtion 
of zero jind the object is moverl ti[] one of its edges corrcs^ood* t.<i 
the lero mark of the eyepiece sca^t, II \3tvt tsC\ctwc«X«*'»^««k.Ts«N^^ 
till another fraduat'ioti contspoivi^ xo XVvtt oiCc«t ^^ ^ ^* vrea^ 
theetieol 3ifeima«ec*aUtta^t&. h» ^35^ xMsawA tn«»»w» 


















io^ , 



\^>«^ 



*^ 













s*** 

<^l..^& 











KJ»*«:::«.w.5 



MICROTOMY 



407 



Tbwt an many methods for determininff the focal length of the 
ol^ectivc. The objective to be examined is placed on the stage, and 
in the manner just shown, the distance of the focal plane from the 
cdjie of the fittings or to the surface plane of the front lens is deter- 
nuned. Any plane object a few yards distant can be used. If the 
object can be seen by using the mirror, the plane mirror must be 
taed; then the actual siae of the object and of the image produced by 
the objective is measured (of the image by a micrometer ocular). 
The distance of the object from the nearer focus of the objective 
IB next determined. This distance is composed of the distance of the 
object from the centre of the plane mirror, and of the distance of 
tlie focus of the objective on the stage plate from the centre of the 
plane mirror. Let tlw sise of the object be y, the siae of the imaee y 
the distance of the object from the focus x, then y/y^x/fi irom 
vfaicfa /t can be calculated (see Lens). The same method can be 
used to determine the focal len^h of the eyepiece. These are the 
dimensions necessary for determining the magmfication of the micro- 
scope, via. the optical length of the tube ^ the focal lengths of the 
objective /i', and of the eyepiece /t. 

The focal Icnaih of an objtciKt can b* wore simply detcrmEnrd 
by pkmnc an objcftivp rnicmmctcf on ihe fitag'f snd rrprocluclng 
ona Bcrem some yard* a*ay by the object ivp which is tP betxaminea- 
If the size of ihe imipe d a known interval of the objective mkro- 
jrawter I* dcipfniincd by sn ordinary male, and thtr di^lanct of ih* 
unai^ ffom the foc^l plane of the object! V1^ belonging to it 1$. cncasurcd, 
when tJte fbc-al length can be calculiitcd from the ratio y/y^/iV*/. 
i« vUe^ y n the aiie of the ohjectt / ihat oJ the ImaKe, smd */ 
diediscaiicf of the ima|;;e froirt the focal pkine bclonginK to it. 

Bcittds thii indjrtct PWthod of dFtcrmininR the magnifkation 
%heT7 H Jlio a direct one, iu wbirh k n not ncccMary to first mea^un.^ 
^i. /i or A. If ai dr^win^ pri»n la uved above the e>e piece ,, atsd an 
^objecTivt mkrometer a inscfi^d. then if a scale li laidon the dniwidg 
l>3>]rd «hich if 25 tm. distant from the exit pupif* one or monc 
ijitervalf cjf the oDJtctiTC micrometer cap. be seen profecti^ on the 
ttcale iyin; on the boaid. The com part v>n of the two scAtri gi^-es 
^directly ihe mag^ni^catton. The caune of the light wjthin the drawing 
i:jr!=rm must l**^ taken into account when detefmining the distance 
* : ; Mil the estit ptipil AlthoUg^K this method does not 

^ive very accurate results, it is more convenient and simple than the 
aadirect method. 

BrELiLiOHAfHv,— Et J. Spitta^ Microscopy (jnd edr* [909): Sir 
^. E. WrightT Principles of Mkro^copy (1906); W. B, Carpenter, 
TSif iliirffcifpe end iis RrvtLiions {Jith ed. by W. H, Dallinger 190T } : 
L Hogg. The Micrasiobe (15th ed., tM); H. van Hcunrt. Tkf 
Mi€roHi>p* fEnp. trani. by W. E* Baj«er, iSoj). W. Kaiser, Tieknik 
4ti modtmrtt Mikroikapts (Vlfnna, 1906), dJealfl with the practical 
^^jtcti. wbiift the theory it treated in M. von Rohr {Dit Tktertt 
ier vpiiiihtn Insirumfnte, UtrVtn, 1904] and In S. Czapild {Gr^nd- 
t^^r dtr Thf&ri* der &ptiuktn Imtrumcnte; ed. by O. EpT<n?tpin. 
Leipri^. 190 1^ (0, Hh.I 

HICROTaMY (Gr. tVj; riiistty, lo cut), the term applied to 
the preparation of minute sections of organic tissue for the 
microscopie. In 1875 the methods were yet in their infancy; 
their development has enabled observers to achieve the most 
exact study of minute anatomy, in the case of small objects, 
which without these methods could only be investigated by the 
unsatisfactory process of focusing with the microscope through 
the solid object. 

It is not necessary here to detail at length the tpd method of 
preparing sections. Briefly, the tissue is soaked in a solution of 
gum, or of gum and syrup, and after being frozen by ether spray, 
or by a mixture of ice and salt, is cut into sections either by 
the Rutherford, Cathcart or some similar section-cutter, or by 
apparatus which can be fitted to the more modem types of 
microtome referred to below. This method, which is to-day 
used noAinly by pathologists, has two main disadvantages: 
the prolong action of watery fluids on the tissues, and the 
impossibility of getting ribbons, each section having, to be 
|»cked up separately. 

The general processes of the dry method employed in zoological 
and botanical microtomy are, up to a certain point, practically 
identiSed with those used for the preservation of animals and 
their tissues for other branches of microscopic work. In the 
first place the tissues must be killed; in the second, they must be 
fixed^ i^. the protoplasm must be set or coagulated as far as 
possible in the condition in which it appears in life; and in the 
third, ihey must be hardened, i.e. in most cases dehydrated. 
Killing may be effected by asphyxiation or narcotization 
(nicotine, cocaine, chloral hydrate, &c.) in special cases, but is 
generally achieved by fixing reagents, of which corrosive subli- 
mate and other chlorides, picric, acetic, osmic and chromic 



are the most usual. These serve to a great extent also as harden- 
ing agents, but alcohol, used after them, completes this process 
effectively, and when not too strdng (70%) is the best storage 
fluid. The^ second set of processes relates to the staining, 
without which tran^>arent sections are almost invisible. The 
stains are divisible into general stains, which dye the tissue 
practically uniformly and indifferently; and selective stains, 
which have affinity for special tissues or cell elemenu. Of the 
latter group some fasten on nuclei, others only on the chromatin 
of the nuclei; some on connective tissues, others on muscle 
fibres and so on. It is probable that the action of all these 
selective stains is produced by definite chemical combination 
with compounds originally present in, generated in, or introduced 
into the tissue selected. The most generally useful stains for 
ordinary work belong either to the cochineal series (borax-car- 
mine, carmalum, &c.), or to the logwood series (hacmatoxylin, 
haemalum, iron haematoxylin, &c.); in both of these great 
improvements have been introduced of late years by Dr Paul 
Mayer. The activity of these stains apparently depends upon 
the presence of alumina or of some similar basew For more 
special researches, such as C3rtology, neuropathology, neuro- 
histology, and so forth, greater dependence is placed on the 
coal-4ar colours, the name of which is legion. Some of these, 
such as safranine or gentian violet, are regressive stains; that is 
to say, the tissues are overstained uniformly, and the superfluous 
colouring matter washed out either by alcohol or by weak 
hydrochloric acid from the unselected parts. Others, such as 
methyl green, are progressive — that is, the colour is brought up 
to the pitch required and the reaction promptly stopped. The 
coal-tar stains can be used singly, or in combinations of two or 
three. Some of the best, unfortunately, are not permanent. 
A third group of stains is furnished by such reagents as silver 
nitrate, gold chloride, and the like (impregnation stains), which 
can be made not only to stain, but also to deposit a fine metallic 
precipitate on certain structures. In the case of small and 
delicate objects, the staining is done in the mass before any 
further preparation for sections, but with larger animals, or 
large pieces of resistant tissue, the stain is applied to the sections 
only. The' processes so far mentioned are applicable to many 
branches of microscopic work. 

When preparing tissues for sections the first step is complete 
dehydration, generally effected by bringing the object into 
absolute alcohol. It is then transferred to orte of a group of 
reagents, which are miscible with absolute alcohol, but would 
form an emulsion with water, and are solvents of the embedding 
mediimi. The embedding mass in most general use is paraffin 
wax, melting at a temperature of 54° to 60** C, according to the 
character of the object and the thickness of section required. 
The object is transferred from absolute alcohol to benzol, 
chloroform, cedar oil, or similar fluid to the melted paraffin; the 
fluid diffuses and evaporates, leaving the tissues to be completely 
permeated by the paraffin. This process can be greatly has- 
tened by the use of a partial vacuum. When impregnation is 
complete the paraffin is cooled rapidly, so as to assume a homo- 
geneous non-crystalline condition, and the tissue thus comes to 
form part of a block of soft but tenacious material, which pro- 
tects it from damage by air or damp, and can be readily cut by a 
razor. The block is then trimmed to the form of a triangle or 
rectangle, and fixed by a clamp or by local melting in the holder 
of the microtome. 

The first automatic microtome suitable for cutting a block 
of tissue into a continuous series of sections was made in 1883 in 
the university workshops of Cambridge, from a design by W. H. 
Caldwell and R. Threlfall. Only a single machine was made, 
but in 1884 twelve machines were made by the Cambridge 
Scientific Instrument Company from a design by Caldwell. 
Since then numerous excellent and simpler forms of microtome 
have been evolved. Some of these have distinct advantages over 
others, but with microtomes as wth other tools — the success 
of the results depends very largely on the matu^ulaA»x^lQX ^n«cj 
«-,.w ».^ w»..*.^ ^...w..x<w, p»v.,v, «vviiv, W9JIUV »uvi vjjivujjb I one works best wiih V\vs accMSVomt^ VxvsX\MxnK^V. \tv ^x^t Vf^ 
acids, alone or in combinatioi}, duomates and stroDg alcohol ' of microtome the razor is all^kC^itd «x oii^ tsA ^t^ >a ^\v^»?ri 



4o8 



MICROTOMY 



block, sliding backwards and forwards in a horizontal V-groove; 
the paraffin block is fed to this either up a vertical guide 
(Schanze, Reichert, &c.) or up an inclined plane (Thoma-Jung). 
In another type the razor is firmly clamped at both ends, to 
HiminUh vibration, and the paraffin block advances to it at the 
end of a long lever on trunnion bearings (Cambridge rocker) or 
up a vertical guide (Minot types). 

In the selection of a microtome, apart from its steadiness, 
rigidity, accuracy of workmanship, and so forth, it must be 
borne in mind that, in general, simplicity of working parts 
means longer life, and that an elaborate " automatic " mechan- 
ism, by which a single movement is translated into several in 
different directions, not only complicates the machine, but robs 
the operator of those alterations of pace, rigidity, pressure, &c., 
which are often necessitated by the varying texture in different 
parts of the object cut. For general use by less skilful students 
in a laboratory, price, simplicity and rapidity of work recom- 
mend the rocking microtome of the Cambridge Scientific Instru- 
ment Company, but it tends to fail at large or hard objects. 
For the all-round work of an investigator, its simplicity and 
finish have made Jung's sliding microtome with the Naples 
improvements deservedly popular for many years; it can be 
fitted with special apparatus for cutting celloidin and frozen 
objects, and it can be relied upon to cut any tissue, however 
difficult; but it cannot be worked as rapidly as some others, 
nor produce long ribbons of large objects. For this latter 
purpose the Minot-Becker, Minot-Zimmermann and Reinhold- 
Gilltay have be^n strongly recommended; these, however, are all 
of more complicated construction, with corresponding liability 
to uneven wear and damage; they are highly " automatic," leav- 
ing nothing but pace under control of the operator, and they 
are (particularly the last) expensive. 

(In 1910 the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company issued 
a new microtome designed primarily for cutting larger sections 
than was possible in their eariief forms, which respectively dealt 
with sections 12X20 mm. and ^o mm. in diameter; the new 
instrument cuts sections measuring 150X120 mm. (6X4! in-) 
embedded in paraffin or celloidin and of a thickness varying 
from 0'002 to o*o6 mm., each division of the scale being equaJ to 
O-002 mm. and the total distance of automatic feed being 21 mm. 
The construcdon and action of the instrument can be understood by 
referring to the fi^re; a detailed description u given, since the same 
principles are utilized to a greater or less extent in all sliding 
microtomes. 




Large Sliding Microtome. 

The object to be cut, having been embedded in a suitable prepara- 
tion A, is fixed to a wooden block which is attached by clamps to 
the object-holder B. The object-holder is provided with mechan- 
ism by means of which the height of the block is determined; 
this is effected by mounting the holder in a cup-shaped socket at 
t^e extremity 0/ a braaa pular E, which can be raised or lowered 
»ad6xed in any pomtioa by a damp. In addition, the direction 
i0 Kft«c6 « «ai^«9if if car cau £mi vaijed 1^ MJjjuadflg tte 



one of which is shown at C, which orientate the block. The object- 
holder and feeding mechanism are carried on a sliding carriage 
which rests at three jwinu on two guides in the frame N, Ni of 
the instrument ; and in order to secure easy running the nec es s a ry 
lubrication of the bearing surfaces b provided for by a groove in 
which oil is placed. The motion of the carriage in either directioa 
is effected by the handle G, connected to a system of levers H, 
which, being constructed on geometrical prinaples, pcwent any 
side-play and ensure a uniform motion. The arraiq^ement for 
determining the thickness of the section cut consists of a ■top-pin, 
which, operating through the ratchet M, causes a toothed wneel 
to revolve, which in turn raises the pillar K; the anoount of the 
motion can be read off by an index. On the return stroke of the 
sliding carriage the stop-pin u again actuated in such a manner 
that tust before the knife R reaches the object-holder the roeclian- 
ism depresses this part of the instrument so that the knife is not 
fouled : and after its passage the object-holder is raised to the |>od- 
tion appropriate for taking the next section. The knife R u rigidly 
set in two heavy brass clamps adjustable by the screws S, and these 
clamps are attached to the frame of the instrument by the screws T. 
The ande which the cutting edge makes with the frame is also 
adjustable, and by means of a small angular scale engraved on 
the knife-holders any setting can be easily determined or repeated. 
The knife is flat on one side and hollow-ground on the other. In 
using the microtome it is essential that the cutting edge of the 
knife points towards the end of the instrument where the handle 
b placed; the hollow-ground face should be uppermost, and the 
flat surface should not be exactly horizontal but slightly inclined 
so that the lower facet of the cutting edge U parallel to the frame. 
As to the relation of the position of the knife to the direction of 
motion, it b the usual practice, when paraffin sections are to be taken, 
to have the cutting edge at right angles to the motion; when, on 
the other hand, celloidin preparations are being cut, the knife 
must be set obliquely across the frame, an angle of 30* being 
convenient. This oblique setting b also recommended for paraffin 
secdons. In addition it must be remembered that celloidin prepar- 
ations always require lubricating when being cut, and it b also 
necessary to keep both the knife and the preparation constantly 
mobtened with either 80% alcohol or with cedar-wood oil-l 

The sections, when cut by the microtome with the knife 
straight and the two sides of the rectangidar paraffin block 
parallel to it, in most cases can be got off in a continuous ribbon, 
each sticking to its predecessor. Thb very desirable result 
generally can be insured by a coating of softer paraffin; but if 
the object be large, or brittle, or of varying texture, it is safer to 
cut the sections singly from a triangular block vrith an oblique 
knife. The secUons or ribbon are often not quite flat, but 
rolled, creased or compressed; they must be flattened before 
being attached to the slide. It b possible to carry out these two 
processes simultaneously by covering the carcftilly cleaned slide 
with plenty of a very dilute solution of Mayer^s 
glycerine and albumen, and laying the sections on the 
fluid and the slide on a hot-plate; as the water becomes 
warm the sections flatten out, and as it evaporates 
they settle down on the slide, and are held there by the 
albumen (many other methods are in use). The slide 
is then warmed to melt the paraffin, and plunged 
into benzol, or some similar fluid, which removes 
the paraffin; thence into absolute alcohol, which de- 
H hydrates and coagulates the albumen. If the tissue 
'0\ has not been stained en Hoc the sections can now be 
stained on the slide. After staining they are fully 
dehydrated, rendered transparent by oil 4>f cloves, and 
mounted in xylol-dammar or Canada balsam. W. 
Giesbrecht was the first to fix sections on the slide, 
using a solution of shellac in creasote in 1881; and 
also in the same year and in the laboratory of the 
Naples aquarium,, W. H. Caldwell first cut and fixed 
ribbons of secdons. 

For ordinary work the paraffin method excels aU 
others for rapidity, certainty and cleanliness; but for 
large and hard objects, or crumbling tissues (such as ova 
with a large quandty of yolk), some manipulators prefer to 
embed in celloidin. By thb method, after dehydradon, the tissue 
b soaked in a mixture of absolute alcohol and ether; thence 
transferred either to increasingly strong soluUons <^ celloidin 
in the same mixture or to a thin solution which b then boiled 
down till strong. The celloidin mass is then hardened: at first, 
if necessary, by drying; afterwards by a bath of chloroform or its 
vapoME. Ix. caxL \!lDi!tA. be cut in the microtome, either wet, or Qi 



MIDAS— MIDDLE AGES 



409 



previously deaned with cedar oil) dry like a paraffin block. The 
method is more tedious and more messy than the paraffin process; 
but amongst its advantages must be reckoned that little or no 
heat is required, and that the embedding mass is transparent, 
though it does not allow of such thin sections as paraffin. 

The above accounts present an outline of the complex processes 
onployed to-day, by which, on the one hand, sections 30 /tin 
thickness may be made through the entire human brain; and, on 
tlie other, organisms invisible to the naked eye may be cut into 
a long ribbon of consecutive sections i fi (one-thousandth of a 
millimetre) thick, every minutest fragment being retained in its 
proper place. 

The standard book on the subject is Bo'.lcs Lee's Microtomist's 
vade-meewm. Other works are G. Mann, Methods and Theory of 
Pkysiei0gical Histoiozy (Oxfoid. 1902), and A. Flatters, Methods in 
Mtcratco^ical Bnearck {Lotwion, 1905). (G. H. Fo.) 

MIDAS, the name of several Phrygian kings. The first of 
these was said to have been the son of Gordius and Cybcle, whose 
first priest he was, and in whose honour he founded a temple at 
Pe^nos. Having taken the drunken Silenus back to his youth- 
ful charge Dionysus, he was rewarded by the god with the power 
^ transforming everything he touched into gold. Finding 
laimself in danger of starvation, even his food and drink being 
flanged by his touch, Midas entreated Dionysus to take back 
^he ^ft. By the command of the god he bathed iA the river 
S*actolus, which henceforth became auriferous (Ovid, Metam. 
^. 85-145; Hyginus, Fab. 191). Another story connects him 
'^rith the musioil contest between Apollo and Marsyas (or Pan). 
'Kaving decided against the god, his cars were changed into those 
«>C an ass. He concealed them under a Phrygian cap; but the 
mecret was discovered by his barber, who, being unable to keep it, 
^ug a hole in the ground and whispered into it " Midas has the 
«ars of an ass.*' He then filled up the hole, thinking his secret 
safe; but the reeds which grew up over the spot proclaimed it to 
«I1 the worid. Midas with the ass's ears was a frequent subject 
of the Attic satyr-drama. There is no doubt that Midas was 
the name of one or more real persons around whom religious 
legends have grown up. The name " Midas the king " occurs on 
a very ancient tomb in the valley of the Sangarius, the legen- 
dary seat of the Phrygian kingdom. The Phrygian monarchy 
was destroyed by the Cimmerians about 670 B.C., and the name 
Midas became in Greek tradition the representative of this 
ancient dynasty. 

On the connexion between Midas and the Attic story see J. G. 
Frazer. The Coldm Bough, ii.134, 

MIDDELBURG. the ancient capital of the province of Zeeland, 
Hdland, in the middle of the bland of Walcheren, 4 m. by rail 
N. by E. of Flushing, with which it is also connected by steam 
tramway and by ship canal (1873), which continues to Veere 
on the N.£. coast, with a branch eastward to Amemuiden. 
Pop. (1903), 19,002. Middclburg contains many splendid old 
houses, which recall the prosperity which distinguished it until 
the end of the i8th century. The beautiful town-hall, built by 
Anton Keldermans about 1512, with a square tower 180 ft. 
high, and a facade adorned with statues of the counts and coun- 
tesses of Zeeland and Holland, contains the valuable city archives 
and antiquarian and historical collections. The old abbey of 
St Nicholas, founded in 1150, and now occupied by the provin- 
cial ootmdl, has some fine old tapestry of the end of the i6lh 
century. The building was added to in the 14th and isth 
centuries, and partly rebuilt after a fire in 1492. It was the . 
^ne in 1505 of a meeting of the knights of the Golden Fleece, | 
and was frequently the residence of royal visitors, including 
Miximilian, Philip the Fair and Charles V. The abbot of Middel- 
burg formerly possessed a vote of his own in the Provincial 
Sutes. What was formerly the nave of* the abbey church is 
now the New Church, and the ancient choir constitutes the 
Choir Church. These churches are interesting for the monu- 
ments of William II., count of Holland, king of the Romans 
(d. 1256), the i6th century scholar Hadrian Junius, and Jan 
Pieterszoon; and the tombs of Jan and Cornelius Evertsen, who 
idi in the naval war against England in 1666. The high tower 
(280 ft.), known as d€ lange Jan, sUndij^ apart from the church j 



contains a good chime of bells. The com exchange, the hof 
St Joris and the hof St Sebastian (formerly buildings belonging 
to the gilds of archers, and now places of amusement) also 
deserve mention. The museum of antiquities belonging to the 
Zeeland Society of Arts and Sciences (founded at Flushing in 
1769, and transferred to Middelburg in 1801) contains a complete 
collection of the fauna and flora of the province, many maps, 
plans and drawings relating to Zeeland, the first telescope made 
by Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Jansen in Middelburg in 
1608, and some provincial Roman antiquities. 

The extensive trade which Middelburg formerly carried on 
with the East and West Indies and with England and Flanders, 
was ruined by the war with England and the French occupation. 
But the construction of the railway in 1872, followed by the 
opening of the ship canal and the large dock (1876), as well as 
the establishment, by the aid of the chamber of commerce, of 
certain manufacturing industries (iron, machinery, furniture^ 
oil and cigars), lifted it out of its isolation. 

MIDDELBURG, a town of the Transvaal, 98 m. £. by rail of 
Pretoria, and 251 m. W. of Lourcn^o Marques. Pop. (1904), 
5085 — of whom 2343 were whites. It is prettily situated on the 
high veld, 5090 ft. above the sea, on one of the head streams 
of the Olifants River. Middelburg is the chief town of an adminis- 
trative division of the same name, and is a trading centre for a 
large district. It is also the centre of one of the richest coal- 
fields in South Africa. From some of the adjacent collieries 
excellent steam coal is obtained. Copper and cobalt are found 
in the neighbourhood. 

Middelburg was chosen in 1901 as the place of conference 
for peace negotiations between the British and the Boers. 
After the occupation of Pretoria in June 1900 by Lord Roberts 
the Boer forces had been reduced to guerilla warfare, and Lord 
Kitchener, learning that the Transvaal commandants were 
despondent, invited General Botha to enter into negotiations, 
on the basis of the recognition of British sovereignty. The 
conference between Lord Kitchener and General Botha was 
opened on the 28th of February and the negotiations, which 
ended in failure, were protracted until the i6th of March (see 
Transvaal: History^ § The War of i8gg-igo2). 

Middelburg is also the name of a town in the Cape Province, 
South Africa, 250 m. N. by W.of Port Elizabeth. Pop. (1904), 6137. 

MIDDLE AGES, THE. This name is commonly given to that 
period of European history which lies between what are known 
as ancient and modem times, and which has generally been 
considered as extending from about the middle of the 5th to 
about the middle of the isth centuries. The two dates adopted 
in old textbooks were 476 and 1453, from the settmg aside of the 
last emperor in the West until the fall of Constantinople. In 
reality it is impossible to assign any exact dates for the opening 
and close of such a period. The trend of recent historical re- 
search leads one even to doubt the validity of the very concep- 
tion of any definite medieval period. The evolution of modem 
European society has been continuous. Progress has not been 
uniform. There was much retrogression with the intmsion of 
new barbarian races; but from their absorption by the loth 
century until the 20th there is not a century in which some 
notable gain was not made towards the attainments of modem 
civilization. The correct perspective places between the sum- 
mits of modem and ancient times, not a long level stretch of a 
thousand years, with mankind stationary, spell-bound under 
the authority of the Church, absorbed in war or monastic dreams, 
but a downward and then a long upward slope, on both of 
which the forces which make for civilization may be seen at 
work. 

It is clear that a survey of the history of these so-called 
middle ages— long use makes the term inevitable— must include 
not only the political phase, but also economics, religion, law, 
science, literature. &c., since all are involved in the concept. A 
hurried outline of each of these vital branches of our civilization 
will at once reveal the falseness of the usual ^tvcvS^a.vcv'^. Vk.>& 
only after having traced lYvcsc oivfc \iv at« \>aaX ^^ CMv^.x^v^'i 
review the procea as a ¥rYko\ie. ^ 



4IO 



MIDDLE AGES 



In political history^ the epochal fact which marks the close of 
andent times is the decline of the Roman Empire. This was a 
process extending over three or four centuries, in which no one 
date lends itself to the historian. The deposition of Romulus 
August ulus, the last Roman emperor in the West, in 476, was 
certainly not one of those events upon which the history of the 
Western world depends. Outwardly it did not mark the end of 
the Empire, but the restoration of imperial unity. The throne 
in Italy bad been vacant before, and the restoration of unity was 
realized in fact under Justinian. There is no reason why the 
date 476 should stand out in European history more strongly 
than half a dozen other such dates. Yet we may say that the 
5th century did witness the actual dismemberment of the Roman 
Empire. The new nations in Spain, Gaul, parts of Italy and 
Britain were forming the rude beginnings of what were to become 
national states in the centuries following. Western Europe was 
taken out of the imperial mould and broken up. This is a 
revolution of sufficient magnitude to be regarded as politically 
the opening of a new era. It had been long preparing in the 
economic and administrative decline of the Empire, and in the 
steady influx of Germanic peoples into Roman territory for over 
two centuries; but the power of the old civilization to absorb the 
new races was exhausted by the 5th century, and the political 
history of Europe was turned into a different path. That path, 
however, was not destined to end blindly in a *' middle age." 
The line of political development marked out in the 5th century 
— that of the national state — still continues. The revolution in 
which Alaric, Theodoric and Clovis figured did not set the prob- 
lem for the middle ages only, as is frequently stated; its full 
meaning did not appear untU the Peninsular War, the Prussia 
of Stein and Schamhorst, and even Solferino and Sedan. Thus 
the 5th century politically introduces not so much the history 
of the middle ages as that of modem Europe. 

The immediate introduction, however, was a long one — so long 
and so distinct from the later development as to constitute in itself 
a distinct phase. For five or six centuries — from the sth until 
about the xith — comparatively little permanent progress was 
made. The Germanic tribes were still adjusting themselves 
and slowly learning to combine their primitive institutions with 
the remains of those of Rome; the premature union under 
Charlemagne gave way before new invasions, and anarchy be- 
came crystallized in feudalism. It was not until the 12th and 
13th centuries that modem national states really took shape: 
England with its trial by jury, circuit courts, Magna Charta and 
parliament; France under the strong hand of the Capetians. A 
political middle age certainly lay between Theodosius and 
William the Conqueror, or at least between Justinian and 
Henry II. It is difficult to grasp its vastness. Few students of 
history realize that the period from the Saxon to the Norman 
Conquest of England would take us as far back as from George V. 
to Edward L; or that from Theodosius to Philip Augustus 
there is an interval equal to that between the accession of Hugh 
Capet and the French Revolution. 

This, however, is not the period most frequently termed the 
middle ages in political histories. It does not include those 
two institutions which more than any others stand in popular 
imagination as genuinely medieval — the papal monarchy and the 
Holy Roman Empire. The papacy received its full monarchial 
structure under Hildebrand (Gregory VII.) in the middle of the 
xith century; its political decline set in suddenly after the ponti- 
ficate of Boniface VIII. at the opening of the 14th. The great 
age of the Empire began slightly earlier, and continued until the 
fatt of the Hohenstaufen in the middle of the 13th century. 
One cannot now deny the term middle ages to the period of 
these two institutions. It has been consecrated to this use too 
long. Yet when we include under a common name two eras so 
distinct as this and that preceding, our term becomes so vague 
as to be almost valueless. Moreover, it is doubtful if this second 
period is really as " medieval " as it has seemed. Papal mon- 
archy and Holy Roman Empire were not the only political 
phenomena of their age, and it ia possible that their vast pre- 
tcnsi'ons have fiomewbat blinded historians as to thdr real 



importance. While they were strnggluog to enforce their claims 
to universal sovereignty, the royal power, less extravagant but 
more real, was welding together the feudal states of France and 
moulding the England of to-day. Compared with this obscure 
process— this spread of the king's peace along the highways and 
through the distant forest hinds of the 12th and 13th centuries — 
papal interdicts and jubilees, however impressive their spec- 
tacle, are but fleeting shows. The chivalry of Germany pouring 
through Alpine passes for an Italian campaign, or a coronal ion, 
left little trace in history except the lesson of their futility. 
There is much in the imperial and papal histories that is merely 
spectacular and romantic; much that appeals to the imagina- 
tion and lends itself to myth; and since the sources are abundant 
— the papal archives inexhaustible and the German chronicles 
easily accessible — an undue emphasis has been placed upon 
them. It is at least evident that the political middle ages were 
already disintegrating during the period of papal monarchy 
and Holy Roman Empire. 

In economic history there is a more definite line traceable. 
The one great economic change brought about by the decline 
of the Roman Empire was the lessening of urban life throughout 
the greater part of Europe, the closing up of avenues of com- 
munication and the predominance of isolated agricultural 
communities. This phase began to give way in the i ith century 
to a commercial and industrial renaissance, which received a great 
impetus from the crusading movements — themsdves largdy 
economic — and by the 14th century had made the Netherlands 
the factory of Europe, the Rhine a vast artery of trade, and 
north Italy a hive of busy cities. The discovery of America and 
the expansion of commerce merely readjusted conditions already 
highly developed. The period of isolated, economy which we 
may term medieval lasted only from about the 5th to the 12th 
centuries. As for manufactures, the antique methods survived 
until the i8th and 19th centuries. 

In religious history — ^to be distinguished from that of the 
political organization referred to above as the papal monarchy — 
the official recognition of the Christian Church by Galerius in 
311 serves as a convenient starting-poinf for what we know 
as universal Christendom, though the slow disappearance of 
paganism, as distinct from Christianity, stretches over at least 
a century more. The Reformation of the i6th century has long 
been regarded as the close of the period. The real close, how- 
ever, is the present day — as the result of the rationalism and 
science of the i8th and 19th centuries. The heroes of the 
Reformation, judged by modem standards, were reactionaries. 
Unconsciously and to its own ultimate damage the Reformation 
forged the weapons of progress; but it was itself in no sense, 
except the institutional and political, the end of that religious 
history inaugurated before the Council of Nicaea. The real 
change in attitude which marks the dawn of a new en 
came in the generation of Voltaire. And " medievalism " is 
only now on the defence against " modernism," both Catholic 
and Protestant. 

In legal history there was a distinct medieval period, when 
Germam'c customs superseded Roman law, that most splendid 
of Rome's legacies. But the renaissance of law began relatively 
early; by the 12th century it had created a university, by the 
13th it was helping to organize national states and laying the 
basis for that order which the economic renaissance was dready 
demanding. 

In science there was no great product in antiquity to be 
lost. Compared with art or law, literature or philosophy, 
ancient science (in our sense) was almost insignificant. The 
promise in Aristotle of such production remained unfulfilled. 
The 1 7th century is not so much a renaissance here as a mere 
beginning. No one can deny the general unscientific, uncritical 
nature of " medieval " thought. A single Roger Bacon doesnot 
rcUeve his age of the charge. But the middle age in sdence 
must include much of antiquity, including Pliny. 

Philosophy was the one subject which had. dearly and 
definitely, a medieval period. Scholasticism, which absorbed 
i l\ve allcnXioQ. ol miMV vhinkers from about the txth to about the 



MIDDLE AGES 



411 



15th centuries, is so eaafly marked off and played so considerable 
a r^Mein the academic history of that time, that historians often 
refer (o it as the only intellectual interest of " medieval " men. 
Then, selecting some of the later and less virile scholastics as 
victims, they ask how men could be seriously interested in their 
trivialities. But these men were not all busy over the problem 
of how many angels could stand on a needle-point; nor were 
they all dominated by the religious spirit of faith or intellectual 
cowardice. They were searching for truth with scientific eager- 
sesB. Their very failure made possible the modern era. It is 
perhaps unnecessary to point out how small a proportion of the 
" inteJlectuals " were scholastics even in the xjth century. 

In the realm of art the " middle ages " had already set in 
before Constantine robbed the arch of Titus to decorate his 
own, and before those museums of antiquity, the temples, were 
plundered by Christian mobs. The victory of Christianity — 
iconoclastic in its primitive spirit — was but a single chapter in 
the story of decline. The proce» was completed by the misery 
of the decaying empire, and by the Germanic invasions. The 
barbarians, however, destroyed less than has been commonly 
supposed. Destruction was more the product of necessity 
than of wantonness. Thus public monuments became fortresses, 
«nd antique sculpture was built into city walls. Such art as 
continued was almost wholly religious; for in the wilderness of 
the times the churches formed oases of comparative prosperity 
and peace, and, even in the darkest times, wherever such oases 
existed there the seeds of art took root. The Church architecture 
of the *' middle ages," then developed naturally and without a 
break, through the Byzantine and Romanesque styles, out of the 
secular and religious architecture of Greece and Rome. And, 
with the return of comparatively settled and prosperous condi- 
tions, not only architecture but the other arts also blossomed 
nnder the influence of what was later stigmatized as the " Gothic " 
spirit into new and original forms. Down to the Reformation 
the churches continued to be, as the temples of the ancient 
world had been, the main centres of the arts; yet the arts were 
not confined to them, but flourished wherever, as in castles or 
walled cities, the conditions essential to their development 
existed. With the revival of dvilized conditions in secular life, 
secular ideals in art also revived; the ecclesiastical traditions 
in painting and sculpture, which always tend to becpme stereo- 
typed, began in the West to be encroached upon long before 
the period of the " Renaissance." The 1 2th and 13th centuries, 
which witnessed the great struggle between the secular and 
spiritual powers in the state, witnessed also the rise of a literature 
inspired by the lay spirit, and of an art which was already 
escaping from the thraldom of the stereotyped ecclesiastical 
forms. Gothic sculpture was not incidentally decorative, it was 
an essential element in the harmony of the architectural design. 
The elongated kings that guard the door of Chart res Cathedral, 
or the portals with the Last Judgment, are a necessary element 
in the facade. Thus fettered, even the realism of the Gothic 
sculptors failed, except in rare instances, of its full expression. 
The plastic arts were left for Italy, where antique models were 
at hand, and the glory of its achievement in the 15th and i6th 
centuri« was so great as to obscure in men's eyes what had been 
done before. 

But this Italian renaissance was not the only one. It was 
but one of many; and it was concerned with the two subjects 
which perhaps least deeply influence the lives of the mass of men 
—literary humanism and art. It is obviously absurd, in the face 
of the foregoing facts, to regard it as the end of a middle age in 
anything but in its own field. 

When one studies the history of Europe subject by subject, 
as indicated above, and not merely in a monastic chronicle of 
things in general, chosen according to the author's point of view, 
one sees the old-time framework passing away. The traditional 
idea of a barren middle age and a single glorious renaissance 
proves false. An organic study of the past reveals a more 
rational picture of the process which produced the Europe of 
to-day. Catacl)rsm and special creation here as elsewhere give 
vmy to cvolutloD. The new synthesis reveals a universal < 



decline from the 5th to the xoth centuries, while the Germam'c 
races were learning the rudiments of culture, a decline that was 
deepened by each succeeding wave Of migration, each tribal 
war of Franks or Saxons, and reached its climax in the disorders 
of the 9th and loth centuries when the half-formed civilization of 
Christendom was forced to face the migration of the Northmen 
by sea, the raids of the Saracen upon the south and the onslaught 
of Hungarians and Slavs upon the cast. That was the dark age. 
It left Europe bristling with feudal castles, and already alert for 
the march of progress. At once the march begins. Henry the 
Fowler beats back the Slavs and places the outposts of Christen- 
dom along the Elbe and the Oder. Otto I., his son, drives the 
Magyars from southern Germany and establishes the East Mark 
(Austria) to guard the upper Danube. The restoration of the 
Empire in 962 marks the first milestone on the pathway of re- 
covery. Already scholarship had found a home in monasteries 
planted in the heart of the German forests. The succeeding 
century brought the Empire to the acme of its power, until 
Henry III. in the Synod of Sutri, sat in judgment on the impo- 
tent and demoralized papacy. Meanwhile France had been 
learning something even in its feudal anarchy. The monks of 
Cluny were at work. The Capetians had begun. The great 
monastery of Bee was drawing the sons of northern sea-robbers 
to the service of that greatest civilizing force, the Church. The 
progress made through even this darkest age may be measured 
by the difference between the army of Rollo and that which 
WilUam the Conqueror gathered for the invasion of England. 

There is a legend, current among historians from the days of 
Robertson and Hallam, that as the year 1000 approached man- 
kind prepared for the Last Judgment; that the earth " clothed 
itself with the white mantle of churches," and like a penitent 
watched in terror and in prayer for the fatal dawn. Contem- 
porary sources fail to bear out this beautiful conception. Apart 
from the fact that reckoning from the birth of Christ was by no 
means universal, and consequently the mass of men were ignorant 
that there was such a thing as the year 1000, one wonders how 
that most enduring type of architecture, the Romanesque, 
reached its maturity among men who thought that the earth 
itself was so soon to ** shrivel like a parched scroll." Recent 
scholarship has absolutely disproved this legend, founded on a 
few trite phrases in monastic chronicles, and still to be heard in 
similar tontexts. The year xooo marks no epoch in medieval 
history. 

The latter half of the i ith century witnessed the most remark- 
able political creation in Europe since the days of Caesar, the 
papal monarchy of Hildebrand. The great scholastic contro- 
versies had already begun in the schools of France; the revival of 
Roman law had called forth the university of Bologna, and the 
canonists had begun the codification of the law of the Church. 
The way was already cleared for the busy 12th century — the 
age of Louis VI. and Henry II., of Glanvill and Suger, of Abclard 
and Maimonides, of Frederick Barbarossa and Alexander III., of 
the emancipation of French communes and cities and the inde- 
pendence of those of Lombardy, of the growth of gilds and the 
extension of commerce, of trouvdre and troubadour and the 
beginnings of vernacular literature, of the creation of Gothic 
art, of trial by jury and the supremacy of royal justice. Such are 
but a fraction of its achievements. The 12th century stands 
beside the i8th as one of the greatest creative centuries in human 
history. The 13th Uke \hc igth applied these creations in the 
transformation of society. The century of Dante was also that 
of the first English parliament; its vast economic expansion 
enabled the national state to triumph in both England and 
France, and furnished the grounds for the overthrow of Boniface 
VIII. Into the complex history of this momentous age it is 
impossible to go in any detail. Sufficient to say that in the 
opening quarter of the 14th century England and 'France at 
least stood on the brink of " modem times." Then these two 
nations entered upon that long tragedy of the Hundred Years' 
War, a calamity absolutely immeasurable to both. But during 
its massacres, jacqueries, pVa^cswA\w^Mv'»^^J^^6^^«^^^^^.^^ 
growing rich with Uadc txid inaxi>AwX>a«^, ^«fc va- ^^'"^ '^'^'^^ 



412 



MIDDLEBORO— MIDDLESBROUGH 



the centres of progress, this time in a new direction, toward the 
recovery of the antique past and the development of art. 

This is the so-called Renaissance iq.v.). The humanists 
which it produced, interested only in its splendid revelations, 
forgot or ignored the achievements of the period which inter- 
vened between Cicero and Petrarch. Then by the genius of 
their work they fastened tAeir mistaken perspective upon his- 
torians and the cultured world at large. They struck upon the 
unfortunate and opprobrious term " middle ages " for that 
which stood between them and their classic ideals. The term 
was first used in this sense by Flavio Biondo, whose " decades " 
was an attempt to block out the annals of history from 410 to 
1410. His treatment fell in admirably with the ideas of his age 
and of that following. To Protestants the age of the papal 
monarchy was like the reign of Anti-Christ. Then, after the 
indifference of humanists and Protestant polemic, came the dis- 
gust of men of science at the scholastic philosophy— an attitude 
best exhibited in Bacon's Advancement of Learning. The i8lh 
century was thus trebly barred from a knowledge of genuine 
medieval history. Romanticism, that reaction in which Sir 
Walter Scott, the Schlegels and Victor Hugo so largely figured, 
was as far from understanding what it admired as classicism 
had been from what it hated. Its extravagant praise of all that 
savoured of the middle ages was still blind to their real progress 
and work. They were, for it, the ages of romance and diivalry. 
The view of the romanticists was as one-sided as any that had 
gone before. It is only with the introduction of a wider outlook 
in the scientific study of history that it has been possible to 
straighten the perspective and modify the traditional scheme. 

In the purely intellectual sphere it is certainly true that the 
recovery of the antique world was 0/ great importance; that it 
made possible genuine criticism by presenting new points of 
contrast and opening up fields that led away from theological 
quibbles. But it did not mean the " double discovery of the 
outer and inner world." Mankind did not, as Burckhardt and 
J. A. Symonds lead one to imagine, suddenly throw off a cowl 
that has blinded the eyes for a thousand years to the beauty of 
the world aroimd, and awaken all at once to the mere joy of 
living. If any one was ever awake to the joys of living it was the 
minnesinger, troubadour or goliard, and the world had to wait 
until Rousseau and Bums before its external beauty was dis- 
covered, or at least deeply appreciated, by any but a few Dutch 
artists. Even Goethe crossed the Alps with his carriage shutters 
dosed. Mont Blanc is not mentioned by travellers imtil after 
the middle of the i8th century. The discovery of the outer 
world is a recent thing in art as well as in science. As for the 
claim that the " Renaissance " delivered men from that blind 
reliance upon authority which was typical of " medieval " 
thought, that Is a fallacy cherished by those who themselves 
rely upon the authority of historians, blind to the most ordinary 
processes of thought. In this regard, indeed, in spite of the 
advance of scientific method and the wealth of material upon 
which to base criticism, we are still for the most part in the 
middle ages. The respect for anything in books, the dogma 
of journalistic inerrancy which still numbers its devotees by 
millions, the common acceptance of even scientific conceptions 
upon the dicta of a small group of investigators, these are but a 
few of the signs of the persistence of what is surely not a medieval 
but a universal trait. The so-called Renaissance did much; but 
it did not do the things attributed to it by those who see the 
" middle ages " through humanist glasses. 

Upon the whole, therefore, it would seem that not only was 
there no one middle age common to all branches of human evolu- 
tion, except the period more definitely marked as the dark age, 
but that those characteristics which are generally regarded 
as " medieval " were by no means limited to a single epoch of 
European history. In short, the dark age was a reality; but 
the traditional " middle ages " are a myth. (J. T. S.*) 

MIDDLEBORO, a township of Plymouth county, Massachu- 

Metts, U.S.A., In the S.E. part of the state, bounded on the N.W. 

by the Taunton river. Pop. (i8go), 6065; (1900), 688$— of 

wAam pao were foreign-horn; (1910 census) 8214. Axta, 



about 70 sq. m. The prindpal village also is named Middleboio; 
it » 35 m. S. of Boston, is served by the New York, New Haved 
& Hartford railroad, and by dectric lines connecting with 
Taunton, Boston, New Bedford and Cape Cod, and has a town- 
house, a soldiers' monument, and a public library housed in a 
building erected from a fund (part of which is used as a permanent' 
endowment) bequeathed by Thomas Sprout Peirce (1833-1 901), 
a merchant of the township, who, in addition, bequeathed about 
$500,000 as a spedal trust-fund for the use and benefit of the 
town of Middleboro; the income has been spent largdy in the 
construction of macadam roads, the erection of an almshouse 
and the installation of special courses in the high schooL The 
village, a place of considerable natural beauty, is a summer 
resort, and has various manufactures. Other villages in the 
township are North, East and South Middleboro, and Rock. 
The township had important herring fisheries in early times and 
manufactured straw hats (from 1828) and ladies' dress goodsi 
Middleboro was settled about 1663 under the Indian name 
Nemasket; became a part of the township of Plymouth in 1663; 
and in 1669 was incorporated as a separate township, taking its 
name probably from Middlesbrough, North Riding, York. 

See Thomas Weston, History of the Town of MiddUioro, Masm- 
ckuseUs (Boston, 1906). 

WDDLEBURT, a village and the county-seat of Addison 
coimty, Vermont, U.S.A., in Middlebury township, on Otter 
Creek, about 31 m. N.N.W. of Rutland. Pop. of the vma«e 
C1890), 1762; (1900), 1897 (221 foreign-bom); (1910), x866; 
of the township. (1900). 3045^ (1910), 2848. Middlebury b 
served by the Rutland railroad. It is picturesquely situated 
near the Green Mountain range, and is the seat of Middlebury 
College (chartered, x8oo; co-educational since i883),which offers 
a classical course and a Latin-sdentific course, and had in 1907- 
1908 12 instructors and 203 students (84 of whom were women), 
and a library of 35.000 volumes. The Sheldon art museum and a 
public library are among the public institutions of the village, 
and the principal buildings indude the court-house and the 
opera-house. The principal industrial establishments are marble 
quarries, " Italian " marble works, iron foundries, lime-kilns, 
flour-mills, and door, sash and lumber mills. About i m. nwth 
of the village, in the township of Wcybridge, there is a large 
United Slates government breeding station for Morgan horses; 
and merino sheep are raised in the vicim'ty. 

The township of Middlebury was incorporated in 1761, and the 
first settlement on the site of the present village was made in 
1773. At the outbreak of the War of Independence the settle- 
ment was deserted, and all except two or three of the houses 
were destroyed by British troops; but the settlers returned 
soon after the dose of the war, and the township was formally 
organized and sent a member to the state assembly in 1788. 
Middlebury was incorporated as a borough in 1813, and as a 
village in 1832. 

MIDDLESBROUGH, a munidpal, county and parliamentary 
borough and seaport in the North Riding of Yorkshire, En^and, 
238} m. N. by W. from London, on the North Eastern railway. 
Pop. (1891), 75,532; (1901), 91,302. It lies on the south bank of 
the Tees, 5 m. from its mouth in the North Sea, and is the centre 
of one of the most important iron-working districts in the worid. 
It is wholly of modem growth, having been incorporated in 1853. 
Its chief buildings are a fine town-hall with lofty dock-tower and 
spire (1889), containing the munidpal offices, free b'brary, &c.; 
the exchange, county court, Dorman memorial museum and 
Roman Catholic cathedral. Besides iron and steel works, the 
first of which was that of Messrs Bolckow, Vaughan & Co.* there 
are rolling-mills, tube works, wire- mills, engineering works, oil 
works, chemical works, salt works and a considerable ship> 
building industry. The district abounds in blast furnaces. The 
docks are accessible to large vessels, the entrance having a depth 
of 32 ft. Extensive dredging operations are carried on in the 
river. The accommodation for shipping indudcs two graving 
docks, two patent slips, &c. The entrance to the river is pro- 
tected by two breakwaters named respectively the North G§n 
i Slid SoMlVk Oak. The furnaces within the port produce font 



MIDDLESEX, ist EARL OF—MIDDLESEX 



s,5oo,ooo toas of pig iron annually. Middlesbrough is the seat 
of a Roman Catholic bishop. The parliamentary borough 
falling within the Cleveland division of the county, returns one 
member. The county borough was created in 1888. The town 
is governed by a mayor, ten aldermen and thirty councillors. 
Area, 2823 acres. 

The earlier history of the place is meagre. Where Middles- 
brough now stands there were at one time a small chapel and 
priory founded by Robert de Brus of Skelton Castle. These 
were dedicated to St Hilda, and with some lands were given by 
de Brus to the abbey of St Hilda at Whitby in 1 130. The priory 
fell into ruins at the time of the Reformation, and no trace now 
remains beyond some stones built into the wall of a brewery. 
The Oak Chair in the town-hall also is made from a fragment. In 
x8ox there were upon the site of Middlesbrough only four farm- 
bouses. In 1839 a company styling itself the Middlesbrough 
Owners bought 500 acres of land, and began building in the town. 
In 1830 the Stockton & Darlington railway was extended to 
Middlesbrough; four years later the town was lighted with gas; 
and after six years more a public market was established. The 
census of 1831 showed the population to be 154; that of 1841 
showed 5709. In 1842 the opening of the docks gave additional 
importance to the town. From the year 185 1, when John 
Vaughan discovered the presence of ironstone in the Eston hills, 
the town advanced rapidly. 

■IDDLESBX« LIONEL CRANFIELD. iST Earl op (1575-1645). 
was a successful London merchant, who was introduced to King 
James I. by Henry Howard, earl of Northampton, and entered 
the royal service in 1605. In 1613 he was knighted and was 
appointed surveyor-general of customs; in 16 16 he became one 
of the masters of requests, and in 1619 master of the court of 
wards and liveries and chief commissioner of the navy. He was 
returned to parliament as member for Hythe in 16 14 and for 
Arundel in 1621. Cran field, who was also master of the ward- 
robe, was responsible for many economies in the public service, 
ind his business acumen was very useful to the king. He took 
part in the attack on Bacon in 1621, and although, contrary to 
general expectation, he did not succeed Bacon as lord chancellor, 
be was created Baron Cranfield in July of this year. In 162 1 
also he became lord high treasurer, and in September 1622 was 
created earl of Middlesex, losing his positions and influence shortly 
afterwards because he opposed the projected war with Spain, and 
bad incurred the hostility of Prince Charles and George Villiers, 
duke of Buckingham. Impeached by the House of Commons 
for corruption, he was found guilty by the House of Lords in May 
1624 and was sentenced to lose all his offices, to pay a heavy fine 
and to be imprisoned during the king's pleasure. However, he 
vas released from prison in a few days, was pardoned in the 
iolbwing year, and was restored to his seat in the House of 
Wdsin 1640. The earl's second wife was Anne Brett (d. 1670). 
a cousin of Buckingham's mother, whom he married somewhat 
rductantly in 1621 in order to ensure Buckingham's support. 
Middlesex died on the 6th of August 1645. leaving with other 
issue a son James (1621-1651), 2nd earl of Middlesex, who was a 
partisan of the parliamentary p.irty during the Civil War. James 
»» succeeded by his brother, Lionel, and when this earl died in 
October 1674 his titles became extinct. The first carl's daughter 
Frances married Richard Sackville, 5th earl of Dorset, and their 
»n Charles was created earl of Middlesex in 1675. Two years 
^er be became earl of Dorset, and the title of earl of MidcUesex 
*as borne by the earls and dukes of Dorset until 1843. 

MIDDLESEX, a south-eastern county of England, bounded 
^- by Hertfordshire, E. by Essex, S.E. by the county of London, 
S. by Surrey, and W. by Buckinghamshire. The area is 2833 
K m., and, excepting Rutland, the coimty is the smallest in 
^o^d. The area outside the county of London, or extra- 
metropolitan area, with which this article is mainly concerned, 
8 2338 sq. m. It lies entirely in the basin of the river Thames, 
^'ch forms its southern boundary. On the east it is separated 
froffl Essex by the Lea, the largest northern tributary of the 
iTuunes. The other rivers, in order westward, are the Brent, 
thu Crane or Yedding Brook, and the CoUie. The waters of 



413 

several streams are collected in the artificial Brent reservoir near 
Hendon, from which the Brent flows with a circuitous course to 
the Thames at Brentford. The Crane, rising in the high ground 
near Harrow-on-the-Hill, join$ the 'Thames at Isleworth, and 
the Colne, which rises on the elevated plain between Hatfield 
and St Albans (Hertfordshire), traverses a fiat valley on the 
western boundary of the county, where it divides into several 
channels, and joins the main river at Staines. The highest 
ground, exceeding 400 ft. at several points, and reaching 503 ft. 
above Stanmore, b found along the northern boundary, in a line 
from Stanmore through Ektree, Chipping Bamet and Potter's 
Bar. Two well-marked lines of heights, detached from the 
main line, project southward, the eastern from Whetstone 
through Finchley and Highgate to Hampstead, where, within 
the county of London, a height of 443 ft. is found on Hampstead 
Heath; the western being the isolated elevation on which stands 
Harrow-on-the-Hill. The hills skirting the Lea valley, in the 
neighbourhood of Enfield, are abrupt, though of no great 
elevation. Elsewhere the country is very slightly undulating 
or quite flat, as along the banks of the Thames and Lea. The 
Thames, however, beautifies its immediate neighbourhood, and 
rich sylvan scenery is not wanting in the higher districts. The 
greater part of the county was formerly densely forested and 
sparsely populated, and the name of Enfield Chase, a royal 
preserve in the north-east, stUl recalls this condition. In 
modem times the visible influence of London has spread over 
practically the entire county. Villages have grown into populous 
suburbs; large institutions, for which sites adjacent to rather 
than within the metropolis have been found preferable, are 
numerous, and the development of suburban railway communi- 
cations has brought fresh ground withm reach of builders. 

Geoloty. — The county lies entirely within the structural basin 
of the Thames, and, as in the neighbouring counties, the seneral 
slope of the ground and dip of the strata is towards the aoutn-east. 
South of an irregular line paioing from Uxbridge, north of Haves, 
by Hanwcll and Ealine to Hyde Park and east of a similar line 
from the upper side of the Park to Tottenham and on from that point 
to Enfield, the only visible deposits are the eravels, loams, brick- 
earths and sands laid down in former times By the Thames, with 
contributions by the Lea and the Colne. These alluvial deposits 
rise gpdually northward from the Thames and westward from the 
Lea, m a senes of gentle terraces. The earliest portions of London 
were built upon these terraces, because while they were dry at the 
surface, water could be obtained by sinking shallow welliB. The 
alluvium has yielded many flint implements and the bones of the 
mammoth, bear and rhinoceros, great elk and other extinct forms. 
The loams are dug for bricks and the gravel for ballast, &c., about 
West Drayton, Southall, Enfield and Tottenham. 

The London clay, a marine deposit, is bluish where it has not 
been turned brown by exposure to the weather. It underlies all 
the river deposits ana rises to the surface north and east of the 
alluvial boundary indicated above. It gives rise to the undulating 
grassy country round Harrow, Chipping^arnet and Elstree. Below 
the London clay are the more sandy Reading beds, they may be 
seen at Harefield and at South Mimms; inliers occur at Pinner and 
Ruislip. Chalk is only visible on the side of the Colne valley at 
Harefield. where it is quarried, and at South Mimms. Formerly, 
the sandy and pebbly Bagshot beds covered all the London clay 
area, but now only isolated patches remain, such as those on the top 
of Harrow. Hampstead and Highgate hills. Long after the Bagshot 
beds were laid down the country was covered by a variety of gbcial 
deposits; such are the pebble eravels of Stanmore Heath and the 
district north of Bamet, the clay and sand of Finchley, Muswell 
Hill and Southgate. the chalky boulder clay to be seen at Finchley. 
Southgate and Potter's Bar. Several deep borings in the London 
basin prove the existence, beneath the chalk, of beds which 
do not crop out in Middlesex. The mo»t interesting is that 
at Meux's Brewery, Tottenham Court Road (about 1146 ft.), which 

Ksscs through the following formations: gravel and clay, 21 ft.; 
ndon clay. 64 ft.; Reading beds. 51 ft. ; Thanet sand. 21 it. ; chalk. 
655 ft.: upper greensand. 28 ft.; gault, 160 ft.; lower greensand, 
64 ft. ; Devonian rocks. 80 ft.* 

Industries, Gfc. — ^The climate of some of the high-lying districts 
is particularly healthy. Little more than one-half tne total area 
of the county is under cultivation: and the grain crops, greatly 
decreasing, are insignificant. The soil in the north and north-west 

> Sec " Geology of Part of the London Basin." Mem. Geol. Survey, 
2 vols.: "Soils and Subsoils." ditto; Proceedings of the CeoUh 
gists' Association. A large model of the geology of London is 
exhibited in the Museum of Practical Geo\»^« \«xwi"tt. '^\sw»^ 
London. 



4i6 



MIDDLETON, T. 



harmonious. Pope thought him and Nathaniel Hooke the 
younger the only prose writers of the day who deserved to be 
cited as authorities on the language. Samuel Parr, while expos- 
ing his plagiarisms, heaps encomiums on his style. But his 
best qualities, his impatience of superstition and rii«tfj|ain of mere 
external authority, are rather moral than literary. 

The best general view of his intellectual character and influence 
is to be found in Sir Leslie Stephen's English Thought in the Eighteenth 
Century, ch. vi. A handsome edition oihis works, containing several 
posthumous tracts, but not including the Life of Cicero, appeared 
m 4 vols, in 1752 and in 5 vols, in 1755. 

MIDDLETON, THOMAS (c. 1 570-1627), English dramatist, son 
of William Middleton, was bom about 1570, probably in London. 
There is no proof that he studied at either university, but he may 
be safely identified with one of the Thomas Middlelons entered 
at Gray's Inn in 1 503 and 1 596 respectively. He began to write 
for the stage with The Old Law, in the original draft of which, if 
it dates from 1599 as is generally supposed, he was certainly not 
associated with William Rowley and Philip Massinger, although 
their names appear on the title-page of 1656. By 1602 he had 
become one of Philip Hcnslowe*s established playwrights. The 
pages of Henslowe's Diary contain notes of plays in which he 
had a hand, and in the year 1607-1608 he produced no less than 
six comedies of London life, which he knew as accurately as 
Dekker and was content to paint in more realistic colours. In 
161 3 he devised the pageant for the installation of the Lord 
Mayor, Sir Thomas Middleton, and in the same year wrote an 
entertainment for the opening of the New River in honour of 
another Middleton. From these facts it may be reasonably 
inferred that he had influential connexions. He was frequently 
employed to celebrate dvic occasions, and in 1620 he was 
made city chronologer, performing the duties of his position with 
exactness till his death. 

The most notable event in his career was the production at the 
Globe theatre in 1624 of a political play, A Came at Chess, 
satirizing the policy of the court, which had just received a 
rebuff in the matter of the Spanish marriage, the English and 
Spanish personages concerned being disguised as the White 
Knight, the Black King, and so forth. The play was stopped, 
in consequence of remonstrances from the Spanish ambassador, 
but not until after nine days' performances, and the dramatist 
and the actors were summoned to answer for it. It is doubtful 
whether Middleton was actually imprisoned, and in any case the 
king's anger was soon satisfied and the matter allowed to drop, 
on the plea that the piece had been seen and passed by the master 
of the revels. Sir Henry Herbert. Middleton died at his house 
at Newington Butts, and^as buried on the 4th of July 1627. 

He worked with various authors, but his happiest collaboration 
was with William Rowley, this literary partnership being so 
close that F. G. Fleay {Biog. Chron. of the Drama) treats the 
dramatists together. The plays in which the two collaborated 
are A Fair Quarrel (printed 1617), The World Lost at Tennis 
(1620), an ingenious masque, TheChangding (acted 1624, printed 
1653), and The Spanish Gipsie (acted 1623, printed 1653). The 
main interest of the Fair Quarrel centres in the mental conflict 
of Captain Ager, the problem being whether he should fight in 
defence of his mother's honour when he no longer believes his 
quarrel to be just. The underplot, dealing with Jane, her con- 
cealed marriage, and the physician, which is generally assigned 
to Rowley, was suggested by a story in Giraldi Cinthio's Hecalom- 
mitki. The Changeling is the most powerful of all the plays with 
which Middleton's name is connected. The plot is drawn from 
the tale of Alsemero and Beatrice- Joanna in Reynolds's Triumphs 
of Cod's Rcveng against Murlher (bk. i., hist, iv.), but the 
story, black as it is, receives additional horror in Middleton's 
hands. The famous scene in the third act between Beatrice 
and De Florcs, who has murdered Piracquo at her instigation, 
is admirably described by Swinburne: 

" That note of incredulous amazement that the man whom she 

has just instigated to the commission of murder * can be so wicked ' 

MS to have served her end for any end of his own beyond the pay of 

a professional assassin, is a touch worthy of the greatest dramatist 

tJut ever Jived. . , . T/iac s/ie, the first criminal, should be honestly 



shocked as well as physically horrified by revelation of the real 
motive which impelled her accomplice into crime, gives a lurid 
streak of tragic humour to the lifelike interest of the scene: as the 
pure infusion of spontaneous poetry throughout redeems the whole 
work from the charge of vulgar subservience to a vulgar taste (or 
the presentation or the contemplation of criminal horror." 

Leigh Hunt thought that the character of De Flores, for effect 
at once tragical, probable and poetical, "surpassed anything 
with which he was acquainted in the drama of domestic life." 
The underplot of the piece, though it is based on the humours of 
a madhouse, has genuine comic flashes. The Spanish Gipsie has 
a double plot based on the Fuerza de la sangre and the GUamiUa 
of Cervantes Much has been said on the collaboration of 
Middleton with Rowley, who was much in demand with fellow- 
dramatists, especially for his experience in low comedy. These 
plays, even in scenes where the evidence in favour of one or other 
of the collaborators is clear, rise to excellence which neither 
dramatist was able to achieve alone. It was clearly no mechanical 
partnership the Umits of which can be said to be definitely 
assigned when the actual text has been parcelled out between the 
collaborators. 

With Thomas Dekker he wrote The Roaring Girle, or Moll Cut- 
Purse (1611). The frontispiece represents Moll herself in man's 
attire, indulging in a pipe of tobacco. She was drawn or ideal- 
ized from life, her real name being Mary Frith (1584-1659 ?), who 
was made to do penance at St Paul's Cross in 1612. " Worse 
things, I must confess," says Middleton in his preface, " the world 
has taxed her for than has been written of her; but 'tis the excels 
lency of a writer to leave things better than he finds *em.'* In thd 
play she is the champion of her sex, and is equally ready witl^. 
her sword and her wits. Middleton is also credited with a shar^ 
in Thomas Dekker's Honest Whore (pt. i., 1604). The WiUk, firs^ 
printed in 1778 from a unique MS., now in the Bodleian, 
aroused much controversy as to whether Shakespeare ' 
from Middleton or vice versa.. The dates of both plays beii 
uncertain, there are few definite data. The dbtinction betwi 
the two conceptions has been finely drawn by Charles Lamb, 
the question of borrowing is best solved by supposing that « 
is common to the incantations of both plays was a matter 
common property. The Mayor of Quinborough was publi'-h^^ td 

with Middleton's name on the title-page in 1661. Simon, t he 

comic mayor, is not a very prominent character in the plMM^^ot, 
which deals with Vortiger, Hengist, Horsus and Roxena amc^^^ng 
other characters. One of its editors, Mr Havelock Ellis, thf r — — ,^ 
the proofs of its authenticity as Middleton's work very slen<^^3cr. 
It is generally supposed to have been a very early work subjec=r^ted 
to generous revision. 

The plays of Middleton still to be mentioned may be divided '~=?uto 
romantic and realistic comedies of London Life. Dekker ^-^ ' 




wide a knowledge of city manners, but he was more sympati metic 

in treatment, readier to idealize his subject. Two New Plm 
Vit.: More Dissemblers besides Women. Women beware Wt 
of which the former was licensed before 1623. appeared in 1 
The plot of Women beware Women is a double intrigue from a 
temporary novel, HyOpolito and Isabella, and the genuine his^s^tonr 
of Bianca Capello ana Francesco de Medici. This play, which <ikh 
,,; •, ■" . .-.■ .^ -L. _. "^ ^ten 

tif ^iTill^ Llpf. IJhLLl^uii^ ilij hill. ^iJ \j\-t\, wi -r'^J'-u 1 tV" ^ V- 

powtr in iraecdy. 

The n? ma I nine plays of Middle ron are : Btntt^ Ms-tier-Conjm Jt^le, 
Or the Spcntatdi Ni^hl-ii>alke (t609); MUh^trnftt Tfrme [m ^07), 
■described Ly A- C- Swinburne as an excrlknt HogjithiaTu cot * **v ' 
The Fhfffnlx (iboj), a veruon of the Hdit>un-<a]-Ra!)chid tnck; 
TKs famdu fif Lotf { rftofl) ; A Ttiak to laick ike Oid-^ne (jnonyrr^'CVsh 
printed, r6o§); Yonr Five Catinnli flictn^cii iboS) . A Mad 1«'tjS< 
ffl> Mait^rs (t6o«): A CHU Afay^U in Cbfapiide (printed **M 
notable for the picture o( Tim, the Cannbndcc B^iud^ni, on his rv^ittn 
hnmc; Anything Jar a OurW Li/f {i. 16*7, pnntfd i«jJ|; A"* Iff/. -Mr 
lifip iiki a Woman' I (t. i6i,1h printed 1G57); ffe Wtdd^ar {privicd 
tfiSj), on the tklc-nage of which appc-af also the rtamti of «• 
jonson and John Fletcher^ though iheif collitbantion nvjjr bi 
doubted. Eleven of his maMiuea ane ticiant. A fcilkiu* /mto, 
The Wijdim 0/ Soioinon pampkroini, by rirnmii MidStl^*. iw 
printed in 1597, and M^rr(>cynicon, Sir Snartittg Satirtf by T- ^^ 
Gent, in IS*?^, Two pttwe pamphk-is, dealing with London Nfe, 
Faihrr HuhbarH't Tate and The Bhuk Bwk, appoBTpd in j6<M uitAef 
his initials. Hut fwn^ranaatk work, however, cvcii if geeajpc* 
has Uttle value. 



MIDDLETON— MIDDLEWICH 



417 



AcTWOirrres,— Ht9 vorla wm «dited by Alcmmtlff r Dycc f5 vola.) 
in 1840, vith a valuable introduction ouotinK many dDcuen^ntA, 
*fld by A. H. Bulkn (i vols.) in 1S85. TA* ^*jf Wa;)^* a/ TAdMaj 
Uiidfoon w«T edited for the biprmaid serwA (LSB7) by HaveUxk 
Ellis with an introduction hy A. C. Swfnbume. Sec hUo Mi» 
F. G. Wij^in'i Inquiry inis ike Authorship &j the Middktoji^RiTwrity 
i^iays {B<»ton« TS97), and the notice on Middletoii in ProleMof 
A. W. Ward 'ft HUt. ^J Eng. Dram, Lit, (cd. 1&991 ii,, 453-540J, 
mhkh runt^sn; a full :iet;[>unt of Miildkton'a Gn-nif at Cinrsjtr. A 
r-. ^ J . .a . ". .^? -i r U, ,,..r.:|. ii ;:,- ^.t^^,,■;i ;?,l .('ai :■ ul >l...kv 

■peare and Middleton b made by D. Hugo Jung in " Dat 
Verfaftltnis Thomas Middleton's zu Shakspere "{MOnchener Beitrdg* 
war reman, %, ntf/. PkU. vol. xxix., 1904). 

HIDDLBroN, a market town and municipal borough in the 
Middleton parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on 
the Irk, near the Rochdale Canal, and on the Lancashire & 
Yorkshire railway, 6 m. N.N.E. from Manchester. Pop. (1901), 
35,178. The church of St Leonards is of mixed architecture, 
with a low square tower. The oldest portion of the building (the 
tower arch) dates from the 12th century, but the main portion 
from 1412, and the south aisle from 1524. Two chi4>els in it con- 
tain memorials of, and are named after, two ancient Lancashire 
families, the Asshetons and the Hopwoods. The Queen Elizabeth 
grammar-school, a building in Uie Tudor style, was founded 
in 1572 by Nowell, dean of St Paul's, London. There are 
a handsome town-hall and mtmidpal technical schools. An 
extensive system of tramways and electric light railways connects 
the town with its suburbs and adjacent industrial centres. The 
prosperity of the town dates from the introduction of manu- 
factures at the close of the x8th century. The staple trade is the 
spinning and weaving of cotton^ and the other industries include 
^ weaving, calico-printing, bleaching, dyeing, iron-foimding and 
the manufacture of soap and chemicals. There are collieries in 
the neighbourhood. The town was incorporated in 1886, and the 
corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and x8 councillors. 
Area, 4775 *ct»- 

HIDDLBTOWN, a dty and the county-seat of Middlesex 

ootmty, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Middletown, in 

the south central part of the. state, on the west bank of the 

Cbnnecticut river, about 30 m. from its mouth, and about 

15 xn. south of Hartford. Pop. (1890), 90x3; (1900), 9589, 

of whom 2316 were foreign-bom; (19x0 census) xi,85X. 

Within a radius of 2 m. from the city hall there was 

found in 19x0 most of the township's population of 

30,749. The dty is served by two branches of the New 

Vork, New Haven & Hartford railroad, by a line of coast 

steamers, and by dectric lines connecting with neighbouring 

cities and villages. The city is connected by a long highway 

bridge with the viUage of Portland in the township of Portland 

^pop. in 1910, 342s; area 26 sq. m.), which is known for its 

|>rown-stone quarries. Four miles south of Middletown is Chest- 

xiut Mountain (or Bull Hill), which commands a fine view; and 

;about 3 m. east are the " Narrows " of the Connecticut river, 

^bere the water flows between high hills. Middletown has a 

xxumber of handsome residences. In High Street stand the 

buildings of Wesleyan university (Methodist Episcopal), founded 

in X 83 X by the Rev. Wilbur Fisk, who became the first president 

and the Rev. Laban Clark (i 778-1868), who became the fiist 

president of the board of trustees. Women were first admitted 

in X872, but coeducation was later discontinued, and the last 

freshman class of women students under the old system entered 

in X909. The imiversity offers dassical and scientific courses, 

and in X908-X909 had 36 instructors, 322 students (30 being 

wonoen), and a library of 79,000 volumes. In 187S-X877 the 

work of the first agricultural experiment station in the United 

States was carried on here under state supervision in Wesleyan 

University, with Professor Wilbur Olin Atwater (1844-1907) as 

director; it was then removed to New Haven. Middletown is also 

the seat of the Berkdey divinity school (Protestant Episcopal), 

founded in 1849 as the theological department of Trinity College, 

Hartford, rechartered and removed to Middletown in 1854, and 

having in 1907 a facility of 8, and 16 students; and the city has a 

free public library (1874) with X7,7oo vols, in 1907. South-east 

of the dty is the Connecticut hospital for the insane, «od south- 



west of the dty, the Cdnnecticut industrial school for girls 
(reformatory). The total value of the factory products in 190$ 
was $5,604,676, an increase of 35 % over that for. X900. The 
munidpality owns and operates the waterworks. 

Middletown occupies the site of an Indian village, MatUbesec 
or Mattabesett (from Massa-scpues-ttt " at a great rivulet or 
brook "), the prindpal village of the Mattabesec Indians, an 
Algonquian tribe which induded the Wongunk, Pyquaug and 
Montowese Indians and seems to have had jurisdiction over the 
whole of south-western Connecticut. The township of Middle- 
town was settled by whites in 1650, and until 1653, when the 
present name was adopted, was known by the Indian name, 
Mattabesett. It was incorporated in 1651; and the dty was 
chartered in X784. Shipbuilding and commerce became the 
prindpal sources of wealth. In the middle of the nineteenth 
century Middletown was one of the leading cities of Coimecticut, 
and as late as x886 it was a port of entry; but the devdopment 
of rival ports, espedally New Haven, Hartford and Bridgeport, 
into railway centres, retarded the growth of manufacturing, 
and commerce declined after the Civil War. 

MIDDLETOWN, a dty of Orange county, New York, U.S.A.^ 
on the Wallkill river, 67 m. N.N.W. of New York City. Pop. 
(X890) xi,977; (X900) 14,52a, indudmg x70ofordgn-bomand4fe 
negroes; (X905, sUte census) X4,Sifii; (X9«>) iS,3i3. It is served 
by the Erie, the New York, Susquehanna & Western, and the 
New York, Ontario & Western railways, and is coimected by an 
dectric line with Goshen (pop. in 19x0, 3o8x), the county-s^t. 
It is situated in an attractive dairy and agricultural country; 
and in the dty and vidnity there are many summer residences. 
Here are the state homoeopathic hospital for the insane, a state 
armoury. Thrall hospital, and Thrall library. Middletown is 
primarily a maniifacturing dty, and has the car shops of the 
New York, Ontario & Western railway. The value of its factory 
products increased from $2, x 54,742 in X900 to $3,356,330 in 
X905, or 55*8 %. The munidpality owns and operates its 
waterworks. Middletown was settled about X796 and owed its 
early commercial importance to its being a "half-way house" 
(whence its name) for travellers on the Minisink Road to 
western New York, and it was for a time a terminus of the 
Erie railroad. It was incorporated as a village in X848, and 
first chartered as a city in x888. 

MIDDLETOWN, a dty of Butler county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the 
Miami river, 34 m. N. of Cincinnati. Pop.<i89o), 7681; (X900), 
9215, of whom 769 were foreign-bom and 314 were negroes; (19x0) 
X3,X52. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & 
St Louis, the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton, the Cincinnati 
Northern (New York Central system), and a branch of the 
Cincinnati, Lebanon & Northern (Pennsylvania system) railways. 
It is the trade centre of a rich and beautiful agricultural region 
in which tobacco, wheat and Indian com are the principal crops. 
The river fumishes con^derable water-power and the total factory 
product in X905 was valued at $8,357,993, an increase of, 
47-2 % over that in X900. The waterworks are owned and 
operated by the municipality. Middletown was laid out in x8o3 
and was named from its location between Cincinnati and Dayton; 
it was incorporated in X833. 

MIDDLETOWN, a borough of Dauphin county, Pennsylvania, 
U.S.A., on the east bank of the Susquehanna river, 9 m. below 
Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), 5080; (1900), 5608 (340 foreign-bom 
and 289 negroes) ; (X910), 5374. It is served by the Pennsylvania 
and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, and by an electric 
line to Harrisburg. The borough has a considerable trade with 
the surroimding agricultural country, and owing to the proximity 
of the Yorkhaven power-plant (across the river) and the excellent 
railway service, is a manufacturing centre. The munidpality 
owns its electric lighting plant. Middletown was founded in 
1755 by Friends (from Philadelphia and other places in Pennsyl- 
vania) and Scotch-Irish, and was so named because of its position 
midway between Lancaster and Carlisle. It was first incorporated 
as a borough in X828. 

MIDDLEWICH, an utbaiv d\%lT\c\. m W^ ^ot>(?KWK?Ev \sw\\v. 
mentaiy division ol C\it8!hHe,1E.ii^»?id^ \^ \cv.'t5V>^ . ^WascArkvx 



4i8 



MIDHAT PASHA— MIDIAN 



on the London & North Western raflway. Pop. (1901), 
4669. It lies in open country near the river Dane, having water 
communications by the Trent and Mersey canal, and a branch 
giving access to the Shropshire Union canal. The diurch of St 
Michael and All Angels is of various periods and contains 
numerous monuments. In the streets not a few old buildings 
remain, making for picturesqueness, and a number of the fine 
timbered houses in which Cheshire abounds are seen in the 
immediate neighbourhood. Middlewich shares in the salt 
industry common to several towns, such as NorUiwich and 
Winsford, in this part of the county; there are .also chemical 
works and a manufacture of condensed milk. 

MIDHAT PASHA (1822-1884), Turkish sUtesman, the son 
of a dvil judge, was bom at Constantinople in 1822. His father, 
a declared partisan of reform, trained him for an administrative 
career, and at the age of twenty-two he was attached as secretary 
to Falk Effendi, whom he accompanied in Syria for three years. 
On his return to Constantinople Midhat was appointed chief 
director of confidential reports, and after a new financial mission 
in Syria was made second secretary of the grand counciL His 
enemies, however, succeeded in ousting him from this post, and 
caused him to be entrusted with the apparently impossible task 
of settling the revolt and brigandage rampant in Rumelia. His 
measures were drastic and their success was startling and the 
government made him an official of the first rank and restored 
him to his place in the grand council. In similar vigorous 
fashion he restored order in Bulgaria in 1857. In i860 he was 
made vizier and x>asha, and entrusted with the government of 
Nisch, where his reforms were so .beneficial that the sultan 
charged him, in conjunction with Fuad Pasha and Ali Pasha, to 
prepare the scheme for adapting them to the empire which was 
afterwards known as the law of the vilayets. After further 
administrative work in his province, he was ordered to organize 
the council of state in 1866, and was then made governor of 
Bagdad, where his success was as decisive as at Nisch, but 
attended with much greater difficulties. In 1871 the anti-reform 
influence of the grand vizier, Mahmoud Nedim, seemed to 
Midhat a danger to the coimtry, and in a personal interview he 
boldly stated his views to the sultan, who was so struck with their 
force and entire disinterestedness that he appointed Midhat 
grand vizier in place of Mahmoud. Too independent, however, 
for the court, Midhat remained in power only three months, and 
after a short governorship of Salonica he liv^ apart from affairs 
at Constantinople until 1875. 

From this time forward, however, Midhat Pasha's career 
resolved itself into a series of strange and almost romantic 
adventures. While sympathizing with the ideas and aims of the 
" YoungTurkey ''party, he was anxious to restrain its impatience, 
but the sultan's obduracy led to a coalftion between the grand 
vizier, the war minister and Midhat Pasha, which deposed him in 
May 1876, and he was murdered in the following month. His 
nephew Murad V. was in turn deposed in the following August 
and replaced by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. Midhat Pasha now 
became grand vizier, reforms were freely promised, and the 
Ottoman parliament was inaugurated with a great flourish. In 
the following February, however, Midhat was dismissed and 
banished for supposed complicity in the murder of Abdul Aziz. 
He then visited various European capitals, and remained for 
some time in London, where he carefully studied the procedure 
in the House of Commons. Again recalled in 1878, he was 
appointed governor of Syria, and in August exchanged offices with 
the governor of Smyrna. But in the following May the sultan 
again ordered him to be arrested, and although he effected his 
escape and appealed to the powers, he shortly afterwards saw fit to 
surrender, claiming a fair hearing. The trial accordingly took 
place in June, when Midhat and the others were sentenced to 
death. It was, however, generally regarded as a mockery, and on 
the intercession of the British government the sentence was com- 
muted to banishment. The remaining three years of his life 
were ro/jseguently spent in exile at Taif in Arabia, where he died, 
probably by violence, on the 8th of May 1894. To great ability, 
m'de sympathies, and undoubted patriotism he added absolule 



honesty, that rare quality in a vizier, for he left office as poor as 
when he entered iL (G. F. B.) 

MIDHURST* a market town in the north-western parlia- 
mentary division of Sussex, England, x 2 m. N. by E. of Chichester 
by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway; served also 
by the London dt South Western railway. Pop. (1901), 1674. 
It is pleasantly situated on slightly rising groimd near the river 
Rother. The church of St Mary Magdalen and St Denis is a large 
Perpendicular building. The town retains several picturesque 
old houses, and in the vicinity, by the river, are the ruins of 
the x6th century mansion of Cowdray, burnt down in 1793. A 
grammar-school was founded at Midhurst in 1672 and attained 
some eminence. After being closed for .many years it was re- 
opened in 1880. In X906 a magnificent sanatorium for consump- 
tives was opened about 4 m. from Midhurst; it bears the name ctf 
King Edward VII., who laid its foundation stone and opened it. 

The name of Midhurst (Middeherst, Mudhurst) first occurs in 
the reign of Henry I. when Savaric Fitz-Cana held it of the honour 
of Arundel, then presumably in the king's hands. The charter 
of Henry I., although no longer extant, is quoted in later confir- 
mation charters of Richard I., Henry UI., Edward m. and 
Richard II. Franco de Bohtm inherited Midhurst from his 
uncle Savaric Fitz-Savaric, and the De Bohuns held the lordship 
until X499 when Sir David Owen obtained it through his marriage 
with the daughter of the last male heir. He sold it to Sir William 
Fitz- William, from whom it passed to Sir Anthony Browne and 
descended to the viscounts Montague. Midhurst is definitely 
called a borough in the reign of Edward I., but the borough-court 
and market were probably in existence much earlier. It was 
governed by a bailiff, elected annually, until the office lapsed, 
probably early in the 19th century. In an act of X883 it is 
mentioned as one of the towns which had long ceased to be 
municipal. No charter of incorporation is known. Midhtirst 
returned two members to parliament from X300-X30X till 1832, 
and from that date one member until X885 when it was dis- 
franchised. In the reign of Henry VI. a market was held by the 
burgesses every Thursday, and a fair on Whit-Tuesday, by 
grant from Sir John Bohun. In 1888 the fair-days were the 
6th of April, the 9th of May and the 29th of October. The market- 
day was Thursday. Pleasure-fairs are still held on the 6th of 
April and the 29th of October, but there is no market. 

MIDIAN (properly MadyILn, so Sept.), in the Bible, one of the 
peoples of North Arabia whom the Hebrews recognized as distant 
kinsmen, representing them as sons of Abraham's wife KetQrah 
(" incense "). Thus the sons of KetQrah are the " incense-men," 
not indeed inhabitants of the far south incense-land, but presum- 
ably the tribes whose caravans brought the incense to Palestine 
and the Mediterranean ports. So the Midianites appear in con- 
nexion with the gold and incense trade from Yemen (Isa. Ix. 6), 
and with the trade between Egypt and Syria (Gen. xxxvii. 28,36). 
They appear also as warriors invading Canaan from the eastern 
desert, and ravaging the land as similar tribes have done 
in all ages when Palestine lacked a strong government (see 
Gideon). Again, they are described as peaceful shepherds, and 
the pastures of the Midianites, or of the branch of Midian to which 
Moses's father-in-law (Jethro or Reuel, or Hobab) belonged, lay 
near Mount Horeb (Exod. iii. i). The Kenites who had friendly 
relations with Israel, and are represented in Judg. i. x6, iv. 11, 
as the kin of Moses's father-in-law, appear to have been but one 
fraction of Midian which took a separate course from their eariy 
relations to Israel.* Balaam, according to one version of the 
story, was a Midianite (Num. xxii. seq.) and his association with 
Moab has been connected with the statement in Gen. xxxvi. 35, 
that the Edomite king Hadad defeated Midian in the land of 
Moab; (see Balaam, Eoom). 

'The admixture of Midianite elements in Judah and the other 
border tribes of Israel is confirmed by a comparison of the names of 
the Midianite clans in Gen. xxv. 4 with the Hebrew genealogies 
(i Chron. ii. 46, Ephah; iv. 17. Epher; Gen. xlvi. 9, Hanoch). 
Ephcr is also associated with 'Off near Manlkiya (Hanoch), three 
days north from Medina, also with A^paru a Bedouin locality 
mentioned by Assur-bani-pal. Ephah is probablv the Hayapa 
I Uans^t^\vy Sar^on to Beth-Omri (Samana). 



MIDLETON, VISCOUNT— MIDRASH 



419 



A place Midian it mentioned in i Kings zi. x8, apparently 
b et w een Edom and Paran, and in later times the name lingered 
in the district east of the Gulf of 'Akaba, where Euaebius knows 
a dty Madiam in the country of the Saracens and Ptolemy (vi. 7) 
places Modiana. Still later Madyan was a station on the 
pilgrim route from Egypt to Mecca, the second beyond Aila 
(Elath). Here in the middle ages was shown the well from 
which Moses watered the flocks of Sho'aib (Jethro), and the place 
a still known as " the caves of Sho'aib." It has considerable 
ruins, which have been described by Sir R. Burton {Land of 
Midian, 1879). 

This dtatnct which has on Its east Taimi, a centre of civilisation 
m the 5th century B.C., and on its south-east El- Oil whose existence 
as a seat of culture is possibly even older, is identified by some 
scbdars with the MusrSn of the Minaean (south Arabian) inscrip- 
tioos, on which see Sababans. Ybmbn. That this part of north-west 
Arabia had frequent intercourse with Palestine appears certain from 
its c om m e rcial relations with Gaza; and the association of the 
Mtdianite Jethro with early H^rew legislation, as also the possi- 
bility that Mizraim (" Egypt ") in the- Old Testament should be 
taken in some cases to rdfer to this district, have an important 
bearing upon several Old Testament questions. See Mizraim. 

HIDLEIOV, WILUAH 8T JOHN FREMAIITLB BRODRICK, 

9TH Viscount (1856- ), English politician, was the son of the 

8th viscount (1830-1907). He came of a Surrey family who in 

the 17th century, in the persons of Sir St John Brodrick and Sir 

Thomas Brodrick, obtained grants of land in the south of Ireland. 

Sir St John Brodrick settled at Midleton, between Cork and 

Yougfaal in 1641; and his son Alan Brodrick (1660-1728), 

speaker of the Irish House of Conmions and lord chancellor of 

Irdand, was created Baron Brodrick in 17x5 and Viscount 

Midleton in 17x7 in the Irish peerage. In 1796 the title of Baron 

Brodrick in the peerage of the United Kingdom was created. 

The English family seat at Peper Harow, near Godalming, Surrey, 

was designed by Sir William Chambers. The 8th viscount was 

t Conservative in politics, who for a few years had a seat in the 

fioiise of Commons, and who was responsible in the House of 

Lords for carrying the Infants Protection Act. His brother, the 

Hon« G. C. Brodrick, was for many years warden of Merton 

College, Oxford. As Mr St John Brodrick, the 9th viscoimt had 

» distinguished career in the House of Commons. After being 

«t Eton and Balliol, Oxford, and serving as president of the 

Oxford Union, he entered parliament as conservative member 

Cor one of the Surrey divisions in 1880. From 1886 to 1892 he 

'Was iinnTir**^ secretary to the war office; under secretary for war, 

1895-1898; under secretary for foreign affairs, 1898-1900; 

secretary of state for war, 1900-1903; and secretary of state for 

India, 2903-1 90$. He lost his seat for the Guildford division 

«>f Surrey at the general election of January 1906. In March 

X907 he was nuuie an alderman of the London Cotmty Council. 

:ile married, first in x88o, Lady Hilda (d. 1901), daughter of 

the gth eari of Wemyss, by whom he had a family; and secondly 

in 1903, Madeleine Stanley, daughter of Lady St Heller by her 

£rst hu sban d. 

HIDLBTON. or Middleton, a market town of Co. Cork, 
Ireland, on the river Owenacurra, 13 m. E. of Cork by the 
Youghal branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. 
Pop. (190X), 336X. The river here enters a branch of Cork 
liarbour. The surrounding hilly coimtry is pleasant and fertile, 
«nd furnishes the town with a good agricultural trade. There 
are also whisky-distilleries. Ballinacurra, i| m. south on the 
estuary, serves as a small port. The grammar school was 
fouiKkd in 1696, and here among its students were John Philpot 
Curran and Isaac Butt. Midleton is governed by an urban 
district coundL 

MnHfAPORB, a town and district of British India, in the 
Burdwan division of Bengal. The town is 68 m. W. of Calcutta; 
it has a station on the Bengal Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901), 
33,140. It is an important centre of trade, being the terminus 
of a navigable canal to Calcutta, and also the junction for the 
Sini branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. There are manu- 
factures of brass and copper wire. It has an American mission, 
a municipal college, and a public libraiy founded in 1852, 



The DiSTSicT or Midnapose has an area of 5186 iq. m. The 
general appearance is that of a large open plsdn, of which the 
greater part is under cultivation. In the northern portion the 
soil is poor, and there is little wood. The country along the 
western boundary, known as the Jungle Mahals, is imdulating 
and picturesque; it is almost uninhabited. The eastern and 
south-eastern portions are swampy and richly cultivated. The 
chief rivers of the district are the Hugli and its three tributaries, 
the'Rupnarayan, the Haldi and the Rasulpur. Th Midnapore 
high-level canal used also for irrigation runs almost due east and 
west from the town of Midnapore to Ulubaria on the Hugli x6 m. 
below Calcutta, and affords a continuous navigable channel 53 m. 
in length. There is also a tidal canal for navigation, 36 m. 
in length, extending from the Rupnarayan river. The district 
is traversed as well by the Bengal-Nagpur railway towards 
Orissa, with a branch to Chota Nagpur. The jungles in the west 
of the district yield lac, tussur, silk, wax, resin, fire-wood, 
charcoal, &c, and give shelter to large and snudl game. The 
principal exports are rice, sUk and sugar; and the chief imports 
consist of cotton cloth and twist. Salt, indigo, silk, mats and 
brass and copper utensils are manufactured. Both silk and 
indigo are decaying industries. The population in 1901 was 
3,789,1 X4, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. 

The early history of Midnapore centres round the ancient town 
of Tamluk, which in the begizming of the sth century was an 
important Buddhist settlement and maritime harbour. The first 
coimexion of the English with the district dates from 1760, when 
Mir Kasim ceded to the East India Company Midnapore, Chitta- 
gong, and Burdwan (then estimated to furnish one-third of the 
entire revenue of Bengal) as the price of his elevation to the 
throne of Bengal on the deposition of Mir Jafar. 

■IDRASH, a very common term in Jewish writings for 
" exposition " and a certain class of expository literature. The 
word also ocairs twice in the Old Testament (a Chron. xiiL aa, 
xxiv. 27; R.V. rather poorly " commentary *'). 

I. Introducium.—l!he term (Heb. midrOsk from ddrask "to 
search out, enquire ") denotes some explanation or exposition, 
which, in contrast to the more literal exegesis (technically called 
pishat " simple ")> endeavours to reach the spirit lying below the 
text. It may be defined as a didactic or homiletic development 
of some thought or theme, characterized by a more subjective, 
imaginative and aropliative treatment. Jewish Midrash falls 
broadly into two classes: Halaka (q.v.) or HilSkd (walking, 
way, conduct) and Uaggddak (narrative [with a purpose], 
homily; Aramaic equivalent AggOdah; the incorrect form 
Agadah resU upon a mistaken etymology). The former dealt 
with legal and ritual, matters; it flourished in the schools and 
developed into the most subtle casuistry. The latter covered 
all non-halakic exposition and was essentially popular. It 
embraced historical and other traditions; stories, legends, 
parables and allegories; beliefs, customs and all that may be 
called folk-lore. It fed itself, not upon the laws, but upon the 
narrative, the prophetical and the poetical writings of the Old 
Testament, and it had a more spiritual and ethical tone than the 
Halaka. In both classes, accepted tradition (written or oraiy 
was reinterpreted in order to justify or to deduce new teaching 
(in its widest sense), to connect the present with a hallowed past, 
and to be a guide for the future; and the prevalence of this 
process, the innumerable different examples of its working, and 
the particular application of the term Midrash to an important 
section of Rabbinical literature complicates both the study of the 
subject and any attempt to treat it concisely.^ Apart from the 
popular paraphrastic translations of the Old Testament (see 
Targxtm), the great mass of orthodox Rabbinical literature 
consists of (i) the independent MidrSshim, and (2) the Mishna 
which, with its supplement the GUm&TS., constitutes the Talmud. 
Both contain Halaka and Haggada, although the Mishna itself 
is essentially Halaka, and the Midrashim are more especially 
Haggadic; and consequently further information bearing upon 
Midrash must be sought in the art. Talmud. These two artlclea 

* For a careful study o\ t\\e meatatv^ ol >3Q!t \Kcm, «Bt'^ ."^a^aa^ 
Jew. QuarL Rsv. W. AoCrA29« 



420 



MIDRASH 



handle one of the most famous bodies of ancient literature, 
which, in its turn, has given rise to innumerable Jewish and non- 
Jewish works, and has many points of value and interest which 
cannot be adequately discussed here. It must suffice, therefore, 
to deal rather broadly with the subject, and to refer for fuller 
detaib to the special encyclopaedias, viz.: Hamburger's Real- 
Encyc. fUr Bihel und Talmud, and the very elaborate articles, in 
the Jewish Encyclopedia. 

2. Narrative Midrash. — Of the three different kinds of 
historical writing— the genetic or scientific, the purely narrative 
and the pragmatic— it is the last which has prevailed among 
religious historians. It is extremely difficult to avoid the subjec- 
tive element in dealing with matters of fact, and the religious 
treatment of history is influenced, however unconsciously, by the 
mental environment of the writers. In giving greater promi- 
nence to events of religious importance and to their bearing upon 
the spiritual needs of contemporaries they view and interpret 
the past in a particular light, and will see in the past those 
growths which only in their own time have become mature. A 
latent significance is found, a particular connexion is tnEtced, and 
a continuity is established, the true nature of which must be 
tested by critical students. Now, it is subjective history which 
we find in the earliest references toMidrash. TheMidra^of the 
prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22) like the Visions and the Histories 
of Iddo and Shemaiah (ix. 29, xii. 15) which are quoted for the 
lives of Solomon, Abijah and Jeroboam, are evidently quite 
distinct from the sources cited in the parallel portions of the 
earlier compilation, and the entire spirit of .the narratives is 
different. Similarly, there is a conspicuous difference of treat- 
ment of the life of Joash in 2 Kings xi. seq., compared with 2 
Chron. xxiii. seq., which refers to some Midrash of the Book of the 
Kings (xxiv. 27). Although it is uncertain whether this com- 
prehensive Midrash also included the " books of the Kings " 
(xvi. II, xxvii. 7, &c.), and the Midrash of Iddo and other related 
works, it is dear that the Book of Chronicles {q.v.) marks a very 
noteworthy advance upon the records in the (canonical) Book of 
Kings iq.v.). It is now recognixed that the compiler of the former 
has used many novel narratives of a particular edifying and 
didactic stamp, and scholars are practically unanimous that 
these are subsequent to the age of the Israelite monarchy and 
present a picture of historical and rehgious conditions which 
(to judge from earlier sources) is untrustworthy. At the same 
time various details (as comparison with the Book of Kings 
shows) are relatively old and, on a priori grounds, it is extremely 
unlikely that the unhistorical elements are necessarily due to 
deliberate imagination or perversion rather than to the develop- 
ment of earlier traditions. The religious significance of the past 
is dominant, and the past is idealized from a later standpoint; 
and whether the narratives in Chronicles are expressly styled 
Midrash or not, they are the fruit of an age which sought to 
inculcate explicitly those lessons which, it conceived, were implied 
in the events of the past. The value of the book lay not in 
history for its own sake, but in its direct application to present 
needs. But the tendency to reshape history for the edification 
of later generations was no novelty when Chronicles was first 
compiled (about 4th cent. B.c.)> Pragmatic historiography is 
exemplified in the earliest continuous sources (viz. of the " Deuter- 
onomic " writers, i.e. allied to Deut., especially the secondary 
portions); and there are many relatively early narratives in 
which the details have been modified, and the heroes of 
the past are the mouthpiece for the thought of a later writer or 
of his age. Numerous instructive examples of the active 
tendency to develop tradition may be observed in the relation- 
ship between Genesis and the " Book of Jubilees," or in the 
embellishments of Old Testament history in the Antiquities of 
Josephus, or in the widening gaps in the diverse traditions of the 
famous figures of the Old Testament (Adam, Noah, Enoch, 
Abraham, Moses, Isaiah, Ezra, &c.), as they appear in non- 
canonical writings. In such cases as these one can readily 
perceive the different forms which the same material elements 
tMve assumed, and one may distinguish the unreliable accretions 
wAj'cA are clearly later aAd secondary. Accordingly, vhcn 



ihcrc tjt namtlves which cannot be l^ted in tJbb msmieri 
should they show ail the interna] marks of didactic expjLnsiQa 
and date from an age much later than the tims with whtch tfaey 
deal, their immediate value wiU not necessarily Lie to tlie details 
which appear to be of hlitorical inter^^t, but in their contribution 
to kler forms of Lead 1 lion and phases of thought. So far tbcn, 
Midrash tends to include moralizjng hiitofy , wbeth^ we caU h 
narrative or romance, attached to names and cvcot^^ aJid it is 
obviously exempli^ed whenever there ate i^tuni^takable stpis 
of untrustworthy ampli£iCaLion and of sotnc expiidt rehgious 
or ethical aim colouring the nafrative. Thi3» however, is only 
one of the aspects which have to be t^ken into coosideratjon 
when one advances to the Rabbinic^ Midnuh^ 

For Old Testament " Midiash " a« furtbcr Kk Budde, ZnEsdbr,/, 
oU-Ust, WtJ^tnsckafi, mIu 3?^ scq^^ and commeTitaries on ChrDrudex 
(^l-p,}, Tlie eUborate eludj.- by the Jtmish ^bobr Zuri* {Du fe^s- 
dfenJiikhen Vorifiij^e, d\, viii.) U Mna valuable for bridging the fuU 
between tbe canonical and the non-canonjcal traditions and for it> 
just attitude to the crifitlsn] oftiisiDrical traditions. The rifid line 
between fact or Action in i:eliEiQU5 li^er^ture^ whieh readers often 
wish to draw, cannot be cdnsi^trntly juetiAed, and in Atudying old 
Onental reli^ous narratives it ■£ nnrcssary la rvialize that the tescb^ 
in^ wai rcfi^rded ai more ewential than the meihcMl of pnaencing 
it. "' Midra^ " which may be quite usele»! for historical invo^irt' 
tion may be apprecLited for the li(?ht it throws upon form?^ ot thougnti 
Hlitorical criticism does not touch the reality of (he ideas, and since 
they may be ai worthy of atudy ai ibe appafent iicii ihe^- clothe, 
they thus indirectly contribute to the hisloiTr* ot their period, la 
any case, while the true hiitodcal kct^el of the Midrashsc lULrrative 
{e.g. dealing with Adam^ Mo*c* or Iitalah) will always be a matter 
of dJ9pyic^ the teaching to whkh it h applied standii on an indf- 
pendent footing as alio does the appLication of cliat tcachXiig to 
other a^es. 

3. Contiatiiiy a/ Liter aiure and Maienai.—Amld dbacun 
vid^itudes jn the 7th to 5th centuries, &,c^ the Canonical books 
of the Old Testament gradually began to assume iheit present 
shape (see J^alestjne: iHsiory), The intcmal peculiarities show 
that the compttati^ons are the much edited remains of a larger 
body of Htcrature^ and it may reasonably be supposed that the 
older sources did not at once perish. There is literary critical 
evidence for btc insertions by tJtilic or ktcr totnpjleii;' the 
compiler of Chronicles apparently refers to atte^ible worki; 
and tiaenc is a close material rcbtionship between the Qkl Tesla* 
ment and later literature. All this sugge^U that Old Hebrew 
writings, apart from those preserved in the Catioa, persisted 
to a relatively Iste period. Ni3 & priori distinction can be made 
and no precise cKronological line tan be drawn between the bocks 
of the Dmon (Cant ides, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Exekid and 
Pmverba had been at ont time at another subjects of debate 
amonB the Rabbb) and the Apocrypha (Ecclesiasticus, Jndith, 
Maccabees and Tobit, were *' allowed'^); and the tntimate 
relation between them appears in the character of the ** Wivfooa 
Literature ^* (f,f. Proverbs ^ and the Wisdom of Solomon) ^ in the 
treatment of the stories of Eather and Daniel (the history of 
Susanna), and also in the twofold recensions Ezra and 1 Esdras, 
Tijjtoricalor narrative Mtdrash is exemplified in the " canonical " 
books Daniel, Esther, Jonah and Ruth, and in the ** apocryphal '* 
stories of Daniel (viz. Susann^i, where the point lies in the name 
Daniel " God is judge "), Esther, JtidSth, Tobit (and tbc Ahiqar 
cycle of stories), the story of Zcttibbabd (i E*d. iii. seq., the 
sequel of which belongs to the canonical Ezra), and the maityntom 
of Eienzer (2 Mace, vi, sc<j., compare 4 Mace). This is tiot the 
place to notice the 'course of Jewish literarj' activity in F^jtlntine 
or Alexandria » whether along the mor^ rigid lines of Pharisaic 
l^albm (the development of the canonical " priestly '" b»), 
or the popular and less scholastic phases^ which tvoU the earlier 
apocalyptical tendencies of the Old Testament and were cultJ* 
vattd alike by early Jewish and Christian writers, Bui after the 
fall of Jeru^lemn partly through the need for systemati^iof the 
traditional post -biblical law, and partly through displites with 
the Christians, orthodox Kabbinlsm received the stamp vhkh 
has since characterized it. The traditional or oral jaw w*s 
codified in the Mi^shna (see TALiniD^ { i se^.), the Canon waf 

» iLf. Judg. 1. («ee G. F. ^foo^e. Eney. Bib. " Historical Lit," 



MIDRASH 



421 



find, and the fluctuations in tti^ MS3. of ttie Old T«stt]ii«ikt 
(which, like the numerous variatiotii in tbe SeptuagLnt,,, compli- 
cated exact exegesis) gave way to whiit was virtually a single 
text. Moreover, the important body thf apocalyptical and 
pseudepigraphicai literature, wiLh oi] ii% liaki between Cbn^iL- 
anity and Judaism, fell into di$lavour oa both sides. Tbis 
literature is especially valuable because H iUustcate^ cOTitcm- 
porary Halaka and Haggada, and it iUumiiiiiies ttie circle of 
thought with which Jesus and his lollower^ were familiar; it thus 
filb the gap between the Old Tc^tunent artd the autboritative 
Rabbinical Midrashim which, though often in a form several 
centuries later, not rarely preserve older materioJ.' 
' A few miscellaneous examples af related MLdimbbic deulb may 
bedted: — 

L The book of Tubilees (a haggadk and hatakjc MidniAh on 
Genesis, about 3na century B.C.}, contain* the story of iht «ar 
betwe en Amorite Kings and Jacob (cb- xrcxivjn. This b Imovn 
to the pcx>bably contemporary Ti?*urrtcnt of Judab and to much 
bter Midrashim iJdid. Wavyud'H, Ydl^i Shime^rti. a1« the apo- 
cryphal "book 01 Jashar"). and U evidentty conntttiMil wilb the 
cryptic allusioa to the capture ol Sheirhem in Gtn, ilviii. « (R-V. 
marg.). Unless we suppose that the Utttrr wa» Hidden! y expanded 
into the stories which thencefonh pcr>i»tcd. Lt may be infcrr^t 
that an oU extra<anonicaI trad It ion (ror which a cxse can be made) 
continued to survive the cohipibtion gI Genesis {q.v.) and ultimatrly 
aanuned the various exagverated [ormt now extant. Naturally 
the probability of such a tradition — the nierc«t hint of which hap^ns 
to be pceserved in Gen. loc. cii. — doci not prejudice the probtem of iti 
origin or accuracy: in Jub. the story u useL«i tor Jacob's history , 
and is probably iniBuenced by a recotlccuoa ol more recent evcnu 
in the Maccabaean age. 

u. A curious account of war between ^^'pt and Canaan after 
Joseph's death recurs in Jub. xli.^ TfiL of Simeani viii.^ arid Benjamin 
viL, and b connected with detaHa (burial of Jiicob'i son^ at Hebron) 
recorded by Jotephus (AhL ii. S), ^o^iephus in turn has another 



tory wherein Moses leads the Egyptaru ag^init Ethiopia {Ant. lu 

0, lor parallfls see Moore, ErcTh Bib* coL ?d^ *^*)r and thia ji 

found in the late chronicles of Jrn)hm«1i and the Isook of J^har 



10. 

fow _ _ , __ _ ^ ^ _ . 

(d. also Mid. Dibri ka-yHmim sfvt-M^il^h', sec /At, Ency, val 373 
«q.). The former may be linlccd with Geo* U 9 (where the con- 
course of chariots and horsemen would invite ^pecnbti^n), and (be 
latter with the Cushtte wife of Mosei; but at [hough one miy ^ranc 
that the canonical sources do not by jiny meariE prcwrvc all tlie older 
coment traditions, the contents of tbc Utter cannot: be recovctrd 
from the later persisting Midra<^him.* 

tiL The allusion in fude v. o ta the conrentian of the anrhan^l 

Michael for the body 01 Moses CKEan^s to a ^rronp of tr&ditJonR whtch 

have been collected by R. H. Char1« iAnumpitint etf Moiri. pp. 105 

•eq.), and it aroears that the Incident wa« farniliar to Clement 

of Alexandria. Origen and other early writers. Moreover^ Jude o. 

>6 agrees very closely with the Latin ^ler^ion of tht Testa ment of 

Moses, which has other paraUe|« in Matt^ xxiv^ J9; Acts vu. $6, 

3i seq. (ibid. pp. Ixii. seg.). Hert- mav be 3d<kd Jann» und Jambres, 

»bo withstood Moses (a Tim. iji, a) ; lhe*e or fcbtCfJ names were 

known to the eWer Pliny (xxx. i, 11). AputriLis (firet h^lf of jnd 

eenturyj, Origen (who refers to a book of Jannu and Mamhrt^>h 

and various earlier and later Jewish »iht«i ; see [. Abrahamf, Eitcy, 

•fi*. col. 2327 seq.: H. St I. Thackeray. Eiicium of Si FaiJ ta f^n- 

^mporary Jtwisk Utouikt (London, tgoo). pp- 215 ^q- 

, iv. Jewish traditions of Abraham tn Ur of the Cbatdees recur 

Sn tbeTargums, Midrashic work.^, and earlier in the bc^olc of Juhilcfr« 

Ccrh. xii.. ra. Charles.jp. 91 ; cf. aluo Judith v, 6 leq J. The le^^enda 

5>C his escape from a fiery furmtce may have a philotoeicat bans {ur- 

5*sterpreteaas"fire").buttheallii*.ton to ihf rwlfmptionof Abiaham 

»«a Isa. xjox 22 seems to indicate that older tfiidition wris fuller thsn 

JJhe present records in Oncsis, .tnd suppUca amrjther cs^mple of ihc 

«^k connecting the Old Testament wiih Rjljbinlcal thought. 

V. Not to multiply example i funhefi it may «ul!ice to refer to 
t^o) the apparent belief that the serpent tempted Eve to unchaitity 
C^ Cor. n. 2 seq.. see Thackeray pp. so seq,); {b) the denirnt-Df the 
^sigels upon earth ((^en. vi. i seq.; Jude 6, 14 «eq.. Eee Charlei^ Jub. 
X>- 33 seq., Clermont-(^nneau. QuaH. Slaiemfnij af the Poi. Expiar. 
•^^mmd, 1003, pp. 33[3 seq. and the Midr. Ahkir. ive Jew, En£y. viii. 
^73); (c) the relationship betiKeen the Midrjihic deMtlopments of 
"^he story of Esther in Josephua, the Creek and Old L-atin Veivions, 
^he Targums and later Jewish »ourccsi (tee L. B. Paton. Comm. on 
<J^iiAer, pp. 20, too and passim) ; and finally (d) the numeroui minor 
^siiacelkuaeous parallels noticed in recent annotated editions of the 



> On the history of hb intennediate stage see E. SchQrer. Hht. of 
Jem. Pe«^ (Edinburgh, i8«6), r,crm. Ceick. Jtid. Vaiku; M. Fried- 
linder. XeHg. Btmeptnien inner htdb 4ti Jmkntum^ im ZfUaJier Jeju 
(Beriin, 1905) ; W. Fairweather, f*<w*f rt-KB^ eftkf Goipels ^Edinburgh 
1908). See also ArocALvmc Lit. and ArocavrifAt Lit. 

' Note also the allusion to the wisdom of Mo^f in Acu vii. 3>, 
tpon which contemporary writingi are pretty «eU infomied* 



pRudepinaphica! literature (especially those of R. H. Charies). 
(See further Talmud. § 5.) 

4. Midraskic Ex pasUion.— The Tahnud poetically describeat 
Midrash as a hammer which wakes to shining light the sparks 
which slumber in the rock; and the simile is a happy one when 
one considers the exegctical implements, the workmen and 
their workmanship. For the expository or interpretative 
Midrash was bound up with niles and methods which often' 
appear crude and arbitrary, they are nevertheless those of the 
age and they helped to build up Uisting monuments.* It 
was believed that the Written Word had an infinite fidness; 
according to the if ufr. Bemidbar Rabbah every word of the 
Law had seventy diCTereAt aspects, and Philo of Alexandria 
held that there are no superfluous words in Scripttire. Con- 
sequently an exaggerated emphasis is. often laid upon single 
words; as, for example, in the school of Rabbi *AqIba, where 
even individual letters were forced to reveal their meaning. 
Thus, since the Hebrew e/A, which marks the accusative, is 
also the preposition "with," Deut. x. 20 ("thou shalt fear 
[eth-] Yahweh thy God ") was interpreted to include the venera- 
tion of the doctors of the law along vrith Yahweh.* Many 
examples of literal interpretation can of cotirse be found, 
but arbitrary cases of the kind just noticed are due either to 
an obviously far-fetched interpretation or to the endeavour 
to find some authoritative support for teaching which it was 
desired to inctilcate. Thtis fatilty proof rather than faulty 
inference is illustrated when the word " in-numbcr " (Ex. xii. 4) 
was tised to confirm the Halaka that the man who killed the 
Passover Lamb must know how many people were about to 
share it {Jew. Ency. viiL 570). Often the biblical text cannot 
be said to supply more than a hint or a suggestion, and the 
partictilar application in Halaka or Haggada.must be taken on 
its mcriu, and the teaching does not necessarily fall because 
the exegesis is illegitimate. To take another specimen: the 
Mekilta on Ex. xx. 25 infers from the unusual form of the word 
" it," that the prohibition of iron applies only to U, i.e. the altar, 
and not to stones used in building the temple. This Halaka 
is followed by a haggadic explanation of the prohibition: " iron 
abridges life while the altar prolongs it; iron causes destruction 
and misery, while the altar produces reconciliation between 
(jod and man; and therefore the use of iron cannot be allowed 
in making the altar."*' Such were the sparks that could be 
hammered out of the rock, and it is instructive to observe 
similar exegctical methods in the New Testament. Emphasis 
upon a single word is illustrated by Gal. iii. x6, where the argu- 
ment rests upon the word " seed " (and not the plural " seeds ") 
in the proof-text, and the same word in Rabbinical writings 
is used to support other arguments.* By identical kinds of 
exegesis Lev. xix. 14 (not to put a stumbling bk>ck before the 
blind) is the ground for cautioning a father against striking 
an adult child, and Deut. xxv. 4 (the law of the mtizzled ox) 
b used to show that God's labourer is worthy of* his hire.' 
Again, since through Eve sin entered into the world, woman 
must be subordinate to man (i Tim. il. 11-14), or, she who 
has thus extinguished " the light of the world " should atone 
by lighting the festal candles on the sabbath (Talm. Shabb. sb). 
By the allegorical method Isa. Ixi. is interpreted as applying 
to Jesus (Luke iv. 16-22), and frequently passages which origin- 
ally had another application have a Messianic reference in 

' For the Rabbinical " rules " and examples of their working 
see F. Weber, Jud. Theologie (Leipzie, 1897), PP- ^09-12^', C. A. 
Briggs Study of Holy Scripture (Edinburgh, 1899), ch. xviii.; Jew. 
Ency. xii. 30-31; S. Schechtcr, Hastings's Diet. Bible, v. 59, 63; and 
H. L. Strack. Einleiiung in den Talmud (Leipzig, 1908). pp. 1 19-I JI. 

*So Aquila, the disciple of 'Aqiba, translates the accusative 
particle by «r4i'; see W. R. Smith, Old Test, in the Jew. Church, p. 63. 

* Oesterley and Box. Religion and Worship of the Synagogue 
(London, 1907), p. 80; pp. 44-97 deal with Midrashic and other 
Jewish literature. 

• Mish. Sanhed. iv. 5. see A. CJeigcr, Zeit. f. morgenldnd. Gesdl- 
schaft, 1858, pp. 307 sqq., S. R. Driver, Expositor, ix. (1889), p. 
18 seq. 

' The Talmud Md'ed Qofan, 70, and \^c« IcaXaxwcoX V,\ Cox. vil.^* 
, X Tim. V. 18) TcspeclWeVy. 



422 



MIDRASH 



Christiaa and Rabbinical teaching. Similarly the application 
of Hos. ii. 23, not to the scattered tribes of Israel, but to the 
Gentiles, is common to the Mbhna and to Romans ix. 35 seq. 
(Sanday and Ueadiam, Comment, ad loc.) The Apostle Paul, 
once a disciple of the famous Rabbi Gamaliel, uses in z Cor. x. 4 
(" the spiritual rock that followed them ") a familiar Jewish 
Haggada which, however, he reinterprets, even as, when he 
identifies the " rock " with Christ, he diverges from the Alex- 
andrian Philo who had identified it with Wisdom or the Word 
of God. Moreover, not only are passages thus taken out of 
their context, but they are combined, especially when they 
contain the same words or phrases, or appear to have the same 
or similar thoughts or aims. The Talmud, with a reference 
to Prov. xxxL 14 ("she bringeth her food from afar"), says 
" the words of the Torah are poor (or deficient) in one place 
but rich in another." Hence in the Mid. Sipkri on Numbers 
3CV. 39, " ye shall not seek after . . . your own eyes " is explained 
to refer to adultery, after the words of Samson *' she is pleasing 
in my eyes " Qudg. xiv. 3); and on Deut. vL 5 it charges man 
to love the Lord " with all thy soul . . . even if he should 
take away thy soul," the teaching being based upon Ps. xliv. 
32.' Similarly, in the New Testament, after the same method, 
Mai. iiL x and Is. xl. 3 (linked by the phrase '* to prepare the 
way ") are combined in Mark i. a seq. ; Abraham's faith (Gen. xv. 6) 
and temptation (xxiL i) are associated in James iL 21-23, ^ 
also in contemporary Jewish thought; and by other combined 
quotations Paul enunciates the universality of sin (Rom. iii. 
xo sqq.) and the doctrine that Christians are God's temple 
(2 Cor. vi. 16 sqq). Proceeding upon such lines as these, the 
Jews wove together their Midrashic homilies or sermons where, 
though we may find much that seems commonplace, there are 
illuminating parables and proverbs, metaphors and similes, 
the whole affording admirable examples of the contemporary 
thought and culture, both of the writers and— what is often 
overlooked — the level of their hearers or readers. Like many 
less ancient discourses, the Midrashim are apt to suffer when 
read in cold print, and they are sometimes judged from a stand* 
point which would be prejudicial to the Old Testament itself. 
But they are to be judged as Oriental literature and if they 
contain jarring extravagances and puerilities, one may recall 
that even in modem Palestine it was found that the natives 
understood Robinson Crusoe as a religious book more readily 
than the Pilgrim* s Progress (J. Robertson, Early Rd. oj Israel, 
Z893, p. 66). In making allowance for the defects (without 
which they would probably not have appealed to the age) 
it must be remembered that some of the Rabbis themselves 
recognized that the Midrashic Haggada was not always estimable. 
An inticrL.....^ . -Liji; L- -f combined quoiation i^ illtji-tr^tft! jti 
Matt. xiL. 4-^_K ^^htrL- Lhe U'^ching ofjcuuson the Liw yf i\\e SabJ^ih 



mti upon I Sam. xxl. 1 -6, Hum. itxviii- g wq. and Hos. vi. 6. Aproptj* 

lily the levpfc rule* laid down in J ubileri L fl- 12 (wc R. H, . 

od toe.) were (TJbcc^ptianaL Ji was albwcd that the Sabboth n«--U 



ol this law iht Riibbinical arfiimiMitB arc worth Doticini;. Apf^qr^ 
cntly the levcrc rulea laid down in J ubileri t. fl- 12 (wc R. H, Charley 



not be too rig;Drou4ly Itept^ and iKij was Justified by t£xod. xisi. }\^ 
where the iitiguliir uw of tbc rwtricrivc particle &i (EV *' verily ) 
supported the tcachinii;^ that other Sobbaihs need not be obicTvad, 



AlWr from the word* '" hoty unto you ** (p. 14) it was tatighi that 

" '*^ S>ibhiAEh ii e'rvcft lo yoH to dcsccnitc in caie ol need, but thou 

A civen to the iSalibatb." Htncc the Sabbath mjKht be broken 

when lire w^i in danerr. Morvovi»r, it w^i argued that a baitle 



ncf d oot be ^tofipcdi horn nrligiouv romiderationt, r.|^. the Sabbath^ 
Thii wa$ jutiificd by Dcut, itt JO " until ic Tall '* tTalm. Skabli. i^). 
A 1*0, the f a*iowt Lamb ccmld bp UErrificed on the Sabbath, atid 
jui^ification fof this wa» found in Nura, m. a " in its ieason" (PeiaK 
■6*^) . Set- f u rt hvt on I h i* ^ubj nrt t a nd on the evoHani of t he Sabbath 
law.S. ShcchlM-, Stt^iri in Jff4airm. pp. 297 ftoq.; ibid, in C. C, 
Monteftorv, lUbheti Lrft^ns ffor iSgs), Appendix; ibid. Hastinii* 
Dift. 3iif. V. 6j, and aSso S, R. Driver, Haftinsi" OicL iv. 330 «q. 
With the above intcrprrutions. zL A. W. MeNLJIc on Matt^ itit. 5- 
Tohn vii. ly. *' (he i priori clement in them perhaps BUEKe«t$ that 
jthe$e wf st*l were due to bter noflexion on the part ol ChiiMiiin* 
who had fta Ikied the inadequiity of the law " (Swetc'si Cnmb. Biht. 
Ej^my^, 1909, p. 2ja), For ottief cumplci IMuitmtiiif Rjtbbinical 
iDethode of exeeeii^in the New Testament h «e MtNeile, pp. 231, *qq. 
(" Our Lord'fl uic of the Old Tcft^nient "); Eri£K«i op. ct/. pp, 4J&, 

* Cited by S. Schecbter, Hastings, Did. Bible, v. 64. 



/.' 



•qq., and Thackeray, ot. cit. fch. vii. " uac of the Old Testament.** 
ch. viiL " St Paul the Haegadist ")• The latter obaerves (p. 203): 
" the arguments by which Paul tried to convince his opponents 
of the true meanins: of the Old Tesument as pointing forward to 
Christ, are those which they would themselves have employed for 
another purpose ; and to some extent we need not doubt that they 
were selected for that very reason. They were the arguments which 
were best calculated to appeal to them. * Quite in accordance with 
Rabbinical custom is the system of <^ucstton and ansm^r (Rom. 
X. 5, seq., 16 sea.), and the argument \n the sequence: statement, 
objection and reply, appears already in the book of Malachi Cj.r.}. 

5. The Jewish Midrashim. — The earlier stages in the growth 
of the extant Rabbinical Midrashim cannot be traced with any 
certainty. Although there are several allusions to early written 
works, other references manifest an objection to the writing 
down of Haggada and Halaka. Perhaps it was felt that to 
pceserve uniformity of teaching in the schools it was tindesir- 
able to popularize the extant collections, or perhaps the refer- 
ences must be reconsidered in the light of those significant 
changes after the fall of Jerusalem which have been mentioned 
above (§ 3).' However this may be, the independent HlUk&th 
(where the oral decisions are interpreted or discussed on the 
basis of the Old Testament) were gradually collected and arranged 
according to their subject in the Mishnah and Tfisephti (Talmu), 
S x), while in the halakic Midrashim (where the decisions 
are given in connection with the biblical passage from which 
they were derived) they follow the sequence of the text of the 
Old Testament. The Haggada was likewise collected according 
to the textual sequence of the Old Testament. But the sermons 
or discourses of the homiletic Midrashim are classified according 
to the reading of the Pentateuch in the Synagogue, either the 
three year cycle, or else according to the sections of the Penta- 
teuch and Prophetical books assigned to special and ordinary 
Sabbaths and festival days. Hence the latter are sometimes 
styled Pesiqta ("section")* The homiletic Midrashim are 
characterized by (a) a proem, an introduction based upon some 
biblical text (not from the lesson itselQ, which led up to (Jb) 
the exposition of the lesson, the first verse of which is more 
fully discussed than the rest. They conclude (c) with Messianic 
or consolatory passages on the future glory of Israel. A feature 
of some Midrashim (e.g. nos. 4, 5J, e, and 7 below) is the halakic 
exordium which precedes the proems.* 

Amon^ the more importajit MidfathtCD are: i. — Mikilto. (Aranu 
*' measure/' i.e. " rule ' ) best knou. q 44 the ftan^e of a now imprrfrrt 
halAkic Midraah on Exctd. TdL-jaim- Xg (also nxxl 13^(7 and xntv. 
1-3). 1 1 rcpreteitiA the ^fhool of R. (.Ribbi) Uhmad. is a. ucrfvt 
souree for old Haggada h (eipeciaUy on the narrative portions «| 
Exoduji)^ and Ls intere^tinE for lit vartsnt readiogi of the Canonical 
MaMoretic text.* Editeo by Blatim Ufoltnua, Thfi^ Aniiq. Sstr, 



xiv. (Venice, 1744+ with a poor Latin tranibtion)r mope frfenily by 
J. H. Wt'iH rVienna, 1^5} nnd M. Fiiedmann (ibid- tSjo). Germ, 
trans, by J. Winter and A. WOn-Bche Leipzig, 1 9^19)4, Sec furibcr 



J. Z. Lauterbafh, /ni. Emcy. viti. 444 seq. 

ii. Siphra (Aram, "the book") or T^aX* KHUntm {' the 
li* of the priests ")^ a commentary on Leviticus^ nuinly 
halakic^ the text beina a waunce for various ma)um», (On Lev. 
hIjl 17 Beq.. neighbourly love and abstinence from vengjcance ccw- 
ttktute,, neeardin^ to FL Aqiba^ the e^eat principle of thr Torah.) Ii 
i« tiicful for the interpretaLion of ihe Biliahnah treat t«e4 Q^iikiw 
dnd T^hOr^ih. Latin tran&. in Ufr&linus^ vdL xiv.; nxt'nt tdihtjm 
by Ir H. \Veis5 (Vienrui, iMz), and with the ccmment,iry of Shim- 
sbon (Sam*on3of Sknfr (\Vari.iw, tUb6); 6ec Jnn/Enty, xt. jjo isqq. 

iii. Sifikri (Aram. " the booVc* ">+ an old compouie coHectioa 
ol HaUlca on Numbers, after FL fuiniaerA school ; and on Deur. 
after Lhiit of R. Aqiqa, although the haf^dic portioo* bekini; to the 
Jorrnefn Latin In Xj^oV kv.; recent editionn »ith ^ood Introductkia 
hy Friedmann (Vienna^ 1 8*4 ) ; see Jfv>. Enty. si. ajj *n3. 

The above ^-wk*, althau|;h of 5th century or later date in their 
pneKni form, contain much older material^ which ^Viu perhapt fint 
redacted in the earlier part of ibc and century'. ^^- They *« of 



• Sec. on this point. Jac. Encj. viii. 549 aeq., 552, 576; Schecfatcr. 
op. cit. p. 62: Strack, op. cit. pp. 10 sqq. 

' See more fully Jew. Ency. viii. 553. Cf. for the structure, the 
hopeful concluding notes in the prophecies {e.g. Amos) and the dis- 
course after the reading of the lesson from the prophets in Luke 
iv. 17 sqq., Acts xiii. i^ sqq. 

«Sce I. Abrahams m Swete's Cambridgt SiU. Essays (1909}. 
pp. 174 seq. 



> 



MIDSHIPMAN 



423 



Fakadnka orifpn, althoagh the main redactbn wqsi m^dc tn Baby- 



iv. r^ukfumO, one oC the oldest on the lessons of tKe Pcntati^urh. 
with many proems ascribed to R. Tan^iJittl ben ("iciri oV) Abti^. 
one d the moat famous haggadists of f^i^ik^iiiirri: (,^th century), wluj 
•yscenatiaed and fixed the haggadic llicraturc. This col(ectii»n 
cc I^|8~l6l homilies is also known as T, Yrhttimtd^H. trom the 
opening words. Kef. RabbinU, " our Rabbi t,»cKes u;i " : Qti the critical 
Questions connected with the titfes and the jprrscnt redact ion 
iprofaably 5th century), see Jew. Ency. viii. 560 seq., xiL 44 *qq. 
Recent edition by Buber (Wilna. 1885). 

V. Midrash Rabbak (or RcMnak), a larpe coUercioii of very divtr« 
orig:tn and date, probably not completc-<cl before the ijth Rntiir>\ 
It covers the Pentateuch (ist ed., ConMjntinuplc. 1512] and ihc 
"five Rolls" (Pesaro. 1519: the whok- jirinttd 6r«t: ^it Venice. 
IMS); Germ, trans, by A. Wfinsche, Bt^itoihtca taltitiniea (Lcipzif » 
l88o-i88j5). The several portions are nanwd after the aTdlnary 
Jewish titles of the Old Testament bnc^kfi vnhh the addition i^ 
JtoMiti " great." These are (t) Bhhhiih {"in tbe brfitnttifig," 
Geo. i- 1) i&diibaA. cm Cenesi». clie oldnt and moat valuable of 
fcifl^idSc MkiruhinL Tvadiiioaally {ucribed to R. H(^fthaiah (jrd* 
Cxstnry). but in (he maiii a redaction of bth century. E.d^ }, 
Thcodor; see Jra. Ency. liL GJt leq. ; viii. 557 icq. w SkhnAlk 
(" ELune* " Esiod^ i. 1) Jf., a cofnpiMite and incomplete work of 
iith jLDd tJtb century d^AtCi but Vd^Jkuble ncvenhelc«« for tti Tan* 
html homilki, EAod. i-ju. I* a commentirv on the teat In con- 
tiauatrOQ of WX* See Jfw. £wfy, viji. jfejt (cj Wayyi^ (*' and he 
called '■> /t. on Levilku», fjCfhjift^ 7th century, bas*?d upon Murc« 
in 3 add 5a abovr, Tt is chiinictcnj«i by its numcrcmi pcciverlv* 
Crjf. on ibL 6: " do not care for tbe Kood pup of 3 bad do^, much 
lcB» for the bad pup of i bad di:>e "). See J€». Emy* viii. ^, 
jtK. ^ffS seq. M> Bfmut&ar (" in the dcxTt of . . . '] ft,^ homiljc* 
vm NtiaiNrSi, mainly derived from ^ above (thoytli in an earlier 
text), with a later haggadic cx{x>sittoR^ perh^tnv of [Jth century, 
on Num. L-viL See Jeuf. Ency. ii. 669 sqq., \iii. 5ft j. (r) P/MHrti 
("words") U., independent homilies on IXuterunomy, of about 
A.D. 900, but with a good collection of Tanliumas ami excerpts from 
the (Md sources. See Jew. Ency. iv. 467 ieq. (/) 5Atr ("sonK ') 
JL, or (after the opening words) Agfodalk llattihy a late compilation 
of haggadah on Canticles, illustrating thr allegorical interpretation 
of theDook in reference to the relation l>ftwccii God and Israel (w 
already in the exegesis of R. Aqiba, cf. al*o ^ Esd^ v^ 34, 2^. viL 36). 
For tnb and other Mid. on this popular bmkt wc Je^* Ency, 
viii. ^64 tea., xi. 391 seq. (|) Mid. Ruth or RiUk R&hb^K a com^ 
pilation including an expoation of l Cliron. iv. ^l-l^t %L ^3-}$ 
and interesting Messianic references. For this and similar St id. 
or Ruth, see Jew. Ency. viii. 565, x. 577 5*^, (*) £MA {" how "J 
Rabbathi, a compilation of about the 7th ctntury on LatncntatiunitK 
from sources cited also in the Palestinian Talmud. Thiny-fi^i^t 
proems precede the commentary. See J^niK Ency. v, Ss srq, (*) 
Mid. KokeUtk or Kok. Rabbak, on Ecck^^lj^tei; see Jrw. Ency, \\l 
^ sqq.; viii. 565. (j) Mid. MegiUatk ibtinf. datltig, to jud^^i^ from 
va indebtedness to losippon (the pw Lj<lL>1o^phua^, after loth 
century. On this and otner similar works <k-aliiig with thitt ever- 
popular book, see Jew. Ency. v. 241, viii. s<^. and P^ton's Comment. 
On Esther, p. 104. 

vi. PesiqtA (" section ") or P. de-Rob Kihana. contains JJ or 
34 homilies (on the principal festivals), the lirtt of which oprn» twitK 
a sentence of R. Abba bar Kahana. who was confuicd with a pre- 
decessor. Rab Kahana. Although it goes back to early Hagsada 
it has received later additions (as is shown by the technique oi the 
proems). Edited by S. Buber (Lyck, tft&B), Germ, trans, by A. 
Wunsche (Leipzig. 1885); sec Jew. Ency. viii. 559 «cq. Not to be 
Oonfused with this is: — 

vii. Pestqfd Rabbdthi. — A very simibr but iitttr collection of 
Si homilies, of which 28 have a halakic eiordium pTefiKed to the 
Tanbum2-proems, perhaps of 9th century, tlditcdi by M. Fried- 
vnann (Vienna, 1880). Ouite another and later work is the Pis, 
^utarta or Leqab Tdh of Tobiah b. Eliczer of Maim (trans. Ugoliniii. 
Vol. XV. seq.; ed. Buber, 1880) ; see Jew. Ency. viii. 56 j sqq. 

viii. In addition to the more prominent Midraiihint mentioned 
^bove there are numerous self-contained worVs of |;ncater or le*s 
interest. Some are connected with OI1I Testament books; f.^ 
Aigadatk Bereskitk, 83 homilies on Ckrii^k, each in three parr a 
connected with a section from the leci i-niifv of the Pentateuch, 
«nd one from the Prophets, and a Psalm (cd. Bubrr, Cracow. 19"5- 
«e Jew. Ency. viii. 563); the Mid. Tektirtm on the PMlms (Germ, 
trans. A. Wunsche, Trier, 1892-1893), &c. Others are historical. 
«.f. Pirqe or Baraitha de-Rabbi Etiezer, a fanciful narrative of evem* 

•They contain (as I. Abrahams has pointed out to the present 
writer) a good deal of hageada, but far more halakic material than 
those which follow. The Latter (nos. 4 4qq.) albo contain baUka* 
but the chief contents are haggadic and homiletkat. 
- * I. Abrahams points out to the writer ih^t the rest is more 
summary. This difference b accounted lor by the fact that Exod. 
xii. onwards and the rest of the Pentateuch have independent 
Mkiraahira: the Law proper .was held t^ the Rabbb co bcfi'n at 
Eiod.xiL 



selected from the Ptotateuch, ftc: the eachatok)gy is interesting. 
Though associated by name with a well-known ist century Rabbi, 
it is hardly artier than the 8th (Latin trans, by Vorstius, Leiden, 
1644; see Jew. Ency. viiL 567). Further, the MetiUatk Ta'afiUA 
(" roll of fasts "), an old source with a collection of miscellaneous 
legends, &c ; MegiUatk Antiokkos, on the martyrdom under Hadrian; 
Smer'Otdm Rabbak, on biblical history from Adam to the rebeUion 
of Bar Kdkba (Barcocheba); the " Book of Jashar "; the Chronicle 
of Jerabmeel," Ac. Litur^u:al Midrash is illustrated by the Hauflda 
skel Pesab, part of the ntual recited at the domestic service of the 
first two Passover evenings. In Afuf. Ta'ame ^dsirdtk we- Yitkirdlk, 
Hebrew words written " defectively " or " fully," and other Masso* 
retic details, arc haggadically treated. Finally Kabbalah (g.t.) is 
i/f R. A^tfta on the alphabt^t. and J#, 
J - . . : Pkinrl^ai b. YaAr), on crDUf>^ oi numben^ 

&€. : or ^jHY-L 11 .- . . . ; I . 'T I r ^ relation to the book ot J uUilees. 

Lx. Of collLt:. Ti>.ir'i> .A M nlra&h the chief are {a} the Vai^jHf -Skimi^if 
which arrange !i iNo m.iri rl^t necardin^ to the text pi thr Old I'esta' 
ment (extending owt dn.- ^^li'^'v uT li 1, firciCTves much from sources 

that have unc^ dlj^i'i"'-^^^ '^ ^ '^- '^'l^'^ble lor the criticiiun of the 

text of the Midfaahli.i .Ni.Lni i^l. \M!na. ib^jIS} tranf-tation ol tlw 
Valqut 00 Zochaxiah by L. (j. Kitte ^^Camt^r>Ufie. iSSs ; see further 
/rti?. Emy. sdu 5S5 wq.J. {hj Vai. ka-Matin, perhaps later, covers 
only certain books, \* uselul for older wurre* and tticir criiicism: 
portions have been edited by Spira (1*94. on tuiah) ; Buber {18991 
on Psalnu); Griinhut (i902. on Pftiverbsl. U} Midrash Aa-CC^M 
V the great "j, an Extensive thesaurus, but later {quoting from 
Ibn E^H MaiinonEde«> &c.); the arran^cirrC'nt li Hot so careful as 
in ffl) and {b). See furthcjr Jrw. Eniy. viii, 568 *eq. 

t>f modern collect iani special mention must be made of A. 
Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrajfk (Uipxig. 1653) and A. Wunsche's 
V4i[ Liable tran^tians; to those already mentioned muet be added 
hit Aui liTtifls LchthaH^^ (ejtcerpta of 9 more miscellaneous 
character (Leipzig. 1907 soq.). 

Besides dictionary artictn on thb subject (S. Schiller-Szinessy, 
Ency. BriL, 9th ed.: H. L. Strack. Real-Ency. /. ProUst. Tkeol. u, 
Kircke; and especblly J. Theodor and others in the 7ew. Ency), 
see D. Hoffmann, Zur Einleitung in die kalackiscken Midrasckim 
(Berlin, 1888), and the great work by Zunz, Die loUesdienstJicken 
Vortrdge der Juden, 2nd ed. by N. BrUll (Frankfort on Main. 1892). 
These, as also the citations in the course of thb article, give fuller 
information. (See further Talmud.) (S. A. C.) 

MIDSHIPMAN, the title in the British and American navies 
of the " young gentlemen " who are serving in order to qualify 
themselves to hold a commission as lieutenant. The Englbh 
midshipman was originally a petty officer, one of the crew under 
the immediate orders of the boatswain. After the restoration 
of King Charles IL, in 1660, the king and his brother, James 
Duke of York, lord high admiral, decided to train officers for the 
sea service. They therefore decided to send a volunteer to each 
ship of a squadron in commission, with a " letter of service," 
which instructed the admirab and captains that the bearer 
was to be shown " such kindness as you shall judge fit for a 
gentleman, both in accommodatiifg him in your ship and in 
furthering hb improvement." He was to receive the pay of 
a midshipman, and one midshipman less was to be borne in 
the ship. Until 1729 the young gentlemen who entered the 
Britbh navy were known as " king's letter boys." In that 
year the system was altered. A school, known as the naval 
academy, was founded at Portsmouth in which forty lads 
were to be trained for the sea service. In 1773 the school, 
having proved unsatisfactory, was reorganized and the number 
of boys to be trained there increased from forty to seventy. 
In 1806 it was again reorganized, under the name of the naval 
college, and was finally suppressed in 1837. when the practice 
of training the boys under instructors in the ships was intro- 
duced. A special school was re-established in 1857, and was 
finally placed in the " Britannia." In the meantime the number 
of midshipmen had increased far beyond one for a ship. A linc- 
of-balllc ship in the i8th century carried as many as twenty- 
four, and the title had come to be confined entirely to those 
who were being trained as officers. The immense majority 
of officers of the British navy never passed through the academy 
or the college. They entered the ships directly as " captains' 
sePr'ants " or " volunteers," and were rated midshipman, if there 
was a vacancy, at the age of fifteen. As they were expected 
to learn navigation, ihcy were instructed by the master, and 
at the age of seventeen were supposed to be QjAa.V\$\s:^ \a Vsfc 
masters' males. To-day vYvt m\^\v\vts«.tv V5» >^ifc oS&vctx ^\ ^J«fc 
Britbh and Amencajn mln\!» 'wYjo \»i \i»ttst^ >Xawk^ sx«. 



42+ 



MIDSOMER NORTON— MIEREVELT 



prdimiiiary schools and has been appointed to a ship. The French 
equivalent is aspirant, and other European navies use that 
name, or cadet. 

: MIDSOMER NORTON, an urban district in the northern 
parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 12^ m. 
S.S.W. of Bath, on the Somerset & Dorset and the Great 
Western railways. Pop. (1901), 5809. The town is pleasantly 
situated in a hilly district, between two branches of the small 
river Somer. The church of St John the Baptist, principally 
Perpendicular, has in its tower three bells presented by 
Charles II. Both this town and the adjacent urban district 
of Radstock (pop. 5355) have a considerable trade in coal, 
which is mined in the vicinity. The coalfield extends north- 
westward towards Bristol, and is of great importance to the 
manufactures of that dty. 

MIDWIFE (Mid. Eng. midwife mydwyf or medewife, from 
preposition mu/, with, and wife, i.e, woman, in the sense of 
one who is vnth the mother, or from adjective mid, one who 
is the means of delivering the mother, a woman who assists 
other women in childbirth). As a class, mid wives were recog- 
nized in Egypt in the time of the Jewish captivity. It was 
the universal practice in Europe until the middle of the i6th 
century, as it is to-day in the East, that women should be 
attended in confinement only by those of their own sex. From 
that period more attention was given to the practice of mid- 
wifery by the medical profession (see Obstetrics), while in 
continental Europe, towards the close of the 17th century, 
special schools were instituted for the proper training of mid- 
wives. But it was not until well on in the iQlh century that 
any supervision or regulation was imposed on those who acted 
as midwives. Now in practically every European country 
midwives are under strict state control, they are required to 
undergo a course of thorough training, and their practice is 
carefully regulated by legislation. 

In France midwives {sa^es femmes) are divided into a first and a 
second class. Those qualifying for both classcn pu ihmugli a (hu 
years' course of training and must qualify both in ihc thcpry anrl 
practice of midwifery, as well as in anatomy ^ physiLftoKy Ami 
pathology. A midwitc of the first class has a ^^uperlDr »taui4 and 
can practise in any part of France, while those oE the cccond clav* 
arc restricted in their practice to the dcpartntent for which the 
certificate was issued. Their qualifications alluw thtrm aUo to 
vaccinate and to prescribe ccrtam antiseptic pr^iuratjons. Thry 
are not allowed to use instruments and must call in a medical man 
in difficult cases. All cases must be reported to a central 'jffirrT.T. 
In Spain midwives arc allowed to practise on the result of an ex- 
amination after studies covering at least four half-years. The 
diploma is issued by the dircctor-eeneral of public instruction. In 
Germany midwives arc appointed, recognized and authorized by 
the state. They can conduct confinements independently and 
without the aid of a medical man. They must be provided with 
a certificate from the police authorities, and must rcside in special 
districts assigned to them by the authorities. In Austria midwives 
before they are allowed to practise must pass a strict examination, 
after having followed a six months' course at o'ne of the state 
schools of midwifery. They are subject to elaborate " instructions for 
midwives " issued from time to time by the ministry of the interior. 
In Italy a midwife must pass an examination and obtain a diploma 
from a recognized authority; but in order to obviate the difficulty 
which the poorer classes in the smaller communes would find in 
obtaining propcriy-authorized midwives, a certificate of permission 
to practise may be given to a certain number who have practised 
witnout the sanction of the law satisfactorily during a term of five 
years. These certificates arc distributed by the prefect. In 
Russia matters pertaining to the appointment, transfer, dismissal 
and pay of midwives arc under the charge of the medical depart- 
ment of the ministry of the interior. In each town of a province 
or region therc is stationed one senior midwife and a number of 
junior midwives in proportion to the number of districts in the 
province. The examination of midwives and the issue of certificates 
of competency is carried out by the Medico-Chiruigical Academy 
and certain of the universities. A duly-licensed midwife, on pre- 
sentation of her licence, is at once excluded from the tax-paying 
cbss to which she may have belonged. The |:eneral code of Russian 
laws lays down extensive rules for the carrying out of the duties of 
midwives. In Norway all midwives are licensed after examination 
and arc under the control and inspection of the board of health. 
Provision is made for infirm and aged midwives. They arc usually 
paid by the parish, but also receive fees according to the means of 
the pcraoa attended. In Sweden a certificate of competency and 
of baviag pm u ed mn exMmiattioa does not give a miawUc aiight 



to practise until a note has been made on the certificate that the oatk 
of office has been duly taken. All midwives are under the coatrol 
of the board of health. When a midwife takes up her rtsklenoe in 
a parish, or moves from one place to another, she must announce 
the fact within a month to the nearest appointed doctor and exhibit 
her certificate. In towns a midwife must put up a notice board 
outside her residence ; she must not absent herself from home without 
leaving word as to where she may be found and at what hour ibe 
will probably return. In the country a midwife may be paid out 
of the poor rate. In Denmark, also, midwives are recogniied by the 
state, and the practise of midwifery is almost entirely in the Itands 
of women. In Holland a (^rtain number of candidates are given 
free training by the state in return for their practising midwifery 
in scattered country districts at a fixed salary. Many of the states 
of the United States have also passed laws for the registration of 
midwives. 

In England alone there was no regulation of any kind so late as 
1902. Any person, however ignorant and untrained, couki describe 
herself as a midwife and practise for sain. Several societies made 
continuous efforts towards the close of the loth century to c^uin 
legislation. A select committee on midwives reffistratk>n reported 
in 18^2 that the evidence,they had taken showeo that there was ar 
the time " serious and unnecessary loss of life and health and per- 
manent iniury to both mother and child in the treatment of child- 
birth, and that some legislative provision for improvement and 
regulation was desirable. A similar committee reported to the 
same effect in 1895. Eventually a bill was drafted with the object 
of securing the examination and registration of midwives, but, 
although introduced several times into the House of Commons, it 
was not successful until IQ02. The Midwives Act 190a forbids 
any woman after the ist of April 1905 to call herself " midwife " 
without a certificate, or to act as a midwife for gain without a 
certificate after the ist of April 1910. Existing midwives (those 
who held certificates in midwifery from certain recognized inktitu- 
tions, or produced satisfactory evidence at the passing <^ the act 
that they had been for at least one year in bona fide practice as 
midwives, and bore good characters) were allowed to claim certifi- 
cates within two years from the Ist of April 1905. The act created 
a central midwives' board, whose duties are, inter alia, to regulate 
the issue of certificates and the conditions oif admisuon to \ne roll 
of midwives; to regulate the course of training and conduct of 
examinations; to regulate, supervise and restrict within due limiu 
the practice of midwives; to publish annually a roll of duly certified 
midwives; to remove from the roll the name of any midwife who 
disobeys the rules and regulations laid down from time to time; to 
issue and cancel certificates, &c. There is an appeal to the High 
Court of Justice against removal of a name, but the appeal must 
be made within three months. Local authorities are required to 
exercise supervision over the midwives within their area; they must 
investigate charges of malpractice, negligence or misccmduct; 
exercise the power of suspension and report convictions. They 
must supply the central board with the names and addresses oif 
those practising within their area, and notify any death. The \ocz\ 
authority must appoint a committee to carry out its powers or duties 
under the act. and may, if it think fit, delegate its powers to a lesser 
local authority, such as a district council. The act provides for 
penalties for obtaining a certificate by false representation or for 
wilful falsification of the roll. The act does not apply to Irriaod 
or Scotland. (T- A. I.) 

MIERES, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, 
12 m. by rail S.E. of Oviedo, on the river Caudal, a tributary 
of the Nalon. Pop. (1900), 18,083. Miercs is the chief to»-n 
of a mountainous, fertile and well-wooded region in which 
coal, iron, and copper are extensively mined and sulphtur and 
cinnabar are obtained in smaller quantities. The town contains 
large iron foundries and chemical works, and has an active 
trade in fruit, cider, timber and live stock. 

MIEREVELT (Mierevelo, or Molevelot), MICHIEL 
JANSZ VAN (i 567-1641), Dutch painter, was bom at Delft, 
the son of a goldsmith, who apprenticed him to the copperplate 
engraver J. Wierix. He subsequently became a pupil of Willem 
Willemz and Augxisteyn of Delft, until Anthonie van Montfoort 
(Blocklandt), who had seen and admired two of MiereveU's 
early engravings, " Christ and the Samaritan " and " Judith 
and Holofemes," invited him to enter his school at Utrecht. 
Devoting himself first to still life, he eventually took up por- 
traiture, in which he achieved such success that the many 
commissions entrusted to him necessitated the employment of 
numerous assistants, by whom hundreds of portraits were 
turned out in factory fashion. The works that can with cer- 
tainty be ascribed to his own brush are remarkable for their 
sincerity, severe drawing and harmonious colour, but compara- 
\ Vivdv Un qI Vbit \i(o thousand or more portraits that bear 



MIERIS— MIFFLIN 



425 



bb name are whdly his own handiwork. He settled down 
in his native town, but went frequently to The Hague, where 
be entered the gild of St Luke in 1625. So great was his reputa- 
tion that 1m was patronized by royalty in many countries 
and acquired great wealth. The king of Sweden and the count 
palatine of Neuburg presented him with golden chains, Arch- 
duke Albrecht gave him a pension, and Charles I. vainly endea- 
voured to induce him to visit the English court. Though 

I Mierevelt is chiefly known as a portrait painter, he also executed 

I some mythological pieces of minor importance. Many of his 
portraits have been reproduced in line by the leading Dutch 

[ engraven .of his time. He died at Delft on the 37th of June 
1641. 

' The Ryks Museum in Amsterdam has the richest collection 

of Mierevdt's works, chief of them being the portraits of William, 
Philip William, Maurice, and Frederick Henry of Orange, 
and of the count palatine Frederick V. At The Hague Museum 
are the portraits of four princes of the house of Orange, of 
Frederick V., king of Bohemia, and of Louise de Coligny as a 
widow. Other portraits by him are at nearly all the leading 
continental galleries, notably at Brunswick (3), Gotha (2), 
Schwerin (3), Munich (2), Paris (Louvre, 3), Dresden (4), Berlin 
(2), and Darmstadt (3). The town hall of Delft also has 

I numerous examples of his work. 
Many of his pupib and assistants rose to fame. The most 
gifted of them were Paulus Moreelse and Jan van Ravesteyn. 
His sons Pieter (i 596-1633) and Jan (d. 1633), and his son-in-law 
Willem Jacobs Ddfif, probably painted many of the pictures 
which go under his name. His portrait was painted by Van 
Dyck and engraved by Delff. 

MIEBIS, the name of a famOy of artists who practised paint- 

mg at Leiden for three generations in the 17th and z8th centuries. 

I. Frans van Mizais, the elder (? 1635-1681), son of Jan 

^^Eui Mieris, a goldsmith and diamond setter, was bom, according 

to Houbraken, at Leiden on the z6th of April 1635, and died 

(here on the 12th of March x68i. His father wished to train 

him to ha own business, but Frans preferred drawing to chasing, 

fknd took service with Abraham Torenvliet, a glazier who kept 

« school of design. In his father's shop he became familiar 

wvith the ways and dress of people of distinction. His eye was 

fascinated in turn by the sheen of jewelry and stained glass; 

^nd, though he soon gave up the teaching of Torenvliet for 

t.liat of Gerard Douw and Abniham van den Tempel, he acquired 

^ manner which had more of the finish of the exquisites of the 

XDutch school than of the breadth of the disdples of Rembrandt. 

Xt should be borne in mind that he seldom chose panels of which 

'^he size exceeded zi to 15 in., and whenever his name is 

attached to a picture above that size we may surely assign 

^ t to his son Willem or to some other imitator. Unlike Gerard 

^X>ouw when he first left Rembrandt, or Jan Steen when he 

^uarted on an independent career, Mieris never ventured to 

^lesign figures as large as life. Characteristic of his art in its 

:x3unute proportions is a shiny brightness and metallic polish. 

'"Xhe subjects which he treated best are those in which he 

illustrated the habits or actions of the wealthier classes; but 

Kae sometimes succeeded in homely incidents and in portrait, 

^kod not unfrequently he ventured on allegory. He repeatedly 

^>ainted the satin skirt which Ter Borch brought into fashion, 

^ud he often rivalled Ter Borch in the faithful rendering of 

Yich and highly-coloured woven tissues. But he remained 

^low Ter Borch and Metsu, because he had not their delicate 

'perception of harmony or their charming mellowness of touch 

and tint, and he fell behind Gerard Douw, because he was hard 

and had not his feeling for effect by concentrated light and 

«hade. In the form of his composition, which sometimes 

represents the framework of a window enlivened with greenery, 

and adorned with bas-reliefs within which figures are seen 

to the waist, his nuxlel is certainly Gerard Douw. 

It is a question whether Houbraken has truly recorded this 

. master's birthday. One of his best-known pieces, a party of 

k ladies and gentlemen at an oyster luncheon, in the Hermitage 

1 at St Fetcnburg, bean the date of 1650. Cdebrated alike 



for composition and finish, it would prove that Mieris had reached 
his prime at the age of fifteen. Another beautiful example, 
the " Doctor Feeling a Lady's Pulse " in the gallery of Vienna, 
is dated 1656; and Waagen, in one of his critical essays, justly 
observes that it is a remarkable production for a youth of 
twenty-one. In 1657 Mieris was married at Leiden in the 
presence of Jan Potheuck, a painter, and this is the earliest 
written record of his existence on which we can implicitly rely. 
Of the numerous panels by Mieris, twenty-nine at least are 
dated — the latest being an allegory, long in the Ruhl collection 
at Cologne, illustrating what he considered the kindred vices 
of drinking, smoking and dicing, in the year 1680. 

Mieris had numerous and distinguished patrons. He received 
valuable commissions from Archduke Leopold, the elector- 
palatine, and Cosimo lU., grand-duke of Tuscany. His practice 
was large and lucrative, but never engendered in him either 
carelessness or neglect. If there be a difference between the 
painter's earlier and later work, it is that the former was clearer 
and more delicate in flesh, whilst the latter was often darker 
and more livid in the shadows. When he died his clients 
naturally went over to his son Willem, who in turn bequeathed 
his painting-room to his son Frans. But neither Willem nor 
Frans the yoimgcr equalled Frans the elder. 

2. WiLLEV VAN Mieris (1662-1747), son of Frans. His 
works are extremely numerous, being partly imitations of the 
paternal subjects, or mythological episodes, which Frans 
habitiially avoided. In no case did he come near the excellence 
of his sire. 

3. Fkans van Mieris, the yoimger (1689-1763), also lived 
on the traditions of his grandfather's studio. 

The pictures of all thie generations of the Mieris family were 
successfully imitated by A. D. Snaphaan, who lived at Leipzig 
and was patronized by the court of Anhalt- Dessau. To those who 
would study his deceptive form of art a visit to the collection of 
WOrlitz near Dessau may afford instruction. 

MIFFLIN, THOMAS (i 744-1800), Amencan soldier and 
politician, was bom in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the loth 
of January 1744, of Quaker parentage. He graduated at the 
college of Philaidelphia (now the university of Pennsylvania) 
in 1760. As a member of the Pennsylvania house of representa- 
tives in 1772-177S, he was an ardent Whig, and in 1774 was a 
member of the first Continental Congress. After the outbreak 
of the War of Independence he devoted himself chiefly to the 
enlisting and drilling of troops, and was chosen major of a 
regiment. In June 1775 he entered the continental service 
as Washington's first aide-de-camp, and in August was chosen 
quartermaster-general. He became a brigadier-general in 
May 1776 and a major-general in February 1777. On the 5th 
of June 1776 he was succeeded as quartermaster-general by 
Stephen Moylan. Moylan, however, proved incompetent, and 
Mifllin resumed the oflSce on the ist of October. In the autumn 
of 1777 Mifflin was a leader in the obscure movement known as 
the Conway Cabal, the object of which was to replace Washington 
by General Horatio Gates. On the ground of ill health Mifflin 
tendered his resignation on the 8th of October, and on the 7th 
of November Congress accepted his resignation as quartermaster- 
general, but continued him in rank as major-general without 
pay. On the same day he was appointed a member of the new 
board of war, and on the following day was asked to continue 
as quartermaster-general until his successor should be appointed. 
On the 2ist of November he urged before the old board of war 
and ordnance that Gates should be made president of the new 
board of war " from a conviction that his military skill would 
suggest reformations in the different departments of the army 
essential to good discipline, order and economy, and that his 
character and popularity in the army would facilitate the 
execution of such reformations when adopted by Congress.** 
The attacks on Washington failed, and in March 1778 Mifflin 
was finally superseded as quartermaster-general by General . 
Nathanael Greene. In October of the same year he was removed 
from the board of war. The s\ittti\Tv^ oV X^^fe VtQ«v^ ^vNiSitf?! 
Forge haying been cbaiged \.o Yu& T»2ffljEDai»%«a«»x «& <^JaM^«x- 



426 



MIGNARD— MIGNET 



mAster-genenl, Congress, in June X778, ordered an investigation; 
but before this inquiry had proceeded far, Congress granted 
him $1,000,000 to settle all claims against the office during his 
administration. In February 1779 he resigned his commission 
as major-general. During the war his eloquence was repeatedly 
of assistance to Congress in recruiting soldiers. He was a 
delegate in Congress in 1782-1784, and from November 1783 to 
November 1784 was president, in which office he received 
Washington's resignation of the command of the army and made 
a congratulatory address. In 1785-1788 he was speaker of the 
Pennsylvania general assembly (then consisting of only one 
house); he was a member of the Federal Constitutional Con- 
vention of 1787, and president of the sUte supreme executive 
council (or chief executive officer of the state) in 1788-1790. 
He was president of the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention 
of 1 789-1 790; was the first governor of the state, from 1790 to 
X799, after the adoption of the new state constitution; and 
during the Whisky Insurrection assumed personal command 
of the Pennsylvania militia. Towards the close of his last 
term as governor he was elected a member of the state assembly, 
but died during the first session, at Lancaster, on the 20th of 
January x8oo. 

See William Rawle, " Sketch of the Life of Thomas Mifflin," 
in Memoirs of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania (vol. 2^ part 2, 
Philadelphia, 1830); and J. H. Merrill, Memoranda reUUtni to the 
Mifflin Family (Philadelphia. 1890). 

mONARD, PIERRE (1610-1695), called— to distinguish 
him from his brother Nicholas — Le Romain, French painter, 
was bom at Troyes in 16 10, and came of a family of artists. 
In 1630 he left the studio of Simon Vouet for Italy, where he 
spent twenty-two years, and made a reputation which brought 
him a summons to Paris. Successful with his portrait of the king, 
and in favour with the court, Mignard pitted himself against 
Le Brun, declined to enter the Academy of which he was the 
head, and made himself the centre of opposition to its authority. 
The history of this struggle is most important, because it was 
identical, as long as it lasted, with that between the old gilds 
of France and the new body which Colbert, for political reasons, 
was determined to support. Shut out, in spite of the deserved 
success of his decorations of the cupola of Val de Grace (1664), 
from any great share in those public works the control of which 
was the attribute of the new Academy, Mignard was chiefly 
active in portraiture. Turenne, Molidre, Bossuet, Maintenon 
(Louvre), La Valli^re, S6vign6, Montespan, Descartes (Castle 
•Howard), all the beauties and celebrities of his day, sat to him. 
His readiness and skill, his happy instinct for grace of arrange- 
ment, atoned for want of originality and real power. With 
the death of Le Brun (1690) the situation changed; Mignard 
deserted his allies, and succeeded to all the posts held by his 
opponent. These late honours he did not long enjoy; in 1695 
he died whilst about to commence work on the cupola of the 
Invalides. His best compositions have been engraved by 
Audran, Edelinck, Masson, Poilly and others. 
- mONE, JACQUES PAUL (1800-1875), French priest and pub- 
lisher, was bom at St Flour, Cantal, on the 2sth of October x8oo. 
He studied theology at Orleans, was ordained priest in 1824 and 
placed in charge of the parish of Puiseaux, in the diocese of 
Orleans. In 1833 he went to Paris, and started L'Univcrs 
religieux, which afterwards became Louis Veuillot's ultra- 
montane organ. On severing his connexion with the paper 
three years later, he opened at Petit Montrouge, near Paris, 
the great publishing house which brought out in rapid succession 
numerous religious works at popular prices. The best known 
of these are: Scripturae sacrae cursus computus, and Theologiae 
cursus (each in 28 vols., 1840-1845); Collection des auteurs 
sacris (100 vols., 1846-1848); Encyclopidic thiologique (171 
vols., 1 844- 1 866); Patrologiae cursus completus, Latin series 
in 221 vols. (1844-1855; 2nd edition, 1878 seq.); Greek series, first 
published in Latin (85 vols., 1856-1861); with Greek text and 
Latin translation (165 vols., 1857-1866). Unfortunately these 
editions, brought out in great haste and often edited by super- 
£dAl acbolan, do not come up to the requirements of modem 



criticism. By far the most noteworthy is the Patrolosy, 
which was superintended by the learned Benedictine J. B. Pitra. 
Its vast scope leaves it still unique and valuable, where other 
editions of special works do not exist. The indices in 3 vols, 
are arranged so that one may easily find any reference in the 
patristic writings. In February x868 a great fire destrojred 
the whole of Migne's printing premises, but he established 
a new house in Paris, which was purchased in 1876 by the 
publishers Gamier Frdres, who still own all the works brought 
out by Mignc. He died in Paris on the 25th of October X875. 

For a more complete account <rf Migne's life, see the article in the 
Catholic Encyclopedia (New York. 1906 seq.). 

mONET, FRANQOIS AUOUSTB ALEXIS (X796-1884), 
French historian, was bom at Aix in Provence on the 8th of 
May X796, and died at Paris on the 24th of March X884. His 
father, a Vendean by birth, was an ordinary locksmith, who 
enthusiastically accepted the principles of the French Revolution 
and roused in his son the same love for liberal ideas. Francois 
had brilliant successes when studying at Avignon in the lycie 
where he was afterwards professor (181 5); he retumed to Aix 
to study law, and in x8x8 was called to the bar, where his elo- 
quence would have ensured his success had he not preferred 
the career of an historian. His abilities were shown in an 
^ge de Charles VII., which was crowned by the Academic 
de NImes in 1820, and a memoir on Les InstiliUums de Saint 
Louis, which in 182 1 was crowned by the Academic des Inscrip- 
tions et Belles Lettres. He then went to Paris, where he was 
soon joined by his friend and compatriot, Adolphe Thiers, the 
future president of the French republic. He was introduced 
by J. A. Manuel, formerly a member of the Convention, to the 
Liberal paper, Courritr fran^ais, where he became a member 
of the stafi which carried on a fierce pen-and-ink warfare against 
the Restoration. He acquired his knowledge of the men and 
intrigues of the Napoleonic epoch from Talleyrand. He wrote 
a Uistoire de la rivdution franqaise (1824) in support of the 
Liberal cause. It was an enlarged sketch, prepared in four 
months, in which more stress was laid on fundamental theories 
than on the facts, which are more rigidly linked together than 
their historical sequence warrants. In X830 he founded the 
National with Thiers and Armand Carrel, and signed the journal- 
ists' protest against the Ordonnances de juillet, but he refused 
to accept his share of the spoil after his party had won. He 
was satisfied with the modest position of director of the archives 
at the Foreign Office, where he stayed till the revolution of 1848, 
when he was dismissed, and retired permanently into private 
life. He had been elected a member of the Academic des 
Sciences Morales et Politiques, re-established in 1832, and 
in 1837 was made the permanent secretary; he was also Elected 
a member of the Academic Frangaise in X836, and aou|^t no 
further honours. He was well known in fashionable drdes, 
where his witty conversation and his pleasant manners made 
him a favourite. The greater part of his time was, however, 
given to study and to his academic duties. Eulogies on his 
deceased fellow-members, the Academy reports on its work and 
on the prizes awarded by it, which it was part of Mignet's 
duty as secretary to draw up, were literary fragments thoroughly 
appreciated by connoisseurs. They were collected in Mignet's 
Notices et portraits. He worked slowly when in his study, and 
willingly lingered over research. With the exception ol his 
description of the French Revolution, which was chiefly a poli- 
tical manifesto, all his early works refer to the middle ages — De 
La fiodaliti, des institutions de Saint Louis et de Vinflutnce de la 
legislation de ce prince (1822); La Germanic au viii' et au v^ 
siicle, sa conversion au christianisnu, et son introduction dans 
la sociiU civilisie de I' Europe ouidentale (X834); Essai smt la 
formation terriioriaie et politique de la France depuis la fin dm 
xi' sUcle jusqu*d la fin du xV (1836); all of these are rough 
sketches showing only the outlines of the subject. His most 
noted works are devoted to modem history. For a long time 
he had been taken up with a history of the Reformation, but 
only one part of it, dealing with the Reformation at Geneva, 
has been published. His Histoire de Marie Stuart (2 vols., xS$i) 



MIGNON— MIGRATION 



427 



is vdl worth leaifing; the author made libenl uae of •ome 
important unpublished documents, taken for the greater part 
frcMtt the archives of Simancas. He devoted some volumes 
to a history of Spain, which bad a well-deserved success — 
Chforks Qmni, son abdication^ son stjour, el sa mort au monastire 
d€ YmsU (1845); Antonio Pera et PkUippe II. (1845); and 
Histoire de la rivaliU de Francois L et de CkarUs Quint (1875). 
At the same time he bad been commissioned to publish the 
diplomatic acts relating to the War of the Spanish Succession 
for the CoUtcHon des documents inidits; only four volumes of 
these NigpciaHons were published (1835-1842), and they do 
not go further than the peace of Nijmwegen; but the intro- 
duction, k celebrated, and Mignet reprinted it in his MUanges 
Ustoriqnes, 

See the eulosy of Mignet by Victor Duruy, delivered on entering 
the Acad^mie Fiangaise on the i8th of June 188^, and the notice 
by Itiles Simon, read before the Acad^nue des Sciences Morales et 
I%lidques on the 7th of November 1885. 

■IGHOXt ABRAHAM (1640-1697), Dutch painter, was bom 
St Frankfort. His father, a merchant, placed him under the 
still-life painter Jacob Merrel, by whom he was taken to Holland 
about x66o. He then worked under de Heem at Utrecht, 
vhere in 1675 he married the daughter of the painter Cornells 
Willaerts. Sibylle Merian (1647-1717), daughter of the engraver 
Matthew Merian, became his pupil and achieved distinction 
ss a flower painter. He died at Wctzlar. Mignon devoted 
himself abnost exclusively to flowers, fruit, birds and other 
** still life," though at times he also attempted portraiture. His 
flower pieces are marked by careful finish and delicate handling. 
Hb favourite scheme was to introduce red or white roses in 
the centre of the canvas and to set the whole group of flowers 
against a dark background. Nowhere can his work be seen 
to better advantage than at the Dresden Gallery, which contains 
fifteen of his paintings, twelve of which are signed. Six of 
)a% pictures are at the Louvre, four at the Hermitage, and 
other examples are to be found at the muscimis of Amsterdam, 
The Hague, Rotterdam, Brussels, Munich, Karlsruhe, Brunswick, 
Cassel, S chwerin , Copenhagen and Turin. 

HIGMONBTTB* or Miononnette {ix, "little darling ")» 
the name given to a popular garden flower, the Reseda odorata 
of botanists, a "fragrant weed," as Cowper calls it, highly 
esteemed for its delicate but delicious perfume. The mignonette 
as gexkerally regarded as being of annual duration, and is a 
plant of diffuse decumbent twiggy habit, scarcely reaching 
^ foot in height, clothed with bluntish lanceolate entire or 
^hree-lobed leaves, and bearing longish spikes — technically 
x:aceme» — of rather insignificant flowers at the ends of the 
Kiumexous branches and branchlets. The plant thus naturally 
assumes the form of a low dense mass of soft green foh'age 
studded over freely with the racemes of flowers, the latter 
unobtrusive and likely to be overlooked until their diffused 
fragrance compels attention. It is probably a native of North 
.Africa and was sent to England from Paris in 1742; and ten 
^rars later it appears to have been sent from Leiden to Philip 
stiller at Chelsea. Though originally a slender and rather 
straggling plant, there are now some improved garden varieties 
an which the growth is more compact and vigorous, and the 
inflorescence bolder, though the odour is perhaps less pene- 
trating. The small six-petalled flowers are somewhat curious 
in structure: the two upper petals are larger, concave, and 
furnished at the back with a tuft of club-shaped filaments, 
which gives them the appearance of being deeply incised, 
while the twa lowest petals are much smaller and undivided; 
the most conspicuous part consists of the anthers, which are 
numerous and of a brownish red, giving the tone of colour 
to the inflorescence. In the varieties named Golden Queen 
and Golden Machet the anthers have a decided tint of orange- 
yeDow, which imparts a brighter golden hue to the plants 
wben in blossom. A handsome proliferous or double-flowered 
variety has also been obtained, which is a very useful decorative 
plant, though only to be propagated by cuttings; the double 
white flowers grow in laj^ massive panicles (proliferous ' 



racemes), and are equally fragrant with those of the ordinary 
forms. 

What b called tree mignonette in gardens is due to the skill of 
the cultivator. Though practically a British annual, as already 
noted, since it flowers abundantly the first season, and is utterly 
destroyed by the autumnal frosts, and though recorded as being 
annual in its native habitat by Desfontaines in the Flora Ailanlica, 
the mignonette, like many other planU treated in England as annuals, 
will continue to grow on if kept in a suitable temperature. More- 
over, the life of certain plants of this semi-annual character may 
be prolonged into a second season if their flowering and seeding 
are persistently prevented. In applying these facts to the pro- 
duction of tree mignonette, thejiaixlener grows on the youne plants 
under glass, and prevents their flowering by nipping off the blooming 
tips of the shoots, so that they continue their vegetative growth 
into the second season. The young plants are at first supported 
in an erect position, the laterals being removed so as to secure clean 
upright stems, and then at the height of one or two feet or more, 
as may be desired, a head of branches is encouraged to develop itself. 
In this way very large plants can be produced. 

For ordinary purposes, however, other plans are adopted. In 
the open borders of the flower garden mignonette is usually sown in 
spring, and in great part takes care of itself; but bein^ a favourite 
either for window or balcony culture, and on account of its fragrance 
a welcome inmate of town conservatories, it is also very extensively 
grown as a pot plant, and for market purposes with this object it » 
sown in pots in the autumn, and thinned out to give the plants 
requisite space, since it does not transplant well, and it is thereafter 
specially ^wn in pits protected from frosts, and marketed when 
just arriving at the blooming stage. In this wav hundreds of 
thousands of pots of blooming mignonette are raised and disposed 
of year by year. 

In classifying the odours given off by plants Rimmel ranks the 
mignonette m Uie class of which he makes the violet the type; and 
F£e adopts the same view, referring it to his class of " iosmoids '* 
along with the violet and wallflower. 

The gf nus Reseda contains about fifty spedes, natives of Europe 
and West Asia. R. luteola, commonly called dyer's-weed and weld, 
yields a valuable yellow dye. R. alba is a fine biennial about 2 ft. 
high, with erect spikes of whitish flowers. 

MIONONS, LES. In a general sense the French word mignon 
means " favourite," but the people of Paris used it in a special 
sense to designate the favourites of Henry III. of France, 
frivolous and fashionable young men, to whom public malignity 
attributed dissolute morals. According to the contemporary 
chronicler Pierre de I'Estoile, they made themselves "exceed- 
ingly odious, as much by their foolish and haughty demeanour, 
as by their effeminate and immodest dress, but above all by 
the immense gifts the king made to them." The Guises appear 
to have stirred up the ill will of the Parisians against them. 
From 1576 the mignons were attacked by popular opinion, 
and historians accredited without proof the scandalous stories 
of the time. The best known of the mignons were the dukes 
of Joyeuse and of fipemon. 

MIGNOT, CLAUDINB FRANgOISE [commonly caUed Masie] 
{c. 1617-1711), French adventuress, was bom near Grenoble, 
at Meylan. At the age of sixteen she attracted the notice 
of the secretary of Pierre des Portes d'Ambl6ricux, treasurer 
of the province of Dauphiny, and Ambl^rieux promised to 
promote their marriage. He married the girl himself, however, 
and left her his fortune. His will was disputed by his family, 
and Claudinc went to Paris in 1653 to secure its fulfilment. She 
sought the protection of Francois de THApital, marshal of 
France, then a man of seventy-five. He married her. within 
a week of their first meeting, and after seven years of marriage 
died leaving her part of his estate. By a third and morganatic 
marriage in 1672 with John Casimir, ex-king of Poland, a few 
weeks before his death, she received a third fortune. Imme- 
diately on her marriage with Amblcrieux she had begun to 
educate herself, and her wealth and talents assured her a welcome 
in Paris. She retired in her old age to a Carmelite convent 
in the city, where she died on the 30th of November 171 x. 

Her history, very much modified, was the subject of a play by 
Bayard and Paul Duport, Marie Mignot (1829). 

MIGRATION. Under this title will be considered movements 
of men with intention of changing their residence or domicile. 
Such migration (Lat. migrare) may be e\\.V«.i tTi\».\xv?\— SXjax 
is, from one counlry lo anoVYiei, Vtic\»^\Tv% wKv'^!ra>:\«tw Vv«tow 
mother country to colony; 01 *\X ma.^ ^^»^«ttfl\— >^v*>&>^>^^^^ 



428 



MIGRATION 



the limits of a single country. Vnda external migration are 
comprised emigration and immi^ation, denoting simply direction 
from and to. The emigrants are at the same time the immi- 
grants; that is, the material of the movement is the same, 
but the effect upon the country giving up and the coimtry 
receiving the migrant requires separate treatment. Hence 
it is proper to separate emigration from immigration. Tem- 
porary migration, or travel for purposes of business, enterprise 
or pleasure, will be considered only incidentally, and because 
in some cases it is difficult to distinguish between such 
jnovements and permanent migration. 

Migration in general may be described as a natural function 
of social development. It has taken place at all times and 
in the greatest variety of drctmistances. It has been tribal, 
national, class and individual. Its causes have been political, 
economic, religious, or mere love of adventure. Its causes 
and results are fundamental for the study of ethnology (forma- 
tion and mixture of races), of political and social history (forma- 
tion of states and survival of institutions), and of political 
economy (mobility of labour and utilization of productive 
forces). Under the form of conquest it makes the grand 
qxxrhs in history {e.g. the fall of the Roman Empire); under 
the form of colonization it has transformed the world {e.g. the 
settlement of America); under free initiative it is the most 
powerful factor in social adjustment {e.g. the growth of urban 
population). It must suffice here to indicate the character 
of the principal movements in the past, and then describe 
certain aspects of modem migration. The early move- 
ments may be grouped as follows: (a) Prehistoric 
migrations. Among savage and nomadic nations the 
whole tribe often moves into new territory, either occupy- 
ing it for the first time or exterminating or driving out the 
indigenous inhabitants. We have only vague knowledge 
of these early movements, laboriously gleaned from 
archaeology, anthropology and philology. The cause has 
been commonly said to be the pressure of population on 
the food-supply. A more probable explanation is the love 
of booty and the desire of the stronger to take possession 
of the lands of the weaker, {b) Greek and Roman coloni- 
zation. Both of these ancient civilizations extended their 
influence through migration of individual families and the 
planting of colonies. The motive seems to have been 
primarily commercial — that is, the love of gain. It may 
have been partly a sort of " swarming " process, caused 
by pressure of population at home. In some cases it had 
a political motive, as the planting of military colonies 
or providing new homes for the proletariat. The con- 
sequences were of course momentous, {c) The German 
Conquest. Beginning about the 5th century, the Roman 
empire was overthrown by German tribes from the north 
of the river Danube and east of the river Rhine. This 
VSlkerwanderung, as it is called by German historians, 
again transformed the face of Europe, resulting in the 
establishment of independent kingdoms and a great mix- 
ture of races and institutions. It was coincident with the 
building-out of the feudal system. The conquered in 
many cases could be left as serfs and tillers of the soil, 
while the conquerors seized the higher positions of 
administration and power, {d) The later middle ages 
saw many minor migratory movements, such as those 
accompanying the crusades, the pushing of German 
colonization among the Slavs, and the introduction of 
Flemish weavers into England. The religious reformation 
caused a considerable amount of expatriation, culminating 
in the expulsion of the Huguenots from France. («) The 
period of discovery and colonization opened up a new era 
for migration. The first expeditions were for adventure 
and booty, especially the discovery of gold and silver. 
Then came the establishment of commercial posts or 
factories ior the purposes of trade. Finally came coloni- 
zatioa proper— that is, the settlement of new countries 
iir Etiivpeans intendhig to remain there permanently, 



but still retaining their connexidn with the motlier co imtiy. 
This meant the opening up of the world to commerce and 
the extension of European civilization to vast areas formeriy 
peopled by savages or half-dvilized peoples. It meant a 
great outlet for the spirit of enterprise and adventure, relief 
from over-population, an enormous increase in wealtli and 
power, and a struggle for supremacy among the nations of 
Europe. Colonization and colonial policy excited immense 
attention in Europe; and this extended into the xgth century 
{e.g. E. G. Wakefield's plans for colonization, and the various 
colonization societies of modem times). The colonial policy 
proper was broken down by the revolt of the North American 
colonies from Great Britain, and later of Mexico and Central 
and South America from Spain. (/) The movement of popula- 
tion, however, has continued under the form of emigration. 
This movement is characterized firstly by its magnitude; 
secondly, by the fact that the emigrant changes his political 
allegiance, for by far the greater part of modem emigration 
is to independent countries, and even where it is to colonies 
the colonics are largely self-governing and self-regarding; and 
thirdly, it is a movement of individuals seeking their own 
good, without state direction or aid. This is aoth-century 
emigration, differing from all preceding forms and having an 
importance of its own. 

Statistics cf Emitration. — ^The direction of the modem movement 
is from Europe to America, Australia and South Africa, as shown 
in the following table: — 





Emigration from Certain StaUs of Europe, 1890-1905.^ 




V«r, 


2 


U* 


E 

% 


1 


1 


1 

,1 


it 


|1 


E 


1890 


1T5-5S)5 


20,560 


2tt76 


35^6 


37-025 


JS.94S 


74.002 


6693 


97.103 


18^1; 


iSg,746 




.H56 


407S 
6J90 


37JJI 


33,^34 


81.407 


^J 


iJO.oflg 


^^2 


MtM^ 


5^74 


30,190 


30,7rj 


74.947 


ht^ 


3749* 


m^ 


142.26^ 


f^.^ 


A8«i 


4ajo 


5^,707 


30,093 


&S,S54 
15.536 


5J^ 


t»q4 


114.566 


ii 


If^l 


1146 


i4.i02 


J6.656 


1S63 


t»q5 


187,90s 




U14 


ja.jso. 


44-4^0 


^3.55^ 


3*07 


ttkX. 


J 97.554 


14^'* 


1.07 


45.317 


sr.<iJ5 


66,S47 


3441 


JJ.I53 


ISQ7 


> 74.545 


% 


760 


79S 


39.3t6 


31.36^ 


55 .^J4 


I77« 


J3.J49 


109a 




9=a 


asi 


3^.546 


J3,2&0 


5J-947 


1694 


10,966 


im 


1 45.440 





boo 


IK7 


47.05S 


17.539 


99.^99 


1701 


J2J14 


1900 


r7i.735 




1376 


1^99 


55.45^ 


JO. 7*4 


U 7.373 


ibso 


ao,«74 


1901 


jSa.9^7 


F 


lor^ 


im 


4«-S9J 


S0.439 


•3*-557 


2<^^ 


1^3 


?^?5.+43 


§ 


160,'i 


Jjo* 


44,401 


a3.ti»o 


l»S.449 


ibij 


30.913 


lm^ 


J9J.03J 


"H 


210J 


29t>^ 




ai.79( 


«i,2l8 


¥^ 


35-453 


19*4 


267.J4fl 





2269 


3U^ 


— 


3 7.9 J J 


144.OJS 


M^l 


?-.*6S| 


J905 


479vM9 


Z 


2540 


??97 


— 


— 


— 


J7^ 


37403 



Year. 


1 


i 


1 


•^ 


Great Britain and IreUnd. 1 




t 

I 




111 


tS90 


30.13B 


10,991 


85.546 


10.J9S 


1 39-979 


20.653 


P:t:t 


J18.T1* 


tA9l 


^^.m 


15.341 


109415 


10,3*3 


137-1**1 


5t3,19<' 


318.507 


IS92 


41.J75 


17.U49 


74.&ai 


10,443 


U3.»J5 


^3,335 


51.902 


3 10.043 


tS9^ 


'l^i 


1B.77S 


40,545 


9-»50 


I34.&45 


3X,637 


53133 


iO&.Bu 


TS94 


5.64^ 


17.793 


4.105 


99,S9o 


M,4P 


4^.ooai 


156,030 


18*^5 


JS.J04 


6,iro7 


3^.7^5 


J-to7 




*H?+ 


54.349 


1896 


13.919 


6.679 


33.1^7 


3,876 


16J66 


4J.^3J 


JtiW 


m7 


\^2t 


4/-*^ 


18.107 


3.a6o 


94.65s 


16,IJ4 


35-6;* 


146.4C0 


tS9a 


7fiJi 


4.a,59 


37p8S5 


2.340 


90,679 
87.400 


rs,57o 

»S,0?3 


3 J .395 


U6!jS 


1899 


tJrOafi 


6.699 


63,101 


a. 79^ 


43.i90 


[900 


16,434 


10.931 


9*-»J5 


3H57f 


toj,44*! 


30,47a 


45.905 


it^Ml 


i9or 


30,464 


13J45 


i:^i5 


iii,S5J5 


^,9^0 


39.Jio 


17^715 


[90 J 


53477 


JO.343 


nD.4Sj 


I37.1J1 


56,5^5 


*JJ5ft 


505.^*3 


190.^ 


55'9?5 


36,7fl4 


I40.JH 


S.J14 


I77,5«i 


36.801 


SS*357 


359.950 


tt»Q4 




>a^64 


— - 


9,034 


175733 
J 704^ 


37p445 


3; 1435 


1905 


— 


Jtr059 


— 


M.05t 


41.510 


50,159, 


s<j,077 



^ The figures relate only to the emigranu of each natiooalicy cmigrat* 
ine from tneir own country to countries outside of Europe. 
' Exclusive of emigrants to Spanish colonies. 
* KusiULU tndpanu from German ports. 



MIGRATION 



429 



Siaoe 1820 over tirenty millioa penons hav« emigrated from 
Europe to countries beyond the tea. The Rreater part of this 
emicration has been to the United States of North America. The 
history of emigration is wdl shown in the following table of emigra- 
tion from Great Britain and Ireland. Down to 1853 the figures 
include all emigrants from British ports; after 1853 emigrants of 
British and Irish origin only. 

Ernicraiion from CmU Britain ani itdsni, tSti-tg^. 



Ait EmiifQnli, 




To 

Briijjh 

North 

America. 


To 

United 
States. 


1 To 
Atialratia, 


To 
oihcr 
Places, 


Total 


[Hi5-TS2a ( 5 years) . 
[8ji-[Sjo (to ♦* 

i«3i-iaio (to «* 

it4i-[850 (to „ 


7MS» 

4J9-°44 
7547» 


iO»,a47 


IJ7-134 
1094 »3 


3.751 

4i 


133.53IS 
149.91* 

704.730 


iSiS^iijj t37 vMr>) . 


1,03^,714 


J.o64.5«» 


iri^SS 


SMfit 


34*^.211 


EmiinitiJ &f BfiU^k and Irish Oriiin. \ 


ia55-tB6Q ( & yt^n . 
ia6l-tS70 (tq „ 

iA7i-t&do (ro ti 

ti$t't^gn iq „ . 
1391-19^ ta „ 


t3P-lto 
t77.97& 

iSt,504 


fio5.596 
t,ott7rl7i 

t,o9o,6S5 
J90.679 


*67.;j5i 
J03.3G7 

17^.744 
1 t9»Ot8 


i»-373 
4r5J5 
iio.jg* 
i6y,9r6' 


Mi3.6«3 
i.57i.»'9 
I,67».9I9 
J.55«.5J5 
1.644-q^i 
S&4.910 


'—'-^--:^Til. 


T-09M56 


6jJO,sii 


». 454.9 »4 


6S4.576 


9451,857 



The general direction of emigration from Europe is shown in the 
following table : — 

Emigration from various Countries of Europe. 



it was speedily resumed on an enlarfed scale owing especially to the 
improved means o( ocean transporution. It culminated in the 
decade 1880-1890, and declined after the commercial crisuof 1893. 
Later there was another increase. 

The relative movement of nationalities is best presented by the 
statistics of the United States. The nationality (country of origin 
of immigrants coming to the United States, 1871-1895} is shown in 
the following table : — 

NatumalUy of Immigraiion lo the United Slates. 
,|5 Years ^j ^otal 
Anglo-Saxons. Celts, and '^S- Immigration 

Welshmen — 
England and Wales . . 1,334,817 
Scotland . . . . . 286,807 

Total 1,631.634 

Irish— Ireland .... 1,334,635 

Teutons — 

Austria 374.872 

Germany 2,607.563 

Netherlands .... 96,035 

Toul 3.078.469 

Latins — 

Belgium 43,4^7 

France 148.683 

Italy 655,104 

Spain 14.293 

Portugal 17.108 

Total 877,634 



13*9 

2-8 



i5-7 

13-9 



3-6 
253 
0'9 

39-8 



04 

0-3 
0*2 



85 



Country. 



Country of Destination. 



United 
States. 



British 

North 

America. 



Brazil. 



Argentine. 



Australasia. 



Africa. 



All other. 



Total. 



Great Britain and Ireland. 1905 

Norway, 1905 

Sweden. 1903 

Germany, 1905 

Denmark, 1905 

Holland, 1905 

Belgium, 1905 

France. 1905 

Portugal. 1904 

Spcdn, 1902 

luly. 1005 

Switaerhnd, 1905 .... 
Austria-Hungary, 1905 . . . 



133,370 

19.638 

35.439 

36,00$ 

7.158 

2,163 



3.383 



82.437 

1.386 

329 

243 

453 



Cannot 
3»6.797 

4.349 
284.967 



I5t . 



No 



' given. 
5.930 



10.399 



21449 

1. 130 
30.079 

53 



674 



information 

8.767 

88,840 

471 

5.346 



15.139 

4 

ii 

J55 

2 
available. 

765 



26.307 

.?! 

57 
19 
15 



1.954 
20460 
13.072 



,5.83j 

38 

7 

266 

275 



3.866 



262,077 
2I,C59 
35.975 
27.403 
8.051 
2.297 
2,540 

27.925 

44401 

479.349 

5.049 



Statistics of Immigration. — ^The statistics of the United States are 
the most important and the most complete. The statistics since 
1830 are shown in the following table : — 

Immigration into the United States, 1820-1905. 

Decade ending Aggregate Annual 

30th June. Arrivals. Average. 

1830 143439 14.343 

1840 599.125 59.912 

1850 1,713.251 171.325 

i860 2,598,314 359,831 

1870 3.314,834 331483 

1880 3,812,191 281.219 

1890 5.246.613 524.661 

1900 3.844.422 384.442 

1991-1905 . . . 3.833.076 766.615 

Total . . .23,116,501 
^W to 1820 there was no official record of immigration, but it is 
^imated that the total number of immigrants from the close of the 
Revolutionary War was 350,000. During the decade from 1830 
to 1830 the movement was very moderate. From 1830 to 1840 it 
tteadily incroMed, but never reached 100,000 per annum. In 1846 
came the Irish potato famine, and an enormous emigration began, 
loibwed by a very large German emigration from similar causes. 
The Civil War of the United Sutes interrupted the movement, but 



'Of these, 77409 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. 
'Of these, 152,797 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. 
* Of these, 69,052 went to the Cape of Good Hope and Natal. 



Scandinavians — 

Denmark 159.759 1-5 

Norway 331.258 3*2 

Sweden 660,193 6-4 

Total 1,151,210 ii-i 

Czechs, Magyars, Slavs- 
Bohemia '. . . 77,247 0*7 

Hungary 256.347 2-5 

Poland 141.908 1-4' 

Rumania 10,377 o-i 

Russia 500,797 48 

Total 986.676 9-5 

Swiss— Switzerland 135.736 1-3 

Greeks — Greece 7.325 ) • 

Turks— Turkey 3411 fo-i 

Europe, not specified 394 ) 

Toul Europe 9.197,014 889 

North America 776,071 7-5 

All other countries 366454 36 

Grand Total io,33q«s^<) \qa«^ 



43° 



MIGRATION 



i very Important traiuTormatioD ha» talcen place in the propor- 
mie ntimbcf coming from different countctci during t be lasi half 



A 
tmnnit nvtmixf coming 

of th« igih century. At 6i-»t the Irish and Germ^n^ were most 
pmminfrntH^ 0( later ycofSp the t Lallans, CiK«ch«, Hungariiiiui and 
Kiiaiiaiu w^e, ha will be iccn from the fcliowini; t^Lblc, niimerouity 
reprcMntedl, 

}iaiiim^iiy 0/ immigranti fg tht Umkd Stalt-t, lpol-7gos> 



Austria- Hungary . . . , . r 

Belgium . 

QulEarb» Servia and Montenegro . 

Denniark ........ 

Fiance , . 

Gemuny ........ 

Greece 

HoILmd 

Italy 

Norwajr .,.,.,.< 

PortJical ..,.,,.. 

Rumjnu 

Ku&sLa . . , . H if . F . 

Spain ..,,,.,».. 

Snwd^n . ^ . H. < . « . 

Switzerland h ^^ . . . . . 

Turkey , » 

United Kingdom-' 

EnBlAcul . . ^ . „ « » 
Irerand ^ * , ^ . * . ^ 
Scotland ,.*.*.. 
Wal« ,.,.,... 

All oiher European countriei . . 



Nunit>cf. 


% 


»S:?^! 


^50 
044 


a.637 


017 


33r96S 


0'9 


3Mt9 


oB 


17^^.995 


46 


49.9«J 


13 


tlS.5Pi 


04S 


959.76S 


250 


J03>o6s 


2-7 


JO.SJJ 


o-S 


«tJ5l 


04 

170 


10.34^ 


037 


iM*&07 


4^j 


17320 


0^46 


10,909 


0'3 


lij:5^ 


4*8 


3*.a4i 


10 


6,972 


o-ia 


»t6 


006 



TcfUl ......... 3,643^1! 



95 



The following table ihowt the relative number of di^erent nation* 
alitics icpreaentiKJ In the immigration to the United States; — 



Count O'. 


1861-70. 


iBjJ-So. 


iaai-9Q. 


ja^t-t^oo. 




e.' 


1 */ 


% 


ft 




jS 


'9 


io 


Great Britain < . * 


\n 


t64 


125 


7 5 


Ireland . . . . . 


^55 


125 


100 


Ceroi4ny , . . . 
Au*tria'HtjngaTy . , 


34*t> 
03 


'|:| 


377 
toa 


tfi^o 


Nor*^y and Sweden . 


4 7 


7-5 


16 


RuuidAfldl^ol^nd . . 


0-3 


J '9 


5 J 


tiO 

t3o 


Itily ..... 


0-5 


20 


S'9 



Sfjc flffd j4e*.— or Jill the ^ntnoigrants U^Jl-i&95\ 61-35% **«« 
males and 38-75 % were [cnuitts. 

Thi* ptfcenuge rcnuins faij^ly conftant, but the proportion diHers 
tomewtiat among different naliomtlities. The followinf table shows 
tbc proportions for 1905: — 

Mala. Females, 



Atlttrli-Huiiganir ...,,,. 107,034 

France . 3,574 

Cerminy 2iiS8& 

HoJUnd J.D82 

Italy . 2tby3fiA 

RiusiA . ][ir795 

Sweden ^nd N«way .,,... 29,907 
United Kinedocn — 

England 29,993 

Ireland iBjM 

Scotland 9,J&4 

The immifranti wen \n the mnst vigorous period of life* few 
ehildren and few old pcoptCi u ihown m the lollo^^ng table :^ 



77 913 
J.a«9 
15.357 

51.273 
g6,0C»5 
ili.ios 

ifl.tM 
]it,«90 
5,cna3 



^ffjf (?/ Immitranis to Ike Uniiid States^ ^SSr-i8^. 



Country of 
Dri^n. 


Under 15. 


From 15 to 40. 


Over 40 years. 


Number 


Per 
cent. 


Number. 


Per 
cent. 


Number. 


cent- 


Germany 
Ireland 

Swtden and 
Norway * . 

Italy . , . 

Ru**ia (include 
ing Poland) , 

Auttrta , , , 


3«<*-934 
9.^Joa 
151.315 

104-254 
47.603 

65.4^7 
50,037 


3&6 

14-1 
23-5 

l»3 
i5-3 

24-7 

32' I 
24-2 

H-7 


904.WI 

420,3(JJ 

414,609 
21J47S 

174-7S4 
149.909 
97.S19 
95.6J5 


62-S 
7H-6 

6S-9 
66j 
652 
74-9 


73fl*2 

49^499 ' 
47.771 

34.907 
36,109 
15.S58 
I3^26t 


n-j 
7-3 
II-3 

8-7 
t55 

94 

ti-6 
10-6 
104 



OuupaHon.—Thit imminants are for the most paft anskined 
labourers. The statistics tor the United Sutes show the foUoving 
figures for the years 1881-1890: — 



Ouupation of Immigrants to tk4 UnUed Stales. 





Males. 


Females. 


TotaL 


Professional . . . 
Skilled 

Not stated. . . . 
Without occupation . 

Total. . . . 


25.257 

514.552 

1.833.325 

73.327 

759,450 


1,749 

25.859 

245,810 

42.830 

1.724454 


27.006 
54041 1 

2,079.135 
116.157 

2.483.904 


3.205.91 1 


2.040,702 


5,246,613 



Those " i^ithout occupation " are mostly women and children. The 
" miscellaneous " are day labourers. It is probable that about 
20% of the adult males are " skilled." 

ImmitratioH to Other Countries. — In no other country is immiera> 
tion conducted on so important a scale as in the United States. The 
statistics are very imperfect. The main figures have already beea 
^ven in the table of emigration. Australia has an annual immigra- 
tion of about 250,000, mostlv of British origin. This is offset by a 
very heavy emigration, which sometimes exceeds the immigration in 
certain of the states. The immigration to Canada for the >-ear 190^ 
was put down as 146,266, but a portion of this consisted of immi- 
grants passing through to the United States. Brazil has had a brge 
immigration (in 1895 equal to 169.524, but in 1904 only 12,447). 
The Argentine is credited with an immigration in 1905 A 1 77.1 17, 
and Uruguay with an immigration in 1903 of 6247. In all the South 
American immigration the countries principally represented are 
those of southern Europe, especially Italy. The majority of the 
immigrants are adult males and farm labourers. 

Balance of Emiiration and Immigration. — Even in the case of 
emigration from Europe to countries beyond the seas there is some 
return movement. Emigrants who have been successful in busine« 
return in order to end their days in the old countrj^. Those who have 
not succeeded return in order to be cared for by friends and relatives, 
or simply from home-sickness. Thus, for Great Britain and Ireland, 
while the emigration of persons of British and Irish origin was, in 
1905, 262,077, the immigration of persons of the same category 
was 122,712, leaving a net emigration of only 139.36s In the United 
States' statistics we cannot distinguish in the outgoing passenger 
movement emigrants from other persons. But if lor a period o(f 
years we take the toul inward passenger movement and subtract 
from it the total outward passenger movement, we ought to have 
the net immigration. By this method we arrive at the conclusion 
that while the gross immigration during the five years 1901-1905 was 
3.833,076. the net immigration was only 1,779.976. showing an out- 
ward movement of 273.134. or about 7*12% of the total number of 
immigrants. 

Temporary Emigration. — In many European countries there is 
not only emigration beyond seas, but a very considerable movement 
to neignbounng countnes in search of v/ork, and generally with the 
intention of returning. Thus in Italy, the " permanent " emigration 
(».«. to countries beyond seas) numbered, in 1905, 447.083: the 
" temporary " emigration to European or Mediterranean countries 
amounted to 279.348. This temporary emigration is strongest in 
the spring, and consists principally of adult males (agriculturists, 
farm and day labourers, bricklayers and masons) in search of work. 
It resembles somewhat the movement of Irish labourers into Great 
Britain at harvest time. It is notorious that the Italians who 
emigrate to the United States largely return. 

Effects of Emigration. — ^There are two views with regard to emigra- 
tion: one unfavourable, viz., that it is a drain on population, reduc- 
ing its economic strength and disturbing social and political relations: 
the second looking upon it as a relief from over-population and a 
congested labour market. As a matter of fact, emigration has not 
succeeded in diminishing the population of Europe, tyhich. on the 
contrary, doubled during the 19th century. The one great excep- 
tion is Ireland, where population declined from 8,175.124 in 1841 
L' .-.,!-. i rom 1851 to 1901 the total emigration from 

IrtlJimJ \',:\f 3.^3 ' --M^ ■ '^ 72*5% of the average population. Emigra- 
tian» by carrying oiT ihe young men and women, also reduced the 
lfi*h marriage and birth-rates, which were almost the lowest in 
luurope. But hithtrrto the countries of strongest emi^ation (Eng- 
land, Gemiiiny, &c.) liave shown practically undiminished birth 
and marriaj^e-rates and a steady growth in population. 

The intensiiy of emigration is measured not by the absolute 
number of cmijuranrs, but by the number of emigrants to the total 
population. Us effect is shown by comparing the number of 
emigre nil with the excess of births over deaths per looo of the 
population. This is shown in the following Uble (1905) : — 



MIGRATION 



431 



GrEit Britain and JreLifid 
EngldiuJ and WaJc* 
Scotland . . . , , 
lT^J*nii ...,., 

GernuLny 

SvJtncrlind . . . > 
Sweden (jgoj) . , . 
SoTwxy . . . . . 

DencDArk 

Italy 



Evxa of births 
over death* pet 

tCHxi Inhabitiiiua. 



114 
111 

13-6 
US 
106 

I2J 



EmijEntnts 
per IQOO 



A d6 
496 
«4S 

'45 

in 

3* IS 
1433 
6-J9 



It will be obacTvtd that, with the *K«ptlan o| Ireland and Italy , 
^rhcftv«r thnv a a hcavi^ 4£nii^raEk>n thert ij utually a considirrablc 
f^eas erf birthi aver d«ithft, >.f. natural increaie mart than makeft 
mp (or the loM by cmigraEion. ^ Evf^n taking Great Britain and 
Ireland tojcctber^ the losa by cmi^aLion per annum hat not been 
^very larger a> is ihown by the lollciviElg table: — 

A nnmai Emi^r^xHan p^r jooo of fkr Avtf&tf Ptfptttaifon 
efCrtaS Britain and Itdani. 

1851-1*53 ' ' ^ 8* 1SB1-1B90 . . .7-1 

iis6-iAto , . .4^3 1891-1S9S . , .51 

1S61-1S70 . . , 5'? iBg^-igoo . . .3-7 

[S71-1S60 M . • i'i 1901-1905 . . ^5-5 

EvrA in partkukr districts when: emii^r^ition 1} hflivy the lo»4 
it made up by birthsh For tnstancf, in tfi^] tltt emiKratiDit from 
tbc" proviii'cr^ oi VVe^i PruuLa and Posen was f^ntraurdinarily heavy^ 
J0-9 And tQ-4 per miUe rt-^pectivcly^but the execs* of birtlu over 
^Ufbt nt t^'6 per piille- En:iiBr4tia'[i ma^ give temporary reliff 
to C Bigt»l cd districtv* but It u not in itself a remedy tor lo-ciLltcd 
«vcf'pepulatiofl^ 

If ts aUHcult to analyst? ctoiely the economic elFect of emigration, 
beduK fto much dependi upon the character of the emigpnts and 
the condition ol the labour market. The foUowiiig CJOFisideration^ 
bive been urged at difTerrnt tinier: Although emigration doc* not 



diminLdi population, yet* as the<rmigranii attr in the most productive 
period of life (J5 to 4sK the country of emigration lo^c^ aduks aind 
replaces them wiih children* It tncjicb:^ loie* the c<»t of naring 



that number of people lo adult age, and isMi with a disproportionate 
number of child nfo and old people- The age distribution of the 
population of Ireland kndA some suf^part to this view. In the fame 
vetn h U urged that volLntaiy emigration takes away the cream 
dT the vofkioE-cLLSsef. It ii the man of energy, of some means, oi 
■mbit»n^ who takes the chances of succi^i m the new countn't 
living tiic poor, the indolent, the weak and crippled at home. It 
ii m^intainetJ that such emigration im^tiLutei a proceu of Bclecrtioit 
fhkh is unfavourable^ to the home country. 

On the other side, it Is said that the men who are dairtg well at 
home are the ones least likely to emigrate, because they have least 
to gain* Modern means of transportation have made the voyage 
w cheap that almost any one is able to go. It is thcrefofi: the Tc»t- 
lew, tf»c ufliuccesiful, or at least those not hTted for the Atreniictiis 
competiiion of the oldtr countrie^^ "wJno are tempted to go. Emigra- 
tion afl^Ofds a natural outlet for the lupcffluou* labour force of a 
coontry* The supply of labour h somewhat rtiduccdt but wsges 
are kept up for those who remain. Thys* who co find means of 
bcttenog: tfieir own condition beynnd the ieaa, where they become 
pnductTa ol food and raw rtwierial far the home country, and at 
the utne ttmc customers for her manufat-turL^l products. Emigra- 
titrfj i* therefore an economic g^tn, both directly and Indirectly. 
J I if t^adent from these argumetiis that no general answer can be 
fivta to the question. In some cases it may be an evil; in most* 
• hco conducted tindcf normal conditions^ it would seem to offer 
little danger. ^ * . h , , 

Tht !^me remark wtiuld hold true m regard to the social and 
potiiical effecti of enilmticin. In ftonie eans^ by taking away the 
ttronE, *elf-re^iant antrcrteteetiCt it may resiiU in the deterioration 
of the home populJtio]!. In other ca&es it allows restUr&i spirits 
nho have failed at home to try again elsewhere. Often in caics of 
political rcvolutiort the members of the defeated party have sought 
lefu^ eltcwhcrtt as after the revolutionary movements of 184^. 
tn ease of conquest the conquered nationality takes to emigration 
on an cxteosive scale, as after the abaorption of Alsace-Lorraine 
by Germany in. ifiji. The mo^tmmt may lie aided either by the 
«Ute or by private as^odalions. Of »uch character have been the 
itatt^ided emicraiion from IreLandt and the asiiiUd emigration of 
paupers, criminals and oihcf pcrMins in the eflort to relieve a con- 
gested population, or simply from (he desire to ^t-t rid of undesirable 
members of the community. Such efforts fiiit if the new countries 
are unwilling to admit these pcrsnnsr Finally* we have the expulsion 
fif tbe Jewifrocn Ruiala as an example of the effort of a community 
t<} get hd ol an detnent which has nude itself cAinouous Ut tbe local 



Effects of Inmtg^ai$om.—The effects of emigration are negative 
in character; thoie of immigration are positive, (a) On population: 
immigration, of course, is a direct addition to the population of new 
countries, and greatly accelerates the growth by natural increase, 
especially as the immigrants are in tlie most productive ages of 
manhood and womanhood. In the United States, for instance, out 
oi A jjojAnant^noi; 7o,,|o:^,:»'57 {\\\ i^ocih, ili '--re were 26,147407 persons 
who were ciihrr forfigo-born or wlio had one or both parents loreign- 
born* This do« not tijean that the pcjfiulation would have been 
twenty-six millionilcMif it hid not been r>r immigration ; for the rate 
of natural increase among the n3tivt-l>orn might have maintained 
itself, Nevertheleis, immigration has probably stimulated the 
growth of population, {b) Economic effects: The economic gain 
of immigration lo new countrici* iii evident. It adds directly to 
their available labour force, thai it^ to the number of adults ei^aged 
in the work of producing wealthy 

According to the irnited States ccn>n« of 1900, out of 29,073,233 
(1900) ptT5ons engaged in gainful orcu pat ions, $,85 1.3199 O'' 20-I %, 
were of foreign binh. If we add to thtsw;' t fic native whites of foreign 
parentage (Si30o»9J4) we have J i,JS2,3?3 persons of foreign extrac- 
tion or 39 '4% of the total Labour force. The foreign whites alone 
constituted 10-4% of the total number of persons engaged in 
agricult ural pu rsui I a ; t T -4 "/. of those in professional services ; 25*7 % 
in domestic and per&on^I «cTvic»: 1^3% in trade and transporta- 
tion : and ^d % of thoic engaged in manufacturing and mechanical 
induiitries. tn addition to these* the native whites of foreign 
parentage constituted , in agriculture, &c,# lO'6%; in professioiud 
Service, 10-6 %t iri domestic and persfioil service, l6-4^; in trade 
!■ ■ 'i : ■' ii ?^-7 "i* in niauiifi. V. ring and mechanical, 25-4% 
'■ ^„ ! in thoseocci i .1 ■■ The labour force of the 

United States is thus made up very largely of immigrants and the 
children of immigrants. 

Attempts have sometimes been inade to put a money value on 
the economic gain by immigration. The amount of money brought 
by the immigrants is not large, and is probably more than offset by 
the money sent back by immigrants for the support of families and 
friends at home or to aid them in following. The valuable clement 
is the able-bodied immigrant himself as a factor of production. It 
is said, for instance, that an adult slave used to be valued at from 
$3oo to $1000, so that every adult immigrant may be looked upon as 
worth that sum to the country. Or, it has been said that an adult 
immigrant represents what it would cost to bring up a child from 
infancy to the age, say. of 15. This has been estimated by Ernst 
Engel as amounting to $550 for a German child. The most scientific 
procedure, however, is to calculate the probable earnings of the 
immigrant during the rest of his lifetime, and deduct therefrom his 
expenses of living. The remainder represents his net carnines which 
he will contribute to the well-being of the new country. W. Farr 
reckoned this to be, in the case of unskilled English emigrants, about 
£175. Multiplying the total number of adult immigrants by any one 
of these figures, we get the annual value of immigration. Such 
attempts to put a precise money value on immigration are futile. 
They neglect the question of quality and of opportunity. The 
immigrant b worth what it has cost to bring him up only if he is 
able-bodied, honest and willing to work. If he is diseased, crippled, 
dishonest or indolent, he may be a direct loss to the community 
instead of a gain. So, too, the immigrant is worth his future net 
earnings to the community only if there b a demand for his 
labour. 

Social and Political Effects of Immi^ation. — The influx of 
millions of persons of different nationality, often of a foreign 
language and generally of the lower classes, would seem to be a 
danger to the homogeneity of a community. The United States, 
for instance, has felt some inconvenience from the constant 
addition of foreigners to its electorate and its population. The 
foreign-bom are more numerously represented among the criminal, 
defective and dependent classes than their numerical strength 
would justify. They also tend to segregate more or less, especially 
in large cities. Nevertheless, the process of assimilation goes on 
with great rapidity. Intermarriage with the native-born occura 
to a considerable extent. The influence of the physical environment 
leads to the adoption of the same mode of life. The most powerful 
influences, however, seem to be social. These are common school 
education and the adoption of one language (English) ; participation 
in political life, which b granted to all adult males after five yeare' 
residence; and the general influence of social standards embodied 
in laws, institutions and customs already established. Doubtless 
immieration in the last fifty years of the 19th century had a 
modifying effect on American life; but on the whole the power of a 
modern civilized community working through individual freedom 
to assimilate elements not diifering from it too radically has been 
displayed to a remarkable degree. 

Restriction of Immigration. — New countries have sought to escape 
certain evils of indiscriminate immigration. These evils were as 
follows: (a) The immigration of criminals, paupers, persons 
diseased in mind or body, and persons unable to support themselves. 
By the Acts of 1882 and 1893 such persons were refused admission 
to the United States, and, when rejected, the steamship companies 
that brought them were compelled to take them back. T\\«. tc^msSqkx 
debarred from 1896 lo 1905 v& «iViq>nw\w vVt VO^viVvwi\a^A^^^— 



432 



MIGRATION 



Cauta. 


iSgfi 


«a97 


t&g& 


t&S>9 


t$00 


T901 


190 J 


1903 


1904 


190S 


[main; , , . 
PEiupcrs , . , 
DtK4^ . . . 

Aaiilcd . . . 
Coavkcs . . , 
Prattituta . 
Contract L&boiuen 
Mother . 

TotAl debarred. . 


10 

3OI0 

2 

J 


6 
1 


Ml 

2l6i 

as* 
79 

417 


t9 

?4* 
1 


3i 
J97^ 

4 

b4 


iG 
5798 

50 
7 

^7 
6 


17 

39+4 

709 

9 

7 


J 773 
9 

5 


35 

9 

1501 

2G 


2t9B 
19 
39 

445 


^799 


I&I7 


JOJO 


J798 


4^46 


3Si<^ 


4974 


^7^ 


7994 


11,879 



Year. 



No law oi \'-' ■'■>■■ ■• , .. ■ i . .1 : ■ . -. rive these unfarlu- 

jixitcs« TJu ■. : , I lL.'j(i«ljturc in 1905 

passed an act to prevent the landing of undesirable aliens, and t he nmnbcr refused 

admission in 1906 was 493. (6) Immigration sometimes increases thr 

competition in the labour market, and thus lowers wages. One cnw 

is particularly aggravating, viz. when employers import foreign 

labourers in order to take the place of their men who are on strike. 

In 1885 the United States passed what is called the Contract Lobar 

Law, forbidding the landing of any person who is under contract to 

perform labour in the United States. It is very difficult to discmrr 

such cases, bat the number rejected is fairly large (see table abov«). 

(c) The immigration of men of alien race who refuse to assimiLite 

with the natives is said sometimes to be a danger to the country. 

This at least is the excuse for the entire exclusion of Chinese 

labourers from the United States since 1882 (provisions made more 

tevere in 1888 and 1892) (see also the article Coolie). 

luUmal '17.',' .■.'•:. T;, . "1: iImk^s th?re ^9 con&Lint movem^^nt 
of populati'U 'j.:i!:lm !i!' .:,.:: I.,,-, ^rnm section to section, and 
especiallv ijr^iiti raziii %\i--].m i^ i-j nw cities. No record \i kept of 
this, ana wc c^n trace it only throuj^h the census statistics of birth- 
place. In the United States, ior instancen it vat shown in iH^ 
that more than 3I-5 per cent, of the native-born inhabitants were 
living in a state olltcr than th^t in which they wen^ born. Still 
further, it appears that about one-half dJ the nati\iC'^born inhabjUnts 
had moved out of the county in which they were bom, hi tAcjd 
there were [,?^3,6j^9 natives ol the state of New York living In other 
states. Thr movcnicut is pnncipaUy westwards in d lire lion and 
along parallels of latitude For instance, New Vork ha$ made Urge 
contributions to the popuhtion ot Ohio, Mkhizao, Illinois. Wiscon- 
sin, Iowa and so on. V irginia has <»:rntributed largely to tht popula- 
tion of West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, [ndiaiia. Mlinois and 
Missouri. I n Eunupc There is a similar movement 1 but it is dtScuk 
to mahe cornparis^ins. because of the difTctences in the adminiitraiive 
areas.^ In England in i&^i. 71-6% of the population were residing 
in their native county; in Prussia , ti9'7% in the kreii; in France^ 
8l'J% in thi: department; in Austria. So^i^^ in the fc«i>*; in 
Switzerland. Sj-i "i in the canton where they were ht^tn JW^Ut* 
Crototk^ of Cities, p. 249). The most important phase of intcrn^il 
migration is the movement from the rural districts to the cities. The 
statistical results are shown in the following table extracted from the 
admirable work of Weber, just quoted: — 



Year. 


United 


In Towns of 


Rural 


Staira. 


Sooo and over. 


DistHcti. 


1790-1*00 


% 
55- 1 


a,- 
60 


34 


i8oo-i»io 


364 


69 


35 


I&lO-tA20 


330 


33 


33 


i^o-i8jo 


i3-6 


^ 


3^ 


I 830- 18+0 


33-7 


ta 


30 


1840-1850 


3S-9 


99 


30 


1850-1860 


3S-6 


75 


30 


1860-1S70 


»-6 


59 


15 


1870-1 SSo 


30- < 


JO 


i ^7 


latfo-iSgq 


Jj:? 


61 


'5 


1890-1900 


57 


14 



In England and Wales the rural population increased in tbe 
aggregate during the first half of the 19th century, but at a 
gradually diminishing rate; in the second half of the century 
t he papulation declined with varying regularity, until the decennium 
iFvp 1-1900, when there was an increase. But notwithstandine 
tjiL^ aggregate increase there are many rural districts which stiO 
dinw a steadily declining population. The urban population is 
iiKToasing, as shown in the following table: — 



Decennial Rate of Increau or Decrease. 
Urban. 



1851-1861 +21-9 

I86I-I87I -f28'I 

1871-1881 +256 

1881-1891 ...... -I- 185 

1891-1900 +1522 



RuraL 

% 
+1-88 
-5-86 

+2-94 



Percentage of Population living in Towns of 10^000 and ooe? at Thrrr 
Periods. 





About 1800 


About iSjo 


About 1890 




or iSor. 


or 1851. 


or i§gt. 


EngUndandWslt* 


at 3 


395 


61-7 1 


Scotland 


170 


32 -i 


500 


Australia (7 colonics) 






41-4 


Netbtrlands 


13-5 


ao-8 


34-8 


J95 


29-0 


31 -3 


Pni»ia{[S]6) . . 


7-3 


10 6 


300 


United States . 


3a 


I2>0 


27-6 


Franct .... 
Denmark . . . 


95 

10.9 


'U 


^t 


Italy .... 






306 


IreUnd . . . , 


7a 


lo-l 


iSo 


Norway , , . , 


31 


S'3 


16-7 


Switzerland (lbs) 


4-3 


7 3 


16-S 
U-7 


Austria .... 


4-4 


5-8 


^n'^. ■ : 


5-4 
3 '9 


91 
4*7 


Portugal 


137 


a*9 


127 1 


Russia , , , . 


37 


SI 


9'3 



increasing faster than the 



Everywhere the city population 
rural. In the United States the rate of increase per decade was as 
follows:— 



Somewhat the same phenomenon is seen in France. According 
to 4he census of 1891 not less than 55 out of the 87 departmenu 
had decreased in population ; and out of the 32 that nad increased, 
7 showed a decrease in their rural parts when the large towns were 
deducted. In Germany the towns of 10,000 and over show a much 
mure rapid increase than the rural districts; and the*same fact is 
generally true of the other countries of Europe. This more rapid 
mcrease of population in cities is due only in part to migration from 
ihf country. Until the 19th century deaths generally exceeded 
births in cities, so that if it had not been for constant immigratioa 
liic cities would not only not have grown, but would have decreased 
in population. Cities grow more rapidly now than lormcriy. because 
the <>xcess of deaths over births has been turned into an excess of 
binhs over deaths. Thereby the cities are becoming less dependent 
upon immigration for increase of population than formerly, but 
the migration still goes on. The causes of migration from country 
to city are mainly economic. In early stages of culture men are 
centered over the country, or at most ^thcred together in hamlets 
and villages. Each of these is sf>lf-suf!icing, having its own artisans 
and handicraftsmen, and producing what it needs. With tbe 
beginning of exchange commercial centres spring up, situated oa 
navi^'able streams and especially at points where land and water 
journeys are broken. With the growth of manufactures, industrial 
centres spring up where the division of labour can be fully pro\-idcd 
for. In modem times two factors have accelerated this process, 
vk.: (1) the building of railways, which have developed commerce 
(o a very ereat degree and favoured the large towns at the expense 
of the small; and (2) the invention of machinery, which has greatly 
tricrtnsed the possibility of division of labour and manufactures on 
a lin^ scale. The old handicraftsman has been superseded by 
mac h me labour and the village artisan by the factory hand. At the 
fAnie time improvements in agriculture and the opening up of nev 
countries have enabled the modem community to gain its food and 
niw material with a less expenditure of labour force, and the surplus 
agricultural population has gone to the city. The attractive 
inHuences upon individuals have been higher wages, greater scope 
for ihe ambitious, and the social advantages of city life. 

The general laws of internal migration may be summarized 
(according to Ravenstein) as follows: — 

1 . The great body of migrants proceed only a short distance. 

2. The process of absorption goes on as follows: The inhabitants 
of the country immediately surrounding a town of rapid growtb 
flock into it ; the gaps thus left in the rural population arc filled up 
bv migrants from more remote districts, until the attractive foroe 
or one of the rapidly-growing cities makes its influence felt, step by 
^tcp, to the most remote comer of the land. Migrants enumerated 
in a certain centre of absorption will conscf^ucntly grow less witfc 
the ijisunce, proportionately to the native population whick 
furni^es them. 

ir The process of dispersion is the inverse of that of absorptioOi 
4nd exhibits similar features. 



MIGRATION 



433 



4> n>ch bmb cufRBt Qi uuKiAtiOB pcDduo M 8 oooipcnsfttiog 

5. Mwmnts procyrHing long diitancw nnermlly go by preference 
toone oitlie great cities of commeroe or industrv. 

6. The natives, of towns are less migratory than those of the rural 
parts of the country. 

7. Females are more moratory than males. 
AuTBOitlTJES.— The ^l^tisiks of rn r^; r,i r ion flTc to be found in the 

eSici^ irturns of dilTrtt-Jit count rjt-A, rfiprciany the Atntiitical tabli*^ 

leUun^ Co p^iigraikin ^rxl icumigr^ition publi«hctt by the British 

BcHid of Trad«T and tbe ReporE« t-annual) of th« CDmmii&Joiicr- 

Cenenl of Immierratloii of tKe United Star«. For ^tDcral di*euv 

lidii ICC rhitippovicb, Ajifwandfrnai and AitrarartiUrM»s^f^ii^i-it 

Ujapaif, 1^-1 K An exhaustive biblioi^ra phy Will be fQurvd in an 

aitide [>y ume authoTp " Au^vanderung^ ' in HandtEOfirrbuik dfr 

Slmiiitiiirri^chaficn\ R, M^yo-Sniith, Emiifoti&n a«d Immi^raiiim, 

nitlii bibti.jgTapny (New York, 1890). For intfma^ ini gratia n ace 

A- F. Wcter> u rjaifft of CtJifs { Sew York, t Bg*)) . S« also Rii vcnstcin , 

"The Ljwk of Mi^m^tion/' in Jeunttil of Rsycl SUythtMoi Society 

(ll8S and lS*i?L Pxiofefior Flinders Potne^ in hii Htinlev Li^cture 

tor 1906 on AfitraSisjis Creprinted by the A(ithnopo1o£i»L inittJtute), 

dcaii vith the miitAtJonA snd movernentj of tuc&i from ^n i^iithrtH 

pdi^cal standpoint viih piDfocmd knowkdee and oripinalitY. 

(Ri M«^b»» T. A. !•] 

UlciATiON, in Zoology. In zoology considerable import- 
iBce attaches to the problems of migration, by which is meant 
the wandering of living creatures into another, usually distant, 
locality in oider to breed there; this implies a return, and the 
double phenomenon is annuaL All other changes of Uie abode 
ve either sporadic, epidemic, or fluctuating within lesser limiu. 
Fvnher, migration should not be confounded with " spreading," 
vUdi proceeds steadily, and in epicycles, with a totally different 
molt. It need not be empha^zed that hard and fast lines 
between these phenomena do not exist; they are often a question 
<f degree. For instance, when the conunon toad, which is 
tttrictly terrestrial creature, wanders every spring to a fre- 
<|iieQtfy distant pool in order to spawn there, this is a true 
Bigiation. The same applies, strictly speaking, to those insects 
*1^ hlbemate in the ground, at the root of the tree on which 
tbqr feed and breed. The grey plover breeds in the arctic 
aide and winters in equatorial countries. To complicate matters 
Mer, it is n6t necessary that the migration be undertaken 
periodically, more than once, by the same individual. For 
iutance, the common eel ascends the rivers as an elver in its 
Tooth; yean after it returns to the sea, there to breed and to 
<&, idiilst other fishes come and go, year after year. Further, 
nne of the larger birds, for instance swans and cranes, are 
ttiO iounature in their second year, and yet they migrate like 
tbeir dder relations. It seems permissible to use this fact 
M in indicaticm that the breeding as such is not the prime 
Ram of their wanderings. The fundamental impelling agent 
Bnat have been the want of food, and what we usually under- 
itaad by migration cannot suddenly have spnmg into existence 
to its ftdl extent, but is more likely the cumulative effect of the 
doingi of countless generations. The faculty of shifting the 
>bode was of course always there, the necessity of moving further 
on was also present, and those which went in the wrong direction 
one to grief, whfle the others flourished and returned with 
^ progeny. They did not at first cover enormous distances, 
^ just enough to find unoccupied ground. The annual 
Witon became an established habit, at last an ineradicable 
tttinct There can be but little doubt that the prime impulse 
*» want of food. The new growing grass on the prairie or 
OB the veldt attracts every year those creatures which live 
^pon pasture. The inter-tropical belt of the world is so crowded 
^ creatures that there is the keenest competition, whilst 
it' the temperate and cold regions is a long winter quiescence 
^ for the support of many creatures, whereas in the summer 
iWe same regions are covered ^ith new vegetation, with its 
<>OQcomitant abundance of insects and other invertebrates. 
^ tables are decked agaii\, and these opportunities are not 
nsted. 
Tbe process of migration, in its most striking cases, is now 
^^ complicated. Many a bird goes actually to the arctic 
'^tioas for the shortest of summers, but spends most of the 
yir within the tropics. On the other hand there are many 



species which do not go so far north, but stop to breed in the 
intermediate regions. We must not take the extremes when 
trying to unravel the development of the problem. The 
periodical migrations of mammals, with their more limited 
extent and greater leisure, are less perplexing. 

It has been argued with some show of reason that tbt real 
home of a bird is that country in which it was bprn, in other 
words where the species breeds, but this is not in every case 
a valid conclusion. It applies to most creatures, but it can 
well bear exceptions if we leave sentiment aside. When it 
comes to a question of domicile, the ten weeks' sojOum of the 
swift, Cypselust in England are more than weighted down by 
the nine months or more which these birds q;>end in southern 
countries, although we do not know whether they are resident 
there or roam about. The breeding time is the busiest period 
of a bird's life; then the numbers of each spede^ are suddenly 
multiplied, and sO is the stress of providing food, and the par- 
ticular food which is best for the young may not be available 
in every country. The idea that the arctic circle is the original 
home of the numerous kinds of birds which breed in It, wl^ce 
they are now periodically driven away by stress, has been coupled 
with the gladal epoch, that supposed solution of so many diffi- 
culties. We have only to assume that the old, permanent home 
of these migrants was in the arctic region, that the progressing 
gladation drove them away, of course towards the equator, 
and that, when times improved again, the birds returned to 
their old home. This soimds very plausible, but it involves 
huge assumptions. The birds, not the individuals, but tbe 
species, are supposed to have inherited such a loving reminiscence 
of their old home, that after thousands of years— with most 
of the small birds meaning as many generations— they returned 
at the first opportunity. It implies that their long continued 
sojourn in foreign lands, where — under this assumption- 
thousands of generations must have been bred and have spent 
all their lives, was not sufficient to naturalize them, so to speak, 
in other words to supplant the instinctive love of the prin^ary 
ancient home. That the last gilacial epoch has driven the 
limit of many kinds of animals and plants farther south » 
as certain as that many have recovered the lost ground after 
the reversion of the gladation, but it must have been a very 
slow and steady process of spreading. It may, and probably 
does, account for the present annual visitations of arctic lands, 
as a phenomenon which has been evolved de novo, which would 
have come to pass even if no birds had existed in pre-gladal 
times. 

How do birds manage to find their way, thousands and 
thousands of miles across land and water? This question 
has been extolled as a mystery of mysteries. It has been 
stated that the old birds show the way ,to the young, a specula- 
tion which does not apply to those many cases in which old 
and young notoriously travel at different times. It has been 
assumed that they travd by sight, taking advantage of certain 
landmarks; another tmtenable idea, since — experience having 
to be exduded in a flock of birds, which made the journey for 
the first time— it implies that the young must have inherited 
the reminiscence of those landmarks 1 Others have likened 
the bird to a kind of compas9, because in eastern Siberia E. 
von Middendorff found some migration routes to coindde 
with the direction of the magnetic pole. The whole question 
reduces itself to a sense of direction, a faculty which is possessed 
by nearly all animals; in some it is present to an astonishing 
extent; but the manifestations of this sense vary only in degree. 
The cat which escapes out of the bag finds its way back, directly 
or after many adventures. The bee, after having loaded itsetf 
with pollen, returns by the proverbial line to the hive which 
may be a mile away, but, move the small entrance hole in the 
meantime an inch to the right or Idt, and the bee will knock 
its head against the hive and blundei^ about; move the hive 
a few yards and bee after bee returning will be puzzled to find 
its hive again. They, maybe with the help of landmarks, 
have accustomed themselves to steer a course. SivslcVl vw» Kft y ^% 
need not be mulUpUed, TViit v^«^\^^ *^ ^^ '•"^ ^'^rS^ 



43+ 



MIGRATION 



the journey be one of a few yards or of many mfles. Given 
the senae of direction, it is no more difficult to steer a course 
due north than it is to lay one south-east by east, provided 
always the impetus to be on the move. There is no mystery, 
except that we, the most intellectual of mankind, should so 
well nigh have lost this sense, and even this fact is simply an 
instance of the loss o! a faculty through long-continued disuse. 

Birds.— CThe following account is to a great extent based upon 
A. Newton's article " Birds " in Ency. Brit., 9th ed.) 

In almost all countries there are tome species which arrive in 
spring, remain to breed, and depart in autumn; others which 
arrive in autumn, stop for the winter and depart in spring; and 
others again — and these are strictly the " butls of passage " — 
which show themselves but twice a year, passing through the 
country without staying long in it, ana thcar transient visits take 
place about spring and autumn. These three apparently different 
categories of migrants are all acted upon by the same impulse in 
iipite of the at nrst sight dissimilar nature of their movements. 
The species which resort to Britain and to other temperate countries 
in winter are simply those which have their breeding quarters 
much nearer the poles, and in returning to them on the approach 
of spring are but doing exactly as do those species which, having 
their winter abode nearer the equator, come to us with the spring. 

The birds-of-passage proper, like our winter visitants, have 
their breeding quarters nearer the pole, but like our summer visit- 
ants, they seek their winter abode nearer the equator, and thus 



perform a somewhat larger migration. As H. Seebohm puts it 
\Geotrapk, Distrib. of Ike family CharadrOdae, London) i— 

" They all represent bmls which breed in the north and winter 
in the south. Every migratory bird wintering in England goes 
north to breed, and every migratory bird breeding in England 
goes south to winter. It is a rule without exception in the northern 
Eemispbere that each bird breeds in the extreme north point of 
its migrations. To make the rule apply to the southern hemi- 
sphere as well it must be modified as follows: each bird breeds in 
the coldest climate which it visits on its migrations. ... It b a 
remarkable fact that whilst there are many birds breeding in the 
northern hemisphere and wintering in the southern, it is not known 
that any land-bird breeds in the southern and habitually winters 
in the northern! This b probably owing to the difference in the 
distribution of the land, there being no antarctic breeding grounds. 
. . . Birds breeding in the tropics are always resident, except 
when they breed on mountains, where the climate causes them to 
descend into the valleys for the winter." 

In many countries we find that while there are some spedes, 
such as in England the swallow or the fieldfare, of whkh every 
individual disappears at one period of the year or another, there 
are other spcaes, such as the pied-wagtail or the woodcock, d[ 
which only the majority of individuals vanish — a few being always 
present — and these species form the so-called " partial migrants." 
in England the song-thrushes receive in the autumn a considerable 
accession in numbera from the birds which arrive from the north, 
though the migration is by no means so well marked as it is on the 
continent, where the arrival of the strangers sets all the fowlers 
at work. In most localities in Britain the newcomera depart after 
a short sojourn, and are accompanied by so many of tne home- 
bred birds that in some parts of the island it may be safely declared 
that not a single song-thrush can be found from- tne end of November 
to the end of January, while in others examples can always be seen. 
Much the same may be said of the redbreast. Undeniably resident 
as a species, attentive scrutiny will reveal the fact that its numbera 
are subject to very considerable variation, according to the season 
of the year. At no time do our redbreasts collect in bands, but 
towards the end of summer they may be seen in the south of England 
successively passing onward, the travellera being mostly-^-il not 
wholly — young birds of the year; and so the great majority dis- 
appear, de()arting it may be safely presumed for more southern 
countries, since a few weeks later the markets of most towns, firet 
in France and then in Italy, are well supplied with this species. 
But the migratory influence affects, though in a less degree, many 
if not most of the redbreasts that remain with us. Every bird of 
the northern hemisphere is to a greater or less degree migratory 
in some part or other of its range. 

Want of food, and perhaps of the special, proper land during the 
breeding season, seems to be the most obvious cause of migration, 
and none can wonder that those animals which possess the power 
of removing themselves from a place of scarcity should avail them- 
selves of it, while it is unqur^tionjiblc th^iE bird» pi:i&»4.'&s thii taculty 
in the greatest degree. £.\czi amcriK those &peci«A which wr com- 
monly speak of as sedentary k is only tht adults which maintain 
their ground throughout tiip ypar. It hoa lane been known thA( 
birds-of-prey customarily drive away thdr cnapring from thtir 
own haunts so soon as the yamie an; a,blt to shift for thern»eive% 
The reason generally, and no do Jet truly » given for thi* t<?havHour, 
which at first bight appeant so timutural, h the impo^ibitity of 
both parents antf progeny ^tttmp a. ihxiihood in the M.me vitinUy* 
TAe practice, however, ta ji^t JEmitcd to the birrit-ot-prey alonti 
out i§ much mon uaiveml We fiad it to obtain with the red- 



breast, and if we watch our feathered neighboors closely we shafl 
perceive tliat most of them indulge in it The period of expukioii* 
It is true^ is in some birds deferred from the end of summer or the 
autumn, m which it is usually performed, until the following ^>rii^ 
when indeed from the matunty of the young It must be rq^rded 
as much in the light of a vduntary secession on their part as in 
that of an act of parental compulsion, but the effect is ultimately 
the same. 

The mode in which the want of sustenance produces migrataDa 
nuiy best be illustrated by confinii^ oureelves to the unqucstioA- 
ably migrant birds of our own northern hemisphere. As food 
grow4 tc^irce towiirds the end of summer in the most nor t hern Kmia 
uf the rango of a rpedes, the individuals affected thereby seek it 
c-lseHxrhtrt, Thus doing, they press upon the haunt of other in- 
djvkluats; thcx in like manner upon that of yet ottov, and so 00, 
until th«: movement which began in the far north is communicated 
io the individuals occupying the extreme southern raiwe of the 
Ff^f iea at I tut »a9on; though, but for such an intrusioa, these 
U^t mi^ht be ccnient to stay some time longer in the enjoyment 
cf ihdr existiiiE ^Lmrters. 

This Kcmi utisfjctorOy to explain the southward nravement of 
all mipiiitjnr);! birds in the northern hemisphere; but when we cob- 
&idef the rctLirn movement which takes place some six months 
later, dcubt may be entertained whether scarcity of food can be 
a^igTied as it* aole or sufficient cause, and perhaps it would be saJest 
noi to come t<y any decision on this point. On one sidr it may be 
urged that the more eouatorial rnpons which in winter are cr owded 
with emifiTani<r from the north, though well fitted for the resort of 
so great a population at that season are deficient in certain 1 

sanes for the nursery. Nor does it seem too violent an assun^ 

to suppose that even if such necessaries are not absolutdy wanting, 
yet that the regions in. question would not supply sufl^cient food 
lor both parents and offspring — the latter being at the lowest 
computation twice as numerous as the fonner — unless the number* 
of both were diminished by the casualties of travel.^ But oo the 
other hand we must remember what has above been advanced in 
regard to the pertinacity with which birds return to their ace 
tomed breeding-places, and the force of this passionate foodn 
for the old home cannot but be taken into account, even tf we do 
not allow that in it lies the whole stimulus to undertake the perilous 
voyjigf-, 

A. R. WjOjcc in some remarks on the subject (Naimrt, t. 4x9) 
LngcniDusIy fiUKi^tsts the nonner in which the habit of migratioa 
has rcune to bd adopted': — 

" It appeari to me probable that here, as in so many other cases. 
' survival of the fittest ' will be found to have hacl a powerful 
influence. Let us suppose that in any species of migratory biid, 
brKding coji a» a rule oe only safely accomplished in a given area; 
and fiirthcTH tLii during a great part of the rest of the year sufficient 
food cannot be obtained in that area. It will follow that those bifds 
which do not leave the breeding area at the proper season w3l 
sufi'fr, and ultimately become extinct; which will also be the fate 
of those which do not l»ve the feeding area at the proper time. 
Now^ [i we Buppti« that the two areas were (for some remote ancestor 
o( the exiitingr species) coincident, but by geological and dimatic 
chaji^t^ fradually diverged from each other, we can easily Undcr- 
^t-^n^ h'<^- fH" I'i Kbit of incipient and partial migration at the proper 
seasons would at last become herediMry. and so fixed as to be what 
we term an instinct. It will probably be found that every grada- 
tion still exists in various puts of the workl» from a complete 
coincidence to a complete separation of the breeding and the sub- 
sistence areas; and when the natural history of a sufficient number 
of sfiecies is thoroughly worked out we may find every link bet w eca 
speqies which never leave a restricted area in which they breed 
and live the whole year round, to those other cases in which the two 
areas are absolutely separated." 

A few more particulare respecting migration are all that can here 
be given, and it is doubtful whether much can be built upon them. 
It has been ascertained by repeated observation that in the spring- 
movement of most species ot the northern hemisphere the coca- 
birds are always in the van of the advancing army, and that they 
appear some dayns, or perhaps weeks, before the hens. It b not 
difficult to imagine that, in the course of a journey pr ol onged 
throughout some 50" or 60* of latitude, the stronger indi\-iduab 



* If the relative proportion of land to water in the southern 
hemisphere were at all such as it is in the northem,we should no 
doubt find the birds of southern continents bemnning to press 
upon the tropical and equatorial regions of the globe at the season 
when they were thronged with the emigrants from the north, and 
in such a case it would be only reasonaUe that the latter should be 
acifl] upon \ . ' f the former, according to the explanatioo 

given <x the touthu-arj movement of northern migrants. But, 
though we know alm^t nothing of the migration of birds of the 
other hcmispherer yet, when we regard the comparative defideocy 
cf land in jouthern li.titLi,les all round the world, it is obvious that 
tht fcath^^ed popu]nHi>n of such as nowadays exists can exert 
but lEtUc Influence, jnd its effects may be practically disregarded. 

' In pTinctple F. VV. Huttcn had already foreshadowed the same 
theary {Tram. Sex Zioi, Inst., 1872. p. a35)« 



MIGRATION 



435 



AmM ootstrfp til? weaVer hy a -wry pcnrprtlblf <Ji5tQiicr» tnd it 
^A faajiJFy be doubted that in mo*! *pedc* ihf male* Jir^ strortEtr, 
•fl di«y are bigger iJiar the ft-rrtak-*, Som* obicrvcr* u^^^rt iThat 
the sKme thing take^ place in the r(?tiini joumcy in autumn — 
Sccbohm, for Lns^tanjce> siyx thai, fri^Fii Eump?, first gg the younff, 
theo dNe tnalcs. having &ni^h>^d thdr moult ot autumn, land laBtfy 
tltc fauk«"^but on tnii point oth4.Ti are not &o lure, which ia not 
itirpciiip| wZ^eo A'C eondwr that the maJDrity of obterv'&Liont have 
btcB made tDwards what is the northern [iinic of the ran^ of the 
I^^utre^t to vhich the remark i» especiaEly applicable— nn the 
Britjjh isla^ndi, France, North Germany and the Ku^bn empire — 
(or it u plain that at the tTeginning of the iourney any inequality iit 
the !pc!cd oi travelling will not have became ibo very manifest. There 
JA ^\ea another matter to be noticed. It hat been suap^cied thit 
There there is any difference Jn the li^e of btrdi of tht $^me $peciev 
partivruljirly ui (he dimensiDni of their win'S^, the individual that 
perform the moat ettetiiive journey* woutd De niLturatly those *rilh 
the bngeft and broadest f#mif«f and in support of thiB vit* it 
ettttki\y appeflff thai in iame af the amitk-r migrants — such as the 
vfaeuiis^r iSnxk^iia ^anthej and will^w-trrtn iPkyU^iCopuj treckUuj) 
— the rJUijiplei which rtach the extreme north of Europe and there 
pan the summer (v^ses? g^reat^'f mcchank:al powen of flight than 
thooe of the s^tdc spixii:! whkh itop short on the shores of the 
UeditFiranean. It may perhaps be also inferred, though precise 
Cvuf«u:e is wnnitinfi, thjt Ehc«r same individuals pu&h further to 
the Bouthwafd in winter thin do those which are lew favourort in 
fhci respect. It is prrtty nearly certain that such ii the cajc with 
eciem, and it may well be so with individuals. H B TrUr- 
B iCfTLiLrked (Ibis, JB65, p. 77) thai, in many genera of bird ^ 

ipecKa nrhich hav* the most extended northerly have alw 

dte moat exrended southerty range; and that tho«e which rr«OJt 
tQi the higheA latitudes for nidification nlbo p&sA further than others 
to the southward in winter," fortifying hi* ODinjon by examples 
•ddoced from the genera Turdui, Fnniiiia, Cypidui and Titriur 

For many years past a large number of per«Ti4 In different 
CDuntne* have occupied and jimuied themselves by tarefuIFy 
tcftsteriftf the datci Ofl which various mitmKovy birds first make 
War ■Mkeanixei and there i» now ati aoundante of records «o 
f i fl Bi l i T*' f StiQ tt doet not seem that they have been able to 
dttRmlne what conneKtoiD, ir any, exiata bctt^^een the Eurival ol 
tird« vtd ihe weather: in cncpft catca nr^ corresponding observationi 
ii-*^ been made about the weather in the plaetrs whence the trav^l- 
ItcTP are supposed to hn-vt- fome. As a fule it frould seem as though 
Y'.'- ■^■-.■- ','■■'. ''■!•■. '■ ' ■■■■■■■ ''■■■■■ ■■■. . .ii'p [■■ }■■■•■■ ..:■'. it degree, 
Occaaonally the return of the swallow or the nightingale may be 
lomewhat delayed, but most sea-fowls may be trusted, it is taid. 
at the almanac itself. Foul weather or fair, heat or cold, the 
puffins {FrateraJa arctica) repair to some of their stations punctu- 
ally on ajnven day as if their movements were' regulated by clock- 
work. Wnetfcer they have come from far or from near we know 
not, bat other biida certainly come from a great distance, and yet 
make thdr aroearance with scarcely less exactness. Nor is the 
regularity with which certain species disappear much inferior; 
every obeerver knows how abunaant the swiit {Cypselus apus) i» 
up to the time of its leaving its summer-home— ^n most parts of 
England, the first days of August— and how rarely it is seen after 
that tJjne is past. 

It must be allowed, however, that, with few exceptions, the mass 
of statistics above spoken <A has never been wprked up and digested 
ao as to allow proper inferences to be made from it, and there- 
fore it would be premature to say that little would come of it, but 
the result of those exceptions is not very encouraging. E. von 
Middendorff carefully collated the records 01 the arrival of migratory 
birds thnwghout the Russian Empire, but the insight into the 
question amirded by his published labours is not very great. His 
diief object has been to trace what he has termed the isepij>Uses 
(lam ■■ aagnalis, Ir^rnivif " advokUus) or the lines of simul- 
taneous amvaU and in the case of seven species these are laid 
down on the maps which accompany his treatise. The lines are 
found by taking the averagje date of arrival of each species at each 
friaoe in the Russian dominions where observations have been regu- 
briy made, and connecting those places where the dates are the 
tune for cahch species by lines on the map. The curves thus drawn 
indicate the inequality of progress made by the species in different 
kngitudes. and assuming that the advance is directly across the 
tsepiptesial lines, or rather the belts defined by each pair of them, 
the whole course of the migration is thus most accurately made 
known. In the case of his seven sample species the maps show 
their ptoeresave advance at intervals 01 a few days, and the issue 
of the wncrie investigation, according to him, proves that in the 
middle of Siberia the general direction of the usual migrants is 
almost due north, in the east of Siberia from south-east to north- 
west, and in European Russia from south-west to north-east. 
Thus nearly all the migrants of the Russian empire tend to con- 
verge upon the most northern part of the continent, the Taimyr 
peninsula, but it is almost needless to say that few of them reach 
anything like so far, since the country in those high latitudes is 
utterly unfit to support the majority. With the exception of 
some details this treatise fails to show more. The routes followed 
by nugratoiy. birds have been the subject of a vegy exhaustive ■ 



memoir by J. A, PafmJn, \mt It would be beyond oar limits to do 
more than mention hl< jesultSi concisely. He enters very fuUy 
into thii part of the inquiry and lays down with much apparent 
pfobability the chief roada taken by the roost migratory birds of 
the paIae£Lfctic n^ian m their i^tum autumnal journey, further 
asserting: that in the tpace* between these lines of flight such birds 
do not ueually occur. Broadly ipeaking, the biros of Europe. 
Ruisia and Western Siberia £0 for the wmter to Africa, those of 
middle Sil>eria to Mongolia, and those of Siberia east of the Lena 
go towards J,jpan. 

But lay down ihc paths of migratory birds, observe their comings 
and eoitig^, or strive to account for the impulse which urges them 
forward a* wc will then still remains for consideration tne most 
marvellous thitig oi aU— how do the birds find their way so un- 
erringly from such immense distances? This seems to be by far 
the most inexplicable part of the matter. Year after year the 
ttiigratory wagtail will buiJd her nest in the accustomed spot, and 
year afto^ year the migratory cuckoo will deposit her eggs in that 
neat, and yet Ln each ijiterval of time the former may have passed 
some months on the shores of the Mediterranean, and the latter, 
absent for a siUI fanig^r period, may have wandered into the heart 
of Africa. That particular form of bluethroat which yearly repairs 
to breed upon the mosses of the subalpine and nortnem parts of 
Scandinavia {^yarucuta ijucica) ht hardly ever seen in Europe 
couth of the Baltic. Throughout (Germany it may be said to be 

?uiTe unknown, being replaced by a conspicuously different form 
C Imtocyana], and as It i« a bird in which the collectors of that 
country^ a numerous and wd I- instructed body, have long taken 
great interest, we are in a poj^ition to declare that it is not known 
to »top in it4 tranaiit from it* winti^r haunts, which we know to be 



Egypt arbd the vaJCey of the Upper Nile, to its breedingnquarters. 
Other instances^ though none so crucial as this, could be cited from 
arpong European bird? wert' thcrr; room here for them. In New 
Zealand there are two cuckoon which are annual visitors: one, a 
«pecic» oi Ckrysoc&ciyr. ia luppo^ted to come from Atistralia, the 
OLher, Eudyna-mvs laiitrisis is widely spr«ul throughout Polynesia, 
yet bath theje birdi yearly make two voyages over the enormous 
waste of waters that turrounds the country to which they resort 
to breed. But tpace Would utterly fail us were we to attempt to 
recount all the examples of these wonderful fliehts. Yet it seems 
impossible that the sense of il^ht should be tne faculty whereby 
they are ao guided to their destination, any more than in the case 
of thofle which travel in the dark. t. A. Palm6n asserted {op, 
tit. p. t05> that migrants arc led by the older and stronger 
individuals among them, and, observing that most of those 
which itray from their n'ght course are yearlings that have never 
before taken the Journey, he aicfibed the due performance of 
the flight to '* experience." There are many birds which cannot 
be said to migrate in company. While swallows, to take a 
Bufriciently evident example, conspicuously congregate in vast 
nocki and m leave our tliores in large companies, the meiority 
of our »u miner- vt&itoTf slip away aunost unobserved, each ap* 
Ijarentlly without concert with others. Experience here can only 
^i^nify rhe snesult of knowledge acquired on former occasions and 
ob rained by sight. Now it was iturnd by C. J. Temminck (Manuel 
d' 0rTiiikol0gie. UL Introd-, I&2&} many years ago, and so far as 
would 9ppe«ir the statement hai not been invalidated, that among 
mrgrant» the yottng snd the old always journey apart and most 
generally by different nautet Tht former can have no " expert- 
ence/' and yet the greater number of them safely arrive at the 
haven where they would be. The sense of sight, essential to a 
knowledge of landmark*, is utterly insufficient to account for the 
succc^ that attends btrds which travel by night, or in a single 
flight span oceans Of Continents. Vet without it the idea of "ex- 

Ccrience " cannot be sul^stantiated. We may admit that inherited 
ut unconscious experience, whidh is really all that can be meant 
by initirrct, ie a factor in the whole matter — certainly, as Wallace, 
if ems to have provefl, in originating the migratory impulse, but 
yet every aspect of the question i^ fraught with difficulty. 

U:%t tnan nothing is known about the speed at which birds fly 
during tht:ir long at retches of mij^ration. Caetke, in his otherwise 
very interc!$ttiig book, h^ startled ornithologists by various state* 
mentj, but his calculations were boMd upon such crude observa-' 
tions th<tt the results are ridiculous. For instance, he proved to 
hi* Eati^faction that the grey or huodcd crow, Corvus comix, which 
notoriously is not a fa*t l)ird, Hies from Heligoland to the coast of 
Lincolnshi^re in ECnglartd at the rate of one hundred and twenty 
milea an hour. To the little bluethroat he assigned a velocity of 
two hundred and forty mili~» an hour, a statement as »illy as that 
tnsde by some fanciful observer in Portugal who convinced himself 
that ** Turtle-doves leaving Kent or Surrey at dawn might easily 
be the ^-ery birds that a few hours later were skimming over the 
f'ortugijcse pine foresti on their way to Central Africa." Fifty 
miles an hoar would be a high average speed for most migratory 
birds, and thctr are no retiabte d^ta to tell how long such birds can 
continue their flight without interruption. All we seem to know 
is that not a few kinds manage^ in various parts of the world, to 
cras4 enormous distances without the chance o( & bt«aJL. \\Hra.'^ 
Gaetke'a notion thai mi|,ta.\\ofv *a* \ot x\vt xtvoiX v*-'^ caxrAA> ww 
at such a heijht in the m£ aa 16 bt VirjotiA ww Vwv, ^tA \\cfcX. 'n^MSt 



436 



MIGRATION 



comes to our perception cohdsts chiefly (^ the abortive or unsuccess- 
ful attempts, when birds are checked in their course, and being 
unable to proceed present themselves to our sisht and hearing. 
Now for obvious reasons birds could not well fly at very great 
heights in very thin air, as experiments with pigeons released from 
balloons have shown, and the condor soaring far above the tope 
of the Andes is a myth. The few trustworthy instanced in which 
birds have been observed through a telescope passing across the 
face of the moon have naturally yielded but vague calculations 
as to distance and height. W. E. D. Scott (BuU. NuUaU Om. 
Club, vi. 97-100), computed heights varying from i to 2 m. 
F. M. Chapman's observations (Auk, 1888, pp. 37-39) resulted 
in a height of from i«x> to 15.000 ft.; average, say, i m. If the 
sky is clouded and the birds fly above the clouds the migration 
proceeds bevond our ken, and if for some reason or other they are 
oelow the clouds the phenomenon becomes to us very noticeable. 
It is well known " that on clear and bright nights birds are 
rarely heard passing overhead, while on nights that are overcast, 
misty and dark, esfxcially if slight rain be falling, flocks may often 
be heard almost continuously. It is in such weather, continues 
Newton, that birds while migrating are most vociferous, doubtless 
with the result that thereby the company of fellow-traveUers is 
kept together. 

There yet remain a few words to be said on wh;it may be termed 
Exceptional Migration, that is when from soidf cause or othtr the 
ordinary practice is broken through. The erratic moaements of 
the various species of crossbill (Loxia) and sorni'^ D[]ii?d ionm affcrd 
perhaps the best-known examples. In England no one can ^y in 
what part of the country or at what season of the year he may (i[:>t 
fall in with a company of the common crossbill (L. mrvirosira)^ 
and the like may be said of many other lands. The food q1 ihcm 
birds consists mainly of the seeds of conifers, and as 'r : -ijppl^ in 
anv one locality is intermittent or precarious, we may not unreason- 
ably guess that they shift from place to place in its quest, and may 
thu.-^ Ui.-l '''••' L.,^..> Vb.i', i.,f LVvi^.^.^iiLlji.^ Ti^r ili-^'ti i.i,i.Ki\^i,i ^t,\tt..d.itir\cc. 
The gTTTiit biaind of nutcnickera (Aufr/rafa taryocai/ict^si whkh in 
the autumn of l^^ pcrvadrd Wmtcm and nrntrat Europe {Buli^ 
Ac^. BruJuIUs, xu 39^), may also have hsca aE^tudtcd hy the 
tame morivc, but wv cjn hanJiy expSain the roaming of all oLJier 
birds so plau^bly. _ The inroadA of the wjjm'Ing (Ampriii garrului) 
have been the Eubject of intcrrst for marc than ^00 ycars^ and t>/ 
prrsons prone to supcr^titic^uf auKuifes were regarded at the fare- 
run nera-cf dire cal amity. Sometimes years have paued without 
the bird being seen in central, Western or southern Europe^ 4nd then 
perhaps for two or three seasaoa in BuccesiioR vaslt flocks havr 
Suddenly appeared. Later observation has shown that this sporics 
is as inconstant in the choice of its summer as of Its winter^uarten. 
One at the most extraondinary events known to QrnithQJogists is 
the irruption into Europe in iS6j of Pallas '« sand^grou^c {SyrrhapUs 
parnuliixui'). Of this bird, hitherto known only as m inhabit4RC of 
ihe Tatar steppes, a single specimen w^s obtained at Saivpta on 
the VoTea in the winter oi t&\B. In May t&^ a pair is said to have 
been kjlied in the government of V'llna, on the wesCem bonJers of 
ihc Rusnon empire, and a few weeks later five examples were pm- 
cui«d* and a few others seen, tn western Evnope^-Doe in Jutland, 
one in Honaod. two in Englafld and out in Wales. In tSdo another 
was obtained at SarepU; But in May and June lS«j a horde com- 
puted 10 tgnsist ol at Itast 700 individuajji owrran Europe — 
reaching Sweden, Norway, the Faeroes and Ireland in the north- 
west, and in the ioutb c*t<-ncting to SifUy and almost to the frontiers 
of Spain. On tht eandNUU of Jutland and HolLind some of these 
bu^s bred, but they infre all tilled off. A muirh gr^atJfr visitation 
took place in i8ft8. which met with the same fatt The numb^ 
cl birds was quite incalculabk, the wave extending from Notwuy 
to southern Spain. 

Tn mTiirt.%fi*ii.in wllh thf pTprwlir ^nnu^il mtpr.it inns; nf sr» very 

many birds, those of other creatures are scaxxxTand insignificant, 

epting fishes. 

ttammals. — Few trustworthy observations have been recorded. 
The most regular and least limited migrations seem to be those of 
the eared seals. The walrus also goes each year to the north in 
the summer further south in the winter. Ddphinapterus leucas, 
one of the Cetacea, asceiids the Amoor regularly 00 the breaking 
of the ice, a disUnce of 400 m. up the stream. Some bats are 
supposed to migrate. The American bison used to roam north 
and south, according to the season, in search <A pasture; and 
similar periodic wanderines have often been recorded of various 
kinds of game on the South African veldt. They are all obviouslv 
a mere matter of commissariat and have little to do with the breeo* 
ing, except in the case of seals. 

in one way the lemming's " migrations " are instructive. They 

•re quite sporadic. When, owing to combination of some favour- 

able circumstances they suddenly increase, enormous numbers 

forsake the highlands for the lowlands of Norway: not in a 

methodical way, but quite lawlessly; that means to say they radiate 

from their centres of dispersal. At arfy given spot, however, they 

seem to keep to the same direction, and no obstacles seem to divert 

tAeir course. Those which arrive at the much indented coast are 

Jjmowaevea to rush into the tea, when o( course they get drowned. 

.^2err m no §egue ia tbA The ovefovwded conoition qC tbck 



xcepti 
Man 



home iinpels them fa lesve, and this impulse rontinues blindly. 
They do not attempt to settle anywhere bctwL'cii ihdr home and 
the *efr, A y&xx cr lw£> after the irryptiQn not a lemming is there 
to be foundt find where during thtir stampvck they come across 
suitable dbtricu, they find these already txxupicd by resident 
jeitimingip^ 

Such and similar imiptiods have no doubt taken place often 
during the world's hir^tury; and yet sych s^H^radic stampedes into 
a fortsgn cunntry hardly ever lead to its rtTjuUr settlement, espeo- 
ally when such a coumry possesses alfi^y a kindred fauna of its 
own, 

Fitkdi. — Many fishes make periodic 'migrations for breeding 
ptirptnn^ which by their num Iters and the distances tra veiled 
much resemble those of hird», but very little is known about these 
fishes. Take the inctedthle mas^ies of heirings and their kindred; 
the collecting of the ct^i and its allies on their breeding-ground. 
According lo D, S- Joidan (A Cuidf io ihi Study oj Fishes, New 
York, 1905) same kinds are knoirn mainly iti thc^ waters they inake 
their breed hg-homes, as in Cub^^ wutbern California. Hawaii <Mr 
japan^ the incjividuals being ^i^tter^l at other times through the 
wide seas. The tunnyi whith has a world-wide distrilNitioa, 
arrives oH the south codst of Portugal in the month of May; 
enormous numbets^ pass through the btraits ol Gibraltar and sup> 
port great fishing indusitriea in the Mediterranean. In the month 
of August thq( return to the t»cean (Api^iM d^ Afum no Algarve em 
iSp^, por D, Carlos de Bragansa^ Lisboa, i!^; with many maps). 

K^any fresh^ Water fishes as trout and EuckcrG (quoting Ionian) 
fonake the large streams in the spring, ascend ing tne small brooks 
where their V^^urtg can be reared in greater {.liety. Still others, 
known as aiffidi^emout |li^hes, feed and m^iture in the sea, but ascend 
the rivers as the impuifie of reproduction groups strong. ArooQC 
such fishes arc the salmon, shad, ale wife, sturgeon ^nd stripod 
bass in American waters; Ciupca aJom, the Allia Anad, and C ^tUA^ 
the Twait shad, AUpnctphoiu-i rajiraiui, the " matJUck " ol the 
Rhine, in Europe.^ " The most remarkable case of the AnadnofTkom 
instinct is found in the king^salmon or quincmt iOnchitrhritchLS 
tsfJiaiDyiscka}, of the PaciJic co.ist. This great fish spawixs tn 
November, at the age of Jour years and an average weight ol tw«ity- 
two pounds. In the Columbia river it begins runnine with toe 
spring frenhets in March and April, h spends the whoTe funattner^ 
without feeding, in the accent of the nver. By autumn the 
individuals have reached the mountain streams of Idaho, gfeatly 
changed in appearancey discoloured, worn netd distorted. On 
ncarhmg the sj^wning-bcds, which may be tocio m. from the sea 
in the Columbia, o^-er 1000 m. in the Vukoni the female deposits 
hex eggs in the gravel of some shallow brook. The male coven 
them and scrajijcs the gravel over them. Then both male and 
female drifts Ui\ foremoit, helplejaly down the stream; none, so 
far as certainly i* known, ever survive the reproduction act. The 
same habits art found in the five other species of salmon ia 
the Pacific The Kalrnon of the Atlantic has a sinular habit, but 
the distance ti^vellL'd is everywhere much Lus, and most of the 
hook-iawcd males drop down to the sea and ii^tcover, to repeat the 
act of reproduction." 

Few fidies a/t kctadrommts. It* their usual habitat is in rrreft 
and Lakes, but they descend into the tfa for txeeding purposes. 
The common eel is the elassical example, 

IiuKlj. — D. Sharp makes the foElowing remarks (Cambn^ 
Nfii. Hist, vi.) : " OdonAia are amon^ the few Idnds of insects that 
are known to form swarms and migrate. Swarms of this kind 
have been frequently obscrvpJ in Europe and in North America; 
they u it] ally consist ol a species of the sen us Ubdlnla, but specks 
of various other gencfa al» swarm, and sometimes a swarm may 
consist of more than one species. 

' " Locust swarms do not visit the districts that are subject to 
their invasfons every ye.u-, but as a rule onl^ alter intervals of a 
GOn»dtratile number of years. . , , The irregularity seems to 
depend upon three facts, viz. that the increase of locusts is kept in 
check by fiart!pitic insects; that the eggs may remain more than 
one year in the gnjund and yet hatch out when a favourable season 
occurs, atiid that the migrator)^ Itifltinet ij only effective when great 
numbers of supcffluoiji individaals are procfuced. ... It b wdi 
established that locusts of the migraitory ^jecie? exist in countries 
without giving rise tu swarrns or causing arty serious injuries. . . . 
When migration ol locusts does occur it u attct^ded by remarkable 
manifestations of instincts Althongh several generations may 
elapse without n mipaiion^ it is believed that the locusts when they 
rni^jrtite do so in the direction taken by predecessors. They are 
said to take trial flights to ascertain the direction of a favoiuable 
wind, and that they ali^t and wait for a change. The 



obscurt point is their disappeax^noe from a spot they have invaded. 

a ncaJiCy, deposit there a number d cgn. 

season or two there w9 



A swarm wilt alight on 1 



and then move on. Btit after a lapse of a s 
be few or none ol the specks present in the spot invaded. In other 
ca^e$ they sigain migrate after growth to the land d their 
anorstors. It has been ascertajnefTby the Dn 114x1 States EntOiM^ 
iogiral Commission that *uch return smarms do occur." 

Sc« J. A. Palnjd'nH Dm Fogiamis ft^anint^iitwr (HefaiiwfofS. 
1&74). The KLme in German : Obtr die Zvestmssem dts KM 
^U^xi^« i&^). In this aod the wnrk of von Middcadpiff. tktmt 



MIGUEL— MILAN 



437 



dud, referenee is made to almost every important publication on 
the subject of migration, which renders a notice of its very extensive 
literature needless here, and a pretty full bibliographical list 
is given in Giebel's Thesaurus omithologiae (L 146-1^). Yet 
mentioo may be made of Schlegel's Over het trekken der Voids 
(Harlem, 1828); Hodgson's "On the Migration of the Natatores 
wodJfraUalcres as observed at Kathmandu " in Asiatic Researches 
^vju. i^s-i--. ...:.'■'..:■'■'■ - ' ■ .■■i-Hj 

its «wilUtu -r / .. r;;r r, • ,-, r.-u:,):^ .:.■:, ....... v .;■/.'■/■ . ■; ■ ■ ! ■ 1 1,_ m, 

1843). TbiJ \A5iU though oac u\ iha Largc?»t pjblkallioiii ii>n the 
subject, u one of the ka»t &at[^actoTy. S. F, BjirdV otccllent 
fTQtuc ** On Ehe Di&Eribution :ind Migi^tionfl of North AmcnoLii 
Bifds" A.m. lourn. Sc. and AtH (md xr, J 866). pp- 7^-90, 187-191, 
ijJ-S47; reprinted Ibis 1S&7, pp. 157-^^- ^N. A- Scvcrztiff^ 
Etude* aur le poBsag^e des oiicauK dani ['Aftie ccntrAle/^ BvU^ 
Soc, Nai^ (McMcow. leflo). pp. ^34-387-. Meiubier, *' O* Eufitrat- 
sen d«T Vn»c) Lm purDp&ischcji Ru«&1dnd," ap. cif. (tHAb), pp^. 
si^T-j^; Parpi^ft* Rijerai nbtr din Stand dcr Kenntnisidtt VagtUuiti, 
Intern- Ornilh. Congr., Budapest, 1K91: W. W. Ccnakt and C H. 
Mnriain. Rep9fi ott Bifd Migration in iiu Miaiisippi VaUty. U.S. Dep» 
hEnc.-Ecatvomk Qrakhol, pubL ^ {Washington!, iSSil}; Goctkf', O14 
V^fffvoj^te Ifdti>tixnd (Brakinschwci^, i^i). In Engbsh: Htii£tf' 
Und lis an OjttlAol«ifiijf Ofrf^^rnatory (Ediaburghi 1*^5}: A, Newton, 
trtide ** Migration^ Dui. Birdi (1*93)* (H* F. C,y 

HIGUBL. MARU EVARIST (1802-1866), usuaUy imoWn as 
DoM Miguel, whose name is chiefly associated with his preten- 
sioiis to the throne of Portugal, was the third son of King John 
VI. of Portugal, and of CarloU Joaquina, one of the Spanish 
Bourbons; he was bom at Lisbon on the 36th of October i8oa. 
In 1807 he accompanied his parents in their flight to Brazil, 
where he grew up an uneducated and fanatical debauchee; 
in iSai, on his return to Europe, it is said that he had not 
yet learned to read. In 1822 his father swore fidelity to the 
new Portuguese constitution which had been proclaimed in 
his absence; and this led (^lota Joaquina, who was an abso- 
faitist of tbc extremest Bourbon type, and hated her husband, 
to seek his dethronement in favour of Miguel her favourite 
son. The insurrections which ensued (see Portugal) resulted 
in her imprisonment and the exile of Miguel (1824), who spent 
a short time in Paris and afterwards lived in Vienna, where 
be came under the teaching of Mettemich. On the sudden 
death of John VI. in May 1826, Pedro of Brazil, his eldest 
son, renounced the crown in favour of his daughter Maria da 
Gloria, on the understanding that she should become the wife 
of MigueL The last named accordingly swore allegiance to 
Pedro, to Maria, and to the constitution which Pedro had 
introduced, and on this footing was appointed regent in July 
1827. He arrived in Lisbon in February 1828, and, regardless 
of his promises, dissolved the new Cortes in March; having 
called together the old 0)rtes, with the support of the reactionary 
party of which his mother was the ruling spirit, he got himself 
proclaimed sole legitimate king of Portugal in July. His 
private life was characterized by the wildest excesses, and he 
used his power to oppose all forms of liberalism. 

The public opinion of Europe became more and more actively 
hostile to his reign, and after the occupation of Oporto by 
Dom Pedro in 183 a, the destruction of Miguel's fleet by Captain 
(afterwards Sir Charles) Napier off Cape St Vincent in 1833, 
and the victory of Saldanha at Santarcm in 1834, Queen Christina 
of Spain recognized the legitimate sovereignty of Maria, and 
in this was followed by France and England. Dom Miguel 
capitxdated at Evora on the 29th of May 1834, renouncing 
all pretensions to the Portuguese throne. He lived for some 
time at Rome, where he enjoyed papal recognition, but after- 
wards retired to Bronnbach, in Baden, where he died on the 
14th of November 1866. 

MIHRAB* a term in Mahommedan architecture given to the 
niche which in a mosque indicates the direction of Mecca, 
towards which the Moslems turn when praying. 

MIKADO (Japanese for " exalted gate "), the poetical title 
associated by foreign countries with the sovereign of Japan; 
the Japanese title, corresponding to "emperor," is tenno, the 
term kUei being tised of his function in relation to external 
affairs. By the constitution of 1889, the emperor of Japan 
tiansferzed a large part of his former powers as absolute monarch 
to the representatives of the people, but as head of the empire 



he appoints the ministers, declares war, makes peace and con- 
cludes treaties, acting generally as a constitutional sovereign 
but with all the personal authority attaching to his august 
position. The history of the mikados goes back to very early 
times, but from x6oo to 1868 the real power was in the hands 
of the shoguns, who nevertheless were in ceremonial theory 
always successively invested with their authority by the mikado. 
The revolution of 1867 restored the real power into the mikado's 
hands. (See Japan: History] and Mtnsu-Hrro.) 

MIKIRS, a hill tribe of India, occupying two or three detached 
tracts in Nowgong and Sibsagar districts of Eastern Bengal and 
Assam, known as the Mlklr hills. In 190X their total number 
was returned as 87,056. Mikir is the name given to them by the 
Assamese; they call themselves Arleeng, which means " man " in 
general. They have long settled down to agriculture, and are 
distinguished from the tribes around them by the absence of 
savagery. Their langiuige, which has been studied by mission- 
aries, seems to connect them with the Kukl-Chin stock on the 
Burmese frontier. 

See Sir C. Lyall, The Mikirs (1908). 

MIKLOSICH, FRANZ VON (1813-1891), Austrian phUologist, 
was bom at Luttenbcrg, Styria, on the 29th of November 18 13. 
He graduated at the university at Gratz as a doctor of philo- 
sophy, and was for a time professor of philosophy there. In 1838 
he went to Vienna, where he took the degree of doctor of law. 
He devoted himself, however, to the study of Slavonic languages, 
abandoned the law, and obtained a post in the imperial library, 
where he remained from 1844 to 1862. In the former year ho 
published a noteworthy review of Bopp's Comparative Crammaff 
and this began a long series of works of immense erudition which 
completely revolutionized the study of Slavonic languages. In 
1849 Miklosich was appointed to the newly created chair of 
Slavonic philology at the imlversity of Vienna, and he occupied 
it until 1886. He became a member of the Academy of Vienna, 
which appointed him secretary of its historical and philosophical 
section, a member of the council of public instruction and of the 
upper house, and correspondent of the French Academy of 
Inscription. His numerous writings deal not only with the 
Slav languages, but with Rumanian, Albanian, Greek, and the 
language of the gypsies. Miklosich died on the 7th of March 
1891. 

MILAN (Ital. MUano, Ger. MaHand, anc. McdiolanuTn, q.v.), 
a city of Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province of Milan, 
93 m. by rail E.N.E. of Turin. Pop. (1881), 321.839; (1906), 
560,613. It is the seat of an archbishop, the headquarters of 
the II. army corps, the chief financial centre of Italy and the 
wealthiest manufacturing and conmiercial town in the country. 
It stands on the little river Olona, near the middle of the 
Lombard plain, 400 ft. above sea-level. 

The plain around Milan is extremely fertile, owing at once to 
the richness of the alluvial soil deposited by the Po, Ticlno, Olona 
and Adda, and to the excellent system of Irrigation. Seen from 
the top of the cathedral, the plain presents the appearance of a 
vast garden divided into square plots by rows of mulberry or 
poplar trees. To the east this plain stretches in an unbroken 
level, as far as the eye can follow it, towards Venice and the 
Adriatic; on the southem side the line of the Apennines from 
Bologna to Genoa closes the view; to the west rise the Maritime, 
Cottian and Graian Alps, with Monte Viso as their central point; 
while northward are the Pennine, Helvetic and Rhaetian Alps, 
of which Monte Rosa, the Saasgrat and Monte Leone arc the 
most conspicuous features. In the plain itself lie many small 
villages; and here and there a larger town like Monza or Saronno, 
or a great building like the Certosa of Pavia, makes a white 
point upon the greenery. The climate is changeable and trying; 
in summer it is intensely hot, in winter very cold. Snow is often 
seen, and the thermometer is frequently below freezing-point. 

In shape Milan is a fairly regular polygon, and its focus is 
the splendid Piazza del Duomo, from which a number of broad 
modern streets radiate in all directions. These streets arc 
connected by. an inner circle o( bou\!tN^t<i&, ViX!iSkVraKX&^ "vaaN. 
outside the canal. vUcVi mw\a X\» siVr o\ xX» \«rwci\Ds»x» 3X» 



43* 



MILAN 



arches of Porta Nuova are almost the last trace of the inner 
. circuit, constructed after the destruction of the city by Frederick 
Barbarossa, to which also belonged the Porta dei Fabbri, de- 
molished in 1 900. Curious reliefs from the Porta Romanaare to 
be seen in the museum. Within this circle the majority of the 
streets are narrow and crooked, while those between it and the 
bastions, though broader on the whole, have but little regularity. 
An outer circle of boulevards, planted with trees and com- 
manding the view of the suburbs, lies just beyond the present 
walls of the city, erected by the Spaniards in the i6th century; 
the entire length of these boulevards is traversed by an 
electric tramway 7 m. long. 

Occupying one end of the Piazza del Duomo is the famous 
cathedral. It is built of brick cased in marble from the quarries 
which Gian Galeazzo Visconti gave in perpetuity to the cathedral 
chapter. It was begun in 1386. The name of the original 
architect is unknown, but it is certain that many German master- 
masons were called to Milan to assist the Italian builders. It 
was then the largest church in existence, and now, after St 
Peter's at Rome and the cathedral of Seville, the Duomo of 
Milan is the largest church in Europe; it covers an area of 14,000 
sq. yds. and can hold 40,000 people. The interior is 486 ft. 
long, 189 ft. wide; the nave is 157 ft. high, and the distance from 
the pavement to the top of the tower is 356 ft. The style is 
Gothic, very elaborately decorated, but it shows many peculiar- 
ities, for the work was continued through several centuries and 
after many designs by many masters, notably by Amadeo, who 
carried out the octagonal cupola (the pinnacle of which dates 
from 1774), and by Tibaldi, who laid down the pavement and 
designed a baroque fagade. This last feature was begun after 
Tibaldi's design in 161 5, but was not finished till 1805, when 
Napoleon caused the work to be resumed. With its Renaissance 
windows and portals this fagade, though good in itself, was 
utterly out of keeping with the general style of the church, and 
in 1900 the removal of the inharmonious features was begun, 
to be replaced in a style strictly in accordance with the Gothic 
style of the rest of the building from the designs of Giuseppe 
Brentano. In shape the church is cruciform, with double 
aisles to the nave and aisles to the transepts. The roof is 
supported by fifty-two pillars with canopied niches for statues 
instead of capitals; the great windows of the choir, reputed to 
be the largest in the world, are filled with stained glass of 
1844. To the right of the entrance is the tomb of Arch- 
bishop Hcribert, the champion of Milanese h'berty, while 
beside him rests Archbishop Otto Visconti, the founder of that 
family as a reigning house. The large bronze candelabrum in 
the left transept is said to be 13th century work. In a crypt 
under the choir lies the body of the cardinal saint Carlo Borromeo, 
who consecrated the cathedral in 1577. It is contained in a 
rock-crystal shrine, encased in silver, and is vested in full ponti- 
fical robes blazing with jewels. The roof of the cathedral is 
built of blocks of marble, and the various levels are reached by 
staircases carried up the buttresses; it is ornamented with a 
profusion of turrets, pinnacles and statues, of which last there 
are said to be no fewer than 4440, of very various styles and 
periods. In front of the cathedral rises a colossal bronze 
equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. 

There are two noteworthy palaces in the Piazza del Duomo. 
The first is the Palazzo Reale dating from 1772, but occupying 
the site of the earliest mansion of the Viscontis and the Sforza; 
its great hall is a handsome chamber with a gallery supported 
by caryatides. Built into the palace is the ancient church of 
San Gottardo, a Romanesque building which was built by 
Azzone Visconti in 13 28-1339, and was the scene of the murder of 
Giovanni Maria Visconti in 141 2. Its campanile is a beautiful 
example of early Lombard terra-cotta work. The second 
palace is that of the archbishops, the fine fagade of which is the 
work of Fabio Magnone. It has an older north colonnade, by 
some attributed to Bramante, but, like many other buildings, 
without sufficient evidence, and a fine court with double colon- 
Dades by Tibaldi, to whom the back fagade is due. The Palazzo 
deHa RagioDc, erected in the Piazza, dei Mercanti, just west of 



the Piazza del Duomo, the central point of the medieval dty, 
in 1 223-1 238 by the podesti, Oldrado da Tresseno, whose eques- 
trian portrait in high relief adorns it, still exists in fine preservsp 
tion. It is a brick edifice with a portico on the ground floor and 
a large hall on the upper. Close by to the south is the beautiful 
Loggia degli Osii, erected in 13 16, with two loggie or open 
porticos, one above the other, in black and white marble. 

Among iht mOii iimcreiung buHdinK-i in MtLan is the ancient 
church o\ S, Am brew io. Htre Se AmbrcKW bapti/4-<t St Auj^ufr* 
tine; hfTC ht tlo^cd the door^i a^inist the cmprror Th>eoda!iiu« 4it«r 
hifr crut^i masucrv ai Thi^fi&ji tonics , her? the Lombard klrtj;^ arui t!ie 
early GernuiTi c^mpCTidn eautfd thcm-svh'esi to be- cfownccl with the 
iwti cnrniji dL Lombardy, And the pillar at which th«y ttMih Lhrir 
tDrondtlon o£irh» is pn:^n.t4 under the liine<'tri!Ci in thi; p'lAzx^ 
The church was butlt by St Ambrose early in thr 4t!i-cvntury <imi 
the ute df a temple of U4tchu> it is laJd), but as it itand^ it is a 
Homanesqtie baulica ol the [Jth century, recrntly v'cll robtofird 
(like nuny other churthet in MiLin), with n brick irKti.Tiar» hke t^ 
mAny chnmhcs ol ^tikli^ and Lombardy, curious eallcrics owt the 
fa^dt, and ixrrhapw the mt/ii pcrt&iiiy preserved^ atrium in r-jtiit' 
eAce. The ihooden doot IteloMi to (he crij^in^l 4th century chim-h: 
\i hsA carvings with 6CCii» (ram the Ufe o( David. In a ^reat 
Blver fy'liquary (modem) in the cr>pi lie the bones of St Ambna*e, 
abdvt! which riiic* the hig,h altar. T*nich re 



tilting, the only intact eiuxmple of iii ppericKl (0^5). Thew conduit 
of reliefs in eiSld and sll%'cr enriched wiih enamel and gems, and apt 
the work of one Viiollvinu*^ a German. 1'he baLdacchino, with 



sculptures of the 1 Jth Of early IJ^th centuTy. i* borne by four annent 
columfis of porphyry^ wiih gth-centur>' cappttalK. In the tribune 
arc fine mosaics of the 9th ctniury, which, Durckhardt rtmarU, 
completdy break with Bj^antine tiadition. In the tide chapel o£ S. 
Satifo art ex-en earlier mo^iic» (.jlh century); there anr aUo fine 
frescoes by Bom>gnone and fkrtuiniino Lanini. The lofiy brkik 
campanile (789-^24] is amcn^ the earliest tn Italy, and is dectntrd 
*ith coloured nwfolica ditlU. The court of the nd^hbourinji; 
canonica is by Bram^mte, And to a1» may be the dcsTgn of the 
cbi«ter« of the monastery of S. Ambraeto, now the mditary bo«pitaL 
S. IjonfTtiirt, in the sooth pnrtitm ol the towti. datci from before 
A-U. 5jS, thus bcinK practically centempocary with S. ViUile at 
Ravenna (though Burckhardt con^lden il to belong to about 
A-O, juQh and to be a pan of the thenme or palace of ManmianK 
but w^as burnt down and ;¥4torpd in 1071 {in (her restotation Coriinii- 
iao capjuls were u*rd at buw£). ThirtY'thrpe years later pait of 
it odUap»4, and a second fire foMowpd in 1 124. It was Teatond, 
but colUrk!M?d AvAin in 1573^ ^"d a great part cMf it Kid to be re^ 
con^in ' hng tne dome (1574-1591), tThe cliapd *f 

!^- A-; iVily 3 part of the original lI^uctllr^^, contAfOs 

mosaics of the 5th or 6th centurv.) In plan the church b an 
octagon, supported at the corners Sy four square towers in brick- 
work, which belong to the original structure. The interior with its 
tvh'i! cinJcn^ [^ a viry ftr'^e one-, and its influence on Renaissance 
arrtiiitecia ha* been veiy canbiderable. S. Eustorgio. one of the 
Ltr^'est Gothic ehurcbes in Milan, with some Romanesciue survivals, 
fjiities, 04 it «tandfi^ with its campanile, from the ena of the 13th 
centufv^ and h^s a modern fni^aae in the old style. It has some 
intciT$tine rnedic^val worki of ^^ulpture, and a fine chapel (Cappella 
FortinanfT with a good dome and a beautiful frieze ol^ angels, built 
by Michetazfo in 141^3-1461^^ ar>d containing the splendid sculptured 
tomb (a iruirble Siircophagus with reliefs, supported by statues) of 
Pelej Martyr (^^.v,), the masterpiece of Giovanni di Bakiucdo of 
Pm. (U5g); the walls of the chapel are decorated with important 
frescoei by Vincenzo Foppa ot Brescia. S. Simpliciano, too, 
chough on^nally Rocnancsque, b now in the ro^in Gothic, and 
hoj been tnudi alterHL 

S. Vmeenio in Frato (^33), now restored to its baailican form, 
with nave and two aisles djvided by columns and three apses, and 
with anna] I, flaE arcading on the exterior, which is in brickwork: S. 
Satin?» founded in ^79 i S. Dabila, also restored to its origiiutl form, 
^e., are Lntere^tLng Tor their ttomanestiue architecture. The snuB 
domed fttrucTure on the left of S. Satiro is eariicr than the church, 
while the campanile is part of the original structure, though pre- 
ceded in date by that of S. Ambrogio, which b one of the earliest 
genuine campanili in Italy (789-824).^ The reconstriKtion of the 
church of S. Satiro was Bramante's earliest work in Milan (after 
14^6). The choir is painted in perspective (there was no room to 
build one), the eariiest example of thb device, which was so fre> 
quently used in baroque architecture. The octagonal sacristy 
(before 1488), with niches below and a gallery above, with stucco 
decorations by Bramante himself (the frieze with putti and medal- 
lions b ascribed to Caradosso). b a masterly work, and o«e of hb 
best. The Cistercian abbey<hurch of Chbravalle. 5I m. south of 
Milan, is a fine brick building; in the plan of a Latin cross, with nave 
and two aisles with round pillars, with a lofty domed tower, in the 
so-called Romanesque Transition style, fiaving comparatively 
slender round pillars and cross vaulting, while the exterior b still 
quite Romanesque. It was founded in 1135 by St Bernard and 
consecrated in 1221. It is interesting as the model for the plan of 
tnany other churches in Lombardy, e-f. S. Maria dd Cannixie Jjid 



MILAN 



439 



S Fnnoeaco !n Ftvia. S. Marco, modemitcd iniide, still retaiiu 
a beautiful facade of 1254 and a tower — in brick as elsewhere — 
and contains another tomb by Balduccio. S. Maria Incoronata it 
unique as a double Gothic church, in the horizontal sense (1451- 
14«7). 

Of the secular buildines of the beginning of the 15th century, 
tlw most notable is the Palazzo Borromeo, which still preserves it& 
Gothic courtyard. It has a good collection of Lombard pictures. 
At DO great distance from S. Ambrogio, in the Corao Magenta, is 
the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie. built by the Dominicans 
about 1460, to which the Gothic fa^de and nave belong. The 
choir, crossing, and beautiful sixteen-sided dome, with the elegant 
external decorations in terra<otta and marble, are by Bramante 
(c. 1402). Adjoining the church is the convent, long used as 
barracks. Leading from the fine cloisters, also the work of 
Bramante, is the former refectory, on the walls of which 
Leonardo da Vinci painted his celebrated " Last Supper," a work 
which is unfortunately in a bad state of preservation. 

Farther akmg the Corso, but nearer the Piazza del Duomo, is 
San Maurizio, the interior of which is covered by exceedingly 
effective frescoes by Luini and his contemporaries. The intcnor 
was erected by Giovanni Dolcebuono. a pupil of Bralnante, to whom 
is also due S Maria presso S. Cclso (the interior and the baroque 
facade are by Alessi). Thence the Via BoUo leads to the Piazza 
delLa Rosa, in which is situated the renowned Biblioteca Ambrosiana, 
erected in 1603-1609 by. Fabio Manzone, to whom the Palazzo del 
Senato is also due, rich in MSS. In the same building there is 
also a picture mWcry, in which is Raphael's cartoon for his fresco 
the " School 01 Athens " in the Vatican. Situated just within the 
Naviglio, the canal encircling the inner town (adjacent to San 
Nazaro. which contains Bernardino Lanini's [ft. 1546] masterpiece, 
the " Martyrdom of St Catherine "), is the Ospedale Maggtore. 
This institution, which can accommodate 2400 patients, was founded 
in the reicn ol Francesco Sforza. The principal court (there are 
nine in all) u surrounded by fine arcades of the 17th century by 
RicchinL The entire edifice is covered externally with terra-cotta, 
and its facade, designed by the Florentine Antonio Averulino 
(Filarcte) and begun m 1457, is superior to any other of the kind 
in MiUn. 

The city is rich in works of art, for Milan, with the introduction 
of the early Renaissance style by Filarete and Michelozzo after 
J450, became the home of a Lombard school of sculpture, among 
the chief masters of which may be mentioned Giovanni Antonio 
Amadeo, or Omodco,* of Pavia (1447-1522), Cristoforo Solan, 
and, the last of them, Agostino Busti, known as Bambaia (c. 
1480-1548)1 whose work may be seen in the cathedrals of Como 
and Milan and in the Certosa di Pavia. Subsequently, towards 
the close of the islh century, the refined court of Lodovico Sforza 
attracted such celebrated men as Bramante, the architect, 
Gauffino Franchino, the founder of one of the earliest musical 
academies, and Leonardo da Vinci, from whose school came 
Luini, Boltrafiio, Gaudenzio Ferrari, Marco d'Oggiono, &c. 
Later. Pellegrino Tibaldi and Galcazzo Alessi of Genoa (the for- 
mer a man of very wide activity) were the chief architects, and 
Leone Leoni of Arezzo the chief sculptor. In still more recent 
times Beccaria (1738-1794) as a jurist, Monti (1754-1828) as a 
poet and Manzoni (i 785-1873) as a novelist, have won for the 
Milanese a high reputation. 

The picture gallery of the Brera, one of the finest in Italy, occupies 
an imponng palace with a good courtyard by Ricchini. It was 
built as a Jesuit college in 1651. but since 1776 has been the scat 
of the Acoulemia di Belle Arti, and contains besides the picture 
gallery a library of some 300,000 volumes, a collection of coins 
numbering about 60,000, and an excellent observatory founded in 
1766. The Brera (Gallery, the nucleus of which was formed /in 
1806. possesses Raphael's famous " Sposalizio." and many pictures 
and frescoes by Luini, Guadcnzio Ferrari and Bramantino; the 
collection of the works of Carlo Crivelli (fl. 1480) affords an in- 
structive airvey of his work, which connects the Paduan school 
with the Venetian, here particularly well represented by works of 
Paolo Veronese. Paris Boraone. Gentile Bellini. Cima da Cone^gliano, 
Bonifazio. Moroni and Carpaccio. Additions are continually 
made to it. 

The Castcl Sforze9CO, or Castle of Milan, stands in the Parco 
Nuovo: it was built in 1450 by Francesco Sforza on the site of one 
erected by Galeazzo II. Viaconti ('355-J378) ^nd demolished in 
1447 by the populace after the death of Filippo Maria Visconti. 
After suffering many vicissitudes and being partially destroyed 
more than once, it was restored — includincr especially the splendid 
entrance tower by Antonio Averulino (Filarcte, 145I-I453). ^^• 
stroyed by a powder explosion in 1521 — in the I5th<entury style 

* See F. Malaguzzi Valeri, C. A, Amadeo, scuUore e arckiUUo 
(BecsuBo. 1905). ■ 



in 1893 sqq., and it is now a most Impmdng pile. Some of the fine 
windows with their terra-cotta decorations are preserved. The 
archaeological museum is housed here on the ground floor ; besides 
Roman and pre- Roman objects it contains fragments of the 9th 
century basilica of Santa Maria in Aurona. one of the first examples 
of vaulted Lombard architecture; the bas-reliefs of the ancient 
Porta Romana of Milan, representing the return of the Milanese 
in 1 171 after the defeat of Barbarossa; the remains of the church 
of Santa Maria in Brera, the work of Balduccio da Pisa ; the grandiose 
sepulchral monument of Bernab6 Visconti formerly in the church 
of San Giovanni in Conca; the tomb of Reeina della Scala, the wife 
of Bemab6; the funeral monument of the Kusca family: the great 
portal of the palace of Pigcllo Portinari, seat of the Banco Mediceo 
at Milan, a work of Michelozzo: a series of Renaissance sculptures, 
including works by Amadeo r^ 

named Bambaia), including fr.-^,.,^J.^.. >^i li,, i. .■■„.'., ^m l.^u^i^i. iix 
Foix. Several ot the rooms occiipicd bv the archdtiiloKbcal muK>um 
bear traces of the decorations cxn: tiled under Gaieduo Maria and 
Lodovico il Moro, and one of them has a Epli^ndid ci;ilinj! with trH4 
in full foliage, painted so as to cover the whole vauEiing, a^ribcd 
to Leonardo da Vinci. In the upper rocKms ii placed a kree irbUcC' 
tion of Milanese and central Lt^Eijn. ceramics, $luff&. lumlture, 
bronzes, ivories, enamels, glase a.nd hii&tofical nitcs; t^ethc^r with 
a picture gallery containing wotk^ hy \'\nctnto Foppa* Cii^npietrino, 
Boltraflfio, Crivelli, Pordcnone, ^t.l^unf » Carlant, Cornt^j^io, AFitondlo 
da Messina, Tiepolo, Guardi, PoUir, V'.in [»> k .ld.I Ribcim. 

The finest of the modem thoroughfares of Milan is the Via 
Dante, constructed in 1888; it runs from the Piazza de' Mercanti 
to the spacious Foro Bonaparte, and thence to the Parco Nuovo, 
the great public garden in which stands the Castello Sforzesco. 
This park was once a national drilling ground, which was taken 
over by the municipality with a view to erecting upon it a new 
residential quarter, rendered necessary by the phenomenal 
growth of the city during the last twenty-five years of the 19th 
century. This design was happily abandoned, and around the 
Parco Nuovo has grown up a new quarter of wide streets, 
spacious gardens and private villas. 

To the north of the castle is the Arena, a kind of drcus erected 
by Napoleon in 1805; while facing the castle on the opposite 
side of the park is the Arco della Pace, begun by Napoleon in 
1806 from the designs of Cagnola to mark the beginning of the 
Simplon Road, but finished by the Austrians in 1833. Leading 
east-north-east from the Piazza del Duomo, the centre of 
Milanese traffic, especially of electric trams, is the Corso Vittorio 
Emanucle. Connecting the piazza with the neighbouring 
Piazza della Scala is the famous Galleria Vittorio Emanuele, a 
great arcade in the form of a Latin cross, with an octagon in the 
centre, crowned at the height of 160 ft. with a glass cupola; it is 
roofed with glass throughout, and is 320 yds. long, 16 yds. wide 
and 94 ft. high. It has splendid facades at each end, and was 
constructed in 1865-1867 at the cost of 3^20,000; it is the finest 
of its kind in Europe. 

In the Via Morone near the Piazza della Scala is a collection 
of art treasures bequeathed to the town in 1879 by a Milanese 
patrician, the Cavaliere Poldi-Pezzoli. It comprises valuable 
pictures, textile fabrics, arms, armour and a number of antiqui- 
ties, and is exhibited in the house once occupied by the founder. 
In the middle of the neighbouring Piazza della Scala stands 
Magni's monument of Leonardo da Vinci (1S72). Opposite is 
the celebrated Teatro della Scala, built in 177S on the site of a 
church founded by Beatrice della Scala, wife of Bernabo \'isconti. 
After the San Carlo at Naples it is the largest theatre in Europe, 
and can seat 3600 spectators. Looking on to the piazza is the 
fine Palazzo Marino, the scat of the municipality since 1861; it 
was built by Galeazzo Alessi in 1558, to whom the side facade 
and the court are due, but was not completed until 1890, when 
the main facade was erected by Luca Beltrami. S. Fedelc by 
Tibaldi (1569) is close by. Milan has a royal scientific and 
literary academy with a faculty of philosophy, a royal technical 
institute, a school of veterinary science, a royal school of agricul- 
ture, a polytechnic with the Bocconi commercial school (founded 
1898) and numerous other learned and educational institutions. 
Milan has long been famous as one of the great musical centres 
of Europe, and numerous students resort here for their musical 
education. There are many philanthropic institutions, the most 
interesting of which is the Albex^o Yo^Vax^,, tLtv «b\.^JOc\^\c>RxX. 
conducted on lines timilax \o vYi<& Yio>xsd^ ^va^jC^^^ vcl'^xw^^sA 



440 



MILAN 



by I^rd Rowioo in jSg^. Sport and athletics are provided by a 
number of dub$, notably the Touhng Club Itiliaiio, founded Id 

1894^ 

The modern industrial developfncnt erf Mibn. wiiH iti suburbs 
and neighbouring itjwnt^iuch as Monia^ Galldr^ten Saronno, Busio 
Aniiio and Legnanc^i baa beta nmeworthy. Machint.--niAkin£ on 
a Laiice scale is carried on by firm 9 widely celebrated Jar the con- 
■iniciion erf Jocomotives, railway truck* and caniaE*^, vtjeani- 
bmlert and motorsn turbineSt pumpa. meial bridges and rooi%. 
Minot indostdtr^ am rirpri:^nted by workshop! for the production 
of iurfkal. musical and gcydctic instniments^ of lelcphone and 
teleerapti accc&fiorinj dynamos^ Bc^fh-in^f-majchincs^ bicycles and 
autciniDbLlcs, There is also a large camaifc IndostTv. in text tic 
inda^tfii's ulk holds the iirist ptaoe^ Tbc amount of §11 k handled 
and woven in Milan h grMtcr th4.n tbat dealt with at Lyons^ 
Splnaine and twiftinj^ are as highly developed as the weaving 
indu-ftry* Mibn Js also the centre of the Italian cotton industry*, 
Cot tort' Weaving, dyeing and print ing are extensively carriKi on. 
Linen, Bax, jute and wool are aJao ^pun and woven. The MILane^ 
manutacturcE of articles in caoutchouc and of electrtc C'tbli^s have 
acquired a world-wide reputatiotu In typography ^Iikan is Tt- 
-nowned principally for \i& muincal editions and for its beliot^'pc 
and Eincotype establlishments. There is^ be^des, a hngi; production 
erf posters for advertisement. The rnanufacture of furtutun! of atl 
kindi h Ejtill extensively carried on, Milan being the chief Lombard 
market and centre of eKportation^ The towns of Cantu* JMcflap 
Liisone and Carugo suppfy Xlilanese Arms with TDost of thdr tncf- 
chandlse, the lurniture ucinc made by tbe workmen at their own 
komtt with materials Aupphk?<d hy the Milanese buyers, who al;to 
advance the capital neceiuary for workine expenses. Theatrical 
CQ4tumeB and appliani:es ore also made in Milan, which in an im^ 
pHXtant theatfiral centn>. House industry is Etill widely didUKxl 
in Milan it^ir^ especially as regards working in gold, silveri vulciiniiGrt 
bronze and leather. The rnotive power for much of the bQU-tf 
industry is supplied by electiidty. The electricity is partly 
fijrniii-htd by hyorauLic works at-Pademo, ^^4 m. Irom Milan; the 
hor^e- power h eontjrLunlly heing increa§ed owing to new nced% 
Cbjv tiM also much used. Ntibn is also a centre of the eJtport tiade 
in cheese; chocolate, biscuits, ^., arc also manuFaetured, 

The municipal schoolA of Milan are aa nx'll organized at any in 
Italy, and the exhibit in connexion with them at the great inter- 
national eKhibition of 1906 was of interest. There were* in 1^7, 

£6 buildings for schools and 47,968 pupils, while in the e^'etilng and 
oliday classes th^'-re were 10,7^4 older pupils; 3,109,930 free rations 
and i3t j,jj5 paid rations u-ere diEtributed to l6,|3j6 pupiU, and 
douches were supplied- Pitpali's Tavolo Psleoscopico for examining 
the mental qualities of the pupils is of interest. The international 
«KhibilioEi 01 1906 hc4d in Alilan was of constderable importance, 
all the leading states of the world taking part in it. The retro- 
ipcctive cjihibition of means of transport la-as intcre^ing in view 
of the n^cnt opening erf the Sintplon tunnel, the occasion of the 
exhibitioii. Among the most noteworthy e^ibits were those of 
machinerv, of autcmobllea and bicycles, of agriculture, of transports 
by sea, of modem art and afthitecturtt of Italian home industries, 
of the city of Mibn; besides which, all the countries exhibiting bad 
their own separate paviEion«. 

Until iSf>B the octroi circle did not extend bcvond the walls; 
but in that year it was found necessary. Owing to the growth of the 
city and of municipal expenditure, to include the tKtern.1,1 quarters 
or Corpi 5antj {a name also applied to the extramumi portions of 
Cremnna and Favia), with tht-ir large industrial population* Since 
that time municipal finance liasi been in a prosperous condition. 

The water supj^ly, from wells stime i^ ft. deep in the sul>EoiL, 
i* fairly gwxl; one di the towent of the Castello Sforaetco is used as 
a diitributing centre, while the sewerage system consists of 48 m. 
ai fewrrs on the single cLinnel pfirtciplt, with collectors discharging 
into the Vettabia, a tributary of the Lambro, 

tn iS6oa largecemeieii', theCimitcro Monument.-ilep wjsopene<It 
but found to be insufficient^ it i> reserved forimjKirtai^t monument!^, 
that of Musocco, ^ m. from the dty, being u:&cd lor general purposes, 

iftjfijry— (For catlier history ^e MEDJOWNim).— After the 
.euablLahment of tbe Lombard capital at Pa via in 569 Milan 
remaitied the centre of Italian opposition lo ihe foreign conquest* 
The Lombards were Arians, and the archbishops of Milan from 
the days of Ambrose had been always orthodox. Though the 
ttruggle was unequal, their altitude of resolute opposition tn the 
Lombards gained for them great weight atnong the people, who 
felt that their archbishop was a power around whom they might 
gilher for the defence ai their liberty and leligion* All the 
innale hatred of the foreigner went to strenglhen tbe hands of 
the archbishop»^ who slowly acquired, in addition lo their spiri- 
tual authority, powers mihtaryt executive and judicial. These 
powers they came to a dm in Ester through l-heir delcgalcj, called 
^atunts. When the Lombard Jkin^dom fell before the Franks 
ODditr Charlemagne in 774, the A/^biibops d Milan iwcit ttJli 



further strengthened by the dose alliance between Charles and 
the Church, which gave isi sort of confirmation to their temporal 
authority, and also by Charles's policy of breaking up the great 
Lombard fiefs and dukedoms, for which he substituted the 
smaller cotmties. Under the confused government of Charles's 
immediate successors the archbishop was the only real power 
in Milan. But there were two classes of difficulties in the situa- 
tion, ecclesiastical and political; and their presence had a marked 
effect on the development of the people and the growth of the 
commime, which was the next stage in the history of Milan. On 
the one hand the archbishop was obliged to contend against the 
heretics or against fanatical reformers who found a following 
among the people; and on the other, since the archbishop was 
the real power in the city, the emperor, the nobles and the peo|^ 
each desired that he should be of their party; and to whichever 
party he did belong he was certain to find himself violently 
opposed by the other two. From these catises it sometimes 
happened that there were two archbishops, and therefore do 
central control, or no archbishop at all, or else an archbishop in 
exile. The chief result of these diffictilties was that a spirit of 
independence and a capacity of judging and acting for themsdves 
was devdoped in the people of Milan. The terror of the Hun- 
nish invasion, in 899, further assisted the people in their progress 
towards freedom, for it compelled them to take arms and to 
fortify their .dty, rendering Milan more than ever independent 
of the feudal lords who lived in their castles in the country. 
The tyranny of these nobles drove the peasantry and smaller 
vassals to seek the protection for life and property, the equality 
of taxation and of justice, which could be found only inside the 
walled city and under the rule of the archbishop. Thus Milan 
grew populous, and learned to govern itself. Its inhabitants 
became for the first time Milanese, attached to the stimdard of 
St Ambrose — no longer subjects of a fordgn conqueror, but a 
distinct people, with a municipal life and prospects of their own. 
For the further growth of the commune, the action of the great 
archbishop, Heribcrt (101^1045), ' the esublishment of the 
carrocdo, the dcvdopment of Milanese supremacy in Lorobardy, 
the destruction of Lodi, Como, Pavia and other neighbouring 
dties, the exhibition of free spirit and power in the Lombard 
league, and the battle of Lcgnano, see the artides Italy and 
LoiCBAROS. In 1 1 57 an almost circular moat, still preserved in 
the inner canal or Naviglio, was constructed round the town; 
but in 1 162 Frederick Barbarossa took and almost entirdy 
destroyed the dty, only a few churches surviving. The dty 
with its walls was, however, rebuilt five years later by the aDied 
dties of Bergamo, Brcsda, Mantua and Verona. 

After the battle of Lcgnano, in 11 74, although the Lombard 
cities failed to reap the fruit of their united action, and fell to 
mutual jealousy once more, Milan internally began to grow in 
material prosperity. After the peace of Constance (1183) the 
city walls were extended; the arts flourished, each in its own 
quarter, under a syndic who watched the interests of the trade. 
The manufacture of armour was the most important industry. 
During the struggles with Barbarossa, when freedom seemed on 
the point of being destroyed, many Milanese vowed themsdves, 
their goods and their families to the Virgin should their dty 
come safely out of her troubles. Hence arose the powerful 
fraternity of the " Umiliati," who esUblished their headquarten 
at the Brera, and began to develop the wool trade, and subse- 
quently gave the first impetus to the production of silk. From 
this period also date the irrigation works which render the Lcnn- 
bard plain a fertile garden. The government of the dty con« 
sistcd of (a) a parlamento or consiglio grande, induding ^ who 
possessed bread and wine of their own — ^a council soon found to 
be unmanageable owing to its size, and reduced first to 2000, 
then to 1500 and finally to 800 members; {b) a credenxa or 
committee of 12 members, elected in the grand council, for 
the despatch of urgent or secret business, {c) the consuls, the 
executive, elected for one year, and compelled to report to the 
great council at the term of their office. 

The bitter and well: balanced rivalry between the nobles and 
Ihe people, and the endless danger to which it exposed the dty 



MILANESI— MILAN OBRENOVICH IV. 



441 



owing to the fact that the nobles were always ready to daim the 
protection of their feudal chief, the emperor, brought to the front 
two noble families as protagonists of the contending factions— 
the Tociiani of Valsassina, and the Visconti, who derived their 
name from the office of delegates which they had held under the 
archbishops. After the battle of Cortenova, in 1237, where 
Frederick II. defeated the Guelph army of the Milanese and 
captured their carroccio, Pagano della Torre rallied and saved 
the remnants of the Milanese. This act recommended him to 
popular favour, and he was called to the government of the city 
— but only for the distinct purpose of establishing the " catasta," 
a property tax which should fall with equal incidence on every 
citizen. This was a democratic measure which marked the 
party to which the Torriani belonged and rendered them hateful 
to the nobih'ty. Pagano died in 1241. His nephew Martino 
foOowed as podesti in 1256, and in 1259 as signore of Milan — 
the first time such a title was heard in Italy. The nobles, who 
had gathered round the Visconti, and who threatened to bring 
Endino da Romano, the Ghibelline tyrant of Padua, into the 
dty, were defeated by Martino, and 900 of their number were 
captured. Martino was followed by two other Torriani, Filippo 
his brother (1263-1265) and Napolcone his cousin (1265-1277), 
ss k>rds of Milan. Napoleone obtained the title of imperial 
vicar from Rudolph of Hapsburg. But the nobles under the 
Visconti had been steadily gathering strength, and Napoleone 
was defeated at Desio in 1277. He ended his life in a wooden 
cage at Castel Baradello above Como. 

Otto Visconti, archbishop of Milan (1262), the victor of Desio, 
became k>rd of Milan, and founded the house of Visconti, who 
rated the city — except from 1302 to 1310 — till 1447, giving twelve 
k>rds to Milan. Otho(i277-i295),Matteo(i3io-i322),Galeazzo 
(i32»-i328), Azxo (i328-»339)» Lucchino (133971349) and 
Gio^nnni (1349-1354) followed in succession. Giovanni left 
the kNxlship to three nephews — Matteo, Galeazzo and Bemabd. 
Matteo wau killed (1355) by his brothers, who divided the 
Milanese, Bemabd reigning in Milan (1354-1385) and Galeazzo 
in Pavia (1354--1378) Galeazzo left a son, Gian Galeazzo, who 
became sole lord of Milan by seizing and imprisoning his uncle 
Bernabd. It was under him that the cathedral of Milan and 
the Certosa di Pavia were begun. He was the first duke of Milan, 
having obtained that title from the emperor Wenceslaus. His 
sons Gtovanni Maria, who reigned at Milan (1402-1412), and 
FQippo Maria, who reigned at Pavia (1402- 1447), succeeded him. 
In 141 2, on his brother's death, Filippo united the whole duchy 
wider his sole rule, and attempted to carry out his father's policy 
of aggrandizement, but without success. 

Filippo was the last male of the Visconti house. At his death 
a republic was proclaimed, which lasted only three years. In 
1450 the general Francesco Sforza, who had married Fih'ppo's 
only child Bianca Visconti, became duke of Milan by right of 
conquest if by any right. Under this duke the castelio was 
rebuilt and the canal of the Martesana, whidi connects Milan 
with the Adda, and the Great Hospital were carried out. Fran- 
cesco was followed by five of the Sforza family. His son 
Galeazzo Maria (1466-1476) left a son, Gian Galeazzo, a minor, 
whose guardian and uncle Lodovico (il Moro) usurped the duchy 
(1479-1500) Lodovico was captured in 1500 by Louis XII. of 
France, and Milan remained for twelve years under the French 
crown. In the partial settlement which followed the battle of 
Ravenna, Massimiliano Sforza, a protege of the emperor, was 
restored ro the throne of Milan, and held it by the help of the 
Swiss till 151 5, when Francis I. of France reconquered the Milan- 
ese by the battle of Marignano, and Massimiliano resigned the 
sovereignty for a revenue from France. This arrangement did 
not continue. Charles V. succeeded the emperor Maximilian, 
and at once disputed the possession of the Milanese with Francis. 
In 1522 (he imperialists entered Milan and proclaimed Francesco 
Sforza (son of Lodovico). Francesco died in 1535, and with him 
ended the bouse of Sforza. From this date till the War of the 
Spanish Succession (1714) Milan was a dependency of the Spanish 
crown. At the close of that war it was handed over to Austria; 
and under Austria it remained tiJ] the Napoleonic campkiga oS I 



1796. For the results of that campaign, and for the history of 
Italian progress towards independence, in which Milan played a 
prominent part by opening the revolution of 1848, with the 
insurrection of the Cinque Giornate (March 17-22), by which the 
Austrians were driven out; the reader is referred to the article 
Italy. The Lombard campaign of 1859, with the battles of 
Solferino and Magenta, finally made Milan a part of the kingdom 
of Italy. 

.LiTEaATURE.— Pietro Verri, Staria di MUano; Corio. Storia di 
Milano', CantA< Uhtftroiicne grandi del Lambardo Veneto; the 
Milanese chrcFticUm in Muratori'B R£i. liai. icriptores\ Sismondi, 
Itaiian RepubifCS'. Fcrruh. Kfvoiusiffnf d* luilia; Litta, Famt^lU 
celebri, s.v. "Toiriani/' " ViKonti/' ''Sfofta" and " Trivulzi "; 
Muratori, Anrtah d'liaiia: Hallam, HiitBfy pf the Middle Ages; 
and MeduUanum U vols., t^Hi>; L. BtUri^rrtK ft Castelio di Milano 
(Milan. 1894); L. cfcl M^iyna. Vicrnde miiitufi dri Castelio di Milano 
(Milan, 1894) i F. Mala^uuj Valt^ri, Milano, 2 vols. (Bergamo, 
1906); and C. M. Ady, A Histcry oj Milun undfr ike Sforza (1907). 

(1(, F. B.;T. As.) 

MILANESI. GAETANO (1813-1895), Italian scholar and writer 
on the history of art, was bom at Siena, where he studied law, 
and in 1838 he obtained an appointment in the public library. 
In 1856 he was elected member of the Accademia della Crusca, 
in which capadty he took part in the compilation of its famous 
but still unfinished dictionary, and two years later was appointed 
assistant keeper of the Tuscan archives, in Florence; then he 
took charge of the famous Medici archives, whence he collected 
a vast body of material on the history of Italian art, not all of 
which is yet published. In 1889 he became director of the 
archives, but retired in 1892, and died three years later. His 
most important publication is his edition of Vasari's works in 
nine volumes, with copious and valuable notes (Florence, 1878- 
1885). Of his other writings the following may be mentioned: 
// diario inedilo di Alessandro Soszini (in the Arckivio storico 
ItalidnOf 1S42) ;Documenti per la storia dell* arte senese, 3 vols. 
(Siena, 1854- 1856) and Discorsi suUa storia civile ed artistica di 
Siena (Siena, 1862). He also edited a number of Italian classics. 

See E. Ridolfi's article in the Nuova antologifs (May 15, 1805); 
and A. Virgili's article in the Atii della regia Accademia ddla 
Crusca (Florence. 1898). 

MILAN OBRENOVICH IV. (1854-1901), king of Servia, 
was bom on the 22nd of August 1854, at jassy. He was the 
grand-nephew of the famous Milosh, whose brother Jefrem 
(d. 1856) had a son, Milosh (1829-1861), who married Maria 
Katardii, a Moldavian. Milan was their son. While still very 
young, he lost both his parents, and was adopted by his cousin, 
Michael Obrenovich, who returned to Servia on the expulsion 
of the Karageorgeviches in 1858 and became ruling prince on 
the death of his father, Milosh, in i860. During the reign of 
Michael young Milan was educated in Paris, at the Lyc^e Louis- 
le-Grand, where he displayed considerable precocity, but he was 
only fourteen years of age when in 1868 his cousin was assassi- 
nated and he succeeded to the throne under a regency. In 1872 
he was declared of age, and taking the reins of government into 
his own hands, soon manifested great intellectual power, coupled 
with a passionate headstrong character. Eugene Schuyler, who 
saw him about this time, found him " a very remarkable young 
man . . . singularly intelligent and well-informed." By a 
careful balancing of the Austrian and Russian parties in Servia, 
with a judicious leaning towards the former, Prince Milan was 
enabled in 1878, at the end of the Turkish War, to induce the 
Porte to acknowledge his independence, and was proclaimed king 
in 1882. (The history of his reign is told in detail under Servia.) 
Acting under Austrian influence. King Milan devoted all his 
energies to the improvement of means of communication and 
the development of natural resources, but the cost, which was 
unduly increased by reckless extravagance, led to proportionately 
heavy taxation. This, coupled with increased military service, 
rendered King Milan and the Austrian party most unpopular; 
and his political troubles were further increased by the defeat of 
the Servians in the war against Bulgaria, 1885-86. In 1885 
(Sept.) the union of Rumelia and Bulgaria caxiseA Nt\^t's^\^'^^ 
agitation in Servia, and lAWan ^xc.c\v\V2lV€S?j ^tO^^\«,^ n^^x >a.\(a^ 
his kinsman Prince Mcxa.tidet ou v\it \^v\i cA '^wwcJow. t^v«x 



442 



MILA Y FONTANALS— MILES 



a short but decisive campaign, the Servians were utterly routed 
at the battles of Slivinska and Pirot, and Milan's throne was 
only saved by the direct intervention of Austria. Domestic 
difficulties now -arose which rapidly assumed a political signifi- 
cance. In October 1875 King Milan had married Natalie, the 
six teen-years-old daughter of Peter Ivanovich Ketchko, a 
Moldavian Boyar, who was a colonel in the Russian army, and 
whose wife, Pulcheria, was by birth Princess Sturdza. A son, 
Alexander, was bom in 1876, but the king and queen showed 
signs of friction. Milan was anything but a faithful husband. 
Queen NaUlie was greatly influenced by Russian sympathies; 
and the couple, ill-assorted both personally and politically, 
separated in 1886, when the queen withdrew from the kinedom, 
taking with her the young prince, Alexander, afterwards king, 
then ten years of age. While she was residing at Wiesbaden in 
x888. King Milan succeeded in recovering the crown prince, 
whom he undertook to educate; and in reply to the queen's 
remonstrances, he exerted considerable pressure upon the 
metropolitan, and procured a divorce, which was afterwards 
annulled as illegal. King Milan now seemed master of the 
situation, and on the 3rd of January 1889 promulgated a new 
constitution much more liberal than the existing one of 1869. 
Two months later (March 6) he suddenly abdicated in favour of 
his son, a step for which no satisfactory reason was assigned, 
and settled as a private individual in Paris. In February 1891 a 
Radical ministry was formed. Queen Natalie and the ex-metro- 
politan Michael returned to Belgrade, and Austrian influence 
began to give way to Russian. Fear of a revolution and of 
King Milan's return led to a compromise, by which in May 1891 
the queen was expelled, and Milan was allowed a million francs 
from the civil list, on concUtion of not returning to Servia during 
his son's minority. Milan m March 1892 renounced all his rights, 
and even his Servian nationality. The situation altered, how- 
ever, after the young King Alexander in April 1893 had effected 
his coup d'itat and taken the reins of government into his hands. 
Servian politics began to grow more complicated, and Russian 
intrigue was rife. In January 1894 Milan suddenly appeared at 
Belgrade, and his son gladly availed himself of his experience and 
advice. On the 29th of April a royal decree reinstated Milan 
and Natalie, who in the meantime had become ostensibly recon- 
ciled, in their position as members of the royal family. On the 
21st of May the constitution of 1869 was restored, and Milan 
continued to exercise considerable influence over his son. The 
queen, who had been residing chiefly at Biarritz, returned to 
Belgrade in May 1895, after four years' absence, and was 
greeted by the populace with great enthusiasm. In 1897 Milan 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the Servian army. In this 
capacity he did some of the best work of his life, and his success 
in improving the Servian military system was very marked. 
His relations with the young king also remained good, and for a 
time it seemed as though all Russian intrigues were being checked. 
The good relations between father and son were interrupted, 
however, by the laiter's marriage in July 1900. Milan violently 
opposed the match, and resigned his post as commander-in- 
chief, and the young king banished him from Servia and 
threw himself into the arms of Russia. Milan retired to 
Vienna, and there he died unexpectedly on the xith of 
February 1901. Milan was an able, though headstrong man, but 
he lived a scandalously irregular life, and was devoid of moral 
principle. In considering his relations with his young son, it 
must be remembered that in the dynastic and political condition 
of Servia natural feeling was inevitably subordinated in Milan to 
other considerations. (H. Ch.) 

MILA Y FONTANALS, MANUEL (1818-1884), Spanish 
scholar, born at Villafranca del Panadas, near Barcelona, on the 
4th of May 1818, was educated first at Barcelona, and afterwards 
at the university of Ccrvera. In 1845 he became professor of 
literature at the university of Barcelona, and held this post till 
his death at Villafranca del Panadds on the i6th of July 1884. 
Tj^e type of the scholarly recluse, Miia y Fontanals was almost 
unknown ouLsJde the walls of the university till 1859, when he 
n^as appointed prdsideot of the juegos JlpraUs at Barcelona. 



On the publication of his treatise, De Los trovadores en EspaMa 
(1866), his merits became more generally recognized, and his 
monograph, De La po€sla herdico-popular casldlana (1873) 
revealed him to foreign scholars as a master of scientific method. 

MILAZZOt a seaport on the north coast of Sidly, in the 
province of Messina, 32 m. W. of Messina by raiL Pop. (1901), 
16,432. It is mainly built on the low isthmus of a peninsula, 
which stretches some 3 m. farther north and forms a good har- 
bour: but the old town, which contains a castle, mainly the 
work of Charles V., lies on a hill above. Milazzo is the ancient 
Mylae, an outpost of Zancle, occupied before 648 B.C., perhaps 
as early as 716 B.C. (E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, I., pp. 395, 
587). It was taken by the Athenians in 426 B.C. The people of 
Rhegium planted here the exiles from Naxos and Catana in 395 
B.C. as a counterpoise to Dionysius' foundation of Tyndaris; 
but Dionysius soon took it. In the bay Duilius won the first 
Roman naval victory over the Carthaginians (260 B.C.). 

MILDENHALL, a market town in the Stowmarket parliamen- 
tary division of Suffolk, England, 76} m. N.N.E. from London 
by a branch of the Great Eastern railway from Cambridge. 
Pop. (1901), 3567. It lies on the edge of Mildenhall Fen, the 
great Fen district stretching northward and westward from here. 
The church of St Andrew has an Early English chancel with fine 
east window and chancel arch. The remainder is principally 
Perpendicular with a magnificent carved oak roof, ornate north 
porch and lofty tower with fan tracery within. There is a 
wooden market cross of the 15th century; the manor house is 
a picturesque gabled building of the 17th century, and there 
is a modern public hall. Flour milling is an industry. The 
discovery of Roman remains indicates a small settlement. 

MILDEW (O. Eng. melediaw or mildeaw, explained as " meal- 
dew," cf. Ger. Mchlthau, with more probability, as " honey- 
dew," Goth, melilh, honey, cf. Lat. md, Gr. /i^Xi), a popular 
name given to various minute fungi from their appearance, and 
from the sudden, dew-like manner of their occurrence. Like 
many other popular names of plants, it is used to denote different 
species which possess very small botanical affinity. The term is 
applied, not only to species belonging to various systematic 
groups, but also to such as follow different modes of life. The 
corn-mildew, the hop-mildew and the vine-mildew arc. for 
example, parasitic upon living plants, and the mildews of damp 
linen and of paper are saprophytes (Gr. caxpin, rotten), that is, 
they subsist on matter which is already dead. As regards mil- 
dews in general, the conditions of life and growth are mainly 
suitable nutrition and dampness accompanied by a high tempera- 
ture. The life history of the same species of mildew frequently 
covers two or more generations, and these are often passed on 
hosts of different kinds. In some cases again the same genera- 
tion confines its attack to the same kind of host, while in others 
the same generation grows on various hosts (see Funxi; Hop; 
and Wheat). 

MILES, NELSON APPLETON (183^ ), American soldier, 
was born in Westminster, Massachusetts, on the 8th of August 
1839. He was engaged in mercantile pursuits in Boston when 
the Civil War began, and he entered the army in September 1861 
as a lieutenant in the 22nd Massachusetts volunteer infantry. 
He served with distinction in the Peninsular campaign, and at 
Anlietam, Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, where he received 
a wound which incapacitated him up to the opening of Grant's 
Virginia campaign of 1864. He had been commissioned in 
September 1862 colonel of the 6ist New York volunteers, 
commanded a brigade at the Wilderness and Spottsylvania. and 
in May 1864 was rewarded for his gallant leadership by the grade 
of brigadier-general of volunteers. He fought in the Cold 
Harbor and Petersburg operations in 1864-65, was brevetied 
major-general of volunteers for his conduct at Reams Station, 
and at the close of the war was in temporary command of an 
army corps. In July 1866 he was made colonel of a regular 
infantry regiment, and in 1867 he was brevetted brigadier- 
general in the regular army for his services at Chancellorsville 
and major-general for his services at Spottsylvania. He was 
i ptomovcd Vo \»t Vku^di^c-gjcneral U.S.A. (Dec 1880), and to be 



MILETUS— MILFORD 



443 



inajor-gnieTal (April 1890), and in 1895 tocceeded General John 
McA. Schofield as commanding general of Ihe United States 
army. He was conspicuously successful (1869-X8S6) in dealing 
with Indian outbreaks, fighting the Cheyenne, Kiowa and 
Comanche on Llano Estacado (1875) and the Sioux in Montana 
(1876), capturing the Nez Percys under Chief Joseph (1877), and 
defeating the Chiricahua Apaches under Geronimo (1886), and 
he commanded the United States troops sent to Chicago during 
the railway riots in 1894. He was in nominal direction of mili- 
tary operations during the war with Spain in 1898, though his 
personal share of the operations was confined to directing the 
almost unopposed Porto Rico expedition. He was raised to the 
rank of lieutenant-general in June 1900, and retired from active 
service in August 1903. In 1905-1906 he was adjuUnt-general 
and chief-of-stafif under Governor William L. Douglas in Massa- 
chusetts. He wrote Personal RecoiUctions (1896), Military 
Europ e (18 98) and Observations Abroad (1899). 

MILETUS (mod. Palatia), an sCncient city of Asia Minor, on the 
southern shore of the Latmic Gulf near the mouth of the Maean- 
der. Before the Ionic migration it was inhabited by Carians 
illiad n. 876; Herod. L 146), and pottery, found by Th. Wiegand 
on the spot proves that the site was inhabited, and had relations 
with the Aegean world, in the latest Minoan age. The Greek 
settlers from Pylos under Neleus are said to have massacred 
all the men in the old city, and built for themselves a new one on 
the coast. Miletus occupied a very favourable situation at the 
nouth of the rich valley of the Maeander, and was the natural 
outlet for the trade of southern Phrygia (Hipponax, Fr. 45). 
It had four harbours, one of considerable size, and its poWer 
extended inland for some distance up the valley of the Maeander, 
and along the coast to the south, where it founded the city of 
lasus. Its enterprise extended to Egypt, where it had much to 
do with the settlement of Naucratis (q.v.). Very little " Nau- 
cratiti " pottery, however, was found on the site by Wiegand, and 
only in the Athena temple. The Black Sea trade, however, was 
the greatest source of wealth to the Ionian dties. Miletus, like 
the rest, turned its attention chiefly to the north, and succeeded 
in almost monopolizing the traffic. Along the Hellespont, the 
Propontis and the Black Sea coasts it founded more than sixty 
cities — among them Abydus, Cyzicus, Sinope, Dioscurias, 
Panticapaeum and Olbia. All these cities were founded before 
the middle of the 7th century; and before 500 B.C. Miletus was 
decidedly the greatest Greek city. During the time when the 
enterprise of the seafaring population raised Miletus to such 
power and wealth nothing is known of its internal history, 
though the analogy of all Greek cities, and some casual state- 
ments in later writers, suggest that the usual struggles took place 
between oligarchy and democracy, and that tyrants sometimes 
raised themselves to supreme power. Miletus was equally 
distinguished at this early time as a seat of literature. The 
Ionian epic and lyric poetry ind^d had its home farther north; 
philosophy and history were more akin to the practical race of 
Miletus, and Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Hecataeus 
all belonged to this city. The poet Timothcus and the famous 
Aspasia were also natives. The three Ionian cities of Caria— 
Miletus, Myus and Priene — spoke a peculiar dialect of Ionic. 

The Mermnad kings of Lydia found in Miletus their strongest 
adversary. War was carried on for many years, till Alyattcs 
III. concluded a peace with Thrasybulus, tyrant of Miletus; the 
Milesians afterwards seem to have acknowledged peaceably the 
rule of Croestis. On the Persian conquest Miletus passed under 
a new master; it headed the Ionian revolt of 500 B.C., and was 
taken by storm after the battle of Lade (see Ionia). Darius 
massacred most of the inhabitants, transported the rest to Ampe 
at the mouth of the Tigris, and gave up the city to the Carians. 
This disaster was long remembered in Greece and made the 
theme of a tragedy by Phrynichus. Henceforth the history of 
Miletus has no special interest. It revived indeed when the 
Persians were expelled from the coast in 479 B.C., became a mem- 
ber of the Delian League (q.v.), revolted to Sparta in 412, passed 
into Carian hands, and opposed Alexander on his southward 
much, tuccumbing only to a siege in form C3J4 ^•^•)' ^^ ^^ ^ 



town of commercial importance throughout the Graeco-Roman 
period, and received special attention from Trajan. lis har- 
bours, once protected by Lade and the other Tragasaean blands, 
were gradually silted up by the Maeander, and Lade is now a hill 
some miles from the coast. Ephesus took its place as the great 
Ionian harbour in Hellenistic and Roman times. Miletus 
became the seat of a Christian bishopric and was strengthened 
by a Byzantine castle iK&orpop tC» UaXarUav) built above the 
theatre; but its decay was ineviuble, and iu site is now a 
marsh. 

Since 1899 Miletus has been the scene of extensive excavations 
directed by Dr Th. Wiegand for the Berlin Academy. The ruins 
lie about the base of a hillock projecting north-east into a bend of 
the Maeander. On the north is a well-preserved theatre of Roman 
time* on (he *ite ol an oIjIlt Gr. . . . \ . n complete it 

had ^ "?*'* *3l ^iti^ h Wis a>» lirijc n^ ,i!i> uiLatrt; in A.via Minor, 
and 1^ itiil imposing, thr jiuditoriucri, thouijh deprived of its upper 
lanki and colanrLiidc, rising nearly 100 ft. tTyriac of Ancona 
dimrribed the buikUitg a? practically complete in lit» day (1446). 
The koRt IS aver 1.^ y^s, lon^. ElaAt oi ihh iivat the ancient 
north h^rWur, notir Eilted up, anrj on th^ hilUide at>ovc It stood a 
Urge hctDOn of licllcnLstic time nniarkaLle for being, Uke the 
tciTTib of BrasidiB ai AmphipoIiA, wiiliin iht waJLn, South of the 
b,irLionr head Iks the Hdlenisik 3gor^ with niifu of Urge magazines 
of Doric fltyle. South o( these agaia lie a nymphdcum of the age 
of Titui, and a scnatc^house of rhcatnl form^ On the cast opens a 
great halJ fuiroundcd by porticoes and cnclo^ng a high altar of 
Artemi4, once richly adorKcid wJth nrlief*. The Koman agora lies 
beyond this agaiii. A sttaifiht street k^ds »uih west from the 
north harbour to the Didyma Gate in the iwall, which runs across 
the neck of the fjenin^uk and wit rebuilt by Traj^iii, whrn he under- 
took to raiic ihc level of the outer quartiTsi of the ctty; and 
jtrwtii cross thii at ni^ht dnelei in the Beomciric Hellenistic manner. 
A Sacred V\'ay lined with tomba> U'd to Didymi. Ti**ci temples " 
hav* been discovered by Dr Wifgand* onit on the south-east, 
being a targe unctuan^ of ApolB Delphi niut with triple ci;)lonnade 
enclosing a coun with centra] tfi^xKl, Thh aot:tti» to have been 
the chief temple of the city and ihe place wHcfe poblit records, 
treatie:^. &c.^ were engr^tvctj. The of her temple, an archaic sanctu- 
ary of Athena, ijea wot of the stadium. 

5m; O. Rayet and A. Thomas, MiUf fi : T (1877): 

Th, Wif^am], ■ Vorbufige &erichteiibcr I „ „ i Milet," 

in SitMun^sberichte of the Berlin Academy (1900, foil.); A. von 
Salis, " Die Ausgrabungen in Milet und Didyma " in Neue Jahrb. 
/. d. k. Alt., xxv. a, 1910. (D. G. H.) 

MILFORD, a township of New Haven county, Connecticut, 
U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, separated from the township of 
Stratford on the W. by the Housatonic river, and about 10 m. 
S.W. of New Haven. Pop. (1890), 381 1 ; (1900), 3783, including 
541 foreign-bom and 173 negroes; (1910), 4366. Area, about 16 
sq. m. Milford is served by the New York, New Haven & Hart- 
ford railroad, and by an electric line connecting with Bridgeport 
and. New Haven. Within its borders are various popular 
beaches, including Woodmont (incorporated as a borough in 
1903), Pond Point, Bay View, Fort Trumbull Beach (where a 
fortification, named Fort Trumbull, was erected in 1776), 
Myrtle Beach, Meadow's End, Walnut Beach and Milford Point. 
The township is traversed by the Wepowaug river, which here 
empties into the Soimd. Milford is a typical old New England 
town, and many of the permanent inhabitants are descendants 
from the first settlers. The burying-ground includes the tomb 
of Robert Treat (1633-1710), commander of the Connecticut 
troops in King Philip's War, leader of the company that founded 
Newark, New Jersey, governor of Connecticut (from 1683 to 
1698) at the time its charter was demanded by Governor Andros 
in 1686-1687, and deputy-governor in 1676-1683 and 1698- 
1708; and also that of Jonathan Law (1674-1751), governor of 
Connecticut from 1743 to 1751. Spanning the Wepowaug 
river near a gorge and not far from its mouth is a granite bridge 
and tower, built, as a memorial to the first settlers, in 1889, in 
connexion with the celebration of the asoth anniversary of the 
founding of the town. Milford has a beautiful green of about 
four acres, containing a soldiers' monument. It has also the 
Taylor Library (founded in 1894), and along the Sound are many 
summer residences. Named after Milford, England, it was 
founded in 1639 by Rev. Peter Prudden and his followers froca. 
New Haven and Wclhcre^eVd. T\vt VmA ^^& vaO^asfc^ Sxwsw 
the Indians iot 6 coaU, io\Aaiili.t\%, \V!tVC»,\^\a^.Ocw^^&.'^''»^^^**» 



MILFORD— MILITARY FRONTIER 



34 knives and la small mirrors. A " church-state " was imme- 
diately organized after the model of that of New Haven, but two 
or three years later the town bestowed suffrage on six of its inhab< 
itants who were not church members. These citizens were an 
obstacle to the town's admission to the New Haven Jurisdiction, 
which was formed in 1643, but in the following year a compromise 
was effected and Milford was admitted on condition that, in the 
future, suffrage should be granted only to church members and 
that none of the objectionable six should be elected to any office 
of the Jurisdiction. In 1664 Milford, with the other members of 
the Jurisdiction, was absorbed by Connecticut; this caused con- 
siderable dissatisfaction and some of the inhabitants under the 
lead of Robert Treat removed to New Jersey and assisted in 
the founding of Newark. The regicides Whalley and Goffe were 
concealed in Milford from 1 661 to 1664. 

See M. Louise Greene, " Early Milford," in the Connecticut 
MagoMtne, voL v. (Hartford, 1899). 

MILFORD, a township of Worcester cotmty, Massachusetts, 
U.S.A., about 16 m. S.E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890), 8780; 
(1900) 11,376, of whom 3342 were foreign-bom; (1910 census) 
xj>oS5* Within its area of about 15 sq. m. are a large rural 
population and the village of Milford, on the Charles river, about 
33 m. S.W. of Boston, served by the Boston & Albany, the New 
York, New Haven & Hartford and the Grafton & Upton railways 
(the last named having its passenger department operated by 
electricity and its freight by steam, and connecting Milford with 
North Grafton), and by inter-urban electric lines. The village 
has a memorial hall, housing the public library, and in the town- 
ship there is an excellent hospital, the gift of Eben. S. Draper. 
The village is a shipping point for an agricultural and manufac- 
turing district. In 1905 the value of the township's factory 
products was $3,390,504 (32-8% more than in 1900). The most 
important manufactures are boots and shoes; the industry was 
established in 1795, and for many years the special product was 
brogans for Southern negroes. In 1908 there were 12 large 
granite quarries in the township (north and north-east of the 
village). Milford granite is the typical stone of an area reaching 
into Rhode Island south of the southern boundary of Providence 
county; it is a biotite granite of post-Cambrian age, is generally 
pinkish-gray in colour (owing to the large proportion of feldspar 
among its constituents), and is widely used for building purposes. 
The township was the east precinct of Mendon until 1780, when 
it was incorporated; in 1835 parts of Holliston and Hopkinton 
were annexed; in 1886 a part was separated as Hopedale. 

See Adin Ballou, History of Milford (Boston, 1882); and T. 
Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts, 
New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Washington, 1908), Bulletin 
354 of the U.S. Geological Survey. 

MILFORD HAVEN, a market town, seaport, urban district 
and contributory parliamentary borough of Pembrokeshire, 
Wales, situated on the north shore of the celebrated harbour of 
the same name. Pop. (1901), 5102, including the adjacent 
village of Hakin. Milford Haven is the terminus of a branch-line 
of the South Wales section of the Great Western railway. The 
town possesses a pier and important dock accommodation, inclu- 
ding a graving-dock 600 ft. long, and is the centre of a valuable 
and increasing fishing industry. The promenade of Hamilton 
Terrace commands a fine view of the broad expanse of the Haven 
with its various towns and forts. 

The present town of Milford Haven, originally a hamlet in 
the parish of Steynton, is of modem growth, and was first called 
into existence by the exertions of the Hon. R.. F. Greville, 
nephew of Sir William Hamilton, who in 1790 laid out a town on 
this spot, the advantages of which as a convenient port for the 
Irish traffic he cleariy recognized. In the opening years of the 
X9th century a royal dockyard was established here, but in 1 814 
dockyard and arsenal were removed to Paterchurch near Pem- 
broke. The growth of the town was further checked twenty years 
later by the development of Neyland, or New Milford, further 
east on the Haven, whither the Irish packet service was trans- 
ferred; but towards the close of the X9th century the town 
recovered much of its former prosperity. The importance of the 



place is wholly due to its excellent situation on the 
land-locked harbour, which is here 2 m. broad. 

Milford Haven itself, designated by the Welsh Aberdaugleddau, 
as the estuary of the united East and West Cleddy rivers, hss 
played an important part on several occasions in the course ol 
history. Throughout PlanUgenet times it formed the chief 
point of embarcation for Ireland. It was from Milford Haven 
that Henry II. set sail for the conquest of Ireland in 1 172, and to 
this harbour he made his return journey. In 1399 Richard 11. 
landed at Milford Haven from Ireland, shortly before his 
surrender to Henry of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., in whose 
reign a French fleet with 12,000 men on board sail<Ki to the Haven 
and disembarked with the object of assisting the rebellion of 
Owen Glendower. In 1485 Henry, earl of Richmond, disem- 
barked here on his retum from France, and was welcomed on 
landing by Sir Rhys ap Thomas and much of the chivalry of 
Wales. In 1588 the leading persons of Pembrokeshire, with 
Bishop Anthony Rudd of St David's at their head, petitioned 
(2ueen Elizabeth to fortify the Haven against the projected 
Spanish invasion, upon which the block-houses of Dale and 
Nangle at either side of the mouth of the harbour were accord- 
ingly erected. .During the 19th century numerous forts have 
been constmcted for the protection of the Haven and of the royal 
dockyard at Pembroke Dock. 

MIUCZ, or MiLZTSCH (d. i374)> Bohemian divine, was the roost 
influential among those preachers and writers in Moravia and 
Bohemia who, during the 14th century, in a certain sense paved 
the way for the reforming activity of Huss. The date of hia 
birth is not known, but he was in holy orders in 1350, in 1360 
was attached to the court of the emperor Charles IV., whom be 
accompanied into Germany in that year, and about the same 
time also held a canonry in the cathedral of Prague along with 
the dignity of archdeacon. About 1363 he resigned all his 
appointments that he might become a preacher pure and simple; 
he addressed scholars in Latin, and (an innovation) the laity in 
their native Czech, or in German, which he leamt for the purpose. 
He was conspicuous for his apostolic poverty and soon roused 
the enmity of the mendicant friars. The success of his labours 
made itself apparent in the way in which he transformed the 
notorious " Benatki " street of Prague into a benevolent institu- 
tion, *• Jerusalem." As he viewed the evils inside and outside 
the church in the light of Scripture, the conviction grew in bis 
mind that the " abomination of desolation " was now seen in the 
temple of God, and that antichrist had come, and in 1367 be 
went to Rome (where Urban V. was expected from Avignon) to 
expound these views. He affixed to the gate of St Peter's a 
placard announcing his sermon, but before he could deliver it 
was thrown into prison by the Inquisition. Urban, however, 
on his arrival, ordered his release, whereupon he relumed 
Prague, and from 1369 to 1372 preached daily in the 
Church there. In the latter year the clergy of the diocese 
phined of him in twelve articles to the papal court at A' _ 
whither he was summoned in Lent 1374, and where he died in 
same year, not long after being declared innocent and autborizet^B 
to preach before the assembly of cardinals. He was the autho^c 
of a Libellus de Antichristo, written in prison at Rome, a serieso»C 
PostiUae and Lectumes quadragtsimalcs in Latin, and a sinul^-S" 
series of PosliU (devotional tracts) in Czech. 

See Count LQtzow, Life and Times gf Master John Hus (i909>» 
pp. 27-38. 

MIUTART FRONTIER (Ger. MilWlrgreme, Slav. Cramtta), 
a narrow strip of Austrian-Hungarian territory stretching akMog 
the borders of Turkey, which had for centuries a peculiar military 
organization, and from 1849 to 1873 constituted a crown-land. 
As a separate division of the monarchy it owed its existence to 
the necessity of Aiaintaining during the 16th and 17th centuries | 
a strong line of defence against the invasions of the Turks, and 
may be said to have had its origin with the establishment of the 
captaincy of Zengg (a coast town about 35 m. south-cast of 
Fiume) by Matthias Corvinus and the introduction of Uskob 
{q.v.) into Croatia. By the close of the X7th century there wot 
three frontier " generalates "—Carlstadt, Warasdin and PeUaui 



MILITARY LAW 



445 



or PMrinja (the last also called the Banal). After the defeat 
of the Turkish power by Prince Eugene it was proposed to 
abolish the military constitution of the frontier, but the change 
was successfully resisted by the inhabitants of the district; in fact 
a new Slavonian frontier district was established in 1702, and 
Maria Theresa extended the organization to the march-lands of 
Transylvania (the Szekler frontier in 1764, the Wallachian in 
1766).* 

As a reward for the service it rendered the government in 
the sui^ression of the Hungarian insurrection in 1848, the 
Military Frontier was erected in 1849 into a crown-land, with a 
total area of 15,182 sq. m^ and a population of 1,220,503. In 
1851 the Transylvanian portion (11 77 isq. m.) was incorporated 
with the rest of Transylvania; and in 187 1 effect was given to the 
imperial decree of 1869 by which the districts of the Warasdin 
regiments (St George and the Cross) and the towns of Zengg, 
Belovar, IvaniC, &c., were " provincialized " or incorporated 
with the Croatian-Slavonian crown-land In 1872 the Banat 
cegiments followed suit; and in 1873 the old military organiza- 
tion was abolished in the rest of the frontier. Not till 188 x, 
bowever, were the Croatian-Slavonian march-lands completely 
merged in the kingdoms to which they naturally bdongmi. 

The social aspect of the military frontier r6gime is interesting. 
The tadruga system of land tenure was artificially kept in exist- 
ence (see Se£VXa). Watch-towers with wooden clappers and 
the beacons which flashed the alarm along the whole frontier 
in a few hours are still features in the landscape. 

MIUTARY LAW, "the law which governs the soldier in 
peace and in war, at home and abroad. At all times and in all 
places the conduct of officers and soldiers as such is regulated by 
military law." The above is the definition as given in the opening 
chapter of the Manual of Military Law, which is issued under 
the authority of the English War Office, and which is the text- 
book used by all English courts martial. The definition is, 
howe v er, somewhat too wide, as the British system docs not 
exclude in time of peace the action of the civil courts. In time 
of peace all persons who belong to the military class in most 
European continental countries are judged by military law and 
by military courts. There is also in most continental coimtries 
«n intermediate stage between war and peace, known as in Stat 
«fe sUgf, which nuiy be declared for a fixed period for a district, 
or even a dty, by reason of domestic insurrection or the presence 
of an enemy. It requires legislative enactment. Thirdly comes 
a state of war, when the military authorities are supreme; and 
wrhilst they can call upon the civU power to act in concert with 
them, the military authority is finaL This is a brief summary of 
the system of military law that prevails in most countries of the 
continent. The cardinal point of difference between the British 
and the continental systems lies in the fact that in the United 
Kingdom the soldier is not only a soldier, but a citizen also; and 
although he may be tried for dvil offences by a military tribunal, 
the power is not exercised in all cases. Thus treason, treasOn- 
felony, murder, manslaughter, rape, are brought before a dvil 
court in times of peace, if the offence is committed in the United 
Kingdom, or if it is committed anywhere else in the king's 
dominions, except Gibraltar, within a hundred miles from a 
place where the offender can be tried by a civil court. 
Minor dvil offences, when not committed within military lines, or 
iriien the person affected by the offence is a dvilian, or when it is 
a case for a jury, or where intricate questions of law may arise, 
may also be brought before a dvil tribunal. But an offence, of 
whatever nature, committed on active service would be brought 
before a military tribunal. 

The military law of England in early times existed, like the 

* By 1848 the following had come to be the division of the Mili- 
tary Frontier: (i) The Carlstadt {Carlowatt), Warasdin and Banal 
Centralate; corresponding to the original three generaiates. (2) 
The Sammian Generalatei (district of Mttrovica). (3) The Banat 
Ceneralate; south and east of Temesvar, and (4) The Transyhanian 
GeneralaU. Twelve towns, known as " mihtary communities," 
had communal constitutions not unlike those of the free towns of 
Huneary-Carlopaso, Zengg, Petrinia, Kostajnica, Belovar, Ivanif, 
Bfodi Feterwardem, Carlowitz, Semlin, Pancaova and Weisskirchen. 



forces to which it applied, in a period of war only. Troops were 
raised for a particular service, and were disbanded upon the 
cessation of hostilities. The crown, of its mere 
prerogative, made laws known as Artides of War, £jjjr 
for the government and disdpline of the troops while 
thus embodied and serving. Except for the punishment of deser* 
tion, which offence was made a felony by statute in the reign of 
Henry VI., these ordinances or Artides of War remained almost 
the sole authority for the enforcement of disdpline until <68q, 
when the first Mutiny Act was passed and the military forces of 
the crown were brought under the direct control of parliament. 
Even the Parliamentary forces in the time of Chaurles I. and 
Cromwell were governed, not by an act of the legislature, but by 
artides of war similar to those issued by the king and authorized 
by an ordinance of the Lords and Commons, exercising in that 
respect the sovereign prerogative. This power of law-making 
by prerogative was, however, hdd to be applicable during a state 
of actual war only, and attempts to exercise it in time of peace 
were ineffectual Subject to this limitation it existed for con> 
siderably more than a century after the passing of the first 
Mutiny Act. From 1689 to 1803, although in peace time the 
Mutiny Act was occasionally stiffered to expire, a statutory 
power was given to the crown to make Artides of War to operate 
in the colonies and elsewhere beyond the seas in the same manner 
as those made by prerogative operated in time of war. In 171 5, 
in consequence of the rebellion, this power was created in reelect 
of the forces in the kingdom. But these enactments were apart 
from and in no respect affected the prindple acknowledged aO 
this time — that the crown of its mere prerogative could make 
laws for the government of the army in foreign countries in time 
of war. The Mutiny Act of 1803 effected a great constitutional 
change in this respect: the power of the crown to make any 
Artides of War became altogether statutory, and the prerogative 
merged in the act of parliament. So matters remained till the 
year 1879, when the last Mutiny Act was passed and the last 
Artides of War were promulgated. The Mutiny Act legislated 
for offences in respect of which death or penal servitude could be 
awarded, and the Articles of War, while repeating those provi- 
sions of the act, constituted the direct authority for dealing with 
offences for which imprisonment was the maximum punishment 
as well as with many matters relating to trial and procedure. 
The act and the artides were found not to harmonize in aO 
respects. Their general arrangement was faulty, and their 
language sometimes obscure. In 1869 a royal commission 
recommended that both should be recast in a simple and intelli- 
gibie shape. In 1878 a committee of the House of Commons 
endorsed this view and made certain recommendations as to the 
way in which the task should be performed. In 1879 the govern- 
ment submitted to parliament and passed into law a measure 
consolidating in one act both the Mutiny Act and the Artides of 
War, and amending their provisions in certain important respects. 
This measure was called the " Army Disdpline and Regulation 
Act 1879." After one or two years* experience of its working 
it also was found capable of improvement, and was in its turn 
superseded by the Army Act 1881, which now forms the founda- 
tion and the main portion of the military law of England. It 
contains a proviso saving the right of the crown to make Artides 
of War, but in such a manner as to render the power in effect a 
nullity; for it enacts that no crime made puni^ble by the act 
shall be otherwise punishable by such artides. As the punish- 
ment of every concdvable offence is provided for by the act, 
any articles made thereunder can be no more than an empty 
formality having no practical effect. Thus the history of En^h 
military law up to 1879 may be divided into three periods, each 
having a distinct constitutional aspect: (x) that prior to 1689, 
when the army, being regarded as so many personal retainers 
of the sovereign rather than servants of the state, was mainly 
governed by the will of the sovereign; (2) that between 1689 and 
1803, when the army, being recognized as a pernuinent force, was 
governed within the realm by statute and without it by the pre- 
rogative of the crown; and (3) that from 1803 to 1879, when it 
was governed dther directly by statute or by the sovereign under 



446 



MILITARY LAW 



an auUioiity derived from and defined and limited by sUtute. 
Although in 1879 the power of making Articles of War became in 
effect altogether inoperative, the sovereign was empowered to 
make rules of procedure, having the force of law, which reguUtte 
the administration of tlie act in many matters formerly dealt 
with by the Articles of War. These rules, however, must not 
be inconsistent with the provisions of the Army Act itself, and 
must be laid before parliament immediately after they are made. 
Thus in 1879 the government and discipline of the army became 
for the first time completely subject either to the direct action or 
the close supervision of parliament. 

A further notable change took place at the same time. 
The Mutiny Act had been brought into force on each occasion 
for one year only, in compliance with the constitutional theory 
that the maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, unless 
with the consent of parliament, is against kw. Each session 
therefore the text of the act had to be passed through both 
Houses clause by clause and line by line. The Army Act, on 
the other hand, is a fixed permanent code. But constitutional 
traditions are fully respected by the insertion in it of a section 
providing that it shall come into force only by virtue of an annual 
act of parliament. This annual act recites the illegality of a 
standing army in time of peace unless with the consent of parlia- 
ment, and the necessity nevertheless of maintaining a certain 
number of land forces (exclusive of those serving in India) and a 
body of royal marine forces on shore, and of keeping them in 
exact discipline, and it brings into force the Army Act for one 
year. 

Military law is thus chiefly to be found in the Army Act and 
the rules of procedure made thereunder, the Militia Acts, the 
Reserve Forces Acts and the Volunteer Acts, together with 
certain acts relating to the yeomanry, the Territorial and Reserve 
Forces Act 1907, and various royal warrants and regulations. 
In the Army (Annual) Act 1906 important amendments were 
made to the Army Act for the purpose of preventing soldiers 
convicted of offences against discipline under the act, and not 
discharged with ignominy, being subjected to the stigma attach- 
ing to imprisonment. This was effected by creating a new pun- 
ishment, termed detention, the places in which soldiers undergo 
detention being termed detention barracks. The change, while 
principally one of nomenclature, removed an undoubted griev- 
ance. The Army Act itself is, however, the chief authority. 
Although the complaint has been sometimes made, and not 
without a certain amount of reason, that it does not accomplish 
much that it might in point of brevity, simplicity and clearness 
of expression, it is a very comprehensive piece of legislation, and 
shows some distinct improvements upon the old Mutiny Acts and 
Articles of War. 

When a person subject to military law commits an offence he 
is taken into military custody, which means either arrest in his 
own quarters or confinement. He must without unnecessary 
delay be brought before his commanding officer, who upon in- 
vestigating the case may dismiss the charge, if in his discretion 
he thinks it ought not to be proceeded with, or may take steps to 
bring the offender before a court martiaL Where the offender is 
not an officer he may dispose of the case summarily, the limit of 
his power in this respect being seven days' imprisonment with 
hard labour, a fine not exceeding los. for dnmkenness, certain 
deductions from pay, confinement to barracks for twenty-eight 
days, this involving severe extra drills, deprivations and other 
minor punishments. Where the offence is absence without leave 
for a period exceeding seven days, the commanding officer may 
award a day's imprisonment in respect of each day^of such absence 
up to twenty-one. It is only in the case of the imprison- 
ment exceeding seven days that the evidence before the com- 
manding officer is taken on oath, and then only in the event of 
the accused so desiring it. The commanding officer is enjoined 
by regulation not to punish summarily the more serious kind of 
offences, but his legal jurisdiction in this respect is without limit 
as regards any soldier brought before him, and when he has dealt 
summan]y with a case the accused is free from any other liability 
Ja respect of the oSeuce thus disposed of. In any instaooe where 



the commanding oflicer has tummuily awiTded ImprboaiDAtt, 
6iie or dcdurUon from pay^ the accused may clahn a district 
court marijal inslcad of submiLling Lo the award. 

Ordinary courts martial are of three kirds, v\t. (t) a regimental 
court nianioJ, usually convened and confirmed by the cornmand- 
ing ofEcer of the regiment or delachmciUT presided ov^j by a a 
officer not under the rank of captain, composed of at least three 
officers of Lhe regimtrnt or detachment with not le^ ifa^n one 
year's tervicCp and having a maximum power of putii^bment of 
forty-t^'o days' detention; (j) a district court martlaJ^ usually 
tcnvened by a general officer baving authority to do $0^ consA^ 
ting of not less than threE oSicers, i'ach wiib not \cs& than iwo 
years' service * and hitvlng a maximum power of puobbmcnt of 
two years' imprisonment; (j) a general court martial, the oidy 
tribunal having authority to tr^' a commissioned officer, and wiih 
1^ power of punishment e;ctendlng to death or penal ^rvitude, 
fof offences for which these pcrualttcs are authoTbed by stattxt*; 
it consists of not less than nine officers in the United Kingdom, 
India^ Malta and Gibraltar and oj five elsewhere, each ol whom 
must have had over three yean* scrvicet five being not under 
the rank of captain. There is another kind of tribunal, vb. t 
£dd general court martial. It is convened (i) by any officer in 
command of a detachment or portion of troops be>'ood the leu 
when not on active service, or by any officer in immediate cvm^ 
m^nd of a body ol forces on active service where it appeafs to 
him on complaint or otherwise that a person subject lo mill^ajry 
la.vf has commiEted an ofTcnce. The olTictr must be Shiii^ed that 
it is not practicable, with due regard to the public service, 10 try 
the person by an ordinary court martial. The quorum of the 
court is three, if consistrnt with military eiigendes, aiul each 
member must have held a commission for not Ic^s than a year* 
The quorum may be reduced when the public service requires it* 
The procedure of ordinary courts martial is observed as tar u 
possible, and the proceedings always should be in writing wbea 
poasiblen, But in the circumstaiLCcs in which these courts tte 
a^^cmbledT it is not always possible to adhere to the techoical 
nilcs which obtain in the ordkiary tribunals, although the broad 
principles are not violated. The evidence on a 6eld gencnl 
court martial is ulcen on oath. The prisoner may crosveaamine 
the witnesses for the prosecution, and may call any ivmiUble 
witnesses for his dcrcncc. The prisoner is allowed to address the 
court in his own defence. 

The Army Act prpscribes the niaxinium punishment which mty 
be indicted la respect of each oifence* That of death a incarred 
by various act* of treachery or conafdice before ihe enemy » or by, 
when on acrive service, interfering wiih or tfflpediag autboiity, 
leaving without orden a guarxl or poit^ of whfo scntQ' tierping of 
Ixinji drunk on a poit^ plundE'riag or eornmtttii^ afioAence againfi 
the persoa or property of an inhabiLant^ intcnEionaily cau^icvK faiic 
abims, or deseriiag. >iVhether upon active AeAice or not, a Miidier 
aim brcoam liable to the punishment of death *ho mutiniet or 
incites to or joins in or conjiivei at a mutiny, who uxs or o^en 
\iolence to or defiantly disobeys the Lawful comFnand of hi» Aupenur 
ofhcer when in the execution of hi* otficc. Penal tcrvitude ts the 
maximum punUhment for variaut acti and Irregularitici upon anive 
service not cii«tinctly of a trtachtP3Ui or wilfully injurious chajictcr, 
for using or offering violence or in^ubordinaic UnguaRc to a tiipcrfk>r« 
or disobey! ng^ a Lawful committd when upon active service. The 
same puni&hment if applicable when not upmi active lervice to s 
secgnd offence of desertion or fiaudulent ^niiftment {ij. enlkt mcot 
by one who already beLociei to the service), certain embet^cinvtiti 
of public pFoptrty, wilfully releasing without aatliohty a ptiiioxT 
or wilfully ptrrmittine a ptUrtncr to e^oapc, enlisting when prrvlouWy 
dischargi.*d froot the tcrvits with disgrace without disclo&inf the 
circum*Eaoc« of auth dift<hqn^, of any other offence which l^ the 
otdinary ctiminal law of England is puni^hnbie »ith penal semtwdt. 
Imprisonment for two Wit> i:^ the mai^imum punishnnrrrt tot minor 
form* and degrrrt of those olTcnccs which iJ committed upofi adi** 
tifrvice would involve death or penal aervitude, tutb ai Onng or 
oflerinff violence or insubordinate lanKuaife lo a !tuperior or disobey* 
ing a lawful command, and for the follawinig ofFentes: ftsLuing at 
escorts breaking out of barfaekA, ncftloft of order*, a firtt ofletitf 
of desertion or atR-mpted deM-nioii or aiding or connivinf at dcK^ 
tion. or of fraudulent cnltBttntntt absence without tean-e, faJluR to 
appear at pnide, going beynnd presc^ribcd boum]^ abtence from 
ichool, malia^riniL or producing diieaw or infirmity, maimlfs »iih 
intent to render a soldier unfit for Kr\'ice, an act of a frauduleat 
nature^ di-^gtaceful conduct of a cruel, indecent of unnatural bod^ 
df ua k e o nc ba, releasuif a priaooer without ptoptx authoiity a 



MILITARY LAW 



447 



allowing him to escafw, being concerned in the unreasonable deten- 
tion of a perscm awaiting trial, escaping or attempting to escape from 
lawful curtody, connivmg at exorbitant exactions, making away 
with, losing bv neglect, or wilfully injuring military clotning or 
eqiiipn>enta« ill-treating a horse used in the service, making false 
or fraudulent representations in public documents, making a wilfully 
false accusation against an officer or soldier, making a false confession 
of dettrtion or fraudulent enlistment, or a false statement in respect 
of the prolongation of furloueh, misconduct as a witness before a 
court martial or contempt of such court, giving false evidence on 
oath, any offence qiecified in relation to billeting or the impressment 
of canu^s^s, making a false answer to a question put upon attesU- 
tioo, beiog concerned in unlawful enlistment, using traitorous or 
disloyal words regarding the sovereign, disclosing any circumstance 
relating to the numbers, position, movements or other drrumstances 
of an^ part of His Maje^'s forces so as to produce effects injurious 
to Hu Majesty's service, bshting or being concerned in or conniving 
at a duel, attempting suidoe, obstructing the dvil authorities in the 
apprdienaon of any officer or soldier accused of an offence, any con- 
duct, disorder or neglect to the prejudice of good order and military 
discipline, any offence which if committeain England would be 
punishable by the law of England. There is another offence which 
can be committed by officers only, namely " scandalous conduct 
nnbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman." It 
necessitates cashiering, a punishment which in the case of an officer 
may I .'wq to imprL-ionnciit in ecveral other 

io«lAn.. - . .... "ijcncc prculi^ir to offictm stnd non- 

cocamjsjsioncfi otn-ctn, ihai of ttrikin^ cr IIJ^trratmK a soldltr or 
Dfiliwirun'v dftajning hii pa.y. A Bontcnre of cashiering a.$ ^dis- 
tingiriihfil trom that of diftimsaal in tht: case of an oSicor ji^ valves 
tm fucapacity to *ervt the crowTi again. An officer may be also 
■cstcnced to {forfeiture of teniothy of rank aitd to rtfHnmAnd or 
— B IB ftrpriniand. A noTi-coTnmi&sioncd cfRtcf may be scntcneed 
to be itduced^ to a lower st^<Jc or lo iht ranks^ and wturc sentenced 
to penaX aervitufle or impdsomncnc tbc tribuna,] a.ljc has power to 
4&*pcive him of his senionty. The Army Council In Enj^tand, or the 
«aiiiiifaji(it'J'-in-chi^f in India or in tkhcr oftht presidencies, ina^;Ll90 
^lise a noD-commi^siotied oificer ta be redL«;d to a. lower gr^^ic or to 
the ranti. An a^rting nan-canimissioptd officer may b«t otdtr^d by 
hu commandiiif officer for an offence or for lEJcfficiciicy or othcniise 
t& rtvrrt to hii penoanent grade— |a uther words, to forfeit his 
acting rank. 

It win have been observed that persons subject to military law 
are liable to be tried by court martial for offences which if conunitted 
in England would be punishable by the ordinary law, and to suffer 
either the punishment prescribed by the ordinary criminal law or 
that authorized for soldiers who commit offences to the prejudice 
of fipod order and military discipline. The effect of the latter alter- 
native is that for many^ minor offences for which a civilian is liable 
to a diort term of imprisonment, or perhaps only to a fine, a soldier 
may be awarded two years' imprisonment or detention. A court 
martial, however, cannot take cognizance of the crimes of treason, 
murder, manslaughter, treason-felony or rape if committed in the 
United Kingdom. If one of these offences be committed in any 
place within Hu Majesty's dominions other than the United King;dom 
or Gibraltar, a court martial can deal with it only if it be committed 
CO active service or in a place more than loo miles from a civil 
court having jurisdiction to try the offence. With regard to all 
civil offences the militarv law, it is to be understood, is subordinate 
to the ordinary law, anci a civilian aggrieved l?y a soldier in respect 
of a criminal offence against his property or person does not forfeit 
his right to prosecute the soldier as if he were a civilian. 

The crimes for which soldiers are most usually tried are desertion, 
abseiMse without leave, loss of necessaries, violence or insubordina- 
tion to superiors, drunkenness, and various forms of conduct to the 
prejudice of discipline. The punishments are, generally, speaking, 
gauged as much with regard to the character and antecedents of 
the prisMier as to the particular offence. For a first offence of an 
ordinary kind a district court martial would give as a rule fifty-six 
days' imprisonment with hard labour, for a second or graver crime 
eighty-four days. There are not many instances in which the 
period of imprisonment exceeds six months. Corporal punishment, 
which had been practically limited to offences committed upon 
active service, and in 1879 to crimes punishable with death, was 
finally abolished in 1881, and a summary punishment substituted. 
The practice of marking a soldier with the letters *' D " (deserter) 
or " BC " (bad character), in order to prevent his re-enlistment, was 
abolished in 1879 in deference to public opinion, which erroneously 
adopted the idea that the " marking " was effected by red-hot irons 
or in some other manner involving torture. Many military men 
regretted its abolition, and maintained that if the practice were still 
in force the army would not be tainted by the presence of many bad 
characters who find means of eluding the vigilance of the authorities 
and enlisting after previous discharge. 

The course of procedure in military trials is as follows. When a 
soldier is remanded by his commanding officer for trial by a district 
or general court martial, a copy of the char^, together with the 
•tatcroenta of the witnesses for the prosecution (called the sum- 
mary of evidence), is furnished to him, and he is given proper oppor- 
tttoity of prtpuiog bis de/eace, o/coauouakaUag with bis wicocsses 



or legal adviser, and of procuring the attendance of his witnesses. 
Further, if he desires it, a list of the officers appointed to form the 
court shall be given him. Any officer is disqualified to sit as a 
member niio has convened the court, who is the prosecutor or a 
witness for the prosecution, who has made the prehminary inquiry 
into the facts, who is the prisoner's commanding officer, or who has 
a personal interest in the case. The prisoner may also object to 
any officer on the ground of bias or prejudice, similarly as a civilian 
n,.,.,L ■. li.il L:JL,'. J jL.:;_r. L ..!.-:i ..i regards the delay caused by 
the wriLing qui oi the evidfrfiLei Lbe procedure at a court martial 
11 very much the same a» that at an ordinary criminal trial — the 
examination And cro&S''e3L&inJ nation u( the witnesses, addresses of the 
prcidecutor and pri«ner« and the rules governing the admission or 
rejection of evidence bang nearly identical. At a general court 
martial, and sometimes at a district court, a judge advocate repre> 
sen ting the judfe adwoitc Kcneral officiates, his functions being 
very much inoiie of a k'ga) aincasor to the court. He advises upon 
all poinL^ of law, and sums up the evidence just as a judge charges a 
jury. Vi'hen the priAoner pleads l^uilty the court fincw a verdict 
nccordinglyt rwids the ^uinmary of evidence, hears any statement 
in mJTit^jiiion of puniFthnicnt. antj takes evidence as to character 

L". "■ :■■ iT ■ "ir-.j^ r.i ]. -■, ■.•,!. '. . , The sentence is that of the 

majority of the court, except where death is awarded, when two- 
thirds of the members in the case of a general court martial and the 
whole in that of a field general court martial must concur. When an 
acquittal upon all the char^ takes place the verdict is announced 
in open court, and the prisoner is released without any further 
proceeding. When the finding is " guilty," evidence as to chanicter 
IS taken, and the court deliberates in pnvate upon the sentence, but 
the result is not made known until the proceedings are confirmed and 
promulgated. No conviction or sentence has any effect until it is 
thus confirmed by the proper authority. The confirming authority 
in the case of a regimental court is the commanding officer, in that 
of a district court martial an officer authorized to convene general 
courts martial or some officers deriving authority to confirm the 
findings and sentences of district courts martial, and in that of a 
general court, if held in the United Kingdom, His Majesty, and if 
abroad in most cases the general officer commanding. The con* 
firming authority may order the reassembling of the court in order 
that any question or irregularity may be revised and corrected, but 
not for the purpose of increasing a sentence. He may, however, 
of his own discretion and without further reference to the court, 
refuse confirmation to the whole or any portion ol the finding or 
sentence, and he may mitigate, commute or entirely remit the punish* 
ment. In the case of a general court martial the proceedings are 
sent to the judge advocate general, who submits to the sovereign 
his opinion as to the legality of the trial and sentence. If they are 
legal in all respects he sends the proceedings to the Army Council, 
upon whom rests the duty of advising the sovereign regarding the 
exercise of clemency. In addition to confirmation, however, every 
general or district court martial held out of India has another ordeal 
to go through. It is reviewed and examined in the office of the judge 
advocate generalj and any illegality that may be disclosed is cor- 
rected and the prisoner is relieved of the consequences. To a certain 
extent a protection against illegality also exists in the cate of regi- 
mental courts martial. A monthly return of those held in each 
regiment is laid before the general commanding, by whom any ques- 
tion that might appear to him doubtful would be referred to the 
adjutant general or the iudge advocate general for decision. It is 
to be noted, however, that the judge advocate general, although 
fulfilling duties which are in their nature judicial, is only an adviser. 
He is not actually a judge in an executive sense, and has no authority 
directly to interfere witn or correct an illegal conviction. In many 
cases the law thus provides no remedy for an officer or soldier who 
may have been wronged by the finding or sentence of a court martial 
— for instance, through a verdict not justified by the evidence or 
through a non-observance of the rules and practice prescribed for 
these tribunals. A person who has suffered injustice may appeal 
to the king's bench division of the high court of justice. But, 
speaking generally, that tribunal would not interfere with a court 
martial exercising its jurisdiction within the law as regards the pri- 
soner, the crime and the sentence. In most cases, therefore, the 
virtual protector of an accused person against illegality is the judge 
advocate general, who personally advises the sovereign and the 
military authorities that the law shall be complied with (see 
Judge Advocate General). 

• The Army Act applies to European officers and soldiers serving 
in India in the same manner as to the rest of the armv. but natives 
of Indb are governed by their own Articles of War, ana in the case of 
civil offences they are dealt with according to the provisions of the 
Indian penal code. There are pdge advocates general for each of 
the presidencies, and a deputy judge advocate at each of the more 
important military centres. 

Important changes were made in the systetb of courts of 
inquiry by an Army Order of the 10th of February 1902. A 
court of inquiry is and has bettv mi ^ssioe^^l^) ^\ ^"SiKKiSk ^- 
rected by a commandan^o&cw \.o ttJ^ttVrA<^!wv^^xA\tvs^7^^ 
rcspca to a iraxaacAoa UkVo ^XaiC^ \» ouawA. w^NtsojeoK^^i 



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MILITIA 



449 



pttendin^ faut It aIsd pwv enta the aocrnimr of any diaability or 
forfdTure. The British judgv advocate'* office has been much 
ftreqEth^ned' It now conAisis of : j[i) The judge advocate general 
(ooe of H-H, jiulgcA) :{2) s deputy judge advocate general, who is a 
tislncd lawyer; (3) a deputy judgp advocate, also a trained lawyer; 
U) a oiiUtary offiicer d\ the rank qT colonel who has been called to the 
bir; is) la South Africa (^ince iB^, 4nd on a five-vears' appointment 
irom. n^72} a cotond wtio haa been called to the Sar. 

Id Cermftny there u no appc^iL ejxept for offidab attached to the 
srmy. Id Auttm- Hungary tbe sentence can be lightened by the 
cootmandlug officer. 1 1 caa also be returned for trial by a superior 
court if it appear* to him tw iight. In Spain all judgmenU have to 
beeDfi£rfned. and tf coctirtnation ii refused, it is carried before the 
■u^eme court cf the oavy 4iul army. The condemned has no power 
of appeal hinueir. but all caio of dtrath or life sentences |(0 before the 
iuprrmr court of th/. '■ l^ v = n' ! ■■< ^ ^ Russia only requires the con- 
firEit:itian of the c- r. la Rumania and Greece all 

oondemned prisoners in time of peace can demand a court of 
leviaioo, composed of a general and four superior officers. In time 
of war the court may be composed of three. 

Certain forms of punishment, in all countries but the United States, 
can be given by the superior officer, without judicial intervention, 
for small purely military offences, where a summary 
procedure is required. The offender, if he prefers, may 



be carried before court-martial. 



pui 



tnt 



immediately carried into force, but the person puniiiioi 
can complain to higher military authority. In that case, if the 
f^TP piainf is not admitted, the punishment is enhanced. The com- 
monest of these disciplinary punishments are deprivation of liberty, 
f*yifini^ to barraclci, arrests and prison. Certain special punish- 
ments obtain in certain countries— for instance, imprisonment in 
Turkey may be accompanied by a bread-and-water diet ; and officers 
in Ftnlsnd and Russia may be deprived of advancement. 
In 1908 Fiance took steps to abolish courts-martial in time of 
^ all common law offences to be judged by the ordinary courts, 
cfaes of military discipline such as rebellion, insubordination, 
1 and the like by mixed courts compcwed of civil and military 



^SeOode, MUUary Forces cftke Crcwn; T. Gram, Fonctionnement 
4» lajnsUu mUUairt dams Us diffirents BUUs de I' Europe. (J no. S.) 

nUTIA (Fr. mUice, Ger. MUk, from Lat miles, soldier, 
wdKHa, militaxy service), a term used generally for organized 
mflitaiy fofccs which Eie not professional in character and not 
permanently embodied. All andent armies, with the exception 
of the peiaonal guards of their leaders, were militias or national 
levies, remaining under arms for the war or the campaign and 
letnming to their ordinary occupations at the dose of each 
milltaiy episode. Militias such as those of the Greek dty-states 
and thnt of Rome were of course highly trained to the use of 
anns; to were the barbarian " nations in arms "; which overcame 
the inofessionalized Roman armies of the Empire; and although 
in the Eastern Empire these new fighting dements were absorbed 
into a fully organized regular arm, in the West the tribal militia 
system gradually devdoped into feudalism. The noble and 
the fcwight indeed spent the greater part of their lives in thefidd 
and devoted themselves from thdr youth to the cult of arms, 
but the feudal tenantry, who were bound to give forty days' 
war service and no more, and the burghers who, somewhat later 
in the history of dvilizatlon, formed the effident garrisons of 
the waUed towns were true militias. The English Yeomanry 
indeed almost ruled Uie battlefield. 

In the 15th century the introduction of firearms began to 
WMgh down the balance in favour of the professional soldier. 
Artillery was always the arm of the specialist. The develop- 
ment of infantry, " fiie-power," with the early arquebus and 
musket, called f orthe highest skill and steadiness in the individual 
soklier, and cavalry too adopted the new weapon m the form 
of long and expensive whed-lock pistob. In the new miUtary 
organization there was no place for the unprofessional soldier. 
The i^ of the unprofessional combatant, generally speaking, 
was t***» of an iostirgent — ^harassing small detachments of the 
enemy, cutting off stragglers, and plundering convoys. Towards 
the end of the first dvil war in England (1645) the country-folk 
banded themadves together to impose a peace on the two 
warring armies, but thdr menace was without effect, and they 
were easily disarmed by Fairfax and Cromwell, who did not 
even trouble to hold them as prisoners. The calling out of the 
grriirt ban of Franche-Comt6 in 1^75 disphiyed iU ludicrous 
y, and thereafter in France, which set the luhion to 



Europe in aU mOitaiy matters, the " provincial militia," which 
Louvois and Barbezieux raised in place of the discredited 
arriire ban, was employed partly to find drafts for and partly 
to augment the regular army. 

When a first line army was large enough to absorb the fighting 
strength of the country there was ndther room nor need for 
a true militia force. This was the case with France under 
Napoleon's regime, but things were different elsewhere. In 
Great Britain the coimty militia (whose special histoiy is 
briefly sketched below) was permanently embodied during 
the greater part of the Napoleonic Wars. Destitute as it was 
of technical and administrative services, of higher staffs and 
organization, and even of cavalry, this militia was a regular 
army in all but name. Combining continuous service with 
territorial recrmting as it did, it consisted of men of a better 
stamp than the casually recruited regular forces. In those 
days, the militia was a county force commanded by the lords- 
lieutenant and officered by men of influence; it was not 
administered by the War Office. 

In other countries. Napoleon's invading armies had only to 
deal with regular or professional troops. Once these were 
crushed, nothing remained for the beaten side but to make 
peace with the conqueror on such terms as could be obtained. 
Militias existed in name as organizations, for the production 
of more or less unwilling drafts for the line, but the fundamental 
militia obligation of defending the faikerland as distinct from 
defending the state, produced only local and occasional outbursts 
of guerrilla warfare. In the Crimean War, the 1859 war in 
Italy, the x866 war in Germany, and other wars (the Hungarian 
War of 1848-49 excepted) the forces, other than the regular 
troops, engaged in first line were guerrilleros, insurgents, 
Garibaldians, &c., and behind the forces in first line there were 
draft-supplying agendes, but no true militia. Only the British 
militia and the Prussian Undwehr represented the self-contained 
army of second line, and of these the former was never put to 
the test, while the latter, responding feebly to a political call to 
arms in 1850, was in consequence so entirely reorganized that it 
formed a mere rear rank to the line troops. This latter system, 
consecrated by the German successes of 1870, became the 
universal model for the continent of Europe, and organized and 
self-contained militias to-day are only to be found in states 
mnipfflining first line armies of " general service " professionals, 
or in states which maintain no first line troops whatever. In 
the first class are the auxiliary forces of the British Empire and 
the United States, in the second the Swiss, Norwegian, Dutch 
and Swedish forces. 

Militia op thb Unitbd Kingdom 

The title oi " militia " disappeared from the list of the dritidi 
forcefl in 1908^ on the convqrsiun of iht ciUstiii^ e«;U<oi?taincd 
n^mtLa into an army '*' special nciic-rvc " vhich la rvntictcd to the 
tftic trf movjdicig drafts W the first line* The " Klfncootained " 
second unc army of the present day ia the Territorial Fofce (lee 
Unitbd Kingdoh: Army). 

The cDuaty orp^mzatian of EtieLind* with which throughout 
iht militia was ctascLy as»jciat«Ir pegati wiib the advent ol the 
SaxoKis^ The pirototyjje of the militia ^ras the Fyrd, In ihia forte 
a» rcOir£aiil£od by Alfred liability of 5cr\'ice was scTirral on the pKit 
of every able-bodied male between the aces of 16 and do* Ahhou^gh 
the title ot " The Fyrd " survived until long; after the Norman Coii- 
quFst, Eh€' fortt established by KJng ^Vlfred was known as the general 
levy, which wa* bound to appear armed whtn ordcncd to aid m sup- 
preasinK domestic rict4 09 well oa in defending the realm A^Liut 
invasion by foTetgn foes. Service was restricted to the counties, 
except in caie €tf invasion , when it was extended to the whole 
kingdom. Fof centutio these remained with little alteration as 
the principles giovernine the national forces of the kingdom, and 
f(jrm in effect with certain dftvi^lopments the baais of tlie modern 
militia system . The Normj^d Coflcfucut was im mediately followed 
by the introduction of the leiidaJ levy in addition to the feneral 
levy, the disUnction between these forcts bfinsthat while obligation 
to *ervc in the latter rested upon every niale within certain limit* of 



* Various dominions and colonies of the British Empire have 
militias, (or which see UNrrsD Kincdoii: Army. For the Swim 
Militia System, which is }n many respects the archet^f^ ^^ xci«A»^ 
militias, see SwixzEBLKiK^*, atvd lac \3afc at^j&XAn^ -ni&JCa. ^ ^»». 
United Sutea tee \3wni» Sikt^s. 



450 



MILITIA 



:, service in the feudal levy depended upon tenure of land under ; 
king as feudal lord. The general levy was not in any case 
liable for service overseas, but the king for a long time employed his 
feudal tenants in continental wars untifthey too, successfully resisted 
the demand. Personal service formed the basis of both levies, but 
service by deputy, or payment in lieu of personal service, and the 
calling out oi a quota only, were allowea rom very early times. 
The feudal levy was discontinued during the Commonwealth and 
abolished at the Restoration; but liability to serve in the general 
levy has never been extinguished, but remains in the statutory and 
practical form of liability to serve both in the general and local 
militia. Even at the abolition of these forces the statutory liabUity 
to service in them was not done away with. Inspections of arms 
and the assembly and training of the men raised under this national 
system were secured from time to time by means of " assizes of 
arms," " views of armour," " commissions of array," and " com- 
missions of musters," dating from early in the I3th century down to 
the i6th century. The machinery employed to carry out the law 
formed the basis of the existing procedure for the enforcement of 
the ballot for the militia, which thus bears- a strong resemblance 
to the means adopted from ancient times. These constitutional 
powers were frequently abused by " electing " or impressing men to 
serve out of the kingdom, but this was checked in the year 1327 by an 
Act of Parliament, which strictlv regulated the scope and limits of 
military service within the kingdom at the charge of the parishes or 
counties, but provided for service abroad at the charge of the Crown. 
" Commisuons of musters " were a devdopment of preceding 
measures for raising men and material for mUitarv service, under 
which the commissioners registered and mustered persons liable 
to servt, Eortcd tbem into h-- ' ' • ' ' " ■ " " " . ' 
the cbflT^ of thr county, 'li.'_ -_■ :-..i !: '.■_•....■■_ 'iiL.v-.j ,l_. j/.:.'i ■:■■ 
h^intd bandj^ ^nd wptc niu5ti:fr4xi ;iEinualiy+ With tLii^iD wen^ abso- 
C3B.tcd lieuteaants of countiefl« hnt appointed in 154^ by Edward 
Vl., aubseguc^nljy in Queen Mar^^'i ictAsn called lords UrutmantT and 
after the Rcstoratian appoint«l as itatkitory oiKcers lor the Tnilllia, 
their cammiifiions at the prc-sent d^y being issued under the MiUtia 
Act. There does not appear to haw been any clearly defined 
regimental organlEatJan In existence until the«: bandt or companies 
verv calliH into active Bervicc, but the Acts of the Commonwealth 
■Uppilicd this defect, 3.nd initiated a pcrmanerit regimental sysleol, 
Cnie of the ^rlic^t attempts to Teform the foire since the time of 
iQllg Alfr^ w^aj made by Ctiarlei 1. in 16 1^^ when Orders in Council 
verebtued irkstrurtln^ lords lieutenaiit to put the militia on a better 
footing and to ^1 up vacancies among the ofhecn. Cromwell 
■ubfBCqacitly L&^ned eimilar orders caucbed in Strang termi, thoiigli 
under the Cotnoi an wealth the dutk-s ol lordii lieutenant were not 
KCoeni^edt the miliitia bcinis rained by commjasomers. The frreat 
tervioes rendered by the micitia in the " crowning mercy '* of VVor- 
cestef are a hioonc exception to the Ecncnal decndence of senrnd 
line troopi in the t7th and iStb ccntunc* {s*e GftSAt Rebi:llios). 
Ac the Restore tiom an act wat pn»ed decUrine that the control of 
the miHtia was the prtfweative of the king. By the same statute 
the militia ol each ccunfy was placed under the licutCEiant, who wm 
vested with the appointment of officen, but wkh a r»ervatIon to 
the Crown in the way of tommiiiioitiiiff and disniisAaL The cost of 
the annual tratntnff— for toLiiteen dayt-Hcll upon the tocal authority. 
Offences against discipline inctu dcswt witli by the civil n(ia|;i«trate9, 
but with a power to the Officers of fining ana ol imprtsoning in de- 
fault. Upon this fopoting tht mUitla of Eoglagd rettiaiiwii lor nearly 
a century with the seneniL af^ritn^ of the commuaityp It was 
ncDgniJ<Kj as an initnimcut fof defence and for the preservation fl* 
internal ordert while it was espedaUy popubr from the drcumstaoce 
that fromi its conititutiou and organiation the Crown could not use 
it as a meana of violating the constitution or mbridfinf the liberty 
oi the subject. It was controUed and regulated \n the county; it 
vai ofikcr^l by the land ownei^ and their relatives, its ranks were 
filled by men not depending for their subsistence or fldvinocment 
upon the favour ol the Crown; iti numben and □iaincen4nce were 
beyond the royal control; its Kovemmcnt was by statu te« White 
the supreme command htis distinctl]r vested in the CroTrti, every 
piractical security wa?i tliiti taken a^^inst it 9 use by the Crown lor 
any object not ■ ; ' 1 ' '■ - \ ■ t '■ /'l- ' ■ ^ '• ■.• '■ '•''■■ A ■'-. 
ana was, in fni \ , _ ' ' 

standing army, which was very much the army of the king personally. 
The latter consisted of hired soldiers, and was more than once 
recruited by a conscription, confined, however, to persons of the 
vaKrant class not having a lawful employment, while the former was 
n^>i.iijLy i.Ljiu|'<.'?^.<J t.ri iiM^nr 'u„\.,i.y, ^L fixcd abodc and status. The 
mihtla thus enjoyed lor many ^-car^ as compared with the regular 
forces a ioci^^ as wcW as a oon!>tkutional superiority. To this, 
hovtrver, along with the ceneral bre^ikdown of militia systems under 
the new " pro(es<kional ' conditioni of warfare, explained above, 
and pethap* tht practice of tr>1np military offences by civil courts, 
mav be atiributerl the dUnputc into which the militia fell and the 
ineffidency it displayed, witn the ts -cption of the trained bands of 
London, until it was reoreanifed In 1757. Under the act of i66a 
#iJ frain hands werv divcontinued in f he counties, but those of Lon- 
dtjji. mify rfitir Auxih^ni^r firmainf/d until 1704, when they were 
jTi/yf^fj/ji-^ .M t/ie City of London Wihtia. In 1688 an act waa 
pmaaedmimi^ the noMtm for 0tk: year, and for toine time it wa» fta 



annually saocttdnal force at the re|u!3r army is to^y. In 1690^ 
on the occasion o( the threatened French invasLoQ^ the mtliCia was 
embodied; and aeain in 17 15 and 1745 dufing the troubles caused 
by the CHd and '^ oung Pretenders, In a pftrnphkt oi jtJj the Eog- 
lish nuiitia was estiniaied at 7450 hotse and 84.59I loot toldicfik 
From 1715 until 1734^ and again from that year until 1757. with 
the e^eccption of 1745, do votes were taken m parliament for tlie 
militLv 

The foreeoing remark! apply only to the English mUitia and let 
pTcdecesKi'rit. Ireland and St^lind did not himish any refpilar 
militia until 1715 and 1707 respectively, although in ScDtland 
mOitia existed Icng before 1797, f-f. in Perthshijv ui t&8^ and in 
addition corps of fencibles were raised and embodied. The Irish 
militia when iiriit raised in [715 was re&fricted to Protestants between 
the ages of lA and M, who Were bound to appear or provide $4ibtii- 
tutes. The force was not made subject to military Law, but various 
military offences were punishable by'hnc or impriaonment. Sex'^eral 
amendments and other acts followed until 179^, when a e^w act 
was paised providing for ral&ing a force of mititia by ballot amoni 
men between the agei of IH and 45, to serve for four yean. Each 
county wai Liable to a £ne of Sf, for each man likficieni, and enUct- 
mcnt in the army was proh lotted. Other amendments foUowed 
from time to time^ and notably one in 1797 abolishing ifUgious 
restrirtLons for the supplementary militia, and another in tBoi 
removing the same restrictions in the case of the general miUtia. 
Finally, all the acts were consolidated in 1809 by an act m^hkli 
fixed establishments, provided for raising the men by ballot, but 
gave power to the lord-lieutenant to authorise ^x^luntary entist^ 
ment by means of bounties, and also to suspend the raising di any 
regiment. The Scottish militia was at Srst raised by ballot among 
men iKlweeD the ages of 19 and \!i. In 160 J iormer acts were re' 
placed by an Act providing for the organisation of the militia on a 
basts fiimiLar to that on which the militia of EngUnd Was orgajiiaed 
by the Consolidation Act passed in that year. 

To return to England, the immediate ^use of the Organic reloflB 
carried out in 1757 was the disclosute of the ioefhciency of the 
militia during the Rebellion of i74Sr The act of 1662 followed tbe 
old law by requiring owners of prf>perty to furnish men, horscj aad 
arms in proportion to the value of their properly, and the liabihty 
of per&ons of small property was to be diwiharigcd out of a rate Wvied 
in the parish. This was entln:ty altered in ii/S7r a liability on tbe 
I^rt ol the county or parish being subvtituied tor a liability 00 the 
part of individuals. Each county was tequiirvd to fumiih a tituoca 
apportioned among the various padshes; men were to be chosen by 
\i?\ to serve for three yeai^ (this being the lint provision of a fiiod 
term of service) or to praX'idc> of pay £10 for the proviHon oT^ a 
subctitute, and vacancies were to be filled from time to time by a 
like proc e s s of ballot. The ages of liability weine from 18 to 45, 
The cyttcm thus legalized is practically the eiistins; though whmt 
pended billot system. The foire was to l>e annually trained aiKl eJcer* 
ci»ed for a limlicd period, and in ca^e of invanion or dan|^ tbefetiff 
or in case of rebellion, the Crown could order it or any pordoo of 



it to be embodied: but only on condition of informing paHii 
(which was if not sitting to be summoned for the purpose j. During 
the efflbodijiient or annual training it was subject to the Mutitay 
Act, txco|H that no punishment during training was to exteod to 
*' life or limb "^; to prevent an unconstitutionar use cA the mibda 
by the Crown, the estimate for its training was framed tas^ year, 
not by ao executive miniiter of the sovenei^, but by tbe Mouse cl 
Commotis itself. Upon the initiative of a committee of the house, 
an act was passtdi providing for the pay and clothing of tbe militia 
for the year. The king directly appointed the pnnnanent naJI 
and was given a veto on the appointment and promotion of the oA- 
cert* who were to have a property qualification. 

Under this act jo,ooo militiamen were raited bv ballot and em* 
bodied from 1 7 59 to 1763,. This force wa* e^lusivdy " PtotMtaiJtH** 
and remained so untU iSoi. The seTvicc of the militia as tbtts 
arranged remained nearly in the same state until 1670. Pi^'s 
reform » however, was foilawed by niimeroui atnendmenta, new 
enactmcnc4^ and other changes, of which tbe following is a tumnury 
in chronological orders— 
1 75a. Men vduatecring to serve reoagnited as covnting towards tber 

quota. 
1 76 1* RaisinH; of quota made coinptUsocy On ooimde^ under peoalty 

of nncs. 
Mutiny Act applied to znlUtu when out for training as well *» 

when embwiied* 
1773» (American War.) Act paued empowcriog embodiroeiii nf 

militia in case of colonial as well as domestk: rcbellioo. 
l;786« Charge on parishes for stcvage of amu, &c^i transfcrnd B> 

counties. 

1795. Enlist iTtetit into rfltuUr^ encouraged. 

1796. Supplement iry militia formed, contisting of di,i7ft men- 
179a, (Irish Rebellion.} English militia volunt*ertd for tervke at 

Ireland, 
17991, Irish miUtia volunteered to serve in Great Britain. 

15.000 militia men volmntiftred to regxilar army, 
tto^. 4S>4'?^ ^^^ raised for miHtia by ballot, but of thew 40,9^ 

were substitutes. 
iSoV lA»iik^«£iiaa.xaim Ujk for purpoeesof f«cruitin« for rcculaet. 



MILK 



451 



t8o&. TVainiiiir Act to labe by ballot mo,ooo men to be traioecf 

for one whole yeaur, and then to discharge them from tnin- 

ing for two yean. 
1806. Difficulties having arisen under above Act, local militia 

(which is in effect the old general levy) established in addi- 

tion to general militia then embodied. 
37,000 mihtiamen vcdunteered to regular army during pre* 

celling twelve months. 
1811. Ea^ish militia, hitherto not liable to serve out of the kjng^ 

dom, now made Uable to serve in any part of the Unitra 

Kingdom under certam restrictions, which were subse- 

auently (in 1859) removed. 
Method of obtaimng men from militia for r^uhrs further 

sjrstematiaed. 
1813. la this year there- were 350 regiments of local militia, with 

an establishment of 340,388 men and 314^418 actually 

enrolled* 
1813. Daring ten years, from 1803 to X813, nearly 100,000 militia- 
men joined the regular army. 
Act passed to enable militia to serve abroad as militia with 

their own ofl&cera. Three strong battalions joined the 

British army in France. 
1815. Miiitiaroen recruited in great numbers the army which fought 

at Waterioa 
Local militia ceased tq be raised. 
18x6. Local militia and Ballot Act suspended. 

General militia disembodied. 
1830-31-35. Militia called out for training. 
1839. Act passed suapending ballot for the general militia. 
1831. Militiamen raised by ballot in accordance with Order in 

Coundl, 37th of December 183a This was the last occa- 

aioa on which the baUot was put in force. 
To tbe btttf *ta£e» of ttit grcrat French war the tendency of the 
fovcmmcnt wis to Mx the gcncril militia rather as a reservoir 
producing drafts (in tbtr end whole units) for service abroad, and the 
todl mUjtia as rbe real defen&Lvt^ force. During the height of the 
wv [m 181J) thcrcbtJvt poii lIdh of L he various branches of the army 
wsa an r«?liDVK: Ftr^t kitie, tlic^ st^iciding army; second line, the 
f "■'■I or nsijlaj miUtia^ whJcK a» the war went on were more and 
son i»ed aBrcfad: third lirw. tl^c t«al militia, with the survivon 
of ^ht voluntcirm, wl^o at that time numbered about 68,000 men. 
After the ptace of 1S15 thtr militia was allowed practically to fall 
into ibeyTmcT^ and akhou^b the pennanent staff was maintained, 
it had no duties t 1 r d" rr^i In T^ r- the Prime Minister intimated 
in p^rl^mc-nT hi- »lish the militia, but it was not 

until i8u, after an unsuccessful attempt to resuscitate the local 
militia, tnat the general militia of England was reorganiaed under a 
syrtem of voluntary enlistment with the ballot in reserve, Scotland 
and Ireland being included in 1854. The property gualification 
of oflkers which had hitherto existed (with exception in favour of 
ex-officers of the armv and navy) was reduced, aund after a further 
redaction in 1854, abolished in 1869. Larger powen respecting 



the militia were conferred upon the Crown, and during the Crimean 
War the queen was authorized to embody the militia whenever a 
state of war existed with any foreign power. In that war the militia 
was embodied and did garrison duty not only in the United Kin^om 
but in the Mediterranean garrisons, thus enabling the authorities 
to send most of the available regular troops to the scene of hostilities. 
It further contributed many officers and some 30,000 men to the line. 
During the Indian Mutiny it filled scarcely less useful functions when 
again called out. The accepunce of voluntaiy offera of service in 
the (Tbannel Islands and Isle of Man was definitely authorized in 
18^, and extended to service in Malta and Gibraltar in 1875. 

Id tltyi an iinportant : . mge was made. It was 

part of the new iirmy K> rt. :i', I.- . . 1 1:1 that year that the con« 

trd of the milLtii should be ixjuuatiiI from the lora-lieutcnant of the 
county and veiled wholly in the Crcr*ti. It now virtually ceased to 
exist a-s a distinct body, and in [8^1 it became a part of the regular 
iorc« with a Ucriuatlocj as to the time and area and other conditions 
of service. Mil it A battatjona were unit Hi with the line battalions 
to form territorial rc^menti, the artilltr^' and en^neers being also 
clovely ^iKK:i4ted with the re^br (vrvicrs. Various amendments 
and rw^w enactments foltowt^d, all in ihc direction of increasing the 
useful nc^ of the militLi, rcndrrin^ it more efficient and readier for 
ser : .1 •^' I: >■■ I , king it more and more a means 

for .':id men, to the regular army. 

The officers, who were commissioned by the Crown, were in 1877 
nude subject at all times to military law. Non-commissioned 
oflkers and men were only so subject when embodied or out for 
training, with extension in the case of men convicted of oflFences 
committed during training until the expiration of the punishment.^ 
Enlistment was voluntary, compulsory service by ballot remained 



* This, though here mentioned as part of a process of " regubr- 
izing " the militia, was in fact a reform that was advisable under any 
conditions. The new Territorial Force when created out of the 
Volunteer Force (which had no such liabilities except when training 
or serving with regulars) was made subject to military law, officen 
at all tlmeab am whenever under instructa<M|. 



legal, but suspended. The period of engagement was forsix years, 
re-engagemenu for periods of four vears up to the age of 45 
being permitted. Bounties were paid to militiamen at various 
rates upon enlistment, conduuon of training, re-engagement, enlist- 
ment mto reserve or q)ecial service section, and other special 
circumstances. Recruit training, maximum six months, as a rule 
did not exceed three months. Recruits were either drilled immedi- 
ately upon enlistment at any time of the year, which is now the most 
usual system, or else at preliminary drills (first instituted in i860), 
immediately precedinff the annual training of the corps. The annual 
training varied with the different branches of the service. The usual 
term for infantry was 37 days, but when on manoeuvres this was 
generally extended to 34 days, 56 days being the legal maximum. 
Artillery and fortress engineen trained for 41 days and submarine 
mining engineere fof m days. Trainings took place for the most 
part in camp or barracks, and large numben of militia battalions 
were latteriy called on to take part in field manceuvres. The militia 
ddpdts occupied as a rule the same barracks, and officers and men 
wore (with slight distinctions) the same uniform as the regulars. 
The noilitia occufMcd an important position in the mobilization 
scheme for national defence. The permanent staff (adjutant, 
quartermaster, and an establishment 01 non-commissioned officera 
and buj^lera or drummers, all regulars) was engaged during the 
non-training period of the year in recruiting, care of arms, clothing 
&c, and in drilling recruits. The general lines of the system, as 
regards training are still followed with the Special Reserve, though 
the constitution of the new force is very different. 

The militia ordinarily was Kable only for service in the United 
Kingdom, but by legislation in 189^ may voluntarily serve in any 
part of the world, including India. During 1809-1900, 33,000 
militiamen were thus accepted for service abroad, the bulk of them 
proceeding to the seat of war in South Africa. 

The miCtia reserve conasted of men selected from the ranks of the 
militia for q)ecial enlistment for service in the reguUr army when 
called upon in emergencies, in the following proportions to the 
establishments of the various corps: Artillery, one-third; engineen 
and infantry, one-fourth^ medical staff corps, one-half. The niilitia 
reserve was first formed m 1867, and in i()oo numbered 30,000 men. 
During an emergency in 1878, 20,000 nulitia reservists joined the 
regular army. The term " nulitia " reserve was therefore a complete 
misnomer, and the force so called was purely an army reserve. 
The special service section of the militia was formed by royal warrant 
in 1898, and consisted of (i) militia units and (3) inoiviaual militia- 
men. A militia unit was considered as available for «q>ecial service 
if not less than 75 % of the officera and men present at training made 
a voluntary offer to engage for special service in any part of the worldi 
and if in Uie infantry at least 500 and in the artillery at least 350 
men were accepted as qualified. Individual militiamen engage 
to serve either with their militia unit if it were registered for service, 
or else for special service with the regular forces. Liability for 
service was hmited to twelve months. Men of the H>edal service 
section could also belong to the militia reserve, and receive a bounty 
in addition to that given for the reserve. The result of this q)ecial 
section was not up to 1900 satisfactory. Very few units could 
qualify for registration, and the response of individual men was 
comparatively insignificant. 

During and after the South African War, while militia recruiting 
for the regulare showed a constant increase compared with preceding 

rears, the strength of the militia itself decreased year after year. 
ts militia character had been diminishing ever since the creation of 
the " militia reserve " and the close affiliation of the force to the 
regular army. For good or evil, then, it had become in the first 

filacc a draft-producing agency, and on the reorganization of the 
orces of the Crown into two lines by Mr Haldane the old " Con- 
stitutional force " was frankly reorganized as a reserve for the line, 
enlistment and training conditions remaining somewhat similar to 
those in vcwue in the militia,^ but the liability for service abroad 
becoming the first and most important condition in the " special 
reservist s " enlistment. 

MILK (O. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, 
cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. d^X7€tv), the fluid secreted by the 
mammaiy glands of the division of vertebrate animals called 
Mammalia (see Maiocasy Gland), and primarily devised for 
the nourishment of their own young. 

The milk of various domesticated animals is more or less used 
by man for food. The milk of the cow, which may be taken 
as typical of all others, and is indeed by far the most important 
and valuable of all (see Daisy and Daisy Farminc), is, when 
newly drawn, an opaque white fluid, with a yellowish tinge, soft, 
bland and sweetish to the taste, and possessed of a faintly 
animal odour. This odour, according to Schreiner, is due to 
the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, and disappears after a 
short exposure. The specific gravity of milk ordinarily ranges 
from X'OJQ to 1*033, very seldom reachin^^ vo'^*^ q\ VsSic^xv'^vi 
low as 1*027. ^ chemicai c»Q&\iVM\itm.\\. ^xcsa\& ^\ vo^ ^^s&^^s^^-^ 



452 



MILKWORT 



of fatty ^obules (cream) in a watery alkaline sdntion of casein, 
and a variety of sugar, peculiar to milk, called lactose. The 
lat (which when separated we know as butter) and the lactose 
constitute the carbonaceous portion of the milk regarded as 
food. The casein, which forms the principal constituent of 
cheese, and a certain proportion of albumen which is present, 
form the nitrogenous, while the complex saline substances and 
water are the mineral constituents. These various substances 
are present in the proportions which render inilk a perfect and 
typical food suitable to the wants of the young of the various 
animals for whom it is provided by nature. The milk of 
animals, so far as is known, contains them, although they are 
present in somewhat different proportions. It is probable that 
the milk of ruminants possesses certain physical and physio- 
logical distinctions from that of non-ruminant animals, which 
will account for the virtues attributed to the milk of the ass and 
mare. The following table exhibits the chemical constitution 





Cow. 


Ck»t. 


Ewe.> 


Marc. 


Aa. 


Hiimjui. 




1 


> 


> 


1 


¥' 


1 


Water. . 
Fat . . . 
Casein and 
albumin . 

^:: ; 


a6B7 

[4-75 
4^00 
0-70 


4-00 
4-10 
4-3S 


J-94 
468 
o?9 


83-70 
4-45 

1'4 


6a85 
J69 


91-65 

6k>6 
0-34 


ae-o3 
3-90 

1-60 

0-31 



In addition to these constituents milk contains small propor- 
tions of the gases carbonic acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, nitrogen 
and oxygen, and minute quantities of other principles, the 
constant presence and essential conditions of which have not 
been determined. These consist of galactin and lactochrome, 
'substances peculiar to ipilk, discovered by Winter Blyth, with 
certain animal principles such as leudn, pepton, kreatin, 
tyrosin, &c. The salts in milk consist, according to the average 
of numerous analyses by Fleischmann, of the following 
constituents. — 



Phosphoric acid 
Chloriae . . 
Lime . . . 
Soda . . . 



28-31 
16-34 
27-00 

10-00 



Potash 
Mag^nesia . 
Ferric oxide 



17-34 
4-07 

0*62 



Milk thus is not to be regarded as a definite chemical compound 
nor even as a mixture of bodies in fixed and invariable propor- 
tions. Not only does the milk of different races and breeds of 
cows vary within comparatively wide limits; the milk of the 
tame animal is subject to extensive fluctuation. The principal 
causes of variation in the individual are age, period of lactation, 
nature and amount of food, state of health, and treatment, such as 
frequency of milking, &c. The following Uble indicates the 
range of normal variations: — 

Water 90-001083-65 

Fat 2-80 M 4-50 

Casein and albumin 3-30 » 5*55 

Sugar 3-00 „ 5-50 

Ash 0-70 „ o-8o 

The average quantity of milk yielded by cows is also highly 
variable, both in individuals and breeds. 

Milk and Disease. — AlthoueH the milk of a perf«:tly lieahliy cow 
may be absolutely sterile, it is diCficLik to obtain i[ in ttiAt condition. 
In the report of the joint commJitee appoidicil for tht purpose by 
the county boroughs of Bradford. Hull, L^NJ^^ Rcthcrham and 
Sheffield in l9oiB, the following Cf^ncluaion* were drawn: (t) Cow*' 
milk freshly drawn from the udder by ordinary mcihod^ rontainj 
bacteria. They are more numcTQus in the (iret flow of the milk, 
(2) There b a great increase in ccmtimitution in ihc milk at tach 
SUge before it reaches the cust rncr. This is dise to (n) the dirty 
coiKiition of the cows' udders, (b) the iirarwr^ ■ . h .. f ; f ■ ^r v 
and of the hands of the millcers. The committee recommend: 

* Eire's milk is exceedingly varial?le, especially in its percentage of 
/at. The above analysis u one oi nine by Dr Arthur Voelcker, in 
wAscb the fat waa fouod to range from about 3 to I2iy» 



naaementt and this is the anthrax bacillus containing apcnt. 
e dango' from this source is remote, as the microbe does not form 



" (0 The washing of the udder and flanln witti vnp sod water* snd 
simiUr attention 10 the hands of the mil Iter. (7} Efficient Rtrrilia' 
tlDo of afl ve$$eli by $tCAm if possibEen or by abund^^ncr of boiling 
watCTp {%) ElejectJoa of tht« first draw ol the milk ftom e*th tai. 
(4^ Avoidance of any work raidn^;: dust inifncdtaiefy befcrc or durios 
milking^ (k) Removal of the iriilk of each cow immcij lately froai 
the tihed, i^l Vei4tiUtioit and cleanliness of the caw&bcds^ This 
pro vid» for che reduction u far as ponibk of coiitaminatiDti duhiic 
the milking jiroctsa itEvil. As any bacteria present in the milk 
tend to miutiply tapidlY on the way to ihc conjs-jiijer, it is nuinly a 
giJcstioD of the time which clapsei boJore coniximption. It is, tliecv- 
rora, further recommended (o) that the milk be napidly cooled of 
chilled, as the lower the temperature the feu do the bacteria multiply, 
{b} tfLat contaminiition duxixig niilway transit be avoibded by (iaotr 
proof locked milk cans. 

By treating milk at a tempcrramre of 60" C. fof one hour^ 70* C 
for ten minutes, and rjs' C, for one minute, tubenzlc bacilf i. if prt^nii 
will certainly be killed. Cholera and typhoid organismii are km 
mJAtmnt, and art kitk^ more q^uickly than tubercle bacifU iii the 
above temperatures. Onlv a ainsle pathofenic species can with> 
stand the snort boiling^ to which nmic is ordinarily treated in domestic 

The 

aporcs ■. ■ ■, .!• ::..;■:.■■..■. ; . s ■ - .■ ■,. , • inrti 

only vr,:ij |lri^ tt ri^;-. ■■• <\:- •:< ■'!■■•■■■■•} '-y i'l,-.! Mi 4. ■".,:.] I.!.\l Uii' r »ay 

into the mjjk from the body of the caw. 

Tbe lactic acid bacitlus, always present In unboiled mlVk (to which 
tlie souring of milk is due), is eaEiIy d^itroyed by heat; bat the 
hariUas wuieKUrifui^ olten found in it, forms sporiHi which are 
not destroyed by ordinary boiling, and germinate when the 
milk LA kept at a moderately warm temperaturep producing a briik 
fermenLition whcrfby a large volutne of gat is Ubented. The 
fundamental idea of Soxhlct's method for sterilisiic iBillc i> to boil 
it for forty minutes in ^mall bottles holding: just enough for one meal, 
and dosing the time with an ijnpcn'ious stopper* wbjch is only re- 
moved just befofd use* Milk u treated will keep at th^ ordinarv' room 
tempera! unr, as the eports ol the S. mgitnitrunJ do not develop 
below 15* C; but If it be introduced into the aUmentar^^ canal of a 
child the iporeswill rapidly mulUptyp and in tuch cases laret quanti- 
ties of eiA, ^vin^ nx to tla.t:ulencyi will be formed, and pouibTy 
alio poisonous dccomposiiion products of albuminoid matter. To 
render milk sterile in the strict Ktis^ of the word it is nec£»Ary to 
raise it to a tempeinturv of about iso'^ C. for twenty minutes. L'oder 
ihc:»e condkiofu the lactose decomposes into dark-bro«va tifskut 
products, the Tat loses its eni[ul»6ed condition and separates Out at 
cream which cannot be made to diffuse a(;ain even by ^ha^ing, and 
the alE>uminoids are converted into a lonn yenr difheuh of digcftioa.. 
In short H theje i^ the greatest difficulty in freeing milk on a laf^e 
scale from Etrmjs without at the same time ieriouJy prejudicing its 
flavour and nutritive value. Since, then, the dr$tnxction ol the 
hardv g^erms ia so difllcult, the Eftatef cam flhould be taken, by waih- 
ing the udder, h^nd§ and milk vessels, to secure ciitrf me cieanlLneu La 
the preparation of mitk intended for infant cons^umption. Scerilia- 
tion then becomes an eaiier ta^k, the milk dravn under xhcm wO' 
dkiona being very poor in spore-forming bacteria.. It is iiDpermtin 
that cream destiiied for butter-making should be free from patba>- 
genie organisms. The organiims of choleta, typhoid fever Sdd 
tuberculosis present in butter retain their vitality Itw a long lime. 
Aa butter h coniumod in the raw state, a trust worth v preliminary 
trMtmtnt of the cream i$ in the hlghcit degree dciirabfe, Schui:Kkaa 
has ^bown that it it possible to prnduce good butter ffom ra&tetirucd 
or even sterilized cream, and Weigmann introduced the plan of an»- 
^dalEy souring cream by meana of pure cultures ol B, ofidfi JofjNri 
Since MetchnikofT's intTT>duction (soc LpSGevliv} of the use oT 
soured milk for durtetic purpwscs — the lactk add bacillus dextro^ific 
pathogenic bacteria in the intestine — ^a great impetus has bcrnp^Tfl 
10 the muki plication of laboratory preparations containing culcuPt* 
of the bacillus; and in recent yearn much beneht to h^th hur 
in certain casesp been derived from the discovery- 
Sec al^ the art ick-3 A ot? i, te ha t iok ; Da t av a ^i o D aIk V Fa kkihc : 
InfavcV* DttiEncs; Fdoo andFoop PEEStKVAtiojj; mtiiclast 
oi whi ch th e pteparation of condrn-^d Tnitk ?* lU *u-nli#^. 

MILKWORT, m botany, the common name for plants of the 
genus Poly gala (natural order Polygalaceae), a large genus widely 
dispersed in temperate and tropical regions and represented by 
a few spedes in Britain. The common species, P ndganSt is 
a small wiry perennial foimd on heaths and in meadows through- 
out the British Isles. The steins are 3 to 10 in. long and bear 
narrow rather tough leaves and small, ^ to } in. kmg, white, 
pink, blue, lUac or purple flowers. The flowers (see fig) ate 
peculiar in form and arrangement of parts; they have five free 
sepals the two inner of which (&) are large petaloid and wio^ike, 
forming the most conspicuous part of the flower, tbe petab aie 
united below with the sheath of the eight sumens fonning % 
tube split at the base behind, their form recalls that of the pea 
family. The name Polygala is from the Gredt vMg, mncb. 



MILL, JAMES 



453 



uAyiXB^ milk/tlie plant bong supposed to increase the yidd 
of — iifc in cows. Some spedes with showy flowers are known 
in cultivation as greenhouse, or hardy annual or perennial, herbs 
or slirubs. The root of P. Senega, snake-root, a North American 
wpedgs isoflidnaL Sea milkwort is the common name for 
CUmx marUiwta, a small succulent herb found on seashores and 
in estuarks in the British Isles; it belongs to the primrose order 
(Pkimulaceae). 

^i i— — - 




Polygala Senega. 

A, Fkywer; a, small sepaU; h, large sepals; c, keeT, representing 
the anterior^etal ; d, its brabriated edge ; e, lateral petals.. 

B, The 8 stamens united into a sheath below; h, anthers 
CnagniSed). 

■ILL, JAMES (1773-1836), historian and philosopher, was 
iMfn on the 6th ol April 1773, at Northwater Bridge, in the 
parish of Logie-Pert, Forfarshire, the son of James Mill, a shoe- 
xnaker. His mother, Isabel Fenton, of a gciod family which had 
suffered from connexion with the Stuart rising of 1745, resolved 
that he should receive a first-rate education, and sent him first 
to the i>arish school and then to the Montrose Academy, where 
he remained till the unusual age of seventeen and a half. He 
then entered the imiversity of Edinburgh, where he distinguished 
himscll as a Greek scholar. In. October 1798 he was licensed 
as a preacher, but met with Uttle success. From 1790 to 1802, 
in addition to holding various tutorships, he occupied himself 
with historical and philosophical studies. Finding little prospect 
of a career in Scotland, in 1802 he went to London in company 
with Sir John Stuart, then member of parliament for Kin- 
cardineshire, and devoted himself to literary work. From 1803 
to 1806 he was editor of an ambitious periodical called the 
Uterary Journal, which professed to give a summary view of 
all the leading departments of human knowledge. During this 
time he also edited the St James*s Chronicle, belonging to the 
same proprietor. In 1804 he wrote a pamphlet on the com 
trade, arguing against a bounty on the exportation of grain. 
In 1805 he published a translation (with notes and quotations) of 
C F. Villers's work on the Reformation, an imspaiing exposure 
of the alleged vices of the papal system. In 1805 he married 
Harriet Burrow, whose mother, a widow, kept an establishment 
for lunatics in Hoxton. He then took a house in Pentonville, 
where his eldest son, John Stuart Mill (q.v.), was bom in x8o6. 
About the end of this year he began his History of India, which 
he took twelve years to complete, instead of three or four, as 
be had expected. 

In 1808 he became acquainted with Jeremy Bentham, and 
was for many years his chief companion and ally. He adopted 
Bentham's principles in their entirety, and determined to devote 
an his energies to bringing them before the world. Between 
x8o6 and x8x8 he wrote for the Anti-Jacobin Review, the British 
Renew and the Electric Review; but there is no means of 
tracing his contributions. In 1808 he began to write for the 
Edinburgh Review, to which he contributed steadily till 1813, 
his first known article being " Money and Exchange." He 
also wrote on Spanish America, China, General Miranda, the 
East India Company, and the Liberty of the Press. In the 
Annual Review for x8o8 two articles of his are traced — a " Review 
of Fox's History," and an article on " Bentham's Law Reforms." 
probably his first published notice of Bentham. In x8xi he 
co-operated with William Allen (1770-1843), quaker and chemist, 
in a. periodical called the Philanthropist. He contributed 
largely to every number— his principal topics being Education, 



Freedom of the Press, and Prison Dtsdpline (under which he 
expounded Bentham's " Panopticon "). He made powerful 
opislaughts on the ChurclL in coimexion with the Bell and Lan- 
caster controvert, and took a prominent part in the discussions 
which led to the foimdation of London University in X825. In 
X 8 14 he wrote a number of articles, containing an exposition of 
utilitarianism, for the supplement to the fifth edition of the 
Encyclopaedia Britannica, the most' important being those on 
" Jurisprudence," " Prisons " and " Government." 

In x8i8 the History of India was published, and obtained a 
great and immediate success. It brought about a change in the 
author's position. The year following he was appointed an 
official in the India House, in the important dq)artment of 
the examiner of Indian correspondence. He gradually rose 
in rank till he was appointed, in X830, head of the office, 
with a salary of £1900, raised in X836 to £2000. His great 
work, the Elements of Political EcmkTmy, appeared in 1821 
(3rd and revised ed. X826). 

From X824 to X826 Mill contributed to the Westminster Review, 
started as the organ of his party, a number of articles in which 
he attacked the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews and ecclesi- 
astical establishments. In X829 appeared the Analysis of the 
Human Mind, From X83X to X833 Mill was largely occupied in 
the defence of the East India Company, during the controversy 
attending the renewal of its charter, he being in virtue of his 
office the spokesman of the court of directors. For the London 
Review, foimded by Sir William Molesworth in X834, he wrote 
a noUble article entitled " The Church and its Reform," which 
was much too sceptical for the time, and injured the Review. 
His last published book was the Fragment on Mackintosh (x83s). 
He died on the 23rd of Jime X836. 

Mill had a thorough acquaintance with Greek and Latin 
literature, general history, political, mental and moral philosophy. 
His intellect was logical in the highest degree; he was clear and 
precise, an enemy of loose reasoning, and quick to refute pre- 
vailing fallacies. All his work is marked by original constructive 
thought, except in a few subjects, in which he confessedly 
expounded Bentham's views. At a time when social subjects 
were as a rule treated empirically, he brought first principles to 
bear at every point. His greatest literary moniunent is the 
History of India. The materials for narrating the acquisition by 
England of its Indian Empire were put into shape for the first 
time; a vast body of political theory was brought to bear on the 
delineation of the Hindu civilization; and the conduct of the 
actors in the successive stages of the conquest and administra- 
tion of India was subjected to a severe criticism. The work 
jtself, and the author's official connexion with India for the last 
seventeen years of his life, effected a complete change in the 
whole QTstem of governing that coimtry. 

Mill played a great part also in English politics, and was, 
more than any other man, the founder of what was called 
" philosophic radicalism." His writings on government and his 
personal influence among the Liberal politicians of his time 
determined the change of view from the French Revolution 
theories of the rights of man and the absolute equality of men 
to the claiming of securities for good government through a 
wide extension of the franchise. Under this banner it was that 
the Reform Bill was fought and won. His Elements of Political 
Economy, which was intended only as a textbook of the subject, 
shows all the author's precision and lucidity. As Dr J. K. 
Ingram said, it has the "character of a work of art." It 
followed up the views of Ricardo, with whom Mill was always 
on terms of intimacy. Its interest is mainly historical, as an 
accurate siunmary of views which are now largely discarded. 
Among the more important of its theses are: (i) that the chief 
problem of practical reformers is to limit the increase of popu- 
lation, on the assumption that capital does not naturally 
increase at the same rate as population (ii. § 2, art. 3); (2) that 
the value of a thing depends entirely on the quantity of labour 
put into it; and (3) that what is now known as the " unearned 
increment " of land is a proper obv^ct lot \xsA.>JvniCi. "W^ '<k'sC«* 
as a whole ift & slrikin^ «utmv\t <A >}&fc ^^s^kdm* ^V VKa>:\^>% 



MILL, JOHN— MILL, JOHN STUART 



& 



+5+ 

economic problems lirom a purely a priori standpoint by the 
deductive method. 

By his Analysis of the Mind and his Fragment on Mackintosh 
Mill acquired a position in the history of psychology and ethics. 
He took up the problems of mind very much after the fashion 
of the Scottish school, as then represented by Reid, Stewart and 
Brown, but made a new start, due in part to Hartley, and still 
more to his own independent thinking. He carried out the 
principle of association into the analysis of the complex emotional 
states, as the affections, the aesthetic emotions and the moral 
sentiment, all which he endeavoured to resolve into pleasurable 
and painful sensations. But the salient merit of the Analysis 
is the constant endeavour after precise definition of terms and 
clear statement of doctrines. The Fragment on Mackintosh is 
a severe exposure of the flimsiness and misrepresentations of 
Sir James Mackintosh's famous Dissertation on the Progress of 
Ethical Philosophy (1830), and discusses the foundations of 
ethics from the author's utilitarian point of view. 

Bibliography. — ^Leslie Stephen, The English Utilitarians, vol. 
ii. (1900). and article in Diet. Nat, Biog.; A. Bain, James Mill 
(1882); G. S. Bower, Hartley and James Mill (1881); James 
McCosh, Scottish Philosophy (1885); J. S. Mill, Autobiography 
iSjA) : Th. Ribot, La Psyckohgie anglaise (1870; Eng. trans., 1873) ; 

Morley in Fortnightly Review, xxxvii. (1882); Graham Wallas, 

; Life of Francis Place (1898). 

MILL, JOHN (c. 164 5-1 707), English theologian, was bom 
about 1645 at Shap in Westmorland, entered Queen's College, 
Oxford, as a servitor in 1661, and took his master's degree in 
1669 in which year he spoke the " Oratio Panegyrica " at the 
opening of the Sheldonian Theatre. Soon afterwards he was 
chosen fellow and tutor of his college; in 1676 he became chaplain 
to the bishop of Oxford, and in 1681 he obtained the rectory of 
Bletchington, Oxfordshire, and was made chaplain to Charles II. 
From 1685 till his death he was principal of St Edmund's Hall; 
and in 1704 he was nominated by Queen Anne to a prebendal 
stall in Canterbury. He died on the 23rd of June 1707, just a 
fortnight after the publication of his Greek Testament. 

Mill's Notfum testamentum gracum, cum lectionibus variantibus 
MSS. exemplarium, versionum,- edUionum SS.patrum et scrip- 
torum ecclestaslicorum, et in easdem notis (Oxford, fol. 1707), was 
undertaken by the advice and encouragement of John Fell {q.v.), 
his predecessor in the field of New Testament criticism: it represents 
the labour of thirty years, and is admitted to mark a ^reat advance 
on all that had previously been achieved. The text mdeed is that 
of R. Stephanus (1550), but the notes, besides embodying all pre- 
viously existing collections of various readings, add a vast number 
derived from his own examination of many new MSS, and Oriental 
versions (the latter unfortunately he used only in the Latin transla- 
tions). Though the amount of information given bv Mill is small 
compared with that in modern editions, it is probable that no one 
person, except perhaps Tischendorf, has added so much material 
for the work of textual criticism. He was the first to notice, though 
only incidentally, the value of the concurrence of the Latin evidence 
with the Codex Alcxandrinus, the only representative of an ancient 
non-Western Greek text then sufficiently known; this hint was not 
lost on Bentley (sec Westcott and Hort, Introduction to New Testa- 
ment). Mill's various readings, numbering about thirty thousand, 
were attacked by Daniel Whitby (1638-1726) in his Examen as 
destroying the validity of the text ; Antony Collins also argued in 
the same sense thougn with a different object. The latter called 
forth a reply from bentley {Phileleutherus lipsiensis). In 1710 
Kuster reprinted Mill's Testament at Amsterdam with the readings 
of twelve additional MSS. 

MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873), English philosopher and 
economist, son of James Alill, was born on the aolh of May 1806 
in his father's house in Pentonville, London. He was educated 
exclusively by his father, who was a strict disciplinarian, and 
at the age of three was taught the Greek alphabet and long lists 
of Greek words with their English equivalents. By his eighth 
year he had read Aesop's Fables, Xenophon's Anabasis, and the 
whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes 
Lagrtius, Isocratcs and six dialogues of Plato (see his Auto- 
biography). He had also read a great deal of history in English — 
Robertson's histories, Hume, Gibbon, Robert Watson's Philip II. 
and Philip III., Hooke's Roman History, part of a translation 
oi Rollin's Ancient History, Langhorne's Plutarch, Burnet's 
^/'s/0ry 0/ A/y Own Times, thirty volumes of the Annual Register, 
3/il/ar's Ifu/orical View of Ike English Cmrnmeni^ Mosb«m'» 



Ecclesiastical History^ M'Crie's Knox, and two histories of the 
Quakers. A contemporary record of Mill's studies from eight to 
thirteen is published in Bain's sketch of his life. It shows that 
the Autobiography rather understates the amount of work done. 
At the age of eight he began Latin, Euclid, and algebra, kod 
was appointed schoolmaster to the younger children of the 
family. His main reading was still history, but he went through 
all the Latin and Greek authors commonly read in the schools 
and universities, besides several that are not commonly read by 
undergraduates. He was not taught to compose either in Latin 
or in Greek, and he was never an exact scholar; it was for the 
subject matter that he was required to read, and by the age of 
ten he could read Plato and Demosthenes with ease. His father's 
History of India was published in 18 18; immediately thereafter, 
about the age of twelve, John began a thorough study of the 
scholastic logic, at the same time reading Aristotle's logical 
treatises in the original. In the following year he was introduced 
to political economy and studied Adam Smith and Rlcardo with 
his father. 

Not unnaturally the training which the younger Mill received 
has aroused amazement and criticism; and it is reasonable to 
doubt whether the material knowledge which he retained in 
the result was as valuable to him as his father imagined. It is 
important, however, to note that the really important part of 
the training was the close association which it involved with the 
strenuous character and vigorous intellect of his father. From 
his earliest days he sp<Jnt much time in his father's study and 
habitually accompanied him on his walks in North London. 
Much therefore of what he acquired was assimilated without 
difficulty, and the accuracy of hU impressions was tested by his 
subsequently drafting a risumi of their conversations. He thus 
learned early to grapple with difficulties and to accustom himself 
to the necessity of precision in argument and expression. It . 
was an inevitable result of such an education that Mill acquired Jl 
many of his father's speculative opinions, and his father's way '^ 
of defending them. But he did not receive the unpress passively -^ 
and mechanically. "One of the grand objects of education," ^ 
according to the elder Mill, " should be to generate a constant ^^^ 
and anxious concern about evidence." The duty of coUecting^H 
and weighing evidence for himself was at every turn impressed.0! 
upon the boy; he was taught to accept no opinion on authority.^^ 
He was deliberately educated as an apostle, but it was as a ~ 
apostle of reasoned truth in human affairs, not as an apostle < 
any system of dogmatic tenets. It was to prevent any fallin 
off from this high moral standard till it should become part o^V 

his being that his father kept the boy so closely with himself 

Mill expressly says that his childhood was not unhappy. IMIC 
seems unhappy only when we compare it with the normal lif^ 
of a boy and decline to imagine its peculiar enjoyments ancS. 
aspirations. Mill complains that his father often required mor^ 
than could be expected of him, but his tasks were not so severe 
as to prevent him from growing up a healthy and high-H>irited 
boy, though he was not constitutionally robust, and his ptirsuits 
were so different from those of other boys of the same age. 

From May 1820 till July 182 1 Mill was in France in the family 
of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of Jeremy Benthanu Away 
from his father he maintained his laborious habits. Copious 
extracts from a diary kept by him at this time are given by 
Bain; they show how methodically he read and wrote, studied 
chemistry and botany, tackled advanced mathematical problems, 
made notes on the scenery and the people and customs of the 
country. He also gained a thorough acquaintance with the 
French language. On his return in 1821 he added to his work 
the study of psychology, and that of Roman bw, which he read 
with John Austin, his father having half decided on the bar as 
the best profession open to him. In 1822, however, when he had 
just completed his seventeenth year, this intention was aban- 
doned, and he entered as a clerk in the examiner's office of 
the India House, " with the understanding that be should be 
employed from the beginning in preparing drafU of despatches, 
and be thus trained up as a successor to those who then filled 
I Ihe highest departmenU of the office." 



MILL, JOHN STUART 



455 



Mill's work at t&e India House, which was henceforth his 
livelihood, did not come before the public; hence some have 
Kotued his political writings as the work of an abstract philo- 
sopher, entirely unacquainted with affairs. From the first he 
was' more than a clerk, and after a short apprenticeship ht was 
promoted, in 1828, to the responsible position of assistant- 
examiner with a salary of £doo a year. The duty of the so-called 
examiners was to examine the letters of the agents of the 
Company in India, and to draft instructions in reply. The 
character of the Company's government was almost entirely 
dependent upon their abilities as statesmen. For twenty years, 
from 1836 (when his father died) to 1856, Mill had charge of the 
Company's relations with the native states, and in 1856 he 
became chief of the office with a salary of £2000. In the 
hundreds of despatches that he wrote in this capacity, much, 
no doubt, was done in accordance with established routine, but 
few statesmen of his generation had a wider experience of the 
responsible application of the principles of government. About 
this work he said little in the Autobiography, probably because 
his main concern there was to expound the influences that 
effected his moral and mental development. 

About the time of his entering the India House Mill read 
Dumont's expositioh of Bentham's doctrines in the TraiU de 
Ugidaiion, which made a lasting impression upon him. When 
he laid down the last volume, he says, he had become a different 
being. It gave unity to the detached and fragmentary parts 
of his knowledge and beliefs. The impression was confirmed 
by the study of the English psychologists, as well as Condillac 
and Helvetius, and in 182 2-1 823 he established among a few 
friends the " Utilitarian " Society, taking the word, as he tells 
us, from Gait's Annals of the Parish. Two newspapers were 
open to him — the Traveller^ edited by a friend of Bentham's, 
and the Morning Chronicle, edited by his father's friend Black. 
One of his first efforts was a solid argument for freedom of 
discussion, in a series of letters to the Chronicle apropos of the 
prosecution of Richard Carlile. But he watched all public 
inddents with a vigilant eye, and seized every passing oppor- 
tunity of exposing departures from sound principle in parliament 
and courts of justice. Another outlet was opened up for him 
(April 1824) by the starting of the Westminster Review, and still 
another in the following year in the Parliamentary History and 
Resiew. This year also he found a congenial occupation! in 
editing Bentham's Rationale oj Judicial Evidence. All the time, 
his mind full of public questions, he discussed eagerly with the 
many men of distindion who came to his father's house. He 
engaged in set discussions at a reading society formed at Grote's 
house in 1825, and in set debates at a Speculative Society formed 
in the same year. 

From the AtUobiography we learn that in 1826 Mill's enthu- 
siasm was checked by a misgiving as to the value of the ends 
which he had set before him. This expression was the result, 
no doubt, of his strenuous training and the comparative lack 
of congenial friendships. His father was reserved, undemonstra- 
tive even to the pitch of chilling sternness, and among young 
Mill's comrades contempt of feeling was almost a watchword. 
Himself absorbed in abstract questions and projects of general 
philanthropy, he had been careless of personal attachment. 
On the other hand without experience he could not have been 
prepared for the actual slowness of the reformer's work. In 
1826 he looked back to four years of eager toil. What were 
the results? He had become convinced that his comrades in 
the Utilitarian Society, never more than ten, had not the stuff 
in them for a world-shaking propaganda; the society itself was 
dissolved; the Parliamentary Review was a failure; the West- 
minster did not pay its expenses; Bentham's Judicial Evidence 
produced little effect on the reviewers. His own reception at 
the Speculative Debating Society, where he first measured his 
strength in public conflict, was calculated to produce self- 
distrust. He found himself looked upon with curiosity as a 
precodous phenomenon, a " made man," an intellectual machine 
set to grind certain tunes. The outcome oi this period of 
dcpzcssun was a broadening of. his outlook on the prohltios I 



which he had set himself to solve.' He now saw that regard for the 
public good was too vague an object for the satisfaction of a 
man's affections. It is a proof of the dominating force of his 
father's character that it cost the younger Mill such an effort to 
shake off his stem creed about poetry and personal emotion. 
Like Plato, the elder Mill would have put poets under ban as 
enemies of truth, and he subordinated private to public affections. 
Landor's maxims of "few acquaintances, fewer friends, no 
familiarities" had his cordial approval. These doctrines the 
younger Mill now felt himself forced in reason to abandon. 
Too much in awe of his father to make him a confidant, he 
wrestled in the gloomy solitude of his own mind. He gained 
from the struggle a more catholic view of human happiness, 
at delight in the poetry of nature and the affections as well 
as the poetry of heroic unselfishness, a disposition to study 
more sympathetically the point of view of opponents, a more 
courteous style of polemic, a hatred of sectarianism, an ambition, 
no less noble and disinterested, but moderated to practical 
possibilities. 

In the course of the next few years he wrote comparatively 
little, but he continued his reading, and also derived much 
benefit from discussions held twice a week at Grote's house in 
Threadneedle Street. Gradually also he had the satisfaction of 
seeing the debates in the Speculative Society becoming famous 
enough to attract men with whom it was profitable for him to 
interchange opinions, among others Maurice and John Sterling. 
He ceased to attend the society in 1829, but he carried away 
from it the strengthening memory of failure overcome by per- 
severing effort, and the important doctrinal conviction that a 
true system of political philosophy was " something much more 
complex and many-sided than he had previously had any idea 
of, and that its office was to supply, not a set of model institutions 
but principles from which the institutions suitable to any given 
circumstances might be deduced." 

The first sketch of Mill's political philosophy appeared. in a 
series of contributions to the Examiner in the autumn of 1830 
entitled " Prospects in France." He was in Paris soon aften 
the July Revolution, and made the acquaintance of the leading 
spirits among the younger men; in his discussion of their pro- 
posals we find the germs of many thoughts afterwards more 
fully developed in his Representative Government. It is from 
this time that Mill's letters supply a connected account of his 
life (see Hugh Elliott, iMters oJ John Stuart Mill, 1910). 

The letters in the Examiner may be taken as marking the 
close of his period of meditative search, and his return to hopeful 
aspiring activity. It was characteristic of his nature that he 
should be stirred to such delight by the Revolution in France, 
and should labour so earnestly to make his countrymen under- 
stand with what gravity and sobriety it had been effected. 
Their own Reform Bill came soon after and it is again character- 
istic of Mill — at once of his enthusiasm and of his steady deter- 
mination to do work that nobody else seemed able or willing to 
do— that we find him in the heat of the struggle in 183 1 writing 
to the Examiner a series of letters on " The Spirit of the Age " 
which drew from Carlyle the singular exclamation " Here is a 
new mystic!" How little this- criticism was justified may be 
seen from the fact that Mill's inductive logic was the direct result 
of his aspirations after political stability as determined by the 
dominion of the wisest {Examiner letters). " Why is it," he 
asked, " that the multitude accept implicitly the decisions of 
the wisest, of the specially skilled, in physical science? " Because 
in physical science there is all but complete agreement in opinion. 
" And why this agreement?" Because all accept the same 
methods of investigation, the same tests of truth. Is it possible 
then to obtain unanimity as to the methods of arriving at con- 
clusions in social and political matters, so as to secure similar 
agreement of opinion among- the specially skilled, and similar 
general respect for their authority ? The same thought appears 
in a review of Herschcl's Natural Philosophy, written about the 
same time. Mill remarks that \.\\t \M\«,\\al\EwVj \i3KWSBxs.% «^«. 
the very elemcnls ol moi3\ axi^ so6a\ \^'^s««^^ '^\<as«^ ^^'^'^ 
the means oi arrivVim aV \:^ft UMXii Vd xitfjRft vaKas«A ^^ 'osiv.n^- 



456 



MILL, JOHN STUART 



properly understood. " And whither," he adds, " can mankind 
80 advantageously turn, in order to learn the proper means, and 
to form their minds to the proper habits, as to that branch of 
knowledge in which by universal acknowledgment the greatest 
number of truths have been ascertained, and the greatest possible 
degree of certainty arrived at ? " 

By 1 83 1 the period of depression had passed; Mill's enthusiasm 
for humanity had been thoroughly reawakened, and had taken 
the definite shape of an aspiration to supply an unimpeachable 
method of search for conclusions in moral and social science. 
No mystic ever worked with warmer zeal than Mill. But his 
zeal encountered a check which baffled him for several years, 
and which left iu mark in various inconsistencies and inco- 
herences in his completed system. He had been bred by his 
iather in a great veneration for the syllogistic logic as an antidote 
against confused thinking. He attributed to his early discipline 
in this logic an impatience of vague language which in all likeli- 
hood was really fostered in him by his study of the Platonic 
dialogues and of Bentham, for he always had in himself more of 
Plato's fertile ingenuity in canvassing the meaning of vague 
terms than the schoolman's rigid consistency in the use of them. 
Be this as it may, enthusiastic as he was for a new logic that 
might give certainty to moral and social conclusions, Mill was 
no less resolute that the new logic should stand in no antagonism 
to the old. In his Westminster review of Whately 's Logic in 1 828 
(invaluable to all students of the genesis of Mill's logic) he 
appears, curiously enough, as an ardent and brilliant champion 
of the syllogistic logic against highfliers such as the Scottish 
philosophers who talk of "superseding" it by "a supposed 
system of inductive logic." His inductive logic must " supple- 
ment and not supersede." But for several years he searched 
in vain for the means of concatenation. 

Meantime, while recurring again and again, as was his custom, 
to this cardinal difficulty, Mill worked indefatigably in other 
directions where he saw his way clear. The working of the 
new order in France, and the personalities of the leading men, had 
a profound interest for him; he wrote on the subject in the 
Examiner. He had ceased to write for the Westminster in 1828; 
but during the years 1832 and 1833 he contributed many essays 
to Tail's Magazine^ the Jurist, and the Monthly Repository. 
In 1835 Sir William Molesworth founded the London Review 
with Mill as editor; it was amalgamated with the Wesminster 
(as the London and Westminster Review) in 1836, and Mill 
continued editor (latterly proprietor also) till 1840. Much of 
what he wrote then was subsequently incorporated in his 
systematic works: some of his essays were reprinted in his first 
two volumes of Dissertations and Discussions (1859). The 
essays on Bentham and Coleridge constituted the first manifesto 
of the new spirit which Mill sought to breathe into English 
Radicalism. But the reprinted papers give no just idea of the 
immense range of Mill's energy at this time. His position in the 
India Office, where alone he did work enough for most men, cut 
him off from entering parliament; but he laboured hard though 
ineffectually to influence the legislature from without by com- 
bating the disposition to rest and be thankful. In his Aut4>- 
biography he admits that the attempt to form a Radical party 
in parliament at that time was chimerical. 

It was in 1837, on reading Whewell's Inductive Sciences and 
re-reading Herschel, that Mill at last saw his way clear both to 
formulating the methods of scientific investigation and joining 
on the new logic as a supplement to the old. The Logic was 
published in 1843. In 1844 appeared his Essays on Some 
Unsettled Questions in Political Economy. These essays were 
worked out and written many years before, and show Mill in 
his first stage as a political economist. Four out of the five 
essays are elaborate and powerful solutions of perplexing tech- 
nical problems — the distribution of the gains of international 
commerce, the influence of consumption on production, the 
definition of productive and unproductive labour, the precise 
reJatioM between profits and wages. Though Mill appears here 
purely as the disciple of Ricardo, striving after more precise 
sutement, and reaching forward to f tirther consequences, nc 



can well understand in reading these essays how about the 
time when he first sketched them he began to be conscious 
of power as an original and independent thinker. 
. That originality and independence became more conspicuous 
when he reached his second stage as a political economist, 
struggling forward towards the standpoint from which hk 
systematic work was written. It would seem that in his fits 
of despondency one o£ the thoughts that marred his dreams of 
human improvement was the apparently inexorable character 
of economic laws, condemning thousands of labourers to a 
cramped and miserable existence, and thousands more to semi- 
starvation. From this oppressive feeling he found relief in tlie 
thought set forth in the opening of the second book of his 
Political Economy— thai, while the conditions of production 
have the necessity of physical laws, the distribution of what is 
produced among the various classes of producers is a matter 
of human arrangement, dependent upon alterable customs and 
institutions. There can be little doubt that this thought, 
whether or not in the clear shape that it afterwards assumed, 
was the germ of all that is most distinctive in his system of 
political economy. This system, which for many years sub- 
sequently was regarded as authoritative, has been subjected to 
vigorous criticism by later economists, and it is perhaps not too 
much to say that it now possesses mainly an historical interest. 
Its chief importance is perhaps the stress which it laid on the 
vital connexion which must subsist between true economic theory 
and the wider facts of social and national development. 

While his great systematic works were in progress. Mill wrote 
very little on events or books of the day. He turned aside for 
a few months from his Political Economy during the winter of the 
Irish famine (1846-1847) to advocate the creation of peasant- 
proprietorships as a remedy for distress and disorder in Ireland. 
He foimd time also to write elalwrate articles on French history 
and Greek history in the Edinburgh Review apropos of Micbekt, 
Guizot and Grote, besides some less elaborate essays. 

The Political Economy was published in 1848. Mill could now 
feel that his main work was accomplished ; he remained, however, 
on the alert for opportunities of useful influence, and pressed 
on with hardly diminished enthusiasm in his search for useful 
truth. Among other things, he made a more thorough study 
of socialist writers, with the result that, though be was not 
converted to any of their schemes as being immediately practic- 
able, he began to look upon some more equal distribution of the 
produce of labour as a practicability of the remote future, and 
to dwell upon the prospect of such changes in human character 
as might render a stable society possible without the institution 
of private property. This he has called his third stage as a 
political economist, and he says that he was helped towards it 
by the lady, Mrs Taylor,^ who became hb wife in 1851. It is 
generally supposed that he writes with a lover's extravagance 
about this lady's powers when he compares her with Shelley and 
Carlyle. But a little reflection will show that he wrote with hb 
usual accuracy and sobriety when he described her influence on 
him. He expressly says that he owed none of his technical 
doctrine to her, that she influenced only his ideals of life for the 
individual and for society; the only work perhaps which was 
directly inspired by her is the essay on the enfranchisement of 
women {Dissertations, vol ii.). It is obvious from what he says 
that his inner life became very different after he threw off his 
father's authority. This new inner life was strengthened and 
enlarged by Mrs Taylor. 

During the seven years of his married life Mill published less 
than in any other period of his career, but four of his most 

» Mrs Tavlor (Harriet Hardy) w^ the wife of John Taylor, a 
wholesale aru|:Ki8t in the city of London. She was a confirmed 
invalid, and hved in the country, where Mill visited her regularly 
for twenw years, with the full consent of her husband, a niaa 
of limitea 'mental powers, but of high character and unselfish* 
ness. Mill's friendship with Mrs Taykn- and their marriage ia 
1851 involved a break with his family (apparently due to hb 
resentment at a fancied slight, not to any bittemesa on their 
part), and his practical disappearance from society. (On thett 
points see Mary Taylor, Mrs Mill's grand-daughter, in EOaoCt's 



MILL, JOHN STUART 



457 



dosdjT reasoned and characteristic works, the Liberty, the 
UtitUariamism, the Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform, and the 
SubjeeUon of Women, besides his posthumously published essays 
oo Natmre and on the Utility of Rdigion, were thought out and 
partly written in collaboration with his wife. In 1856 he became 
head of the examiner's office in the India House, and for two 
]rears, tiU the dissolution of the Company in 1858, his official 
work, never a light task, kept him fully occupied. It fell to 
him as head of the office to write the defence of the Company's 
government of India when the transfer of its powers was pro- 
posed. Mill was earnestly opposed to the transfer, and the 
documents in which he substantiated the proud boast for the 
Company that ** few governments, even under far more favour- 
aUe circumstances, have attempted so much for ihe good of 
thdr subjects or carried so many of their attempts to a 
beneficial issue," and exposed the defects of the proposed new 
government, are models of trenchant and dignified pleading. 

On the dhaolution of the Company Mill was offered a seat in 
the new council, but declined, and retired with a pension of 
£1500. His retirement from official work was followed almost 
•mmcdiatdy by his wife's death at Avignon, whither they had 
come in the course of a tour. So great was the shock that for 
the rest of his life he spent most of his time at a villa at St V^ran, 
near AVignon, returning to his Blackheath residence only for a 
abort period in each year. He sought relief in active literary 
occupation, in politics, sociology and psychology. He pub- 
lished, with a touching dedication to his wife, the treatise on 
JJberty, which they had wrought out together. He then turned 
to politics, and published, in view of the impending Reform Bill, 
« pamphlet on parliamentary reform. The chief feature in this 
-was an idea concerning which he and Mrs Mill often deliberated 
— the necesuty of providing checks against uneducated demo- 
cracy. His suggestion of a plurality of votes, proportioned to 
the elector's degree of education, was avowedly put forward only 
as an ideal; he admitted that no authentic test of education 
could for the present be found. An anonymous Conservative 
caught at the scheme in another pamphlet, proposing income 
as a test. Soon after Mill supported in Fraser*s, still with the 
same object. Hare's scheme for the representation of minorities. 
In the autumn of the same year he turned to psychology, 
reviewing Bain's works in the Edinburgh Renew. In his Repre- 
sentatioe Goternment (i860) he systematized opinions already 
put forward in many casual articles and essays. His Utili- 
tarianism (published in Eraser's in x86i) was a closely-reasoned 
systematic attempt to answer objections to his ethical theory 
and remove misconceptions of it. He was especially anxious 
to make it clear that he included in "utility " the pleasures of 
the imagination and the gratification of the higher emotions, 
and to show how powerfully the good of mankind as a motive 
appealed to the imagination. His next treatise. The Subjection 
of Women, was not published till 1869.* His Examination of 
Hamilton's Philosophy, published in 1865, had engaged a large 
share of his time for three years before. 

While nuunly occupied in those years with phQosophical 
studies. Mill did not remit his interest in current politics. He 
supported the North in the American cri^s of 1862, using all his 
strength to explain what has since been universally recognized 
as the issue really at stake in the struggle, the abolition of slavery. 
It was chantcteristic of the closeness with which he watched 
current events, and of his zeal in the cause of " lucidity," that 
when the Reader, an organ of science and unpartisan opinion, 
fell into difficulties in 1865 Mill joined with some distinguished 
men of science and letters in an effort to keep it afloat. He 
supplied part of the money for carrying it on, contributed several 
articles, and assisted the editor, Fraser Rae, with his advice. 
The effort was vain, though such men as Herbert Spencer, 

' * He was one of the founders, with Mrs P. A. Taylor, Miss Emily 
Davies and others, of the first women's suffrage society, which 
developed into the National Unbn of Women's Suffrage bocleties, 
and bis writings are still the most important theoretical statement 
of the case for women's suffrage. He presented to Parliament the 
but petition on the subject (see further Blackburn. Women's Storage 
Record), 



Huxley, TyndaS, Caimes, Mark Pattison, F. Harrison, Sir 
Frederick Pollock and Lockyer were among the contributors. 

In 1865 he agreed to stand as parliamentary candidate for 
Westminster, on conditions strictly in accordance with his 
principles. He would not canvass, nor pay agents to canvass 
for him, nor would he engage to attend to the local business of 
the constituency. He was with difficulty persuaded even to 
address a meeting of the electors. The story of this remarkable 
election has been told by James Beal, one of the most active 
supporters of Mill's candidature. In parliament he adhered to 
his life-long principle of doing only work that needed to be done, 
and that nobody else seemed equally able or willing to do. It 
may have been a consciousness of this fact which prompted a 
remark, made by the Speaker, that Mill's presence in parliament 
elevated the tone of debate. The impression made by him in 
parliament is in some danger of being forgotten, because he was 
not instrumental in carrying any great measure that might serve 
as an abiding memorial But, although his first speech on the 
bill for the prevention of cattle diseases excited the opposition 
of country members, and a subsequent speech against the 
suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act in Ireland was very 
unfavourably received. Mill thoroughly succeeded in gaining 
the ear of the House. The only speech made by him during his 
three years in parliament that was listened to with impatience 
was, curiously enough, his speech in favour of counteracting 
democracy by providing for the representation of minorities. 
His attach on the conduct of Governor Eyre in Jamaica (q.v.) 
was listened to, but with repugnance by the majority, although 
his action in this matter in and out of parliament was far 
from being ineffectual. He took an active part in the debates 
on Disraeli's Reform Bill (moving an amendment to omit the 
word " man " and insert " person "), and helped to extort from 
the government several useful modifications of the Bill for the 
Prevention of Corrupt Practices. The reform of land tenure in 
Ireland, the representation of women, the reduction of the 
national debt, the reform of London government, the abrogation 
of the Declaration of Paris, were among the topics on which he 
spoke with marked effect. He took occasion more than once 
to enforce what he had often advocated in writing, England's 
duty to intervene in foreign politics in support of the cause of 
freedom. As a speaker Mill was somewhat hesitating, pausing 
occasionally as if to recover the thread of his argument, but he 
showed great readiness in extemporaneous debate. Viewed as 
a candidate for ministerial office, he might be regarded as a failure 
in parliament, but there can be no doubt that his career there 
greatly extended his influence. 

Mill's subscription to the election expenses of Bradlaugh, and 
his attitude towards Governor Eyre, are generally regarded as 
the main causes of his defeat in the general election of 1868. 
But, as he suggests himself, his studied advocacy of unfamiliar 
projects of reform had made him unpopular with " moderate 
Liberals." He retired with a sense of relief to his cottage and 
his literary life at Avignon. His parliamentary duties and the 
quantity of correspondence brought upon him by increased 
publicity had absorbed nearly the whole of his time. The scanty 
leisure of his first recess had been devoted to writing his St 
Andrews rectorial address on higher education and to answering 
attacks on his criticism of Hamilton; of the second, to annotating 
in conjunction with Bain and Findlater, his father's Analysis 
of the Mind. Now he looked forward to a literary life, and his 
letters show how much he enjoyed the change. His little cottage 
was filled with books and newspapers; the beautiful country 
round it furnished him with a variety of walks; he read, wrote, 
discussed, walked, botanized. He was extremely fond of music, 
and was himself a fair pianist. His step-daughter. Miss Taylor 
(d. January 1907), was his constant companion after his wife's 
death. " Helen," he wrote to W. T. Thornton, an old colleague 
in the India House, " has carried out her long-cherished scheme 
(about which she tells me she consulted you) of a ' vibratory ' 
for me, and has made a pleasant covered walk, some v^ it. Vscc^^ 
where I can vibrate m coVd ox T;i\Tv>j ^t^N^w. Ttvt v«x^«.^^«^ 
must know, as it goea Tound Vho udta cJl >Jafc>aa>aafc,\iai ^%.>^afia. 



+58 



MILL, JOHN STUART 



dubbed the ' semi-circumgyimtory/ Id j^ddiiloji to thit, Helen 
has built me a herbarium, a little room fitted tip nitb dose Li 
for my plants, shelves lor my botam^:^] books, and a great 
table whereon to manipulate them alL Thu», you sc«< with my 
herbarium, my vibratory, and my semi-cLrcumgyratofy, I itn 
in clover; and you m^iy imaEinc with what scorn I thiak of the 
House of Commons, which, cxunTortablc dab as it is said to br^ 
could offer me none of these comforts, or, more pcrftctly speak- 
ing, these necessaries of life." Mill was an enthusiastic botanist 
all his life long, and a frequent contributor of notes and short 
papers to the Phytoh^uL One ol the things that he IcKiLed 
forward to during his last journey to Avignon was seeing the 
spring flowers and completing a flora of the locality. His 
delight in scenery frequently appcan In letters written to his 
friends during his sun^mer and autumn tours. 

Yet he did not relix his laborious habits nor his ardent out- 
look on human affairs. The essays in the fourth volume of his 
Dissertations — on endowment s» on land, on labour, on meta- 
physical and psychological questions— were written for the 
Fortnightly Review at intervals after \ih short parilamcntaty 
career. One of his first tasks was to send his treatise on the 
Subjection of Women (uTittcn 1&61, published 1S69, many edi- 
tions) through the pre^. The essay on Tkdsm was written 
soon after. The last public work in which he engaged was the 
starting of the Land Tenure Reform Association. The inter- 
ception by the state of the uneairvcd increment, and the promo- 
tion of co-operative agriculture, were the most striking features 
in his programme. He wrote in the Examina^ and made a public 
speech in favour of the association a few months before his 
death. The secret cf the ardour with which he took up this 
question probably wns his conviction that a great struggle was 
impending in Europe between Ubour and capital. He regarded 
his project as a timely compromise. 

Mill died at Avignon on the Slh of l^fay 1^7^^. He was a man 
of extreme simplicity in his method ol Life. Though occasbnally 
irritable in speech, in his written polemics he was remarkable 
for courtesy to opponents and a capacity to undentand their 
point of view. His references to his friends were alwaj-s generous, 
and he was always ready to assist those whose work neetlcd help. 
For example, he desired to guarantee the cost of the first books 
of Bain and Herbert Spencer* A statue in bfon^e was pkccd 
on the Thames Emb:inkinent, and there is a good portrait by 
Watts (a copy of whichj by Watts himself, was hung ilt the 
National Gallery). 

The influence which Milfs works trtiti*pd upon contenipo^ry 
English thought can f-cziTcely be overeat Imattd. Hi* owit iKritinfi* 
andf those of his succe=Mjrs ((f,£. L E, Ciitrncs and Alexander Batn) 
practically held the ficlil dunng the third quarter of the 19th centUfy 
and even later. In philosophy his chief work was to systemattie 
and expound the utilJto:rtani3^[n ol hia father and Ik^ntham (ibcc 
Utilitarianism). Ht: nuy, in fact, b^ rcRardt^d aa the fin.il exponent 
of that empirical school of philosophy whtch owed lI« i[n|mW to 
Tohn Locke, and is gcnt^rnlly spoken of as b^tng typicalty EitftU^h^ 
Its fundamental char.ict eristic 11 the emphosit laid upon human 
reason, i.e. upon the duty mcucnbcnt upon alt thinlcer^ to invcstiEatc 
for themselves rather than to accept thit authority of others Know- 



element. This was dui!< no doubt, to his revulsion from J he sternness 
of his upbringing and ihc period of itr«» through which h« passed 
in eariv manhood, but also to the sympathetic and emotional quali- 
ties which manifested ihetn^Ivea in hts early manhood. Wc nave 
seen, for example, that he was led to inii'vstigatc the subject of logic 
because he found in att^.^mptin^ to advance hia humanitarian schemes 
in politics an absence vl ih4t f undsmentaj aRrtctnent which he recog- 
nized as the basis of eeicfitiftc advance. Both tii* logical and his 
metaphysical studies \i\re thus undertaken ai the pfenrgniiltea of 
a practical theory of human development Though he believed that 
the lower classes were not yet ripe fonodalism, with ttie principles 
of which he (unlike J.imts Slill and Dentham) was iii ceneral agree- 
ment, his whole life wa?. devoted to the ametioration of th* conditions 
of the working classes. Thia inct, no dmibi, shouKl be taki?n into 
account in any detailed critidim of the phiSowphic work ^ it was taktn 
up not as an end but ai ancillary to a socUl and irthkal riVFtcm. 
Reference to the articles on Looic^ MeiAFnysics, &c., will ihow 
•tbat subsequent criticism, hoivevtr much it has owed by way of 
tdmulua to Mill's sttcnuou^ tiit\onsX)xmt has been able to point to 
much that 13 wconsisrcnr. jnade^uate and even iupcrfkiil in his 



writing!. Two main intellectual movements froiti widely differei* 
Btandpointi have combined to diminish hb influence^ On the one 
hand there has arisen a w;hool of thinkert of ihc type of.Tbomai ItUl 
Grc<^nt who have brought to be»r on his mem phy weal vic*-i ihe 
idealism of madera Cefman ihinktrs. CM iKe oimt band 4Jt *Ne 
f^votutionijff!!, who have lubstiiuted for ihe ntiliiariAn ideal of ibe 
" greaiesi boppidesis " tho«e of " Mce-pre*ervaTiyn " and the " Kif* 
viva I of the Mint *' {see Ethic^^ ad ^ fin.; SpENCEBi In ibc »p1iert 
of ptychoEogy, Kkewi,-K — t g. in co(ine*iofl wi^h Mill's doctrine d 
Association of Ideas (g.r,) and the phrase " Menial CHcjniiUy/' hy 
%hich he souj^hi: to meet the pro[>]cmi which AfS'Ociai.iomsin IdTc 
UEifolved — modern critLciAm And the e^cpcrimental methods of the 
psycho-physiological icbool have tet tip wholly new criteria, 
with a new terminology and differcat fieldi of mvcitigacioft {ict 
PaVCHOLOGV). 

A similar fate has befallen Mill 'a et^noinic theoriea^ The litk 
of hi* work» Princtt^^s cj Poiiiu:^il Ecan^rny, teilh scmt of tfuif 
Appik^iiiimi to Suciiii PhihSijpky, though open 10 criticism, indicaied 
a Kti narrow and formal concep^tion ot the' £eld of the icience than 
had bccn_ common amongst his predecessors. He aimed in fact 
at prvjuting a work which mi^ht replace in ordinary use the WMlik 
&f Ni^io^t^ which in his opinion was " in man>' parti ob«>|ete and 
in all imperfect.'" Adam Smith had invariably associated the 
general principlt^ of the subject with their applications, and in 
ireatinK thdstf applicAtions had perpetually a[)pi:aled to other and 
of [en lar larger considerations than pure political economy aflordi^ 
And in the same spirit Mill deaired, whilst incorporating all the 
resuUs arrived at in the special science by Smith t successors, to 
enhibit purely economic phenomena in relation to the most advanred 
conceptions of hi^ own time in the general philosophy of aoctety, 
ai Smith had done in reference to the philosophy of hi& century. 
This design he certainly failed to realize. His book is very far 
indeed from beinf a *' modem Adam Smith." It is an admirably 
lucid, and even elegant, exposition of the Ricardian economici^ the 
Xlalihusian theory beinj; of course Incorporated with the$e; btiti^ 
notwithstanding the intruduction of many minor novcitit^ tl is 
in \ti KcicntiFic sub&tanec little or nothing more. 

With respect to economic method he shifted hi* position, yet to 
the end occupied uncertain ground. In the fifth of his ibarlyes^ayi 
he asserticd tluit the methocTa priori is the only mode of iit\%at]^- 
tion in the uicial acience^^ and that the method a postttUm '' a 
altofcihcr inef^eac^ions in tho^ sciences as a means of arrivtof at 
any con^derabk hotly ol valuable truth.'* V^'hen he wrote his 
Lcfic be had lc4rncd from Comte that the a posteriori method — 
in the form uhich he chose to call " inverse deduetioii "— »a* liie 
only mode of arriving at truth in general sociology : and hii ad- 
mission of ibis at once renders the essay obsolete. But< imviUint 
to relinquish the a prifiwi method of his youth, he tries to est^bUsn 
a disrinction of lira iOftt of economic inquiry, one ol whichi, ihouth 
not the other, can be handled by tha( method. Somrttstes he 
speaks ol political, ecQOOf&y u a department '' carted out of the 
general boirly of the idence of wctetv;" whilst on the othej h*isd 
the title of his sy«£ensatic work implies a doubt whether poUtka) 
economy is a part df " locial philosophy " at alL and not father 
a study nreparatory and auxiliary to it. Thus, on the logical m 
well as the dogmatic side, lie halt* between two opinions. Not- 
withstanding hu misgivings and even disclaimers, he yet renuioed 
as to method a member of the old $chooL and never passed tato 
the new " historical '* ichooL 

BiBLiOGRAPUV. — W^rii: Sy$t^m of Logie {2 vqU., i^t; ^th ed.» 
1^75: " People's " ed^H (894) i; Eaayi ott nftne Unsttiitd Qutitunis ef 
Fotitiial Eti'n&my tiS-M* edn I«74l: PriHcipIis of Patisii^ Ec^m^my 
(3 vols., 1848^ many ed-, especially ed. by W' J, Ashley, 1909}; 
On Liberty (i^SpT ed, Courtney^ tSga. W. B. Coluffibinu, 1903; 
with introd. Prmgle-Patti^oii, t^to); TkAughls fv Patliomti^tsry 
Reform (i»59); DisstfUiti^tu an^ Dmufsijfms {u n., (859: iii*, 
1S67: ivjv 1876)1 Considetiitians on P^pf/ifnUttitt Co9tfmmevt 
(J 86!: 3fd ed* 1865K UiiUUfi^niim (iB^jl; EtamtjuUifin #f Sit 
W. UamittoJt't Pkihtfiphv 08*5) t Aug, Cttmie and P^yittmsm (tUs. 
ed. tgo*); /nQw^wira/ Addreir oi tJtf Uni:if7siiy ^f Si Andreas ft 867); 
Ettgland and if (land (i»6fi) : Sitb^ciian of Witm^^ (iS^; ed. Wtk 
introd. by Sunton Coit, T906}; Lk&piers 9iid S^fldUi t* £lf Imk 

land Quest icn (1870). T' ' - " ^^ ^ - — . * 

I9t»8)^ and Thrvt Eis^ys i 

IXTfO translated into Gen 

Th. Gomptn {i2 vols., i873-i&eQ), A tonvenitnt editioa in the 

New Univtral Library appeaned between 1905 and 1910. 

Bioerapkieat and Critical.— hHfiy of Mill's ktiert^ art published 
in Mrs Grate's lift of her husband, in Duncan'i Lift 9} Hetitrt 
Spencer, in the Mem^ri^f ol Carotin* Foit4 and in Kingsky * tetter*. 
There are also editions of the correiipondence with Gusta'L-e d'Eicht^ 
and Comte (i^peciatly that of Lit^'j-Bruht, IB99K By far the mmn 
illuminaitng collection ts that of Kuph Elliott, Lftttrs a/ Jakm Stmtrtt 
Milt {2 vols., ipio)» which contains letters to John Sterling, Carlyk* 
E. Lytton Bufwer (Lord Ljrtton), John Au*tin, Alex. Bain, and 
many leading French and German writen and poUticiaoa. These 
letters are essential to an undersLLndinf of Mill's life and tKotieht, 
Besides the ^H'^^i^em^ftv and many rtfertnees In the uniting^ of 
MiU's rrieuds (e,f. Ale*, Bain's Avtiibiop^apky, 1904), an CurtiMr 



I, T900;; Ln&iners «Jid ^ffetcmt f» uv irtut 

The AuiobiSpfiPhy aMnicd [a t%js Ced. 

rs OH Rditiim {tM), Many of tbete kav« 

lerman, and then ii a German «diti«a by 



MILL— MILLAIS, SIR J. E. 



459 



A. Batn. John Stverf Miff, a Prrsentil Criticism ([fl8j>: Fox Bourne, 
Lift of J. S, Mtii fi8?j); Jobnt Viscount) Morley* Mist^Uaitiff 
' ' ! J fc^ C^irnr«f J. 5. MiU 0§7A), on economic 
■' " iM (1S70) and 



LheoriHT Wr L* Courtinry, J^ata phytic s oj . 

Ufw USe^); Douglas H J^m Sftiatt Afitf, a Siudj of hii Ph 



|£ri4«UM (190: 



:); Sit 



Lcvli? Stephen, 



Ul\ii 



(fsapky 



(1900) h J' MjicCunn, 5ijf Rttdktii TAiKiAm {J907); 



J'A* Ett^iik Vtilii&Tians 
tri {J907); Fred. Harrisari, 
rflm^joii, Rufkirt, MtU Ci8Q9>; Johd Watsntij Comle^ MiU and 
Sjmnctt (jags): T. Whittalser, Cottttt and XUH (1905); Charles 
fjDQK^*^ J- ^- ^i^' ** *5JfifJy pf kij Ph^iatopky (1S95); ]. RicLab^n 
ffww WiU and Four Eneliik Pkitosf^pin^rs tioc*); J- M Robert 50n. 
Mod^n Hut^anijis {i&^t)\ D, G. R^tchk. Frind^s af Slate Im^r^ 
Jtftncr (i^rj; W. Graham, EfiiU&h Pdiika! Fhihiopky from H abbes 
U JdTatiu ^IJS^)9J. Th^ne arc albO a number dI Valuable French 
■ad Garaaii crrtidmtf, et. Talnc, Foiiltpirmf d^f/ou, iiude tur 
Slmmrt MM (Paris, 1^64); F. A^ Langt^p MiUs AnsifhUn jibcr die 
mmak A«w {Duisburg, 1866): LUinJ, A. ComU ti Stuart XSiit 
(jrd ed„ Fans, ifljy): Cauntt, Fkih^s^hiA de Stuart Mtii (Paris, 
I Ms); Gomwrr. /oAii 5, JWii/, ein Niiikraf (Vienna, 1^89); S. 
Sanger* /. S. Hili. j«n Liben imd I^ftfaiwr* (StuttRart, 1901): 

Tktarie dff Kcuialitdt U^fo6); E. M. K^nUer, La J^Uiiisn de J. S. 
MiU {1906)' S« al«D Kato« of modern phi^i»ophy. 

See Further Locic tUiscafical Sketch) ; PsVCIiologV : AssOCtATiow 
OflutAB. (W. M.;J, M. M,> 

MILL (O. Eng. myien, later myh^ or miln, adapted from the 
Ute Lat. maHnaf cf. Fr. mqulin, from Lat. iR^/a, a mill, moUre, 
to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word 
appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. nt4)len, Ger. ntUhle), 
the term given to the apparatus or machinery used in the grind- 
ing of com into flour, and hence applied to similar mechan- 
ical devices for grinding, crushing to powder, or pulping other 
substances, e.g. coffee-mill, powder-mill. " Mill " was first used 
of the building containing the apparatus, frequently with a word 
attached descriptive of the motive power, e.g. wind-mill, water- 
mill, ftc. It was not the early word used of the actual grinding 
mechanism. The old hand-mill was known as a " quern," a 
word which appears in this sense in many Indo-European 
languages; the ultimate root is gar-^ to grind. " Quern " (see 
Flouk) is only remotely connected with " chum " {q.v.). The 
word is also applied to many mechanical devices by which raw 
material is transformed into a condition ready for use or into a 
stage preparatory to other processes, e.g. saw-mill, rolling-mill, 
&c, or still more widely to buildings containing machinery used 
in manufactures, e.g. cotton-mill. In mining it is applied to 
various machines used in breaking and crushing the ore (see 

OaE-DR£SSINC). 

In the engineering industries miUing machines constitute a 
very important class of machine toob, the characteristic of which 
b that rotary cutters are employed for shaping the metal (see 
Tools). In coins the " milling is the serrated edge, called 
" crenneling " by John Evelyn (Discourse on Medals^ 1697, 
p. 325), which b formed on them to prevent clipping and 
filing. Coins ma<)e by the old process of hammering were apt 
to have irregular edges which invited mutilation; but the 
introduction of the screw press, which came to be known as a 
mill (cf. W. Lowndes, Amendm. Silvfr Coinage, 1695, p. 93), 
permitted the production of a regular edge with serrations, 
which in consequence were termed milling. Thb machine also 
enabled legends to be impressed round the edges of coins, such 
as the Decus et tuiamcn suggested by Evelyn (see W. J. 
Hocking, Catalogue of the Coins, trc, in the Museum of the Royal 
Mint, 1906). It was invented about the middle of the i6lh 
century, and has generally been attributed to Guyot Brucher 
(d. 1556), who was succeeded at the Paris mint by his brother 
Antoine. Introduced into England by one Eloye Mestrel in 
1 561, it was used for twelve years/ and was then abandoned 
owing to the opposition of the mint officiab to Mestrel, who was 
executed for counterfeiting and striking money outside the 
precincts of the Tower of London; but it was again introduced 
by one Peter Blondcau in 1662, when it permanently superseded 
hammering. In the United States of America the term " milling " 
or " milled ** is applied to the raised edge on the face of the coin; 
thb is known in the Britbh mint as " marking " (see Mint). 

■ILLAIS, SIR JOHN EVERETT (1829-1896), English painter, 
was bom at Southampton on the 8th of June iSsg, the son of 



John William Millab, who belonged to an old Norman family 
settled in Jersey for many generations, and Emily Mary, nie 
Evamy, the widow of a Mr Hodgkinson. After hb birth the 
family returned to Jersey, where the boy soon began to sketch. 
At the age of eight he drew hb maternal grandfather. He went 
to school for a short time, but showed no inclination for study, 
and was afterwards educated entirely by hb mother. In 1835 
the family removed to Dinan in Brittany, where he sketched the 
French officers, to their great amusement, and in 1837, on the 
family's return to Jersey, he was taught drawing by a Mr Bissel. 
In 1838 he came to London, and on the strong recommendation 
of Sir Martin Archer Shee, P.R.A., hb future was decided. He 
was sent at once to Sass's school, and entered the Academy 
schoob in 184a He won a silver medal from the Society of Arts 
in 1839, and carried off all the prizes at the Royal Academy. 
He was popubr amongst the students, and was called "the 
child," because he wore hb boyish costume till long after the 
usual age. In 1840 and the immediately succeeding years he 
made the acquaintance of Wordsworth and other interesting 
and useful people. He was at thb time painting small pictures, 
&c., for a dealer named Thomas, and defraying a great part of 
the household expenses in Cower Street, where his family lived. 
In 1846 he exhibited " Pizarro seizing the Inca of Pcm " at the 
Royal Academy, and in 1847 " Elgiva seized by the Soldiers of 
Odo." In the latter year he competed unsuccessfully at the 
jexhibition of designs for the decoration of the Houses of Parlia- 
ment, sending a very large picture of " The Widow's Mite," 
which was afterwards cut up. In the beginning of 1848 he and 
W. Holman Hunt, dissatisfied with the theory and practice of 
Britbh art, which had sunk to its lowest and most conventional 
level, initiated what b known as the Pre-Raphaelite movement, 
and were joined by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and afterwards by 
five others, altogether forming the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. 
Rossetti was then engaged, under the technical guidance of Hunt, 
upon hb picture of " The Girlhood of Mary Virgin," which, with 
Hunt's " Light of the Worid " and Millab's " Christ in the House 
of Hb Parents," forms what has been called the trilogy of Prc> 
Raphaelite art. According to Millais, the Pre-Raphaelites had 
but one idea — " to present on canvas what they saw in Nature." 
Millais's first picture on his new principles was a banquet scene 
from Keats's " Isabella " (1849), and contains all the character' 
istics of Pre-Raphaelite work, including minute imitation of 
nature down to the smallest detail, and the study of all persons 
and objects directly from the originab. The tale was told with 
dramatic force, and the expression of the heads was excellent. 
Hb next important picture, " Christ in the House of Hb Parents," 
or "The Carpenter's Shop" (1850), represented a supposed 
incident in the childhood of our Lord treated in a simply realbtic 
manner, and drew down upon him a storm of abuse from nearly 
all quarters, religious and artistic. The rest of his more strictly 
Pre-Raphaclile. pictures — " The Return of the Dove to the Ark," 
"The Woodman's Daughter" and the "Mariana" of 1851, 
" The Huguenot " and " Ophelia " of 1852, " The Proscribed 
Royalist " and " The Order of Release " of 1853— met with less 
opposition, and established hb reputation wi^ the public. 
Indeed, this may be said to have been accomplbhed by the 
" Huguenot " and " Ophelia," the refined sentiment and exquisite 
execution of which appealed to nearly all who were unprejudiced. 
The public were also greatly influenced by the splendid champion- 
ship of Ruskin, who, in letters to The Times, and in a pamphlet 
called " Pre-Raphaelitism," enthusiastically espoused the cause 
of the Brotherhood. In 1851 Millab, who had refused to read 
Modern Painters, where the supposed principles of the Brother- 
hood were first recommended, became acquainted with Ruskin, 
and in 1853 went to Scotland with him and Mrs Ruskin, the latter 
of whom sat for the woman in " The Order of Release." He 
made several designs for Ruskin, and painted his portrait. In 
185s Millais exhibited " The Rescue," a scene from a fire, which 
drew great attention, from the frantic expression of the mother 
and the brilliant painting of the glare. In the Paris Exhihidots. 
of thb year he was rcpxtstivVtA \yj " TVv^ ^\^« ^V ^^^^as^V 
" C^hcUa " and " TVic iLtluiii oV v\it\>wt:' -Tk&hi^ vSea ^^'e^ 



460 



MILLAR— MILLAU 



year of his marriage with Mrs Ruskln (Euphemia Chalmers, 
daughter of Mr George Gray of Bowerswell, Perth), who had 
obtained a decree of the nullity of her previous marriage. The 
newly-wedded couple went to live at Annat Lodge, near Bowers- 
well, where " Autumn Leaves," described by Ruskin as " the 
first instance of a perfect twilight," was painted. This and 
" Peace Concluded " were singled out for special praise by 
Ruskin in his notes on the Academy Exhibition of 1856, which 
contained, with other works by Millois, the picture of " A Blind 
Girl," with a beautiful background of Icklesham and its common. 
The principal pictures of 1857 were " Sir Isumbras at the Ford," 
and " The Escape of a Heretic," both of which were violently 
attacked by Ruskin, who was kinder to the " Apple-blossoms " 
and " Vale of Rest " of 1859, extolling the power of their painting, 
but still insisting on the degeneracy of the artist. The " Black 
Bninswicker " of i860 was in motive very like the " Huguenot," 
but it was less refined in expression, and a great deal broader in 
<^xecution, and may be said to mark the end of the period of 
transition from his minute Pre-Raphaelite manner to the mastcriy 
freedom of his mature style. From x86o to 1869 the invention 
of Millais was much employed in illustration, especially of Trol- 
lope's novels, beginning with FramUy Parsonage in the ComkUl 
liagasine. He made altogether eighty-seven drawings for 
TroUope, and was the cleverest and one of the most prolific of 
the book illustrators of the 'sixties. He contributed to Moxon's 
illustrated edition of Tcnnyson*s PocmSf and made occasional 
drawings for Once a Wcck^ the lUustraUd London News, Good 
Words, and other periodicals and books. In 1863 he was elected 
a Royal Academician. The most important pictures of this and 
the next few years were " The Eve of St Agnes," remarkable for 
the painting of moonlight, " Romans leaving Britain " (1865), 
" Jephthah " (1867), " RosaUnd and Celia " (1868), " A Flood," 
jmd " The Boyhood of Raleigh " (1870). All these were executed 
in a very broad and mastcriy manner. In many of his pictures 
of this period, such as " The Boyhood of Raleigh," his children 
were his models, and formed the subject of many more, like 
" My First Sermon," " My Second Sermon," " Sleeping," 
" Awake," " Sbtcrs," " The First Minuet," and " The WoU's 
Den." He now painted many single figures with more or less 
sentiment, like " Stella,"' " Vanessa," and " The Gambler's 
Wife," with occasionally a more important composition, like 
." Pilgrims to St Paul's," and " Victory, O Lord " (exhibited 
1871), representing Aaron and Hur holding up Moses' hands 
(Exod. xvii. 12). With it was exhibited the first and most 
popular of his pure landscapes, called " Chill October," which 
was followed at intervals by several others remarkable for literal 
truth to nature and fine execution. They were all from Perth- 
shire, where he generally spent the autunm, and included 
" Scotch Firs " and " Winter Fuel " (painted in 1874), " Over 
the Hills and Far away," and "The Fringe of the Moor" 
(187s) and " The Sound of Many Waters " (1876). A later 
series was painted in the neighbourhood of Murthly, a village 
in the parish of Little Dunkeld, Perthshire, where he rented a 
house and shooting from 1881 to 1891. It was to painting 
nature and the world around him that he principally devoted 
himself for the last twenty-five years of his life, abandoning 
imaginative or didactic themes. To this period belong a number 
of pictures of children, with fancy titles, like " Cherry Ripe," 
" Little Miss Muflfet," " Bubbles," and others well known by 
reproductions in black and white and in colour for the illustrated 
papers; and also some charming studies of girlhood, like 
" Sweetest eyes were ever seen," and " Cinderella." Amongst 
his more serious pictures were "The Princes in the Tower" 
(1878), "The Princess Elizabeth" (1879), two pictures from 
Scott—" Effie Deans " and " The Master of Ravenswood "— 
painted for Messrs Agnew in 1877 and 1878, and " The North- 
West Passage," sometimes regarded as his masterpiece, repre- 
senting an old mariner (painted from Edward John Trelawney, 
the friend of Byron) listening to some tale of Arctic exploration 
Jn M room overlooking the sea and strewn with charts. " A 
YeomMn of the Guard " (1877) was perhaps his most splendid 
piece o/cohur, snd wm greatiy admired at the Paris Eibibilioa 



of 1878, where it was sent with " Chill October " and three v. 

of his pictures. But perhaps the works of his later yean by 
which he will be most remembered are his portiaitt — opcdaUy 
his three portraits of Gladstone (1879, 1885 and 1890), and those 
of John Bright, of Lord Tennyson, and of Lord Beaconsfield, 
which was left unfinished at his death. He also painted the 
marquess of Salisbury, Lord Rosebery, the dukes of Devonshire 
and Argyll, Cardinal Newman, Thomas Carlyle, Sir James Paget, 
Sir Henry Irving, George Grote, Lord Chief Justice RusseU, 
J. C. Hook, R.A., and himself (Uffizi Gallery, Florence). He 
drew Charles Dickens after his death^ Amongst hii finer 
portraits of women were those of Mrs Biscnoffshcim, the duchess 
of Westminster, Lady Campbell and Mrs Jopling. 

No very serious interruption of his usual life as a p wip c rou s 
English gentleman occurred in these years, except the death of his 
second son, George, in 1878. In 1875 he went to Holland, one 
of his few visits to the Continent. In 1879 he left CromwcO 
Place for a house at Palace Gate, Kensington, which be built, 
and where he died. In 1885 he was created a baronet, on the 
suggestion of Mr Gladstone. In 1892 his health began to break 
down. After a bad attack of influenza he was troubled with a 
swelling in his throat, which proved to be due to cancer. He 
suffered much from depression, but worked when he could, and 
derived much pleasure in painting several pictures, iiwiiw«m 
"St Stephen," "A Disdple," " Speak 1 Speak 1 " (which was 
bought out of the Chantrey Bequest), and " The Forerunner "— 
his last exhibited subject-picture. His findy-chaiacteriaed 
portraits of Mr John Hare, the actor, and Sir Richard Quun 
belong also to his last years. In 189s, in consequence of the 
illness of Lord (then Sir Frederick) Ldghton, he was called upon 
to preside at the annual banquet of the Royal Academy, and on 
the death of Lord Lcighton he was elected to the presidential 
chair. He died on the 13th of August 1896, and was buried in St 
Paul's CathedraL The Winter Exhibition of the Rojral Acadony 
in 1898 was devoted to his works. The list of hb honcNus at 
home and abroad is a long one. MiUais was one of the greatest 
painters of his time, and did more than any other to infuse a new 
and healthy life into British art. He had not the imagination 
of an idealist, but he could paint what he saw with a force which 
has seldom been excelled. As a man he was manly, frank and 
genial, devoted to his art and his family, and very fond of sport, 
especially hunting, fishing and shooting. He was greatly loved 
by a very large circle of friends. He was singulariy '»^'**'r*-*f, 
and had a fine presence. The National Gallery of British Ait 
possesses many of his finest works* He is also represented ia 
the National Gallery, in the National Portrait Gallery, the 
Victoria and Albert Museum, and in the public gaUerSea at 
Manchester, Liverpool and Birmingham. 

AuTHoarriES. — ^T. G. Millais, Ufe and Letters, 6nc: Rndda*s 
Modern Painters, Notes on Royal Academy Exkihitians, Prr ffn/Anifif 
ism, Sfc; Catalogues of Grosvcnor Galfory (summer of i836); and 
of Royal Academy (winter of 1898); M. H. Spielmann, MiUais and 
his Works (Undon. 1896): A. L. Bakiry. Sir J. £. MiOais, kii AH 
and Influence (London, 1899). (C Ma) 

MILLAR. ANDREW (1707-1768), British publisher, was bom 
in 1707. About 1729 he started business as a hookaeller and 
publisher in the Strand, London. His own judgment in literary 
matters was small, but he collected an excellent staff of literary 
advisers, and did not hesitate to pay what at the tinae were 
considered large prices for good materiaL " I respect Millar, 
sir," said Dr Johnson in 1755, "he has raised the price of 
literature." He paid Thomson £105 for The Seasons, and 
Fielding a total sum of £700 for Tom Jones and £1000 for Ataeiim, 
He was one of the syndicate of booksellers who financed 
Johnson's Dictionary, and on him the work of seeing that book 
through the press mainly felL He also published the histories 
of Robertson and Hume. He died at his villa at Kew Green, 
near London, on the 8th of June 1768. 

MILLAU, a town of southern France, capital of an anon- 
dissement in the department of Aveyron, on the right bank of the 
Tarn at its confluence with the Dourbie, 74 m. N. of B^sicrs on 
the Southern railway. Pop. (i9c5), 1 6,853* Millau lies in a 



MILLBURY— MILLENNIUM 



461 



rich vaUey laoo ft. above the sea surrounded by the spurs of 
the Levezou, Causse Noir and Larzac ranges. The streets are 
narrow and some of the houses of great antiquity, but the town 
b surrounded by q>adous boulevards. One of its squares is 
bordered on two sides by wooden galleries supported on stone 
<-*>inmn^ The only buildings of special interest are the Roman- 
esque church of Notre Dame, restored in the x6th cenfury, and 
the fine Gothic belfry of the old h6tel de ville. MiUau is seat of a 
sub-prefect, and possesses tribunals of first instance and of 
commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce 
and a commimal college. The principal industry is the manu- 
facture of s^ves, and Various branches of the leather industry are 
carried on. The chief articles ot trade are skins, wool, wine and 
Roquefort cheese. 

In the middle ages Millau was the seat of a viscounty held 
Vy the counts of Barcelona and afterwards- by the counts of 
Armagnac In the i6th century it became ohe of the leading 
strongholds of Calvinism in southern France. In 1620 it 
revolted against Louis XIH., and after its submission Richelieu 
caused its fortifications to be dismantled. The edict of Nantes 
hastened the decline oif the town, which did not recover iu 
l»Q8perity till after the Revolution. 

MILLBURT, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, 
on the Blackstone river, 5 m. S.S.E.of Worcester. Pop. (1890), 
4428; (xgoo) 4460 (1176 foreign-bom); (1905, state census) 
4631; (19x0) 4740. Area, X5*79 sq. m. Millbury is served by 
thtHew York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Albany 
railways, and by electric interurban railways. It lies for the 
most part in the valley of the Blackstone river, from which 
water-power is derived for its mills; among its manufactures are 
cotton, linen, felt and woollen goods, hemp thread, and foimdry 
and machine-shop products. The municipality owns and 
operates the waterworks and electric-lighting plant. Millbury 
was formed in 18x3 from the North Parish of Sutton; in 185X a 
part of Auburn was annexed to the township. 

MILLEDGBVILLB, a city and the county-seat of Baldwin 
county, in the central part of Georgia, U.S.A., on the Oconee 
river,- at the head of navigation, 32 m. E.N.E. of Macon. Pop. 
(1890), 3322; (1900), 4219 (2663 negroes); (x9xo), 4385. It is 
served by the Georgia and the Central of Georgia railways. 
Miiledgeville is situated in the Cotton Belt, and its principal 
industry is the preparation of cotton for Uie markets. The 
importance of the place, however, is mainly educational and 
historical It is the seat of the Middle Georgia MiliUry and 
Agricultural College, which occupies the old capitol building, 
and of the Georgia Nonnal and Industrial College for girls (1889; 
enrolment 1908-1909, 653), which is a part of the University of 
Georgia, and occupies the site of the old state penitentiary. 
About 2 m. north-west of Miiledgeville is the state juvenile 
reformatory; 2 m. south of the city are the state asylums for 
white and negro insane; and 3 m. north-west is the state prison 
farm. Miiledgeville was founded in 1803, and was named in 
honour of John MiUedge (x7S7-x8x8), a representative in 
Congress in x 792-1 793 and 1795-1802, governor of Georgia in 
X 802-1806, a United Sutes senator in 1806-X809, and a benefactor 
of the state university. In X804 it was made the seat of the 
sute govenmient in place of Louisville (capital in I795-X804; 
pop. in 1900, X009), a dignity it held until x868. The city was 
first chartered in X836. Although admirably situated for trade 
and manufacturing, Miiledgeville was surpassed in both by 
Macon, which became the commercial emporium of middle 
Georgia; but it was a favourite place of residence for the wealthy 
and ctiltivated class of Georgians before the Civil War. It was 
seized by General William T. Sherman on the 23rd of November 
1864. In order to remove the state documents beyond reach of 
the enemy. Governor Joseph E. Brown called upon the convicts 
in the penitentiary for aid, granting them pardons in return for 
their services. 

■lUElfinUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy 
of bi€nnium, triennium, from Lat. mille, a thousand, and annitf , 
year), literally a period of a thousand years. The term is 
tpedaily used of the period of xooo years during which Christ, 



as has been believed, would retu^ to govern the earth in person. 
Hence it is used to describe a vague time in the future when all 
flaws in human existence will have vanished, and perfect good- 
ness and happiness will prevail The attribution of a mystic 
significance to the millennium-period, though perhaps not 
prominent in that theory of Christian eschatology to which the 
names Millenarianism and Chiliasm (from Gr. x^^^i a thousand) 
are given, is ^uite common in non-Christian religions and 
cosmological systems. 

Faith in the nearness of Christ's second advent and the 
establishing of his reign of glory on the earth was undoubtedly 
a strong point in the primitive Christian Church. In the antici> 
pations of the future prevalent amongst the early Christians 
{c. 50-150) it is necessary to distinguish a fixed and a fluctuating 
element. The former includes (x) the notion that a last terrible 
battle with the enemies of God was impending; (2) the faith in' 
the speedy return of Christ; (3) the conviction that Christ will 
judge all men, and (4) will set up a kingdom of glory on earth. 
To the latter belong views of the Antichrist, of the heathen world- 
power, of the place, extent, and duration of the earthly kingdom 
of Christ, &C. These remained in a state of solution; they were 
modified from day to day, partly because of the changing circum- 
stances of the present by which forecasts of the future were 
regulated, partly because the indications — real or supposed — of 
the ancient prophets always admitted of new combinations and 
constructions. But even here certain positions were agreed on 
in large sections of Christendom. Amongst these was the 
expectation that the future kingdom of Christ on earth should 
have a fixed duration — according to the most prevalent opinion, 
a duration of one thousand years.^ From this fact the whole 
andent Christian eschatology was known in later tiines as 
" chiliasm " — a name which is not strictly accurate, since the 
doctrine of the millennium was only one feature in its scheme of 
the future. | 

I. This idea that the Messianic kingdom of the future on earth 
should have a definite duration has — ^like the whole eschatology 
of the primitive Church— its roots in the Jewish apocalyptic 
literature, where it appears at a comparatively late period. At 
first it was assumed that the Messianic kingdom in Palestine 
would last for ever (so the prophets; cf. Jer. xxiv. 6; £zek. 
xxxvii. 25; Joel iv. 20; Dan. vL 27; SibyU. iii. 49 seq., 766; 
Psalt. Salom. xviL 4; Enoch bdi. 14), and this seems always to 
have been the most widely accepted view (John xii. 34). But 
from a comparison of prophetic passages of the Old Testament 
learned apocalyptic writers came to the conclusion that a dis- 
tinction must be drawn between the earthly appearance of the 
Messiah and the appearance of God Himself amongst His people 
and in the Gentile world for the final judgment. As a necessary 
consequence, a limited period had to be assigned to the Messianic 
kingdom. According to the Apocalypse of Baruch (xL 3) this 
kingdom will last " donee finiatur mundus corruptionis.*' In 
the Book of Enoch (xd. 12) " a week " is specified, in the Apoca- 
lypse of Ezra (vii. 28 seq.) four hundred years. This figure, 
corresponding to the four hundred years of Egyptian bondage, 
occurs also in the Talmud (Sanhedrin 99a). But this is the only 
passage; the Talmud has no fixed doctrine on the point. The 
view most frequently expressed there (see Von Otto in Hilgenfdd's 
Zeitschrift, 1877, p. 527 seq.) is that the Messianic kingdom will 
last for one thousand (some said two thousand) years. "In 
six days God created the world, on the seventh He rested. But 
a day of God is equal to a thousand years (I^. xc. 4). Hence the 
world will last for six thousand years of toil and labour; then will 
come one thousand years of Sabbath rest for the people of God 
iiL the kingdom of the Messiah." This idea must have already 
been very common in the first century before Christ The 
combination of Gen. L, Dan. ix. and Ps. xc 4 was peculiarly 
fascinating. 

Nowhere in the discourses of Jesus is there a h!nt.of a limited 
duration of the Messianic kingdom. The apostolic epistles are 
equally free from any trace of chiliasm (neither x Cor. xv. 23 sec^. 
nor X Thess. iv. x6 seq. points va tiaa ^kx«c\ick^. '\si'%je«'fi»5Ctfsa^ 
however, it occun in tift lol^o'nSx^ 1^%.^ V^ tA%_>5&«. 






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MILLER, H. 



463 



fhiHaMn survived amongst them to a later date than in 
AJezandria or Constantinople. 

But the Western Church was also more conservative than 
the Greek. Her theologians had, to begin with, liltlc turn for 
m>-stical speculation; their tendency was rather to reduce the 
gospel to a system of morals. Now for the moralists chiliasm 
had a special significance as the one distinguishing feature of the 
gospel, and the only thing that gave a specifically Christian 
character to their system. This, however, holds good of the 
Western theologians only after the middle of the 3rd century. 
Theearlicr fathers, Irenacus, Hippolytus, Tcrtutlian, believed in 
chiliasm simply because it was a part of the tradition of the church 
and because Mardon and the Gnostics would have nothing to do 
with it. Irenaeus (v. 38, 39) has the same conception of the 
millennial kingdom as Barnabas and Papias, and appeals in 
support of it to the testimony of disciples of the apostles. Hip- 
polytus, although an opponent of Montanism, was nevertheless a 
thorough-going millcnnarian (see his book De Antichristo). 
Tertuilian (cf. especially Adv. Marcion., 3) aimed at a more 
spiritual conception of the millennial blessings than Papias had, 
but he still adhered, especially in his Montanistic period, to all 
the ancient anticipations. It is the same all through the 3rd and 
4th centuries with those Latin theologians who escaped the 
influence of Greek speculation. Commodian, Victorinus Petta- 
vensis, Lactantius and Sulpicius Severus were all pronounced 
millennarians, holding by the very details of the primitive 
Christian expectations. They still believe, as John did, in the 
return of Nero as the Antichrist; they still expect that after the 
first resurrection Christ will reign with his saints " in the flesh " 
for a thousand years. Once, but only once (in the Gospel of 
Nicodemus), the time is reduced to five hundred years. Victori- 
nus wrote a commentary on the Apocalypse of John; and all 
these theologians, especially Lactantius, were diligent students of 
the ancient Sibylline oracles of Jewish and Christian origin, and 
treated them as divine revelations. As to the canonicity and 
apostolic authorship of the Johannine Apocalypse no doubts 
were ever entertained in the West; indeed an Apocalypse of 
Peter was still retained in the canon in the 3rd century. That 
of Ezra, in its Latin translation, must have been all but a canoni- 
cal book — the numbers of extant manuscripts of the so-called 
4 Ezra being incredibly great, while several of them are found 
in copies of the Latin Bible at the beginning of the i6th century. 
The Apocalypse of Hermas was much read till far through the 
middle ages, and has also kept its place in some Bibles. The 
apocalyptic " Testamenta duodecim patriarcharum " was a 
favourite reading-book; and Latin versions of ancient apocalypses 
arc being continually brought to light from Western libraries 
{e.g. the Assumptio Mosis, the Ascensio Jesajae, &c.). All these 
facts show how vigorously the early hopes of the future main- 
tained themselves in the West. In the hands of moralistic 
theok>gians, hke Lactantius, they certainly assume a somewhat 
grot»que form, but the fact that these men clung to them is the 
clearest evidence that in the West millennarianism was still a 
point of '* orthodoxy " in the 4th century. 

This state of matters, however, gradually disappeared after 
the end of the 4th century. The change was brought about by 
two causes — first, Greek theology, which reached the West 
chiefly through Jerome Rufinus and Ambrose, and, second, the 
new idea of the church wrought out by Augustine on the basis of 
the altered political situation of the church. Augustine was the 
first who ventured to teach that the catholic church, in its 
empirical form, was the kingdom of Christ, that the millennial 
kingdom had commenced with the appearing of Christ, and was 
therefore an accomplished fact. By this doctrine of Augustine's, 
the old millennarianism. though not completely extirpated, was 
at least banished from the official theology. It still lived on, 
however, in the lower strata of Christian society; and in certain 
undercurrents of tradition it was transmitted from century to 
century. At various periods in the history of the middle ages 
we encounter sudden outbreaks of millennarianism, sometimes 
as the tenet of a small sect, sometimes as a far-reaching movement. 
And, since it had been suppressed, not, as in the East, by 



mystical speculation, its mightiest antagonist, but by the political 
church of the hierarchy, we find that wherever chiliasm appears 
in the middle ages it makes common cause with all enemi^ of 
the secularized church. It strengthened the hands of church 
democracy; it formed an alliance with the pure souls who held 
up to the church the ideal of apostolic poverty; it united itself 
for a time even with mysticism in a common opposition to the 
supremacy of the church; nay, it lent the strength of its convic- 
tions to the support of slates and princes in their eflorts to break 
the political power of the church. It is sufficient to recall the 
well-known names of Joachim of Floris, of all the numerous 
Franciscan spiritualists, of the leading sectaries from the i3lh to 
the I sth century who assailed the papacy and the secularism of 
the church— above all, the name of Occam. In these men the 
millennarianism of the ancient church came to life again; and in 
the revolutionary movements of the 15th and i6lh centuries — 
especially in the Anabaptist movements — it appears with all its 
old uncompromising energy. If the church, and not the state, 
was regarded as Babylon, and the pope declared to be the Anti- 
christ, these were legitimate inferences from the ancient traditions 
and the actual position of the church. But, of course, the new 
chiliasm was not in every respect identical with the old. It 
could not hold its ground without admitting certain innovations. 
The " everlasting gospel " of Joachim of Floris was a different 
thing from the annoimcement of Christ's glorious return in the 
clouds of heaven; the " age of the spirit " which mystics and 
spiritualists expected contained traits which must be character- 
ized as " modern "; and the " kingdom " of the Anabaptists in 
Miinster was a Satanic caricature of that kingdom in which the 
Christians of the 2nd century looked for a peaceful Sabbath rest. 
Only we must not form our ideas of the great apocalyptic and 
chiliostic movement of the first decades of the i6th certtury 
from the rabble in MUnster. There were pure evangelical forces 
at work in it; and many Anabaptists need not shun com- 
parison with the Christians of the apostolic and post-apostolic 
ages. 

The German and Sv.-iss Reformers also believed that the end of 
the world was near, but they had different aims in view from 
those of the Anabaptists. It was not from poverty and apoca- 
lypticism that they hoped for a reformation of the Church. In 
contrast to the fanatics, after a brief hesitation they threw millen- 
narianism overboard, and along with it all other "opiniones 
Judaicae." They took up the same ground in this respect which 
the Roman Catholic Church had occupied since the time of 
Augustine. How millennarianism nevertheless found its way, 
with the help of apocalyptic mysticism and Anabaptist influences 
into the churches of the Reformation, chiefly among the Re- 
formed sects, but afterwards also in the Lutheran Church, how 
it became incorporated with Pietism, how in more recent times 
an exceedingly mild type of " academic " chiliasm has been 
developed from a belief in the verbal inspiration of the Bible, 
how finally new sects are still springing up here and there with 
apocalyptic and chiliastic expectations— these are matters which 
cannot be fully entered upon here. 

Sec SchQrcr, Lehrbuch dcr neutcstamefitlichen ZeitMSchichU 
(1874), §§ 28. 29; Contxii. Krilische Geschichie des Chiliasmus 
(1781): R. H. Charles, Tlu Doctrine of a Future Life (1899): Book 
of the Secrets of Enoch (1896). pp. xxvii-xxx, ch. xxxli. 2-xxxiii. 2; 
Apocalypse of Baruch (it^). xxix. 3-8 (notes); Bock of Enoch 
(index, s.v. "Messianic Kingdom "); Boussct. Religion des Juden- 
thums (1903). 273-276; C. A. Brigps, The Messiah of the Apostles, 

F. 284 seq. ; Sabaticr. Les Ori^ines liltcraires et la composition de 
Apocalypse de St J^an (1887) ; Spitta, Die Offenbarung des Johannes 
untersucM (1889). See also Escuatologv and works there quoted. 

(A. Ha.) 
MILLER, HUGH (1802-1856), Scottish geologist and man of 
letters, was born in humble circumstances at Cromarty, on the 
loth of October 1802; his father, Hugh Miller, a seaman, was 
drowned when he was but five years old. His primary education 
was acquired at a dame's school and afterwards at the parish 
school, and at the age of six he had learned that " the art of 
reading is the art of finding stories in books." At the age o! 
twelve he began to write verses. Two of his r^oOaRX*'5»ViX<2fOoRxv, 
James and " Saady " V»i\%\k\., Wx^-v«qi>6mc|, laKcv ^\ ^\^^-wVi > 



46+ 



MILLER, JOAQUIN— MILLER, W. 



offered to assist him to enter the ministry, but he felt no call to 
the sacred office, and from 1820 to 1823 he was apprenticed to a 
stone-mason. During the next few years he obtained employ- 
ment as a journeyman mason in Edinburgh, Inverness and 
various other parts of Scotland. The writing of verses occupied 
his leisure hours, and in 1826 he sent to the Scotsman an " Ode on 
Greece " which was refused. It was not until 1829 that he met 
with his first success in the publication of Poems written in the 
Leisure Hours of a Journeyman Mason. These were printed and 
issued from the office of the Inverness Courier. Miller now 
turned his attention to prose and contributed many essays to the 
Inverness Courier. As remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " These made 
80 favourable an impression that they were soon afterwards 
reprinted separately. They marked the advent of a writer 
gifted with no ordinary powers of narration and with the 
command of a pure, nervous and masculine style." 

At the age of thirty-two he was still a stone-mason, but in the 
latter part of 1834 he was offered a post as accountant in the 
Commercial Bank of Scotland, and was almost immediately 
transferred to the Cromarty branch. His prose writings had now 
attracted much notice, and he next issued in 1835 Scenes and 
Legends of the North of Scotland^ or the traditional history of Cro- 
marty , in which he introduced some memoranda on the geology. 
This work met with a cordial reception. Miller, whUe still a 
stone-mason, had observed the abundant fossils in the Jurassic 
shales on the shores of Ethie, but it was not until 1830 that he 
first obtained remains of fossil fishes in the Old Red Sandstone. 
These for many years he collected and studied as far as he could, 
and in 1837 some of his specimens were brought to the notice of 
R. I. Murchison and Professor Agassiz. In the following year 
he was in communication with Murchison and his career as a 
geologist was definitely opened. 

In 1837 Miller married Lydia Falconer Fraaer (181 i?-i 876), 
a lady of good position and great natural ability, whom he had 
met six years previously. He set up his household in Cromarty, 
on a salary of sixty pounds a year, aided by the small sums he 
then earned by literary work; and his wife took a few pupils. 
Mrs Miller eventually became well known under the pseudonym 
of Mrs Harriet Myrtle as author of the Ocean Child (1857) 
and other story-books for children. 

Soon after his marriage. Miller became greatly stirred by the 
internal dissensions in the Church of 'Scotland, of which he was a 
staunch member, and he published two pamphlets which brought 
him to the notice of some of the prominent members of the liberal 
church party. In 1830 he went by invitation to Edinburgh to 
edit a new Whig newspaper, the WitnesSt which was intended to 
support the views of those who after the dlnruption in 1843 formed 
the Free Church. The paper rapidly atuined a large circulation; 
and this was no doubt largely due to his own literary and scientific 
essays. In 1840 he contributed a series of articles on The Old Red 
Sandstone, and these were reprinted in book form in the following 
year. The charm of this work was widely appreciated, as was 
also the natural sagacity shown in the descriptions and restora- 
tions of some of the fossil fishes. His Footprints of the Creator 
was published in 1849, and My Schools and Schoolmasters in 1854. 
He was engaged on the final proofs of his Testimony of the Rocks 
on the day of his death. During the last yexur of his life he sudcrcd 
from inflammation of the lungs; and the strain of ill-health 
proving too severe, he died by his own hand in Edinburgh on 
the 23rd of December 1856. By request of his wife, The Cruise 
of the Betsey, with Rambles of a Geologist (1858) previously 
printed only in the Witness newspaper was published under 
the editorship of the Rev. W. S. Symonds. 

In memory of Hugh Miller a monument was erected by public 
subscription in i860 at Cromarty; and the cottage in which he 
was born was acquired at a later period by his son Hugh. In it 
have been placed part of his library, a set of the Witness 
newspaper, some letters addressed to him, and a number of geo- 
logical specimens, including many referred to in his Old Red 
Sandstone. On the 22nd of August 1902 the centenary of his 
A£rtA waM celebrated at CromatTty, and was attended by 
Mcienti£c representatives from all parts of the world. 



His elder son, Hugh Miller (1850-1896), passed through the 
Royal School of Mines and joined the Geological Survey in 
England in 1873; afterwards he was transferred to Scotland 
and surveyed the country around Cromarty and other parts of 
Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. He was author ol Landscape 
Geology, 1891. 

Sec The Life and Letters of Hugh Miller, by Peter Bayne (2 vols., 
1871) ; Hugh Miller; his icork and influence, address by Sir A. Geikie, 
at the centenary celebration. (H. B. Wa) 

MILLER, JOAQUIN (Cincinnatus Heine) (1841- ). 
American poet, was bom in Indiana, on the xoth of November 
1 84 1, and was educated for the law. After some experiences of 
mining and journalism in Idaho and Oregon, he settled down in 
1866 as judge in Grant county, Oregon, and during his four 
years* tenure of this post he began to write verse. In 1870 he 
travelled in Europe, and in 187 1 he published his first volume of 
poetry, full of tropical passion. Songs of the Sierras, on whiefa his 
reputation mainly rests. His Songs of the Sunlands (1873) 
followed in the same vein, and after other volumes had appeared, 
his Collected Poems were published in 1882. He also wrote plays. 
The Danites in the Sierras having some success as a sensational 
melodrama. On his return from Europe he became a journalist 
in Washington, but in 1887 returned to California. His pen- 
name, " Joaquin Miller," by which he is known, was assumed by 
him when he published his first book, in consequence of his 
having written an article in defence of Joaquin Marietta, the 
Mexican brigand. 

Revised editions of hiS Complete Poetical Works appeared at 
San Francisco in 1902. 

MILLER, JOE (Joseph or Josias( (i684-i738)> English actor, 
first appears in the cast of Sir Robert Howard's CommiUee at 
Drury Lane in 1709 as Teague. Trinculo in The Tempest, the 
First Grave-digger in Hamlet and Marplot in The Busybody, were 
among his many favourite parts. He is said to have been a 
friend of Hogarth. He died on the i6th of August 1738. After 
his death, John Mottley (1692-1750) brought out a book called 
Joe Miller's Jests, or Wit*s Vade Mecum (1739), a collection of 
contemporary and ancient coarse witticisms, only three of which 
are told of Miller. Owing to the quality of the jokes in Mottley's 
book, their number increasing with each of the many subscqiient 
editions, any time-worn jest has, somewhat unjustly, come to be 
called " a Joe Miller." 

MILLER. SAMUEL FREEMAN (1816-1890), American jurist, 
was bom in Richmond, Kentucky, on the sth of April 1816, of 
Pennsylvania-German stock. He was brought up on a farm, was 
a clerk in a drug-store, graduated from the medical department 
of Transylvania University in 1838, and practised medicine in 
Barboursville, Kentucky, until 1847. In that year he was 
admitted to the bar, and entered politics as a Whig. His anti- 
slavery sympathies induced him to settle in Iowa, where in 1850 
he freed his slaves and began to practise law in Keokuk, and he' 
soon became a leader of the Republican party in the state. In 
1862 he succeeded Justice Peter V. Daniel (i 784-1860), as a 
justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, and served until his death in 
Washington, D.C., on the 13th of October 1890, when he was 
senior justice. Miller was a man of great mental force and 
individuality, and his judgments carried great weight. In 1877 
he was a member of the electoral commission, which adopted his 
motion that Congress could not " go behind the returns " as 
properly accredited by slate officials. He was a prominent 
member of the Unitarian Church and for three years was president 
of its national conference. He published a volume of Lectures 
on the Constitution of the United Stales (New York, 1891). 

Sec Wm. A. Mauiy. in The Juridical Review of Edinbmr^ (for 
January 1891), and Chas. M. Gregory, in Yale Law Jcunml (for 
April 1908). 

MILLER, WILUAM (1782-1849). leader of the Second 
Adventists in America, was born on the 5th of February 1781 at 
Pittsficld, Massachusetts. He was a recruiting ofikcr ar the 
beginning of the War of 1812, and after Plattsburg be was 
promoted captain, retiring from the army in 181 5. About 1816 
he settled in Low Hampton, Washington county, New York. 



MILLER, W.— MILLERITE 



465 



He now joined the Baptist Church at L6vr Hampton, and, after 
two years of minute study of the Bible, about 1818 became a 
Second Adventist. In 183 1 he begap to lecture, arguing that the 
** two thousand three hundred days " of Daniel viiL 14 meant 
2300 years, and that these years began with Ezra's going up to 
Jerusalem in 457 B.C., and therefore came to an end in 1843, and 
urging his hearers to make ready for the final coming of Christ in 
that year^ To his many followers, after the year 1843 had passed, 
he proclaimed that 1844 was the year, that his error was due to 
following Hebrew instead of Roman chronology, and that the 
22nd of October was to be the day. There was renewed excite- 
ment among Miller's followers; many of them left their business, 
and in white muslin robes, on house tops and hills, awaited the 
«piphany. In spite of disappointment, many still believed with 
him that the time was near. He returned to Low Hampton and 
died there on the 20th of December 1849. The Adventists or 
Millerites, who were formed into a single body in a convention 
called by him in April 1843, have since separated into several 
sects: the Evangelical Adventists (1147 in the United States in 
1908), who believe in everlasting punishment; the Seventh Day 
Adventists (64,332), who observe the seventh day, and practise 
the sacrament of foot-washing; the Advent Christians (26,500), 
the Churches of God in Jesus Christ (2872), and the Life and 
Advent Union (3800). Their total number in the United States 
in 1908 was about 99.300. Miller published in 1833 a pamphlet 
which was the basis of his lectures; these were published in 1842 
as Endenct from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of 
Christ about the Year 1843. 

See SyKTstcr Bliss, Memoirs of William Miller (Boston, 1853): 
James \\liitc. SkeUhes of Ike Christian Life and Public Labors of 
William Miller (Battle Creek, 1875); and Edward Eggleston's novef, 
EKd of the World {1%12). 

MILLER, WILLIAM (1795-1861), British soldier, who took 
a prominent part in the South American Wars of Liberation, 
entered the British artillery service in 181 1, and till 1814 he was 
continuously on active service with Wellington's army in the 
Pem'nsula. In the btter year he accompanied the ill-fated New 
Orleans expedition. After the general peace he travelled for two 
years about Europe, and then went to South America. The war 
which culminated in the expulsion of the Spaniards was just 
breaking out, and he took command in the Chilean artillery, 
with which he served during the Chilean part of the war. As a 
major he commanded the marines on Cochrane's vessel, the 
" O'Higgins." In 182 1 he landed in Peru, to assist General San 
Martin agaij»t the Spanish General Cantcrac. He was made 
general ol brigade, and became very intimate with Simon Bolivar. 
He rendered the most conspicuous services at Junin (Aug. 6, 
1824), and his regiment, the " Hussars of Junin," covered itself 
with glory in the decisive victory of Ayacucho (Dec. 9, 1824). 
From 1830 to 1839 he filled various high military and political 
offices in Peru. In the latter year he was involved in the fall of 
Santa Cruz, and went into exile. For some years he filled the post 
of British Consul-General of the Pacific Coast. He died on board 
H.M.S. " Naiad " at Callao, on the 31st of October 1861. 

Seethe Afemoi>5 published by his brother John Miller (London,i827). 

MILLER. WILLIAM (i 796-1882), Scottish line-engraver, was 
bom in Edinburgh on the 28th of May 1 796. After studying in 
London under George Cook, a pupil of Basire's, he returned to 
Edinburgh. He executed plates after Thomson of Duddingston, 
MaccuUoch, D. O. Hill, Sir George Harvey, and other Scottish 
landscapists, but his chief works were his transcripts from Turner. 
The first of these was the Clovelly ( 1824). of The Southern Coast, a 
publication undertaken by George Cook and his brother William 
B. Cook, to which Miller also contributed the Combe Martin 
and the Portsmouth. He was engaged on the illustrations of 
England and Wales, 1827-1838; of The Rivers of France, 1833- 
183s; of Roger's Poems, 1834; and very largely on those of The 
Prose and Poetical Works of Sir Walter Scott, 1834. In The Pro- 
tincial Antiquities and Picturesque Scenery of Scotland, 1826, he 
executed a few excellent plates after Thomson and Turner. 
Among his larger engravings of Turner's works may be mentioned 
" The Grand Canal, Venice "; " The Rhine. Qsteiprcj" and 

xvin 8* 



Feltzen "; " The BeU Rock "; " The Tower of London "; and 
" The Shepherd." The art of William Miller was warmly appre- 
ciated by Turner himself, and Ruskin pronounced him to be on 
the whole the most successful translator into line of the paintings 
of the greatest English landscapist. His renderings of complex 
Turnerian sky-effects are especially delicate and masterly. To- 
wards the end of his life Miller abandoned engraving and occupied 
his leisure in the production of water-colours, many of which 
were exhibited in the Royal Scottish Academy, of which he was 
an honorary member. He resumed his burin, however, to 
produce two final series of vignettes from drawings by Birket 
Foster illustrative of Hood's Porfnx, published by Moxon in 1871. 
Miller, who was a Quaker, died on the 20th of January 1882. 

MILLER, WILUAM HALLOWES (1801-1880), British 
mineralogist and crystallographer, was bom at Velindre near 
Llandovery, Carmarthenshire, on the 6th of April 1801. He 
was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, where he gradu- 
ated in 1826 as fifth wrangler, and became a fellow in 1829. 
For a few years he was occupied as a college tutor and during 
this time he published treatises on hydrostatics and hydro- 
dynamics. He also gave special attention to crystallography, 
and on the resignation of W. Whewell he succeeded in 1832 to 
tht I^ofessorship of mineralogy, a post which he occupied until 
1870. His chief work, on Crystallography ^ was published in 
1838. He was elected F.R.S. in 1838. In 1852 he edited a 
new edition of H. J. Brooke's Elementary Introdtution to Miner- 
alogy. He assisted in 1843 the committee appointed to super- 
intend the construction of the new Parliamentary standarda* 
of length and weight (see Phil. Trans., 1856). He died in 
Cambridge on the 20th of May x88o. 

MILLERAND, ALEXANDRE (1859- ), French socialist 
and politician, was bora in Paris on the xoth of February 1859. 
He was educated for the bar, and made his reputation by his 
defence, in company with Georges Laguerre, of Ernest Roche 
and Duc-Qucrcy, the instigators of the strike at Decazeville 
in 1883; he then took Laguerre's place on M. Clemenceau's 
paper. La Justice. He was elected to the Chamber of Deputies 
for the department of the Seine in 1885 as a radical socialist. 
He was associated with MM. Clemenceau and Camille Pelletan 
as an arbitrator in the Carmaux strike (1892). He had long had 
the ear of the Chamber in matters of social legislation, and after 
the Panama scandals had discredited so many politicians his 
influence grew. He was chief of the Socialist left, which then 
mustered sixty members, and edited until 1896 their organ in 
the press. La Petite RipuHique. His programme included 
the collective ownership of the means of production and the 
international association of labour, but when in June 1899 
he entered Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet of " republican defence " 
as minister of commerce he limited himself to practical reforms, 
devoting his attention to the improvement of the mercantile 
marine, to the development of trade, of technical education, 
of the postal system, and to the amelioration of the conditions 
of labour. Labour questions were entrusted to a separate 
department, the Direction du Travail, and the pension and 
insurance office was also raised to the status of a " direction." 
The introduction of trades-union representatives on the Supreme 
Labour Council, the organization of local labour councils, and 
the instructions to factory inspectors to put themselves in 
communication with the councils of the trades-unions, were 
valuable concessions to labour, and he further secured the 
rigorous application of earlier laws devised for the protection 
of the working-classes. His name was especially associated 
with a project for the establishment of old age pensions, which 
became law in 1905. He became in 1898 editor of La Lanterned 
His influente with the extreme Socialists had already declined, 
for it was said that his departure from the true Marxist tradition 
had disintegrated the party. 

For his administration in the WaldecTc-Rousscau cabinet see 
A. Lavy, L'(Euvre de MilUrand (1902); his speeches between 1899 
and 1907 were published in 1907 as Travail et travaiUeurs, 

MILLERITE, a minerai cotv^\^V\Tv^ ol t^O«A va^.^\^^^ '^^^ 
Cryslab belong to l\ie iYiom\>o\it^i«X vi^Vwi ^sA\^Nt >:as5. V«^ 



466 



MILLER'S THUMB— MILLET, J. F. 



of slender needles arranged in divergent groups or of delicate 
fibres loosely matted together. The colour is brass-yellow 
and the lustre metallic Before the chemical composition 
of the mineral had been determined it had been known as 
"capillary pyrites" or "hair pyrites" (Ger., Haarkies), 
and was not distinguished from the capillary forms of pyrites 
and marcasite: the name mlllcrite was given by W. Haidinger 
in 1845, in honour of W. H. Miller. The hardness is 3-3I and 
the specific gravity 5-65. There are perfect cleavages parallel 
to the faces of the rhombohedron (100); and gliding planes 
parallel to the faces of the rhombohedron (no), on which secon- 
dary twinning may be readily produced artificially by pressure. 

Typical specimens of millerite are found in the coal measures 
in the neighbourhood of Merthyr Tydvil in South Wales, where 
the delicate needles and fibres occur with crystals of quartz 
and pearl-spar in the fissures of septarian nodules of day- 
ironstone. Radiating groups of needles are found with ankerite 
in cavities in haematite in the Sterling mine at Antwerp in 
Jefferson county, New York. At the Gap mine in Lancaster 
county, Pennsylvania, the mineral occurs as fibrous encrusting 
masses with a velvety lustre. The most perfect crystals are 
those formerly found with caldte, diopside and a bright green 
chrome-garnet m a nickel mine at Orford in Sherbrooke county, 
Quebec. (L. J. S.) 

MILLER'S THUMB (CoUus gohio); a small fish, abundant in 
all rivers and lakes of northern and central Europe with clear 
water and gravelly bottom. The genus CottuSj to which the 
miller's thumb belongs, is easily recognized by its broad, flat 
head, rounded and scaleless body, large pectoral and narrow 
ventral fins, with two dorsal fins, the anterior shorter than 
the posterior; the praeoperculum is armed with a simple or 
branched spine. Tlie species of the genus Coitus are rather 
numerous, and are confined to the north temperate zone of the 
globe, the majority being marine, and known by the name of 
" bullheads.'! The miller's thumb is confined to fresh water; 
and only one other freshwater species is found in Europe, C. 
poecUopus, from rivers of Hungary, Galicia, and the Pyrenees; 
some others occur in the fresh waters of northern Asia and North 
America. The miller's thumb b common in all suitable localities 
in Great Britain, but is extremely rare in Ireland; in the Alps 
it reaches to an altitude exceeding 7000 ft. Its usual length 
is from 3 to 5 in. Generally hidden under a stone or in a 
hollow of the bank, it watches for its prey, which consists of 
small aquatic animals, and darts when disturbed with extra- 
ordinary rapidity to some other place of refuge. The female 
deposits her ova in a cavity under a stone, whilst the male 
watches and defends them until the young ar^ hatched and able 
to shift for themselves. 

MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- ), American artist, 
was born at MatUpoisett, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of November 
1846. He was a drummer boy with the Union forces in the 
Civil War; graduated from Harvard College in 1869; and in 
1871 entered the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp, where 
he studied under Van Lcrius and De Keyser. In 1873 he was 
made secretary of the Massachusetts commission to the Vienna 
Exposition. During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he was 
correspondent of the London Daily News and Graphic, and of 
the New York Herald. On his return he was made a member 
from the United States of the International Art Jury at the Paris 
Exposition of 1878. He was director of decorations at the 
Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893, and in 1898 he went to 
Manila as war correspondent for The Times and for Harper's 
Weekly. In 1880 he became a member of the Sodety of 
American Artists, and in 1885 was elected to full membership 
in the National Academy of Design, New York, and was for 
one term iu vice-president; he became a member also of the 
American Water Color Society and of the Institute of Painters 
in Oil Colours, London. As a decorative artist his work may 
be seen at Trinity Church, Boston; the Bank of Pittsburg; and 
eAe Capito) at St Paul, Minnesota. His pictures are in many 
public collections: among them arc " A Cosy Comer," in the 
MetropoUua Museum ot Art, New York; " At the Inn " m l\it 



Union League Club, New Yorit; and "Between two Fiiw." 
in the Tate Gallery, London. He also wrote essays and short 
stories, and an English version of Tolstoi's Sebastopol (1887); 
and among his publications are The Danube (i8qi), Capillary 
Crime and other Stories (1892), and Expedition to the Philip^ 
pines (1899). 

MILLET (or Mil£), JEAN FRANCOIS {c. 1643-1679), com- 
monly called pRANasQUE, was bom at Antwerp about 1642, 
and is generally classed amongst the painters of Flanders on 
account of the accident of his birth. But his father was a 
Frenchman, a turner in ivory of Dijon, who took service with 
the prince of Cond£ and probably returned after a time to his 
native country. He remained long enough in Antwerp to 
apprentice his son to an obscure member of a painter family 
called Laurent, pupil of Gabriel Franck. With Laurent, Frands- 
que left Antwerp for Paris, and there settled in 1660 after marry- 
ing his master's daughter. He was recdved a member of the 
Academy of Painting at Paris in 1673. &n<i ^ter gaining consider- 
ation as an imiutor of the Poussins he died in 1679, b^iueathing 
his art and some of his talents to one of his sons. Francisque 
probably knew, as well as imitated, Nicolas Poussin, Caspar 
Dughet and Sebastian Bourdon; and it is doubtless because 
of his acquaintance with these travelled artists that, bein^ 
himself without familiarity with the classic lands of Italy an<i 
Greece, he was able to imagine and reproduce Italian ami 
Arcadian scenery with considerable grace and effectiveness. 
It is indeed surprising to observe, even at this day how skilfully 
he executed these imaginary subjects, enlivened them with 
appropriate figures, and shed over them the glow of a warm 
yet fresh and sparkling tone. Twelve of his most important 
landscapes, which remained in the palace of the Tuileries, were 
destroyed by fire; and though many of his pieces nuy still be 
found catalogued in Continental and English ccllections, <Hben 
in great number remain unknown and unacknowledged. 

His son Jean Francois Millet, the younger (i 666-1 723), 
also called Francisque, was bom in Paris, and was made a 
member of the Academy of Painting in r709. He is not quite 
so independent in his art as his father; but he had clever friends, 
and when he wanted figures to his landscapes, he consulted 
Watteau, and other followers of the "court shepherdess** 
school In the museum of Grenoble is a " Paysage " by him 
which is prettily adorned with Watteau's figures. 

MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814-1875). French painter, 
who came of a peasant family, was bom on the 4th of October 
1814 in the hamlet of Cmchy, near Gr^ville (La Manche), in 
the wild and picturesque district called La Hague. His boyhood 
was passed working in his father's fields, but the sight of the 
engravings in an old illustrated Pible set him drawing, and 
thenceforth, whilst the others slept, the daily hour of rest was 
spent by Millet in trying to render the familiar scenes around 
him. From the village priest the lad learnt to read the Bible 
and Virgil in Latin, and acquired an interest in one or two 
other works of a high class which accompanied him through 
life; he did not, however, attract attention so much by his 
acquirements as by the stamp of his mind. The whole family 
seems, indeed, to have worn a character of austerity and dignity, 
and when Millet's father finally dedded to test the vocation 
of his son as an artist, it was with a gravity and authority which 
recalls the patriarchal households of Cadvinist France. Two 
drawings were prepared and placed before a painter at Cher- 
bourg named Mouchel, who at once recognized the boy's gifts, 
and accepted him as a pupil; but shortly after (1835) MiUcl's 
father died, and the ddest son, with heroic devotion, took 
his place at home, nor did he return to his work until the pressing 
calls from without were solemnly enforced by the wishes of his 
own family. He accordingly went back to Cherbourg, but 
after a short time spent there with another master (Langlois) 
started with many misgivings for Paris. The coundl-genera! 
of the department had granted him a sum of 600 francs, and 
the town council promised an annual pension of 400, but in 
spite of friendly help and introductions Millet went through 
V Steal ^ii&cuKve&. The system of the £cole des Beaux Aitt 



MILLET 



467 



VIS hateful to him, and It was not' until after much hesitation 
that he deckled to enter an official studio— that of Delaroche. 
The master was certainly puzzled by his pupil; he saw his ability, 
and, when Millet in his poverty could not longer pay the monthly 
fees, arranged for his free admission to the studio, but he tried 
in vain to make him take the approved direction, and lessons 
ended with " £h, bien, allez i votre guise, vous 6tes si nouveau 
pour moi que je ne veux rien vous dire." At last, when the 
competition for the Grand Prix came on, Delaroche gave Millet 
to understand that he intended to secure the nomination of 
another, and thereupon Millet withdrew himself, and with his 
friend Marolle surted in a little studio in the Rue de I'Est. He 
had renounced the beaten track, but he continued to study hard 
whilst he sought to procure bread by painting portraits at 
10 or 15 francs apiece and producing small "pastiches'* of 
Watteau and Boucher. In 1&40 Millet went back to GriviUe, 
where he painted *' Sailors Mending a Sail " and a few other 
pictures — reminiscences of Cherbourg life. 

His first success was obtained in 1844, when his " Milkwoman " 
and ** Lesson in Riding " (pastel) attracted notice at the Salon, 
and friendly artists presented themselves at his lodgings only 
to learn that his wife had just died, and that he himself had 
disappeared. Millet was at Cherbotirg; there he remarried, 
but having amassed a few hundred francs he went back to Paris 
and presented his " St Jerome " at the Salon of 1845. This picture 
was rejected and exists no longer, for Millet, short of canvas, 
painted over it ** Oedipus Unbound," a work which during the 
foUowing year was the object of violent criticism. He was, 
however, no longer alone; Diaz, Eugene Toumeux,^ Rousseau, 
and other men of note supported him by their confidence and 
friendship, and he had by his side the brave Cathetine Lemaire, 
his second wife, a woman who bore poverty with dignity and 
gave courage to her husband through the cruel triak in which 
he penetrated by a terrible personal experience the bitter secrets 
of the very poor. To this date belong Millet's " Golden Age," 
" Bird Nesters," " Young Giri and Lamb," and " Bathers "; but to 
the " Bathers " (Louvre) succeeded " The Mother Asking Alms," 
" The Workman's Monday," and " The Winnower." This last 
work, exhibited in 1848, obtained conspicuous success, but did not 
sell till Ledru Rollin, informed of the painter's dire distress, 
gave him 500 francs for it, and accompanied the purchase with 
a commission, the money for which enabled Millet to leave Paris 
for Barbizon, a village on the skirts of the forest of Fontainebleau. 
There he settled in a three-roomed cottage for the rest of his 
life — twenty-seven years, in which he wrought out the perfect 
Aory of that peasant life of which he alone has given a " complete 
impression." Jules Breton has coloured the days of toil with 
sentiment; others, like Courbet, whose eccentric " Funeral at 
Omans " attracted more notice at the Salon of 1850 than 
MiUet's " Sowers and Binders," have treated similar subjects as 
a vehicle for protest against social misery; Millet alone, a peasant 
and a miserable one himself, saw true, neither softening nor 
exaggerating what he saw. In a curious letter written to M. 
Sensier at this date (1850) Millet expressed his resolve to break 
once and for all with mythological and undraped subjects, and 
the names of the principal works painted subsequently will 
show how steadfastly this resolution was kept/ In 1852 he pro- 
duced •• Girls Sewing," " Man Spreading Manure "; 1853, " The 
Reapers "; 1854, " Church at GrfeviDe "; 1855— the year of the 
International Exhibition, at which he received a medal of second 
class—" Peasant Graf ting a Tree "; 1857, " The Gleaners "; 1859, 
•* The Angclus," " The Woodcutter and Death "; i860, " Sheep 
Shearing "; 1861, " Woman Shearing Sheep," " Woman Feed- 
ng Child "; 1862, '* Potato Planters," " Winter and the 
Crows "; 1863, " Man with Hoe," " Woman Carding "; 1864, 
*' Shepherds and Flock, Peasants Bringing Home a Calf Bom 
b the Fields"; 1S69. "Knitting Lesson"; 1870, " Butler- 
■uJung; 187X, "November — recollection of Gruchy." Any 
one of these works will show how great an influence Millet's 
prevxnis practice in the nude had upon his style. The dresses 
worn by his figures are not clothes, but drapery through which 
the forau mod movemenu of the body arc strongly idt, and 



their contour shows a grand breadth of line which strikes the 
eye at once. Something of the imposing unity of his work 
was also, no doubt, due to an extraordinary power of memory, 
which enabled Millet to paint (like Horace Vemet) without 
a model; he could recall with precision the smallest details of 
attitudes or gestures which he proposed to represent. Thus 
he could cotmt on presenting free from afterthoughts the vivid 
impressions which he had first received, and Millet's nature 
was such that the impressions which he received were always 
of a serious and often of a noble order, to which the character of 
his execution responded so perfectly that even a " Washerwoman 
at her Tub "will show the grand action bf a Medea. The drawing 
of this subject is reproduced in Souvenirs de Barbizon, a pamphlet 
in which M. Piidagnel has recorded a visit paid to Millet in 1864. 
His circumstances were then less evil, after struggles as severe 
as those endured in Paris. A contract by which he bound 
himself in i860 to give up all his work for three years had placed 
him in possession of xooo francs a month. His fame extended, 
and at the exhibition of 1867 he received a medal of the first 
class, and the ribbon of the Legion of Honour, but he was at 
the same moment deeply shaken by the death of his faithful 
friend Rousseau. Though he rallied for a time he liever com- 
pletely recovered his health, and on the 20th of January 1875 
he died. He was buried by his friend's side in the churchyard 
of Chailly. His pictures, like those of the rest of the Barbizon 
school, have since greatly increased in value. 

See the article Barbizon; also A. Sensier, Vie a etwre de J. P. 
Millet (1874): Piddagnel. Souvenirs de Barbiion, Sec. (1876): D. C. 
Thomson. The BarBtMon School (iSgi)-, Richard Muther, J. F. 
Millet (1905) ; Gensel, MiUet und Rousseau (190a). (£. F. S. D.) 

MILLET (Fr. miUel; Ital. miglieOo, diminutive of miglio" 
Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility), a name applied 
with little definiteness to a considerable number of often very 
variable species of cefeals, belonging to distinct genera and even 
subfamilies of Gramineae. Common millet is Panicum milio' 
ceum (Cjerman Hirse), It is probably a native of Egypt and 
Arabia but has been cultivated in Egypt, Asia and southern 
Europe from prehistoric times. It is anniial, requires rich 
but friable soil, grows to about 3 or 4 ft. high, and is character- 
ized by its bristly, much branched nodding panicles. One 
variety has black grains. It is cultivated in India, southern 
Europe, and northern Africa, and ripens as far north as southern 
Germany, in fact, wherever the climate admits of the production 
of wine. The grain, which is very nutritious, is used in the 
form of groats, and makes excellent bread 
when mixed with wheaten flour. It is 
also largely used for feeding poultry, for 
which purpose mainly it is imported. 
Hungarian grass, Setaria ilaiica (also 
called Panicum ilalicum), a native of 
eastern Asia is one of the most whole- 
some and palatable Indian cereals. It 
is annual, grows 4 to 5 ft. high, ttnd 
requires dry light soil.. German Millet 
(Ger. Kolbenhirse, Mohar) is probably 
merely a less valuable and dwarf variety 
of 5. italica, having an erect, compact, 
and shorter spike. The grains of both are 
very small, only one half as long as those 
of common millet, but are exceedingly 
prolific. Many stalks arise from a single 
root, and a single spike often yields a oz. 
of grain, the toUl yield being five times 
that of wheat. They are imported for 
poultry feeding like the former species 
and for cage-birds, but are extensively 
used in soups, &c., on the Continent, 
Numerous other species belonging to the 
vast genus Panicum — the largest among 
grasses, of which the followinf^ ate anvwv^ StUwVi. Vudtvco., 
the most important— aw a\so cmWvn^V^^ ^ vtA^K* 

ta tropical Qt wbtiovVcaX twinXxwA Vox >i»x v^Wk^^ ^ v«5x 




468 



MILLIGAN— MILLIPEDE 



grtsses, or both, each variety of soil, from swamp to desert, 
having its characteristic forms. 

Polish millet is P. sanguinalei P. frumentaceum, shamalo, a 
Dcccan grass, is probably a native of tropical Africa; P. decom- 
tositum IS the Australian millet, its grains being made into calces 
by the aborigines. P. maximum is the Guinea grass, native of 
tropical Africa; it is perennial, grows 8 ft. high, and yields abun- 
dance of highly nutritious jgrain. P. spectabtie is the coapim of 
Angola, but has been acclimatized in Brazil and other tropical 
countries. Other gigantic species 6 or 7 ft. hi^h form the ncld- 



crops on the banks of the Amazon. Of species belonging to allied 
genera, Penniselum typhoideum, bairee, sometimes also called 
Egyptian millet or pearl millet, is largely cultivated in tropical 
^a. Nubia and Egypt. Species of Paspalum, Eieusine and 
"■" * ulti^ * '" - . •• 



Milium, are also cultivated as millets. For Indian millet, see 

DURRA. 

MILUOAN, WILUAM (1821-1892), Scottish theologian, 
was born on the 15th of March 1821, the eldest son of the Rev. 
George Milligan and his wife Janet Fraser. He was educated 
at the High School, Edinburgh, and, from the age of fourteen, 
at the university of St Andrews, where he graduated in 1839. 
In 1843 at the disruption he took the side of those who remained 
in the Establishment, and in 1844 became minister of Cameron 
in Fifeshire. In 1845, his health having given way, he went 
to Germany, and studied at the university of Halle. After 
his return to Scotland and his resumption of his clerical duties 
he began to write articles on Biblical and critical subjects for 
various reviews. This led to his appointment in i860 to the 
professorship of Biblical criticism in the university of Aberdeen. 
In 1870 he was appointed one of the committee for the revision 
of the translation of the New Testament. His fervent piety, and 
his wide interest in educational and social questions, extended 
his influence far beyond the circle of theologians. His contribu> 
lions to periodical literature for many years were numerous 
and valuable; but his reputation chiefly rests on his works on 
the Resurrection (1890) and Ascension of our Lord (1892), his 
Baird lectures (1886) on the Revelation of St John, and his 
Discussions (1893) on that book. All these volumes are dis- 
tinguished by great learning and acuteness, as well as by breadth 
and originality of view. He died on the nth of December 
1892. 

MILLINER, originally a dealer in goods from the city of 
Milan in Italy, whence the name. Such goods were chiefly 
steel work, including cutlery, needles, also arms and armour 
and textile fabrics, ribbons, gloves and " Milan bonnets." 
The " milliners " of London, though never formed into a Livery 
Company seem to have been associated with the " Cappers and 
Hurers," which later were amalgamated with the *' Haber- 
dashers " (q.v.). Minsheu's derivation of the word from mille, 
thousand (" as having a thousand small wares to sell "), though 
a typical instance of guessing etymologies, shows the miscella- 
neous character of their trade in the i6th and 17th centuries. 
The modem use of the word is confined chiefly to one who makes 
and sells bonnets and hats for women ; but articles of " millinery " 
include ribbons, laces, &c., usually retailed by haberdashers. 

MILLIPEDE, the popular name of the best known members 
of a group of the Arthropoda, scicntiflcally known as Diplopoda, 
and formcriy united with the Chilopoda (see Centipede), the 
Pauropoda and the Symphyla as an order of the class Myriapoda. 
This classification, however, has of late years been abandoned 
on account of the recognition of closer affinity between the 
Chilopoda (centipedes) and the Hexapoda (insects) than between 
the Chilopoda and Diplopoda. By modem writers the above- 
mentioned groups of " tracheate " Arthropoda are either 
regarded as independent classes of this phylum Arthropoda, 
or associated in two superclasses, the Opisthogonea or Opistho- 
goneata for the Chilopoda and Hexapoda; and the Prosogonea 
or Prosogoncata for the Diplopoda, Pauropoda and Symphyla. 
The structural character upon which these superclasses are 
based is the position of the generative apertures which open 
anteriorly in the Prosogonea and posteriorly in the Opisthogonea. 
•^- ^»uropoda and Symphyla are not, strictly spcak- 
-"—nn of prosogODcate arthropods 




After FMock ia lUx Wcbo^ ZmI. ^gdmim. 

&c.iv..n.xxL.fica.t«M. 
Fig. I. — SpiroOreptus wiUaius, aa 
Oriental species of the Spin»tiep- 
toidea, lateral view, showii^ the 
repugnatorial pon» on the sides of the 
segmehts. 

e, head with eyes and antennae, 
'f *. tergal plate of first a 
tiJg» tergal plate of last 

segment. 
ajt, sternal plate of ditta 
a.v, anal vafve. 



OLASt OIPLOrODA. 

5/nic/iir«.— The anterior extremity is provided with a distinct 
hftad which by its general form ana the nature of its appeodages 
ti M sharpiv marked off from the body as is the case in the Hexa- 
poda. It always bears at least three pairs of appendages, the eyes 
whfn present and. in the Oniscomorpha a peculiar aense ocgan. 
The inrcrior edge of the 
hsAd plate overhangs the 
mouth and is termed the 
Idbrum. The exoskeleton 
of A typical somite consists 
o( the following elements: 
a dorsal plate, a ventral 
plate, and a pleural plate on 
each side. To the external 
margin of the ventral plate 
or sternum is articulated a 
pair of legs and between the 
leg and the pleural plate is 
situated the spiracle of the 
tracheal system. But the 
segmentation of the Diplo- 
poda presents two mariced 
peculbrities. The first is 
the fact that, with the ex- 
ception of a few of the 
anterior leg-bearing seg- 
ments and perhaps one or 
two of those at the posterior 
end of the body, a single 
dorsal i^te or tergum with 
its pleural i^tes overlies 
two sternal plates, two 
pairs of legs and two pairs 
of spiracles. Hence the 
segments appear to be 
double and to be furnished 
with twice ns rnj.ny h^ as 
is normal in iht Antiropod^ 
— a peculiarity which h^a 
suggested the term " Dip- 
lopod " or " double-foot eil/' 
for this ei'QUp, h ia 
generally bcHiin'^J (hat e^cti tergal plate results from the coalescence 
of the terga of ivto origiiulT^ distinct adjoining segments; but the 
same effect would be produced by the enUrgement of one of a pair 
of terga and the complete t^xralation of the other. It is in favour 
of the latter ^ k-w that therr i^ onlv a single pair, and not two pairs* 
of stink-gbniis on each so-rdlea double tergal plate. Unfortun- 
ately the i'>-4<^rv r^r t-ht. 4^JH-vr;|opment of the segments does mt 
clear up the difficulty since the terga of the double segments are 
single from the first, and no evidence either of fusion or excalatioo 
is supplied. The second of the two peculiarities above-memioiKd 
is the great development of the tergal sderite as compared with 
the sternal. Only very rarely (i.e. in Ptatydesmus) is there a broad 
sternal area. In the majority of cases the lateral ec^es of the terfum 
are bent downwards and inwards towards the mid ventral bne; 
the sternum at the same time is so much reduced that the basal 
segmenu of the legs of opposite sides are almowt in contact. The 



pm, 



After Silvtstri, Ann. Utu. Ctmtva, (j), ivi, fign. 17. 19, >$> 

Fig. 2.— The Gnathochilarium or jaws of second pair of varioua 

Chilongatha. 

A, of Spirostreptus. B. of Julus. C. of Clowuris, 

c, cardo. nt, mentum. 

si, stifx^s. Pm, promentum. 

Ig, linguae. a, nypostoma. 

pleural pbte on each side usually disappears either bv suppressioo 
or by (fusion with the tergum. The sterna with their attached 
legs often remain free. But quite commonly the coalesc e ncc of 
the skeletal elements is carried to such an extreme that each seg- 
ment is a solid ring with two pairs of movable appendages. The 
last segment is differently constructed from the others. It b 
always limbless, and usually consists of a complete tergal ring, a 
single sternal plate, and a pair of movable anal valves which are 
normally closed, but are capable of being opened for the passage 
of faeces. These anal valves are possibly the homologuet of the 
|AuT^ «:u\.e« o^ ^ uormal segment. The appendages are cKxIified 




MILLIPEDE 



469 



u a »itglc pa.lt at nnt^nnnfii tvtt cr thnt pAin of ja vii nr^d a viriabTe 
number oi walkme'l^^. oi which one pr morv paLri may hw Cruns- 
[ovmed into gcmopofls. The antennoie Arc chort anii vrry tinibT 
[Q the lega. Thty ^m prporai ia rio#ition, niK] u^uaII^ consist of 
icvcfi ■Hm^ntiv ine wvtf^ni.h or distal Bc^^mcnt being EmatL m a 
njle* md rumr*hHl wiih a wniiti ofgati whtch is probably olfactary 
or tJCiUe in function. The mandiLlci or l^iwr, at the Bn( p^tr arc 
til* mc«t unterior of the po^coral appendage^. They arv lar(ft, 
powCuU and u^uailiv CQOMat of three or two uemi^Dtip & Iwsal or 




Frc. 3,— Inner vkw of ventmT area of a tinfiW K?pnent of /frJu^ 
moch tnlargKl to ^ow the »tructurv and arranEE^cnent of the 
tradH^ or^^uu- The two pjin ol tracheae are seen in situ, the 
p9Et«rkor [Bir overkppbg ih* anterior. 

■k Poucrkw margin of the body- J^ Fine tracheae ^vctiofl fmm it, 
rjn^ (teq^um). mj^ E^pinktory mu«ck attaclicd 

r, Antenor border. to CncHcaL tac* 

It; TabuUr chamber of lT3.dicae» m^ VetitraJ body cautcJe. 

t^r40t which ta flomctim« ab<«ntt a tecond or ttip«» and a ditrd 
or maU^ the Latter l^ing «uppli«ji whh a strong tooih and pectinate 
lajnelke. In all Diplopod^, uiih the ej^trption of the P^^lapho- 
«Tutlu« thcte are only two pairs of jiw&t those of tbe xcood pair 
[ormLiig a Large platf, the snaihochildrium, v^hich acts as a Lover 
lip. It consiiti of sevieril iii»unct wileriti'S, two external on each 
«de. the proximal! known »a the cartjo^ itie di«tal as the ELlpei, the 
latter bein^ tipped with one or 1*0 lobe* (mabe) and far ccceedinj; 
the cardo tn eize. Between the external plate* there ii a median 
pmximaJ pbte (mentUEo) gerierQliy of laTte fi^e and often itaelf 
vubdivkko, and a ^ir of dutal piiics {linguae). Ek^hind the baic 
ol the foathochiUrium there i% a. single large transverse pbte, the 
TiypoitDflHp la the Ptelapho^fiatha, ib(^ jaws reprefcntiTig the 
fnatfadchOaniim are difTecvntly conitnicted and an additionafialr, 
the maJcilltfLae, has been recently delected between the gnathocbi^ 
lariitm and the nundlblet. Behind the givathochilaritim, ^hich 
[roni inabryological data appears to rc^^iilt from the m^dlficatiofi 
of a inil;^ fair of awendagc^, a k?les« e^n^ite ha» been detected 
in tome cmbrycs, fWiUly the plate Ttfcmed to above a» tbe 
hvpoattsmM. h Its stental clement, 

'TV heirt \a & mcdbn doral vessel composed of a «erie4 of 
f ham ben each givinir &ff a pair of arterki! arid fiimbhed with a 
pair ol orifice* or wtk- According to Newport * the anterioi 
chantber bnnz in the ^^rond •Cfment is pmlongtff tn(o an aortic 
trunk from vbieh ari«e thftie pairt of bterat artene^i dipping down 
Dfi eaich «ide of tli« aUnientary canat and anitmg bene;jth M in a 
consmcn ventral vf*«L Tbe heart i» enveloped in a delicate 
nertcartlial nutnibrace and h eup]?orted by b feral atary muscle^. 
TitK aliEneniary cafuil t* a simple lube extending usually straii^bt 
thrwieh the body fr&m mouth to anus. Only in the Diiiscomorpha 
is it inopcd, thu* nicest ing the Drigin of tnii short^bodied group 
di millipedes from longer, more vtTmifonn ancestors. A paif of 
KXalled salivary glandt ofcn^ ii^to the fore-gut near it» anterior 
citreiuity and ode or two pajtn of malpighian tubes tomEirunicate 
with tbe hind'gut at its junction wiLh the b?[>ad mesenteric portion 
of the canal. Respiration is elTectcd by means ol tracbcal tubes 
vbicb communicate with the exterior by means of gpiractes situated 
jtist above the Ikih^ of the w^lbin^ limbs. Each spiracle kad» 
into a loregcr or a shorter pouch whence the tr^heae, wh»cb are of 
two kindfi arisen In the majarity of the orders the tracheae are 
tufted, that ii to say^ they lorm t^vo bundles of short §implc tubules 
Hiringin^ from ihe innermost curntr* of *?ach pouch. In tbe 
Cfcificotnorpha, howtver, each poui;.h giv« rii*e to a number of Inng 
tube* which ettend thtough the body and pomcwhiii resenibk 
thote of the Chilopod.! except that ihcy neither branch nur are 
exlemive. A» in the ChElopoda and Hcnapwia the irjicheae are 
ftnnrgthened and kept pxpanderj by a «lehder spiral ft lament. 

Tbe vcntml ntnrc cord consign of two stmnd* » cEqatly apnroKL- 
mated a^ to be prac totally fuHTd, wiLh a smaEl cangliDnic rnlarge- 
mfiii for dch piir of legs^ Hence in the double wgments theft 
aze tvo mtda. gaunglLa^ wboot iQ adctiuizj tQ the c^sif^l act\-c giv^ oil 



on each tide a hagt branchtfw nerve to other organs in the segment. 
In the Optsthospermophora {Julus, Spirostreptus) and the Unisco- 
morpha (Ghmeru, Spkaerotherium) the ganglia are spaced at equal 
distances on the cord, but in the Merochaeta {PMydesmus) tney 
are grouped in pairs to correspond to the spacing of the legs. The 
apodous penultimate and anal segments arc innervated from the 
test ganglion of the cord, as are also the gonopods of the males of 




w^A 



After G C. Boone. /. Uim. 5be. six., PL 99. tiM. 
Fig. 4. — Diagram of the nervous and circulatory system of 5^Aa#> 
rotherium obtusum, a South African species of Oniscomorpna. 



Head. 
oc. Eye-cluster. 
antt Antenna. 

md, Basal segment of mandible. 
/£* and te", Part of the tcrga of 

the second and thirteenth 

segments. 
cb, - * ■ 



gP and g/", Second and twen^- 
sccond ganglia of chain, the 
posterior ner^x of each gan- 
glion, Ig.n, supplies the leg, 
the anterior, tr.n, the tra- 
cheal sac and other oigans. 

n.gon, Nenrc to gonopods. 



CereT>ral ganglia supplying tr. Tracheal tubes with spiral 

the eyes and antennae. filament. 

oes. Oesophagus, cut through. Ir.j, Tracheal sac. 
sb.gl, Subocsophagcal or first 

ganglion of ventral chain. 

the Oniflcomorpha. The first (subocsophagcal) ganglion of the cord 
supplies the mandibles and gnathochilarium and is connected by 
the oesophageal commissures with the bilobed cerebral nerve 
whence arises the nerves for the eyes, when present, and the 
antennae. 

Eyes arc sometimes absent, as in all the genera of Merochaeta 
and in many genera of other groups, as in Siphonophora, one of the 
Colobognatha, and several of the Juloidea {Typhloblaniulus). In 
other cases they are represented by one or two ocelli on each side 
(Stemmiuloidea) ; or by a vertical scries of ocelli as in the Clomeroidea 
and Polyzonium amongst the Colobognatha. But in the majority 
of the orders they are represented by triangular or subsphcrical 
aggregations of ocelli recalling in a ccrtr.in degree thosftCkl \S\^Vk*\NK>- 
biomorpha amongst the ChWovoAai. '^\v5t>j ^xt ivcw^^ \tv %\XNiKX»xfe 
and consist cxlcrxvaWv ol & tu\.\c\xW torcv«\ ^y=^^^^?=*^ J^xv J^SL 
and internaWy ol a te\\uv3\at \a^« c\ tt\ax^e^ «^\^«tm>fc «2^.^^ 



470 



MILLIPEDE 



internal or pronmal ends of which are continuous with the fibres 
of the optic nerve. The ovary is unpaired and extends almost 
the entire length of the body beneath the alimentary canal. 
The oviducts are sometimes separate tubes {LysiopeUduuO, some- 
times confluent and divided just before tcrnunatrng in the two 
orifices behind the base of the legs of the second pair \Jtdus). The 
testes and seminal ducu occupy the same position and extent as 
the ovary and oviducts. The ducts are sometimes coiled, some- 
times divided, sometimes united. The two testes are sometimes 
united by transverse branches across the middle line, and are some- 
times branched posteriorly They bear short caecal diverticula in 
which the semen is developed. There are no accessory glands 
associated with the generative organs; but in some forms, e.g. 
PUyxenus, there is a pair of rcceptacula seminis extending back- 
wards alongside the ovary and opening into the oviduct. 





After Pboock. /. Uim. Soe, sd^ PI- *S. 
Fig. 5.— <jonopods of Trigoniulus andersoni, one of the Opistho- 
spermophora (Spiroboloidea). 

A, Anterior view, and B, lateral views of the apparatus, ani, 
anterior, and post, posterior portions of the coleopod ensheathing 
the phallopod. of which the proximal portion, pk, is shown. 

C, Phallopod removed from the coleopod. 

The secondary sexual characters of the males are of great 
taxonomic importance. The seminal ducts, like the oviducts, 
open behind the legs of the second pair. Associated with them in 
tne Limacomorpha (Ctomeridesmus), there is a pair of very long 
retractile penes. In the Sptrostreptoidea and Juloidea the penes 
are much shorter and have coalesced. Sometimes they are un- 
developed (Spiroboloidea). In other cases, the Merochaeta, 
Onisoomorpha, &c., the ducts traverse the coxae of the legs of the 
second pair. But in all these groups, with the exception of the 
Oniscomorpha, semen is transfened from the genital orifices, with 
or without the aid of the penes, either into the first or second pairs 
of appendages of the seventh segment which are modified in various 
ways, and are termed phallopods. When the posterior legs are so 
modified the anterior are as a rule even more profoundly altered 
to form a protective sheath, or coleopod, for the phaliopoa ; and as 
a further precaution the entire apparatus is usually withdrawn 
within the seventh segment. In the Oniscomorpha the semen is 
transferred into a pair of receptacles developed upon the coxae of 
the legs of the last pair, which are chelate. The male appendages 
that are modified in the above described ways are comprehensively 
spoken of as gonopods. Other secondary sexual characters, like 
tne stridulating organs of the males of some Oniscomorpha, the 
suctorial pads on the legs of Spirostreptoidea, the development of 
angular processes upon the mandible or first tergal plate, or of fine 
n&n in the gnathochilarium — all of which are concerned in 
enabling the male to maintain a secure hold upon the female — ^are 
of great taxonomic use in distinguishing the senera and species. 

The most imporunt glands in the Diplopoda are the repugnatorial 
or stink-glands, which, except in the Oniscomorpha. Limacomorpha 
uid Ascospermophora, open by pores upon the sides of more or 
fewer of the segments. They secrete a flukl with an unpleasant 
odour, breaking up in one case into cyanide of potassium, and are 
practically the only means of protection, apart from the hard 
exoskeleton, which Diplopods possess. In some millipedes silk 
glands also exist and open upon papillae upon the postenor border 
of the last tergal plate. They are found in the Ascospermophora, 
^mmiulotdea and Proterospermophora, and are used for spin- 
ning nests for the eggs and protective cases for the young during 
esniviatton. . ^. . . 

Oassi/uatioH.— The existing members of the class Diplopoda 
may be classified as follows:— 

Subclass I. PSELAPHOC.NATHA. 

Order: PeniciUata {Pdyxenus). 
u 2. Chilocnatha. 

Order : Oniscomorpha (Clomeris, Zepkronia), 
„ Limacomorpha (GlomeruUsmus). 
„ Colobognatka {Pdytonium, Si^honopkora). 
,. Ascospermophora (Chordeuma). 
,. ProUrospermophora (Lysiopetalum). 
„ Merochaeta (Polydesmus) 
„ Opisthospermophora. 
Suborder: Stemmiuloidea (Stemmiulus). 
f, Spiroboloidea (Spirobolus). 

«'»«'rnstreptoide« (Spirostreptus).. 
• ^^masoma). 



Sobdaas Psblaphocnatba. 



Di|>lopods with the soft integument strengthened by wcaMy 
chitinized sderitei and furnished above and on the head with trans- 
verse rows of short, stout, somewhat squamiform bristles: laterally, 
on each side of the principal segments, with a thick tuft of long 
t>ristle8 and with a large, silky, white tuft projecting backwards 
from the posterior extremity. Mandibles one-jointed. Behind 
them a pair of small, one-jointed maxillulae, attached to a median 
membranous " lingua." Behind the " lingua " and maxillulae. a 
Large, double, transverse plate with a long, external aclerite bearing 
tiistally in Poiyxenus an inner short -lo&te process and an outer 
Long s|»ny palpiform branch. The latter, however, is absent in 
Lophoproctus. These sclerites probably represent the gnatho- 
crhflanum of the Chilocnatha, but the homology between the 
skeletal elements of the laws in question is .lot deariy understood. 
It has been suggested that they represent two pairs of jaws, but 
embryological proof of this does not exist. 




A. after CMpoit«T,0-^.M 5. 49, P« •«. H .« ^. „ ^ 
% alter Laud. DU Myt. OtL U»t. JTm/ll.. PL 6.. 18S4. 

Fig. 6. — Jaws of Polyxenus lagmrus. 

A, Jaws of second and third pairs, mxt, maxillula; mx,p, palpi- 
form branch of maxilla; mxJb, lobate process of maxilla; rnxjOL 
external plate of maxilla perhaps corresponding to the stipes of 
the gnathochilarium of the Chilognatha; mx.tnt, internal plate of 
maxHla, perhapM corresponding to the mentum and p rom e n tum 
of the gnathochilarium (by Carpenter ffix.tfci b regarded aa aa 
appendage posterior to the maxilla) ; mb, membrane. 

B, Mandibles of Polyxenus lagurus. 

Order PeniciUata ( ■■ Ancyrotricka). 

Head large, usually with lateral eyes. Antennae eight-jointed, 
attached near the middle of the front of the head. On the donal 
tide of the body there are eleven segments, 
«imple and compound. The first Tour of 
these bear one pair of less each, the sue- 
CMding four two pairs of legs, the ninth 
segment one pair, making a total of thirteen 
pairs of legs. The tenth and eleventh or 
snal segment are legless. There is a 
narrow sternal area scparatingthe bases of 
the legs of the two sides. There are no 
repugnatorial glands. In the male none of 
the legs are modified as gonopods, but the 
coxa <M each of the legs of the second pair is 
furnished with a conical penis, which during 
copulation, it may be supposed, is inserted 
into the genital orifice of the female, which 
occupies a corresponding position in that 
sex. The young when first hatched has 
only three pairs of legs and five segments. 
The millipedes of this order are all of small 
size, measuring at most only a few millimetres 
in length. The best-known genera are 
Polyxenus and Lophoproctus, both of which 
occur in Europe. Other forms have been 
discovered in the West Indies. North and 
South America, and Ceylon; and it is 
probable that the group has an almost cos- 
mopolitan range. They live under stones 
or the loosened bark of trees. The carbon- 
iferous fossil, Pataeocampa, is usually re- 
ferred to this subclass. 

Subclass Chilocnatha. 
Diplopods with firmly chitinired exo- 
skeleton. sometimes thickly, sometimes 
sparsely covered with short, simple hairs, ^ 

\ but tvev^t <\»cocaied with tufts or rows of pecuharly m odi fi e d briitte 




After Tt>k. 

Fig. 7. — Ventral 
view of Petyxemus 
lagurus much en- 
lamd. actual length 
a httle over i\th of 
an inch. 

a. Position of i 
ative openinp. 



MILLIPEDE 



47' 



MaEicfrblci, t*o- or ttvr«-io*nted ; nu'iilliilAje Rbsntt. the j^wi Ejf ihe 
■KTond pair bpcins; ivpcT«ent«d by ifie gnaihochilariiini detcnbcd 

Order Ottiiotmofph^. 

Body tdiort and bfObtt^ h^miipticrical rn tnntvefs lectlon; 
ro«vtx ftboi^'e, flat bebw, and rupAble oC bting iphcrkmlt/ caikd. 
TIk eii>Uctt£tDii of A typical compr>und BCg^tt^frit coHiuts of a 
vaiiftcd i*rcum, a jair of (it* plcur;il ackril»t t*o paire oi snull 
Iracbral' sdtrttn ■nd two pairs of legs, tltc litter Atuchcd to ihc 
imiTjl R»fiibta.ne4 which Hps no itrrnal pldtn. The tergal phiri 
VT twrlw* Of tha-iWT! in. numbt^, whereof ihe fim is very «malL 
the Hconid efiof-moiiiily (kpandcHi UtenLlly, And the Uftp Also eit+ 
fewd md probdblj^ rtpfewntin^ a,r lean three legtiients* er«tend« 
luinUjr WH poKerwfly Like a hood over the pooterior tod <d tbe 




/>i^ 



Mir Poocfc. ^ Ifu IVttav^i Zvf. irtdttt***. Ac * tV^ ?1. m 

FiC- 8,^5^Aam}piw; Jrmn/ff^ a. Stimatran fpeclln of the 
OniKomorpha. 

A« Lxief^l vkw of the ontire artlrnftl. €. head; unf, oRtennt; 
ff'i 'f* "<d Xi^*^, ter^^il pbtcA of firsts lecond and thirtbtoth 
H>rtnentb; /{« eitremitiei of to'cne ijf the anterior ieg». 

&« Gonopods of the male, gp' and tp^, antenor and pOt^eHor 

Kift of gotit>pDdi> both being dwiate cli^jen: p^it proce»» arliJiif 
im the b^^Al Kgfxtenti of the ^onopodtk of the Kcond pair» vfaich 
met Ji peno. 

C, Vulvae Of fenitat platet attached tot the batal iFginenti of 
ebe lega dI the secoiKl pair in the (etirule. |-tf, graital dti&ce^ 

body wtthotit forcniiJE a ehitinou* ring round iht anal vsIvti and 
ifemumi- In iHe m^re the legi tai the penuktimate pair art wmt' 
iJmeir modiftai 3s claiiperi; thc*e of the last pair are always enlarged 
and prehen*Lle, and brar on their eu«lefl<:cd basal icgmentB a pak 
of vpefm-carryiiig pfoecise* jnaloftfma to the phalbpodt of other 
CTDUpi. Apart from these orfant the male ha.* no jLieniH, the aeminal 
^ucti perforating the foxae of T.hc Icj* of ih*' lecond pnir- Thii 
order con taint two well- marked 5ijt.iordcfa» the G^omemidea and 
ihe ZepbiTonioideax The Clomeroicica, CompTifiing the families 
Clomtridsti Cervaisiidac, OnuntttidiiF, have the aniennae approxi- 
niaied on ihe head, the e^-^eB uniserial and ttt-elve (rarefy eleven) 
lerfa] platei^ To thia cmiip bc]ori!|[ the common piU-millipedet of 
Europe and North Africa. In North Amerka the Os^mf ridse 
alone are found- The Zephfool<}idea. with the iirxele family Zeftk- 
Tirttuda*, have the antennae at the aide* of the head, the r>e4 com- 
poaed of a sphencal cSu^cj" of fHfBi, and always thirteen Uiti\ 
plate*. Thii ^roup i* torn moo in the tTopical and «outhern con* 
linen ta of the Old VVorM, hciving repnesentaiive genera in South 
Africa, Madagascar, ln«^ia« Mabyf.[a, Australia and New Zealand, 
They snr myeh larRer form* than the ClooiemiJeas Larec spec! mem 
reaching two or three inches in. k-nsth. Ln addition to the cnaracteri 
inen<tkir>ed above the Dniicomorpha dllTer from all other Diplopods 
tn having long tubular tracheae and the alimentary cam I bent upon 
kaelf 

Rr«rinb]tng the OnSscdmorpha In th« thapr and ftructurt of a 
typieai aegmentp except that the tracheal p^ate* are unn^prew^ntedt 
in the facts that the last tergal plate does not form a rompkte ring 
rwnd the anal area, and that the last pair of kgi in the male arc 
niodi£«^; but differing from them in that the body coniisti of 
niiKietfi of twenty trgment»,^ i* elongate^ and tapers anteriorly and 
posteriorly* the *rcond and tasii tergal plate* being sin.ill. in the 
presence in the male of a pair rj long hairj' prQtru«ible penet between 
the leRn of the second and third pair^, and in the it met u re of the 
pmopods. which, instead of Iw^ing chelate, terminate tn a ilendtr. 
ta[iFrinf tarsal sfiEmeni. Thl$ order conlaini two famtiie^ : Zffih- 
rvaWf-imfdbe iZeffkntniodnmuf) and Chmeriil4imt4oe iCUuntrUdtf- 
mui), [he lorTner from tropical AsIik the latLer Irom tropkal America. 
The largest of the*e millipedes reach a length fll od/ abotiC J mm. 
Nolbiiig ipeciaJ b koywn of (ht'iJ'Aj^'V* 



Order Calabatnalka. 
Body elongate, capable of being spirally coiled, conniting of a 
Sarp and indefinite number of wg meats, each being furnished with 
a diitinct often large sternal area, and with the pleural icleriie or 
membrane distinct irom the tergum* The last tefgal plate forma 
a eomptete ring round the anal vaJvc*, Legs wtih coxal pouches; 
tho»e of the seventh segment transformed into gonopods of a very 
simple type in the rnale, which 19 also fumiihed with a double penM 
completely or partially c^nHucnt with the ct^tiiae of the legs ol the 
second pair. Head always tmall, frequently triangular or piriform, 
in the latter case the gnathites reduced tn tt^e and complexity. 
Repugnatorial porei present and latent]. The genvTa of xhu order 
A 





D/P^ 





Mm hxvdk.. J, Ubl St. uiv.. ti u. 

TtO, 9. — GomfridesMus marmonus, one of the Limacomorpha. 

A, Lateral view. r. head with antennae; Jje'h ter^^al plate of fint 
•egment; an. tt^ tergal plate of last or anal segment, 

Dt Lower view of one of tfie Kgments. ff» inferior edge of the 
tergal plate : j^^ pleural scleriie; it*, basal segmciit ol leg. 

C, Poatcrior extremity of body, an.li^ tergal plate of anal teg- 
rnent ; CffpJg. gonopod or copotatoty leg, 

D, Lcfi of the third pair with extruded penea, pen, in front of 
them, 

arv divinbk into three families: the PJatydesmtdai (Platydfsmia, 
PteUtipdismHj). Pdynffmuke {PolyEonium, Siphmotus), Siphano- 
piutfidat {Sipkemopiurra}. Of these the PtasjuUtmidae have de- 

eirted teaft and the Sipkonopkoridia moM fpbm the topical 
iplopod in the structure of the ntouth pans. The group is for 
the mtnt part tropical, one geniii only* Fdytanium, extending aa 
far north as Ceatril Europe. 

Order Ajc^sperm^pkora. 
Body elongate* consisting of from twenty-siit to thirtv-two 
segments, ^but not varying within specific limita; the pleurae 
cnaletfced with the ter^ra. the sterna free. More or fewer of the 
anterior ten pairs of leg« may be modlbed in the males, but no true 
phallopods are diferenriatea, the fumrtion of seminal receptacles 
being performed (ace ordine to C Verhoeff) by the exsertile coxal 
pouchy oi the two paiir* ofllcE* of the eighth Bti^mtnt. The seminal 
ducts in the male perforate the cojuie ol the legs of the second pair. 
Tfiere ar^ no repugnaiorial pores, and the tcrga are furnished with 
three paira of symmetrically pbced hairs or bristles. On the 
poiteriur border of the last tergal pbie there is a pair of spinnir^ 
papillae. The millipedes of this order al«o cnLled Coelochoeta. 
are referable to several families: dufrdemtitdar (Chordeuma), 
CtUfpfdanrmidiif {CraipfdifiifMa)^ Ji^letxkofdtiijnidae (Heterochor- 
dtMrna). hi- The lUitTOLkar^umiditf liiclnng to the Oriental region, 
extending from India to New Zealand. The other* are particularly 
abundant in genera and speciev in Nonh and Centrnl America and 
Europe; but are unknown in Africa , south of the Sahara. 

Order Pro^TOipetmoph^a. 

Differing fnnO tbe AscoapernuiplKira tn that the number of aeg- 
ments is large and variabk; they are fumiihed with repugnatorial 
pom, and not with the three pairs of setae. In the males the 
anterior appendages of the Kvenih Kjment are modified as phallo- 
pocl$, and the seminal ducts perforate the coxae of the legs of the 
setond pair. 

This order, containing the family LyfwpilsJidiu [Lysiopetaltm), 
is widely distributed in Europe and North America. Large ex- 
amples of tome of the species, t^. L, x^nikinuin, reach a length of 
4 or 5 ins. 

Order M^rochula. 

Re«cmblinf the Protero^permophora in havtw.^ «rfN ^Scit %xew:r>««. 
a ppendage* o( the wvtM\v w^tiwjRi tcmv«\c*^ VtAa vM^^^Y^^^J^^ 
the setttmal duct* wT\<iTivwft \W «iv*i: ^A. ^^a T****r_jS^ S. 
the maiw; bul diflmTift cw*wL\a\\-y '^ik ^^^ax V5ofc *»««». *» 



472 



MILLIPEDE 




•olidly welded to the rest of the frxoskeleton of the Mginents, which 
are either nineteen or twenty in number, in the abience of eyts 
and of spinningpapiUae. and in having six- 
Jointed legs. This order is cosm(^)ditan 
in distribution and consists of a very large 
number of genera which by some authors 
are referred to the single family Ptdy- 
desmidae; by others to numerous families. 
Many species are brightly coloured, and 
some iiuiividuab of the Orienul genus 

After Pocock. ia Max Webcr't 2wf. &rtft«<iM.&c. 

Fig. 10. 

Plalyrkachus mirandus, a Sumatran 
species of Polydesmidae, to show the form 
cnaracteristic of the order Merochaeta. 

c, Head. 

ant. Antenna. 

If>. Tergal plate of first body segment. 

/f\ Ditto oi seventh. 

a.lg. Tergal plate of anal segment. 

The figure also shows the repugnatorial 
pores which are present upon the majority 
of the segments, the laterally expanded 
tergal plates, and the presence of two pairs 
of legs for each of the segments except the 
two ULSt. the four first and the seventh ; the 
latter, since the figured specimen was a 
male, has the anterior leg converted into 
a phallopod which is concealed beneath 
ft. iff the body. 

Platyrhukus may reach a length of 5 ins. The segments are usually 
provided with lateral bminate or tubercular expansions bearing 
the repugnatorial pores, which are only very rarely absent. 
Order Opisikospermopkora. 

Resembling the Proterospcrmophora in possessing a large and 
variable numoer of segments, each of which, with the exception of 
the last and the anterior four or five, is furnished with a pair of 
lepugnatorial pores, but differing essentially from them in that the 
posterior pair of appendages of the seventh segment are converted 
Into phallopods, and the anterior into protective coleopods in the 
male, and that the seminal ducts in this sex do not perforate the 
coxae of the legs of the second pair but are usually associated with 
a distinct penis situated immediately behind them. The genera 
of this order present greater diversity of structure than is found in 
the other orders and are referred to lour suborders, which by some 
soologists are erected to ordinal rank, namely, the Stemmiuloidea 
(Monochaeu); the Spiroboloidea (Anochaeu) ; the Spirostreptoidea 
(Diplochaeu); and the Juloidea (ZygochaeU). 

In the Stemmiuloidea the sterna are free and the pleurae partially 
•o: the terminal segment of the legs is bisegmented; there are two 

Eiirs of spinning papillae on the last tergite; the penis is a single 
ng tube, and the eyes are represented by one or two large lenses 
on each side of the head. The genus Stemmiulus, constituting the 
Stemmtultdat, is represented by a few species recorded from the 
Oriental, Ethiopian and Neotropical regions. In the possession of 
silk-glands this suborder resembles the Ascospermophora and 
Proterospermophora, and should perhaps rank as an order apart 
from the Opisthospermophora. 

The Spiroboloidea, containing one family, the Spirohclidae 
{Spirohofus, Rhtnocricus, &c.). have the sterna and pleurae coalesced, 
the tarsi undivided; no spinning papillae, no penis, the eyes repre- 
sented by an aggregation of ocelli; and the first five segments each 
with a single pair of legs, the sixth carrying two pairs. This group 
attains its maximum of development in the tropics, where species 
and genera are numerous and specimens of large size, xjC. 6 ins. or 
over, are met with. ^ 

The Spirostreptoidea resemble the Spiroboloidea in many par- 
ticulars, but the fourth segment is footless, and the fifth has two 
pairs of limbs; the male has a distinct and double penis, and in both 
sexes the stipites of the gnathochilarium extend to the proximal 
end of the mcntum. which b relatively small. The distribution of 
this order, which contains several families: Sfnrostreptidat (Spiro- 
streptus, Rhynchoproctus), Cambaiidae {Cambala, Julomorpha), &c., 
b practically the same as that of the Spiroboloidea. Specimens 
over 6 ins. in length are met with in the tropics of Africa and Asia. 

The Juloidea differ from the Spirostreotoidea in having the third 
segment limbless, the first, second and fx>urth with a single pair of 
appendages, and the stipites of the gnathochilarium much expanded 
and meeting for a considerable distance in the middle line behind 
the very small promentum. 

The best marked family of this group is the Julidae, which is 
widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. Its species and 

fenera {Julus, Pachyiidus) are abundant in Europe. Another 
European family, the Nemasomidae, is founded for the genus 
Nemasoma, which is remarkable for having the sterna free 
HabilSt (fc. — Millipedes are principally cryptosoic» living under 



stonM or lo(5» of wood la damp. Beetuifed localities. They feed 
almost wholly upon dt;!ca> ing vtuetablc matter, and drink a con- 
siderable quLintiLy of waUT. Some cJ the tropical species emerge 
in numbers fram thdr bktin^-^pUcea after heavy rains, and crawl 
aver the ground and bushes in search of moisture in broad day- 
hght. Thek method of pfvsretsion over level ground is quite 
prculiar. The body » held ta n straiglu line and b propelled by 
a $qc(i^e^ion of wave-lil:e moiJemcnti of ihe legs, whicn are moved 
ID gnjqpA, the ^ri>up» 00 the right and kft side exactly correspond- 
iag. Some forms, e.g. Sifmm*uiHit have been described as attempt- 
ing to evade capiur? by « hooping miion caused by vigorous 
jerking and wriijieaing of the body* Many of the species are very 
conspituau^ly coloured and the ai^HHiL^xion of brilliant colouring 
with ihe ejcistence ■:/{ the iiau^civug svcmion of the repugnatorisu 
glands luggesis that the ct>loraik>n ii Liposcmatic or of warning 
Significance^ 

Copulation between the sexes takes place before oviposit ion. 
tn the O^isihoftpermophora the males and females coil together 
with the ventral surfice of the Am an or ends of their bodies opposed, 
the male holding the female ^ecurvly by the head while the extended 
phdilopods carrying the «men are brought into contact with her 
genhDl orifice. In the Ft^ydeinnMr paif>ng is effected in the same 
way encept that the male and lemale inviead of interroiling remain 
ejcicnded, the niale cEaj^pinoj ihe fema^i^ with his legs. In the Onisco 
morpha the beice&also pairTront 10 frpnt, not head to head, however, 
but head to tatt. so ihai the gonoptd? in the anal segment of the 
male can lie appTScd to the tecond p^if of post oral appendages in 
the female. Sonr^e male^ ol this gr^^up. t.g. Spkaerotkerium, have 
a »tridMU(tng organ on their po4^uru:»r gonopods and stridulate 
when Ftndiri!} the (emalc^P 

The inethml yl Jiapofting of the youti^. which usually have only 
throe pain ^\ legsi ai hauhing, diffL-n io various groups. In Julus 
and Pi^yd^imui the female burrow^ below 
the «Lirfdice and mak'C^ a stjb&phL-ricai n^^t 
of imall blinks of earth which are 
moi^^T^ncd with the salivary secretion antl 
moulded to ihe propef ^hape between h«J 
jiiws and antenor legs. When the rf- 
tcptack it oe^rV finished she depotiiis 
her eggs in it, aiva, closing xbc apertMre» 
kaves the whole to it$ Tate. Oo ihe 
other hand* a female tpecirnen of ihe 
South A^ricAn species, Afckapir^ii/epittM 
rrytkr«tph^ui^ that lived 10 the London 
Zoologkal Gardens, buried bcndr. okilcd 
rtjUMTlhe eggn, and remained wiiti her 
younf for some lime after I hey were 
Ivaiched. Again, milllpedeSt like (he 
Stemmiuloidea and A&f04f*rmophQfa, 
which poshM^s* silk-gUndi^ spin sitken 
ca*Mi for the pfoiection of ibcir cfi^*. 
Immature specimens of these ^r^pufi* 
spin iimildf iilVen c*«* at the time >jf 

exuviation; and CAwrs fTw?mMinK the ^irontylesoma Ouertni 
nests, arc likewise made ffjf purtywes of ?"« ^' the /'oiydeimiAir, 
moulting by immature form* of *onvc J"*' hatched, 
ejurik bperies ol Pdyiami^ai^ €t ty the tropical African Oxydes- 
mi* J. Thtr* is good reason to ihinVc, however, that the animal 
makes u»e dt its own voided eiifrcmcnt in the formation <rf these 
TCcepiaclM. 

A conftideratftc number of Chilognaiha of doubtful systematic 
position have been recorded from bed* ol the carboniferous forma- 
tion. The best known are Aioatkftpejtt^ and £H/>Ju>^eria. Speci- 
mens nefcrfcd to cTtistlng geneTn hav¥ been discovered in amber 
beds ol Qli£tM;ene age. 

As in the Diptopoda there is a distinirt head bearing a pair of 
antennae and tth^o pain of jaws. Qn each side of the head there u 
an cye-Uke Sfflt which mky conceivably represent a degenerate e>*. 
althoQgh the extcfoal cuhcle shows no c:r>rneal thickening nor the 
epidermis nftinulaf spec ialiia lion* and opiic nerves are absent fruro 
the brain. The anitrtnac are siruciur.dl^ unique in the Arthropoda. 
There are four thi>n basal segrtm-nc^ (rjin the distal of which arise 
two one-joinicd branchei, an esTtrn,il thinner and an internal 
thicker* The external or pcHtaxial Lrar^i.h is tipped with a single 
lr>n|£ annulate flaecllifurm unsitle wiih a rounded apical knob; and 
the iniernal or preaKi.1l branch with two yimilar but shoner brisiWs 
and A globubr, usually pcdunctilated, ^cnse organ between them. 
The sundibla or jawi ^ ihe first ipiir are large and one-jcinied. 
Th«e of the second pair are veT> short, piriform, and attached to 
the vrnttal side of thr head by A king, rod-like sclerite. Between 
these two pairs of jaws there U a horny framework forming a kind 
of lower Up to th<r mouth. The ttim^pondence between these 
mouth parts and those of the Dip1npi:Ki.i is not understood. No 
doubt the mandible* ate homologous in iht two groups; but whether 
the jaws of the srtond pair in the Pauropoda correspond to the 
maxitlulAr o\ the Pwrlnphwnatha, or io pJrt of the gnathochilarium 
in the Chilognatha„ or whether the chiitnous framework akme or 
m coniuoctioii with the pair ei >aw> aiwwcrs to the gnathodularium 




From Bftirour. t/ttr Meuck- 
nikov. 
Fig. II.— Larva of 



MILLIPEDE 



473 



from the 
of twelve 
uhimate 



to which no answer can as yet be g^veo, Judginf 

ipoaed 



ani 



[.Jif^ 



l^^.^ 



_ . uauany stx in number, eidudinff that of the anal segment; each of 

segmenution and the appendages the body is composed the anterior five of these overlies two ILnb-bearing sor.iites, the 
, somites, including the last or anal, which, like the pen- first covering the somite of the rudimentary limbs and of the first 
somite, is limbless. Each somite in front of the penultimate pair of locomotor legs, the second those of the second and thiid 

pairs of locomotor Ices, and so on. This condition is an adumbna- 
tbn of the far completer fusion of somites seen in the Diplopoda. 
The sixth tergal plate belongs to the limbless penultimate somite. 
The duplex character of the brst five terga is suggested in Pauropus 
by the presence of two rows of sensory bristles; there being only 
one such row upon the sixth tetgum. In the aberrant genus BrtuJty' 
pauropus the evidence is practically completed by the correspon- 
dence in number between the terga and pairs of legs, there being a 
divisional line between the two rows of setae. On each side of the 
body there are five bng pubescent tactile setae situated on the 
second to the sixth terga in Pauropus, and on the pleurd area 
corresponding to these terga in Brackypauropus. 

The cerebral mass of the nervous system is large and when viewed 
from above is seen to consist of two lobes defined by a median groove. 
In the absence of eyes no optic nerves are given off. Beneath 
these are two antennal bbes whence arise, close together, the 
antennal nerves. Two short commissural cords connect the cerebral 
mass with the suboesophageal ganglion, a composite mass formed of 
the nervous centres which supply the two pairs of jaws and the 
rudimentary legs of the first puir. Behind this large ganglion the 
cord, which shows superficially no trace of its double origin, presents 
a ganglionic swelling for each pair of legs. No circulatory or 
respiratory organs have been detected. 

The alimentary canal consists of a short, narrow fore-gut, a large, 
straight mid-gut, and a moderately long hind-gut which b itself 
composed of two parts, an anterior narrow tube which opens into 




A lad B, after Xcaqnm, 



TVb CM. SmOa. W. 
lOoi.PL VL.fig. 3«; *" 

Fig. 



12.— Paueopus. 



A. Pauropus huxUyi (?). c, head; arU. antenna; t^ and /f*. first 
and fifth double tergal plates; lg\ first walking-leg ("and post- 
cej^iaUc appendage); /|f, ninth walking-1^; a.sg, anal segment; 
St. setae. 

B. Burypauropus spinosus. Lettering as in A. 

C Brackypauropus su^hus. Lettering as in A and B; ((c^)*> 
first and second terga; /f*,*^ ninth and tenth terga. 

D. Taws of Pauropus kuxieyi\ md, mandible; ffix, maxilla; lb, 
hbial framework. 

E. Antenna of Eurypauropus spinosus; fi, flagella; £/, sensory 
organ. 

bear* a single pair of tegs, nine pairs of which are fully developed 
ambulatory limbs, while those ot the first segment are reduced to 





After Lriibock. 
Fio. I^- — Enlarged view of Pauropus huxUyi, from ventral side, 
a pair of bud-like processes. The first and l^^t pairs of ambulatory 
lixntw consist of five segments; in the remaining pairs the terminal 
segment may be subdivided into two, so that there may be six 
s^:mentB in all. ^ The ambulatory limbs are usually terminated by 
three daws, a principal and two subsidiary, each claw beine accom- 
panied by a membranous pad. Between these limbs, which are 
relatively longer and stronger than in the Diplopoda and evenly 
spaced on each side of the body, extends a soft-skinned sternal 
area. The distensible pleural region of the body is also membra- 
aooa* bat the dorsal area is covered by chitinous plates or terga, 



P I9' 

Atba Kenyoo. fWb OB. SmiUt, !▼.. 189$. 

Fig. 14.-— Pauropoda. 

A. Alimentary canal of Pauropus; ft, fore-gut; sg, salivary gland; 
mg, mid-gut; kg, anterior portion of nind-gut; a, anus; m.pjL, mal- 
pighian tubule. 

B. Female genital organs of Eurypauropus; 00, ovary; ooii, 
oviduct; rs, receptaculum seminis; go, genital orifice. 

C. Male genital organs of Pauropus; (^ and P, anterior and pos- 
terior portions of testes; «f*, wf, vd*, vasa dcferentia; vsj, vesi- 
cula seminalis; cd, common duct; go, genital orifices. 

D. Lateral view of Pauropus; c, head; ant. antenna; tj^Jg*, 
first and fifth tergal plates; a.se, anal segment; st, lateral bristles; 
Ig.r, rudimentary leg; Ig^ and Ig,* first and ninth fully formed 
walking legs; p, penis. 

a dilated, piriform, posterior portion, narrowing gradually to 
terminate in the anus. Opening into the anterior extremity 01 the 
fore-gut there is a pair 01 *' salivary " glands. Malpighian tubes 
have been found in some forms, i.e. females of Eurypauropus 
spinosus; but not in any examples, male or female, of Pauropus 
huxUyi. Where present they open at the point of union of the mid- 



474 



MILLIPEDE 



«nd Kiad-Kuta. '^ The geotntiw ernoi id tbe rpmale are \-vry 
iimple, aoq; much Ulce those of the Diplopoda, In the male thry 
nre highly tompEeic, and uniilce tho«e of any known Arthropod in 
certain particulars. The wide, unpaired ovary extends nearly to 
the posterior end. of the body. Anteriorly it po&ses into an oviduct 
which U unpaired thrau^hout iLa leuffLti, The posterior portion di 
the duct it wide. The anterior, an aomptly narrowed tube, enrvH 
round the nerve-cord and opens by a single sub- median orihce in the 
third tegment' just within the orifice the re opens into the oviduct 
the thort duct of a epherica] receptaculum semlnii la the mole 
the tratiji Li never paired. SomjeUdMa it \% single^ sometioKs 
divided into an anterior And a posterior maeSt aod fometimes 
merely eonstricted* ]t lie» above the intestine in the pjosterior 
half of the body in the adult, but at least in the young in wcne 
caies. where a a maJiy as four diviuoni have been detected, it« 
pcraition ii moni- bteiaL Lf^ding from the sperm ma«9C» there 
pay be as many as three sJcnder shofc ducts which soon expand 
into wider tubes^ These tubes^ re^garded a» seminal vedcici. aJicr 
forminj; a eomplex of loops, coils and cjiec^i prolongs tionsi ulii^ 
matcly untie beneath the intestine in a singtc tube which passing 
forwanjg divides on each side of the alimentary cdnat to tcitnirLate 
tn [he two penes situated juit behind the bases of th'C wcond pair 
cf complete lees, that is to say^ the legs of the third segments \wA 
at the root of the penis there is an accessory gland on the duct, 
and a litUc farther back a much larger glandular swelling. 

The Payrtjpoda are divided into tnEiee rather sharply dehned 
ffoups or families which may be briefly characterized as ^oilQws^— 

Fatttitpodidat. — Head not covered by the first tergal plate. Anal 
fcgnieitt rptJt roveied by the sixth tergal plate. Tcrjia of the first 
ten liody segrnents fu«ed in couples. Tactile setae situated on the 
lateral portions of the tt^rga. which are neither sculptured nor spinous. 
(PofiroW, Stylopauropus.) 

Brackypauropodidae. — Head and anal Kginent free and the terra 
smooth as in the last ; but each of the double terea of the Pauropodidiu 
divided into an anterior and {XMterior plate by a transverBe band 
of membrane and each of these into a pair of plates by a bngitudinal 
inte^mental strip. The uctile setae arising from the pleural area 
of the segments. (Brachypauropus.) 

Eurypauropodidae. — Body wide and onisdform, the head and the 
anal segment concealed dorsally by the first and penultimate terea 
respectively. Terga fused as in the Pouropodidae, but thickly 
spinous or sculptured. The tactile setae situated beyond the edge 
oa the terga, as m the Brackypauropodidae, (Eurypauro^.) 

The genus Pauropus is probably world-wide in distribution, since 
it has Men discovered in Europe, North and South America, and in 
Siam. The two known species of Brachypauropus were found 
respectively in Italy and Austria. Eurypauropus has representatives 
in North America and Europe. Examples of Pauropus are extremdy 
agile, recalling the centipede LUhobius in their movements; those 
01 Eurypauropus, on the contrary, are extremely slow and ^ite 
comparable in lack of agility to the common pill- millipede. They 
are usually found in woods, under stones, fallen branches, deAd 
leaves or other damp situations. They are believed to be vegetable 
feeders and are oviparous. The young upon hatching has four 
segments and three pairs of legs representing the first three pairs 
of ambulatory legs of the adult. The two last segments are apodous, 
the fint bears the first pair of legs, and the secpnd the second and 
third pairs. The young passes through four successive moults, 
and gtadually acquires its full complement of segments and limbs. 
CLA88 tTMFHTLA. 

Proeogoneate Arthropods, dil^ii.'riTi|f in many important particnlars 
from the Diplopoda and P.3urcipadar The axis of the head lies in 
the iame straight line aji that of the body^ as in the Chilopoda, and 
not at right artglcs to it as in the Diplopoda and Pauropodo. There 
art no eyes- Ihe antennae are very long and many-jointnJ. Four 
pairsi of gnatbiie* attacJied to the undcr^side of the head have been 
deteetedt The hrst pair (mandibles) ore cwo-jointed. as in many 
Diplopods. The Kcond pair (moxillulae) are minute, one jointed 
and articulated to a imedian tobe or hypopbarynx which Is supported 
by two chttinous skeletal rods. The third ,pair (maxillse) consist 
of a longn boital segment terminating distaUy in two lobei; near the 
distal end of the basal segments there is externally a minute one- or 
two-jointcd pcocf^, reganfed as a palpus. Between the maxillae 
lies a Urge, double pbtc [labium or maxillae of second pair) which 
bad proximaoly to two rod -like b:ksa1 B<o?Tnenta and tcrmiiiatef 

__, V id two pair^ of sliort lobe*.. The body h long and narrow 

tnd hmtw cm its dorsal side fifteen tergal pLiti^ The firnt of these, 
immediately iucfecding the head< is veiy short j the remainder 
are large and sub-equal in site. The adult animal is furnish^ 
with twelve pairs of walking leg J. which, with the exception 
of the first pair, are alike lO sue and se^mentatioiu Each 
consists of five segments^ the distal of which a lang nod termi- 
nates with two powerful claws. The proitifnal eegmenC bears 
internally a slender. cyllndTkal process which may be termed the 
parapod. It has been asserted that the segment hearing this para- 
pod II in reality the second and that the true basisl segment or coxa 
!■ embedded in the ventral iniegume-nt* The legs of the first and 
second ^tairn pever have the para|>Dd, but they are invariably 
present in the rcjiuifuns ten poiiis. The legA of the ^t pur 



are never moce than four-jointed; they are always 'i 
the others, and are sometimes redurad to mere bud-like pro- 
cesses. They belong to the first segment behind the head. The 
s^ment represented bv the last tergal plate has no ambulatoiy 
limbs; but articulatea to its posterior 
border is a pair of large, backwardly 



by the ducts ci two spinnii^ glands. 
These segments are regarded oy some 
'last 



directed sdentes. which are^ perforated 

ire regarded l>y i 
authors as the appendages of the 

After LatKl. Di* Myr. OM. Vrng. Mem, H. PL L. 
X884. 

A. Mandibles or jaws of first pair of 
ScolopendreUa; md\md\ first and second 
segments; /, tendon; c, part of ventral 
skeleton of head. 

B. Jaws of second pair; mx/, maxillula; 



kyP, hvpophar^iuL 



Jaws of third Ind fourth pairs: mx, 
maxilla; p.mx, maxillary palp; u>.mx, 
maxillary lobes; lb.st, sternal plate of 
jaw of fourth pair or labium; lb\ lb\ first 
and second segments of labium U^ig^ 
A, B, C modified from Hansen, QJ,M3., 
47, pi. I.) 

D. Posterior end of body from bdow; 
/g"> leg of nth pair: /g", rudimentary 
leg of I2th pair of immature specimen ; 
sc, exsertile sac; ent.^ parapod; pap, 
sensory papilla; cere, cercus or spin- 
ning sclerite: dl, duct of silkgland; a. 




Fig. 15. 



segment, and have been compared to the cercopods of insects. At- 
tached also to the sides of the last segment in front of the spinning 
mamilla there is a sub-conical papilla bearing an apical seta arising 
from a cupUke depression. It has been suggoted that these 
papillae also repre>ent a pair of appendages. In that case the 
List segment must be double and bear two pairs of appendageSb 
Thus there may be as many as fourteen pairs of trunk append- 
ages. There are, howm/rr, only twelve pairs known to exist with 
certainty. These are represented by as manv segments on the 
ventral side; but are numerically IcfA by two tnan U>e terga. It b 
not known whether rhiji very unusual phenomenon is to be accounted 
for by the addition of two supernumerary terga or by the excalation 
of two pairs of appendages. The legs of the first pair are basally 
in contact: the rest are separated by a triangular sternal 
area. At the base of the legv with 
the exception of those of the first 
and last palr« there is a slit-like 
orifice recalling the CD?tal sacs of 
certain Diplopoda (e.g. Lysiopttalum, 
PiatydfjmHs). In internal anatomy 
the Symphyla closely resemble the 
Diplopoda. The olLmentary canal 
i^ straight and simple, with a pair 
of '■ salivary " glands opening into 
the fore-gul, and a pair of malpighian 
tubes joining the hind-gut clo» to its 
communkation with the mid-gut. 
There is a dorsal heart with seg- 
mental oatla and valves, and also 
a supraneuraJ Vessel. The silk 
glands, which occur in both sexes, 
are situated as in LysioMalum. 
The generative glands ana ducts, 
which are paired^ lie between the 
alimentary canal above and the nor- 
mally constructed nerve-cord below, 
and are accompanied in the male 
by a pair of seminal vesicles; and 
the onfice lies ventrally in the third 
n .,:■.:!■*"' " • ■ * ." . i.lj- 
o/iiy W\ Aldit.li. L'ic.- ^nv i>i|jiliyi.i il,\ler 
from all ^' tra^heate '^ arthropoda is 
the presence of a single pair of 

tracheal tubes opening by a paEf of ,"!™i?™ "S J;:f^r?' \ Jl 
spimde* on the lower'^suiSace^ the '? ftrTL^ T^^^.™ ^ 
h«d behind die antennae. °^ j o£^ erf * i« ?iJ^ri«n^ 

The newly hatched young h^ a . ^ ^^ ^r^^ 
fsnvdler number of appendages than ^AJ %* " ^x^;*!^;^,^ 
the ,Jd.. the f.U con,plc,„.nt oT t^J^^"^- ^^^S^ ^ 




FtG. 16— I, Scuhferdla 
ip^ highly magnified (sligbdy 
modified from Packard); a. 



pair 



ctmvvt moults- 

The krKiwn species of S^-mphyU are referred to two genera, 
Scoi^pendrdln and Scvtig^relta^ which together constitute the family 
Sukopendt^idof. The chief diiference between the two lies in the 
fonn of the tergal pUtes, which in Scroiop^idreila have the poaterior 



MILLOM— MILLVILLE 



475 



UffiieB smduoed and anga1ar,wiierea« in SeuUgierdla they are rounded. 
Both genefa are widely distributed and are represented, in Europe, 
South America, Siam, &c. Large specimens reach a limit of between 
six and seven milUmctres. They hve in earth, beneath stones, dead 
leaves or faUen branches, and resemble diminutive centipedes (jScolo- 
ftndra or LUholnus) both in appearance and movements. The 
Ijvmphyla have frequently been compared with the Thysanurous 
Hexapods, the i>arapods with their adjacent exaertUe vesicles, in 
ScdohtmdreUa being very similar to the abdominal appendages and 
veacKS of such an insect as Maekilis; while the posterior spinning 
iderites or cerd of the former bear much resemblance to the cerco- 
pods oC Japyx. It must be remembered, however, that the spinning 
glands oC certain Diplopods occupy the same position as those of the 
Svmphyla and open upon papillif(Mtn fwtxsesses of the last tergal 
pute, which are certainly not appendages. Hence, if the papillae 
are the bomologues of the cerd in ScclopendreUa, these cera cannot 
be mcMphologically comparable to the cercopods of Ja^yx or other 
insects. But even if the full force of the arguments m favour of 
rektiottship between the Symphyla and the Hexapoda be admitted, 
the Symph^^la, nevertheless, diner essentially from the Hexapoda 
in the anterior position of the generative orifice, and in the p res ence 
of twelve pain of nmilar ambulatory limbs. (R. I. P.) 

MILLOM, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary 
division of Cumberland, England, in the extreme south-west of 
the county^ on the Fumess railway. Pop. of urban district 
(igox), 10,436. The chiurch of Holy Trinity, Early Norman and 
Decorated in date, is chiefly of interest for its curious pillars, 
alternately round and octagonal, and for a window in the north 
aisle, which has five lights, and is known, on account of its 
unique shape, as the "fish-window." A massive roodstone 
stands in the churchyard. Millom Castle, dating from shortly 
after the Conquest, was fortified in the 14th century by Sir John 
Huddlestone, whose descendants held it until 1774. For centu- 
ries, they ezerdsed the power of life and death; a stone stands 
where the gallows were formerly erected, and indicates that here 
they ezerdsed Jura regalia. Though strongly built, the castle 
was never of great size, and it has been lar^y dismantled. A 
fine carved staircase, however, still exists in the main chapel. 
In 1648 the Parliamentary forces besieged Millom Castle, and 
early in the 19th century its park was converted into farmland. 
In the neighbourhood of Millom there are blast furnaces and 
highly productive mines of red haematite ore. The deposit lies 
pmly under the foreshore of the river Duddon, and a company 
has expended upwards of £120,000 upon a sea-wall and 
embankment to protect the mine from the sea. 

MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736), English actor, was a member bf 
the company at Druxy Lane from 1695 almost uninterruptedly 
to the time of his death, playing and creating hundreds of parts. 
He was at his best in tragedy. His wife was an actress, and 
their son William — " the younger Mills " — was also an actor 
of some merit. 

MILLS* ROGER QUARLES (1833- ), American legislator, 

iras bom in Todd county, Kentucky, on the 30th of March 

X832. He went to Texas in 1839, studied law, and was admitted 

to the bar by a special act of the legislature before he was 

twenty-one. He entered the Confederate army in 1861, took 

Part as a private in the battle of Wilson's Creek, and as colonel 

Commanded the Tenth Texas Infantry at Arkansas Post, 

Crhickamauga (where he commanded a brigade during part of 

^be battle), Missionaxy Ridge and Atlanta. He served in the 

^^ational House of Representatives as a Democrat from 1873 to 

^892 and in the Senate from 1892 to 1899. He made the tariff 

^:^is spedal study, and was long recognized as the leading authority 

^^.m Congress. As chairman of the Ways and Means Committee 

^^f the House of Representatives in 1887-1889 during President 

^Heveland's first administration, he led the fight for reform. 

^^^rom his committee he reported in April 1888 the " Mills Bill," 

'^vhich provided for a reduction of the duties on sugar, earthen- 

"^varc, glassware, plate glass, woollen goods and other articles, 

"^.he substitution of ad valorem for specific duties in many cases, 

-^^nd the placing of lumber (of certain kinds), hemp, wool, flax, 

^:x>rax, tin plates, salt and other articles on the free list. This bill 

"^ras passed by the Democratic House on the 21st of July, and was 

'^Jien so amended by a Republican Senate as to be unacceptable 

^^o the house. The tariff thus became the chief issue in the prcsi- 

^Scntial campaign of x888. In 1891 Mills was a candidate in the 



DemocraUc caucus for Speaker of the house, but was defeated 
by Charles F. Crisp (1845-1896) of Georgia. During the free 
silver controversy he adhered to the Cleveland section of the 
Democratic party, and failed to be re-dected when his term in 
the Senate expired in 1899. He then retired to Corsicana, 
Texas, where he engaged in business and the practice of law. 

MILLSTOKE GRIT, in geology, a series of massive sandstones^ 
grits and conglomerates with alternate shales, the whole resting 
directly upon the Carboniferous Limestone or upon intervening 
shales (Yoredale, Limestone Shales), usually in stratigraphical 
continuity. Its occasional coal-seams show that conditions 
of coal-formation had already begun. In Great Britain its 
outcrop extends from the Bristol Coalfidd throuj^ South and 
North Wales to its fullest development in the north-midland 
counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire, and thence to Scotland, 
where the Roslin Sandstone of the Lothians and the Moor Rock 
of Lanark and Stirling are considered its equivalents. Character- 
ized by grits and sandstones of the same general type, though 
individually variable, as sandbanks formed on the shoaling 
of the Carboniferous sea, yet often persistent over wide areas, 
the formation, estimated as 5000 ft. thick in Lancashire, con- 
tains typically the following grits in descending order: First, or 
Rough Rock; second, or Haslingden Flags (Lancashire); third, 
or Chatsworth Grit (the last two being the Middle Grits of 
Yorkshire); fourth and fifth, or Kinderscout Grits and the 
Shale Grits. The first and third, the most persistent, are often 
coarse and pebbly, like the Kinderscout Grits. In the north of 
England these grits lose their identity. In South Wales the 
Millstone Grit, immediately succeeding the Carboniferous 
Limestone, consists of 450 ft. of grit and shale, its upper member 
being the massive pebbly Farewell Rock. It extends into the 
Bristol Coalfield, though not recognized in the Devonshire Culm. 
In Ireland certain grey grits and flags are assigned to it. 

In northern France and Belgium it loses its individuality 
and is merged in the Coal-measures. It reappears east of 
the Rhine, but is unrecognizable in the somewhat different 
Carboniferous succession of eastern Europe. In America the 
Pottsville Conglomerate, 1500 ft. thick in the south Appa- 
lachians, with workable coals, and widely unconformable upon 
the Mississippian, introduces the Pennsylvanian (Upper Carbon- 
iferous) system, and approximately represents the Millstone 
Grit of western Europe, as does the red conglomerate of Nova 
Scotia. 

The shales of the Millstone Grit indude thin beds of marine 
goniatites (Glyphicceras bilinguef Gastrioceras carbonartum), 
Plerinopecien papyracetts, and Lingula tnytiloides, while the grits 
contain Lepidodendron, SUgmaria and calamites. In Scotland 
plants and estuarine fishes differ markedly above and bdow 
the Roslin Sandstone. 

The English Millstone Grit produces a characteristic scenery 
of wild moorland plateaux, or alternations of shale-valleys 
and rugged grit -ridges. The grits furnish valuable building- 
stones and grindstones. They also afford an excdlent water 
supply. (C. B. W.*) 

MILLVILLE, a city of Cumberland county. New Jersey, U.S.A., 
on the Maurice river, 40 m. S. by E. of Philaddphia. Pop. 
(1890) 10,002; (1900) 10,583 (598 foreign-bom); (1905, state 
census) 11,884; (1910) 12,451. It is served by the West Jersey 
& Seashore railway, by electric lines to Philadelphia, Bridgeton, 
Vineland and Fairton, and by schooners and small freight 
boats. Peaches and small fruit are cultivated extensively 
in the surrounding countiy. In the north part of the dty is 
a large public park, in which a beautiful lake 3 m. long and about 
I m. wide has been formed by damming the river. Glass and 
moulding sand is found in the vicinity, and the city is engaged 
prindpally in the manufacture of glass (espedally druggists' 
ware). The value of the dty's factory products increased 
from $2,513,433 in 1900 to $3,719,417 in 1905, or 48%; and of 
the total value in 1905, $2,332,614, or 62 7%, was the value 
of the glass products. MiUville was incorporated as a town 
in 1801, was chartered as a city in 1866, and its charter was 
revised in 1877. 



476 



MILMAN— MILNER, VISCOUNT 



MILMAN, RBfRT HART (1791-1868). English historian and 
ecclesiastic, third son of Sir Francis Milman, Bart., physician 
to George III., was bom in London on the zoth of November 
279 1. Educated at Eton and at Brasenose Colle^, Oxford, 
his university career was brilliant. He gained the Newdigate 
prize with a poem on the ApMo Bdvidere in 1812, was elected 
a fellow of Brasenose in 1814, and in 18 16 won the English 
essay prize with his Comparative Estimate oj Sculpture and 
Painting. In 1816 he was ordained, and two years later was 
presented to the living of St Mary's, Reading. Milman had 
already made his appearance as a dramatic writer with his 
tragedy Fazio (produced on the stage under the title of The 
Italian Wife). He also wrote Samor, the Lord of The Bright 
City, the subject of which was taken from British legend, the 
" bright city " being Gloucester; but he failed to invest it with 
serious interest. In subsequent poetical works he was more 
successful, notably the FaU of Jerusalem (1820) and the Martyr of 
Antioch (1822). The influence of Byron is seen in his Belshazzar 
(1822). A tragedy, Anne Boleyn, followed in r826; and Milman 
also wrote " When our heads are bowed with woe," and other 
hymns; an admirable version of the Sanskrit episode of Nala and 
Damayanti; and translations of the Agamemnon of Aeschylus 
and the Bacchae of Euripides. In 182 1 he was elected professor 
of poetry at Oxford, and in 1827 he delivered the Bampton 
lectures on the character and conduct of the apostles as an 
evidence of Christianity. His poetical works were published 
in three volumes in 1839. 

Turning to another field, Milman published in 1829 his 
History of the Jews, which is memorable as the first by an English 
clergyman which treated the Jews as an Oriental tribe, recognized 
sheikhs and amirs in the Old Testament, sifted and classified 
documentary evidence, and evaded or minimized the miraculous. 
In consequence, the author was violently attacked and his inevit- 
able preferment was delayed. In 1835, however. Sir Robert Peel 
made him rector of St Margaret's, Westminster, and canon 
of Westminster, and in 1849 he became dean of St Paul's. By 
this time his unpopularity had nearly died away, and generally 
revered and beloved, he occupied a dignified and enviable 
position, which he constantly employed for the promotion of 
culture and in particular for the relaxation of subscription 
to ecclesiastical formularies. His History of Christianity to the 
Abolition of Paganism in the Roman Empire (1840) had been com- 
pletely ignored; but widely different was the reception accorded 
to the continuation of his work, his great History of Latin 
Christianity (1855), which has passed through many editions. In 
1838 he had edited Gibbon's Decline and FaU of the Roman 
Empire, and in the following year published his Life of Gibbon. 
Milman was also responsible for an edition of Horace, and when 
he died he had almost finished a history of St Paul's Cathedral, 
which was completed and published by his son, A. Milman 
(London, 1868), who also collected and published in 1879 a 
volume of his essays and articles. Milman died on the 24th of 
September 1868, and was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. By his 
wife, Mary Ann, a daughter of Lieut. -General William Cockell, 
he had four sons and two daughters. His nephew, Robert 
Milman (1816-1876), was bishop of Calcutta from 1867 until his 
death, and was the author of a Life of Torquato Tasso (1850). 

See A. C. Tait, Sermon in Memory of H. H. Milman (London, 
1868). and Arthur Milman. H. H. Milman (London, 1900). Sec 
also the Memoirs of R. Milman, bishop of Calcutta, by his sister, 
Frances Maria 'Milman (1879). 

MILNE-EDWARDS. HENRY (1800-1885), French zoologist, 
the son of an Englishman, was bom in Bruges on the 23rd of 
October 1800, but spent most of his life in France. At first he 
turned his attention to medicine, in which he graduated at Paris in 
1823; but his passion for natural history soon prevailed, and he 
gave himself up to the study of the lower forms of animal life. 
One of his earliest papers {Recherchcs anatomtques sur les crus- 
lacis), which was presented to the Academy of Sciences in 1829, 
formed the theme of an elaborate and eulogistic report by G. 
Cuvier in the following year. It embodied the results of two 
dredging expeditions undertaken by him and his friend J. V. 



Audouin during 1826 and 1828 in the neighboiirliood of GranviDe, 
and was remarkable for clearly distinguishing the marine fauna 
of that portion of the French coast into four zones. Much of 
his original work was published in the Annates des sciences 
natureUes, with the editorship of which he was associated from 
1834. Of his books may be mentioned the Histoire naturdle 
de crustacis (3 vols., 1837-1841), which long remained a standard 
work; Histoire natureUe des corixUiaires, published in 185&-1860, 
but begun many years before; Lemons sur la physiologie et 
Vanatomie comparie de Vhomme et des animaux (1857-1881), in 
14 volumes; and a little work on the elements of zoology, origin- 
ally published in 1834, but subsequently remodelled, which 
enjoyed an enormous circulation. He was appointed in 1841 
professor of entomology at the museum d'histoire natureUe, 
where twenty-one years later he succeeded Geoffroy Saint- 
Hilaire in the chair of zoology. The Royal Sodety in 1856 
awarded him the Copley medal in recognition of his zoological 
investigations. He died in Paris on the a9th of July 1885. 
His son, Alphonse Milne-Edwards (1835-1900), who became 
professor of ornithology at the museum in X876, devoted himself 
especially to fossil birds and deep-sea exploration. 

MILNER, ALFRED MILNER, Viscount (1854- ). British 
statesman and colonial administrator, was bom at Bonn on 
the 23rd of March 1854, the only son of Charles Milner, M.D., 
whose wife was a daughter of Major-General Ready, sometime 
govemor of the Isle of Man. His paternal grandfather, an 
Englishman, settled in Germany and married a German lady; 
and their son, Charles Milner, practised as a physician in London 
and became later Reader in English at Tubingen University. 
Alfred Milner was educated first at Tiibingen, then at King's 
College, London, and imder Jowett as a scholar of Balli<4 
College, Oxford, from 1872 to 1876. He graduated in 1877, 
with a first class in classics, having won the Hertford, Craven, 
Eldon and Derby scholarships, and was elected to a fellowship 
of New College. At Oxford he formed a dose friendship with 
Arnold Toynbee, and was associated with his schemes of social 
work; and subsequently he wrote a tribute to his friend. Arnold 
Toyribee: a Reminiscence (1895). In 1881 he was called to the 
bar at the Inner Temple and joined the staff of the Pall Mall 
Gazette under John Morley, becoming assistant edhor under 
W. T. Stead. In 1885 he abandoned journalism, and became 
Liberal candidate for the Harrow division of Middlesex at the 
general election, but was defeated. He acted as private secretary 
to Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen, and in 1887, when Goschen 
became chancellor of the exchequer, was appointed his prindpaf 
private secretary. It was by Goschen 's irifluence that in 1S89 
he was made under-secretary of finance in Eg>'pt. He remained 
in Egypt four years, his period of office coindding with the 
first great reforms, after the danger of bankruptcy had been 
avoided. Milner returned to England in 1892, and was appointed 
chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue, being made C.B. 
in 1894 and K.C.B. in 1895. Shortly after his return to 
England he published his England in Egypt, which at once 
became the authoritative account of the work done since tlte 
British occupation. 

Sir Alfred Milner remained at the Board of Inland Revenue 
tmtil 1897. He was regarded as one of the dearest -headed and 
most judicious officials in the British service, and his position 
as a man of moderate Liberal views, who had been so closely 
associated with Goschen at the Treasury, Cromer in Egypt and 
Hicks-Beach (Lord St Aldwyn) and Sir W. Harcourt while at 
the Inland Revenue, marked him out as one in whom all parties 
might have confidence. The moment for testing his capaoty 
in the highest degree had now come. In April Lord Rosmead 
resigned his posts of high commissioner for South Africa and 
govemor of Cape Colony. The situation resulting from the 
Jameson raid (see Transvaal and South Africa) was one 
of the greatest delicacy and difficulty, and Mr Chamberlain, 
now colonial secretary, selected Milner as Lord Rosmead's 
successor. The choice was cordially approved by the leaders 
of the Liberal party, and warmly recognized at a f.:rewdl 
dinner presided over by Mr Asquith (March 281b, 1897). The 



MILNER, VISCOUNT 



477 



tppQtittiiieiit was avowttUy made in order that an acceptable 
British statesman, in whom public confidence was reposed, 
might go to South Africa to consider all the drcimistances, 
and to formulate a policy which should combine the upholding 
of British interests with the attempt to deal justly with the 
Transvaal and Orange Free State governments. 

Sir Alfred Milner reached the Cape in May 1897, and after 
the difficulties with President Kruger over the Aliens' Law 
had been patched up he was free by August to make himself 
personally acquainted with the country and peoples before 
deciding on the lines of policy to be adopted. Between August 
1897 and May 1898 he travelled through Cape Colony, the 
Biyhuanaland Protectorate, Rhodesia and Basutoland. The 
better to understand the point of view of the Cape Dutch 
and the burghers of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, 
Milner also during this period learned both Dutch and the 
South African *' Taal." He came to the conclusion that there 
could be no hope of peace and progress in South Africa while 
there remained the " permanent subjection of British to Dutch 
in one of the Republics." He also realized — as was shown 
by the triumphant re-election of Mr Kruger to the presidency 
of the Transvaal in February 1898 — that the Pretoria govern- 
ment would never on its own initiative redress the grievances. 
of the " Uitknders." In a speech delivered at Graal Reinet, 
a Bond stronghold, on the 3rd of March 1898, he made it dear 
that he was determined to secure freedom and equality for the 
British subjects in the Transvaal, and he urged the Dutch 
cokmists to induce the Pretoria government to assimilate its 
institutions, and the temper and spirit of its administration, 
to those of the free communities of South Africa. The effect of 
this pronouncement was great, and it alarmed the Afrikanders, 
who at this time viewed with apprehension the virtual resump- 
tion by Cedl Rhodes of his leader^ip of the Progressive (British) 
party at the Cape. That Milner had good grounds for his view 
of the situation is shown in a letter written (March zi) 
by Mr J. X. Merriman to President Steyn of the Free State: 
** The greatest danger (wrote Mr Merriman) lies in the attitude 
of President Kruger and his vain hope of building up a State 
on a foundation of a narrow unenlightened minority, and his 
obstinate rejection of all prospect of using the materials which 
He ready to his hand to establish a true republic on a broad 
b'beral basis. Such a state of affairs cannot last. It must 
break down from inherent rottenness." Though this was 
recognized by the more far-sedng of the Bond leaders, they were 
ready to support Kruger, whether or not he granted reforms, 
and they sought to make Miiner's position impossible. His 
difficulties were increased when at the general election in Cape 
Colony the Bond obtained a majority. Acting strictly in a con- 
stitutional manner, Milner thereupon (Oct. 1898) called upon 
Mr W. P. Schreiner to form a ministry, though aware that 
such a ministry would be opposed to any direct intervention 
of Great Britain in the Transvaal Convinced that the existing 
&tate of affairs, if continued, would end in the loss of South 
Africa by Britain, Milner came to England in November X898. 
Xie returned to the Cape in February 1899 fully assured of the 
Support of Mr Chamberlain, though the government still 
^ung to the hope that the moderate section of the Cape and 
S^ree State Dutch would induce Kruger to deal justly with the 
XJitlanders. He fotmd the situation, more critical than when 
lie had left, ten weeks previously. Johannesburg was in a 
Cerment, while General Sir William Butler, who acted as high 
^x»mmissioner in Milner's absence, had allowed it to be seen 
^hat he did not take a favourable view of the Uitlander griev- 
^^mces. On the 4th of May Milner penned a memorable despatch 
%o the Colonial Office, in which he insisted that the remedy for the 
^mrest in the Transvaal was to strike at the root of the evil — the 
Y>olitical impotence of the injured. " It may seem a paradox,' 
lie wrote, " but it is true that the only way for protecting our 
subjects is to hdp them to cease to be our subjects." The 
policy of leaving things alone only led from bad to worse, and 
•' the case for intervention is overwhelming." Milner felt that 
only the enfranchisement of the Uitianders in the Transvaal 



would give sUbility to the South African situation. He had 
not based his case against the Transvaal on the letter of the 
Conventions, and regarded the employment of the word " suze- 
rainty " merely as an " etymological question," but he realized 
keenly that the spectade of thousands of British subjeas in the 
Transvaal in the condition of " hdots " (as he expressed it) 
was undermining the prestige of Great Britain throughout 
South Africa, and he called for " some striking proof " of the 
intention of the British govenmient not to be ousted from its 
predominant position. This despatch was tdegraphed to 
London, and was intended for immediate publication; but it 
was kept private for a time by the home govenmient. Its 
tenor was known, however, to the leading politicians at the 
Cape, and at the instance of J. H. Hofmeyr a conference was 
hdd (May 31-June 5) at Bloemfontdn between the high com- 
missioner and the president of the Transvaal Milner then 
made the enactment Ux the Transvaal of a franchise law 
which would at once give the Johaimesburgers a share in the 
government of the country his main, and practically his only, 
demand. The conference ended without any agreement being 
reached, and the diplomatic discussion which followed (see 
Txansvaal) gradually became more and more contentious. 
When war broke out, October 1899, Milner rendered the military 
authorities "unfailing support and wise coimsels," being, in 
Lord Roberts's phrase "one whose courage never faltered." 

In February 1901 he was called upon to undertake the adminis- 
tration of the two Boer states, both now annexed to the Briti^ 
Empire, though the war was still in progress. He thereupon 
resigned the governorship of Cape Colony, while retaining the 
post of high commissioner. The work of reconstructing the 
dvil administration v^ the Transvaal and Orange River Colony 
could only be carried on to- a limited extent while operations 
continued in the fidd. Milner therefore returned to England 
to spend a " hard-begged holiday," which was, however, mainly 
occupied in work at the Colonial Office. He reached London 
on the 24th of May 1901, had an audience with the king on 
the same day, was made a G.C.B. and privy coundllor, and 
was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Milner of 
St James's and Cape Town. Speaking next day at a luncheon 
given in his honour, answering critics who alleged that with 
more time and patience on the part of Great Britain war 
might have been avoided, he asserted that what they were 
asked to " conciliate " was " panoplied hatred, insensate am- 
bition, invindble ignorance." Meanwhile the diplomacy of 1899 
and the conduct of the war had caused a great change in the 
attitude of the Liberal party in England towards Lord Milner, 
whom Mr Leonard Courtney even characterized as *' a lost 
mind." A violent agitation for his recall, in which Sir Henry 
Campbdl-Bannerman joined, was organized, but without success, 
and in August he returned to South Africa, where he plunged 
into the herculean task of remodelling the administration. 
In the negotiations for peace he was assodated with Lord 
Kitchener, and the terms of surrender, signed at Pretoria on 
the 31st of May 1902, were drafted by him. In recognition 
of his services he was, on the 15th of July, made a viscount. 

Immediatdy following the conclusion of peace Milner published 
(June 21) the Letters Patent establishing the system of crown 
colony government in the Transvaal and Orange River colonies, 
and exchanging his title of administrator to that of governor. 
The reconstructive work necessary after the ravages of the 
war was enormous. He provided a steady revenue by the 
levying of a tax of 10% on the annual net produce of the gold 
mines, and devoted spedal attention to the repatriation of the 
Boers, land settlement by British colonists, education, justice, 
the constabulary, and the dcvdopment of railways. While' 
this work of reconstruction was in progress domestic politics 
in England were convulsed by the tariff reform movement 
and Mr Chamberiain's resignation. Milner, who was then 
spending a brief holiday in Europe, was urged by Mr Balfour to 
take the vacant post of secretary of state for the colonies. This 
offer he declined (Oct. i, 1903), considering it more important to 
complete his work in South Africa, where economic depression 



478 



MILNER, J.— MILO OF GLOUCESTER 



was becoming pronounced. He was bock in Johannesburg 
in December X903, and had to consider the crisis in the 
gold-mining industry caused by the shortage of native labour. 
Reluctantly he agreed, with the assent of the home govern- 
ment, to the proposal of the mineowners to import Chinese 
cooties on a three years' contract, the finft batch of Chinese 
reaching the Rand in June 1904. 

In the latter part of 1904 and the eariy months of 1905 Lord 
Milner was engaged on the elaboration of a scheme to provide 
the Transvaal with a system of ** representative " government, 
a half-way house between crown colony administration and 
that of self-government. Letters patent providing for repre- 
sentative government were issued on the 31st of March 1905.* 
For some time he had suffered in health from the incessant 
strain of work, and he determined to retire. He left Pretoria 
on the and of April and sailed for Europe on the following day. 
Speaking at Johannesburg on the eve of his departure, he re- 
commended to all concerned the promotion of the material pros- 
perity of the countxy and the treatment of Dutch and British on 
an absolute equality. Having referred to his share in the war, 
he added: " What I should prefer to be remembered by is a 
tremendous effort subsequent to the war not only to repair 
the ravages of that calamity but to re-start the colonies on a 
higher plane of civilization than they have ever previously 
attained." He left South Africa while the economic crisis was 
still acute and at a time when the voice of the critic was audible 
everywhere; but, in the words of the colonial secretary (Mr 
Alfred Lytteltdn) he had in the eight eventful years of his 
administration "laid deep and strong the foundation upon 
which a united South Africa would arise to become one of the 
great states of the empire." On his return home his university 
honoured him with the honorary degree of D.CX. 
. Experience in South Africa had shown him that underlying 
the difficulties of the situation there was the wider problem of 
in^perial unity. In his farewell speech at Johannesburg he 
concluded with a reference to the subject. "When we who 
caQ ourselves Imperialists talk of the British Empire we think 
of a group of states bound, not in an alliance— for alliances 
can be made and unmade— but in a permanent organic union. 
Of such a union the dominions of the sovereign as they exist 
to-day are only the raw material" This thesis he further 
developed in a magazine article written in view of the colonial 
conference held in London in 1907. He advocated the creation 
of a permanent deliberative imperial councD, and favoured 
preferential trade relations between the United Kingdom and 
the other members of the empire; and in later years he took 
an active part in advocating the cause of tariff reform and 
cotonial preference. • 

In March 1906 a motion censuring Lord Milner for an infraction 
of the Chinese labour ordinance, in not forbidding light corporal 
punishment of coolies for minor offences in lieu of imprisonment, 
was moved by a Radical member of the House of Commons. 
On behalf of the Liberal government an amendment was moved, 
stating that "This House, while recording its eondemnation 
of the flogging of Chinese coolies in breach of the law, desires, 
in the interests of peace and conciliation in South Africa, to re- 
frain from passing censure upon individuals." The amendment 
was carried by 355 voles to 135. As a result of this left-handed 
censure, a counter-demonstration was organized, led by Sir 
Bartle Frere, and a public address, signed by over 370,000 
persons, was presented to Lord Milner expressing high apprecia- 
tion of the services rendered by him in Africa to the crown and 
empire. 

• See also E. B. I wan-MQUer. Lord Milner and 5<m/Jb Africa (London. 
190a): W. B. Worsfold. Lord MUner's Work in South Afrtca (London. 
1906); W. T. Stead. " Siir Alfred Milner," in The Renew of Reviews, 
vol. XX. (1899): and the bibliography to South Africa. 

MILNER. JOSEPH (1744-1 797). English evangelical divine, 
was bom at Leeds and educated at Leeds grammar-school 
and Cambridge. After taking his degree he went to Thorparch, 

» Owing to the advent of a Liberal ministry in England. December 
1905. this scheme remained inoperative (see Transvaal; History). 



Yorkshire, as curate and assistant schoolmaster. Subaeqnaitij 
he became head master of Hull grammar-school, and in 
1 768 he was chosen afternoon lecturer at Holy Trinity cfauidi, 
Hull. He became a strong supporter of the evangelical move- 
ment of the period, and greatly contributed to its success in 
HulL In addition to his work as head master, he took 
charge of North Ferriby parish, about 9 m. from HuU. His 
published works include essays and numerous sermons, but 
his best known work is the History of the Church of Christ (Lon- 
don, 1 794-1 809). He lived to complete the first three volumes, 
and two more were added by his brother, Isaac Milner (1750- 
1820), dean of Carlisle, who re-edited the whole work in xSxo. 

MILNQAVIE (kxially pronounced Millguy), a police burgh 
of Dumbartonshire, Scotlandi Pop. (1901), 34iSx. It lies 
6 m. N.N.W. of Glasgow by the North British raUwmy. The 
chief industries include Ueach-fields, dye-works, a distillery 
and a paper mill; but the town is largely a residential quarter 
for Glaisgow business men. Close to the town are two reservoirs, 
Mugdock (6a acres) and Craigmaddie (88 acres), in which is 
stored the water from Loch Katrine. Mugdock Castle, x} m. 
N. of MUngavie, is an old stronghold of the Grahams; in Balder- 
nock parish, about 2 m. E., stands a cromlech, called "the 
Auld Wives' Lift " (400 ft. high), commanding a fine view of 
the lands between the Forth and Clyde. Dougalstcm Lodi, 
} m. S.E., contains several rare aquatic plants. 

MILO, or MiLON, of Crotona, Greek athlete, lived about the 
end of the 6th centuxy b.c. He was six times crowned at the 
Ol3rmpic games and six times at the Pythian for wrestling, 
and was famous throughout the civilized world for his feats 
of strength— such as carrying an ox on his shoulders through 
the stadium at Olympia. In his native dty he was much 
honoured, and he commanded the army which defeated the 
people of Sybaris in 511. The traditional account of his death 
is often used to point a moral: he found a tree which some 
woodcutters had partially split with a wedge, and attempted 
to rend It asunder; but the wedge fell out, and the tree ck)6ed 
on his hand, imprisoning him till wolves came and devoured 
him. His name became proverbial for personal strength 
(Diod. Sic. xiL 9; Pausanias vi. 14; Strabo vL 363; Herodotus 
iii. 137). 

MILO, TITUS ANNIU8, Roman political agiutor, was the 
son of C. Paplus Celsus, but was adopted by his mother's father,. 
T. Annius Luscus. He joined the Pompeian party, and organised 
bands of mercenaries and gladiators to support the cause by 
public violence in opposition to P. CHpdius, who gave similar 
support to the democratic cause. Milo was tribune of the 
plebs in 57 b.c He took a prominent part in bringing about 
the recall of Cicero from exile, in spite of the opposition of 
Godlus. In 53, when Milo was candidate for the consulship 
and Clodius for the praetorship, the two leaders met by acci- 
dent on the Appian Way at Bovillae and Clodius was murdered 
(January 52). Milo was impeached; his guilt was clear, and 
his enemies took every means of intimidating his supporteis 
and his judges. Cicero was afraid to speak, and the extant 
Pro Milone is an expanded form of the unspoken defence. 
Milo went into exile at Massilia, and his property was sold 
by auction. He joined M. Caelius Rufus in 48 in his ruing 
against Caesar, but was slain near Thurii in Lucania. His 
wife was Fausta, daughter of the dictator Sulla. 

MILO OF GLOUCESTER, k>rd of Brecknock and eari ol 
Hereford (d. 1143), was the son of Walter of Gloucester, who 
appears as sheriff of that county between 1104 and iiai. MDo 
succeeded his father about the latter year. He was high in 
the service of Henry I. between 11 30 and 1135, and combined 
the office of sheriff with that of bcal justiciar for Gk>ucester- 
shlre. After the death of Henry I. he declared for Stephen, 
at whose court he appears as constable in 1136. But in 1139, 
when the empress Matilda appeared in England, he declared 
for her. and placed the city of Gloucester at her disposal; he 
was further distinguished by sacking the royalist dty of Wor- 
cester and reducing the county of Hereford. In 1141, at 
Matilda's coronation, he was rewarded with the earldom oi 



MILORADOVICH— MILTIADES 



479 



Hereldrd. He remained loyal to the empress after her defeat 
at Windiester. Jolm of Salisbuiy classes liim with Geoffrey 
de MsLiideviUe and others who were ndn lam camiUs regiUgttam 
h»st€S pMuu The charge is justified by his public policy; 
but tbie materials for appraising his personal character do 
Dot exist. 

See the Cmilmualion cf fUnenu cf Worctster (ed. B. Thorpe, 1848- 
1849); the Cartulary o( Gloucester Abbey (Rolls series); and J. H. 
Round's Geoffrey de MandevUU (1892}. 

MIUOBADOVICH, MICHAEL ANDRUBVICH, Couirr (1770- 
1825), Russian general, saw service under Suvaxov in the wars 
against Turkey and Poland, and in the campaign of Italy and 
Switzerland (1799) earned much distinction as a commander 
of advanced troops. In 1805, having attained the rank of 
fieutenant'gencral, he served under Kutusov in the campaign 
of Austeriitx, taking part in the actions of Enns and Krems 
and in the decisive battle of the and of December, in which his 
column held the Pratzen heights. In the Turkish War he 
distinguished himself at Giurgevo (1807). Promoted general 
of infantry in 1810, he commanded a corps at Borodino, and 
subsequently inflicted the defeat of Tarutino (or Winkovo) on 
Murat, king of Naples (October 18, 181 2). His corps was 
one of those most active in the pursuit of Napoleon's Grande 
Armie, and in 1813 he led the rear-guard of the Allies after 
their earlier defeats. At the victory of Kulm he was present 
in command of a Russian-Prussian corps, which he led at 
Ldpsig and in the campaign of 1814. From x8i8 to the time 
of his death he was military governor of St Petersburg. He 
perished in the popular outbreak in the capital, on the 26th 
(14th O.S.) of December 1895. 

MILOSH OBRENOVICH 1. (i 780-1860). prince of Servia, 

founder of the Obrenovich dynasty, was bom in 1780 of poor 

Servian peasants. When he later became prince of Servia he 

used to tdl how for a penny a day he drove cattle from Servia 

to Dalmatia. His half-brother, Milan Obrenovich, who had 

developed into a successful exporter of cattle and pigs into 

Austria, associated him in his own export trade and otherwise 

supported him. Partly from gratitude and partly because 

the family name of his half-brother was already honourably 

knownr in the country, Milosh adopted that name as his own, 

and called himself Obrenovich, instead of Theodorovicb. Kara- 

george, the leader of the first Servian revolution against the 

Turks, appointed Milosh Obrenovich in 1807 a voyvode, i.e. 

district commander of the national army and dvil administrator. 

As such be distinguished himself in many battles, and was 

reputed a wise and energetic administrator and a just judge. 

When in 1813 the Turks under the Grand Vizier Khurshid 

occupied Servia, and Karageorge and almost all his voyvodes 

left the country for Austria, Milosh, although strongly advised 

to foOow their example, refused to do so. He remained in the 

country, surrendered to the Turks, and was recognized by them 

u the vo3rvode of Rudnik (Central Servia). As he was then 

practkaDy the only chief of the nation, the Turks called him to 

Belgrade, where he was kept through the year 181 4 as a hostage. 

But he fomid means to prepare a new rising of the Servians 

tfainst the Turks, and on Palm Sunday 181 5 he appeared 

^th his voyvode's standard before the people round the small 

church of Takovo, and started the second and successful in- 

aorrection. Not so much by his victories on the battlefields 

*& by his dwtT exploitation of the international difficulties 

of Turkey, and of the knotyi weakness of the Turkish pashas 

fov ** baksheesh "—no doubt also by his statesmanlike modera- 

C^^Hi — he succeeded in less than two years in obtaining from 

*"!»« Porte the praaical recognition of the Servian people's right 

J<* self-government. The National Assembly in 1817 elected 

■•»» prince of Servia. 

From that year began the organization of Servia by the 
^^rvians as an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire. 
^*^ it its existence as such rested on no safe and legal basis, 
^^<ept on the readiness of the Servians to defend it with all 
^j^eir might and on the goodwill of the sultan and hu" Sublime 
^orte." Miloih therefore worked hard to obtain some sort 



of international recognition of the lemi-independent status 
of Servia. Russia came to his assistance, and by the Treaty 
of Adrianople of 1829 the Porte engaged formally to grant 
Servia full autonomy. This engagement was somewhat devel- 
oped in the Hattl-sherif of 1830, which added to Servia three 
districts (Krushevats, AlexinaU, Zaechar), acknowledged her 
full autonomy, recognized Milosh as hereditary prince of Servia, 
and declared that the Turks in Slervia could have properties 
and live only in fortified places where there were Turkish 
garrisons, and not in other towns and villages. Milosh won 
for his family the hereditary right to the throne of Servia with- 
out the co-operation of Russia. The creation of a hereditary 
dynasty in Servia was outside the Russian Balkan policy of that 
time, and this great and independent success of Milosh was 
the first cause of Russia's dissatisfaction with him. The second 
cause was that, yielding to the pressure exercised on him by 
his own people, he gave the country a constitution without 
askmg " the protector of Servia," the tsar, for his approval 
of the step. The third cause was that Milosh consistently 
resented the interference of Russia in the internal affairs of the 
principality. The climax of his misdeeds, from the Russian 
point of view, was that on the occasion of his visit to the Sultan 
Mahmud II. in 1836 he persuaded the British ambassador, 
Lord Ponsonby, that it would be useful to establish & British 
consulate In Belgrade. The first British consul in Servia, 
Colonel Hodges, became speedily an intimate friend of Prince 
Milosh, who — probably under h^ new friend's influence — began 
to agitate to replace the exclusive protectorate of Russia by 
the joint protectorate of all the great Powers of Europe. The 
cabinet of St Petersburg now decided to remove Milosh from 
the throne of Servia, and, supported by the Russian consul- 
general, the leaders of the Servian opposition, who posed 
as champions of a constitutional system, succeeded In forcing 
him to abdicate in 1839. After his abdication Milosh lived 
mostly on his esutes in Rumania, or In Vienna. In December 
1858 the National Assembly of Servia, having dethroned Prince 
Alexander Rarageorgevich, recaOcd Milosh to the throne of 
Servia. Milosh came, accompanied by hb son Michael, and 
began to reign In his own old fashion; but death closed hb 
activity on the 14th (27th n.s.) of September x86o. He was 
buried in the cathedral of Belgrade. (C. Ml.) 

MILTIADES, the name of two Athenian statesmen and 
generals of a family (the Phllaidae) of Aeginetan origin, which 
claimed descent from Aeacus. 

1. MiLTiAOES (6th century B.&), the son of Cypselus, a nromi- 
nent opponent of Peisistratus. According to Herodotus (vi. 
36, 37) he led a colony to the Tbradan Chersonese at the request 
of the Dolondans, who, hard pressed by the Absinthians (or 
Apsinthians), were advised by the Delphian orade to Invite 
to their country the man who should first show them hospi- 
tality after leaving the temple. Since, however, the Athenians 
had from c. 600-590 B.C. held Sigeum in the Troad, whence 
they had fought against Mitylene, it is probable that the 
Dolondans appealed for hdp to Athens, and that Peisistratus 
took the opportunity of getting rid of one of his chief opponents 
by sending Miltiades. He became " tyrant " of the Chersonesus, 
which he fortified by a wall across the isthmus from Cardia 
to Pactya. He was captured by the people of Lampsacus, but 
rdeased on the intercession of Croesus of Lydia. He was 
succeeded by Stesagoras, son of his half-brother, Cimon. 

2. Miltiades (died c. 488 b.c), the victor of Marathon, was 
another son of Cimon. On the death of Stesagoras, he was 
sent to the Chersonese (? about 518-516) by Hippias— no doubt 
to support Hegesistratus at Sigeum (see PasiSTRATXTS). He 
entrapped and Imprisoned the chief men of Chersonesus, which 
was then in a turbulent condition, and strengthened himself 
by an alliance with Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thradan prince 
Olorus (Herod, vi. 39). He led a. contingent in the Scythian 
expedition of Darius Hystaspis and, according to Herodotus, 
advised the leaders who were left at the Danube bridge to 
destroy it and leave Darius to his fate. This story is improbable, 
as Darius left Miltiades in possession of the Chenoneae for some 



480 



MILTON 



twenty years longer, though Persian forces were frequently 
in the neighbourhood. Miltiades was, according to Herodotus, 
expelled by Scythian invaders, but was brought back by the 
Dolondans, and subsequently captured Lemnos and Imbros 
for Athens from the soncalled Pelasgian inhabitants, who were 
Persian dependents. Having thus (probably) incurred the 
enmity of Darius, Miltiades fled -to Athens on the a{^roach 
of the Persians under Datis and Artaphcmes, leaving his son 
Metiocbus a prisoner in Persian hands, and was at once impeached 
unsuccessfully on the charge of tyranny in the Chersonese.* 
Possibly the story of his having tried to destroy the Danube 
bridge was invented or exaggerated at this time as an argument 
In his favour (sec Grote, History ojGrteu^ z vol., ed. 1907, p. X19 
note). Since, however, Herodotus almost certainly relied on 
Alcmaeonid uadition, which was hostile to Milaades^ the 
whole story is uncertain; the statement that he fled before a 
Scythian invasion is especially improbable. If Miltiades really 
recommended the destruction of the bridge, we may infer that 
the Herodotean story of his flight before the Scythians is a 
misunderstanding of the fact that his residence in Chersonese 
after the Scythian invasion was insecure and not continuous. 

On the approach of the Persians Miltiades was made one of 
the ten Athenian generals, and it was on his advice that the 
polemarch Callimachus dedded to give battle at Marathon 
(9.V.). Subsequently he used his influence with the Athenians 
to induce them to give him a fleet of seventy ships without 
any indication of his object (Herod, vi. 132-136). Comdius 
Nepos (Miltiades, c. vii.), probably on good authority (? Eph- 
orus), states that he had a commission to regain control over 
the Aegean. No doubt his object was to csublish an outer 
line of defence against future Persian aggression. Herodotus 
says that, having besieged Paros vainly for nearly a month, 
he made a secret visit to Timo, a priestess of Demeter in Paros, 
with a view to the betrayal of the island, and bdng compelled 
to flee wounded himself severdy in attempting to leap a fence 
(but see Ephorus in Pragm. kist. gr. 107). 

On his return to Athens he was impeached by Xanthippus, 
who was allied by marriage to the Alcmaeonids, on the ground 
that he had " deceived the people," and only escaped on the 
strength of his past services with a fine of 50 talents. The 
facts of the trial and the charge are diffictilt to recover, nor 
do we know why the siege was raised. Some authorities hold 
that he was bribed to this course, and hence that the charge 
was one of treason; others suggest that he retired in the belief 
that a Persian fleet was approaching. All that is known is 
that he died of his wound (489-488), without paying the fine, 
which was paid subsequently by his son Cimon (qs.). He 
appears to have been a man of strong determination and great 
personal courage, of a type characteristic of the pre-CIeistbenic 
constitution. His absence in the Chersonese during the first 
years of the new democracy (508-493?) and his patrician line- 
age account naturally for the difference which existed between 
him and the popular leaders— Tbemistodes and Aristides. 

See the passages of Herodotus and Cornelius Nc(x», quoted above, 
and histories of Greece. On the Parian expedition and the trial, 
R. W. Maran. Herodotus tp.-vi., vol. 2, appendix xi. ; on the foreign 
policy of Miltiades see Themistocles. (J. M. M.) 

MILTON, JOHN (1608-1674), English poet, was bom in Bread 
Street, Cheapside, London, on the 9th of December 1608. 
His father, known as Mr John Milton of Bread Street, scrivener, 
was himself an interesting man. He was a native of Oxford- 
shire, the son of a Richard Milton, yeoman of Stanton-St-John's, 
one of the sturdiest adherents to the old Roman Cathoh'c religion 
in his district, and was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, 
where he turned Protestant. According to the poet's earliest 
biographer, John Milton senior was disinherited in the beginning 
of Quctn Elizabeth's reign for reading the Bible. With a good 
education and good abilities, especially in music, he may have 
lived for some time in London by musical teaching and practice. 

* So Herodotus; but the story is difficult to believe in view of the 
fact that the family of Miltiades was distinctively luaoritpuinm. 
Possibly the trial is merely a hostile version of the orainary test of 
A man's qualification for omce (facvtoala). 



Not till 1595, at all events, when he must have been long past 
the usual age of apprenticeship, do we bear of his preparation 
for the profession of a scrivener, and not till February 1 590-1600, 
when he was about thirty-seven years of age, did he become 
a qualified member of the Scriveners' Company. It was then 
that he set up his " house and shop " at the sign of the Spread 
Eagle in Bread Street, and began his business of drawing up 
wills, nuirriage-settlements, and the like, with such related 
business as that of receiving money from clients for investment 
and lending it out to the best advantage. It was at the same 
time that he married, not, as stated by Aubrey, a lady named 
Bradshaw, but Sarah Jeffrey, one of the two orphan daughters 
of a Paul Jeffrey, of St Swithin's, London, " dtizen and merchant- 
taylor," originally from Essex, who had died before 1583. At 
the date of her marriage she was about twenty-eight years of 
age. Six children were born to the scrivener and his wife, of 
whom three survived infancy — Anne, who married Edward 
Phillips; John, the poet; and Christopher (1615-1693), who was 
knighted and made a judge under James II. 

Tlie first sixteen years of Milton's life, coindding exactly 
with the last sixteen of the reign of James I., assodate themsdves 
with the house in Bread Street. His father, whOe tn^^^ 
prospering in business, continued to be known as a wmru, 
man of " ingeniose " tastes, and acquired distinction 
in the London musical world of that time. He contributed 
a madrigal to Thomas Morley's Triumph of OriaKa (1601). 
four motets to Sir William Leighton's Tears and LametUatiom 
of a Sorrowful Soul (1614), and some hymn tunes — one of which, 
"Yor," is still in common use— in Thomas Ravenscroft's 
Whole Booh of Psalms (1621). Music was thus a part of the 
poet's domestic education from his infancy. Again and again 
Milton speaks with gratitude and affection of the ungrudging 
pains bestowed by his father on his early education. " Both at 
the grammar school and also under other masters at home," 
is the sutement in one passage, *' he caused roe to be instructed 
daily. " When Milton was ten years of age his tutor was 
Thomas Young (i 587-1655), a Scottish divine, who afterwards 
became master of Jesus College, Cambridge. Young's tutorship 
lasted till 1622, when he accepted the pastorship of the congre- 
gation of Engh'sh merchants in Hamburg. Already, however, 
for a year or two his teaching had been only supplementary to 
the education which the boy was recdving by daily attendance 
at St Paul's public school, dose to Bread Street. The head- 
master of the school was Alexander Gill, an dderly Oxford 
divine, of high reputation for scholarship and teaching ability. 
Under him, as usher or second master, was his son, Alexander 
Gill the younger, also an Oxford graduate of scholaHy reputa- 
tion, but of blustering character. Milton's acquaintanceship 
with this younger Gill, begun at St Paul's school, led to subse- 
quent friendship and correspondence. Far more affectionate 
and intimate was the friendship formed by Milton at St Paul's 
with his schoolfellow Charies Diodati, the son of ao Italian 
physician, Dr Theodore Diodati, a naturalized Englishman 
settled in London, and much respected, both on bis own account 
and as being the brother of the famous Protestant divine. Jean 
Diodati of Geneva. Young Diodati, who was destined for his 
father's profession, left the school for Trinity College, Oxford, 
early in 1623; but Milton remained tiU the end of 1624. In 
that year his elder sister, Anne, married Edward Phillips, a 
clerk in the Government oflice called the Crown Office in 
Chancery. « 

Milton had then aO but completed his sixteenth year, and 
was as scholarly, as accomplished and as handsome a youth as 
St Paul's school had sent forth. We learn from himself that 
his exercises " in English or other tongue, prosing or versing, 
but chiefly this latter," had begun to attract attention eves 
in his boyhood. Of these poems the only spedroens that now 
remain are two copies of Latin verses, preserved in a common- 
place book of his (printed by the Camden Sodety in 1877), 
and his " Paraphrase on Psalm CXIV " and his " Paraphrase 00 
Psalm CXXXVI." At the age of sixteen years and two months, 
Biilton was entered as a student of Christ's College, Cambridge. 



MILTON 



481 



in the gnde of a "Lesser Pensbner/' and he matriculated 
two months later, on the 9th of April 1625. The master of 
Christ's was Dr Thomas Bainbrigge; and among the thirteen 
fellows were Joseph Meade, still remembered as a commentator 
on the Apocalypse, and William Chappell, afterwards an Irish 
bishop. It was under Chappell's tutorship that Milton was 
placed when he first entered the college. At least three students 
who entered Christ'^s after Milton, but during hb residence, 
deserve mention. One was Edward King, a youth of Irish 
birth and high Irish connexions, who entered in 1626, at the 
age of fourteen, another was John Cleveland, afterwards known 
as royalist and satirist, who entered in 2627; and the third was 
Henry More, subsequently famous as the Cambridge Platonist, 
who entered in 163 1, just before Milton left. Milton's own 
brother, Christopher, joined him in the college in February 
i63»-i63x, at the age of fifteen. 

Milton's academic course lasted seven years and five months, 
bringing him from his seventeenth year to his twenty-fourth. 
The first four years were his time of undergraduateship.. It 
was in the second of these — the year X626 — that there occurred 
the quarrel between him and his tutor, Chappell, which Dr 
Johnson, making the most of a lax tradition from Aubrey, 
magnified into the supposition that Milton may have been one 
of the last students in either of the English universities that 
suffered the indignity of corporal punishment. The legend 
deserves no credit; but it is certain that Milton, on account 
of some disagreement with Chappell, left college for a time, 
though he did not lose his term; and that when he did return, 
he was transferred from the tutorship of Chappell to that of 
Nathaniel Tovey. From the first of the Latin elegies one infers 
that the cause of the quarrel was some outbreak of self-assertion 
on Milton's part. We learn indeed, from words of his own 
elsewhere, that it was not only Chappell and Bainbrigge that 
he had offended by his independent demeanour, but that, 
for the first two or three years of his undergraduateship, he was 
generally unpopular, for the same reason, among the younger 
men of his college. They had nicknamed him '* the Lady " 
— a nickname which the students of the other colleges took up, 
converting it into " the Lady of Christ's "; and, though the 
allusion was chiefly to the peculiar grace of his personal appear- 
ance, it conveyed also a sneer at what the rougher men thought 
his unusual prudishness, the haughty fastidiousness of his 
tastes and morals. A change in this state of things had certainly 
occurred before January 1628-1629, when, at the age of twenty, 
he took his bA. degree. By that time his intellectual pre- 
eminence had come to be acknowledged. His reputation 
for scholarship and literary genius, extraordinary even then, 
was more than confirmed during the remaining three years 
and a half of his residence in Cambridge. A fellowship in 
Christ's which fell vacant in 1630 would undoubtedly have 
been his had the election to such posts depended then absolutely 
on merit. As it was, the fellowship was conferred, by royal 
favour on Edward King, his junior in college standing by sixteen 
months. In July 1632 Milton completed his career at the 
university by taking his M.A. degree. Tradition still points 
out Milton's rooms at Christ's College. They arc on the first 
floor on the first stair on the north side of the great court. 

Of Maton's skill at Cambridge, in what Wood calls " the 
coUeg^te and academical exercises," specimens remain in 
his Prolusumes quacdam oratofiae. They consist of seven 
ihctorical Latin essays, generally in a whimsical vein, delivered 
by him, either in the hall df Christ's College or in the public 
^versity schools. To Milton's Cambridge period belong 
four of his Latin " Familiar Epbtles," and the greater number 
of his preserved Latin poems, including: (i) the seven pieces, 
^ttCQ in 2626, which compose his EUgiarum libera two of 
the most interesting of them addressed to his friend, Charles 
^^^U, and one to his former tutor, Young, in his exile at Ham- 
'^; (2) the five short Gunpowder Plot epigrams, now appended 
^ the EUgits; and (3) the first five pieces of the Sylvarum liber, 
^ most important of which are the hexameter poem " In 
quiotuQi novembris " (1626), and the piece entitled Naturam 



nan pail setHum (1628). Of the English poems of the Cambridge 
period the following is a dated list: "On the Death of a fair 
Infant " (1625-1626), the subject being the death of the first-bom 
child of his sister Anne Phillips; ** At a Vacation Exercise in 
the College" (1628), the magnificent Christmas ode; "On the 
Morning of Christ's Nativity " (1629) ; the fragment called " The 
Passion" and the "Song on May Morning," both probably 
bek>nging to 1630; the sonnet " On Shakespeare," certainly 
belonging to that year, printed in the Shakespeare folio of 1632; 
the two facetious pieces " On the University Carrier " (1630- 
163 1); the "Epitaph on the Marchioness of Winchester" 
(163X); the sonnet "To the Nightingale," probably of the 
same year; the sonnet "On arriving at the Age of twenty- 
three," dating itself certainly in December 1631. 

Just before Milton quitted Cambridge, his father, then verging 
on his seventieth year, had practically retired from his Bread 
Street business, leaving the acUve management of it to a partner, 
named Thomas Bower, a former apprentice of his, and had 
gone to spend his declining years at Horton in Buckinghamshire, 
a small village near Colnbrook, and not far from Windsor. Here, 
in a house close to Horton church, Milton mainly resided for 
the next six years— from July 1632 to April 1638. 

Although, when he had gone to Cambridge, it had been with 
the intention of becoming a clergyman, that intenUon had been 
abandoned. His reasons were that " tyranny had invaded 
the church," and that, finding he could not honestly subscribe 
the oaths and obligations required he " thought it better to 
preserve a blameless silence before the sacred office of speaking, 
begun with servitude and forswearing."^ In other words, 
he was disgusted with the system which Laud was establishing 
and maintaining in the Church of England. " Church-outed 
by the prelates," as he emphatically expresses it, he seems to 
have thought for a time of the law, but he decided that the 
only life possible for himself was one dedicated wholly to scholar- 
ship and literature. His compunctions on this subject, expressed 
already in his sonnet on arriving at his twenty-third year, are 
expressed more at length in an English letter of which two 
drafts are preserved in Trinity College, Cambridge, sent by 
him, shortly after the date of that sonnet, and with a copy 
of the sonnet included, to some friend who had been remon- 
strating with him on his " belatedness " and his persistence 
in a life of mere dream and study. There were gentle remon- 
strances also from his excellent father. Between such a father 
and such a son, however, the conclusion was easy. What it 
was may be learnt from Milton's fine Latin poem Ad patrem. 
There, in the nudst of an enthusiastic recitation of all that his 
father had done for him hitherto, it is intimated that the agree- 
ment between them on their one httle matter of difference was 
already complete, and that, as the son was bent on a private 
life of literature and poetry, it had been decided that he should 
have his own way, and should in fact, so long as he chose, be 
the master of his father's means and the chief person in the 
Horton household. For the six years from 1632 this, accordingly, 
was Milton's position. In perfect leisure, and in a pleasant 
rural retirement, with Windsor at the distance of an easy walk, 
and London only about 17 m. off, he went through, he tells 
us, a systematic course of reading in the Greek and Latin classics, 
varied by mathematics, music, and the kind of physical science 
we should now call cosmography. 

It is an interesting fact that Milton's very first public appear- 
ance in the world of English authorship was in so honourable 
a place as the second folio edition of Shakespeare in 1632. His 
enthusiastic eulogy on Shakespeare, written in 1630, was one 
of three anonymous pieces prefixed to that second folio. Among 
the poems actually written by Milton at Horton the first, 
in all probability, after the Latin hexameters Ad patrem, were 
the exquisite companion pieces V Allegro and // Penseroso. 
There followed, in or about 1633, the fragmeAt called Arcades. 
It was part of a pastoral masque performed by the young people 
of the noble family of Egerton before the countess-dowager 

I * Sec the preface to Book IT. of his Reasm of Church Covemmeut 
I (1641-1642), which is of great biographical interest. 



482 



MILTON 



of Derby, at her mansion of Harefield, about xo m. from 
Horton. That Milton contributed the words for the enter- 
tainment was, almost certainly, owing to his friendship with 
Henry Lawes, who supplied the music. Next in order among 
the compositions at Horton may be mentioned the three short 
pieces, " At a Solemn Music," ** On Time," and " Upon the 
Circumcision "; after which comes Comus, the largest and 
most important of all Milton's minor poems. The name by 
which that beautiful drama is now universally known was not 
given to it by Milton himself. He entitled it, more simply 
and vaguely, " A Masque presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634, 
on Michaelmas night, before John Earl of Bridgewater, Lord 
President of Wales " (1637). The earl of Bridgewater, the 
head of the Egerton family, had been appointed president 
of the council of Wales; among the festivities on his assumption 
of the office, a great masque was arranged in the hall of Ludlow 
Castle, his official residence. Lawes supplied the music and 
was stage manager; he applied to Milton for the poetry; and 
on Michaelmas night, the 39th of September 1634, the drama 
furnished by Milton was performed in Ludlow Castle before a 
great assemblage of the nobility and gentry of the Welsh princi- 
pality, Lawes taking the part of "the attendant spirit," while 
the parts of " first brother," " second brother " and " the lady," 
were taken by the earl's three youngest children, Viscount 
Brack]ey,Mr Thomas Egerton and Lady Alice Egerton. 

From September 1634 to the beginning of 1637 is a compara- 
tive blank in our records. Straggling incidents in this blank 
are a Latin letter of date December 4, 1634, to Alexander 
Gill the younger, a Greek translation of " Psalm CXIV.," a visit 
to Oxford in 1635 for the purpose of incorporation in the degree 
of M.A. in that university, and the beginning in May 1636 of a 
troublesome lawsuit against his now aged and infirm father. 
The lawsuit, which was instituted by a certain Sir Thomas 
Cotton, bart., nephew and executor of a deceased John Cotton, 
Esq., accused the elder Milton and his. partner Bower, or 
both, of having, in their capacity as scriveners, misappro- 
priated divers large sums of money that had been entrusted 
to them by the deceased Cotton to be let out at interest. 

The lawsuit was still in progress when, on the 3rd of April 
1637, Milton's mother died, at the age of about sixty-five. A 
flat blue stone, with a brief inscription, visible on the chancel-, 
pavement of Horton church, still marks the place of her burial. 
Milton's testimony to her character is that she was " a most 
excellent mother and. particularly known for her charities 
through the neighbourhood." The year 1637 was otherwise 
eventful. It was in that year that his Comus, after lying in 
manuscript for more than two years, was published by itself, 
in the form of a small quarto of thirty-five pages. The author's 
name was withheld, and the entire responsibility of the publica- 
tion was assumed by Henry Lawes. Milton seems to have 
been in London when the little volume appeared. He was a 
good deal in London, at all events, during the summer and 
autumn months immediately following his mother's death. 
The plague, which had been on one of its periodical visits of 
ravage through England since early in the preceding year, was 
then especially severe in the Horton neighbourhood, while 
London was comparatively free. It was probably in London 
that Milton heard of the death of Edward King, who had sailed 
from Chester for a vacation visit to his relatives in Ireland, 
when, on the loth of August, the ship in perfectly calm water 
struck on a rock and went down,, he and nearly all the other 
passengers going down with her. There is no mention of this 
event in Milton's two Latin ** Familiar Epistles " of September 
1637, addressed to his friend Charles Diodati, and dated from 
London; but in November 2637, and probably at Horton, 
he wrote his matchless pastoral monody of Lycidas. It was his 
contribution to a collection of obituary verses, Greek, Latin 
and English, inscribed to the memory of Edward King by his 
numerous friends, at Cambridge and elsewhere. The collection 
appeared early in 1638. The second part contained thirteen 
English poems, the last of which was Milton's monody, signed 
only with his initials " J. M." 



Milton was then on the wing for a foreign tour. He had 
long set his heart on a visit to Italy, and circumstances now 
favoured his wish. The vexatious Cotton lawsuit, after tiang iwg 
on for nearly two years, was at an end, as far as the elder Milton 
was concerned, with the most absolute and honourable vindica- 
tion of his character for probity, though with some continuation 
of the case against his partner. Bower. Moreover, Milton's 
younger brother Christopher, though but twenty-two years of 
age. and just about to be called to the bar of the Inner Temple, 
had married ; and the young couple had gone to reside at Horton 
to keep the old man company. 

Before the end of April 1638 Milton was on his way across 
the channel, taking one English man-servant with him. At 
the time of his departure the last great news in En^and was 
that of the National Scottish Covenant. To Charles the news 
of this "damnable Covenant," as he called it, was enraging 
beyond measure; but to the mass of the English Puritans it 
was far from unwelcome, promising, as it seemed to do, for 
England herself, the subversion at last of that system of 
" Thorough," or despotic government by the king and his 
ministers without parliaments, under which the country had 
been groaning since the contemptuous dissolution of Charles's 
third parliament ten years before. Through Paris, where 
Milton received polite attention from the English ambassador. 
Lord Scudamore, and had the honour of an introduction to 
the famous Hugo Grotius, then ambassador for Sweden at the 
French court, he moved on rapidly to Italy, by way of Nice. 
After visiting Genoa, Leghorn and Pisa, he arrived at Florence, 
in August 1638. Enchanted by the dty and its society, he 
remained there two months,^ frequenting the chief academics 
or literary clubs, and even taking part in their proceedings. 
Among the Florentines with whom he became intimate 
were Jacopo Gaddi, founder of an academy called the SvogUati, 
young Carlo Dati, author of VUe tW piUori atttickit Pietro 
Frescobaldi, Agostino Coltellini^ the founder of the Academy 
of the Apatisti, the grammarian Benedetto Buomnuttei, 
Valerio Chimentelli, afterwards professor of Greek at Piss, 
Antonio Frandni and Antonio Malatesti It was in the neigh- 
bourhood of Florence also that he " found and visited " the 
great Galileo, then old and blind, and still nominally a piiaoncr 
to the Inquisition for his astronomical heresy.' 

By way of Florence and Siena, he reached Rome some time 
in October, and spent about another two months there, not onfy 
going about among the ruins and antiquiu'es and visiting the 
galleries, but mixing also, as he had done in Florence, with the 
learned society of the academies. Among those with whom be 
formed acquaintance in Rome were the German scholar, Lucss 
Holstenius, librarian of the Vatican, and three' native Italisa 
scholars, named Alessandro Ch^rubini, Giovanni SaLdlli and 
a certain Selvaggi. There is record of hb having dined once, 
in company with several other Englishmen, at the hospitable 
table of the English Jesuit College. The post picturesque 
incident, however, of his. stay in Rome was his presence at a 
great musical entertainment in the palace of Cardinal Francesco 
Barberini. Here he had not only the honour of a. specially kind 
reception by the cardinal himself, but also, it would appear, 
the supreme pleasure of listening to the marvellous Leonora 
Baroni, the most renowned singer of her age. 

Late in November he left Rome for Naples. Here he oset the 
aged Giovanni Battista Manso, marquis of Villa (1560-1645V 
the friend and biographer of Tasso, andsubsequently the friend 
and patron of Marini. He had hardly been in Naples a month, 
however, when there came news Jrom England which not only 
stopped an intention he had formed of extending his tour to 
Sicily and thence into Greece, but urged his immediate rctuis 
home. "The sad news of civil war in England," he sajrs, 
" called me back; for I considered it base that, while my feUow- 
cuuntrymen were fighting at home for liberty, I should be 
travelling at my ease for intellectual culture" • {Drfemsh 
secunda). In December 1638, therefore, he set hbface norwards 

*Thit interview forms the subject of one of W. & 
JmaBMory Cowtrsatums. 



MILTON 



483 



a^dn. ' Hb retimi faamgyi bowever," probably because be 
leant that the. news he had first received was exaggerated 
or pranature, was broken into stages. He spent a second 
January and February (163S-Z639) in Rome, in some danger, he 
says, ^m the papal police, because the English Jesuits in 
Rome had taken offence at his habit of free speech, wherever 
he went, on the subject of religion. From Rome he went to 
Fbrence, his second visit to the dty, including an excursion 
to Locca, extending ovtf two months; and not till April 1639 did 
he take his leave, and proceed, by Bologna and Ferrara, to 
Venice. About a month was given to Venice; and thence, 
having shipped for England the books he had Collected in Italy, 
he went on, by Verona and Milan, over the Alps, to Geneva. 
In this Protestant dty he spent a week or two in Jxme, forming 
interesting acquaintanceships there too, and having dafly 
converaations with the great Protestant theologian Dr Jean 
Dsodati, the uncle of his friend Charles BiodatL From Geneva 
he retuiiied to Paris, and so to England. He was home again in 
August 1639, having been absent in all fifteen or sixteen 
months. 

Hilton's Continental tour, and espedaOy the Italian portion 
of it, whidi he describes at some length in his Defensio secunda, 
remained one of the chief pleasures of his memory through 
an his subsequent life. Nor was it irithout fruits of a literary 
kind. Besides two of his Latin Epistolae familiares, one 
to the Florentine grammarian Buonunattel, and the other tb 
Lucas Holstenius, there have to be assigned to Milton's sixteen 
months on the Continent his three Latin epignsnsAdLeonaram 
Rtnmae canenUm, his Latin scazons Ad SalsiUum poetam romanum 
atg^otaniem, his fine Latin hexameters entitled MonsuSt ad- 
dressed to Giovanni BattisU Manso, and his five Italian sonnets, 
with a canzone, in praise of a Bok)gnese lady. 

Hb bosom friend and companion from boyhood, Charles 
DiodatI, died in Blackfriars, London, in August 1638, not 
four months after Milton had gone away on his tour. The 
inteUigence did not reach Milton till some months afterwards, 
probably not till his second stay in Florence; and, though he 
must have learnt some of the particulars from his friend's unde 
in Geneva, he xlid not know them fully till his return to En^and. 
How profoundly they affected him appears from his Epitapkium 
Damonis, then written in memory of his dead friend. The 
importance of this poem in Milton's biography cannot be 
overrated. It is perhaps the noblest of all his Latin poems; 
and, though written in the artificial manner of a pastoral, it is un- 
mistakably an outburst of the most passionate personal grief. 
In this respect Lycidast artistically perfect though that poem 
is, caimot be compared with it; and it is only the fact that 
Lycidas is in English, whQe the Epitapkium Damonis is in Latin, 
that has led to the notion that Edward King of Christ's College 
was peculiarly and pre-eminently the friend of Milton in his 
youth and early manhood. 

We should not have known, but for an inddental passage 
in the Epttaphium DamonUt that, at the time of his return 
from Italy, he had chosen a subject for a great poem from the 
Anbnrian legend. The passage (lines 160-178) is one in which, 
^ler referring to the hopes of Diodati's medical career so 
suddenly cut short by his death, Milton speaks of himself 
ud of his own projects in kis profession of literature. Milton 
^'Tote that he was meditating an epic of which King Arthur was 
to be the central figure, but which should include somehow 
the whole cycle of British and Arthurian legend. This epic 
*tt to be in English, and he had resolved that all his poetry 
^ the future should be in the same tongue. 

Not k>ng after Milton's return the house at Horton ceased 
<o be the family home. Christopher Milton and his wife went 
(0 reside at Reading, taking the old gentleman with them, while 
Milton himself preferred London. He had first taken lodgings 
'^ St Bride's Churchyard, at the foot of Fleet Street; but, 
^^ a while, probably early in 1640, he removed to a " pretty 
ttfden bouse " of his own, at the end of an entry, in the part 
ofAldersgate Street which lies immediately on the dty side 
Of what is DOW Maidenhead Court. His sister, whose ^rst 



husband had diied in X63X, had married a Mr. Thomas Agar; 
his successor in the Crown Office; and it was arranged that 
her two sons by her first husband should be educated by their 
unde. John Phillips, the youn^r of them, only nine years 
old, had boarded with him in the St Bride's Churchyard lodgings; 
and, after the removal to Aldersgate Street, the other brother, 
Edward PhiUips, only a year older, became h^ boarder also. 
Gradually a few other boys, the sons of well-to-do personal 
friends, ^ined the two PhiUipses, whether as bctarders or for 
daily lesson^ so that the. house in Aldersgate Street became 
a small private school. 

The Arthurian epic had been ^en up, and his mind was 
roving among many other subjects, and balandng their capa- 
bilities. How he wavered between Biblical subjects and heroic 
subjects from British history, and how many of each kind 
suggested themsdves to him, one learns from a list in his own 
handwriting among the Milton MSS. at Cambridge. It contains 
jottings of no fewer than fifty-three subjects from the Old 
Testament, eight from the Gospels, thirty-three from British 
«nd English history before the Conquest, and five from Scottish 
history. It is curious that all 6r most of them are headed or 
described as subjects for " tragedies," as if the epic form had 
now been abandoned for the dramatic. There are four separate 
drafts of a possible tragedy on the Greek modd under the title 
ol Parodist Lost^ two of them merdy enumerating the dramatis 
personae, but the last two indicating the plot and the division 
into acts. In 1641 he wrote in the Reason of Ckurck Government 
that he was meditating a poem on high moral or religious subjects. 
But the fulfilment of these plans was indefinitdy postponed. 
Milton became absorbed in the ecdesiastical controversies 
foOowing on the king's attempt to force the episcopal system 
on the Scots. 

Of the first proceedings of the Long Parluunent, induding 
the trial and execution of Strafford, the impeachment and 
imprisonment of Laud and others, and the breakdown of the 
system of Thorough by miscellaneous reforms and by guarantees 
for parliamentary liberty, Milton was only a spectator. It 
was when the church question emerged distinctly as the question 
paramoxmt, and there had arisen divisions on that question 
among those who had been practically unanimous in matters 
of d^ reform, that he jJungcd m as an active adviser. There 
were three parties on the church question. There was a high- 
church party, contending for episcopacy by divine right, 
and for the maintenance of English episcopacy very much 
as it was; there was a middle party, defending episcopacy 
on grounds of usage and expediency, but desiring to see the 
powers of bishops greatly airtailed, and a limited episcopacy, 
with councils of presbyters round each bishop, substituted 
for the existing high episcopacy; and there was the root-and> 
branch party, as it called itself, desiring the entire abolition 
of episcopacy and the reconstruction of the English Church 
on something like the Scottish Presbyterian model. Since the 
opening of the parliament there had been a storm of pamphlets 
from these three parties. The manifesto of the high-church 
.party was a pamphlet by Joseph Hall, bishop of Exeter, entitled 
" Humble Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament." 
In answer to Hall, and in representation of the views of the root- 
and-branch party, there had stepped forth, in March 1640-1641, 
five leading Puritan parish ministers, the initials of whose 
names, dubbed together on the title-page of their joint pro- 
duction^ made the uncouth word " Smectymnuus." These 
'were Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, 
Matthew NewComen and William Spurstow. Thomas Young 
was the Scottish divine who had b^n Milton's tutor in Bread 
Street; he had returned from Hamburg in 1628, and had been 
appointed to the vicarage of Stowmarket in Suffolk. The 
famous Smectynmuan pamphlet in reply to Hall was mainly 
Young's; What is more interesting is that his old pupil Milton 
was secretly in partnership with him and his brother-Smec- 
tymnuans. Milton's hand is discernible in a portion of the 
original Smectynmuan pamphlet; and be continued to aid the 
Smectymnuans in their subsequent rejoinders to Hall's defences^ 



484 



MILTON 



of himself. In May 1641 he put forth a defence of the Smec- 
tymnuan side in 0/ ReformatioH touching Church Discipline in 
England and the Causes that hitherto have hindered it. He 
reviewed English ecclesiastical history, with an appeal to his 
countrymen to resume that course of reformation which he 
considered to have been prematurely stopped in the preceding 
century, and to sweep away the last relics of papacy and prelacy. 
Among all the root-and-branch pamphlets of the time it stood 
out, and stands out still, as the most thorough-going and 
tremendous. It was followed by four others in rapid succession, 
— Of Prdatical Episcopacy and whether it may he deduct from 
the Apostolical Times (June 1641), Animadversions upon the 
Remonstrant's Defence against Smectymnuus (July 1641), The 
Reason of Church Government urged against Prdaty (Feb. 
1641-1642), Apology against a Pamphlet coiled a Modest Confuta- 
tion of the Animadversions, &c. (March and April Z64X-X642). 
The first of these was directed chiefly against that middle party 
which advocated a limited episcopacy, with especial reply to 
the arguments of Archbishop Ussher, as the chief exponent of 
the views of that party. Two of the others, as the titles imply, 
belong to the Smectymnuan series, and were castigations of 
Bishop Hall. The greatest of the four, and the most important 
of all Milton's anti-episcopal pamphlets after the first, is that 
entitled The Reason of Church Government. It is there that 
Milton takes his readers into his confidence, speaking at length 
of himself and his motives in becoming a controversialist. 
Poetry, he declares, was his real vocation; it was with reluctance 
that he had resolved to " leave a calm and pleasing solitariness, 
fed with cheerful and confident thoughts, to embark in a 
troubled sea of noises and hoarse disputes"; but duty had 
left him no option. The great poem or poems he had been 
meditating could wait; and meanwhile, though in prose- 
polemics be had the use only of his " left hand," that hand 
should be used with all its might in the cause of his country 
and of liberty. The Apology was in answer to a Modest 
Confutation of a Slanderous and Scurrilous Libel, the joint work 
of Hall and his son, attacking Milton's personal character. 
The pariiament had advanced in the root-and-branch direction 
so far as to have passed a bill for the exclusion of bishops from 
the House of Lords, and compelled the king's assent to that 
bill, when, in August 1642, the further struggle between Charles 
and his subjects took the form of civil war. The Long Parlia- 
ment moved on more and more rapidly in the root-and-branch 
direction, till, by midsummer 1643, the abolition of episcopacy 
had been decreed, and the question of the future non-prelatic 
constitution of the Church of England referred to a synod of 
divines, to meet at Westminster under parliamentary authority. 
Of Milton's life through those first months of the Civil War 
little is known. He remained in his house in Aldersgate Street, 
teaching his nephews and other pupils; and the only scrap 
that came from his pen was the semi-jocose sonnet bearing the 
title " When the Assault was intended to the City." In the 
summer of 1643, however, there was a great change in the 
Aldersgate Street household. About the end of May, as his 
nephew Edward Phillips remembered, Milton went away on a 
country journey, without saying whither or for what purpose; 
and, when he returned, about a month afterwards, it was with 
a young wife, and with some of her sisters and other relatives in 
her company. He had, in fact, been in the very headquarters 
of the king and the Royalist army in and round Oxford; and 
the bride he brought back with him was a Mary Powell, the 
eldest daughter of Richard Powell, of Forest Hill, near Oxford. 
She was the third of a family of eleven sons and daughters, 
of good standing, but in rather embarrassed circumstances, 
and was seventeen years and four months old, while Milton 
was in his thirty-fifth year. However the marriage came about, 
it was a most unfortunate event. The Powell family were 
strongly Royalist, and the girl herself seems to have been 
frivolous, and entirely unsuited for the studious life in Alders- 
gate Street. Hardly were the honeymoon festivities over, 
wAen, bcr sisters and other relatives having returned to Forest 
Hil/ and left her alone with her husband, she pined iot Viomt 



again and begged to be allowed to go back on a visit MOtoo 
consented, on the understanding that the visit was to be a brief 
one. This seems to have been in July 1643- Soon, however, 
the intimation from Forest Hill was that he need not look ever 
to have his wife in his house again. The resolution seems to 
have been mainly the girl's own; but, as the king's cause was 
then prospering in the field, Edward Phillips was probably 
right in his conjecture that the whole of the Powell family 
had repented of their sudden connexion with so prominent 
a Parliamentarian and assailant of the Church of England as 
Milton. While his wife was away, his old father, who had 
been residing for three years with his younger and lawyer 
son at Reading, came to take up his quarters in Aldersgate 
Street. 

Milton's conduct under the insult of his wife's desertion 
was most characteristic. Always fearless and speculative, 
he converted his own case into a public protest against the 
existing law and theory of marriage. The Doctrine and Disci- 
pline of Divorce, Restored to the good of both Sexes from the Bandage 
of Canon Law and other Mistakes was the title of a pamphlet 
put forth by him in August 1643, without his name, but with 
no effort at concealment, declaring the notion of a sacramental 
sanctity in the marriage relation to be a clerically invented 
superstition, and arguing that inherent incompatibility of char- 
acter, or contrariety of mind, between two married persons is a 
perfectly just reason for divorce. If the date, the ist of August, 
is correct, the pamphlet must have been written almost immedi- 
ately on his wife's departure and before her definite refusal 
to return. There was no reference to his own case, except by 
implication; but the boldness of the speculation roused attentioo 
and sent a shock through London. It was a time when the 
authors of heresies of this sort, or of any sort, ran considerable 
risks. The famous Westminster Assembly of Divines, called 
by the Long Parliament, met on the ist of July 1643. Whether 
Milton's divorce tract was formally disctissed in the Assembly' 
during the first months of its sitting is unknown; but it is certain 
that the London clergy, including not a few members of the 
Assembly, were then angrily discussing it in private. That 
there might be no obstacle to a more public prosecution, Milton 
put his name to a second and much enlarged edition af the 
tract, in February 1644, dedicated openly to the parliament 
and the assembly. Then, for a month or two, during which 
the gossip about him and his monstrous doctrine was 
spreading more and more, he turned his attention to other 
subjects. 

Among the questions in agitation in the general fennent 
of opinion brought about by the Civil War was that of a refom 
of the national system of education and especially of the univer> 
sities. To this question Milton made a contribution in Jane 
1644, in a small treatise. Of Education, in the form of a letter 
to Samuel Harth'b, a German then resident in London and 
interesting himself busily in all philanthropic projects and 
schemes of social reform. In the very next month, however, 
July 1644, he returned to the divorce subject in a pamphlet 
addressed specially to the clergy and entitled The Judgmat 
of Martin Bucer concerning Divorce. The outcry against him 
then reached its height. He was attacked in p^unphkis; 
he was denounced in pulpits all through London, and especially 
by Herbert Palmer in a sermon preached on the X3th of Atigust, 
before the two Houses of Parliament; strenuous efforts were 
made to bring him within definite parliamentary censure. In 
the cabal formed against him for this purpose a leading part 
was played, at the instigation of the clergy, by the Stationers' 
Company of London, which had a plea of its own against hia 
on the ground that his doctrine was not only immoral, but had 
been put forth in an illegal manner. His first divoroe treatise, 
though publish^ immediately after the " Printing Ordinance " 
of the parliament of the 14th of June 1643, requiring all pubiica' 
tions to be licensed for press by one of the official censors, and to 
be registered in the books of the Stationers* Company, hsd 
been issued without license and without registration. CuOh 
, pVaml to this effect was made against Milton, with some othoi 



MILTON 



485 



GaUe to the same charge of cootempt of the printing ordinance, 
in a petition of the Stationers of the House of Commons in 
August 1644; and the matter came before committee both in 
that House and in the Lords. 

It b to this circumstance that the world owes the most 
popular and eloquent, if not the greatest, of all Milton's prose 
writings, his famous Areopag}tica, a Speech of Mr John Milton 
for Ike Liberty of Unlicensed Printing, to the Parliament of 
Eng^nd. It appeared on the 25th of November 1644, deliber- 
ately unlicensed and unregistered, and was a remonstrance 
addressed to the parliament, as if in an oration to them 
face to face, against their ordinance of June 1643 and the 
whole system of licensing and censorship of the press. Nobly 
eulogistic of the parliament in other respects, it denounced their 
printing ordinance as utterly unworthy of them, and of the 
new era of English liberties which they were initiating, and 
called for its repeal. Though that effect did not follow, the 
pamphlet virtually accomplished its purpose. The licensing 
system had received its death-blow; and, though the Stationers 
returned to the charge in another complaint to the House of 
Lords, Milton's offence against the press ordinance was condoned. 
He was still assailed in pamphleU, and found himself " in a 
world of disestecm "; but he lived on through the winter of 
1644/5 undisturbed in his house in Aldersgate Street. To 
this period there belong, in the shape of verse, only his tonnets 
ix. and x., the first to some anonymous lady, and the second 
*'to the Lady Margaret Ley," with perhaps the Greek lines 
entitled PkUosophus ad regem quendam. His divorce specula- 
tion, however, still occupied him; and in March 1644/5 ^^ 
published simultaneously his Tetrachordon: Expositions upon 
the fowr chief places of Scripture which treat of Marriage, and his 
CoUxsterum, a Reply to a nameless Anstoer against the Doctrine 
and Discipline of Divorce, In these he replied to his chief recent 
assailants, lay and clerical, with merciless severity. 

Through the latter part of 1644, Milton had been saved from 
the penalties which his Presbyterian opponents would have 
inflicted on him by the general championship of liberty of 
opinion by Cromwell and the army Independents. Before 
the middle of 1645 he, with others who were on the black books 
of the Presbyterians as heretics, was safer still. Milton's 
position after the battle of Nascby may be easily understood. 
Though his first tendency on the Church question had been to 
some form <d a Presbyterian constitution for the Church, he 
had parted utterly now from the Scots and Presbyterians, 
and become a partisan of Independency, having no dread of 
*' sects and schisms," but regarding them rather as healthy 
signs in the English body-politic. He was, indeed, himself one 
of the most noted sectaries of the time, for in the lists of sects 
drawn out by contemporary Presbyterian writers special 
mention is made of one small sect who were known as Miltonists 
or Ditorcers. 

So far as Milton was concerned personally, his interest in 
the divorce speculation came to an end in July or August 1645, 
when, by frtendly interference, a reconciliation was effected 
between him and his wife. The ruin of the king's cause at 
Naseby had suggested to the Powells that it might be as well 
for their daughter to go back to her husband after their two 
years of separation. It was not, however, I'n the house in 
Aldersgate Street that she rejoined him, but in a larger house, 
which he had taken in the adjacent street called Barbican, 
for the accommodation of an increasing number of pupils. 

The house in Barbican was tenanted by Milton from about 
August 1645 to September or October 1647. Among his first 
occupations there must have been the revision of the proof 
sheets of the first edition of his collected poems. It appeared 
as a tiny volume, copies of which are now very rare, with the 
title, Poems of Mr John Milton, both English and Latin, composed 
at several times. Printed by his true Copies. The songs were 

set in Mustek by Mr Henry Lawes The title-page gives the 

date 1645, but the and of January 1645/6 seems to have 
been the exact day of its publication. Whether because his 
p^rfayy/' duties now engrossed him or for other reasons, very I 



few new pieces were added in the Barbican to those that the 
little volume had thus made public In English, there were 
only the four sonnets now numbered xi.-xiv., the first two 
entitled " On the Detraction which followed upon my writing 
certain Treatises," the third "To Mr Henry Lawes on his 
Airs," and the fourth " To the Religious Memory of Mrs Catherine 
Thomson," together with the powerful anti-Presbyterian 
invective or " tailed sonnet " entitled " On the New Forcers 
of Conscience under the Long Parliament "; and in Latin there 
were only the ode Ad Joannem Rousium, the Apologus de 
Rustico et Hero, and one interesting *' Familiar EpisUe " (April 
1647) addressed to his Floreptine friend Carlo Dati. 

Some family incidents of importance belong to this time of 
residence in Barbican. The fall of Oxford in 1646 compelled 
the whole of the Powell family to seek refuge in London, and 
most of them found shelter in Milton's house. His first child, 
a daughter named Anne, was bom there on the 29th of July 
that year; on the ist of January 1646/7 his father-in-law 
Richard Powell died there, leaving his affairs in confusion; and 
in the following March his own father died there, at the age 
of eighty-four, and was buried in the adjacent church of St 
Giles, Cripplegate. 

From Barbican Milton removed, in September or October 
1647, to a smaller house in that part of High Holborn which 
adjoins Lincoln's Inn Fields. His Powell relatives had now left 
him, and he had reduced the number of his pupils, or perhaps 
kept only his two nephews. But, though thus more at leisure, 
he did not yet resume his projected poem, but occupied himself 
rather with three works of scholarly labour which he had already 
for some time had on hand. One was the compilation in English 
of a complete history of England, or rather of Great Britain, 
from the earliest times; another was the preparation in Latin 
of ^ complete system of divinity, drawn directly from the Bit^e; 
and the third was the collection of materials for a new Latin 
dictionary. Milton had always a fondness for such labours of 
scholarship and compilation. Of a poetical kind there is nothing 
to record, during his residence in High Holborn, but an experi- 
ment in psalm-translation, in the shape of Ps. Ixxx.-Uxxviii. 
done into service-metre in April 1648, and the sonnet to Fairfax, 
written in September of the same year. 

The crushing defeat of the Scottish army by Cromwell in the 
three days' battle of Preston (1648) and the simultaneous 
suppression of the English Royalist insurrection in the south- 
east counties by Fairfax's siege and capture of Colchester, left 
King Charles at the mercy of the victors. Milton's sonnet 
"On the Lord General Fairfax, at the siege of Colchester," 
attested the exultation of the writer at the triumph of the 
parliamentary cause. His exultation continued through what 
followed. When the king was beheaded (1649) the first English- 
man of mark out of parliament to attach himself openly to the 
new republic was John Milton. This he did by the publication 
of his pamphlet entitled "Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, 
proving that it is lawful, and hath been held so in all ages, for 
any who have the power, to call to account a T>Tant or wicked 
King, and, after due conviction, to depose and put him to death, 
if the ordinary Magistrate have neglected or denied to do it." 
It was out within a fortnight after the king's death, and was 
Milton's last performance in the house in High Holborn. The 
chiefs of the new republic could not but perceive the importance 
of securing the services of a distinguished man who had so 
opportunely and so powerfully spoken out in favour of their 
tremendous act. In March 1649, accordingly, Milton was 
offered, and accepted, the secretar>'ship for foreign tongues to 
the council of state of the new Commonwealth. The salary 
was to be j[ 2 88 a year (worth about £1000 a year now). To be 
near his new duties in attendance on the council, which held 
its daily sittings for the first few weeks in Derby House, close to 
Whitehall, but afterwards regularly in Whitehall itself, he 
removed at once to temporary lodgings at Charing Cross. In 
the very first meetings of council which Milton attended \\^ 
must have made personal acc\Ma\Yv\.wvct V\\Xi "^ttisv^tTA. "^^-a.^- 
shaw, Fairfax, CromweU Vnmst\i, ^m 'atwj \^s«.,\5^a\.^^0fcs.^ 



486 



MILTON 



Henry Marten, Haselrig, Sir Gflbert Pickering and the other 
chiefs of the council and the Commonwealth, if indeed he had 
not known some of them before. After a little while, for his 
greater convenience, official apartments were assigned him in 
WhitehaU itself. 

At the date of Milton's appointment to the secretaryship 
he was forty years of age. His spedal duty was the dnifting 
in Latin of letters sent by the council of state, or sometimes by 
the Rump Parliament, to foreign states and princes, with the 
examination and translation of letters in reply, and with 
personal conferences, when necessary, with the agents of foreign 
powers in London, and with envoys and ambassadors. As 
Latin was the language employed in the written diplomatic 
documents, his post came to be known indifferently as the 
secretaryship for foreign tongues or the Latin secretaryship. 
Li that post, however, his duties, more partictilarly at first, 
were very light in comparison with those of his official colleague, 
Walter Frost, the general secretary. Foreign powers held aloof 
from the English republic as much as they could; and, while 
Frost had to be present in every meeting of the council, keeping 
the minutes, and conducting all the general correspondence, 
Milton's presence was required only when some piece of foreign 
business turned up. Hence, from the first, his employment 
in very miscellaneous work. Especially, the coimcil looked to 
him for everything in the nature of literary vigilance and literary 
help in the interests of the struggling Commonwealth. He was 
employed in the examination of suspected papers, and in inter- 
views with their authors and printers; and he executed several 
great literary commissions expressly entrusted to him by the . 
council. The first of these was his pamphlet entitled Observa- 
turns on the Articles of Peace (between Ormonde and the Irish). 
It was published in May 1649, and was in defence of the republic 
against a complication of Royalist intrigues and dangers in 
Ireland. A passage of remarkable interest in it is one of eloquent 
eulogy on Cromwell. More important still was the EikonoUastes 
(which may be translated " Image-Smasher "), published by 
Milton in October 1649, by way of counterblast to the famous 
Eikon BasUike (" Roysd Image "), which had been in circulation 
in thousands of copies since the king's death, and had become a 
kind of Bible in all Royalist households, on the supposition that 
it had been written by the royal martyr himself (see GAtJOEN, 
John). In the end of 2649 there appeared abroad, under the 
title of Defensio regia pro Carolo I., a Latin vindication of the 
memory of Charles, with an attack on the English Common^ 
wealth. As it had been written, at the instance of the exiled 
royal family, by Salmasius, or Claude de Saumaise, of Leiden, 
then of enormous celebrity over Europe as the greatest scholar of 
his age, it was regarded as a serious blow to the infant Common- 
wealth. Milton threw his whole strength into a reply through 
the year 1650, interrupting himself only by a new and enlarged 
edition of his EikonoUastes. His Latin Pro populo anglicano 
defensio (165 1), ran at once over the British. Islands and the 
Continent, and was received by scholars as an annihilation of 
Salmasius. Through the rest of 1651 the observation was that 
the two agencies which had co-operated most visibly in raising 
the reputation of the Commonwealth abroad were Milton's books 
and Cromwell's battles. 

Through the eventful year 1651, in addition to the other duties 
of his secretaryship, Milton acted as licenser and superintending 
•editor of the Mercurius politicus, a ne^-spaper issued twice a 
week, of which Marchamont Nedham was the working editor 
and proprietor. Milton's hand is discemable in some of the 
leading articles. 

About the end of. 1651 MQtbii left his official rooms in White- 
hall for a " garden house " he had taken on the edge of St 
James's Park in what was then called Petty France, Westminster, 
but is now York Street. The house, afterwards 19 York Street, 
was occupied by James Mill and William Hazlitt in succession, 
and was not pulled down till 1877. Milton had now more to do 
la the spedal work of his office, in consequence of the increase 
of correspondence with foreign powers. But he had for some 
y/eotf been la ailing bealtb; find a Aimn^ai of eyeug)it ivbidi Yiad 



been growing upon him gradually for ten ytan had been 9tu3h^ 
rapidly, since his labour over the answer to Salmasius, into total 
blindnos. Before or about May 1653, when he was but in his 
forty-fourth year, his blindness became total, and he could go 
about only with some one to lead him. Hence a rearrangement 
of his secretarial duties. Such of these duties as he could per- 
form at home, or by occasional visits to the Council Office near, 
he continued to perform; but much of the routine woric was done 
for him by an assistant, a well-known German, George Rudolph 
Weckherlin, succeeded later by Philip Meadows and, eventually, 
by Andrew MarvelL Precisely to this time of a lull in Milton's 
secretaryship on accoimt of his ill-health and bUndneas we have 
to refer his two great companion sonnets "To the Lord General 
Cromwell " and " To Sir Henry Vane the Younger." 

In 1653 died his only son, who had been bom at Whitdiall in 
the March of the preceding year. His wife died in 1653/4, just 
after she had given birth to his third daughter, Deborah. With 
the three children thus left him — ^Aime, but six years old, Mary, 
not four, and the infant Deborah — the blind widower lived on in 
his house in Petty France in such desolation as can be imagined. 
He had recovered sufficiently to resume his secretarial duties; 
and the total number of his dictated state letters for the single 
year 1652 is equal to that of all the state letters of his preceding 
term of secretaryship put together. To the same year there 
belong also three of his Latin " Familiar Epistles." In Decem- 
ber 1652 there was published Joannis Pkilippi Ang^i response 
ad apologiatn anonymi cujusdam tenebrioniSt being a reply by 
Milton's younger nephew, John Phillips, but touched up by 
Milton himself, to one of Several pamphlets that had appeared 
against Milton for his slaughter of Salrnasius. 

In December 1653 Cromwell's formal sovereignty began under 
the name of the Protectorate, passing gradually into more than 
kingship. This change from Government by the Rump and its 
coimcil to government by a sing^ military lord protector and 
his council was regarded by many as treason to the republicaa 
cause, and divided those who had hitherto been the united 
Commonwealth's men into the " Pure Republicans," represented 
by such men as Bradshaw and Vane, and the " Oliverians, ** 
adhering to the Protector. Milton, whose boundless admiratkn 
of Cromwell had shown itself already in his Irish tract of 1649 
and in his recent sonnet, was recognized as one of the CXiverianib 
He remained in Oliver's service and was his Latin aecretaiy 
through the whole of the Protectorate. For a while, indeed, 
his Latin letters to foreign states in Cromwell's name were but 
few — ^Thurloe, as general secretary, officiating as CMiver's rigbt- 
hand man in everything, with a PhUip Meadows under him, at a 
salary of £200 a year, as deputy for the blind Milton in foicigB 
correspondence and translations. The reason for this tempocaiy 
exemption of Milton from routine duty may .have been that he 
was then engaged on an answer to the pamphlet from the Hague 
entitled Regii sanguinis clamor ad coelum adversus parricUas 
anglicanos (March 1652). Salmasius was now dead, and the 
Commonwealth was too stable to suffer from such attacks; but 
no Royalist pamphlet had appeared so able or so vencmxMis as 
tjiis in continuation of the Salmasian controversy. AH the 
rather because it was in the main a libel on Milton himself did a 
reply from his pen seem necessary. It came out in May i6s4t 
with the title Joannis Miltoni Angli pro populo angjlicamo defensio 
secunda (Second Defence of John MQton, Englishman, for the 
People of England). The author of Regii sanguinis datnor was Dr 
Peter du Moulin the younger, a naturalized French PrcsbytcrisB 
minister, then moving about in English society, dose to Milton; 
but, as that was a profound secret, and the work was univcnaBy 
attributed on the Continent to an Alexander More or Moms, a 
French minister of Scottish descent then a professor at Middd- 
burg, who had certainly managed the printing in consuhatioa 
with the now deceased Salmasius, and had contributed sobc 
portion of the matter — Milton made More the responsible pema 
and the one object of his invective. The savage attack on Hoic^ 
personal character, however, is but part of the Defensia j 
It contains passages of singular autobiographical and 1 
\ cd v«X>tt« ami vDLdMdea laudatory aketches of audi 



MILTON 



487 



Commonwealth's men tsBmdshaw, Fairfax, Fleetwood, Lambert 
and Overton, together with a long panegyric on Cromwell himself 
and his career, which remains to this day unapproached for 
eUboratibn and grandeur by any estimate of Cromwell from 
any later pen. 

From about the date of the publication of the Defensio secunda 
to the beginning of 2655 the only specially literary relics of 
Milton's life are his translations of Ps. L-viiL in different 
metres, done in August 1654, his translation of Horace's Ode^ i. Si 
done probably about the same time, and two of his Latin 
"Familiar Epistks." The most active time of his secretaryship 
for Oliver was from April 1655 onwards. In that month, in the 
course of a general revision of official salaries under the Protec- 
torate, Milton's salary of laSS a year hitherto was reduced to 
£300 a yeai', with a kind of redefinition of his office, recognizing 
it, we may say, as a Latin secretaryship extraordinary. Philip 
Meadows was to continue to do all the ordinary Foreign Office 
woriL, uiKler Thurloe's inspection; but Milton was to be called 
in on spcoMl occasions. Hardly was the arrangement made 
when a signal occasion did occur. In May 1655 all England was 
horrified by the news of the massacre of the Vaudois Protestants 
(Waldenses) by the troops of Emanuele II., duke of Savoy and 
(mnoe of Piedmont, in consequence of their disobedience to an 
edict requiring them either to leave their native valleys or td 
conform to the Catholic religion. Cromwell and his council 
took the matter up with all their energy; and the burst of indig- 
nant letters on the subject despatched in that month and the 
next to the duke of Savoy himself, Louis XIV. of France, Cardinal 
Maxarin, the Swiss cantons, the states-general of the United 
Provinces, and the kings of Sweden and Denmark, were all by 
Milton. His famous sonnet " On the Late Massacre in Pied- 
mont " was his more private expression of feeling on the same 
occasion. This sonnet was in circulation, and the case of the 
Vaadois Protestants was still occupying Cromwell, when, in 
August 1655, there appeared the last of Milton's Latin pamphlets. 
It was ha Pro u defensio ... in answer to an elaborate self- 
defence which More had put forth on the Continent since 
Mihon's attack on his character. In that year also appeared 
Milton's Scriptttm domini praUctoris . . . contra kispanos. 

Thpou^ the rest of Cromwell's Protectorate-, Milton's life 
was of comparatively calm tenor. He was in much better health 
than usual, bearing his blindness with courage and cheerfulness; 
he was steaidily busy with important despatches to foreign powers 
00 bcJialf of the Protector, then hi the height of his great 
foreign policy; and his house in Petty France seems to have been, 
more than at any previous time since the beginning of his blind- 
ness, a meeting-place for friends and visitors, and a scene of 
pleasant hospitalities. The four sonnets now numbered xix.- 
tdL, one of them to yoimg Lawrence, the son of the president 
of Cromwell's council, and two of the others to C3rriack Skinner, 
once his pupil, belong to this time of domestic quiet, as do also 
DO fewer than ten of his Latin "Familiar Epistles." His 
marriage with Katherine Woodcock on the xath of November 
1656 brou^t him a brief period of domestic happiness; but, 
after only fifteen months, he was again a widower, by her 
doth in childbirth in February 1657/8. The child dying wiih 
her, only the three daughters by the first marriage remained. 
The touching sonnet which closes the series of Milton's Sennets 
h his sacred tribute to the memory of his second marriage and 
to the virtues of the wife he had so soon lost. Even after that 
loss we find him still busy for Cromwell Andrew MarveO, in 
S^tember 1657 succeeded Meadows, much to Milton's satisfac- 
tion, as his assistant secretary; but this had by no means relieved 
him from duty. Some of his greatest despatches for Cromwell, 
indoding letters, of the highest importance, to Louis XIV., 
Mazarin and Cbarks Gustavus of Sweden, bek>ng to the jrear 
1658. 

There is, unfortunately, no direct record to show what 
CromweD thought of Milton; but there is ample record of what 
Milton thought of CromwelL " Our chief of men," he had called 
Cromwell in his sonnet of May 1652; and the opinion remained 
tmcfaanged. He thought Cromwell the greatest and bestjaan_ 



of his generation, or of many generations; and he regarded Crom- 
well's assumption of the supreme power, and his retention of that 
power with a sovereign title, as no real suppression of the republic, 
but as absolutely necessary for the preservation of the republic, 
and for the safeguard of the British Islands against a return of 
the Stuarts. Nevertheless, under this prodigious admiration of 
Cromwell, there were political doubts and reserves. Milton was 
so much of a modem radical of the extreme school in his own 
political views and sympathies that he cannot but have been 
vexed by the growing conservatism of Cromwell's policy through 
his Protectorate. To his grand panegyric on Oliver in the 
Defensio secunda of 1654 he had ventured to append cautions 
against self-will, over-lc^slation and over-policing; and he cannot 
have thought that Oliver had been immaculate in these respects 
through the four subsequent years. The attempt to revive an 
aristocracy and a House of Lords, on which Cromwell was latterly 
bent, cannot have been to Milton's taste. Above all, Milton 
dissented in toto from Cromwell's church policy. It was Milton's 
fixed idea, almost his deepest idea, that there should be no such 
thing as an Established Church, or state-paid clergy, of any sort 
or denomination or mixture of denominations, in any nation, 
and that, as it had been the connexion between church and state, 
begun by Constantine, that had vitiated Christianity in the 
world, and kept it vitiated, so Christianity would never flourish 
as it ought till there had been universal disestablishment and 
disendowment of the clergy, and the propagation of the gospel 
were left to the zeal of voluntary pastors, self-supported, or 
supported modestly by their flocks. He had at one time looked 
to Cromwell as the likeliest man to carry this great revolution in 
England. But Cromwell, after much meditation on the subject 
in 1652 and 1653, had come to the opposite conclusion. The 
conservation of the EsUblished Church of England, in the form 
of a broad union of all evangelical denominations of Christians, 
whether Presbyterians, or Independents, or Baptists, or moderate 
Old Anglicans, that would accept state-pay with state-control, 
had been the fundamental notion of his Protectorate, persevered 
in to the end. This must have been Milton's deepest disap- 
pointment with Cromwell's rule. 

Cromwell's death on the 3rd of September 1658 left the Protec- 
torship to his son Richard. Milton and Marvell continued in 
their posts, and a number of the Foreign Office letters of the 
new Protectorate were of Milton's composition. In October 
Z658 appeared a new edition of his Defensio primal and, early in 
1659, a new English pamphlet, entitled Treatise of Civil Power 
in Ecclesiastical Causes showing that it is not lawful to compel in 
Matters of Religion, in which he advocated the separation of 
Church and State. To Richard's Protectorate also belongs one 
of Milton's Latin " Familiax Epistles." 

The last of his known official performances in his Latin secre- 
taryship are two letters in the name of William Lenthall, as the 
speaker of the restored Rump, one to the king of Sweden and one 
to the king of Denmark, both dated the 15th of May 1659. Under 
the restored Rump, if ever, he seemed to have a chance for his 
notion of chiuxh-disestablishmcnt; and accordingly, in August 
1659, he put forth, with a prefatory address to that body, a 
pamphlet entitled Considerations touching the likeliest means to 
remove Hirelings out of the Church. The restored Rump had no 
time to attend to such matters. They were in struggle for their 
own existence with the army chiefs; and to prevent the restora- 
tion of the monarchy, to argue against it and fight against it to 
the last, was the work to which Milton set himself; the preserva- 
tion of the republic in any form, and by any compromise of 
differences within itself, had become his one thought, and the 
study of practical means to this end his most a.ixious occupation. 
In a Letter to a Friend concerning the Ruptures of the Common- 
tM»j//A, written in October 1659, he had propounded a scheme of 
a kind of dual government for reconciling the army chiefs with 
the Rump; through the following winter, marked only by two of 
his Latin " Familiar Epistles," his anxiety over the signs of the 
growing enthusiasm throughout the country for the recall of 
Charles II. had risen to a pas&\OTA.V^ N^Vvfetcvw^K.^ -wViw^ NwmA 
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489 



Ifosettin, with Samud .Sunnaoru, firintef, of Atdeneate Street, 
London, to dispose of the copynglit for £5 dawn, the promise 
of another £5 after the sale of %ht first edition of ijoo copies, 
and the further promise of two addiUonal sums of £$ each 
ifter the sale of two more editions of the same size tespcc- 
lively. It was as if an author now were Lo part with oil hk 
rights in a volume for £17, toA. down, and a contingency of 
i$2, los. more in three equal instalments. The poem wa^ duly 
entered by Simmons as ready for pnbLkaiion in the StatiDii<rrs' 
Registers on the 20th of the following August; and shortly after 
that date it was out in London aa :l neatly printed $maU quarto^ 
with the title Paradise Lost: A /Viw uritUn in Tcif Books: By 
John MilUm. The reception accorded to FaradUr Lost has been 
quoted as an example of the n^^Eect of a great work^ bul the sale 
of an edition of 1300 copies in eighteen months proves that the 
poem found a wide circle of readers* " This man cuts ui all oul^ 
and the ancients too " is the uying attributed to Diydcn on the 
occasion ; and it is the more remarkable because the one objectbn 
to the poem which at first, we are told, " stumbled many "must 
have ** stumbled " Dryden most of all. Except in the drama, 
rh3rroe was then thought essential in anything profe^ng to be 
a poem; blank verse was hardly regarded as verse at all; Dryden 
eq)ecially had been and was the champion of rhyme, contending 
for it even in the drama. That, notwithstanding this obvious 
blow struck by the poet at Dryden '« pet literary theory, he should 
have welcomed the poem so enihuBiasiicaliy and proclaimed its 
merits so emphatically, says much at once for his critical percept 
tion and for the generosity of his lempen According to Aubrey, 
Dryden requested Milton's le,ivc to turn the poem into a rhymed 
drama, and was told he might " tag his verses if he pleased."' 
The result is seen in Dryden'si ojsera* The Side of Innocenct and 
tht Fall of Man (1675). One consequence of MiJlon's reneired 
celebrity was that visitors of all ranks again sought \\\m out for 
the honour of his society and oonvenation« Hii obscure house 
in Artillery Walk, Bunhill, we are told, became an attraction 
now, ** much more than he did desire/' for the learned 
notabilities of his time. 

Accounts have come down to ui of MiitQn*»pci«ma1 appearance 
and habits in his later life. TSi-y deticribc him aj t<j be seen tvcry 
other day led about in the str«n:t4 in the vicinity of hi* Btjnhin 
residence, a slender figure, of irn/ldte itatytv or a little lc», gener;t|)y 
dressed in a grey cloak or oveivuatK and w-earing ^metime^ asniialL 
sUver-hilted sword, evidently in Jecble heakh. but still lookirtg 
younger than he was, with his ti^ihti^h hair, and hii lair, rather EMn 
ased or pale, complexion. H^ wuuld %i% in hii garderr at the dcHjt 
of hi* house, in warm weather, in tho same kind of crey overcoar, 
" and so. as well as in his room, rectivnl ihe visits Drpcf)p|« of di*- 
tinguishcd pans, as well as quAljiy." Within dotir* he *4s usually 
dressed in neat black. He waii a very enrly riitr, and very r^ular 
in the distribution of his day, -(iendinc ttic firAt pan* to hb midday 
dinner, always in his own room, .imid nl» bookiii. with an amanuciisi* 
to read for him and write to Is is dkMtion. Mtt!4C was always a 
chief pan of his afternoon and e\*ciiiii{f rtbicatkirtt whrtbrr whrn 
be was by himself or when friend* were with him^ His manner with 
friends and visitors was extrcinLiCy «jiiirieoij» ami affjibli;, with just 
a &hadc of statcHncss. In free rdnvt-rs-it 1011+ cither at the midday 
dinner, when a friend or two h:ippeni^, by rare accident, to be 
present, or more habitually in \h<t cvtntng and at the liubt bUpper 
which concluded it, he was thi: lifv ^nd k>ijI of ihe company, from 
his '* 60W of subject " and his " un;iffi'rttxl chLtdiiInc?* and civility/' 
though with a marked tendcm y to the Jiiitiricai and wrtastk in his 
criticisms of men and things. Thl™ tt-ndmcy to the safra>.Tic Wiis 
connected by some of those v ho obsrrvi-rj it with a pcculbi'ity of 
his voice or pronunciation. " 1 k pronounced the leiier if very hard," 
Aubrey tells us, adding Dryden 's note on the subject : " Uuria. tanimi, 
the dog-letter, a certam sign oF a satirical wit,*' He was exiremely 
temperate in the use of wine or any stron|f Liquors, at meals and at 
all other times; and when supt^rr wai over, about nine o'elockT ** he 
smoked his pipe and drank a g\;ki-> of wuccr, and went to bed/' 
He suffered much from gout, th: cITeci a of which had become apparent 
in a stiffening of his hands ami finder- joints, and the recurring 
attacks of which in its acute form were very painful, f lis favouriie 
poets among the Greeks were Hfjmer and ihe Trasi«iian*. especially 
Euripides; among the Latins, Vit^xl and Ovid: amoni; tJie English. 
Spenser and Shakespeare. Amiyng \\{% EnKliah contemporaries, he 
thought most highly of Cowley. He had ceased to attend any 
church, belonged to no religiou>i communiL^DH and had no re?it;ious 
observances in his family. Hi'^ reason? fqr this were a matter for 
carious surmise among his friennl-i, bccanse of the profoundly reli^ioui 
character of his own mind: but be don not Kcni ever to have 



furnished the explanation. The matter became of leas interest 
perhaps after 1669, when hb three daughters ccawd to reside with 
nim, having been sent out " to learn some curious and inp^nious 
sons of manufacture that are proper for women to learn, paniculariy 
embroideries in gold or silver. ' After that the household in Bunhill 
consisted only of Milton, his wife, a single maid-servant, and the 
" man " or amanuensis who came in for the day. 

The remaining years of Milton's life, extending through that 
part of the reign of Charles II. which figures in English history 
under the name of the " Cabal Administration," were by no 
means unproductive. In 1669 he published, iinder the title of 
Accedence commenced Grammar^ a small English compendium of 
Latin grammar that had been lying among his papers. In 1670 
there appeared, with a prefixed poruait of him by Faithorne, 
done from the life, his History of Britain , , , to the Norman 
Conquest, being all that he had been able to accomplish of his 
intended complete history of England; and in the same year 
a Latin digest of Ramist logic, entitled Artis logicae pUnior 
instituliOt of no great value, and doubtless from an old manu- 
script of his earlier days. In 167 1 there followed his Paradise 
Regained and Samson Agonistes, bound together in one small 
volume, and giving ample proof that his poetic genius had not 
exhausted itself in the preceding great epic. In 1673, at a 
moment when the growing political discontent wth the govern- 
ment of Charles II. and the conduct of his court had burst forth 
in the special form of a *' No-Popcry " agitation, and outcry, 
Milton ventured on the dangerous experiment of one more 
political pamphlet, in which, under the title " Of True Religion, 
Heresy, Schism, Toleration, and what best means may be used 
against the growth of Popery," he put fonh, with a view to 
popular acceptance, as mild a version as possible of his former 
principles 6n the topics discussed. In the same year appeared 
the second edition of his Poems , . . both English and Latin, 
which included, with the exception of the Sonnets to Cromwell, 
Fairfax, Vane and the second address to Cyriack Skinner, all the 
minor poems. 

Thus we reach the year 1674, the last of Milton's life. One 
incident of that year was the publication of the second edition 
of Paradise Lost, with the poem rearranged as now — into twelve 
books, instead of the original ten. Another was the publication 
of a small volume^ containing his Latin Epistolac familiares, 
together with the Proiusiones oratoriae of his student-days at 
Cambridge — these last thrown in as a substitute for his Latin 
state-letters in his secretaryship for the Commonwealth and the 
Protectorate, the printing of which was stopped by order from 
the Foreign Office. A third publication of the same year, and 
probably the very last thing dictated by Milton, was a transla- 
tion of a Latin document from Poland, relating to the recent 
election of the heroic John Sobicski to the throne of that kingdom, 
with the title A Declaration or Letters Patents of the Ejection of 
this present King of Poland, John the Third. It seems to have 
been out in London in August or September 1674. On Sunday 
the 8th of the following November Milton died, in his house in 
Bunhill, of " gout struck in," at the age of sixty-five years and 
eleven months. He was buried, the next Thursday, in the 
church of St Giles, Cripplcgatc, beside his father; a considerable 
concourse attending the funcraL 

Before the Restoration, Milton — what with his inheritance from 
his fathcr,what with the offidal income of his Latin secretaryship — 
must have been a man of very good means indeed. FmmUr 
Since then, however, various heavy losses, and the 
cessation of all official income, had greatly reduced his estate, 
so that he left but £900 (worth about or over £2700 now) besides 
furniture and household goods. By a word-of-mouth will, made 
in presence of his brother Christopher, he had bequeathed the 
whole to his widow, on the ground that he had done enough 
already for his " undutiful " daughters, and that there remained 
for them his interest in their mother's marriage portion of 
£xooo, which had never been paid, but which their relatives, the 
Powells of Forest Hill, were legally bound for, and were now in 

^Joannis MUtonii Angli e^iilolarum familiarum liber unus; 
quibus accesserunt ejusdem {jam olim tn colietio adotescentis) 
proiusiones quaedam oratoriae (1674; translation by J. Hall, 1829). 



490 



MILTON 



dicumstances to make good. Th^ daughters, with the Powells 
probably abetting them, went to law with the widow to upset 
the will; and the decision of the court was that they should 
receive £ioo each. With the £600 thus left, the widow, after 
some further stay in London, retired to Nantwich in her native 
Cheshire. There, respected as a pious member of a local Baptist 
congregation, she lived till 1727, having survived her husband 
fifty-three years. By that time all the three daughters were 
also dead. The eldest, Ann Milton, who was somewhat deformed, 
had died not long after her father, having married " a master- 
builder," but left no issue; the second, Mary Milton, had died, 
unmarried, before 1694; and only the third, Deborah, survived 
as long as her step-mother. Having gone to Ireland, as com- 
panion to a lady, shortly before her father's death, she had 
married an Abraham Clarke, a silk-weaver in Dublin, with whom 
she returned to London about 1684, when they settled in the 
silk-weaving business in Spitalfields, rather sinking than rising 
in the world, though latterly some public attention was paid to 
Deborah, by Addison and others, on her father's account. One 
of her sons, Caleb Clarke, had gone out to Madras in 1703, and 
had died there as " parish-clerk of Fort George " in 17 19, 
leaving children, of whom there are some faint traces to as late 
as 1727, the year of Deborah's death. Except for the possibility 
of further and untraced descent from this Indi4n grandson of 
Milton, the direct descent from him came to an end in his grand- 
daughter, Elizabeth Clarke, another of Deborah's children. 
Having married a Thomas Foster, a Spitalfields weaver, but 
afterwards set up a small chandler's shop, first in Holloway and 
then in Shoreditch, she died at Islington in i754,Jiot long after 
she and her husband had received the proceeds of a performance 
of Comus got up by Dr Johnson for her benefit. All her children 
had predeceased her, leaving no issue. Milton's brother Chris- 
topher, who had always been on the opposite side in politics, rose 
to the questionable honour of a judgeship and knighthood in the 
latter part of the reign of James II. He had then become a 
Roman Catholic — which religion he professed till his death in 
retirement at Ipswich in 1693. Descendants from him are 
traceable a good way into the x8th century. Milton's two 
nephews and pupils, Edward and John Phillips, both of them 
known as busy and clever hack-authors before their uncle's 
death, continued the career of hack-authorship, most industri- 
ously and variously, though not very prosperously, through the 
rest of their lives: Edward in a more reputable manner than 
John, and with more of enduring allegiance to the memory of his 
uncle. Edward died about 1695; John was alive till 1706. 
Their half-sister, Ann Agar, the only daughter of Milton's sister 
by her second husband, had married, in 1673, a David Moore, of 
Sayes House, Chertsey; and the most flourishing of all the lines 
of descent from the poet's father was in this Agar-Moore branch, 
of the Miltons. 

Of masses of manuscript that had been left by Milton, some 
portions saw the light posthumously. Prevented, m the last year 

„ , ^ of his life from publishing his Latin State Letters in the 

JJ—JJJfJJJsamc volume with his Latin Familiar Epistles, he had 
'**"*'*""'committed the charge of the State LeUers,prepaLTcd for 
the pnas, t(»ethor with the completed manuscript of nis Latin 
Treatise of Christian Doctrines, to a young Cambridge scholar, 
Daniel Skinner, who had been among the last of his amanuenses, 
and had. in fact, been employed by him especially in copying out 
and arranging those two important MSS. Negotiations were on 
loot, after Milton's death, between this Daniel Skinner and the 
Amsterdam printer, Daniel Elzevir, for the publication of both MSS., 
when the English government interfered, and the MSS. were sent 
back by Elzevir, and thrown aside, -as dangerous rubbish, .in a 
cupboard in the Sute Paper Office. Meanwhile, in i6;r6, a London 
bookseller, named Pitt, who had somehow got into his possession 
a less perfect, but still tolerably complete, copy of the State Letters, 
had brought out a surreptitious edition of them, under the title Literae 
pseudo-senalus anglicani, CromwfUii . . . nomine et^su conscriptae 
a Joanne Miltono. No other posthumous publications of Milton's 
appeared till 1681, when another bookseller put forth a slight 
tract entitled Afr John Milton's Character of the Long Parliament and 
Assembly of Divines, in 1 641, consisting of a paee or two. of rather 
dubious authenticity, said to have been withheld from his History 
ef Britain in the edition of 1670. In 1682 appeared A Brief History 
of Moscovia , and of other less-hnawn Countries lying Eastward of Russia 
c* far as Cathay . . . undoubtedly Milton s, and a specimen of 



those prose carTipl1.itbnfl with whkh He sometinir? nxupicd h^fl 
leisure. Of the utc of hii callecttoiu for a new Latin O-utitmvy,^ 
which had swc-Ued to three rolio votumw of MS.. &II tlut is knov^ 
is that, after havm^ Uct^n ubed by Edward PhiEMps for Kii Biukirkii^^ 
and Speculum, t hey t,tmc in 10 ttic hafids of i comniiaee of Caiubrids^ 
scholars, ancl were uiicd for that Laim dtctioiury of ^^^^ caD« 
The Cambridge DntwAary, on whkh Ain^iworth'ft Diiti^mtry vai 
based._ In J&}B there wa& publijihed in thtm folio volumcK, un^ 
the editorship of lohr> ToEand, the fir&t collect ^vt: aiition of MiJt< 
prose -works, profe^ng to have been printed Jli Affijitcrdim. Ow 
really printed in London. A very intcrestijiE folio volume, puNii _ 
in 1743 by " John NickoUs, junior," under the title o-f Otigiitai Lmtfm 
and Papers cfjStaU oddrtaed ie Oiivtr Cromu-itU, con^-iiX.^ of ^ nutnbc-r' 
of intimate CrocnwclliDn ducumcnts that had wmchow come i^ta 
Milton's po^sri^tsion immedLitely after Cramwcirs df:ath, and tt^rt 
left by him con fide citiaHy to the Qua.kcr EIFwood- Finally, a f hance 
search in the London State Paper OffiDe in iS;^ having duirt»TfHJ 
the long-loftt parrel cDntj.minE the MSS. of Milton's L^tio ^^ 
Letters and bis Latin Trratix ofChrisiian Doctrine, its ihes^ Iu4 bea 
sent back from An^stenUm a hundred and fifty >c4rf before^ tk 
Treatise on CJiristiait Doctrine wa*. by the command «f Geor^ IV,, 
edited and published in iBjj by the Rtv. C. ¥L Sumner, kcevper d 
the Roval Library, and ifterwards btahop of Wincht^t^r, unckr ilic 
title ot Joannii Miitoni Aniii de doctHna ckthttaita UhT% iht 
posthumi. An Eneliih irani^lation, by the editor^ w^ publiabrd 
in the same year. Those itate papers of Milton which hiad not be^ 
already printed were pcilted by W. D. H:imdtQn for the Cuudtn 
Society, in 1859. 

Milton's Uterary life divides into three almost mechanically 
distinct periods: (i) the time of his youth and minor poems, 
(2) his middle twenty years of prose polemics, and (3) the time 
of his later Muse and greater poems. 

Had Milton died in 1640, when he was in his thicty-seoond 
year, and had his literary, remains been then collected, he wooki 
have been remembered as one of the best Latinists ^ 
of his generation and one of the most exquisite of S^ ***^ 
minor English poets. In the latter character, 
more particularly, he would have taken his place as one of that! 
interesting group or series of English poets, coming in the neit 
forty years after Spenser, who, because they all acknowledged 
a filial relationship, to Spenser, may be called collectively tbe 
Spenserians. In this group or series, counting in it such other 
true poets of the reigns of Janies I. and Charles L as Pliinets 
and Giles Fletcher, William Browne and Dnimmond of Haw- 
thomden, Milton would have been entitled, by the small coOec- 
tion of pieces he had left, and which would have included his 
Ode on the Nativity, his L^ Allegro and // Penserosp, his. Coma 
and his Lycidas, to recognition as indubitably the very higfaett 
and finest. There was in him that pectdiar Spenserian somethiog 
which might be regarded as the poetic faculty in its essence, vith 
a closeness and perfection of verbal finish not to be found in tbcl. 
other Spenserians, or even in the master himself. Few as the 
pieces were, and owning discipleship to Spenser as the anthor did, 
he was a Spenserian with a difference belonging to his own consti- 
tution — which prophesied, and indeed already exhibited, the 
passage of English poetry out of the Spenserian into a kind that 
might be called the MUtonic. This Miltonic something, dis^. 
tinguishing the new poet from other Spenserians, was more thaa' 
mere perfection of literary finish. It consisted in an avowed 
consciousness already of the os mag^a soniturum, " the month 
formed for great utterances," that consdotisness resting on a 
pecidiar substratum of personal character that had occaaioMd 
a new theory of literature. " He who would not be fntstrate of 
his hope to write well hereafter on laudable things ought himself 
to be a true poem " was Milton's own memorable e ap ies sk a 
afterwards of the principle that had taken possession of him 
from his earh'est days; and this principle of moral noanlincss u 
the true foundation of high literary effort, of the inextricabk 
identity of all literary productions in kind, and their coeqoslity 
in worth, with the personality in which they have their origiii. 
might have been detected, in more or less definite shape, in sQ 
or most of the minor poems. It is a q>ecific form of that genenl 
Platom'c doctrine of the invincibility of virtue whkfa raas 
through hisComtts, 

That a youth and early manhood of such poetical ] 
should have been succeeded by twenty years of aU but f 
prose polemics has been a matter of regret with many. Bvtthii 



MILTON 



491 



is to ignore his political and social side. If Burke, whose whole 
pabhc career consisted in a succession of speeches and pamphlets^ 
is looked back upon as one of the greatest men of his century 
on their account, why should there be regret over the fact 
that Kilton, after having been the author of Comus and Lycidas, 
became for a time the prose orator of his earlier and more tumul- 
tuoos generation? Milton was not only the greatest pamph- 
leteer of his generation — head and shoulders above the rest — but 
there is no life of that time, not even Cromwell's, in which the 
history of the great Revolution in its successive phases, so far as 
the <feep underlying ideas and speculations were concerned, 
may be more intimately and instructively studied than in 
Milton's. Then, on merely literary grounds, what an interest 
in those prose remains! Not only of his AreopagUieaf admired 
now so unreservedly because its main doctrine has become 
axiomatic, but of most of his other pamphlets, even those the 
doctrine of which is least popular, it may be said confidently 
that they answer to his own definition of " a good book," by 
containing somehow ** the precious life-blood of a master- 
qMrit." From the entire series there might be a collection of 
specimens, unequalled anywhere else, of the capabilities of that 
crfder, grander and more elaborate English prose of which the 
Elizabethans and their immediate successors were not ashamed. 
Nor win readers of Milton's pamphlets continue to accept the 
hackneyed observation that his genius was destitute of humour. 
Though his prevailing mood was the severely earnest, there are 
pages in his prose writings, both English and Latin, of the most 
laughable irony, reaching sometimes to outrageous farce, and 
some of them as worthy of the name of humour as anything in 
Swift. Here, however, we touch on what is the worst featyre in 
some of the prose pamphlets—their measureless ferocityi their 
boundless licence in personal scurrility. 

While it is wrong to regard Milton's middle twenty years of 
prose polemics as a degradation of his genius, and while the fairer 
contention might be that the youthful poet of Comus and Lycidas 
actually promoted himself, and became a more powerful agency 
in the world and a more interesting object in it for ever, by 
consenting to lay aside his *' singing robes " and spend a portion of 
his life in great prose oratory, who does not exult in the fact that 
such a lifo was rounded off so miraculously at the close by a final 
stage of compulsory calm, when the " singing robes " could be 
resumed, and Paradise Lost, Paradise Regain^ and Samson 
AgoniOes could issue in succession from the blind man's chamber? 
Of these three poems, and what they reveal of Milton, no need 
here to speak at length. Paradise Lost is one of the few monu- 
mental works of the world, with nothing in modem epic literature 
comparable to it except the great poem of Dante. This is best 
perceived by those who penetrate beneath the beauties of the 
merely terrestrial portion of the story, and who recognize the 
coherence and the splendour of that vast symbolic phantasma- 
gory by which, through the wars in heaven and the subsequent 
revenge of the expelled archangel, it paints forth the connexion 
of the whole visible universe of human cognisance and history 
with the grander, pre-existing and still environing world of the 
eternal and inconceivable. To this great epic Paradise Regained 
is a sequel, and it ought to be read as such. The legend that 
Milton preferred the shorter epic to the larger is quite incorrect. 
All that is authentic on the subject is the statement by Edward 
Phillips that, when it was reported to his uncle that the shorter 
epic wais '* generally censured to be much inferior to the other," 
he " could not hear with patience any such thing." , The best 
critical judgment now confirms Milton's own, and pronounces 
Paradise Regained to be not only, within the possibilities of. its 
briefer theme, a worthy sequel to Paradise Lost, but also one of 
the most artistically perfect poems in any language. Finally, 
the poem in which Milton bade farewell to the Muse, and in 
which he reverted to the dramatic form, proves that to the very 
end his right hand had lost none of its power or cunning. 
Samsom Agonisles is the most powerful drama in the English 
language after the severe Greek model, and it has the additional 
mterest of being so contrived that, without any deviation from 
the ftiictly objective intidents of the Biblical story which it . 



enshrines, it is yet the poet's own epiUph and his condensed 
autobiography. 

Much light is thrown upon Milton's mind in his later life, and 
even upon the poems of that period, by his posthumous Latin 
Treatise of Christian Doctrine. It differs from all his other prose 
writings of any importance in being cool, abstract and didactic. 
Professing to be a system of divinity derived directly from the 
Bible, it is really an exposition of Milton's metaphysics and of 
his reasoned opim'ons on all questions of philosophy, ethics and 
politics. The general effect is to show that, though he is rightly 
regarded as the very genius of English Puritanism, its represen- 
tative poet and idealist, yet he was not a Puritan of what may be 
called the first wave, or that wave of Calvinistic orthodoxy 
which broke in upon the absolutism of Charles and Laud, and 
set the English Revolution agoing. He belonged distinctly to 
that larger and more persistent wave of Puritanism which, 
passing on through Independency, and an endless variety of sects, 
many of them rationalistic and freethinking in the extreme, 
developed into what has ever sincd been known as English 
Liberalism. The treatise makes dear that, while Milton was a 
most fervid theist and a genuine Christian, believing in the 
Bible, and valuing the Bible over all the other books in the world, 
he was at the same time one of the most intrepid of English 
thinkers and theologians. (D. Ma.; X.) > | 

Considerable interest attaches among collectors to the variety 
of prints representing portraits of Milton. So far as the original 
contemporary portraits are concerned, which have 
inspired the large number of engravings, the following 
may be mentioned: (i) The. existing Janssen painting, 1618 
(" aeiatis suae 10 "), which belonged to Mrs Milton. (3) An 
unknown painting of 1633 (?i62o), from which was taken an 
engraving in the Gentleman's Magazine for September 1787 
(" aet. suae 1 2 "). (3) The " Onslow " painting of Milton when a 
Cambridge scholar (lost), which belonged to Mrs Milton and in 
Z794 was in Lord Onslow's possession; a copy by Van der Gucht 
was made for Lord Harcourt and is still at Nuneharo. (4) 
William Marshal's engraved frontispiece to Moseley's edition of 
the poems (1645), (s) William Faithome's engraving of Milton 
from life, at the age of sixty-two, in Milton's History of Britain 
(1670). (6) Faithome's original drawing for the above, belonging 
in 1909 to Sir R. H. Hobart. (7) The Bayfordbury (or Tonson) 
drawing (probably by Faithorne, or (?) by White or Richardson) 
at Bayfordbury Park near Hertford. (8) A drawing by George 
Vertue in Dr Williamson's collection. (9) A clay bust (? by 
Pierce or Simon) at Christ's College. ( 10) A miniature by Cooper 
(1653), which is, however, considered by Dr G. C. Williamson not 
to be of Milton at all. (11) A painting by Pieter Van der Plas 
(d. 1704) in the National Portrait Gallery. (13) An oil painting 
at Christ's College. (13) The " Woodcock " miniature of Milton 
when about forty-eight. In Poets' Comer, Westminster Abbey, 
a bust by Rysbrack was put up in 1737. A monument in St 
Giles, Cripplegate, by John Bacon, R.A., was erected by Samuel 
Whitbread in 1793; and a modern statue by Horace Montford 
also stands there. A memorial window in St Margaret's, West- 
minster, with an inscription by J. G. Whittier, was presented 
by G. \y. Childs, of Philadelphia, 

Bibliography. — MSS. of the poems of Milton's earlier period in 
his own handwriting are preserved in the library of Trinity ColIeKe, 
Cambridge. These arc not enumerated amon^ the gifts made by 
Sir Henry Newton Puckering in 1691, but presumably belonged to 
him, and came to the library at his death in 1700, as they were found 
by Charles Mason, a. fellow of the college, among papers and books 
which had been his. They were bound in a folio volume by the 
care of Thomas Clarke, afterwards Master of the Rolls, in 1736. 
Besides the poems, with many interlineations and corrections, 
the MS. contains suggestions, and in some cases fully^ developed 
plans, for works generally dramatic in form. This manuscript volume, 
mvaluable as an index to Milton's methods of work, was reproduced 



in facsimile (Cambridge. 1899} by W. Aldis Wrieht. 
The first complete edition of The Poetical Works of I 

was printed by Jacob Tonson in 1695. In 1732 Richard 



Bentley put forward a curious edition of Paradise Lost m which long 
passages were rejected and placed in the margin on the ground that 
they were interpolations made possible by Milton's blindness. 
The Latin aiidlulian poems, with a translation by William Cowper, 



492 



MILTON— MILWAUKEE 



vttv printed by W. Haytey In iBoS. The most tTrportnnt ol the 
numrruuk TdEer editions ot Milton'i poeticaS wotTc« are by H, j^ Todd 
(6 vok-K irioi); J* M it ford ("Aid me edit Ion Z" 3 vtils.t iBjJ); Th 
KciKNil4!y fjr voW.t i^S^)- whose ni3ti.-a;iro mo^t arij|;iiul ^itd ^ntcfftt* 
ins : Dr Al^j^^^n (" Library " or " Cambridge "cditkw, 3 vols., 1^74 ; of 
which a, new edition appeared in [J^^O, with memoir, introduction! 
noLe& and an c^e^y on. Milton'A £ugli&h and vcrbidc^tian) ; John 
Brad^Uuw [new " AJdinc edition," 1 vols,, 1 89^ } ; also a careflif Feprini 
reuining the peculLuiEtcs of th« earlier printed copies, by H- C 
Beech tn^ (" OUurd edition," 1^4); and inother, *iih varbnt 
readings, by W. Aldi* Wright {Cambridge DnivcrBity Press, 1903V 
The prose uorkj were firtt partiaHy collected in 1697- They wicrc 
edited by J. Toland (j vok, 1698)^ by C. Symmons (7 voli^* 1S06), 
by Pickering (S voU-. t^5i? witfi the p>oetJcal worker and by J. Ah, 
St John for Bohn'i " Libraries "* <5 vols., i84iS-ifi55). There arc 
numerguft annotated editions of separate workii 

The earliest Ule of Milton la contained in ^Vood MS. D. 4 in the 
Bodleian Librar^'f QKfordh and wsa printed in the £jf|. ^Hit. Urt'icvr 
for Jiinuary 1903, also by E. &. Pnrwns in Coiorad^ Calif ^e Siudieit 
NOs X (iqioj)' The author, who tympathizK! with the poet's 
pdlitic^l viewt, i^ UinUcnown, but the name of Mil ton 't friend, Dr 
Nathan Paget, \i sugi;e^ted. HLa areount formed the basis of the 
Ufe ^iven by Anthuny ^ VVood in Faiti oxoTtiensis {iG^t). Wood 
W'd$al»:»iodebti>d to Jrihn Aubrey, whose Bn^fLi'Pti were not printed 
until ^\i^T\ The life by hi« nenhew ELdward Philiips was prrfiitcfl 
ta the Letter^ ^ Smit printed in 1694, and reprinted by willbm 
Godwin in his Lhtt at E. end J. FktJli^s (1815). Samuel Johnsoti'5 
fAmou't Life vf Muiftn {i779)t *hkh contAina some valuable 
critic i^m» is wniten ir<iTn a iomtrwhai unfrit^ndly standpoint. The 
records of Milton's oflicia! lifci avaibblc in the State Papera, were 
first made use of by H. J. Tttfd in a third edition U&2Q'i{A\ii& MjUqh, 
All the avaJLible information was e4ithefed in Profciwr M arson's 
Lije cf John AfUion; ntirruttd in Ct^ntaxian u^tth the Fetiiical, Ecdfsi' 
sitiuit ofid LiUrary Ithiar^ nj hif Time (6 volsu, tSj^-iBSo, with 
tndejc, llti*J4; new ed, of vol. !-+ iSSl) whith contains ample reference 
to orisiTtal authorities. Shorter *orlti are Miitan. und irine Erii 
{3 pti,, 1S77. tB79) , by Alfred Stern ; MiU^n ti 679K by Mark Pattiion 
in the " En^li^h Men of Letters " »rit^, and Li^$ 0/ Jokn Mtllcn 
(j8tjo) by Dr Richard Garnet t in the " Great Writers" Kvks, with 
a bibliography by j. P. Anderson, 

The iiOLjrces ol Paradiie Loil have f;ivtn rise to inuch discussion. 
It has hL'nn suppoiL-d to owe something to AdamOt a cofned^ by 
Giovanni Baitiata Andreini {i^7&-ibsi}. to the Parap^raje associated 
wtih the name of Cuedmon which wa^ printed &i AmS'tcrdam in 
1^5S ^^y F^anrii Junius, and to the Lutiftr and other plays of Joo^i^t 
van den VondeL Parailtiigms between Vondtt and ^^ilton were 
pointed out by Mr Edmund Gosae ItiLiifTaturts &/ Ni?fihem Eatope 
(1879), atid the compjrl^n was carried further in Mr G, Edmund^ 
son s Miitoit and I'trtidet; A C^iciity of Literaturt (1885), a bchjk 
which afou»d much di^ussion^ A valuaole contribution to Miltonic 
criticism was inad*r in 1S93 by Mr Robert Bridges in an tvsay on 
Mili&ni Priftody. ThU wat Rpfinted in J90t, wtth tome additional 
matter and an essay cjii " Cluneal Metres in EnalisJi Verse " by 
W. |. Stone. Amongst other criticaJ ctMye thoLifd l>e mentioned 
Kiays by Macaul.iy (EdiTtttHrgk Retiftey 1635); Walter Bagc^hot 
(Literary Studies, vol I,, 1879] ; S. T. Coteridtc {S^^h Ltetuttt an 
SknktipEiafe and Miftttn 185CJJ; Edward Dowden (Tmniinptt (snd 
Studitit JJUWi): Edmond Scherer (Ei tides iur h hMratJttt ion it m- 
peraint, voK vl, iftSi] ; AuFustinc l3irre!l {Obiitr ^w(d, K<:otiH Hrii.ii 
14^7): Waher R^leij^h {Miliox^ i^t^)\ E. Allodolti GKranni Mdicn 
c t' Italia fPrato. 1907), 

Concordances ol Milton's Poetkid Works were compiled by C- L- 
Pienderijait (Madras, ia56r^iH^7); by C J. Cleveland (16^17), baicd 
on a verLal inden uwii in an American edition iflsj, of the Fiirtkot 
Works: by John Brjd'-h^w (1S94), hy L. E. Lock wood, Ltikon la 
the Rniiiiih Pwticai Wifrkt sJJifkn Milian (New Vork, 190^}. 

The tercentenary of Mikon'f birth was celebrated in 1908 in 
Cambridge, London and clsewhcr*. An e:xhibition of the portraits 
of M ikon, authentic and supposed, with a great collection oi valuable 
edit tons of the poet's works, was held in June arid July at Ch Hit's 
College, Cambniij^e. The catalogue of this eKhibiiion, drawn up 
by Df C. Ch WilliamsonK forms a valuable bibliosraphy and icono- 
graphy ol the poet, A collection of M ilton auto&raphsn early editions 
and p^rtrsitSi was also held in December at tne British MuseiJntT 
and the anniversary itu:lf wa* celebrated by a special meeting of 
the British Academy* a^ which p^pcr&by Prof essors W, J . Courthope, 
Edward Dowdea and 01 hens were read^ There was a relijjiou^ 
service at St Majry-le^Bow, Cheapside, and a banquet at the Mansion 
House. 

HILTON, a^ (ownship of K.E. Norfolk cotinty, MusatlmMtts. 
U.SA*, about 7 m. S. of Boston, ihc Ncponsct river forming a 
large part of Us N. and N.W. boundary. Pop. (iS^J, 4^7^; 
(1900), 6578 (ifi^o being roreiEJi'born) ,* ( 19OS, state census) , 7054 ; 
(191 o) 70 J4- It ii served by the New York, New Haven k 
Hartford railway, and h primarily a residential subtjrbof Boston, 
with which it is connected by electric lines* The township 
covers an area of about tj iq, mr^ aad intrudes ibc vjftagcs of 



Milton, East Milton and Mattapan. The country is rolling ar-*— 
hilly, the Blue Hills (with the exception of a part included 
Braintree in 1712 and now in Quincy) lying in Milton. C "^ 

Great Blue Hill, the highest (635 ft. above tide-level), great fii 

were kindled at the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act. of t ^ 
adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and of the » i- — ^ 
renders of Burgoyne and Comwallis; beacon fires were bun^..^ 
during the American War of Independence; an ** observator]M^> 
for tourists was built at an early date; and in 1885 the Blue h^ ^ 
Observatory for meteorological investigation was established "^ 
Abbott Lawrence Rotch (b. 1861), who made important inve^s.^/ 
gations concerning clouds, and attracted attention by his use ^ 
kites for obtaining meteorological data. Milton Academy (4 
non-sectarian school) was founded in 1798, opened in 1805, ^jui 
suspended in 1867; a new academy was opened in 1885. Tber? 
is a public hbrary, which was opened in 187 1, and in 1909 had 
more than 20,000 volumes. Cunningham Park is under the 
control of the trustees of a fund left for the benefit of the toim- 
ship, and contains a gymnasium, skating-pond, tennis courts 
&c., open to townspeople only. Hutchinson Field, another 
public park, is a part of the estate of the last royal governor, 
Thomas Hutchinson; Governor Jonathan Belcher also lived is 
Milton for a time. There arc two granite quarries in the town- 
ship immediately north-west of the Blue Hills; the granite is of 
the " dark Quincy " variety — dark bluish grey in cdour— tad 
is used chiefly for monuments. Milton, originally a part of 
Dorchester, was first settled in 1640, and was called Uncata- 
quissett. The township was separated from Dorchester and 
incorporated in 1662. It owes its name either to its eariy paper 
and grist mills (Milton being abbreviated from Milltown) or to 
Milton Abbey, Dorset, whence members of the Tucker family 
came, it is supposed, to Milton about 1662. In 171 2 the Blue 
Hill lands were divided between Milton and Braintree, and is 
1868 part of Milton was included in the new township of Hyde 
Park. In Milton, on the 9th of September 1774, at the bouse of 
Daniel Vose, a meeting, adjourned from Dcdham, passed the 
bold ** Suffolk Resolves " (Milton then being included in Suffolk 
county), which declared that a sovereign who breaks his compact 
with his subjects forfeits their allegiance, that parliament's 
repressive measures were unconstitutional, that tax-collectors 
should not pay over money to the royal treasury, that the toiros 
should choose militia officers from the patriot party, that they 
would obey the Continental Congress and that they favoured a 
Provincial Congress, and that they would seize crown officen as 
hostages for any political prisoners arrested by the governor; tod 
recommended that all persons in the colony should abstain from 
lawlessness. 

See A. K. Tccle, History of Milton, Mau.^ 1640 to 1887 (MOton, 
1887). 

MILTONt a borough of Northumberland county, Pennsyl* 
vania, U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river at the mouth of LioM- 
stone Run, about 66 m. N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1890), ^iT, 
(1900), 6175 (166 foreign-bom); (1910), 7460. It is served by 
the Pennsylvania, and the Philadelphia & Reading railways, 
and is connected with Lewisburg and Watsontown by an electric 
line. Milton has an attractive public park, is in an agrioiltural 
region, and has various manufactures. It was founded in 1792. 
and incorporated as a borough in 181 7. In x88o it was in great 
part destroyed by fire. 

MILWAUKEE, a city and the county-seat of Milwaukee 
county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., the largest city of the state, at the 
mouth of the Milwaukee river on the W. shore of Lake Michigan, 
about 85 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), 285,315; (1910). 
373.857. The Milwaukee river entering the city from the 
north is joined about \ m. from its mouth by the Menominee 
flowing from the west and a short distance from the lake by the 
Kinnikinnic flowing from the south. These rivers are navigafak 
for lake traffic into the heart of the city. Milwaukee Bay, into 
which their combined waters empty, is an inlet of Lake Michigan, 
about 6 m. across. By the construction of extensive piers and 
breakwaters a fine harbour of refuge has been created; and its 
inner harbour is deep enough for the. largest lake-steamecs- 



MILWAUKEE 



493 



From the thore of the lake the Und rises, rather abruptly in 
most places, to a height of from 75 to xoo ft. From a broad 
plateau overiooking the lake the land slopes gradually westward 
to the river, again rising on the north, west and south to a 
height of 135 ft. or more. The rivers separate the city into three 
distinctly marked divisions of varying character known as the 
east, west and south sides. The manufactories are largely on 
the flats " along the rivers and on the south side. The exten- 
Bve use as building material of cream-coloured brick made in 
the vidnity gives the city its nickname, " the Cream City." 

The city has many beautiful parks and squares, the most 
piauresque of which is Juneau Park, along the lake bluff. It 
contains statues of Leif Ericsson and Solomon Juneau. Other 
pariLS are Lake Park, also on the lake shore, at North Point, 
where stands the waterworks pumping station with its tall tower; 
Riverside and Kilboum Parks, east and west respectively of the 
npper Milwaukee river, in the northern part of the city, Washing- 
ton Park on the west side, containing a menagerie and a herd of 
deer; Sherman Park on the west side, and Kosciusko, Humboldt 
and Mitchell Parks on the south side. McKinley Park on the 
lake shore south of the city, and Whitefish Bay 6 m. north of the 
dty, are popular bathing resorts. In addition to the statues in 
Juneau Park there is a statue of Kosciusko in the park of that 
name; one of Washington and a soldiers' monument on Grand 
Avenue: a statue of Henry Bergh in front of the city hall; one 
of Robert Bums in the First Ward Park, and, in Washington 
Park, a replica of Ernst Rietschel's Schiller-Goethe monument in 
Jena, given to the city in 190S by the Germans of Milwaukee. 
CM the several cemeteries, that of Forest Home, south-west of the 
dty, is the largest and most beautiful. The city is well sewered, 
ind has an excellent water-supply system owned by the munici- 
pality and representing an investment of more than $5,000,000. 
The water is obtained from Lake Michigan through an intake 
[ar out in the lake. Through a tunnel | m. long, construaed in 
i588, water is pumped by means of one of the largest single 
pumps in the world from the lake into the upper Milwaukee 
river, which is thus completely flushed by fresh water every 
twenty-four hours. 

Milwaukee is one of the most healthful of the larger cities of 
Lhe United States. Its average annual death-rate for 1900- 190 4 
ras 13*6. The proximity of Lake Michigan cools the atmosphere 
n «immer and tempers the cold in winter. As a result, the 
ixtremes of heat and cold are not as great as those in most 
nland cities. The mean monthly temperatures vary between 
ro* in January and 70** in July, with extremes of 100* and -25*. 
rhe mean annual precipitation is 31-4 in. 

Suburbs. — Milwaukee proper occupies 23} sq. m., a small area as 
rompared with other cities near it in population — Detroit (36 sq. m.) 
ind Washington, D.C. (69) sq. m.). As a result, the population 
las overflowed into several populous suburbs industrially a part 
if a " greater " Milwaukee. Ot these by far the most important 
ire the township of Wauwatosa (pop.. 1905. 11.132; 1910. 11.536). 
ind the city of the same name, separated from the township in 1897 
ind having in 1^10 a population of 3346: the city and township are 
m the Menominee nver, immediately adjoining the city on the 
vest. The first settlement was made here in 1835. Wauwatosa 
las important manufactures, including machinery, brick, lime, beer, 
:hemicals and wooden-ware, and extensive market gardens and 
lurseries and valuable stone quarries. It has a CarncKie library, 
ind is the teat of an Evangelical Lutheran theological seminary 
1865). of Lutheran homes for the aged and orphan, of the Milwaukee 
ounty hospital for the insane, of the Milwaukee sanatorium for 
tervous diseases, and of the north-western branch of the national 
oldiers' home, which has grounds covering 385 acres and with main 
tuilding and barracks affording nuarters for over 2000 disabled 
Ttcrans, and has a hospital, a theatre, and a library of 15,000 
■oluroes. Within the limits of Wauwatosa also are the State Fair 
Tounds. Other suburbs are West Allis pop., 1905. 2306; U. S. ccn- 
us 1910. 6645). an incorporated rapidly growing manufacturing 
ity on the west; Cudahy (pop.. 1910, A691). a manufacturing 
'illage south of Milwaukee, largely devoteof to meat packing; South 
•lilwaukee (pop. 1910. 6092). an incorporated city with several 
arge manufactories, and North Milwaukee (pop.. 1910, i860), a 
-ilUge immediately adjoining the city on the north. 

Public BuHdinjs, Institutions, 6fc. — The principal public building 
a the city is the Federal building (1895-1898). the post office, custom- 
louse and kxal headquarters for the United States courts. The 
ublic library and museum, on the north side of Grand Avenue, in 



addition to an excellent collection of natural history, palaeontoloey. 
&c.. conuined in 1909 a library of about 190.000 volumes. The 
city hall on the east side is surmounted by a tal! clock-tower 
containing one of the largest bells in the world. The Layton Art 
Gallery contains one of the best collections of paintings west of the 
AUcghanies. The chamber of commerce, and the Pabst. Mitchell, 
North-Westem Life Insurance, Germania Sentinel and VVells build- 
ings, are among the principal business structures. In Milwaukee 
are St John's Roman Catholic Cathedral and All Saints Protestant 
Episcopal Cathedral — the city is the see of a Roman Catholic arch- 
bishopric (established in 1092) and of a Protestant Episcopal 
bishopric. Among other church structures are Plymouth Congrega- 
tional. Westminster Presbyterian. Church of Gesu (Roman Catholic) 
and Trinity Lutheran. The hotels include the Pfister on the east 
side and the Plankinton. the Republican and the Schlitz on.the west 
side. Among the theatres are the David«on, Majestic. Schubert, 
Bijou, Alhambra and the Pabst German. During the summer there 
are open-air theatres in several private parks or " gardens." The 
sociaf clubs include the Milwaukee, Dcutschcr-Concordia. University 
and Marquette clubs. The predominance of Germanic influence 
in the city is evidenced by at least 7^ musical clubs and numerous 
TumverHn societies. There are 12 hospitals (3 of them city in- 
stitutions), 6 orphan asylums, 4 homes lor the aged, a foundlings* 
home and a state industrial school for girls. 

The educational institutions are numerous. Marquette University 
was established in 1906 by a union of Marquette College (1881). a 
Roman Catholic school of high rank, and existins: schools of medicine, 
pharmacy, dentistry and law; in 1908 it added a department of 
engineering, and in that year it had 81 instructors and 630 students. 
Milwaukee- Downer College (for girls), in the north-east part of the 
city was established in i8()5 by a consolidation of Milwaukee College 
for girls, and Downer College, formerly at Fox Lake. Other in- 
stitutions are Concordia College (1881, Lutheran), a state normal 
school (1880). the Wisconsin College of physicians and surgeons 
(1893), the national German-American teachers' seminary (normal), 
Milwaukee academy (1864), Milv^-aukce University school. Milwaukee 
school of engineering (1904), Milwaukee Turnverein school of 
physical culture, one of the largest schools of the sort in the United 
States. St John's Catholic institute. Our Lady of Mercy academy 
(Roman Catholic), Wisconsin academy of music, the Wisconsin 
school of art (art students' league), a Catholic normal school. 
St Rose's manual training school, the industrial chemical institute 
(the only technical school for brewers in the United States) and 
several business and commercial schools. At St Francis, adjoining 
the city on the south, is the seminary of St Francis of Sales (Roman 
CathoUc). and St Joseph's institute for deaf mutes (Roman Catholic). 
The Milwaukee public school system comprises four high schools, 
a high school of trades, and in addition to the ordinary grades, a 
kinoergartcn department and day schools for the blind and deaf. 

Transportation. — Milwaukee is favourably situated commercially, 
with excellent facilities for shipping both by lake and rail afforded 
by four trunk lines and a dozen Tines of lake steamboats. It is 
served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St Paul, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Mane, the Grand 
Trunk, and the P^re Marauettc railways. The last-named connects 
with the main line at Luaington, Michigan, by means of a railway 
ferry across Lake Michigan; the Grand Trunk hasi a railway ferry 
from Milwaukee to Grand Haven. The city's extensive street railway 
system connects with intcrurban electric lines leading to Waukesha, 
Oconomowoc and Watertown on the wext. Sheboygan and Fond du 
Lac on the north, and Chicago and intermediate points along the 
Lake shore on the south. 

Trade and Commerce. — Commercially MiU-aukee is one of the 
most important of the inland cities of the United States, although 
its trade it Largely domestic. It is a distributing point for a con- 
siderable part of Wisconsin, and several states farther west, its 
wholesale business aggregating about $350,000,000 annually. The 
country produce sola in Milwaukee avcrajges about I75.000.000 
a year in value. The chief commodities of trade are coal, grain, 
lumber, flour and various products of the city's own manufactories. 
Milwaukee is an important grain shipping port — in 1908 it shipped 
28.618.519 bushels of grain and 3.752.033 barrels of flour, and its 
2S elevators have a capacity of over 12.500.000 bushels. It is one 
of the largest distributing centres in the country for coal, which 
is received by lake, and stored in enormous coal docks for trans- 
shipment by rail throughout the west and north-west. The city 
is a port of entry, and in 1908 its imports were valued at $3,080,437, 
and its exports at only l75.525> 

Manufactures.— \n 1905 the total value of Milwaukee's factory 
products was- 8138.881.545. 25-3% more than in 1000. In the 
manufacture of malt liquors and malt Milwaukee stands first among 
the cities of the United States and of the woHd. The total value 
of these products for 1905 was S29.909.248. of which $22,134,580 
was the value of malt liquors and $3,774,668 was the value of malt. 
In 1905 Milwaukee manufactured 77-1 % of the malt liouors manu- 
factured in the state and 74% of the entire product of the United 
States. Other products exceedinfj $1,000,000 in value were: 
leather ($14,074,397). Milwaukee being second in the manufacture 
of leather among the cities of the United States; foundry and machine 



49+ 



MILWAUKEE 



thpp producti ($iOr3%j,72^\i iniTi and 4tf«l f$7 ,010,793); f^aur And 
^rW-mtll pitiducts rS4^.JJO,42tt); ^Eaughttring and mc^r^pdckine 
product! (S5,tJsH,5i5] ; rnefts cloihinis (S4.75g^54S) ; U»is and 
ihoes (Sih939,4o5); tlcCL^icAl machinrryi ippdratiii and supplit^'i 
{$M,357,iir)ii cnvwin^ and imc»king tobacco ^SiH9fi6,93o) ind 
cig&rs and cigar^tiOi tlhSiapni^l: Turmturc {^iJ^/^JpaK trunks 
and vnU^tA rSi,63j.,iioJ ; hosicrry and knit goods (Si,5i5,i7*^>; 
conJcctionvry ($1^79'^^! stovci and furnacti (fJ,36S,93[K 
leather jitos-c* and mittens (|i.Jor,6jj}; »tructyral iron work 
CS(^37k^I71'; wooden packing boinc9 (5», 014. 750); and ptinti 
(I I ^15 J 7^). Amon; Milwaukee's Urge^^ indusirial establiih- 
DKnU are: the Pabst and the Schliii breweries^ on the we»t lide 
«4 Ihe city, the nuchine shopt (35 acres) o( the Allis-Chalmers 
Compptny at West AJlis, employing about 5000 rnrci and nuking 
^ngtfies of ail kinds; and the pUf^t of the t Hi nets Steel Company, 
^t Bay View on tJie south *idct which tovem 154 acres, Tht flour 
mitli of Milwaukee have a capatity of about 12,000 Unrels a dav. 
Two of the city's tannieries aro amonc the laracit in America, fn 
the Menominee river vallty the ppcutidr cream coloyrcd Milwauki?^ 
brickf are made:. Morth of the city on tbc X!ilwaukcc river arc 
«xien»ive cement worka. 

Nttespo^s r^Thc hnt news^paper in Milwaukee, the Adi^ttiiir^ 
began pubticatidn in ]§36. The A. 'it German newspaper wa^ 
established in [i&44, [n 1909 there were eleven daily newi^papers, 
as fotlows: Eptniftg Wisofrnin {1847; Repuhlicanh Frte Prtit 
(1901; Independent Republican), Journal {iH^ii Endependcnc 
Democrat K Nnai <i«8i: Independent), and Scnhnei (1837; 
RepuUican),, I hi? oldeit paper in continuous publication, Dsuy 
Commffciat LriSfr (Commcrciil)^ Reporter (k-jgal and commercial J* 
Diifnnik MiUaui^ki (Poliih^ Kuryer Polsin tiKHS: Rvpublican; 
Polish), Cermarfia Abend fMtJl (iSji; Independent; Gcfman); and 
Der Htroid f 1S54J Independent; German K Ql more ihan a bundfed 
other publications thirty -I wOh 10 monthty or quarierly and jj 
weekly^ wene publiihed In German. There are S Polish weekly 

Euhlicarions^ 3 Bohemian^ i Italian and one pefiodical for the 
lind. 

Population. — The population of Milwaukee in 1840 was only 
171 2. During the following decade there was a steady flow of 
immigrants from the eastern states and from Europe, with the 
result that in i8sa, two years after the admission of Wisconsin 
to the Union, the population was 20,061. The population at the 
succeeding decennial censuses was as follows: (i860), 45,246; 
(1870), 7ir44o; (1880), 115,587; (1890), 204,468; (1900), 285,315. 
In 1905, according to the sute census, the population was 
312,948. The faa that out of a population of 285,315 in 1900, 
88,991 were foreign-bom, and 235,889 were of foreign parentage, 
that 53,854 were bom in Germany, that 124,211 had both parents 
born in Germany, and that 26,834 additional had one or the other 
parent born in Germany, stamps the character of Milwaukee's 
population. The negro population in 1900 was only 862. The 
proportion of illiterates is small. Of the male population, aged 
xo years or more, only 3206 (2968 foreign-bom whites; 194 
native-born whites) were illiterate in 1900. 

Government. — Milwaukee is governed under a city charter 
of 1874, providing the form of city government most common 
in America, a mayor (elected biennially) and a single board of 
aldermen. There are the usual administrative boards whose 
members are appointed by the mayor, some of them with the 
approval of the board of aldermen, though the board of school 
directors is elected by direct popular vote. Two boards of 
civil service commissioners, one for fire and police departments 
and one for all other departments, have supervision over the 
city's civil service. 

The assessed valuation of taxable property, in the city, in August 
1906 was $201,585,127, of which $157 •61 1,560 represented realty 
and $43,973,567 personality. The valuation is about 60 % of the 
actual value. The tax rate for all purposes in that year was $2*26 
per $100. According to a special report of the census the cost of 
the city government of Milwaukee in 1906 was smaller per capita 
than that of any other city in the country with a population of over 
300,000. At the close of the year 1906 the total debt was $8,835,049, 
and the funded debt was $8,106,500. 

History. — The first Europeans known to have visited the site 
of Milwaukee were Father Jacques Marquette, the Jesuit 
missionary, and his companion, Louis Jolict, who on their return 
in the autumn of 1673 to the mission of St Francis Xavier at 
De Pere from their trip down the Mississippi, skirted the west 
shore of Lake Michigan in their canoes from Chicago northward. 
Milwaukee Bay is distinctly marked in the map attributed to 
Marquette, the original of which is now in the Jesuit CoUe^ at 



Montreal, Canada; it was discovered in a convent in Montreal 
by Felix Martin (1804-1886), of the Society of Jesus, and wis 
copied by Parkman. In 1679 La Salle and his party probably 
stopped here on their way south, and in the Jesuit Rxldions of 
that year the name Milwaukee first appears, as " Millioke. " 
This, and the various other spellings of the name, attempted to 
reproduce the Indian name of the village here, which Kdion 
thinks was pronounced Minewagi and meant " there is a good 
point " or " there is a point where huckleberries grow," in allu- 
sion to the fertile soil Doubtless the coureurs du boismhst>l 
this time began to frequent the Wisconsin forests, touched attbe 
bay many times within the succeeding years as the place was 
known to be a favourite rendezvous of the Fox (or Outagamie) 
Indians. In 1699-1700 Father St Cosme. a Recollet friar, was 
here, finding bands of Mascoutens, Fox, Winnebago and 
Pouwatomi. He called the river " Melwarik/' " Mdwaid" 
and " MeUwarik.'» 

For more than half a century no definite reference to the place 
can be found. In 1760 its advantageotis situation attracted 
the adventurous trader, Alexander Henry, the first Englishman 
known to have visited the spot. Three years laiet (1763) there 
was a French fur-trading post here, but it is uncertain just when 
it was established or how long it was maintained. In 1795 
Jacques Vieau, a Frenchman in the employ of the North- Westcn 
Fur Company, established a permanent post here, which seems 
to have continued, under his direction, with practically no inter- 
ruption until 1820, when it was superseded by that of Astor'i 
American Fur Company. Vieau built a dwelling and a wa^^ 
house and conducted extensive trading operations. In 181S 
there joined the settlement a young Frenchman xuuned Laurent 
Solomon Juneau (1793-1856), who married one of Vieau'i 
daughters and eventually bought out his business. Juneau and 
several others who arrived at about the same time built hooeson 
the east side of the river near the foot of the present Wisconsin 
Street. Vieau's house and store was at this time on the south 
side. Milwaukee was on the direct route of travel between Fort 
Dearbom (Chicago) and the flourishing settlement at Green Bay, 
and at once after the treaties between the United Sutes and 
the Menominee in 183 1 and 1833 for the extinguishing of the 
Indian titles, settlers began to come to [the neighbourhood. A 
map of 1830 shows a snuill settlement on '* Milwalky Bay"; 
and the treaty of the 8lh of Febmary 1831 speaks of the ** MB- 
wauky or Manawauky River." Morgan L. Martin (1805-1887) 
of Green Bay, a lawyer and judge, and a delegate to Congress is 
1845-1847 from Wisconsin territory, explored the harbour 
facilities in 1833 and made a map of the place which he caUed 
" Milwaukie." He entered into an agreement later in the same 
year with Juneau and Michael Dousman for its development. A 
saw-mill was built in 1834, and settlers began to arrive. The 
east side was platted in the summer of 1835, and very soon after- 
ward the plat of a settlement on the west side was also recorded, 
Byron Kilboum being the chief projector and proprietor of the 
latter. The rival settlements, officially known as Milwaukee 
East Side and Milwaukee West Side, bore the popular designa- 
tions of " Juneautown " and " Kilbourntown." A third selik- 
ment, begun on the south side by George H. Walker and knovn 
as *• Walker's Point," was subsequently platted independently. 
The rivalry between the east and west side towns was intense, the 
plats were so surveyed that the streets did not meet at the river, 
and there were bitter quarrels over the building of bridges. 
Milwaukee county was set off from Brown county in 1834, and 
in 1836 the establishment of townships was authorized. Under 
this act the east and west sides were independently incorporated 
in February 1837. A realization that the continuation of inde- 
pendent and rival corporations retarded growth eventually led 
to a compromise by which the twa were united as two wards 
of the same village in 1839, the autonomy of each being still 
recognized by an odd arrangement whereby each maintained 
practically independent management of its finances and affairs. 
Walker's Point, the south side, was annexed as a third ward 
in 1845, and in 1846 the three wards were incorporated as the 
dty of Milwaukee, of which Solomon Jun^u was elected fim 



MIMETITE— MIMICRY 



495 



lyor. The influence of this early rivalry may be seen in 
reral provisions of the existing city charter. 
A,boiit 1840 a strong tide of immigration from Germany set 
continuing steadily for a half-century. It was greatly 
selerated by the German revolutionary movements of the late 
tties, which added to the city's population a considerable 
ment of educated Germans of the upper class. From this time 
; Teutonic character of the population was marked. The first 
irspapcr, the Advertiser, began publication in 1836; the 
t bank was established in 1837. In 1839 George Smith 
1 Alexander Mitchell established the Fire and Marine Insur- 
:e Company Bank. As " Mitchell's Bank " this institution 
a known for forty years as one of the strongest banking houses 
St of the Alleghanies, its notes passing at par during panics 
which even the government issues were depreciated. Through 
iie Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul and other western railways 
re financed. Beer was first brewed in Milwaukee in 1840. 
Iwaukee was connected with Chicago by telegraph in 1849, 
i by railway in 1856. Previous to this, however, in 1851, 
i first train ran over the Chicago Milwaukee & St Paul railway 
Waukesha, and in 1857 through trains were run over the same 
id to the Mississippi at Prairie du Chien. 
See J. S. Buck. Pioneer History of Milwaukee (4 vols., Milwaukee, 
76-1886); A. C. VVheelcr, Chronicles of Milwaukee (Milwaukee. 
Si); E. S. Mack, " The Founding of Milwaukee " in Proceedings 
the State Historical Society for igo6 (Madison, 1907); and L. M. 
non. Administrative History of Milwaukee (Madison, Wisconsin, 

o6h 

■nreriTB, a mineral consisting of lead cUoro-arsenate, 
bQ)Pb4(As04)s, crystallizing in the hexagonal system and 
isdy resembling pyromorphite (q.v.) in appearance and general 
aracters. The arsenic is usually partly replaced by equivalent 
lounts of phosphorus, and there may thus be a gradual passage 
>m mimetite to pyromorphite. The two species can, as a rule, 
ly be distinguished by chemical analy»s, and because of their 
ise resemblance the less frequently occurring chloro-arsenate 
IS named mimetite or mimetesite, from Gr. mtinrifi, imita- 
r. Crystals of pyromorphite though usually optically uniaxial 
t sometimes biaxial, but in mimetite this anomalous 
meter is almost always present; a cross-section of a heza- 
nal prism of mimetite shows a division into six optically 
izial sectors or a complex lamellated structure. In colour 
metite is usually yellow or brown, rarely white or colourless; 
e lustre is resinous to adamantine. The hardness is 3), and 
e specific gravity 7-0-7*25. Like pyromorphite, mimetite 
found in the upper parts of veins of leaid ore, where it has been 
med by the oxidation of galena and mispickeL When 
xnd in large amount it is of importance as an ore of lead, 
le best crystallized specimens arc those from Johanngeorgen- 
idt in Saxony and Wheal Unity in Cornwall. It was formerly 
ind in considerable amount at Dry Gill in Cumberland, as 
•sided barrel shaped crystals of a brownish-red or orange- 
How colour and containing a considerable proportion of phos- 
oric acid; this variety has been called campylite, from Gr. 
ftrvXtn, curved, on account of the remarkable curvature of the 
:es of the crysuls. (L. J, S.) 

HHICRY, in zoology, the deceptive and advantageous 
emblance presented by defenceless and edible species of 
imals to other species of animals living in the same locality, 
lich are harmful or distasteful and are consequently avoided 
all or by a majority of the enemies of the class to which the 
metic and usually the mimicked species belong. Mimicry 
I special form of protective resemblance, differing from ordinary 
Mectivc resemblance as exemplified by the similarity of the 
ting goat -sucker to a piece of bark or of leaf- and stick-insects 
the objects after which they are named, in that the imitated 
ject belongs to the animal kingdom and not to the vegetable 
igdom or to inorganic nature. Although, like protective rescm- 
iBce, quite independent of affinity between the organisms con- 
ned in the likeness, mimicry occurs most commonly between 
imak structurally similar, and therefore related, to one another, 
i rdationship may be close or remote. For instance, the 
HPift»MNK» and best-known cases are found in insects where 



both mimic and model may bebng to the same genus, sub-family, 
family or order, or to different orders. More rarely it occurs 
between members of distinct classes of the same sub-kingdom, 
i.e. between spiders and ants or spiders and beetles; yet even in 
this case both mimic and model have in common certain funda- 
mental structural points to which the finishing touches complet- 
ing the mimetic likeness are superadded. Still more rarely 
mimicry exists between totally unrelated species like cater- 
pillars and snakes or spiders and snails. But in no case does it 
appear that the modifications in shape and colour, which con- 
tribute to bring about a mimetic resemblance, are greater 
and more elaborate than those which result in the simpler 
examples of ordinary protective resemblance. 

The principle of protective resemblance, for which the term 
mimicry, as above defined, was originally employed, was first 
explained by H. W. Bates. Subsequently the meaning of the 
word was extended by F. Miiller to indude cases of mutual 
resemblance between two or more noxious spedes inhabiting 
the same area. Hence the resemblances bdonging to the first 
category are commonly termed " Batesian mimicry," and those 
bdonging to the second category " Miillerian mimicry," or more 
properly " Miillerian resemblance." The difference between the 
two phenomena is essential and evident; but without experi- 
mental information as to palatability it is impossible to know 
with certainty to which of the two a particular case of mimicry 
is to be assigned. Over and over again extended knowledge on 
this point and inferences drawn from other facts have shown the 
certainty or probability of examples of mimicry bdng in reality 
" Miillerian," which were previously accepted without question 
as " Batesian." A simple illustration will serve to explain these 
two aspeas of mimicry and to show the advantage in the struggle 
for existence that mimicry confers upon the spedes concerned. 

There is a common English Syrphid fly (Eristalis tenax) known 
as the drone-fly from its resemblance to a large hive or honey bee. 
Honey bees are protected from a large number of insect enemies 
because they sting and are distasteful Insect-eating birds soon 
learn to associate distastefulness with the size, form and colour 
of the bees, and consequently leave them alone after one or more 
trials. But flies of the drone-fly kind cannot sting, and, so far 
as is known, are perfectly innocuous and edible. The advantage 
to the fly of its deceptive resemblance to the bee is theoretically 
perfectly evident and practically can be demonstrated by 
experiment. It is in the first place a matter of common know- 
ledge that human bdngs who have been Uught to avoid handling 
bees invariably fear to touch drone-flies, unless specially trained 
to distinguish the one from the others. Moreover, Professor 
Lloyd Morgan foimd that young birds that had tasted and re- 
jected workers of the hive bee as unpalatable subsequently 
refused to taste not only drones, which have no sting, but also 
drone-flies. So far as our information at present extends the 
resemblance between these two insects is a simple case of mimicry 
in the Batesian sense of the word. That is to say, an edible 
spedes is protected by resembling one that is inedible. But if it 
be discovered, as is possible, that the drone-fly is also inedible, 
the mimicry must be ascribed to the Miillerian category, and the 
reason for it becomes less evident. In what way, it may be asked, 
are two or more distasteful spedes of insects, occurring in the 
same locality, benefited by resembling each other? The 
ingenious explanation suggested by Friu Miiller for similar cases 
met with in butterflies is probably the true answer. This 
explanation depends upon what is now an experimentally demon- 
strated fact that insectivorous birds, and probably other animals, 
have no instinctive knowledge of what insects are edible and what 
inedible. This knowledge is acquired by experience; and since 
it is not, at all events as a rule, taught by the first taste to any 
individual bird, it is reasonable to infer that a considerable 
amount of injury, sufficient to disable if not to kill, is annually 
inflicted upon insects bdonging to species protected by distaste- 
fulness or kindred qualities. Now insects that possess noxious 
attributes, and the same is true of other animals, usually have a 
conspicuous warning coloration which appeals to the eyes of 
enemies and hdps them to remember more easily the cause of aa 



496 



MIMICRY 



unpleasant experience, helps in fact to establish a psychical 
association between a particular style of coloration and a nasty 
taste or a painful wound. This being so, it is evident that if all 
the distasteful species in a given area are differently coloured, 
some individuals of all the species will be annually sacrificed to 
the experimental tasting of inexperienced foes before the numer- 
ous lessons have been learnt. But if all the species in question 
resemble each other the resemblance will be mutually beneficial 
to them because the association between the two attributes they 
have in common, namely distastcfulness and a particular scheme 
of colour, will be rapidly established. One lesson only, instead 
of many, has to be learnt; and once learnt at the expense of a few 
individuals of one or two species it will thereafter be applied 
indiscriminately to alL This type of mimicry has been well 
defined by Professor £. B. Poulton as the unification of warning 
colours. 

Since belief in the adequacy of the two theories, above outlined, 
to account for the facts tney profess to explain, depends ultimately 
upon the testimony that can be brought forward of the usefulness 
of warning characters, of the deception of mimicry and of the capacity 
for learning by experience possessed by enemies, it is necessary to 
give some of the evidence that has been accumulated on these pomts. 
(I) In South America there are butterflies formerly grouped as 
Hcliconidac which arc conspicuously coloured, slow oi flight and 
abundant in individuals so as to be susceptible of easy capture. 
They possess scent glands. By observation and experiment it was 
discovered indcpenciently by Messrs Bates, Wallace and Bell that 
they are not attacked by birds nor by many other enemies that 
prey upon unprotected Lcpidoptera. (2) As the result of a scries 
of trials made m Calcutta F. Finn came to the conclusion that young 
birds have no instinctive knowledge of the unpalatability of dis- 
tasteful insects, but that experimental tasting soon teaches them to 
recognize and avoid species they have previously rejected with 
dislike, and that having once learnt the lesson ilic>' long rtjrtmbtr 
it. (3) That birds may also be deceived by insHlt that mimit 
those they have found to be uneatable has been shown by the above- 
quoted experiment with the drone-fly and the homry-bcc* made Ly 
Professor Lloyd Morgan. He also found that chickcna thai had been 
given meal moistened with quinine and placed upon sMm *lips 
banded black and yellow, afterwards refused to Louch mtal mo^sten^ 
with water and spread upon the same slips, alihough i hey had 
previously eaten it with readiness off plain coloured tlips. With 
two exceptions, these chickens that had learnt to as»ci.iti? bbck 
and yellow banding with a bitter taste also refused to touch ihf 
caterpillar of the cinnabar moth (Eucheliajacobiwir), which i^l^mrl^H 
with these colours. Moreover, young birds t! vf f .1 \>t"- in.-h 
by experience that these caterpillars are uneatable also left wasps 
untouched. (4) Guy MarshafI once offered to a baboon a dis- 
tasteful butterfly {Acraea atumosa). holding the insect in such a 
way as to display its bright red and black markings to the monkey. 
It was taken but rejected after being tasted. A specimen of another 
butterfly {Precis sesamus) which mimics the Acraea was then offered 
in the same manner. The baboon took it, held it in her hands for 
a few moments, and then let it escape uninjured without trying to 
taste it. But when another butterfly of the same species, but with 
the wings cut off, was offered to her she promptly ate it without 
showing any sign of dislike. The results of this experiment with the 
baboon and of those with the birds are precisely what would be 
expected if the theory of mimicry is true. Experiments to test 
distastcfulness have also been made with various kinds of insecti- 
vorous Arthropoda. like spiders and mantises. These experiments 
have shown that Arthropods also have their likes and dislikes in 
the matter of insect-food and freauently refuse to eat insects which 
are warningly coloured and arc distasteful to vertebratcd enemies. 
They appear, however, to have no appreciation of mimetic and warn- 
ing colours, and have therefore not influenced in any way the evolu- 
tion of mimetic resemblances dependent upon hues and patterns. 
Nevertheless, as explained below, it seems to be highly probable 
that ant-imitating insects and spiders, when the resemblance i& 
dependent to a greater extent upon size, shape and movement than 
upon tint, have acquired their mimetic likeness especially to protect 
them from the attacks of such insect-enemies as predaceous waspi. 
of the family Pompilidae, flies of the family Asilidae, and from so- 
called parasitic hymenoptera of the family Ichncumonidae, as well 
as from other insect-eating Arthropods. 

The term mimicry has also been applied to resemblances of a 
different kind from the two enumerated above — resemblances, 
that is to say, by which predaceous species are supposed to be 
enabled to approach or mix without detection wiih animals they 
prey upon or victimize in other ways. To this end the resem- 
blance may be actually to the species victimized or preyed upon 
or else to a species which the species preyed upon does not fear 
This phenomenon is termed " aggressive mimicry " as opposed to 



the Batesian and Mttllerian phenomena, which are termed J 
'* protective mimicry." A few possible cases of aggressive •: 
mimicry are enumerated in the following summary of some of the s 
recorded cases of mimicry in different classes of the animal J 
kingdom; but the phenomenon is of comparatively rare occur- - 
rence, and the supposed instances may be susceptible of other " 
mterpretalions, excluding them altogether from mimicry, or ' 
bringing them under the Batesian or Miillerian interpretation of "^ 
ihe phenomenon. 

Among mammalia there arc no certain cases of mimicry known 

It has been claimed that the resemblance between some of t b« ■ 

Oriental tree-shrews of the genus Tupaia and squirrels comes undet 

the category of aggressive mimicry, the tupaias bein^ enabled by^ 
their likeness to approach and pounce upon small birds or o<h ct 
animals which, mistaking them for the vegetable-feeding «qi"rwJ« 
make no effort to get out of the way. But this hypothesis canno^E 
b? accepiod ae furni^hin^ a. »ti^^a.clory c^plj nation ot the '^i--"'^-^* 
Far in the dnt place th^^re scfrms to be no good rraMSEi for think in^B 
that the Tupdiai fetd to ^ny conuderablt' extent upon prev of tha^K 
kind, and in the second place the rest mbb nee is due to ct^rjirtep^H 
which ina.y be merely adaptation t to a similar mode ciif liie. A langg^ 
jand bi^^y laih ior innanct^, ii a uieful baUnccr and ii a. not ucl— 
comFnoi [uature in m^mmalA whiirh lead an active arboreal lil^e^. 
Stnnilarly the dult f;olofati.Qn ot the two sets of inlmali ii very ^-q*— 
sibty procn'ptic and scrveit to hide both threw « and wjuirreli frdar^^a 
oncmk-i Hence Xhtttr iccm to fc«t good rcai^ins for regarding iK,^ 
Uktavv, in qtn?»t ion as due to $imilari{y in habitat and not ajs mirpc-c i*^r". 

In Ea*i and tioyih Alrita thetr i* a genu* of Mu^ielldac kni:j«Ti :%« 
htirnyii {j^anUa) which poiw-HCt a foetid odour and i* fcamlntl jr 
coloured wiEh black and whue b^ndi After the maflner of sJcunk^m. 
There also occ^n in Sciuth Africa another mepiber ol ihi* family 
iFtxc^{t£oitcthinuj:^h&}, whirh i^ ttry similarly coloured. 1 1 is poMabiJe 
that this rcKmblance h mimirtic in the BarewJn sense ol the wianl. 
and that the Pocaiptnif, If in&Hvnsivt^ prufii^ by itt Ukeiuess to thr 
highly oflensive and w-arnin^ly colourvd Itiffnyjf. Bui, on llw 
other hand, Pittiiipgoif mAy Uit'lf be a ptrJiecicd form iincc »ut- 
caudal »irink glands art commonly found in tpptrie* of the wvasof 
tribe. Jf this be the Ciic the two sMcIt^ probably fumish in 
instance of true MulEerian mimicry, la South America there ii 
considerable superacid I frrtmblance between the little buih dpf 
iS^oikoi vpnatkus} of Cuisna and B rati I and the Urge wc^ikI li^ 
antma!: of the same ca^jniricijp— the tayra iCaitwa barbaru). The 
tayn Ls. when adult, black beneath and on the legs, and not un- 
cummonly has a considerable quaniiiy of greyish hair on the bcii 
In theae particulars, as well as ia cite And shortness of leg, the (kf 
rt^cinbles the weaseh and «nce there are ^ood rrascrnK for bclkvii^ 
ihn:t ihe l:ittrr it protected alike by ferocity and atink-gUnd*, it ii 
1; ';■ !• ;' ■ i- i i\-<: 'Jog, of unuiiijat coloration and form for the 
' - ' '<rn the attacks ol pumas, ja^tun and occtou 
by his likeness to the tayra. 

A few cases of mimicry have been recorded in birds. The commoa 
cuckoo and some other species inhabiting Africa and Asia c)ost\f 
resemble sparrow-hawks. Some cuckoos are singular for their habit 
of using the nests of smaller birds to lay their eggs in, so that the 
young may be reared by foster-parents: and it has been suggested 
that the object of the likeness exhibited to the hawk is to enable 
the cock cuckoo either to frighten the small birds away from their 
nests or to lure them in pursuit of him, while the hen oird quietly 
and without molestation disposes of her egg. The fact thac bota 
sexes of the cuckoo resemble the hawk does not necessarily prove 
this suggested explanation to be false: but if it be true that the 
smaller passerine birds are duped by the similarity to the t>ird of 

Firey, it may be that the cuckoos themselves escape molcsution 
rom larger hawks on account of their resemblance to the HArrov- 
hawk. Another species of this group, the black cuckoo of India, 
apparently mimics the black drongo-shrike {Dicmrus aur), the 
resemblance between the two species being very close. The drongo 
is a fierce and powerful bird which will not tolerate a strange bird 
of the size of a cuckoo near its nest, yet on account of its membUMX 
to the drongo, the hen cuckoo is enabled, it has been claimed, to 
lay her egg in the nest of the drongo. which mistakes the cuckoo 
for one of its own kind. In this case also both sexes of the cuckoo 
mimic the drongo. whereas according to the theory it wouM be 
necessary for the hen bird alone to do so. This sujg^ests that the 
resemblance to the pugnacious drongo may be beneficial in protect- 
ing the defenceless cuckoo from enemies. 

Some observations, however, of Guy Marshall on the inedibility 
of certain birds suggest that the resemblance between cuckoos and 
hawks on the one hand and cuckoos and drongos on the other may 
be susceptible of another explanation in full agreement with the 
theory ol mimicry as propounded by Bates. He found that a South 
African drongo (Dururus {Buchani^a) assimiJu} was rejected after 
one or two attempts to eat it by a hungry mongoose {Herpetia 
ralera) which had been star\-ed for purposes of the experiment 
The drongo is blue and black and is, he believes, waminffly cokNirtd. 

I The same mongoose also refused to eat a kestrel {Cerchieu rmptcf' 
loidts) axtd a bobby {Fako ia^Miro),. although it .devoured certain 



MIMICRY 



497 



Kher bods that were gfven to it. It Is dearly p6«ible. therefore. 
I^t cuckoos which mimic drongos and hawks may be protected from 
bose enemies which find these birds distasteful. 
One of the most perfect cases of mimicry in birds b presented by 
Madagascar thrush or babbler (Tafias eduardi), which resembles 
satber tor feather a shrike (Xenopirostris poUeni), from the same 
■land. The Tylas has departed from the normal coloration of its 
Toop to take on that of the shrike, a comparatively powerful and 
tugnacious bird. Anak)gous cases are supplied by the mimicry 
hat exists between some of the orioles (Mtmeta) ana the friar-birds 
PkiUmvn or Troptdorhynchus) of the Austro-Malayan Islands. The 
riar-birds are noisy arid pugnacious species of the group of honey- 
aters. and mob hawks and other birds of prey, which leave them 
tnmolested. The general style of coloration of orioles is gaudy 
rcjlow and black, rendering them invisible in sunlit foliage, and 
[uice different from the more sombre hues of the friar-birds; but 
a the islands of Bourou, Timor and Ceram the orioles have not only 
lasumed the tints of friar-birds in general, but in each of the tslamls 
Htmed a species of oriole has acquired the little peculiarities in colour 
if plumage p oss es s e d by the fnar-bird of the same locality. There 
nem to be no reasons tor doubting that these are cases o^ genuine 
protective mimicry. 

Apparently the only instances of mimicry known amongst reptiles 
xxur amongst snakes; and in all the cases quoted by Wallace 
harmless snakes mimic venomous species. In tropical America 
the cenus Elaps, which b both poisonous and wamingiy coloured, is 
a model for several innocuous snakes. In Guatemala Eiafts fuivus 
is mimicked by Pltocerus equalis; in Mexico Elaps coraUinus by 
HomMLocranium semicinctum, and in Brajul, Eiaps Umniscatus by 
Oxyrko^ms triiemtnus. In South Africa the harmless egg-eating 
•aake {Dasypdtis scaUr) is veiy like the Cape adder (Biiis tUrotos) ; 
and io Ceylon the harmless Colubrine Lycodon aulictu b alleged 
to mimic ounganu ce^oniau, an ally of the deadly krait of India. 
Con^denng, however, the numbers of venomous and innocuous 
snakes that occur in most tropical countries, it m^ht be supposed 
that mimicry in thb order of reptiles would be of commoner occur- 
rence than appears to be the case. It must be remembered, however, 
that apart from size and colour all snakes resemble each other in a 
eeneral way in their form and actions. They present a strong 
family likeness which b not found in any other terrestrial vertebrated 
animab with exception of some lizards and possibly Caeciliaps 
amongst the Amphibia. So close indeed b the similarity that many 
monkeys, apes and human beings have an apparently instinctive 
fear of all snakes and do not discriminate between poisonous and 
oon-poisonous forms. Hence it may be that innocuous snakes are 
In m,'L^ * . sufficiently proiccted by thfir liktne^ in shape 

to pen - - . I : ' i-:i th^t close and ex:ict resemblance in colour to 
partkula!' !:[>ei:rfMi 19 ^upprlluous. 

As A pouiblf in&tancie of mimicry in fLshcs, A^ T. MasierrriAii 
recalls ihc fact that two speciefl q£ wccvcr {TTatkiTfiti draco and T. 
tifa^d), hatvc thv 4am« habitat in Driti&h waters as certain species 
^ wlo {f-i^. Sdea ru/foriix). The weevtn arc poiHiTioui and the 
vcfldcn b OQBc^ntnited princlpilly in the hm spines of the first donal 
ftq. Tbese tpinca are bh^rp ^nq connected by a black menrbmoc 
prajectfi* when the htM ta disturbed, aj a danger sinisal, it \\ 
^ ^90ve the surface of the t^ind in vhich the fi&fics lie hid 
awaiti^ pnry. Per proiective purposes soEe^, which are edible, 
also lietmried in or on the &ind which they match id colour, with 
the exception ol the right gr upper pectoral fin which h^s a large black 
ich. when di^urbed the ^oles niie thi^ black fin and, as a rule, 
M it risid «0 vhat it becomes a very conspicuous object. H the 
viev that the *Cflc ii protected ty the blackness of the pectoral 
ia n*^aatilis£ the bbcknes^ pi the don;il En of the weever, be 
luhes furnish an instance of Batesian mimkry. 

__, thcfc 13 a contmon littoral fish in the Mediterranean 

ft^VAsMOfu im^). boEonging to the same family as Troihinus, 
exhibiting the umc h^bit^ ai^a living on the same ground, whkh 
alv h^* a jet bljck erectile dorsal fiiii ^nd i^ believed to be poisonouf . 
U w probable that iht rt«mblai5ce between UTansntopui and 
Ti^ekinus with rtipect to the coteur ol the dorsal fin is mutuaU;^ 
b££ie6d^l to the two Ashes. J f so, the likeness must be rr^gnrded as 
ab io^m^nce of M U]l«mn mimicry* 

It b amongst Arthropods, however— and especially amongst 
tD»ct*~^at mjnucry, both Ibteii^n and Mmkrian, occurs in 
fTfatesx profusion and perfection. 

In insects of the order Orthopiera, departure from the normal in 
forth and colour, carrying with it smilarity to other hving thing;^ 
D:£y£)ly tjkes the line of protective rt'sembunce to pan$ ol (jtanti. 
Huv u» well exemplified by the leaf -insects {Pky^hum} and sticlc- 
InscctA iBsaiTa). where the Hkenets to the modeli after which they 
are oamed is procryptic; and 4lsg by various speciei of tropical 
Mantidae which resemble Elciwers for tne purpose of alluring insects 
within fftrikini^ distance and perhaps also for concealing thctr 
mfcniity from enemtei. Some case>i of genuine mimicry, however, 
are known in the order. Perhaps the ben i% that of the Sudanese 
Lacustid {Myrm^opkana faU4ix)t which is 6ttikinij!y ant- like. The 
Ji«d is laree, the nctk lender, the ant^nnjie afiort and the legs 
kHgpili. and the appearance of the long stalk -like waist of the ant 
is produced by a pitch of whitish hair on each side of the forepart 
sl tW aJHkhiftea «bkb hii the effect of cutting away the paru of 
AVIU 9 



pale 



the segmsitfei m arvered, letvfng a Damv d«Tk-^o6lMii«d madli;^ 
jirea ta rrprTscnt the waist. This at least is the mr^thod ol diafuiiB 
suj^^esteij by ekafru nation of the dried insect \ but repn?sentsttv«s 
u{ ihe jtamc or ^n allied species found in Moshandland were ob^efved 
in the living it^te lo be grven with the antlike part* rcprvsented in 
biatk pigment. Thvm parts were quite conspicuous against the 
Ert-efl of the plants frc<]ucntt>d by the injects, wherever the ^reet). 
portions wtre rendered invisible by the »ame back^p^und. Ant- 
]Tiimicr>'haj» al.10 t^vcn recorded in the ca$e of the larva ol one ol the 
Indian species qI Mantidoe. Again, several ^ptcics of this order 
have become profoundl],^ modified in form in tniiiation of inedible 
beetles- [n the Philippines, a cricket {SctpaUm piicHyrhynrhtndii)^ 
has taken on the shape and coloratLon of a spedcs at Apxyrlui, a 
hard and inedible weevil [Curcitiionidtie) ; anti pkofo^pis^ a kind of 
frasfihopper similarly resembles ladybinis (CofnintUidat). A sfrecief 
of bcvtie {Caria diiataki) of this family in Bunieo is mimickea by a 
species of a gcnuA allied lo GammaTaU-iiix n^t uoty in ^hapeandcolora.' 
tLon but also in the habit of remaining still when disturbed. In the 
some iiland a species of Cryikuri^ mintic* Pk^f^piopkui a/svatuj^ a 
" Bombardier " beetle whkh ejects a pu^ of volatile formic acid 
when attacked; and Cflndyl^tera trv^fruiyimdiS mimics different 
species of tiger-beetles (Ckindtiuiae) dt different stages of its (^wth. 
Finally the larv'a of one of the Bornean Mantidae, which is a Boral 
simulator in its pupal and adult stageSn closely rtvernbte^ in its black 
and red coloration the larva of the stinking and wamingiy cobured 
bug Eidyfi ameena. 

Comparatively few caaes of mimicry in the Neuropteta have been 
observed. Tliere are recordSn however^ ol tpedes of Mawfifpa. 
mimicking the wasp Palisin In North America and Borneo sjid 
Bttijncj^aster in South Africa r and other species of the genui imitate 
pamsltic hymenpptera of theserwnB Bmt^n and Jf^io/tettw* 

Colcoptem. (b«tks) supply instances of mimicry of anta, »^spa 
and Ichneumonldfi, and socne defenct^lc$A form^ of this order mimic 
others that are protected. A goc»d illustraiirjn of waHjs- mimicry it 
fnrnished by a large htteromerou^ biietle {Coioborttombiti Jfxutaii- 
p^nis) from Borneo which is remarkably like a large wasp {Myt^ 
nimia avicvtu^) fro en the 9^ me isiand+ The front winj^s gf the wasp 
have a con^picuoud white patch near the tip and a paif^h Similar ia 
ai2£ and colour it present on the wings of the beetle, which* ufthke the 
majority of beeCio, habitually kcepi its wings exiended* And tinoe 
the elytra are ^eitoeptionally short the wings art not covered by 
them when folded. The resemblance alio extendi to the general 
form ol the body and to the length and (hicknes* of the wing* and 
antennae. The elytra are equally reducedn and apparently lur the 
same ^wtpom^ in an Australian L^ngicorit b<-etle {E4tiiMiisftTruiintui)t 
which, tike so many wasp- 1 ike Hytnenoptera, hojs the body Ijiiandi:^ 
red and black. This beetle probably njiniicsthe Australian hornet 
{Abijpa aKiiralis). In the European Longicorn {Qytm arittis}, oa 
the other hand* the elytra arc of normal length and are banded with 
yellow stripes. The beetle^ moreover, is of slender build and all jti 
actions are suggestively wosp-Ukeu This may« however, be an in- 
stance of MuHerian rather than ol Batesian mimicry * the beetle 
beinff itjflf inedibtc; for Shetford has stated his conviction that 
the Bomean representatives of the sub-family (ClytinaeK to which 
ChluJ arieiii belongs, are all highly distasteful and are wamingiy 
coiourrdt as are members of this sub-faniily from othe^ parts of the 
world. 

In the Philippine Islands feveral soffiies of Longicoms of the g!enu» 
Dalteps mimic hand inedible weevils (,Ciir£miOKtdat) of the genua 
Pa£kvrkyni;hits. The antennae of these weevils are short and end 
In a Ttnob: those of the Lonpconu ane very much lareer, but the 
weeviMjkc IcMnk Is produced Ey the presence of a knob-Tike sweilinj 
upon the third joint, the terminal portion of the antenna being kj 
extremely fine as to be almost invisible. Similar modification of 
the antennae in the Longtcom Esiipnfsiddi variabJis brings about 
the resemblance between this beetle and a beetle, Ktliimrrta ^hinm- 
lis^ one of the Phytophaea of the family Hispidoe. IV^umerouft 
instances of mimicry in this order of insects have recently beea. 
recorded from Borneo by R- W. C. Shelfoid, a large number of them 
being in all probability MiiUerian- 

[n^tanixs ol anE-mimicry> unique in the method employed to 
bring about the rescmblancet are supplied by some insects of the 
Homopterous group ol the Rhynchota, belongmg to the family 
Membracidae. In oneol these (HftatmolMs tnnadastu}, the dorsal 
area of the forepart of the tnorax i* developed ijito a plate 
which projiects backwards over the body of the insect, whkh 
reuini itt normal lormi and conceals all but the head, wings and 
legs. This shield if shar^ in satth a manner as to resemble 
closely the body of an ant, the median portion of the shield being 
deeply constricted in imiution of the waitt and the terminal portion 
sub-globular like (be abdomen ol the ant. This insect comes from 
Central AmeHca. Still more cuHous is the iTtimicry of another of 
these insects from Vtrejruela which h found in company with 
a leaf^cuttin^^ ant (Oefodima iephalotci} of that country When 
pursuing their operations of leaf- storage, these ants present the 
appearance of a cm w ling crowd of leaf 'particles, fragments of leaves 
being carried by the insects in such a way at to eonccaJ to a great 
extent the insect underneath^ of which little mor* than the dark 
coJoured leRs pn^ject beyond the burden. The immature lorm 
0i the above-mentioned spedes of Membracidae laimics both ant 

xa 



498 



MIMICRY 



') 



and leftf-partkle. The lest and lower part of the body are dark 
coloured, but the dorsal surface of the thorax and abdomen is 
coloured green and u raited lo as to form a cieat with jageed edges 
exactly reproducin|r the irregular margin of a fragment of leaf cut 
out by the mandibles of the ant. In Borneo the Homopteron 
Issus hruckotdes mimics a M>ecies of CurcuUonid beetle of the genus 
Akides. 

In the Hemipterous group of the Rhynchota ant-mimicry b 
illustrated by the larva of a British species of Reduviidae (Nains 
Uuiventris) in which the forepart of the abdomen is furnished on 
each side with a patch of white hairs leaving a central narrow dark 
portion in imitation of the waist of the ant ; and also by an East 
African species {Afyrmoplasta mtra) which in its general form exhibits 
a close resemblance to an ant {Poljfrrhatu ^gaUs) which occurs in 
the same neighbourhood. Another mstance m this group is supplied 
by a Bomcan species of Reduviidae which mimics a species ot the 
genus Bracon, one of the parasitic Hymcnoptera. 

Typical dipterous insects (flies) closely resemble m general form 
acukatc Hymcnootera belonging to the families of bees and wasps. 
The changes in colour and structure required to complete the resem- 
blance to particular species are comparatively slight and much less 
complicated than those needed to produce a likeness to other pro- 
tected insects. Hence we find that the majority of flics that numic 
insects of other orders have bees or wasps for their models. Many of 
the Syrphidac are banded black and yellow and present a general 
resemblance to wasps, especially when they alight, the reseinblance 
being enhanced by a twitching action of the abdomen imitating the 
simiur action so familiar in species of stinging hvmenoptera. These 
flies are characterized by a peculiar method of Aignt. They commonly 
hang poised in the air, then dart with lightning swiftness to another 
spot and poiae themselves again. This fiabit. the origin of the name 

hover-flies." is proliably connected with their mimetic coloration. 
If they flew like ordinary- flics their resemblance to Hymenopten 
would be obbcurcd by the rapidity of their flight and they might 
be caught on the wing by insectivorous birds or other iniects; 
but when poised they display their coloration. When the latter is 
k>st during flight, the rapidity of their movement defies pursuit. 
The particular likeness to a honey-bee presented by one member 
of this family, the drone-fly {Eristalis tenax), has been already 
referred to. But the likeness probably goes deeper than superficial 
resemblance that appeals to the eye; for spiders which distinguish 
flies from bees by touch and not by sight, treat drone-flies after 
touching them, not in the fearless way they evince towards blue- 
bottles (Callipkora), but in the cautious manner they display to- 
wards bees and wasps, warily refraining from coming to close 
quarters until their prey is securely enswatned in silk. This forcibly 
suggests that the drone-fly mimics a honey-bee not only in appear- 
ance but also in the feel of its hairs or the nature of its buzz. Other 
flies of the genus Voluctlla, larger and heavier in build than Eristalis, 
resemble humbksbees in colour and form, and it was formerly 
supposed that the purpose of this similarity was to enable the flies to 
enter with impunity the nests of the humble-bees and to lay their 
eggs amongst thoi£ of the Latter insects. But it has been ascer- 
tained that the ?>|>ecies of Volucella which behave in this manner^ 
also visit for a like purpose the nests of wasps, which they do not 
resemble. Hence it is probable that this case of mimicry is purely 
of a protective and not of an aggressive nature and serves to save 
the flics from destruction by insectivorous enemies. The same 
explanation no doubt applies to the mimicry, both in Borneo and 
South Africa, of huiry bees of the family Aylocopidae by Asilid 
flics of the genus Ilvpereckia, and also to other cases of mimicry of 
Hvmenoptera as well as of inedible beetles of the family Lycidae by 
Diptera. Numerous othei' cases of mimicry between Diptera and 
Hymenopicra might be cited. 

The Lepiiloptera furnish more instances of mimicry, both 
BatCMan and MuUerinn. than any other order of insects. In 
the majority of cai«s both model and mimic belong alike to the 
Lenidoptera, and it is often uncertain whether both are inedible 
(NiUllerian mimicr>') or whether inedibility is the attribute only of 
the model (Batesi.in mimicr>'). A large number of cases that were 
formerly rccardcd as belonging to tnc latter category arc now 
suspected of Ix-longing rather to the former. Sometimes Lcpi- 
doptera mimic proto<:tcd members of other orders of insiccts — ?uch 
as Coleoptera, Hymenoptcra and Hemiptera; but perhaps the most 
singular illustrations of the phenomenon known in the order are 
exemplified by the brvae oi the hawk-moth Chaerocampa, which 
imitate the heads of snakes. Professor Poulton long ago suggested, 
and sup|x>rted the suggestion by experimental evidence on a lizard, 
that the larvae of two British species, C elpenor and C. porcellus, 
are protected by the resemblance to the heads of snakes presented 
by the anterior extremities of their l)odies which are ornamented 
with l.irt^e eye-like spots. Wlien the lar\'ac are disturbed the 
similarity is nrrnluccd with startling suddenness by the telescopic 
contraction of the anterior vjjments in such a manner as to suggest 
a triangular, pfiinled head with two large (lor>al eyes. SubM.f]uent 
ohser\'ers (A. Weismann, Lady Verney) have shown bv cxi>eriment- 
ing upon birds that this suggestion !)« correct ; and Ciuy Marshall 
found that baboons which are afraid of snakes are also afraid of 
tAe snake-like lan'a of the South African ChaeroKampa osiris. 
Fiaally Shelford Mtate$ thzt the anterior end o( a Dori^can spc«:\c% 



(C. myodom) offen • ttriking and deufled rcMoibUBoe to tiK . 
of a snake (Deudropjus picft). 

Instances of ant-mimicry in tlus order are •onetimes confine 
the larval stage. The early larval stage of the '* Lobster Ma 
(Staurofus fagt) for example, presents a general resemblance, di 
a combination of shape, colour, attitude and movements, to fa 
ants, the swollen head and the caudal disk with its two tenti 
representing respectively the abdomen and antenna-bearing I 
of the mod^ A parallel case of mimicry exists at Singapore 
tween the larva oi a Noctutd moth and the common red tree 
{Otcopkylla smaratdina). In thb case also the posterior end ol 
larva represents the anterior end of the ant. Another instam 
mimicry affecting the larval form is supplied by the moth Eudr 
terstcotar, the caterpillars of which resemble the inedible larva 
saw-flies. The resemblance that certain moths— c.f. Trockt 
apifomUt crabroniforme — present to bees and wasps is effected it 
mam by the loss of the scales from the wings, leaving these or 
transparent. It is important to note that the scales are present i 
the moths first emerge from the pupa-case, but are loosely atta 
and fall off with the first flight. 

Of the multitudes of cases of mimicry b et wee n different sp 
of Lepidoptera. a few only can be selected for description. T 
cases, however, have a peculiar interest and importance for they ! 
been studied in fuller detail than any others and the discovery 
particular instance in South America first suggested to Bates 
theoretical explanation of this bionomical phenomenon. On 
Amazons and in other parts of South America there are buttei 
of the group Ithomiinae which are disustefuland have all the chi 
tcrs of specuUy protected species, being conspicuously coloured, 
of flight, careless of exposure and abundant in individuals, 
wings are transparent and are black-bordered and black-bsi 
the anterior wing having two black bars and the posterior one. ' 
type of colouring is also lound in genera of quite distinct sob-fan 
cil butterflies, namely in Danainae and Pierinae, as well as in i 
diurnal moths, all ol which occur in the same district as the I 
miinae. The following species may be cited as instances of 
type of pattern: iSetkona conjusa, Thyndia psidii, Eutwesis im 
Irtx and Dirienna dero (Ithomiinae); llura ilione and /. pkm 
(Danainae) : Dismorpkia arise (Pierinae) ; Antfumiysa buckleyi (n 
of the family Pericopidae) and Castnia linus (moth of the fan 
Castniidac). So alike in form, cokxir and mode of flight are tli 
Lepidoptera that when on the wing it is almost or ouite impose 
to distinguish one from the other, and the resemblance bets 
members belonging to different sub-families cannot be assigned 
affinity. Micn>dcoplc;kl e^sianiinatian of the wings. tnor»ver, 
shown that the tramparenEry ol the wiiiga, commCkri to afi, 
b<i^n acquiired by a diflcrent modifioitiLin ol the 'sralet to c 
of the genera exhibiting ;tie Ithotnline fypt ol coJoraiirin- Tlai 
DanaJne and Ithomiine mptcin arc di atactic: ful i* known- Ja 
ior emmfAt, belonging to the former, has pmiru si bldccm-cmiii 
procrssci at the end of tSe abdomen; ^nd Tkyndm has stxflti 
dtjcing tufts df hair on the c^ge of the pasteriar-wijig, SUtcs tMi 
no »ti^ictory enpb nation of the restmbtancc b^tweeo U 
two genera and others oi the mne pfOK'Ctt'd sub^ families; hui 
did not hesitate to ajcribe the resemblance to ihem prescflt«4 
the PJerine, Dumorpkia iLjpiaiii) {trUt, to tnimltrrj', belifvin| 
miTphm to be unproit'cied and noting that it departs] widely i 
matter of coloration from typical membcfs of the sul>-fami]y to » 
it belongs^ Ak hough mimicry in the Lcpidoptcxa has bein e 
to a greater extreme in 5outn America than in any at her ct 
ot the worlds remarkabte in&Lances o( it have la ken pT 
the Ethiopian and Omntal recionv A classical and hlghl 
pk'jc rase fit^t invest iRa ted and es plained bv R Tfimi^n is 
Pfl^rJia cicii'Jdrt la J which jj widely di-ri ..! .■! '•.■■■ . .md 
sented by several sub-spccics or geographical races. T 
primitive of these is antinorit from Abyssinia, which is non 
and has the two sexes nearly alike. The males of the o 
species arc much like the males of anlinorit; but the fc 
widely different and mimic various species of inedible 
belonging to the protected groups of the Danainae and 
One of tnesc sub-species, merope, which ranges from the 
to Victoria Nyanza, is polymorphic and occurs under t 
namely (a) kippocoon, which mimics the Danaine Amau 
(h) tropkonius, which mimics the Danaine Limnas 
(f ) planrmoides, which mimics the Acraeinc Plancma pc 
enough one or more of these forms may occur in. other 
For example, the sub-species cenea whicn occurs in ^ou 
east Africa not only has the form cenea mimickint: t 
Amauris echeria ana A. albimaculata. but ai>o the h 
which rcM-mbles a local race of Amauris niavius. knc 
canus. The sub-spccics polytropkus from the Kikuy 
al-^ has the planemoides and centa forms and anothc 
which is intermediate l^etween the unmodifit*d fern, 
and kippocoon, and like the latter is mimetic of .- 
domtnuantis. Finally the suh-specics libuJlus fror 
has the rrnfa-form, the trimeni-iorm and proKilily 
form. The siudv of thi-* intrirate cav; is not yet 
is at pri."<'nt unknown whether it is an instam 
Mlillerian mimicry. Special attention may l>e drj 
metva cotvivect.cd with it. both of not uncomn 



MIMICRY 



499 



■smetic Leptdoptera. The first is the occurrence of mtmicry 
aly in the female sex. The reason for this is to be found in 
tie greater need of protection <A the female which is slower in flight 
lan tbe male and is exposed to special danger of attack when restmg 

> lay ber eggs. The second noteworthy phenomenon is the mimt- 
ry of more than one protected species by members of a single 
sedea. This is a not uncommon occurrence, and in the case ol 
atcsian mimicry the explanation is probably this. When an 
lible species gains protection by mimicking a distasteful one, there 

a Uketihood of its increasing in numbers until it equals or surpasses 
s model in this respect. Were this to take place the purpose of 
le mimicry would be abortive, because enemies would probably 
of refrain from slaughter if even every alternate capture proved 
•latable. It is advantageous therefore that the numbers of the 
limettc Bpedes should be fewer than those of the model; and this 
ppean to be achieved in some cases by the individuals of the mime- 
c species dividing themselves between two or more models 

Spiders furnish numerous instances of mimicry. Though simple 
1 land, many of these are as perfect illustrations of the phmomcnon 
I any founa m the animal kingdom. 

Among^ the orbweavers of the family Argyopidae there are 
xdes belonging to the genera Cyclosa and Cyrtopkora which closely 
•semble small snail-like gastropods as they cling to the underside 
r leaves with their leg? drawn up. Other members of the same 
unily — like Araneus coccineUa, and ParapUctana tkomtoni — 
nitate beetles of the family Coccinellidae which are known 

> be distasteful; and certain genera of the family Salticidae 
HomalaUus9.nA Rkanis) closely resemble small hard-shelled beetles. 

The most perfect cases, however, are exhibited by those species 
rhich imitate ants. The structural iftodifications required to con- 
crt a spider into the image of an ant are of a more complicated 
baracter than those that serve the same purpose in an insect. All 
isects have the same regional division of the body into head, thorax 
nd abckmien, the same number of legs, a pair of antennae and a 
!gmented abdomen. Spiders on the contrary have no antennae, 

separate " head," an unsegmented abdomen and an additional 
air of legs. In the majority of ant-imitating spiders the forepart 
f tbe cephalothorax is constncted on each side to resemble the neck 
f the insect, and in many cases the similarity is increaaed by the 
resence of a stripe of white hairs which has the optical effect 
r cutting out an extra piece of integument, exactly as occurs in 
naloeous cases in insects. Narrowing of the postenor portions of 
w sfMder's cephalothorax and sometimes of the anterior end of the 
bdomen reproduces the slender waist of the ant, and frequently 
-anaverae bands of hairs represent the segmentation of this region 

1 the insect. The legs become slender and those of the first or of 
)e seccmd pairs are held up and carried in front of the head to simu- 
ite the antennae of the ant. Added to this the spiders commonly 
)py to the life the mode of progression and the restless activities 
r their models. 

The likeness presented varies considerably in degree from a general 
!semblance to several species, such as is seen in the Salticid spider 
?eckkamia picata) of North America.to a close similarity to particular 
jecies. To this category belorie Myrmarachiu piakueoides, one of 
»e Salticidae, and Amyciaea forticepst one of the Thomisidae 
hich in India imitate and live with the vicious little red ant 
TuopkjUa smaragdina) ; also Myrmarachne protidens, which mimics 
le red and black Indian ant {Sima rufoni^a); and the South 
merican species of Qubionidae, e.g. Myrmectum nigrum, which is 
n accurate copy of the large black ant {Pachycondyla viUosa), 

Sometimes it is only the males of a species of spider that mimic 
US, as in the case of Ildebaka mutUloides and /. myrmicaeformis, 
*o South American species of the family Argyopidae. in which the 
males are protected by strong spine-armature. The males are 
ithout these protective spines and are exposed to special dangers 
I tbey wander in search of the webs of the females. In South 
frica too the males of a species of Eresidae (Seothyrd) resemble 
ad are found in company with a large ant {Camponotus fuloopilosus), 
hich is common on the veld. Like the males of lUUbaha, those of 
totkyra wander about by day in search of the females which live 
)acealed in burrows. Many other spiders belonging to the Theri- 
iidae and LinypJiiidae also mimic ants; but it is needless to enumer- 
re them, the most periect examples of this phenomenon being 
wnd in the families Clubionidae and Salticidae. 

Ant-mimicking spiders have been seen now and again to devour 
leir models. It has therefore been suggested by some and uken 
ir granted by others that the resemblance comes under the category 
; aggressive mimicry and that the ants are deluded by this resem- 
lanoe into regarding the spiders as members of their own species, 
hat the ants do not destroy them is certain; but that they are 
Keived by the superficial similarity of the spiders to themselves 

highly improbable, for these insects are capable of distinguishing 
strange ant belonging to the same species if it comes from another 
ilony. Moreover, the above^suggcsted explanation does not 
iincide with the explanation of the likeness to ants shown by 
Ttain insects such as Myrecophana fallax, the ant and leaf-tike 
[embracid Homopteron and the larvae of the lobster-moth {Stauro- 
njagi), which are plant-eaters. It is probable that one explanation — 
ime^. that of protection — covers all cases of ant-mimicry ; and this i 
k lies in all probability in the immututy from the attacks 



of most insectivorous enemies that ants enjoy, and especially from 

predAccoij^ v lestroy 

iKEiij$4nd9 n^- ■■■■,.:■■. d since 

mrtre i han one f jh wnxT n a i i t'si i n mI i i h nc i va r a rn I : e these 

wd^ps hjivicr of ant?, it ie ch^Il'u to lixi]e farther - . benefit 

ant'iTiinilcrj^ is to spaders. These wmp^, moruovi.-^. . , . ovision 
their nurscriea with cati-rpitlara, jpaa^hopper^ and other insects. 
Hence it may \x Inferred that the inM.<<-c> which imitate antit profit 
in the fcaune way that tpidera d*Ji fram this form of mimicry. 

[a the ^ibove-cited tiistorical \m\Antt: of mimicr>'^ amongst some 
South American Lepidopti^m whkh formed the foundailon ul Bates' 
iln»r>', specie of burtcrtiic*, bebnEing to the Jthumiine genus 
//kiTfj And the D«iriAinc gvnus Tkyriaia, both unpaUtabbr forms, 
n^semble each Other. Thia is a very iimple case of the possession 
qI the same type of coloration by two or mora pronxtfd insects 
inhabiting tht lame district. The »tgnjficance of this pWnoTiienon, as 
already stated^ was fii^t eKpLain<x! by Fritz MUlkr; but atthough the 
term " Miltlerian mimicry " has Ix^iii ^s&i^nrd lo this and similar 
iuatincL-^. thrv ian." not airjttlv tjicMkim; t-.tw* of miirrim' .11 all but 
,! ^. .r,-,,.^ , ,.i. . ,,...•. I'... . ,,., ._r ,.. ^;. .. ...:..! . .p'yhave 

some special advertising attribute, sometimes the display of con- 
spicuous coloration, as in the skunk; sometimes the emission of 
sound as in the rattlesnake; sometimes a combination of the two, 
as in the common porcupine and the large black scorpions of Africa 
and India. Such characters have been termed by Professor Poulton 
" aposematic" Neither oi the above-mentioned animals is 
mimicked ; but where two or more noxious animals, inhabiting the 
same district, resemble each other, both being aposematical^ or 
wamingly coloured, the likeness is said to be " synaposematic." 
Synaposemasy is MtUlerian mimicry. Finally, the likeness of an 
edible species to a wamingly coloured inedible one in the same 
locality is termed '* pseudapoeiematic." in allusion to the pretentious- 
ness or falsity of the warmng signal. . Pseudaposemasy is Batesian 
mimicry. 

An important phenomenon connected with insect mimicry is 
the convergence of several species in the same area towards a common 
type of coloration and shape, exhibited by one or more than one 
protected form. The reaemolance shows various grades of complete- 
ness: and the convergent mimics may be themselves noxious, or 
edible and innocuous. In other words the insects entering into 
the combination may furnish instances of Batesian and of MOUerian 
mimicry. Very commonly different species of aculeate Hymenop- 
tera, inhabiting the same district, form the centres of mimetic attrac- 
tion for insects of various orders, so that a considerable percentage 
of the insea-fauna can be arranged in groups according to the 
pattern <A the particular model the species nave copied. Good 
illustrations of this law have been discovered by Guy Marshall 
in Mashonaland. He found on the same day on a bud of vetch, 
specimens of black ants (^mponotus sericeus and C cosmicui)^ 
black ant-like Hemipterous inseas (Megapetus atratus) and the ant- 
like Orthopteron (Myrmecopkana JaUax) (cf. supra). In this little 
coterie the ants are beyond question the models towards which the 
bug and the grasshopper have converged in appearance. Since 
many of the insects of tne order Hemiptcra are distasteful, the mimi- 
cry ^ the bug {Megapetus) b in this case probably MOllerian or 
synaposematic; the grasshopper (Myrmecopkana), on the other hand, 
is probably edible and the mimicry is Batesian or pseudaposematic. 
This is a simple case consisting of a small number of component 
species. Others are more complex, numerous species being in- 
volved. In Mashonaland, for instance, a large number of genera and 
species of Hymenoptera belonging to the Apidae, Eumenidae. 
Sphegidae. Pompilidae. Scoliidae, Tiphtidae and Mutillidae, resemble 
each other in having black bodies and dark blue wings. The same 
style of coloration is found in Coleoptera of the famtUes Cetoniidae 
and Cantharidae; in Diptera of the families Asilidae, Bombylidae, 
Tabanidae and Tachinidae; in Hemiptera of the family Reduviidae 
and in Lepidoptera of the family Zygaenidae. In this instance the 
Hymenoptera, of which the coloration is synaposematic, form 
together a composite model which the other insects have mimicked, 
or the latter, the Lepidopteron (Tascia homochroa) is distasteful, 
as also are the beetles of tne family Cantharidae {e.g Lytla moesta). 
Probably the bu^s too {e.g. Harpactor tristis) are protected. The 
mimicry of these insects therefore is synaposematic: but some, at all 
events, of the flies like the Bombylid Exoprosopa umbrosa, probably 
form pseudaposematic elements in the group, into another category 
Hymenoptera enter not as models but as mimics, the models being 
inedible Malacodermatous beetles mostly belonging to the eenus 
Lyciu and characterized by orange coloration set off by a large black 
patch upon the posterior end of the elytra and a smaller black spot 
upon the thorax. Towards this Lycoid centre have converged 
Coleoptera (beetles) of the sub-order Lamellicomia (Copridae), 
Phytophag^ ; Hcteromera (Cantharidae) and Longicomia ; Hemiptera 
of the families Pyrrhocoridae, Lyweidae and Reduviidae; Lepidop- 
tera of the families Arctiidae and Zygaenidae; Diptera of the family 
Asilidae; and lastly Hymenoptera oithe families Braconidae, Pom- 
pilidae, Crabronidae and Eumenidae. With the exception of the 
Asilid fly and perhaps some of the Longicom and phytoohagpa^ 
beetles, which are probably protected ^\««cwvm\vsC\c^,^Vevtc^Jasx 
species constituting t\ie aoov^TO!CTv\AOT«A. «aaRtc^:^a.^ ^*> "*- ^"^ 
believed, MiUloiaA oc «ytia^Q«tsBAXJMt tiaattcu Vti ^iofcNSKWfc 




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MINARET— MINAS GERAES 



5o» 



surprised by the French. Though some maintain that he was 
not at his best as a leader in battle, as a strategist he was very 
successful, and he displayed great organizing capacity. The 
French authorities were compelled to allow him to levy customs 
dues on all goods imported into Spain, except contraband of war, 
which he would not allow to pass without fighting. The money 
thus obtained was used to pay his bands a regular salary. He was 
able to avoid levying excessive contributions on the coimtry and 
to maintain discipline among his men, whom he had brought to a 
respectable state of efficiency in x8i2. Mina claimed that he 
immobilized 26,000 French troops which would but for him have 
served with Marmont in the Salamanca campaign. In the cam- 
paign of 18x3 and 1814 he served with distinction under the duke 
of Wellington. After the restoration of Ferdinand he fell into 
disfavour. On the 25th and 36th of September he attempted to 
bring about a rising at Pamplona in favour of the Liberal party, 
but failed, and went into exile. His political opinions were 
democratic and radical, and as a yeoman he disliked the hidalgos 
(nobles). The revolution of 1820 brought him back, and he 
served the Liberal party in Galicia, Leon and Catalonia. In the 
last district he made the only vigorous resistance to the French 
intervention in favour of Ferdinand VII. On the ist of Novem- 
ber 1823 he was compelled to capitulate, and the French allowed 
him to escape to England by sea. In 1830 he took part in an un- 
successful rising against Ferdinand. On the death of the king 
he was recalled to Spain, and the government of the regent 
Christina gave him the command against the Carlists in 1835, 
though they feared his Radicalism. By this time, years, exposure 
and wounds had undermined his health. He was also opposed to 
Thomas Zumalacarregui (9.9.) 1 an old officer of his in the War of 
Independence, and an even greater master of irregular mountain 
warfare. His health compelled him to resign in April 1835, ^^^ 
his later command in Catalonia was only memorable for the part 
be took in forcing the regent to grant a constitution in August 
1836. He died at Barcelona on the 24th of December 1836. 
Mina was a brave and honest man, who would have conducted 
the war against the French in 1810-12 with humanity if they 
had allowed him, but as they made a practice of shooting those 
of his men whom they took, he was compelled to retaliate. He 
finally forced the French to agree to an exchange of prisoners. 

AuTHOllTiES. — In 182^ Mina published A Short Extract from the 
Life 0/ General Mina, in Spanish and English, in London. Mention 
is made of him in all histories of the affairs of Spain during the first 
third of the 19th century. His full Memoirs were published by his 

■ r at Madrid in 1851-1852. (D. H.) 



MINARET (from the Arabic ptandrai; manar or minor is 
Arabic for a lighthouse, a tower on which nar, fire, b lit), a lofty, 
turret peculiar to Mahommedan architecture. The form is 
derived from that of the Pharos, the great lighthouse of Alexan- 
dria, in the top storey of which the Mahommedan conquerors 
in the 7th century placed a small praying chamber. The light- 
house form is perpetuated in the minarets which are found 
attached to all Mahommedan mosques, and probably had 
considerable influence on the evolution of the Christian church 
tower (see an exhaustive study in Hermann Thiersch, Pharos 
AntikCf Islcm und Occident, 1909). The minaret is always square 
from the base to the height of the wall of the mosque to which it is 
attached, and very often octangular above. The upper portion is 
divided into two or three stages, the wall of the upper storey being 
slightly set back behind the one below, so as to admit of a narrow 
balcony, from which the azan, or call to prayer, is chanted by the 
muazzin (mueain, moe44in). In order to give greater width to 
the balcony it is corbelled out with stalactitic vaulting. The 
l^lconies are surrounded with stone balustrades, and the upper 
store3rs are richly decorated; the top storey being surmounted 
with a small bulbous dome. The earliest minaret known is that 
which was built by the caliph Walid (a.d. 705) in the mosque of 
Damascus, the next in date being the minaret of the mosque of 
Tulun, at Cairo (aj). 879), with an external spiral flight of steps 
like the observatory towers in Assyrian architecture. This mina- 
ict as also the example of El Hakim (996), is raised on great 
Sfquare towers. The more remarkable of theother Cairene minarets 
«re tbM« of Imam esh-Shafi (12x8), Muristao al Kalaun (1280), 



Hassan (i354)> Barkuk (a.d. 1382) and Kait Btfy (aj>. 1468). 
Of the same type are the two minaret^ added to the mosque of 
Damascus in the i sth century. In Persia the minarets are gener- 
ally circular, with a single balcony at the top, corbelled out and 
covered over. In India, at Ghazni, there arc no balconies, and 
the upper part of the tower tapers upwards; the same is notice- 
able at Delhi, where the minaret of Kutab is divided into six 
storeys with balconies at each level. In the well-known tomb of 
the Taj Mahal the four minarets are all built in white marble, in 
three storeys with balconies to each storey, and surmounted 
by open lanterns. The minarets of Constantinople are very 
lofty and wire-drawn, but contrast well with the domes of the 
mosques, which are of slight elevation as compared with those at 
Cairo. 

MINAS [MINOlDES] {c. 1790-1860), Greek scholar, was a 
native of Macedonia. During the Greek War of Independence 
he migrated to Paris, where he tried to enlist the sympathies of 
Europe on behalf of his countrymen and to promote the study 
of andent and modem Greek. But his chief claim to recognition 
consists in his discovery of two important MSS. (amongst others) 
in the monastery of Mt Athos during his exploration of the 
libraries of Turkey and Asia, at the instance of M. Villemain, 
minister of public instruction in France. One of these contained 
the last part of a treatise on the Refutation of all Heresies, now 
generally admitted to be the work of Hippolytus (9.9.), the other 
the greater portion of the Fables of Babrius. 

MINAS GERAES {i.e. " general mines "), popularly Minas, an 
inland state of Brazil, bounded N. by Goyaz and Bahia, £. by 
Bahia, Espirito Santo and Rio de Janeiro, S. by Rio de Janeiro 
and S&o Paulo, and W. by SSo Paulo, Matto Grosso and Goyaz. 
It is very irregular in outUne and covers an area of 221,861 sq. m. 
upon the great Brazilian plateau. Among the Brazilian states 
it is fifth in size and first in population — 3,184,099 in 1890, and 
3,594,471 in 1900. 

The surface of Minas Geraes is broken by motmtain ranges and 
deeply eroded rivercourses, the latter forming fertile valleys shut 
in by partly barren uplands, or campos. The reckless destruc- 
tion of forests along the watercourses also adds to the barren 
aspect of the country. The principal mountain ranges are the 
Serra da Mantiqueira on its southern frontier and its N. exten- 
sion, the S. do Espinhaco, which runs parallel to the Serra do 
Mar, or coast-range, and separates the inland or campo region 
from a lower forested zone between the two ranges. Most of the 
wooded district south of the Mantiqueira belongs to the states of 
SSo Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but east of the Espinhago it 
belongs to Minas Geraes and extends eastward to the Serra das 
Avmores, on the frontier of Espirito Santo. This zone has an 
abundant rainfall, dense forests and a fertile soil. It is drained 
by the Doce, Mucury, Jequitinhonha and Pardo, which have 
their sources on the eastern slopes of the Espinhaco and cut their 
way through the Aymores to the sea. The tributaries of the 
Rio Doce cover the slopes of the Serra do Espinhago for a distance 
north and south of about 200 m. The southern part of this 
region is well populated, and is covered with coffee and sugar 
plantations. On the western frontier a northern extension of 
the great central chain of Goyaz forms the water-parting between 
the drainage basins of the S&o Francisco and Tocantins, and is 
known at different points as the Serra do Paranan, Serra de SSo 
Domingos and Serra das Divisdes. South-east of this chain, 
between the headwaters of the Parani and Sio Francisco, are 
the Serra da Canastraand Serra da Malta da Corde, an irregular 
chain of moderate elevation running north and south. The 
highest elevations in the state, so far as known, are Itatiaya 
(8898 ft.) in the Serra da Mantiqueira, and Caraga (6414 ft.), 
near Ouro Preto, in the Serra do Espinhago. The hydrography 
of the campo region of Minas Geraes is extremely complicated. 
The Mantiqucira-Espinhago chain shuts out the streams flowing 
directly east to the Atlantic, and the boundary ranges on the 
west shut out the streams that flow into the Tocantins, though 
their sources are on the actual threshold of the state. Between 
these two mountain chains the head streams of the Parani and 
Slo Francisco are intenmn^ed— the one flowing inland «nd 



504 



MINED— MINERAL DEPOSITS 



chancel, a magnificent rood-loft, and a ijth-century monument 
doubtfully described as the tomb of Bracton, the famous lawyer, 
whose birthplace, according ,to local tradition, was Bratton 
Court in the vicinity. Coaches for Porlocic and Lynton start 
from the town. 

There is no evidence of the existence of Minehead {Mannheve, 
Manehafd, Mynnehevcd) in Roman or Saxon times. The town 
owed its origin and growth to its position on the shores of the 
Bristol Channel, and its good harbour developed an oversea 
trade with Bristol, South Wales and the Irish ports. The De 
Mohun family were overlords of the town from 1086 to the 
14th century, when they were followed by the Luttrclls, who are 
the present owners. It is possible that Minehead had a corporate 
existence during the xsth century, as certain documents executed 
by the portreeve and burgesses at that date are preserved, but 
no record of the grant of a charter has been found. A charter of 
incoriraration given by Elizabeth in 1558 vested the government 
in a portreeve, a steward and twelve burgesses, the continuance 
of the corporation being subject to the port and harbour being 
kept in repair. This condition being unfulfilled, the charter 
lapsed in the reign of James I., and an attempt to obtain its 
renewal in the i8th century failed. The corporation was replaced 
by two constables chosen annually in the court leet of the manor 
until 1894, when an urban district council was appointed. The 
borough returned two members to parliament from 1558 until 
disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. A weekly market on 
Tuesdays and a fair (Sept. 29 to Oct. 2) were held by the lord 
of the manor from the xsth century, but the date of the grant 
has not been found. In 1465 a second annual fair on the ist 
of May was granted by Edward IV., which is still held on the 
Wednesday in Whitsun week. The other fair has been dis- 
continued, and the market day has been changed to Wednesday. 
During the i6th, 17th and i8th centuries Minehead had a con- 
siderable coastwise trade in wool, grain and wine, but began to 
decline owing to the migration of the woollen industry to the 
north of England, and to the decay of the herring fishery. A 
renewal of prosperity began when it acquired a reputation as a 
watering-place. 

See Victoria County History: Somerset; F. Handcock, Parish and 
Borough of Minehead ii^o^). 

HINEO, a town of the province of Catania, Sicily, 34 m. S.W. of 
Catania by rail. Pop. (1901), 9828. It occupies the site of the 
ancient Menaenttm, founded by Ducetius in 459 B.C. There is 
some doubt as to whether this town was also the birthplace of 
Ducetius, owing to confusions in nomenclature (see E. A. Free- 
man, History of Sicily ^ ii. 361). Remains of ancient fortifica- 
tions still exist, though it seems uncertain whether they arc of 
Greek or of Byzantine origin (Notizie degli Scaviy 1899, p. 70). 
Four miles to the north is the Lacus Paliconun, a small lake in a 
crater, which still sends up carbonic acid gas. By it was the 
temple of the Palici, twin Sicel gods, the most holy place in Sicily, 
where an oath taken was especially binding, and an inviolable 
asylum for fugitive slaves. There is now nothing to suggest twin 
deities; in ancient times there were probably two craters, whereas 
now there is only one. It was here that Ducetius, a few years 
bter, founded a new seat for his power, the city of Palica. 

MINERAL DEPOSITS. The subject of mining {jq.v.) can only 
be properly unde»tood after the general features of mineral 
deposits have been elucidated. In this article deposits of all 
kinds of useful minerals are included, whether they are metalli- 
ferous or earthy. In general practice it is customary to treat the 
former under the name " ore-deposits " and the latter as the 
" non-metallics." This is warranted because in a large degree 
different geological problems are presented and different methods 
of mining are pursued. Nevertheless there are other important 
similar or common features and they may be classed together 
without great disadvantage. 

The word " ore " is used in several meanings, each of which 

depends for its special significance upon the connexion. In 

jj^^ purely scientific applications " ore " implies simply 

a metalliferous mineral, and in this sense it appears 

/o works on mineralogy and petrology. In former years and in 



connexion with practical mining an ore was defined as a com- 
pound of metal or of metals with one or more non-metaUic 
elements, called mineralizers, of which oxygen and sulphur were 
the chief. The ore must, in addition, be sufRcicntly rich to 
be mined at a profit. Native metals not being compounds 
were not considered ores. The product of the copper mines on 
Keweenaw Point, Lake Superior, was, and to a great extent 
is still, called copper rock rather than copper ore, and natix-e 
gold in quartz is often described as gold quartz rather ihan 
gold ore, but these restrictions are gradually disappearing. 
An ore may therefore be defined as a metalliferous mineral 
or aggregate of metalliferous minerals mingled with a greater 
or less amount of barren materials called the '*ganguc,*' 
and yet rich enough to be mined at a profit. When not 
proved to be sufficiently rich to be remunerative, the aggre- 
gate is called ** mineral." The " mineral " of to-day may be 
changed by the advent of a railway or the rise in the price of 
metal into the " ore " of to-morrow. The question has re- 
peatedly appeared in litigation involving contracts or property 
rights. 

Since the greater number of the ores are believed to have been 
precipitated from aqueous solution, or to have been otherwise 
formed through the agency of water, the term " ore-deposit " 
has resulted; and inasmuch as nearly all the other useful minerals 
owe their origin to the same agent, the term " mineral deposit *' 
is equally well justified. A few, however, have been produced 
in a different way, such as certain iron ores of igneous origin; 
certain igneous rocks used for building stone, as in the case ol 
granite; and the accumulations of vegetable material in coal beds. 
These latter, the igneous masses and the vegetable accumula- 
tions, being placed in two divisions by themselves, we may 
group the larger number into two main classes, depending on 
their precipitation from solution or from suspension. In the 
case of solution we will further subdivide on the place, and there- 
fore in large part on the cause, of precipitation, unce these are 
the questions cliiefly involved in actual development. 

Especially in connexion with ore-deposits widening experience 
has modified the older conceptions of relative values in the several 
types. In the early days of geology, Cornwall and Saxony were 
the two regions where the most active and influential students 
of ore-deposits were trained and where the principal books relat- 
ing to mining originated. The pronounced and characteristic 
fissure veins of England and Germany became the standards 
to which the phenomena met elsewhere were referred, aikl by 
means of which they were described. This particular form, the 
fissure vein along a fault, assumed a predominating importance, 
both in the thought and in the literature of the day. Widening 
experience, however, especially in the Cordilleran region of North 
America, in the Andes of South America, in Australia and in 
South Africa, has brought other types into equally great and 
deserved prominence. Comprehensive treatment to-day there- 
fore departs somewhat from earlier standards. 

As far as analyses and estimates permit, the common useful 
metals occur in the earth's crust in approximately 
the following percentages: — ti amt tm m 

1. Aluminium 8-13 7. Copper . o-oooov 

2. Iron 4-71 8. Lead . o-oooox 

3. Manganese 007 9. Zinc . . o-oooox 

4. Nickel . 001 10. Silver . o-oooooos 

5. Cobalt . 00005 >»• Gold . . o-ooooooox 

6. Tin . . O'ooox^'oooox I3. Platinum o-oooooooox 

By the letter x is meant some undetermined digit in the corre- 
sponding place of decimals. Apart from aluminium, iron, 
manganese and nickel, the figures show how small is the con- 
tribution made by even the commoner metals to that portion 
of the mass of the globe which is open to observation and 
investigation. 

As compared with the earth's crust at large certain of the 
metals are known to be locally present in favourable, usoaOy 
igneous, rocks in richer amounts, according to the foHowinl 
determinations which have been made upon large samples 
of carefully selected materials. Copper, 0-009%; ka4 



MINERAL DEPOSITS 



505 



0-0011-0*008; ziiic, 0-0048-0-009; sflvcr, o-oooo7-o*oooi6; gold, 
o>ooooa-o-oooo4. Iron and aluminium seldom fail, and vary 
(rom I to a% as a minimum, up to 25% as a maximum. 

In order that the several metals may constitute ores, their 
percentages must be the following — the percentages of each 
vary with favourable or unfavourable conditions at the mine, 
and can therefore be expressed only in a general way; ores 
favourable to milling and concentration may go below these 
limits, and the mingling of two metals of which one facilitates the 
extraction of the other may also reduce the percentages: — 

Aluminium . 30 Nickel . . 2-5 

Copper * •. 2-10 Platinum . 0-00005 

Gold. . . 0-003—00016 Silver . . 0-03-016 

Iron . . . 35-65 Tin . . . 1-5-3 

Lead. . . 2-25 Zinc. . . 5-25 

Manganese . io-y^ 

Cobalt is a by-product in the metallurgy of nickel and is usually 
in much inferior amount to the btter. 

When we compare the first and second tabulations with the 
third it is at once apparent that with the possible although only 
occasional exception of iron the production of an ore-body from 
the normal rocks which constitute the outer mass of the earth 
reqtiires the local concentration of each of the metals by one or 
several geological processes, and to a degree that is only occasion- 
aUy developed in the ordinary course of nature. It is, therefore, 
an instance of somewhat exceptionally good fortune when one 
is discovered, and it is only the part of ordinary prudence to 
develop and utilize it as one would treat a resource which is 
limited and subject to exhaustion. 

The minerals which constitute ore-bodies are divided into two 
Chnw«/ great classes: the ores pfopar^ which contain the 
m tm ni . metals; and the barren minerals or gangue, which 
reduce the yield. 

The ores are generally and naturally subdivided into two 
groups: first, the sulphides and related compounds containing 
arsenic, antimony, tellurium and selem'um; and, second, the 
oxidixed compounds embracing oxides, carbonates, sulphates, 
silicates, phosphates, arsenates, chromates, &c. With the oxides 
arc placed, because of related geological occurrence, a few rare 
compounds with chlorine, bromine and iodine into which silver 
more than any other metal enters, and to the same group we may 
add a few metals which occur in the native state. Iron, manga- 
nese, aluminium and tin differ from the rest of the metals in their 
original occurrence in the oxidized form, whereas the others with 
the exception of gold, platinum, and possibly copper, in their first 
precipitation in ore-bodies are in the form of sulphides or related 
compounds. Only by subsequent changes, characteristic of the 
upper parts of the deposits, do they pass by oxidation into the 
minerals of the second group. 

With regard to the nature and source of the water which serves 
to gather up the widely disseminated metals and concentrate 
them in ore-bodies two contrasted views are now current, not 
necessarily antagonistic but applied in different degrees by 
different observers. The older view attributes the water primarily 
to the lainfall, and therefore it is called meteoric water. After 
falling upon the surface the meteoric water divides into three 
parts. The first, and smallest, evaporates; the second, the largest 
portion, joins the surface drainage and is called the run-off; 
while the third, intermediate in amount, sinks into the ground 
tnd mingles with the ground-waters. The ground-waters rise 
in wrings, usually fed from no great depth, and themselves pass 
into the surface drainage after a small subterranean journey. 
While as a rule the ground-water level is fairly definite, yet it 
sometimes displays even in the same mining district great 
irreguUrity. 

The section of active drculation and work of the descending 
meteoric waters between the surface and the ground-water level 
was called by Franz Posepny (1836-1895) the vadose or shallow 
region (" Genesis of Ore-deposits," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. 
Eng.f zziii., xxiv., 1893; reprinted as a book, 2nd ed., 1902). It 
has been kMog recognized by miners as the home of the oxidized 
wcs, tad the place of the work of the descending waters. .The 



deep-waters are relatively motionless and their Movements as 
far as visible are comparatively slow. But the really important 
feature of the ground-water as regards the filling of veins is the 
depth to which it extends. This remained a somewhat indefinite 
matter until L. M. Hoskins showed mathcraatically that cavities 
in the firmest rocks became impossibilities at about 10,000 metres. 
Down to some such limiting depth as an extreme the ground- 
water was believed by many to descend; to migrate laterally; to 
experience the normal increase of temperature with depth; the 
effect of pressure; the increased efficiency as a solvent peculiar 
to the conditions; and finally with a burden of dissolved gangue 
and ore to rise again, urged on by the " head " of the descending 
column. In its ascent it was supposed to fill the veins. Mining 
experience has, however, indicated that the known ground- 
waters are comparatively shallow and seldom extend lower than 
500-600 metres. It is conceivable that during faulting and the 
formation of great dislocations this upper reservoir might be 
Upped into greater depths and set in limited circulations through 
deeper-seated rocks. But so far as these objections have weight 
they have greatly restricted the vertical range of the meteoric 
ground-waters as they were formerly believed to exist. 

In contrast with the meteoric waters outlined above, other 
iKratets are believed by many geologists to be given off by the 
deep-seated intrusive rocks, and are generally called magmatic. 
We are led to this conclusion by observing the vast quantities of 
steam and minor associated vapours which are emitted by vol- 
canoes; by the difficulty of accounting in any other way for the 
amount and composition of certain hot brings; and by the 
marked and characteristic association of almost all ore-deposits 
in the form of veins with eruptive rocks. That igneous masses 
have been connected With the formation of veins is further 
brought out by the following general consideration, which has 
hitherto received too little attention. Aside from pegmatites, 
veins rich enough to be mined and even large veins of 
the barren ganguc-minerols are exceptional phenomena when 
we compare the regions containing them with the vast areas 
of the earth which have been carefully searched for them 
and which have failed to reveal them. As components of the 
earth's crust the useful metals except iron and aluminium are 
extremely rare. Some sharply localized, exceptional, and briefly 
operative cause must have brought the veins into being. The 
universal circulation of the ground-water of meteoric origin fails 
to meet this test, since if it is effective we ought at least to find 
veins of quartz and caldte fairly universal in older rocks. In 
North America, moreover, by far the greater number of veins 
which have been studied date from the Mcsozoic and Tertiary 
times. The ore deposits of older date are chiefly of iron and man- 
ganese and can be satisfactorily explained in many coses by the 
reactions of the vadose region, or by crystallization from molten 
masses. 

In summary it may be stated that the meteoric waters are of 
great importance and of unquestioned efficiency in the shallow 
vadose region, or, as named by C. R. van Hise, " the zone of 
weathering." In it the disintegration of rocks exposes them to the 
searching action of solutions, and the portions of ore-bodies 
already deposited undergo great modifications. The deeper and far 
more immovable ground-water probably extends to but moderate 
depth and is chiefly affected as regards movement by the head of 
waters entering heights of land and by local intrusions of igneous 
rocks. It is very doubtful if the normal increase of temperature 
with depth produces much effect. The meteoric waters are of 
altogether predominant importance in all surface concentrations 
of a mechanical character. The magmatic waters, on the other 
hand, seem to be of paramount importance and of great efficiency 
in producing the deposits of ores in the contact zones next 
eruptives, and in the formation of veins which are reasonably 
to be attributed to uprising heated waters in regions of expiring 
vulcanism. They start with their burden of dissolved metals 
and minerals under great heat and pressure, amid conditions 
favouring solution, and migrate to the upper world into cooling 
and greatly contrasted conditions which favour precipitation. 
Undoubtedly they are req>onsible for inany low-grade deposits 



5o6 



MINERAL DEPOSITS 



-which have later been enriched by the action of descending 
meteoric waters. They are more copiously yielded, so far as we 
may judge, by acidic magmas than by basic ones. 

The natural waterways are furbished by the cavities in rocks. 
They vary in aize from very minute pores, where movement is 
slow because of friction, but where solution takes place, through 
others of all dimensions up to great fault-aones. The smallest 
cavities are the natural pores of minerals; cleavage cracks; the 
voids along the contacts of ditferent minerals; cracks from crush- 
ing during dislocation; cellular lavas; volcanic necks; voids 
among the grains, pebbles, or boulders of fragmental rocks; 
joints; caves, and faults. So far as waters have deposited ores 
and yielded ore-bodies by subterranean circulations tlie latter are 
guided by some such controlling influence as these in all cases, 
and they will be selected as the governing principle in a large part 
of the scheme of classification. The types will be reviewed in the 
following order : — 

I.— Of Igneous Origin. 

A. Eruptive masses of non-mctAlHierous rocic 

B. Basic segregations from fused and cooling magmas. 

C. Deposits produced in contact metamorpnism, most commonly 

by the action of intrusive masses on limestones. 

D. Pegmatites. 

II.— PRsanrATED rROM Solution. 

A. Surface deposits. 

B. Impregnations in naturally open-textured rocks. 

C Impregnations and replacements of naturally soluble rocks. 

D. Deposits along broken anticlinal summits and in synclinal 

troughs. 

E. Deposits in shear lones. 

F. Deposits in faults. 

G. Deposits in volcanic necks. 

III.— Deposited FROM Suspension. 

A. Placers. 

B. Residual deposits. 

IV.— Carbonaceous Dsposrrs from Vegetation.^ 

I. Of Igneous Origin. — A. Erubtive Masses of Non-mdaUiferous 
Rock. — Among the non-metallic objects of mining and quarrying 
which are of igneous nature, building stone is the chief. Granites, 
syenites, and other light-coloured rocks are the most important. 
These rocks occur as intrusive masses called bosses when of limited 
extent and diameter, and bathyliths when of vast, irregular area. 
The main point <A importance is the jointing and cleavage, which 
should in each case yield blocks as nearly rectangular as possible so 
as to save tool treatment. Dark, basic igneous rocks in dikes, silb 
and surface flows are employed for macadam, and are often of 
excellent quality for this purpose. 

B. Baste Segregations from Fused and Cooling Magmas. — ^A few 
ore-bodies, of which the best-known involve iron, are believed to 
result directly in the igneous processes by which molten rock cools 
and crystallizes. Thus magnetite, one of the common iron ores, is a 
widely dbtributed component in the eruptive rocks, rarely if ever 
failing in any variety. It is one of the first minerals to crystallize, 
and it possesses a much higher specific gravity than the otner con- 
stituents. There is reason, therefore, to bekeve that, forming in 
some molten magmas in relatively large quantity, it sinks to or 
toward the bottom of the mass until the latter is at least greatly 
enriched with it, if not actually changed to iron ore. If the molten 
rock, after passing through a stage of partial crystallization, moves, 
toward the surface of the earth, tne body of ore may occupy almost 
any position in it other than the bottom. The flowing of the magma 
in original movements or from pressure sustained in subseciuent 
metamorphic processes, or both, may give the ore the lenticular 
shape which is ouite characteristic of magnetite bodies the world 
over. Almost all iron ores of recognized eruptive origin contain 
titanium oxide in amounts from a few units to over 40%. They 
are most frequently found in dark basic rocks. These ores are not 
at present of much commercial value because of the difficulties^ of 
treating titaniferous varieties in the modern blast furnace practice, 
but there is little doubt that in the near future they will be 
extensively mined. 

Non-titaniferous magnetites, which often form lenses in gneissoid 
rocks of more acidic character than those with which the titaniferous 
are associated, are likewise believed b)r some observers to be of 
igneous origin, but there are equalljr positive believers in sedimentary 
oeposition followed by metamorphisra. 

Besides magnetite, chromite is a characteristically igneous mineral 
and is always found in the richly magnesian rocks. Whether the 
relatively large masses which appear in serpentine are direct crystal- 
lizations from fusion, or whether thev have segregated from a finely 
disseminated condition during the change of the original eruptive 
to serpentine, is a matter of dispute, but the general trend of later 
Opinion is toward an original igneous origin. Although not strictly 



an an, corundum is another minerd which is the direct pcoddct ot 
igne&ijj action. 

A form of ore-body whidi marks a connecting ^snd trsnsicional 
mcrmbcr be tw een those just treated and those of the next group is 
f umkhed by the sulphides of iron, nickel and copper which are found 
in the outer borders of basic igneous intrusions. Obser\-ers d^cr 
£om<?what as to the relative importance to be attributed to reactioos 
purely of the nature of crystaflizaticm from fusion or those brought 
about by the agency of gases or other highly heated solvents in the 
cocJing stages. The roost important exa m pl e is afforded by the 
niieig!^ ores of nickel and copper which are developed in their largest 
rt>rm in the region of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, and are now the 
principal source of nickel for the world.* The ores are chak»p)Tite 
dnd pj^rriiotite, the latter containing throughout its mass at Sudbury 
the mixieral pentlandite, a rich nickel-iron sulphide and the real 
source of the nickeL V^th the base metal there are also found 
TniEiuie traces of the metals of the platinum group. Wherever 
tht-5>r oire>bodies have been observed they invariably occur in the 
txirdcn of intrusive masses. The sulphides constitute an integral 
pan oi the rocky mass, which shows alinost no signs of alteration or 
\iin production in the ordinary sense. Only some sUght rearrange- 
ment ^ have subsequently taken place through the agency of water, 
but 4J( this b a small factor in the total 

C. Ore-Bodies produced by Contact Metamorpkism.—Cnnt bocfies 
vf igiiL^uus rock have often been forced in a molten and h^hly hested 
cancliLJon through other rocks when at a distance below the surface 
a( the tarth. After coming to rest they have remained during the 
cooling stages for long periods in contact with the surrounding walk. 
Ah iTioEten igneous magmas are more or less richly charged with 
jqLj<:tJu<i vapour, doubtless in a dissociated Kate; with carbonic 
atiil >iiid probably with other gases, eqiedally those involving sul- 
phur. During the cooling stages the gases are emitted and cany 
with ihem silica, iron, alumina and metallic dements in less amount, 
of which copper is the commonest, but among which are also num- 
bered lead, zinc, gold and silver. If the rock sunding next the intra- 
iive mass is limestone, the silica and iron, and to a less degree the 
alufnina, combine with the lime to the elimination of the carboiuc 
ncid and produce extensive zones of lime silicates, of which garnet is 
the rn Oft abundant. Disseminated throughout these gamet-zooea 
are Large and small ma«es of pyrite and chaloopyrite^ oftentimca 
in amounts sufficient to yield laige ore-bodies. Again m the Ume- 
ttonc outside the garnet-zones, but none the less closely associated 
with them, are bodies of sulphides containing copper. The cof»cr 
orej of Bisbee and Morend, Arizona, of Aranzazu near Concepooo 
dd Oro, Mexico, and of many other parts of the world not yet studied 
in detail are of this type. The eruptive whkh most frequently 
1>roducx« contact zones is of a marked acidic or siliceous character, 
i'lnnrc among eruptives these are the ones most richly charged with 
l^.i^t^. When the copper ores are of low-grade in their original 
deposition it often happens that processes of secondary enrichment, 
whirh are later described, are required to bring them up to a richness 
whkh warrants mining. Less <Hten than copper appear lead, zinc 
Of cold ores in the same relations. 

0. Fe^maiites. — One other phase of eruptive activity needs abo 
to be bnefly mentioned before passing to the discuasioa of the or> 
btKlkiiL^ which have hitherto chiefly occupied students of the subject. 
|[i tht^ regions surrounding intrusive masses of granite we alnxast 
iitwAyfl see dikes or veins of coarsely crystalline quartz, felspar and 
mirs radiating outward, it may be, for very long distances. 
1 hry are bdieved to be produced by emissions from the eruptive 
F,irnil.ir to those which yield the garnet-zones just mentioned. 
Th\- vdns are technically called pegmatites. They are chaiacter- 
\^\'u: c.-irriers of tin and of minerals containing the rare earths, and less 
coTi:ninnly are known to yield gold or copper. 

H- r'RECiPiTATED FROM SOLUTION. — ^A. Suffoct DeposUsj—The 
chic:^ cjre-body under this type is furnished by iron. The peculiar 
cbrmjfiU property possessed by this metal of having two oxide*, 
4. TrrroLis^ which IS rcUtivel)^ soluble, and a ferric, which is insoluble, 
Umc!-; to Its frequent precipitation from bodies of standing or com- 
|i.ir.itively quiet waters. Ferruginous minerals of all sorts, but more 
IJariHLilaiiy pyrite and aderite, pass into solution in the descending 
pxidi'Eriff or carbonated surface waters, either as ferrous sulphate, 
or as ^ts of organic acids, or ferrous carbonate, the bst-named 
dissolve in an excess of carbonic acid. On being exposed to the 
4tmr»phere when the solutions come to rest, or to the breaking up of 
organic adds, or to alkaline reagents, or sometimes to fresh-water 
algae, the hvdrated sesquioxide sFesOs, iHtO is precipitated as the 
f.1 miliar becu of bog ore. The ore usually forms earthy aggregates 
«:ir icrLi^ts and cakes, but may also, as in the interesting case ol the 
SvMiLHiJ:>h lake deposits, yield small concretions. Bog ores are not 
vtry rii4 h in iron and are apt to have much sand and clay intermingled. 
U Auti^equently buried under later sediments they may become 
dehydrated and changed to red hematite, as in the case of some of 
the Clinton iron ores of the eastern United States. These widely 
cxr^nij*^ beds in the lower strata of the Upper Silurian are often 
oolitic red hematites, consbting of concentric shells of iron oxide and 

1 A. H. Barlow. " On the Sudbury Deposits," Cool. Smney ef 
CJtLjJj Ann. Kept., vol. xiv., part H; A. P. Coleman, itns. Jtgpert 
iff Ibt Ontario Bureau of Mines » voL xiv., part iu. (1905).' 



MINERAL DEPOSITS 



507 



chakedonSc nika, deootittd around cndns of Mud. The most 
extensive of all ore-becfi of this type andthe mainstay of the German 
and Bdgian smelting industry, are the Jurassic ores, locally called 
minette, of Luxemburg and the neighbouring territories. Three 
principal and several subordinate beds are distinguished, which 
lumish a product ranging from 30 to 40% of iron and between i and 
2 % of phos^oric oxide (PtOt). They are generally believed to have 
been deposited on the bottoms of embayments of the Jurassic sea. 
The iron was furnished by the drainage of the land and was preci- 
pitated, according to Van Werwelce, as silicate, carbonate, sulphide 
and as several forms of oxide. More than two billions of tons 
are believed to be available. Very similar deposits occur in the 
Cleveland district, England, in the Middle Lias. 

In the presence of much organic matter whicn creates reducing 
conditions, concretions and even beds of spathic ore or black-band 
may result and afford the ores of this type extenwvely utilised in the 
Scottish iron industry and formerly of aonie importance in the 
eastern United States. 

The brown hematites often have more or less manganese, and 
manganese ores themselves may result by closely relatra reactions, 
since manganese is very similar to iron m its chemical properties. 
Aluminium is yielded by deposits of bauxite, the hydrated oxide, 
which in the states of Cfeorgia and Alabama, of the United States, 
are the result of surface precipitations. In the depths it is believed 
that pyritous shales exist. The oxidation of the pyrite supplies 
Bulfi^uric acid which takes into solution the alumina of the shales. 
Riiong to the surface along a marked series of faults, the aluminium 
8ul(wate meets calcium carbonate in an overlying limestone, and the 
aluminium hydrate is precipitated as concretions at the vents of the 
springs* 

Of sdentihc importance but as yet not of commercial value are 
the siliceous sinters deposited around the vents of hot springs 
which yield appreciable amounts of both the precious and the base 
metals. WhiK surface precipitations in everv particular, they are 
yet chiefly important in castii^ light on the processes of vein 
formation in the depths. 

Non-metallic minerals which an depc^t^ ltt>m cotutioci on the 
■urface of the earth are the salint^t rock-s^k, rrbtcd poiassiuixi 
salts, gypsum and the rarer nitr.itit. The alkaline chlorides Gmd 
gypsum are derived, in neariy all c-^xa, frum impounded bodki of 
sea-water, which, exposed to evarHnrAtlgn with i>r wltboui c^ifi^iant 
renewal, finally yield bedsof rock-^h anrf r^bred mirLCTuU. Shallow 
estuaries cut <m from the sea, it ma^^ be by i:tii.^ Auddcn ming i>f a 
hour during a heavy storm or briniLt!! impoundi^-d in d«p b^yi with 
a shallow connexion as in the " bar tttirorf " &i Ocha^niu^, have 
given rise to the great stores of these minerals which Are «o cJt- 
tcHMvely mined. The potassium compound} have only been found 
as yet in Urae quantities in the Sta^iftin re^^Dn of Germany, and 
seem to be due to the fact that in this locahty the mother-liquori 
of the rock-salt deposits failed to cwdpe, and were evaporated to 
dryness. The nitrates are chiefl:- ' i - ,ii,.ij in nonhcTTi Chile and 
are the result of the reaction of nitrogenous organic matter, upon 
alkaline minerab and under conditions where there b enough but 
not too much waTer, 

Another vcr^ important mineral found in surface depouts formed 
irom nottittore a asphalt. It has happened in various parts of the 
wtM-ki, bui; e^pecidfly in the island of Trinidad, in the Girribean 
Sca« thjt pctrdleum with an asphalt base has reached the surface, 
ha» evapc^TAiL'vi, and has become oxidized so as to leave a residuum 
<vf afphnlt suitable lor street-paving or other purposes. So-called 
pitirh-Ukv* are afforded vfhich may be of great commercial value. 

Afain. if larf^e sheets, crusts, stabctites and stabgmites are 
<lrpofitcd from calcaTe<:»uB water by the escape of the solvent 
carbonic aeid, beautiruli ornamental stones are afforded, generally 
kfiovn AM Mexican onyXr 

B. ImpTfgrpatifmt m Opfn-textured Rocks. — Inanumberofinitonces 
ID vafjdos partB of the worid naturally opcn-teictured rock* have 
bpen dticovcTcd so ^^JL iropregnAted with the metaHilirrcius 
miatrrab a« to be ores. The enriching minerals have been Intm- 
diKcd in solution^ and the solvent has found ill vay through the 
Ttxk because of h« natural character, and not because fcolngical 
movements have opened it. Porous sandstones are one of the 
most common cases. Depo«ts of silver ores have bt^en isicnAlvcly 
mined at St George in southern Utah, consistine of fitm4 M arRentite 
and cerargyrite, which have been precipitated upon fo«il Waves, 
sticks, and in the sandstone itself. Over wide areas in the northern 
United States, copfxr in various minerals ha^ inn^ discovered In 
sandstones of Permbn or Triassic age. At Silver CIlfT, Colorado, 
silver ores have impregnated a volcanic tuff, while at the Bolcci 
mines in Lower California tuffs yield copper of*.-s In at least two 
of the great copper mines on Lake Superior the native metal im- 
pregnates a conglomerate, and in a number of others it has enriched 
a cellular basalt, filling the blow-holes with shots and pellets. In 
the Commem district between Bonn and Aachen, sandstones of 
the Triassic Buntarsandstein contain knots of galena, distributed 
over wide areas as impregnations. Or^nu: matter is believed to 
have predpiuted the galena by a reducing action upon percoUting 
volutions 01 lead. 
AH these porous rocks have been fed by solutions which have 
1 atoog waterways^ clearly due to laulu or some extensive 



breaks which have provided introductory conduits. The colutkms 
have then been tapped off from the mam passages by the porous 
rock. They are, therefore, closely connected with faults. 

Non-metallic minerab in the form of petroleum and asphalt may 
also im(>r^nate sedimentary beds or other rocks of open texture. 
Many oil wells derive their supplies from lenticular beds of sand- 
stone in the midst of impervious shales, and others, as those in the 
Mexican fidds near Tampico, from volcank: tuffs. Asphadt may 
saturate both sandstones and limestones in tkich richness as to 
fumUh a natural paving material when crushed, heated and bid. 
Brines are also yielded by porous strata and supply much of the 
salt of the workl. 

C Impregnations and Replacements of Naturally Soluble Rocks.-~ 
Ore-deposits of great importance appear in different regions which 
can only be interpreted as having been formed by the replacement 
of some or all 01 a rock with the metallic minerals. The most 
common rock to yield in thb way b limestone, because of its soluble 
nature, but important cases occur of others composed of silicates. 
Replacement implies the precipitation of the ore and gangue, 
molecule by molecule, in the position of the original minerals but 
without, as in pseudomorphs, the necessary reproduction (^ crystal- 
line forms. Some waterway must of course introdoce the ore- 
bearing solutions, but it may be slight compared with the great 
size of the resulting ore-bodies. Lead and zinc ores, often carrying 
some silver, are those most widely distributed, as they were also 
the earliest recognized in deposits of this character. More than 
any other metab their association with limestone is pronounced. 
The ref>lacements may be found near the supply fissure as in the 
great zinc deposits near Aachen, or the supply fissures may be 
obscure as at Leadville, Colorado. While ores occur in the lime- 
stone, they are often dose along its contact with some rcbtively 
impervious stratum, which seems partly to have directed the dr- 
culations, partly to have checked or stagnated them, while pre- 
dpitation took place. With the lead and zinc sulphides, pyrites 
and chalcopyrite are commonly assocbted in greater or less degree, 
the copper increasing locally. All the sulphides are exposed to 
oxidation above the ground-waters and mining in the upper levels 
has beea often directed against the carbonate and sulphate of lead, 
or the mingled carbonate and hydrated silicate of zinc 

A non-metallic deposit formed by repbccment and of much 
scientific interest b fumbhed by sulphur when derived from gypsum, 
as in the Sidlbn and other localities of Europe. 

D. Deposits alon^ Anticlinal Summits and in Synclinal Troughs. — 
When strata expenence folding they are violently strained at the 
bends, and, if stiff or brittle like limestone, often crack in limited 
fissures, wiiich in anticlines open upward and in synclines downward. 
They thus yield jdnts in rebtively great numbers. Softer rocks, 
such as shales, are moulded by the strains without fracturing. 
Very gentle folds seem to have yielded such abundance of cractn 
in the lead and zinc district of the Upper Mississippi Valley as to 
cause the so-called " gash vdns " which have been worked for 
many years. The crevices are not all vertical, but often run 
horizontally and are due to the parting and buckling of individual 
beds. The resulting ore-bodies are chiefly limited to a single great 
stratum, and are believed to have bceil formed by the infiltration 
of ffalena, blende and pyrite from overlying formations. 

When strata are stiff enough to buckle under violent folding and 
part so as to produce openings of a crcscentic cross-section which 
afterwards become fillea, there result the " saddle-reefs " so re- 
inarkably illustrated in the gold veins of Victoria, Australb, and in 
pitching anticlicie^ of a much largi^ character in Nova Scotia. 

Of tAr the grraccst imfkjrtiince of all the ore-bodies in troughs 
are the iron ares of the Lake Superior region, now the most pro- 
-ductive of all the iron^minin^ districts. In a series of sedimentary 
forma lions^ generally of Huronlan ap^, and ^ith assocbted eruptives, 
there occur strata consisting erf a cncriy iron csirbonate, which were 
probably originally marine dvprjiits akin to glauconite. They rest 
upon rcbtively imperviout rocks^ find arc often penetrated by 
basaltic dikes. The entire «rira ha* b«n f aided, so that the cherty 
carbonate*^ shatEcfCfi by the *t rains, have come to rest in troughs 
of n-btivcly tight, impervious rocks. The descending surface 
waters have nc*t altered them, haw taken the iron into solution, 
and have redeposiied it in the troughs qa a ^lightly hydrated red 
hetnatite- The jilfca has usually been pri?cspitatcd elsewhere. 

The mo5t important of ih^ non-mrtaUics which occur along 
anticlinal summits arc petr ' n irl •■- \7-\ gas, but it is true 
only in a very limited sen- reduced in solution. 

The general cause of the accumubtion is, however, the same as 
that of the metallic minerals, i.e. that storage cavities are afforded. 
In the most productive oil-fields it is the general experience to find 
the oil and gas impounded in porous rocks, either sandstones or 
limestones, at the crests of anticlines and beneath impervioiis 
shales which do not shatter or crack with gentle folding. 

E. Deposits in Shear-Zones. — It sometimes happens both in 
massive rocks and in sedimenU that strains of compresuon have 
been eased "^ ' ' *^* ' '"* *"''" 
without i . 

as would i ^ , 

has become quite ^defy used in recent years as a descriptive term 
applicable to these cases. 



So8 



MINERAL DEPOSITS 



The gold-bearing reefs of the Transvaal present a good illustratbn. 
Beds of conglomerate consisting chiefly of quartz and quartzite 
pebbles have experienced crushing and shattering, and have had 
their natural porosity much enhanced by these after-^ects. 
Solutions of gold, corain|; through, have encountered pyrites and 
have had the gold preapitated upon the pyrites, which is itself 
often broken and granulated. In other regions shearing has led tp 
sheeting and opening of the rocks by many parallel cracks but 
almost always with such marked displacement that the next type 
most correctly describes them. From any point of view the shear- 
cone is a natural transition to the fault ana closely related to it. 

F. Deposits in Faults. — ^This type of ore-body was one of the 



.L>. lEjured very prominently 
t biacc the first systematic foi 



in the 




of frtudcEU^ iii iJie iiubjL^t tirtec the first systematic formula- 
timia o[ our kntiwlc-d^c. Thtz dliallDcation of the earth's crust by 
faitttfl has furnijttit.'d cither cl^Lin-cgt fissure or else lines of closely 
iet [sara^lkl rracLiirea, whoie combined displacement has been 
comparatively ereai. The f:iuLu go to relatively profound depths 
and th<.-y furnish therefore wraterwayn of extended character, which 
fTuay reach from rc);ions of heat and pressure in depth to regions of 
cold and dicrkinishing pnaaun.' above: thus from conditions favour- 
able to iolution below to condiiioni favouring precipitation toward I 
the surface. Faults often cxxur. moreover, in connexion with 
enjpiive outbrraks, and thcncfore in circumstances especially 
favourable to ore dcipc^Htion. Ptohi all these reasons it is not 
BurpHiing that the " true {i»un; vein " based on a profound fault 
has been the ideal of the pr{»[m:tor^s search in many parts of the 
world, and has often been ht* reward. The historic veins of Corn- 
wall and cf Sasiory art oi ihi* type, also the great silver veins of 
Mexicon the pold vein* of Calif Pfnia, the great silver-gold deposits 
of the Comi'tock lode, irtd many in South America. 

FduUing oflefl lead* to gjxat shattering of the country rock, 
and int^ead of being a ctsiti-eut open cavity, ther» results a brecci- 
ated bck which ma^ th^n, be ceinented by infiltrating ore and gangue. 
In the mid^t of thU the richer or« occurs as bonanzes or chutes, 
which ^r& succwded by leaner d,t retches. The movement of the 
«'all9 producuft the n^Hfthed luffacis specifically called " slicken- 
sSdc«» pa-raM to which the oie-chgtes often run. The change in 
the character of the entering solu- 
tions from time to time gives a 
banded character to the deposit, so 
that from both walls toward the 
centre corresponding layers succeed 
one another. At the centre the last 
layers may meet as interlocking 
crystals in the familiar comb-in- 
-^ comb structure or they may leave 
cavities called " vugs into which 
I J beautiful and perfectly formed crys- 
" tab project (see fig.). Fault fissures 
swell and pinch attording wide and 
narrow places in the resulting ore-body. They often intersect each 
other and one may throw or heave another, accordiii^ to the me- 
chanics of faulting as set forth under the article on Geology. 

While fault-fissures have in no way failed in later years to be 
appreciated by mining geologist^ yet they do not hold that pre- 
dominant place which in the days of more limited experience was 
theirs. On the contra ry^ othet types such as contact xones, rc-^ 
placements and in^pivunatiutis are mund to be of scarcely inferior 
importance. N evert hdeB^ the last two^ at l^ist, must usually ov^e 
to the fault-fisELtre t^e vra^icf way which h,iti hrought in the solutioni. 
A very pecuU-ir d'^n-inctallilc depodt found in fault ^fiHureii and 
imitating the onUiijiry veins in all essentiali Is fumiahed by the 
asphaltic minemUi often described as asphaltic cod* and known 
in mineralogy a» " graliajnite," " albcrtiic/* " uiniaite/' " gil- 
sonite," &c. Fetroleucns with asphakle boss h^ve percobtrd 
into fault-fissun-^ and have there deposited on evapoiration add 
oxidation their di^holvod burdens. The blade cwy mineral 
presents all thL- gealDgical relations of a Unsure vcifi and id mined 
uke so much ore. 

G. Vokanic Necks. — A very tmusual ore-body is furnished by 
thb type, which is only known in a few insunces. In two mines, 
however, in Colorado, the Bassick and the Bull-Domingo, there 
occur chimneys of elliptical cross-section filled with rounded 
boulders, and believed with much reason to be the tubes of small 
explosive volcanoes. After brief periods of activity they became 
waterways for uprising heated solutions which filled the interstices 
with ore. 

III. Deposited from Suspension. — ^The .ores which result 
from this process are all formed upon the surface of the earth and 
through the action of water. They are primarily the result of the 
weathering of rocks and of the removal of the loose products thus 
afforded in the ordinary processes of erosion. 

A. Placers. — Many useful minerals, including some of a metallic 
character, are very resistant to the agents of decomposition which 
cause the disintegration of the common rocks. Thus magnetite m 
a mineral present in a minor capacity in all cruptives ana in fairly 
large percentage in many of the basic typM. It is proof against 
protracted exposure to natural reagents, and it is heavy. Becoming 
freed by the disintegration of the containing rock it is mingled with 



the transported materials of running •treftins, and tettlea fricli 
other heavy minerab wherever the current slackens to a suflSdent 
degree. Concentration may thus ensue and beds of black aaod 
result. If again deposits of looic sand containing more or len 
magnetite are exposed to the surf of the ocean, or even to the 
waves of Lakes, a similar sorting action takes pbce on the beach. 
The magnetite remains behind while the undertow r e m oves the 
lighter materials. Iron sands of either of these varieties are usu^y 
too rich in titanium to be of commercial value, but with the magnet- 
ite may be gold or platinum in sufficient amount to be of value. 

While magnetite is the commonest of the ores to be found in 
placers, gold is the metal which usually gives them value. Wherever 
systems of drainage have eroded gold-bearing rocks, the gold has 
passed into the streams with the other detrital roateriaJa, and, 
even though in very fine flakes, being yet very heavy has sunk to 
the bottom in the slackened water and has there enriched the grav^ 
The gold tends to work its way through the gravela even to the 
bed-rock, or to some bed of interstratified ami impervious day, 
and there to be relatively rich. It favours also the insides of bends 
and the heads of quiet reaches. When a small tributary stream 
joins a larger one and is both checked itself and checks the curmt 
of the large one, the gold, aa in the Klondike, tends to settle in 
relatively great abundance. 

Pot-holes, strangely enough, or related rock<avitics, often fail 
to yield the nuggets, apparently because the swirl of the water and 
grit has ground them to impalpable powder. The particles have 
then been washed elsewhere. 

When the gold-bearing gravels are panned down a small residue 
is obtained of all the heavy minerab in the gravel. Magnetite is 
the commonest and gives the technical name <^ " black sand " to 
the concentrate. With it, however, there are almost always found 

Krnet and other less familiar minerals. If the stream valley has 
en hunted over by sportsmen with shot-g:uns or rifles, the ktst shot 
and bullets are commonly caught in the pan. Even diamonds 
have been rarely noted and they may, indeed, be spedally sought 
in eraveU. 

Along sea-beaches where great beds of auriferous gravd have 
been attacked by the surf, concentrated bars carryii^ nuggets and 
flakes of gold in workable ouantity have not infrequently resulted. 
Cape Nome, Alaska, is perhaps the most productive oi sJL The 
gold in the beach-placers is usually worn by the constant attrition 
into extremely fine particles, and the flakes or colours are more 
difficult to save than in the case of stream-placers. 

In some regions of gold-bearing rocks, as in the south-easton 
United States, the products of superficial decay of rocks naay 
remain in situ and be sufliciently charged with gold to be washed 
for the yellow metal. They are different from the usual placer 
dcposit althoueh hydraulickcd in the same way. They might be 
properly considered residual deposits under the next head. 

Aii. ■ ■;., .r v.. ■ . .= ,,J bng-abandoned (>-stenis 

of a^^uv.'^c may reituisn beniMtrt ij\a iIqw? of later udintc-nUry 
acciiniiilAiioni and be the object* of undcr^roui^d mining. Bc<h 
in Au^tr^liLi, where they are called " deep leads^" and in CatiTomiat 
where they are called buried channels " or *' dixp grawU/' tbef 
have iKcn for many years the ob)ecli of mining. In Catifonui. 
the bed-rock is ufualfy «Lite at fchiat and a serlrs i>f techniol 
termi have riL-^uked descripti>'« of the rich flr^akai. The bcd'-rprk 
19 calletl the rim^nxk; the pa y-strealcs which appear on its $idc$>, 
bench-jjtraveh, and the lowest one the ehannelrEravrl. Tunnels iit 
often very skilfully driven through the rim-rock to strike the 
channel 'gravel and dt the iamv tirne f^vntrw the propc^r iJcipe for 
drAtnave and exir^clion- The butird chinr^els in Calif omia hi\iL 
proveq of much (cit'ntific inttnttt from the remainj of ptirhistniic 
ni&n, skiills> mortar* and pi^tk^ which thty bav? yielded, 

Amonjt ihe nan' metallic mincDpli sought from placcft, pfaw 
phatH for fertUii*ft hold a position of gmsi intportance. 

B. Resiiml Dfpenii.—AA cootruted with the placen ivhose 
materials are deriv«l by transport from a distance. »^ bometimes 
Itnd heavy and ntiiatant mintrab, onct contiJned in the rw:k but 
freed by the process of decay and dlsinri^ration. The lighter 
loose matoriali are washed away and dcpoiiiird fAs/twhcn. The 
heavy remain behind in a concentrated condiiioiu Iron or^ of 
this character are known, and chromite is set tree in the same way 
by the decomposition of serpc-ntine. 

In the decay of ferrutrinouE rocki lilce limestones the incm may be 
chann<^ to the insoluble ferric hydrate, brown hematitet arid nefnain 
I ]u veinlets and cruAts thrmu^hcut a mantle of clay. The brotirn 
bcTisatile may be freed by artificial wjEhinK and usfa ajt n.n iron ore. 
I IV. (. ■■t'f'-'V'^rp'^rs T"ir T'^'-rT'^ FPHHs V'Fr FTirf'-"s, — T"-'r'Vf^^ -t 
important of the non-metallic minerals are those compodng the 
coal scries. They yield entire strata analogous to other sedimentary 
rocks, but in most cases from vegetation v: .J. h^^ k^ -^^ - - .--s- 
They are found in all stages from nearly carbon Lzied Ir^v^^ and 
woody tissue in peat, through much more altered matrriAU ia 
lignite and bituminous coal to extremes in anthracite a.nd gr^f^iie. 
The prime necessity for their preservation ftiom decay Ia furaisbod 
by water, in or near which they must grow, nnd beneath * hkh ihcy 
must be deposited, so that oxidation may be retarded. In jnftatte* 
they have been heaped together by rivers, e9p«:ia1ly when at flood. 
The method of origin is fully diacuiaed under Ca4l. aad UKter 



MINERALOGY 



509 



MociKG, but It may be remaHced here that once formed they undergo 
an the foldings, (auUinn and disturbances which have affected the 
sedimentary rocks of other kinds. 

BiBi,iocRAFHY.— The following are general works on the deposits 
of the useful minerals, in addition to Posepny's volume already 
mentioned: In English— I. A. ruwu-. \.-\\-ai Uy iitr.rv Livi.;, 
Trtatist am Ort'Deposits (London, iH'idJ. J. F. Kemp. Ori-Deposiu 
of the United Slates and Canada (Niw York, 1900)^ Primct transition 
of Von Cotta's Ore-Deposits (New York, 1870): H. Rifs, Economic 
Geology of Ike United States (New Ywk, igo^}'. W. H. W«d's traiu- 
lation of r ' • "" " - ~ - 



1901) 



Beck's The Nature of Or^'Dcpoiiis (New York, 
/ Ore-Deposits (American InatiEute or Mining 
G. P. MernU. The Non-MeUdik Mitjrrali (New ^ 



1905); 



Genesis of Ore-Deposits (American InatiEute or Mining Eneine^, 

^ O ^M.^. -T^. .,„ ., ^^^\^ ■* ^ 

. - ^QStrit4 

berg, 18^): A. von Groddeck, Die Lthrt von den Lia£triidtt£n der 



, .. . Yofkn J9O4) 

In German— B. von G)tta. Die Irkre ton d^i KrdQstnmitn {Vtt 



Ent (LcipztK. 1879^ ; 

1904): A- W. Stelxnerand A. Bcrscas, Di& EfsLj^fniatScti (Ix^ipfiii^ 
i90$-igo6). In French— E. Fuchi anfl U fit Lignuiy, Tj^iti rf*j 
Htes wunSravx el mftaUifhes (Pari*, tS^%}; C. Mareau, Etude in- 
dmstrieUe des gftes mitaUtfires (ParU. 1894). (J. F. K.) 

■IHERALOGT, the science which describes and classifies the 
different kinds of mineral matter constituting the material of the 
earth's crust and of those extra-terrestrial bodies called meteor- 
ites. The study of minerals is thus a branch of natural history, 
but one in which ceruin of the exact sciences find an applica- 
tion. The determination of the composition and constitution of 
minerals is a chemical problem; their optical and other physical 
properties are determined according to the principles of physics; 
the study of their crystalline form and structure belongs to 
crystallography; their modes of occurrence, origins, associations 
and changes come within the province of geok>^ and petrology; 
while a consideration of the localities at which they are found 
fcquires some acquaintance with geography. Finally, there is 
Uie economic side, dealing with the mining and application of 
Qseful minerals, the extraction of metals from their ores, and 
the uses of minerals for building, decoration and jewelry. 

In this article we shall treat only of the general characters of 
minerals; their special characters will be found in the artjdes 
on. the individual minerals. 

After a brief historical sketch the subject win be treated under 
Oa« following headings : — 

L Characters of Minerals. 

1. MorphoI<^cal Characters, 
a. Crystalline Form. 
h. Sute of Aggregation: Structure. 

3. Physical Characters. 

a. Optical Characters (Colour, &c.). 

h. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters. 

c. Characters depending on Cohesion (Hardness, &c). 

d. Specific Gravity. 

e. Touch, Taste and SmelL 

3. Chemical Characters. 

Synthesb of Minerals. 

n. Occurrence and Origin of Minerals. 

Alteratk>n of- Minerals: Pseudomorphs. 

III. Nomenclature and Classification of Minerals. 

History, — Owing to their numerous applications for useful and 

^^^corative purposes, minerals have attracted the attention of 

^^^^anklnd from the earliest times. The stone and bronze imple- 

*^ents of prehistoric man and many of his personal ornaments 

^tid charms were directly or indirectly of mineral origin. The 

Eldest existing treatise on minerals is that written about 315 b.c 

^ Theophrastus {vtpi t£»p \iBuv — On Stones^ English version 

by John Hill, 1746)*, of which only a portion is now in 

Existence. Minerals were then classed as metals, stones and 

earths. The last five books of Pliny's Historia naluralis, 

Written about a.d. 77, treat of metals, ores, stones and gems. 

Some of the Arabian philosophers devoted themselves to the 

study of minerals, and about 1263 Albertus Magnus wrote his 

Dc mimeralibus. In the 1 6th cent ury Georgius Agricola published 

several large volumes, dealing more especially with the mining 

and roetaUurgy of metalliferous minerals, in which -more exact 

descriptions were given of the external characters: he mentioned 

several minerals by names (e.g. blende, fluor, quartz) which are 

Bov in common use. About the same period there appeared 



the systematic treatise on minerals of R. Gesner (1565), and that 
on precious stones by Anselm Boethius de Boodt (1609). The 
remarkable researches of Erasmus Bartholinus on Iceland-spar 
were published in 1669, and J. F. Henckel's Pyritologia in 1735. 
Later came the Systema naturae of C. Linnaeus ( 1 73 s). Although 
the importance of chemical properties was recognized by the 
Swedish chemists— J. G. Wallerius (1747) and A. F. Cronstedt 
(1758) — the external characters of mineials formed the basis of 
the mixed systems of classification of A. G. Werner (1774) and of 
other authors, and even as late as the Natural History System of 
Mineralogy of F. Mohs (1830). 

It was not until the end of the x8th and beginning of the X9th 
century, when the foundations of crystallography were laid by 
Rom6 de lisle and R. J. HaQy, and chemistry had assumed 
its modem phase, that any real advance was made in scientific 
mineralogy*. It was then recognized that chemical composition 
and crystalline form were characters of the first importance, 
and that external (natural history) characters were often more 
or less accidentah During this period numerous mineral sub- 
stances were analysed by Scheele, Klaproth, Charles Hatchett, 
Vauquelin, Kirwan, Berzelius, Rose and other chemists, and 
many new mineral-species and chemical elements discovered. 
After W. H. Wollaston's invention of the reflecting goniometer 
in 1809, exact measurements of the crystalline forms of many 
minerals were made. The principles of isomorphism and dimor- 
phism enunciated by £. Mitscherlich in 1819 and 1821 respec- 
tively cleared up many difiiculties encountered in the definition 
of mineral-species. About the same time also the discovery by 
£. L. Malus of the polarization of Ught gave an impetus to the 
optical examination, by Sir David Brewster and others, of 
natural crystals. Later, the investigation of rocks in thin 
section under the microscope led to the exact determination, 
particularly by A. Des Cloizeaux (1867), of the optical constants 
of rock-forming minerals. 

For a detailed account of the hist(»y of mineralcwy (including 
crystallography), see F. von Kobell. Geschichte der Mtneralogie von 
2650-1860 (Mtinchen, 1864). The recent history of mineral-species 
may be well traced in the six editions of J. D. Dana's System of 
Mineralogy (1837-1892). 

Lr-Chancten of Mliienb. 
A distinction is to be made between essential and non-essential 
characters. Essential characters are those relating to chemical 
composition, crystalline form, crystallo-physical properties and 
specific gravity; these are identical, or vary only within certain 
defined limits, in all q)ecimens of the same mineral-q>ecies. 
Non-essential characters — such as colour, lustre, hardness, form 
and structure of aggregates — depend largely on the presence 
of impurities, or on the state of aggregation of imperfectly 
formed crystalline individuals. In an absolutely pure and 
perfectly developed crystal all the characters may be said to 
be essential, but such crystals are of exceptional occurrence in 
nature, and certain of the characters are subject to modification 
under different conditions of growth. For example: a well- 
formed crystal of haematite (" specular iron ore "), with its 
smooth black faces and brilliant metallic lustre. Is strikingly 
different in appearance from a piece of massive haematite (" red 
iron ore "), which is dull and earthy and bright red in colour; 
the former is so hard that it can only with difficulty be scratched 
with a knife, while the btter is quite soft and soils the fingers. 
Both specimens will, however, be found on analysis to have the 
same chemical composition (FesOa), the same crystalline 
structure (as determined by the optical characters imder the 
microscope in the case of the massive variety), and very nearly 
the same specific gravity (especially if this be determined upon 
finely powdered material, the effect of cavities being thus 
eliminated). The essential characters being identical, the. 
difference between the two specimens lies in the state of aggre- 
gation of the material: with "speculas iron ore" we have a 
single crystal, while with the " red iron ore " we are dealing 
with a confused aggregate of minute crystalline individuals, 
which have interfered with each other's growth to such an extent 
that no crystal-faces have been developed. Such differences do 



5IO 



MINERALOGY 



not therefore depend on the nattire of the material, but only on 
the conditions which prevailed during its growth. (See e.g. 
QvKRTZ and Calote.) 

In the following enumeration of the more salient characters 
of minerals it is to be noted that many of the terms used for 
non-essential characters are purely descriptive and have no 
exact definition; on the other hand, essential characters can be 
expressed numerically and are therefore perfectly definite. 

I. Morphological Characters. 

a. Crystalline Form. — This most important character of 
minerals can, of course, be determined only when the material 
available is in the form of crystals (i.e. crystallized), which is 
not always the case. Massive aggregates of crystaUine material 
are of much more frequent occurrence; when small fragments 
or thin sections of such material are transparent, the crystalline 
symmetry may be determined, within certain limits, by the help 
of the optical characters (see below). External crystalline form 
must not, however, be considered alone apart from all other 
characters, for crystals of substances quite different chemically, 
e.g. silver iodide, zinc oxide and zinc sulphide, are sometimes 
almost identical in crystalline form; further, in groups of iso- 
morphously related minerals the degree of symmetry will usually 
be the same and the angles vary only slightly, and unless the 
crystals are perfectly developed and suitable for exact gom*o- 
metric measurement no crystallographic distinction can be 
made between two such species. 

All the six systems of crystals and most of the thirty-two 
symmetry-classes are represented amongst minerals (see Crystal- 
lography). Crystals of the same mineral-species may differ 
very widely in general form or habit; e.g. crystab of calcite (q.v.) 
may be rhombohedral, prismatic, scalenohedral or tabular in 
habit. Other descriptive terms of the habit of crystals are 
pyramidal, adcular or needle-shaped (from the Lat. acicvla^ a 
needle), capillary or hair-like (from the Lat. capitlus, hair), &c.; 
and these peculiarities of habit may sometimes be character- 
istic of certain minerals. Sometimes also there are characteristic 
kinds of groupings of crystals: thus parallel, divergent or 
radiating {e.g. scolecile), rosette-shaped {e.g. haematite — 
Eisenrosen), reticulated {e.g. rutile), or matted. The faces of 
natural crystals may be smooth, rough, striated, curved or 
drusy,^ ix. studded with small crystal faces and angles. 

b. State of Aggregation: Structure. — According to the par- 
ticular state of aggregation of a number of imperfectly developed 
crystals, which have grown together, various kinds of structure 
may be presented even by the same mineral species. The 
descriptive terms applied to these structures are almost self- 
explanatory: thus the structure may be granular {e.g. marble), 
fibrous (asbestos), radio-fibrous or stellated (wavellite), columnar 
(beryl), laminar or lamellar (talc), bladed (cyanitc), &c., ac- 
cording to the relative shape and sizes of the individual crystals 
composing the aggregate. When the constituent crystals are 
invisible to the unaided eye the material is described as compact; 
incoherent aggregates are powdery or earthy. Minerals which 
are really amorphous, i.e. without any crystalline structure, are 
comparatively few in number {e.g. opal) ; many which are 
apparently amorphous are really microcrystalline {e.g. turquoise). 
The term massive is often used loosely for a crystalline mineral 
not showing crystal-faces. Crystal-aggregates often assume 
more or less accidental and imitative external forms to which the 
following descriptive terms are applied: dendritic or arborescent 
{e.g. copper, pyrolusite), mossy (copper), leafy (gold), wiry or 
filiform (silver), capillary (millerite), coralloidal (aragonite), 
globular (aragonite, with concentric structure; wavellite, with 
radiated structure), mamillary or with breast-like protuberances 
(arsenic), nodular (malachite), warty (menilite), botryoidal or 
resembling a bunch of grapes (from ^pm, a bunch of grapes) 
(dolomite), reniform or kidney-shaped (menihte), amygdaloidal 
or almond-shaped (agate), stalactitic (calcite, chalcedony), &c. 

* This is from a German word, druse, originally meaning " brush," 
and applied by miners to hoUow stones, lined with minute |mx>- 
lecting crystals. 



3. Physicai Ckaraders. 



a. Optical Characters.— The action of crystallized matter on 
transmitted light is a character of the highest importance in 
mineralogy. Even when the substance is opaque in Urge masses, 
it may be sufiidently transparent when in small splinters or in 
thin sections for the determination of the optical characters. 
The refractive indices, strength of the double refraction, optic 
axial angle, extinction angles on certain faces, &c., are charaaers 
capable of exact measurement and numerical expression, and are 
constant for each mineral-species. (See Crystallography.) 

In their " diaphaneity," or degree of transparency, minerals 
differ very widely even in the same ^>ecies. Some, such as roetab 
and most metallic sulphides are always opaque; while otbeis 
may vary in different specimens from perfect transparency to 
perfect opacity (in the latter case, however, minute fragments 
will, as a rule, still be transparent). A good example of this is 
afforded by the varieties of quartz: rock-crystal is water-dear, 
chalcedony is translucent, and jasper opaque. 

The " colour " of minerals is the character which first arrests 
attention; but being a character which may vary almost in- 
definitely in one and the same kind of mineral, it affords a tyiucal 
example of a non-essential character. Thus, fluor-spar and 
quartz, when in well-formed and chemically pure crystals, are 
quite colourless and transparent; but it would be easy to collect 
a series of each of these minerals in which almost every shade of 
colour is represented. Crystals of fluor-spar of an emciald-green, 
purple, golden-yellow, bright pink or other colour are at first 
sight very different in appearance, and yet the difference is due 
solely to the presence of traces of colouring matters so smaO in 
amount that their exact nature is difficult or impossible to 
determine. The value of diamond, corundum and other gem* 
stones depends largely on these accidental differences in colour. 
Such substances, which are essentially colourless and owe tbdr 
colour to the presence of colouring matter as an impurity, ut 
said to be " allochromatic ": any colour they may possess is ooa- 
essent ial. In some other substances, known as " idiochromaUc," 
the colour is a definite and essential character; for cxamj;^, tbe 
yellow colour of gold, the red of cinnabar, &c.; but even here, 
owing to differences in the state of aggregation and the presence 
of various impurities, they may be wide variations in colour. 
Colour is thus a character of little determinative value, e^xciaUy 
in minerals which are allochromatic; but it is sometimes a useful 
guide when taken in conjunction with other characters. An 
elaborate list of colour-names for descriptive use was draws up 
by A. G. Werner in 1774. 

An important character of transparent crystals » that of 
unequal absorption in different directions; so that light will, ts 
a rule, be differently coloured according to the direction in vbidi 
it has travelled through the crystal: this is known as dichroism 
or pleochroism (see Crystallography). Certain minerals (< I- 
zircon, almandine and those containing cerium) when examined 
with a spectroscope by transmitted light exhibit characteristtc 
absorption spectra. 

The colours of minerals may also be due to the interference 
of rays of while light at the surfaces of thin crevices or 
minute inclusions, either tabular or fibrous in form, in the 
mineral; for example, the play of colours of opal; tbe 
change of colours of labradorite; the bands of rainbow cokwii 
(Newton's rings) seen along deavage crficks and irregular in- 
ternal fractures {e.g. in quartz); the iridescent tarnish doe 
to a superficial film of a decomposition product {e.g. " peacock 
copper ore "); or the bluish opalescence of moon-stone and 
cat's-eye. 

The true colour of a mineral is best revealed by its " streak," 
i.e. the colour of its powder. This is obtained by scratching 
the mineral, or by crushing a fragment of it on a sheet of white 
paper, or rubbing it upon unglazed porcelain. Tbe streak o( 
allochromatic minerals is white, while that of idiochroaaatic 
minerals is coloured and is often of determinative value. Ores 
of iron may, for example, generally be distinguished by their 
Streaks: that of magnetite being black; haematite, blood-icd; 



MINERALOGY 



5" 



fimonfte, yeflow; and chalybite, white. The streak of a mineral 
may be either fining (e.g. argentite) or dull. 

Another character depending on light is that of lustre, which 
b often very characteristic in certain minerals, though it may 
be considerably modified by the state of aggregation. For 
example, the usual adamantine lustre of diamond is not exhibited 
by the compact aggregate known as carbonado; while earthy 
masses of any mineral will be devoid of lustre. Descriptive 
terms applied to the kinds of lustre are: metallic (e.g. pyrites), 
adamantine (diamond), vitreous (quartz), resinous (pyromor- 
phite), greasy (elaeolite), waxy (chalcedony), pearly (talc, 
beulandite and other minerals with a perfect cleavage), silky 
(satin-spar), &c. The degrees of intensity of lustre are described 
as splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering and dull, and 
depend usually on the smoothness of the crystal-faces. 

The phenomena of phosphorescence (f.v.), fluorescence (q.v.) 
and radio-activity (q.v.) are strikingly exhibited by some 
minerals. (See Fluor-spar, Diamond, &c.) 

6. Magnetic, Electrical and Thermal Characters.— TYitse, as far 
as related to crystalline form, are discussed under crystallography 
(qj9.). MagnetiU (" lode-stone ") is the only mineral which is 
stroni^y magnetic with polarity; a few others, such as pyrrhotite 
and native platinum, possess this character to a much less degree. 
Many minerals are, however, attracted by the pole of a strong 
dectro-magnet, while a few (diamagnctic) are repelled. 

Most minerals with a metallic lustre are good conductors of 
heat and electricity; others are bad conductors. For example, 
graphite is a good conductor, while diamond is a bad conductor. 
Non-conductors of electricity become electrified by friction, some 
positively {e.g. quartz and topaz), others negatively (e.g. sulphur 
and amber). The length of time during which different 
BRn-stones retain their charge of frictional electricity was made 
Qse of by R. J. HaUy as a determinative character. For the 
pyro-electrical and thermo-electrical characters of crystals 
see Cbystallocraphy. Some minerals — for example, salt, 
sylvite and blende— are highly diathermanous, i.e, transparent 
for heat-rays. 

The specific heat and melting point of minerals are essential 
characters capable of exact measurement and numerical expres- 
^on, but they are not often made use of. Different minerals 
diflTer widely in their " fusibility ": the following scale of fusi- 
bility was proposed by F. von Kobell: — 

1. Stibnite . (525* C.) 5. Orthoclaae . (11 75* C.; 

2. Natrolite . (965' C.) 6. Bronzite . (I300* C ' 
y Almandine (1265' C.) 7. Quartz . (I430* C. 
4. Actinolite . (1296* C.) 

The melting points given above in parentheses were determined 
t>y J. Joly. Stibnite readily fuses to a globule in a candle-flame, 
'^hile quartz is infu^ble even on the thinnest edges before the 
<^rdinary blowpipe. 

c. Characters depending on Cohesion.— -Some minerals (e.g. a 

^heet of mica) are highly elastic, springing back to their original 

shape after being bent. Others (e.g. talc) may be readily bent, 

but do not return to their original form when released; these 

*re said to be pliable or flexible. Sectile minerals (e.g. chlorar- 

gyrite) may be cut with a knife without being fractured: related 

characters are malleability (e.g. argentite) and ductility (e.g. 

^Iver). The tenacity, or degree of frangibility of different 

minerals varies widely: they may be brittle, tough, soft or 

friable. The fractured surface produced when a mineral is 

broken b called the *' fracture," ahd the kind of fracture is often 

of determinative value; descriptive terms are: conchoidal (e.g. 

quartz, which may often be recognized by its glassy conchoidal 

fracture), sub-conchoidal, uneven, even, splintery (e.g. jade), 

hackly or with short sharp points (e.g. copper), &c. 

In many cases when a crystallized mineral is broken it 
separates in certain definite directions along plane surfaces. 
TUs property of " cleavage *' (see Crystallography) is an 
important essential character of minerals, and one which is 
often of considerable assistance in their recognition. For 
le, caldte, with its three directions of perfect cleavage 
1 to the faces of a rhombohcdron, may always be readily 



distinguished from ahigonite or quartx; or again, the perfect 
cubical deavage of galena renders this mineral always easy of 
recognition. 

" Hardness," or the resistance which a substance offers to 
being scratched by a harder body, is an important character of 
minerals, and being a test readily applied it is frequently made 
use of. It must, however, be remembered that the hardness of 
an incoherent or earthy aggregate of small crystals will be very 
different from that of a single crystal. A comparative " scale 
of hardness " was devised by F. Mohs in 1820 for the purpose 
of giving a numerical statement of the hardness of minends. 
Mohs's Scale of Hardness. 
I. Talc. 6. Orthoclaae. 

a. Gypsum. 7. Quartz. 

3. Calcite. 8. Topaz. 

4. Fluor-spar. 9. Corundum. 

5. Apatite. 10. Diamond. 

These minerals, arbitrarily selected for standards, are suc- 
cessively harder from talc the softest, to diamond the hardest 
of all minerals: a piece of talc is readiily scratched by gypsum, 
and so on througlM>ut the scale. A mineral which is capable of 
scratching calcite and itself be as easily scratched by fluor-spar 
is said to have a hardness of 3). Some care is required to avoid 
error in the determination of hardness: it is best ^o select a 
smooth crystal-face, cleavage-surface or fracture on which to 
rub a sharp corner of the scratching mineral; the powder should 
be wiped off and the surface examined with a lens to see if a 
scratch has really been produced or only powder rubbed off the 
comer of the mineral with which the scratching was attempted. 
With a little practice a fair idea of the hardness of a mineral may 
be obtained with the use of a knife or file, which will scratch all 
minerals with a hardness of 6 or less. Thus iron-pyrites (H. = 6|) 
and copper-pyrites (H. » 3}), apatite (H. = 5) and beryl 
(H. *■ 71), or gem-stones and their paste imitations may be 
readily distinguished by this test. Talc and gypsum can be 
readily scratched with the finger-nail. 

Planes of parting, etching figures, pressure- and percussioh- 
figures are sometimes characters of importance in describing and 
distinguishing minerals. (See Crystallography.) 

d. Specific Gravity. — The density or specific gravity of 
minerals is an essential character of considerable determinative 
value. In minerals of constant composition it has a definite 
value, but in isomorphous groups it varies with the composition: 
it also, of course, varies with the purity of the material. It is 
a character which has the advantage of numerical expression: 
minerals range in specific gravity from x-oi for copalite to 22-84 
for iridium. The exact determination of the specific gravity 
of minerals is therefore a matter of some importance. Three 
methods are in common use, viz. hydrostatic weighing, the 
pycnometer, and the use of heavy liquids. The first two 
methods are only applicable when a weighable amount of pure 
material can be selected or picked out; this is, however, generally 
a laborious operation, since impurities are often present and 
usually several species of minerals are closely associated, and in 
selecting material it is often necessary to determine some other 
character to make certain that only one kind is being selected. 
For exact determinations the pycnometer method is usually to be 
recommended, using for material the pure fragments which have 
been selected for quantitative chemical analysis. With a single 
pure crystal or a faceted gem-stone the method of hydrostatic 
weighing is usually applicable, providing the stone is not too 
small The most ready method, however, is that afforded by the 
use of a heavy liquid, and the most convenient liquid for this 
purpose is methylene iodide. This is a clear, mobile liquid with 
a specific gravity of 3*33, and by the addition of benzene, drop 
by drop, the specific gravity may be reduced to any desired 
amount. With such a liquid the specific gravity of the minutest 
fragment, the purity of which has previously been scrutinized 
under the microscope, may be rapidly determined. The liquid 
isdiluted with benzene until the fragment just remains suspended, 
neither floating nor sinking; the specific gravity of the fragment 
will then be the same as that of the liquid, and the latter may 
be determiDed by hydrostatic weighing or, more conveniently, by 



512 



MINERALOGY 



means of indicators. Small recognizable crystals of the following 
minerals may be kept at hand as a set of indicators: gypsum 
(sp. gr. 3'33), colemanite (242), orthoclase (2-56), quartz (2*65), 
calcite (2-72). aragonitc (293), rubellilc (3-02), apatite (3-20), 
dioptase (3 3 2), &c. With a series of tubes containing mix- 
tures of methylene iodide and benzene of different densities 
and suitable indicators, specific gravities may be rapidly and ac- 
curately determined. Values intermediate between those of the 
indicators may be estimated by a diffusion column of the liquid, 
or by noting the rate at which the benzene evaporates and the 
specific gravity of the liquid increases. For use with minerals 
of specific gravity greater than 3 33 various other heavy liquids 
have been suggested; the best being thallium silver nitrate 
(TlAg(NC>i)2), which melts at 75** C. to a dear liquid with a 
density of 48, and is miscible with water. 

e. Touch, Taste and Smell. — In their action on the senses of 
touch, taste and smell a few minerals possess distinctive char- 
acters. Talc is unctuous or soapy to the touch; tripolite and 
trachyte are respectively meagre and harsh. Some porous 
minerals {e.g. clays and hydrophane) adhere to the tongue. 
Gem-stones may often be distinguished from their glass imitation 
by the fact that they feel colder, since they are better conductors 
of heat. Bitumen and clays, when moistened, have a character- 
istic smell; pyrites and some other sulphides when rubbed emit 
a sulphurous odour. Minerals which are soluble in waiter have 
taste: e.g. saline (salt), alkaline (natron), bitter (epsomite), 
astringent (chalcanthite), &c. 

3. Chemical Characters, 

Chemical composition is the most important character of 
minerals, and on it all modern systems of classification are based. 
A mineral-species cannot, however, be defined by chemical 
composition alone, since many instances are known in which the 
same chemical element or compound is dimorphous or poly- 
morphous (see Crystallography). Thus both the minerals 
diamond and graphite consist of the element carbon; both 
calcite and aragonite consist of calcium carbonate; and rutile, 
anatase and brookite consist of titanium dioxide. In such 
cases a knowledge of some other essential character, preferably 
the crystalline form, is necessary, before the mineral can be 
determined. 

All the known chemical elements have been found in minerals; 
and of many of them minerals are the only source. On the 
other hand, nitrogen, which is frequently present in organic 
substances, is rare in minerals; carbon has a wide distribution 
in mineral carbonates. It is estimated that the minerals of the 
earth's crust consist of about 47% by weight of oxygen, 27 of 
silicon and 8 of aluminium; silicates, and especially alumino- 
silicates, therefore predominate, these being the more important 
rock-forming minerals. 

The chemical composition of minerals is determined by the 
ordinary methods of analytical chemistry. Since, however, 
minerals of different kinds usually occur intimately associated, 
it is often a matter of some difficulty to select a sufficiency of 
pure material for analysis. For this reason the exact composi- 
tion and the empirical formulae of several minerals, particularly 
amongst the silicates, still remain doubtful. There are even 
cases on record in which the chemical composition and the 
crystalline form have been determined on different materials 
in the belief that they were the same. Whenever possible, 
therefore, the chemical analysis should be made on small pure 
crystals which have been previously determined crystallographi- 
cally. For the qualitative chemical examination of minerals, 
when only a small amount of material is available, the methods 
of blowpipe analysis and microchemical analysis are often con- 
venient. (See G. J. Brush, Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, 
i6lh ed., by S. L. Penfield, New York, 1903 ; H. Behrcns. 
Manual of Microchemical Analysis, London, 1804.) 

The principle of isomorphism (see Crystallography) is of 
the highest importance in mineralogy, and on it the classification 
of minerals largely depends. In some minerals (e.g. quartz) 
isomorphous or vicarious replacement is not known to occur; 



but in the majority of minerals one or other of the predominating 
elements (generally the base, rarely that of the add radicle) 
may be isomorphously replaced by equivalent amounts of other 
chemically-related elements. In some isomorphous groups of 
minerals replacement takes place to only a limited extent, and 
the element which is partly replaced always predominates; while 
in other groups the replacement may be indefinite in extent, and 
between the ends of the series the different members may vary 
indefinitely in composition, with no sharp demarcation between 
species. Thus in the group of rhombohedral carbonates the 
different spedes are usually sharply defined. In well-formed 
crystals of calcite the caldum is replaced by only small amounts 
of magnesium, iron, lead, &c.; in chalybite, however, iron is 
often more largely replaced by calcium, magnesium, manganese, 
&c., and the " brown spars " are not always readily distin- 
guishable. In the dimorphous group of orthorhombic carbonates 
isomorphous replacement is less frequent, and the different 
species (aragonite, cerussite, &c.) are quite sharply defined. In 
other groups of minerals, particularly amongst the silicates, 
isomorphous replacement of the basic elements is so general 
that the several members of the series vary almost indefinitely 
in chemical composition, and will scarcdy be the same for any 
two specimens, though it may be reduced to the same type of 
formula. For example, the formula of all varieties of garnet may 
be expressed generally as R'aR"a(Si04)a, where R*- C*. Mg, Fe. 
Mn, and R"«= Al, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ti. Tourmaline affords another 
good example. In the plagioclase felspars (see Plagxocxase) 
we have an example of the isomorphous mixing of two end- 
members, albite (NaAlSi/)t) and anorthite (CaAlt(Si04)i) in all 
proportions and with no sharp line between the several sub- 
species. In some other similar cases the end-members of the 
series are purely hypothetical: e.g. in the scapolite group 
(mixtures of CaiAUSicOji and Na4AlsSiiOMCl) and in the micas 
and chloritcs. In such instances, where the formulae of the tvo 
end-members differ in type, " mass effect " may have some 
influence on the isomorphism. 

In addition to isomorphous series, there are amongstminerals 
several instances of double salts, which contain the same con- 
stituents as the members of isomorphous series: e.g. dolomite 
{q.v.) and barylocalcite (q.v.). 

The manner in which water enters into the compositiofl of 
minerals is often difficult to determine. In some cases, ex in 
the zeolites (q.v.), it is readily expelled at a low temperatuie, 
even at the ordinary temperature over sulphuric acid, and mj 
be reabsorbed from a moist atmosphere or replaced by some 
other substances: it is then regarded as " water of crystallitt- 
tion." In other cases, when expelled only at a higher temp^- 
ture, it is to be regarded as " water of constitution," fonninf 
either a basic salt (e.g. malachite, Cu(OH)sCOa) or an add salt 
(e.g. dioptase, HsCuSi04, and mica, q.v.). When present as 
hydroxyl it is often isomorphously replaced by fluorine (' f< 
topaz, [Al(F,0H)l,Si04). Sometimes the water is partly *at« 
of crystallization and partly water of constitution. 

As to the actual chemical constitution of minerals the little that 
is at present known is mainly speculative. Dimorphous mineral*, 
which have the same empirical formula may be expected to 
differ in constitution; and experiments have been made, fof 
example on pyrites and marcasite, with the object of discoveiinf 
a difference, but the conclusions of various investigators are not 
in agreement. More promising results have been obtained (by 
F. W. Clarke and others) by the action of various reagents on 
silicates, particularly on the more readily decomposed «olit«. 
and several substitution-derivatives have been prepared. 

Synthesis of Minerals. — The production of minerab by aitific* 
means is a branch of chemical mineralogy which has ^ 
pursued with considerable success, especially by French chcmW^ 
Most minerals have been obtained artificially in a CTyslalliwo 
condition, and many related compounds, not as yet fouDd m 
nature, have also been prepared. Crystals of artificially P**" 
pared minerals, though usually quite small in size, possess alUbe 
essential characters of natural crystals, differing from the* 
only in origin. The following are the principles of some of the 



MINERALOGY 



513 



methodi whkh have been used: simple sublimation (e.g. arseno- 
lite); interaction of gases (e.g. haematite, from steam and ferric 
chloride; cassiterite, from steam and stannic chloride or fluoride) ; 
action of gases on liquids and solids; slow cooling of fused masses, 
cither with or without the presence of agents miniralUaUurs 
{€.g. minerak in furnace slags); from aqueous solution sometimes 
at a high temperature and under pressure {e.g., quarU); electro- 
lysis; or even by subjecting dry amorphous material to enormous 
pressure. The chemical reactions by which various minerals 
have been obtained are often of considerable help in speculating 
as to their mode of origin in nature, though it must be bom in 
mind that the same mineral may have been formed, both 
naturally and artificially, by more methods than one. In this 
direction important results have been obtained experimentally 
by J. H. van't Hoff and his pupils on the formation of oceanic 
salt deposits, and by J. H. L. Vogt with slags. Many minerals 
used as gem-stones have been prepared artificially, e.g. diamond 
and ruby (see Geus: Artificial). 

Ei— Occurrence and Origin of Mlnerili. 
While tome minerals are of rare and sporadic occurrence m 
rock-cavities and mineral-veins, others are widely distributed 
as important constituents of rocks. The same mineral species 
may have several distinct modes of occurrence and origin, and 
be associated, with different minerals in each case; facts which 
are well illustrated by quartz (q.v.). 

Minerals of Igneous Rocks.-'Tht rock-forming minerals of 
primary origin in igneous rocks have crystallized out from the 
magma, or fused sih'cate-mass, which on consolidation gave rise to 
the rock-mass. Magmas sometimes contain a considerable 
amount of water and are then in a state of aqueo-igneous fusion, 
rather than of dry fusion: in such cases very coarsely crystalline 
rocks (pegmatites) often result, and under these conditions 
minerals Si many kinds are formed as well-developed crystals. 
Thoae minerals which are present in large amount in igneous 
rocks arc distinguished as essential constituents, since it is on 
these that the classification of igneous rocks is largely based: 
the most important are quartz, felspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, 
micas and olivines. Felspars of different composition are 
present in almost all kinds of igneous rocks, while quartz and 
divine arc characteristic of add {e.g. granite, rhyolite) and basic 
<r.g. basalt, peridotite) rocks respectively. When the magma 
contains alkalies in relatively large amount the " felspathoid " 
minerals, nepheline and leucite, are formed {e.g. in nepheline- 
syenite, leucite-basalt, &c.). Other minerals occurring as pri- 
mary constituents, but only in small amounts, are distinguished 
as accessory; thus small crystals of magnetite, apatite, zircon, 
&C., are of frequent occurrence disseminated in igneous rocks 
(see Petrology). Sometimes these accessory constituents are 
concentrated by mdgmatic differentiation, important ore- 
deposits sometimes resulting in this manner {e.g. of chromite, or 
nickd-bcaring pyrrhotite). The alteration of igneous rocks by 
weathering and other processes results in the alteration of some 
or all of the primary minerals with the production of others, 
which arc spoken of as secondary minerals: thus felspars are 
often partly or wholly altered to kaolin, olivine to serpentine, 
p3rroxene and mica to epidote, chlorite, &c 

Minerals are also formed by the vapours given off by igneous 
magmas. The gases emitted by volcanoes and solfataras may 
deposit directly by sublimation, or by their chemical interaction, 
such minerals as sulphur, sal-ammoniac, haematite, which occur, 
for instance, as incrustations on Vesuvian lava: the boric acid 
of the Tuscan lagoons has also originated in this way. The 
effects produced by the exhalations of deep-seated magmas are 
more complex in character, since the vapours, being more 
confined, have more opportunity of acting chemically not only 
on the surrounding rocks but also on the igneous rock-mass 
itsdf before its final consolidation. A good example of the 
" paewnatolytic " action produced by the vapours from a mass 
of granitk magma is afforded by veins of tin-ore, in which the 
ore (cassiterite) is assodated with minerals containing boron 
•nd flnorinc, such as topaz, tourmaline, lepidolite, fluor-apatite 



and fluor-spar. The production of such minerals may be 
accounted for by assuming the presence of stannic fluoride in 
the vapours, which by reacting on water vapour would deposit 
cassiterite with the liberation of hydrofluoric add, and this 
would again react on other minerals. The topaz and tourmaline 
crystals often found in the cavities of granites and pegmatites 
have doubtless been formed in this manner. In a similar way 
the exhalations of basic magmas have given rise to chlor-apatite 
with associated sphene and ilmenite, as, for example, in the 
extensive apatite veins in connexion with gabbro in southern 
Norway. 

Minerals of Metamorpkic Rocks. — By the baking action of a 
deep-seated igneous mass on the surrounding rocks or on 
induded rock-fragments, various new minerals are devdoped. 
By this process of thermal or contact-metamorphism well- 
crystallized examples of many minerals have often been formed; 
e.g. in calcareous rocks (limestones), espedally those containing 
some magnesia and silica, vesuvianite, garnet, diopside, tremolite, 
wollastonite, &c., are developed; in argillaceous rocks (slates), 
chiastolite and staurolite are characteristic products; and in 
arenaceous rocks (sandstones), cordicrite and siUimanite often 
result. The effects of pressure (dynamo-metamorphism) on 
rocks of various kinds, especially those of igneous origin, also 
result in the producdon of new minerals: e.g. pyroxene b trans- 
formed to amphibole, orthodase to muscovite, plagiodase to 
zoisite, olivine to tremolite, &c. In gneisses and crystalline 
schists, quartz, felspar, mica, talc, amphibole, &c are important 
constituents. 

Minerals of Sedimentary Rocks. — By the weathering and 
disintegration of igneous and metamorphic rocks the various 
minerals set free and the products of decomposition of others 
supply the material of sedimentary rocks; thus sandstones 
consist largely of quartz, shales of kaolin and other clay minerals. 
Those minerals {e.g. gem-stones and gold) which resist the action 
of weathering processes are found as water-worn pebbles and 
grains in dctrital deposits. Other sedimenta^ rocks consist of 
minerals deposited from solution dthcr by chemical or organic 
agendes, from sea-water, lakes or springs: e.g. the caldte of 
limestones, deposits of bog-iron-ore (limonite), gypsum, rock- 
salt, &c 

Minerals Segregated in Veins and Rock-cavities. — ^Water per- 
colating through rock-masses takes up mineral matter in 
solution, and the solutions so formed may further react on the 
minerals composing the rocks. Such solutions will deposit some 
of their dissolved material in rock-cavities with the production 
of various minerals. For instance, the amygdaloidal cavities of 
basic volcanic rocks {e.g. basalt, melaphyre), especially when the 
rocks are somewhat weathered, are frequently partly or com- 
pletely filled with agate or beautifully crystallized zeolites^ 
calcite, &c The crevices and joint -planes of limestone become 
in this way coated with crystals of calcite, and those of siliceous 
rocks with quartz, giving rise to the abundantly occurring quartz- 
veins. In sedimentary rocks, pyrites, flint and other minerals 
become segregated round a nudeus of organic matter. The 
beautiful crystal-lined crevices in the crystalline rocks of the 
Alps have much the same origin, and so have the various types 
of ore-deposits, induding metalliferous veins or lodes. In the 
latter cases, however, the solutions are no doubt sometimes of 
deep-seated origin and often connected with igneous and meta- 
morphic processes. Metalliferous veins are storehouses of 
crystallized minerals of almost every kind, some being the ores 
themselves and others, such as quartz, caldte, barytes, fluor- 
spar, being gangue minerals. By the weathering of the metallic 
minerals of mineral-vdns numerous other findy crystallized 
minerals result: for example, in the upper oxidized portion of 
veins of lead-ore (galena), crystals of anglesite, cerussite and 
pyromorphite are often met with; in veins of copper-ore the 
alteration of chalcopyrite gives riser to malachite, chessylite and 
cuprite. 

Alteration of Minerals: Pseudomorpks.'—CTysi9ls which have 
been formed under one set of conditions of temperature and 
pressure and in the presence of. certain solutions,, will in many 



SH 



MINERALOGY 



cases be unst&ble under another set of conditions. The crystals 
may then be corroded or even completely redissolved, or the 
8ul»tance may undergo a chemical or physical change and give 
rise to the formation of other minerals which are stable under 
the new conditions. The results of such changes and alterations 
of minerals are very frequently to be observed in nature, and 
several instances have already been cited in the preceding 
section. A good example of the secondary producU which may 
result by the decomposition of a mineral is afforded by pyrites 
(FeSs), of which two types of alteration may be distinguished. 
By oxidation in the presence of pure water it gives rise to ferrous 
sulphate (melanterite), free sulphur and sulphuric acid; the 
melanterite by further alteration gives various basic ferric 
sulphates (copiapite, &c.); and the sulphuric add by acting 
on surrounding rocks (limestone, clay, &c.) gives rise to the 
formation of gypsum, aluminite and other sulphates. By 
the action of water containing oxygen and calcium carbon- 
ate in solution, pyrites suffers another kind of alteration: 
the sulphur is carried away in solution as gypsum and the iron is 
left behind as a ferric hydroxide (limoniu) which preserves 
the original form of the crystals. We have then a pseu- 
domorpb (from ^«u5^, false and /Mp^i form) of limonite 
after pyrites; s.e. limonite with the external form of a crystal of 
pyrites. 

Pseudomorphs are frequently met with in nature, and they are 
of considerable importance in studying the changes which 
minerals undergo. Several kinds of pseudomorphs are to be 
distinguished. When the alteration has involved no change 
in chemical composition of the material, but only in the internal 
crystalline structure and physical properties, the altered crystal 
is called a " paramorph." For example, crystals of aragonite 
are often altered to a confused granular aggregate of crystalline 
individuals of calcite, the change being accompanied by an 
increase in specific gravity but without change in external form: 
such a change may be effected artificially by simply heating a 
crystal of aragonite. Other examples of paramorphs are rutile 
with the form of anatase, and hornblende with the form of 
augite. An " epimorph " results from the encrustation of one 
mineral by another; the first may be afterwards partly or wholly 
dissolved out, leaving the second as a hollow shell (e.g. chalybite 
after fluor-spar). As instances of pseudomorphs in which there 
has been some chemical change the following may be cited: 
by the gain of chemical constituents, e.g. malachite after cuprite; 
by the loss of material, e.g. native copper after cuprite; or by 
an interchange of constituents, e.g. galena after pyromorphite and 
limonite after pyrites. In other cases there may be no evident 
chemical relationship between the two minerals, as, for example, 
in pseudomorphs of native copper after aragonite or quartz 
after calcite. Different minerals may also take the form of 
various organic remains. 

m.— Homenelatnre vbA Classlflcatioii of Mlnerab. 
A mineral species, or simple mineral, is completely defined by 
the statement of its chemical composition and crystalline form. 
When we are dealing with a definite chemical compoimd the 
limitation of species is easy enough; thus corundum, cassiterite, 
galena, blende, &c. are quite sharply defined mineral species. 
But with isomorphous mixtures the division into species, or 
into sub-species and varieties, must be to a certain extent arbi- 
trary, there being no sharp lines of demarcation in many iso- 
morphous groups of minerals. Thus in the mineral tourmaline 
the chemical composition varies indefinitely between wide limits, 
but no corr^ponding difference can be traced in the crystalline 
form or in the external characters save colour and specific gravity. 
Some authors have therefore questioned the advisability of 
separating minerals into species each with distinctive names, 
and they have attempted to devise chemical names for the 
different kinds of minerals. Owing, however, to the frequency 
of polymorphism and isomorphism amongst mineral substances 
such a system presents many practical difficulties. Thus the 
three modifications of titanium dioxide are more simply and 
conveniently referred to as rutile, anatase and brookite, while 



to give a purely chemical designation to such a mineral at 
tourmaline would be quite impracticable. Further, later investi- 
gations often show that such chemical names require revision, and 
hence confusion may arise. 

The practice of giving distinct names to different kinds of 
minerals dates from very early times (e.g. diamond). The 
common termination ite (originally itis or ites) was adopted by 
the Greeks and Romans for the names of stones, the names 
themselves indicating some character, constituent, or use o( 
the stone, or the locaUty at which it was found. For example, 
haematite, because of the blood-red colour; siderite, contammg 
iron; alabaster (originally alabastritis), a stone from which a 
vessel called an alabastron was cut; magnesite, from the locality 
Magnesia. The custom of naming minerals after persons is of 
modem origin; e.g, prehnite, biotite, haiiyne, zoisite. Un- 
fortunately there is a lack in uniformity in the termination of 
mineral names, many long-estabh*shed names being wiibout the 
termination iU, e.g. beryl, blende, felspar, garnet, gypsum* 
quartz, zircon, &c. The termination ine is also often used, e.; . 
nepheline, olivine, serpentine, tourmaline, &c.; and many 
others were introduced by R. J. Haiiy without much reason, 
e.g. anatase, dioptase, epidote, analdme, sphene, &c. (sc« 
A. H. Chester, A Dictionary of the Names of Minerals, New' 
York, 1896). 

The number of known mineral spedes differs, of course, 
according to different authors; roughly there may be said to be 
about a thousand. The total number of mineral names (apart 
from chemical names), many of them being applied to trivia/ 
varieties or given in error, amount to about 5000. 

Minerals may be classified in different ways to suit different 
purposes; thus they may be classified according to their uses, 
modes of occurrence, system of crystallization, &c. The earlia 
systematic classifications, being based solely on the external 
characters of minerals, were on natural history prindples and 
too artificial to be of any value. J. J. Berzelius, in 181 5, was 
the first to propose a purely chemical system of classification: 
his primary divisions depended on the basic (electro-positive) 
element and the sub-divisions on the add (electro-negative) 
element. Such a method of classification, though still in use 
for metallic ores, must be quite arbitrary or give rise to much 
duplication; since, apart from isomorphous replacement, many 
minerals contain more than one metal. The systematic classi- 
fications in use at the present day arc modifications in detail 
of the crystallo-chemical system published by G. Rose in 1852. 
Here there are four main divisions, viz. elements; sulphides, 
arsenides, &c.; halogen compounds; and oxygen compounds: 
the last, and largest, division is subdivided into oxides and 
according to the add (carbonates, silicates, sulphates and 
chromates, phosphates and arsenates, &c.); in each section 
isomorphous minerals are grouped together. The classifications 
adopted by different authors differ much in detail, especially in 
the large section of the silicates, which presents many difficulties 
and for which no satisfactory classification has yet been 
devised. 

As an example of a systematic dassification of minerals the 
following may be given. Except in a few details it is the 
dassification of Dana's System of Mineralogy (6th ed., 1892). 
Only those minerals which are described under their respective^ 
headings in these volumes are induded: the list therefore serves, 
at the same time, as an enumeration of the more common andk 
important species and varieties of minerals, and as a system oC 
dassification it is necessarily incomplete. Spedes belonging to 
the same isomorphous group are bracketed together: varieties 
are given in parentheses after the species to which they belong- 
The chemical composition of each species is given by the formula ; 
and the crystal-system by the initial letters C (cubic), T (tetra.- 
gonal), O (orthorhombic), M (monodinic), A (anorthic), H (hexa- 
gonal) and R (rhombohedral) : when the crystal dass is definitely 
known to be some other than the holosymmetric this is indi- 
cated by a number corresponding to those used in the artide 
Crystallography, e.g. d for the tetrahedral dass of the cubic 
system. 



MINERALOGY 



S^S 



L— hahvb blbbcbhts. 

I. NOM-MBTiO^ 

Diamond . . . C . . . 

(Bort. Carbonado) 
Graphite . . . . C 
Sulphur 
a. Sbmi-Mbtals. 
fAraenic 
•| Antimony 
[^ Bismuth 
3. Metals. 
fCold 
I Silver 
1 Copper 
I Platinum 



At. 

Sb. 
Bi . 



, Au. 

, Pt 

IL-SXTLPHIDES, ARSBNIDBS, TBLLURIDBS, BTC 
I. Of the Sbmi-Mbtals. 



Ca 

R 
O 

R 
R 
R 

C 
C 
C 
C 



Realgar 

JStibnite 
Bismuthite 
Tctradymite 
Molybdenite 
a. Of thb Metals. 

A. MoHosvlpkides, 6fc. 
^Araentite . . . . 
(Galena . . . . 

Copper-glance . . 

Bleni . . . , 

Cinnabar . . . . 

Covellite . . . . 

^Grcenockite . . . 

fMillerite . . . . 

^ Niccolite . . . . 

I Pyrrhotite . . . 

B. IntermediaU Division. 

Enibescite . . . 

Chalcopyrite . . . 

C. DisMlpkuUs, Cfc. 

I^yrite. . . . . 

Smaltite . . . . 

Cobaltite . . . . 

Marcasite . . . , 

Mispfckel . . . 

Sylvanite . . . . 



AaS M 

SbA O 

BiiS, O 

Bi,Te,S R 



MoSt 



R 



^: 

Cu,S . 
ZnS . 
HgS . 

cSs . 

CdS . 
NiS . 
NiAa . 
FeuSu. 

CutFeSi 
CuFeSi 

FeS, . 
CoAii . 
CoA«S 
FeS, . 
FeAsS. 



. . . . C 

. . . . C 

. . . . o 

. . . . Ca 

: : : : g^ 

. . . . Ra 

. . . . R 

. . . . R 

. . . . R 

. . . . C 

. . . . Ta 

C3 

. . . . C3 

: : : :S^ 

. . . . o 

AuAgTe« M 



m.— SULPHO SALTS. 

Freieslebenite . . . (Pb.AKs),Sb«Su 

Boumonite . . . PbCuSbSi. . 

JPyrar^^te . . . AgiSbSa . . 

Proustite .... AgsAsSa . . 

Tetrehedrite . . . CuiSbSa : . 

Stephanite . . . Ag^bSi . 

Stannite .... CusFeSnS« 

Argyrodite . AgiGeSt . . 

IV.— HALOmS. 



M 

O 

Ra 

Ra 

Ca 

Oa 

Ta 

C 



'• AjTBTDtOUS. 

Salt . . 
Sylvite 
Cerargyrite 
Fluor-spar 
Cryolite . 

'• v>ztcbloridbs. 
Atacamite 

'• OlXt«3 OF SrLtCOK. 
Qtiartf 



NaCI 
KCl 



. Ag(Cl.Br.I) 
"aF, 



C 

c 



ClP. 
. . . NaaAIF, M 

. . . Cu,Cl(OH), O 

V.-OZIDBS. 



. sio, R3 

(^Agate, Amcthyitt^ A\'ant urine. Bloodstone, 
Cairngorm » Carneliaiit CatVcye^ Chalcedony, 
Chrvsopraw, HHitMfftptt Jasptri Mocha-stone, 
Onyjt. RDck-cryttat Sird, Sardoftyx.) 

Tridymiie . . . SiOs 0(?) 

Opal ..... SiOi+nHtO Amorphous 

*• Oxides of the Semi-Metals. 
^ Oxides of the Metals. 
A. Anhydrous Oxides, 

a. Monoxides. 

Cuprite .... Cu/> C4 

Zindte .... ZnO . Ra 

Melaconite . . . CuO M 

b. Sesquioxides. 

rConindum . . . AljOi R 

J (Asteria, Emery. Ruby. Sapphire.) 

I Haematite . . . FesOj . R 

lllmenite^ .... FeTiOi R4 



^ Often dancd with the titaoatet. 



r.i^' 



c Intermodiate Oxides.* 

rSpind . . . 
J Magnetite 

] Franklinite 

[Chromite . . 

Chrysoberyl . . ^, 

(Alexandrite, Cymophane) 
d. Dioxides. 

SCassiterite . . . SnOk . 

{Rutile TiOk 



;Fe.Zn,Mn)(Fe,Mn)sO« . 
lFe,Mj)(Cr,Fe)rf)4 . . 



C 
C 
C 
C 

o 



Anataae 
Brookite . . . 
Pyrolusite . . . 
Pitchblende* . . 
B. Hydrous Oxides. 



TiOi . . 
. TiO, . . 
. MnOi . . 
. (U.Th)Oi . 




T 
T 
T 
O 

? 
C 



A10(OH) O 

FeO(OH) O 

MnO(OH) O 

FeiOi.3H«0 . • Amorphous 

AW0,.3H|0? . . 

Mb(OH), R 

xMnOi-f-yBaO-|-H«0 Amorphous 



VL-OXTGBN SALTS 
I. Carbonates. 

A. Anhydrous. 

fCaldte . . 

(Satin-spar) 

Dolomite . . 

Ankerite . . 



Magnesite 

Chalvbite . . 
Rhodochrosite. 

Calamine . . 

Aragonite . . 

Alstonite . . 

Withcrite . . 
Strontianitc 

Cerussite . . 
Barytocaldte 

Pansite . . 
Phos^nite 



CaCO, R 



R 

R 



CaMe(CO,), . . 
Ca(Mg.Fe)(C6,), 
MgCOt . . . 

f«k:o, 



MnCO, R 

ZnCO, R 

CaCO, O 

(Ca.Ba)CO, O 

BaCO, O 

SrCO, O 

PbCO, O 

- . M 

. H 
. T 



CaBa(CO,), 

: \^A?'!' : 



B. Baste Carbonates. 

Malachite . . . Cua(OH),CO, 
Arurite .... Cu,(OH},(CO,), 
2. Silicates. 

A. Anhydrous Silicates, 
a. DisUicaUs, R'Si,0,: PdysUicaUs, R'SiaCV 
Petalite . . . •y^''^^'^* 
Orthoclase . . 
(Moon-stcHie) 
Microcline 

(Amazon-ftone) 
rAlbite 



Polysutcates, 1 
LiAl(Si/>0, 
KAlSi/). . 



M 
M 



M 
M 



KAlSiA A 



Oligoclase .... 

^ (Sun-stone) 

,0 • Andcsine .... 

*M Labradorite . . . 

g Bytownite . . . 

_ ^Anorthite . . . . 

*- Metasiiicates, R^Oi. 

Leucite 



NaAlSiA A 

AbfAni to Ab,Ant ... A 

Ab»Ani to Abi Ani ... A 

AbiAni to AbiAn, ... A 

AbiAn, to AbiAn« ... A 

CaAl,SiA ..... A 



KAI{SIO,>i 



Pollux H,CiyUi(5iO*)> 



1^ 



Enstatite 
Bronzite . . 
Hypersthene . 
Diopside 
Augite . . * 
(Diallagc) 
Acmite . , 
Spodumcne 



. P«ydu-C 
C 



(Ml 



(Mt,Fe)St 
(FetMajSi 
CjtMgrsiQ 



MgSiOi ,.,... O 

' Fe)StO, . . , . . O 

" iSiO, O 

J CafEvrR,F(->fS10,}, ■ Ixt 

i iiUh{Mc,FcKA!.Fc)^a \ *' 

NrtFc"'(SJO,), . . . M 

LiAKSiO,), , , , - , M 

(Hiddenitr. Kumite) 

Jadeite. . / . . NaAtt5K},)i . , , . . M 

WoIUstonite . . - CaSiOi M 

Rhodonite * * . MnSiO, .A 

Tremolite . , . - CaME*(SiO>)i . . , . M 

[Actinolitel . . . Ca(Ma.Fc),(SiO,)* . , . M 
(Asbestos, Ncptirite) 

rCa(M«.Fe).GiOi), . . 1 

Hornblende . . 4 with NaAI|5iO0, . . VM 
laoil (MR.Fe){Al.Fc)*(SiO^«J 

ICrocidoUte . . . NaFe(S)Oi), FcSiO, M 

Beryl . . . , . Bt,AU(SiO*)4 . . - . H 
(Aquamarine, EmcmldJ 
. InttrnudiaiM. 

loliie H,fMK.F«*)«A13ti.0g ^ _■ 0_ 



•Oflrn cljtK9cd A« alumina ici, 
* Usually classed as a uranatc 



5i6 



MINERALOGY 



d, OrthosilicaUs,'R'SiOi, 
Nepheline .... Kt\a«Aj|5«iOu , * . . Hs 

(Laxuritel .... NaitNaSi.ARAI.ESiOOi . C 
(Lapis-lazuli) 

[Grossularite] . . Ca»A1i{SI04} C 

(Cinnamon-stone) 

Py/opc .... M^jAIiCSiO*)* . . . , C 

Almandine . . . FfrjAlt(SlO*)t * . . * . C 

[Andradite] . . . CatFci(Sl0^i . . . . C 

(Demantoid) 

Olivine .... (M^-FtJiSiOi . . . . O 
- (Chrysolite, Peridot) 

J Phenacite .... BeSlOt R4 

tWillemite .... ZrtiSiO^ .*-... R4 

DiopUse .... HtCuSiOj , . . . , . R4 

ScapoUte . . . \ ^Na+Ai^siA^a J - ■ * ^3 

Vesuvianite . . . HiCa.(AtFt)iSiiOii . , . T 
'^ Zircon , . . . . ZrSiO^ ...... T 

(^HyiiEimfap Jacinth, r^rRoon) 

Thorite .... TtiSiOi . , . „ . .. T 
' DanbEiHte , 

Topai _ . 

Andaluslte , 

Sitlimanite . 

Cyanilc 
JDiitotite . 



1 EycLiM 

ZoMtc , , 

EpidDte 

A)dnite , . 

Pichnite , » 
f. SuftiiiUales. 

Humiie 

HtminrtorphitC' 

To\itma\'mt 

(Rubcllile) 



CaBifSiO*), O 

. [AUF.OH)],SiO* . . . . O 

. Al^iO .0 

. AliSiOi ...... O 

. AliSiOi ...... A 

. HCaBSiO M 



3. tf yd r eus Silicai£ 3. 



HGrAISiOt M 

Caj(AlOH)Al«(SiO0i . . O 
Ca, AIOHS (AJ.Fc)f(SlOi)i . M 
HC;i4llA1,(SiO*)* ... A 
H,CDtAU(SiOi)t . . . O3 

Mg,!MF{F.OH)h{SiO*)*. . O 

HjZniSiO, Oa 

[Hj, Ni^Ms ) i{ Al . Fc),(flOH)i 

Si^v . . , . . . Rj 
HFtAl*SaA». . , . . O 



phyllite 
HLulineidite 
[ Philllpsite . 
< Harniotome 
IStilbitc . 
Chabazlte - 
Analcile 
J \atrDliLe « 
. ( Scolecite , 
X 1" Mii-^cn^-itc i. 
.8 I ! [-^ E'HoUtc . 

'^O [ Phii^ipite \ 
Clintonite • 
Chlorite . 
Serpentine 



HiKCa,(SiO,h'f4iH,0 . . T 
H,CaAh(S;0,)t^iHjO . . M 
{K*,Ca)AI,(SiO,>,+4HiO . M 
HjtK,3a)A],(SiOj),+sHtD M 
(CaAliCSi0i)r+6H,O . M 

iCa , fJa,) Alj l^iO*) 1 +4 H^O Ac R 
NaAKfiiOihi-H^ \ . . C 
NatAliSiiOH-KaHiO , . . O 
CaAitSiA*+jHrf> . . . M3 

HiKAl,tS(04, M 

KLi[AUOH.F>,lAHSiOi), . M 



H,{Fc,MK)Al,Si5j.&c. 



M 

„ M 

H,fMjj.Fe)*AUSiiOi,itc. , M 

_. .. . . . H*M|fjSiA ..... M 

Talc HtMgitSiO,) M 

Meerschaum . . . H^Mt^jSiiCJ^ . . Arnoiphous 

Kaolin .... HWVl^iiOi ^S 

(Bole. Clay) 

Pyrophyllitc . . . HAlfSiOiJt W 

Allophane . . . Al,SiO,+5HiO 
Chrysocolla . . . CuSiOj+aH^ 
C. Titan a-s Hi cates, Titantttts, 
Sphene .... CjiTiSiO* . 
Perofskite . . . CaTiO* . , 

3. NiOBATBS. TaNTALATES. 

Columbite . . . {Fr.Mn)(Nb,Ta>rf>i . 

4. Phosphates. Arsenates, &c. 
A. Anhydrous Pkoip hate s,^£. 



Amotphoui 



. . . M 

Pseudo-C 



Monazite .... {Ce.U,D()PO< . . 

Beryllonite . . . NaBtPO* , . . . 
r Apatite .... IC^(F.CI)|CaiCPO,), 

(Phosphorite) 
• Pyromorphite 

Mimetite . . . 

.Vanadinite . . 

Amblygonite . . 

B. Basic P kosphatis, &; h 
J Olivenite .... CuifOlDAsOi 
1 Descloizite. . . . {Pb.Zn),tOHJVO^ 

Clinoclasite . . . Cuj[0H)^aD4 

C. Hydrous P ko s pho.it j^ &c. 
f Viy ' '- " '^^ ^ 



(PbCI)Pb,(PO0* 
{PbC]jPb,(AsO0i 
(PbCI|Pb,(VO,), 
UfAlFJPO* . . 



( Vivianite 
< Erythrite 
i Annabergite . . 

Wavellite . . . 

Turquoise . . . 

Phannacoridrrite 



Fe,{POi),+SH^ 

CDi{A»0.),+aH,0 

Ni,{A*0i)j+tlHjO 



M 
O 
Ha 

H3 

Hi 

A 

O 
O 
M 

M 
M 
M 

O 



( Al [Oi I h.Cu (OVl ) , a liTtJ, A&wrpK. 
. Fe»(0llJ*AsU*+5lS0 , . Ca 



. g^e.Mii)Al(OK),PO«+H/> 
. Cu»AU(OH)u(AflO«)»+aoHgO M 
. Cu(U0,).(P04),+iaH«0. . T 



. Ca(UO,)a(PO«)i+iaH,0. 



Childrenite 

Liroconite . 
{ Torbernite 
/ Autunite . 

5. Borates. 

Boracitc .... MgiOtBuOM . . Pseudo-Ca 
Colemanite . . . CajBiOu+sHtO . . . . M 
Borax NaiBiOj+ioHsO. . . . M 

6. Nitrates. 

Nitre KNO, 

7. Sulphates and Chromates. . 

A, Anhydrous Sulphate StBfC 

{ Barytcs .... BaS04 ..*.... 

-{ Cclestite .... SrSO« 

(.Anelesite .... PbS04 

Anhydrite .... CaS04 

Crocoite .... PbCrOi M 

B. Basic Sulphate s. 

Brochantite . . . Cu4(OH)4SO« .... 

CHydrousSulphates. 

Gypsum .... CaS0«+2H,0 . . . . M 
Alunite .... KAI,(S04),(0H)«. . . . R 
Jarosite .... KFe,(SO«},(OH). . . . R 

D. Sulphates with Chlorides, Carbonates, fire 
Connellite .... Cu,»(a,OH)«SO>«+l5H,0 . H 
Leadhillite . . . Pb«S04(C0))s(0H)s ... 

8. TUNGSTATES, MOLYB DATES. 

Wolframite . . . (Fe.Mn)WO« M 

JScheelite .... CaWO* T3 

I Wulfenite .... PbMoO, T4 

Vn.— HYDROCARBON COMPOimDS. 

1. Simple Hydrocarbons. 

Hatchettine, Ozocerite. 

2. Oxygenated Hydrocarbons. 

Amber, Retinite, Copaline, Batlivillite, Dopplerite. 

3. Appendix jh Hydrocarbons. 

Petroleum, ''■.■j'!. :1: 'r ij UituniGn, ELit'Prite, AlbertiitEi 
.Caal, Anttiraciie, \ut, Lignkc. 

References. — Elementary intrciducrians to the study of puDcraif 
are: E. S, Dana, Mintrats and hftfittft livdy Ihtm (New YorK *^$)\ 
A. Jr ^to^Fs and C L. FarEonii, Eicmtnis ^f kfimera£tiu^ Cry^- 
locrafffiv and BiiKspipt A ntdyiis frdm a Praciitai SttiBiIf^*iit (4tb td^ 
Now York, 190>} ; L, Fltftcbtrr An Jniroducticn s^ tkt Sl^y 4 
MiJttrci-t lOritifih Musfum CukJe-book]. A larger work Oil pdpuUf 
lines i%: R, iJrauns^ The Mincr^ Kuiidaws, £ngi, traiii, by L* J* 
Spcnrer (btuticart, J 90S, &c.). TtKE books for »tudcacs Ufi 
H. A. Mitr^t Minfrals^y, m* JntrpdMtiwK Uf the Scientific St^if 
pj Minttaii (London, (902); E. S, Dana^ Tatbook ^ MimtrtitQ 
fjrd ed^^ New York, tii^}: and in German: C. F^ NaDmaaii. 
Htititni£ dtr Mintmh^i^ (iSth ed^* by F* Zlrktl, LcipElg, i<iP7)* 
G. Twrhcriflak, Lt^krbuth dtr Miturai^sif (feih cd-, Vicn*va.> I^5>- 
The tUndafd works of reference for d(«c*ipti\x minenakvy s.Tti 
L O* Dana, Sfst^m ej Miaifdo£y (6th td., by E, S. Dana, Kf« 
York. 1803 J; C. Hiniie^ Hand^trih der UinfroiGzit CLeipri|^, JioS^ 
&C.L the latter £ive& lull dctaiU rT&pcCtin^ the localitiri ol muwrols; 
P. CroiLh, Cfftmischf Kryflatl<>griiphu: (LeiEizig, IQC*. &c.}. 

For special branches oi miocnlop^ rufertnct? may be made to the 
following work^; R, Bmuna, ChemiiCke Minctuliteie {LitiptiSy l696)< 
K. Roifiibuacli, Mikr^ikfpiscKc Pky^ietirapkie c^r Mintt^iem aW 
Ct^ieiixe, Band t, Die petr^^raphiich-iincklittn Mintratun, ^tb ed^, 

j. P. Iddings, EtKk Miisfrsli (New yqrk. 1906) ; P. Cfoih. UM- 
htfi^eki Ohertickl dtr Afineraticn (4th ed.« Uraunschweig. i^fi); 
G. P^ Mefrillr Tht Nfn-mriaitk Miitfralt. Ikttt Oienrrxttcf mtd Vnf 
iStvf York, 1904)^ C^ Jh BfusK, Manuai cf DetnmujisUkr MinerMlpty 
jr6th cd., by S, L. PcnfickJ, New York. t^tJj); Mh Bata-t, EdtisUtW' 
kitndt (Jnd ed., Leipzig, 1909]* and Eng. traos. Pruioia Siantt^ by 
L. J.Spenirrr (London, 1904]> 

The more Lmpartant tGpDpnp!iica] vorks are: R. P. Crrg and 
W. G. Lcttsom, Manual cf thr Mmeraltfiy ttf Great Britain ami 
Ireland {London, iflsfi); I. H. Collins. Handbook to the Mtm^eUfy 
of ContJi-^ and Dnsm (TrurtJ. 1871}; M. F, Hed^Il^, Mineniieo i 
SioUand {3 vols., Edinhqrgli, 1901); A. Lacroii, Minirvhg*^ « ^ 
Fffinie il di *ci cuinnifs (j volt, Far'n, tSgj, ffc); O. Luedccke, 
Dif Mineraie dzi H^rus (lActVm. jSga^; A- Frcnrtl, MintfoUtti^ts 
Lexican fur das Kffnirreixih Siiik ftn (Leipdg, 1*74); A* Kfnneoit, 
Pie AfineFoie der Sch-urii (LcipiiR, tS66) J V. von Zrphamvifi^ 
Mineraloi^iiches Lexiton ftir das KaifrrHtum OiJerteick (^ wb., 
Vtcntta, sS^T-taqt); N. von Kok&harov, Mate'oJim rwr Mivr^tpt 
Rutihndt Ell vQh., St Petersburg, i8sj-iS*i); T. WadA, Miarrtlr 
pf JapQH (Tokyo, 1904): A. Livcrsldge, Tkt Afintfols of Nfv South 
(VaSfi, die. (London. i8SR);0. B^ BiigEild. MinrtoLigiaGri^emtiindxm 
(Copctj^afffn, i<305):j4 Catah^uf ttf Amtrkon ll],S,A, andCaiodiil 
Localities of Minerals is ^iven in Dana's System of Mineralegy. 

The following scientific journals are devoted to minetalosy: 
Neues Jahrbuch fur Miniralogie, &c. (Stuttgart, nnce 1807); 
Tsckermaks Minerahijiscke und petrotraphtuke MiUeOmmfm 
(Vienna, since 1873): The Mineralogical Mafuine amd Jvmntd ^ 
the Mineralogical Society (London, tinoe 1876}; Zfiisckrifi jif 



MINERAL WATERS 



517 



'XryshOopnpkie tmi Mtntralogie, td. bv P. Groth (Ldpzig, nn 
l8n) : omktin de la soeiiU franfoise ae minhalope (Paris, sin 



I WATERS. No absolute line of denutrcation can 
be drawn between ordinary and mineral waters. There is 
usually in the latter an excess of mineral constituents or of 
temperature, but some drinking waters contain more mineral 
constituents than others that are called mineral waters, and 
many very pure waters, both cold and warm, have been 
rqijuded for ages as minexal springs. 

As to the origin of mineral waters, there is much in what the 
dder Pliny said, that waters are such as the soil through which 
they flow. Thus in limestone and chalk districts an excess of 
lime is usually present; and the waters of a particular district 
have much resemblance to each other— as in the Eifel, in 
Anvergne, and in the Pyrenees. But this is only a partial 
explanation, for waters are by no means necessarily uniform 
thnnigbout a particular geological formation. We do not know 
with any certainty the depth from which various mineral waters 
proceed, nor the various distances from the surface at which 
they take up their different mineral constituents. 
} The source of the temperature of thermal waters remains a 
fol^ect of much uncertainty. Among the assigned causes are 
the internal heat of the gbbe, or the developm^it of heat by 
difmical or electrical agencies in the strata through which they 
arise. 

Their occasional intermittence is doubtless often dependent on 
the periodical generation of steam, as in the case of the Geysers. 
A few geological facts are certain, which bear on the origin of 
laineral waters. Such springs are most abundant in volcanic 
dtttricts, where many salts of soda and much carbonic acid are 
present. They occur most frequently at meetings of strati^ed 
»ith unstratified rocks, in saddles, and at points where there has 
^era dislocation of strata. 

The diffusion of mineral waters is very*extended. Pliny was 
Uite correct in observing that they are to be found on alpine 
eights and arising from the bottom of the ocean. They are 
»iind at the snow in the Himalayas and they rise from the sea 
^ Baiae and Ischia. They are to be found in all quarters of the 
lobe, but more particiilarly in volcanic regions, as in the Eifel 
:ad Anvergne, in the Bay of Naples, and parts of Greece, in 
r^dand. New Zealand and Japan. But there are few countries 
L which they are not to be found, except in very flat ones, and 
I deltas of rivers — for instance, in the north of France, where 
%gy are very few, and in Holland, from which they are absent. 
raxkce, Germany, Italy and Spain, as well as Greece, Asia Minor, 
dd the Caucasus,^ are all rich in mineral waters. The British 
lies have a fair though not very large proportion of them. 
laere are a few in Sweden and- Norway. They are abundant 
1 the United States, less so in Canada. They are found in the 
laorcs and in the West India Islands Of their occurrence in 
be interior of Africa or of Australia we know little; and the 
ame is true of South America. But they are met with in 
Ugier*, in Egypt, and in the Holy Land. The vast Indian 
)^ninmla has for its size a comparatively small supply. 

Mineral waters, when analysed, are found to contain a great 
Btany labstances, although some of them occur only in very 
minute quantities: soda, magnesia, calcium, potash, alumina, 
iron, boion, iodine, bromine, arsenic, lithium, caesium, rubidium, 
fluorine, barium, coppier, zinc, manganese, strontium, silica, 
pbosphOTtis, besides extractive matters, and various organic 
deposits known -under the name of glairin or baregin. Of gases, 
there have been found carbonic add, hydrosulphuric add, 
nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and ammonia. Of all these by far 
the most important in a therapeutic point of view are sodium, 
iit*|ipiJHM« and iron, carbonic add, sulphur, and perhaps hydro- 
lalphuiic add. These substances, detected separately by 
'^»*«»*«»*^ are in their anal3rses combined by them into various 
tshs, if not with absolute certainty, undoubtedly with a dose 
ippfoaimation to it. Those combinations are very numerous, 
and mne watccs contain ten to twenty of them; but there are 



always some predominating ones which mark their character, 
while many of them, such as caesium, rubidium, or fluorine, 
occur in mere traces, and cannot be assiuned to be of any real 
importance. Mineral waters therefore resolve themsdves into 
weaker or stronger solutions of salts and gases in water of higher 
or lower temperature. For medical purposes they are used 
either externally or internally. As the quantity of salts present 
conunonly bears but a very small proportion to that of the fluid 
containing them, water becomes a very influential agent in 
mineral-water treatment, about which it is therefore necessary 
to say something. 

For the action of mineral-water baths see Balheothesa- 
PEuncs. According to the most generally recdved opinion, the 
cutaneous surface does not absorb any portion of the salts in a 
mineral-water bath, although it may absorb a little gas (and 
alkaline water, for instance, at most acting as a slight detergent 
on the skin), and that neither salts nor gases have any action on 
the system, except as stimulants of the akin, with partial action 
on the respiratory organs. 

It seems to be ascertained that drinking considerable amounts 
of cold water reduces the temperature of the body, diminishes 
the frequency of the pulse, and increases the blood pressure 
temporarily. Water when introduced into the stomach, esped- 
ally if it be empty, is quickly absorbed; but, although much of 
the water passes into the veins, there is no proof that it ever 
produces in them, as is sometimes supposed, a state of fluidity or 
wateriness. Therapeutically, the imbibition of large quantities 
of water leads to a sort of general washing out of the organs. 
This produces a temporary increase of certain excretions, aug- 
mented diuresis, and a quantitative increase of urea, of chloride 
of sodium, and of phosphoric and sulphuric adds in the urine. 
Both the sensible and the insensible perspirations are augmented. 
A draught of cold water undoubtedly stimulates the peristaltic 
action of the intestines. On the whole water slightly warm is 
best borne by the stomach, and is more easily absorbed by it 
than cold water; and warm waters are more usefid than cold 
ones when there is much gastric irritability. In addition to 
the therapeutic action of mineral waters, there are certain 
very important subsidiary considerations which must not be 
overlooked. An individual who goes from home to drink them 
finds himself in a different climate, with possibly a considerable 
change in altitude. His diet is necessarily altered, and his usual 
home drinks are given up. There is change in the hours of going 
to bed and of rising. He is relieved from the routine of usual 
duties, and thrown into new and probably cheerful sodety. He 
takes more exercise than when at home, and is more in the open 
air, and this probably at the best season of the year. So im- 
portant has this matter of season and climate been found that it 
is an established axiom that waters can be used to the greatest 
advantage during the summer months and in fine weather, and 
during the periods most convenient for relaxation from business. 
Sununer is therefore the bath season, but of late years provision 
has beeii made lA many places, with the aid of spedally con- 
structed rooms and passages, for carrying out cures satisfactorily 
during the winter season, e.g. at Aix-Ia-Chapelle, Wiesbaden, 
Baden Baden, Baden in Switzerland, Dax, Vichy and Bath. The 
ordinary bath season extends from the xsth of May to the 20th 
or 30th of September. The season for baths situated at con- 
siderable devations commences a month later and terminates 
some ten days earlier. Mineral waters may be employed at 
home, but patients seldom so us6 them; and this nec^sarily 
limits the time of their use. It is common to declare that the 
treatment should last for such or such a period. But the length 
of time for which any remedy is to be used must depend on its 
effect, and on the nature of the particular case. It is found, 
however, that the continued use of mineral waters leads to 
certain disturbances of the sjrstem, which have been called crises, 
such as sleeplessness, colics and diarrhoea, and to skin eruptions 
known as la poussie. This cause, and also certain peculiarities of 
the female constitution, have led to the period of three weeks to 
a month being considered the usual»period for treatment. A 
certain after-treatment is often prescribed— such as persistence 



520 



MINERAL WATERS 



other AltJ wit!i wWcfi'thcy are aancUtevf, Some tjf tKe Istsl' 
known iprinSTi nf the kind are r CliiUci, WiWc^, CQ:i»troc&to, Hall, 
AfScEhcidV ^iie!lc, Kranktnhcil KrtuinJicJir Woodball Spa* 

/roB tfr Chill jtbfoj^ W'fl/^fj:,— Iron UBOaEj^ exists in Witcrs b itie 
ftAtc of piyitOAidc or its carbonate, leu Ut^ij?ntly aa sulphate or 
cmLatf, and vtty f<irdy, if at al1> as chloddt. The quantity prrwnt 
is uiuaJIy extivmcly Kmall. It may bc^ said to vary imm Q; [3 to 0;0j 
in the J 000 parts of watef. Somfi wdl^ consideri^ distinct dialy- 
beates contoiji less than o-Qj,- Many wells, tspccially in Germany, 
have a ridi supply c^ carbonK: acid^. which is unfortunately Wanting 
in Fiench and English ones. 

It has lot^ been the pn.'vaieat idea that want of Lron in the blood 
is the main cauw cf chlorosLi and of other anaemic condition!, and 
that these condiiionii are best jeliewd by a supply of that metal. 
Since the detection ctf It in haemojglobijline thit view ha^ been still 
fnore popular* It i^ pretty certain that the blood cotitalfu J7 to 
47 painj and the whole system 70 to ^4 frains of Iron; and it haa 
been calculated that in normal conditions of the aystcm iomewhat 
more than one gnun of iron is t^ken daily in articJea. of food, and 
that the tame amount is passed in the faeces; for although the 
ftomach takes the iron up it is excreted by the altmentary canal 
lOiainly^ it being doubtful whether any li excreted to the uruie- It 

TaBLB V,-^irongtr Suit Wattrf. 



LoctUty. 


d * l; 

lip 




Rhcinfdd.Aaremu; Swititr- 1 
land S 

Salii][iecn> North Germany 
l9cbl, A u Aria (1440ft.} . . 
lioil, Tyrol (t7«i ft.) . . 
Reichenhalt,near Sdzbu r£ } 
(1800 ft.) . . . . \ 
BeiL Rhone Valley (1400 ft.) 
Castrocaro, Tuscany . 

Sta Water. , .... 
Rehmc,W^tplialifl(92'F^ 

103"^ F.) ! 


3" 

3J4 
156 

304 
=4-55 


Scrofula, eflect* of inClain- 
mation, chronic ejtuda- 
tions, some cb^jnic ei- 
anthcmAs, rhcumdlijq?^, 
^ titerinc iiiAUratioiis. 
Do. do. 
Do. do. 
Do. do. 

Do. do. 

Do. da. 

Do. do. 
Do. do, 

J Do.; ipccial u*e Lfi bco- 
\ moter acitsia. 

Do. do. 



TABt£ W.—Irm Waitrs. 



Locality. 


?n'Pf.' 


Carb, 
of Iron, 


Therapeutic Use- 


Hdmburi;, near Frankfort . 

Shtet, Saxony .... 

Ljcbensteiii^ North Oer- i 

many * , . , , S 

Schwalhach. Naitau . 

Bocklet, near Kiraiogra , 

Gdesbach, Black Forest 

Fmniensbad, Bohentk 
P^ftnont, Germany 
Spa, Btlgitim , , . . 
Peterrthal, Black Forest . 
St Morit*, Engadine, f 
Switierland . . \ 
Forces- tes-I£auxT France 
Ls Malou,H*riuk.Ffaoct i 
(temp.«S*} . . ) 
Recoarot North Italy . 

Tunbndge Weill, England 

Mu«pf?tt Sprtng, Harfo- } 

gate (chloride) . . \ 


1886 

1455 
9" 
900 
600 

1614 

tooo 
U33 
5454 

1943 
600 


012 
010 

ooa 

008 
00ft 
007 
0-07 

04 

O'OJ 

d6 

O'tia 

06 

01s 


4 For annemic Condi- 
( tions; laxative. 

Do. do. 

Do. do. 

i Do.; tnucli of a 

*Do. 

i Do.; lantivc; - a 

} ladifia'bath. 

Do. do. 

Do 

Do. 

Do.; LaxaHve. 
I Do.; Bought lor it^ 
} air. 

Do, 

Do. 

Do. 
\ Da; deficient in 
} carbonic acid. 



is possible hy drinking Beveral £]aat» to take in more than a prain 
of carbonate of iron m the day, equivalent to half that amount of 
metallic iftkn. It has further Iwen ingeniously reckoned from 
practice that to to %S grains of metallic iron suffice to supply ihe 
deficieticy in the wstem m a cax of chlorxMis. tt in thought probable 
that a portion of the iron taken up in water u to certain patho- 
logical states not excreted, but retained in the syftetn, and sot* 
towards making up the w^tt of that EuetaL Bui whether thu or 



any other enlanation be Mttafactory, tiierels 00 qnctdm m tt ^ 
excellent effects often produced by drinldnff cnalybeate vatcn 
(especially when they are carbonated), and by bathiof ta dwse 
which are rich in carbonic add after they have been artificially 
heated. As regards the drinking cure we must not, however, 
forget that carbonate and chloride of sodium, and also the sulphate, 
are often present and must be ascribed a share in the cure. Tbu 
chloride of sodium is a powerful adjuvant- in the strooff StaU 
Quelle of Homburg and in the Putnam Well at Saratoga. A whde 
catf^ory of female complaints is treated successfully with these 
waters. Indeed, anaemia from any source, as after fever or throu^ 
loss of blood, and enlargements of the spleen, are benefited by them. 
The stimulating action of the copious supply of carbonic add in 
steel baths is a very important adjuvant; no one now bdieves in 
direct absorption 01 iron from the bath. Iron waters are scarcely 
ever thermal. They are extremely common in all countries— 
frequently along with sulphuretted hydrogen in bogs and near 
coal-measures. But such springs and non-carbonated weUs gefle^ 
ulJv .iTv V. i,il-^ ;ind not now n-,-J i.t i\.i^<^h li-Eh^^ii. 

It m^3^ be added th;it some oi the &tronge^t knowti iron wtH^ ue 
jtilpkaied or o/tfWTjFwW. Thr^y arr styptic and asTfingeni, and eaa 
Only be u«rd diluted, Th^y are sometimes useful a^ an application 
to ulcers awl sorc^ Such iprinKs ha\ie often been brought irto 
notice, but never retain their popularity. 'Fhey are known in [be 
tsle of Wight, in VVale.5, in Scotland, as wU as m Elba, &£.^ i and^f 
late years the Bedford Alum and Dalf Orchard Springs. VS* 
have been brought into not ice, the latter contaLninf 10 graifu of 
free Eulphuric acid in the pint. All such tprines have Ikcu uH* 
Bidered uiieful in scrofula, anaemift and chronic diarrhoca$>» 

Svlpkuf SprtTii^s.'^W'a.tcrb having the odour of hydrosulphorid 
acid, however slightly, are usually called sulphur ones, Tbey d«f 
their smell bometimea to the presence of the free acid, sometioia 
to sulphides of sodium, calcium or magnesia,, and somctJmci to 
both. Sulphuretted hydrogen is absorbed more freely by col^ iliu 
by hot water, and ii therefore most abundant in cola springs. Tbif: 
sulphides decompoM^ and gi^'e off the ga£. Mo&t of thrst^ spdivi 
occur near coal or shale measures, or strata contaiiFiin^ fi^joils^ Of u 
moors and in places gencraliy where orvanic matter is pratfit «i 
the soil or strata, h^lany of them contain 90 little mineraJ inpf^ 
nation that they might aa well be clatsed among the iiid^MitsI 
or earthy waters. One pvup contains a consideraye ATnoum tf 
chloride o|, sodium, another cif sulphate of Lime, while a cMnl bii 
little mineral impregnatioriK hut containa sulphides, 

Sulphurettenl hydfofiicn Ls a strong poison, and iti actioii oa tb^ 
system has been f^etty well ascertain C!d^ ft lias b«m asuipel 
tnat the gas in mineral water* acts similarly, though la a n»(iifi^ 
degree; but there i^ next to nothing absolutely known of tbearcwa 
of the ^mall quantitlci^ of the gas that are present in Enineral wsectv 
and which certainly have no tcititic effect. U has been «iiuine^ 
I hat thii ga.9 has some iipecial action on the porul pyittm >rd « 
on the tivtr. On the connexion of metallic poivbing wtb the 
liver ha* been founded the idea that sulphur wate» ire yi^ul ia 
metatbe intoncation. Drinking laTgc quantitii» of these «tai, 
espcrially of luch as conuin sulphate or chlorides of sodium ir 
magnesia^ combined with hot baths and exendse, may help to 
break up albuminates, but thetv is no proof of the action d Uk 
sulphur. 

For similar reasons^ and primarily to cDunteract mermrial pw«^ 
sulphur waters have been coniidcrTd useful in syphilis. Byi it 
may be well to remember that at most baths mercury is used along 
with them. No doubt they are frequently, like other warm siEd^ 
useful in bringing out old eruptions, acting in this way iS a Tefl 
for syphilitic poltuon^ and in indicating the treatment that msy ^ 



Table VII.— CoW Sulphur Springs, 




Locality. 


Sulphuretted 

dissolved in 
Water. 


Sulphide 

of 
Sodiua. 


Eilsen, Schaumburg-Lippe .... 
Mdnberg, Ltppe-I>etmold .... 
Gumigel, Switzerland (3600 ft.) . . 
Leuk. do. GS93ft-) • • 
Challcs, Savoy (900 ft.) ...... 

En^hien, near Paris 

Unagejs^, France (1500 ft.) . . % 

Harrogiate, England 

Strathpeffer, Scotland ...... 

Lisdoonvama, Clare, Ireland . . . 


423 
231 
151 
44^5 

7-34 


0^ 

o-47» 
0-106 



required. Sulphur waters;, both hot and cold, are used in tout i^ 
rheumatism, in dyspepsia, in hepatic and cutaneous aneaioi»i 
and of late years inhalation of them has been popular in phthisH 
and in laryngeal affections. Tliey have long been popular remedies 
in cutaneous affections. While so much doubt has been cast os 
the action of the sulphur of these waters, it may be admitted that 
the sulphides are pi'ODably decomposed in the stomach and sulphtt^ 
etted hydrogen generated. That gas is probably a lUciit ftimtiltft 



MINERAL WATERS 



52> 



neatiner IVhat sulphuretted hydrogen reaches the blood is 
Bd by the lungs. There seems to be no doubt that the gas 
wd in small quantities by the skin. 

in sulphur waters chieflv that glairin and baregin occur, 
ruliar organic substance has been found both in American 
European springs. Cold sulphur springs are very widely 
throughout the world. Thermal ones are not so common, 
the largest though not the strongest group of the latter is 
md in the Pyrenees. We may remark again ^ow very little 
Table yrni— Warm Sulphur Sffrings. 



Locality^ 


Hcieht 
in Ft. 


Temp. 
•Fahr. 


Hydrosul- 

ph uric Acid 

absorbed in 

Water. 


Sulphide 

of 
Sodium. 




534 


131-140 


0-3 


o-oi 


near Vienna . . 




95-115 


.4:1 


0-052 


lach, Switzerland . 


1060 


80-92 




Rhone Valley . . 


1350 


92-113 


j:| 


— 


s Bad. Banat . 


500 


no 


— 


Bains, Savoy. . . 


765 


108-5 


27-2 


•^ 


.Py«°«». -i ■ 


2000 


1355 




0-07 


». do. . f . 


4100 


113 


— 


0-04 


lea-BainStPyrenees 


810 


87-147 


— 


O-OI 


*a, do. 


3254 


71-134 


— 


002 


oones, do. 


3400 


TJ 


— 


0-02 


s, Murda, Spain 


— 


— 


— 



p^uric acid there is in many of the most favourite sulphur 
including the very popular White Sulphur ones ol 
There seems to t>c something peculiarly unsatisfactory 
lalysis of »ilphur waters, and there has been diflkulty in 
ing the following imperfect tables. 

>( the most powerful cold wells are those of Challes (with 
peculiar water), Lcuk and Harrogate. Uriage has a very 
ount of chloride of sodium in its springs. Cold sulphur 
re on the whole more used in liver and indigestion than 
es. The general effects of warm sulphur waters differ so 
he various baths as to make it difficult to mention anytldng' 
o inrticular localities. Schinznach has a reputation in 
plaints, Cautereu, Eaux Bonnes and Challes m laryngeal 
», the two Aix, Luchon and Archena in syphilis. 
te Wateri jire such aif coaulrt carbonate {chiefly bicarbon- 
)da, alon^ ^i^^ ^^ cJice^s o\ carbonic acid. Oi the action 
carbonaic^"^ it it kciofvn that when t^kiMi into the staimacK 
neutralLcc'cl by the gastric Juictr, mod converted intG chldHcIc 
a. On their introduction Into the btomach they pnxluct 
ised flow of gaitric juice. If ^iven during or immediately 
lis in any quantiLy, they impede digestion. They ^ligbily 
peristaltic action ^ but only fptblv^ unlaid ai&alstted hy other 
ney act &lJEhtly si diuretic*^ Or the conncition wttwwn 
y system and alkalte^p which undoubtedly exist*, not much 
with certainty. The a^kalkation ol the blood by th<?m i» 
by many* but not ofovtd* It it wry doubtJul whether 
xcc the quantity of nbrine in the Wi»d, ami thus jTiduce a 
state of the fiv^Ttm, or whether they have anv direct ten- 
combine with fat and carry off a portion of supcrftyotii 
issue. Their eice^s of carbonic acid^ throuKh itt action qn 
ach, favoun the operation of alkaline waters. They have 
ssed as follows: (l) umpie alkn lines, where rarbonate of 
he main agent; U) waters containine in addition umc 
of sodium: (3) waters containing lUjTphates of bxU or 
»ia. AH theie cbs^s^K may be ijitl iiy bu u.ktl in ^'mt. 
affection!^ of tho liv^r, rLUiircli ,i\- . ■ ■•• ■ ' \]-- _^ ;i 

dyspepsia, chronic catarrh of the stomach and diarrhoea, 
Y and m diabetes. Some of the waters of the second class 
Med to influence bronchial catarrhs and incipient phthisis, 
: more powerful sulphatcd waters of the tnird class are 
r useful m catarrh of the stomach, and in affections of the 

Fins ; of these only one of importance (Carlsbad) is thermal, 
cold waters of Tarasp contain twice as much carbonate 

The cold ones are chiefly used internally, the thermal 
ti internally and externally. The latter, b<»idcs acting as 
Iter, slishtly stimulate the skin when the carbonic acid 
ant, and the carbonate of soda has some slight detergent 

the cutaneous surface like soap. These waters are un- 
n England. They are most abundant in countries of 
olcanoes. 

( I. and 11. of alkaline waters may be said to have a sub- 
n acidulated springs or carbonated waters, in which the 
of salts is very small, that of carbonic acid large. These 
ters are readily drunk at meals. They have of late years 
iridely exported as to be within the reach almost of every 
eir practical importance in aiding digestion is in reality 
ater than one could expect from their scanty mineraliza- 
ley are drunk by the country people, and also largely 
and imitated. They are very abundant on the Continent. 



and. although some of the bett-known ones enumerated below are 
German and French, they are common in Italy and elsewhere: 
Heppingcn. Roisdorf. Landskro. Apollinaris, Selters, BrOckenau, 
GieshQbel, all German; St Galmier. Pougues, Chateldon, French. 
AsKxiated with Class III. is that of the strongly sulpkaUd waters 
known in Germany as bitter or purging waters, whkh have ot late 
deservedly come mto use as purgative agents. They are almost 
wanting in France and in America, and there are no very good ones 
in England. The chief supply is from Bohemia and Hungary. 
The numerous waters of Olen are the best known, and some of 
Table lX.—Alkaliiu Waters. 



Class l.^SimpU AthtUint* 



Locility. 



VaU, Soutli Fraa^^4 ^^ 

Billn, EoHcmta^ . ^ -^ 
Vichy, France {105^ F.) . ' 
Neuntahr. Rliiiiclaadtija^- 1 
97" FJ ! 

La Molou, Fiance (9f ^ F.) 
Viddgo. Portugal « 



Cjrb. 
Sod4. 



Therapeutic Use** 



fCaUrtii of stomach, gout, 

\ tmiz\ and biliary caktjU, 

( livrrcompldiiitiidiabcleL 

Do. do. doL 

Do. dov dqi 

Mumui catarrh; diabetes 

■(jeciatly. 
Do.; sedative effect on 
; nervous syvtem. 
' Do;, gout, urinary aflei> 
tions— **Tlie Portuguese 
I Vichy." 



Class ll.—Wiik Ckicirtde trf S^ium paryinifrom 4J ia i 



Locality^, 



LuhatflchowjiK^ 
Moravkt . 

TOnninein, 
RluAeValtey 



Ems* Kasaatt 

Ificbia, Italy 

Royat,^ Auvergne \ 
Mont Dare, do. 

Qourboute^ do. 



Height 
tn FIf 



1400 

X3PO 
2S00 



Tempi, 
* Fahr. 



U[9 to 170 
(QO-lt4 

107-125 



g^ij^' Therapeutic Usi 



8-4 
a -5 



3^0 



( Springs rich both 
j m carb. «oda 
( and cM. sodium. 
( Li^ht antacid 
took to stom- 
ach- 

Special in Female 
complaints and 
mucous mem- 
brane. 

Specially 
matism 
kmale 
plaints. 

Do. and tome 
skin affections 

Atthtoa^ cbrodie 
larynptix. 

Scrofula, rachitis, 
cutan«cius affec- 
tions. 



rheu- 
and 

COtfl' 



Class il L — If'itfA Sulphate of Soda f^ryinf from 5-3^2 in dMiMiMJ. 
^wd Carbtfmiie of Soda Barytni ff&m j-Jf 10 o*S^ '* amoitnt. 



LocaUty. 



Elstef* Sox^ny - , . 

Marienbfld* Bohemia, , 
Fr^nzensbad, dq. , 
Toraip, Lower Engadine 

Carlsbad. Bohnnma {IJI* ) 
164'F.l . . . .1 



Height 
in Ft. 



1460 
4000 



Therapcutk Usi 



{Action on abdominal organs, 
female cocnplaidts. 
Do^I »pecliil use In obesity. 
Do. : ppccially a ladies' bith. 

iPuwrrful icXiou on abdomi- 
oal viscera. 
Gout, liver affections^ biliary 
and rritnl cakruli, dlabete*. 



them are stronger than the Hunyadi, of which an analysis has been 
given in Table I. They are easily imitated. Some of the best- 
known are Ofen, PtUlna, Saidschfttz, Friedrichshall, Birmerstorff, 
Kissingen. 

Two other classes of waters demand a few words of notice. The 
French have much faith in the presence of minute quantities of 
arsenic in some of their springs, and trace arsenical effects in those 
who drink them, and some French authors have established a class 
of arsenical waters. Bourboule in Auvergne is the strongest .of 
them, and is said to contain ,Sth of a grain of arseniate of soda 
in 7 oz. of water. Baden-Baden, according to Bunsen's latest 
analysis, has a right to be considered an arsenical water. It is, 
however, extremely doubtful whether the small amounts of arseni- 
ate of soda which have been detected, accompanied as they are by 
preponderating amounts of other salts, have any actual operation 
on the systeoL The following are among the most noted springs: 



S22 



MINERVA 



Bourboult, Itoflt Dace, Hofat, ^Qec CBigorm)/ PlombiJ^m» 

or LiEc ytii^ lithium hm been dtscovicred in the wat^n oi B^id^ri- 
Badcn : and \iarioii3 other pli^cea bo^^t af tlip atnoiirit af that ■ub' 
stance in their springs. Irtdt-^ a ^ew bath hai been cftablis^h^nJ at 
Assmannshauiicrt otx the Rhine in consequence o( the di$covcrir at 
s weak allcalinc ^rins ctrnt^i lining tame lUhitim» Not Vf'ry much 
ia known of the action o( lithiitm in ordinary medicine^ anu it un^ 
doubtcxily 4oe» noi adit in mcdidnal dusct even id the «troii|;;Cit 



DesigrtitLon and Locality. 



LifbanonH CoLumba ca, N.Y. 
(73'F.) 



HoSiog, Bath ca, Va. C8«^ T.} 



VVana. Balh co.> Va. feS* FJ 



HDt» Bath CO., Va. (no' F.) 

Pa« Roblfi, San Lub ObLspo J 
co.< Cal, ii22' F.) . , . 1 

Hot, Cariand CO., Arfc, (93-150° J 
F,) i 






1^ 
ill 



11 



Gettysburg. Adaim m.^ PeiuL . 
Si^Tftl. Monroe c(v, W. Va,(74'F') 

(74'' f -).,...- S 

AUc^jhany, Montjciififly ccl, Va. 
Betbodap Wjtulasha at,^ Wa. . 

Lower DLue Lick, Nicholas ca* ^ 

Ky S 

Sharon^ Schohantca, N-Y. 

White Sulphur, GnsnbHer co.. i 

Va, S 

^t Sulphur, Monroe c»., W» Va. 

Bedford, Bedford co-, Pemu 

St Cathaiinei) Ofitario, Canada 
Olcdunla, Ortario, Canada . 
l-Iatharne, SajatDga, N» Y* * . 
BalUton* Ssmtoga co.. N. Y» 

Oak-OncJiac^ Add, Cenexe( 
cci.,N.Y, i 

Rawlej', Rockingham co,, Va. , 
Swt*t Chalybeate, AOcshany j 

co,H Va. . ^ , r - - \ 
Rwkbridge Alum, Rockbridge } 

co^Va. ...... S 

Coqgief't Welt, Hindaco., Mii^, 

Crab Orthard, Lincoln co-r Ky. 
Midland, Midland co., Micb, 

Bladen, Qioclaw ox^ AU- (car- i 
bonflted alkaiiiwj . -,■ S 

CofiBTMSi Santa Clara cp., CaL j 
(uliiic-alkalinf) . . . \ 

St Louti, Cratiot cft, Mich, j 



SctcftilcmB ntcera arjd oph- 
thalmia, oxioeria, chronic 
diarrhoea and dyaen- 
ten^', aeciondafy and 
tertiary f yphili», 

'Cbtonlc arid subacute 
rheumatism, ROUt, neur- 
aleb, nephritic and 
CiiTcu bus d iEi»4es, 

'Chtpnic i-hcumati^m, ^cmtt 
dtxasti of ii^rCT, ncur^ 
al^ia^ contrafctlona of 
joitiEt. 



rOartrous diiCBKs of ftlqn, 

I luncUonal disease* of 

1 uterus, diTor^ic fw.-r- 

ojHal and lead poison- 

Cakulu»t firavel^ catarrh 
i of Btomach or bladder, 



Tbeiapeudc Applkation. 



dyspcp 



(diu- 



nrikr, dwphoreticjH 
Neur^pa (restmadvf)^ 

PurBjatlvie, diuivtic* 

"Diabetes mellituB, gravt.'^l, 
jnHaEnmatiQii of bbd^ 
dcf, drapfy, albumiii- 
uiia (diuretic). 

Aperient and attctativc. 

D(x do, 

Dartroufi slcini discaies, 
diseases ol the hladdi^r, 
jamidice,. dysptjBia^ 
Da.; scrofula and &yphill!<. 

J Anaemia, gravel, cokulua 
1 (strongly diunitic}. 

jRheumatLsm, gout* icro- 
} rula, neuralgia. 
Rheuntatiism, gout. 
j DiTpefflia, jaundcce, ab- 
I domurul pJcthom. 

Do. do, d!C3L 

Ulcers. dis«a«e9 of the 
tkin. pa^vc haemor- 
rhages, atoftic diarrhoea 
(haa 10 gT^iiii at free 
■ulphuik odd in the 
pint). 

Chiancraia and 
l;cnendly; toctic* 

Do. do. d& 

Scrofula, diroflic dlar^ 

rhoea. 
Anaemia, ctilorofii 

cbronic diarrhoea. 
. dropsy, 



^Dyspepik, ~ neuralgia, 
chronic and *ubicute 
^ rhcunmtiun. 



AmOfw tiicae mnngi are those of Eaden-Badcft. Ai 
tf r, R^yat, Ballaton Spa, and Saratnca (USiJ,. 



h^u^n, Elster, ^ , . . _ . , 

AufiLitiCAN Mi?diLRAL WATEiti».— The number ol fprnq^ ia the 
United States and Canada to which public aticntion bu been called 
on account of their supposed therapeutic virtue u ^^5^ large, 
ainountiiie in. all to nion^ than three hundred. Of tbis Dumtifr 
comparatively few are in Canada, and of these not nvofie thdn set: 
(St Catharines, Caledonia, Plan tag^ net, Caxton. Chariot trsviJI^ and 
Sandwich) have attained general eek'brity. The first ihfrc bc)onS^ 
to the saline clasa, the Caxton is iitkaline-ulinE', and the Uft tv^ 
are sulphur w^ters^ The St Catharine* h n.-m^rkabie for the 'Wy 
large amounts of eodium^ calcium and maeneMum chloridrt ii-hica; 
it contains, its total salts (4^ grains in the^ pint) beine irrore tHuL 
three times the quantity contained in the brine-baths of Krt-uJtaach 
in Prussia. The Chflrlottesville and Sandwich spring* Uk?*ise 
iurpau the noKsd lulphur-'K'aten of EurDpe in their ejccc$«ve per- 
centages of «ulphurtttcd hydrogen, the former eontuiung moK 
than 3 and the iiiticr 4-77 cub, in. of thii gaf in the pint* 

The mineraf sphn;^ in the United States are very_ unequally da- 
tributcd, ty far the lar^r number ol those which are in hi^b Biedicai 
repute occurring along the Appalachian chahi of TaouoiAintr arsd 
more especially on or ne&r tiii^ chain where it fiasses^ thnough the 
Stales of Vifirinia, West Virginia and New York* The Devonian 
and Silurian torniationa which overlie the Eonoic rock^ along the 
course of the Appalachian chain have been grestly fiiiiirrd— the 
faulting of the Etraia fjcing in somo pUjcti ofenormous magnitude 
—by tne series ol upheavals which gave ri^ie to the many para Eld 
mountain ridges of the AppobehlantH la many pLacea the spring! 
occur directly along the lines of fault- The varioua classes at 
mineral watem are lilcewiise very unequally fe;>rcsented. the alkaline 
springs, and those containing GUubcr and Epsom aaJta.. being much 
infcnor to their Eur^Tpean reinrescfltativea. On the other hand, 
the very numerous and abundant «pring» of Saraioj^a oompaiv v&\ 
favourably with the Sehcts «Liid «Minilar caline waters, and among 
the many Ammrafl chalybeaie »fir^ng« the uibcLLu rvpreitntcd 
by the Rockbridge Alum u unequalled^ in reg;ard to the \'ery targe 
percentages of alumina and sulphuric acid which it contaiits. 
Besides its greater amount of minieml constituents (135 graini per 
pint), the nallaton spring surpcuses the similar saline waters of 
Homburg, Kii-singen, Wk'abaden and Selters, in it4 peftsencafE ot 
carbonic acid (53 cub. in.), ft is al^o remarkable for the vtrjr 
large proportion of carbonate of lithta, arpounting to O-JOI gtains. 
Thermal «prin^s are specially numerous in the territciTies ve(i ol 
the Missi&^ppi and in California. Tho» in the east mostly oixur 
in Virginia along the wuthem portion of the Appalactiian chjifo; 
in the middle ana New England States L^rbanon la tne onty impemnt 
thermal spring. Subjoined is a list df thirty American springs 
the de:iign being to represent as many of the more noted spa> as 
posaiblcr while at the same time enumetating the best lepriPKata' 
tivrs of the clasecs and subclasecs into which mineral waters tie 
divided according to the German method of dasstficatioA. 

BtHLKHiKAnfv. — (i) Gcnnan: E, Osann, DarsieUatit Aef Hfi* 
qUfUm Eufopai (3 vols., Bcrltn, iej^j8i43>! J* Seegeo. Handimt 
dir lieUqutUenkhn (Vienna, i66j); B. M. Letsch, Hydftidkmii 
{1870), and many other work** l^elfft* llattdbuch d. SulfifCtkfrafk 
(Bth ed„ Ekrlifi, 187.^); Valcntiner, Ilamlbiirh d. Bniwc^k^apk 
(Ucrlinr 1676) ; L* LcBmann. Bad^r u. Brunnen Ltkte (Bonti. 1877); 
]. Bfaun, Sysiim. Lthfhuck d. Baififoiherapif. 4th ed., by Fromm 
{[liTlint iSBo); Oh Leichidouern. BiiInejc}tkfTa^ (Lcipijg^ 1 KSoL 
{j) French; DultaKnaite des faux minirtiki, &c., fjy MM^ni>urand- 
Pardtlt &c. (3 voli, Paris, 1S60); J. Lcfort, Frail* dt thtmit h^df*- 
lotog^ique (ind ed+, Paris, iS^^l: C, James, Guide praiiqur amx €Ast 
miniTtilis (Paris), many editions: Mao^. Gvsdf aux viUes d'catoE, &c 
(P.trb, iBfti): Joanne and Le Pileur, Lfs Bains d'Eur^pr (Parit). 
{\) Swiss; Meyer Ahrens. liiU^nfilin 4er Stk-axiH (ZUnch. 1667): 
Gsell Pels, DU BMct snd KurprU dft Sfktotitz (Zurkh. i«*i). 
{4) Italian: G. Jervis, Cuida atie argw irsinfrali d*Itidia CTutio4 
1876, &c,); E. F, Harlcss, Die tltfJjuftlen vnd Kur trader lialifmi 
{Ikriin, 18+ft). fO Spanish: Rubio. Tr^tadir de la.s fttfitt€S wmff- 
oUi it Eipcia {Madrid. 1S53): Don J. de Antelo y Sanchcf hjs 
recrntly published a i^ork on Spanish T.'aters, (6) Englisk; 
T, Short, Hisfory of tht Minrrat Woirrt ^^ndon, 1734)h J. Rutty ► 
Mftkodk^ Synoi?us of Minrrnl IfWcrf (London, 1757): Ctanvafc 
Spai pj England (1841 ); E. Lt-e, Mincmi Springt p/ Endorid (Lwontkia, 
t » 4 1 ) ; J , NlscphersQ n , Our Bathi and Wdli ( 1 371 h id . , Satki a td WHti 
of Europe {1B73); and H. Wcbcr'i Eng. cd. of Bfaun (London, rfi:;!. 
A giTst portion of the literature is to be found 'ft monogr^tphs citf 
particular places, (7) American: |. Bell. The Mifftrcl end Th<r^^ 
Sprinis of ik* United Stsifj and C'ancdo it«55); j. J. McwmMR 
7%i MintrtU Wtitetj of thr Vnii^ SlutiS and Cartada flSfiT); 
C. F. Chandler^ Ucture on Waiirr fie7r); C. E, W^kon, Tkr MiMtrd 
Sptings cf (lie Uniitd Stales and Canada (1875); L Buxncy Yea. IV 
Thefapetfiki of Minertii Spriti^J {1904)- 

MINERVA* an Italian goddess, subscqticntly idehtified 
with Athena, She pre&ided ovi^r all bandicTafti, invcntionSt »^ 
and aciencefl, Hef oldesl sanctuary at Rome wu in ibe tonpit 
built by Taniuin on the Capitol, where she waa worshipped 
wiLh Jupiter and Juno. , She bad alio a icmple on the Aventiift 



MINGHETTI— MINIATURE- 



523 



which WIS the meeting-place for dramatic poets and actors, 
whose organization into gilds under her patronage dated from 
the time of Livius Andronicus (q.v.). The dedication day of 
the temple was the 19th of March, the great festival of Minerva, 
called quinquatnut b^use it fell on the fifth day after the ides. 
AU the schoob had holidays at this time, and the pupils on 
reassembling brought a fee {minaval) to the teachers. In every 
house also the quinquatrus was a holiday, for Minerva (like 
Athena £rgan€) was patron of the women's weaving and 
spinning and the workmen's craft. At a later time the festival 
extended over five days, the last four being chiefly occupied 
with gladiatorial shows — because Minerva was the goddess 
of war (Ovid, Fastis iii. 809-834; Juvenal x. 1x5, with Mayor's 
note). The erection of a temple to her by Pompey out of the 
spoils of his eastern conquests shows that she was the bestower 
of victory, like Athena Nike, and the dedication of a vestibule 
in the senate house by Augustus recalls Athena the goddess 
of counsel {fiwkcici). Under Domitian, who claimed her 
special protection, the worship of Minerva attained its greatest 
vogue in Rome. The emperor Hadrian founded an educational 
institution, named after her the Athenaeum. The 23rd of March 
bad always been the day of the tuinlusUium, or purification 
of the trumpets used in the sacred rites, so that the ceremony 
came to be on the last day of Minerva's festival, but it is very 
doubtful whether it was really connected with her. There was 
another temple of Minerva on the Gielian Hill, where she was 
worshipped under the name of Capta, the " captive," the origin 
of which is unknown. Here a festival called the lesser quinqua- 
Inu was celebrated on the I3th-Z4th of June, chiefly by the 
finte-players (Livy ix. 30; Ovid, FasHf vL 651). As the Romans 
learnt the use of the flute from the Etruscans, the fact of Minerva 
being the patron goddess of flute-players is in favour of her 
Etnucan origin, although it may merely be a reminiscence 
of the Greek story which attributed the invention of the flute 
to Athena. A carved image of the goddess called the Palladium, 
said to have been brought from Troy to Lavinium, and thence 
to Rome by the family of the Nautii, was kept in the temple 
of Vesta and carefully guarded as necessary to the prosperity 
of the dty. The older form of the name Minerva is Menerva 
("■Menes-va, Gr. nivos); it probably means " thinker." 

MIHGHETTI, MARCO (1818-1886), Italian economist and 
statesman, was bom at Bologna on the x8th of November 
1818. In 1846 he signed the petition to the Conclave for the 
dection of a Liberal pope, and was appointed member of the 
state council summoned to prepare the constitution for the papal 
states. With Antonio Montanari and Rodolfo Audinot he 
founded at Bologna a paper, // Fdsineo. In the first constitu- 
tk>nal cabinet, presided over by Cardinal AntoneUi, Minghetti 
held the portfolio of public works, but after the allocution by Pius 
DC against the Italian war of independence ^e resigned, and 
joined the Piedmontese army as captain on the general, staff. 
Returning to Rome in September 1848, be refused to form a 
cabinet after the assassination, of Pellcgrino Rossi, and spent 
the next eight years in study and travel. Summoned to Paris 
by Cavour in 1856 to prepare the memorandum on the Romagna 
provinces for the Paris congress, he was in 1859 appointed by 
(^vour secretary-general of the Piedmontese Foreign Office. 
In the same year he was elected president of the assembly of 
the Romagna after the rejection of pontifical rule by those pro- 
vinces, and prepared their annexation to Piedmont. Appointed 
Piedmontese minister of the interior, he resigned office shortly 
after Cavour's death, but was subsequently chosen to be minister 
of finance by Farini, whom he succeeded as premier in 1863. 
With the help of Visconti-Venosta he concluded (Sept. 15. 
1864) the " September Convention '* with France, whereby 
Napoleon agreed to evacuate Rome, and Italy to transfer her 
capital from Turin to Florence. The convention excited violent 
opposition at Turin, in consequence of which Minghetti was 
obliged to resign office. He took little part in public life until 
1869, when he accepted the portfolio of agriculture in the 
Ifenabrea Cabinet. Both in and out of office he exercised his 
JaftocDce against an Italo-French alliance and for an immediate I 



advance upon Rome, and in' 1870 was sent to London and Vienna' 
by the Lanza-Sella Cabinet to organize a league of neutral 
powers on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1873 
he overthrew the Lanza-SeUa Cabinet and regained the premier- 
ship, which, with the portfolio of finance, he held imtil the fall 
of the Right from power on the i8th of March 1876. During 
his premiership he inaugurated the rapprochement between 
Italy, Austria and Germany, and reformed the naval and military 
administration; and before his fall he was able, as finance minister, 
to announce the restoration of equilibrium between expenditure 
and revenue for the first time since i860. After the advent of the 
Left, Minghetti remained for some years in Opposition, but 
towards 1884 joined Depretis in creating the " Tnisformismo," 
which consisted in bringing Conservative support to Liberal 
cabinets. Minghetti, however, drew from it no personal advan- 
tage, and died at Rome on the xoth of December x886 without 
having returned to power. 

His writings include: DeUa economia pMiica e idle sue attinenu 
con la morale t col diriUo (Bologna, 1859), and La Ckiesa e lo Staio 
(Milan, 1878). 

MINORlELIA, a former principality of Transcaucasia, which 
became subject to Russia in X804, and since X867 has belonged 
to the govenmient of Kutais. The country corresponds to the 
ancient Colchis; and Sukhum Kaleh on the Black Sea coast, 
which was the capital imder the Dadian dyiuuty (X323-X694), 
is to be identified with the ancient Dioscurias, a colony of Miletus. 
The Mingrelians, who are closely akin to the Georgians, nimibered 
241,000 in 1903, and belong to the Orthodox Greek Church 
(see further Kittais and Caucasia). 

MINIATURE. The word "miniature," derived from the 
Latin minium, red lead, has been technically empbyed, in 
the first instance, to describe a picture in an ancient or medi- 
eval manuscript; the simple decoration of the early codices 
having been " miniated " or deliheated with that pigment. The 
generally small scale of the medieval pictures has led secondly 
to a pseudo-etymological confusion of the term with " minute- 
ness " and to its application to " paintings in little "; it is now 
used mainly in this sense, and is ordinarily applied to a painting 
on a very small scale, usually a portrait, and by analogy to 
anything on a very small scale. ■ 

I. Miniatures in Ancient and Medieval MSS. — The part 
played by the miniature in the scheme of the onuimentation 
of MSS., in the early centuries of the Christian era and in the 
middle ages, is dealt with in the article on Illuionateo MSS. 
In the present article will be discussed the development and 
changes which it underwent, in different ages and in different 
countries, both in its technical treatment and in its leading 
characteristics. The subject divides itself into two distinct 
portions, the classical and the medieval, between which there 
lies the great separating space of the early middle ages, which 
affords but scanty material to connect them. When, however, 
we have advanced into the middle ages, we are no longer at a 
loss; and we can follow the later development of the miniature 
through all its changes in the various schools of western Europe 
down to its transition into the modem picture. 

The importance of the study of the miniature has perhaps 
hardly received in the past the recognition which it merits. 
The history of painting cannot be perfectly understood without 
a knowledge of the rise and progress of the art of miniature- 
painting in MSS; and examples of the art still survive in an 
abundance which frescoes and paintings in the large cannot 
rival. Modem methods of photography have brought within 
the reach of the student material which in earlier generations 
was not accessible; and consequently a juster conception can 
be formed of the position which the miniature holds in the 
history of art than was possible before. 

The earliest examples that have descended to us are closely 
connected in style and treatment with the pictorial art of the 
later Roman classical period. In fact they are separated from 
that period by only two or three centuries, and they still follow 
its traditions. The oldest specimens of all are the series of 
coloured drawings or miniatures cut from an illustrated MS. 



524 



MINIATURE 



of the Iliad and now in the Ambrosian library at Milan, which 
there is good reason for placing as early as the 3rd century. 
In these pictures there is a considerable variety in the quality 
of the drawing, but there are many notable instances of fine 
figure-drawing, quite classical in sentiment, showing that the 
earlier art stili exercised its influence. Such indications, too, 
of landscape as are to be found are of the classical type, not 
conventional in the sense of medieval conventionalism, but still 
attempting to follow nature, even if in an imperfect fashion; 
just as in the Pompeian and other frescoes of the Roman age. 

Of even greater value from an artistic point of view are the 
miniatures of the Vatican MS. of Virgil, known as the " Schedae 
Vaticanae," of the 4th century. They are in a more perfect 
condition and on a larger scale than the Ambrosian fragments, 
and they therefore offer better opportunity for examining method 
and technique. The drawing is quite classical in style, and 
the idea is conveyed that the miniatures are direct copies from 
an older series. The colours are opaque: indeed, in all the 
miniatures of early MSS. the employment of body colour was 
universal. The method followed in placing the different scenes 
on the page is highly instructive of the practice followed, as 
we may presuAie, by the artists of the early centuries. It seems 
that the background of the scene was first painted in full, covering 
the whole surface of the page; then, over this background were 
painted the larger figures and objects; and over these again 
the smaller details in front of them were superimposed. Again, 
for the purpose of securing something like perspective, an 
arrangement of horizontal zones was adopted, the upper ones 
containing figures on a smaller scale than those below. 

It was reserved for the Byzantine school to break away more 
decidedly from the natural presentment of things and to develop 
convention. Yet in the best early e^mples of this school the 
classical sentiment still lingers, as the relics of the miniatures 
of the Cottonian Genesis, in the British Museum, and the best 
of the miniatures of the Vienna Dioscorides testify; and in the 
miniatures of the later Byzantine MSS., which were copied 
from earlier examples, the reproduction of the models is faithful. 
' But on comparing the miniatures of the Byzantine school 
generally with their classical predecessors, one has a sense of 
having passed from the open air into the cloister. Under the 
restraint of ecclesiastical domination Byzantine art became 
more and more stereotyped and conventional. The tendency 
grows to paint the flesh-tints in swarthy hues, to elongate and 
emaciate the limbs, and to stiffen the gait. Browns, blue-greys 
and neutral tints are in favour. Here we first find the technical 
treatment of flesh-painting which afterwards became the special 
practice of Italian miniaturists, namely the laying on of the 
actual flesh-tints over a ground of olive, green or other dark 
hue. Landscape, such as it was, soon became quite conventional, 
setting the example for that remarkable absence of the true 
representation of nature which is such a striking attribute of 
the miniatures of the middle ages. 

And yet, while the ascetic treatment of the miniatures obtained 
ao strongly in Byzantine art, at the same time the Oriental 
sense of splendour shows itself in the brilliancy of much of the 
colouring and in the lavish employment of gold. In the minia- 
tures of Byzantine MSS. are first seen those backgrounds of 
bright gold which afterwards appear in such profusion in the 
productions of every western school of painting. 

The influence of Byzantine art on that of medieval Italy is 
obvious. The early mosaics in the churches of Italy, such as 
those at Ravenna and Venice, also afford examples of the 
dominating Byzantine influence. But the early middle ages 
provide but few landmarks to guide the student ; and it is only 
when he emerges into the 12th century, with its frescoes and 
miniatures still bearing the impress of the Byzantine tradition, 
that he can be satisfied that the connexion has always existed 
during the intervening centuries. 

When we turn to the farther- west of Europe, there also we 
find under the Carolingian monarchs a school of painting 
obviously derived from classical models,'chiefly of the Byzantine 
type, but whether derived directly from the East, or, what is 



more probable, tranimitted thiroiigfa ItaHan r^*inf^fi mot 
remain doubtfuL The interest of that school for our present 
purpose is that it was the parent of the later miniature-painting 
in. the countries of the West. For in the native schools of thoR 
countries decoration only was the leading motive. In the MSS. 
of the Merovingian period, in the school which connected 
Frankland and northern Italy, and which is known as Lombardic 
or Franco-Lombardic,intheMSS.of Spain, in the productions 
of the Celtic school of our own islands, figure-drawing was 
scarcely known, and where it was practised it was of a barbarous 
character, serving rather as a feature of decoration than as a 
representation of the human form. Hence in those native wdtocis 
the miniature, in its true sense of a picture, may be regarded as 
non-existent. 

From these native schools we exclude the Anglo-Saxon school, 
developed especially at Canterbury and Winchester, wfakb 
probably derived its characteristic free-hand drawing from 
classical Roman models, scarcely influenced by the Byzantine 
element. The highest qualities of the miniatures of the loth 
and nth centuries of this school lie in fine outline drawing, 
which had a lasting influence on the English miniature of the 
later centuries. But the southern Anglo-Saxon school rather 
stands apart from the general line of development of the western 
medieval miniature. How far it was affected by Continental 
influence will be presently noticed. 

Turning to the productions of the Carolingian schod, whidi 
owed its origin to the encouragement of Chkrlemagne, it is seen 
that the miniature appears in two forms. First, there is the 
truly conventional miniature following the Byzantine modd, 
the subjects being generally the portraits of the Evangelists, 
or portraits of the emperors themselves: the figures st^ and 
formal; the pages brilliantly and often coarsely coloured and 
gilded, generally set in architectural surroundiings of a fixed 
type, and devoid of landscape in the real sense of the word. 
On the other hand, there is also the miniature in which there ii 
an attempt at illustration, as, for example, the depicting of 
scenes from Bible history. Here there is more freedom; and 
we trace the debased classical style which copies Roman, u 
distinguished from Byzantine, models. The figure-drawing is 
sufficiently clumsy, but the type is Roman, or debased Roxnin, 
and the costumes are clearly derived from the same source. 
Here, too, there is a better attempt at landscape, which is not 
of the absolutely conventional deadness of the Carolingian- 
Byzantine type. But this second style of illustrative miniature 
appears only occasionally. The other was the characteristic 
miniature of the Carolingian school, and, accompanied as it was 
with profuse decoration in border and initial, it set the patten 
for the later Continental schools of the West. 

The influence which the Carolingian school exercised on tlie 
miniatures of the southern Anglo-Saxon artists shows itsdf 
in the extended use of body-colour and in the more elabonte 
employment of gold in the decoration. Such a MS. as the 
Benedictional of Aethelwold, bishop of Winchester, 963 to 9S4. 
with its series of miniatures drawn in the native style bot 
painted in opaque pigments, exhibits the influence of the Iv^ 
art. But the actual drawing remained essentially natiooal 
marked by its own treatment of the human figure and by the 
peculiar disposition of the drapery with fluttering folds, lu 
fault was over-refinement, tending to an affected exaggeratioo 
and disproportion of the limbs. With the Norman Conquest 
this remarkable native school passed away. 

The period immediately succeeding the Carolingian scbool 
in western Europe was one of extreme decadence in the mini** 
tares of MSS. In the loth and nth centuries they were Bcre 
lifeless copies of earlier types. But with the awakening of art 
in the 12th century the decoration of MSS. received a powerfoi 
impulse. Although the artist of the tinie excels in the borftf 
and the initial, still in the miniature also there is vigorous 
drawing, with bold sweeping lines and careful study of tke 
draperies. The artist now grows more practised in figaI^ 
drawing, and while there is still the tendency to repeat the stf*^ 
subjects in_ the same coovcotiooal nuumer, individual c0ort 



MINIATURE 



525 



in this ceDtury many miniatures of a very noble 
character. The Norroao Conquest had brought England 
directly within the fold of Continental art; and now began 
that grouping of the French and the English and the Flemish 
schools, which, fostered by growing intercourse and moved by 
comnaon impulses, resulted in the magnificent productions of 
the illuminators of north-western Europe from the latter part 
of the 1 3th century onwards. But of natural landscape there 
is nothing, unless rocks and trees of a stereotyped character 
can be so regarded. Hence the background of the miniature 
of the 1 2th and immediately succeeding centuries became the 
field for decoration to throw into stronger relief the figures in 
the scene. And thus arose the practice of filling in the entire 
^>ace with a sheet of gold, often burnished: a brilliant method 
of ornament which we have already seen practised in the Byzan- 
tine school. We have also to notice the conventional treatment 
<rf the sacred figures, which continue henceforward, from a 
tense of veneration, to be dad in the traditional robes of the 
early centuries, while the other figures of ^he scene wear the 
ordinary dress of the period. 

It will be convenient, at this point, to follow the development 
of the miniature in the northern schools of England and France 
and the Low Countries, occasionally glancing at Germany, 
during the next three centuries, and to leave aside for the 
moment consideration of the Italian school and the schools 
aUied therewith. , . ^ 

Entering the 13th centuryr^e reach the period when the 
miniature may be said to justify the modem false etymology 
which has connected the title with minuteness. The broad, 
bold style of the lath century gives place to the precise and 
minute. Books in general exchanged their form from the large 
folio to the octavo and smaller sizes. There was a greater 
demand for books; and vellum was limited in quantity and 
had to go further. The handwriting grew smaller and lost the 
roundness of the 12th century. Contractions and abbreviations 
in the tests largely increased in number. Everywhere there 
is an effort to save space. And so with the miniature. Figures 
were small, with delicate strokes in the features and with neat 
itim bodies and limbs. The backgrounds blaze with colour 
and burnished gold; and delicate diaper patterns of alternate 
gold and colour abound. Frequently, and especially in English 
MSS., the drawings are merely tinted or washed with transparent 
colours. In this century, too, the miniature invades the initial. 
Whereas in the earlier periods bold flowering scrolls are the 
fashion, now a little scene is introduced into the blank spaces 
of the letter. To compare the work of the three schools, the 
drawing of the Engh'sh miniature, at its best, is perhaps the 
most graceful; the French is the neatest and the most accurate; 
the Flemish, including that of western Germany, is less refined 
and in harder and stronger lines. As to colours, the English 
artist affects rather lighter tints than those of the other schools: 
a partiality is to be observed for light green, for grey-blue, and for 
take. The French artist loved deeper shades, especially ultra- 
cnarine. The Fleming and the German painted, as a rule, in 
less pure colours and inclined to heaviness. A noticeable 
feature in French MSS. is the red or copper-hued gold used in 
their illuminations, in strong contrast to the paler metal of 
£ngiand and the Low Countries. 

I It is remarkable how the art of the miniature throughout 
the 13th century nmintains its high quality both in drawing 
and colour without any very striking change. Throughout the 
century the Bible and the Psalter were in favour; and natur- 
ally the same subjects and the same scenes ran through the period 
and were repeated by artist after artist, and the very character 
of those saoed books would tend to restrain innovation. But 
towards the close of the period such secular works as the romances 
were growing in popularity, and afforded a wider field for the 
invention of the Ulustrating artist. Therefore with the opening 
of the 14th century a palpable change of style supervenes. 
We pass to more flowing lines; not to the bold sweeping strokes 
and curves of the 12th century, but to a graceful, delicate, 
yielding style. which produced^ trhc_b«|tutifuLswA/i^9 fibres 



of the period. In fact the miniature now begins to free 
itself from the r6le of an integral member of the decorative 
scheme of illumination and to develop into the picture, depending 
on its own artistic merit for the position it is to hold in the future 
This is shown by the more prominent place that the miniature 
now assumes, and by its growing independence of the decorative 
border and initial But, at the same time, while the miniature 
of the 14th century thus strives to dissociate itself from the rest 
of the illuminated details of the MS., within itself it flourishes 
in decoration. Besides the greater elasticity of the figure- 
drawing, there is a parallel development in the designs of the 
backgrounds. The diapers become more elaborate and more 
brilliant; the beauty of the burnished gold is enhanced by the 
stippled patterns which are frequently worked upon it; the 
gothic canopies and other architectural features which it became 
the praaice to introduce naturally followed the development 
of the architecture of the period. In a word, the great expansion 
of artistic sentiment in decoration of the best type, which is 
so prominent in the higher work of the 14th century, is equally 
conspicuous in the illuminated miniature. 

In the early part of the century, English drawing is very 
graceful, the figures bending with a waving movement which, if 
they were not so simple, would be an affecution. Both in the 
outline specimens, washed with transparent colour, and in the 
fully painted examples, the best English work of this time is 
unsurpassed. French art still maintains its neat precision, the 
colours more vivid than those of England and the faces delicately 
indicated without much modelling. The productions of the 
Low Countries, still keeping to the heavier style of drawing, 
appear coarse beside the works of the other schools. Nor does 
German miniature art of this period hold a high position, being 
generally mecham'cal and of a rustic character. As time advances 
the French miniature almost monopolizes the field, excelling 
in brilliancy of colouring, but losing much of its purity of drawing 
although the general standard still remains high. The English 
school gradually retrogrades and, owing no doubt to political 
causes and to the wars with France, appears to have produced 
no work of much value. It is only towards the end of the century 
that there is a revival. 

This revival, which is referred to in the article on iLLtTiONATED 
MSS., has been attributed, with some reason, to a connexion 
with the flourishing school of Prague — a school which in the 
scheme of colouring suggests a southern influence — following 
on the marriage of Richard II. with Anne of Bohemia in 1382. 
The new style of English miniature painting is distinguished 
by richness of colour, and by the careful modelling of the faces, 
which compares favourably with the slighter treatment by the 
contemporary French artists. Similar attention to the features 
also marks the northern Flemish or Dutch school at this period 
and in the early 15th century; and it may therefore be regarded 
as an attribute of Germanic art as distinguished from the French 
style. The promise of the new development in English miniature 
painting, however, was not to be fulfilled. In the first quarter 
of the I sth century, examples of great merit were produced, but 
at a standstill in drawing and fettered by medieval convention. 
The native art practically came to a close about the middle of 
the century, just when the better appreciation of nature was 
breaking down the old conventional representation of landscape 
in European art, and was transforming the miniature into the 
modem picture. Whatever miniature painting was to be 
produced in England after that time was to be the work of 
foreign artists or of artists imitating a foreign style. The 
condition of the country during the Wars of the Roses sufi5- 
ciently accounts for the abandonment of art. Thus the history 
of the miniature in the 15th century must be sought in the 
manuscripts of the Continental schools. 

First we have to consider northem France and the Low 
Countries. As it passes out of the 14th and enters the 15th 
century, the miniature of both schools begins to exhibit greater 
freedom in composition; and there is a further tendency to 
aim rather at general eflfect by the colouring than neatness in 
drawing. Tbi9 ^94 cocoura^ by the wider field opened to 



528 



MINIM— MINING 



For fiiller inrormotion mitlso J. L. f^rcpcrt^ Bisiory of MiniaiuTt 
Art {LDndorit t3<B7J i G^ C, WilliarriM^ft. H i story of For traii Afiaiaiurei 
(3 vat^.4 folio, [904}^ Par trail Minial-tirfi ( London ^ tA^?}; Rkhaid 
CotvMy (London^ t4qjy^ <Je^{f HM0ik€4irt (London, t^aj); Andrear 
FiiBUft ifc [London, t()oj}; Hj»t ta Identify Mtniatufes (London^ 
1904); Rnkafd Cosii70> ^ London, J 905), and the pnvjtfly primed 
rataWue of thfr FierpoHt MiTrff^ toUtxU^n (rgbfe, I9C^7^ Jgotiii; 
If J £j*iaiu; df# Frtitiit du LomPTf (Parity 1862-1^64); tauWtfe« of 
the HuicdcLich Gallery. Wclbcck Gillcfy, Ward Oihcr CoirKiioOn 
O^mrcMc CollcctiQii, Woburn Abbey CDlleciian, all prtviHcljf 
printed, the catalog; ue ol the «34lecibn ci^hibiicd dt South Ken* 
Kneton, and the privately issuodi catalogue at tbc Bttrlington Fine 
Artt L lub, with i" - ' f ^ ■ ' ^^^ (C. C W.) 

MINIM (adapted from Lat. minimuSt the smallest; a super- 
lative formed from the Indo-Gcrmanic root min-, small), the 
smallest possible part of a thing, a particle. In music the name 
" minim " {nota minima) was given by medieval musicians to a 
note whose value was half a aemibrcve. It was, as its name 
implies, the note of the shortest duration then in use. In modem 
music several notes of lesser value, as the " crotchet " and 
" quaver," have been added, and the minim is now about half- 
way in the scale of " values." According to Thomas Morley 
{A Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practical Music, iS97)f 
its introduction into manuscript music is ascribed to Phillipus 
de Vitriaco, a musician of the 14th century. 

In medicine a minim is the smallest fluid measure, being 
equal to one drop. Sixty minims make a fluid drachm. 

For the religious Order known as " Minims " see Francis of 
Paola, St. 

MINING, the general term for the working of deposits of 
valuable mineral The term* is not limited to underground 
operations, but includes also surface excavations, as in placer 
mining and open-air workings of coal and ore deposits by methods 
•imilar to quarrying, and boring operations for oil, natural 
gas or brine. Mining may be subdivided into the operations 
of prospecting or search for minerals, exploration and develop- 
ment, work preparatory to active operations, and working. The 
latter includes not only the actual excavation of the mineral, 
but also haubge and hoisting by which it is brought to the 
surface, timbering and other means of supporting the excava- 
tions, and the drainage and ventilation of mines. Finally, 
under the heads of administration, mine valuation, mining 
education, accidents, hygiene and mining law, will be discussed 
matters having important bearing on mining operations. 
Special methods of mining are dealt with in the separate articles 
on Coal, Gold, and other minerals and metals. Quarrying 
and Ore-dressing, which may be considered as branches of 
mining, are also discussed in separate articles. 

Prospecting.— In the article on Mineral Deposits (q.v.) the 
distribution and mode of occurrence of the useful minerals and 
ores are fully discussed. The work of prospecting is usually 
left to adventurous men who are willing to undergo privation 
and hardship in the hope of large reward though the chances 
of success are small. The prospector is guided in his search 
by a knowledge of the geological conditions under which useful 
minerals occur. When the rocks are concealed by detrital 
material he looks for outcroppings on steep hillsides, on the 
crests of hills or ridges, in the beds of streams, in landslides, 
in the roots of overturned trees, and in wells, quarries, road- 
cuttings and other excavations. When the solid rock is not 
exposed the soil sometimes furnishes an indication of the 
character of the underlying rock. Sometimes the vegetation, 
shrubs, trees, &c., as characteristic of certain soils, may furnish 
evidence as to rock or minerals below. Search should be made 
in the beds of streams and on the hillsides for " float mineral " 
or " shoad stones," fragments of rocks and mincrak known to 
be associated with and characteristic of the deposits. Frag- 
ments of coal, or soil stained black with coal, will l)e found near 
the outcrop of coal beds. Grains of gold or particles of ore 
may be detected by washing samples of gravel in a prospector's 

* Of doubtful ori^m. " Mine," both verb and substantive, come 
from the Fr., and » usually connected with Lat. minare, to drive 
or lead: but this would normally result in Fr. mener, not miner. 
Skeat. following Thurnvyaen. accept* a Celtic origin (cf. Irish metn, 
ore), but the N€w Eng. Diet, doubu this. 



pan. By tndag tuch IndicaUoBft np'tbe kream or np the hill- 
side the outcrop may sometimes be found, or at least sppcoii- 
mately located. The outcrop of a metalliferous vein frequently 
manifests itself as a line of rocks stained with ojtide oif iron, 
often honeycombed and porous, the " gossan " or ** eiseD-hnt," 
the iron oxide of which results from the decompositioii of \hit 
pyrites, usually present as a constituent of such veins. Other 
metals, such as manganese, copper, nickel, may show their 
presence by characteristic colours. Finally, the surface topo- 
graphy will often throw much light on the underground structure. 
The shape of the hills and ridges is neccssarfly influenced by 
the inclination of the strata, by the relative hardness of different 
rock-beds, and by the presence of folds and fissures and other 
lines of weakness. A quaru vein or bed of hard rock may show 
itself as a sharp ridge or as a well-defined bench; a stratum of 
soft rock or the line of a great fissure, or the weakening of the 
strata by an anticlinal fold, may produce a ravine or a deep 
valley. The bed of fire-clay under a coal seam, being impervious 
to water, frequently determines the horison of numerous springs 
issuing from the hillsides. As the coal and the associated rocks 
usually contain pyrites, these springs are often chalybeate. 
When the kKation of the deposit has been determined approxi- 
mately, further search Is made by trenches or pits or borings 
through the surface soil. 

Exploralory Work. — Before opening and woriunf a mine it 
is necessary to have as full and accurate information as possible 
as to the following: — 

I. The probable extent and area of the deposit, its aversfs 
thickness, and the probable amount and value of the mineni; 

a. The distribution of the workable areas of mineral in the 
deposit; 

3. Conditions affecting the cost of opening, developing aid 
working the mine or determining the methods to be adopted. 

Work undertaken to secure this information must be dis> 
tinguished from prospecting, which is the search for mincrd 
deposits and from development, work undertaken to prepare 
for actual mining operations. Exploratory work is associated 
intimately both with prospecting and with development, but 
the purpose is quite distinct from either prospecting, develop- 
ment or working, and it is of importance that this should be 
dearly recognized. It must be remembered that the line between 
a workable deposit and one that cannot be profitably worked 
is often very narrow and that the majority of mineral deposits 
are not workable. The money that is spent in prospecting and 
in development is therefore liable to prove a loss. This is a 
recognized and legitimate business risk, differing only in degree 
from the risks attending all business operations. The risk of - 
failure in mining enterprises is offset by the chances of more 
than ordinary profits. If the property proves valuable the 
returns may be very great. While the risk of loss of capital 
is not to be avoided, it is of the utmost importance to limit 
the amount of money expended while the extent and value of 
the deposit are still uncertain and to do the necessary work 
by the cheapest methods consistent with thoroughness. As 
the information as to the character and extent of the deposit 
becomes more definite, and as the prospects of success become 
more favourable, money may be spent more freely. The risk 
will vary with the character of the deposit. In the case of the 
cheaper and more abundant minerals, such as coal and iron ore, 
and of brge deposits of low-grade ores, the extent and character 
of the deposit can generally be determined by surface examina- 
tions at comparatively small expense. On the other hand, in 
the case of less regular deposits, including most metaUiferous 
veins, and especially those of the precious metals, the uncertainty 
is often very great, and it is sometimes necessary to work on 
a small scale for months before any considerable expenditure 
of money is justified. 

The quickest and cheapest method b by surface exptorations. 
The work of the prospector frequently furnishes much of the 
information required. By sinking additional pits or by ex- 
tending the cosieaning trenches and uncovering the outcrop of 
the deposit more fully it is sometimes possible to obtain all the 




MINIATURES 



Plate I. 




C»il€ctien of Mr. J. Pier font Morgan. 

Fig. I. — Mrs. Pemberton. 
By Holbein. 



CotUctUm of the Duke of 
Portland, K.G. 

Fig. 2. — A young man 
in deep mourning ( 1 6 1 6) . 
By Nicolas Hilliard. 





collection of the Duke of Bnecleuch 
ond Queensherry, K. G. 

Fig. 4. — Oliver Cromwell 
(unfinished). By Samuel 
Cooper. 




Collection of lyingfitld Digby^ F.sq. 

Fig- 3- — Lady Lucy Stanley. 
By Isaac Oliver. 




Collection of the Duke of Portland, K.G. 

Fig. 6. — Col. Henry Sidney 
(1665). By Samuel Cooper. 



Collection of H.M. the King. 



Fig. 5. — Sir Philip Sidney. By Isaac Oliver. 






CoUection of the Duke of Portland, JC. G. 

Fig. 7. — Inigo Jones. By 
David Des Granges. 



Collection 0/ the Marquis of Exeter. 

Fig. 8.— Charles II. as a 
boy. By John Hoskins. 



Collection of the Duke of Portland, K. G. 

Fig. 9. — "Mr. Sympson, Mas- 
ter of Musick. " By Thomas 
Flatman. 



Plate II. 



MINIATURES 




OfiUction c/tke Dukt 0/ Port t and, K.G. 

Fig. I. — Bernard Lens. By 
himself, 1718. 




Fig. 4. — Mrs. Parsons. By 
Richard Cosway, R.A. 




Fig. 8.— A Boy. By J. H. 
Fragonard. 




Fig. 2.— Sir Charles 
Oakdey. By John 
Smart. 




Fig. 5. — ^Miss Free. By Andrew 
Plimer. 




Mars kali Halt ColUction. 

Fig. 9. — ^Lady. By Horace 
Hone. 




Fig. 3. — Unknown Lady 
(1781). By John Smart. 




Fig. 6. — Miss Mary Beny. 
By George En^eheart. 




CellectioHof Mr. E. AT. H^gkinu 

Fig. 7.— Kitty Fisher. B]0 
Ozias Humphxy. 




CfiUtetion af the King ^ J 

Fig. 10.— The Countess 
D'Egmont. By P. A. 
Hall 



N08. a, 3. 4. 5i 6 and 8 are all from the collection of Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan. 



MINING 



529 



mioired for the mott extenrive and imporunt 
ti(W8. Even when the outcrop it oxidised, and 
mineral character and richness of the deposit is 
scd thereby, it is possible to detennine variations 
thickness auid the extent and distribution of the 
m areas by outcrop measurements. Information of 
ned by surface exploration is often as conclusive as 
nation obtained from underground workings. If 
bows great variations in thickness in its outcrop 
face it is probable that a drift or a slope would 
e thing in depth. If the workable areas are poor, 
ily at long intervals along the outcrop, the chances 
richer areas by a shaft are very small. 
ases underground exploration is necessary. For 
deposit does not outcrop as in the case of blind 
IS and ilat deposits below the general level 
.he country; or the outcrop lies beyond the limits 
ty or under water or water-bearing formations, 
1 by quicksand, or is deeply buried. For such 
ts boring is cheaper than sinking. In the case 
iron ore, pyrite and other homogeneous minerals, 
ive all the information required. With a number 
/erage thickness and probable extent of the deposit 
nined, at least approximately. When the deposit 
steeply inclined, horizontal or inclined bore-holes 
iry. This will increase the cost of boring auid will 
les more likely to swerve from the true direction. 
)f metalliferous deposits of varying thickness or 
ribution the information from bore-holes is less 
A large number of holes must be bored to obtain, 
nately, the average thickness and value of the ore 
e and size of the ore bodies. In extreme cases 
rom boring are likely to be untrustworthy and 
less the work is done on such a scale that the cost 
ibitory. 

information obtained by surface explorations 
liable, and sometimes conclusive, as to the value 
;he deposit, it is usually necessary to supplement 
1 confirm it by underground work. The outcrop 
a metalliferous vein is generally more or less 
idation, and often a part of the valuable mineral 
/ertcd into a soluble form and leached out. These 
netimes extend to a considerable depth. Below 
outcrop the vein is often increased in value by 
ichment, sometimes to a depth of several hundred 
case of such altered deposits surface exploration 
^ to be misleading, and it is important to push 
md exploration far enough to reach the unaltered 
x>sit, or at least deep enough to make it certain that 
:icnt quantity of altered or enriched ore to form the 
able mining operations. As the sinking of shafts 
of narrow entries or drifts is expensive, and as the 
cted rarely pays more than a small fraction of 
usual to pbn this exploratory work so that the 
le shall serve some useful purpose later. The 
en made of sinking large and expensive shafts, or 
tunnels, before it is fully proved that the deposit 
d on a scale to warrant such developments, and, 
ften before it b known that the deposit can be 
; and in too many cases large amounts of money 
ecessarily lost by over-sanguine mine managers. 
', often advisable that the money spent in surface 
\d exploration should at the beginning be spent 
>n alone. The information so gained not only 
e value of the deposit, but also serves to indicate 
ods of development and of working. The money 
udidously used, insures the undertaking against 
ishing the mining risk, and is thus anabgous to 
d to insure against fife or other sources of loss.' 
I. — As soon as it appears reasonably certain 
erty is workable the mine will be opened by one 
s, drifts or tunnels, and the underground passages 



for acdve milling epentioiis wiU be ttarted. A drift or entry 
is a horiaontal panageway starting from the outcrop and 
following- the deposit. The former term is used in metal-minei 
and the Utter in coal-mining. A tunnel differs from i drift 
in that it is driven across the strata to intersect the deposit. 
Either may be used for drainage of the mine workings, in which 
case it becomes an adit. A mine should always be opened by 
drift or entry if practicable, as thereby the expense of hoistinf 
and pumping is avoided. Drifts, entries and tunnels find their 
chief application in mining regions cut by deep valleys. \t^iai, 
however, the deposit lies below the surface the mine must be 
opened by a shaft. If the outcrop of the vein or bed is accessible 
the shaft may be inclined and sunk to follow the deposit. This 
is in general a cheaper and quicker method of development 
for inclined deposits than by a vertical shaft, and it has the 
added advantsge that much information as to the character 
of the deposit is obtained as the shaft is sunk. When the 
deposit lying below the surface is horizontal, or nearly so, 
or when the outcrop of an inclined deposit is not accessible, 
a vertical shaft will be necessary. Vertical shafts are better 
adapted to rapid hoisting, and have therefore somewhat greater 
capacity, than inclined shafts. They are to be preferred also 
for very deep shafts, or for sinking in difficult ground. Drifts 
and inclined shafts following the deposit may prove difficult 
of maintenance when the workings become Urge and settle- 
menLjof the ovedying strata begins. Large pillars of mineral 
should be left for die protection of the main openings, whether 
these be shafts or adits. In the case of very thick beds and 
mass deposits the main shaft or tunnel will preferably be located 
in the foot-wall. 

Figs. I and a illustrate the development of a metal-vein 
by two adits, two inclined shafts in the lode, and by a deep 
vertical shaft connected with 
the lode by horizontal cross 
cuts. The stippled areas 
represent the ore shoots and 
the white areas the barren 
portions of the lode. The 
levels are supposed to be 
10 fathoms (60 ft.) apart. 
As the mine is opened the 
deposit is subdivided into 
blocks of convenient size by 
parallel passages, which form 
Uter the main haulage roads, 
and by transverse openings 
for ventiUtioiu In metal- 
mines the main passages are 
known as levels, and these ^^^- '• 

are connected at intervals by winzes or small shafts. In coal 
mines, entries and headings, bords and walls serve similar 
purposes. The size of the blocks or the distance between the 

- 1 h 








Fic. a." 

main passages is determined mainly by considerations of 
convenience and economy in excavating and handling the 



530 



MINING 



mineral, and by the posstbOlty of supporting the roof long 
enough to permit the excavation of the mineral without 
unnecessary risk or expense. In metal mining, when the 
workable portions of the deppsit are small and separated by 
unworkable areas, the levels serve also the purpose of explora- 
tion, and in such cases must not b« so f ar apart as to risk 
missing valuable mineral. In coal-mines main entries are often 
loo yds. apart, while in metal-mines the distance between 
levels rarely exceeds 50 yds. and sometimes is but 50 or 60 ft. 
In irregular and uncertain deposits this work of development 
should be kept at all times so far in advance of mining opera- 
tions as to ensure a regular and uniform outputs In some cases, 
where the barren areas are large, it may be necessary to have 
two or three years' supply of ore thus blocked out in advance. 
A mine, however, may be over-developed, which results in loss 
of interest on the capital unnecessarily locked up for years 
by excessive development, and involves additional cost for the 
maintenance of such openings until they are needed for active 
mining operations. 

Working. — When the development of a mine has advanced 
sufficiently the operation of working or extracting the mineral 
begins. The method to be adopted will vary with the thickness 
and character of the deposit, with its inclination, and to some 
extent with the character of the enclosing rocks, the depth 
below the surface, and other conditions. The safety of the 
men must be one of the first considerations of the mine operator. 
In most civilized countries the safely of mine workers is guarded 
by stringent laws and enforced by the careful supervision of 
mine inspectors on behalf of the government. The method 
of mining adopted must secure the extraction of the mineral 
at a minimum cost. The principal item in mining cost is that of 
labour, which is expended chiefly in breaking down the mineral, 
either by the use of hand tools or with the aid of powder. 
Labour is also expended in handling the mineral in the working- 
places and in bringing it to the mine-cars in which it is brought 
to the surface. Narrow and contracted working-places are 
to be avoided, as in such places the cost of breaking ground 
is always large. Economy in handling makes it desirable to 
bring the mine-cars as near as may be to the point where the 
mineral is broken. This can be done in inclined deposits, it 
can often be done by the aid of mechanical appliances, though 
sometimes at an expense not warranted in the saving in the 
labour of loading. In steeply inclined beds the working-place 
can be so arranged that the mineral will fall or slide from the 
place where it is broken down to the main haulage road. The 
greatest difficulty is found where the inclination of the deposit 
is too great to permit the mine-cars to be brought into the 
working-place and yet not great enough to allow the mineral to 
fall or slide to a point where it can be loaded. 

While it is always desirable to provide large working-places, 
the size of the working-place is limited by the thickness and 
SiMtot Strength of the overlying beds forming the roof 
worUag' or hanging wall of the mine. With thick and strong 
P'^^*' rocks the working-places may sometimes exceed 
100 or even 200 ft. in width. Indeed in metal-mines 100 ft. 
is the usual distance from one level to the next. With weak 
and thin beds forming the roof the working-places are often 
not wider than 20 or 30 ft. as in most coal-mines. While the 
width of the working-place is thus limited by the strength 
of the roof, its length is determined by other considera- 
tions — namely, the rapidity with which the mining work can be 
conducted and the length of time it is practicable to keep the 
working-place open, and also by the increased difficulty of 
handling the minerals sometimes experienced when the workings 
reach undue length. In long-wall and in the work of mining 
pillars the roof will be supported on one side only, the over- 
hanging beds acting as cantilevers. The working-place in such 
case is considerably narrower than in rooms or stopes, and 
there is also greater difficulty in supporting the roof because 
the projecting beds tend to break close to the point of support 
where the strain «s greatest. This tendency is overcome by the 
use of timber supports so disposed as to ensure the breaking 



of the overhangiiig roof at a safe distance tnm the voctii^ 
face and prevent the interruption of the work that mi^ 
otherwise result. 

While it is always desirable to work the deposit so as to 
extract the mineral completely, it frequently happens that 
this can only be done at greatly increased cost. In nwphii 
the case of cheap and abundant minerals and k>w- BMtrmoHm 
grade ore deposits it is sometimes necessary to*'^""*'^ 
sacrifice a considerable proportion of the mineral, which is 
left for the support of the overlying strata. A similar sacrifice 
in the shape of pillars is often necessary to support the surface, 
either to avoid injury to valuable structures or to prevent 
a flooding of the mine. As already noted large pillars must 
always be left to protect shafts, adits and the more important 
mine-passages necessary for drainage, ventilation and the 
haulage of mineral. In the early history of mining there .was 
but little attempt at systematic development and working, 
and the mines were often irregular and tortuous. Fig. j is 




Fig. 3. 

an old Mexican silver-mine of this type. In such mines tl 
mineral was carried out on the backs of men, and the watt 
was laboriously raised by a long line of suction-pumps, operate 
by hand, each lifting the water a few feet only. With " 
slight modifications permitting the use of pumps and hoistin^^ 
machinery equally simple methods of mining may be seen to-da»-> 
when the deposit is of small extent. Fig. 4 is a portioo ^^ 
a mine which consists of a series of 
irregular chambers with the roof sup- 
ported on small pillars left at intervals 
for the purpose. In the systematic 
mining of larger deposits, the simplest 
plan consists in mining large areas by 
means of numerous working-places under 
the protection of pillars of mineral left 
for the purpose, and later mining these 
pillars systematically, allowing the 
overlying rock beds to fall and fill the abandoned workings- 
In shallow mines the pillars are small and the saving of 
the mineral of minor importance. In deep mines the pflUrt 
may furnish the bulk of the product, and the control of the m 
of the roof, so as to permit the successful extraction of ibe 
mineral, demands a well-schemed plan of operation. In the 
robbing of pillars, timber is necessary for the support « 




Fig. 4. 



MINING 



531 



tlie roof in the working-places, and later to control the fall 
of the roof while the pillars are mined. More effective 
support and control of the roof may be secured by the use of 
rock-filling alone or with timber. By the use of rock-fiUing 
it is even possible to dispense with pillars of mineral; or, if 
pillars are left, the use of rock-fiUing greatly facilitates sub- 
sequent robbing operations. Rock-fiUing will be used whenever 
a Large proportion of barren material must be mined with the 
ore. If rock-filling must be brought from the surface its use 
will generally be confined to mines in which it is difficult to 
support the roof in any other way. Rock-fiUing yields and 
becomes consolidated under heavy pressure, and therefore 
does not furnish a rigid support of the overlying strata, but 
rather a cushion to control and equalize the sub»dence. 

With soft material, pUlars must be large, even at moderate 
depths below the surface, and it involves less labour to leave 
I long rectangular pillars than to form numerous 
square ones. This leads to the adoption of the 
room and pillar system so common in coal-mining. 
Fig. 5 is a mine in a bed of soft iron ore worked by a series 




Fig. 5. 

of inclined shafts, from which long horizontal rooms branch 
off right and left. 

The usual method of working metal-mines is by overhand 
and underhand sloping, using rock-fiUing or pillars of mineral 
fratfiBg. ^** support the roof. Fig. 6 represents a portion 
of one of the Lake Superior copper-mines worked 
by overhand sloping. A slope is that portion of the working 
assigned to a party of miners, and the block of ground is usually 




*^'f!j-V:'*^X 






Fig. 6. 

divided into three or four slopes at varying heights above the 
main level, the lowest being known as the cut ting-out slope, 
the others as the first and second back slopes in ascending 
order. In steep pitching beds sufficient excavated material 
is aflowed to remain in the slope for the support of the machines 
and men, the excess being drawn out from time to time and 
kaded into cars. The rest of the mineral is aUowed to remain 
ontil the stopc has so far advanced that its support is no longer 
Deeded. TUs method of mining requires but little timbering, 



only a single tine of timber and lagging over the level, called the 
slulL When the roof is weak, or when it is undesirable to leave 
so much ore in the stopes, false stuUs are sometimes erected 
in the upper part of the slope. The ore below the false stulls 
can then be drawn out without waiting for the completion 
of the top slope. When the mineral does not stand weU in 
the piUar it wiU be necessary to erect a line of timbers with 
lagging so as to sheathe the under-side of the piUar and prevent 




Fic. 7 

its falUng. It is not desirable to leave large areas standing 
upon piUars in the mine, and as soon as the work on any level 
is completed the piUar below should be mined out as far as 
is safe, and the abandoned portion of the mine aUowed to cave 
in and lessen the weight on the piUars elsewhere. The block 
or ground between levels is sometimes mined by underhand 
sloping (fig. 7.). In this case the advanced drift is run under- 
neath the pillar, and the ground below is mined in descending 
steps. This plan has the advantage of requiring little or no 
limbering when the mineral is strong enough to stand weU in 
the piUars and when the hanging waU is good. The main haulage 
tracks are laid at the bottom of the slope, which thus forms the 
level. In this method of mining the dilTerent slopes must 
be kept close together; otherwise there is much added labour 
in shovelling the broken ore down to the main level. This 
method has the advantage of permitting the ore to be sent 
to the surface as fast as it is mined instead of being left for 
some months in the stopes for the men to stand upon. It has 
the disadvantage that the distance from one level to the next 
cannot usuaUy be more than fifty feet without increasing 
greatly the chances of injury to the men from falling rock. 
The method Is then practicable and safe only with exceptionally 
strong mineral and roof. In metal-mines producing abundant 
rock-filUng the overhand method of sloping, illustrated in 
fig. 8, is used. In this the sloping contracts run verlicaUy, 




Fic. 8. 

and each party of contractors has one or more mills or timbered 
chutes through which the rich ore is conveyed to the level 
below and loaded in cars. The ore as mined is hand-picked 
and the barren material aUowed to remain in the stope wbAc«.v^ 



532 



MINING 



falls.. In this method of mining no pillars need be left under 
the levels, as the rock-filling gives sufficient support to the 
roof. This method of mining affords the maximum of safety to 
the miners. 

In the working of thick deposiu the block of ground between 
two levels' is divided into horizontal sections or floors which 
WorUag are worked either from above downward or from 
•fTbkk the bottom upward; in the first case the separate 
OtpoMlia, floors are worked by one of the caving ^stems; in 
the second, generally with the aid of filling. Fig. 9 illustrates 
the working of a block of ground by the top-slice caving system. 
Above, the ground has been completely worked out from the 
surface, and the space formerly occupied by ore is now filled 
with the d6bris of the overlying strata which has caved in above 
the block of ore now being worked. There is considerable 
thickness of old timber left from the working of the upper levels. 
This mat of timber forms a roof under the protection of 
which the mining of the ore proceeds downward floor by floor. 
The working-floors are connected by winzes with the main 
haulage roads below. These winzes serve for ventilation, for 
the passage of the workmen, and for chutes through which the 
ore is dumped to the level below. The working out of each floor 
is conducted much as if it were a bed of corresponding thickness. 
Haulage roads are driven in the ore so as to divide the floor 
into areas of convenient size. These separate areas are then 
mined in small rooms, each room being timbered as in mining 
under a weak roof rock. The room is driven in this way from 
one haulage road to another or to the boundary of the ore body. 
On completion of any room the timbers are withdrawn and the 
overlying mass of timber and rock is allowed to fall and a new 
room is started immediately alongside of the one just completed. 
In this way the whole floor is worked out and the mat of timber 
and overlying rock is gradually lowered and rests upon the top 
of the ore forming the floor below. Before abandoning a room 
it is usual to cover the bottom of the working-place with lagging- 
poles, which facilitate the mining of the floor below. In this 
manner one floor after another is worked untO the floor contain- 
ing the main haulage roads of the level below is reached. In 
the meantime a new level and a system of haulage roads have 
been driven a hundred feet below, and winzes have been driven 
upward to connect with the old level which is to be abandoned. 
l*he floor containing these old haulage roads now becomes the top 
slice of the one hundred-foot block of ground below and is mined 
out as described. Several floors may be mined simultaneously, 



iniiiiiPBiliLiill 



XLUU 



Fig. 9. 

the workings in the upper floor being kept in advance of those 
below, so as to allow the broken mass above to become con- 
solidated before it is again disturbed by the working places 
of the next floor. This system permits the complete extraction 
of the ore at moderate cost and without danger to the men. 
The subdrift caving system, fig. 10, differs from the top-slice 
system mainly in the greater thickness given to the working 
floors, which may be from 12 to 40 ft. in thickness, whereas 
in the top-slice system the height of the floor is limited by the 
length of the timbers used in the working-rooms, rarely over 
fi or iQ ft. The subdrift system requires a smaller amount 



of narrow work in excavating the necessary haiibfe ntds, 
and is therefore better adapted to hard ores in which such 
narrow work is expensive. The mining of each floor b carried 
on in sections with small working-places which are first driven 
of moderate height to their full length and width, Inving a 
back of ore above and pillars of ore between to support the upper 
portion of the upper layer or floor. These pOUrs and the 



1 




Fig. la 



back of ore above are then mined in retreating back towards the 
haulage road. The subdrift system is somewhat cheaper than 
the top-slice system, the output per man being greater. 

The bottom-slice caving system of mining begins at the 
bottom of a hundred-foot block of ground, a floor being excavated 
under the whole area, leaving pillars of sufficient size to support 
the ground above. These pillars are then filled with blast 
holes which are fired simultaneously, permitting the whole 
block of ground to the level above to drop. A floor is then 
reopened in this fallen ore, leaving pillars foe temporary support 
which are blasted out as before. Thb is the cheapest of the 
three caving systems, but is applicable only when the deposit 
lies between walls of very solid rock, as otherwise wall rock 
is liable to cave with and become mixed with ore, which 
greatly to the expense of handling. 

When rock filling is available, as when the ore contains 
barren material to be left behind in mining, the ore body h 
divided into blocks of convenient height as above, and tbes 
blocks are divided into floors, the bottom floor of each bkd^ 
however being attacked. Each floor is opened up by subsadiar]^' 
haulage roads and worked out in small rooms which are timbere^B 
and filled with broken rock when completed. An adjoining' 
room is next excavated and filled, and thus the whole flootf' 
is worked out and replaced with rock-fiUing. Work is tbeaa 
started on the floor above, the upper floors being connecte^f 
with the main haulage roads by winzes which are w«plf«»*^*^ 
through the filled ground. Several floors can be mined fimultan- 
eously, the work in the lower floors being kept well in advance 
Instead of mining in horizontal floors the filling method permits 
the ore to be mined in vertical chambers or slices which eztcod 
from one level to the next above and from one wall of the depoiit 
to the other. When a chamber has been excavated aod 
completely filled the slice adjoining is mined out, o( at timo j 
a block of ground may be left untouched between two 
filled chambers and then mined out. In the latter case tbe 
top-slice caving method will usually be employed for the woikiai 
of such intervening pillars. In order to leasen the cost d 
handling the rock-fiUing, the excavation sometimes takes tke 
form of inclined working-places, parallel to the slope baturaBy 
taken by the rock when dumped from above into U» wodiif 



MINING 



533 



place. Thit method of mining and filling can be uied when 
the wotk is done in horixontal floors or in transverse chambers. 
In the United States the Nevada square set system of timbering 
is osed in connexion with rock filling (fig. xx). The use of the 
heavy timbers and continuous framing which characterize 
this S)rstem facilitates greatly the work of mining and maintain- 
ing the haulage roads on the different floors, and gives more 
rigid support to the unmined portions of the block of ground 
above^ These advantages compensate for the greater first 
cost. Where each floor is timbered by itself with light timbers, 
as is the practice on the continent of Europe, the consolidation 
of the rock-filling under pressure gives rise to considerable 
subsidence of the uimiined ore, which has frequently settled 
20 ft. or more before the upper part of the block is reached. 
This occasions much added expense in the maintenance and 
Ktimbexing of the haulage rmuls on the upper floors. The 
ihxinkage of the rock-filling and the settlement of the workings 




Hllilllllllli. 

Hill III 111 ii ii;^ 



W' 



^^ 



Kli: l|il|._i|lli 
mTlillllllilllL^ 






Fig. II. 






m 



^^m be greatly lessened by the use of hard rock with a minimum 
^^ fine stuff; but even so the advantage lies with the American 
System of timbering. 

The cost of filling has been greatly reduced by the sjrstem 
^1 fluBhing culm, sand, gravel and similar material, through 
p^)es leading from the surface into mine work- 
ings. Material as coarse as x in. in diameter may be 
carried long distances underground with the use 
^ little more than an equal volume of water. This method 
^>iiginated in the Penn^lvania anthracite mines in 1887, but 
lias been employed in recent years on a large scale in Silesia, 
Westphalia and other European coalfields. In some cases 
it has been found advantageous to quarry and crush rock for 
the fNirpose of using it in this way. Examples of other mining 
incfhodf win be found under Coal. 

• Where mineral deposits lie near the surface underground 
; may be replaced by open excavations, and the reduced 
cost of mining makes it possible to remove the 
overlying soil and rock to considerable depths. 
The depth to which open working can be pushed 
depends upon the sixe and value of the mineral deposit and 
upon the expense of removing the over-burden. Open excava- 
tioos several hundred feet in depth are not uncommon. Where 
practicable steam shovels are employed, even when it is neces- 
mxf to break up the material beforehand by blasting. Steam 
ahovds are not well adapted to deep excavation unless provision 
il made for the rapid handling of the cars when filled. For 
<feep woikiiifi the milling method is usually .employed, in 



which the ore is excavated in funnel-shaped pits, each of which 
connects with underground haulage roads by a shaft. The 
ore is mined in the ordinary way, by pick and shovel if soft, 
or by the aid of powder if necessary, and the funnel-shaped 
bottom of the pit is maintained at such an angle that little 
or no shovelling is required to bring the excavated material 
to the shaft. Before the bottpm of these pits reaches the 
levd of the haulage roads below, a new set of roads will have 
been driven at a lower level and connected with the excavations 
above by the shafts. The cost of mining by the milling method 
does not greatly exceed the cost of steam-shovel work. For 
the special methods by whicb placer deposits are mined see 
Gold.. 

Unierpround Haulage, — ^The .excavated material is brought 
to the hoisting shaft, or sometimes directly to the surface, in 
small mine cars, moved by men or by animals, or by locomotives 
or wire-rope haulage. "Die size, shape and design of the cars 
depend on the size of the mine passage and of the hoisting 
compartments of the shafts; on whether the cars are to be 
trammed by hand or hauled in trains'; whether they are loaded 
by shovel or by gravity from a chute; and whether they are 
to be hoisted to the surface or used only for imderground trans- 
port. The cost of underground haulage is lessened by the 
use of cars of large capacity* .. In the United States cars in 
the coal and iron mines hold from 3 to 4 tons. In Europe the 
capacity ranges from xooo to 1500 lb, though the tendency 
is to increase the size of the cars used. In mines of copper, 
lead and the precious metals, in which the cars are moved 
by hand, the usual Load is from 1200 to 3000 lb. These 
small cars are constructed so that the load may be dumped 
by pivoting, the car bodies on the trucks. Luger cars are 
usually dumped by means of rotating or swinging cradles, 
the car bodies being rigidly attached to the axles or trucks. 
When loaded by shovel the car is made low to economize labour. 
Wooden rails, protected by iron straps, are sometimes used on 
undergToxmd roads for temporary traffic; but steel rails, similar 
to, though lighter than, those employed for railways are the 
rule. For hand tramming, animal and rope haulage, the rails 
weigh from 8 to 24 lb per yard, for locomotive haulage 30 to 
40 lb. Grades are made, whenever possible, in favour of 
the load, and of such degree that the power required to haul 
out the loaded cars shall be approximately equal to that for 
hauling back the empties, viz. about \ of x%. Sharp curves 
should be avoided, especially for mechanical haulage. Switches 
for turnouts and branches, ,&c., are similar to but simpler 
than those for railways. _ ^^ 

In metal mines, where,^as a^ruleT^mechanical haulage is 
inapplicable, the cars are moved by men (trammers). This is 
expensive, but is made necessary by the small Mmmmm4 
amount of material to be handled at any given Amimai 
point. The average speed is about aoo ft. per *'*■'** 
minute, and the distances preferably but a few hundred feet. 
Animal haulage is employed chiefly in collieries and laige metal 
mines; sometimes for main haulage lines, but oftener for dis- 
tributing empty cars and making up trains for mechanical 
haulage. In mines operated through shafts the animals are 
stabled underground, and when well fed and cared for, thrive 
notwithstanding their rather abnormal conditions of life. Mine 
cars are sometimes run long distances, singly or in trains, 
over roads which are given suffident grade to impart consider- 
able speed by gravity, say from x to 2^%. The grades must 
not be too great for brake control nor for the hauling back 
of the empty cars. Cars may thus be run through long adits 
or through branch gangways to some central point for making 
up into trains. Near the top and bottom of hoisting shafts the 
tracks are usually graded to permit the cars to be run to and 
from the shaft by gravity. 

Locomotive haulage is applicable to large mines, where 
trains of cars are hauled long distances on flat or undulating 
roads of moderate gradients. Steam locomotives have been 
laigely superseded by compressed air or electric locomotives. 
Compressed . air . locomotives are provided .with . cylindrical 



534 



MINING 



■ted tanks charged from a special compressor with air at a 
pressure of 500 to 700 lb per sq. in. The capacity of the 
tank depends on the power required and the dis- 
'tance to be traversed by a single charge of air. 
The air passes through a reducing valve from the 
main to an auxiliary tank, in which the pressure is, say, ias% 
and thence to the driving cylinders, fiy using comprised air 
vitiation of the mine air is avoided, as well as all danger of 
fire or explosion of gas. Electric locomotives usually work 
on the trolley system, though a few storage battery locomotives 
have been successfully employed. Trolley haulage lacks the 
flexibility of steam or compressed air haulage, and is limited 
to main lines because the wires must be strung throughout 
the length of the line. By adopting modem non-sparking 
motors there is but little danger of igniting explosive gas. 
Electric and compressed air locomotives are durable, easily 
operated, and can be built to run imder the low roofs of thin 
veins. Their power is proportioned to requirements of load 
and mftTimntn gradient; the speed is rarely more than 6 
or 8 m. per hour. Electric locomotives are in general more, 
economical then either steam or compressed air. 
I For heavy gradients rope haulage has no rival, though for 
moderate grades it is often advantageously replaced by electric 
and compressed air haulage. Gravity or self-acting 
planes are for lowering loaded cars, one or more 
at a time, from a higher to a lower level The 
mfaimiim grade is that which will enable the loaded cars in 
travelling down the phme to pull up the empty cars. At the 
head of the plane is mounted a drum or sheave, and around 
it passes a rope, one end of which is attached to the loaded 
cars at the top, the other to the empty cars at the foot. The 
speed due to the excess of weight on the loaded side is controlled' 
by a brake on the drum. The rope is carried on rollers between 
the rails. There may be two complete lines of track or three 
lines of rails, one being common to both tracks, and the cars 
passing en a middle turnout or " parting "; or a single track 
with a parting. An engine plane is an inclined road, up which 
loaded cars are hauled by a stationary engine and rope, the 
empty cars running down by gravity, dragging the rope after 
them. This is sim^ to shaft hoisting, except that the grades 
are often quite flat. In the tail-rope system of haulage, best 
adapted for single track roads, there are two ropes— a main 
and a " tail " rope — winding on a pair of drums operated by an 
engine. The loaded train is coupled to the main rope, and to 
the rear end is attached the tail-rope, which reaches to the 
end of the line, passing there around a large grooved sheave 
and thence back to the engine. By winding in the main rope 
the loaded cars are hauled towards the engine, dragging behind 
them the tail-rope, which unwinds from its drum. The trip 
being completed, the empty train is hauled back by reversing 
the engine. The ropes are supported between the rails and 
guided on curves by rollers and sheaves. High speeds are 
often attained. Branches, operated from the main line, are 
readily installed. In the endless rope system the rope runs 
from a grip wheel on the driving engine to the end of the line, 
round a return sheave, and thence back to the engine. Chains 
are occasionally used. The line is double track and the rope 
constantly in motion, the cars being attached at intervals 
through its length by clips or clutches; the loaded cars move 
in one direction, the empties in the other. There are two modes 
of installing the system: either the rope passes above the cars 
and is carried by them, resting in the dips, or it is carried under 
the cars on rollers, the cars being attached by clips or a grip- 
carriage. (For details see Hughes, Text-book of Coal Minings 
pp. 236-272; Hildenbrand, Underground Haulage by Wire Rope.) 
Rope haulage is widely used in collieries, and sometimes in 
other mines having large lateral extent and heavy traflic. 
^^th the tail-rope system, cars are run in long trains at high 
speed, curves and branches are easily worked, and gradients 
may be steep, though undulating gradients are somewhat 
disadvantageous. In the endless-rope systems cars run singly 
or>in_short_tJ^uns, .curves, are.diwdyantagcous, ^unless jDff long 



radius, speed is relatively slow,* aodlTranch roads not to easily 
operated as with tail-rope. The tail-rope plant Is the more 
expensive, but for similar conditions the cost of working the 
two systems is neariy the same. An advantage of the endless 
system is that the cars may be delivered at regular intervals. 
Hoisting, — When the mine is worked through shafts, hoisting 
plant must be installed for raising the ore and K»»^»»ng men 
and supplies. On a smaller scale hoisting is also necessary 
for sinking shafts and winzes and for various underground 
services. As ordinarily constructed, a pair of horizontal cylin- 
ders is coupled to a shaft on which are mounted either one or 

two drums (fig. xa). The diameter of the cylinders 

is such that each alone is capable of starting the niS' 
load. As the cranks are set 90* apart, there is no 
dead centra, and the engine is able to start under full load 
from any point of the stroke. This is important in mine hoisting, 




Fig, ij,— Plan of dErfet^afiinK boiftins tng^ata, n>iBpc«z3 
Cortisi cnginirs and conical drums. WeUciun'Scivcr-MDr;[4.fl Cr<3 
Cicvehmd, Ohio, makBt. 

which is intermittent in character and variable as to power 
and speed required. The cylinders are generally singie-ezpaa- 
sion, though compound engines are occasionally used for heavy 
work. The engine is direct-actingr the drums making one 
revolution for each double stroke. In geared hoists the drums 
are on a separate shaft, driven from the crank-shaft by tooii 
or friction gearing, and make one revolution for, say, 4^5 
double strokes. The hoisting q>eed is therefore slower, ud 
as less engine power is required for a given load the cylinka 
are smaller, though making more strokes per minute. Luge 
and powerful geared hoists are not uncommon. The dimeosooi 
of the drum depend on the hoisting speed desired aid the 
depth of shaft or length of rope to be wound. Drumi vt 
either cylindrical or conical. Conical drums (fig. xs) tod to 
equalize the varying load on the engine due to the windiBI 
and unwinding of the rope. On starting to hoist, the np^ 
winds from the small towards the large end of the dran, tke 
lever arm^ pr^radius of.thc. coils,. inoMsing MJ^y^ ^ 



MINING 



535 



e dficrttBes. A simikr eqiulizbg effect is obtained by the 

of flat rope and reel, the rope winding on itself like a ribbon. 

>ering ropes, tail-ropes su^>ended from the cages, and other 

ms of equalization, are also employed. If, for a two- 

qpartment shaft, a pair of drums (or a single wide drum) 

keyed to the engine shaft, with the ropes 

ind in opposite directions, the hoisting 

"in balance," that is, the cages and 

( counterbalance each other, so that the 

ine has to raise only the useful load of 

eral, plus the rope. This arrangement 

ws no independence of movement: 

31 the loaded cage is being hoisted the 

>ty must be lowered. Independent 

ms, on the contrary, are loose upon 

r shaft, and are thrown on or off by 

h or friction clutches. The maximum 

1 on the engine is thus greater and more 

tr is reqtiired than for fixed drums.' 

im consumption is economized, when- 

' possible, by throwing in the clutches 

both drums and hoisting in balance. 

*d drums are best for mines in which 

hobting is done chiefly from one level; 

pendent drums when there are a number 

liifferent leveb. Hoisting engines are 

dded with powerful brakes and fre- 

itly with reversing gear. In deep 

ts hoisting speeds of 3000 or 3500 ft. 

minute are often attained, occasionally 

luch as 5000 ft. 

>rnierly hemp and also fibre ropes were 

monly used. Except in a few instances 

these were long ago superseded by 
J* iron-wire ropes, which in turn have 

been repkiced by steel because of 
greater strength. For hoisting in deep 
U, and to reduce the weight of rope, 
pered-steel wire of very high tensile 
igth (up to 250,000 or 275,000 lb ultimate 
igth per sq. in.) is advantageously em- 
ed. A x-in. ordinary steel rope has a 
king strength of about 32 tons, whiclr, 
I a factor of safety of six gives a safe 
cing load of 5} tons. A i-in. plow-steel rope has 
king and working strengths respectively of at least 
ind 8 tons. Standard round rope (fig. 13) has six strands 

«of 19 wires each and a 
hemp core. Flat rope is in 
/nVifJlUVI 'favour In some districts. It 
is composed of several four- 
stranded ropes, without hemp 
centres, laid side by side, and 
sewed together by wire (fig. 
14). It is not as durable as 
round rope and is heavier for 
the same working strength. 
As the sewing wires soon 
begin to break, a flat rope 
must usually be ripped apart 
and resewed every six or 
I3---Standard Fic. i4.-FIat eight months. Numerous 
oundRopc. Rope. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ y^^^^ 

s and strands of special shapes, have been introduced with 
idea of improving the wearing properties. Such, for 
iple. are the Lang-lay, locked-coii and flattened strand 
Hoisting ropes are weakened by deterioration and 
■cage of the wires, due to corrosion and repeated bend- 
and should be kept under careful inspection. To prevent 
isive bending stresses the diameter of drum and sheave 
bear a proper ratio to that of the rope. A ratio of 48 to i 



tempered steel ropes ratios of 150 to i or more are desirable. 
To prevent corrosion the rope should be treated at intervals 
with hot lubricant. With proper care a steel rope should last 
from two to three years. 
A frame of wood or steel, erected at the shaft mouth, and 





: minimum aUowable; better 60 to 75 to i, and for highly- 



(FVom rib Cmtt^ Emgbmr. May 1897) 

Fig. 15.— Head-gear, 
carrying the grooved sheaves over which the hoisting ropes 
pass, is known as the head-gear (fig. 15). In Great Britain and 
her colonies it is also called the poppet-head or pit- ^^ 
head frame; in the United Sutes head-frame or **"" 
gallows-frame. Though it is small and simple in construction 
for light work, for heavy hoisting at high speeds massively 
framed towers, often 80 to 100 ft. in height, are built. Steer 
frames are more durable than those of wood, and have become 
common in nearly all mining countries, especially where timber 
is scarce. A German design is shown in fig. 16. The head-gear 
is often combined with ore-bins and machinery for breaking 
and sizing the lump ore previous to shipment to the reduction 
works. 

Cages, running in guides in the shaft, are used for raising 
the cars of mineral to the surface (fig. 17). They may have 
one, two or more decks, usually carrying one or 
two cars on each deck. Multiple-deck cages are 
rarely employed except for deep shafts of small 
cross-section or when the mine cars (tubs) are small, as in many 
parts of Europe. In many mines the mineral is raised in skips 
(fig. 18), filled from cars underground and dumping automatically 
on reaching the surface. Skips are sometimes of very large 
capacity, holding 5, 7, and even 10 tons of ore; such are used, 
for example, in several shafts at Butte, Montana, in the Lake 
Superior copper district, and in South Africa. Fig. 18 is a 
small skip; the upper illustration showing position for dumping. 
The lower cut is of a skip for either ore or water; note valve in 
bottom. Hoisting buckets or kibbles are employed for small 



Cw»«aatf 



53« 



MINING 



scale ivotk or temporary ler^cerracfa as raiting the material 
blasted in sinking shafts. They hold from a few hundred 
pounds up to I ton. In hoisting from great depths the 
weight of the rope, which may exceed that of the cage and 




Fig. i6. — ^Steel head-gear, modern German type, constructed by 
Aug. Kl6nne, Dortmund. 

contents, produces excessive variations in theMoad l>iirthe 
engine difficult to deal with. Moreover, the limit of vertical 
depth at which rope of even the best quality will support its 
own weight only, with a proper margin of safety, is, say, 10,000 
to z 2,000 ft.; and with the load the safe working limit of 
depth would be reached at 7000 to 8000 ft. A number of 





Fic* 17.— Light steel safety FiG. 18.— Ore and water skips 

mining cage and car for gold for inclined shaft. Alhs- 

and stiver mines. Wellman- Chalmers Co., Milwaukee, 

Seaver-Morgan Co., Cleveland, Wisconsin, makers. 
Ohio, makers. 

shafts in South Africa, the United States and elsewhere, are 
already approximating depths of 5000 ft., a few being even 
deeper. Ropes of tapering section may be used for great 
depths, but are not satisfactory in practice* Stage hoisting 
is applicable to any depth. Instead of raising the load in one 
lift from the bottom of the shaft, one or more intermediate 
> A full discussion of this subject is given in Trans. Im, Min* 
and Met,t vol. xL. 



dumping and Ibadiog stations' tre'provided. ' Each sU^e hai 
its own engine, rope and cage. The variations in engine load 
are thus reduced, and incidentally hoisting time is saved. 

In shallow mines the men use the ladder-way in going to 
and from their work. This is sometimes the case 
also for considerable depths. It is more economical ^^^^ 
to save the men's strength, however, by raising jimT 
and lowering them with the hoisting engines. 

At mines with vertical shafts this is a simple operatu>n. 
Cages of the size generally used in metal mines will bold from 
ten to fifteen and occasionally twenty men. The time consumed 
in lowering the men. is shortened by the use of cages having 
two or more decks. These are common in Europe, and axe 
sometimes employed in the United States and elsewhere in 
mines iniiere the output is large and the shafts deep and of 
small cross section. While a s^if t of men is being lowered 
the miners of the preceding shift are usually raised to the 
surface in the ascending cages, the entire shift bdng thus dianged 
in the time required for lowering. Nevertheless, in very deep 
and large mines the time consumed in h^nHling f}^ men may 
make serious inroads on the time available for hoisting ore. 
At a few mines special man-cages are <^rated in separate 
compartments by their own engines for handling part of the 
men, and for tools, supplies, &c For inclined shafts, where 
the mineral is hoisted in skips, the <q>eration of raising and 
lowering men may not be so simple. Even a large ^p will 
hold but a few men, the speed is slower, and more time is 
required for the men to get into and out of the skip than to 
step on and off a cage. Moreover, skips are rarely provided 
with safety attachments, so that the danger is greater. When 
the shafts are deep and the number of miners large man-cars 
are sometimes employed. These are long frames on four wheels, 
with a series of seats like a section of a theatre gallery. Ordia- 
arily 4 or 5 men occupy each seat, the car accommodating 
from ao to 36 men. Such cars are in use at a number of deep 
inclined shafts in the Lake Superior copper district, where the 
depths range from 3000 to 5000 ft. or more. At a few mines 
(since safety catches cannot be successfully applied to man-cazs) 
these conveyances are raised and lowered by separate engines and 
ropes. To replace the ore-skip expeditiously by the man-car 
when the shifts are to be changed a crane is often erected over 
the shaft mouth. At the end of a shift the ore-skip is lifted 
from the shaft track^the hoisting rope being uncoupled— and 
the man-car put in its phu:e and attached to the rope. Tliii 
change may be made in a few minutes. 

Formerly, at many deep European mines, and at a few in 
the United States, men were raised by means of " man-enginei'' 
A man-engine consists of two heavy wooden rods ^^^ 
(like the rods of a Cornish pumping plant), placed j^^a 
parallel and dose to each other in a spedal shaft 
compartment, and suspended at the surface from a pair of 
massive walking beams (or " bobs "). The rods are caused to 
oscillate slowly by an engine, one rising while the other is fallinf* 
Thus they move simultaneously in opposite directions throagii 
a fixed length of stroke^ say from 10 to 12 ft. At intervab 
on the rods are attached small horizontal platforms, only Uip 
enough to accommodate two men at a time. As the rods make 
their measured strokes one of the miners, starting from tbe 
suriace, steps on the first platform as it rises to the suifaa 
landing and is then lowered on the down stroke. At the cod 
of the stroke, when his platform comesopposite to a oorrespood- 
ing platform on the other rod, he steps over on to the latter 
during the instant of rest prior to the reversal of the stroke, 
descends with the second rod On this down stroke, steps apiB 
at the proper time to a platform bf the first rod and so on to 
the bottom. The men follow each other, one by one, so tW 
in a few minutes all the rod platforms in a deep shaft may be 
simultaneously occupied by- men stepping in unison but is 
opposite directions from platforms of one rod to tbe o(ber< 
Meantime, the men quitting work are ascending in a usiStt 
way, as there is room on each platform for two men at a tin* 
when passing each other. Man-engines ^wcre : kog . tf^^ 



MINING 



537 



but are now practkaUy abandoned in both Great Britain and 
tbe United States, and few remain in any of the mining regions 
of the world. Their first cost is great and they are dangerous 
for new men, as they require constant alertness, presence of 
mind, and a certain knack in using them. See Trans. Inst. 
Uin. and Met. zi. 334, 3aS» 380, &&; also Eng. and iiin. 
Jour, (April 4, 1903)1 PP- 5' 7 uid 518. 

Surjact Handling, Storage and Shipment of Minerals. — ^To mine 
ore or coal at minimum cost it is necessary to work the mine 
fdant at nearly or quite its full capacity and to avoid interrup- 
tion and delays. When the mineral is transported by rail 
or water to concentration or metallurgical works for treatment, 
or to near or distant markets for sale, provision must be made 
for the economical loading of railway wagons or vesseb, and 
lor the temporary storage of the mineral product. For short 
periods the mineral may remain in the mine cars, or may be 
loaded into railway wagons held at the mine for this purpose. 
Cars, however, are too valuable to be used in this way for more 
than a few hours, and it is usual to erect large storage bins at 
the mine, at concentration works and metallurgical establish- 
ments, in which the mineral may be stored, permitting cars, 
wagons and vessels to be quickly emptied or loaded. In 
mining regions where water transportation is interrupted 
during certain months of the year the mineral must be stored 
underground, or in great stock-piles on the surface. In coal 
mining the market demand varies in different seasons, and 
surface storage is sometimes necessary to permit regular work 
at the mines. For coal, iron ore and other cheap minerals, 
mrrhanical handling by many different methods is used in 
kiading and unloading railway wagons and vessels, and in 
forming the stock-piles and reloading the mineral therefrom. 
(See CONVEYOR and Docks; also G. F. Zimmer, Mechanical 
HttmHini oj Materials, and Engineering Magazine, ziv. 375, 
zz. 157 and zzi. 657.) 

Mine Drainage. — ^A mine which has been opened by an adit 
tannd or drift drains itself, so far as the workings above the 
adit level are concerned. In many mining regions long tunnels 
have been driven at great expense to secure natural drainage, 
Under modem mining conditions drainage tunnels have lost 
ranch of their former importance. Taking into account the 
risk attending all mining operations, which make necessary 
large interest and amortization charges on the cost of a tunnel, 
it win in most cases be advisable to raise the water to the sur- 
face by mechanical means. Drainage channels are provided, 
usuaHy along the ftiain haulage roads, by which the water 
flows to a sump excavated at the pump shaft. In driving mine 
passages that are to be used for drainage, care is taken to 
maintain sufficient gradient. Siphons are sometimes used to 
carry the water over an undulating grade and thereby save 
the expense of a deep rock cutting. As the larger part of 
the water in a mine comes from the surface, the cost of 
drainage may be reduced by intercepting this surface water, 
and collecting it at convenient points in the pump shaft from 
which it may be raised at less cost than if permitted to go 
to the bottom. Water may be raised from mines by buckets, 
tanks or pumps. Wooden or steel buckets, holding from 
35 to doo gallons, are employed only for temporary or auxiliary 
service or for small quantities of water in shallow shafts. Tanks 
operated by the main hoisting engines, and of capacities up to 
1500 ipdlons or more, are applicable under several conditions: 
(i) V^ten the shaft is deep, the quantity of water insufficient 
to keep a pump in regular operation, and the hoisting engine 
not constantly employed in raising mineral, the tank is worked 
at intervals, being attached temporarily to the hoisting rope 
in place of the cage. (2) For raising large volumes of water 
from deep shafts pairs of tanks are operated in balance in special 
shaft compartments by their own hoisting engine. With an 
efficient engine the cost per gallon of water is often less than 
for pumping. (3) For clearing flooded mines. As the water 
level UUs tht tanks readily follow it while at work, whereas 
pumps must be lowered to new positions to keep within suction 
dfatancr. Self-acting tanks ure occasionally built underneath 



the platforms of hoisting cages. Mine pumps are of two classes: 
(i) those in which the driving engine is on the surface and 
operates the pumps by a long line of rods passing down the 
shaft, commonly known as the Cornish system; (2) direct-acting 
pumps, in which the engine and pumping cylinders form a 
single unit, placed close to the point underground from which 
the water is to be raised. Cornish pumps are the oldest of the 
machines for draining mines; in fact, one of the earliest applica- 
tions of the old Woolf and Newcomen engines in the i8th century 
was to pumps for deep mines. The engine works a massive 
counter-balanced walking-beam from which is suspended in the 
shaft a long wooden (or steel) rod, made in sections and spliced 
together. Attached to the rod by offsets are one or more 
plunger or bucket pumps, set at intervals in the shaft. Ail 
work simultaneously, each raising the water to a tank or sump 
above, whence it is taken by the next pump of the system, and 
finally discharged at the surface. The individual pumps are 
placed several hundred feet apart, so that a series is required fOr 
a deep shaft. The speed is slow — from 4 to xo strokes per 
minute — but the larger sizes, up to 34 in. or more in diameter 
by |o or 12 ft. stroke, are capable of raising millions of gallons 
per day. Cornish pumps are economical in running expenses, 
provided the driving engine is of proper design and the dis- 
advantages incurred in conveying steam underground are 
avoided. Their first cost, however, is high and the cumbersome 
parts occupy much space in the shaft. Direct-acting pumps, 
first introduced (1841) by an American, Henry R. Worthington, 
are made of many different designs. Typically they are steam 
pumps, the steam and water cylinders being set tandem on the 
same bed frame, generally without fly-wheel or other rotary 
parts; they may be single cylinder or duplex, simple, compound 
or triple expansion, and having a higher speed of stroke are 
smaller in all their parts than Cornish pumps. For high heads 
the water cylinders, valves and valve chambers are specially 
constructed to withstand heavy pressures, water being sometimes 
raised in a single lift to height^ of more than 3000 ft. Con- 
densers are always required for underground pumps. Sinking 
pumps, designed for use in shafts in process of sinking, are 
suspended by wire ropes so as to be raised before blasting and 
promptly lowered again to resume pumping. Electrically 
driven pumps, now widely used, are convenient and economicaL 
Mine pumps of ordinary forms may be operated by compressed 
air, and air-lift pumps have been successfully employed. Hy- 
draulic pumping engines, while not differing essentially from 
steam pumps, must have specially designed valves in the power 
cylinder on account of the incompressibility of water. They 
can be used only when a supply of water imdcr sufficient pressure 
is available for power. Centrifugal pumps, constructed with 
several stages or sets of vanes, and suitable for high lifts, have 
been introduced for mine service. When mine water is acid 
the working parts of the pump must be lined with or made of 
bronze or other non-corrosive material; or the acid may be 
neutralized by adding Ume in the sump. 

Ventilation. — ^The air of a mine is vitiated by the presence 
of large numbers of men and animals and of numerous lights, 
each of which may consume as much air as a number of men. 
In mining operations explosives are used on a large scale and 
the powder gases contain large quantities of the very poisonous 
gas, carbon monoxide, a small percentage of which may cause 
death, and even a minute percentage of which in the air 
will seriously affect the health. In addition to these sources 
of contamination the air of the mine is frequently charged 
with gas issuing from the rocks or from the mineral deposit. 
For example, carbon dioxide occurs in some mines, and hydrogen 
sulphide, which is a poisonous gas, in others. In coal-mines 
we have to deal with " fire-damp " or marsh gas, and with 
inflammable coal dust, which form explosive mixtures with 
air and frequently lead to disastrous explosions resulting in 
great loss of life. The gases produced by such fire-damp or 
dust explosions contain carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide 
in large proportion, and the majority of the deaths from such 
explosions are due to this " after^damp ". rather than to the 



538 



MINING 



explosion itself. The terrible efRcts of 6reK!amp have led 
to the adoption of elaborate systems of ventilation, as the most 
effective safeguard against these explosions is the dilution 
and removal of the fire-damp as promptly and completely as 
possible. Very large volumes of air are necessary for this 
purpose, so that in such mines other sources of vitiation are 
adequately provided against and need not be considered. In 
metal mines, however, artificial ventilation is rarely attempted, 
and natural ventilation often fails to furnish a sufficient quantity 
of air. The examination of the air of metal mines has shown 
that in most cases it is much worse than the air of crowded 
theatres or other badly ventilated buildings. This has a serious 
effect on the health and efficiency of the workmen employed, 
and in extreme cases may even result in increased cost of mining 
operations. The ventilation of a mine must in general be 
produced artifidally. In any case whether natural or artificial 
means be employed, a mine can only be ventilated properly 
iriien it has at loist two distinct openings to the surface, one 
an intake or " downcast," the othor a chimney serving as an 
" upcast." Two compartments of a shaft may be utilized 
for this purpose, but greater safety is ensured by two separate 
openings, as required by law in most mining ootmtries. 

The ak tmderground remains throughout the year at nearly 
the same temperature, and is warmer in winter and cooler in 
summer than, the outside, air. If the two openings 
^to the mine are at different levels the difference 
in weight of the inside and outside air due to differ- 
ence in temperature causes a current, and in the winter months 
large volumes of air will be circulated tHrough the mine from 
this cause alone. In summer there will be less movement of 
air and the current will frequently be reversed. In a mine with 
shafts opening at the same level, natural ventilation once 
established will be effective during cold weather, as the down- 
cast will have the temperature of the outside air, while the 
upcast will be filled with the warm air of the mine. . In summer 
this wUl occur only on cool days and at night. When the 
temperature of outside and inside air becomes equal or nearly 
so natural ventilation ceases or becomes insignificant. In a 
mine with two shafts a ventilating cixrrent may result from 
other conditions creating a difference in the temperature of 
the air in either shaft — for example, the cooling effect of dropping 
water or the heating effect of steam pipes. Natural ventilation 
is impracticable in flat deposits worked by drifts and without 
shafts. 

Ventilation may be produced by heating the air of the mine, 
as for example, by constructing a ventilating furnace at the 
V aoiMtiar ^"**™ ^^ ^^ *"' shaft. Thc efficiency of such 
linii n^ ventilating furnaces is low, and they cannot safely 
be used in mines producing fire-damp. They are 
sometimes the cause of underground fircS, and they are always 
a source of danger when by any chance the ventilating tnirrent 
becomes reversed, in which case the products of combustion, 
containing large quantities of carbon dioxide, will be drawn 
into the mine to the serious danger of the men. On account 
of their dangerous character furnaces are prohibited by law 
in many countries. 

Positive blowers and exhausting apparatus of a great variety 
of forms have been used in mines for producing artificial 
ventilation. About 1850, efficient ventilators of the 
^centrifugal type were first introduced, and are now 
almost universally employed where the circulation 
of large volumes of air is necessary, as in collieries. The typical 
mine fan consists of a shaft upon which are mounted a number 
of vanes enclosed in a casing; the air entering a central side inlet 
is caught up by the revolving vanes and thrown out at the 
periphery by the centrifugal force thus generated. "Open- 
running " fans have no peripheral casing, and discharge freely 
throughout their entire circumference; in " dosed " fans the 
revolving part is completely enveloped by a spiral casing opening 
at one point into a discharge chinmey. Fans dther force air 
into or exhaust it from the mine. The inlet opening of the 
pressure . fan is in free communication with the outside air. 



the disdiaise oonnecting with the mine air-way; in the i 

generally used exhaust fan the inlet is connected with the air- 
way, the fan discha r ging into the atmosphere. Among tlie 
exhaust fans most widdy employed is the GuibaL liany otliecB 
have been introduced, such as the Capell (fig. 19), Rateao, 




(Fnn Uimi tad UhmtU, Match. 1903.) 

Fig. 19.— Capell Fan. 
Schiele, Pelxer, Hanarte, Ser, Winter, Kley, and Sirocco fans. 
The Waddle may be instanced as an example of the open fans. 
Slow-speed fans are sometimes of large dimensions, up to 30 
and even 45 ft. diameter, discharging hundreds of ttin^yftfuH 
of cubic feet of air per minute^ Occasionally, at very gaaqr 
and dangerous collieries, two fani and driving engines are 
erected at the same air shaft, and in case of acddent to the 
fan in operation the other can be started within a few minutes. 
Opposed to the motive force producing the air current is the 
frictional resistance developed in passing through the mise 
workings. This resistance is equal to the square of 
the vdodty of the current in feet per minute, JJ^jJ, 
multiplied by the total rubbing or friction surface 
of the air-ways in square feet and by the coefficient of 
friction. The latter, determined experimentally, varies with 
different kinds of surfaces of mine workings, whether rough or 
smooth, timbered or unlined; it ranges from 0*000000001871 to 
o-oooooooax7 lb per sq. ft., the latter bdng the value usually 
adopted. A certain pressure of air is required to main* 
tain drculaUon against the resistance, and for a given volume 
per nunute the smaller and more irregular the mine openinp 
the greater must be the pressure. The pressure is measured by s 
" water-gauge " and the velodty of flow by an " anemometer." 
The power required to drculate.the air through a mine increases 
as the cube of the vdodty of the air current. To decrease tbe 
vdodty, when large volumes of air are required, the air passafes 
are made larger, and the mine is divided into sections and the 
air current subdivided into a corresponding number of indepes* 
dentdrcuits. This splitting of the dr not only lessens the cost of 
ventilating, but greatJy increases iu effidency by permitting tbe 
drculation of much larger volumes, and has the added advantage 
that the effect of an explosion or other acddent vitiatiaf 
the air ciurent is often confined to a single division of the mioei 
and affects but a small part of the working force. The adjitft' 
ment of the air currents in the different splits is affected by 
regulators which are placed in the return air-ways, and act as 
throttle valves to determine the volume of air in each case. 
The circulation of air in any given division of the mine b fuitbff 
controlled and its course determined by temporaiy or pemuoeBt 
partitions (" brat rices "), by the erecrion of sto{q>ings, or by 
the inserdon of doors in the mine passages and by the veof 
special air-wajrs (see Coal). In devising a sjrstem of ventibtiDa 
it is customary to subdivide the workings so that the reststaoce 
to the ventilating current in each split shall be nearly equal* 
so that th^ desired amount of air shall be circulated in eick 
without undue use of reguIaUng appliances which add to the 
fricrion and increase the cost of removing tbe air. In additioB 
to this it is desirable to take advantage of the natural ventilatioa, 
that is, to drcuhite the air in the direcdon that it goes natunOyi 
as otherwise the resistance to the uMvement of the aiF may I* 



MINING 



539 



ally inoeaMcL So far as possible,' Vitiated air is led directly 
the shaft instead of passing through other workings; for 
imple, mine stables when used are placed near the upcast 
it and ventilated by an independent split of the ventilating 
Tent. 

Dttp Mining. — ^There has been much speculation as to the 
>th to which it will be practicable to push the work o! mining, 
e q>edal difficulties which attend deep mining, in addition 
the problems of hobting ore and raising water from great 
>tha, are the increase of temperature of the rocks and the 
asQie of the overlying strata. The deepest mine in the 
rid is No. 3 shaft of the Tamarack mine in Houghton 
mtj, Michigan, which has reached a vertical depth of about 
x> ft. Three other shafts of the Tamarack Company, and 
ee <rf the neighbouring Calumet and Heda mine, have depths 
between 4000 and 5000 ft. verticaL The Quincy mine, also 
Houghton county, has reached a vertical depth of nearly 
» ft. In EngUuid are several collieries over 3000 ft., and in 
Igium two are nearly 4000 ft. deep. In Austria three shafts 
the silver mines at Prizbram have reached the depth of 
nr 1000 metres. At Bendigo in Australia are several shafts 
ween 3000 and 4000, and one, the Victoria Quartz mine, 

ft. deep. In the Transvaal gold region (South Africa), a 
nbcr of shafts have been sunk to strike the reef at about 
10 ft. In most cases the deposits worked are known to extend 
noch greater depths than have been reached. The possibility 
boisting and pumping from great depths has been discussed, 

1 it remains now to consider the other conditions which will 
d to limit mining operations in depth — namely, increase of 
iperature and increase of rock pressure. Observations in 
erent parts of the world have shown that the increase of 
iperature in depth varies: in most localities the Tise being 
the rate of one degree for 50 to zoo feet of depth; while 
the deep mines of Michigan and the Rand, an increase 
few as one degree for each 300 ft. or more has been 
crved. In the Comstock mines at Virginia City, Nevada^ it 
osMble to continue mining operations at rock temperatures of 
»® F. In these mines a constant supply of pure air, about 

cub. ft. per minute, was blown into the hot working 
ces through light iron pipes. The air issuing from these pipes 
i dry and warm, and served to keep the temperature of the 
below 120*, at which temperature it was possible for men to 
rk continuously for half an hour at a time, and for four hours 
the day. In some places work was conducted with rock 
iperatures as high as 158** F., with air 135** F. In these very 

drifts the fatality was large. In the Alpine tunnels, where 
air was moist and probably not as pure as in the Comstock 
les, great difficulty was experienced in prosecuting the work 
temperatures of 90** F. and less. The mortality was large, 

1 it was believed by the engineers that temperatures over 104** 
old have proved fatal to most of the workmen. Deep mines, 
vever, are generally dry, so that in most cases it will be possible 
realize the more favourable conditions of the Comstock 
les. Assiuning an initial mean temperature of 50° F., and 
resments of one degree for zoo and for 200 ft., a rock tem- 
ature of Z30'* will be reached at 8000 to z6,ooo ft. In 
ny deep mines to-day " explosive rock " has been encoun- 
sd. This condition manifests itself, for example, in mine 
ars which are subjected to a weight beyond the limit of elas- 
ty of the mineral of which they are composed. Under such 
ditions the pillar begins to yield, and fragments of mineral 
off with explosive violence, exactly as a specimen of rock will 
inter under pressure in a testing machine. The fljring frag- 
Qts of rock have frequently injured and sometimes killed 
lers. A similar condition of strain has been observed in 
p mines in different parts of the world — perhaps due to 
logical movements. Assuming a weight of Z3 cub. ft. to 

ton, then at 6500 ft. the pressure per sq. ft. will be 
tons, and at z3,ooo ft. zooo tons; and as the mineral is mined 
weight on the pillars left will be proportionately greater. | 
ncfa preastires all but the strongest rocks will be strained | 
ond their limit of elasticity. At depths of 1000 ft. S 



and less some of the softer rocks show a tendency to flow, as 
exhibited by the under-clay in deep coal-mines, which not 
infrequently swells up and closes the mine passages. In the 
Mont Cenis tunnel a bed of soft granite was encountered that 
continued to swell with almost irresistible force for some months. 
The pressure developed was sufficient to crush an arched lining 
of two-foot granite blocks. Similar swelling ground is not 
infrequently met with in metal mines, as, for example, in the 
Phoenix copper mine in Houghton county, Michi^n, where 
the force developed was sufficient to crush the strongest timber 
that could be used. In very deep mines this -flowing of soft 
rock will doubtless add greatly to the difficulty of zziaintaining 
openings. What may happen in some cases is illustrated by the 
curious form of accident locally known as a " bump," which 
occurs in some of the deep coal-mines of England. In one 
instance (described by F. G. Meacham, Trans. Fed. Inst. M.E. 
v. 38Z), the force developed by the swelling under-clay 
broke through and lifted with the force and suddenness of an 
explosion a fewer bench of coal 8 ft. thick in the bottom of a 
gangway xa ft. wide for a length of 200 ft., throwing men and 
mine cars violently against the roof And producing an air-wave 
which smashed the mine doors in the vicinity. It is apparent 
that the combined effect of internal heat and rock pressure will 
greatly increase the cost of mining at depths of 8000 or 
zo,ooo ft., and Ivill probably render mining impracticable in 
many instances at depths not much greater. 

Mine Administration. — In organizing a mining company it must 
be recognized that mining is of necessity a temporary business. 
When the deposit is exhausted the company must be wound up or 
its operations transferred to some other locality. Mining is alio 
subject to the risks of ordinary business enterprises, and to addi- 
tional risks and uncertainties peculiar to itself. The vast maiority 
of mineral deposits are unworkable, and of those that are developed 
a large proportion prove unprofitable. In addition mining o|3era- 
tions are subject to mtcmiption and added expense from explosions,, 
mine fires, flooding, and the caving-in <^ the workings. To provide 
for the repayment from earnings oif the capital invested in a mining 
property and expended in development, and to provide for the 
depreciation in value of the plant and equipment, an amortization 
fund must be accumulated cfuring the life of the mine; or, if it be 
desired to continue the business 01 mining elsewhere, a similar fund 
must be created for the purchase, development and e()uipment of 
a new property to take the place of the original deposit when that 
shall be exhausted. If, for example, we assume the life of a given 
mine at ten years and the rate of interest at ^ %, it will be neces- 
sary that the property shall earn nearly 13 % annually-^viz., 5% 
interest and 8% for the annual payment to the amortization or the 
reserve fund. To cover the special risks of mining, capital should 
earn a higher interest than in ordinary business, and ii we assume 
that the sinking-fund be safely invested, we must compute the 
amortization on a lower basis than 5 %. Assuming, for example, 
the life of the mine at ten years as before, and taking the interest 
to be earned by the amortization fund at 3%, and that on the 
investment at 10%, we shall find that the annual income should 
amount to z8-7% per year. These simple business principles do 
not seem to be generally recognized by the investing public, and 
mines, whose earning capacity ts accurately known, are frequently 
quoted on the stock markets at prices which cannot possibly yield 
cnoueh to the purchaser to repay his investment during the probable 
life 01 the mine. 

Mine Valuation. — ^The value of afiy property is measured by its 
annual profits. In the case of mining properties these profits are 
more or less uncertain, and cannot be accurately determined until 
the deposit has been thoroughly explored and fully devefeped. In 
many instances, indeed, profits arc more or less uncertain during 
the whole life of the mine, and it is evident that the value of the 
mining property must be more or less speculative. In the case of 
a developed mine its life may be predicted in many cases with abso- 
lute certainty— as when the extent of the mineral deposit and the 
volume of mineral can be measured. In other cases the life of 
the mine, like the value of the mineral, is more or less uncertain. 
Further, both time and money arc required for the development oi 
the mining property before any profit can be realized. Mathemati- 
cally we have thus in all cases to compute present value on the basis 
of a deferred as well as a limited annuity. The valuation of mines 
then involves the following steps: (1) The sampling of the deposit 
so far as developed, and assaying of the samples taken ; (2) The 
measurement of the developed ore; (3) estimates of the probable 
amount of ore in the undeveloped part of the property; (4) estimates 
of probable profits, life of the mine, and determination of the value 
of the property. Where the deposit is a regular one and the mineral 
is of fairly uniform richness, the taking of a few samples from widely 
separated parts of the mine will often furnish sufficient daU to 



5+0 



MINING 



<4ei:<?rmJn<; the value of tlie 6ipasit7' Oti iKfr (StKtf hartiJ In the cAse 
of uncertajn and iircguUr (leposiLa, th? value ot which vaiics bi-lween 
v^ry wid« limka, ai, lor CKairpLe — in most metal minef and e&peciatly 
mi IKS of gold and «ilver — ^ v^ry large number of samples niuat be 
taken — somrtimcn nut itiofc than two or three feel apart — in order 
that tbt Bvtragc vslue of the ore may be known within reason^tj^e 
titnit* of error* The i^tnpLins ol a iar^ mine of this c)mr3c;t«r 
may cort tnany hundreds of pourids. This appltn with even a^«*ipf 
fofct to estimates of iiisdcvdopcd. purtionu of the property, if 
thu dcpcKiit li regular and uEiiform, the value of undeveloped area* 
majf lontetinies be pfcdicted with conHxk-tice^ In the majority 
of instaitcefl, fiowever, the estimates of unde\'elopcd ore rorttjva 
A tai^e element ol uncertain ty< Jn prttcr to determine the probable 
pro6c and life of tbe mine a definite ecaIc of opcratic^nfl muFt be 
KMFumed, the money reqaired for develt^pment and pCant and for 
Wofking capital must be estimated, the methods ck mining and 
tnratmg tbe dtt determined, and their prx^bable m^t estimated. 
Where the depoiit is uncertain and the element of risk is lar^e, we 
must adopt a high nte ol intcnest on investments of capital m our 
fDQmputations of value — in some cases a^ high ^i ro, 15 or even 10%. 
Where the deposit is regular and the future ran be predicted with 
gome degree of certainty, we may be justified in adopting; In some 
cas» po«^bly as low as 5%. Tne Interest on the annua! contribu- 
tion to the imking^fund or its equivalent should be reckoned at a 
iow rate of inter'k^t, for auch fundai are assumed to be invented in 
perfectly safe weurities. Allowance must be made for the period of 
oevelopmL-nt dunn^r which there are no contributions to the ainiiing- 
furid and within which fio interest is turned on inveited capitaJ. 

Miniag BduioJwa. — ti h nece^&ary to have the work directed by 
men thoroughly familbr with the characteristics of mineral deposits, 
and with wide txpiti^ntx tn' mining. For the purpoiie of trsininf; 
*uch men special tcbools of mining engineering {tj:e>ifs dei mitun, 
Bergaktidfmtt) have been esuUliahcd m most mining coun|ri», 
A itudent of miniiig must rcoeivc thorough instruction in ^iogy; 
he must study mining as practised in different tountnc*, and 
the metatlurgic^t and niech:*nicaJ treatment of minerals^ and he 
should have an enEinccring education, cspccliilty on meeha^icaf and 
electrical lincf. As he is called upon to construct lines of transport, 
toih under^^Tound and on the surface't worka for watcr-supp!y and 
drainage, and building for the handlings £tOfti^ and trtatment 
of ore, he must be trained to some extent as a civil engineer. Ai 
m foundation his education must be thordURh in the natuial and 
physical sciences and mathematics. In addition there have been 
cstabUshK^j in many countries s^ihools for the education of workmen, 
in order to f\t them for minor positions and to enable them to work 
intelliErn.tly with the engineera. These minera* Kbooli {Berss^hulr, 
iteicsset mineuti) dvt elementary instruction in chemistry, physics, 
mecttanics, midcridirogy, geology and mathematics and drawingn a* 
well as in such detaxT^ of the ait of mininff as will best supplement 
the practical ii? format ion already aeqitircd in underj^round work. 
The tmining of a mininE engineer merely begins in the ichools, and 
mining graduates should *crve an apprenticethip before they aceept 
responjubility fof importjnt mining opera lions, ft is cspecj;il1y 
ni:t:ti$ary that they should gain CKperiencc in management of mirn, 
and in the conduct of the bueinesd deuitpp which cannot well be 
taught in ^hijoK 

AtcidtnU. — Mining b an eirtra-haianJoiis occupiation. and the 
CttastTophci, vhlch from time to time have eceurred» liave ciused 



Amende! to ejifo<Tce tlictr authority, WKiTe in some eaas Oiese Uw< 
are unnece«arily itrtnjtcni aod tend to restrict the busjnH^of mining 



yet on the whole they bitve had the effect of reducing grealJy the 
foKs of life and injuries of miiters where they have fxen w>eTl eaforced. 
This ij evident from fig. ao, which ihows the number dI men IdUeid 



in the coal and metal mintB of Great Bntain for a series ^ yearL 
M will be ^n from this diagram the most scrioui kource of death 
and injury i^jnot found in mme explosions, but in the fait of recks 
and rnmerjl in the working places. This danger can be reached 
only in sm^ill degree by lawi and inipection; but tbe £}fety of the 
men must depend upon the skill and care of the miners themselves 
and the of^cers in ehar^ of the underground work. GTcat loss ol 
life and injury occur through the ignorance, carelessness and reck- 
lessness of^ the men the mad ve^^ who faJJ to take thie n c c em ry 
precautions for their own safety, even when wamsi to do so- 
IKlining laws have pro%^ chiefly serviceable in securing the introduc- 
tion of cthcienl ventilation, the uw of safety-lamps^ and of proper 
e^iplosives, to lessen the danger from fire-damp and eoal-du±t in the 
eoal'mines, the inspection of machinery for hoisting juid haulage, 
and preventJon of accidents due to imperfection tn dcsigs or in 
working the machinery. 

Fire-damp and duM explosions are caused by the pnsence «f 
marsh -gas in sufficient quantity to form an oplod^^ mixture, 
cr by a mixture of small percentages of mar^h^ga^ 
and coal-dust, and in some cases by the pretence of 
coal-dust fiione in the air of the mine. Explctf^vc mlxturts of 
marsh -gas and air may be fired by an unprotected li^i. But whea 
coal-dust is present, and little or no piar*H-ga*, art laitiai explwoa 

*■ ' ' *" " " '*-*--- *-■' — it retjuireo. To 

ry to twe 

explosives in moderate fiuantities and to see that the bUsii-hol«s 



from 



guard against explosions from this caii« it is 
explosives in moderate fiuantities and to see th 
are proper! v pUctd, so tnat ih* danger of blofrn^ut shots itkay he 
lessened. Id dry and dutty mine* the danger may be greatly 
k&wned by sprinkling the working places and passaresv and the 
nmoval ol tne accumulated dust arid fine cftaL Where larfe 
Quantities of fire-flam p are pn-wnt, safeiy-bmps of appnovrd pattern 
must be Ti*ed and carefully inspected daily* The iwe of um^ha - 
and ruiked lights of any kind must be pcoHibiied. To l*»seo the -=. 
danger fndm blatiting operations the u^ Of spodal safety eirpkk«ive»dH 
IS reauircd in Great Brltjin and »me European coutime^ The:^ 
use of such c*plo*jve5 decreases to some extent th* danger from dttii= 
explosions; but ex(»r'«fHrnt shows that no cSiclent fir^itofive 'n^m. 
absolutely liife, if used %a csccssJ^-e auantity, or in an (mpTOpci= 
miinner, Ab«K>tute security is impos«ibie. *s is proved by tlbe tnany^ 
and serious disasters under the most ttringeat tawit and ca/efu^iM 
regulations that can be devised* 

Mine Jiies may originate from ordinary taus«v but in additk?^^ 
they may result from the exptosion of fire-damp or from the icci — 
denial lighting of jets of firodamp i«auing from the coaL ^t^^ Ftr^^^ 
]n some mining districts the coal \% liable to spontaneous 
combustion. A fire underB;round speedily beromes formidabii^s 
not only in coal but also in metal mmes, on account of the Ur^^^ 
ouantity oL timber used to support the excavations. Undcrfroui^b^ 
fires may sometimes f>c extinguished by direct attack with waters 
The dimculty of extinguishing an underground fire in this wjy ^^» 
however^ very great, ai on account of the poisonous produeti ^m. 
combustion it is impossible to attack it except in the rear^ and e %^ m^ 
thetv the mea ojne always in gteat danger from the tevcnal d m^JM 



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-tH, ACCiQ4Wri m »Mti AMtift HPttt. 



Fig. 20. — Death-rate from various classes of accidents in and about all mines in the United Kingdom from 1873 to 190O1 

the enactment of laws. to protect the lives of the men engaged in I air current, or back-draught from tbe fire. Further, the bunni 
underground work. These laws are enforced by mine inspectors of the timber produces falb of ground, maldng Decenary the acrn* 
who are empowered to call upon the courts and other govenuneot 1 tion and removal at times ol hundreds of tons of hesibd nam 



MINING 



S4I 



J oobU in order to reach the fire. When direct attacic it no 
kMger practicable, it is possible to extinguish the fire by seating the 
mine workings, and exhausting the supply of oxygen. 1 1 is necessary, 
however, to x^p the mine sealed until the burning timbers, or coal, 
and the red-hot rocks have become cool, or the fire will again break 
out. This sometimes requires two or three months. Where an 
effective sealing of the mine is impracticable it is sometimes possible 
to extinguish the fire from the outside of the mine by constructing 
a large reservoir or tank in the upper part of the mine-shaft and 
suddenly releasing a large volume of water by opening discharge- 
doors. The mass of water falling down the shaft is converted into 
spray, which is carried by the force of the fall k>ng distances into 
the workings. Where the fire is in or near the shaft this method 
has proved very effective. Mine fires may sometimes be reached 
by bore-holes sunk for the pur(x>se from the surface, and the bummg 
workings below filled by flushing with culm and water. As a last 
resort the mine may be flooded with water. This is an expensive 
operation as it entails the cost of pumping the water out again and 
repairing the resulting damage. If the fire is in working places to 
the rise the water may not reach the burning portions (n the mine, 
but will effectually seal them. But sufficient time must be allowed 
to elapse before pumping out the water, as otherwise the fire may 
break out again. 

Mines may become flooded by the inrush of surface waters in 
times of great rainfall or sudden floods, or by the undermining of 

surface waters. The mine workings may also be flo<xled 
' by large bodies of underground water. The surface 

floods must be provided with channels of sufficient 
siae to carry them safely past the mine openings, and intercepting 
ditches should be excavated for this purpose, and dams and embank- 
ments constructed to divert the flood waters. That it is possible 
to work with safety beneath rivers, lakes and even the ocean has 
been proved in numerous instances; mines in different parts of the 
world having been extended long distances under the sea. In such 
cases preliminary surveys should oe made to determine the thickness 
of rock over the proposed workings. Under favourable conditions 
mining may be conaucted under the protection of a few yards of 
solid rock only, as in the submarine work for the removal of reefs 
in the harbours of San Francisco and New York. At Silver Islet, 
Lake Superior, mining was successfully carried on for years under 
the protection of a cofTer dam and an arch <A rich silver ore less 
than 2o h. thick. At Wheal Cock near St Just in Cornwall the 
protecting toq( was «> thin that holes bored for blasting more than 
once pcuftriEod ti? tht bed of the ocean, and wooden plugs were 
kept on hand to drive into such holes when this occurred. In 
storms th< boutdifra couM be he;ird striking each other overhead. 
When Urge »rt4* arc imdpfmin«l, as in submarine coal mining, it 



South Africft and elsewhere. Thtt seems to be due to the duat 
abundantly produced in mining operatk>ns. and eqjecially by machine 
drills when boring " dry " (rising) blast holes. Drill runners, who 
are compelled to oreathe this dusty air daily, furnish moat (^ the 
sufTerers from phthisis. The increased morulity seems to be due 
to the general tendency toward forced speed in development work, 
which is secured by rapid drilling, and by an increase in the number 
of nuchine drills used in a ungle working-place. The miners, to 
save time, often return to their work after blasting before the powder- 
smoke and dust have been sufficiently removed. It b probable 
that the carbon monoxide seriously affects the general health and 
viulity of the men, and renders them more likely to succumb to 
phthisis. More effective ventilation will materially lessen the death- 
rate. In the metal mines of Cornwall and Devon ^>ecial rules are 
now in force rcquiriqg the use of water in drilling, and other pre- 
cautions, to lessen this danger from dust. In some mines oust 
seems to have but little effect on the health of the miners; indeed 
it is even claimed by some that coal dust decreases the mortality 
from phthisis. On the other hand, as in mining ores containing 
lead, arsenic and mercury, the dust may be poisonous^ The climb- 
ing of ladders from deep mines not only lessens the efficiency of the 
men by reason of fatigue, but often tends to increase the mortality 
from diseases of the heart. In cold climates men coming from the 
warm atmosphere of a mine, often in wet ck>thing. are liable to 
suffer in health unless proper provision is made for the necessary 
change of clothing. In such cases the establishment of dressing- 
rooms, properly heated, and connected with the mine by covenMl 
passages will m necessary. These " change-houses " are provided 
with washing and bathing facilities, and arrangements for drying 
wet clothing. Ankylostomiasis {q.v.) is a disease which finds a 
congenial habitat in the warm damp atmosphere of mines, and hat 
become a veritable scourge in some mining regions. The disease 
yields readily to treatment, but is diflficult to eradicate from a mine 
without stringent sanitary regulations to prevent its spread. The 
care of the health (^ the working force should be entrusted to com- 
petent mine physicians, thoroughly familiar with the conditions 
under which tfie miners work, and with the special diseases to which 
they are subject. The men should be instructed in the laws of 
saniution, and in the proper care of injured men. 

Mine Law. — Mine law is that branch of the law of real property 
relating to mineral and mining rights as distinct from rights pertain- 
ing to the surface of the around. Under the common law the owner 
of the surface possesses all mining rights as well, unless these have 
been reserved by some previous owner of the property. From very 
ancient times deposits of gold and silver have in most countries 
been held a& the property of the crown. In public or government 



land the minerals as well as surface belong to the state, and not 
is best to'bAvis: scvcrdl htiridretj feet of protecting rock. In Great infreouently these rights have been separated bv law and granted 
Britain the law rwiuinrs (has tht workings shall be protected by or otherwise disposed <rf to different owners. It is to the public 

' . . •• interest that deposits of mineral should not be permitted to remain 

idle and undeveloped. This has been recognized from the earliest 
times, and laws have been framed in all countries for the encourage- 
ment of mining enterprise. In many cases the state or the ruler 
has sought to obtain a share in the profits of mining, or even to work 
I . ■ ■■ .- ' . . :l I . ■; ■ .f the rulcT or of tne ilate. But la 

hiM ? ^..■■ - >i I I- i- ' ih i-.i.,.,i ,.t-iter policy for tbc state to div«t 
ir^li[ Dl hiH interest in mmini^ property, and to OftCnd all po&aibje 
encouragement to those who unaeriakc the development of the 
mineral wealth of the nation. The mining Uwa d mott civilifrd 
states ^rant the right of free profipectinf; over the public ladds. 



IX) ft. of solid stratji. When I lie presence of underground bodies 
of water it knowfi or suspected, advance bore-holes should radiate 
from the end ot the advancing working place so as to give warning 
of the position of the body o( water, ihcse holes being of such length 
IS to ensure a safe thickness of wild rock. 

The ca\nng in of mine working^ results from the excavation of 
large are^t supported upon p\)h.f^ of insufficient size. While the 
mine workings are small the overlying rocks support themselves 
C iji MMof *"** ^**® '"** pressure does not come upon the mine 
rVj^ pillars. As the workings increase in size the pillars 
y*!^ support an incrca«ng weight until finally they are strained 

wonarngM. b^yonj t^e limit of elastkrity. When this occurs, the 
pillars begin to crack and splinter with a noise like musketry firing, 
and the roof of the mine shows signs of subsidence. This may con- 
tinue for weeks before the final crash takes place. At first a fall of the 
roof occurs locally, here and there througnout the mine, and these 
falls may succeed one another until the settlement of portions of the 
roof has so far relieved the strain that the remaining areas are sup- 
ported by the stronger pillars, and by the fallen rock masses. Whue 
abundant warning of the caving-in of the workings is thus given 
in advance it may happen that men arc unexpectedly imprisoned 
by the closing of the main passage ways. Tne caving-in of the 
mine, however, is rarely so complete that avenues of escape are not 
open. In many cases, however, it has been found necessary to 
reopen the mine through the fallen ground, and even to excavate 
openings through the solid mineral. The history of mining is full 
of dramatic episodes of this character. 

Accklenu from the misuse and careless handling of explosives 
are unfortunately too frequent in mines. The conditions under 
which explosives may be stored, handled and used are 
carefully formulated in the mining laws of most states, 
^ but it is almost impossible to secure obedience to these 
' regulations on the part of the miners, who are, as a rule, 
both careless and reckless in their use of powder. In some states 
it has become necessary to provide for fines and even imprisonment 
of men disobeying the regulations regarding explosives. 

Mine Hyti^ne. — While mining is not necessarily an unhealthy 
occupation, miners are subject to certain diseases resulting from 
vitiated air, and from unusual or special conditions under which 
St times they are forced to work. Recent investigations have shown 
tn alarming increase in mortality from miners' phthisis in Cornwall, 



protnrt i^he rights of the dlKovereT of the njinerat deposit durirtg 
the period of exploration, and provide for the acquisition ol fnineral 
property on favourable terms. Striking eitamples of the rar-reaehmg 
cETect of ftpch law^ \i ihown in the hl^iory o* the Rocky JVlountain 
region ancl western coast of the Unilecl State*, the colonization and 
dcvrlopment of Australia, and the development of Aiaska, 

BiBUOcaAPBYr— See C I^ Neve F otic e'^ Che and Sioiw Minint 
^fith ed., LondoHiH 1905), or C* KfihWr's L^ktbuik der BetilnLultundt 
(fith cd:., Lj'ipfi^, 1903-5^' The following work* moy alfeo be eonauUed: 
Books — Bertolio, Colimitioni dfHf rnin47f (Milan, 1^2); Brown^ 
Tht Orianizaiion af Goid Minini Baiinfit (Ctasgow^ 1^7)^ D rough, 
Mint Sunrfying {llXh ed., London h too6} ; Bui man and Redmayne, 
Caiti^ry WorktHff and Monagrmtyjl (London, rftq*) : Colomer, Ei- 
pimifiiii)^ dfi «iit« (Paris, 1S991); Ctirle, The Gald Min^i cjiht World 
itnd ed,, London, 1903) ; Dtcnanet, Ttaiti d'txplcfitattm dtt minet 
rfe boviiUt (2nd cd„ Bru^eseU, voli. t apd 11. ie*>S, vot. iii. 1899); 
Denny, Deep Levei Mittrs nf tkf Fand (Londohn 1902); GalTomay. 
l^ii'^ret flw Mining (CardilT, i«Kj); Habets, Cpurk d^fxpieitatum 
dri mines {ifld ed., Li^e, vol, 1.. 1906, voL iL 1904) : Hatch and 
Chalmers, The.Gotd Minei of i fie Rar^ (London, ifl^s): Hatan de la 
Goupilli^re, Coufi d^^xpltnMtion des mines (2nd ed., Parii^ vol. u 
i^q6, vol. ii. i807h Hoefer. Taschenbtteh fur Berimanner (Leciben+ 
tSqj): Hughe*, cW Minint (itli eil., London, rooo) ; M. C Ihl^nf;, 
A Mnnnal of Mining (4th ed,. New York, 1905) ; Kirsthner ,C?niff(tiif 
der ErziiufhfTtilun£ (Leipiij and Vicnnn, vof i. 1^, vol- ii. Tft^oh 
Lavt-n. XfUtAcfounUCTid Affttin^ Botti-ktepine (London, 1807) ; Lup- 
ton. Atinini (^d ed., London. i&30): T. A. Hickard, The Sof^plimi 
and Enit»Jiiifn of On in d Mmf (New York, 1904); Tni&cott, The 
WitwaittiTQ^d Ciytdfifldi^Bstnht and Mimttft Ptaeiift (London, 
Ifl^ : G. F. Williams* The Dvtmoitd MtHes sj S&itik Africa (New Yof It, 



5+2 



MINION— MINISTRY 



1907); Pcnodidl Fuh\iakt\otM—An0altt dts mimi dt Bfliiqut (BriJi- 
ttl^t qu^rtcrEv)^ Aujiraiuim AliniKg Standard (^fctbDu^^le, Sydney 
and Brubdni^,, weekly); EB^incering und Mfning Jvttmal (New YDrk, 
iv«ekly}: Gluikauf (E»cn, weeltly); Mmtf and Quarritsi Cenftal 
Report and Si^iutks (Londt^nt annuiHyJT vitti details frorn oflici^l 
ffpcrts o( colon uL And Eorrlgn mininif departments; Alt net and 
MiTUrtiii (monthly, ScranlQni Pennsylvania) ; The Minttal itidinlty 
[New York. annu^]y)H TrammSions sftht Amttican ImiiHiU. of Mint- 
***f Engtnieri (Neitf York) ; The Ifenini and Siiinti^c Fms [wdncklyn, 
San FraiKiKoh Tramaciians aj tkt laitituie oj Mtntniand XfttaUurgy 
(LonjdDn:) ; TmnsiKthm fl/ Uk Irniiiuiwn of MmmzEtttineeri (New- 
eajtlt-Dn'TyocJ. <H. S. M J 

KlHIOHp a fsvourite} pet or epoUeii person. The ^o?d h 
adapted from the Fr» mignon (ItaL mi inane) ^ of which th? 
origin h doubtfuL Connexioos with the O.H. Cefh minna^ 
\ovtj and wilh a Cehic root mm-, meaning smaU^ h&ve 
beeo suggested. " Muuod " is chie^y applied in a derogatory 
sense to the " cntaturca " of a royal court, and thus has been 
usfd of the favourites of Edward II. and James I. of England, 
and ol Henry III- of France, la the sense pretty, deUcate, 
d&intyr the French farm mignon or mign^m^K is often u^ in 
EtigUsb. Duriag the i7t]i centuiy " muuon " wu the n^me 
of a typ« of cannon with a sni^ll bore. In typography,, it is 
still used for the type which comes between " Donpareil '' 
and " brevicf.'* 

HtHlfTER (Lat« minisUr, servant), an oUrial title both civil 
and eci;lesListical. The word ministtr aa originaUy used in 
the Latin Church wa» a tranilaiion of the Greek &idwvoi, deacon ; 
thus L%cti:]inlius spciiks oE pf&sbyta-i et miniiiri, priests and 
deacons {De mori^ pEmcitU}fHm^ No. 15), and in this sense it is 
ItUl technicxdly used; thus canoti vi., Sesa. ixIm. oi the council 
of Trent speaks of the hierarchy as consiiting "ex eptuffpist 
fmkylffis d ministrh." But the equivocal character of the 
mud Kxni led to the blurting of any strictly technical sense it 
o&ce possessed. Bishops bienti>d themselves miniiter m the 
spirit of humility, priests were " servants of the altar" {minviri 
aiiaris)t while sometimea the phrase mtnistn ecdawe was used 
to denote the cler^ in minor orders («e Lex B^jwar, tih 8,, 
quoted in Du Cange). A simikr equivocal character attaches 
to the word minEster sas u»d in the Anglican formuUries^ 
" Oftentimes it is m^de to express the person oHiciating in 
genera], whether priest or deacon; at other times it denotcth I he 
priest alone, as contradistinguished itom the deacon ** (Burn's 
£«/, Law, cd. I'hLllimore, iii. 44). Thus the jjrd canon of i6oj 
orders that '^ no bishop thai] make any penion a deacon and 
minister both together upon one day." Generally, however^ it 
may be said that in the use of the Church of England " minbter " 
means no more than extfuicf ojicii, a sense in which it was 
used long before the Rcformatioti. As the most colourless of all 
official ecclesiastiiCjJ titles, it is easy to see how the word minister 
has come to be applied to the clergy of Protestant denominations. 
The phrase " tninister of rdigjoa " is wide enough to embrace 
any evfingelical olhce, and has a.bout it more of the savour of 
humility than " pastor." 

The dvLI title of minister originates in the same exact sense 
of servant^ ie, servants of the royal household {ministri Qui^e 
reps). This origin is still deariy traceiable in the titles of some 
ministers in Grcjit Dritatn, e.g^ chanctUor of the exchequer, 
first lord of the treasury, and in the ofBciid style of " Ids majesty's 
servants ' ' appli ed to alL Praci itally , ho we vcr, the word ministe r 
has in modern states cg^me to be appUed to the heads of the great 
admini.^lrativc depart mentii who as such are members of the 
government. On the continent tJiere are, besides, " ministers 
without port f alio," l€* ministers who, without being m charge 
of any special department, are rn embers of the govern meat^ 
In general it a distinctive of constitutional states that any 
public act of the sovereign must bear the countersignature of 
Iht minister responsible for the department concerned. (See 
the articles MiNtSTHTf and Caimket* For the history and 
raeaningsof the word " minister " in diplomacy, see Dipiomacy.) 

(W.A.P) 

HINISTRY, the oEce of a minister f^^vOt tn til its meanings, 
political ond religious, or the body of persons holding such an 
ofl&ce and pefformioj its duties; more particularly the body of 



persons who, in theory the servants at the head of tbe state, act 
as the responsible executive over the whole sphere of govcnunent, 
as in the United Kingdom. On the continent of Europe, on tbe 
other hand, the word " ministry " is most usually applied to the 
responsible head of a particular department together with his 
subordinates, including the permanent officials or staff. In 
England, ever since the introduction of monarchical institutions 
the sovereign has always been surrounded by a select body of 
confidential advisers to assist the crown in the government o£ 
the country. At no period could a king of England act, accord- 
ing to law, without advice in the public concerns of the king- 
dom; the institutions of the crown of England and the institution 
of the privy council are coeval. At the Norman Conqtiest the 
king's council, or as it is now called, the privy council, was 
composed of certain members of the aristocracy and great 
officers of state, specially summoned by the crown, with whom 
the sovereign usually advised in matters of state and govemmenL 
In the earlier stages of English constitutional history the king's 
councillors, as confidential servants of the monarch, were present 
at every meeting of parliament in order to advise upon matters 
judicial in the House of Lords; but in the reign of Richard IL 
the privy council dissolved its judicial connexion wilh the peers 
and assumed an independent jurisdiction of its own. It was in 
the reign of Henry VI. that the king's council first assumed the 
name of privy council, and it was also during the minority of 
this sovereign that a select council gradually emerged from the 
larger body of the privy council, which ultimately became the 
modem cabinet. Since the Revolution of 1688, and the develop- 
ment of parliamentary government, the privy council has 
dwindled into comparative insignificance. The power once 
swayed by the privy council is now exercised by that unrecog- 
nized select committee of the council known as the cabinet iq.v.). 
The practice of consulting a few confidential advisers instead 
of the whole privy council had been resorted to by English 
monarchs from a very early period; but the first mention of the 
term cabinet council in contradistinction to privy council 
occurs in the reign of Charles I., when the burden of state affairs 
was entrusted to the committee of state which Clarendon says 
was enviously called the " cabinet coundL" At first government 
by cabinet was as unpopular as it was irregular. Until the for- 
mation of the first parliamentary ministry by William IIL the 
ministers of the king occupied no recognized position in the House 
of Commons; it was indeed a moot point whether they were 
entitled to sit at all in the lower chamber, and they were seldom 
of one mind in the administration of matters of importance. 
Before the Revolution of 1688 there were ministers, but no 
ministry in the modem sense of the word; colleague schemed 
against colleague in the council chamber, and it was no uncom- 
mon thing to sec ministers opposing one another in parliament 
upon measures that in modern times would be supported by a 
united cabinet. As the change from government by prerogative 
to government by parliament, consequent upon the Revolution 
of x688, developed, and the House of Commons became more 
and more the centre and force of the state, the advantage of 
having ministers in the legislature to explain and defend the 
measures and policy of the executive government began to be 
appreciated. The public authority of the crown being only 
exercised through the medium of ministers, it became absolutely 
necessary that the advisers of the sovereign, who were respon- 
sible for every public act of the Crown as well as for the general 
policy they had been called upon to administer, should have 
seats in both Houses of Parliament. Still nearly a century had 
to elapse before political unanimity in the cabinet was recognised 
as a political maxim. From the first parliamentary ministry of 
William lU. until the rise of the second Pitt, divisions in the cabi- 
net were constantly occurring, and a prime minister had mon 
to fear from the intrigues of his own colleagues than from the 
tactics of the opposition. In 1812 an attempt was made to form 
a ministry consisting of men of opposite political principles, who 
were invited to accept office, not avowedly as a coalition govern- 
ment, but with an offer to the Whig leaders that their friends 
should be allowed a majority of one in the cabinet. This offer 



MINISTRY 



-wnM dedined on the plea that to construct a cabinet on "a 
system of counteraction was inconsistent with the prosecution 
«>f any uniform and beneficial course of policy." From that 
«late it has been an established principle that all cabinets are to 
l)e formed on some basis of political union agreed upon by the 
members when they accept office together. It is now also dis- 
minctly understood that the members of a cabinet are jointly and 
severally responsible for each other's acts, and that any attempt 
to distinguish between a particular minister and his colleagues in 
such matters is unconstitutional. 

During the 19th century the power of ministers was greatly 
extended, and their duties became more distinctly marked out. 
As now interpreted, the leading prindples of the British constitu- 
tion are the personal irresponsibility of the sovereign, the respon- 
sibility of ministers, and the inquisitorial and controlling power 
of parliament. At the head of affairs is the prime minister iq.v.), 
whose duties are more general than departmental; and the other 
members of the administration, whose work is exemplified by 
the titles of their offices (the more important of which are treated 
separately), are the lord high chancellor, the lord president of 
the coimcil, the lord privy seal, the first lord of the treasury, 
the five secretaries of state (home, foreign affairs, colonies, war, 
India), the chancellor of the exchequer, the secretary for Scot- 
land, the chief secretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, the 
postmaster-general, the presidents of the board of trade, the 
local government board, the board of agriculture and the 
board of education (all of which were originally committees of 
the privy council), the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster 
and the first lord of the admiralty. These are the more impor- 
tant members of the administration, and they are generally in 
the cabinet. The subordinate members of the administration, 
some of whom are occasionally invited to join the cabinet, 
whOe others are never in it, are the parliamentary and financial 
secretary to the admiralty, the parliamentary under-secretaries 
of the home, foreign, war, colonial and India offices, the board 
of trade, local government and board of education, the junior 
brds of the treasury (assisUnt " whips "), the financial secretary 
and patronage secretary to the treasury (the senior " whip "), 
the first commissioner of works, the paymaster-general, and the 
attorney-general and soUcitor-general. There are in addition 
the lord advocate and the solicitor-general for Scotland, the lord- 
lieutenant and lord chancellor of Ireland (who are sometimes 
members of the cabinet), and the attorney-general and solicitor- 
general for Ireland. 

Tablb of Lord Treasurers or First Lords op the 
Treasury 
[The title was ^t first lord treasurer, except when the treasury 
vas put in commission. Ultimately special rank was given to one 
of the commissioners as first lord of the treasury. From the 
titnc (^ the carl of Essex (1679) the name given is that of the first 
lords, with the exception of the three printed in italics. In modern 
times the first lord of the treasury has usually;, but not invariably, 
been the head of the government or prime minister. A list of the 
f^rimc Ministers is given in the article Prime Minister. 
I603. Lord Buckhurst. cr. Earl 1649. Interregnunn. 



of Dorset 1604. 

i6oa. Earl of Salisbury. 

'612. Earl of Northampton and 
others. (Commissioners.) 

I614. Earl of Suffolk. 

16 1 8. Archbishop Abbot and 
others. (Commissioners.) 

»62o. Sir H. Montagu, cr. Vis- 
count Mandeville 1620. 

I621. Lord Cranfield. cr. Earl of 
Middlesex 1622. 
Sir J. Ley, cr. Lord Ley 
1625. and Earl of Marl- 
borough 1626. 
Lord Weston, cr. Earl of 



I624. 



I628. 



Portland 1633. 

Taud 



1660. Sir E. Hyde and others. 

(Commissioners.) 
1660. Earl of Southampton. 
1667. Duke of Albemarle and 
* others. (Commissioners.) 

1672. Lord Clifford. 

1673. Viscount Dunblane, cr. 

Earl of Danby 1674. 
1679. Farl of Essex. 
1679. Lord Hyde. cr. Eari of 

Rochester 1682. 
1684. Lord Godolphin. 
1687. Lord Bellasyse. 

1689. Earl of Monmouth. 

1690. Viscount Lonsdale. 
1690. Lord Godolphin. 
1697. C. Montagu, cr. Earl of 

Halifax 



1635. Archbishop 'Laud and 
others. (Commissioners.) Halifax I700. 

1636. W. Juxon, Bishop of Lon- 1699. Earl of Tankerville. 

don. 1700. Lord Godolphin. 

1641 . Sir E. Littleton and others. 1 70 1 . Earl of. Carlisle. 

(Commissioners.) 1702. Lord Godolphin, 

1643. Lord Cottington. 1710. Earl Poulett. 



171 T, Eari fif (hford* 
1714. Duke iff Skrrmibtirf. 

1714. tiarl of Halifax, 
[715. Eart or Carlisle, 

1715. Sir R. Walpolc. 

1717. Lonl Stdnhopv, 
t7td. Earl of SuntkrUnd' 
[71 J. Sir R. Walpole^ 
174J. Earl of WUminfton. 
r74j. H. Pelhafid. 

1754. Duke of Newcattle^ 
1756. Dukr of Devonshire* 
175?, Dukp or Newcastle. 
1 76 J, Earl of Buie, 
1763^ O, GnrnvLltir. 

1765, Marqueu of Rocklnghiiia. 

1766, Duke of Grafton . 
1770. Lord North. 

1782. Marqumi of RDcJungham. 

1782. Earl of Shtlbyrne. 

1783. Duke of Ponbnd. 
1783. W. Pitt. 

1801. H. Addington. 
1804. W. Pitt. 

1806. Lord Grenville. 

1807. Duke of Portland. 
1807. S. Perceval. 

1 812. Earl of LiverpooL 
1827. G. Canntne. 

1827. Viscount Goderkh. 

1828. Duke of Wellington. 
1830. Earl Grey. 

1834. Viscount Melbourne. 
1834. Sir R. Peel. 

Table of Lord Chancellors 
1603. Sir T. Egerton, L.K.. cr. 

Lord Ellesmere 1603, and 

Viscount Brackley 1616. 
1617. Sir F. Bacon, L.K.. cr. 

Lord Venilam 1618. 

and Viscount St Albans 

1621. J. Williami^ Bi&hop of 

Lineolrkn, L.K- 
1625. Sir T. Coven try^ L.K., cr. 

Lord Covcrnry' 1628. 

1640. Sir J* Firtch, L.K., cr. 

Lord Finth 1640* 

1641. Sir £. Littlctoni L.K., 

cr. Lord Lytic! ton 164 1. 
1645. Sir R. Lane. L,tC 
1649. fnten-eenuin. 
1660. Sir E, Hyde, C.. cr. Lofd 

Hyde t66o. and Earl of 

Crarendon 16O1. 
1667. Sif 0. Bridecman, L.K. 

1672. Earl of ShaTleibury , C. 

1673. Sir H. Finch, L.K..cr. Lord 

Finch 1674, C, 1675, 

cr. Earl of Nottingham 

1681. 
1682. Sir F. North, L.K., cr. 

Lord Guilford 1683. 
1685. Lord leffreys. C. 
1690. Sir T. Maynard and others. 

(Commissioners.) 
1690. Sir J. Trevor and others. 

(Commissioners.) 
1693. Sir J. Somers, L.K., C. 

cr. Lord Somers 1697. 
1700. Sir N. Wright. L.K. 
1705. W. Cowper. L.K.. cr. Lord 

Cowper 1706. C. 1707. 
1710. Sir T. Trevor and others. 

(Commissioners). 
1710. Sir S. Harcourt. L.K., cr. 

Lord Harcourt 171 1, C. 

1713. 
1 7141. Lord Cowper, C. 

1 7 18. Sir R. Tracy and others. 

(Commissioners.) 
1 7 1 8. Lord Parker, C. cr. Earl of 

Macclesfield 1721. 
1725. Sir J. Jekyll and others. 

(Commissioners.) 
1725. Lord King, C. 
1733. Lord Talbot of Hensol. C. 
1737. Lord Hardwicke, C, cr. 

Earl of Hardwicke 1754. 



543 

1835. Viscount Melbourne. 

1841. Sir R. Peel. 

1846. I^rd J. Russell, cr. Earl 

Russell 1861. 
1852. Earl of Derby. 
1852. ^d of Abi^rdeen. ^ 

185^. Viicount Palmerttoa^ ^ 

1858. Earl d Derby, 

1859. V'iiCQunt Palmerslon. 

1865. Carl Rusitll. 

1866. Earl af Derby, 
1868. B. Di&racli. 
1868. W. E. Gladstone. 

1874. B Disrftcti, cr. Eajl of 

Reacorisfidd 1876. 
1880. W E. Ctfldssone. 

1885. Sir Siifford N'orthcole^ cr. 

Earl of Iddc-^lL-ifih re«5 
(pri me rfi i nistcr, Marqutis 
of Satisbyry). 

1886. W. E, Gbdsiton*, 

1886. MdrfTUFw of Salisbury. 

1887. W. H. Smith fprimt minis- 

ter. Lord Sdb^bjry]). 

1891. A, J. Bilfour (^rimeiDioIit' 

tcr. Lord Saliibury}. 

1892. W. E. GlidBtone. 

1894. Earl of Rcueber^. 

1895. A J- Bilfour (prime minis- 

ter, Lord Niliibury till 

1902). 
1905. Sir H. Campbell-Banaeff- 

man. 
1908. H. H. Asquith. 

(C.) OR Lord Keepers (L.K.) 

1756. Sir J. WlMea and othen, 

(,Co m miasii^ncrs^ ) 

1757. Sir R. Henl*y, LK., cr* 

LordH^rnleyandC, 1760, 
E^rl of Narthirif[ton 1 7^. 

1766. Lord Camden^ C. 

1770. Charles Yorkc. C. 

1770. Sir S. S. Sm]^the and 

othen. (Commiiiloners.) 

1771. Lord Apsley, C. succeeded 

a* Earl y^thunt t7?5* 
1778. Lord Thurlow, C^ 
1783. Lord ILoughbcirpu^h and 

others. {C>iT]Tni^siom't**) 

1783. Lord Ihurlow. C 

1792. Sir J. Eyre and others. 

(Commissioners.) 

1793. Lord LoughthTjro'UE'ir C, 

cr. Earl ol l^D&^l>^n 1801. 
1801. Lord EldcLii, C. 

1806. Lor [J Er^kine, C- 

1807. Lord Eldon, C. 
1827. Lortf Lyndhun^t, C« 
1830. Lorrf Brougham. C. 

1834. Ldrd UndTmrsf, C 

1835. Sir C- C. Pepysand othen. 

(Commi«ion<^rs.) 

1836. LorrJ Cottenham^ C 
1 84 1. Lord Lynd hurst, C. 
1846. Lord Cottenham. C. 
1850. Lord Lanjgdale and Dihers. 

tConifniisionera.) 
1850. Lord TfLiro^ C. 
1852. l-ord Fit Leoniird^H C. 
1852. Lord Cfanworihf C> 

1858. Lord Chclmsiatd. C 

1859. Lord Campbell, C* 
1 86 1. Lord VVcsibur>\ C^ 

1865. Ijord Cranworth.-C* 

1866. Lord Chelmsford, C. 
1868. Lonl Cairni, C. 
1868. l^fd Hithei-ley, C. 
1872. lonJ S<?tb<»riic, C 

1874. Lord Coirns, €.♦ cr. Earl 

Cairns 1^79. 
1880. Uifrl ScnHornc. C, cr. Earl 

of St I barn c 1^82. 

1885. Lord Habbury. C. 

1886. Urd Herschell. C. 
1866. Lord Halsbury. C. 
1892. Lord Herschefl. C. 

1895. Lord Halsbury. C. cr. Earl 

of Halsbury 1898. 
|(?n5. Lord Loreburn, C. 



544 



MINISTRY 



Tails op Sicutauxs op Statb 

(The aubititution of two MoeUriet for one wu the couequence of the iocreue of budneie. There vat l. 

of departaaenta, each secretary taking whatever work the king saw fit to entrust him with During the reigns of the 6fBt two 
Stuarts, however, there was a tendency to entrust one secretary with the co r re sp ondence with Pkotestant states nnd their alUes^ 
and the other with the correspondence with Catholic states. Probably in the reisn of Charles II., and certainly as early as 
1691, two departments, the Northern and the Southern, were instituted. In 1782 tne departments were changed to Home and 
Foreign. A third secretary of sUte was appointed in 1794, and he was called the Secretary for War and the Colonies from 
1801 to 1854. when the work was divided, and the War and Colonial Secretaryships were instituted. The SecretaiyoC State for 
India was appointed in 1858.] 



1603. Sir R. Cecil, cr. Lord CecU 

1603, Viscount Cranbome 

1604, Earl of Salisbury 
1605 

i6ia. Vacant. 

1614. Sir R. Winwood. 

161S Sir T.Lake. 

16x8. Sir R. Naunton. 

1619 SirG. Calvert. 

1633. Sir E. Conway, cr. Lord 
Conway 1635. 

Idas ; Sir A. Morton. 

Idas Sir J. Coke. 

1628. Viscount Dorchester. 
163a. SirF.Windebank. 

1640. Sir H. Vane. 

1641. Sir E. Nicholas. 

164a.' Viscount Falkland. 

1643 LordDigby. 



1643. Interregnum. 



Sir W. Morrice. 



, Sir E. Nicholas. . 
I66a. SirH. Bcnnet.cr. Earl 
of Arlington 1663. 

1668 SirJ.Trcvor. 

167a. Henry Coventry 

1674. Sir J. Williamson. 
1678. Earl of Sunderland. 

1680 Sir L. Jenkins. 

1681. Lord Conway. 

1683. Earl of Sunderland. 

1684. .... 
1684. .... 

1688. ^ . . • . 

1689. Earl of Shrewsbury. 

1690. Viscount Sidney. 
1692. SirJ.Trenchard. 

1694 

169s. SirW.TrumbulL 
1697. J. Vernon. 

1700. Sir C. Hedges. . -- , 

1 701 Earl of Manchester. 

t7oa Earl of Nottingham. 

1704. R.Harley,cr.Earlof Oxford 171 1 

1706. Earl of Sunderland. 

1708 H. Boyle, cr. Baron Carleton 

171a Lord Dartmouth, cr. Earl 
of Dartmouth 1711. 

1713. W. Bromley. 

1 714. J. Stanhope, cr. Earl Stan- 
hope 1718 



S. Godolphin. 
Earl of Middleton. 
Viscount Preston. 
Earl of Nottingham. 



Earl of Shrewsbury. 



Earl of Jersey. 



17 14. 

H. St. John.cr. Viscount Boling- 
broke 171a. 

Viscount Townshend. 



171 7. EarlofSunderhnd. 

1718. EarlSunhope. . 
17a I. Viscount Townshend. 
1734. . . 
I730« Lord lliirnng^ton, 
174a. Lord CarttTTt, became 

t^rl Granville 1744. 
1744. E^^l^^ l^srringtoa. 
1740. Efiri Gnnville, 
1746W EaHof Hnrrington. 
1746. Earl of Chesterfield. 
1748. Duke ol BKJlDrd. 
I7St. EarlofHaJckrmPH. 
1754. 



I. Addison. 

LordQuteret. 
Duke of Newcastle^ 



Sir T. Robtnaoo. cr. Baroo 

Grantham 1761 
H.Fox. 
W.Pitt. 



Earl of Egremoot. 

Earl of Sandwich. 
H. S. Conway. 

Viscount Weymouth. 



Earl of Bute. 
1761. 

176a. G. Grenville. 
1763. Earl of HaUfax. 
1763. Duke of Grafton. 
1766. Duke of Richmond. 
1766. EarlofShelbume. 
1768. .... 
1 768. Eari of HUlsborough, CoUh 

nits. 
1768. EariofRochford. 

177a Earl of Sandwich. 

1771 Earl of Halifax. 

1771 Earl of Suffolk. 

1772. Earlof Dartmouth, Ca/mter. 
1775* Viscount Weymouth, cr. 

Marquess of Bath 1780. 
1776. Lord G. S. Germaine, Cd/o- 

nies, 

1779' 

1779. Earl (^ Hillsborough, cr. 

Marquess of Downshire 1789 
178a. W. Ellis, cr. Baron Mendip, 

1794. Colonies. 

Home Departnunt, Foreign DepartmenL 

178a. Earl of Shclbume. . • C. J. Fox. (1783 

1782. Lord Grantham. . . T. Townshend, cr. Baroo Sydney 

1783. Lord North. . . . C.J. Fox. 

1 783. Marquess of Carmarthen. Earl Temple. 

1783 Lord Sydney. 

1789. W. W. Grenville, cr. Baron. 

Grenville 1790. 
1791. H. Dundas. . Lord Grenville. 



Viscount Stormoot. 



1794- 
1801. 
1803. 
1804. 
1 80s. 
1806. 
1807. 
1809. 
1809. 
1812. 
1822. 
1827. 
1827. 
1828. 
1830. 
1833- 

1834. 
»834. 
1835. 
1839. 
1839. 
1841. 

184. 
1832. 
185a. 



Home Department, 
Duke of Portland .... 
Lord Pelham, aft. Earl of Chichester 
C. P. Yorke 
Lord Hawkesbury .... 



Earl Spencer 

Lord Hawkesbury, aft. Earl of Liverpool 
R. Ryder ...... 



Viscount Sidmouth fH. Addington) 
R. Peel ...... 

W. S. Bourne 

Marquess (^ Lansdowne 

R. Peel 

Viscount Melbourne .... 



Viscount Duncannon,aft.Earl of Bessborough 

H. Goulbum 

Lord J. Russell 

Marquess of Normanby . 
Sir J. Graham, BarL 

Sir G. Grey **..... 
Spencer H. Walpole . 
Viscount Palmerston 



Foreign Departmera. 
Lord Grenville . . . . 
Lord Hawkesbury 



Lord Harrowby 

Lord Mulgrave 

CJ.Fox 

G. Canning 

Earl Bathuret 

Marquess Wellesley .... 
Viscount Castlereagh, aft. Marquess of 
G. Canning (Londonderry 
Earl of Dudley 

Earl of Aberdeen !!.... 
Viscount Palmerston 



Duke of Wellington 
Viscount Palmerston 



Earl of Aberdeen 

Viscount Palmerston 
Earl of Malmesbury 
Lord J. Russell . 



War and Colonial DepartmenL 
H.Dundas. cr. Visct-MelvUleiSoas- 
Lord Hobart, aft. Earl of 

Buckinghamshire. 
Earl Camden. 
Viscount Castlereagh. 
W. Windham. 
Viscount Castlereagh. 



Earl Bathurst. 

Viscount Goderich. 

W. Huskissoir. 

Sir G. Murray. fRim* 

Viscount Goderich. aft. Eari « , 

E. G. S. Stanley .aft.Locd Stanley/ 

and Earl of Derby. 
T. Spring-Rice. aft. Lord Mont-i 
Earl of Aberdeen. logfe-/ 

Lord Glenclff. ' 

Marquess 01 Normanby. 
Lord I. Russell. 
Lord Stanley. 
W. E. GUdstone. 
Earl Grey. (Haomtoe. 

Sir J. S. Pakingtoa. aft. Lord 
Duke of Newcastle. 



Homt D§parlmmiU 
SirG.Gfey 



S H. Walpole 



MINK 

Pmgm DtpartmmL 
Eari of Ciarendoa , 



S4S 



Eariof Malmesbuiy 



Cahmial DtpartmanL 
Sidney Herbert . 
Lord J. RunelL [Taunton 
H. Labouchere, aft. Lord 
LordSunley 



War DepartmtnL 
Lord Panmiiie. 



Jonathan Peel. 



1858. 



1861. 
1863. 

1864. 
186$. 
1866. 



'^t 



1887. 
1892. 



»895. 



1900. 



1902. 
190J. 
1905- 



1906. 
191a 



Hamt DepartmaU, 
S. H. Walpole 



T. H. S. Sotheixm- 

Estcourt. 
Sir G. Comewall 

Lewis 
Six G. Grey . 



S. H. Walpole 



H. A. ' Bruce, cr. 
Baron Aberdare 
1873 

sir R.'a. Crow' 



Sir W. Vernon Har- 
court 



Sir R. A. Cron, cr. 
Viscount Cro» 
1886 



H. C E. ChilderB . 
H. Matthews, cr. 

Viscount Uandaff 

1895 



H. H. AKiuith 



Sb* M.White Ridley, 
cr. Viscount Rid- 
ley 1900 

C. T. Ritchie, cr. 
Baron Ritchie of 
Dundee 1905 

A. Akers-Douglas. 



H. I. Gladstone, cr. 

Viscount Glad- 

1910 



Winston S. Churchill. 



Foreipt Dtpartmemi, 
Earl oiMalmesbury 



Lord J. Russell, cr. Earl 
RusseUi86i 



Earl of Clarendon. 
Lord Stanley, aft. Earl 
of Derby 



Earl of Clarendon 



EarlGianviOe . 
Eari of Derby . . 
Marquess of Salisbury 



Earl GranviOe 
Marquess of Salisbury. 



Earl of Rosebery. 
Eari of Iddesletgh 

Marquess of Salisbury. 

Eari of Rosebery 
Earl of Kimberiey 



Marquesi of Salisbury 
Marquess of Lansdowne 



Sir E. Grey . 



Colonial Department. 
Sir E. G. E. L. Bulwer 
Lytton, cr. Baron 
Lytton x866 



Duke of Newcastle 



E.CardwcO 
Eari of Camarvoa 
Duke of Buckingham 
Eari Granville 



Eari of Kimberiey. 
Eari of Carnarvon 
Sir M.Hkks Beach, cr. 
Viscount St A14wyn 



1906 
Eariof 



<^ Kimberiey 

Earl of Derby 

Sir F. A. Stanley, cr. 
Baron Stanley of 
Preston 1886, aft. 
Estri of Derby 



Eari Granville 
E. Stanhope 



SirH.T.Holland,cr.Vis. 
count Knutsford 1895. 
Marquess of Ripon 



J. Chamberlain ■. 



Hon. A. Lyttelton 
Earl of Elgin 



Eari of Crewe. 



War DepartmtnL ■ 
Jonathan Pwl 



S. Herbert, cr. Lord 
Herbert of Lea i86x 

Sir G. C Lewis. 

Eari de Grey and Ripon, 
aft. Marquessof Ripon 

Jonathan Ped 

Sir J. S. Pkkington, aft. 
Baron Hampton 

E. CardweU, cr. Vis- 
count Cardwcll 1874 

G. Hardy . . . 

F. A. Stanley 



H.C£.Chikien 

Marquess of Hartington, 

aft. D. of Devonshire 
W. H. Smith . . 



Viaoount Cranbrook. 
H. Campbell-Bannerman 
W. H. Smith. . 



E. Stanhope. 

H. Campbell-Batinerman 



Marquess of Lansdowne 



Hon. W.St J. Brodrick, 
aft. Viscount Midleton 



H. O. Amold-Forster . 
R. B. Haldane . . 



India Depart$nenL 
Lord Stanley. 



Sir C.Woo(!,cr. Viscount 
Halifax 1866. 



Viscount Cranbome. 

Sir S. H. Northcote, cr. 
Eariof Iddesleigh 1885 
Duke of Argyll. 



Marauess of Salisbury. 
G. Hardy, cr. Viscount 
Cianbrook 1878. 

Marquess of Hartington. 

Eari of Kimberiey. 

Lord R. ChurchOL 



Eari of ICimberiey. 
Viscount Cross. 



Eari of Kimberiey. > 
H. H. Fowler, cr. Vi^ 

cotmt Wolverhamp> 

ton 1908. 
Lord G. Hamilton. 



Hon. W.St J. Brodrick. 

J. Moriey, aft. Viscount 

Morley of Blackburn. 



, a name for certain large species of the zoological genus 
Pntorius (Polecat), distinguished by alight structural modifica- 
tioBs and semi-aquatic habits. Tlie two best-known species, 
so much alike in size, form, colour and habits that, although 
they are widely separated geographically, some zoologists question 
ih^ specific distinction, are P. ItUreda, the Ndn or Sumpfotler 
(manh-otter) of eastern Europe, and P. visoHt the mink of North 
America, llie former inhabits Finland, Poland and the greater 
part of Russia, though not found east of the Ural Mountains. 
Formerly it extended westward into central Germany, but it is 
now very rare, if not extinct, in that country. The latter is 
found in places which suit its habits throughout the whole of 
North America. Another form, P. silnricus, from eastern Asia, 
of which much less is known, appears to connect the true minks 
with the polecats. 

The name may have originated in the Swedish matnk appUed 
to the European animal. Captain John Smith, in his History 
^ Yirgimia (1626), at p. 27 speaks of " Martins, Powlecats, 
Weeseb and Minkes," showing that the animal must at that time 
kavtbeea^dittiiigiiiahed by. a vernacular appellation from iu 



congeners. By later authors, as Lawson (1709) and Pennant 
(1784), it is often written " Minx." For the following descrip- 
tion, chiefly taken from the American form (though almost 
equally applicable to that of Europe) we are mainly indebted to 
Dr Elliott Coues's Ffir-^eor»n; Animals of North America^ 1877. 

In size it much resembles the English polecat — the length of 
the head and body being usually from 15 to z8 in., that of the tail 
to the end of the hair about 9 in. The female is considerably 
smaller than the male. The tail is bushy, but tapering at the 
end. The ears are small, low, rotmded, and scarcely project 
beyond the adjacent fur. The pelage consists of a dense, soft, 
matted tmder fur, mixed with long, stiff, lustrous hairs on all 
parts of the body and taiL The gloss is greatest on the upper 
parts; on the tail the bristly hairs predominate. Northern 
^>ecimens have the finest and most glistening pelage; in those 
from southern regions there is less difference between the under 
and over fur, and the whole pelage is coarser and harsher. In 
colour different specimens present a considerable range of varia- 
tion, but the animal is ordi utrily of a rich dark brown, scarcely 
or not paler below than on the general upper part&; but the bl^ 



5+6 



MINNEAPOLIS 



is usually the darkest, and the tail is nearly black. The under 
jaw, from the chin about as far back as the angle of the mouth, is 
generally white. In the European mink the upper lip is also 
white, but, as this occasionally occurs in American specimens, 
it fails as an absolutely distinguishing character. Besides the 
white on the chin, there are often other irregular white patches 
on the under parts of the body. In very rare instances the tail 
is tipped with white. The fur is important in commerce. 

Tlie principal characteristic of the mink in comparison with its 
congeners is its amphibious mode of life. It is to the water what 
the other weasels are to the land, or martens to the trees, being as 
essentially aquatic in its habits as the otter, beaver, or musk-rat, 
and spending perhaps more of its time .in the water than it does 
on land. It swims with most of the body submerged, and dives 
with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the surface 
to breathe. It makes its nest in burrows in the banks of streams, 
breeding once a year about the month of April, and producing 
five or six yotmg at a birth. Its food consists of frogs, fish, 
fresh-water molluscs and crustaceans, as well as mice, rats, musk- 
rats, rabbits and small birds. In conmion with the other animals 
of the genus, it has a very peculiar and disagreeable efiiuvium, 
which, according to Dr Coues, is more powerful, penetrating 
and lasting than that of any animal of the country except the 
skunk. (W.H.F.) 

' MINNEAPOLIS, the kirgest city of Minnesota, U.S.A., and 
the county-seat of Hennepin county, situated on both banks of 
the Mississippi river at the Falls of St Anthony and imme- 
diately above St Paul. Pop. (1870), 13,066; (1880), 46,887; 
(1890), 164,738; (1900), 202,7x8; (xQXo census) 301,408. Of 
the total population in xgoo, those of foreign parentage (both 
parents foreign-bom) numbered x 18,946, and there were 6x,02x 
of foreign birth, including 20,035 Swedes, x 1,532 Norwegians, 
7335 Germans, 5637 English-Canadians, 3213 Irish, 2289 
English, 1929 Russians, X706 French-Canadians and XX33 
Austrians. Minneapolis is served by the Chicago, Burlington & 
Quincy, the Chicago, Great Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St Paul, the Chicago & Northwestern, the Chicago, Rock 
Island & Pacific, the Great Northern, the Minneapolis & 
St Louis, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Sainte Marie, 
and the Northern Pacific railways. It has also three 
terminal switching lines and the belt line of the Minnesota 
Transfer Company, serving both Minneapolis and St Paul. 
With St Paul, which is served by the same system of railways, 
Minneapolis is the chief railway centre of the Northwest and 
one of the greatest in the United States, being the principal 
gateway to the commerce of the Canadian and Pacific north- 
west. There are a Um'on passenger station, and separate 
stations for the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, 
Great Western and the Minneapolis & St Louis railways. 

The city is situated on a high plateau (800-850 ft. above sea- 
level) above the river, and covers an area of about 53 sq. m. It 
has an extensive system of boulevards, parkways and parks 
(aggregating 2465 acres in 1908). Among the parks are Loring, 
near the centre of the city, in which is a statue of Ole Bull; 
Lyndale, in the south-west part of the dty; Intcrlachen, just 
north-west of Lyndale; Glen wood, in the west of the city; Van 
Cleve, Logan, Windom and Columbia in the part of the city 
east of the Mississippi river; Riverside, on the south-west bank 
of the Mississippi; and Minnehaha Park, in which are the Minne- 
haha Falls, a beautiful cascade of the Minnehaha Creek (the out- 
let of Lake Minnetonka), near the Mississippi, with a fall of 
50 ft., well known from Longfellow's poem " Hiawatha." The 
numerous small lakes in the city (there are about 200 lakes in 
Hennepin county) have been incorporated in the park system; 
imong them are Lake Harriet (353 acres; in Lake Harriet Park), 
Lake Calhoun (on which are extensive public baths), Lake 
Amelia (295 acres), Lake of the Isles (100 acres), Cedar Lake, 
Powder Horn Lake (in the park of that name) and Sandy Lake 
(in Columbia Park). Adjoim'ng Minnehaha Park are the grounds 
(51 acres, given to the state by the city) and buildings of the 
Minnesota state soldiers' home (1887); and 2 m. beyond the 
Falls, at the junction of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, is 



the Fort Snelling Military Reservation (X819). Seven mileiE 
south-west of the limits of the city is Lake Minnetonka, one oi 
the most famous summer resorts in the Northwest^ a beautiful 
body of water 15 m. long, with a shore line of 150 m. encarded 
by undulating wooded hills. Among the most fashionable 
streets are Mount Curve, Clifton and Park avenues, all in the 
" West Division " or south-western quarter of the dty. The streets 
in all parts of the dty are of exceptional width and heavily 
shaded in the residential districts. There are handsome resi- 
dential suburbs. The court-house and dty-haU, constructed 
of red Minnesota granite and completed in 1902 at a cost of 
about $3,500,000, is one of the finest munidpal buildings in 
America. Other prominent buildings are the Masonic Temple, the 
Chamber of Commerce, the Lumber Exchange, the Bank of 
Conmierce, the Auditorium; the buildings of the Metropolitan 
Life (formerly the Guaranty), the Security Ban£, the North- 
western National Bank, the First National Bank, the Andnis, 
the New York Life, and the Young Men's Christian Association; 
Hotd Radisson and West HoteL Minneapolis is the see of a 
Protestant Episcopal bishopric. On the east side of the river 
are the buildings of the university of Minnesota {q.v.). In 
Minneapolis are the Minneapolis College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons (1883), the medica^ school of Hamline University; Augs- 
burg Seminary (Norwegian Lutheran, 1869), the United Church 
Seminary (1890), the Minnesota College (Swedish, 1905), the 
Minneapolis Normal School for Kindergartners, the Froebellian 
Kindergarten Normal School, Graham Hall and Stanley Hall, 
the l^linneapolis School of Music, Oratory and Dramatic Art, 
and the Northwestern Conservatory of Music Between 
Minneapolis and St Paul are the main buildings of Hamline 
University (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1854). The 
public library (more than x8o,ooo volumes in 1908) grew out ci 
a private library, the Athenaeum (x86o), was reorganized by 
Herbert Putnam (librarian from 1887 to x89i),and has several 
branches, the most notable of which is the Pillsbuxy library 
(1904) on the east side; in its main building (Hennepin Avenue 
and xoth Street) are the offices of the Minnesota Academy of 
Natural Sdences (1873), which, with the Sodety of Fine Arts, 
assisted in erecting the building in 1884. Among the hospitah 
and charitable institutions are the Minneapolis dty bo^tal, 
the state hospital for crippled and deformed children, and 
Asbury Methodist, the Northwestern, the Deaconess', the Swedish, 
the St Mary's, the Maternity and the St Barnabas hospitals, 
Bethany Home, the Catholic orphan asylum, the Washburn 
orphans' home, the Pillsbury House (1906) where settlement 
work is carried on by the Plymouth Congregational Churdi, 
and several free dispensaries. The first newspaper in the dtj 
was the St Anthony ExpresSf which began publication in 1851; 
it is no longer in existence. In 1906 the dty had, in addition to 
numerous weekly and monthly periodicals (English, Norwegim* 
Danish, Swcdi^, German, French), four dailies, the TribtM 
(1867), the Journal (1878), and the News (1903), all in English, 
and the Tidende (Norwegian-Danish), established as a w^y 
in X85X. 

The Mississippi river, which here has an average widtk d 
about 1 200 ft., is crossed by 17 bridges (9 highway and 8 railvsT 
bridges). The Federal government undertook to deepen the 
channd by dredging and by making two dams and two k)chs 
between the Chicago, St Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha raSvsjr 
bridge in St Paul and the Washington Avenue bridge in MiflD^ 
apolis — a distance of i x '4 m. — ^from 2 or 3 ft. to 6 ft., and to nuke 
the river regularly navigabb as far as the Washington Avenue 
bridge, Minneapolis; the project, first adopted in 1894 and modi* 
fied in 1907, was 70% completed in July 1908, and up to that 
time $1,061,397 had been spent on the work. The enonnoas 
water-power of the Falls of St Anthony, yidding abort 
40,000 h.p., has been the prindpal factor in making MinMS- 
polis a great manufacturing centre. The rapid erosion of tbe 
soft limestone bed at one time threatened the destruptioa of tke 
power, but this has been prevented by an eiK>nnoiia apron sod 
an artificial concrete floor (completed in X879). Additional wat0- 
power (25,000 h.p.) is derived from Taylor's Falls on the St CraiK 



MINNESINGERS 



547 



X. The proximity of the rich wheatfields of the north- 
t, and the extensive timber forests, have made Minneapolis 
^refttest lumber and flour centre in the world. The impor- 
» of the flour manufacturing industry was originally due to 
excellent water-power available, and dates from the intro- 
ion of improved roller-mill methods in the early 'seventies, 
on^ there were successful mills in operation twenty years 
er. The enormous flour-mills of Minneapolis (a a in 1907) 
perhaps the most interesting sights of the city. Their aggre- 

diuly capacity is over 80,000 barrels, the largest of them 
ng a capacity of 1 5,000 to 16,500 daily. In 1905 the value of 
city's flour and grist mill products was $62,754,446, 51-6 % 
le total value of the city's factory product, and 8-8 % of 
vmlue of the flour and grist mill products of the entire 
led States. Food preparations were valued in 1905 at 
61^93. Minneapolis is also the greatest primary wheat 
icet in the world, its 40 or more elevators (of which those of 
kVashbum-Crosby Company, erected in 1907, are the Urgest) 
ng a net capacity of about 35,000,000 bushels, and handling 
e than 90,000,000 bushels in 1908. Its commerce in other 
as is also extensive; in the amount of barley received and 
ped Minneapolis surpasses any other city in the United 
es, and in receipts and shipments of r3re is second only to 
-.ago. The Mississippi river above Minneapolis is made to 
e, by means of a series of extensive log-booiAs, as the princi- 
source of supply to the great saw-mills, of which there are 

some of the largest in the world, with a combined capacity 
,500,000 ft. a day, and with an average annual cut of 
000,000 ft. The total value of the lumber products in 
; was $9,960,842 Qumber and timber, $5,816,726; planing- 

products, including sash, doors and blinds, $4,144,116). 
n- important manufactures with the product-value of each 
905 were malt liquors ($1,185,525), foundry and machine 
» products ($3,820,697), structural iron-work ($1,991,771), 
m railway car construction and repairing ($2,027,248), 
nt medicines ($1,715,889), furniture ($1,238,324), cooperage 
|X5f36o), and hosiery and knit goods ($957i45S)- The total 
e of the factory product was $94,407,774 in 1900, and 
[,593,x3o in 1905, an increase of 388 %; in 1905 the 
c of the factory product was 39-5 % of that of the entire 
e. 

[inneapolis is governed under a charter adopted in 1873 
en St Anthony and Minneapolis were consolidated) and 
uenlly amended. It provides for the election of a mayor, 
surer and comptroller for two-years terms; for elected boards 
3ntrol for library, parks and education, and for a unicameral 
council, half of which is chosen every two years for a term of 

years. The mayor, whose veto may be nullified by an 
nrae vote of two-thirds of the council, has very limited 
noting powers, the head of the police department being the 
t important of his appointees. The city council elects the 

clerk, city attorney, city engineer, chief of the fire depart- 
it and most of the minor officers. Under a provision of the 
ter adopted in 1887 saloons are not permitted outside the 
itrol limits of the business district "; so that there are no 
ons in the residential districts of the city. The municipality 
s the waterworks system, the water supply being obtained 
I the Mississippi river. 

'isiory. — The first recorded visit of a European to the site 
[inneapolis was that of Father Louis Hennepin, the French 
it missionary, who discovered and named the Falls of St 
bony in 1680; but it is almost certain that he was preceded 
ome of the adventurous coureurs des bats, few of whom left 
rds of their extensive wanderings, and Radisson and Grose- 
s seem to have visited this region two decades before Henne- 

The land on which the city lies, being divided by the 
(issippi river, was for many years under different sovereignties, 
east side becoming United States territory at the close of 
Wu of Independence, while the west side, after being under 
lish and French rule, did not become a part of the United 
es until the purchase of Louisiana in 1803. In 1766 the 
was visited by the American traveller, Jonathan Carver, I 



and in 1805 by UeuL Zcbulon M. Pike; the military reserve 
which Pike bought from the Indians included a greater portion 
of the west side of the present city. After the erection of Fort 
St Anthony (1819; later called Fort Snelling), a water-power 
saw-mill was erected (1832) to saw lumber for the fort on the 
east bank of the river at the Falls of St Anthony. Later flour 
was also groimd in this mill, which thus became the forerunner 
of the greatest of the city's industries. Gradually as the Indian 
land titles became extinguished the east bank was settled. The 
first settlement on the west bank was made by Colonel John H. 
Stevens in 1850, but the land was not opened to settlers until 
1855. The village of St Anthony, on the east side of the river, 
was incorporated in 1855; Minneapolis, on the west bank, was 
incorporated in 1856. St Anthony became a city in i860, 
and Minneapolis, which then had only 2564 inhabitants, soon 
outstripped its neighbour after the Civil War, and received a 
dty charter in 1867. In 1870 Minneapolis alone had 13,066 
inhabitants (18,079 ^th St Anthony), and in 1872 the two cities 
were united under the name of Minneapolis. The Republican 
National Convention met in Minneapolis in 1892 and renominated 
Prudent Benjamin Harrison. 

ArTHOHiTiEg, — Isaaf Arwater, History ^f the Ciiyiff Mtnneapoiii 
{7 vols. New York, 1893)1 G. E. Wu^er and C. M. FooTe, Hiitory of 
limntpin County ami tat Ciiy of Mixafapoiis t^lcnncapcUft, tiQ^Si); 
HurJsoii'a DitiiQHary of Minnaap&iit and Vicinity (^linrteiicwlUt 
annirallv) ; A. Morriion^ The Induitrits of MiftnifAipMu {^llnneapoli$| 
iftHS): S. P. Snyder and H. K. Macfarkn*^. Hist&rU^ Sk^kh iff St 
Atithony and \fimiiapolii (Philadolphb. 18561; and C, B. Ellbtt'i 
" MinncafKllt'St Paul " In L* P. FowcU'i lihtetic Tokens c/ the 
We arm Siaifi (Ncw^ Yorfc+ J 901)* 

MINNESINGERS (Ger. Minnesinger from Minne, love), the 
name given to the German lyric poets of the 12th and 13th 
centuries. The term Minnesang, strictly applicable to the poems 
expressing the homage {Minn-iienst) rendered by the knight 
to his mistress, is applied to the whole body of lyric poetry of 
the period, whether dealing with love, religion or politics. The 
idea of amour courtois, with its excessive worship of woman, its 
minute etiquette and its artificial sentiment, was introduced 
into German poetry from Provencal literature; but the German 
Afinnesang was no slavish imitation of the poetry of the trouba- 
dours. Its tone was, on the whole, far healthier and more sin- 
cere, reflecting the difference between the simple conditions of 
German life and the older and corrupt civilization of Provence. 
The minnesinger usually belonged to the lower ranks of the 
nobility, and his verses were addressed to a married woman, 
often above him in rank; consequently the commonest lyric 
themes are the lover's hopeless devotion and complaints of the 
lady's cruelty, expressed with a somewhat wearisome iteration. 
That real passion was sometimes present may be safely assumed, 
but it was not within the rules of the game, which corresponded 
fairly closely to the later sonneteering conventions. The poet 
was not permitted to give the lady's name, or to betray her 
identity; and a direct expression of passion would also have 
contravened the rules. The poems were from the first sung in 
open court to a melody (Weise) of the poet's own composing, 
with the accompaniment of a fiddle or small harp. That 
the minnesinger was no improvisatore is evident from the 
complicated forms of his verse, which were partly borrowed from 
the Provencal, but possibly owed son^ething to the Latin rhymed 
verse ^ of the wandering scholars. The older songs consisted 
of a single strophe cast in three divisions, two (known as Stollen 
or doorposts) identical in form, stating and developing the 
argument, the third (Abgesang) of different form, giving the con- 
clusion. Later on, two or more strophes were used in a single 
poem, but the principle of their structure was retained. In this 
form were cast the Ta^elied, a dialogue describing the parting of 
lovers at dawn: and the crusading song. Side by side with these 
existed the Spruch, written in a single undivided stanza, destined 
for recitation and often cast in the form of a fable. The lay 
(Leick) was written in unequal strophes, each formed of two equal 
divisions. It was applied in the first instance to sacred lyrics, 

* See the Carmina Burana, ed. J. A. Schmeller, 4th ed., Breslau, 
1904. 



548 



MINNESOTA 



and was first used in love poems by the Alsatian minnesinger 
Ulrich von Gutenberg. 

The origin of the native lyric, which flourished especially In 
Austria and Bavaria, is perhaps to be sought in the songs which 
accompanied dancing. These were not necessarily love songs, 
but celebrated the coming of spring, the gloom of winter &c, 
the commonplaces of Minnesang throughout the two centuries 
of its existence. The older lyrics, which date from the middle 
of the X2th century, are simple in form and written in the ordi- 
nary epic metres. The earliest minnesinger whose name has come 
down to us is Der von Kilrenberg {fl. c. xx6o), a sdon of an 
Austrian km'ghtly family whose castle lay on the Danube, west 
of Linz. These songs, however, contradict the root idea of ' 
Minnedunstf since the lady is the wooer, and the poet, at the 
most, an acquiescent lover. They take the form of laments for 
an absent lover, complaints of his faithlessness and the like. 
Among the other Austrian and south German lyrists who show 
small trace of foreign influence was Dietmar von Aist (d. c. X171), 
though some of the songs attributed to him seem to be of later 
date. While the love-song remained in the hands of noble 
singers, the Spruck was cultivated by humbler poets. The elder 
of the two or three poets concealed under the name of Spervogel 
was a wandering singer who foimd patronage at the court of the 
burgraves of Regensburg, one of whom himself figures among 
the earlier minnesingers. 

* The characteristic period of German Minnesang begins at 
the close of the lath century with the establishment of the 
Proven^ tradition in western Germany through the poems of 
Heinrich von Veldeke and Friedrich von Hausen. National 
elements abound in Veldeke's songs, although the amour antrtois 
dominates the whole; Friedrich von Hausen (d. X190) followed 
Proven^ models closely. The long crusading song Sie darf 
mick des Zthen niet^ is a good example of his powers. A close 
disciple of the troubadours Peire Vidal and Folquet de Marseille 
was the Swiss Count Rudolf von Fenis.^ The greatest name 
among the earlier minnesingers is that of Heinrich von Morungen, 
a Thuringian poet who lived on in popular story In the ballad of 
" The Noble Moringer." He brought great imaginative power 
to bear on the common subjects of Minnesang^ and his poetry 
has a very modem note. The formal art and science of Minnesang 
reached full development in the subtle love-songs of Reinmar, 
the Alsatian " nightingale of Hagenau." Uhland aptly called 
him the "scholastic philosopher of unhappy love." As a 
metrist he developed a greater correctness of rhyme, and a better 
handh'ng of German metres. He became a member of the 
court of Duke Leopold V. (d. 1194) of Austria, and there Walther 
von der Vogelweide {q.v.) was first his disciple, and then perhaps 
his rival. Walther, the greatest of medieval German lyric 
poets, had Reinmar's technical art, but in feeling was more 
nearly allied to Morungen. He raised the Spruck to the dignity 
of a serious political poem, which proved a potent weapon 
against the policy of Innocent III. In 1202 at the court of 
Hermann, landgrave of Thuringia, he met Wolfram von Eschen- 
bach, who is said to have taken part in the tourney of poets 
known as the Wartburgskrieg, made world-famous through Wag- 
ner's TannhUuser. The Tagelieder of Wolfram give him a high 
place in Minnesang^ although his fame, like that of Heinrich 
von Veldeke and Hartmann von Aue, chiefly rests on his epics. 
A new style — called by Lachmann hdfische Dorfpoesie—vfa% 
marked out by Neidhart von Reucntal (d. c. i24o)» who be- 
longed to the lesser Bavarian nobility. He wrote songs to 
accompany the dances of the village beauties, and comic and 
realistic descriptions of village life to please the court. He was 
acknowledged by the Meistersingcr as one of the twelve masters 
of song. Nevertheless, with him the decadence may be said to 
have begun. 

The Styrian poet Ulrich von Lichtenstein (d. c. 1275) uncon- 
sciously caricatured chivalry itself by his Frauendienst, in which 
be relates the absurd feats which he had undertaken at his 
lady's command, while Steinmar (J. 1276) deliberately parodied 
'Rudolf 11., count of Ncuenburg (d. 1 196), or, according to tome, 
s nephew of bis who died in 1257. 



court poetry in hb praises of rustic b«attty and gnod living. In 
the lays^ songs and proverbs of T!LmihlLu.ser something of both ^ 

elements, of the court an J l be village, is to be found- He Kemi ^^ 
to have Jived as a wandering singtr utiiil 1168^ a»d there very —^ 
Boon grew up round his name the TannhlitiSFr myth which h^ ^"W 
so tiule foundation in his life or poetiy* The Ausiriaa poet ~^ 
Reininar von Zweler (d. c. 1 360) left some hundreds of Sprikkt '^■"■' 
potitical or social Id thctr import. Among the ptinces wbd-^^=z 
practised Minmsang were the emperor H^nry Vi.^ though 1^*^ -— 
two songs preserved under his name are 0/ doubtful auibctjtidty,^^ '~ 

Duke Henry IV. of Breslau (jl. 1170-1190), King Wenceslaus U., -^ 

of Eohemis, the margrave Otto IV^ of Brandenburg, WiiUiT IV.^^ ^ 
prince of RUgen and the unhappy Conradin, the last of the hou: 
of Hohenstaufcn. beheaded by the order of Cbaries of i 
before he reached his scventoenlh year. 

The didactic motive came more and more to tlie froc^l in th^^"^^ 
ijth centuiy^ The wandering Swabian poet Mumer (d. f* i JTold" ^ 
cultivated especially the Spruck, laughed at the Provencal And 
courtly tradition, and there is no very great step from his IcarTiiiig 
and bis feuds to the conditions of Meistetsang. Heiniieh \t>e^— — > 
Meissen (1350-1319), known as " Fraueiilob"('' ladies 'praise '1 5* 
vfR% one of the Ust miiinesinEerBr and his pedant ly and virtuosl^ii^* 
entitle him to be called the first rndsteninger. 

Bi&Lr0CHAPtt¥."The chief MSS. containing the worl of iHe jO&o^^^ 
moFi n[jinnc«»n|f&i^ whose work liaj been partially piteservtd^ it^^^^ 
the old Heidclb^r^ MS, (i3tli cirntury]^ [Ke U'eLnA3nen^Siutlfa(^^= 
M5. (Mth ceEitury) and the Great Mddelberf MS. ii^th ccnEorr) ^^^ 
fDrmcrl^ Itnown ^# the Manasse M5. This la^i ts the fnovt < 
hensh'? of aH. The coltection on which it ja bated was 1 
RCidtger MaiUiKt (d- 1304) and hia son Ji^hjinne^ mt Zurich. It L 
quaintly illuitrated witn ini.ii£inajy paitrajii of the pde-ti (that stfBT 
Hartmann von Aue in full armour with clo$rd vifor!), and ptcturc^^^ 
of their coats of arms. It was printcxl by F. Pf,^^ r.Hcidelbei^g^tilM^ ^_ 
The comple test coMection of the minneiinjjura" vrtnc^ is F. H. voft w<*^i^~ 
Ha^enn Daulicke LwderdicMUr dtJ iwotfUn^ dftisukniev und 9 
Jchtkintdtrts [^ vols., Leipzign 1^38)^ vcl, iv, of vhirb contait. 
bioizraphkul matter and a oiftcuaiion of the music; IC. Ltchmana mff 
M .liaupi, Dfs JUtHntsaner FruMitt^ (jrd cd-, edited F. Vctft, 
1S8J) ia a coll«tcDn of the minneiin^ert cariier than Wal 
der VcigelwcitJe ; there ia a comprehtniivc Brl«:t Ion oi 97 nun 

by Karl Bartsch, Dtulichf LttdttdUkiet dcs rw^fifn bis »i , 

Jahtkiiiidftli (cd. W- Golthcr. Ekrtifli 1901) with bto-biblJoerapliiE: 

acton nt of individual minrnniri^rs; ec? a]»o F. PfaJf, Dtr Mimtusarm M 
dfr It bis 14 JshrkuTidttti, pi, i, (SluttgarT, iSgi), En^ltth tnii tt 
latioTii oi early Getiran. lyrics af? F. C. NichoUon, Old trrrmam l^^mm 
Sf>n^i, translated from the mimmiiigiBrB of the i$lh to ]4tJ^ oentun^^fl 
(London, 1907). See also Waltuia v. d, Voc^elwude. - 

Of hi^toncal and critical work on the minneainec^n, sec K. Goedrkst, 
Gticiiuhtf dtr drvijthm Dkhtjtnp vol. L. (Drcidrn, iS*i) ■ H- V^ %mI, 
Grvndriis drr irrTnaniscken Pkiuii^^gi£^ vol^ ii^ (ScTaisbuf|:, jnd C*!., 
rgoj), where further references wit! be found: also A.. E. SchOnL^crlt 
Die Anfdnte dti dtvinhgn Minneianfes fGrtti, iS^); F. Gfitrtxr^f. 
Geschiikie mt MiKnesttxiir, voL i. (Padtrbom, iS^3); K, 0ufd-*cA, 
Ji^Htnar der Ati£ stnd Wailhtr vcn der VQt*^^9€idc (L^ipd^. iS^itOf/ 
A* Schtiltz, Uoj k6K^ic\s Leben cur Zeit der Minneiinier {jnd c-<f. 
Uiptiff, iBagI: J. Faike* Die ritmlidu GtstUahsJt im Z^iSaiiir da 
Fra.i*enitdf%i (BeTlin, no date). 

MIHKESOTA^ a North Central St4ite or the United Stat*s 0^ 
America. It is bounded on the S. by Iowa, on the W. by S&atk 
and North Dakota— the Red Rivef (commonly called the Red 
River ai the North) sepaJ^a,ting it from the latter stale— oa ibe 
N* by tbe Canadian provinces of Manitoba ud Qntina^ beifli 
separated from the Ultef by the Lake of the Woodi, Rihy 
River and Rainy hake, and certain of their tributaiies ^d ixilHs^ 
and on the E- by Lake Superior and by Wisconsin, iitm whkh 
it is separated for the greater part of the distance by the Miai' 
sippi and St Croix rivers. It is the tenth state io fim in ^^ 
'Unlonp with a total area of 84,66 j sq. m., of which ji^ vj sik 
a» water surface.' From north to south it ia nbout 400 ^- ^ 
length, extending from 4j° jo' to 49* aj' 55' N, lat,^ and f»« 
east to wcsl ii^ width Is about 354 m^j lyit;g between kmg. V m' 
and ^7' IS' W. 

The north-east part of the atatc h included m tlie Great Lil^ 
Province, and the uutbem and western parts AJe in the Ptii™ 
Fbins Province. The whole area of the stale was fonwrty * 
complexly folded mouniainoua region of MTong rdief, vbidi w 

* In addition tbe stale contaiiu apptforamatidy 2514 m{* m.d 
La!ke Su^rior. 




/; 



MINNESOTA 



5+9 



Afterwards worn down to a more nearly level surface, ezceptin 
the extreme north-east comer, where ridges of harder roclc 
resisted eroskuL Marine deposits were laid down over the south 
of the state after a submergence of the region; an uplift afterwards 
made of these deposits a coastal plain. The rather level surface 
of the "worn down mountains" of the north of the state 
and the coastal plain beds of the southern and western pans 
are now dissected by rivers, which make most of the state il 
rolling or hilly country, without strong relief. The average 
elevation is about 127s ft. above sea-level or 600 fL above the 
surface of Lake Superior. An extensive water-parting in the 
north central part of the state, an elevation whose indinatioii 
is almost imperceptible, determines the course of three great 
continental river systems. From this central elevation the land 
stopes off in all directions, rising again in the extreme north-ea$i 
comer, where the rugged granite uplift in Cook county, known 
as the Misquah Hills, reaches an altitude of 3330 ft., the highest 
pdnt in the state; and in the south-west comer, where an altitude 
of 1800 ft. is reached in the Coteau des Prairies. Only in thi^ 
valleys of the Red, Minnesota and Mississippi rivers does the 
elevation fall below 800 ft. In the southem and central portion$ 
of the state open rolling prairies interspersed with groves and 
belts of oak and other deciduous hard-wood timber predominate. 
A little north of the centre the state is -traversed from north- 
west to south-east by the extensive forest known as the " Big 
Woocb," in which also oak occurs most frequently. In the 
northern part of the state the great pine belt stretches from the 
head of Lake Superior westward to the confines of the Kcd 
River Valley, while alongthe north border and in the north-ea^t 
the forest growth is almost exclusively tamarack and dwarf 
pine. More than three-fourths of the area of the state is arable, 
the small percentage of non-arable land lying principally in th& 
north-eastern regions, which afford compensation in the (onA ob 
rich mineral d^iosits. Of the three great continental river 
systems above mentioned, the Red River and its tributaries 
drain the western and west central slope northward through 
Laie Winnipeg into Hudson Bay; the other two being the St 
Lawrence system, to which the St Louis River and its branches 
and several snudler streams flowing into Lake Superior con- 
tribute their waters by way of the Great Lakes and the Missis- 
sippi, which with its tributaries drains about two-thirds of the 
state into the Gulf of Mexico. A few rivers in the south drain 
into the Mississippi through Iowa, while a smaller area in the 
extreme north is drained through the Lake of the Woods and 
Rainy Lake into Hudson Bay. These river systems serVe the 
threefold purpose of drainage, providing water communications 
(there being about 3000 m. of navigable waters in the state), 
and, by falls and rapids caused by glacial displacement of rivets ^ 
famishing a magnificent volume of water-power. The Missis- 
lippi river, which flows for about 800 m. within or along the 
borders of the state, has its principal sources in and near Lake 
Itasca. It affords facilities for the transport of logs by means 
of booms above Minneapolis, and is navigable below St Paul - 
being half a mile broad where it reaches the border of the state 
It Hastings. At the Falls of St Anthony, St Cloud, Little Falk 
and other places, it provides ample water-power for manufac- 
turing purposes. Its two principal tributaries are the St CroLi 
and the Minnesota. The first, after having for about 135 tn. 
(about 50 being navigable) formed the boundary between Wis- 
consin and Minnesota, enters the Mississippi at Hastings; the 
Hcond, rising in Big Stone Lake on the western border, but x m. 
hom Lake Traverse, the source of the Red River, enters Iht 
Mississippi from the south-west between St Paul and Minne- 
apolis ajfter a course of about 450 m., about 340 of which ar<^ 
navigable at high water. Both furnish valuable water-power, 
which is true also of the Cannon and Zumbro rivers flowing 
bto the Mississippi below Hastings. The Red River, which 
fomis the western boundary of the state for more than half iu 
distance, has its source in Lake Traverse. Its most important 
branch is the Red Lake River, and both are navigable for vessels 
of light draught at high water. In the south the westem fork 
of the Des Moines River, flowing for 135 m. thzou^ the state, 



is navigable for so m. Gladal action determined the direction 
and character of the rivers, made numerous swamps, and, by 
scouring out rock basins, damming rivers and leaving morainal 
hollows, determined the character and formation of the lakes, 
of which Minnesota has upwards of 10,000, a ntmiber probably 
exceeding that of any other state in the Union. The general 
characteristics of the lakes in the north differ from those of the 
south, the former being generally deep, with ragged rocky shores 
formed by glacial scouring which caused rock basins, the latter 
being mostly shallow. The most interesting feature of the glacial 
epoch is the extinct Lake Agassis, which the receding ice of the 
later glacial period left in the Red River Valley of Minnesota, 
North Dakota and Manitoba. This lake drained southward into 
the Gulf of Mexico via the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers, 
until the ice sheet which had prevented its natural drainage to 
the north had melted sufficiently to allow it to be drained off 
into Hudson Bay by way of the Nelson River. The remarkably 
level character of the Red River district is due to horizontal 
deposits in the bottom of this lake, which have been little dis- 
sected by river erosion. The largest of the present bkes. Red 
Lake, in Beltrami county, has an area of 343 sq. m. Other large 
lakes are Mille Lacs (198 sq. m.) in Mille Lacs and Aitkin counties; 
Leech Lake (184 sq. m.) in Cass county; Lake Winnibigashish 
(83 sq. m.) in Itasca county; and Vermilion Lake (66 sq. m.) in 
St Louis coimty. On the northern boundary are the Lake of 
the Woods (6x3 sq. m.) and Rainy Lake (148 sq. m.), draining 
northwards into Hudson Bay. The beautiful " Park Region," 
centring in Ottertail cotmty, contains several thousand lakes. 
Several large lakes such as Pepin, Traverse and Big Stone are 
river e:q>ansions. The state supports three parks— Itasca 
state park (33,000 acres, established in X891), about the sources 
of the Mississippi, in Qearwater, Becker and Hubbard cotmties; 
the St Croix (established in X895), in Chicago cotmty, across the 
St Croix from the Wisconsin state park of the same name, and 
including the beautiful Dalles of the St Croix; and the Miimeopa 
state park (established in 1905). containing Minneopa Falls, 
near Mankato; 

Flora and Fauna, — ^The flom and fauna are ^mllar to those of 
the other sutes of the came latitude. The rapid settling of the state 
drove its native fauna, which comprised buffalo, deer^ moose, bear, 
lynx and wolves, in great numben into the northern sections, westward 
into Dakota, or across the Canadian border. Deer and moose are 
still found in the state. The preservation of game is now enforced 
by stringent gsune laws, administered by an eflncient state Game and 
Fish Commission. The fisheries, which are of great value, are care- 
fully supervised and syst^maticailly replenished from the State Fish 
Hatchery at St Paul, and the Federal Fish Hatchery mainUined at 
Duluth, in which particular attention is devoted to the fish of Lake 
Superior. Minnesota ranked third among the sUtes oi the Union 
in 1900 in the production of lumber, but in 1905 was fifth, the supply 
having diminished and the industry having been developed in the 
states of Washington and Louisiana. The danger oi loss from forest 
fires, such as that of 1894, emphasized the necessity of forest preser- 
vation, and resulted (1895) in the creation of a raecial state depart- 
ment with a forest commissioner and five wardens with power to 
enforce upon corporations and individuals a strict observance of 
the forestry laws, the good effects of the law being evidenced by the 
fact that the fire kMses in forest lands for the first twelve yean of 
its operation averaged only $31,000 a year. Furthermore, in order 
to encourage the growth and preservation oi the forests, and to create 
systematically forest reserves, the legislature established in 189^ a 
State Forestry Board. There are two national forest reserves, with 
an aggregate area of 1883 sq. m. 

Cttmate. — Minnesota has the characteristic climate of the North 
Central group of states, with a low mean annual temperature, a 
notably rarefied atmosphere that results in an almost complete 
absence of damp foggy weather, and an unusual dryness which 
during the rather long winten considerably neutralizes the excessive 
cold. The cold increases not only from south to north, but to some 
extent from east to west. The mean annual temperature, according 
to the reports of the U.S. Weather Bureau, varies from aj* F. 
at St Paul and points in the south of the state to 37* '•• ^^ 
points in the north-east and as far south-west as Mooriiead, Clay 
county. In the south the season is usually without killing frost 
from early in May to late in September, but in the north it is not 
uncommon late in May or early in September. The amount <rf 
rain decreases from east to west, the mean annual rainfall being 
33-7 in. at Grand Meadow in the south-eas.! *,wV ^VI^Vsv. %.\.\\ wixx 
Iron in the north-east, but less iVaxv i«> vtv. *x. wcn«w\ vi'«** ^\^?f*I, 
vation in the western \»M ol tJbfc Utisxjt, \u sMk «ft\ao«* *aw^^ *» 



550 



MINNESOTA 



mucht or irven maft, rmia falla id AUmni^f ob in batli autumn and 
wiotcTn nnd the lumiECir nunsp together wfth the long fturnintr dayi» 
are very favourarblp to a rapid growth and early fnaturity cf crop^. 
Nearly the whole itate ia usually covered, with inmnf during the 
STcater part of winter^ and the cQean anitual fall «[ aoow varies 
Jmro about ji in. at points in the nDtth-eut to lew thAH i^ in. in 
the oouth-vEfit. In most LocalJliH the pFtrvoiling windt are north- 
w^t in winter and southerly in (ummcir^ but at Duluih^ on the shore 
of Lake Superlorn they are bouth-wvut during Novcinbcrp Dccesiber 
ajid Jfanuary and north -oast duKng all i>thcr moticha. 

Soii and Min^rah. — The surface drifts of thf ^atCT patt of tht 
state* which arc almost whoMy of gUdal ori^^, have pfovidrd 
MinncsoiJa with a rcmarlcattly fertltc soil* it tonsietst lanady oJ a 
dark brown or black e^ndy foain* finely comminuted, the richncts 
of whic^ in org^mc matter ^nd minnTiL aalu inducn rapidity of 
growth, and th? sirvn^th arid ddpbility of which render it capable 
of a Ictig: succif!5Bion of cropL Thi« soil prevails throughout the 
Aouthcrn couniics and the MinncwEa and Red Rivtrr valley*, in 
which scctioiia cT-real crops predominate. Toward the eait crntral 
part of the state tber« is a somewhat leai fertile sandy toil, 
which is de\''Oti'd mort largely to pcrtatoea and similar crops. The 
noriiTarabk north-^st portion of tne Etate is covered with a coarse 
granite drift. Underneath the surface are beds of s^nd, travel and 
clays, the last affording material for the manufacture of brick, tilei 
And pottery. The rock farmadons of the itatfi furnish budding 
uon» of pvat value. 

Minnesota ranked fint among' the states In 190a in the production 
of iro^n ore; Although the iron ranges in the north-east had been 
eitp]xftsd about i860 and were known to contain a great wealth of 
ore, it was not untit 1894 that mining was actually befn^n on the 
Vermilioo Range. Since that date the development of iron mining 
in Minnesota fias been remarkable, and the Increase both in volume 
and value of the output has been pi^ctical[y uninterrupted. Eight 
^noari later (id9?li the much richer Mesa hi Range» the most prdduc^ 
tive iron range io the world, was opened up; it soan curpassed the 
Vermilion in its output, and by 1903 the product was nearly ten 
times greater. The ore, which in many places is found in an almost 
pui« itate, IS At or near the surface and the process of mining is one 
of jreat timphcity and ease. The quality of ore in the twQ ranges 
dinen tomewhat, that mined from the Vermilion Range being a 
hant jfjecutar or red haematite^ while thac taken from the Meaabi 
Range, tirgeiy red haematite^ is much softer aod in many localities 
q>tite nuely comminutKf. 

Apkitlhire.—Thfi principal industry of Minnsota is agriculture- 
Large area« ol swamp lands in the central and north central pajis 
tA the state once counted non-arable have been dmiFied anrj re- 
claimed. There were in 1900 i54^&S9 farms aggregating 36,548.49* 
acrcs,^ of which 70-3 % was tBi[»roved land ; the total value 01 form 
property was f738,68d,64J, ui incnaie in value of f 373 9*3-0 1^» or 
raore than 90 %> for the decade l€9i>-[9CPOr The value of domestic 
animals on farms and range* was |a«,630H643, The total value 
of farm products for the year 1*99 tcejisus of 1900) was Ji6t ^ui ynio*- 
Geographically the wheat -raisinif nrca extend -i across the entire south 
of tbe atate^he Minneaotai VaUey and tbb Red River Vallej^ 
the rich gtacial losm ol which rendtfs it one of the most piMuctive 
wheat regions in the world. Other important crops in the order of 
their vaJue are oais, hay and f-jragei Indian com, barley* ftax-seed, 
potatoett rye, grass seeds, wild gtawi clover* bean^, peas, and mis- 
eeUancout vegetables and orcJjard product*. Both fniit-raiiing and 
dairying iaterc^s are otntred principally in tbc southern half of the 
state. 

Manufacturer txnd Qfmmtra. — The extraofdinorv nutnberB of 
ittUijable water-pciwers. the unusual transport Saduiia atlording 
ample means of reaching the grmt marketSt and finalty the proxiriuty 
to the raw niaterials of manufacture* have made Minnesota of great 
importance as a manufacturing state, TTm fedef&l census showed 
for the decades 1 gSo-t8^ ami j *m>-i9oo an tncreaae in the number 
of manuracturing cttabtishmtnte from M93 in I8te to 7505 in iSgo, 
and lt,tl4 in 1900, During the same p^i^riod the capital in vtstc^l 
iocnased from l3r.oQ4^ai» in iftao to injM^MS^ in 1890 ami 
I [65^,^*^46 in 1900, and the value of the manufactured products 
increased from ^?b^o65,r9ft in jfiSo to $193,033,478 in 1890 and 
{36,7,655, eat in 1900. The wonderful development of Minoe»ta 
u a flfiur-producing stale becan with the ini reduction of improved 
roller processes after JB70, minm-apolis is the chief llcnir maldnff 
centre of the world* and the cities at the " Head of the Lakes 
(Dulutht Minnesota* and Superior, Wisconsin, considered industnally 
as one pUcc) const ititte the seeond largest centre. The towns of 
the Red River Valley, which are nearer- to the great wheat belt, 
give promise of developing into great flouring cities. Next to flour, 
lumber and timber products rank in importance. Other manufac- 
tures of importance are butter, cheese and condensed milk, packed 
meats and other slaughter-house product a, steam railway cars, 
foundry and machine-shop products, linteed oil, malt hquor?. 
ptaning-mill product «, sash, doors and blinds, boots and ^boes, and 
aEricuKural im piemen Ls. As compared with other states of the 
Union Minnesota ranked third in i^fjo and fitth in 1905 in lumber ; 
sixth in 1900 and fifth in 1905 in cheese, buiter and condensed milk; 
eighth in [900 and in IQCS in agricultural implements; and four« 
Uxs^ ia 1900 and eighth in 1905 in planing niiU piroducts. 



For an inland state Minn«»ta Is e'xceptioivally wH aittiat«d e<i 
play a chitf part in the commercial life oftht country, and various 
causes combine to make it important in respect to its interstate and 
foreign tratic. It is the natural terminal of three great northern 
transcontinental railway lines— the Morthcm Pacific, the Grtat North- 
ern, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound (the extension of the 
Chicago, ^til'wa^hfie & St Faut 9ystem> : and tbe Cycago, Burlinston 
A Ouincy and the ooonectlrw tines of the Canadian F^Etc form finea 
o( communicatitnt with the middle Northwest and tbc Pad lie 
provi nccs of Canada . Seven tta vigable rivers with! n or on tbc borders 
of the state— the Red River ofthe north* the Red Lake Riv^r, 
Rainy River, the Minnesota, tbe Misis3.[ppi, the St Croii and the 
St Louis*— ^ivc facilities for transport by water that exert an 
important competing influence on freight charges; and at the " Head 
of the Lakca '^ (Duluth^Supcrior) many lines of tteamsb^ps on the 
Great Lakes^ pfO^Hiding direct or indlrert connc^on with the Eaj^iern 
and Southern states, make that port in respect to tonnage the lint 
in (he United States, This combination of natural and artihcJjLl 
highways of commence derives an additional importance from the 
character of the regions thus provided with transport facilrties. 
which renders its cities the principal distributing centre* both for 
the entire Northwest for cool shipped via the Great i^kes, and alio 
for the eastern and middle Wevtem states for the gnat staples, 
wheat and lumber, derived dthcr from Minifcsoui itself w by means 
of its great tfansconlinentat railways from the oeiphbouring North- 
western stiitei and Canadian provinces- frcm shipments from the 
Mesabi and Vermilion ran^^esn cereals from the Northwrtt, fniits 
and vegetables from the Pjci6c coast, and Oriental ofc>ducts obtained 
via the great northern railway s, are also elements of ere^it im porta net 
in the state's commerccv Tnete were on the 3iit of Decemlwr 190* 
&43B71 m^ o| railway within the etate. St Paul and Duluth are 
porta of entry. 

Population. — ^The population of Minnesota at the first Federal 
census (i860) after its admission into the Union was 172,023, 
itnd by the succeeding Federal enuqierations it was: (1870), 
439J06; (1880), 780,773; (1890), 1^01,826, excluding Indians 
(10,096); (1900), i,75i»394; (1910) 2,07S,7o8.* Of the total 
population in 1900, 932,490, or 53-2 %, were males, and 
818,904, or 46*8 %, females; 1,246,076 were native-born; 
505,318, or 28*9 %, were foreign-bom, and 1,312,0x9 were 
of foreign parentage (i.e. having either one or both parents 
foreign-bom). Of the 14,358 coloured inhabitants, 4959 were 
negroes and 9182 Indians, 8457 of whom lived on reserva- 
tions. The urban population (i.e. inhabitants of dties of 
8000 or over) was 26*8 % of the total population, as compared 
with 28-2 % in 1890. By the sUte census of 1905 the population 
of the principal dties was as follows: Minneapolis, 261,954; 
St Paul, 197,023; Duluth, 04i943; Winona, 20,334; Stillwater, 
12,435; and MankatOy 10,996; by the same census four other 
dties, all in the mining region in the north-east, had passed the 
5000 limit, viz. Hibbing, 6566; Cloquet, 611 7; Virginia, 5056; 
and Eveleth, 5332. The density of population increased from 
16-5 per sq. m. in 1890 to 22'i in 1900. The largest religious 
denomination in the state in 1906 was the Roman Catholic, with 
378,288 communicants out of a total of 834,442 members of aU 
religious denominations; there were 267,322 Lutherans, 47,637 
Methodists, 27,569 Presbyterians, 24,309 Baptists, 22,264 
Congregationalists, and 18,765 Protestant Episcopalian.^ 

COTcmmen/.— The state is governed under the constitution 
adopted on the 13th of October 1857 and frequently amended. 
By an amendment of 1898 an amendinent may be suggested by 
a majority of both houses of the legislature and comes into effect 
if approved by a majority of all electors voting at the general 
dection at which the amendment is voted upon; if two or more 
amendments are submitted at the same election voters shall 
vote for or against each amendment separately. For the r^ 
vision of the constitution it is necessary that two-thirds of the 
members dected to each house of the legislature vote for the 
call of a constitutional convention, that a majority of all dectors 
voting at the next general dection approve the call for the con- 
vention, and that the convention consist of as many members u 
the house of representatives, who shall be chosen in the same 
manner, and shall meet within three months after the general 

* At International Falls on Rainy River and at Duluth 00 the 
St Louis immense water-power is utilized for manufacturing. 

' By the state census of 190^ the total population was 1.979,91a 
(1,060,412 males and 909.275 females — excluding Indians from the 
sex classification), of whom 537.041 were fordgn-boni, 10.929 r^te 
Indians, 51 13 were negroes, 171 were Chinese, and y> were Japac A 




join. 

and — - 



:;SUiifra-U.5i «d.;;indant5 th. .ur^•mng spousi has the use • cour« ' mu« oe ««cuo; «« m-= "" /— • 



MINNESOTA 



551 



I at which it is voted. The executive department- conBists 
I a governor, lieutaiant-govem<Mr, secretary of state, trcuurcr 
attorney-general, elected biennially in November of the 
en-numbered years, and an auditor dected at the same limc 
' four years. The veto power of the governor (since 1S76] 
^■tcnds to separate sections of appropriation bills. The judiciDl 
^Lepaitment comprises a supreme court consisting of a chief 
.justice and (since 1881) four associate justices elected for terms 
^Df six years, and lower courts consisting of district courts with 
^mginal jurisdiction in civil cases in law and equity, and in 
criminal cases upon indictments by grand juries; justices' courts, 
:an which the amount in litigation cannot exceed $100, or the 
"punishment cannot exceed three months' imprisonment or a fine 
<>f $xoo; and of municipal and probate courts with the usu^L 
jurisdictions. The leg^tive department consists of a »natc 
of sixty-three members elected for four years, and a house of 
representatives of one hundred and nineteen members, elected 
for two years, the remuneration being mileage and $500 a year. 
The reapportionment of congressional, senatorial and reprcscntja- 
tive districts is made in the first legislative session after the state 
census, which has been taken in every tenth year since 1865. 
The l^islature meets biennially in odd-numbered yeara, the 
session being limited to ninety days by a constitutional Amend- 
ment of x888. A majority of all the members elected to each 
bouse is required for the passage of a bill, and a twothirds 
majority is necessary to pass a bill over the governor's veto. 
AU bills for raising revenue must originate in the House ot 
Representatives, but the senate may propose and concur with 
amendments as on other bills. Expenditures from the fund 
known as *' The Internal Improvement Land Fund," derived 
from the sale of state lands, can be made only after the enactment 
for that purpose has been approved by the voters of the state; 
in x88z the legislature, and in 1884 the popular vote, pledged 
the proceeds of this fimd to the payment of Minnesota sLate 
railway adjustment bonds. Taxation must be imiform only 
within da^es of property prescribed by the legislature. An 
Australian ballot law was enacted in 189 1; the qualifications for 
electors (adopted in 1896) require that the voter be at least 
twenty-one years old, that he shall have been a full dtizen of the 
United Sutes fOr three months prior to the dection, and &hali 
have lived in the state six months and in the dection district, 
thirty days. Women (since 1898) may vote for school offscrrs 
and members of library boards, and are eligible for elect idn to 
any. office pertaining to the management of schools or libmri^s. 
A constitutional amendment in regard to local government 
adopted in 1898 provides that any city or village, by a tant- 
sevenths vote of its electors, may adopt a charter dra^n by a 
commission (appointed by the local district judges) and proposed 
hy such conunission within six months of its appointment. 

An amendment to the constitution adopted in November 
1888 declares that any combination or pool to a£fect the m^irkets 
for food products is a "criminal conspiracy, and shall be 
punished in such manner as the legislature may provide." 

A homestead which is owned and occupied by a debtor at hh 
dwelling place is exempt from seizure or sale for debts other than 
taxes, tnose secured by a mortgage on it, or those incurred for it& 
improvement or repair, or for services performed by labourers or 
servants. But a homestead so exempted may not be largtr ih-;\t\ 
one-fourth of an acre if it is in an incorporated place having a pof>u 
btion of 9000 or more, than half an acre if it is in an incorp«jrbiii:i] 
pbce having a population of less than 5000, or than eighty iMtvt it 
It is outnde an incorporated place. In case the owner b rrt.irruM 
the homestead cannot be sold or mortgaged, except for an iinpaifl 
portion of the purchase money, without the joinder of husbaml an<j 
wife, and if the owner dies leaving a spouse or minor childrc n^ t he: 
iKxncstead with its exemptions descends to the surviving meirtlxT 
or memhen of the family. If the owner is a husband and he tt^^ r 1 ^ 
hb family, the wife and minor children may retain the homLi-UM'J. 
Under the laws of the state the legal exbtence and legal persini^lity 
of a woman arc not affected by marriage, and the property rij;VLtTi 
of a husband and wife are nearly equal. A husband may, hoivrrvrr. 
convey hb real estate, other than a homestead, by his sep^raicj 
deed, whereas a wife's deed for her real estate is void without the 
joinder of her husband. If either husband or wife dies incc^t^iti^ 
and there are no descendants the whole of the estate passes to the 
•ondvor; if there are descendant* the wrviviag spouse has the use 



of the homestead for the remainder of his or her life, an absolute 
title to one-third of the other real estate of the deceased, and to 
personal property limited to 1 1000 besides wearing appareL The 
grounds forjan absolute divorce in Minnesota are adulteiy, impotence, 
cruel and inhuman treatment, sentence to state prison or state 
reformatory subsequent to the marriage, desertion or habitual 
drunkenness for one year next preceding the application for a divorce. 
Before applying for an absolute divorce the plaintiff must have 
resided in the state for the year next preceding, unless the cause of 
action b adultery committed while the plaintiff was a resident of 
the state. A wife may at any time sue for a limited divorce from her 
husband on the ground of crud and inhuman treatment, of audi 
conduct as to reiraer life with him unsafe and improper, or of abaui- 
donment and refusal or n^lect to provide for her, if both parties are 
inhabitants of the state or their marriage took place in the state. 
A law of 1909 provides for a women's and children's department in 
the state bureau of labour. 

^ The sale of intoxicadng liquors b for the most part regulated by 
licences,' but the granting of licences may be prohibited within any 
town or incorporated village by its legal voters, and the question 
must be submitted to popular vote upon the request of ten legal 
voters. 

jPf iwJ aiMf Ckariiabif^ ImliiiUwni . — Ihe c harit 3 bl e a nd comLxtwTwil 
itistkutioiu of Minnuota have been tincB 1901 under the tupcrvi^on 
of a State Board of CohItijI tzonsisting of three ptsid mcnkbcn ap- 
pointed by the governor and serving for terms uf «lx years; thli board 
supplanted an unpaids BoarrJ of Compctioni and Charities estabtl^hed 
in l9#i^ and the boards of ma nailers of ioparate institutions (cxpcpt 
the sctiooti for the deaf and the blind at Faribautt, and the 
it ate public school at Owatonna} ajid of groupt of instttutioui 
were atwlished. The irtaie institutions coniaitt of &Late hoi^iiLBU 
for the insaoe ot St Peter (1^66), at Rochester (1877)1 MtablistiKl 
originally as a state inebriate ajyliini under a law taking liquor 
dealers for that purpose, which was subwquently held to be uncc^u- 
stitijtianal» at Fer^a K^illi (1887), at Anoka (1900} and at HaatiniB 
(T^oo); the fltate mstltute for defectives at Faribaulti canaLstiii]f of 
the flchooU for the deaf (HJ6t>» blind (1^74) ajud feeblt-niinded 
(ii7<;^); the state public HihooL for dependent and fit^lected childreo 
at Qwatonna {iCkiM] ; a sanatoKum for can£iitnptivL-$ at Walker j 
a hospital for indigent, crippled or ddarmcd children ('?P75 *t 
St Paul; the rtate tniiaing bchool for 'boys ncif Ri^d Wirtgi a 
similar industrial sfzhool for ^irls (eftabli&hf^d tqna-jrately in 1907) 
at Sauk Center; the slate reformtttofy at St Cloud {1BS7J1 iotw- 
mediaie between the trajnlag acIhooI and the state prisont for firtC 
offenders between the a(ft»» of ttxtccit and thirty years, in which 
indeterininate lentences and a oa^role system arc in operation; the 
state prifon at Stillwater (i3ji), in whicli tbcfc i< a parole system 
and a graded system of diminution of sentence for Rood conduct^ 
and in wliichn up to 1B9S, prisoners were Ids^cd under contract 
(capeciallj^ to the Minrttgota Thresher Company), and since iJigs have 
been employed In the manufacture of &ho4» and of bin dine twine, 
and in pirovidins for the n«cds of the prison population : and the state 
AOIJiets' home occupying fifty-one acrea adjainine Minnehaha Park 
in Minneapolis. By an act of 1907 the Boonl of Coatrol was 
tmpoii'^nrd to establiih a hospital for inebriates. 

£Jw;o/iffn.— The state iuptiorts a highly efficient public *choo| 
system, organixed through ail the grades from the primary district 
and rural schools to the state university. At the head of the system 
stands the state superintendent of public instruction, appointed by 
the governor; there are also county superintendents; and a state 
high school board, conusting of the governor, state superintendent 
and the president of the state univeruty, hasgeneral supervision 
of the schools and apportions the sUte aid. The schobb are 8Up< 
ported by a state tax, and by the proceeds of a permanent school fund 
amounting (in IQ08) to $19,709,383; in the same year the total value 
of all public school property was $28,297,430, with an aggregate 
debt ot $6,329,794, and $13,463,211 was spent for public educa- 
tional purposes. There are state normal schools at Winona 
fi86o),Mankato(i868), St Cloud (i869),Moorhead (1888) and Duluth 
(1902). The university of Minnesota at Minneapolb vras projected 
by the Territorial Legislature of 185 1. Some ground was purchased 
for its campus in 1854. but it was actually founded by an act of 1864. 
amended in 1866, 1868 and 1873. It is governed by a board of 
twelve regents, of whom the president of the university, the governor 
of the state and the state superintendent of public instruction are 
members «x officio, and the other nine, holding ofhce for six years, 
are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the 
senate. The universiw is supported by a state tax of 0-23 mills 
Pjcr dollar on the taxed property of the state, by special appropria- 
tions from the state (for " deficiency," for School of Mines, and for 
salaries of teachers in the department of mines and engineering), by 
the interest on state bonds and land contracts purchased with the 
proceeds of Federal land grants under the Morrill Act of 1862, by 
Federal appropriations under the Morrill Act of 1890 and the Hatch 
Act, and by students' fees, &c. ; the total of this income was estimated 
in 1906-1907 at $628,500. The Act of 1872 provided for five or 
more colleges or departments: a college of science, literature and 
the arts, which offers (for the degree o( ^acVv^Not c>\ KT^."l^> ^Kww-^^tv 
course, is entire\y e\ect\ve ^exce\<t \\vaX a c«\aAtv wy«5cs«t ciV * ^"^^ 
courses" must be adecied^ alt« \X» tex ^J«x. »sA >». ^>»s2a^ >»«^ 



552 



MINNESOTA 



only reitriction b upon the range of nibjects from which the ttudent's 
choice mav be made; a college of agriculture (including military 
tactics), which is now a " department," including a coUece and a 
school of agriculture, a short course for (armersj a dairy school, the 
Crookston school of agriculture, a main experiment station at St 
Anthony Park, between Minneapolis and St Paul, and sub-stations 
1 m. north of Crookston and a m. east oi Grand Rapids; a ocdlm 
of mechanic arts, now called the college of engineering and the 
mechanic arts, which offers four-year courses in civil, mechanical, 
electrical and municipal engineering, a four-year course m sdence 
and 1^ . ' |; : ; .^r of Science, and 

gradu.ir:. ■■- : '<• ■> ;...^. I,-.- . ! ■ ■. . ^:- vj y^i-i.-.; ■•; ."■-.inmce; the collcpt 

of law, a irirtt:-yfiir9 rourc, wim rv^ninst claMca and graduate 
ran ran; a collcce of medtcine, which is now the colleRe of medicine 
and fiurgery [tB!)8J, and the coL^rge ol homocopaLhic tnedicint And 
lurgirry (1d8^), each with four^yrar CQiir^e%, and each (iince t^Cij) 
witn a coune of six yeam partly in the coLJegc of Bciencj?, Literature 
and the jrti, and pt^irtlytD the medical college and leading to the 
degree! of Bachelor of Science And Doclor of Medicine, [n addition 
to these departments provided for in the organic act, the univeraity 
Included in IWW colleges of dentistry ^three-year course), pharmacy 
(two-ycar and tnree'yeaT Couraes), a school of tninr* (iS^t ; four-yeor 
course, leadinj; to the degree of Eng^ineer of Mines or Kletallurjical 
Engineer), a school of analytical and applied chemiatry (four^ycar 
touncs, leading to the degree of B.\che1or' in Science in Chcmi&try 
Of in Chemical Kngincering)« a college of education (19O6; Three-year 
fourK, after two year? of college work, leading to a Master's degreejr 
a graduate Khoof (with courses leading to the degrees of Master of 
Arti, ol Science and of LaWs> and ol Doctor of PhilDsophy, of Science 
and of Civil Law}, and a univeraity lummer Bchool. The growth 
and development of the univemty have been alnuwt entirely under 
the adminL^tration of Cynia htorthrop {b- t8^), who graduated at 
Yale College in 1 857 and at Yale Law School in 1859, and wai 
professor of rhetoric and En^Ci^h literature jit Yale from 1 S&3 until 
)M4, when he became prvfiident ol the university of Minneiota. 
The university ii one of the LargcAt La the cguntry. ]n ttjo; there 
wen twenty-three buildings valued at more than f t,4?5,ooo. The 
Qniveimity fibrary of I lo^ooo volurnes t* aupplejncntcd by the Libra - 
riesof Minneapolis and St Paul. In 19021-1909 the fiirulty niimbercd 
t.bout 355 and the total enrolment of studerna was 44^1^ Other 
hieher educational institutions in. Minnesota are Hamline Urnvertity 
(Methodist Epticopil), with a college of liLwral art* at St Tauit 
gtid a collcgf of meditine at M mntjpoU^; Kf^ca letter Colle^ (Presby- 
terUii) at St Paul; Au^aburg Scmirmry (Lutheran) at MiantapolU; 
Ca.rltlon Cotltgt (non-tiectarian, foundtd in 1566) and St Olaf 
College (LuthcraRi founded in ifl/j) at Northficld: Gu*tavua 
Adolphua College fLutber^n) at St Pet«; Parker College (Free 
Bapttft, 1^88) at Winnebago City; St John'* Univtrs-itv (Elotsian 
Catholk) at CfjlVe^cvillc, Steams tc»unty:And Albert Lci Colleje for 
women (Pnrabytenan, founded iSi^) at Albert Lta. 
' History* — The fint European visitors to the territory now 
etnbTEiced m theEtnte of Minnesota found it divided between two 
po werf til Indian tribes, the Ojibways or Chippewas, who occupied 
the heavily wooded northern portion and the region along the 
Mississippi river, and the Sioux or Dakotas, who made their 
homes on the more open rolling country in the south and west 
and in the valley of the Minnesota. The first known white 
explorers were Radisson and GroseiUiers^ who spent the winter 
of 1658-1659 among the Sioux in the Mille Lacs region. At 
Sault Sainte Marie in 1671, before representatives of fourteen 
Indian nations, the Sieur de St Lusson read a proclamation 
asserting the French claim to all the territory in the region of the 
Great Lakes. Two years afterwards the upper course of the 
Mississippi was explored by Joliet and Marquette. In 1679 
Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut (Dxiluth) , as agent for a company 
of Canadian merchants which sought to establish trading posts 
on the Lakes, explored the country from the head of Lake 
Superior to Mille Lacs and planted the arms of Louis XIV. in a 
large Sioux village. In the following year the Franciscan friar 
Father Louis Hennepin, acting as an agent of the Sieur de la 
Salle, discovered and named the Falls of St Anthony; and in 
1686 Nicholas Perrot, the commandant of the west, built Fort St 
Antoine on the east bank of Lake Pepin, in what is now Pepin 
county, Wisconsin, and in 1688 formally took possession of the 
region in the name of the French king. A few years later (1694) 
Le Sueur, who had as early as 1684 engaged in trade along the 
upper Mississippi, established a trading post on Isle Pel6e 
(Prairie Island) in the Mississippi between Hastings and Red 
Wing, and in 1700 he built Fort L'Huillier at the confluence of the 
Blue Earth and the Le Sueur rivers. In 1762 the Sieur de la 
Perriire, acting as an agent of the French government, estab- 
lished on the west bank of Lake Pepin a fortified post (Fort 



BeauhamoiB), which was to be a headquarters for missionaries* t 
trading post and a starting-point for expeditions in sotrch of the 
"western sea." But none of the French posU was perma- 
nent, and in 1763 French rule came to an end, the Treaty of 
November (1762) and the Treaty of Versailles (1763) trans- 
ferring respectively the western portion of the sute to Spain 
and that part east of the Mississippi river to Great Britain. 
In 1766 the region was visited by the Connecticut travellei 
Jonathan Carver (1732-1780). Great Britain surrendered iu 
title to the eastern portion by the Treaty of Paris ( 1 783), and after 
the surrender of Virginia's colourable title had been accepted by 
Congress in 1784, this eastern part was made a part of the 
Northwest Territory by the ordinance of 1787, although th« 
British held possession and did some trading there until 1796. 
The western part remained under Spanish control until i8oj, 
when it, too, after being retransferred to France, became a part 
of the ITnited States with the rest of the Louisiana Purdust 
In 1805-1806, at the instance of President Thomas Jeffenoo, 
Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike led an exploring expedition as iu 
north as Leech Lake and took formal possession of the Mizuesou 
region for the United States. He obtained from the Sioux in 
military reservations one tract 9 m. square at the mouth of the 
St Croix River and another containing about xoo,ooo acres at Uk 
confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers. On the latta 
tract a military post was established by Lieut.-Colonel Utuj 
Leavenworth (1783-1834) in 1819, and in the following year the 
construction was begun of a fort at first named Fort St Antkoy 
but renamed Fort Snelling in 1824 (two years after its completioD) 
in honour of its builder and commander Colonel Josiah SocDIog 
(X782-1829). In 18x9 Michigan Territory was extended vest* 
ward to the Mississippi river, and in 1820 General Lewis Cas, 
its governor, conducted an exploring expedition in search of the 
source of the Mississippi, which he was satisfied was in the body 
of water named Lake Cass in his honour. Further search for tbe 
true source of the Mississippi was made in 1823 by Giacomo 
Constantio Beltrami (i779-x855),an Italian traveller and poGtical 
refugee, and in X832 by Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, who had 
accompanied Cain's expedition and traced the Mississippi from 
Lake Cass to Lake Itasca. In 1823 extensive explorations of the 
Minnesota and. Red River valleys were conducted by Htjoi 
Stephen Harriman Long (1784-1864), and subsequently (iSjr 
1836) knowledge of the region was extended by the in vestigatMOS 
of the artist George Catlin (i 796-1872), the topographer George 
William Featherstonhaugh (1780-1866), and the geologist Jon 
NichoUs Nicollett (i 786-1843). Meanwhile, the country nt 
sbwly being settled. In 1823 the first river steamboat rucbed 
St Paul; the Mississippi was soon afterwards opened to contioa- 
ous if irregular navigation; and in 1826 a party of refugees from 
Lord Selkirk'scolonyon the Red River settled near Fort Sndliaf. 
On the erection of Wisconsin Territory in 1836 the whole ol 
Minnesota, which then extended westward to the Missouri river, 
was incorporated with it, but on the erection of Iowa Terrilory 
in X838 Minnesota was divided and the part west of the Missis- 
sippi became a part of Iowa Territory. In 1837, by two important 
treaties, the one (July 29) between the Chippewas and Governor 
Henry Dodge of Wisconsin at St Peters, and the other (Sept 19) 
between some Sioux chiefs and Joel R. Poinsett at WashioftoBi 
the Indian titles to alL lands east of the Mississippi were practi- 
cally extinguished. The first county, St Croix, was established io 
1839, and in the succeeding years thriving settlements »«f« 
established at St Paul and Stillwater. The admission of Wis- 
consin as a state in 1848 left that part of the former territory vest 
of the St Croix and north of the Mississippi rivers, which was not 
included in the new state, practically without a government Ob 
the 26th of August a convention met at Stillwater, where measores 
were taken for the formation of a separate territorial govemiaent, 
and Henry Hastings Sibley (1811-1891) was sent to Congrtsi«» 
a delegate of " Wisconsin Territory." Upon his admissioo to a 
seat the curious situation was presented of representatives of the 
state and of the territory of Wisconsin sitting in the same body. 
This situation did not last long, however, for on the 3rd of March 
X849 the bill organizing the tcrritoiy of Minnesota was jjmM 



MINNESOTA 



553 



gth President Zachary Taylor appointed Alexander 
Pennsylvania the first territorial governor. The 
•undaries extended to the Missouri river, including a 
of the present North and South Dakota. The first 
pslature met at St Paul on the 3rd of September 
iy the Federal census of 1850 the territory had a 
f 6077, most of whom lived east of the Mississippi, 
Red river in the extreme north-west. Two treaties 
rith the Sioux by Luke Lea, commissioner, and 
exander Ramsey in 1851 opened to settlement the 
of the land within the territory west of theMissis- 
uch an unparalleled rush to the new lands took 
I census taJ&en in 1857 showed a population of 
I July 1857 a convention chosen to form a state 
was found on assembling to be so evenly divided 
Republican and Demdcratic parties that organization 
)le, and the members proceeded to their work in two 
ies. By means of conference committees, however, 
Qstitutions were formed, which in the following 
e adopted by an almost unanimous popular vote. 
IS admitted to the Union with its present boundaries 
of May 1858, and the federal census of i860 showed 
sulation had increased to 172,033, despite the fact 
ncial panic of 1857 had severely checked the state's 
nnesota furnished more than 25,000 troops for the 
ies during the Civil War. But even more pressing 
1 of the nation was the need of defending her own 
St the uprisings of the Indians within her borders, 
ents bordering on the Indian reservations had ex- 
ore or less trouble with the Sioux for several years, 
ious outbreak having occurred in March 1857, when 
I led his band to massacre the settlers at Spirit Lake. 
; of a large proportion of the able-bodied young 
!ie northern armies was taken advantage of by the 
t in the summer of 1862 there was delay in paying 
yearly allowance. Suddenly towards the end of 
' by previous understanding (although nothing of the 
r proved), small bands of Sioux scattered along the 
!00 m. and began a systematic massacre of the white 
.'ginning with the first outbreak at Acton, Meeker 
g;. 17), the attacks continued with increasing fury 
whites losing their lives) until the 23rd of September, 
'-raised volunteer forces under Colonel H. H. Sibley 
.'feated Little Crow, the principal leader of theKapo- 

Wood Lake. Three days kter more than 2000 of 
were surrounded and captured. Little Crow with a 
ompanions alone escaping beyond the Missouri. A 
nmlssion tried 425 of the captives for murder and 
)m 321 were found guilty and 303 were condemned 
)f these 38 were hanged at Mankato on the 26th of 
362. Little Crow and his followers kept up desultory 
lie Dakota country, during one of which in July 1863 
life. Expeditions of Sibley in 1863, and General 
' (1821-1879) in 1864, eventually drove the hostile 
ond the Missouri and terminated the war, which in 
ad cost upwards of a thousand lives of settlers and 

The opening of the Chippewa lands in the north- 
te coming of peace marked the beginning of a new 
.pid growth, the Federal census of 1870 showing a 
>f 439.706, or a gain of 75-8 % in five years. During 
alf-dccade railway construction, which had begun 
:ning of the railway between St Paul and Minneapolis 
ched a total of more than 1000 m. For a period of 
tcr the financial panic of 1873 the growth was corn- 
low, but in the succeeding two years the recupcr- 
apid. During the decade, 1 880-1890, more than 
railway were completed and put in operation. In 
894 disastrous forest fires, starting in the neighbour- 
nckley in Pine county, destroyed that village and 
;hbouring towns, causing the death of 418 people, 
•00 others homeless, and devastating about 350 sq. m^ 
k1, entailing a loss of more than $1,000,000. The 



state furnished four regents (a total of 5313 officers and men) 
to the volunteer army during the Spanish-American War (1898), 
the service of the 13th Regiment for more than a year in the 
Philippines being particulariy notable. In October 1898 there 
was an uprising of the Pillager band of Chippewa Indians at 
Leech Lake, which was quelled by the prompt action of Federal 
troops. Since the first state election, which was carried by the 
Democratic party, the state has been generally strongly Republi- 
can in politics; but the Republican candidate for governor was 
defeated in 1898 by a " fusion ** of Democrats and Populists, 
and in 1904, 1906 and 1908 a Democratic governor, John Albert 
Johnson, was elected, very largely because of his persoDal 
popularity. 

Govaaifoas or Miknbsota. 
Territorial 

Alexander Ramsey Whig 1849-1853 

Willis Arnold Gorman .... Democrat 1853-1857 

Samuel Mcdary „ . 1857-1858 

State. 
Henry Hastings Sibley .... Democrat 1858-1860 

Alexander Ramsey RepuUican 1800-1863 

Henry A. Swift .*.... „ . 1863-1864 

Stephen Miller ,• . 1864-1866 

William RogerMn Marshall ... „ . 1866-1870 

■■ * • » . 1870-1874 

n . 1874-1876 
„ . 1876-1881 

1883-1887 
1887-1889 
1^89-1893 
1893-1895 
1895-1899 



Horace Austin .... 
Cushman Kellon Davis 
John Sargent Pfllsbury . . 
Lucius Fairchild Huboard . 
Andrew Ryan McGill . . 
William Rush Merriam . . 

Knute Nelson 

David Marston Clough . 



John Ltnd Democrat- Populist 1899-1901 

Samuel R. Van Sant .... Republican 1901-1905 

John Albert Johnson . . . Democrat (died in office) 1905-1909 
Adolph Olson Eberhart . . . Republican 1909- 

BiBLiOGiAFHV. — There u A wdl-BiTa ivged Bibti^triphy of Miniu* 
SPta b^ John Fktcher Williams ih th« C^U&tuma ^ the MinneiotA 
HiEtontm] 5odet>% vd, iiL CSt P^til. ]^3o}. CofUu.1t a\w Maitriali 
jor the Fuiure Hiitory oj Minntsoin, pubtUhed by the Sute Histariul 
Society (5i Paul, 1856), and Isaac S, BnidlFy'«biblli>Knipby of North- 
wntern institutional history in the Prftuediitu of the Wiiconiii] 
State Historical Society (Madixin^ Wil. 1^96^^ Of the many 
intcTcsdn^ and valuabl'C nartativn and dffKinptipns of Minnesoita 
fn the cany dilys, thosr cspthCxaHy worlhy of mcnhon arc Btltrami't 
La Drc<}Urixrit des HJurcu dts Misiiisippi ei dt la Rivierv San£tantt 
{New Orleans^ i3J4) and the same iiuthor'a A Pit primage in Eurap* 
and America, leadirfw ia tkt Disieffstry dJ the Sowcn of the Mitiisiippi 
and Bloody Rivers J2 Vols,, London, HJjS) : Willum H. Keating, 
Narraiive iff an Expedition to the S^mrcei of the St Pettr (Minnc^ta) 

Rivtf^ Likke Winnepeek, Lake of the Woods, ifc in i82j (a vol*.* 

London^ iSiS)* an account o( the explorationsi of Major Long; Henry 
Rh Schciolcr^fl, Narraiivt of ax Ejcptdition thi^uik ike Upp€r MitsU^ 
tipfn I,, ihi.^n 7^1 1^ in t^i? (\>^v,- Vrirk. TNi;|V n. \v: Feather- 
SCO^;' 1 ,-.,... r- ...... ■■. y. .. ..■.., _.. , j..^ Lomion, 

if«4- I .■ ■ , .'.■ •■■•■ ■: . . ■ ■ ■ : . ■ j'-dlntimYh, 

1855} ; and Frederika Bremer, The Homes of the New World: Impres- 
sions of America (2 vols., New York, 1864). For the territorial 
period consult also E. S. Seymour, Sketches of Minnesota, the New 
Enrland of the West (New York, 1850) ; J. Wesley Bond. Minnesota 
ana its Resources (New York, 1853): C A. Andrews, Minnesota and 
Dacotah (Washington, 1857); and C. E. Flandreau, The History of 
Minnesota and Tales of the Frontier (St Paul, 1901). The Collections 
of the Minnesota State Historical Society contain much valuable 
material on the history of the state, notably E. D. Neill's " French 
Vf.nMKCur* lo Minne*ctj Juri:ii i-v "■ ■■-■• = "'■ ■ 'ii '. ■ ■'.ini- ** (I1S71); 
E. t). Ndll'i" Early French Fnris " (iBSg); T- F- Moran'a "How 
Minnesota, beomie a 5^Eate '* (iSgB); N. U Mou's "Last Dayi of 
'WTsconiin Territory' and Early Dayt of Minncsotn Territory " ( i ttgfl) ; 
C. E. Flandrcau's" Retniniiccnceaof Minnraotii during the^erritorial 
PtrJ.MJ " iigoj); C, D, GiMHao's " Early Political History of Minnt- 
wi'ts " (1901); and lame* H. Ea leer's Livts of ikt Ggut^ots 0/ 
MintitzotA UgoSL Fof the SiouJt uprising consult Isaac V. D. 
J|i.ard, Hiitary of the Si^ux U'ar and the Masmcres ef 1S6J1 and tS6j 
f New York, 1864): Charles S. Brysnt and Abel B. Nlurch, A Hiititrp 
ef fjW Great Massacre by the Sitmx Indiam in Mi^ntinta {Cindnna.li, 
r§^4>: and S. R. Foot, ** The Sioux Indian War/' tn 7«ni Hiitorical 
Recnrd, vcJi. K. and li. (1894^18^5), CoFteuk al*o Minminta in the 
Ch'il and Indian Wars, sMi-iSC^ i? voli,» St P^ul, 1 890-1^.1) The 
lit-Ht: ni^nt^ral account of the state s hliiory is W, W. Fokeir* Minne- 
iQta, the North Siar Staie (Boston, 190§1, m the " American Common- 
wcislth fiertea ": E- D^ Neill's Concise History ef Minnejoti (Msnne* 
aj»oli>i, I SB;); and T^ H. Kirk's litjutrnied History pf Mirtnefoia 
CS[ Pjul, iSJiy) may A\ia be con^mlted. For an account of the ad*^ 
ininiitration coosutc Frank L. McVey, Thi Catierttment of Miatseut^ 



55+ 



MINNOW— MINOS 



(New York, T901); Sanford Nilet, History and Civil Gofemment of 

Minnesota (Chicago, 1897); and f*- ' — '"^— ^ ' —»-•--»—• 

biennially by the state at St PauL 



MINNOW (Leuciscus pkoxinus), the sxnalkst British fish of the 
Cyprinoid family, readily distinguished by its very minute scales. 
The ordinary name is derived from the common Indo-European 
word for " little " (cf. Lat., minor), and " minnow " is popularly 
identified with any tiny fish; in America it is given to small forms 
of the Gambusia and Notropis genera, &c. The British minnow 
abounds in lakes, rivers and brooks, swimming in schools, and 
shifting its ground in search of food, in the shape of every kind 
of animal and vegetable substance. It ranges from Scandinavia 
to south Europe, and from Ireland to north-east Asia, attaining 
an elevation of nearly 8000 ft. in the Alps. Its size varies from 
between 2 and 3 in. to as much as 4 or 5 in. The minnow 
is commonly used by anglers' for bait, and is useful in ponds as 
food for trout, perch or pike. 

HINO DI GIOVANNI (i43X-X484)> called Da Fiesole, Italian 
pculptor, was bom at Poppi in the Casentino. He had property 
at Fiesole. Vasari's accoimt of him is very -inaccurate. Mino 
Was a friend and fellow- worker with Desiderio da Settignano and 
Matteo Civitale, all three being about the same ag6. Mino's 
^ulpture is remarkable for its finish and delicacy of details, as 
iwell as for its spirituality and strong devotional feeling. Of 
Mino's earlier works, the finest are in the duomo of Fiesole, the 
altarpiece and tomb of Bishop Salutati, executed before 1466. 
In the Badia of Florence arc an altarpiece ^nd the tombs of 
Bernardo Giugni (1466) and the Margrave Hugo (i48i)> all 
sculptured in white marble, with life-sized recumbent effigies 
and attendant angels. The pulpit in Prato Cathedral, in which 
he collaborated with Antonio Rossellino, finished in 1473, '^ ^^rx 
delicately sculptured with bas-reliefs of great minuteness, but 
somewhat weakly designed. Soon after the completion of this 
work Mino went to Rome, where he executed the tomb of Pope 
Paul II. (now in the crypt of St Peter's), the tomb of Francesco 
Tornabuoni in S. Maria sopra Minerva, and a beautiful little 
marble tabernacle for the holy oils in S. Maria in Trastevere. 
There can be little doubt that he was also the sculptor of several 
monuments in S. Maria del Popolo, especially those of Bishop 
Gomiel and Archbishop Rocca (1482), and the marble reredos 
given by Pope Alexander VI. Some of Mino's portrait busts and 
profile bas-reliefs are preserved in the Bargello at Florence; they 
are full of life and expression, though without the extreme 
realism of Verrocchio and other sculptors of his time. 

See Vasari, Milanesi's ed. (i 878-1 882) ; Perkins's Italian Sculptors, 
Wtnckelmann and D'Agincourt, Storia delta scultura (1811): Hans 
Semper, Archilekten der Renaissance (Dresden, 1880) ; Wilhelm Bode, 
Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1893). 

MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904), American artist, 
was born in New York city on the 30th of April 1839, and re- 
ceived his art training in Paris under Diaz, and in Antwerp under 
Joseph Van Luppen. His paintings are characteristic of the 
Barbizon school, and he was particularly happy in his sunset and 
twilight effects; but it was only within a few years of his death 
that he began to have a vogue among collectors. In 1897 he 
was elected a member of the National Academy of Design, New 
York. After 1900 he lived at Wateriord, Connecticut, where he 
died on the 4th of August 1904. 

MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser^, a word used both as an 
adjective and as a substantive for that which is less than or 
inferior to another, and often correlatively opposed to that to 
which " major " is applied in the same connotation. Among the 
numerous special uses of the word the following may be 
mentioned: " Minor Friars," sometimes known as " Minorites," 
i.e. the name (fratres minores, lesser brothers) given by 
St Francis to the order he founded (see Franoscans); " minor 
canons " are clergymen attached to a cathedral or collegiate 
church who read and sing the daily service. In some 
cathedrals they are known as " vicars choral "; they are not 
members of the chapter. (For the distinction between 
holy and minor orders in Christian hierarchy see Orders.) 
^The name " Minor Prophets " is used collectively of the twelve 



prophetical books of the Old Testament from Hosea to MakcU 
inclusive. (For the distinction in music between major and minor 
intervab, and for other applications of the correlative term, tee 
Music and Harmony.) In the categorical syllogism {q.v.) in 
logic, the minor term is that term which forms the subject of the 
conclusion, the minor premiss is that which contains the minor 
term. In law, a "minor" is a person under legal age (see 
Inpant). 

In mathematics, the " minor of a determinant " is the deter- 
minant formed by erasing an equal number of the rows and 
colunms of the original determinant. If one column and row be 
erased there is formed the first minor; if two rows and columns 
the second minor, and so on. The minor axis of a central conic 
section is the shorter of the two principal axes; it may also be 
regarded as the line joining the two imaginary fod. In astro* 
nomy, the term minor planets is given to the members of the 
solar system which have their orbits between those of Mais and 
Jupiter (see Planets, Minor). 

llINORCA(Menorca), the second in size of the group of Spanish 
islands in the Mediterranean Sea, known as the Balearic Islands 
(g.».), 37 m. E.N.E. of Majorca. Pop. (1900), 371,512; area, 
360 sq. m. The coast is deeply indented, especially on the north, 
with numerous creeks and bays— that of Port Mahon (17,144) 
being one of the finest in the Meditenanean, if not the bat d 
them all, according to the popular rhyme — 
" Tunio. Julio, Agosto y puerto Mahon 
Los mejores puertoe da Mediterraneo son ** — 
" June, July, August and Port Mahon are the best harbouis d 
the Mediterranean " (see Port Mason). The poru Addaya, 
Foroelle, Ciudadela and Nitja may also be mentioned. -The 
surface ol the island is uneven, flat in the south and rising irrego* 
larly towards the centre, where the mountain £1 Toro — probably 
so called from the Arabic tor, a height, though the natives haves 
legend of a toro or bull— has an altitude of 1 207 ft. The dimaU 
is not so equable as that of Majorca, and the island is exposed in 
autumn and winter to the violence of the north winds. Its soil 
is of very unequal quality; that of the higher districts being light, 
fine, and fertile, and producing regular harvesu without much 
labour, while that of the plains is chalky, scanty, and unfit for 
pasture or the plough. Some of the valleys have a good alluviil 
soil; and where the hills have been terraced they are cultivated 
to the summit. The wheat and barley raised in the island are 
sometimes sufficient for home consumption; thero is rardjr a 
surplus. The Hedysarum coronarium, or ztdla, as it is caDed 
by the Spaniards, is largely cultivated for fodder. Wine, oil, 
potatoes, hemp and flax are produced in moderate quantities; 
fruit of all kinds, including melons, pomegranates, fiigs and 
almonds, is abundant. The caper plant is common througjioat 
the island, growing on ruined walls. Horned cattle, sheep and 
goats are reared, and small game abound. Stone of vaiioas 
kinds b plentiful. In the district of Mercadal and in Moost 
Santa Agueda are found fine marbles and porphyries; lime and 
slate are also abimdant. Lead, copper and iron niight be woihed 
were it not for the scarcity of fuel. There are manufactures of 
the wool, hemp and flax of the island; and formerly there was a 
good deal of boat-building; but agriculturo is the chief industiy< 
An excellent road, constructed in 1713-1715 by Brigadier- 
General Richard Kane, to whose memory a monument was 
erected at the first milestone, rtms through the island inxa 
south-east to north-west, and connects Port Mahon with 
Ciudadela. Ciudadela (8611), which was the capital of the 
island till Port Mahon was raised to that posiuon by the 
English, still possesses considerable remains of its ktsxt 
importance. 

MINOS, a semi-legendaty king of Crete, son of Zeus un 
Europa. By his wife, PasiphaB, he was the father of Aiiadi*» 
Deucalion, Phaedra and others. He reigned over Crete and the 
islands of the Aegean three generations before the Trojan War- 
He lived at Cnossus for periods of nine years, at the end of which 
he retired into a sacred cave, where he received instnictkmfri*'' 
Zeus in the legislation which he gave to the island. He was the 
author of the Cretan constitution and the founder of its bi^ 



MINOT— MINSK 



555 



supremacy (Herodotus iiL 133; Thucydides i..4). In Attic 
tndition and on the Athenian stage Minos is a cruel tyrant, the 
heartless exactor of the tribute of Athenian youths to feed the 
Minotaur (9. v.). It seems possible that tribute children were 
actually exacted to take part in the gruesome shows of the 
Mlnoan bull-rings, of which we now have more than one 
Illustration (see Crete: Archaeology). To reconcile the contra- 
dictory aspects of his character, two kings of the name of 
Minos were assumed by later poets and mythologists. Since 
Phoenician intercourse was in later times supposed to have 
played an important part in the development of Crete, Minos is 
sometimes called a Phoenician. There is no doubt that there 
is a considerable historical clement in the legend; recent dis- 
coveries in Crete (q.v.) prove the existence of a civilization 
such as the legends imply, and render it probable that not 
only Athens, but Mycenae itself, was once subject to the kings 
of Cnossus, of whom Minos was greatest. In view of the 
^>lendour and wide influence of Minoan Crete, the age generally 
known as '* Mycenaean " has been given the name of " Minoan " 
by Dr Arthur Evans as more properly descriptive (see Crete). 
Minos himself is said to have dfed at Camicus in Sicily, 
whither he had gone in pursuit of Daedalus, who had given 
Ariadne the clue by which she guided Theseus through the 
labyrinth. He was killed by the daughter of Cocalus, king of 
Agrigentum, who poured boiling water over him in the bath 
(Diod. Sic. iv. 79). Subsequently his remains were sent back 
to the Cretans, who placed them in a sarcophagus, on ^hich 
was inscribed: "The tomb of Minos, the son of Zeus." The 
earlier legend knows Minos as a beneficent ruler, legislator, and 
suppressor of piracy (Thucydides i. 4). His constitution was 
said to have formed the basis of that of Lycurgus (Pausanias 
iii 3, 4). In accordance with this, after his death he became 
judge of the shades in the under-world (Odyssey, ix. 568); later 
be was associated with Aeacus and Rhadamanthus. 

The solar explanation of Minos as the sun-god has bten 
thrown, into the background by the recent discoveries. In any 
case a divine origin would naturally be claimed for him as a 
priest-king, and a divine atmisphere hangs about him. The 
name of his wife, Pa^iphaS (''the all-shining "), is an epithet 
of the moon-goddess. The name Minos seems to be philo- 
k>gically the equivalent of Minyas, the royal ancestor of the 
Minyans of Orchomenus, and his daughter Ariadne (" the ex- 
ceeding holy ") is a double of the native nature-goddess. 
(See Crete: Archaeology.) 

On Cretan coins Minos is represented as bearded, wearii^ a 
diadem, curlv-haired, haughty and difirnified, like the traditional 
portraits of nis reputed father, Zeus. On painted vases and sarco- 
phagus bas-reliefs he frequently occurs with Aeacus and Rhadaman- 
thus as judges of the under-world and in connexion with the Minotaur 
and Theseus. 

MINOT, LAURENCE (fl. 1333-1352), English poet, the author 
(rf eleven battle-songs, first published by Jdseph Ritson in 1795 
as Poems on Inferesting Events in the reign of King Edward III. 
They had been discovered by Thomas Tyrwhitt in a MS. 
(Cotton Galba, E. IX., British Museum) which bore On the fly- 
leaf the misleading inscription: " Chaucer, Exemplar emendate 
scriptum." It dates from the beginning of the 15th century. 
The authorship of Laurence Minot's eleven songs is fixed by 
the opening of the fifth: " Minot with mowth had menid to 
make," and in VII. 20, " Now Laurence Minot will begin." 
The poems were evidently written contemporaneously with the 
events they describe. The first celebrates the English triumph 
at Halidon Hill (1333), and the last the capture of Guines (1352). 
The writer is animated by an ardent personal admiration for 
Edward IIL and a savage joy in the triumphs of the English over 
their enemies. The technical difficulty of his metres and the 
comparatively even quality of the work led to the inference that 
Minot had written other songs, but none have come to light. 
Nothing whatever is known of his life, but the minuteness of his 
information suggests that he accompanied Edward on some of his 
ampaigns. Though his name proves him to have been of Norman 
birth, he writes vigorous and idiomatic English of the northern 
dialed with come admixture of.midland forms.. His poems ar^ 



instinct with a fierce jsiattoiiAl feeling, which has been accepted 
as an index of tbe union of Interests between the Norman and 
English dements amines out of common dangers and common 
successes. 

There arc excellent editions of Minot's poems by Wilhelm Scholle 



(QutiUn and FoTichvntfft, voir lii,, Strasburg, 1884), with notes on 
eTymology and; mfir^, and by Mr J. Hall (Curcndon Press, and ed., 
H97)*_^Jr Hall is inclined to ijidude ashis work thc^" Hymn to 



Jesus Christ dnd the Vir^it ^' {Religious Pieces, Early English Text 
Society, No, st, p. 76), on the grounds of similarity of style and 
lancuage. Scf! abo T. Wngiit, Pditical Poenfs and Songs (Rolls 
sen™, 1859), 

MlltOf AUB (Gr. Mu'i^nuyuf, from Mtwiw, and raCpof, 
buti), in Greek m>liiology^ a fabulous Cretan monster with the 
hody of a man and the head of a bull. It was supposed to be 
the off^spring of Faslphag, the uife of Minos, and a snow-white 
buUf sent to Minos by Poseidon for sacrifice. Minos, instead 
of sacrificing it^ spafcd its life, ond Poseidon, as a punishment, 
inspired Pasiphai^ with 40 unnatural passion for it. The monster 
which WAS borti was shut up in the Labyrinth (?.».). Now it 
happened that Audtogcuj^ son of Minos, had been killed by the 
ALhriujins» ^vho were jcaJous of the victories he had won at the 
Panathcnaic feitivd. To avenge the death of his son, Minos 
dcinuuided thut ^zven Athenian youths and seven maidens should 
be s»ent every ninth year to be devoured by the Minotaur. 
When the third sacrifice came round Theseus volunteered to go, 
and with the help of Ariadne {q.v.) slew the Minotaur (Plutarch, 
Thseust 15^19; Diod, Sic. J. 16, iv. 6x; Apollodorus iii. x, 15). 
Some modem mytbobgisLs regiird the Minotaur as a solar 
personification and a Greek adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the 
Phocrnjcians. The slaying of Lbc Minotaur by Theseus in that 
case indicates the abolition of such sacrifice by the advance of 
Greek dviUzalion^ 

Acftirdiny to A. B. Coot, Minos and Minotaur arc only different 
torini of the ume (:)i:rsoEU£eH repre^nting'the sun-god ZcMh of the 
Cretans, who represented the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer 
both exphin Pa^tphat^'s moiutroLi:; union as a -sacred ceremony 
{i^^ >aijei}, at which the qutvn of Cnossus was wedded to a 
bull fornied goiJ, just as I be wife of the Apxu*)' paaiKttn in Athens 
was wedded to Diorrysus. E. Pol tier, who docs not dispute the 
historical perv:iim!itv uf MiDoa. in view of the story of Phalaris (q.v.) 
coniidens it prt^tiable that in Cr*ie (where a bull-cult may have 
exbt<^ by the side ci thdt of the dcruble axe) victims were tortured 
by being shut up ia the bell;^ ol a red-hot brazen bull. The story 
of TaloQ, the Cretan matt o[ brasa^ who heated himself red-hot and 
clapped 9 tranRers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the 
i&bndp is probably of timilar or][;;lrL. The contest between Theseus 
and the Minotaur was frL-qucntlj' represented in Greek art. A 
Coosatan didraehiri exhibits on one side the labyrinth, on the other 
the Miiiot;iur lurrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably 
intended Tor s^tara; it is to be notod that one of the monsters name. 
was Aiterius. 

See A. Come, Tkistat utid Minofauros (1878); L. Stephani, Det 
Kampf smh^ken Tiitieui und Mim^tauros (1842), with plates and 
history of the legend; U f^eHer, Griechische Myikologie', Helbig 
in Ho4ch(rr's Ln^am dtt Myiiufhpe; F. Durrbach in Daremberg 
and Siiis^io's CHctiemtuii'fi lUi antumiiis; A. B. Cook in Classical 
Mepvw. xvii. 410; }. G, Ffatcr. Early History of the Kingship 
iim) -, E, Pot tier in La R£tr»e 4e Paris (Feb. 1902} ; the story is told 
ia Kiitgsley's Heroes. 

UlUSK, a government of western Russia, bounded by the 
governments of Vilna, Vitebsk, Mogilev and Chernigov on the 
K. and E. and by Kiev, Volhyma and Grodno on the S. and W. 
It hajK an area of JSp^Kj sq. m. The surface is imdulating and 
hilly in the north-west, where a narrow plateau and a range of 
hilts {Soo-tocfO U*) of tertiary formation separate the basin of 
the Njetqeo^ which flows into the Baltic, from that of the Dnieper, 
which senda its waters into the Black Sea. The remainder of the 
government is flat, 450 to 650 U. above sea-level, and covered 
with sands and ckys of the glacial and post-glacial periods. Two 
broad !:hailow dtpreisioni, draini.*d by the Berezina and the 
Pripet, cross the gavernmtnt from north to south and from west 
to east; and these, as well as the triangular space between them, 
are occupied by immense marshes (often as much as 200 to 600 
sq. m* each), ponds and amnll ]akcf5, peat-bogs and moving sands, 
intermingled with dense forests. This country, and especially 
Its south- western part^ is usually known under the name of 
Folyesie ("The >Voods "). ,. AltD^tber, marshes and moQr^ 



556 



MINSK— MINSTREL 



l^£ up 31% and mmhy fofiests no less tlian ^oj % of the emtre 
Atti, of the province, it is only in the north- west thut the lorcsla 
coiLsist of fulJ-grof^a trees; those which grow on the marshy 
ground arc small, stunted pine, birch and aspen. The climate 
of the Polyesic is extremely unhealthy; malarias and an endemic 
di^cau of ibe hair {ptka Folonka} are the plagues of these tracliw 
Communication is very difficult. The rjiilway from Poland to 
Moscow ha$ taken advantage of the plateau above mentioned; 
but still it ha» to cross the broad marshy depression of the 
Beredna^ h s^ucces&ful attempt was made to drain the marshes 
of the Folyc^ie by a e,y^Lrm of canals, and mon: th^n 4»soo,ooo 
acres have thu^ be^n rtndcrtrd suitjible [or pasture and agiiculturc. 
Two tributaries of the Dnieper — the Brrc^ifia and the Pripet — 
both navigable, with numberless subtributaries, mjuiy also 
navigable, ue the fiatuta] outlets for the marshes. The Dnieper 
00 ws alonf its HUth-rasLem border for i6o m, and the Nicmen 
o^n tbe north-western for 130 m. The affluents of the 
Baltic, tbe Dvina ftod the Vistula, arc connected by canals 
wilb tributaries of the Dnieper. Tbe estimated population 
in 1906 was 7,5^1,400. The peasants constitute 65% ol the 
population^ who are mostly White Russians (71%); there are 
also Poles CiJ%)> Jews (ifi%), Little Russians and Great 
Russians. About 70,000 are considened to be Lithuanians; 
there arc also 4500 Tatars and aooc Germans. 

The priiKrtpal occufEation o\ the mhabttiinti ia agriculture, which 
it very unprDductive in tbe lowlandi; in the Polyesie the peaAants 
rarely have pure bread to eat. Only 3J"S % of the area ib under 
eropt- Caitle-brKding i* very iinpcrfceilv developed. Itunting 
aotf beo keeping an: sources of income in the Polyesje, and fiahini? 
give* occupation to about jo.ooo pcnona. Gardening is carried 
on in njfne parts. The chief source of income for the inhabitanEs 
of the b viands h the timber trade^ Timt)cr li floated down the 
liven, and tar, pitch, various fffoducts of bark^ potash, chafcoal 
and timber-«'are {troadcn dishes, Ac) are manulactuTed tn the 
villagev to a tfreat ejitent; and ship-buildinff h carried on alon^ 
the Dmcpcr, Pripet and Niemen, Shipping 14 also an important 
■ource of income The industrial art* arc almost entirely^ unde- 
veloped, but there are several distilleries, Hour-oiilli- taw-rnilla and 
tannedcs, :ind woollen-stuffs, candle*, tobacco, matehci and Atigar 
are inaniifsu:iu.r«J. The great highway from War*aw to Moscow 
croucs the ginvtrnrnent Ln the south, and its passage through (he 
Bereiina in jifotecttd tiy the fint-cLiss fortrf*! of Gobrtii^lL The 
government i« divided into nine district*, of which the chief town* 
and population! in 1A97 an:: Minsk, capital of the f^vcrnnnent (q.v.), 
BobruLik (J5-177). iBumeA (45 79). Moryr (io,7&2), Novogrudok 
C7700J, Pinalt tJ7.5i3*J- Ryechitia (10,681) and SJutik (14,180). 

This region was origiJially Inhabited by Slavs, Thai portion of 
it which was occupied by tbe Krivichi bccainc part of the Polotsk 
priTicipality, and so of While Rus&ia; the other portion, <>[:cupied 
by the Dregovichi and Drevlyans^ became part ol Black Ru^a; 
whilst the south-western portion was occupied by Yatvyags or 
Lithuanjans. Durina th« iilh, 13th and 14th ccnttuics it was 
divided among several princJpalities, which were successively 
incorj>oratcd with Lithuanii, and later annexed to Poland. 
Russia took possession of this country in 1793. In e8i7 It was 
invaded by the army of Napoleon I. Archaeological finds of 
great vjdue, dating fruofl the NeoHthic and subsequent a^rs, 
have lately been made, < P. A. K . ; J . T, B e, ) 

HIKSK^ * town of Russia, capital of the government ol tbe 
same namfj, on the Svisloch, a tributary ol the Bcrcdna, at the 
intersection of the Moscow Warsaw and Libau- Kharkov rail- 
ways, 430 m. by rati W. from Moscow. It had, in i8i?7, qmch 
inhabitants, of whom one-third were Jews of the poorest clasa; 
ibe others were White Russians, Polei and Tatars Amongil 
its pubbc buildings is a catbedrd, built in t6tt. Minsk is the 
headquarters of the IVth Army Corps and the 5rf:c of a bishop of 
Ihe Orthodox Greek Church, and from 179S to 1853 it was a see 
of the Roman Catholic Churth. The manufactures are few and 
insignificant. Since the introduction of railways the com- 
mercial importance of the place, which formerly was slight, 
has begun to increase. 

Minsk Is mentioned in Russian annab In th« ittb ccniuiy 
under the name of MycO'&k, or Menesk, In 1066 and io<j6 it was 
devasLatedr &rst by IjEyadav and afterwards by Vladimir, prince 
of Kiev, It changed rulers many times until the uLh century, 
wbco U beoune a litbuiuiia]) ^. . In the 15th ceniuiy It was 



put of Folandi, but as late as 1505 it was ravaged by Tatan, kad 
in 1508 by Russians. In the i8th century it was taken scrvecal 
times by Swedes and Russians. Russia annexed it in 1795. 
Napoleon I. took it in 1812. 

MINSTER, two towns of Kent, England. 

I. Minster-in-Tbanet, in the Isle of Thanet parliamentary 
division, lies on the southern slope of the isle, above the 
Minster marshes, in the low, flat valley of the river Stour, 4 m. 
west of Ramsgate, on the SoUth-Eastem & Chatham railway. 
Pop. (xQoi), 3338. Its church, dedicated to St Mary, ii 
cruciform, with a western tower, the nave a fine examf^ of 
Norman work, the transepts and chancel a beautiful Eaxfy 
English addition. The carved choir-stalls are a notabk 
feature. The church belonged to a nunnery, fouiMled at the 
dose of tbe 7th century. The abbey, a residence dose to the 
diurch, incoiporates portions of the andent buildings. Fznit* 
growing' is largely carried on in the neighbourhood. 

3. Minster-in-Shefpey, in the north-eastern parliamcntaiy 
division, lies in the Isle of Sheppcy, near the north coast. Popi 
(1901), 1306. It is served by the Sheppey U^t railway frois 
Sheemess, 2 m. west. The village has in modem times become 
a seaside resort. It has a fine chiuxh, dedicated to St Mary and 
St Sexburga, originaUy attached to a convent of tbe 7th centuiy, 
founded by Sexburga, widow of Erconberht, king of KenU The 
building as it stands is only a portion of the conventual church 
foimded in the early part of the i3th century, by William de 
Corbeuil, archbishop of Canterbury; it retains also traces of 
pre-Norman work. It contains some interesting early mono* 
ments. The abbey gatehouse remainiis, and other fragments 
may be traced. There are oyster beds in the neighbouiiag 
shallow sea. 

MONSTER (from Lat. numasterium; d. German MUnskr)^ tbi 
church of a monastery, or one to which a monastery has bees 
attached. In the loth century the name was applied to the 
churches of outlying parishes, and is now given to some of the 
English cathedrals, such as York, Lincoln, Ripon and Southwell, 
and to large churches or abbeys, like those <^ Sherborne, Wlffl* 
borne or Westminster. 

MINSTREL. The word "minstrd," which b a derivative 
from the Latin minister, a servant, through the diminuiiwi 
ministelluSf ministraUus (Fr. fnenestrd), only acquired iu spedil 
sense of household entertainer late in the 13th century. It 
was the equivalent of the Low Latin yoa<^a/or * (Prov. y^ftar, 
Fr. jougleuTf Mid. Eng. JQgclour), and had an equally vide 
significance. 

The minstrd of medieval England had his forerunners in the 
Teutonic sctp (O.H.G. scdpfor scof, a shaper or maker), and to a 
limited extent in the mimus of the later Roman empire. The 
earliest record of the Teutonic scdp is found in the Anglo-Suos 
poem of Widsith, which in an earlier form probably dates btdc 
before the English conquest. Widsith, the far-traveller, bdM^ 
to a tribe which was neighbour to the Angles, and was sent on a 
mission to the Ostrogoth Eormanric (Hermanric or Ermaoaric, 
<!• 375)> from whom he received a collar of beaten gold He 
wandered from place to place singing or telling stories in the mead- 
hall, and saw many nations, from the Picts and Scots in the vat 
to the Medes and Persians in the east. Finally he received a 
gift of land in his native country. The Complaint of Dear and 
Beowulf give further proof that the Teutonic scdp hdd an bonM^ 
able position, which was shaken by the advent of Christiasity. 
The scdp and the gfeeman (the terms appear to have been practi- 
cally synonymous) shared in the general condemnation pa^ bjr 
the Church on the dancers, jugglers, bear-leaders and tumbtev 
Saxo Orammaticus {Historia danica, bk. v.) condemns tlK In*b 
king Hugleik because he spent all his bounty on mimes and 
jugglers. That the loftier tradition of the scdpas was preserrtd 
in spite of these influences is shown by the tales of Alfred and 
Anlaf disguised as minstrels. With the Normans cane the 
joculator or jogleur, who wore gaudy-coloured coats and the flat 

> Used by John of Salisbury (Polycraticus, i. 8) as a genetic tena 
to cover mimi, salii or salicres, balatrones, aemiliamif ffoHtHth. 
palacstritae, gignadiit praestigiatora. 



MINT 



557 



Atin mimes, and had a shaven face and close-cut 
rs were admitted everywhere, and enjoyed the 
)ecch accorded to the professional jester. Their 
urever, was not always maintained, for Henry I. 
; put out the eyes of Luc de la Barre for lampoon- 
iairly defined class distinction soon arose. Those 
I were attached to royal or noble households had 
different from that of the. motley entertainers, 
ne under the restrictions imposed on vagabonds 
joctUator regis, Berdic by name, is mentioned in 
ok. The king's minstrels formed part of the royal 
d were placed under a rex, a fairly common term 
the craft (cf. Aden^s li rois). Edward III. had 
trels in his pay, including three who bore the title 
te large towns had in their pay bodies of waits, 
gnated in the civic accounts as hislriones. A wait 
1 III. had to " pipe the watch " four times nightly 
aelmas and Shere Tuesday, and three times nightly 
:mainder of the year. In spite of the repeated 
of the Church, the matter was compromised in 
en religious houses had their minstrels, and so 
te as Robert Grosseteste had his private harper, 
«r adjoined the bishop's. St Thomas Aquinas 
9g^) said that there was no sin in the minstrel's 
kept within the bounds of decency. Thomas de 
op of Salisbury (d. 13 13), in a Penitential distin- 
kinds of minstrels {histrionts) — buffoons or tum- 
idering scurrae, by whom he probably meant the 
ouakd) ; and the singers and players of instruments. 
:iass he discriminated between the singers of lewd 
se joculatorcs who took their songs from the deeds 
1 the lives of saints. The performances of these 
re permissible, and they themselves were not to be. 
1 the consolations of the Church. The Parisian 
e formed into a gild in 132 1, and in England a 
ward IV. (1469) formed the royal minstrels into 
minstrels throughout the country were compelled 
y wished to exercise their trade. A new charter 
in 1604, when its jurisdiction was limited to the 
n and 3 m. round it. This corporation still exists, 
le of the Corporation of the Master, Wardens and 
of the Art or Science of the Musicians of London, 
best time of minstrelsy — the loth, nth and 12th 
J minstrel, especially when he composed his own 
Id in high honour. He was probably of noble or 
s birth, and was treated by his hosts more or less 
The distinction between the troubadour and the 
t was established in Provence probably soon 
a.nce and England. In any case it is probable 
rty which forms the staple topic of the poems of 
) was the commonest lot of the minstrel, 
payments to minstrels occur in the accounts of 
ind religious houses throughout the i6th century; 
f minstrelsy, already in its decline, was destroyed 
r the introduction of printing, and the minstrel of 
nents given to Elizabeth at Kenilworth was little 
urvival. 

ount of the subject is to be found in E. K. Chambers's 
? (>903), i. 33-H6 and ii. 230-266. See also L. 
ypies fran^aises (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1892): A. Schultz, 
l^n tur Zeit der kUnnesinger (2nd ed.. 1889) ; T. Percy, 
/«* Poetry (ed. H. B. Wheatlcy. 1876): J. Ritson, 
X Metrical Romances (1802); J. J. Jusserand, English 
r in the Middle Ages (4th ed., 1892). 

.nically Mentha, a genus of labiate plants, com- 
;wenty species of perennial herbs, widely distributed 
e temperate and sub-tropical portions of the globe, 
I the temperate regions of the Old World. The 
square stems, opposite, aromatic leaves, and a 
rreeping rootstock. The flowers are arranged in 
rs (cymes), which either form separate whorls or 
together into a terminal spike. The corolla is 
and of a pale purple or pinkish colour; it has four 



I' 



nearly equal febet, and encloaes two long and two short stamens. 
Nearly three hundred intermediate forms have been named and 
described. Many of these varieties are permanent, in con- 
sequence of being propagated by stolons. 

In Britain ten spedes are indigenous or naturalized. Mentha 
viridis, or spearmint, grows in marshy meadows, and is the species 
commonly used for culinary purposes; it is distinguished by its 
smooth, sessile leaves and lax Upering flower-spikes. It is 
probably a cultivated race of the next species, Mentha syltestris, 
or horsemint, which chiefly differs from the above in its coarser 
habit and hairy leaves, which are silky beneath, and in its denser 
flower-spikes. This plant is supposed to be the mint of Scripture, 
as it is extensively cultivated in the East; it was one of the bitter 
herbs with which the paschal lamb was eaten. M. rotundijolia 
resembles the last in size and habit, but is distinguished by its 
rounded wrinkled leaves, which are shaggy beneath, and by its 
lanceolate bracts. The last two species usually grow on damp 
waste g^und. Jf. aquatiea grows in ditches, and is easily 
recognized by its rounded flower-spikes and stalked hairy leaves. 
M. piperita^ or peppermint (q.v.), has stalked smooth leaves and 
an oblong obtuse terminal spike of flowers; it is cultivated for 
its volatile oil. M. pralensis belongs to a group which have the 
flowers arranged in axillary whorls and never in terminal spikes; 
it otherwise bears some resemblance to M. viridis, M. sativa 
grows by damp roadsides, and M. arvensis in cornfields; they are 
distinguished from M. pralensis by their hairy stalked leaves, 
which in M. arvensis are all equally large, but in M. saliva are 
much smaller towards the apex of the- stem. M. Pnlegiumf 
commonly known as peimyroyal, more rarely as fleamint, has 
small oval obtuse leaves and flowers in axillary whorls, and is 
remarkable for its creeping habit and peculiar odour. It differs 
from all the mints above described in the throat of the calyx 
being closed with hairs. It is met with in damp places on grassy 
commons, and was formerly popular for medicinal purposes. 

All the genus Mentha aboimd in a volatile oil, contained in 
resinous dots in the leaves and stems. The odour of the oil is 
similar in several species, but is not distinctive, the same odour 
occurring in varieties of distinct spedes. Thus the peppermint 
flavour is found in M. piperita, in M. incana, and in Chinese and 
Japanese varieties of if. arvensis. Other forms of the last- 
named species growing in Ceylon and Java have the flavour of the 
common garden mint, M. viridis, and the odour is fotmd in M, 
sylveslris, M. rotundijolia and M. canadensis. A bergamot scent 
is met with in a variety of M. aqualica and in forms of other 
spedes. Most mints blossom in August. 

The name mint is also applied to plants of other genera, 
Monarda punctata being called horsemint, Pycnanthemum 
linifolium mountain mint, and Nepeta cataria catmint. 

HINT (Lat. Moneta; Mid. Eng. mynt), a place where coins are 
manufactured with the authority of the state. Coins are pieces 
of metal, of weight and composition fixed by law, with a design 
upon them, also fixed by law, by which they are identified, their 
value made known and their genuineness certified. The origin 
of the word " mint " is ascribed to the manufacture of silver 
coin at Rome in 269 B.C. at the temple of Juno Moneta.* This 
goddess became the personification of money, and her name was 
applied both to money and to its place of manufacture. Metals 
were used for money at an early stage of civilization, and are 
well suited to the purpose, owing to their great intrinsic value 
and their durability, indestructibility, divisibility and rarity. 
The best metals for coinage are gold, silver, platinum, copper, 
tin, nickel, aluminium, zinc, iron, and their alloys; certain alloys 
of gold, silver, copper and nickel have the best combination of 
the required qualities. 

History of Minting. — ^The earliest metallic money did not consist 
of coins, but of unminted metal in the form of rings and other 
ornaments or of weapons, which were used for thousands of years 
by the Egyptian, Chaldean and Assyrian Empires (see Numis- 
matics). According to Herodotus, the first mint was probably 
that established by Gyges in Lydia towards the end of the 8th 
century B.C. for the coining of gold, silver and electrum, aa 
* Leoormant, la Monnaie dam Fantiquiti, 192* 



558 



MINT 



alloy of gold and silver found in a natural state!' SUver 
was coined in the island of Aegina soon, afterwards. Tlie art 
of coining was introduced by the Greeks into Italy and other 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean and into Persia and 
India. Subsequently the Romans laid the foundations of modem 
minting. Coining originated independently in China at a later 
date than in the western world, and spread from China to Japan 
and Korea. Coins may be made by casting in moulds or by 
striking between engraved dies. The Romans cast their larger 
copper coins, in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not 
because they knew nothing of strUdng, but because it was not 
suitable for such large masses of metal. Casting is now used only 
by counterfeiters. The most ancient coins were cast in buUet- 
shaped or conical moulds and marked on one. side by means of 
a die which was struck with a hammer. The " blank " or un- 
marked piece of metal was placed on a small anvil {amfM>s), and 
the die was held in position with tongs. The reverse or lower 
side of the coin received a rectangular mark made by the sharp 
edges of the little anvil. Subsequently the anvil was marked 
in various ways, and decorated with letters and figures of beasts, 
and later still the ambos was replaced by a reverse die. The 
spherical blanks soon gave place to lenticular-shaped ones. 
The blank was made red-hot and struck between cold dies. 
One blow was usually insufficient, and the method was similar 
to that still used in striking medals in high relief, except that the 
blank is now allowed to cool before being struck. With the 
substitution of iron for bronze as the material for dies, about 
A.D. 300, the practice of striking the blanks while they were hot 
was gradually discarded.' In the middle ages bars of metal 
were cast and hammered out on an anvil. Portions of the 
flattened sheets were then cut out with shears, struck between 
dies and again trimmed with shears. A similar method had been 
used in Egypt under the Ptolemies (c. 300 B.C.) but had been 
forgotten. Square pieces of metal were also cut from cast bars, 
converted into round disks by hammering and then struck- 
between dies. In striking, the lower die was fixed into a block 
of wood, and the blank piece of metal laid upon it by hand. The 
upper die was then placed on the blank, and kept in position by 
means of a holder round which was placed a roll of lead to protect 
the hand of the operator while heavy blows were struck with a 
hammer. An early improvement was the introduction of a tool 
resembling a pair of tongs, the two dies being placed one at the 
extremity of each leg. This avoided the necessity of readjusting 
the dies between blows, and ensured greater accuracy in the 
impression. Minting by means of a falling weight (monkey press) 
intervened between the band hammers and the screw press in 
many places. In Birmingham in particular this system became 
highly developed and was long in use. A. Olivier introduced 
screw presses for striking coins, together with rolls for reducing 
the cast bars and machines for punching-out round disks from 
flattened sheets of metal, in Paris in 1553. After being discarded 
in 1585, except for making medals, they were reintroduced by 
J. Varin in 1640 and the practice of hammering was forbidden 
in 1645.' In England the new machinery was tried in London in 
1561, but abandoned soon afterwards; it was finally adopted in 
1662, although the old pieces continued in circulation until 1696. 
At first the rolls were driven by workmen by means of cranks, 
but later they were worked by horses, mules or water-power. 
Steam-power was applied to them by Matthew Boulton and Watt 
in Birmingham in 1788, and was adopted by the Royal Mint, 
London, in 1810. Recently the practice of driving rolls by 
electricity has been growing, the advantage being that each pwur 
of rolls can be driven independently without the intervention of 
cumbrous shafting. Boulton and Watt's screw press, invented 
in 1788 and used at the Royal Mint until 1881, was worked by 
atmospheric pressure applied to a piston. The piston was in 
communication with a vacuum vessel from which the air had been 
pumped by steam power. 
History of British Mints.— In Britain there are evidences of 

* Op. cit. 1. J36. Herodotus i. 94. 

* E. Dumas, L' Emission des monnaies iicimaks de bronte, p. 14. 
« Ibid. p. 19. 



the existence of mints before the arrival of the Ronuuis. Tk 
Romans at first imported their coins, and no Roman mints were 
esublished until about the end of the 3rd century, when coins 
were being struck at London and Colchester.* In Anglo-Saxoo 
times Athelsun appears to have been the first monarch who 
enacted regulations for the mints.' He promulgated laws about 
the year 928, appointing a large number of *' moneyers ** of 
** mynteres," London being assigned eight, Canurbury seven, 
other important towns various numbers and ail smaller borougla 
one mbneyer each. The necessity for so many mints lay ia 
the imperfect means of communication. At an early period, 
probably about a.d. iooo, the dies were made in London tod 
issued to the other mints. The moneyers, who were elected by 
the burgesses, were responsible for the manufacture of tbecoifl, 
and according to Madox were liable at the time of Heniy II to 
be summoned to Westminster to take part in the trials of the 
pyx.* If there was any deficiency in the weight of the fineoes 
of the coin the moneyers were punished as traitors. These 
moneyers appear to have been abolished about 11 80.' when 
officers were appointed to supervise the coinage on behalf of the 
king, and the name ** moneyer " was applied to contraaon who 
manufactured the coin under superintendence and were not 
responsible to the king for its weight and fineness. The moneytn 
continued to manufacture the coin of the realm until the year 
1850, when the work was entrusted to civil servants. In the 
reign of Henry III. the principal officers of the Mint were the 
master, who manufactured the coin under a contract, the tnrden 
or paymaster who acted on behalf of the Crown, the assay master 
(also a king's officer) who was responsible for the fineness of the 
coin, the cuneator or superintendent of the engravers of the dies, 
and the moneyer. One of the most important duties of the 
warden was the collection from the contractor of the setgnionfe 
which was claimed by the sovereign by virtue of his preroptive 
as a source of revenue to the Crown. In 17x8 Sir Isaac Nevtoo 
was made master of the Mint, and in that capacity ascontnctor 
for the coinage he amassed a considerable fortune.* As tbevodt 
of the Mint became more extensive and more com(^cated other 
officers were added and their duties were varied from tine to 
time. The present administration of the English Mint is based 
on arrangements made in 1870, when the establishment vis re* 
organized. The office of master of the Mint is held by the diiB- 
ceUor of the exchequer for the time being, without salary, but the 
actual administrative work of the department is entrusted to 
the deputy master and comptroller. The receipt of bullioDaod 
the delivery of coin from the Mint is under the charge of tbedkid 
clerk, the manufacture of coin is in the hands of the suptrioteB- 
dent of the operative department, and the valuation of tke 
bullion by assay, and matters relating to the fineness of tke 
coin are entnisted to the chemist and assayer. The date of the 
establishment of the Mint in the Tower of London is unkoovs. 
There is a reference to it dated 1229 and a clear reference dated 
13 29.* According to Ruding, there were over fifty mints ia the 
reign of Edward the Confessor.' After the Norman Conquest 
the mints increased to about seventy, a greater nunber 
than now exists in the world, but they were gradually itduoed 
and in the reign of Edward I. there were only twelw- 
Ruding enumerates 128 mints operated at various times ia the 
United Kingdom, including some established by usurpatioo, as 
in the reign of Stephen by certain barons, and also mints estab- 
lished by grants to ecclesiastics to be worked for their own profij. 
The provincial mints were all closed just before the reign « 
Mary, who coined in London only. Charles I. set up small mau 
in various towns, and for the great re-coinage in the reiga « 
William III. mints were estabhshed at York, Chester, Eieter, 
Bristol and Norwich, but were soon abandoned. Wood's coppw 
money for Ireland and America was coined at Wolverhaapi* 
(1700-172 2), and the tradesmen's tokens were struck at variow 
towns. Copper coins were struck by Boulton at Sobo, BirmiofkiBf 

* H. A. Grucber, Coins of Great Britain and Inland, p. vilL 

* Rogers Ruding, Annals of the Coinafe, 3rd ed. ii. 135.. 

* Grucber, op. at. p. xxv. • Ruding, op. cU. i. 35. 
' Ibid. p. xxW, * Ibid. it. 192, 194. 



MINT 



S59 



ill 1788, and a colonial bronze coinage was executed at this 
cstabUahment as recently as the year 1875. There is another 
mint in Birmingham worked by a private company {** The Mint, 
Birmingham, Limited ")» where coinages for foreign governments 
are executed and in addition silver and bronze colonial coins are 
occasionally manufactured under the supervision of the London 
Mint. The existing London Mint was erected on Tower Hill in 
18x0. Biinting in Scotland began in the reign of David L 
(11 24-1 1 53) and ceased in 1709, two years after the Act of Union, 
in which it had been expressly stipulated that a mint should 
be continued in Scotland. * Coinage in Dublin began in Anglo- 
Saxon times and came to an end in the reign of William III.* 
The other Irish mints were of little importance. 

British Dominions. — ^Turning to mints in British Dominions 
beyond the Seas, Ruding enumerates twenty-six mints in France 
and Flanders used by British monarchs between 11 86 and 1513, 
and An^o-Hanoverian coins were struck at Clausthal, Zellerfeld 
and Hanover in the period 1714-1837. In India* the earliest 
Eng^ mint was that at Madras which was bought by the East 
India Company in 1620, reorganized more than once and finally 
dosed in 1869. The CalcutU mint was established by the East 
India Company in 1757, but other mints in Bengal continued to 
be used till about 1835, when the Calcutta mint was rebuilt. 
The Bombay mint was set up about the year 167 1, but the coins 
were made by hammer and anvil until 1800. The Calcutta and 
Bombay mints are still in operation. A mint was opened in 
Hong-Kong in z866 but was closed in 1868 and the machinery 
told to Japan. In Australia there are three mints, Sydney, 
opened in 1855, Melbourne, opened in 1873, and Perth, opened in 
1899. Up to 1909 only sovereigns and half-sovereigns were struck 
at these establishments, but in 1910 arrangements were made 
for a Commonwealth ^ver coinage. A mint at Ottawa was 
opened in 1908 for the manufacture of all Canadian coins as 
wdl as English sovereigns. 

Other Countries.— In the United States the Philadelphia mint 
was opened in 1792, but only manual or horse power was used 
until 1836, when steam was introduced. Other mints are now in 
operation at New Orleans, San Francisco and Denver. In most 
European countries a single mint situated at the capital is found 
to be sufi&dent, but there are six mints in the German Empire and 
two in Austria-Hungary. In China 26 mints were at work in 
X906. There are also mints at Osaka, Bangkok and Teheran, 
and the Seoul mint was at work in 1904. In Mexico 11 mints 
formerly existed, but one only, in the city of Mexico, remained 
open iB X907. In South America there are mints at Lima, 
^tiagD, Buenos Ayres and Tegucigalpa. No mints are in 
operaticMi in Africa. In all there are nearly 70 mints in the 
world. 

The Supply of Bullion to Mints.— In England, in the middle 
ages, the king was accustomed to send in to the mint the produce 
of his own silver mines, and claimed the exclusive privilege of 
purchasing the precious metals. The right of levying seigniorage, 
however, was sometimes waived by ihe king to encourage his 
subjects to bring gold and silver to the mint, and several instances 
are recorded in which the aid of alchemists was called in to effect 
the transmutation of baser metals into gold. Seigniorage was 
abolished for both gold and silver in 1666, when it was provided 
that no charge should be made at the Mint for coining and assay- 
ing. FinaDy in 181 6 the free coinage of silver was brought to an 
end. At present all gold bullion brought to the Mint is weighed 
aod portions are cut off for assay. The amount of gold in 
standard ounces (916-6 fine) corresponding to the " imported " 
bullion is thus ascertained, and on the application of the im- 
porter the gold is coined and delivered to him in the form of 
iovereigns and half-sovereigns at the rate of £3, 17s. zoid. per 
Standard ounce troy, no deduction being made for wastage, 
ieignioi^age, the purchase of alloy metal, or the expense of manu- 
^ure. As a considerable time elapses between the receipt of 
bullion by the Mint and the delivery, of the coin, it is generally 

* Grueber. op. ciL p. liv. ' Ruding, op. cit. u. 245. 

I W. J. Hocking. Catalogue of Coins in the Royal Mint, 1. 27^. 275 
and 379- 



more profitable for the holder of gold bullion to sell it to theBank 
of England or dispose of it in some other way. The result is that 
the gold presented for coinage is almost always sent from the 
Bank of England, which suffers no loss of interest during the 
coinage of the bullion, because bank-notes have already been 
issued against it. Silver bullion, and the copper, tin and zinc 
required to make up bronze, are bought by the Mint and manu- 
factured into coin, which is kept in stock and issued as it may be 
required. One ounce of standard silver, which contains 925 
parts of silver and 75 of copper per 1000, is converted into 5s. 6d. 
in silver coin, whatever may be the market price of silver bullion. 
This seldom exceeded 3od. per ounce in the year* 1893- 1907. 
Coinage bronze consists of copper 95 parts, tin 4 parts and zinc 
I part, and a ton yields £448 in pence or £373, 6s. 8d. in halfpence 
or farthings. The difference between the nominal value of 
silver and bronze coin and its intrinsic value is retained by the 
state to cover the expenses of manufacture and as a source of 
profit. It corresponds to the seigniorage levied by the king on all 
coinages down to the reign of Charles U. In return, the Mint 
receives at its nominal value for recoinage the worn gold and 
silver coin which is withdrawn from circulation by the Bank of 
England and some other banks. In spite of the cost of this 
recoinage, however, the profit on the issUe of new silver and 
bronze usually exceeds in each year the total expenditure of the 
Mint. Gold and silver are delivered in a refined state suitable 
for immediate conversion into coin. In general, only old coin, 
ingots resulting from the melting of coin, and " fine " ingots are 
received. Fine gold ingots (the " bar gold " of commerce) are 
usually about 400 oz. troy in weight, and contain from 990 to 
999- 5 parts of gold per 1000, the remainder being chiefly silver. 
Fine silver ingots usually weigh from 1000 to laco oz. troy 
and contain from 995 to 999 parts of silver per xooo. The 
ingots are valued by weighing and assaying, and a calculation 
is made as to the amount of copper required for melting with 
them to produce the standard alloy. The two standard alloys 
consist respectively of gold 916-6, copper 83*^ and of silver 925, 
copper 75. All gold coins received at the Bank are weighed 
on automatic balances (see below) and those below the lowest 
legal current weight are separated. The lowest current weight 
is 122-5 grains for sovereigns and 61-125 grains for half-sovereigns 
corresponding to losses by wear of about o-6% and o-8% 
respectively. The average age on withdrawal is about 34 years 
for sovereigns and 15 years for half-sovereigns. Silver coins are 
not weighed but are selected for withdrawal when they present 
a worn appearance. The average deficiency in weight of worn 
silver coin received at the Mint is from 8 to 10%, and the mean 
age somewhat less than 50 years. In European mints generally 
little difficulty is experienced in procuring refined gold and silver 
for coinage. In Australia, the United States, Japan and some 
oihtt countries, the Mints receive unrefined gold from the mines 
and refine it before it is coined. A charge for refining is made in 
all cases. A refinery was attached to the London Mint from 
1 8 16 to 185 1, but was then let on lease and left to private enter- 
prise. The operations employed in the manufacture of gold and 
silver coin are as follow: — 

(0 Melting the metal and casting it into bars. (2) Rolling the 
bars into strips or " fillets." (3) Cutting out disks or blanks from 
the fillets. (4) Adjusting the weight of the blanks (this is omitted 
in some mints). (5) " Marking " or edge-rolling the blanks to 
produce a raised rim or to impress a design on the edge. (6) 
Annealing the blanks and (in some mints) cleaning them in acid. 

(7) Striking the blanks between dies surrounded by a collar. 

(8) Weighing each coin. Among the incidental operations are 
(a) the valuation of the bullion by weighing and assaying it; 
(6) " rating " the bullion, or calculating the amount of copper to 
be added to make up the standard alloy; (c) recovering the values 
from groimd-up crucibles, ashes apd floor sweepings (the Mint 
"sweep"); (d) assaying the melted bars; («) "pyxing" the 
finished coin or selecting specimens to be weighed and assayed; 
(/) " telling " or counting the coin. 

MdHng. — Formerly bullion was meked in crucibles made of refrac- 
tory clay, but they are liable to crack and require careful handlii^ 



S6o 



MINT 



Thete were wooeeded by Iron -crudbln. etpcdaOy for Bkdting 
•Uver, and these have now been genecaliy replaced bv giaphite 
(plumbago) crucibles made of a mixture of day and graphite. 
Good graphite crucibles can be used manv times in succession if 
they are heated gradually each time, but tney are usually discarded 
after about fifteen or twenty meltinn. At uie Ro)ral Mint gold is 
melted in crucibles about lo in. in het^t and 8| in. in diameter at 
the widest part. The charge is from I300 to 1300 oz. (17*3 to fd-s 
kilograms) of metal. The furnace is i a in. square and 2 ft. deep 
from the bre-bars to the cover. An old crucible is cut off about 2 in. 
from the bottom and the bottom piece is inverted and placed 00 the 
fire-bars as a support for the crucible. The " mufile," a graphite 
cylinder 6 in. in ncight. b placed on the crucible to allow room for 
long bars to be melted iathe crucible and to prevent the surrounding 



and C is the flue, comnoa to two furnaces and leadtos to the ttadc 
The handle D. acting through the gear wheels E, F, G and H, tatm 
the cogwheel K, which moves the curved rack of the cradle and tins 
the crucible M. The molten metal is poured into the moohb N, 
which are carried on wheels running on rails Q. The puts of the 
range of moukls are brought tightly together and hdd ia poatkia 
by the bars O and the screw F, and when one nould b fiOed the 
carrier is moved forward on its rails by wheds worked by a handle 
also shown in the figure. In some other mints still larger cmdhki 
are used, containing various amounts up to about 1000 kikgmflv 
or over 30.000 oz. In foreign mints the mdten metal b generaOy 
transferred from the crudble to the moulds by dipping croables or 
iron ladles covered with clay. Gas b used as fudf for the mefttor 
furnaces at Philaddphia. It b cleaner than coke and b nad to 




Fig. I. — Furnace Apparatus. 



coke from falling into it. The flue, of about 5 in. square, communi- 
cates with a stack 60 ft. high. In many minti thf flue« paiie into 
condensing chambers where volaEiliied gold and silver arc iTcov*r«]. 
The crucible is at a red beat when ibc gold is charged ir;, ibc copper 
being added last, and a graphite hd put an the crucible^ id cb?i:k Eo^s 
by volatilization. The charge is cDampleteEy meltttl in about bdlT 
an hour, and it is then thoroughlv mixed by stirring wiih a gnphite 
rod. The crucible is then liitea out by circular tongi iui^pcnd^d 
in such a way that two men can talee part in the opcnljon. The 
contents are poured by hand into mouM» which jre tonuined »dc 
by side in an iron carriage running on whe<rl»p fis- i, OP, The 
molten gold, which is of a pale gnxn colour, solidifies at once in the 
iron moulds, and the bars can be t^kcn out ifCTnoliatrl^. Bars 
from which sovereigns are to be coined are a in. lone, U in. i»tdt 
and } in. thick, and about scv^n ^ -^h Vnr ir- r-.-r fr^-T, 



The rough edges of the bars are removed by a circular revolving file, 

' e ho" 

, e then ready toi 

an ordinary day's work is two tons to two and a half tons, of the 



and the hollow ends are cut off. Pieces are cut out for assay, and 
the bars are then ready for rolling. The amount of eold melted in 



value of £350,000 to £300,000. For silver larger crucibles are used, 
containing about 5000 oz. troy (155 kilograms). They are heated 
in circular furnaces 3i in. in diameter and lifted out with circular 
tongs suspended from a travelling crane which U worked by elec- 
tricity. The crucible is placed m the pouring cradle, which has 
been in use since 1816, and is shown in fig. i. Here A U the iron 
cover surrounding the furnaces, B b the revolving lid of a furnace. 



save time and to reduce the loss of the predous metals. At Deavcr 
and Ottawa the fuel used b " first distilbte " oil, ladiich b feand 
to be cheaper than dthcr naphtha or gas. The oil b pumped fraa 
buried tanks and warmed to about 90* F. bdore it reabdMS dtt 
burners at the furnaces. At the Denver mint the crudfales tat oed 
for from twelve to fifteen meltings with oil fud, whereas theji!S«R 
soon destroyed when gas was employed. A charge of 6000 oc of loU 
is melted in about an hour. Ine melting fosses amount to amt 
0-2 per 1000 of gokl and o-6 per 1000 of silver in the Royal Miat 
The losses are caused by volatilization, by the abaoratioa of oKial 
by the crucible, stirring rod, Ac, and by occasional probctioa of 
particles from the pot into the furnace. The adi-pit is boed wii^ 
iron plates to fadlitate the recovery of metal aixiklentany tpk. 
All crucibles and other materials which might contain — - 
metal are ground up and washed in a pan. and the pannings 
with a selection from the floor sweepings are remdted. The 
(the Mint " sweep ") are sold to refiners or ore-smelters. 

RoUing. — The cast bars are reduced to the thickness of die cob 
by repeated passa^ between rolls. These are cvUnders of call 
iron or steel from 6 m. to 15 in. in dbmeter set parallel tooaeaaodwr 
with a small interval between, and revolved by electric or steaai 
power. They are divided into breaking-down and finbhiag ralm 
the Utter being of smaller dbmeter than the former. The uu wer 
is usually transmitted through toothed' wheels, each rol oeiag 
driven independently in some cases, while sometimes power is ap> 
plied to the lower roill only, the upper roll betag oouplad to it. Tot 



MI^a• 



tr required for bfealrlTi^ dow« infnt t»f^ amounts to from 25 
5 h.p. The bars are fed tL> the rolli by hand. Heavy pinches 
ipplied at first, the ispace Ix'tweeTi tbe rolls being diminished by 
ad-acrew after each pauigit? of tht bar* through them. When 



S6i 



ban are nearly to ga.u^ Gght plochei are given, the power 
ired by finishing Totfji being aJxiut 5 h.p. only. The reduction 
ikkness of the ban u ac%.^mpAnitiJ by a dight increase in their 



h and a very great i^Kri^a^ ia their length, so that it is generally 
Kaxy to cut pard'y rkjll«<i bars inia two paru to keep th«m of 
enient dimension^ By repeated p^A^ges through the rolls 
Mrs are hardened, ^nd to facilitate further reduction they are 
lly softened by afinftiiivt: b^eforr beinc trtssed to the finishing 
Jn some mints the fillets are anncafed frequently, the fillets 
ne-mark pieces at the Berlin mint, for example, being annealed 
times in the course. of rolling. In this case the bars are reduced 
5J mm. in thickness to j i tr.ia. uy in m^ i^iassed thirteen timea 
jgh the rolls. At the Vi^nrui mint th<? practice has been to 
al silver bars after each ^vj ;^ii gp t h mu 5 h t ] n? rolls. On theother 
'., in the United Stales mini^ the use of >'ury carefully refined 
I has made it possible to disco ntinue tht: anneaJing of partly 
1 bars. In the Royal Mint sOvcr bar^ are annealed once 
ig rolling by passing throuf^h ,1 BaiM &. Peard gas furnace 
fillets are placed on an er.l k v^ c h jin wW^h tikoves slowly through 
urnace, returning under fji.ii(i. At t-.trh end of the furnace is a 
{h of water which covers the furnace mouth, so that air is pre- 
id from entering the furnace. The chain dips below the water, 
rises into the furnace and passes down into the other trough 
i way out. The result is that so long as the fillets are hot they 
:ept from contact with the air and blackening of the metaJ is 
rnted. In some mints the drag-bench or draw-bench is used 
the rolls to equalize the thickness of the fillets. The fillet is 
n between two little steel cylinders which do not revolve and 
leld rigidly in position. The principle resembles that used in 
drawing. It was introduced by Sir John Barton at the Royal 
in 1 8 16 and was abandoned there in 1905. The thickness of the 




Fig. 2. — Gauge Plate. 

is measured by the gauge-plate shown in fig. 2. When they 
been reduced to the correct thickness they are examined bv the 
er," who cuts out one or two blanks from each fillet with a hand 
inc ami weighs them on a delicate balance. If the weight of 
lank is slightly below the standard weight, a somewhat larger 
r is used, so that the blanks may be of correct weight. If 
lank is too heavy the fillet may of course be passed through 
Ms again. 

nedy. — The degree of accuracy required is indicated by the 
ledy " allowance for weight, which is different for each coin, 
s the maximum didcrence from the standard weight which is 
ed by law. In the sovereign it u 0*2 grain or about 1*62 per 

As the mean thickness of a sovereign is 0-0466 in., the remedy 
eight corresponds to a difference of less than to Hi >n« in ^^ 
ncss of the fillet. The remedy for English silver coins varies 

2 grains or 458 per 1000 in the case of the crown, to O'OS/ 

or 11-^7 per 1000 in the case of the silver penny. The reme- 
'or weight on foreign coins are in general greater than those 
ed in the British Empire, averaging 2 per 1000 for gold coins, 
ence may here be made to the similar working margin allowed 
pect of the fineness of gold and silver. In England the remedy 
leness is 2 per 1000 on gold coins and 4 per 1000 on silver coins 
! and below the legal sUndard. Thus gold coins would be 
n the limits if they contained between 0I4«6 and 918-6 parts 
»ld per 1 00a Remedies are intended to cover acddcntal 
tions from the exact standard and are now generally used only 
s way. In former times, however, advantage was sometimes 

of the remedy as a means of profit. In the reign of Queen 
xth, the master of the Mint, finding the allowance under his 
ict to be insufficient, availed himself of the remedy on the silver 
^ which amounted to 6id. on the pound troy, or about 8*7 
xx>. 

Jing Blanks. — The cutting machine used in the Mint is shown 
, 3. The revolution of an eccentric A causes two shun steel 
Icrs or cutters mounted on. a block of iron B, {suitably guided^ 
ter two holes in a plate fixed to the bed of the machine. 
1 the fillet FF is brought above the holes, the cuiters descend 
orce disks of metal through the holes. After each descent of 
jtters, the fillet u advanced by small gripping rolls C C C 
d by a ratchet wheel E driven from the shaJfi wKich bears 
xentric A. The disks fall down the tube G ta a Twcptacle 
e fioor. The^ cutters are so placed as to remove blanks in 
lanner shown in fig. 4, this arrangement leaving lesa " xhacl " 
sidual ooetal than any other. In the case 4-/ very Iji^vC 

coitts only one blank is cut in the width of the hJlci^ 
rooxe filleu are made wider ao that three peony blanks mv , 
XVIU 10 



cut out at each ttrokv (rf the michJnt TJie mttliig macfiinci at tha 
Mint work at i6ci involutions per mirtute, sa that eath ef the 
f^leven machiiiei would be 
<4pabte^ of cutting 19,200 
lilanki in an hour if it could 
l>e fed cQntinuaufJy, The 
Kiifid, which amounti to 
iboLLt 3D7q of the metal 
operated 0*^ a returned in 
bundles to the rndting bouae. 
Afarking.^-Tht bliLJoJu arc 
then p^sv<j to an edge rollijig 
miich;nt, by which they are 
thirkerL^ at the ed)^ so a» 
to form a rim to fn-otect the 
finiiUlf^l coin from wear. This 
aper^tion is called markings 
bp^usc ori]^inal]y the edges 



I 



Fic, 4* 
m'ere not only thicketicd but 
wcm^ aJsD marked with an 
jeia^^ption. This 11 still done 
la the case of many fo^gn 
ootns^ The letters ore some- 
times ttink and sometime! 
raiicd. Like the gnunijig or 
■* milling " on the edge of 
many cmm^ the inampli&n* 
were intended to put a. stop to 
the practice of cUppinE and 
filing ceuns^ which was preva-^ 
lent in the i6th ao^T ITth 
centuries They also reodef 
the manufticture of counterfeit 
coin more difHcuJt- At the 




Fic. 3.^<rutt(Rg Michinb 



Royal Mint the blanks a.rf p»s$^ betw^n the paratld facet of 
a revdving ilcel plate And fiACfl block. The plate has a circular 
groove Ifi iti face and the b^ock has a catTespondiag curvtd groove 
The blank paais twtwecn these gro&vei^ 



The distance 
l:ite is adJuMed » as to be 



groo-veiw _ 
the block and the 1 




Fig. s. 



pi:ite is adJuMed » as to be slightly 
lejt th^n the diameter of the blank, 
and the rsult h that the edge of ilie 
bbnJc J3 thtcktned and its diameter 
n4ufrt4 before it escapes from the 
nuchine. About 720 blanks arc pHAted 
through tilts machine per minute. In 
PiArking machines in some fcreign mints the grorsve Is in the peri- 
phery oT therevolvins wheels and the poovcd block is^curvcii (fig, 5J. 

AnnesUng And Bianxhinr ikt Blarikj. — The blanks iire nent 
toftcnod by annsding, and are then thoroughly cleaned befon^ 
being paascd to the coining prc^.ie^ In EngEand gold aiid copper 
blanks are protectol from oitidation^ and after their pasttag? through 
the furnace arc merely wa&hed in coUridieri with water and dried 
with uA-dust in a rota^ftt^ drum. Silver blanks, however, are 
passed thr:>ugh rotary gsia furnace% in which no ntt^rmpi U made to 
e\clude the air. The blanks nre chArsctl Intp a hopijef at one end 
of the Ftirnscc and conveyed tawatrjs the other cncl by a revolving 
Arehimedesn screw. The blanks fall through an aperture after 
h^Aviiig bcea heated for a few minutes. They are at a dull red heat 
and arc atbwfd to cool gradually in the air and become blackened 
by the forms tirjrt on the sutfiiCe of a film of ojdde of copper. This 
IB r^tnoved b>^ solution in hot dilute sulphuric acid and a layer of 
(>urr fnoiicd dlvxr is left on the surface, which appears dead while 
in colour, and has Imt its metallic lustre. The opera titjn h called 
'[^ blanching,'*^ A stmibr method was formerly u*ed far gaJd coins in 
England and is still employed iti some mints. The removal of pArt 
of the copper from^ the blank raxfea the pefcentageof silver contained 
in them and thss is allowed for by adding an equivalent amount of 
copper to the metiil when it is melffKl. The amount 0I copper 
removed from fijEvcr blanks containing <>oo i.a 935 parts of siU'Cf pet 
lom IS from &*6 10 1*0 per tooo. The process will prcibably be 
abandoned as soon ns the tamhhing of the (netat during rolling and 
ann^llng can be avoided, 

CoiniHt Phis, — The blanks arc converted into coin by rtteivlnf 
Rfi impftKiion from engravi^! dici Earh bl.ink ii pbced 00 the 
lower of 1*0 dies and the upper die is broujtht down foiribly upon it* 
The prcswjne causes the 10ft metal to (low like a viscous solwj, but 
its lateral escape is prevented by a collar which surrotinds the blank 
wliile it is being struck^ The cntUr mny lie plaini or cr^nated 
{*' milled ")► Of engraved with swme devifCn [n thu last case the 
collar roust be made in two of more PJcces, ns csthefwiBC the coin 
cotild rtot 1m removed without injury. The collar for striking English 
crown pieces is made in three sections flow that raited lettering ii 
put oa the edge ol the coiiL Sunk letters^ such as Q(%ur on the eqfsi 



S62 



MINT 



of iiiany(bi«i^coifi8,af«pat<mbytlieinarldiigiiiacliiitt,aiida|^ i at the Mint atrike frcmi 90 to 135 coina per , 

oollar ia used in itrikiiig. I workinff At tlie rate of no coina per minute. Tlirm arr iijiiimh 

The coining presaea now uaed are an modificationa of the lever preaa and it u poaiible with theie to atrike between 700,000 and mvor 
invented by Uhlhom of Grevenbroich near Cobgne in >i839. The I pieoea in an ontinaiy working day. 




Fig. 6. 



press in use at the Royal Mint since 1883 is shown in figs. 6 and 7. 
The lever M worked Irom the front of -the machine causes the By- 
wheel to be connected with the driving-wheel and the machine 
starts. The blanks are placed in the slide J[ and the lowest one is 
carried forward to the die in two successive movements of the 
" layer-on " K, a rod working backwards and forwards on a horizontal 
plate and actuating the finger L, fig. 8. The k>wer die ia firmly fixed 




Fig. 7. 

Weighing the Coins. — Gold and nlvtr ctAns are cxamlnrd and utit4 
hy fiaem^^ and each coin 11 then weiirhed &epar>Msly by beifl| ^Ht^ 
civyirr delicate autornatirC balance*. ' The hrst 
autcmatic balance for weighing eingle coins 
was introduced at the Eank of England in 
1843^ and was designed by WiUiam CottoOp 
the deputy liovernar of the Bank. Tn 1851 
these uaLancet^ iiuproved by Richard Filcherj 
werv introduoed at the Royal Mint^ and 
modifkatioci? of them are now used at inoat 
foreign mints- For mint uie it is necessary 
that thev shall distinguish between " light/' 
" heavy '' and " good" coins which do not 
differ from standard by more than the smaU 
weight known as the remedy " (see above). 
The balances used in the Ro^l Mint were 
further improved by J. T. Butler in the 
year 1889. The balance consists essentially of 
a beam with two scale pans, one for the coin 
and the other for the counterpoise. The beam ia 
released and in the course of a second or so piC. 9. 

takes up a certain position dependent on the 
relative weights ot the coin and counterpoiae. Its poainoa • 
then fixed by an automatic grip, and the coin falling down a ihoot 
enters one of three compartments of a boat, according to tkc 
position of the beam when it is arrested. The chief workiaf (lUts 
are shown in fig. 10. The beam A ia of steel made in one piece, 




Fig. 8. 

to the bed of the machine, and the blank is placed exactly uoon it. 
The collar A' is then raised by the lever G so as to encircle the blank, 
and the upper die which is held at A is brought down. This is done 
by the little crank B on the axle of the fly-wheel, acting through the 
rod C, and the bent lever D, which forms a toggle-joint at E with the 
vertical piece of metal below it. The straightening of the torale- 
joint when C b pushed forward forces A down to strilw the coin. The 
reverse movement of D lifts up the upper die and the collar drops 
simultaneously so that its upper surface is level with the face of tne 
lower die on which the finished coin lies. Another blank moved on 
bv the finger L pushes off the finished coin which falls down the tube 
N. The diagram, fig> 9. shows the relarive position of the dies and 
levers more dearly. The dies and collar are shaded. The presaes 



Fig. 10 

about II in. long. Its centre and end knife edgea are sbova ia 
fig. If. The scale pan for the coin is shown in fig. la. B b tbe paa 
on which the coin rests, at a point above the beam. The ooias ait 
placed in a rouleau in the hopper C and the lowest one b pushed oa ta 
the pan B by a slide not shown in the figure. While the coian 
being moved the hanger D is held firmly by the foccepa E to pR*^ 
the pan from being pushed sideways. The forceps are then 14a am 
and the beam released, but at this moment the levdUng bar F k 
allowed to drop momentarily by a bent lever G acting on the pin Gi 
until the ends of F press down on a stimif) in each hanger at H. H. 
Thb brings the beam to a horisontal position. TbekmGatonoi 



MINTO, EARLS OF 



563 



IT F afain by acting on the pin G' so that the bar F doe» 
the stirrups at H and the beam and hangers are free to 
le coin is balanced by the brass counterpoise J on the left> 
^ and by little weishu made of wire attached to the 

hanger at K. If the coin is heavier than the lowest 
It (that u, the standard weight less the remedy) the right- 
of the beam begins to fall and the left-hand one b raised, 
iroent proceeds until the stirrup L below the left-hand 
raised far enough to touch the rod M, which is equal in 

twice the remedy. The movement is then stopped 
hat the weight of the coin is not greater than the standard 
IS the remedy. If it is heavier than this, it raises the 




Fig. II. 
and the movement of the beam and its hangers proceeds 
:he same direction. After about a second from the time 

release of the beam, the forceps E again close and the 
is held firmly in its new position. The rod N is then 
1 allows the indicating finger O, which is pivoted at P, to 

rests on the stirrup R, which is part 01 the hanger D. 
on of O holds down the right-hand end of the rod S which 
ted at P, and enables its end to fit into one of the three 
eps on the bottom of the shoot Q. The position of the 
js determined. It stops over one of three orifices in the 
te of the balance. If the coin is light the rod S fits into 
lost step and the shoot stops over the right-hand slot, 
is heavy, S fits into the lowest step and the shoot stops 
rft-hand slot. The middle step and slot are for coins 
nemedv. The movement of the slide now pushes another 
d. and the weighed coin is displaced by it and falls down 
hinough one of the slots. Each slot leads into a separate 
nt and the coins are consequently sorted into three 
,t, correct weight and heavy. The balance turns to o-oi 
; driving power is applied by shafting through a number 
1 the Royal Mint botn li^ht and heavy coins are returned 
tinjj pot. The proportion of rejected gold coin varies 
lahty of the bullion, and frequently exceeds 10%. The 
of rejected silver is often no more than i %. In most 
Its the blanks are weighed by the automatic balances 
g struck, and those which are too heavy are reduced by 
ning. A workman sitting at a balance files the edges of 
id weighs it until it is within the remedy. The blank is 
Missed through the automatic balance and is sent forward 
ing press if the correctness of the weight is confirmed, 
lo adjusting of the weight of coins has been attempted at 
if! int. Heavy blanks have also been reduced chemically 
:hem part of the anode in a cyanide bath through which a 
electncity is {Xisscd. Some metal from the surface of 
then passes into solution, and the blanks are reduced in 
I remarkable uniformity. This system was introduced 
lian mints in 1873. 

-The coin is counted and packed into bags for despatch 
int. The counting or telling is now carried out in the case 
id silver coins by ingenious machines introduced in 1891. 
re spread on an inclined table by hand. They slide down 
id enter a narrow passage where only one can pass at a 
ing being prevented by the joggling action of an eccentric 
k at the entrance to the passage. The coins are then 
a pair of india-rubber driving wheels, which force them 

of a thin disk with notches in its edge to fit the coins. As 
:htts made to revolve, the coins are pushed forward, and 
D a shoot are received in a bag. The machine can be 
er a certain number of coins, after which the counting 
automatically. 



TriaJ aj Uu P^.— Perfodl 
the Mint have beei] made 



^TT^lnatkmt of the coins issued by 
' ' early times in England by per^ 
fiORs appointea Dy tne i.n>^^ri- s^'idmens are selected from the 
flniiHed coin ^nd ajv put into & boK or " pyx." At intervals these 
f oin^ are writhed and assayed by a ][ury oi skilled persons and the 
resuhs fcporttd to the Cnjwn. A tnal of the pyx is mentioned in 
the LaiiKfdWTie M5S. as having la ken place in the reign of Henry II., 
but Che practice had probably orl filiated much earlier. The trial 
(s now held annually by a jury Eronsisiing.of freemen of the Company 
o[ Goldsmiths. Coins f ram the London and Australian mints are 
c^Liitnined. The Company has been entrusted with the duty since 
the tiiciie tjf Jastseii 1 . C.cnin^ of lort^ijin mints are generally subnitted 
to e}(aTyi:r'..iii'i-i \-v :l ^ ■■\:-\rui'.- -■ id eminent cnemuts and metal- 
Lm^L'^tK v< 'loee report is published in the official journals. 

A ^uiL Mcount of the work of the Mint, with valuable tables raving 
the amount of the coina^ of gold and silverand bronae in the iJnited 
Kingdom and the cokmies in detail, and a Hsumi of the coinages of 
loreij^n countries, will be found in the Amnial Reports of the Deputy 
Maiier and Comptroller iff the Mint, which have been published since 
tSjo, (T. K. R.) 

HnrrO, earls of. The Scottish border family of Elliot 
which has held the earldom of Minto since 1813 has had many 
disLinf^i^hed members. Sir Gilbert Elliot, bart. (1651-1718), 
Add bis Boa and successor, another Sir Gilbert Elliot (1693-1766), 
were both celebrated Scottish judges and both took the offidal 
title of Lord Minto. The elder Sir Gilbert was sentenced to 
de;itb for his share in the rising of the earl of Argyll in 1685, but 
WHS afterwards pardoned; the yotmger Sir Gilbert was a scholar 
and an agriculturist. Among the children of the latter were John 
Elliot (d, 1808), a naval officer, who served as governor of New- 
foundJand and was made an admiral; Andrew Elliot, the last 
English governor of New York; and the poetess Jean, or Jane, 
Elliot (c. 1737-1805), who wrote the popular ballad " Flowers ol 
the Porttt.'? The eldest son. Sir Gilbert Elliot (173^x777), who 
became the third baronet in April 1766, was a member of parlia- 
ment from 1753 to 1777, and a friend and follower of the earl of 
Buie. He filled sevoal public offices, and Horace Walpole said 
be wnA " one of the ablest members of the House of Commons." 
HiA second sOn was the diplomatist, Hugh Elliot (1753-1830), 
who rr presented his cotftatry at Munich, at Berlin, at Copenhagen 
and at Naples. He was governor of Madras from 1814 to 1820, 
atid he died on the loth of December 1830. 

5re the Memoirs of Ou RigfU Hon. Hugh EUiot, by the countess 
of Minto {Edinburgh, 1868). 

The t hird baronet's eldest son was Gilbert Eluot, xst earl of 
Minto (r 7 $1-1814). About 1763 Gilbert and his brother Hugh were 
sc ttt to Pa ris, where their studies were supervised by David Hume 
a nd wh ere they became intimate with Mirabeau. Having passed 
the wjnten of 1766 and 1767 at Edinburgh University, Gilbert 
entered Christ Church, Oxford, and on quitting the university 
be wa5 called to the bar. In 1776 he entered parliament as an 
in dep^n H ent Whig. He became very friendly with Burke, whom 
he helped In the attack on Warren Hastings and Sir Eh'jah Impey, 
and en two occasions was an unsuccessful candidate for the office 
of spi^ker. In 1794 Elliot was appointed to govern Corsica, 
and in I ;q7 he assumed the additional names of Murray-Kynyn- 
nnond a.nd was created Baron Minto. From 1799 to 1801 he was 
envoyH?:(traordinary to Vienna, and having been for a few months 
pnaident of the board of control he was appointed governor- 
general of India at the end of 1806. He governed with great 
succei»s until 18x3. He was then created Viscount Melgund 
nnd earl of Minto. He died at Stevenage on the 21st of 
June ]Si4 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. 

The carl's second son was Admiral Sir George Elliot (1784- 
lB6j), wtiA as a youth was present at the battles of Cape St Vincent 
and ftic Nile, and who was secretary to the admiralty from 1830 
to i«34. A nephew of the earl was Sir Charles Elliot (1801-1875) 
al^ an admiral, who took a prominent part in the war with China 

tHjo. Afterwards he was governor of Bermuda, of Trinidad 



ami of Si Helena. 

CiL^^itT Elliot-Murray-Kynynmond, and earl of Minto 
(]7Bj-ti59), eldest son of the xst earl, was ambassador to Berlin 
from [S3? to 1834, first lord of the admiralty from 1835 to 1841 
and lord privy seal from 1846 to 1852. His influence in the 
Whig party was partly due to the fact that bis daughter, Frances, 
was the wife of Lord John Russell. 



564. 



MINTO, W.— MINUSINSK 



His son William Hugh, the 3rd earl (1814-XS91), was the 
father of the 4th earl, Gilbert John Eluot-Mukxay-Kymyn- 
ICOND (1845- ), who joined the Scots Guards in 2867. In 
1874, in the capacity of a newspaper correspondent, he witnessed 
the operations of the Carlists in Spain; he took service with the 
Turkish army in the war with Russia in 1877 and served under 
Lord Roberts in the second Afghan War (1878-79), having 
narrowly escaped accompanying Sir Louis Cavagnari Kabul. 
He acted as private secretary to Lord Roberts during his mission 
to the Cape in 1881; as military secretary to Lord Lansdowne 
during his governor-generalship of Canada from 1883 to 1885; 
and as chief of the staff to General Middleton in the Riel Rebellion 
in Canada (1885). Having succeeded to the earldom in 1891 he 
was appointed governor-general of Canada in 1898. His term 
of office (1898- 1 904) was distinguished by a visit of the prince 
and princess of Wales to the colonies. In 1905, on the resig- 
nation of Lord Curzon, Lord Minto was appointed viceroy and 
governor-general of India, retiring in 19 10. 
• The 4th earl's brother, the Hon. Arthur Ralph Douglas Elliot 
(b. 1 846) , editor of the Edinburgh Review, was a member of parlia- 
ment from 1880 to 1892 and again from 1898 to 1906, and from 
1903 to 1906 he was financiaJ secretary to the treasury. Sir 
Francis Edmund Hugh Elliot (b. 1851), a grandson of the and 
earl, became British minister at Athens in 1903. 

See Hon. G, F. S. Elliot. The Border EUiots and the Family of 
Minto (Edinburgh, 1897); the article India; History; also the 
Life and Letters of the first Earl of Minto, 1751-1806 (1874) and Lord 
Minto in India, 1807-1814 (1880), both edited by the countess of 
Minto; and Sir J. F. Stephen. The Story of Nuncomar and the 
Impeachment of Sir K Impey (1885}. 

MINTO, WILLIAM (1845-1893), Scottish man of letters, 
was bom at Auchintoul, Aberdeenshire, on the loth of October 
1845. He was educated at Aberdeen University, and spent 
a year at Merton College, Oxford^ He was assistant professor 
under Alexander Bain at Aberdeen for some years; from 2874 
to 1878 he edited the Examiner, and in 1880 he was made full 
professor of logic and English at Aberdeen. In 187 2 he published 
a Manual of English Prose Literature, which was distinguished 
by sound judgment and sympathetic appreciation; and his 
Characteristics of English Poets from Chaucer to Shirley (1874) 
showed the same high qualities. His other works include: 
The Literature of the Georgian Era (1894) edited with a bio- 
graphical introduction by W. Knight a monograph on Defoe 
in the English Men of Letters scries (1879); three novels of small 
importance, and numerous articles on literary subjects in the 
9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, He died on the 
1st of March 1893. 

MINTURNAB, an ancient city of the Auninci, m Italy, 
situated on the N.W. bank of the Liris with a suburb on the 
opposite bank 1} m. from its mouth,* at the point where the 
Via Appia crossed it by the Pons Tirctius. It was one of the 
three towns of the Aurund which made war against Rome 
in 314 B.C., the other two beuig Ausona (see Sessa Aurunca) 
and Vescia; and the Via Appia was made two ycare later. 
It became a colony in 295 B.C. In 88 B.C. Marius in his 
flight from Sulla hid himself in the marshes of Minturnae. 
The ruins consist of an amphitheatre (now almost entirely 
demolished, but-better preserved in the i8th century), a theatre, 
and a very fine aqueduct in opus reiiculatum, the quoins of which 
are of various colours arranged in patterns to produce a decorative 
effect. Close to the mouth of the river was the sacred grove of 
the Italic goddess Marica. It is still mentioned in the 6th 
century, but was probably destroyed by the Saracens, and its 
low site, which had become unhealthy, was abandoned in favour 
of that of the modem town of Mintumo (known as Traetto 
until the 19th century), 459 ft. above sea-level. A tower at 
the mouth of the river, erected between 961 and 981, commemo- 
rates a victory gained by Pope John X. and his allies over the 
Saracens in 91 5. It is built of Roman materials from Minturnae, 
including several inscriptions and sculptures. 

See T. Ashby in MOanges de VtcoUSransaise deRome{i^:^),A\y, 



R. Laurent-Vibert and A. Piganol, tbid. Xi9^. P* 495 *. G. Q. GigfioB, 
Notizie deg^i Scam (1908) p. 396. (t. As.) 

MINUCIXJS, FELIX MARCUS, one of the earliest if not the 
earliest, of the Latin apologists for Christianity. Of his personal 
hbtory nothing is known, and even the date at wluth he wrote 
can be only approximately ascertained. Jerome {De tir. Hi 
58) speaks of him as " Romae insignis causidicus," but in this 
he is probably only improving on the expression of Lactantius 
{Inst. div. v. z) who speaks of him as "non ignobilis inter 
causidicos lod." He b now exclusively known by his OcUmus, 
a dialogue on Christianity between the pagan Caecilius Natalis' 
and the Christian OcUvius Januarius, a provincial lawyer, 
the friend and fellow-student of the author. The scene is 
pleasantly and graphically laid on the beach at Ostia on a holiday 
afternoon, and the discussion is represented as arising out of 
the homage paid by Caecilius, in passing, to the image of Serapis. 
His arguments for paganism (possibly modelled on those of 
Celsus) are taken up seriatim by Octavius, with the result thit 
the assailant is convinced. Minucius himself plays the part 
of umpire. The form of the dialogue is modelled on the Z^ 
nalura deorum and De divinalione of Cicero and its style is 
both vigorous and elegant if at times not exempt from something 
of the affectation of the age. Its latinity is not of the specifically 
Christian type. If the doctrines of the Divine unity, the resur- 
rection, and future rewards and punishments be left out of 
account, the work has less the character of an exposition of 
Christianity than of a philosophical and ethical polemic against 
the absurdities of polytheism. While it thus has much in common 
with the Greek Apologies it is full of the strong common sense 
that marks the Latin mind. Its ultimate appeal is to the fruits 
of faith. 

The Octavius is admittedly earlier than Cyprian's Quod ideia & 
non tint, which borrows from it ; how much earlier can be determined 
only by settling the relation in which it stands to Tertullian'f 
Apologeticum. Since A. Ebert's exhaustive argument in 1866, 
repeated in 188^, the priority of Minucius has been generally ad- 
mitted; the objections are stated in the DiO, Chr. Biog. artick 
by G. Salmon. Editions: F. Sabaeus-Brixianus. as Bk. viil of 
Arnobius (Rome, 1543) ; F. Balduinus, first sepantte editioa (Hddci- 
berg, 1560): Miene, Fatrd. LaL iii. 339: Halm in Corp. Scr. EccL 
LaL (Vienna, 1867); H. A. Holden. Translations: R. E. Wsllis. 
in Ante-Nic. Fathers, vol. iv.; A. A. Brodribb's Pagan and PnrUOL 
Literature: In addition to that already cited see H. Boenig'sart 
in Hauck-Herzoff's Realencyk. vol. 13, and the various histories of 
early Christian Literature by A. Hamack, G. KrOger. A. Ebrfaard 
and O. Bardenhewer. 



MINUET (adapted, under the influence of the Italian « 
from Fr. menuet, small, pretty, delicate, a diminutive of mam, 
from Lat. minulus; the word refers probably to the short steps, 
pas menus, taken in the dance), a dance for two persons, is | 
time. At the period when it was most fashionable it was skm, 
ceremonious, and graceful (see Dance). The name is sho 
given to a musical composition written in the same xmt and 
rhythm, but when not accompanying an actual dance the pKC 
was quicker. An example of the true form of the nunuet is 
to be found in Don Giovanni. The minuet is frequently found 
as one of the movements in the Suites of Handel and Badi. 
Haydn introduced it into the symphony, with little trace of 
the slow grace and ceremony of the dance. In the hands of 
Beethoven it becomes the scherzo. 

MINUSINSK, a town of Russia, in East Siberia, and tte 
government of Yeniseisk, 180 m. S.S.W. of Krasnoyarsk railwy 
station, and 5 m. from the right bank of the Yenisei, in a fertite 
prairie region. Pop. (1897), 10,255. I' w » centre for trade 
with the native populations of the Sayan Motmtains and north- 
western Mongolia. It has an excellent natural history, etknO" 
graphical and archaeological museum (1877), with a HbiVT 
and a meteorological station. Coal and iron abound io the 
vicinity. 

*This name occurs in six inscriptions of the years 211*417 
found at Constantine (Cirta), North Africa {C.I.L, vol. viiL). Lil"*5 
other North African fathers TertuIIian. Cyprian, Arnobius and 
Lactantius, he was a lawyer. Some use may have been made of 
rhetorical expressions of M. Cornelius Fronto cic Cirta (d. c kA. IW 



MINUTE— MIOT DE MELITO 



56s 



t (Lat mtMuhu, small; minuere, to make less), an 
meaning of very small size, petty or trifling; also 
precise. In this sense the word is pronounced m^ ft ^t. 
jmtive and pronounced minnii the word (usually in 
is applied to a written summary of the transaciktiu 
ng of a public or other body, or to a memorandum 
ions, &c. A Treasury minute in the United KirLgd<im 
icial memorandum authorizing certain procedure, 
te " is to draw up such a summary or memorandtuu. 
icularly, ** minute " is used of the sixtieth p^t ol 
in time, of an hour; and in astronomy, geometry » 
, &c., of a degree in the measurement of a circle, 
esimai system of division was originally used by the 
abylonian astronomers, was adopted by Ptoltmy; 
jctieth part of a degree, and its further subdivision 
parts, was called in Latin pars miniUac primae, and 
ae secundae respectively, hence the English " minute " 
nd." 

: MEN: in the American War of Independence, militb' 
iiad undertaken to turn out for service at a minute's 
1 Massachusetts the minute men were enrolled by 
he provincial congress of the 23rd of November i;74f 
ton alone they numbered 16,000 prior to the outbreak 
. The Americans who fought in the opening action 
on were " minute men." 

E, in geology, the system of strata which occurs 
be Oligocene and the Pliocene. The term, derived 
3rcek yjM>Vf less, and Keuv6f, recent, was introduced 
larles Lyell, as indicating palaeontologically a le^ 
of recent species than is found in the Plioceoe, 
acxistrine, estuarine and marine deposits, especl^ly 
:ed by soft calcareous sandstones and conglomi^raie^ 
") and sandy shell-beds ("faluns"), make up the 
rstem of the Neogcne or newer Tertiary in Europe oSid 
iia, where it -atuins its fullest development, 
pparcnt's classification is here adopted : — 
an or Pannonian. — Brackish- and fresh-water marls, 
and gravels: occurring at Vienna, in the Caspian and 
ditcrrancan basins, and in southern France; mammalLm 
Pikcrmi and the Siwalik Hills, with Hipparion ^nifilf. 
mtirostris. Rhinoceros sckUtermachi, numerous rumin-int^. 
ubglobosa. Marine beds of Belgium (Black Cra^) and 
lany. 

tattan. — More or less salt-water sands and marls cF the 
s with Mastodon angustidau, Anchilherium aureli^nenm^ 
>ictum, C. riMgittosum, Oslrea gingensis, Mactra pfidaiifa, 
Trius. Stages IV. and V. represented in north-i^^tcrn 
marine sands {Cardita striatissima), and in AlgerLi and 
f marine marls and limestones. 
iobonian. — Sub-stages: — 

mian: Marine maris with Ancittana ffandiformis, C^rtui 
Ranella marginata, Trockus paiulus, Voluta rat 
fresh- water limestones of Oeningen with fish, cc 
td plants showing seasonal changes of the y r 
ssive layers i,Aur trUobaium, Populus mutabilis, Ju^lo-vi 
Campkorat Podogonium) ; and the lacustrine deposits of 

r/icn: Marine shelly sandstones and conglomcnites 
" of Switrerland) with Ostrea gingensis, Cardita jounnnrHr 
tenardi, Conus ventricosus; the "Taluns" of Tourainf and 

and the marine beds of Black Sea basin. At tht? Lnsc 
-ine Helvetian in the Vienna basin clays (" Schlkr ") 
lalt and g>'psum, and the lacustrine beds of Gj.M:f.>ny 
!« Simorre with Mastodon tapiroides, M. simorFiJuis, 
n giganteum) occur. 

igaltan or Langhian. — Marine "faluns" of BordtiaujE 
rroti, Turritella ttrebralis) ; maris of Langhc in Ligaria 
'digaUnsis) ; marine deposits of Vienna basin, Casfiian 
lis and Algeria; frcsh-watcr sands and marls of Orl^ani 
odon angustidens, M. tatiroides, Dinotherium rtrvieh^ 
rrium onoidcum; Littorinella clays of Mainz basin t^Eth 
m incisivum Littorinella acuta, Dreyssenia brardii frrsih- 

" molaiue " of Switzerland, with acacias, laurels, pulms 

iS. 

jnian. — Limestones, sands and marls of tokca and lajtoon*. 
hracotherium, Anchilherium, Acerotherium inctsivum. 
'US typus. Helix ramondi, Limnaea pachy^aster. Pi j norhi r 
amides lamarcki; Quercus, Acacia, Ftcus, Catrf'hof-T, 
•dm, Taxodium, Clyptostrobus, Sequoia, Sabal, Piick-mt, 
rntral France {Cnlcaire de la Beauce) : the plant-bed* of 
; Mainz basin; k>wer " molasw " of Switzerland with 



I. red marls and conglomerates; " brown-coal series " 
lany with lignite. Intercalated marine candstooea 
occur in Aquitaine and near Marseilles: other marine developmenu 
occur in the " faluns " of Gascony (Lepido^ina mantelht Mio- 
typsina burdigaUnsis), the upper Aquitanian of Bavaria and Austria- 
Hungaiv (Ostrta crassiassima, Peciunculus piiosus), and in southern 
Spain. Italy and Malta (LepidocycUna and LtikoUiamnium), Basic 
tuffs and lavas occur in Auvergne. 

Some authors assign Stage 1. to the Oligocene, Stage V. to the 
P lie-.. ■..!■.: ---v^^- ]■ -ii-"-! ii- ■-■.rr..; ■.■!■. J l-^- lL_ iir.:, j[jd III. to the 
KconJ Mc-ditCLiT^intan Sl.ige oi K. 'Siue§^ 

[n Europr a general emciwncc of land in latv Oligo(3ene time 
multed at iht Dcginnlag of thi? Miocene (Aquitanbn) in wide^ 
fiprcad lacuitjinc conditimis throu:ghout the wiCbtern part of that 
continefit, upon which the sea encroached at few poipUi though it 
had gained accx'id to the Vienna basin and extended westward into 
Bavaria^ QLherwliCi marine Ac:t^'^'^'^^ deposiU are ooulirwd to 
the Meditcrrajiean batin and the tcgih-w^st totatr d FrarKfc 
Most of northern Eunnpc, iocludinff Lhi? Britiih Isles. rem4ined dry 
Ufid thrQuehput Miocene tlnte^ Purifi^ the Burdigallin periods 
with lni:Ty?i-isang elevation ot the mouni^in rtRion* and dtpmeios 
(A the Mi'^'iTerrancan And Ca^ldn I'^i^inf, a tnarine invasion begaru 
which pa«9i?d iti maximum in tnt^ Vinr:li?bpniaii. The Mc^itcnrani^n 
reached caitv^rd to ?cf^a. amJ, uiU oprn to the Atlantic, sul> 
merged north Alrka, most of Italy and the neigh bouring itbnd^ 
It ascended the Rhone valley, penetrated to the Main£ basin* 
and skirting the north flanic of the Alpine rreion pa»ed into the 
Vienna basin and thence around the Carpathian tract into the 
Pontic and Caipkin depressirsn. The walen of the At^ntic 
Ttirther invaded tne regions of the Garonne and the Lt^in^H iscilaird 
Brittany and encroached upon north Kmopc between Belgium and 
Denmark. , k 

The elevation of the Alpi* and pn:>babty of the whole Alpine 
ffyctem of mountain folds from Morocco to Indo-China, though 
initiated by earlier Miocene and late OliRocene movements* toofc 
place mainly during the latter part b\ the Vindobonian period, 
and v^i completed in the Samiatian^ The wateni of the occaa 
wi-re then exclutlt'd from the Caspian and eai^tern MediterranQU) 
bdjiinsi and repUced by vast fresh' water Lake^; while brackiih- 
water lagoons occupied much of the western Medkeiranean. Thia 
|i;fcat rccnt'it ol the sea culminated in the Ponrijn stage, and 
land -connexion was established between Korth and South Amcricai, 
Outside the Euraiuan region^ Aquitanian deposits occur in 
Forn)(]«^ Java, Bumeo and Marlagascar^f while Burdtgalian dcpostts 
are found in Mongolia, The Vl^idobonian nmi^es from Greenland, 
tcetand and Spittbcrfien, where it contains Itanitc and plants 
denoting a tcmpctiitc climatCt by Japan, Java and India^ to Victoria, 
tt reciirs in the Arforrs and the Antillti , and at intt:rvaU along the 
American continrnt ham Patagouia to Alaska^ where aU three 
lower E':if.:ir5 arr rrpr^iifntrd. an also in the West Indies^ ALong 
thr ';'...' "■ : . '1 T i ] States and around the Gulf 0t 

M' . : '* a pfescnc> the Sarmatun aocf 

Pontian also occur in California. 

The Miocene was a period of change, of mountain-building, 
climatic differentiation hitherto unprecedented, and of moderation 

{n ,.. ,. '. I ■ ■ • ! a indicates 

an (.-..jualilit- Liiitl [iii.ii-.i aiiLi-tfu[>iv.i3 I, liitb.itt . ^i'j\^jj 1, i.'.iing, as wit- 
nessod by the gradual increase oi tfer? with deciijuous' foliage 
amongst tho«e characteristic of mote tmipic^il conditktns. Oaks, 
riapk-SH pgcilarm, planes, willows, CinrKimomamt C^tfiphora, Myricat 
■''■jMmia^ jaxodiitm, Clypicslrobvs und p£ilTni» flcnjrtJ,hct| together. 
I he marine qalciirc-ous alga Liihi^ihontiuant became an important 
rcurf-byildlEig or^fjnirm. NummuUics gn%'e piiii:xi to l^pidocyclina; 
lamclUbratif h*and piart icularly ffaBterop^xUabraurtdcci in the snallov 
fca&, of which the bhark CarchG-fodvn ^tn^l thi^ tnarinc mammals 
Souatod^n and HjUnkerium tut re amang^i the bt^j^-st denizens. 
The mammalian land -fa una of Europe made ttrikinj; advances, 
and asfiumetJ a decidedly African aspect. ftUrsupi^its had dwap- 
penrcd from It before the BurdigalLitn period, during *-hich primitive 
genera like P^^ffKhoerus, Hyopoiamuit and the hornier ruminants 
Anthrat^iihrriH'rH and Brafkyop^s, became extinct, while probos> 
ricliitani {Mmii>diiii^, Dinotk£nmm\^ rhinoceros and apes {Oreopithecus, 
Piiopiiheitij) camv in, followed by antelopes, bearers a nd probably 
Mi^hQitadui in the Vindobonian, The spiead of lurl-forming 
^ra?i$es was auixecdcd in the Ponttan by an enonnous incr^se « 
herhivoroua mammals including tlippan&n and homtf] ruminants 
ifhUadaihctiam, Aniii<f^, Cervfis. Cimelopardafii. Foiaeotrattu), 
who« mtiiiraiiions were lacilicatcd by the desiccation of the Misdi- 
terranean Dasin. (C. B. W.*) 

MIOT DB M&ITO. ANDRfi FRAN(;0I8, Coute (1762-1841), 
French statesman and scholar, was bom at Versailles (Seine- 
ct-Oise) on the 9th of February 1762. He was a high official 
in the war office before the Revolution, and under the Republic 
he eventually became secretary-general for foreign affairs. 
That he was not denounced under the Terror was due to the 
fact that he was indispensable in his department. In ijgsht 
was sent as French envoy to Florence; then to Rome, and on 



566 



MIQUEI^— MIRABEAU 



his return to Florence received orders to proceed to Corsica, 
which, after its evacuation by the British, was in a state of 
anarchy. In Corsica he allied himself with Joseph Bonaparte, 
and after pacifying the island returned to luly. Recalled by 
their Dectory in 1798 because of his refusal to foment insurrection 
in Italy, he spent some time in retirement, but he was in the 
diplomatic service in Holland at the revolution of 18. Brumaire 
(Nov. 9, 1799). Under the consulate he was secretary-general 
at the ministry of war, and a member of the coimcil of state, and 
was sent on a second mission (1801-1802) for the pacification 
of Corsica. In 1806 he joined Joseph Bonaparte in Naples 
as minister of the interior, afterwards following him to Spain 
as comptroller of the household, but he returned to France in 
the retreat of 1813. Next year he was created comte de M£lito, 
and during the Hundred Days he served as commissary extra- 
ordinary with the XII. Army division. He took no part in 
politics, ajfter Waterloo, where his son-in-law, General J. B. 
Jamin, was killed, and his own son mortally wounded. He 
visited Joseph Bonaparte in America in 2825, and then spent 
some years in Germany with his daughter, whose second hu3band. 
General von Flelschmann, represented the king of Wttrttem- 
burg in Paris in 183 1. He was admitted in 1835 to the French 
Academy on the merits of his translations of Herodotus (Paris, 
1822) and Diodorus (Paris, 1835-1838). He died in Paris on 
the 5th of January 1841. 

Miot de M6Uto had kept a diary which, arranged for publication 
by his son-in-law, General von FIcischmann, covers the years from 
1788 to 1815, and is of interest for the historv of the Bonaparte 
family and of Joseph's dominion in Spain. Published in France 
in 1858, it was translated into English by Mrs C. Hocy and J. Lillie 
(3 vols.. 1 881); and also into German (Stuttgart, 1866-1867). See 
Albert Gaudin, Les ArrlUs Miot (Ajacao, 1896). 

HIQUEL, JOHANN VON (1829-1901), German statesman, 
was bom at Ncuenhaus, Hanover, on the 19th of February 
1829, being descended from a French family which had emigrated 
during the Revolution. He learnt law at the universities of 
Heidelberg and GOttingen. Studying the writings of Karl 
Marx he became a convert to an extreme revolutionary, 
socialistic and atheistic creed; but though he entered into corre- 
spondence with Marx, with the object of starling a revolutionary 
movement, he does not appear to have taken any overt part in the 
events of 1 848-1 849. Further study of political economy soon 
enabled him to pass out of this phase, and in 1850 he settled 
down to practise as an advocate at Gdttingen. He acquired 
repute as an able lawyer and a rising politician, and especially 
for his krfowlcdge of financial questions. He was one of the 
founders of the German Nationalvercin, and in 1864 he was 
elected a member of the Hanoverian parliament as a Liberal 
and an opponent of the government. He accepted the annexa- 
tion of Hanover by Prussia without regret, and was one of the 
Hanoverians whose parliamentary abilities at once won a com- 
manding position in the Prussian parliament, which he entered 
in 1867. For some reason — perhaps because Bismarck did not 
entirely trust him — he did not at this time attain quite so influen- 
tial a position as might have been anticipated; nevertheless he 
was chairman of the parliamentary committee which in 1876 
drafted the new rules of legal procedure, and he found scope for 
his great administrative abilities in the post of burgomaster of 
OsnabrUck. He held this position from 1S65 to 1870, and again 
from 1876 to 1879, being in the meantime (1870-1873) a director 
of the Discontogcsellschaft. In 1879 he was elected burgomaster 
of Frankfort-on-Main, where he gained a great reputation for the 
energy with which he dealt with social questions, especially that of 
the housing of the poor. Probably owing to his early study of 
socialism, he was very ready to support the new state socialism 
of Bismarck. He was the chief agent in the reorganization 
of the National Liberal party in 1887, in which year he entered 
the imperial Reichstag. Atter Bismarck's fall in 1890 he was 
chosen Prussian minister of finance, and held this post for ten 
years. He distinguished himself by his reform of the Prussian 
system of taxation, the one really successful measure of the new 
reign in internal affairs. An attempt, however, to reform the 
system of imperial finance in 1893-1894 failed, and much injured 



his reputation. Bliquel had entirely given up bis Liberalism, 
and aimed at practical measures for improving the condition 
of the people irrespective of the party programmes; yet some 
of his measures-^uch as that for taxing " Waarenhiuser " 
(stores) — were of a very injudicious nature. He professed to aim 
at a union of parties on the basis of the satisfaction of materisl 
interests, a policy to which the name of Sammlung was given; 
but his enemies accused him of constantly intriguing against 
the three chancellors under whom he served, and of himself 
attempting to secure the first place in the state. The sympathy 
which he expressed for the Agrarians increased has unpopularity 
among Liberals and industrials; but he pointed out that the state, 
which for half a century had done everything to help manufac* 
tures, might now attempt to support the failing industry of 
agriculture. In June 190X the rejection of the canal bill led 
to a crisis, and he was obliged to send in his resignation. His 
health was already failing, and he died on the 8th of September 
of the same year at his house in Frankfort. 

MIQUBtETS (MiQUELETES or Micueletes) were irregukr 
. local troops in Catalonia who derived their name, it is said, inm 
Miguel or Miquelot de Prats, a Catalan mercenary captain in the 
service of Ccsare Borgia. They enjoyed a certain prominence in 
the minor wars of Spain during the Z7th and 18th centuries, 
and in peace seem to have pltmdered travellers. In the War 
of the Spanish Succession (q.v.) the IVfiquelets continued tlie 
struggle against the French claimant imtil long after the peact 
During the Peninsular War they were exceedingly successful in 
harassing the French invaders in the mountains of Catalonii. 
Sometimes they even attempted operations in Lirge bodies, 
as in the operations round Gerona in z8o8 and 1809. Tbey 
were maintained by the several parishes, not by the centnd 
or the provincial governments, and as they had to turn out for 
duty on sound of the village alarm-bell {somaten) (bey are 
frequently called somatenes. 

MIRABEAU, ANBRfi BONIFACE LOUIS RIQUBn, VicoHn 
DE (1754-1792), brother of the orator Mirabeau, was one of the 
reactionary leaders at the opening of the French Rcvolulioa. 
Sent to the army in Malta in 1776 he spent part of his two yean 
there in prison f9r insulting a religious procession. During the 
War of American Independence he was in several sea-fights 
with the English, and was at the taking of Yorktown in 1781. 
In the following year he had two narrow escapes from drowning. 
In 1789, with his debts paid up by his father, he was elected 
by the noblesse of Limoges a deputy to the States GenenL 
He was a violent Conservative and opposed everything tiiat 
threatened the old regime. His drunkenness produod a 
corpulency which brought him the nickname Mirabeau 'foDneau 
(" Barrel Mirabeau "); but he was not lacking in some of that 
insight which marked hi) brother. He shared fully in the 
eccentric family pride; and boasted of his brother's geoins 
even when bitterly opposing him. He emigrated about 179O1 
and raised a legion which was to bear his name; but his insoleDce 
alienated the German princes, and his command was takes 
from him. He died in August 1792 — of apoplexy en* from a 
duel — in Freiburg im Breisgau. He wrote some verse as veO 
as various pamphlets. • 

See Josepn Sarrazin, Mirabeau Tonneau, ein Condotliere aa if 
Revolutionszeit (Leipzig. 1893): and La lUwduiton fran^aist, >t3'*- 
xxi. and xxiv.; Eug6nc Bcrgcr, Le Vicomte de Mirabeau{Mirctteu 
Tonneau), 1754-17Q2 (1904): and for a list of contemportO' 
pamphlets, &c., M. loxxmewx, BibHopaphie de la viUe de Paris."* 
vol. IV. (1906). 

MIRABEAU, HOMORfi GABRIEL RIQUEH, Comte de (i74r 
1 791), French statesman, was bom at Bignon, near Ncmwas 
on the 9th of March 1749. The family of Riquct, or Riqoel*> 
originally of the little town of Digne, won wealth as mcrchaDU 
at Marseilles, and in 1570 Jean Riqueti bought the chile** 
and seigniory of Mirabeau, which had belonged to the peal 
Provencal family of Barras. In 1685 Honor^ Riqueti obtaiB«l 
the title of marquis de Mirabeau. His son Jean Antoine served 
with distinction through all the later campaigns of the rdgB 
of Louis XIV., and especially distinguished himself in 1705 at 
the battle of Cassano, where he was so severely wounded is 



MIRABEAU 



5^7 



e neck that he had ever after to wear a sflver stock; yet he 
fvcr rose above the rank of colonel, owing to an eccentric habit 
ipeaking unpleasant truths to his superiors. On retiring from 
e service he married Fran^oise de Castellane, and left at his 
ath, in 1737, three sons — Victor marquis de Mirabeau, Jean 
itoine, bailli de Mirabeau, and Comte Louis Alexandre de 
irabeau. The great Mirabeau was the eldest surviving son of 
e marquess, ^lien but three years old he had a virulent attack 
small-poz which left his face disfigured, and contributed to 
i father's dislike of him. Being destined for the army, he was 
tered at a pension mih'taire at Paris. Of this school, which had 
(grange for its professor of mathematics, we have an amusing 
count in the life of Gilbert Elh'ot, ist earl of Minto, who with 
i brother Hugh, afterwards British minister at Berlin, there 
ide the acquaintance of Mirabeau. On leaving this school in 
67 he received a commission in a cavalry regiment which his 
uidfather had commanded years before. He at once began 
re-making, and in spite of his ugliness succeeded in winning 
e heart of the lady to whom his colonel was attached; this led 
such scandal that his father obtained a leUre de cacketf and 
e young scapegrace was imprisoned in the isle of R£. The 
re affairs of Mirabeau form a well-known history, owing to the 
ebrity of the letters to Sophie. Yet it may be asserted that 
til the more durable and more reputable connexion with Mme 
Nehra these love episodes were the most disgraceful blemishes 
a life otherwise of a far higher moral character than has been 
tnmonly supposed. As to the marquess, his use of leUres de 
Met is perfectly defensible on the theory of leUres de cachei, 
d Mirabeau, if any son, surely deserved such correction. 
Lrther, they had the effect of sobering the culprit, and the 
>re creditable part of his life did not begin till he left Vincenncs. 
irabeau did not develop his great qualities of mind and character 
til his youthful excesses were over, and it was not till 1781 
It these began to appear. On being released, the young count 
tained leave to accompany as a volunteer the F^nch expedi- 
n to Corsica. After his return, he tried to keep on good terms 
Lh his father, and in 1772 he married a rich heiress, Marie 
lilie, daughter of the marquess de Marignane, an alliance 
>cured for him by his father. His wild extravagance, however, 
ced his father to forestall his creditors by securing his deten- 
n in semi-exile in the country, where he wrote his earliest 
ant work, the Euai sur le despotUme, His violent disposition 
IT led him to quarrel with a country gentleman who had 
ulted his sister, and his semi-exile was changed by leUre de 
ket into imprisonment in the Ch&teau d'If. In 1775 he was 
noved to the castle of Joux, to which, however, he was not 
y closely confined, having full leave to visit in the town of 
ntarlier. Here he met Marie Th£r^ de Monnier, his Sophie 
be called her. Of his behaviour nothing too strong can be 
j: he was introduced into the house as a friend, and betrayed 
trust by inducing Mme de Monnier to fall in k>ve with him. 
e affair ended by his escaping to Switzerland, where Sophie 
led him; they then went to Holland, where he lived by hack- 
rk for the booksellers; meanwhile Mirabeau had been con- 
nned to death at Pontarlier for rapt et vol, and in May 1777 
was seized by the French police, and imprisoned by a UUre 
cachet in the castle of Vincennes. 

)uring his imprisonment he seems to have learnt to control 
passions from their very exhaustion, for the early part of 
confinement is marked by the indecent letters to Sophie 
it published in 1793), and the obscene Erotica biUion and 
conversion^ while to the later months belongs his poh'tical 
rk of any value, the Leitrcs de cachet, published after his 
rration (178a). It exhibits an accurate knowledge of French 
stitutional history skilfully applied in an attempt to show 
t •an existing actual grievance was not only philosophically 
ust but constitutionally illegal It shows, though in rather 
iffuse and declamatory form, that application of wide historical 
>wledge, keen philosophical perception, and genuine eloquence 
a practical purpose which was the great characteristic of , 
rabeau, both as a political thinker and as a statesman. 
Vith his release from Vincennes (August 1782) begins the 1 



second period of MhrabeauV life. He fodnd that his Sophie 
was an idealised version of a rather common and ill-educated 
woman, and she consoled herself with the affection of a young 
officer, after whose death she committed suicide. Mirabeau 
first set to work to get the sentence of death still hanging over 
him reversed, and by his eloquence not only succeeded in this 
but got M. de Monnier condemned in the costs of the whole law 
proceedings. From Pontarlier he went to Aix, where he claimed 
the court's order that his wife should return to him. She naturally 
objected, but his eloquence would have won his case, even 
against Jean Etienne Marie Portalis, the leader of the Aix Bar, 
had he not in his excitement accused his wife of infidelity, on 
which the court pronounced a decree of separation. He then 
intervened in the suit pending between his father and mother 
before the parlement of Paris, and attacked the ruling powers 
so violently that h^ had to leave France and again go to Holland, 
and try to live by literary work. About this time began his 
connexion with Mme de Nehra, the daughter of Zwier van 
Haren, a Dutch statesman and political writer, and a woman 
of a far higher type than Sophie, more educated, more refined, 
and more capable of i4>preciating Mirabeau 's • good points. 
His life was strengthened by the love of his petite horde, Mme 
de Nehra, his adopted son, Lucas de Montigny, and his httle 
dog Chico. After a period of Work in Holland he betook himself 
to England, where his treatise on lettres de cachd had been 
much admired, being translated into English in 2787, and where 
he was soon admitted into the best Whig literary and political 
society of London, through his old schoolfellow Gilbert Ellk>t, 
who had now inherited his father's baronetcy and estates, and 
become a leading Whig member of parliament. Of all his English 
friends none seem to have been so intimate with him as the zst 
marquess of Lansdowne, better known as Lord Shelbume, and 
Mr, afterwards Sir Samuel, Romilly. The latter became particu- 
larly attached to him, and really understood his character; 
and it is strange that his remarks upon Mirabeau in the fragment 
of autobiography which he left, and Mirabeau's letters to him, 
should have been neglected by French writers. Romilly was 
introduced to Mirabeau by Sir Francis DTvemois (1757-1842), 
and readily undertook to translate into English tlie Considira- 
tioHS sur Vordre de Cindnnatus, which Mirabeau had written 
in 2785. Romilly writes thus of him in his autobiography. — 

"The count was difficult enough to please: he was sufficiently 
impressed with the beauties of the originaL He went over every 
part of the translation with me, observed on every passage in which 
lustice was not done to the thought or the force of the expression 
lost, and made many useful criticisms. During this occupation 
we had occasion to see one another often, and became very inti- 
mate; and, as he had read much, had seen a great deal of the world, 
was acouainted with all the most distinguished persons who at that 
time adorned cither the royal court or the republic of letters in 
France; had d great knowledge of French and Italian literature, and 
possessed very good taste, his conversation was extremely interest- 
mg and not a little instructive. I had such frequent opportunities 
of seeing him at this time, and afterwards at a much more important 
period of his life, that I think his character was well known to me. 
I doubt whether it has been so well known to the world, and I am 
convinced that great injustice has been done him. This, indeed, 
is not surprising, when one considers that, from the first moment 
of his entering upon the career of an author, he had been altogether 
indifferent how numerous or how powerful might be the enemies 
he should provoke. His vanity was certainlv excessive; but I 
have no doubt that, in his public conduct as well as in his writings, 
he was desirous of doing good, that his ambition was of the noblest 
kind, and that he proposed to himself the noblest ends. He was, 
however, like many of his countrymen, who were active in the 
calamitous Revolution which afterwards took place, not sufficiently 
scrupulous about the means by which those ends were to be accom- 
plished. He indeed to some degree professed this; and more than 
once I have heard him say that there were occasions upon which 
' la petite morale dtait ennemie de la grande.* It is not surprising 
that with such maxims as these in his mouth, unguarded in his 
expressions and careless of his reputation, he should have afforded 
room for the circulation of many stories to his disadvantage." 

This luminous judgment, it must be noted, was written by 
a man of acknowledged purity of life, who admired Mirabeau 
in early life not when he was a statesman, but when he was 
only a struggling literary man. The Considirations sur Vordre 



568 



MIRABEAU 



de Cindnnalus which Romilly translated was the only important 
work Mirabeau wrote in the year 1785, and it is a good specimen 
of his method. He had read a pamphlet published in America 
attacking the proposed order, which was to form a bond of asso- 
ciation between the officers who had fought in the American War 
of Independence against England; the- arguments struck him as 
true and valuable, so he re-arranged them in his own fashion, 
and rewrote them in his own oratorical style. He soon found 
such work not sufficiently remunerative to keep his petite 
horde in comfort, and then turned his thoughts to employment 
from the French foreign office, either in writing or in diplomacy. 
He first sent Mme de Nehra to Paris to make peace with the 
authorities, and then returned himself, hoping to get employment 
through an old literary coUaborateur of his, Durival, who was 
at this time director of the finances of the department of foreign 
affairs. One of the functions of this official was to subsidize 
political pamphleteers, and Mirabeau had hoped to be so 
employed, but he ruined his chances by a series of writings on 
finandal questions. On his return to Paris he had become 
acquainted with £tienne Clavidre, the Genevese exile, and a 
banker named Panchaud. From them he heard plenty of abuse 
pf stock-jobbing, and seizing their ideas he began to regard 
stock- jobbing, or agiotage, as the source of all evil, and to attack 
in his usual vehement style the Banque de St Charles and the 
Compagnie des Eaux. This last pamphlet brought him into 
a controversy with Caron de Beaumarchais, who certainly did 
not get the best of it, but it lost him any chance of Uterary 
employment from the government. However, his ability was 
too great to be neglected by a great minister such as Charles 
Gravier, Comte de Vergcnnes undoubtedly was, and after a 
preh'minary tour to Berlin at the beginning of 1786 he was des- 
patched in July 1786 on a secret mission to the court of Prussia, 
from which he returned in January 1787, and of which he.gave 
a full account in his Histoire secrite de la cour de Berlin (1789). 
The months he spent at Berlin were important in the history 
of Prussia, for while he was there Frederick the Great died. 
The letters just mentioned show clearly what Mirabeau did and 
what he saw, and equally clearly how unfit he was to be a diplo- 
matist. He certainly failed to conciliate the new king Frederick 
William; and thus ended Mirabeau's one attempt at diplo- 
macy. During his journey he had made the acquaintance of 
Jakob Mauvillon (i 743-1794), whom he found possessed of a 
great number of facts and statistics with regard to Prussia; 
these he made use of in a great work on Prussia published in 
Z788. But, though his De la tnonarchie prussienne sous Fridtric 
le Grand (London, 1788) gave him a general reputation for 
historical learning, he had in the same year lost a chance of 
political employment. He had offered himself as a candidate 
for the office of secretary to the Assembly of Notables which 
the king had just convened, and to bring his name before the 
public published another financial work, the Dinoncialion dc 
V agiotage, Which abounded in such violent diatribes that he 
not only lost his election, but was obliged to retire to Tongres; 
and he further injured his prospects by publishing the reports 
he had sent in during his secret mission at Berlin. But 1789 was 
at hand; the states-general was summoned; Mirabeau's period 
of probation was over. 

On hearing of the king's determination to summon the states- 
general, Mirabeau started for Provence, and offered to assist 
at the preliminary conference of the noblesse of his district. 
They rejected him; he appealed to the tiers Hat, and was returned 
both for Aix and for Marseilles. He elected to sit for the former 
dty, and was present at the opening of the states-general on the 
4th of May 1789. From this time the record of Mirabeau's life 
forms the best history of the first two years of the Constituent 
Assembly, for at every important crisis his voice is to be heard, 
though his advice was not always followed. He possessed at 
the same time great logical acuteness and the most passionate 
enthusiasm. From the beginning he recognized that government 
exists in order that the bulk of the population may pursue their 
daily work in peace and quiet, and that for a government to be 
successful it must be strong. At the same time he thoroughly 



comprehended that for a government to be strong it must be 
in harmony with the wishes of the majority of the people. Be 
had carefully studied the English constitution in England, and 
he hoped to establish in France a system similar in priDdpk 
but without any slavish imitation of the details of the English 
constitution. In the first stage of the history of the states- 
general Mirabeau's part was very great He was soon recognind 
as a leader, to the chagrin of Jean Joseph Mounier, becaiae 
he always knew his own mind, and was prompt in emergendo. 
To him is to be attributed the successful consolidation of the 
National Assembly. When the taking of the Bastille had 
assured the success of the Revolution, be warned the Assembly 
of the futility of passing fine-soimding decrees and urged the 
necessity for acting. He declared that the famous night 
of the 4th of Augtist was but an orgy, giving the people an im- 
mense theoretical liberty while not assisting them to practkal 
freedom, and overthrowing the old regime before a new one 
could be constituted. His failure to control the theorizers 
showed Mirabeau, after the removal of the king and the Assembly 
to Paris, that his eloquence would not enable him to guide the 
Assembly by himself, and that he must therefore try to fet 
some support. He wished to establish a strong min^, 
which should be responsible like an English ministry, but to 
an assembly chosen to represent the people of France better 
than the English House of Commons at that time represented 
England. . He first thought of becoming a minister at • 
very early date, if we may beUeve a story contained in the 
Mimoires of the duchesse d'Abrantes, to the effect that in May 
Z789 the queen tried to bribe him, but that he refused this and 
expressed his wish to be a minister. The indignation vitb 
which the queen repelled the idea may have made him think of 
the duke of Orleans as a possible constitutional king, beaose 
his title would of necessity be parh'amentary. But the weaknes 
of Orleans was too palpable, and in a famous remark Minbean 
expressed his utter contempt for him. He also attempted to 
form an alliance with Lafayette, but the general was as vain 
and as obstinate as Mirabeau himself, and had his own theories 
about a new French constitution. Mirabeau tried for i time, 
too, to act with Necker, and obtained the sanction of the Ask»- 
bly to Necker's financial scheme, not because it was good, but 
because, as he said, ** no other plan was before them, and scB^ 
thing must be done." 

Hitherto weight has been laid on the practical side of Mirabeaa's 
political genius; his ideas with regard to the Revolution after 
the 5th and 6th of October must now be examined, and this 
can be done at length, thanks to the publication of Minbean's 
correspondence with the Comte de la Marck, a study of whick 
is indispensable for any correct knowledge of the history of the 
Revolution between 1789 and 1791. Auguste Marie Rayrooad, 
prince d'Arenbcrg, known as the Comte de la Marck, w» • 
Flemish nobleman who had been proprietary colonel of a Genna 
regiment in the service of France; he was a close friend of the 
queen, and had been elected a member of the states-general 
His acquaintance with Mirabeau, begun in 1788, ripened doriag 
the following year into a friendship, which La Marck hoped 
to turn to the advantage of the court. After the events of the 5th 
and 6th of October he consulted Mirabeau as to what measnres 
the king ought to take, and Mirabeau, delighted at the oppcrtn- 
nity, drew up an admirable state paper, which was presented 
to the king by Monsieur, afterwards Louis XVIH. The wboJ* 
of this Mimoire should be read to get an adequate idea of 
Mirabeau's genius for politics; here it must be sumnuriffd. 

The main position is that the king is not free in Paris; he ■«< 
therefore leave Paris and appeal to France. " Paris n'co v«rt Q* 
Targent; les provinces demandent des lois." But where mart tke 
kine go? " §c retirer k Met* ou sur toute autre froniiire w*^ 
declarer la guerre k la nation ct abdiauer le trdne. Un roi <l*^f^ 
seule sauvegardc de son peuple ne fuit point devant *o"J*5l!!» 
il le prend pour juge de sa conduite et dc scs principes." P* "2 1 
then go towards the interior of France to a provincial capital, be* 
of all to Rouen, and there he must appeal to the people and tamooi 
a great convention. It would be ruin to appeal to the noblepe.tf 
the queen advised : " un corps de noblesse n'est point une arnn. 
qui puisse combattre." When this great oooventioa aiet the 



MIRABEAU 



569 



t show himself ready to recognize that great changes have 
a place, that feudalism and absolutism have forever disappeared, 
that a new relation between king and people has arisen, which 
t be loyally observed on both sides for the future. "II est 
lin, d'aiUeurs, qu'il faut une grande revolution pour sauver le 
ume. que la nation a des droits, qu'elle est en chemin de les 
ivrer tous, et qu'il faut non seulement les ritablir, mais les 
olider." To establish this new constitutional position between 
and people would not be difficult, because " P indivisibility du 
iiatie et du peuple est dans le coeur de tous les Francis; il 
qiTelle existe dans Taction et le pouvotr." 

Kh was Mirabeau*s programme, from which he never 
rged, but which was far too statesmanlike to be understood 
:be poor king, and far too positive regarding the altered 
lition of the monarchy to be palatable to the queen. Mira- 
I followed up his Mimoire by a scheme of a great nlinistry 
ontain all men of mark — Necker as prime minister, " to 
er him as powerless as he is incapable, and yet preserve 
x>pularity for the king," the due de Liancourt, the due de 
ochefoucauld, La Marck, Talleyrand, bishop of Aotun, at 
inances, Mirabeau without portfolio, G. J. B. Target, mayor 
*aris, Lafayette generalissimo to reform the army, Louis 
ippc, comte de Segur (foreign affairs), Mounier and L R. G. 
hapelier. This scheme got noised abroad, and was ruined 
. decree of the Assembly of the 7th of November 1789, that 
nember of the Assembly could become a minister; this 
ee destroyed any chance of that necessary harmony between 
niinistry and the majority of the representatives of the 
>n which existed in England, and so at once overthrew 
ibeau's hopes. The queen utterly refused to take Mirabeau 's 
sel, and La Marck left Paris. However, in April 1790 he 
suddenly recalled by the comte de Mercy-Argenteau, the 
nan ambassador at Paris, and the queen's most trusted 
ical adviser, and from this time to Mirabeau's death he 
me the medium of almost daily communications between 
atter and the queen. Mirabeau at first attempted again to 
e an alliance with Lafayette, but it was useless, for Lafayette 
not a strong man himself and did not appreciate " la force " 
hers. From the month of May 1790 to his death in April 
Mirabeau remained in close and suspected, but not actually 
ed, connexion with the court, and drew up many admirable 

papers for it In return the court paid his debts; but it 
t never to be said that he was bribed, for the gold of the 
: never made him swerve from his political principles — 
r, for instance, made him a royalist. He regarded himself 

minister, though an unavowed one, and believed himself 
hy of his hire. 

fore Mirabeau's influence on foreign poltcy is discussed, 
behaviour on several important points must be noticed. 
he great question of the veto he took a practical view, and 
g that the royal power was already sufficiently weakened, 
ired for the king's absolute veto and against the compro- 

of the suspensive veto. He knew from his English 
riences that such a veto would be hardly ever used unless 
cing felt the people were on his side, and that if it were 

unjustifiably the power of the purse possessed by the 
sentatives of the people would, as in England in 1688, 
; about a bloodless revolution. He saw also that much 
he inefficiency of the Assembly arose from the in- 
rience of the members and their incurable verbosity; 
to establish some system of rules, he got his friend 
tUy to draw up a detailed account of the rules and 
>ms of the English House of Commons, which he trans- 

into French, but which the Assembly, puffed up by a 
f in its own merits, refused to use. On the great subject 
»ce and war he supported the king's authority, and with 

success. Again Mirabeau almost alone of the Assembly 
that the soldier ceased to be a citizen when he became a 
Kr; he must submit to be deprived of his liberty to think 
tct, and must recognize that a soldier's first duty is obedi> 
With such sentiments, it is no wonder that he approved 
e vigorous conduct of Francois Claude Amour, marquis de 
11^, at Nancy, which was the more to his credit as Bouill£ 
he one hope of the court influences opposed to him. Lastly* 



in matters of finance he showed his wisdom: he attacked 
Necker's "caisse d'escompte," which w.is to have the whole 
control of the taxes, as absorbing the Assembly's power of the 
purse; and he heartily approved of the system of assignats, 
but with the reservation that they should not be issued to the 
extent of more than one-half the value of the lands to be sold. 

Of Mirabeau's attitude with regard to foreign affairs it is 
necessary to speak in more detail. He held it to be just that 
the French people should conduct their Revolution as they 
would, and that no foreign nation had any right to interfere with 
them while they kept thentselves strictly to their own affairs. 
But he knew also that neighbouring nations looked with unquiet 
eyes on the progress of adSairs in France, that they feared the 
influence of the Revolution on their own peoples, and Ihat 
foreign monarchs were being prayed by the French emigr6s to 
interfere on behalf of the French monarchy. To prevent this 
interference, or rather to give no pretext for it, was his guiding 
thought as to foreign poUcy. He had been elected a member of 
the comiti diplomatique of the Assembly in July 1790, and became 
its reporter at once, and in this capacity he was able to prevent 
the Assembly from doing much harm in regard to foreign 
affairs. He had long known Armand Marc, comte de Mont- 
morin, the foreign secretary, and, as matters became more 
strained from the complications with the princes and counts 
of the empire, he entered into daily communication with the 
minister, advised him on every point, and, while dictating 
his policy, defended it in the Assembly. Mirabeau's exertions 
in this respect are not his smallest title to the name of statesman; 
and how great a work he did is best proved hy the confusion 
which ensued in this department after his death. For indeed 
in the beginning of 1791 his death was very near; and he knew 
it to be so. The wild excesses of his youth and their terrible 
punishment bad weakened his strong constitution, and his 
parliamentary labours completed the work. So surely did 
he feel its approach that some time before the end he sent all 
his papers over to Sir Gilbert Elliot, who kept them under seal 
until claimed by Mirabeau's executors. In March his illness 
was evidently gaining on him, to hl« great grief, because he 
knew that he alone could yet save France from the distrust 
of her monarch and the present reforms, and from the foreign 
interference, which would assuredly bring about catastrophes 
unparalleled in the history of the world. Every care that science 
could afford was given by his friend and physician, Cabanis, to 
whose brochure on his last illness and death the reader may 
refer. The people kept the street in which he lay quiet; but 
medical care, the loving solicitude of friends, and the respect 
of all the people could not save his life. When he could speak 
no more he wrote with a feeble hand the one word " dormtr," 
and on the snd of April 1 791 he dkd. 

No man ever »a ihorou^hty uied olher rnrn's vrork, and yet 
made ii bII scf^m his own. '" te pirnds mon bleu o^ )c le trouve ** 
it u true of him u o\ Mori^rt. His 5rst Ui^iary work, except 
th« bombastic but ttoquirrtt Eaai lur h dtipoidme (NeufchAtel. 
tnO, WIS a irari.Litlon of Robert Wit son's Philip 1 1., done in 
Hoi kind with the help ol Du rival; his CfjundcTHiifins sur Fordrt de 
CiriciHitai^ (LonrJon, 17^8) wis basrad on a pamphkt by Aedanus 
Burke (1 7411 'I Sol K ol Bouih Carolina, who opposed the aristocratic 
tcndendrt of the Socicry o| the Ciircirtnati, and the notes to it 
wprt by Target H hi* finaacial wricinss u-crr ^ti^gtuted by the 
Ctncv-cse en life. Ctaviire- Dunni the Ktvoluibn he received 
yrt man help; men were proud tu tabnur for him, and 
did not murmur because he atMortKd alt the credit and 
f3,T,^ Fiif-r.ni- T\".^'--r^' . Clavi^re. Anroine AKru-n Lamourette 
^f,' ! ■' lat were hi^i a lew .-> i^r moat distin- 

guished of his collaborators. Dumont was a Genevese exile, and 
an old friend of Romilly's, who willingly prepared for him those 
famous addresses which Mirabeau used to make the Assembly pass 
by sudden bursts'of eloquent declamation; Clavi^re helped him in 
finance, and not only worked out his figures, but even wrote hb 
financial discourses; Lamourette wrote the speeches on the civil 
constitution of the clergy; Reybax not only wrote for him his famoM 
speeches on the ansignatt, the organization of the national guard, 
and others, which Mirabeau read word for word at the tribune, but 
even the posthumous speech on succession to the esUtesof intesUtes. 
which Talleyrand read in the Aaaembly as the last work of his 
dead friend. Yet neither the gold of the court nor another man s 
eonvktion would make Mirabeau say what he did not himself 
believe, or do what he did not 'himself think righu He 100k 



570 



MIRABEAU— MIRACLE 



Other mcii''E labour as hts. dur, and impmw^J th'rir fvords, of 
whicK hti had tugectiied the iin^cdying iui'S«, wiih th? ftairtjp ol 
hi^ own individuAtity; hi& folLaiba^to^ th^m^lvcs did not cDm" 
pUin^they were but too el^d to be of bclp in the grca.i work 
of controUing and forwamUf tbe French Rtvolution thmugti 
its greatcft ili biker and oraior. Ai an orafoi' hia eloquence >iaa 
t>c«n likened ta th^t of both Bos^^c^t and VcfgnuudHbut it had 
neither the folish oT the old tjth century bi^hofi nor the (lashes ot 
peniut of the young Cirondin^ It wai rather parliamentary oratory 
in whith he cjioeiled, and hla true comprenh are rather Burke and 
pQK than any French 9i^at"?r>. P^^'rHnaUy he had that which is 
the Lruest irtArk of nobjllty ol mind, ^ powwr of attracting Love 
And winning; r^Lithfut [rlcnd^ (H- M- 5.) 

AuTHORtTJES. — The bc»t edition of Mimbrail's worki is thit 
published by Blanchard in i^n^i^ii^ in ten volum?s» of which 
the hr^t two contain his CEuvrei oraiotrex; rroin thU coltection^ 
however, many of hli \cas important worki and the Dt ia momitiihu 
prttSTitHfu are omitted. For details ai \m life con<tilt Pcuchct, 
Mirabtau: M^oires lur sa vie liltitftin rl pniie {[Sj4)- and the 
Mim^itt:! hwgrapfiiqiaiiJiiMrtiires ft politiquti <k MiftibmUt icriia 
fHif ii^i-mhHi^ par san pirf^ atn oscU et stm jfJj adftpfify *hlch was 
issued by his adopted son^ Luc^i do Montipny (8 vals.^ Paris, 
i834-iSj5). See also Eilcnne Dumcmt, Sajttcfttrs inf Afifair^u 
(1832), a work which has been translated into English by Lady 
E. R. Seymour as The Great frenchman and the LiuU Cenevese 
(1004); Louise Colct, La Jeunessc de Mirabeau (1841): and Alfred 
Bcgis, Mirabeau, son interdiction judiciaire (1895). 'I'be publica- 
tion of the Carres pondance entre Mirabeau et te comte de la March, 
by A. de Bacourt (2 vols., 18^1) marks an epoch in our exact 
knowledge of Mirabeau and his career; some additional letters 
appeared in the German edition (3 vols., Leipzig, 1851-1852). 
Otncr published correspondence is Lettres de Mirabeau d Chamfort 
(1706); Lettres du conite de Mirabeau d Jacques MauviJton (Bruns- 
wick, 1792); Lettres originates de Mirabeau, icriles du donjon de 
Vincennes, 1777-1780, published by L. P. Manuel (4 vols, 1702): 
and, on the same subject, Paul Cottm, Sophie de Monntfr et Mirabeau 
d'apris teur correspondance inidile (1903); Lettres d Julie, edited by 
D Mcunier and G. Selois (Paris. 1903) ; Lettres inidites (1806), edited 
by \. F. Vitry. The Histoire secrite forms the basis of H. Welschin- 
ger s La Mission secrite de Mirabeau d Berlin (Paris, 1900). The 
most useful modem books are Louis and Charles de Lom6nie, 
Les Mirabeau (S vols.. 1878 and 1889): Alfred Stem. Das Leben 
Mirabeaus (1889). See also E. Rousse, Mirabeau (1891) in the 
Grands Ecrivains Francis scries: P. Plan, Un Collaborateur de Mira- 
beau (Paris, 1874), treating of Rcybaz and throwing infinite light on 
Mirabeau's mode of work; and H. Reynald. Mirabeau et la conslttu- 
ante ((873). On his eloquence and the share his collaborators had 
in his speeches see F. A. Aulard, Orateurs de I'assembUe comtituante 
(1882). For his death see the curious brochure of his physician, 
Cabanis, Journal de la maladie et de la mart de Mirabeau (Paris, 
1 791, ed. H. Duchenne, Paris, 1890). There is a good sketch sum- 
marizing modern opinion by E. Charavay in La Grande Encyclopidte. 
English works include P. F. Willert, Mirabeau (1898) in the " Foreign 
Statesman " series; C. F. Warwick, Mirabeau and the French 
Revolution (1905); W. R. H. Trowbridge, Afiro^au. the demt-god 
(1907); H. E. von Hoist, The French Revolution Tested by Mirabeau' s 
Career (Chicago, 1894): and F. Fling. Mirabeau and the French 
Revolution (London and New York, 190)3). Other works are Victor 
Hugo, i^ude sur Mirabeau (18^): Jules Barni, Mirabeau (1882); 
Albert Sorcl. '* Mirabeau " in Essais d'histoire et de critique (1883); 
G. Leloir, Mirabeau d Pontarlier (1886); Ferdinand Schwartz, 
Mirabeau und Marie Antoinette (Basel, 1891); and Alfred Mdzi6res, 
Vie de Mirabeau (1892). 

MIRABEAU. VICTOR RIQUETI, Marquis de (1715-1789). 
French author and political economist, father of the great 
Mirabeau, was bom at Pertub, near the old ch&leau dc Mirabeau, 
on the 4th of October 1715. He was brought up very sternly 
by his father, and in 1728 joined the army. He took keenly 
to campaigning, but never rose above the rank of captain, 
owing to his being unable to get leave at court to buy a regiment. 
In 1737 he came into the family properly on his father's death, 
and spent some pleasant years till 1743 in literary companionship 
with due Clapicrs, marquis dc Vauvenargucs and the poet Lefranc 
dc Pompignan, which might have continued had he not deter- 
mined to marry — not for money, but for landed estates. The 
lady whose property he fancied was Marie Genevieve, daughter of 
a M. de Vassan, a brigadier in the army, and widow of the marquis 
de Saulvcboef, whom he married without previously seeing 
her on the 21st of April 1743. While in garrison at Bordeaux 
Mirabeau had made the acquaintance of Montesquieu, and after 
retiring from the army he wrote his first work, his Testamettl 
Politique {1747), vfhich demanded for the prosperity of France 
a return of the French noblesse to their old position in the middle 
ages. This work was followed in 1750 by a book on the UiiliU 



des Mats provenciaux, which was attributed to Monteaqaieu 
himselL In 1756 Mirabeau made his first appearance ts i 
political economist by the publication of his Ami des koma 
cu traits de la population. This work has been often attributed 
to the influence, and in part even to the pen, of Quesoay, the 
founder of the economioil school of the physiocrats, but was 
really written before the marquis had made the acquainuoce 
of the physician of Madame dc Pompadour. In 1 760 he publisbed 
his Tkiorie de Vimpdl, in which he attacked with all ihe 
vehemence of his son the farmers-general of the taxes, who got 
him imprisoned for eight days at Vincennes, and then exiled to 
his country estate at Bignon. At Bignon the school of the 
physiocrats was really esUblished, and the marquis in 1765 
bought the Journal de V agriculture, du commerce, et des jinanui, 
which became the organ of the school. He was recognized 
as a leader of political thinkers by Prince Leopold of Tuscany, 
afterwards emperor, and by Gustavus III. of Sweden, who 
in 1772 sent him the grand cross of the order of Vass. But 
his marriage had not been happy; he had separated from his 
wife in 1762, and had, he believed, secured her safely in the 
provinces by a lettre dc cachet, when in 1772 she suddenly 
appeared in Paris, and commenced proceedings for a sepanti(». 
One of his own daughters had encouraged his wife to take this 
step. He was determined to keep the case quiet, if possible, for 
the sake of Mme de Pailly, a Swiss lady whom he had loved 
since 1756. But his wife would not let him rest; her plea wai 
rejected in 1777, but she renewed her suit, and, though the great 
Mirabeau had pleaded his father's case, was successful in 1781. 
This trial quite broke the health of the marquis, as well as hi! 
fortune i he sold his esute at Bignon, and hired a bouse at 
Argenteuil, where he lived quietly till his death on the nth 
of July 1789. 

The marquis's younger brother, Jean Antoine RiQuni, 
" the bailli " (d. 1794), served with distinction in the navy, 
but his brusque manners made success at court impossible. 
In 1763 he became general of the galleys of Malta. In 1767 
he returned to France and took charge of the ch&teau de 
Mirabeau, helping the marquis in his disastrous lawsuits. 

See Louis de Lom^nie's Les Mirabeau (2 vols.. 1879). Abo 
Henri Ripert, Le Marquis de Mirabeau, set thiories pUitigiM d 
Sconomtques. [thise pour le doctoral] Paris (1901): Oncketi. Dtt 
dltere Mirabeau und die pekonomtsche Gesellschaft tn Bern (Bent, 
1886) , De Lavergne, Les Economistes franqais du 18^ stick, 

MIRACLE (Lat. miraculum, from mirari, to wonder), anything 
wonderful, beyond human power, and deviating from the 
common action of the laws of nature, a supernatural event 
The term is particularly associated with the supernatural factors 
in Christianity. To the Lat. miraculum correspond Or. ripai 
in the New Testament, and Heb. n^ (Exod. zv. 11; 
Dan xii. 6) in the Old Testament Other terms used in the 
New Testament are hi/vofui " with reference to the pow« 
residing in the miracle worker " (cf. nrtai Deut. iii. 24 tsA. 
nuna Num. xvi. 30), and arna'iov " with reference to the 
character or claims of which it was the witness and guar- 
antee " (cf ni'it Exod. iv. 8) ; that the power is assumed w 
be from God is shown by the phrases vptOiiari 0coO(Matt. »>• 
28; cf. Luke iv. 18) and baKT v\t^ 6toiu (Luke xi. 20). 

While Augustine describes miracles as " contra naturaro quae 
nobis est nota." Aquinas without qualification defines them is 
" praeier naturam," " supra et contra naturam." Ldscher aftnw 
in regard to miracles that '' solus Deus potest turn supra naturae 
vires turn contra naturae leges agere ": and Buddaeus argu«s iha< 
in them a " suspensio legum naturae " is followed by a resttli^ 
Against the common view that miracles can attest the truth of 
a divine revelation Gerhard maintained that " per miracuta no" 
possunt probari oracula": and Hopfner returns to the qualified 
position of Augustine when he descnbes them as " praeoer et tup's 
naturae ordinem." The two conceptions, once common in theChns- 
tian church, that on the one hand miracles involved an inteffermce 
with the forces and a suspension of the laws of nature, and thau 
on the other hand, as this could be eflected only by divine po«tr. 
they served as credentials of a divine revelation, are now genf*'']' 
abandoned As regards the first point, it is now generally held , 
that miracles are exceptions to the order of nature as knovn ii 
our common experience; and as regards the second, that miracksare 
constituent elements in the divine revelation, deeds whkh ^ofkf 



MIRACLE 



571 



|)iF divine ctiaractrr and purpoit; but th^y Att tigns and fldt TfHTclrly 

tmli of tfuLh. Sornp of Ehe theorici jeg-irdin); mfr^^clE'i which 

luv« bfCfi fonnutatnJ mjy be mentioned. Bonnpt,. Euirr, H^llprp 
Schmid and othcra " tuppo^c inirack*^ to be already implanted in 
DAturCt The iniiRCulnit$ Ecrrns Jilwjyi exiat ^kjuKi^idE otKer (^trms 
m a *>rt of iheatKn, llkt nidden iprinjjs in a macklnc, and emet);(r 
into the light Mrhen thtir timt? consc^" Sirnilor i* the viifw ol 

P^racvUus and jcn>mt CartJnn, who- '* suppisip a twofold world, 
niuiing ow in tiie other; Usiiic or behind the vi*ibk is ^n innern, 
ideal wortd, which bfria,ltt thmudh in partii'utsr spotft " {Dorner'* 
Sjsitm i>f CkrtxtiQH Doiiftn^. %u ISS. IS^J- TliP Sth duke of 
Ar^ll (Arrjff 0/ Ijjv) m;jir(iain& th.it " mir^clot tnay he wrought 
by ttic Htcction and use of law» of which man ktia»» And cati 
ltrH>w nothing, and whch. if he did know, he coytd not ert^pby.'' 
Tbeac thconcB f?ndcav<»jr to discovier the mean* by which Ihe 
oceptlon^l Dccurrtncre i& bmught ^boiit; but the cuplais^tion is 
merely hypothetical, and wp are not helped in conce^'vin^^the nrode 
of the divine artiviiy in ihe wcrrkinj; ol miratrles. The innpori^rit 
inuidefaiian fjncjm ihe rel^u>ii£ etandpoLnt i& that Cod'^ activity 
dkHibd be fully rccoeniied- 

An attempt ha* |>ccn m*ide to discover a natural law which wtll 
eipliin «ine at tea it of the miracles of Jpmjs- " In one mpect 
ilone^'* uyi MaUhew Arnold* ** Kave the mi racks recorded by the 
nKogelut^ a more real cnjund than the ma» of miracles of wSirh 
we have Che relitiorir Medial I science hiii never gau^, pi^rhaps 
Brver enough jet itself to jai>ge the intiniale connrjuon bciwcrn 
Biora.1 laoU and disease* To what rttenf or in how mariy casra 
vlut is caHed iUne* is f\\ie to moral *pnng* having been u^ amis!^. 
vbether by bcJ^K ovict-uicd. or by not being used iofficienily, we 
htitlly at all know, and wc too little inquire. Certainly il is due 
Ic thi9 very much more than we communly thinks and the more ir 
H due to thie the more do moral iherajxyliir* riie in jpoMibtJiiy 
and ittiFwrtance " iLilifeivfr and D^i^na, pp. tJij-t^^). The moral 
tlvera[Jeuc»c* consists in the influence tjf a powerfyl wilJ over other*, 
Harnua<Lk accept* ihi* view^ " We ite that a firm will and a con- 
vinced fjiih act even on ttie bodily hfe and cause appearancei 
fchich appc^t to UB as mirattef. Who has hitherto here with cer- 
tai/iiy measured the realm of ihc poMible and ihe rcA'if Nobody 
l/i%o can &ay how far the infftiencei of one soul on another tpvl 
ind of the solT on the body reach? Kobody. Who can still 
\ff%rm that all which tn this realm appean at Etriking nrils only on 
leception and error? Certainly no rniraclrt occur, but there i* 
nouffb of the woniierTuI and the inexpWcabk '" {Dci Wii^n des 
Tiltru^iviKfHir p i^) Ai regards the theory, it may be pointed out ^ 
1) tbat thr n&fntf or cohmit^ miracles — Ictding of the five thou- 
and, siiUing of the storm, wiihering t>f the fig. tree— are as well- 
tte^red as the mifacles of heahogj {3) that many of the diseases, 
he cure of which is reported. 9 re of a kind with whkh mitrai thz-ra- 
<rntijrs oauld not edcti anvthinsf: *■ (3,) that Chriit's own ina'K^i 
e^ rti I ng I he po^wer by w h ich He Wfotj gh t His wor ks i » d J rec 1 1/ 
hantnged by this explanation, for He iwvcr failed to aflcribc Hii 
lower to the FaiKrr dweil'ing in Mim, 

The divine agency (* nxogniicd as combining and eon trolling, 
»ut JiOt a* proaucmg. in the Leleological notion of miracle*. '* Tn 
ftiroMiW no new powers, in&tjruted or stimulated by Cod's creative 
ction, art at work* but merely the gerwral ordct of tiatufe"; but 
' tbe maiiifold physical and tpi ritual powers in actual existence so 
dcTui tocetJier a» to produce a ftiariling result *' (Domcr's Syyifm 
f Chriittnn Docitint^ ii. 157 J. While we cannot di-oy, we have 
M> ground foT afiirming the tnjih of this theory. Whether Cod's 
ctton is cnraiive, or only selfctivc and directive in miracles, 
I bcjofid our knowledges wc at Icatt do not know the powers 
xeecieed't whether new or uld* 

An attempt ia made to get rid of the diitinctive nature of miracle 
rhen the ejccepiionalneM ol the events w regarded li reduced to 
, N^w mbjfrfiw mode of regarding natural phenomena. H- E- G. 
*au^u9 ditmiifle* the miracles as " exasgeraiion^ or miiaptwif- 
iens.U>n3 of quife ordinary eventi." A. Ritarhl has been unjustly 
hafTjcif with (hii treatment of miracles. Bjt what he emphasiiaes 
t cm the one hand *he ck^e connexif^n between the coort-plioo crf 
nirac^es and the belief in divine pfovidcnce* and on the other ihe 
nmipatibtltty between miracks and ihe order o* nature. He de- 
iines to regard miractes as divine action cotitrary to ihe laws of 
uture. So for Sch Icier mac her "miracle h neither explicable from 
larur? a (one. nor entirely atien to it," What both flit^hl and 
khleiermachet insist on is that the fjelirf in miracles i^ inseparable 
Ir&m the belief in God, and in God as immanent In nature, not only 
iirecting and controlling iEs etistent forces, but alto as initialing 
new stages conn^ient ^i^fh <he old in its progrPHive dcvr}rjr'"P"^» 

We may accept Dor net "t definition as aderiuaie and sattsfactory* 
•■ Miracles are lensuously cogmiabTe events, not comprehensible on 
the ground ol the caukality of nature as such, but cMcntially on 
the ground of God's free action alone. Stich facts find their possi* 
bility in the const itutkin of nature and God's living relation to iij 
their necMsity in the aim of revelation, which they subserve '* 

a J. 161). By the fTf*f claune. inward moral and frliKiif^Us changes 
ue to the operation, of the Spirit ol God in man arc evJuded, and 



' See alBO R. J. Rvle. " The Neurotic Thswy crf the Micacf» of 
UcaUng," mbteri Jtmrmd, v. 586. 



rightly 90 (see iNSPiitATiON). The negative aspect is presented in 
the second clause. This is prominent in J. S. Mill's definition of 
miracles: " to constitute a miracle, a phenomenon must take place 
without bavin|^ been preceded by any antecedent phenomenal 
conditions suflncient again to reproduce it. . . . The test of a 
miracle is, were there present in the case such external conditions, 
such second causes we may call them, that wherever these conditions 
or causes reappear the event will be reproduced. If there were, it 
is not a miracle; if there were not, it is*' {Essays, p. 224). The 
positive aspect is presented in the third clause. When the existence 
of God is denied (atheism), or His nature is declared unknowable 
(agnosticism), or He is identified with nature itself (pantheism^, 
or He is so distinguished from the world that His free action is 
excluded from the course of nature (deism), miracle is necessarily 
denied. Thus Spinoza, identifying God and nature, decbres 
" nothing happens in nature which is in contradiction with ks 
universal laws. The deists, compelled b>r their view of the relation 
of God to nature to regard miracles as interventions, disposed of 
the miracles of the Bible cither as " mistaken allegorjr " or even 
as conscious fraud on the part of the narrators. It is only the 
theistic view of Ciod as personal power— that is as free-will ever 
pre'scnt anri ever active in the work/, which leaves room for miracle*. 

The p^jiibiltly of miracles 13 often confidently denied. " We 
jire of the unalterable conviction.'* stys Hamack, " that what 
happens in time and ^pace is subject to the universal laws of move- 
ment; that accordingly there cannot be any miracles in this sense, 
(,^. as inlerrupriona of the continuity of nature " (Das Wesen des 
Ckriftfitiiims, p. 17). Kuxlry exprnseir himself much more cau- 
tiouiilv. Ah lie rcvogniips that we do not know the continuity of nature 
so thoroughly as to be able to dcelarr that thb or that event is 
nccewarily an interruption of it. " Tf a dead man did come to 
life, the fact would be evidence^ not that any law of nature had been 
violatixl, but that theie laws, even when they express the results 
of a very long and uniform experience, are necessarily based on 
incomplete knowledge, and are to be hrld only on grounds of more 
or less J uitifi able expectation " (Hinnf, p. 135). 

Lotze has shown how the possibility of miracle can be conceived. 

" The whole course of nature becomes intelligible only by sup- 
posing the co-working of God, who alone carries forward the reci- 
procaT action of the different parts of the workl. But that view 
which admits a life of Ckxl that is not benumbed in an unchangeable 
sameness will be able to understand his eternal co-working as a 
variable quantity, the transforming influence of which comes forth 
at particular moments and attests that the course of nature is not 
shut up within itself. And this being the case, the complete con- 
ditioning causes of the miracle will be found in God and nature 
tcwether. and in that eternal action and reaction between them 
which perhaps, although not ordered simply according to general 
laws, is not void of regulative principles. This vital, as opposed 
to a mechanical, constitution of nature, together with the con- 
ceptions of nature as not complete in itself — as if it were dissevered 
from the divine energy — shows how a miracle may take place 
without any disturbance elsewhere of the constancy of nature, all 
whose forces are afTected sympathetically, with the consequence 
that its cffderly movement goes on unhindered " {Mikrokosmos, 

The mode of the divine working in nature is in another passage 
more clearly defined. 

" The closed and hard circle of mechanical necessity is not 
immediately accessible to the miracle-working hat, nor does it need 
to be; but the inner nature of that which obeys its laws is not 
determined by it but by the meaning of the world. This is the 
open place on which a power that commands in the name of this 
meaning can exert its influence; and if under this command the 
inner condition of the elements, the magnitudes of their relation 
and their opposition to each other, become altered, the necessity 
of the mechanical cause of the world must unfold this new state 
into a miraculous appearance, not through suspension but through 
strict maintenance of its general laws " {op. cit. ii. ^). 

If we conceive God as personal, and His will as related to the 
course of nature analogously to the relation of the human will to 
the human body, then the laws of nature may be regarded as 
habits of the divine activity, and miracles as unusual acts which, 
while consistent with the divine character, mark a new stage in Hhe 
fulfilment of the purpose of God. 

The doctrine of Evolution, instead of increasing the difficulty of 
conceiving the possibility of miracle, decreases it; for it presents 
to us the universe as an uncompleted proce^, and one in which 
there is no absolute continuity on the phenomenal side; for life and 
mind are inexplicable by their physical antecedents, and there is 
not only room for, but need of, the divine initiative, a creative as 
well as conservative co-operation of Ckxl with nature. Such an 
absolute continuity is sometimes assumed without warrant: but 
Descartes already recognized that the world was no continuous 
process, "Tria mirabiUa fecit Dominus; res ex nihilo, liberum 
arbitrium et hominem Deum." That life cannot be explained by 
force is recognized by Sir Oliver Lodge. " Life may be something 
not only ultra-terrestrial, but even immaterial, something outside our 
present categories of matter and eneigy; as real as tbey are, but 



572 



MIRA DE AMESCUA, A. 



different, and utilizing them for its own purpose " (Life and Matter, 
p. 198) The theory of psyckopkysical paraUelism recognizes that 
while there is a correspondence between mental and material 
phenomena, changes in the mind and changes in the brain, the 
former cannot be explained by the latter, as the transition from the 
one to the other is unthinkable. William James distinguishes the 
transmissive function of the brain from the productive m relation 
to thought, and admits only the former, and not the latter {Human 
Immortality, p. ^2). Thus as life is transcendent and yet immanent 
in body, and mmd in brain, and both utilize their organs, so God, 
transcendent and immanent, uses the course of nature for His own 
ends; and the emergence both of life and mind in that course of 
nature evidences such a divine initiative as is assumed in the 
recognition of the possibility of miracles. For such an initiative 
there must be adequate reason , it must be prepared for in the previous 
procxiiSi, arid i I mu^t be necessary lu further progress. 

The proof oi the pauLbility of miracle le^ds us inevitably to the 
inquiry r^^irding tht ntcesnty o\ miracle- Thv necessity of miracles 
ii dbplaycd in that carmcKJon with the divme revelation; but this 
canncxion may be conceived in two wjya. The miracles may be 
ftg^ided a.5. \ht crfjUniitUi of ihr agents of divine revelation. " It 
is an aeknoti'IcdftFd hiatorical tact," sdy^ Duller. " that Christianity 
oAer^ it:9cU to ihe world, and demanded to be received, upon the 
aik^tion — i.e^ oi unbelievers would tpcak — 'Upon the pretence oi 
miraclei, publicly wrought to attest tbc truth of it, in such an age; 
and that it wa sccualTy reccrivrd by fircat numbers in that very 
AEe. and upon the prole^ud belief ol the reality of miracles ' 

iAnaicgy, part ti, ch.. vii.). This view n now generally abandoned , 
or it it rvto^nlttfd thsL acts of superhuman powtT, even if established 
by adcquaic historical evidence, do noi necr,-tsarily certify their 
divine origin. Their moral quality must correspond with the 
character d( God* and they mu^i be conni.-cted with teaching 
which to reason and conscience approvei itwtl divine. " Miracula 
tine doctrina nihil v^ent " ii the principk nr>w generally recog- 
nized. The miracle and the doctrinie muii].illy illuminate one 
another. " Les rtsiracle* diicernent la dottrine, et la doctrine 
diicerne lea miraric* " (Paical'i Peruiei dit mirticUs). Accordingly, 
the iredenliaii must also be comliiwinn of the revelation. Of the 
Tniraclc* of Ji^su*, Bu-,Snell sayt, " The tharsitcrof Jesus is ever 
shining with and through them^ in clear self -evidence leaving them 
fiei^er to s-Land as raw wonders only of miighl,, but covering them 
with glory as [Dk«ni of a heavenly love, and acts that omy suit 
the proportions of His personal erratnesi and majesty " {Nature 
and the SttfxrtuitKrfji, p. 3^4). i I it be ukrd why the character 
may not be di^pbyed in ordinary acts instead of miracles, the 
iniwer may be given, "Miracle is tnecertifitatc of identity between 
the Loid of Nature and the Lord of Conscience — the proof that 
He is really a moral being who subordinates physical to moral 
inicresis" (Liddcn's EJemrni^ of Edition, p. 73). As God is the 
Savknifi and the chief end of the fevclation is redemption, it is 
fitting that the miracle* should be acts of divine deliverance from 
|>hysKa1 evil. This congnjity of the miracle with divine truth and 
grace ^s the answer to Maithew Arnold's launt about turning a 

Km into a pen-wiper 01 Hujiley's abmjt a centaur trotting down 
egeni SiTrtt- The mirdcte* uf jesus— the relief of need, the 
removal of suffering, the recovery of health and strength— reveal in 
outward events the essential features of His divine mission. The 
divine wisdom and goodness are revealed in the course of nature, 
but also obscured by it. The existence of physical evil, and still 
more of moral evil, forbids the assumption without qualification 
that the real is the laiional. God in nature as well as history is 
fulfilling a redemptive as well as perfective purpose, of which these 
miracles are .-topropriate signs. It is an unwarranted idealism and 
optimism which finds the course of nature so wise and so good that 
any change in it must be re^rdcd as incredible. On the problem 
Df evil and sin it is impossible here to enter; but this must be 
insisted on. that the miracles of Jesus at least express divine 
benevolence just under those conditions in which the course of 
nature obscures it. and are therefore, proper elements in a revelation 
jf grace, of which nature cannot ^ive any evidence. 

Having discussed the possibility and necessity of miracles for 
the divine revelation, we must now consider whether thci^ is 
sufficient historical evidence for their occurrence. Hume maintains 
that no evidence, such as is available, can make a miracle credible. 
Mill states the position with due care. " The question can be 
stated fairly is depending on a balance of evidence, a certain 
amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles, and a negative 
presumption from the general course of human experience against 
them " (Essays on Religion, p. 221). The existence of " a certain 
amount of positive evidence in favour of miracles " forbids the 
sweeping statement that miracles are "contrary to experience.* 
The phrase itself is. as Palcy has pointed out, ambiguous. If it 
means all experience it assumes the point to be proved; if it means 
only common experience then it simply asserts that the miracle is 
unusual— a truism. The pr<^>ability of miracles depends on the 
conception we have of the free relation of God to nature, and of 
nature as the adequate organ for the fulfilment of God's purposes. 
If we believe in a divine revelation and redemption, transcending 
the course of nature, the miracles as signs of that divine purpose 
wiU not teem improbable. 



For the Christian Church the nuraclet of Jesot are of primuy 
importance; and the evidence— -external and internal— in ther 
favour may be said to be sufficient to justify bdidf. The Gospeh 
assumed their present form between a.d. 60 and 90. Their repr^ 
senution of the moral character, the religious conaciousnesa. the 
teaching of Jesus, inspires confidence. The narratives of mirades 
are woven into the very texture of this representation. In thoe 
acts Jesus reveals Himself as Saviour. "The Jesus Christ pre- 
sented to us in the New Testament would become a very differeot 
person if the miracles were removed " (Temple's Relations tetatn 
Rdtpon and Science). In His sinless perfection and filial relation 
to God He IS unique, and His works are congruous with Hu Person. 
Of the supreme miracle of His resurrection there is earlier evidence 
than ol any of the others (1 Cor. xv. 3-7. before a.d. 58). His con* 
quest of death is most frequently appealed to in the apostolic 
teaching The Chtifttim Chyrch would ntvci have comc irio 
ciiittnce without faith in the Risen Lord- The proof of [he 
»upernatijralneu of Hi* PefVJO MU th^ *eal to the credibility of H» 
suf»ern.ilMral «orks>. In Christ, however, was the fultilment d 
Eaw and jwophecy^ ThU dote connexion invnts the anteceftcst 
rvveUtL[:>n in some dc)^(ve with the luiX'rnnturalncss ol His PetMiA. 
at least, we are pfepand toentcrUJn without preludio^ any evident! 
I hat may be pnscnted m the Old Teitamrnt. That this rvidcitcc 
is not as good as that for the miracles uf J»us must be conccddl 
as much ol it is of much blcr date than the events miordcd. Hk 
miracles connected with the begiFininE* of the national history— tk 
period of the Exodus— a pf^ar on cW^r in«pcction to hav-c beta 
ordirtarily natural phenomena^ to which a supernal ural charvta 
was liiven by iheir conneuon with the prophetic vonJ oT M«eh 
The mirack^s recorded of Elijah and £1i^ha Ue somewhat apirt 
trom the main cnrrcni& of the his! dry. the narralivtTi themsfl'ivl 
are distinct from the htJitOfkal work« in whkh ihey have been m- 
corporaied, and ihc characto- of some of the actions raiKK vrioiM 
doubts and diffictikies- . in vimt CAxi suspcn'Fe of |udgntnt 
^t:mE nccr«sary even from ^he sljtndpoini of Christian fasth. The 
supernatural ckmcnt' that is prominent in ihv 014 Tcctament ii 
God's providendal ^uifjancf and guardlanihip of Ki^ pctiplc. and 
His teaching and t naming of ihtm oy His prophets. The Apvulk 
miracks, to which ihe New Testament bcjtn» evi<Jence» wcfie wrot^t 
in the power of Christ h ind wtfc evidence* to H_is church and to 
the world of His continued presence. When the Church had evtab' 
liihcd itself in the world, and possessed in its moral and ftli^icuA 
Iruiis evidence of iU cUims. these outward signs appear gradually 
to have ceawd, ak hough attempts were made to perpetuate tKeta. 
It is true that in Roman Catholicism, in medieval as in tnodTD 
limes, the working ol miracles ftas been ascribed 10 its uinti: btJt 
the character <A mo¥t of iht^ miracles is such as to lark the i 
priivi probabiiity which has been claimed for the Script unr mirocla 
on account of their conncKion and congruitv with the divine n:>tlj* 
tion. The a postcrifrji rvidrnte as regards both k* moral lod 
rcliE^Ioui quality and its date is altogetfier inferior to the evidrnre 
of the GospeU. Further^ these records are imitative. Ai Christ 
and the apo&ites worked m^raclesK it is assumed that those who ii 
the ChMrv:h were di£tingui«hcd for their sanctity woqld also «ork 
miracles; and there can be little doubt that the wi^ wa» ditu 
f^thof to the thought. There may be cases which eannot be es- 
plained in this way* but " whatever may be thought aUHrT thn^ 
It is pbin that even if these and their kite are really 10 he uaLefl 
to the intervention of the divine mercy which loves to reward a 
simple faith (and it does not seem to us that the evidence is sufficient 
to establish such a conclusion), yet they do not serve as vehicles of 
revelation as the miracles of the Gospel did " (H. J. Brrnard is 
Hastings's Bible Dictionary, iii. 3^5). (A E G.*) 

HIRA DB AMESCUA. ANTONIO (1578 ^ 1636 ?). Spanish 
dramatist, was born at Guadix (Granada) about 1578. He 
is said, but doubtfully, to have been the illegitimate son of one 
Juana Perez; he look orders, obtained a canoory at Guadix. and 
settled at Madrid early in the 17th century. He is inentionrtj 
as a prominent dramatist in Rojas ViUandrando's tjfa (1603), 
which was written several years before it was published. In 
1610, being then arch-dean of Guadix, he accompanied the count 
de Lemos to Naples, and on his return to Spain was appointed 
(1619) chaplain to the cardinal Infante Ferdinand of Austria; 
he is referred to as still alive in Monialbin's Para todos (1652). 
and he collaborated with Montalbin and Calder6n in Polijemt 
y Circe, printed in 1634. The date of his death is not known 
Mira de Amescua's plays are dispersed in vaxiotis printed 
collections, and the absence of a satisfactory edition has pr^ 
vented his due recognition. He has an evenness of executioB 
which indicates an artistic conscience uncommon in Spanisb 
playwrights; he resisted the temptation to write too muc^ 
and he unites a virile dignity of expression to impresive 
conception of character. 

Two of his plays—La Adoersa fortune d$ Don Btnuds dg Ciifc** 



MIRAGE— MIRANDA 



573 



and El ^emfio nutyor de la iesdicha — are respectively the sources 
of Rotrou's Don Bernardo de la Cabrhe ana Beiisaire; Moreto's 
Caer para Uvanlar is simply a recast of Mini's El Esckno del demonio, 
a celebrated drama which clearly influenced Calder6n when com- 
posing La DeaociSn de la cruz\ and there is manifestly a close 
relation between Mini's La Rueda de lafortuna on the one hand 
aiMl Comeille's Hiraclius and Calder6n's En esla vida iodo es verdad 
y todo es mentira, A few of Mira de Amescua's plays are reprinted 
m the BMioUca de autores espailoles, vol. xlv. 

MIRAGE (a French word, from mireTf to look at, se mirer, 
to be reflected), an optical illusion due to variations in the 
refractive index of the atmosphere. It embraces the phenomena 
of the visionary appearance of lakes in arid deserts, the images 
of ships and icebergs, frequently seen as if inverted and suspended 
in the atmosphere in the Polar Regions, the Fata Morgana, 
and " k)oming " as witnessed in mists or fogs, f 

In the article Refraction it is shown that a ray of light 
traversing a homogeneous medium is deviated from its rectilinear 
path when it enters a medium of different refractive index; 
it is therefore readily seen that the path of a ray through con- 
tinuously varying media is necessarily curvilinear, being com- 
pounded of an infinite number of infinitesimally small rectilinear 
deviations. Our atmosphere is a medium of continuously vary- 
ing refractive index. Meteorological optical phenomena, due to 
variations in the refractive index of the atmosphere, may be 
divided into groups: (i) those due to the permanent or normal 
variation experienced as one ascends in the atmosphere, and 
(a) those due to sporadic variations occasioned by irregular 
heating. The first variation must be taken into account in 
correcting geodetic observations of heights and astronomical 
observations of the heavenly bodies; it also has a considerable 
bearing on the phenomena of the twilight and the afterglow 
(see Rkfraction: $ Astronomical; and Twiucht). The second 
(or temperature) variation gives rise to phenomena which we 
proceed todisctiss. 

A common type of mirage is the appearance of an isolated 
lake frequently seen in hot sandy deserts, as in the Sahara, 
Turkestan, &c The explanation is as follows: The sand, 
being abnormally heated by the solar rays, causes the neighbour- 
ing air to expand, consequently its density, and therefore its 
refractive index, is diminished, and attains a minimum value 
in the lowest layers. It increases as we ascend and reaches 
a maximum at a certain height, and then decreases according 
to the normal variation. Any object viewed across such an 
area is seen by two sets of rays: one set passing near the earth 
and assuming a curved path convex to the horizon, the second 
set more remote from the earth and. concave to the horizon. 
The object thus appears double, an image being seen mirrored in 
the sand. The sky appears as a shining lake; mountains or 
palms may be similarly reflected, but it is to be noted that the 
images are inverted (see fig.). 
Similar atmospheric conditions 
sometimes prevail in the air 
over large bodies of water on 
cold autumn mornings. These 
phenomena have been experimentally realized by R. W. Wood 
{FhU. Mag., 1899, vol. xlvii.), who viewed objects over a aeries 
of heated slate slabs. 

Another type of mirage, frequently observed at sea in the 
northern latitudes, is presented in the appearance of ships 
and icebergs as if inverted and suspended in the clouds. This 
is due to a stratum of hot air at some distance above the sea 
level, the rays of light near .the horizon being practically hori- 
nmtal, while those at greater elevations are fairly concave. 
It may happen that the change in density is so great that only 
the upper rays reach the eye; we are then met with the curious 
illusion of seeing inverted ships in the clouds, although nothing 
b visible on the ocean. 

The Fata Morgana, frequently seen in the Straits of Messina, 
consists of an apparent vertical elongation of an object situated 
<m the opposite shore. The distribution of density b similar to 
that attending a desert mirage, but the transition is not so 
abrupt. The object is really viewed through a horizontally 



stratified medium consisting of a central sheet of maximum 
refractive index, over- and under-laid by sheets of decreasing 
refractive power. The system consequently acts as a continuous 
lens, magnifying the object in a vertical direction. 

If, in addition to this horizontal stratification, the atmosphere 
varies similariy in vertical planes, then the object would be 
magnified both horizontally and vertically. These conditions 
sometimes prevail in misty or foggy weather, more particuUrly 
at sea, and thus give rise to the phenomena known as " looming." 
A famous example is the Brockengespenst or " spectre of the 
Brocken." The chromatic halos which frequently encircle 
these images are due to diffraction. (See Corona.) 

It is interesting to note that lenses formed on non-homogeneous 
material, having the maximum refractive index along the central 
axis, have been prepared, and reproduce the effects caused by 
abnormal distribution of the density of the atmosphere. 

The mathematical investigation of this subject was worked out 
by Gaspard Monge. For this aspect and further details, both 
descriptive and experimental, see J. Pemter, Meteorologiscke Optik 
(1006); E. Mascart, TraiU d'opttque (i 899-1903); R. W. Wood, 
Physical Optics (1905); R. S. Heath, Geometrical Optics. 

MIRAJ, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of 
Bombay, forming part of the southern Mahratta Jagirs. Since 
1820 it has been subdivided between a senior and a junior branch. 
The territory of both is widely scattered among other native 
states and British districts. Area of the senior branch, 339 
sq. m.; pop. (1901), 81,467; revenue £23,000; tribute £800. 
Area of the junior branch, aix sq. m.; pop. (1901), 35,806; 
revenue £27,000, tribute £400. The chiefs are Brahmans 
of the Patwardhan family. The town of Miraj, at which 
the chief of the senior branch resides, b situated near the 
river Kbtna; it b a jimction of the Southern Mahratta rail- 
way for the branch to Kolhapur. Pop. (1901), 18,425. The 
chief of the junior branch has hb residence at Bhudspu>n (pop. 
3591). 

HIRAMON. MIGUEL (i83»-x867), Mexican soldier of French 
extraction, was bom in the dty of Mexico, on the 39th of Septem- 
ber 1832, and shot with the Emperor Maximilian at Queretaro 
on the 19th of June 1867. While still a student he helped to 
defend the military academy at Chapultepec against the forces 
of the United States; and, entering the army in 1853, he rapidly 
came to the front during the dvil wars. It was largely due to 
Miramon's support of the ecclesiastical party against Alvarez 
and Comonfort that Zuloaga was raised to the presidency; and 
in 1859 he was called to succeed him in that office. Decisively 
beaten by the Liberab in i860, he spent some time in Europe 
advocating foreign intervention in Mexican affairs; and returned 
as a partUan of Maximilian. Hb ability as a soldier was shown 
by his double defence of Puebia in 1856. 

MIRANDA, FRANCESCO (c. 1754-1816), Spanish-American 
soldier and adventurer, was bom at Car&ois, Venezuela, about 
1754. He entered the army, and served with the French in the 
American War of Independence. The success of that war 
inspired him with a belief that the independence of Spanbh 
America would increase its prosperity. He began to scheme a 
revolution, but was discovered and had only just time to escape 
to the United States. Thence he went to Eni^and, where he was 
introduced to Pitt, but chiefly lived with the leading members 
of the opposition — Fox, Sheridan and Romilly. Finding no 
help, he travelled throu^ Austria and Turkey to Russia, where 
he was warmly received, but was dbmissed with rich presents, 
at the demand of the Spanbh ambassador, backed up by France. 
The news of the dbpute between England and Spain about 
Nootka Sound in 2790 recalled him to England, where he saw 
a good deal of Pitt, but the peaceful arrangement of the dbpute 
again destroyed hb hopes. In April 1792 he went to Paris, 
with introductions to P£tion and the leading Girondbts, hoping 
for aid in South America. France had too much to do to help 
others; but Miranda's friends sent him to the front as general 
of brigade. He dbtingubhed himself under Dumouriez, was 
entrusted in February 1793 with the siege of Maestricht, and 
commanded the left wing of the French army at the disastrous 



57+ 



MIRANDE— MIRKHOND 



battle of Neerwinden. Although he had gjven notice of Du mou- 
riez's treachery, he was put. on his trial «n the Z2th of May, 
unanimously acquitted, but again imprisoned, and not rclea&cd 
till after the 9th Thermidor. He was sentenoed to1)e deported 
after th^ struggle of Vend^miaire, yet he continued in Paris till 
the coup d^itai of Fructidor caused him to take refuge in Engia nd. 
He now found Pitt and Dundas ready to listen, but, as neither 
of them would or could give him substantial help, he went to the 
United States, where President Adams only gave him fair words. 
Addington might have done something for him but for the peace 
of Amiens in i8oa. Though in no way amnestied, he returned to 
Paris, but was expelled by the First Consul, who was eager to 
be on good terms with Spain. Disappointed in England and the 
United States, he decided to make an attempt at his own expense; 
Aided by two American citizens, Colonel W. S. Smith and Mr 
S. G. Ogden, he equipped the " Leander," in 1806, and wUh lhl^ 
help of the English admiral Sir A. Cochrane made a landing near 
Car&cas, and proclaimed the Colombian republic. He had same 
success, but a false report of peace between France and England 
caused the English admiral to withdraw his support. At last, 
in 1810, the events in Spain which brought about the Peninsular 
War had divided the authorities in Spanish America, some of 
whom declared for Joseph Bonaparte, others for Ferdinand ViL, 
others for Charles IV., and Miranda again landed, and got a 
large party together who declared a republic both in Veneiuela 
and New Granada or Colombia. But Miranda's desire — that all 
the South American colonies should form a federal republic^ 
awoke the selfishness of provincial administrations, and the 
cause was believed to be hateful to heaven owing to a j^eat 
earthquake on the 36th of March xSia. The count of Montp 
Verde, the Botirbon governor, had little difficulty in defeBiing 
Miranda, and on the 26th of July the general capitulated on 
condition that he should be deported to the United Slatfrs. 
The condition was not observed; Miranda was moved from 
dungeon to dungeon, and died on the 14th of July 1816 at Cadiz, 
There firt aliuflions to Miranda's cirly life in ncaj"!^ all mi:nnoiT9 
of the tiniet but they are not jjcncrdlly wry accyraic. Fof litft 
trial aec Buchei et RouXh Iliamn paflementairt, xxvii. 36-70, 
For his laEcr Ufc mx J. Biggs, HisU^ry of Miranda' t AUempt in SiMtik 
America ^London, i8oc>); and Vc^ga^i, Rt?oiucioit dt la Coloitibfa. 
Prof. Williatn S- RobeTi*on h^s rarrntly devoted 'considcrabfc 
research ici the Spanisli archtvca and clHwhen! to Mlrianda, hi» 
monograph on F- din M. and ike Tnn^ulioni-iini, of Spamih Amtrkii 
being a^R-atrlctl a priie of the American Hi^roncal Assoc v^t ion in 
1908. Scr .tlati Marqud^ de Rojas,£/ General Miranda (faris. 18^4), 
and his Mirandu dans la rhviution /fowfaur (CarAcaSv tS^); snd 
R. Becerr.iH Emayir hiitorks d^ttmentada de ta Pida at Don 
P. de M. (Car^caji 1896). 

MIRANDB, a town of south-western France, capita] of an 
arrondissement in the department of Gers, on the left bank of 
the Grande Baise, 17 m. S.S.W. of Auch by the Southern railwiy. 
Pop. (1906), 2368. Mirande is laid out on the uniform pUn 
typical of the bastide. Its church, built at the beginning of the 
15th century, is chiefly remarkable for its porch which bestrides 
the Rue de I'fivfich* and is surmounted by two flying buttresses 
supporting a belfry of Flemish appearance. The remmins of 
ramparts are still to be seen and the prindpal street is bordered 
by ancient arcades. The town has a sub-prefecture and a 
tribunal of first instance. The trade is in live-stock and 
agricultural products. Tanning and wood-turning are carried on. 

Mirande was founded in 1286 by the monks of Berdone^ and 
the seneschal of Toulouse acting on behalf of PhiUp IV. During 
the 14th century it was the capital of the counts of Astar^c^ 

HIRANDOLA, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province cl 
Modena, 19! m. N. by E. of it by rail, 59 ft. above sea4evcL 
Pop. (1901), 15,162 The Palazzo del Commune is a 15th- 
century edifice of Gothic style. The castle of the Pico family, 
who held the town from the 14th century to 17 10, when the J^t 
member was deprived of his dominions by Joseph I. of Auslria, 
b almost entirely destroyed. The height of the fortunes ol this 
family was from about 1450 to 1550, Giovanni (b. 1465, d. r4fl4) 
being its ablest and most learned member (see Pico)» The 
cathedral, dating from the end of the i6th century, has beta 
restored S. Francesco is a fine Gothic church. 



HIRANZAI VALLEY, or Hamgu, a moontaln vaDey on tk 
Kohat border of the North- West Frontier Province of India. 
Miranzai comprises two valleys draining S.W. into the Kunam 
and N.E. into the Kohat Toi. It is thus divided into upper aod 
lower Miranzai, and extends from Thai to Raisan, and from the 
Zaimukht and Orakzai hills to those of the Khattaks. Its length 
is about 40 m., and its breadth varies from 3 to 7 m. Aret, 
546 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 43>90i. The portion of Miranzai east 
of Hangu village consists of numerous small and well-cultivated 
valleys, in which orchard trees flourish abundantly. To the 
west of Hangu, including the whole of Upper Miranzai, the couo- 
try is a broad, open, breezy valley. The plain is bar« of trees, 
but the hills are generally covered with scrub. The country is 
full of ravines towards Thai. The wealth of the inhabitaats 
consists principally in cattle, goats and sheep; of these the cows 
are of a lean and dwarf breed, and give but little milk. Miranzai 
forms the meeting place of many different tribes; but its chief 
inhabitants are the Bangash and Orakzais. . Disturbances have 
necessitated British expeditions in 1851, 1855, and twice in 1891. 

HIRBEAU. OCTAVE HENRI MARIE (1850- ), French 
dramatist and journalist, was bom at Trevieres (Calvados) oa 
the x6th of February 1850. He was educated in a Jesuit school 
at Vannes, and studied law in Paris. He began his journalistic 
career as dramatic critic of the Bonapartist paper, VOrdrt, 
For a short time before 2877 he was sous-prifet and then 
prijet of Saint-Girons, but from that time be devoted 
himself to literature. He was one of the earliest defendexs 
of the Impressionist painters. His witty articles in the anti- 
republican papers, and his attacks on establishnl reputations, 
involved him in more than one duel. He gradually developed 
extreme individualist views. In 1890 he began to write for 
the RtvcilCt but his anarchist sympathies were definitely 
checked by the murder of President Carnot in 1894. He 
was one of the early and consistent defenders of Captain Alfred 
Dreyfus. He married in 1887 the actress Alice Regnault. His 
first novel, JeanMarceUin (1885), attracted little attention,bot 
he made his mark as a conteur with a series of tales of the Norman 
peasantry, Letlres de ma ckaumiire (x886). Le Cahaire (1887), 
a chapter of which on the defeat of 1870 aroused much discussion, 
was followed by L'Abbi Jules (1888), the story Of a mad priest; 
by Scbastien Rock (1890), a bitter picture of the Jesuit school 
in which his own early years were spent; Le Jardin des suppluet 
(1899), a Chinese story; Les Mimoires d'une Jemme de ckambre 
(1901); and Les Vingt-et-un jours d*un neurasthinique (1902). 
In 1897 his five-act piece, Les Mauvais Bergers, was played at 
the Renaissanbe by Sarah Bernhardt, and he followed this up 
with L^ AJaires sont les ajaires (Th6&tre Frangais, 1903), 
which was adapted by Sydney Grundy for Sir H. Beerbohm 
Tree in 1905. Some of his short pieces are collected as Farca 
et moraliUs (1904). 

MIRFIELD, an urban district in the Moriey parliamentary 
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. S.W. 
of Dewsbury, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire and London & 
North- Western railways. Pop. (1901), 11,341. The church 
of St Mary was completed in 1874, from designs of Sir Gilbert 
Scott. The tower of the ancient church remains. The large 
inidustrial population is employed in woollen, cotton, carpet and 
blanket manufactures, and in the numerous coIUeries in the 
vicinity. 

MIRKHOND (1433-1498). Mohammed bin Khiwandshih 
bin Mahmdd, commonly called Mlrkhw&nd or Mirkhiwand, 
more familiar to Europeans imder the name of Mirkhond, vas 
bom in 1433, the son of a very pious and learned man who, 
although belonging to an old Bokhara family of Sayyids, or 
direct descendants of the Prophet, lived and died in Balkh. 
From his early youth he applied himself to historical studies 
and literature in general. In Herat, where he spent the greater 
part of his life, he gained the favour of that famous patron of 
letters, Mir 'Allshir (1440-1501), who served his old sch<x>lfelk)«, 
the reigning sultan Husain (who as the last of the Tim&ridcs in 
Persia ascended the throne of Herlt in X468), first as keeper of 
the seal, afterwards as governor of Jurjftn. At the requist of 



MIRROR 



575 



Mfr *AIlshIlr, himself a distinguished statesman and writer, 
Mirkhond began about 1474, in the quiet convent of Khilflslyah, 
which his patron had founded in Herit as a house of retreat for 
literary men of merit, his great work on universal history, 
Raufot^ussafd fi siral-ulanbid VfalmulUk Vfolkkulafd or Gardtn 
of Purity pn ike Biography of Prophets, Kings and Caliphs, He 
made no attempt at a critical examination of historical traditions^ 
and wrote in a flowery and often bombastic style, but in spite 
of this drawback, Mirkhond's Rau^ remains one of the most 
marvellous achievements in literature. It comprises seven 
large volumes and a geographical appendix; but the seventh 
volume, the history of the sultan Husain (1438-1505), together 
with a short account of some later events down to 1523, cannot 
have been written by Mirkhond himself, who died in 1498. He 
may have compiled the preface, but the main portion of this 
vohune is probably the work of his grandsoA, the historian 
Khw&ndamir (1475-1534)* to whom also a part of the appendix 
must be ascribed. 

For acrauntB of Mirkhond't [ift s« De Sacy** " Notice flur 
Mirkhond " in hia Afhtairti sur diitms amtimitis de ta Ptrie 
tP^», '793) ; JounJain's, " Notice de rhistcur* ynivTrsclIp dc 
IftirkhDnd ' m tiic Notkfi et exlmiis. vol- i%. (Ptiri^. 181 j); Eilicrt, 
Bislory of India, iv- ra? seq.; Mofley^ DeJ^riptt^ Catiilo£i$e (London. 
i'S4h P- 3s* »«1' ; f^cu, CaL ofFtrtmn MSS, <>fih^ Brii. Mm. (vol. i. 
LinoD, }^79>t p. Jd? wq. Befrdi.-9 the litBosniphed edit ions or 
tbft whole work in folio (Bombay. 185^. dud Trhcran, i^^i- 
1856) aiuf A Turkish yifrsido (ConsL^ntiiyapJc^ 184^), ihe fol lowing 
portions of Mirkhond^^ histciTy bav? be?n published by Eiiropean 
Orientanst»t E^riy Kingi uf Prnia, hy D. Shea (London, iftji) 
(Oriecfta] TransLiticifi Fund) ; LHiitBire ie ta dynaitie dei 
S^$tfm-^€S, by S. de Socy (in the abavc^meniioned M^moirei); 
Sisfffirr dis Sdfianidfi {Uxi€ Pcrsan), by JaubiTt (Paris, JS4J); 
RiiUrria priomm return PeTsamm^ Pereian and Latin, by Jdiii&K 
(Vienna, I7S?>; Mirch<mdi hhtoria TahfridarMm, Persian and LatiOi 
by Mit^cberlik (Guuin|;en, i%t^, 2ud ed., Berlin, JSi(>)^ Hhtoria 
^wtanidarum, Pefsian and Latm, by VViElccn (G5ttingen, tSoS) ; 
Histcirt des Samanides^ translated by Defr^nscry (Parii, (^45) k 
UhioTiiiGkasupidaFttm^ Pefiian and Laiitir by Wilken (Btflin, jfijj); 
Gfii^^kitkit dfr Sidiaitg aui d^m GeichUthlt Bujtk^ PeT:siAn and Gcf ifliiii, 
by Wilkcn (Btflin^ iJ^^S); loHaatd by Ercjmann'a EfUuierun* und 
&^4M2Etnj^ (K4£:in, iSjftK HtS0rm Seidickuckidantnt. w^, Vutkrs 
fCKsscn^ iBxj); And & Gtrraan tmns, by the same; HiMtoir^ da 
Sakatu di KketTftnt, in Pcrj^iiiin, by Dufrdmerv (Paria» 1843) ; tli^lQFy 
tfAtAtahttj f^fSyrio and Persia, in Persian, by W» Morley (London, 
]B4S); IlUtona Churidorum. Peman and Latin, by Mitwihcrbk 
(Frankfort, iSlS); Huioire dts SHttani Gkuridar, trans, into French 
by Dcfrfmeiy (Pari*, 1^44): Vie dt Djenskii-KkaH, in Persian, by 
Faubert (F^ini, lS4t) {sec a\eo extracts from the same ^tb voL io 
rreJKh tT^tm, by LanBl^ in voL vi, qf Noiicrs et txtraUs^ Paris, 
1799, p, i^ wqrh ana by Hammer in Stir its ori^nm ntssfs, St 
mencnti "^ " ' ' ■ — ■ 



t&3S, p. 53 *eq.>; " TtmOr's Expedition aepinst TukU- 
" rtr«ao and Froncli, by Charmoy, in Mhn^irts de 



KhAn; , 

r«flJL impef. de Si P^to-jfewi (183^^ PP^ 270- jJi and 441-47 £. 

(H. E.) 

MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirouft mod. nUroir, from a sup- 
posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari^ to admire), an optical 
instrument which produces images of objects by reflection. In 
Its usual forms it is simply a highly polished sheet of metal or of 
{lass (which may or may not be covered, either behind or before, 
irith a metallic film); a metallic mirror is usually termed a 
ipeculum. The laws relating to the optical properties of mirrors 
ire treated in the article Reflection of Light. 

Ancient Mirrors. — ^The mirror (K&TOirrpov, tctrrrpov^tvoirrpoyt 
\pecu!um) of the Etruscans, Greeks and Romans consisted of a 
Ihin disk of metal (usually bronze) sh'ghtly convex and polished 
»n one side, the other being left plain or having a design incised 
upon it. A manufactory of mirrors of glass at Sidon is mentioned 
by Pliny {Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 66, 193), but they appear to have 
t>een b'ttle used (one has been found at San Remo). Glass 
mirrors were coated, but with tin; some silver mirrors have also 
t>een found. They are said to have been in use as early as the 
lime of Pompey, and were common under the empire. Homer 
blows nothing of mirrors, but they are frequently mentioned 
n the tragedians and onwards. The usual size was that of an 
)rdinary hand-mirror, but in imperial times some appear to 
iuive been large enough to take in the whole figure (Seneca, Nat. 
piaesl., i. 17, 8), being either fixed to the wall or working up 
md down like a window sash. The first specimen of a Greek 
nirror was not discovered till 1867, at Corinth, and the number 



extant is comparatively smalL They are usually provided with 
a handle, which sometimes took the form of a ^atuette (especially 
of Aphrodite) supported on aj>edestal,.or consist of two metallic 
circular disks (the ** box " mirrors) fitting in to each other, and 
sometimes fastened together by a hinge. The upper disk or 
cover was ornamented on the outside with a design in low relief; 
inside it was polished to reflect the face. The lower disk was 
decorated inside with engraved figures. The best specimens of 
both kinds of mirrors date from a h'ttle before 400 B.C. and last 
for some time after that. Of the reliefs, one of the best examples 
is "Ganymede carried away by the eagle"; amongst the 
incised mirrors may be mentioned one representing Leucas and 
Corinthus, inscribed with their names (both the above in 
Collignon, VArchSologie grecque, 1907, figs, a 12, 313); the Genius 
of the Cock-fighU {Revue archiologique, new ser. xvii., 1868, 
PI. 13). A bronze mirror-case, fotmd at Corinth, has attached on 
the outside a relief representing an Eros with two girls; on the 
inside is incised a design of a nymph seated on a bench and play- 
ing with Pan at a game resembling the Italian mora {Classical 
Review, Feb. 1889, p. 86). On the back of another mirror in the 
British Museum {Gautte orchit^gique, ii. PI. 27) is a figure of 
Eros which has been silvered over. With this was found the 
bronze case used to contain it, on the back of which is a group 
of Aphrodite and Eros in repouss6. It was found in Crete; but 
most of the Greek mirrors and mirror-cases having designs are 
from Corinth. 

The principal feature of the Etruscan mirrors, the extant 
examples of which far outnumber the Greek, is the design incised 
on the back. Belonging chiefly to the 4th and 3rd centuries, 
they mostly resemble the Greek disk-mirrors in form, box-mirrors 
being rare. As a rule the subjects incised are taken from Greek 
mythology and legend (Trojan War, birth of Athena, Aphrodite 
and Adonis), the names of the persons represented being 
frequently added in Etruscan letters and orthography (Apul» 
Apollo, Achle» Achilles, Achmemrum* Agamemnon). Scenes 
from daily life, the toilet, the bath, the pahiestra, also 
occur. In most cases the style of drawing, the types of the 
figures, and the manner of composing the groups are true to the 
characteristics of Greek art. Some may have been imported 
from Greece, but the greater number appears to have been more 
or less faithfully imitated from such designs as occurred on the 
Greek vases which the Etruscans obtained from Greece. Even 
where distinctly Etruscan figures are introduced, such as the 
heroes Aelius and Caelius Vibenna on a mirror in the British 
Museum, Greek models are followed. Although the work is 
frequently rough and careless, certain very fine and beautiful 
specimens have been found: the famous Semele-mirror, and the 
healing of Telephus, in which Achilles is shown scraping the 
healing rust from the lance with a crescent-shaped knife 
(Baumeister, Denkmttler, figs. 557, 1774). Roman mirrors are 
usually disk-mirrors, the back of the disk, if engraved, being 
generally ornamented with decorative patterns, not with any 
subject design. 

Plain mirrors are found wherever Greek and Roman civiliza- 
tion spread, and a specimen found in Cornwall (now in the British 
Museum) shows that the Celtic population of England had 
adopted the form and substance of the mirror from their con- 
querors. This specimen is enriched with a Celtic pattern incised. 
The shape of the handle exhibits native originality. Mirrors 
were sometimes used in Greece for purposes of divination 
(Pausanias vii. 31, 5). The mirror was let down into a well by 
means of a string until it grazed the surface of the water with 
the rim; after a little while it was pulled up, and when looked 
into showed the face of the sick person, alive or dead, on whose 
behalf the ceremony had been performed. This took place at 
Patrae. 

See J. T. de Witte, " Les mtroirs chez les andens,** in Extrait des 
annates de racadimie, xxviii. (Antwerp, 1872); Mylonas, 'EXXiiruA 
(Arorrpa (Athens, 1876); M. Collignon, L'Arckiotogie grecque (new 
ed., 1907; Eng. tr. by J. H. Wright, 1886): E. Gerhard, Etruskiscke 
Spiegel (1840-1867), continued by K. Klugroann and G. Kdrte 
(1884-1897): article in Smith's Dictionary of Creek and Roman 
Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891). {}. H. F.) 



576 



MIRROR 



Medieval and Modem Mirrors.—SmMXi meUllic mirron with 
a highly polished surface were largely used during the middle 
ages: pocket mirrors or small hand mirrors carried at the girdle 
being indispensable adjuncts to ladies'- toilets. The pocket 
mirrors consisted of small circular plaques of polished metal, 
usually steel or silver, fixed in a shallow circular box covered 
with a lid. Mirror-cases were chiefly made of ivory, carved with 
relief representations of love or domestic scenes, hunting and 
games, and sometimes illustrations of popular poetry or ro- 
mance. Gold and silver, enamels, ebony and other costly 
materials were likewise used for mirror cases, on which were 
lavished the highest decorative efforts of art workmanship and 
costly jewelling. The mirrors worn at the girdle had no cover, 
but were furnished with a short handle. In 625 Pope Boniface 
IV. sent Queen Ethelberga of Northumbria a present of a silver 
mirror; and in early Anglo-Saxon times mirrors were well known 
in England. It is a remarkable fact that on many of the sculp- 
tured stones of Scotland, belonging probably to the 7th, 8th or 
9th century, representations of mirrors, mirror-cases and combs 
occur. 

The method of backing glass with thin sheets of metal for 
mirrors was well known in the middle ages, at a time when steel 
and silver mirrors were almost exclusively employed. Vincent 
of Beauvais, writing about x 250, says that the mirror of glass and 
lead is the best of all, " quia vitrum propter transparentiam 
melius recipit radios "; and a verre d mirer is mentioned in the 
inventories of the dukes of Burgundy, dating from the xsth 
century. A gild of glass-mirror makers existed at Nuremberg 
in X373, and small convex mirrors were commonly made in 
southern Germany before the beginning of the x6th century; 
and these continued to be in demand, under the name of bull's- 
eyes {Ocksen'Augen)f till comparatively modem times. They 
were made by blowing small globes of glass into which while still 
hot was passed through the pipe a mixture of tin, antimony and 
resin or tar. When the globe was entirely coated with the 
metallic compound and cooled it was cut ii^to convex lenses, 
which formed small but well-defined images. As early as 13 17 
a " Magister de Alemania," who knew how to work glass for 
mirrors, broke an agreement he had made to instruct three 
Venetians, leaving in their hands a large quantity of mixed alum 
and soot for which they could find no use. It was, however, 
in Venice that the making of glass mirrors on a commercial 
scale was first developed; and the republic enjoyed a much- 
prized monopoly of the manufacture for about a century and a 
half. In XS07 two inhabitants of Miirano, representing that 
they possessed the secret of making perfect mirrors of glass, a 
knowledge hitherto confined to one German glass-house, obtained 
an exclusive privilege of manufacturing mirrors for a period of 
twenty years. In X564 the mirror-makers of Venice, who 
enjoyed peculiar privileges, formed themselves into a corporation. 
The products of the Murano glass-houses quickly supplanted 
the mirrors of polished metal, and a large and lucrative trade 
in Venetian glass mirrors sprang up. They were made from 
blown cylinders of glass, which were slit, flattened on a stone, 
carefully polished, the edges frequently bevelled, and the backs 
" silvered " by an amal^m. The glass was remarkably pure 
and uniform, the " silvering " bright, and the sheets sometimes 
of considerable dimensions. In the inventory of his effects, 
made on the death of the French minister Colbert, a Venetian 
mirror, 46 by 26 in., in a silver frame, is valued at 80x6 11 vies, 
while a picture by Raphael is put down at 3000 livres. 

The manufacture of glass minors, with the aid of Italian 
workmen, was practised in ErgUnd by Sir Robert Mansd early 
in the X 7th century, and about 1670 the duke of Buckingham 
was concerned in glass-works at Lambeth where flint glass was 
made for looking-glasses. These old English mirrors, with 
bevelled edges in the Venetian fashion, are still well known. The 
Venetians guarded with the utmost jealousy the secrets of their 
manufactures, and gave exceptional privileges to those engaged 
in such industries. By their statutes any glass-maker cairying 
his art into a foreign state was ordered to return on the pain of 
impxisooment of his nearest relatives, and should bef disobey 



the command emissaries were delefated to i!iy hiio. Id (see d 
such a slaLule Colbert atternpted in 1664 to g^t VcnetUn artifli 
tranaporled to France to devctop the two great induitfic} of 
miiTor-niakbg and pomt-lace worktAg> The amb^sador, iht 
bishop of BczIeT^ ]>ointed out that this woj to court the risk d 
being thrown into the Adriatic, and^ further, th&t Venice vtl 
selling to France mirrors to the value ol lO^.poo cn:>wa> and Um 
1 three or four times that value. Nevertheless , t "wcnty V enetiaO. 
gbss-minor makers were sent to France in 1&65, and the manfr' 
facture was be^n la the FaubQurg St Antotne, Parisn, Btft 
previous to this the art of blowing gbiss for mt^ron had bea 
practised at Tour-la- Vi lie, near ChiTbourg^ by HJcbard Luui^ 
Sieur dc Nebou, in T653; and by the subsequent combioatioa 
of skJlJ! of both estabHshments French mirrors soon excelled is 
quality those of Venice^ The art received a new impulse i& 
France on the introduction of the making of plate i;l£u in i^Ik 
The St Gobain Glass Company attribute the di&covery to Loui* 
Lucas of Nehou, and over the door of the chapel of St Goluk 
they have pbced an inscription In memory of " Louis Locai^ 
Inventa en i6qi le mfthode de coulcr Ics glaccs et instalti it 
manufacture en 1695 dans le chateau de Saint Gobaln." 

Mannfacture. — Ttictcnti " dtvtrinf^/'uapplkd cotlicfDnnatkAiif 
a mct^illic coating on ^lass for giving tt the f ropercin o{ a miiTDr, pal 
till quite recent Ty a mLsnoimrr, »ec;tij^ thit till abour [ §^40 no silver, Ent 
a tin amalgam, vm used! in th^ pnxx-^. Now, h^uevrf , a Ltr^^ proper* 
tion of minron aru made by depositing on the fla:^ a ccmting at pEsi 
ijlvcr, and the old amalgamatioQ prooc»i b comparatively little me^ 

The process of amal^autjoa con^i^tti \n applying 3 thin iTiia||ia 
of tin and mercury ca thft Btiriace mi s\a,^^ A shctt of thin tin^cflr 
fioinewhat Ufif^ t rum the glri5» to be opt-rated on, it spread out oaa 
flat table^ and after all folda and creases have been compleEdy 
removed a »niatl quantity of mercurj' i' rubbed lightly and quiddf 
over the whale surface^ and the «:uiii of dust, impure tin and mefCUrt' 
ia taken off. Mercury is then poured upon the " quickened" Hi 
until there ts a body of it sufficient tD float the gtai:> to be iilitni 
(about 4 in- decp^, and the^lass fscrupulausly tle^ncd ^imultaneottilf 
with the above operationt^ is slid over the surface of the meniun. 
Weights are placed over the surface until the greater part of tSe 
amalgamated mercury ii prrssed oiit» and the tabU; i» then tiharf 
■othatallEuperfluousmercury'find^itswayto ibe pitter. The f Iw 
i» left twenty«!our houn under Weights: it is then turned Ova, 
silvered aide up and removed to a drainer^ whtrc it dries and hankfl*. 
This proce*!, when elaborited^ yields excclknt rciulti, producillt I 
brilliant silver-white inetallic [u»tre> which is Only subject to ilttnr 
tion by expostjre to high temperatures or by o^ntatt with dftsp 
BUf faces; but the mercurial i-apourm to which the worEcnsen irt 
exposed give Hk to the most diftrcsfing and fatal afiection*. 

The ^* ailver on glass *' mirror may be rrgardcd as a di«pv gy rf 
J. von Lie big, who in 1§3S observed that t^ heating aldehytk: *tt 
an ammonbcal solution of silver nitrate in a gU$4 vessel a briUiHG 
deposit cjI metalltc silver was formed on the su/faesf of the glua te 
practice the proccM. wa* introduced about iS^jo; and it is nowcmiB 
on, with eeveral modifications, in two distintt ways* called the kC 
and the cold process respectively. In the former method that 
is empbycd a horizontal double- bottomed metallic lable^ w\bA h 
heated with steam to from 35"* to 40* C„ and the reduction of tit 
ammoniacai silver solution is cfTected with t<irtaric add. 

In sJlverifig by the cold process advantage is taken of the pO** 
of sugar to rrduce the silver nitrate. This method has betfl f"**^ 
ally adorned for the sLlverinE of mirrurs for astronomical tder 

G, W. Ritehey ('^ The Modem Reelecting Ttliacope," Srvtk 

Oyniri&iilmiv to Kncmd^gt, kxxlv. 40) used the proct^ devud bf 
Brashear in iS^^. The vIim disk is mounted on a rockiiu^^ 
&nd most careftj'ly cleaned with nitric add» potash, and ftflaUf *fcl 
distilled water. The reducing solution (which improves on ^isepiw 
is made up from ioo parts of water, 20 of loaf sugif, 30 of alcomim 
1 of nitric add (conuntrdal pure). The sil^-cr sdiutioa is pfepifrf 
as ffjUowi: ^ pai'ta of sIIvlt nitrate are di-wolved in ao puxs. « 
water, and strong ammonia added until the brown wolutioo beccpn* 
daar. A solution of t \ parts of potash (pure bv alcohol) in lOGivUe 
is now added, and then aLmtnonia until the wfution i» ■gaiR de^. a 
snludon of i part of silver nitraic in 1 6 of y.iiutr is added UDiaj» 
liquid is stiawncBlMiied ; it b then fjltered. CJLiiintitkt (d tbtiF* 
tions, I ' ' ' .1 . _. L.ij- .1. ^ ^ ^i„.. i 

ditjjtt 

The].^,., „ ^ , 

dear, a thick deposit being formed in about 5 mi auto. ThcwBtg 
is poured off, and wnter nid on, the streaks of prfidpauCt bn 
removed by lighiJy hdd cotton ti-ooU The washing is reputed **■ 
then Tiater ]s. allav^-ed to reifiain An the film for one bov. Tk »*f^ 
is then run off, and the plate is washed several times with aktB^- 
and then dried by an au- fan. The film is n^w burnished wvti « 
chamois leather pad, and finally with the finett jewdlcn' ns^ 
the silver BUtiwce beLagxhe nScctJi^ &u|faoe of the tniirW' 



MIRZAPUR— MISDEMEANOUR 



577 



The depont of stiver on glaas is not so adherent and unalterable 
noder the influence of sunlight and sulphurous fumes as the tin- 
mercury amalgam, and, moreover, real silvered glass has in many 
cases a slightly yellowish tinge. These defects have been overcome 
by a process introduced by Lenoir, which con«sts of brushing over 
the silvered surface with a dilute solution of cyanide of mercury, 
which, instantaneously forming a kind of amalgam, renders the 
deposit at once much whiter and more firmly adherent than before. 
To protect the thin meullic film from mechanical injury and the 
chemical action of gases and vapours it is coated with shellac or 
oopal varnish, over which, when dry, are applied two coatinn of 
red-lead paint or an electrolytically-deposited film of copper. This 
precaution only applies when the silver forms the rack of the 



FlaUnum Uirrors. — A cheap process of preparing oiirror elass was 
to some extent prosecuted m France, whereby a thin But very 
idberent deposit of platinum is formed on the glass. A solution of 
chloride of platinum with a proportion of litharge and borate of 
lead disaolved in essential oil ot spike is applied with a brush to well- 
deaned glass, which is then placed on edg^ in a muffle furnace, and 
the platinum is thus burned in, forming an exceedingly thin but 
brilliant meullic backing having a somewhat grey lustre. It was 
nsed only for the lids of cheap boxes, toys, ornamental letters, &c. 

J/ofse Mirrors. — Hand mirrors of meta' *?". "** 

b Oriental countries, and in Japan bronze jl [ i jl ^ _. i: :__ a i :ligious 
■gnificance. They have been known and ui*<i fioui the xiickjl remote 
period, mention of them being found in Chinese liicraturc of the 
9U1 century. The (reputed) first made Jajjanwe mirror, preserved 
at Isd, i« an object of the hi^not veneration in J^pan, and an ancient 
mirror, connected with which is a tradition u> tht^ eflcct that it was 
pven by the sun-goddess at the foundation q( the empire, is a princi- 
pal aj^kk d the lapanc^ rr^slU. The mirmn ot Japan in general 
ctffiufit of thin diski. frcini 5 to 13 in. in diameter, d ipeculum 
DvetAl with h^ndleB. cast in one pioce^ The |K}li9.h«d (ace of the 
DikrFor is slightly convex In form, eo that a reflected image is seen 
proportionately reduced in ei^e; the back of the disk is occupied 
vitfi DmanHrntAtijon aitd inscription b in bold felicf. ac^d its rim b 
ilaa raised to the bock. Much attention has \f'*\\ .1 ^ ' r : ^ 1 10 these 
mirrors by ^ linenlir phytical peculiarity which in a few cases they 
■IT founcf to posfieiA. These are known 44 magic mirrors from the 
[act that when a ritrgn^ beam of li^ht ij refaectM from their smooth 
und pofiihed nuriace, and tiirown on a white screen, an image of the 
r^i«d ornaments and characters on the back of the mirror is formed 
«ith rnort or less distinct ncH In the disk of light on the screen, 
this peculiarity haf at no time been bpecially observed by the Japan- 
BK^ but in China it attracted attention as eariy as the Ilth century, 
lad mirroTi po^sesied of this property sell 'among the Chinese at 
ctn CT even twenty times the price 5oug[ht for the ordinary non- 
wn&itjve examples. The true explanation of the magic mirror was 
irft suggested by the French physicist Charles Cl^ophaa Person in 
iS^t, who ob«rved that the reflecting surface of the mirrors was not 
uniformly convex, the portions opposite relief surfaces being plane. 
Tberefofe* m he aayi,^^* the rays reflected from the convex portion 
^ and giT-t but a feebly illuminated image, while", on the con- 
the raya reflected from the plane portions of the mirror 

„-ve their paraileikm, and appear on the screen as an image 

,' reason of their contrast with the feebler illumination of the rest 
uf the disk." Such difFercncM of pbnc in the mirror surface are 



bfucj we I 
by reason 



sccidcTital, beine due to the Enanner m which it b prepared, a process 
EipUined by WT E, A\Tton and I. Perry [Proc. Roy. Soc., 1878, voL 
ttviiiO. by whom ample details of the history, process of manufacture 



aod competition of Oriental miirora have beoi published. A 
pr^limitiaxy opera tioa in poli^hing^ tile surface consists of scoring the 
aat diik io every dirKrtion with a sharp tooL The thicker portions 
vjth irJid" omarnent offer more nr^i stance to the pressure of the tool 
lb, -1 ■.?•.''. i'-.'u ^.' j-.-rivD ., v.! ; 'i i. n.^ oyvdd and form at first a 
ooDcave surface, but this by the reaction of its elasticity rises af tex- 
«arda and f<»tns a slightly convex surface, while the more ri^d 
thkk portions are comparatively little affected. This irregularity 
rf surnoe is inconspicuous in ordinary light, and does not visibly 
distort images; but when the mirror reflects a bright light on a screen 
the aneqau zadiatioB renders the minute dinerences of aurfiace 
ibvious. 

MIBZAPUR. a dty and district of B ritish India, in the Benares 
iivision ol the United Provinces. The dty is on- the right bank 
if tJhe Ganges; a station on the East Indian railway, about half- 
iray between Allahabad and Benares, 509 m. N. W. fxom Calcutta. 
>cp. (xgox), 79,863. The river front, lined with stone ghats or 
li^U of 8tairs> mosques, Hindu temples and dwdling-houses of 
he wealthier merdiants, is handsome; but the interior of the 
own is mainly composed of mud huts.. Formeriy it was the 
snporhim of trade between central India and Bengal, which 
ns DOW been diverted to the railways^ It has European and 
lative lace factories, and manufactures brass vessels and woollen 
arpets. The London Mission manages a high school and an 
tiphmm9t. The ounidpal 4imit» include the towtt <jf Bind- 



hachal, an important centre of pilgrimage, with the shrine of 
Vindhyeshwari. 

The District or Miszapus extends into the Sone valley. 
Area, 5238 sq. m. It is crossed from east to west by the 
Vindhya and Kaimur ranges. A central jimgly plateau connects 
these and separates the valley of the Ganges from that of the 
Sone. The part north of the Vindhyas is highly cultivated and 
thickly peopled, but the rest of the district consists largely of 
ravines and forests with a ^arse population. The population 
in Z901 was 1,082,430, showing a decrease of 6-8% in the decade. 
The district comprises a large part of the hereditary domains of 
the raja of Benares, which are revenue-free. It is traversed, 
near the Ganges, by the main line of the East Indian railway. 
The Great Southern road used to start from the dty. 

MISCARRIAOE, in its widest sense a going astray, a failure. 
In law, the word is used in several phrases; thus, a miscarriage 
of justice is a failure of the law to attain its ends. In the Statute 
of Frauds (29 Car. II., c. 3) in the expression " debt, default or 
miscarriage of another," the word has sometimes been inter- 
preted as equivalent in meaning to defaidt, but it is more usually 
considered to mean a spedes of wrongful act for the consequence 
of which the law makes a party dviUy responsible. The term is 
also used (see Abortion) for the premature expulsion of the 
contents of the womb before the period of gestation is complete. 

MISCEGENATION (from Lat. tniscere, to mix, and genus, race), 
a mixture or blending of two races, particularly of a white with 
a black or negro race. 

MISCBLLANT, a term applied to a single book containing arti- 
des, treatises or other writings dealing with a variety of different 
subjects. It is a common title in the literature of the ifth and 
x8th centuries. The word is an adapution of LaL miscellanea 
(from miscetlaneus, mixed, misceref to mix), used in this sense by 
Tertullian, Mistellanea PtoUmaei (Tert. adv. Vol. 12); the ordi- 
nary use of the word in Latin was for a dish of broken meats, 
applied by Juvenal (xL so) to the coarse food of gladiators. 

The Lat. miscellaneus has affected the form of a word which b now 
usually spelled " maslin." applied to a mixture of various kinds of 
grain, e^>ecially rye ana wheat. This, however, u reall)r from the 
O. Fr. me^eiucn; Late Lat. mistUiOt formed from mis^iu, past 
partidple of nUscert^ to mix, mingle. 

MISCHIEF, a term meaning originally calamity, trouble; 
now used particularly of annoying injuries or damage done in 
play or through petty spite. The word is derived through 
O. Fr. meschef, mod. mtchef^ from tnesckever, to do wrong, mes-, 
amiss, and chever, bring to a head {chef, Lat. caput). 

MISDEMEANOUR (from O. Fr. mes- and demener, to conduct 
oneself iU), the generic term used in English law to indude all 
those offences against the criminal law which are not by common 
law or statute made treason or fdony. In Russell on Crimes it is 
defined as a crime for which the law has not provided a particular 
name (6th ed., L 193). The term misprision, at one time 
applied to the more heinous offences of this class, is now almost 
obsolete. The term misdemeanotir indudes not only all indict- 
able offences below the degree of fdony, some of them grave 
crimes, such as sedition, riot and perjury, but also the petty 
misdemeanours, which may be dealt with summarily by justices 
of the peace, and the most trifling breaches of local by-laws. 

As a matter of legal history, many misdemeanours now repre- 
sent what were originally descrilxKi as trespasses against the 
peace, a phrase which is equivalent to a " tort " or delict, accom- 
panied by circumstances calling for prosecution in the interest 
of the Crown uid the public as well aa for dvil proceedings by 
the injured parties. Such acts as liot, public nuisance, sedition 
and the different forms of libd naturally came to be regarded 
as wrongs against the king's peace. Many of the early statutes 
anent justices are particularly concerned with the pimishment 
of rioters; and some offences now treated as misdemeanours 
belonged to the spiritual and not to the teoq>oial oourtsy e^. 
penury. 

While it is true that ahsiost all crimes which in the middle ages 
were considered heinous fall into the categories of treason or 
felony, many etadu l oy miademeantmis differ to IfMle^ if at all, 



578 



MISE— MISHAWAKA 



from felony in character or in the mode of punishment that, in 
the absence of a code, no logical line of division can now be drawn, 
inasmuch as few felonies are now capital and none involve the 
forfeitures of land or goods, which at one time afforded an 
appreciable distinction between the two categories of crime, 
liie result is that it is impossible to distinguish without enumera- 
ting the specific crimes falling under etjd head. 

Among the chief misdemeanours are: (i) Assault on .the 
sovereign; (3) unlawful assembly; (3) riot and sedition; (4) for- 
dble entries; (5) perjury, which until 1563 was mainly, iif not 
solely, cognizable by the spiritual courts; (6) blasphemy; (7) ex- 
tortion; (8) bribery; (9) obtaining property by false pretences 
(which is nearly cognate to the felony of larceny); (to) assault; 
(ix) public nuisance; (12) libel; (13) conspiracy to defraud, &c; 
(14) attempts to commit other crimes. 

Numerous acts or omissions are punishable as " misdemean- 
ours by interpretation." In other words, disobedience to the 
command or prohibition of a statute as to a matter of public 
concern is indictable as a misdemeanour, even if the statute does 
not so describe it, unless the terms of the statute indicate that 
some other remedy alone is to be pursued. For some misde- 
meanours penal servitude may be imposed by statute. But as 
a rule the appropriate punbhment is by fine or imprisonment 
without hard labour or both, at the discretion of the court unless 
limited by a particular sutute. The offender may also be put 
under recognizance to keep the peace and be of good behaviour. 
Theoretically, whipping may be imposed; but this is not now 
done except under specific statutory authority: and the like 
authority is necessary to authorize the addition of hard labour to 
a sentence of imprisonment. 

At the present time the practical difference in English law 
between misdemeanour and felony lies in matters of procedure, 
in which a trial for misdemeanour closely resembles an ordinary 
dvil triaL 

I. An arrest for misdemeanour may not be made without judicial 
authority except under specific sUtutory authority. 

7. A penon charged with misdemeanour is entitled to bail (see 
Arrest), i^. to release on the obtaining of sureties, or even on hu 
own recoenizance without sureties to appear and take his trial. 
Bail is obligatory in all misdemeanours. w)th the exception of mis- 
demeanours where the costs of the prosecution are payable out of the 
county or borough rate or fund. 

3. A misdemeanour may be tried on an information filed by the 
attorney-|(eneral or by leave of the high court without the indictment 
essential m cases of treason and felony. 

4. The same indictment or information may include a number of 
charges of misdemeanour committed at different times and even 
against different persons. See Indictmbnt. 

f;. A trial for misdemeanour may proceed in the absence of the 
endant, who is not " given in charge " to the jury, as in the case of 
felony. 

6. On a charge of nuademeanour a trial by special jury may be 
ordered. 

7. There is no riffht to challense peremptorily any of the jurors 
summoned to try the case; any challenge made must be for cause. 
The jury is sworn collectively (four men to a book), and not poll by 

E»1I as in felony, and their oath is to try the issues joined between the 
ng and the defendant. They may separate during adjournments 
of the trial, Uke a jury in a civil case. 

8. The costs of prosecuting certain misdemeanours are recoverable 
out of public fundfs under s(Kcific statutory proviuons; but in very 
few cases can the court make the misdemeanant himself pay them. 

9. There are no accessories after the fact to misdemeanour. (See 
Accessory.) 

Under French law and systems based thereon or having a 
common arigin a distinction is drawn between crime (verbreckeH)^ 
dilit {vergeken) and contravention. The English term misde- 
meanour roughly corresponds to the two classes of dilU and 
contravention but includes some offences which would be quali- 
fied as " crime." In the criminal code of Queensland the term 
" misdemeanour " is retained, while that of " felony " is abol- 
ished; and offences are classified as crimes, misdemeanours and 
simple offences, the two former punishable on indictment, the 
latter on summary conviction only; the more serious offences 
described in English law as misdemeanours are in that code 
described as crimes {e.g. perjury). In the United States the 
English common law as to misdemeanour is generally followed, 



but in New York and other states a statutory dirtinctSon hai 
been made between misdemeanour and felony by «<^«ii*t the 
latter as a crime punishable by death or by imprisonment in a 
sute prison. (W. F. O 

MISB, an Anglo-French term (from Fr. meitre, to place) signi* 
fying a settlement of accounts, disputes, &c., by a g re em e n t or 
arbitration. As an English legal term it was applied to the isiae 
in a writ of right; and in history to the payment, in return for 
certain privileges, made by the county palatine of Chester to 
each new earl, and by the Welsh to each new lord of the Marches, 
or to a prince or king on his entry into the country. In its 
more general sense of agreement the term is familiar in En|^ 
history in the " Mise of Amiens," in January, and that of Lewes, 
in May of 1264, made between Henry III. and the barons. 

MISBNUM, an ancient harbour town of Campania, Italy, 
about 3 m. S. of Baiae (q.v.) at the western extremity of the 
Gulf of Puteoli (Pozzuoli). Until the end of the Republic it was 
dependent on Cumae. and was a favourite villa resort. Agrippa 
made the fine natural harbour into the main naval station ol the 
Mediterranean fleet, and founded a colony there probably ia 
31 B.C. The emperor Tiberius died in his villa here. Its 
importance lasted until the decline of the fleet in the 4th 
century a.d. It was at first an independent episcopal sec: 
Gregory the Great united it with that of Cumae. In 890 it 
was destroyed by the Saracens. The name was derived from 
one of the companions of Ulysses, or from Aeneas' trumpeter, 
an account of whose burial is given in Virgil, Aei^, vL 232. 

The harbour consisted of the outer basin, or Porto di Miseno, 
protected by moles, of which remains still exist, and the present 
Mare Morto, separated from it by a comparatively modem 
embankment. The town lay on the south side of the outer 
harbour, near the village of Miseno, where remains of a theatre 
and baths and the inscriptions relating to the town have been 
found. Remains of villas can also be traced, and to the largest 
of these, which occupied the summit of the promontory, and 
belonged first to Marius, then to Lucullus, and then to the 
imperial house, probably belongs the subterranean Grotu 
Dragonara. Roads ran north to Baiae and north-west past the 
modem Torre Gaveta to Cumae: along the line of both are 
numerous columbaria. 

See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. ii. (Breslau. 1890), 190 aqq. (T. As.) 

MISER, a term originally meaning (as in Latin) miserabk 
or wretched, but now used for an avaricious person who 
hoards up money and who spends the smallest possible sum 
on necessities. 

MISERERE (the imperative of Lat. misereri, to have mercy or 
pity), the name of one of the penitential psalms (/«.), fnnn tt^ 
opening .words, Miserere met, Deus, The word is frequently 
used in English as equivalent to "Misericord" (Lat. unier^srtfta, 
pity, compassion) for various forms in which the rules of a 
monastic order or general discipline of the clergy mif^t be 
relaxed; thus it is applied to a special chamber in a monastery 
for those members who were allowed special food, drink, ftc^ 
and to a small bracket on the under side of the seat in a staB 
of a church made to turn up and afford support to a person 
in a position between sitting and standing. " Misericord ** 
and " miserere " are also used of a small dagger, the " dagger 
of mercy," capable of passing between the joints of armour, 
with which the coup de grdce might be given to a wounded 
man. 

MISHAWAKA, a city of St Joseph county, Indiana, U5X, 
on the St Joseph river of Michigan, about 80 m. £. by S. of 
Chicago. Pop. (1900), 5560 (821 foreign-bom); (1910) 11,886. 
It is served by the Grand Trunk and the Lake Shore & Mifhigsn 
Southern railways, and by inter-urban electric lines. It has 
an extensive trade in grain and other agricultural products. 
Two miles up the river is the Hen Island dam, which, with the 
Mishawaka hydraulic dam nearer the dty, is the source of omch 
of the power used by the city's manufactories. St Joseph Iron 
Works was laid out on the south side of the river, in 1833, and ia 
1835 was organized as a village and two additions were platted. 
In 1836 Indiana City was laid out on the north tide of the river; 



MISHMI— MISPRISION 



579 



and in 1839 St Joseph Iron Works, with its two additions, and 
Indiana City were incorporated as one town named Mishawaka 
— the name of an Indian village formerly occupying a part 
of the present site. Mishawaka was chartered as a dty in 
1899. 

■ISHHI, a hill-tribe on the frontier of Eastern Bengal and 
Assam. The Mishmis occupy the hills from the Dihong to the 
Brahmakund, in the north-eastern comer of the Brahmaputra 
valley. In 1854 M. Krick and M. Bourry, two French mission- 
aries, were murdered in the Mishmi country, but their death was 
avenged by a small expedition which took Uie murderer prisoner. 
In 1899 another British expedition was sent against theMishmis, 
owing to the murder of some British subjects. 

WnOllBS, a territory of northern Argentina, bounded N. by 
Paraguay and Brazil, E. and S. by Brazil and W. by Paraguay 
and the Argentine province of Corrientes. Its boundary lines 
axe formed by the upper Parani and Iguass6 rivers on the N., 
the San Antonio and Pequiry-guassu streams on the E. and the 
Uruguay River on the S. Area, 11,282 sq. m.; pop. (1904, esti- 
mate), 38,755, chiefly Indians and mestiios, llie territory is a 
legion of roughly-broken surfaces, divided longitudinally by 
low mountains, caUed the Sierra Iman and Sierra Grande de 
Hisaones, which form the water-parting for many small streams 
flowing northward to the ParanA and southward to the Uruguay. 
The greater part of the country is covered with forest and tropical 
jun^. The climate is sub-tropical, the temperature ranging 
from 40* to 95^ F. The soil is described as highly fertile, but 
its products are chiefly confined to yerba fitate or Paraguay tea 
(//dt paraguayetuis), tobacco and oranges and other fruits. 
Communication with the capital is maintained by two lines of 
steamboats running to Corrientes and Buenos Aires, but a rail- 
way across Paraguay from Asunddn is planned to Encamacidn, 
opposite Posadas. Some of the Jesuit missbns of the xyth and 
x8th centuries were established in this territory, and are to-day 
represented by the lifeless villages of Candelaria, Santa Ana, San 
I^ado and Corpus along the Parani River, and Ap6stoles, 
Concepddn, and San Javier .along the Uruguay. Posadas 
(estimated pop. in 1905, 8000), the capital, on the Paran&, 
officially dates from 1865. It. was also a Jesuit settlement 
called lupua, though the large mission of that name was on 
the Paraguayan side of the river. It is at the extreme west of 
the territory, and is the terminal port for the steamers from 
Corrientes. 

MI8K0LCZ, capital of the county of Borsod, Hungary, 1x3 m. 
NX. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 40,833. It is situated 
in a vaUey watered by the Szinva in the east of the BUkk moun- 
tains, and opens towards the south to the plain of the Saj6, an 
affluent of the Hernid. Miskolcz is a thriving town, and among 
its buildings are a Roman Catholic church of the X3th century in 
Late Gothic style, a Minorite convent, and Greek Catholic, 
Lutheran and Calvinist churches. It maniifactures snuff, por- 
celain, boots and shoes, and prepared leather, and has both steam 
and water mills. It trades in grain, flour, wine, fruit, cattle, 
hides, honey, wax and agricultural products, while four well- 
attended fairs are held annually. About 5 m. west of the town 
in the Szinva valley is Di6sgydr (pop. x 1,520), which possesses 
important iron-works, and the ruined castle of Di6sgy5r, for- 
merly a shooting residence of the kings of Hungary. About 4 m. 
to the south-west of Miskolcz are the baths of Tapolcza, contain- 
ing warm springs. To the south-west of the town lies Onod 
(pop. 2087), to the south of which, on the banks of the Saj6, is 
the heath of Mohi or Muhi, famous as the scene of the great 
defeat of the Hungarians by the Mongols in X24X. About 
85,000 Hungarians fell, and the whole country was devastated 
for the next two years by the Mongolian hordes. During the 
x6th and X7th centuries Miskolcz suffered much from the 
Ottomans, and from the troops of George R&k6czy and Emeric 
T5k6lyL In 1781, 1843 and 1847 it was devastated by fire, and 
on the 30th of August 1878 a great portion of the town was 
ndned hy a terrific storm. 

H18P1CKSL. a mineral consisting of iron sulpharsenide, 
FeAsS; it contains 46% of arsenic, and is of importance as an 



ore of this element. It is known also as araenopyrite or aaenicaJ 
P3rrites (Ger. Arsenikkies): mispickel is an old name of (jermao 
origin, and in the form Mistpuckd was 
used by G. Agricola in 1546. The 
crystals axe orthorhombic, with angles 
similar to those of marcasite; th^ are 
often prismatic in habit, and the prism 
M b usually terminated by the deeply 
striated faces of an obtuse dome r. 
Twinning is not uncommon, the twin- 
planes M (xxo) and g (xox) being the same as in marcasite. 
The coknir of the mineral is silver-white or steel-grey, with a 
metallic lustre, but it is often tarnished yellow; the streak is 
greyish-black. The hardness is 5^-6, and the specific gravity 
5-9-«-2. 

Mispickel occurs in metalliferous veins with ores of tm, 
copper, silver, &c. It is occasionally found as embedded crys* 
tals, for example, in serpentine at Reichenstein, Silesia. In 
Cornwall and Devon it is associated with cassiterite in the tin- 
lodes, but is also found in the copper-kxles: well crystallized 
specimens have been obtained from the neighbourhood of Tavis^ 
tock, Redruth and St Agnes. Mispickel is the principal source 
of arsenious oxide or the " white arsenic " of commerce (see 
Arsenic). The chief supplies are from Cornwall and Devon, and 
Freiberg in Saxony, and from Canada and the United States. 

Danaite is a cobaltiferous variety of mispickel, containing 
up to 9% of cobalt replacing iron; it was first noticed by J. F. 
Dana in 1824 at Franconia in New Hampshire. This variety 
forms a passage to the species glaucodote, (Co,Fe)AsS, which is 
found as well-developed orthorhombic crystals in copper ore at 
Hikansboda in Ramberg parish, Vestmanland, Sweden. Other 
species belonging to this isomorphous group of orthorhombic 
minerals are marcasite (FeSOf Idllingite (FeAsi)» safflorite (CoAst) 
and ranunelsbergite (NiAst). (L. J. S.) 

MISPRISION (from O. Fr. nusprendre, mod. miprendre, to 
miisunderstand), a term in English law, almost obsolete, used to 
describe certain kinds of offence. Writers on criminal law 
usually divide misprision into two kinds {a) negative, (b) positive. 

(a) Negative misprision is the concealment of treason or 
felony. By the common law of England it was the duty of 
every liege subject to inform the king's justices and other 
officers of the law of all treasons and felonies of which the in- 
formant had knowledge, and to bring the offender to justice by 
arrest (see Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 8). The duty fell and still falls 
primarily on the grand jurors of each county borough or fran- 
chise, and is performed by indictment or presentment, but it 
also falls in theory on all other inhabitants (see Pollock and 
Maitland, Hisi. Eng. Law, ii. 505). Failure by the latter to dis- 
charge this public duty constitutes what is known as misprision 
of treason or felony (see 3 Co. Inst., 139). 

Misprision of Treason, in the words of Blackstone, " connsts in 
the bare knowledge and concealment of treason, without any degree 
of assent thereto. Tor any assent makes the party a principal traitor." 
According to Bcacton, de Corond, seq. 118, failure to reveal the trea- 
son of another was in itself high treason, but statutes of 1551-1552 
and 1554-1555 made concealment of treason misprision only. Most 
of the statutes regulating jprocedure on trials for treason also apply 
to misprision of treason. The punishment is loss of the profit of the 
lands of the offender during life, forfeiture of all hb goods and 
imprisonment for life. These punishments are not affected by the 
Forfeiture Art 1870. 

Misprision of Felony is the concealment of a felony committed 
by another person, but without such previous concert with, or subse- 
quent asMstance of the offender, as would make the concealer an 
accessory before or after the fart. The offence is a misdemeanour 
punishable on indirtment by finie and imprisonment. 

(h) Positive misprision is the doing of something which ought 
not to be done; or the commission of a serious offence falling 
short of treason or felony, in other words of a misdemeanour of a 
public character {e.g, maladministration of high officials, con- 
tempt of the sovereign or magistrates, &c.). To endeavour to 
dissuade a witness from giving evidence, to disclose an examina- 
tion beifore the privy council, or to advise a prisoner to stand 
mute, used to be described as misprisions (Hawk. P,C.bk,Lc. 26). 



S8o 



MISRULE— MISSAL 



The old writers say that a misprisioii is contained in every 
felony and that the Crown may elect to prosecute for the 
misprision instead of the felony. . This proposition merely 
affirms the right of the Crown to choose a more merciful remedy 
in certain cases, and has no present value in the law. Positive 
misprisions are now only of antiquarian interest, being treated as 
misdemeanours. 

In the United States, misprision of treason is defined to be 
the crime committed by a person owing allegiance to the United 
States, and having knowledge of the commission of any crime 
against them, who conceals and does not, as soon as may be, 
disclose and make known the same to the president or to some 
judge of the United States, or to the governor, or to some judge 
or justice of a particular state. The punishment is imprisonment 
for not more than seven years and a fine of not more than one 
thousand dollars. 

MISRULE, LORD OF, in medieval times the master of the 
Christmas revels. Probably J. G. Frazer iColdtn Bough HI.) 
is right in suggesting that the lord or abbot of misrule is the 
successor of the king of the ancient Roman Saturnalia, who 
personated Saturn and suffered martyrdom at the end of the 
revels. Compare, too, the burlesque figure at the carnival, which 
is finally destroyed. Stow (Survey) writes: " In the feast of 
Christmas there was in the King's House, wheresoever he lodged, 
a Lord of Misrule or Master of merry disports, and the like had 
ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or good worship, 
were he spiritual ortemporaL" The mayor and sheriffs of London 
also had Lords of Misrule. These mock-monarchs began their 
reign on AllhaUows Eve, and misruled till Candlemas. In Scot- 
land they were known as "Abbots of Unreason," and in 1555 a 
special act suppressing them was passed. In Tudor times their 
reign was marked by much display and expense. In Henry 
VIIL's reign an order for a fool's coat is signed by six of the 
Privy Council. By an Act of Common Council (1555) the city 
expenses of the Lords of Misrule were severely' curtailed. 
Machyn speaks of a Lord of Misrule who in 1561 lode through 
London followed by a hundred gentlemen on horseback hung 
with gold chains (see also Revels, Master of). 

MISSAL, the book containing the liturgy, or office of the mass 
(missa), of the Roman Catholic Church. This name {e.g. 
Missale gothicum, francorum, gallicanum vetus) began to 
supersede the older word SacramerUary (sacramentarium, liber 
sacramentorum) from about the middle of the 8th century.* 
At that period the book so designated contained merely the fixed 
canon of the mass or consecration prayer (actionem, precem 
canonicam, canonem aclionis), and the variable collects, secretae 
or orationes super oblata, prefaces, and post-communions for 
each fast, vigil, festival or feria of the ecclesiastical year; for a 
due celebration of the Eucharist they required accordingly to 
be supplemented by other books, such as the Antiphonarium, 
afterwards called the Craduale, containing the proper antiphons 
(introits), responsories (graduals), tracts, sequences, offertories, 
communions and other portions of the communion service 
designed to be sung by the schola or choir, and the Lectionarium 
(or epislolarium and cvangdistarium) with the proper lessons.* 

' It first occurs in Ecgbcrt of York's De remediis peccatorum, 
where it refers to the sacramentary of Gre^ry the Great. 

« One of the most celebrated of early missals is the Stowc missal 
of the 6th century in the British Museum. It contains the litany 
of the saints, the gloria with the collects, the part of the Epistle to 
the Corinthians relating to the Eucharist, the credo and the conse- 
cratio and memento corresponding exactly to the Roman canon. 
After the daily mass follow the musa afwstolorum, missa sanctorum, 
missa pro poenitenlibus vivis and the mtssa pro mortuis. To the 7th 
century belong the Missale francorum and the Missale gothicum, 
originally in the abbey of Fleury. In the 8th century we find in 
Ecgbcrt of York's De remediis peccatorum, i.. that those who devote 
their lives to sacred orders are supposed to furnish themselves with 
a psalter, lectionary. antiphonary, missal, baptismal office and mar* 
tyrology. The adoption of the Roman liturgy by Charlemagne 
explains the great quantity of missals within this period; e.g. the 
missal of Worms in the library of the Arsenal at Paris. From the 
loth century we have the missal of St Vougay, although badly 
mutilated, and several others. From the 12th century missals 
became common, and more so with the invention of printing. 



Afterwards missals contained more or less fully the antiphoos 
and lessons as well as the prayers proper to the various days, 
and these were called missaiia ptenaria, AU modem missals 
are of this last description. The Missale romanum ex dtcrda 
ss. concUii tridentini restittdum, now in almost exdusivt use 
throughout the Latin obedience, owes its present form to the 
coun^ of Trent, which undertook the preparation of a correct 
and uniform liturgy, and entrusted the work to a commiUee of 
its members. This committee had not completed its Uboon 
when the cotmdl rose, but the pope was instruaed to receive 
its report when ready and to act upon it. The " refonncd 
missal " was promulgated by Pius V. on the X4th of July 1570, 
and its universal use enjoined, the only exceptions being churdes 
having local liturgies which had been in unbroken use f mat 
least two centuries.' It has subsequently imdergone sli^t 
revisions imder Clement VIII. (1604), Urban Vm. (1634) aod 
Leo XIII. (1884), and various new masses, both obligatory and 
permissive, universal and local, have been added. Althou^ 
the Roman is very much larger than any other liturgy, the 
communion office is not in itself inordinately long. The greater 
part of it is contained in the " ordinary " and " canon " of tlte 
mass, usually placed about the middle of the missal, and occqiia. 
though in large type, only a few pages. The work owes iu bulk 
and complexity to two circumstances. On the one hand, in tlx 
celebration of the sacrifice of the mass practically nothing is 
left to the discretion of the officiating priest; everything-vhat 
he is to say, the tone and gestures with which he is to say it, 
the cut and colour of the robe he is to wear — is carefuDy pit- 
scribed in the rubrics.^ On the other hand, the Roman, Uke ail 
the Western Uturgies, is distinguished from those of the Eastern 
Church by its flexibility. A distinctive character has been giNxs 
to the office for each ecclesiastical season, for each fast or fe^ival 
of the year, almost for each day of the week; and provision has 
also been made of a suitable commtuiion service for many of the 
special occasions both of public and of private life. 

The different parts of the Roman commamon office axe not all 
of the same antiquity. Its essential features are most easilf 
caught, and best understood* by reference to the earliest 5flaa< 
mentaries (particularly the Gregorian, which was avovedljr 
the basis of the labours of the Tridentine committee), to the 
Gregorian Antiphonary, and to the oldest redaaion of the Or^ 
romanus.^ The account of the mass (qualiter Missa Romatf 
celebratur) as given by the sacramentarium gregoriasum is to 
the effect that there is in the first place " the Iniroit acconfiof 
to the time, whether for a festival or for a common day; thetf 
after Kyrie eUison, (In addition to this Gloria in excdsis Du 
is said if a bishop be [the celebrant], though only on Sandajv 
and festivals; but a priest is by no means to say it, except <»)/ 
at Eastertide. When there is a litany (quando letania agitor) 
neither Gloria in excdsis nor Alleluia is stmg.) Afterwards the 
OrcUio is said, whereupon follows the Apostolus^ also the Grai^ 
and Alleluia. Afterwards the Gospel is read. Then comes the 
Ofcrtorium* and the Oro/ib super oblata is said." Then foQo* 
the Sursum corda, the Preface, Canon, Lord's Prayer asd 
" embolism "(^^W/xa or insertion, Libera nos, Domine), pveo 
at full length precisely as they still occur in the Roman nib&al- 

' The English missal consequently continue to be used by EngK^ 
Roman Catholics until towards the end of the 17th century, vfaei it 
was superseded by the Roman through Jesuit influence. The 
Gallican liturgy held its ground until much more recently, but has 
succumbed under the Ultramontanism of the bishops. 

* In all the older liturgies the comparative absence ci rubrics is 
conspicuous and sometimes perplexing. It is very noticeable in the 
Roman Sacramentaries, but the want is to some extent supplied \fl 
the very detailed directions for a high pontifical mass in the variolic 
texts ol the Ordo Romanus mentioneo below. That there was b" 
absolutely fixed set of rubrics in use in France during tbeiSth oenttfY 
is shown by the fact that each priest wan required to write cot aa 
account of his own practice (" liDellum ordinis ") and present it fof 
approbation to the oishop in Lent (see Baluze. Cap. Reg. FreM. >■ 
824. quoted in Smith's Diet, of Chr. Antiq. ii. 1531). 

' For the genealogical relationships of the Roman with oth" 
liturgies, see Liturgy. For the doctrines involved in the " ttoive 
of the mass." see Eucharist. 

* Some editions do not mention the Offertory here. 



MISSAL 



581 



In every liturgy of all the five groups a passage similar to this 
cciirs, beginning with Sursum cordOt followed by a Preface and 
he recitation of the Sanctus or Angelic Hymn. The " canon " 
r consecration prayer, which in all of them comes immediately 
fter, invariably contains our Lord's words of institution, and 
except in the Nestorian liturgy) concludes with the Lord's 
'rayer and " embolism." But there are certain differences of 
rrangement, by which the groups of liturgies can be classified, 
'hus it is distinctive of the liturgy of Jeriisalem that the " great 
iterccssion " for the quick and the dead follows the words of 
istitution and an Epiklesis (irtKKrjait rov rv^narot irflov) or 
etition for the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the gifts; in 
lie Alexandrian the " great intercession " has its place in the 
*reface\ in the East Syrian it comes between the words of 
sstitution and the Epiklesis; in the Ephesine it comes before 
tie Pre/ace; while in the Roman it is divided into two, the 
Dmroemoration of the living being before, and that of the 
ead after, the words of institution. Other distinctive 
matures of the Roman liturgy are (i) the position of the 

Pax " after the consecration, and not as in all the other 
turgies at a very early stage of the service, before the 
*reface even; and (3) the absence of the Epiklesis common to 
11 the others.* The words of its " canonical prayer " are of 
nknown antiquity; they are found in the extant manuscripts 
f the Sacramentarium gdasianum, and were already old and of 
srgotten authorship in the time of Gregory the Great, who, in 

letter to John, bishop of Syracuse (Registr, Epist. vii. 64), 
peaks of it as "the prayer composed by a 'scholastic'" 
precem quam scholasticus composuerat). The same letter is 
iteresting as containing Gregory's defence, on the ground of 
ncient use, of certain parts of the Roman ritual to which the 
•ishop of Syracuse had taken exception as merely borrowed from 
Constantinople. Thus we learn that, while at Constantinople 
he Kyric eleison was said by all simultaneously, it was the 
toman custom for the clergy to repeat the words first and /or 
he people to respond, Christe deison being also repeated an 
qual number of times. Again, the Lord's Prayer was said 
cnmediately after the consecration aloud by all the people 
mong the Greeks, but at Rome by the priest alone. 

The meagre liturgical details furnished by the Sacramentarium 
regorianum are supplemented by the texts of the Ordo romanus^ 
he first of which dates from about the year 730. The ritual 
hey enjoin is that for a pontifical high mass in Rome itself; but 
he differences to be observed by a priest " quando in statione 
acit missas " are comparatively slight. Subjoined is a pr6cis of 
}rdo Romanus I. 

h 13 firyt of all rspbiriDd that Rom? hai icvcn ccclesla^iicd 
e^ioni^ each With ItA proper dc^can^t iLbdeacon* and acolytes. 
Lich rcgian hai its own day vl th^^ w«k for high cccleskL&ttcal 
unctions, which are cctcbf3r^7d by each in roLatjQTi. |ThIi accounts 
or the Biatioad S, Mariim Majorettin ad S. Cmcem in Jc>ruulem, ad 
K Pet-Tum^ Sic, prtfi«ii to mo*l ol the masws in the OrggohUTt 
tacramhmtarj. anA miW rtt^incd in (he *' Pmprium de T«^mp&n: " of 
he Ronun miudt-] The rcptlation* for the Auecnblinf and 
[lanhanixig o( the proce^sioo by which the pontilf i& met a no then 
f^rorted to the? app(3iriti:>d staLion ate minutely giv'eii, ds well Ai for 
ht: adjustincnt ol ili$ veslmenta *' ut bene sedt7^nt," "when ihf 
atfitty has bcrn rtachod. He dtws not Leave the Kicriaty until 
tie Snifoil has l^^n bcf'un by the choir in the church. Before the 
rhrin he takct hi* rtand at the altar, and after the Kyru Ekhon 
laa been lung (the number of timta ift left to his discretion) he 
(Cijini tiie Gltvia in i^d^is, which ii tAk*n up by ttie chotr. During 
he cinifin]; be faci? eastward; nt llj cImc he turns mund for a 
noment to ay " Fax vobi*/' and forthwith proceeds to the Oratio* 
rhia finished, all stat tKcm«t*nt* \n order while the subdcacon 
.trends the a mho end read$ [the episiie]* After he has done, the 
antor with his book ^cantatono) aarends ftod give* out the response 
Rtiptmsum) with the AiUtuia and Tracttti in addition if the Bca*on 
alU for either. The deacon then silently ki«v9 the feft of the 
on tiff and receives his bleaiine m the wonff '* Dam in us ait in OitfUt 
Ma el in labiis luii."^ Preceded by acolytes With lighted candle? 
nd iubdeacons bumine incense, he jLscendt the nmbo, where he 
cads the Goipel. At the cloiie, with the words " Pax tibi *' and 

I This was one of the points discussed at the council of Florence, 
nd Cardinal Bcssarion for a time succeeded in persuading the Greeks 
o give up the Epiklesis. 

* Quam collecum dicunt, Ord. Rom, II, 



'* Dominus vobisoim/' the pontifr,' after another Oratio. descendi 
to the " unatoKurei *' actompamed by certain 6f the inferior cJeify^ 
and receiver in order the oblaTioru ol the rulers (ablatio^nes prind* 
pum), the arehdeacon who follows taking their "' amulas " ol wine 
and pouriai; them into a larger vessri; timiUf offerings are received 
from the other ranks and da$»» pjxscnt» including the women. 
This concluded, the pontiff and arcMeafon wash their hands, ihe 
ol!ering:ar being meanwhile arranged by the subdiiTacona an the altar, 
and water, supplied by the leaikr of the choir (arehiparanh(}nista>H 
being mingled with the wine. Duritig thk cci^emony tlit ichola 
have bwn engaged in singing ih* Qperfjirittm; when all is tvady 
the pontiff signs to them to atop, andfnttins upon the Prefucty the 
subdcacons giving the rr*pon*es. At the Angt4ic Hymn {Sanctui) all 
kneel and continue kneeling, except the pontiff, who rises alooe and 
begin) the Ca}um. Al thit word$ " per qutm hacc omnia " the 
arrhdcaoQn liftt the cup with the obbiwi, and at " Pax Dcmiiu sit 
wmpcr vobi^rum " he giv\-i iht peace to the clergy in their grder. 
and to the laity* The pootilF intd break* off a particle from the 
consectated br^md and lay* it upon the altar, the rest he places on 
the paten hctd by the deacon. It is then distributed while Atttui 
Dei i« sung. The jpodtiff in tommunttaiirig puts the particle imo 
the cup* tayinfft " Ftit commixt lo et corisccmtio corporis ci sanguinii 
Pomini iHCtfTjesu Christ! recipient ibus nobis in vitam acternam." 
Thoie pfesent communicate in their order under this species alich 
As the pontUf dnce>ids into the scnatorium to give the communion, 
tiie ichola begins the commufiion Antiphon, and continues vinj^ini; 
the Ft^m until, all the people ha vine communicated, they recei%e 
the wgn to begin the GlartA, altfr whieh, the verw: having been again 
repeated H they iitop. The celebrant, then, facing eastward, offers 
the Ofofi? aJ io>ttpUn4itm, which beine finished the archdeacon says 
Lo the people, " he, mi&sa est," they re^^nnding with " Deo gratbt." 

To complete our idea of the Roman communion office as it was 
prior to the end of the 8th century we must now turn to the 
Gregorian Antipkonarius sive gradual is liber ordinaius per 
circulum anni, which as its name implies contains those variable 
portions of the mass which were intended to be sung by the 
schola or choir. It gives for each day for which a proper mass is 
provided: (z) the Antiphona (Antiphona ad Introitum) and 
Psalmus; (2) the Responsorium and VersuSf with its Alleluia 
and Versus\ (3) the Offertorium and Versus; (4) the Communio 
and Psalmus, Some explanation of each of these terms is 
necessary, (i) The word Antiphm {iani4t(jivoVt O.Eng. Antefn^ 
Eng. ArUhem) in its ecclesiastical use has reference to the very 
ancient practice of relieving the voices of the singers by dividing 
the work between alternate choirs. In one of its most usual 
meanings it has the special signification of a sentence (usually 
scriptural) constantly sung by one choir between the verses of 
a psalm or hymn sung by another. According to the Roman 
liturgiologists it was Pope Celestine who enjoined that the 
Psalms of David should be sung (in rotation, one presumes) 
antiphonally before mass; in process of time the antiphon came 
to be sung at the beginning and end only, and the psalm itself 
was reduced to a single verse. In the days of Gregory the Great 
the introit appears to have been sung precisely as at present — 
that is to say, after the antiphon proper, the Psalmus with its 
Gloria, then the antiphon again. (2) The Responsorium, intro- 
duced between the epistle and gospel, was probably at first an 
entire psalm or canticle, originally given out by the cantor from 
the steps from which the epistle had been read (hence the later 
name Craduale), the response being taken up by the whole 
choir. (3) The Ofertorium and Communio correspond to the 
" hymn from the book of Psalms" mentioned by early authorities 
(see, for example, Augustine, Retr. ii. 11; Ap, Const, viii. 13) 
as sung before the oblation and also while that which had been 
ofifered was being distributed to the people. A very intimate 
connexion. between these four parts of the choral service can 
generally be observed; thus, taking the first Sunday in the ecclesi- 
astical year, we find both in the Anliphonary and in the modem 
Missal that the antiphon is Ps. xxv. x-3, the psalmus Ps. xxv. 4, 
the responsorium (^duale) and versus Ps. xxv. 3 and xxv. 4, 
the offertorium and versus Ps. xxv. 1-3 and xxv. 5. The 
communio is Ps. Ixxxv. 12, one of the verses of the responsorium 
being Ps. Ixxxv. 7. In the selection of the introits there are 
also traces of a certain rotation of the psalms in the Psalter 
having been observed. 

The first pages of the modem Roman missal are occupied 
with the Calendar and a variety of explanations relating to the 
* After singmg " Credo in unum Deum,*' Ord, Ram, //. 



582 



MISSAL 



year and its parts, and the manner of determining the movable 
feasts. The general rubrics {Rubricae generales missalis) 
follow, explaining what are the various kinds of mass which may 
be celebrated, prescribing the hours of celebration, the kind and 
colour of vestments to be used, and the ritual to be followed 
(ritus celebrandi missam), and giving directions as to what is to 
be done in case of various defects or imperfections which may 
arise. The Praeparatio ad missam, which comes next, is a short 
manual of devotion containing psalms, hymns and prayers to be 
used as opportunity may occur before and after cdebration. 
Next comes the proper of the season (Proprium missarum de 
tempore), occupying more than half of the entire volume. It 
contains the proper introit, collect (one or more), epistle, gradual 
(tract or sequence), gospel, oflfertory, secreta (one or more), 
communion and post-commimion for every Sunday of the year, 
and also for the festivals and ferias connected with the ecclesias- 
tical seasons, as well as the offices peculiar to the ember days. 
Holy Week, Easter and Whitsuntide. Between the office for 
Holy Saturday and that for Easter Sunday the ordinary of the 
mass {Ordo misscu), with the solemn and proper prefaces for the 
year, and the canon of the mass are inserted. The proper of 
the season is followed by the proper of the saints (Proprium 
sanctorum), containing what is special to each saint's day in the 
order of the calendar, and by the Commune ;an£/0r«m, containing 
such offices as the common of one martyr and bishop, the common 
of one martyr not a bishop, the common of many martyrs in 
paschal time, the common of many martyrs out of paschal time, 
and the like. A variety of masses to be used at the feast of the 
dedication of a church, of masses for the dead, and of votive 
masses (as for the sick, for persons journeying, for bridegroom 
and bride) follow, and also certain benedictions. Most missals 
have an appendix also containing certain local masses of saints 
to be celebrated " ex indulto apostolico." 

Masses fall into two great subdivfsions: (i) ordinary or 
regular (secundum ordinem officii), celebrated according to the 
regular rotation of fast and feast, vigil and feria, in the calendar; 
(2) extraordinary or occasional (extra ordinem officii), being 
either " votive '"of " for the dead," and from the nature of the 
case having no definite time prescribed for them. Festival masses 
are either double, half-double or simple, an ordinary Sunday 
mass being a half-double. The difference depends on the number 
of collects and secretae; on a double only one of each is offered, 
on a half-double there are two or three, and on a simple there 
may be as many as five, or even seven, of each. Any mass may 
be either high (missa solennis) or low (missa privata). The dis- 
tinction depends upon the number of officiating clergy, certain 
differences of practice as to what is pronounced aloud and what 
inaudibly, the use or absence of incense, certain gestures and the 
like. Solitary masses are forbidden; there must be at least an 
acolyte to give the responses. The vestments prescribed for the 
priest are the amice, alb, dngxilum or girdle, maniple, stole and 
chasuble (planeta). There are certain distinctions of course for 
a bishop or abbot. The colour of the vestments and of the 
drapery of the altar varies according to the day, being either 
white, red, green, violet or black. This last custom docs not 
go much further back than Innocent III., who explains the 
symbolism intended (see Vestments). 

Subjoined is an account of the manner of celebrating high mass 
according to the rite at present in force. 

I. The priest who is to celebrate, havins previously confessed (if 
necessary) and having finished matins and lauds, is to seek leisure 
for private prayer (fasting) and to use as he has opportunity the 
*' prayers before mass " already referred to. How the robing in the 
sacristy is next to be gone about b minutely prescribed, and prayers 
are given to be used as each article is put on. The sacramental 
elements having previously been placed on the altar or on a credence 
table, the celebrant enters the church and takes his stand before 
the lowest step of the altar, having the deacon on his right and the 
subdeacon on his left. After invoking the Trinity (In nomine 
Patris, &c.) he repeats alternately with those who are with him the 
psalm " judica me, Deus," which is preceded in the usual way by an 
antiphon (Introibo ad altare Dei), and followed also by the Gloria 
and Antiphon.^ The versicle " Adjutorium nostrum," with its 

* This antiphon is not to be confounded with the Antiphona ad 



response " Qui fecit." Is follownl t>y the *' Confiteor.*** said alter- 
nately by the priesi and by the aucti^lants, who in turn respond wiUi 
the pra^« for divlFic ror^ivcntts, ' Mtsereatur." The prkst tiiea 
gives the absoliiiion> (" Indulgcntutn "), and after the versklcs and 
respon&i?^ bccmninjg " Oeus, tu con versus " he audibly says, " Oit- 
mus," and aHrcndtn^ to the aUai silently offers two short praycn. 
one aaking (or forgive nfb» and libiTty of access through Chritt. 
and another indu1gen» for himnML " through the menu of the 
saints i^hose relict are henc/^ Rt.v'etving the thurible from the 
deacon h« ccusei the altar, aiiij i^ thereafter himself censed by 
the dencon. He then rradfi the l[i[TX>it. which is also sung by the 
choir; rhc f^yru tlriion 11, then kiL.J, after which the words Glaia 
in excelsis * are sung by the celebrant and the rest of the hyma 
completed by the choir. 

a. Kissing the alur, and turning to the people with the formula 
" Dominus vobiscum," the celebrant proceeds with the collect or 
collects proper to the season or day, whwh are read secret^. The 
epistle for the day is then read by the subdeacon. and is folk)wed 
by liu: pm^iu^il, tMcl, alk'Juia or tajm^ncc-K accordint %a ihc liroe.' 
Thtu ftiiL5hc^4 lUt deacon placcra the book oi ibr gospeli on ihe altar, 
and the cckbrrtni blcstra the incetHc, The deacon knei-U liefore 
the altar and ujTen the prayer "Munda cor meum»" jfTiTvards 
tafcea the book froirs the altar, and kii»l]ng bclor* the ci-k brant 
asks his bleuinj^, whtrb hcTrccives with the urord» ^' DoTninas sit in 
cordc tuo." Having kissed the hand ol the priest, he g;oe^ accompa- 
nied by acolytes with incense ,ind lighii?d candles to ihc pulpit, and 
with a '* Oominui vobistum " and mlnufely prescribed rr-'^i^ 
and cenitnD^ gives out and t^mU the gospel for the dav\ at thr close 
of which '* Laus tibi, Christe '" is s;3id, and the book is broufhi 10 the 
cckbrant and kiased with the wof^s " Per evangel ica dkta {^l k-nntur 
ncKtra dcbcta '* The celebrant then standing at the cniddlt nf the 
altar sinfs the words -* CmJo In iinum Deiim/^ and Lhc rest nf the 
Nicene creed if Hing by the choLr.* 

3. With *■ Dominus Vdbiscum " and " Orcmifi " the cc^Il' brant 
proceed^ to rt^^d the odertory. which ii also sung by the cbmr. 
This finished he nfcvivin tbc jut en with the host mim the deaooo, 
and after off^rtfig the host with the prayer beainnine "*Sujcipe, 
Sancte Pater " places it upon the corpo^L The do<X}n thea 
ministers wine and the siibdeacon water, and before ibc cdf^twanl 
mixes the water with the wine he b1e&«-^ it in the prayef '" Deas 
qui hurnanae.;* He then takes the chalice, and hivm^ ofltned it 
(' Oftef^mus tibi, Dominc ") places it %ipon the corporal and t overs 
it wiih the p-TJI, Slightly bowing o\'Cf the altar, he then offtrt the 
prayer " In spirit u hiirnilitatii/' and, lifting up hit eye* and ^tretcb- 
ing out h'tj hatitlst proceeds with " Veni unrti^cjii'>r." After 
U^'saing the incense ( Per intercrwlonem beaii Michaclii ar:iian- 
eeli ") he takts the thurible from the deacon and censes the 
bread and wine and altar ^ and is afterwards himscU ci'n*t<l as 
well as the other* in thtir order, Nrxt going to the epistle «de of the 
altar be washes hh fingers as he nxlies the verses ol the J6(h Tsalm 
beginning " Lnvabo/' Returning and bowing before the rnidrile of 
the altar, with joined hands he iiys, *' Suscipr. s^ncta Triniia*," then 
turninz himself towards the people he ni^vs his voice a Uttfc and 
says, ' Orate, fratnrs '* (" that my Hcri8ce aod yours may be 
acceptable JL<> God the Father Almighty "), the response to vhkb 
Li " Su$r]piat Dominus sacrihcium de manibus luis/" Asi. He 
then recites the tetfct pruyef or pcaycfi, and nt the md says, with 
%n audible voice, " Per omnia Faecula saoculoruin " (R. " Amai"). 

4. Again ialutlng with a " Dcjinlnus vobiscum," he lifts up h» 
hands and goes on to the Sunum i^^fdi and the rest of the Frtjaa. 
A different intonation is given for each of the prefaces* At 
the Sanctus the handbell is rung. If there is a chotr the S^mhu 
is sunj^ while the celcbrariT . . -^th the tanon.' After the 
WQnH of rony-rrjtioi oi t'- =.. I:i art said " aecrctl)-, db- 
tinctly^ and attentively," the celebrant kneels and admcs the 
host, rising elevates it, and replacing it on the corporal again adoces 

I ntroitum further on. This use of the 4^rd Psalm goes as far back at 
least as the end of the nth century, bemg mentioned by Micrdogus 
(1080). It is omitted in masses for the dead and during Holy 
Week. * 

' A form very amilar to the present is given by Micrologus, and it 
is foreshadowed even in liturgical literature of the 8th century. 

'During Lent and Advent, and in masses for the dead, this ti 
omitted. In low masses it is of course said, not sung (if it is to be 
said). It may be added that this eariy position of th« doria i» 
excelsis is one of the features distinguishing Roman from EfAtemat 
use. 

* The tract is peculiar to certain occasions, especially of a rooumfui 
nature, and is sung by a single voice. By a sequence b understood 
a more or less metrical composition, not in the words of Scriptme, 
having a special bearing on tne festival of the day. See, forexami^. 
the sequence, " Lauda bion Salvatorem," on Coiput Chrati day. 

* On certain days the Credo is omitted. 

* Now eleven ; they were at pne time much more i 
,^1. J u- :_ .I... ^t._. itisioiigas 

Benedktos 
qui venit " is reserved till alterwards. In rrance it waa a very com- 
mon custom, made general for a time at the request ol Louia XIU tt 
ung " O salutaris hostia " at the elevatran. 



' The approved usage appears to be in that case that it is 
far as " Hosanna in excelsis " before the elcvatk>n^ and " Bei 
qui venit " is reserved till afterwards. In France it was a vc 



MISSI DOMINICI— MISSIONS 



583 



It (the bdl meanwlilte being ning).^ The tame rite is observed 
whcfl tbe chaUce i» consecrated. Immediately before the Lord's 
Prayer. Mt ttie wonU ** p^r ipsum et cum ipso et in ipao," the sign of 
the cros* U dvadc Ihr^ times over the cnalice with the host, and 
tfw^rid* the else of thp " embolism " the fraction of the host takes 
pjld£t* Afto' the word$ " Pax Domini sit semper vobiacum " the 
C3AH»m d the putkk Into the cup Ukes place with the words 
" HicG coRimutlo et coiuecratio," &c The celebrant then says 
tJie ^jftiKf Dti three tJmej. 

%, While the choir noffn the Agnus Dei and the Communion, the 
cdtbrant procvedit stUl tecrete, with the remainder of the office, 
irhich though printed ai part of the canon b more conveniently 
called the communion ^nd post-communion. ^ After the prayer for 
the peace and unitv or the Church (" Domine Jcsu Christe, qui 
dldi4j ") hf ^ it.ir"^ rhi' ^n ^con with the kiss of peace, saying, " Pax 
tecum '^ [I saluted in like manner, and thenconvevs 

Xhc: " pa\ the clergy who may be assisting. The 

celebrant then communicates under both species with suitable 
prayers and actions, and afterwards administers the sacrament to the 
other communicants if there be any. Then while the wine is poured 
into the cup for the first ablution ne says, " Quod ore sumpumus " ; 
having taken it he says, " Corpus tuum, Domine." After the second 
ablution he goes to the book and reads the Communion. Then turn- 
ing to the people with " Dominus vobiscum " he reads the post- 
communion (one or more) ; turning once more to the conerwation he 
uses the old dismissal formula " Dominus vobiscum " {R. Et cum 
spintu tuo "), and " Ite, missa est " or ** Benedicamus Domino," 
in those masses from which Gloria in excelsis has been omitted 
{R. " Deo Gratias "). Bowing down before the altar heoffersthe prayer 
** Ptaccat tibi, sancta Trinitas," then turning round he makes the 
i^n of the cross over the congregation with the word» of the bene- 
diction (" Bcncdicat ").« He then reads the passage from the gospel 
of John beginning with " In principio erat Verbum," or else the 
f»roper gospel of the day.' (J* S. Bl.) 

MISSI DOMINICI, the name given to the officials commissioned 
by the Prankish kings and emperors to supervise the administra- 
tion of their dominions. Their institution dates from Charles 
Martel and Pippin the Short, who sent out officials to see their 
orders executed. When Pippin became king in 754 he sent 
out missi in a desultory fashion; but Charlemagne made them 
a regular part of his administration, and a capitulary issued 
about 802 gives a detailed account of their duties. They were 
to eucute justice, to enforce respect for the royal righu, to 
controL the administration of the counts, to receive the oath 
of alleigiance, and to supervise the conduct and work of the 
clergy. They were to call together the officiab of the district 
and explain to them their duties, and to remind the people 
of their dvil and religious obligations. In short they were 
the direct representatives of the king or emperor. The inhabi- 
tants of the district they administered had to provide for their 
subsistence, and at times they led the host to battle. In 
addition special instructions were given to various missi, and 
many of these have been preserved. The districts placed 
under the missi, which it was their duty to visit four times a 
year, were called missatici or Ugationes. They were not perma- 
nent offidals, but were generally selected from among persons 
at the court, and during the reign of Charlemagne personages 
of high standing undertook this work. They were sent out in 
twos, an ecclesiastic and a layman, and were generally complete 
strangers to the district which they administered. In addition 
there were extraordinary missi who represented the emperor 
on spedal occasions, and at times beyond the limits of his 
dominions. Even under the strong rule of Charlemagne it 
was difficult to find men to discharge these duties impartially, 
and after his death in 814 it became almost impossible. Under 
the emperor Louis I. the nobles interfered in the appointment 
of the missi, who, selected from the district in ^which their 
duties lay, were soon found watching their own interests rather 
than those of the central power. Their duties became merged 
in the ordinary work of the bishops and counts, and under 
the emperor Charles the Bald they took control of associations 

• The history of the practice of elevating the host seems to have 
arinen out of the custom of holding up the ol)Iation9, as mentioned 
in the Ordo Romanus (sec above). The elevation of the host, as at 
present practised, was first enjoined by Pope Honorius III. The 
use of the handbell at the elevation is still later, and was first made 
general by Gregory XI. 

• The benediction is omitted in masses for the dead. 

• The reading of the passage from John on days which had not a 
proper gospel was first enjoined by Pius V. 



for the preservation of the peace. About the end of the 9th 
century they disappeared from France and Germany, and 
during the loth century from Italy. It is possible that the 
itinerant justices of the English kings Henry I. and Henry II., 
the itinerant haiUis of Philip Augustus king of France, or the 
royal enqutUurs of St Louis originated from this source. « 



Instituisfilf dsterreichiscke Gtsckicktsforsckung, Band XI. (Innsbruck, 
1880). E. Dobbert, Ober das Wesen und den Geuhdftskreis der missi 
domxnici (Heidelberg. 1861); N. D. Fustel de Coulanges, Histoir§ 
des institutions p<Uittques die Vancienne France (Paris, 1889-1890); 
L. Beauchet, JusUnre de rorganitation judiciaire en Franu, ipoqu$ 
franque (Paris, 1865). 

MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending) the term used specially 
for the propagandist operations of the Christian Church among 
the heathen, the executants of this work being missionaries. 
Both " mission " and " missionary " have hence come to be used 
of similar works in other spheres. The history of Christian 
missions may, for practical purposes, be divided into three chief 
periods: (i) the primitive, (3) the medieval and (3) the modem. 

The Primitive Period 
There can be little doubt that the Christian Church derived 
its missionary impulse from the teaching of its founder. Even 
though we may feel some hesitancy, in the light of modem 
criticism, about accepting as authentic the specific injunctions 
ascribed to Jesus by Matthew (ch. xxviii. 19) and Luke (ch. xxiv. 
47; Acts i. 8), it must be admitted that the teaching of Jesus, 
in the emphasis which it laid on the Fatherhood of God and the 
brotherhood of man, was bound sooner or later to break away 
from the trammels of Judaism, and assert itself in the form of 
Christian missions. The triumph of this " tmiversalistic " 
element in the teaching of Christ is vividly portrayed in the Acts 
of the apostles. At the beginning of the Acts the Christian 
Church is a little Jewish sect ; long before the end is reached it 
has become a world-conquering spiritual force. The transform 
mation was due in its initial stages to broad-minded men like 
Stephen, Philip and Barnabas who were the first pioneers of 
missionary work. Their efforts, however, were soon completely 
eclipsed by the magnificent achievements of the apostle Paul, 
who evangelized a large part of Asia Minor and the most impor- 
tant dties of Greece. The success which attended the work of 
the great apostle to the Gentiles stamped Christianity as a 
missionary reh'gion for ever. From this point onwards Chris- 
tianity pushed its way into all the' great centres of population. 
We know very little about the missionaries of the first three 
centuries. We suddenly find province after province chris- 
tianized though there is nothing to show how and by whom the 
work was done. The case of Bithynia is an excellent illustration 
of this. When Pliny wrote his famous letter to Trajan (a.d. 112), 
Christianity had taken such a firm hold of the province that its 
influence had penetrated into remote country districts, pagan 
festivals were idmost entirely neglected, and animals for sacrifice 
could scarcely find purchasers. Yet the history of the conver- 
sion of Bithynia is absolutely buried in oblivion. By the time 
of Constantine. Christianity had practically covered the whole 
empire. Hamack has tabulated the results which our scanty 
data allow us to reach in his Expansion of Christianity. He 
divides the countries which had been evangelized by the close 
of the 3rd century into four groups: (i) Those countries in 
which Christianity numbered neariy one-half of the population 
and represented the standard religion of the people, viz. most 
of what we now call Asia Minor, that portion of Thrace which 
lay over against Bithynia, Armenia, the city of Edessa. (2) 
Those districts in which Christianity formed a very material 
jwrtion of the population, influencing the leading classes and 
being able to hold its own with other religions, viz. Antioch and 
Coelc-Syria. Cyprus, Alexandria together with Egypt and the 
Thebais, Rome and the lower parts of Italy, together with certain 
parts of middle Italy, Proconsular Africa and Numidia, Spain, 
the maritime parts of Greece, the southern coasts of GauL 



58+ 



MISSIONS 



[MEDIEVAL 



(3) Those districts in which Christianity was sparsely scattered, 
viz. Palestine, Phoenicia, Arabia, certain parts of Mesopotamia; 
the interior districts of Greece, the provinces on the north of 
Greece, the northern districts of middle Italy, the provinces of 
Mauretania and Tripolis. (4) Those districts in which Christi- 
anity was extremely weak or where it was hardly found at all : 
the districts to the north and north-west of the Black Sea, the 
western section of upper Italy, middle and upper Gaul, Belgica, 
Germany, Rhaetia, the towns of ancient Philistia. It is not 
possible to obtain even an approximate estimate of the numbers 
of the Christians at the time of Constantine. Friedlilnder, for 
instance, does not think that they exceeded by much Gibbon's 
estimate for the reign of Decius, viz. one-twentieth of the 
population. La Bastie and Burckhardt put the ratio at 
one-twelfth, Matter at a fifth and Stiludlin even at a half (see 
Hamack ii. 453). 

After the end of the 3rd century missionary enterprise was 
mainly concentrated on the outlying borders of the empire. In 
the 4th and 5th centuries may be mentioned Gregory the 
Illuminator, the "apostle of Armenia" (about 300), Ulfilas, 
the " apostle of the Goths," about 335; Frumentius,^ a bishop 
of Abyssinia, about 327; Nino, the Armenian girl who was the 
means of converting the kingdom of Iberia (now Georgia), about 
330;* Chrysostom, who founded at Constantinople in a.d. 404 
an institution in which Goths might be trained to preach the 
Gospel to their own people;* Martin of Tours, who evangelized 
the central districts of Gaul; Valentinus, the "apostle of 
Noricum," about 440; Honoratus, who from his monastic home 
in the islet of Lerins, about 4x0, sent missionaries among the 
masses of heathendom in the neighbourhood of Aries, Lyons, 
Troyes, Metz and Nice; and St Patrick, who converted 
Ireland into " the isle of saints " (died either in 463 or 495). 

The Medieval Peuod 

With the sth century the Church was confronted with number- 
less hordes, which were now precipitated over the entire face of 
Europe. Having for some time learnt to be aggressive, she 
girded herself for the difficult work of teaching the nations a 
higher faith than a savage form of nature-worship, and of fitting 
them to become members of an enlightened Christendom. 

(fl) The Celtic Missionaries, — ^The first pioneers who went forth 
to engage in this difficult enterprise came from the secluded 
Celtic Churches of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands. Of 
many who deserve mention in connexion with this period, the 
most prominent were: Columba, the founder of the famous 
monastery of lona in 563 and the evangelizer of the .Albanian 
Scots and northern Picts; Aidan, the apostle of Northumbria; 
Columbanus, the apostle of the Burgundians of the Vosgcs (590); 
Callich or Gallus (d. 646)^ the evangelizer of north-eastern 
Switzerland and Alemannia; Rilian, the apostle of Thuringia; 
and Trudpert, the martyr of the Black Forest. The zeal of 
these men seemed to take the world by storm. Travelling 
generally in companies, and carrying a simple outfit, these 
Celtic pioneers fiung themselves on the continent of Europe, and, 
not content with reproducing at Annegray or Luxeuil the willow 
or brushwood huts, the chapel and the round tower, which they 
had left behind in Deny or in the island of Hy (lona), they braved 
the dangers of the northern seas, and penetrated as far as the 
Faroes and even far distant Iceland.^ " Their zeal and success," to 
quote the words of Kurtz, " are witnessed to by the fact that at 
the beginning of the Sth century, throughout all the district of 
the Rhine, as well as Hesse, Thuringia, Bavaria and Alemannia, 
we find a network of flourishing churches bearing the impress of 
Celtic institutions.** 

(b) The English Missionaries. — Thus they laid the foundations, 
aweing the heathen tribes by their indomitable spirit of self- 
sacrifice and the sternness of their rule of life. But, marvellous 
as it was, their work lacked the dement of permanence; and it 

* Socrates, H.E. i. 15; Soiomen it. 24; Theodoret i. 22. 
'Socrates, H.E. i. 20; Sozomen ii. 7: Theodoret i. 24. 

* Theodoret, H.E., v. 30. 

* See A. W. Haddan, ^ Scots on the Continent." RenuUtu, p. 256. 



became clear that a more practical system must be devised and 
carried out. The men for this work were now ready, and the 
sons of the newly evangeh'zed English Churches were ready to go 
forth. The energy which warriors were accustomed to put forth 
in their efforts to conquer was now " exhibited in the enteiprise 
of conversion and teaching " * by Wilfrid on the coast of Fries- 
land,* by Willibrord (658-715) in the neighbourhood of Utrecht,* 
by the martyr-brothers Ewald or Hewald amongst the " dd " 
or continental Saxons,* by Swidbert the apostle of the tribes 
between the Ems and the Yssel, by Adelbert, a prince of the 
royal house of Northumbria, in the regions north of Holland, 
by Wursing, a native of Friesland, and one of the disciples ol 
Willibrord, in the same region, and last, not least, by the famous 
Winfrid or Boniface, the " apostle of Germany " (680-755), who 
went forth first to assist Willibrord at Utrecht, then to labour 
in Thuringia and Upper Hessia, then with the aid of his kinsmen 
Wunibald and WilUbald, their sister Walpurga, and her thirty 
compam'ons, to consolidate the work of ea^er missionaries, and 
finally to die a martyr on the shore of the Zuider Zee. 

(c) Scandinavian Missions.^Devoied, however, as were the 
labours of Boniface and his disciples, all that he and they and 
the ^emperor Charlemagne after them achieved for the fierce 
untutored world of the Sth century seemed to have been done in 
vain when, in the 9th " on the north and north-west the pagan 
Scandinavians were hanging about every coast, and pouring in 
at every inlet; when on the east the pagan Hungarians were 
swarming like locusts and devastating Eur(^>e from the Baltic 
to the Alps; when on the south and south-east the Saracens weie 
pressing on and oq with their victorious hosts. It seemed then 
as if every pore of life were choked, and Christendom must be 
stiffed and smothered in the fatal embrace."* But the devoted 
Anskar (801-865) went forth and sought out the St^ndinavian 
viking, and handed on the torch of self-denying zeal to others, 
who saw, after the lapse of many years, the close of the mono- 
tonous tale of burning churches and pillaged monasteries, 
and taught the fierce Northman to learn respect for civilized 
institutions.** The gospel was first introduced into Norway in 
the loth century by an Englishman named Hacon, though the 
real conversion of the country was due to Olaf Tryggvasdn. 
About the same time, and largely owing to the exertions of Olaf, 
Iceland, Greenland and the Orkney and Shetland islands were 
also evangelized. 

(d) Slavonic Missions. — ^Thus the " gospel of the kingdom" 
was successively proclaimed to the Roman, the Celtic, the 
Teutonic and the Scandinavian world. A contest still more 
stubborn remained with the Slavonic tribes, with their triple and 
many-headed divinities, their powers of good and powers of 
evil, who could be propitiated only with human sacrifices. 
Mission work commenced in Bulgaria during the latter part of 
the 9th century; thence it extended to Moravia, where in 863 
two Greek missionaries — Cyril and Methodius — provided for 
the people a Slavonic Bible and a Slavonic Liturgy; thence to 
Bohemia and Poland, and so onwards to the Russian kingdom 
of Ruric the Northman, where about the dose of the xoth centnry 
the Eastern Church " silently and almost unconsdoosly bore 
into the world her mightiest offspring."" But, though the 
baptism of Vladimir (c 956-1015) was a heavy blow to Slavoiuc 
idolatry, mission work was carried on with but partial success; 
and it taxed all the energies of Adalbert, bishop of Bremen, of 
Vicilin, bishop of Oldenburg, of Bishop Otto of Bamberg the 
apostle of the Pomeranians, of Adalbert the martyr-apostk 
of Prussia, to q>read the word in that country, in Lithuanis, 
and in the territory of the Wends. It was not till z 168 that the 
gigantic four-headed image of Swantevit was destroyed at Arcoaa 
the capital of the island of ROgen, and this Mona of Slavonic 
superstition was included in the advandag drde of ChristitB 

■ Church. Gifts of Cimliaaii&n, p. 330. * Bede. H.B. v. i^ 
' " Annal. Xantenns,'* Pirtz, Mon, Germ. n. aza 

• Bede, H.E. v. la 

* See Lightfoot, Ancient and Modem Missions. 
■•See Hard wick. Middle Ages, pp. 109-114. 

n Staaley, BoeUm Ckmtk, p. 29^ 



MODEiaq 



MISSIONS 



58s 



dvflization. As Ute as 1130 human sacrifices were stQI being 
offered up in Prussia and Lithuania, and, in spite of all the efforts 
of the Teutonic Knights, idolatrous practices still lingered 
amongst the people, while amongst the Laeipps, though successful 
missions had been inaugurated as early as 1335, Christianity 
cannot be said to have become the dominant religion till at least 
two centuries laur. 

(e) Moslem Missions.— Tht mention of the order of the Teu- 
tonic Knights reminds us how the crusading spirit had affected 
Christendom. StiU even then Raimon Lull protested against 
propagandism by the sword, urged the necessity of missions 
amongst the Moslems, and sealed his testimony with his blood 
outside the gates of Bugiah in northern Africa (June 30, 1315). 
Out of the crusades, however, arose other efforts to develop the 
work which Nestorian missionaries from Bagdad, Edessa and 
Nisibis had already inaugurated along the Malabar coast, in the 
island of Ceylon, and in the neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea. 
In 1245 the Roman pontiff sent two embassies — one, a party of 
four Dominicans, sought the commander-in-chief of the Mongol 
forces in Persia; the second, consisting of Franciscans, made 
their way into Tartary, and sought to convert the successor of 
Oktai-Khan. Their exertions were seconded in 1253 by the 
labours of another Franciscan whom Louis IX. of France sent 
forth from Cyprus,* while in 1274 the celebrated traveller Marco 
Polo, accompanied by two learned Dominicans, visited the court 
of Kublai-Khan, and at the commencement of the 14th century 
two Franciscans penetrated as far as Peking, even transiting 
the New TesUment and the Psalter into the Tatar language, and 
training youths for a native ministry.* 

(/) Missions to India and the New World.— These tentative 
missions were now to be supplemented by others on a larger 
scale. In 1488 the Cape of Good Hope was rounded by Diaz, 
and in 1508 the foundations of the Portuguese Indian empire were 
laid by Albuquerque. Columbus also in 1492 had landed on 
San Salvador, and the voyages of the Venetian Cabot along the 
coast of North America opened up a new world to missionary 
enterprise. Thus a grand opportunity was given to the churches 
of Portugal and Spain. But the zeal of the Portuguese took too 
often a one-sided direction, repressing the Syrian Christians on 
the Malabar coast, and interfering with the Abyssinian Church,' 
while the fanatic temper of the Spaniard consigned, in Mexico 
and Peru, multitudes who would not renounce their heathen 
errors to indiscriminate massacre or abject slavery.^ Las Casas 
has drawn a terrible picture of the oppression he strove in vain 
to prevent.* Some steps indeed were taken for disseminating 
Christian principles, and the pope had induced a band of mission- 
aries, chiefly of the mendicant orders, to go forth to this new mis- 
sion field.* But only five bishoprics had been established by 
1520, and the number of genuine converts was small. However, 
every vestige of the Aztec worship was banished from the Spanbh 
settlements.' 

ig) The Jesuit Missions.— li was during this period that the 
Jesuits came into existence. One of the first of Loyola's asso- 
ciates, Francis Xavier, encouraged by the joint co-operation of 
the pope and of John III. of Portugal, disembarked at Goa on 
the 6th of May 1542, and before his death on the Isle of St John 
(Hiang-Shang), on the 2nd of December 1552, roused the European 
Christians of Goa to a new life, laboured with singular success 
amonipst the Paravars, a fisher caste near Cape Comorin, gathered 
many converts in the kingdom of Travancore, visited Malacca, 
and founded a mission in Japan. 

The successor of Xavier, Antonio Criminalis, was regarded by 
the Jesuits as the first martyr of their society (1562). Matteo 
Ricci, an Italian by birth, was also an indefatigable missionary 
in China for twenty-seven years, while the unholy compromise 

« Ncandcr vii. 69; Hakluyt 171 ; Hue 1. 207. 

* Neaoder vil 79; Gicscler iv. 259, 260; Hardwick, Mtddle Ages, 

^^Scddcs, History of (he Church of Malabar, p. 4: Ncale, EttJ/em 
Church, ii. 343. 

< PrxMCOtt, Conquest of Mexico, 1. :ji8, m. 218. 

* Relacion de la destrucciSn de las Indias. 

* Preacott, Mexico, iii. 218 n. » Prcscott iii. 219. 



with Brahminfsm in Ihdia followed by Robert de' Nobili was 
fatal to the vitality of his own and other missions. Others of 
the same order evangelized Paraguay in 1582, while the Hugue- 
nots sent forth under a French knight of Malta a body of devoted 
men to attempt the formation of a Christian colony at Rio 
Janeiro. By the close of the i6th century a committee of 
cardinals was appointed under the name of the " Congregatio 
de propaganda fide," to give unity and solidity to the work of 
missions. The scheme originated with Gregory XIII., but was 
not fully organized till forty years afterwards, when Gregory XV. 
gave it plenary authority by a bull dated the 2nd of June 1622.. 
Gregory's successor, Urban VIII., supplemented the establish- 
ment of the congregation by founding a great missionary 
college, where Europeans might be trained for foreign labours, 
and natives might be educated to undertake mission work. At 
this college is the missionary printing-press of the Roman 
Church, and its library contains an unrivalled collection of 
literary treasures bearing on the work. 

Modern Missions 

Missionary Societies. — Modem missionary activity is dis- 
tinguished in a special degree by the exertions of societies for 
the development of mission work. 

As contrasted with the colossal display of power on the part 
of the Church of Rome, it must be allowed that the churches 
which in the i6th century broke off from their allegiance to the 
Latin centre at first showed no great anxiety for the extension 
of the gospel and the salvation of the heathen. The causes of 
this are not far to seek. The isolation of the Teutonic churches 
from the vast system with which they had been bound up, the 
conflicts and troubles among themselves, the necessity of fixing 
their own principles and defining their own rights, concentrated 
their attention upon themselves and their own home work, to 
the neglect of work abroad.* 

StiU the development of the maritime power of England, 
which the Portuguese and Spanish monarchies noted iKith 
fear and jealousy, was distingiiished by a singular anxiety for 
the spread of the Christian faith. Edward VI. in his instructions 
to the navigators in Sir Hugh Willoughby's fleet, Sebastian 
Cabot in those for the direction of the intended voyage to Cathay, 
and Richard Haklujrt, who promoted many voyages of discovery 
in addition to writing their history, agree with Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert's chronicler that " the sowing of Christianity must be 
the chief intent of such as shall make any attempt at foreign 
discovery, or else whatever is builded upon other foundation 
shall never obtain happy success or continuance." When on 
the last day of the year x6oo Queen Elizabeth granted a charter 
to George, earl of Cumberland, and other "adventurers," to be 
a body-corporate by the name of " The Governor and Company 
of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies," the 
expressed recognition of higher duties than those of commerce 
may by some be deemed a mere matter of form, and, to use the 
words of Bacon, " what was first in God's providence was but 
second in man's appetite and intention." Yet a keen sense 
of mis^onary duty marks many of the chronicles of English 
mariners. Notably was this the case with the establishment of 
the first English colony in America, that of Virginia, by Sir 
Walter Raleigh. The philosopher Thomas Harriot (1560-1621), 
one of his colleagues, laboured for the conversion of the natives, 
amongst whom the first baptism is recorded to have taken place 
on the 13th of August 1 587.* Raleigh himself presented as a part- 
ing gift to the Virginian Company the sum of £100 "for the pro- 
pagation of the Christian religion " in that settlement" When 
James I. granted letters patent for the occupation of Virginia 
it was directed that the " word and service of God be preached, 

* We must not, however, overlook the remarkable appeal made by 
Erasmus in the first book of his treatise on the art of preaching 
{EccUsiasles site concionatnr evangelicus). The salient passages are 
quoted in G. Smith, Short history of Christian Missions, pp. 1 16-118; 
Gustavus Vasa in 1559 made an effort to educate and evangelize tho 
Lapps. 

•Hakluyt, Voyages, iii. 345. 

» Oldy, Lije of Raleigh, p. 1 18. 



S86 



MISSIONS 



HIODfiKM 



planted and used as well in the said colonies as also as much as 
might be among the savages bordeijng among tbem "; and the 
honoured names of Nicolas Ferrar, John Ferrar, John Donne 
and Sir John Sandys, a pupil of Hooker; are all found /on the 
council by which the home management of the colony was 
conducted. 

In the year 1618 was published The True Honour of 
Navigation and Navigators^ by John Wood, D.D., dedicated 
to Sir Thomas Smith, governor to the East India Company, and 
about the same time appeared the well-known treatise of Hugo 
Grotius, De verilate religionis chrislianae^ written for the ex- 
press use of settlers in distant lands. Grotius also persuaded 
seven law students of LUbeck to go to the East as missionaries; 
the best known of them was Peter Heiling, who worked for 20 
years in Abyssinia. A good deal of work was done by Dutch 
evangelists in Java, the Moluccas, Formosa and Ceylon, but it 
was not permanent. 

The wants, moreover, of the North American colonies did not 
escape. the attention of Archbishop Laud during his official 
connexion with them as bishop of London, and he was developing 
a plan for promoting a local episcopate there when his troubles 
began and his scheme was interrupted. During the Protectorate, 
in 1649, an ordinance was passed for " the promoting and propa- 
gating of the gospel of Jesus Christ in New England " by the 
erection of a corporation, to be called by the name of the Presi- 
dent and Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New 
England, to receive and dispose of moneys for the purpose, and 
a general collection was ordered to be made in all the parishes of 
England and Wales; and Cromwell himself devised a scheme 
for setting up a council for the Protestant religion, which should 
rival the Roman Propaganda, and consist of seven cotmcillors 
and four secretaries for different provinces.* On the restoration 
of the monarchy, through the influence of Richard Baxter with 
Lord Chancellor Hyde, the charter already granted by Cromwell 
was renewed, and its powers were enlarged. For now the cor- 
poration was styled " The Propagation of the Gospel in New 
England and the parts adjacent in America," and its object was 
defined to be " not only to seek the outward welfare and pros- 
perity of those colonies, but more especially to endeavour the 
good and salvation of their immortal souls, and the publishing 
the most glorious gospel of Christ among them." On the list 
of the corporation the first name is the earl of Clarendon, while 
the Hon. Robert Boyle was appointed president. Amongst 
the most eminent of its missionaries was the celebrated John 
Eliot, the Puritan minister of Roxbury, Massachusetts, who, 
encouraged and financially assisted by Boyle, brought out the 
Bible in the Indian language in 1661-1664. Boyle displayed in 
other ways his zeal for the cause of missions. He contributed 
to the expense of printing and pubUshing at Oxford the four 
Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles in the Malay language, and 
at his death left £5400 for the propagation of the gospel in 
heathen lands. 

The needs of the colonial church soon excited the attention of 
others. George Fox, the Quaker, wrote to " All Friends every- 
where that have Indians or blacks, to preach the Gospel to them 
and their servants." Great efiForts were made by William 
Bcveridge (1637-1708), bishop of St Asaph, William Wake 
(1657-1737), archbishop of Canterbury, John Sharp (1645-1714), 
archbishop of York, Edmund Gibson (1669-1748), bishop of 
London, and afterwards by the philosophic Bishop Berkeley, and 
Bishop Butler, the famous author of the Analogy, to develop 
the colonial church and provide for the wants of the Indian 
tribes. In 1 696 Dr Thomas Bray, at the request of the governor 
and assembly of Maryland, was selected by the bishop of London 
as ecclesiastical commissary; and, having sold his effects, and 
raised money on credit, he sailed for Maryland in 1699, where he 
promoted, in various ways, the interests of the Church. Return- 
ing to England in 1700-1 701, and supported by all the weight of 
Archbishop Tcnison and Henry Corapton, bishop of London, 
he was graciously received by William UL, and received letters 

» Ncale, History of New England, \. 260; Burnet, Hiitory of his own 
Times, i. 13a (" Everyman's Library " cd., p. 27). 



patent under the great seal of England for creating a ooipocatkn 
by the name of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel ia 
Foreign Parts " on the i6th of June 1701. 

Meanwhile, in 1664, Von Wek, an Austrian baton, issued a 
stirring appeal to the Church at large for a special association 
devoted to extending the evangelical religion and converting 
the heathen. He was told that each Christian country should 
be responsible for its non-Christian neighbours, e.g. the Greeks 
for the Turks, and that as for the heathen it was no good casting 
pearls before swine. Finding no better response, he went him- 
self as a missionary to Dutch Guiana. The opening of the iSth 
century saw other movements set on foot. Thus in 170$ 
Frederick IV. of Denmark founded a mission on the Coronundd 
coast, and inaugurated the labours of Bartholomew Ziegenbalg, 
Henry Plutschau and C. F. Schwartz, whose devotion and 
success told with such remarkable reflex influence on the Church 
at home. Again' in 1731 the Moravians (q.v.) illustrated in a 
signal degree the growing consciousness of obligation towards 
the heathen. Driven by persecution from Moravia, hunted into 
mountain-caves and forests, they had scarcely secured a place 
of refuge in Saxony before, " though a mere handful in numbers, 
yet with the spirit of men banded for daring and righteous deeds, 
they formed the heroic design, and vowed the execution of it 
before God, of bearing the gospel to the savage and perishing 
tribes of Greenland and the West Indies, of whose condilioQ 
report had brought a mournful rumour to their ears. " And so, 
literally with " neither bread nor scrip," they went forth oa 
their pilgrimage, and, incredible as it sounds, within ten yean 
they had established missions in the islands of the West India, 
in South America, Surinam, Greenland, among the North Ameri- 
can tribes, in Lapland, TarUry, Algiers, Guinea, the Cape of 
Good Hope and Ceylon.* Up till this time aU missionary enter- 
prises had been more or less connected with the state. The era 
of modern missions, based on associate organizations, bepns 
with William Carey {q.v.), and is closely connected with the great 
evangelical revival of the latter part of the i8th century. That 
revival had intensified the idea of the worth of the individual 
soid, whether Christian or heathen, and " to snatch even one 
brand from the burning " became a dominant impulse. In 1 792, 
Carey, a Baptist, who was not only a cobbler, but a linguist of 
the highest order, a botanist and zoologist, published hb Enquiry 
into the Obligations of Christians to use Means for the Contersiem 
of the Heathens, and the book marks a distinct point of departure 
ill the history of Christianity. Under its influence twelve minis- 
ters at Kettering in October 1792 organized the Baptist Society 
for Propagating the Gospel among the Heathen, and subscribed 
£13, 2s. 6d. In Jime 1793 Carey was on his way to India. 
Letters from him quickened interest outside his own communion, 
and in the autiunn of 1794 a meeting of Evangelical ministers 
of all denominations resolved to appeal to their churches, especi- 
ally with a view to work being started in the South Sea Islands. 
The chief movers in the enterprise were the Congregationalist, 
David Bogue of Gosport, and the Episcopalian, Thomas Hawds, 
rector of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire^ With them yftn 
associated Wcsleyan and Presbyterian divines, and in September 
179s the London Missionary Society, emphasizing im> one form 
of church government, was formed. £10,000 was subscn'bed 
by June 1796, and in August 29 missionaries sailed for Tahiti 
Societies formed in Glasgow and Edinburgh in the spring of the 
same year gave their attention to the continent of Africa. 

The need of this continent was also the means of creating 
the distinctively Anglican organization known as the Church 
Missionary Society. The evangelical movement had produced 
philanthropists like Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the 
Eclectic Society, a group of clergy and laymen who fell to dis* 
cussing the new missionary movements. In April x 799, under the 
guidance of John Venn and Thomas Scott, was established the 
Church Missionary Society, originally known as the " Society for 
Missions to Africa and the East." Its promoters declared their 
intention of maintaining cordial relations with Nonconformist 

* J. B. Holmes. Hist. SkeUhes of the Missions of Ike United Brttkta, 
p. 3; A. Grant, Bampton Lectures (1843), p. 19a 



McniEitiq 



MISSIONS 



587 



DtssioDary focieti«Sf and this has largely been done, the 
older Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, manned by 
" High " Churchmen, standing more aloof. In 181 4 the Wes- 
leyan Missionary Society was formed, Methodist effort of this 
kind having previously been left to the individual enterprise 
of Dr Thomas Coke. Thus shorn of two chief bodies of sup- 
porters, and Presbyterians in England being then comparatively 
few, the London Missionary Society became in effect a Congre- 
gationalist organization, though it has never departed from the 
broad spirit of its founders. In Scotland Robert Haldane sold 
his estate and devoted £25,000 to the cause; with others he would 
have gone to India himself but for the prohibition of the East 
India Company, one of whose directors said he would rather see 
a band of devils in India than a band of missionaries. What 
Carey did for England was largely done for Scotland by Alex- 
ander Duff, who settled in Calcutta in 1830, and was a pioneer of 
higher education in India. On the Continent the Basel Mission 
(181 5) grew out of a society founded in 1780 to discuss the general 
condition of Christianity; " Father " J&nicke, a Bohemian 
preacher in BerUn, founded a training school which supplied 
many men to the Church Missionary Society and the London 
Missionary Society; and Van der Kemp, who pioneered the 
London Missionary Society work in South Africa, organized 
in 1797 the Netherland Missionary Society, which turned its 
attention chiefly to Dutch Colonial possessions. 

In America as in England the sense of individual responsibility 
had been developed. In 1796 and 1797 respectively the New 
York and the Northern societies were formed for work among 
Indians by Presbyterians, Baptists and Reformed Dutch, 
acting in concert. News of the London Society stimulated 
interest in New England, and in 1806 Andover Seminary was 
founded as a missionary training college. In the same year 
Samuel J. Mills, Gordon Hall and James Richards, three students 
at Williams College, Massachusetts, formed themselves into a 
mission band which ultimately became the American Board of 
Commissioners for Foreign Missions (June 18 10), an organization 
which, like the London Mission, originally undenominational 
and still catholic, has become practically Congregational. The 
first offshoot from it was the American Baptist Missionary 
Union in 181 4. 

The following chronoloeical lists illustrate the growth of missionary 
societies in Britain and the United States: — 

Great Britain and Ireland. 
Tfiqt. Chriitbn Failh Soci^MJ'fcK x\u- WV^r Inrlki. 
I &f>3 Society for Pf omot i ng Ch r j ^t i-i " l\ j 1 r h\\ 3. ■, ! i? e. 
[jtti Society for tht^ PropagatioD of iht CuE^pcS in Foreign Parts. 
17:^. MoravLin Mkiioni. 
1 79 J. BaptL'Sl ^^ksia^a^)' Society. 
17^5. London Mi&«ionjiry Society, 
1796. Scottiih Miuiaoiiry Society. 
I7g«j. Church KtL&fionary Society, 
1791^ Rflij^ou* Tract Society- 
laaf^ Briiti*h and Foreign Bible Society. 

itO«* Loodofl Societjf fof Pfomotlng CKrtstiamty among the Jews. 
liij. We»teyan MiMtonary Sockiy. 
1817. Gcucf^l Baptist Missionary Socieiv. 
18 Ji- Cok>ntal and CDniinenlai Church Society, 
itij. Church d Scotland WiMJon Boa/d^ 
National Bible Socicrj*^ of ScotUnd, 

1831. Trinitarian Bible Society^ 

1832. Wesfeyan Lftdici' Auxiliary for Fvmak Education in Foreign 

Countricft 

1835. United 5i2ce«ion {afterwards Untied Pnsbytcrian) Foreign 

Mtifjon.9. 

1836. Colon Liil ML«&ionary Socipty. 

1840. I tilii Pfnbylttian Al is* Eonjry Society. 

1840. Wfl^h Cjlvitii^iir Mc-thiMlij^i Mia-Jonary Society. 

1841. Colonial Bishoprics Fund. 

1841. Edinburgh Medical Missionary Society. 

1843. Britbh bociety for the Propagation of the Gospel among the 

Jews. 
1843. Free Church of Scotland Missions. 

1843. Primitive Methodist African and Colonial Mbsions. 
Methodist New Connexion in England Foreign Missions. 

1844. South American Missionary Society. 

1847. Presbyterian Church in England Foreign Missions. 
1858. Christian Vernacular Education Society for India. 
i860. Central .\frican Mission of the English Universities. 
1863. China Inland Mission. 



] 865- FrT i^tkIs* Frfmjtn I^Tiaji^^n. As^ociatiaii, 

J866r ntrlhi hrmiiJi? Mctiir^il Mij^kion. 

i^ftj, Fdcnds' Mi^aoii in Syru and Palestine' 

1^^. CamLiridge Mtuu>n to E>Gi|ii. 

iBfloL Church oi" England Zctunj MiutEmiry Saetety« 

iftgj. Student VotLintti-r Miiiicinary Uniort. 

Untied Sl^ts of A mtrka, 
1 7^3. Corprtriiioit ftjf llm Prpp,ijj3ticni f>f the CfHipcl in New Knf lAfid^ 
tj^j. Society for Proiu^dttng the Gusipcl among the Inidians af 

Rrjston^ 
1795^ Fricnids' M iisioriary S(jciety, 
JSoOk New Vork MiisioaaTy Society. 

Conrvfcticut Missioiury Society for Indians, 
iSoj. liiniird StatH M(uion to tbe ChtfiDkcrK. 
]$ki6. Western Mi^onary Society for Indians, 
iHio, Boani of CommiuiDiier» for Forei|Eii Miiwioni. 
1EJI14. BaptiiiE Mi^uonary Union. 

1^19^ Methodii^t Epiwropal Church Mijdotiary Society. 
1S3J, Free-will Daptiit Foreign Misiiotvary Soficty in India. 
tSjS. Foreij^n Minions of the PrDt^sUnt Efiiscopai Church. 
1 §17, Boa rd of ForeiE^n M ii^^ons of i he Prtriliy tetiafi Ch urc h (Nurth). 
1837. E^'angelicAl Lutheran Foreign Mi&4idimjy Society. 
184J. Seven I h Day Bapti&t Miiifrionoi-y Society^ 

Strict B3ptiji.t Mi»ionary S<;Kriirty* 
1843, Baptist Free Missionary Sotrkty+ 
1845. Method i<^t Flpiicopal Cbu/cli (Soiitb). 

1845. Southern Bjptibt Coil vent ion. ^ 

1846. American Mtwioiury Auociation, 

18^7. Boird of Foreign MiHionj oi (Dutch) Relarrned Church. 
1859. Bcund ol FofeJEn Missions ol United Presbyterian Church. 
186:^. Board of Foreign M iuions ol the Prcsbyteri^a Church (South). 
1878. Ev;ifi];^elica.l AsAiicLiition Missionary Society, 
18^6. 5tudent Volunteer Missioiury Un^n. 

It ii not pCfL»ble to foHow in detntfl the hjatory of the hundred of 
more ciTie.a ntxi.'d societies ol «ame aizc that have thus come into being 
$ince the end of the i8>th century* still le:» that of the three or four 
hand nxl :&mal Icr aj;c nckri.^ It may be noted , however, tha t the en ( CT' 
pri'ju has followea certain more or lesa clearly de&ned tinei. These 
;)ri,^ dc^ribed as follow^ hy Dr E. ht. Bliso, editor of the Mficychpatdut 

T. Tfi^ Denominational. — The course of denamioational work may 
be seen in the way id which the London Society and the America n 
Board mere firaduKilty hh (0 the Congregationalista* it ttt-lng recog* 
niicd thai while fraitTnily was mainiiined, the w[dt.-$t ftjijlt* tould 
Qiilv be obtained o> appeal was made directly to the fntmberff of 
each leparate dcnomi nation. To tome eJ£t<?iii a &inii1dr dtvt^bpmcnt 
ii tmcmblc in other Undv In Gcrtnany the Rheni^ Society i 
become Independent uf the Boh^I Mission, but liJ« it and (he 1 
Society founded by Nrander and ThoWIt ha* preserved a broad 
basis and includes boili Lutheran and R^^formed CDiutUdentb The 
North German or Bremen Society *plit into a ttrtft Luttiemn or 
Lj:ip£i(£ agency and the Hcrmanni^burg Mivto^tn, which aimed at a 
more priniitive and apostoKc method. In Denmark, the Danish 
Mi^iionary Society, founded by Pastor Bone Faldk Ronne in iSai* 
worlccd through the Moravian and BbkI tocietiei unlif 1*62, ^hen it 
TiK^an independent work and concentrated on the Tamil population 
of South Jcidia. In Norway and Sweden miinionary activity kept 
pace with 1 he development of the national life; in the former country 
the Free Churchy in the laltei the State Church hai been the moit 
iLifirt&bful ajfency. 

In Ht>tUnd a rehEJoiis revival in tS4(S led to the foundation of 
severtl oriranifatiDnii which biipp!emcnted the work nf the origina] 
Netherland Missionary Society. In France proicstant missionary 
effort began after the overt hjntiw of the empire, and in tBjjt sevirsl 
isolated commit icci United to form the Soriet'd dc* Mi^^Ion?! Evjn^i- 
hque*. better known ns the Pari^ Evangelical: Sntcktv* In Thhiti, 
Madjipscar and other fields this society hnv Jar|;eiy taken ov«f 
work E>e|un by the London ScKiety, whose opera tiotis Were viewed 
with suspicion by the French ifovcrnment. 

2. Ciiiiaitial .^ id.— Side by side with the founding of the tfiett 
mii^ionory ^rtcietie*, Bible aiid Tract locieties sprang op. The date* 



opmcnt 
t Berlin 



&d 



779K . , 

fi§o4J, Amerknin Bible Society (iaj6), American Tract Society 
( J 8i j J . (See f u rt her Bi B LE Soc IE T iSs. > M ediral M ifsiont have not 
been 10 much collateral organizationi fti departrntnt* of the work ol 
iht- pcnerjjl hicietiefi, and the same h genera liy (rue of women'f 
[iilbMiun-i. Both of theic will be discuucd in more detail. 

3. jf rtdfpfndrtt t ami Spec iai A lem its, — The i ndi vid ual clement I hat 
w^s 50 markpci a feature in Carey 't generation hai never vanishrd* 
in spite of the trodency to cmtral control, f. Hudson Taylor in 
1^53 ^rnt to China a> tne agi^nt of a number of folk in England who 
feared that miiHonary work *aa beconiinK too mechanicaL His aim 
was to push inland ajid to work through native evangditts. Out 
of his endiavonn sprang a new ot^si nidation , the China Inland 



^ For complete dircctofy 1 
I1910J. 



iStaiisliist Aiim of Forrign Miisicni 



S88 



MISSIONS 



(MWEm 



Mis«on; and similar undenominational societies, e.g. the Regions 
Beyond Missionary Union in England, and the Christian and 
Missionary Alliance in America, have since been founded. Other 
individual enterprises have been launched bv persons or single 
churches, but such have not usually fiourisned for any length 
of time, their workers gradually attaching themselves to the Urger 
associations. 

Protestant Missions. — It b generally agreed that the period 
since 1885 has witnessed a very marked increase of missionary 
I BrttlMb. ^^' ^"^ interest in Great Britain, both in the Church 
of England and among the Nonconformists. The 
iroprovemeat, indeed, dates back somewhat earlier. So far as 
the Church of England is concerned it may fairly be said to 
have started afresh in the year following the first observance of 
the Day of Intercession for Missions, on the 2olh of December 
1872. Both the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel and 
the Church Missionary Society were at that time suffering from 
a general coldness which, in the case of the latter society, had 
led in that very year to the committee reporting "a failing 
treasury and a scanty supply of men." The observance of 
that first Day of Intercession was followed by an immediate 
change, and unquestionably there has been progress ever since. 
Then, less than five months afterwards, David Livingstone died 
at Ilala; and no event of the whole century did so much to wake 
up Protestant Christendom. Most of the missions in Central 
Africa owe their origin to the spirit it aroused. But the year 
1884 was also an epoch to be marked. In that year Bishop 
Hannington went to Africa; and his murder in 1885 (first reported 
in England on New Year's Day, t886) deeply touched the 
Christian conscience. The speedy publication of E. C. Dawson's 
biography of him worked a revolution in the circulation of mis- 
sionary literature. Another event of 1884-1885 was the going 
forth to China of " The Cambridge Seven," in connexion with 
the China Inland Mission. All were men of good family; some 
of them went at their own charges; and among them were the 
stroke-oar of the University Eight (Mr Stanley Smith) and the 
captain of the University Eleven (Mr C. T. Studd). Probably 
no event of recent years has exercised a wider influence in the 
cause of missions. In particular, university graduates have 
since then gone out as missionaries in much larger numbers than 
before. There are now five missions definitely linked with the 
universities. The Central African Mission (1858), indeed, is not 
for the most part manned by graduates, though it is led by them; 
but the Cambridge Mission at Delhi (1878), the Oxford Mission 
at Calcutta (1880), and the Dublin Missions in Chota Nagpur 
(Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 189X) and the Fuh-Kicn 
Province of China (Church Missionary Society, 1887) consist 
of university men. Moreover, the older and larger societies have 
much increased the proportion of graduates on their staffs. 

The cause of missions in the universities has been fostered 
greatly by the Student Volunteer Missionary Movement, initiated 
in America in 1886, and organized in England in 1892. The 
Union has over 3000 members (of whom 1400 have gone to the 
field), and has adopted as its watchword, " The Evangelization 
of the World in this Generation "; and this motto has been 
approved by several bishops and other Christian leaders. An- 
other influence upon university men and others who have taken 
holy orders is that of the Younger Clergy Union of the Church 
Missionary Society (1885) and the Junior Clergy Association 
of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1891). At the 
same time there has been a great accession of men to the mission- 
ary ranks from among other classes of society. The Anglican 
societies and the regular and older Nonconformist societies 
(Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian and the London Missionary 
Society, which is virtually Congregationalist) have shared in 
these humbler recruits; but a large proportion of them have 
joined several younger " non-denominational " or " inter- 
denominational " missions. Of these the China Inland Mission 
is the largest and most influential; and while it has sent forth 
many of this class, it has also enrolled not a few men and women 
of considerable wealth, education and social status. The South 
Africa General Mission, the North Africa Mission, and the Congo 
Balolo Mission come next in importance; but there are several 



smaller bodies irorking in different countries. The Salvation 
Army also has missions in India, Ceylon and Japan; but these 
cannot be called " non-denominational," because the Army has 
gradually become a vety strict denomination itself. There is 
one Anglican society working, like some of those just men- 
tioned, in one particular field, viz. the South American 
Missionary Society, founded in 1844. Many foreign dioceses 
also have associations in England for their help and support. 
Medical men have come forward in increasing numbers for mis- 
sionary service, and medical missions are now regarded as a very 
important branch of the work of evangelization. They are 
especially valuable in Mahommedan countries, where open 
preaching is difficult and sometimes impossible, and also in works 
of mercy among barbarous tribes; while in China, which comes 
under neither of these two categories, they have been largely 
developed. There are 980 doctors (most of them fully qualified) 
labouring in Britbh and American missions; and in 1910 it was 
calculated that the in-patients in mission hospitals exceeded 
160,000, while the visits of out-patients in a year were about 
5,000,000. In several of the great London hospitals there are 
missionary associations, the members of which are medical 
students; but a chief source of supply in the past has been 
the Edinburgh Medical Mission, founded in 1841, which, white 
working among the poor in that city, has trained many young 
doctors for missionary service. 

The most remarkable development of missionary enterprise 
has been the employment of women. From an early date many 
of the wives of missionaries have done good service; but the going 
forth of single women in any appreciable number has only been 
encouraged by the societies in the last quarter of the 19th 
century. The Society for Promoting Female Education in the 
East (now absorbed by others, chiefly by the Church Missionary 
Society) was founded in 1834; the Scottish Ladies* Association 
for the Advancement of Female Education in India (which 
subsequently became two associations, for more general work, 
in connexion with the Established and Free Churches of Scotland 
respectively) in 1837; the Indian Female Normal School Sodcty 
(now the Zenana Bible and Medical Mission) in 186 1 (taking over 
an association dating from 1852); the Wesleyan Ladies' Auxiliary 
in 1859; the Women's Association of the Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel, and the Baptist Zenana Mission, 
in 1867; The London Society's Female Branch, in 187s; 
the Church of England Zenana Society (an offshoot from the 
Indian Female Society) in 1880. But the earlier of these organi- 
zations only contemplated employing women for educational 
work on a very small scale. Out of it grew the visitation of 
Indian zenanas. The employment of women in general evan- 
gelistic work, such as village itineration, house-to-house visiting 
in towns, classes for female inquirers, training of native feroate 
workers, &c., although recent, has rapidly extended. The 
Church Missionary Society, besides relying on the above-named 
Zenana Bible and Medical Mission and Church of England 
Zenana Missionary Society for women's work at several of its 
stations in India and China, sent out 500 single women in the 
fifteen years ending 1900; and the non-denominational missions 
above referred to have (including wives) more women than men 
engaged in their work — especially the China Inland Mission, 
which has sent out several hundreds to China. Women's work 
and medical work are combined in the persons of neariy 300 ^ 
fully-qualified lady doctors in various missions. Although ^ 
nearly half the male missionaries (Protestant) are unmarried. .«. 
these are exceeded in number by the unmarried women; and-tf 
consequently, the husbands and wives being equal, the aggregate's 
of women in the Missions is greater than the aggregate of men. 

The home organization of missions is a subject that has Uiii-.-* 
much considered. The bulk of the work has been done by volun ^.^ 
tary societi^, membership in which depends upon a pecuniar^^H 
subscription, and the administration of which is entrusted t"^<^ 
elected committees. These committees comprise not only re^v^ 
experts, such as retired veteran missionaries, and retired civ — mJ 
and military officers who have been active friends of missioiv^ 
while on foreign service, but also leading clergymen and laymecv 



rODERMl 



MISSIONS 



589 



ho, though not personally acquainted with the mission fields, 
Bcome alnK^t equal experts by continuous attendance and care- 
d study. In the case of the two leading Church of England 
ideties, the bishops (being members) are ex officio on all execu- 
ve committees; but their labours in other directions prevent 
leir ordinarily attending. The numerous non-denominational 
lissions previously referred to are differently worked. There 

no membership by subscription, nor any elected committee. 
he *' mission " consists of the missionaries themselves, and 
ley are governed by a ** director," with possibly small advisory 
mndls in the field and at home, the latter undertaking the duty 
' engaging missionaries and raising funds. 

On the other hand, there is a growing sense that missions 
lould be the work of the Church in its corporate capacity, and 
>t of voluntary associations. This is the system of the Presby- 
rian Churches, the missions of which are entirely controlled 

Y the General Assemblies in Edinburgh, Belfast and London 
spectively. The Wesleyan Society also is under the authority 
: the Conference. In the Church of England the question was 
roached in Convocation, shortly after the revival of that body, 

1859; and during the next few years many suggestions were 
It forth for the establishment of a Board of Missions which 
tould absorb the societies, or at least direct their work. It soon 
>peared, however, that neither the Society for the Propagation 

the Gospel nor the Church Missionary Society was willing to 
: absorbed; and it was urged by some that in a great compre- 
.'nsive national Church, comprising persons of widely different 
ews, more zeal was likely to be thrown into voluntary than 
to oflficial enterprises. Eventually, in 1887, the Canterbury 
onvocatlon and Archbishop Benson formed a Board of Missions; 
id York followed shortly afterwards. These boards, however, 
:re not to supersede the societies, but to supplement their 
jrk, by collecting information, fostering interest, registering 
suits and acting as referees when required. They have already 
>ne some useful work, and will probably do more. Their most 
live members are men who are also leaders in their respective 
deties, and have thus gained experience in missionary adminis- 
ation. But the Church of England has not yet put missions 

the prominent place they occupy in the Nonconformist 
mominations. 

The closing years of the 19th century were remarkable for 
le centenary commemorations of the older missionary societies, 
he Baptist Society celebrated its centenary in 1893; the London 
lissionary Sodcty (Congregational) did the same in 1S95; 
te Sodety for Promoting Christian Knowledge kept its bi- 
rntenary in 1898; the Church Missionary Society its centenary 

1899; the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel its 
centenary in 1900-1901; and the British and Foreign Bible 
Kiety its centenary in 1904. Ck>nsiderable special funds 
ive been raised in connexion with these commemorations. A 
xxl deal of interest has also been awakened and maintained 

Y missionary exhibitions, and by a more intelligent type of 
lissionary literature. 

Colonial missions next daim attention. By " colonial " is 
leant, not missions to the British colonial population, but 

< >f>«f«£ missions from the colonial population to the heathen. 
The former have been very largely the work of the 
txriety for the Propagation of the Gospel, and, in a smaller 
egrce, of the Colonial Church Society (Church of England) and 
je Colonial Missionary Society (Congregational). Those missions, 
owever, are more properly an outlying branch of home missions, 
cing to the professing Christian settlers or their descendants, 
ut these Christian settlers have their own missions to the 
eathen — both to the heathen at their doors and to the great 
eat hen lands beyond. 

In Canada and Australia, the Anglican, Presbjrterian, Metho« 
ist. Baptist and other communities have regular organizations 
)r foreign missions. The non-episcopal missions thus formed 
nd supported are worked quite independently of the home 
xieties of the denominations respectively. The Australian 
'resbyterians have important agendes in the South Seas and 
1 Korea, the Australian Baptists in Bengal, the Canadians of 



various denominations in the Far North- West of the Dominion, 
and in India and China. The Anglican Church in Canada has 
its Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society, working in the 
North- West and in Japan; and in Australia it has a Board of 
Missions, working amongst the Australian aborigines and in New 
Guinea. The Melanesian Mission, assodated with the names of 
Sdwyn and Patteson, b officially connected with the Church of 
New Zealand, but is also largely supported in Australia. In 
New South Wales, Victona, New 2^1and and Canada there are 
also Church missionary associations which supply missionaries, 
and support them, for the mission fields of the Church Missionary 
Sodety. 

The German sodeties are numerous and important, and have 
increased in number and in vigorous work. The Moravian 
Church, whose missions are the oldest (1732), is itself 
a missionary organization in a sense in which no ^^oul" 
other Christian community rivals it. Its total 
membership is under 100,000, and it has some ^$0 mission- 
aries, labouring in the most unpromising fields — Greenland, 
Labrador, Alaska, Central America, Tibet, and among the Hot- 
tentots. The Basel Society, with its famous seminary at Basel, 
which formerly supplied many able German missionaries to the 
Church Missionary Society, has extensive work in India, West 
Africa and South China. The Berlin Society and the Rhenish 
Society labour in South Africa and China, the Hermannsburg 
Mission (Hanover) in South Africa and India; Gossner's Mission 
(Berlin) and the Leipzig Lutherans in India. At least two gf 
these societies, and other new associations formed for the pur- 
pose, and the Moravians, have taken up work in German East 
Africa. The prind[>al organizations in Holland are the Nether- 
lands Missionary Sodety and the Utrecht Missionary Sodety, 
working mainly in the Dutch colonics. A Danish society has a 
mission in South India. The old Swedish and Norwegian 
missionary sodeties work in South Africa, Madagascar and India; 
but large numbers of Scandinavians have been stirred up in 
missionary zeal, and have gone out to China in connexion with 
the China Inland Mission; several were massacred in the Boxer 
outbreaks. The French Protestants support the Soci&i des 
Missions £vangeliqueSf founded in 1822. Its chief mission 
has been in Basutoland, since extended to the Zambesi; but it 
has also followed French colonial extension, establishing missions 
in Senegambia, the French Congo, Madagascar and Tahiti 

The newer American organizations are, as in England, non- 
denominational and " free-lance," especially the Christian and 
Missionary Alliance (1897), developed from the j^AntmHr^m. 
International Missionary AJliance (1887), which has 
sent many missionaries to India and China. The older 
sodeties attribute to th^e new agendes more zeal than 
discretion, while the newer credit the older with a discretion 
that cripples zeal. The Student Volimteer Movement, already 
referred to, has had large influence in the United States, where it 
arose; and its leaders have proved themselves men of rare 
intcilcciual ar*J pr-ctical capadty. In a journey round the 
world in 1895-1897, J. R. Mott succeeded in forming students' 
associations in universities and colleges in several European 
countries, as well as in Turkey in Asia, Syria, India, Ceylon, 
China, Japan and Australia; and all these associations, over 150 
in number, are now linked together in a great International 
Student Federation. The older American societies, especially 
the American Board (Congregational), the Presbyterian 
Boards, the Methodist Episcopal Church Society, the Baptist 
Missionary Union, and the Missionary Society of the Protestant 
Episcopal Church, have much extended their work. The 
" Ecumenical Missionary Conference," held at New York' in 
April 1900, was an astonishing revelation to the American public 
of the greatness of missions generally and of the missions of 
their own churches in particular. The Laymen's Missionary 
movement is a significant outcome of the interest then awakened. 

Missions to the Jews are worked by distinct organizations. 
There are several sodeties in England, Scotland, Germany and 
America. No special development has to be reported, except 
the great extension of John Wilkinson's Mildmay Mission to 



590 



MISSIONS 



mODEKH] 



the Jews, and its energy in the free distributibn of Hebrew New 
Testaments. • Converted Jews are commonly supposed to be 

-^-j-_ very few, and in numbers they do not compare with 
iiatb0j9wi. converted heathen; but they are more numerous than 
is usually imagined, especially if the second and 
third generations of Christians of Hebrew race are mcluded. A 
number of them find in Unitarianism a form of Christianity 
that appeals to them. It is estimated that 350 Anglican clergy- 
men are converted Jews or the sons of converted Jews. The 
London Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews 
includes among its missionaries about 80 who are converts. 
Professor Delitzsch estimated that 100,000 Jews had embraced 
Christianity in the first three quarters of the 19th century, and 
Dr Dalman of Leipzig says that " if all those who have entered 
the Church and their descendants had remained together, 
instead of losing themselves among the other peoples, there 
would now be a believing Israel to be counted by millions, 
and no one would have ventured to speak of the uselessness of 
preaching the Gospel to the Jews." 

Interesting as is the story of Protestant mission work in Austria, 
Spain. Italy and Russia, it does not fall within the scope of this 
article. Nor do the proselytizing enterprises of Seventh Day Ad- 
ventists. Christian Scientists, Mormons and other American bodies 
rightly find a place here. 

Roman Catholic Missions. — ^At the beginning of the 19th 
century the Roman Communion seems to have shared to some 
extent in the torpor and stagnation as regards missions that 
characterized the Protestant churches. There was little of the 
zeal which had carried the Franciscans all over Asia in the 13th 
century, and the Jesuits to South America, India and Japan in 
the i6th. But the 19th century witnessed a great change, and 
Roman Catholic missions have been extended pari passu with 
Protestant. The revival was not a little due to the foundation 
in 1822, by a few earnest but (as they called themselves) " humble 
and obscure " Catholics at Lyons, of a new voluntary society, 
called the Institution for the Propagation of the Faith. It 
collected in its first year about £2000 from the shopkeepers and 
artisans of Lyons. Thirty years later its income was £200,000 a 
year; and now it is £300,000. It has sent out no missionaries 
of its own. It merely makes granu to the various missionary 
parties sent forth, and it has done much in this direction. Roman 
missions are carried on both by missionary societies and by 
religious orders, all under the supreme direction of the pope, 
and also more or less under the general supervision of the Sacra 
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide at Rome since its foundation 
by Gregory XV. in 1622. This important congregation has 
been described as corresponding pretty much in the Catholic 
Church to the colonial office in the British empire, and iu head, 
the " Prefect of Propaganda," to the secretary of state for the 
colonies. It holds supreme control over all the foreign missions 
in heathen countries, and also over large and important parts 
of the church in Christian countries whose governments are not 
Catholic— including the British empire, the United States, 
Holland, the Norse kingdoms, Greece, and some parts of Germany 
and Switzerland. A special section (erected by Pius IX.) has 
charge of the affairs of all the Oriental rites in union with the 
Roman see. Confining our attention at present to the missions 
strictly understood under " foreign," i.e. to heathen or non- 
Christian countries, we shall find the whole of these parts of the 
globe carefully mapped and parcelled out by propaganda to a 
variety of missionary agencies or religious orders. The govern- 
ment of the various mission fields is generally carried on by 
" Vicars- Apostolic " {i.e. titular bbhops acting as vicars or dele- 
gates of the Apostolic see) or " Prefects-Apostolic " («.«. priesu 
with similar powers, but without episcopal rank). In some few 
cases (notably India and Japan) a regular territorial hierarchy has 
been established, just as in the United Kingdom and the Nether- 
lands. Of the religious societies engaged in the evangelization 
of these many fields of labour, some have been established exclu- 
sively for foreign missionary work among the heathen — ^notably 
the famous Soci6t6 dcs Missions fitrangdres of Paris, the oldest 
and greatest of all (dating from 1658, and consisting of 34 bishops, 



1 200 European missionaries and 700 native priests) ; the Germao 
" Society of the Divine Word," whose headquarters are at Steyl 
in Holland; the Belgian Society of Scheat, the celebrated French 
Society of the ** White Fathers," founded by the late Cardinal 
Lavigerie for African missions; the English Soaety of St Joseph, 
founded at Nfill Hill by Cardinal Vaughan, and some others. 
The other missions are entrusted to the care of vanous religious 
orders and congregations, which take up foreign missionary 
work in addition to their labours in Christian countries. Such 
are the Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits, Lazarists, Augustin- 
ians, Marists, &c. Besides the above orders of priests, an 
immense number of religious societies of women are engaged in 
works of education and charity throughout the whole of the 
foreign mission field. These have been reckoned at about 
42,000 European and 10,000 native sisters. Again, there are 
some 20 congregations of " Brothers " (not pnests) engaged in 
teaching, and numbering some 4500 members. 

By far the greater part of the Roman missionary work b 
done by France. The majority of the mi^onaries are French 
(over 7000); the bulk of the money — so far as it is voluntary 
contribution (but the propaganda at Rome has large endow- 
ments) — is raised in France. The French government, anti- 
clerical as it is at home, b the watchful and strenuous protector 
of the missions abroad; and it is evident that not a little political 
influence in foreign countries is gained thereby. V Annie de 
P£glise, in reporting on the missions in all parts of the worid, 
dwells continually on this with satisfaction. Protestant mission- 
aries are opposed, not merely because they are heretical, but 
because they are English or (if American) English-spealung; 
and the Greek Church missionaries in Persia and Japan, not only 
because they are schismatic, but because they are Russian— the 
Franco-Russian alliance notwithstanding. This is a feature 
in French Catholic missions which cannot be overlooked jn the 
briefest account of them. 

The following list shows the principal foreign Roman Cathofic 
missionary societies and their fields of work. — 

I. Sod^^te dti Idiii\oni ££ranfhres (PanAi 163.^ J. — Misjj**ft 
Ma]>ehujria» Korea, Tibet ^ J^P^Ah China (SM^Chuea* 
Kui'iThQWt K^^ne^tGng, YunnanJ^ Indo-Chiiu iW., S 
and Upper Tongting^ E., W. and N* CochtD-CJiiKt: 
Cjmboijia, Sijm}» Malay FVnLnsuUj, Durma {S. and tiX 
S. India <djoce«04 of PQtidicberFy» KombakAn^m, A1>^hr« 

II. SocittyoJ '* Wkiif FiiiXerr " (foundod by Csrdtnal LaviteriCk 
i86Hj.^Mi'iJiMi: Alp[eria» Sahara. Nyan. Viirtaria 



III 



Nyanza^ Tani^afiyilca^ [Jn^anyrmbc, Ijipper Congo. 
> for 



Lyoni Srminary for Fartign Misiuotu (JA56). — l/iinou: 
^il*^ Delta ^ Benln^ Ivory Coaati Gold Coasts Doiraoiry. 
Lfpper Niger, 
IV. Coits/egaiion ttf the Holy Gkoii (1705 and t&iR). — Ifiuimit^ 
Scnegambian Gambia^ Sk-rra Leone, Lo»tr Nim-, GabccMt^^ 
French Con^o^ Lower Congo, MayoctCf No^b£ uh^M 
Cam am- Inlands- 



V. Milmn. Seminary for Foreign Miiiicni {tfiy>). — Miuiemi 
China (Hong Kon^t N. and S. Ho-nan^^ East Burs^ 
India [dioce&e'a of (G^hnagar aiid Haklar^b^dJ, 



VI. SU^ylSjculyef Fsreifn Miiiiiffit (Gernuji, IS75}. — Miitsim^^M 
S. Shan-tun^, China;, TojOf W. Africi. 
VII. Sffifiii Society of Foreign Mi^iioni (Bctjian, ifftj},^ — ' 
Miiiiom: Mongolia, Kang-Su (China), Belgian Cor gis— ' 
VIII. Puputian Societ:/ (Pari*, \Aij}.^Miisi^r^: Ha^aB^ 
TjhiTJ. Marquesas hlandj. 
IX. Mill Iliii S^liiy (Englij^, iS^y.^Misti&nsi N. Biiyii ^ 
and LftbuAii; N. Funiab, Ka^cnir ^nd Lddak: Telii^^fl 
Riln^iun^ or Madras; Maofi mlviloas ol N. New ZnSii^B^n 
N. LfEanda. 
X. Cfinjtrcjfuiipfl aftht SoiTid IJ^H fTssoucIuo, France, '^jSJ — ^'~ 
Afissionn Nrw Cuincir Nt* Pomirrania, Gilbert 14*^^^=*: 
XI. Sfifi<-ty oftk^ t>it4n€ Han^ur { Rfjine, rMr ).— if««pw 
XII. V*rm^ S<yti€tyfoT African Miuii^HS.—Mtsiitm: The Sw 

Upper Eiq'pi. 
The following icxzieties rts engaged ill home a* «dl » tot 
missions: — 

XIII. Marists (French. 1816).— JIfwxwiM: Rji. Navintor's ld»iw. 
New Caledonia. Central Oceania. Solomon Island^p*"' 
of New Zealand (dioceses of Wellington and CnrBtf* 
church). 



* Father Damien belonged to this society, which takes its 
name from the Rue de Picpus. Paris. 



/ 



MISStON FIELDS 



MISSIONS 



59' 



XIV. loKnjiz (lourtdfd by St Vincent df PiiuL 17th ctntury^.— 
Mujwni; Abyaunia. Persia, China (Pckmg or N. Chili-li» 
S.-VV. Chih-k, Kidnj^'ii. Che'Ki4ng>rS, Madagascar^ 
XV. ObiaUs of Mary Immccuiaie {i^4o)^—MniWfit: Ctylfin 
(nearly all), S. Africa (Ba^utoUfld. NJttal, Traciavaal, 
Orani^c Riwr Colony), the " Gnstl Nt>rth-W«t " of 
Cart^da (Athabasoa-MackcnJELck Saiik4tchcwjin, St Boitv 
fic*t, H^w Wcstmrniter). 
XVI. iSo/fifwnj (loundcd by Don Boeco),— Af<jJtff«i: FiitaE<=>'nia 
and Ticrra del Fucgo, Fallcland [E^land^p Indians ot S, 
America (Ecusfic^ri Ur^\, Arg^ntiat)^ fiome oii^aiu in 
Palestine. 

XVll. PuUiHiimfs.—Misnpjts: CAmercvon, W. Africa; AustiaLia 

(Bi^agle Bay^ native scttlcmenl), 
kVIIL Jtiuiii, — Afifiiani. Indta (dioccrjies of BDmbaVt Poonan 
Cekutta. Madtan^ Man^nlortr, Trichirjr:vpcily5T Ceyton 
klkcem of Galk and TnrKomalcc), China rKiang-nan, 
&'£. Cbih-Li), Madaea^ar, Koanf^o {W. Mric^), Zitu^ 
bedjH. Jamaica, British Guiana, British Hondurai, Aktka. 
XIX. Efiminiitiit^. — Uissism: Asiatic Turkey (^lasu!}, Ton^king 
tS,, E. iad Central), China (Amoy* Fokien), Cura^o, 
Trinidad. 
XX. franciicarrs. — J^issutns: Egypt » Tripotii Morocco, China 
(N. and S. Shan-u, N. and £, Sliai>-tting» N. Shen-m. 
E.H N.'W. and S.-W. Hu pe). CapMchini: Aden and 
Ai^bta. India tdiocesei ol Agra, AM,-ih;tb^, Lahore), 
Seychelles, Eritrea (Red Sod), GalUs, Ccph^lonia, Trebi- 
Eond, Manltn, Crete^ Caroline [^lands,_ Aratic^ania, Brazil, 
Buk^rb- Conttnluah: l^^Ey (Rumania). 
XXI. BfTVduttTKs,-^^ Missions: Ceylon (diocese of Kandy), New 
Zcaknd (diocese of Auckland), N. American Indians 
(tndiiA Territory and Oklahoma), Au£traliaa natives 
(New Nuf^Ia). 

XXII. Traffnjti.—Missims: Scttletnenit in hiatal (Muianhill), 
We*t Africa (Con^o). Ctiin^. Japn* 

XXIII. Aa^Hsfirfiani.—AfissiifKs: Pbilipmnes, China (N. Hu-nan), 

Balkan PenmsuU. Asia l^inor ( Assufnptionifts "). 

XXIV. Qirmfittfj.^Mirmms: Bagdad, India (diocttt* of Verapoly 

and Quilon). 
XXV. RidfrnfiUrfisU. — Misiiimi : Dutch Cutana. 
JCXVI. PaitiitHttt3. — MiiiioHsi Bulgaria (diocrse of Nicopolis). 

These missions, are larKitly siippy^irted by the Society of the Propaga^ 
tion of the Faith (irst. inXyotis. iBjj}, Society of the Holy Childhood 
, |84J ■^■^ inxiliirv t^ tH-- f^rmfr; "■rhil-lri^n fi>r children") and 
f the Schools of the East (est. 1855). 

On figures given in H. A. KTOse'& KaSkotiscke Missions- 
jtaUsiH {190S), the following totals of Roman Catholic Missions 
amongst non-Christians have been compiled: European priests, 
7933; native priests, 5837; lay brothers, 5270; sisters, 21,320; 
<atechists, 24,524; native membership, 7,441,2x5; catechumens, 
tf5i7>909* T^^ annual baptisms of adult heathen are 190,000; 
those of heathen children at the point of death, .450,000. Over 
^0,000 children are in lower schools, 66,000 in middle schools, 
and 90,000 in orphanages. The total humber of schools is 
24,000, of churches and chapels 28,000, and of mission stations 
43,000. 

Note. — ^Where figures for 1910 are quoted in this article thev are 
reallv those of two or three years earlier, collected for the World 
Conference of 191a 

Orthodox Eastern CAktcA.*— When the tsar Ivan the Terrible 
(i 533-1 584) began the great advance of Russia into Northern 
Asia, a large number of missionaries accompanied the troops, 
and during the 17th century many thousands of Tatars were 
baptixed, though from lack of fostering influences they lapsed 
into heathenism. Very little was done until 1824, when John 
Veniaminov (d. 1879), a priest of Irkutsk, afterwards Archbishop 
Innocent, began a career of evangelistic activity which has few 
parallels. He founded missions in Alaska and the Aleutian 
Islands, Kamtchatka and throughout Eastern Siberia, and 
established the Orthodox Missionary Society at Moscow. In 
Altai (Central Siberia) the Archimandrite Macarius, and among 
the Tatars in south-east Russia with headquarters at Kazan 
the great linguist Ilminski, did similar work. In addition to 
the nine distinct missions (300 workers) in Siberia and the six 
(with 50 workers) in European Russia, the Ortliodox Church 
(Russian) has three foreign missions: (x) in China, founded at 
Pekin X714, in the face of Jesuit opposition; (2) in Japan, 
established about X863 by Bishop Nicolai, a chaplain at Naga- 
saki; (3) in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, the bishop residing 

*See E. SmimoflF, Russian Otlhodox Missions; an article in The 
East and the West (April, 1904) ; and the Statistical Atlas (1910), p. 99. 



at San Frandsco and haviiig jurisdiction also over members of 
the church settled in the United States of America Altogether 
the Russian Church spends over £30,000 aimually on these 
missions, and works with the British and Foreign Bible Society 
in translating and distributing the Scriptures. In Japan the mis- 
sion has become a practically independent branch of the Church. 

History of Mission Fields 

The continuity of missionary enthusiasm maintained through 
the primitive, the medieval, and the modem periods of the 
Church's history, operating at every critical epoch, and surviving 
after periods of stagnation and depression, is a very significant 
fact. It is true that other religions have been called missionary 
religions, and that one of them long held first phice in the 
religious census of mankind. The missionary activity of Budd- 
hism is a thing of the past, and no characteristic rite distinguish- 
ing it has found its way into a second continent. Mahomme- 
danism indeed is active, and is the chief opponent of Christianity 
to-day, but the character of its teaching is too exact a reflection 
of the race, time, place and climate in which it arose to admit 
of its becoming universal It is difficult to trace the slightest 
probability of its harmonizing with the intellectual, social and 
moral progress of the modem world. With all its defidencies, 
the Christian church has gained the " nations of the future," 
and whereas in the 3rd century the proportion of Christians to 
the whole himian race was only that of one in a hundred and 
fifty, this has now been exchanged for one in three, and it is 
indisputable that the progress of the human race at this moment 
is identified with the spread of the influence of the nations of 
Christendom. 

Side by side with this continuity of missionary zeal, a notice- 
able feature is the immense influence of individual energy and 
the subduing force of personal character. Around individuals 
penetrated with Christian zeal and self-denial has centred 'not 
merely the- life, but the very existence of primitive, medieval 
and mpdem missions. What Ulfilas was to the Gothic tribes, 
what Columba and his disdples were to the early Celtic missions, 
what Augustine or Aidan was to the British Isles, what Boniface 
was to the churches of Germany and Anskar to those of Denmark 
and Sweden, that, on the discovery of a new world of missionary 
enterprise, was Xavier to India, Hans Egede to Greenland, 
Eliot to the Red Indians, Martyn to the church of Cawnpore, 
Marsden to the Maoris, Carey, Heber, Wilson, Duff and Edwin 
Lewis to India, Morrison, Gilmoiir, Legge, Hill, Griffith John to 
China, Gray, Livingstone, Mackenzie, Moffat, Hannington, 
Mackay to Africa, Broughton to Australia, Patteson to Mdan- 
esia, Crowther to the Niger Territory, Chalmers to New Guinea, 
Brown to Fiji.' At the most critical epochs such men have 
ever been raised up, and the reflex influence of their lives and 
self-denial has told upon the Church at home, while apart from 
their influence the entire history of important portions of the 
world's surface would have been altered. 

If from the agents themselves we turn to the work that has 
been accomph'shed, it will not be disputed that the success of 
missions has been marked amongst rude and aboriginal tribes. 
What was true in the early missions has been found true in these 
latter times. The rude and barbarous northern peoples seemed 
to fall like " full ripe fruit before the first breath of the gospel." 
The Goths and the Vandals who poured down upon the Roman 
Empire were evangelized so silently and rapidly that only a fact 
here and there relating to their conversion has been preserved. 
This is exactly analogous to modem experience in the South 
Seas, Asia and Africa, to a survey of which we now tum. 

The South Seas. — Missionary work in the Padfic began with 
Magellan (1521), when in a fortnight he converted all the in- 
habitants of CebCi and the adjacent Philippine Islands! The 
Jesuits, RecoUets and Augustinians also worked in Mariana, 
Pelews and Caroline Islands, though the two latter were soon 
abandoned. The beginning of modem effort was made by the 
London Missionary Sodety in 1797. 

' E. Stock's Short Handbook of Missions has a chapter on " Some 
Notable Missionaries " and another on " Some Prominent Native 



592 



MISSIONS 



(MISSION FIELOS 



Australia and Sew Zealand, — ^The earliest attempt to evange- 
lize the aborigines of Australia by a separate mission was that of 
the Church Missionary Society in 1825. This work centred at 
Wellington Valley and Moreton Bay, but was given up in 1843. 
A new beginning was made in 1850 by the Anglican Board of 
Missions for Australia and Tasmania, and now each diocese is 
responsible for its own area. At Bellenden Ker, near Calms, in 
North Queensland (diocese of Carpentaria), many natives have 
settled upon a reserve granted by government to the Anglican 
Church, and at another reserve, Fraser Island, the diocese of 
Brisbane has also undertaken successful work. Nomadic 
aborigines have hardly been touched. Apart from Queensland 
most of the black population is in West Australia; here the 
Roman Catholic Church is the main evangelizing agency. In 
the north and central districts the German missions have been 
active. Both in Australia (especially in Sydney and Melbourne) 
and at Thursday Island there is work among the Chinese. 

In Tasmania the aborigines are extinct, the last pure-blooded 
native dying in 1876. The half-castes settled in the Bass Straits 
are ministered to by the bishop of Tasmania. The Maoris of 
New Zealand first came under Christian influence through the 
efforU of Samuel Marsden, a colonial chaplain in New South 
Wales about 1808. In 1822 Wesleyan missionaries reached the 
island. The first baptism was in 1825 but during the next five 
years there was a great mass movement. In 1840 the country 
became a British colony, and soon afterwards George Selwyn 
was consecrated bishop. He was so impressed with the work of 
native evangelists that he founded a college in Auckland where 
such teachers could be trained. In this he was helped by J. C. 
Patteson, and out of it grew the Melanesian Mission. The 
Maori rebellion, fomented by French Catholics, was an outbreak 
against everything foreign, and the strange religion Hau-hauism, 
a blend of Old Testament history, Roman Catholic dogmas, 
pagan rites and ventriloquism, found many adherents. Yet 
the normal missionary organization suffered very little. Later 
came Mormon missionaries, and these have to some extent 
further depleted the Christian ranks. 

New Guinea. — ^In this large island some Gossner missionaries 
(1854) were the pioneers. They could not do much, but their 
successors, the Utrecht Missionary Union, who began work when 
the Dutch took possession of the north-west of the island, are 
making themselves felt through their six stations. In German 
New Guinea the Neuendethclsau (1886) and Rhenish (1887) 
Societies have fourteen stations. In British New Guinea, the 
south-cast portion of the island, the London Mission (1871), the 
Australian Wesleyans (1892) and the Anglican Church of Aus- 
tralia (1892), have arranged a friendly division of the field and 
met with gratifying success. Work was begun in 187 1-1872 when 
under the oversight of S. Macfarlane and A. W. Murray a number 
of native teachers from the Loyalty Islands Rarotonga and 
Mare settled on the island. The first converts were baptized in 
1882 and the establishment of a British Protectorate (1884-1888) 
gave the work a new impetus. The name of W. G. Lawes and 
James Chalmers (who with O. Tompkins was killed by cannibals, 
1901) of the London Missionary Society, and that of Maclarcn, 
the pioneer of the Church Missionary Society's work, are immor- 
tally associated with Papua. The history of mission work here 
is one of exploration and peril amongst savage peoples, multi- 
tudinous languages and an adverse climate, but it has been 
marked by wise methods as well as enthusiastic devotion, 
industrial work being one of the basal principles. Besides the 
Protestant agencies already named, the Roman Catholic Order 
of the Sacred Heart has been working in the island since 1886; 
its centre is at Yule Island, and it works up the St Joseph's river. 

Other Islands.— The London Mission ship "Duff" in 1797 
landed eighteen missionaries (mainly artisans) at Tahiti, ten 
more in the Tonga or Friendly Islands, and one on the Marquesas. 
Those in Tahiti had a varying experience, and their numbers 
were much reduced, but in July 1812 King Pomare II. gave up 
his idols and sought baptism. By 181 5 idolatry was abolished 
in the larger islands of the group and there ensued the task of 
building up a Christian community. Foremost in this work 



were William Ellis {q.v.) and John Williams (9.9.), who formed a 
native agency to carry the gospel to their fellow islanders, and so 
inaugurated what has since been a characteristic feature ol South 
Sea Missions. In 1818 two Tahiti teachers settled in ihe Tonga 
islands, which the " Duff " pioneers had abandoned after half of 
them had been killed for a cannibal feast. When the Wesleyans 
came in 182 1 the way had been prepared, and soon after, led by 
their king, George, the people turned to the new faith. About 
the same time Rurutu in the Austral Islands and Aitutaki in the 
Cook Islands were evangelized, also by natives, and Christianity 
spread from island to island. John Williams himself removed 
in 1827 to Rarotonga and from there influenced Samoa, the 
Society Islands and Fiji. To Fiji in 1854 came James Calvert 
and other Wesleyan missionaries beginning a work which undo 
them and their successors had extraordinary success. Williams 
met his death at Erromanga in 1839, but he had established s 
training school on Rarotonga, and bought a ship, the " Camden,** 
which was of the greatest service for the work. In 1 84 1 work was 
begun in New Caledonia, in 1843 in the Loyalty Isles and in the 
New Hebrides, associated from 1857 with the memorable name 
of John G. Paton. In 1846 a teacher was placed on Niu^ 
Savage Island, and in ten years it was evangelized. Meanwhile 
the original work in Tahiti had been taken over by missionaries 
of the Paris Society, though the last London Missionary Society 
agent did not leave that group till 1890. In x86i Patteson was 
consecrated bishop of Melanesia, and the Auckland training 
school was removed to Norfolk Island. By arrangement with 
the Presbyterians the area of the mission includes the Northern 
New Hebrides, Banks, Torres, Santa Cruz and Solomon Islands. 
Patteson was murdered in 187 1, a victim of the mistrust engco- 
dered in the natives by kidnapping traders. In 1877 John 
Selwyn was consecrated bishop. Wesleyan native evangelists 
from Fiji and Tonga carried Christianity in 1875 to the Bismarck 
Archipelago. 

The solitary worker (W. P. Crook) on the Marquesas did not 
remain long, and after he went nothing was done till 1 833-1834, 
when first some American and then some English missionarks 
arrived, but met with scant success and gave it up in 184 1 . Since 
1854 teachers from the Hawaiian Islands have worked in ibe 
Marquesas, but results here have been less fruitful than anywhere 
else in the South Seas. In Hawaii itself much was accomplished 
by American missionaries, the first of whom were H. Bingham 
and A. Thurston (1820), and the most successful, Titus Coan, 
under whose leadership over 20,000 people were received into the 
churches between 1836 and 1839. Under the reign of Kalakaaa 
(1874-1891) there was a strong reaction towards heathenism, 
but since the annexation of the islands by the United Sutes ol 
America the various churches of that land have taken up the 
task of evangelization and consoh'dation. 

In the Micronesian Islands, while animism and tabu were 
strong, there was not the cannibalism of the southern islands. 
Work was begim in the Caroline Isles in 1852 and in time spread 
to the Gilbert and Marshall groups. In the Carolines and Mar- 
shalls it has now largely passed to German missionaries, the 
Americans having enough to do in the Philippines, where there 
are already over 27,000 Protestants. 

The outstanding features of missionary work in the South 
Seas are (i) its remarkable success: cannibalism, human sacrifice 
and infanticide have been suppressed, civilization and trade have 
marvellously advanced; (2) the evangelical devotion of ihe 
natives themselves; (3) the need of continued European sufier- 
vision, the natives being still in many ways little better than 
grown-up children. 

Africa.' — In Africa, as in the South Seas, mission work has 
gone hand in hand with geographical discovery. It is in every 
sense a modem field, or rather a collection of fields, varying in 
physical, racial, social and linguistic character. The unaccus- 
tomed conditions of life and the fatal influence of the climate 
have claimed as many viaims here as did savagery in the Pacific 

» Sec F. P. Noble. The Redemption of Africa; I. Stewart. Dmn «§ 
the Dark Continent; Sir Harry Johnston. " The Negro aimi ReUgkM * 
in Nineteenth Century, June IQIO. 



OSSION FIELDSl 



MISSIONS 



593 



slands. The partition of the continent among the various 
European nations has been on the whole favourable to mission 
rork. The nature of the task and of the results may be best 
pproached by considering the different divisions — North, 
iouth, East. West and Central Africa. 

North Africa^ along the Mediterranean from Morocco to 
l^ypt, is distinctly Mabommedan. To these regions came St 
x>uis and Raimon Lull, and one may in passing remember the 
trcngth of Christianity in Proconsular Africa in the days of 
TertuUian and Cyprian, and in Egypt under Clement of Alcx- 
ndria, Origcn and Athanasius. To-day Islam is supreme, 
hovgh the North Africa Mission, working largely on medical 
incs, has penetrated into many cities. In Egypt the United 
^resbytcrians of America have met with considerable success 
mong the Copts, and their fine educational work has proved a 
-aluable asset both to themselves and the country. The Church 
rtissionary Society is doing steady work in Cairo and in Upper 
^gypt. In the Eastern Sudan a promising beginning has been 
nade, but the regions south of Kordofan have hardly been 
ouched. In Nigeria the Hausa tribes are coming to be better 
.nown, and to respond to the Christian teaching. In the Sahara 
,nd at Suakin there are Roman Catholic missions. There is a 
(oman mission to the Gallas in Abyssinia. That country has 
ts own crude form of Christianity, and is much the same today as 
rhcn Peter Hciling in the 17th century endeavoured to pro- 
agate a purer faith. A mission undertaken by the Church 
i^Iissionary Society in 1830 was closed by French Jesuit intrigue 
a 1838. 

South Africa. — The Moravians, represented by George 
Ichmidt, who arrived at Cape Town in July 1737, were the first 
o undertake mission work in South Africa. Schmidt won the 
onfidcnce of the Hottentots, but the Dutch authorities stopped 
lis work. In 1798 John T. Vanderkemp, an agent of the London 
blissionary Society, founded a mission to the Kaffirs east of 
Tape Town, and Robert Moffat (1818) went to the Bechuanas. 
!>avid Livingstone was as determined to open the interior as 
he Boers were to keep it shut, and he succeeded, pushing north, 
liscovering Lake Ngami, and consecrating a remarkable life to 
he evangelization of Central Africa. The London Mission has 
ilso largely evangelized the Matabele. In 18 14 the Wesleyans 
)egan work among the Namaquas and Hottentots, and after- 
vards went into Kaffraria, Bechuanaland and Natal. They 
vere followed by the Glasgow Missionary Society (182 1), the 
?aris Evangelical Society (1829), the Moravian, Rhenish and 
Berlin Societies, and the American Board. The Society for 
he Propagation of the Gospel came in 18 19, mainly for colonists, 
he Church Missionary Society in 1837. The province of South 
Vfrica has ten dioceses, the bishop of Cape Town being metro- 
wlitan. The Glasgow Society's work was ultimately taken 
»ver by the Free Church of Scotland, whose great achievement is 
he Lovedale Institute, combining industrial and mission work, 
rhe Germans "and Scandinavians have also been ardent workers 
Q South Africa, and the Dutch Reformed Church has not 
ntircly neglected the natives. One Dutch society gives its 
ttention to the northern part of the Transvaal. The chief 
[ifficulties in the way of evangelization have been (i) the hostility 
tf natives races aroused by European annexations, (2) the intro- 
luction of European vices, (3) the movement known. as Ethio- 
>ianism. The British Wesleyans refused to confer full rights on 
legro pastors, who then appealed to the African Methodist 
Episcopal Church, a product of American evangelization. One 
if them, J. M. Dwane, was made Vicar-Bishop, and a large and 
Mw^erf ul independent negro church organized. Dwane afterwards 
ipproached the Anglicans, and in 1900 that church formed the 
' Ethiopian Order," ordaining Dwane a deacon and making 
lim Provincial of the Order. Each bishop now deals with the 
Ethiopians in his own diocese. The South African governments 
ioresaw dangerous developments in the Ethiopian movement, 
ind steps were taken to restrain its growth. Ethiopianism, if 
ecclesiastical in its origin, gained strength from racial base. 
The task of averting the racial bitterness so dominant in the 
United Sutes of America is a most formidable one. There 
XVlil 10* 



are in South Africa several vicariates and prefectures of the 
Roman Church, the principal missions being French, those of the 
Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the Oblaies of Mary. 

West Africa was first visited by the Society for the Propa- 
gation of the Gospel in 1752. Its agent, T. Thompson, trained 
Philip Quaque, said to be " the first convert who ever received 
ordination since the Reformation in the Reformed Church." 
The Church Missionary Society came in 1804 and has worked 
heroically and successfully, though the largest mission now is 
that of the Wesleyans, who came in 181 1, settling first at Sierra 
Leone. The American Baptists in Liberia (1821) and the Basel 
Mission in the Gold Coast (1827), the Congregationalists of the 
United States of America and Canada in Angola, and the English 
and American Baptists on the Congo (since 1875) have also 
extensive and prospering agencies. West Africa has taken 
heavy toll not only in money but in life, but the lesson has now 
been learned, and a system of frequent furloughs combined with 
a better understanding of the climatic requirements have 
appreciably lessened the peril. This region is linked with the 
name of the Anglican negro Bishop, Samuel Crowther, and with 
one phase of the ceaseless strength of Islam, which has so far 
failed to reach the west coast, finding itself confronted by the 
Christian influences which are at work among the great Hausa 
tribes and other peoples within the area of the Niger mission. 
The Portuguese in Angola and the agents of King Leopold in 
the Congo State have not been conspicuous friends of missionary 
enterprise, and the light-hearted childishness of the native 
character, so well portrayed in Miss Kingsley's writings, shows 
how difficult it is to build up a strong and stable Christian 
church. Bishop Taylor's effort at creating a self-supporting 
mission proved fruitless. The American Lutherans are attempt- 
ing the same task on rather different lines, and with more 
promise. The Roman Catholic missions are chiefly Prench, 
and organized by the Congregation of the Holy Ghost and the 
Lyons African Mission. 

Central Africa.— The upper Congo region opened up by Living- 
stone and Stanley has been a favourite sphere for what are 
known as "faith societies," e.g. the Plymouth Brethren, the 
Christian and Missionary Alliance, the Regions Beyond Mission- 
ary Union. The American Baptists continue the work started 
by the Livingstone Inland Mission in 1878, and the Southern 
Presbyterian Board (American) have done notable work. The 
Paris Society, represented especially by Francis Coillard, has 
been successful along the Zambezi, and Scottish, German, 
Moravian and Jesuit agencies are also well represented. North- 
ward, Central and East African organizations, following the 
Cape to Cairo route, are in touch with North African agendes 
working up the Nile. 

East Africa. — When the Abyssinia mission was closed in 1838 
one of the missionaries, Krapf, went among the Gallas and then 
on to Mombasa, working in company with Rebmann. Since 
H. M. Stanley's appeal (1875) most satisfactory work, extensive 
and intensive, has been accomplished in Uganda, by the Church 
Missionary Society. The names of Mackay, Hannington and 
Pilkington) who lived and died here, are amongst the greatest 
in the roll of missionary heroes. The Roman Mission too 
has been very successful; for some years a French agency, 
the White Fathers of Algeria, carried it on, but they were 
afterwards joined by English helpers from St Joseph's Society 
at Mill Hill. The White Fathers also work in the Great 
Lakes region, and on the Zanzibar coast are the French Congre- 
gation of the Holy Ghost and German Benedictines. Zanzibar 
is also one of the centres of the Universities Mission, another 
being Likoma on Lake Nyasa. Near this lake the Scottish 
churches are also doing noble work. Besides Uganda the Church 
Missionary Society is responsible for Mombasa. The London 
Mission is meeting with success at the south end of Lake 
Tanganyika in North-east Rhodesia, llie English United 
Methodists and some Swedish societies have begun work among 
the Gallas. German Missionary agencies have also come in with 
German colonization. In East Africa, as in the West, Christian 
missionaries fear most the aggressive Moslem propaganda. 



59+ 



MISSIONS 



CM ISSION FIELK 



Madagascar^ is one of the most interesting mission fields. 
Work was begun by the London Mission in 1819, and the work of 
civilization and evangelization went steadily forward till 1835, 
when a period of repression and severe persecution set in, which 
lasted till 1861. When the work was recommenced it was found 
that the native Christians had multiplied and developed during 
the harsh treatment of the 35 years. In 1869 the idols were 
publicly destroyed and the island declared Christian by royal 
proclamation. The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 
(1864), the Norwegian Missionary Society (1866), and the Friends' 
Foreign Missionary Association joined in the work, the prosperity 
of which received a severe check by the French annexation in 
1896. The French authorities were hostile to the English 
missionaries, and even the handing over of part of the field to 
the Paris Evangelical Society did not do much to ease the situa- 
tion. Laws were first enacted against private schools, then 
against elementary schools, and in 1906- 1907 measures were 
passed which practically dosed all mission schools. Family 
prayers were forbidden if any outside the immediate family 
were present, and religious services at the graveside were pro- 
hibited. Missionary work in the island has thus passed 
through a peculiarly trying experience, but happier conditions 
are now likely to prevail. In Mauritius and the Seychelles the 
Church Missionary Society and the Society for the Propagation 
of the Gospel are at work, especially among the coolies on the 
sugar plantations. 

The outstanding problem of African missions at k;i$E n^rth oi ihc 
Equator (south there is the Ethiopian question^ b not Dhc dc^raciiiiwn 
of the black races, nor the demoralizing influenccE ol heathen 
Christians, nor even the slave dealer, though all thc^ obfit:ix:lci 
arc present and powerful. The all-decisive conflict Ls that beiwcxn 
Christianity and Islam, and the Christian agencies tnuit show miich 
more co-operation if they are to be successful. The linn of mLwoii' 
ary work have been, generally s()cakihg, simple gcnpt^t prerichlng 
foflowecl by education and industrial work. So rare wcrre the ordi- 
nary comforts, and even necessities of life, that the bttpr had to t^kc 
a prominent place from the beginning: the misujnary had to be 
farmer, carpenter, brickmaker, tailor, printer, house and church 
builder, not only for himself but for his converts. The viork of 
Bible translation has been particularly long and difficult; for the 
innumerable peoples who did not speak some form of Arabic the 
languages haa first to be reduced to writing, and many Christian 
terms had to be coined. 

India.' — The earliest missionaries to India, with the possible 
exception of Pantaenus of Alexandria (c. aj>. x8o), were the 
Nestorians from Persia. The record of their work is told else- 
where (see Nestorius and Nestorians). The Jesuits came in 
the i6th century, but were more successful quantitatively than 
qualitatively; in the i8th century the Danish coast mission on 
the coast of Tranquebar made the first Protestant advance, 
Bartholom&us, Ziegenbalg (1683-1719), Plutschau and Christian 
Friedrich Schwartz (1726-1798) being its great names. Up tb 
this time the chief results were that (i) Christianity had gained a 
footing, (2) it had continued the. monotheistic modification of 
Indian thought begun by Mahommedanism, and (3) the futility 
of sporadic and fanatical proselytism had been shown. A new 
era began with the arrival of William Carey and the founding of 
the Serampur Mission (15 m. north of Calcutta), though the 
hostility of the East India Company made the early years of the 
19th century very improductive. When Carey died in 1834 he 
and his colleagues Marshman and Ward had translated the 
Bible into seven languages, and the New Testament into 33 
more, besides rendering services of the highest kind to literature, 
science and general progress. They founded agricultural 
societies and savings' banks, and helped to abolish suttee, infan- 
ticide and other cruelties. At Travancore in the south, Ringel- 
taube, an agent of the London Missionary Society, had begun a 
work, especially among the Shanars or toddy drawers, which by 
1840 had 15,000 Christians; and the Church Missionary Society, 
led by Rhenius, had equal success in Tinnevelly. The Baptists, 
drawn by the fame of the temple of Jagannath at Puri on the 

* Sec T. T. Matthews, Thirty Years in Madagascar, 

• Sec E. P. Rice in A Primer of Modern Missions, ed. R. Lovett 
CLondon, 1896); J. Richter. A History of Missions in India (1908); 
The Church Missionary Review (July 1908); OnUemporary Renew 
(May 1908 and June 1910). 



east coast, established a mission In Oriaaa in 183 1 which soon boit 
fruit ; the Wesleyans were in Ceylon, Mysore and the Kaveii vilky, 
the London Blissionary Society at the great military ctntie 
Madras, Bangalore and Bellary, agents of the American Board 
at Ahmednagar and other parts of the Mahratta country arouod 
Bombay. The headquarurs of Hinduism, the Ganges vaUcy, 
was occupied by the Baptists, the Church Missionary Society and 
the London Missionary Society, these entering Benares in 1816, 
1818 and 1830 respectively. Alexander Duff, a Scottish Presby- 
terian, had begun his great educational work in Calcutta, and 
Bible tract and book societies were springing up everyidscre. 
Chaplains and bishops of the Anglican Church like James Hbugb 
in Tinnevelly, Henry Martyn in the north, Daniel Cbrrie io 
Agra, T. F. Middleton in Calcutta, and Reginald Heber all om 
India, were eagerly using their opportunities. In 1830 ten 
societies with xo6 stations and 147 agents were at work; 1834 
saw the founding of the Basel Mission on the west coast, tk 
American Mission in Madura, the American Presbyterian Mission 
in Ludhiana. It would be impossible to trace in detail the work 
done by the different societies since Carey's time. The task as 
it presented itself may be analysed as follows: (i) to replace the 
caste system and especially the oppres^ve supremacy of the 
Brahmins by a spirit of universal brotherhood and the estab- 
lishment of social and religious liberty; (2) to correct and nise 
the standard of conduct; (3) to attack polytheistic idolatry vitk 
its attendant immoralities; (4) to replace the pantheistic by a 
theistic standpoint; (5) to elevate woman and the pariaL 
Besides these matters which concerned Hinduism there was the 
problem of converting sixty million Mahommedans. The duef 
methods adopted have been the following: (i) vemacolar 
preaching in the large towns and on itineraries throui^ the 
rural districts, a work in which native evangelists gukled by 
Eurojpeans and Americans played a large part. (3) Medical 
missions, which have done much to break down barriers cf 
prejudice, especially in Kashmir under Dr ElmsUe of the drai^ 
Missionary Society, and in Rajputana at Jaipur under Pr 
Valentine of the United Presbyterians. (5) (5rphanages, in 
which the Roman Catholics led the way and have maiatained 
their lead. (4) Vernacular schools, a good example of which is 
seen in the American Board's Madura Mission. (5) Enghsh 
education, in which the missionary societies have ampty slq>pi^ 
mented the efforts of the government, outstanding exaxnplB 
being the Madras Christian College (Free Church of Scotland), 
so long connected with the name of Dr William MiDer, the 
General Assembly of Scotland's Institution at Calcutta, fotfflded 
by Duff, Wilson College, Bombay (Free Church of Scotland), and 
St Joseph's College (Roman Catholic) at Trichinopoly. Work 
of this kind' is followed up in some centres by lectures and con* 
versations with educated Hindus. The Haskell Lectuesh^ 
which grew out of the Parliament of Religions in Chicago, bekflp 
here. (6) Female education and zenana work. (7) Uplifii4 
work among the Panchamas or low-castes, which has bea 
strikingly successful among the Malas (American Baptists) snd 
the Madigas (London Missionary Society) of the Telugu-speakini 
country, who come in mass movements to the Christiao ia^ 

(8) Missions among aboriginal tribes, e.g. the Kols and Sastil* 
of Chota Nagpur (Berlin Gossner Mission and the Society ^ 
the Propagation of the Ck)spel), and the tribes of the Kbastf 
Mountains east of Bengal (Welsh Calvinistic Methodists). 

(9) Christian literature, in which connexion the name of Dr Jo^ 
Murdoch will always be honourably remembered, (xo) Yt^f*^ 
work and the care of the churches. 

The great changes that have been wrought in 1»^ 
politically, commercially, intellectually and religiously, by the 
combined action of the British government and the Ctoist«J 
missions, are evidenced among other tokens by the groiwth jj 
such societies as the Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj. ( yh» 
dox Hindus, especially those whose social status and ytxy IJ* 
hood are imperilled by the revolution, have shown their •»• 
either by open opposition, subjecting converts to every «*** 
caste coercion, or by methods of defence, e.g. Hinds trart 
societies and young men's assodationa, which are nodcfle' * 



fISSION nELOSt 



MISSIONS 



595 



Mstian organizations. A counter reformation can also be 
iced which attempts to revive Hinduism by purging it of its 
I and allegorizing its fables and legends. A new Islam 
a factor of the situation. Comparatively few converts 
.ve been made from Mahommedanism to Christianity, and these 
ve been chiefly among the learned. But there is a wide 
evalence of free-thinking, especially among the younger and 
ucated classes of the commimity. 

The Mxcial difficulties of mission work in India may be thus 
mmanzcd. (i) Racial antipathy. (2) The speculative rather 
ftn experimental and practical nature 01 the Hindu consciousness — 
itorical proofs make no appeal to him. (3) 1*he lack of initiative: 
a land where the joint family system is everywhere and all power- 
I, individualism and will-power are at a discount. (4) The ignor- 
ce and conaervatism of the women. (5) An inadequate sense of 
u C6) The introduction of European forms of materialism and 
Ci-Cnristian philosophy. Perhaps, too. the methods adopted by 
asionaries have not always been the wisest, and they have somc- 
nes failed to remember the method of their Master, who came " not 
destroy, but to fulfil." In spite, however, of all the difficulties, 
rmanent and increasing results have been achieved along all the 
es indicatcxi atmve. Tne establishment of a strong native church 
Far fuDtn t^ing tNc ofi(y iruit ol thi<? tnUTpn**, but u ts a fruit ihj[ 
a be gauged by ^Uti^tics, and thcH are AufficirfiiEy fitrikin^. In a 
Dcacariiy iiud^tiu^te bltttch Ie ts impossibip to give moTE than the 
rest tncntion to One or two other tea turn of modern misilonary 
hiH^vc^Tncnt in India* t-f^ the development oi induEttriat schDoJii^ 
t estublishmrnt of a Soulti India United Churchy in which it^r 
mgrpgationalitT agencies (London MtsAion-iry Society and America n 
0rd) arid the PrcsbyttnAn* havi? joincJ Torviw, and the endeavour 
tram an efficjenl and educated nativt minUtry, which i* being 
DpfiDted espt'cially at Scrampur, where an old Daini^h degree^ 
I riling charii^r has been revised in what ^ho^ Id become a Chri^Ljrt 
fvtnity. and at BaniyiTorc, where Prr^byteriani, Co^Er^galioJTaE- 
l and Wc^kyanfi colQboratc to staff and maintain a united theo- 
ficil roilcgr- The g,ovemn«rnt cens^us for India dnd fJurma (1901) 
^e*aChii5tbnpopolatit}nofJK*)2,ii-24i(natlveChrisiijns3,6G4Hjij) 

the Christian total. Though the number does not seem relatively 
rb, it b significant when compared with that of former censuses — 
1872, 1.S17.997: in 1881. 1,862,525 (increase 227%); in 1891, 
14.580 (mcrease 22-6%); m 1901. 2.923.241 (increase of 28%). 
e of 28% between 1891 and 1901 has often been compared 



184.580 I 



th the fact that the total population of India only registered an 
: of 2|% in that decade. In the words of The Pioneer, 



this b a hard fact which cannot be explained away " and " the 
oat remarkable feature of the returns." The increase was shared 
f eveiy province and state in India. In 1910 there were 4614 
baaonaries (including wives), representing 122 societies, 1272 Indian 
inisteTs, and 34.095 other native workers, including teachers and 
tbie~ women. 

The growth of the Protestant Native Chnsttan community 
1 1 851 and 1910 U shown in the following table: — 



Native Christian 
Community. 


Communicants. 


Native Agents. 




Number. 


Rate of 
1 ncrease. 


Number. 


Rate of 
Increase. 


of the 
Community. 


Ordained. 


Unordained 
Preachers. 


\n\ 

1890 
1900 
1910 


91.092 

138.731 
224.258 

if; 

M72^4« 


% 

m 

861 
340 
528 
722 


14.661 

113.325 
182,722 
301.699 
5»2.743 


% 

703 
111-4 
114-5 

6l-2 

651 
73-3 


160 
180 
235 
271 
3a-6 
35-3 


21 

97 
225 
461 
797 

1.272 


,1^ 

3491 



The Protestant community in India in 1910 was over a million 
rong. well distributed among the chief provinces, a fine spiritual 
«re. easily first in female education, and rapidly growing in wealth, 
jsition and influence. A recent report of the Director of Public 
tstruction for the Madras Presidency says: " I have frequently 
itkd attention to the educational progress of the native Christian 
Nnmunity. There can be no question, if the community pursues 
Hh steadiness the present policy of its teachers, that in the course of 
gnieration it will nave secured a preponderating position in all the 
vat professions." 

What India wants (as Nobili 300 years ago saw. and attempted. 
KWgh by fatal methods of deceit, to supply) is a Christianity not 
ireisn but native, not dissociated from the religious life of the land 
(It Its fulfilment. Though there are many Christians in India 
>-day, the Hindu still looks askance at Christianity, not because it is 
religioa but because it b foreign. " India is waiting for her own 
ivhiely appointed apostle* who, whether Brahmin or non-Brahmin, 



shall connect Christbntty with India's relidous past, and present 
it as the true Vedanta or completion of the veda and thus make it 
capable of appealing to the Hindu religious nature." 

It only remains to be said that the work of the missionaries 
individually and collectively has over and over again received the 
warnnest recognition and praise from the highest officials of the 
Indbn government. 

China. ^— The earliest Christian missionaries to China, as to 
India, were the Nestorians (q.v.). Their work and that of the 
Roman Church, begun as the result of Marco Polo's travels about 
1 290, faded away under the persecution of the Ming dynasty 
which came to power about 1350. The next attempt was that 
of the French Jesuits, following on the visit and death of Xavier. 
They established themselves at Canton in 1582, and on the 
accession of the Manchu dynasty (1644) advanced rapidly. In 
1685 there were three dioceses, Peking, Nanking and Macao, with 
a hundred churches. The Orthodox Eastern Church gained a 
footing in Peking in the same year, and established a college of 
Greek priests. Friction between Jesuits and Dominicans led 
to the proscription of Christianity by the emperor in 1724, 
missionaries and converts being banished. The story of modern 
missions in China begins with Robert Morrison (q.v.) of the 
London Missionary Society, who reached Canton in 1807, and not 
being allowed to reside in China entered the service of the East 
India Company. In 1813 he was joined by a colleague, William 
Milne, and in 1814 baptized his first convert. In 1829 came 
representatives of the American Board, in 1836 Peter Parker 
began his medical mission, and on the opening of the Treaty Ports 
the old edicU were withdrawn, and other societies crowded in to 
a field more than ample. After the war of 1856 a measure of 
official toleration was obtained, and the task of evangelizing the 
country was fairly begun. Though the missionaries were chiefly 
concentrated in the treaty ports they gradually pushed inland, 
and here the names of W. C. Burns, a Scottish evangelist, 
J. Hudson Taylor, the founder of the China Inland Mission, and 
James Gilmour, the apostle of Mongolia, are pre-eminent. But 
for more than half a century China seemed the most hopeless of 
mission fields. The upper classes were especially ami -foreign, 
and the whole nation vaunted its superiority to the rest of man- 
kind. In 1857 there were only about 400 baptized Protestant 
Christians in the whole of China. Even after the removal of 
the edicts the old prejudices remained, and the missionaries 
wert regarded as political emissaries, the forerunners of military 
aggression. Native Christians were stigmatized as traitors, 
" followers of the foreign devils." In 1870 there was a great out- 
break concentrating in the massacres at Hankow and Tientsin; in 
1891 at Hunanandini895 at Ku Cheng there 
were other attacks which were only pre- 
liminary to the Boxer uprising of 1899-1900, 
when Z3S missionaries, besides 52 children 
and perhaps 16,000 native Christians, whose 
heroism will always be memorable, perished, 
often after horrible tortures. There is little 
doubt that this savage outburst was 
directed not against religious teaching 
as such, but against the introduction of 
customs and ideas which tended to weaken 
the old power of the mandarins over the 
people. These leaders skilfully seized upon 
every breach of tradition to inflame popular passion, attacking 
especially the medical work as a pretext for mutilation, the 
schools as hotbeds of vice, and the orphanages as furnishing 
material for witchcraft. Out of the agony, however, a new 
China was bom. The growing power of Japan, seen in her wars 
with China and Russia, and the impotence of the Boxers against 
the European allies, made all classes in China realize their com- 
parative impotence, and the central government began a series 
of reforms, reorganizing the military, educational, fiscal and poli- 
tical systems on Western lines. Educational reforms became 
especially insistent, and modern methods and studies supplanted 
>See A. H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics; Village Life in China; 
and J. C. Gibson, Mission Problems and Mission Methods m South 
China, 



596 



MISSIONS 



[MISSION HELDS 



the immemorial Confucian type. Students went in great 
numbers to Japan, Europe and America, and the old contempt 
and hostility toward things Western gave place to respect and 
friendliness. Early in the 19th century the missionaries had 
not been able to do much by way of education, but the new 
openings were seized with such power as was possible, and while 
in 1876 there were 289 mission schools with 4909 pupils, in 19x0 
there were 3x29 schools with 79,823 scholars. More significant 
still is the way in which the foremost Chinese officials have 
turned to missionaries like Timothy Richard and Griffith John 
for assistance in guiding the new impulse. The universities of 
Oxford and Cambridge, under the inspiration of Lord William 
Cecil, were interesting themselves in 19 10 in a schexne for 
establishing a Christian university in China. 

One of Morrison's contemporaries hoped that after a century 
of mission work there might possibly be 2000 Christians in 
China. That number was reached in 1865, and in 19x0 there was 
a Protestant community of 214,546 church members and baptized 
Christians. These numbers are more than double what they were 
in 1900. In addition there are more than as many adherents.* 
The excellence of the converts, upon the whole, is testified to by 
travellers who really know the case; particularly by Mrs Bishop, 
who speaks of the " raw material " out of which they are made 
as " the best stuff in Asia." The total number of Protestant 
missionaries (including wives) in China in X910 was 4175. one to 
about HOC sq. m., or to more than 100,000 Chinese. There are 
over 1 2,000 Chinese evangelists, Bible-women, teachers, &c. The 
Roman Catholic returns give 902,478 members and 390,6x7 cate- 
chumens. The work is carried on by eleven societies or religious 
orders with over 40 bishops and 1000 European priests, mostly 
French. A large feature of the work is the baptism of children. 
An important concession was obtained in X899 by the French 
minister at Peking, with a view to the more effective protection 
of the Roman missions. Tlie bishops were declared " equal in 
rank to the viceroys and governors," and the priests J" to the 
prefects of the first and second class "; and their influence and 
authority were to correspond. The Anglican bishops agreed to 
decline these secular powers, as also did the heads of other 
Protestant missions. It is alleged by some that the exercise of 
the powers gained by the Roman hierarchy was one cause of 
the Boxer outbreaks. Certainly their native adherents had their 
full share of persecution and massacre. 

i The Anglican Church is not so strong in China as :n some other 
fields: the American Episcopalians were first in the field in 1835. 
followed by the Church Missionary Society (in 18^), which has had 
stirring success in Fu-Kicn, and the Society for the Propagation of 
the Gospel in 1874. There are five dioceses, and in 1897 an episcopal 
conference was held in Shanghai. Since the Japanese War the 
Scottish and Irish Presbyterians have made wonderful progress in 
Manchuria ; native evangelists do an increasing share of the work, and 
there is hardly any town or village without Christians. The London 
Mission has always been conspicuous for the contribution made by its 
agents to linguistic and literary knowledge, the name of James 
Legge being an outstanding example; it is now, in co-operation with 
other societies, carhesily taking up the new educational and medical 
openings. One of the most interesting features of missionary work 
in China is the comity that prevails among the workers of different 
societies and agencies. Thus in 1907 at the Centenary Conference 
in Shanghai, when many topics were discussed centring in the 
question of the native Chmcse Church, a general declaration of faith 
and purpose was adopted, which, after setting out the things held 
in common, proceeded, " We frankly recognize that we differ as to 
methods of administration and of Church government; that some 
among us differ from others as td the administration of baptism; 
and that there are some differences as to the statement of the doc- 
trine of prrdcstination, or the election of grace. But we unite in 
holding that these exceptions do not invalidate the assertion of 
our real unity in our common witness to the Gospel of the Grace of 
God." The conference reported, " We have quite as much reason 
to l)e encouraged by the' net result of the progress of Christianity 
in China during the 19th century as the early Christians had with 
the progress of the Gospel in the Roman Empire during the first 
century." 

Japan and Korea.— The Christian faith was brought to Japan 
by Portuguese traders in XS42, followed by Xavier in 1549. 

» See Conlemporary Review (Feb. 1908), " Report on Christian 
Missions in China," by Mr F. W. Fox. Professor Macalister and Sir 
Alex. Simpson. 




This great missionary was well received by the daimios (feudal 
lords), and though he remained only 2\ years, with the help of 
a Japanese whom he had converted at Malacca he organized 
many congregations. In 1581 there were aoo churches and 
150,000 Christians; ten years later the converts numbered J 
600,000, in 1594 a million and a half. Then came a time of ~~i 
repression and persecution under lyeyasu, whose second edict __ 
in 1614 condemned every foreigner to death, forbade the entry '^-— 
of foreigners and the return of Japanese who had left the islands, _ 
and extingtiished Christianity by fire and sword. The rM^peni i m ■ 

of the country came in 1859, largely through American pressure, _ 

and in May of that year two agents of the Protestant Eptscopsl^^H 
Church began work at Nagasaki They were followed by 01 ' 
from the Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, and hy ' 
great intellectual ability, patience and tact these 
(S. R, Brown, J. C. Hepburn and G. F. Verbeck), as the Ma 
Ito said, contributed very largely to the progress and < 
ment of Japan in the days when she was first studying 1 
outer world. They did an immense amount of preparato 
work along evangelistic, medical and educational lines, 
skilfully gathered the youths of the country around them. _ 

accession of a new mikado in x868 finally ended the old sedusaoc^ 
financiers, engineers, artisans poured in from Western Europ^^. ' 
and from America came bands of teachers, largely under missio^o J 
ary influence. In 1869 the American Board (CongregationaalJ 
sent its first band; in 1870 Verbeck was caDed on to organa^^ 
a scheme for national educatioiL In 1872 the first Japanese 
church was formed; in 1875 Joseph Neesima, who had been 
converted by a Russian missionary and then educated in Ameiica, 
founded a Christian Japanese College, the Doshisha, in the saacd 
city of Kyoto. Meanwhile the Christian calendar had been 
adopted and the old anti-Christian edicts removed. By 1889 
there were 30,000 Protestant communicants. It was at tlus 
time that the nation, conscious of its new life, began to be 
restive under the supercilious attitude of foreign nations, and tbe 
feeling of irritation was shared by the native Christian coaunBi- 
ties. It showed itself in a desire to throw off the governance of 
the missionaries, in a criticism of Protestant creeds as sot 
adapted to Japanese needs, and in a slackened growth nancn* 
cally and intensively. After a period of stress and unoertaifltjt 
due very largely to the variety of denominational creed tad 
polity, matters assumed an easier condition, the missioQint* 
recognizing the national characteristics and aiming at guidiBoe 
rather than control. The war with China in 1894 ma^ed saev 
chapter and initiated a time of intense national activity; cdncs- 
tion and work for women went forward rapidly. Missiootnt* 
went through the island as never before, and their evangeStfic 
work was built upon by Japanese ministers. In the war vitk 
Russia Japanese Christianity found a new opportunity; oa the 
battlefield, in the camp, at home, Christian men were pre-eniBeBt 
In 1902 there were 50,000 church members; in 1910, t/jfiii't 
the total Protestant community in 1910 was about 100,000, «k1 
had an influence out of all proportion to its numbers; the KfltBia 
Church was estimated at 79,000, and the Orthodox EmUib 
Church (Russian) at 30,000. 

No sketch, however brief, can omit a reference to the Aoi^ 
bishop of South T6ky0, Edward Bickersteth (x8so>x897), «^ 
from his appointment in x886 guided the joint movenieBt cf 
English and American Episcopalians which issued in the Hift^ 
Sei Kokwai or Holy Catholic Church of Japan, a national dmrch 
with its own laws and its own missions in Formosa. Id Apd 
X907 the Conference of the World's Student Christian Fedetstioa 
(700 students from 35 different, countries) met in TOkyA, s^ 
received a notable welcome from the national leaders in tdaivar 
tration, education and religion. 

In Korea, the " Hermit Nation," or as the Koreans picfct to 
say, " The Land of the Morning Calm," Christiaiiity wasiatro- 
duced at the end of the i8th century by some membeis of the 
Korean legation at Pekin who had met Roman Catholic ma»»' 
aries. It took root and spread in spite of oppoution until iM4< 
when an anti-foreign outbreak exterminated it. The door vas j 
re-opened by the treaties of 1882-1886, and even bcfoic that ; 



MISSION FIELDS) 



MISSIONS 



597 



copies of the gospels had been circulated from the Manchuria 
side. The Methodist Episcopal Church and the Presbyterian 
Board, both of America, entered the country in 1885, and were 
soon joined by similar agencies from Canada and Australia. 
The Anglican Church began work in 1890, the work was 
thoroughly planned, the characteristics of the people were care- 
fully considered, and the successes and failures of other mission- 
fields were studied as a guide to method. The medical work won 
the favour of the government, and so wisely did the missionaries 
act, that during all the turbulent changes since 1884 they escaped 
entanglement in the political disturbances and yet held the 
confidence of the people. The persbtence and growth of Christi- 
anity among the Koreans is largely due to the fact that Chris- 
tianity had not been superimposed on them as a foreign organiza- 
tion. They had built their own churches and schools, adopted 
their oiwn forms of worship and phrased their own beliefs. 
Korea vies with Uganda as a triumph of modem missionary 
enterprise. In 1866 there were not more than 100 Christians; 
official returns in 1910 show 178,686 Protestants, including 
73,000 church members and probationers; and 72,290 Roman 
Catholics. Theological colleges, normal training colleges and 
higher and lower grade schools bear witness to an activity and 
a success which are truly remarkable. 

Soath-East Asia and the East Indies.— The work of Christian 
missions in this area has had the double advantage of freedom 
from political and social unrest, and of comparatively little 
overlapping, each country as a rule being taken over by a single 
society. In Burma the American Baptists, whose work began 
with Adoniram Judson in 1813, are conspicuous, and have had 
mariced success ampng the Karens or peasant class, where the 
[Honeer was George Dana Boardman (1827). The Karen 
Christian communities are strong numcriadly and have a good 
name for self-support. The Baptists have also stations in 
Arakan and Assam where they link up with the Welsh Calvinistic 
Methodists (1845). The Society for the Propagation of the 
Gospel and the Methodist Episcopal Church work in and around 
Rangoon. In Siam again the Americans, especially the Pres- 
byterians, have been most prominent. Medical work made an 
impression on the people and won the favour of the government. 
which has always been cordial and has employed missionaries 
as court-tutors. Buddhism is at its best at Siam, and this and 
the enervating climate arc responsible for the comparatively 
small direct success of Christian propaganda in Siam proper. 
In the Laos country to the north, however, much more has been 
done, and a healthy type of Christian community established. 
Native workers have done something to carry the Gospel into 
the French colonies of Tongking and Annam. Here the Roman 
missions are very extensive, and have over a million adherents, 
despite violent persecution before the French occupation. 

The peninsula and archipelago known as Malaysia presents a 
remarkable mingling of races, languages and beliefs. Tatar, 
Mahommedan and Hindu invasions all preceded ihc Portuguese 
who brought Roman Catholicism, and the Dutch who brought 
Protestantism. This last resulted in a great number of nominal 
conversions, as baptism was the passport to government favour, 
and church membership was based on the learning of the 
Decalogue and the Lord's Prayer, and on the saying of grace at 
mealtimes. In the Straits Settlement the foundations of modern 
missionary effort were laid by the London Missionary Society 
pioneers who were wailing to get into Chipa; they were succeeded 
by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1856), English 
Presbyterians (1875), Methodist Episcopalians (1884), who have 
a fine Anglo-Chinese College at Singapore, and the Church of 
England Zenana Society (1900). 

In the Arckipdago most of the work has naturally been in 
the hands of the Netherlands Missionary Society (181 2) and 
other Dutch agendes, who at first were not encouraged by the 
colonial government, but have since done well, especially in the 
Minahassa district of Celebes (150,000 members) and among the 
Bataks of Sumatra (Rhenish Mission). In Celebes and the 
Moluccas the work is now under the Colonial State Church. 
In Java the government has favoured Mahommedans (there is 



active intercoune between the island and Mecca), but there are 
some 35,000 Christians and a training school and seminary at 
Depok near Batavia. In Dutch Borneo the Rhenish Society 
is slowly making headway among the Dyaks; in British Borneo 
the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (1848) and the 
Methodist Episcopalians occupy the field. The total number of 
Christians in British Malaysia and the Dutch East Indies is 
about 600,000 (including 57,000 Roman Catholics). 

Western Asia and the Turkish Empire.^— The American 
Presbyterians and Congregationalists have the largest Protestant 
missions in these lands, working, however, mainly for the enlight- 
enment and education of the Oriental Christians. With the 
same object, though on different lines, the archbishop of Canter- 
bury's Assyrian Mission seeks to influence the Nestorians. 
The Roman Catholics have extensive missions in these countries, 
directed at winning adherents to the unity of the Holy See from 
the Oriental Churches, which are regarded as schismatic and 
hereticaL In this enterprise there has been great advance in 
Egypt among the Copts, and in 1899 the Pope signalized " the 
resurrection of the Chiuxh of Alexandria" by appointing a 
Patriarch for Egypt, Libya and Nubia. Farther east, on the 
borders of Turkey and Persia, the Roman and Russo-Greek 
Churches compete for the adhesion of the Nestorians, Chaldeans 
and Armenians. The Franciscans, Dominicans, Lazarists 
and Jesuits are engaged in all these works. Direct work among 
Mahommedans is done, though with small result, by the North 
Africa Mission (non-denominational) and the Church Missionary 
Society. The Egypt, Palestine and Persia missions of the latter 
society have been largely reinforced and extended 'since 1884, 
medical worjc and women's work being especially prominent. 
Four cities in southern Persia are now occupied. Three missions 
just touch the border of Arabia^ viz. the United Free Church of 
Scotland at Aden, founded by Ion Keith-Falconer (1856-1887) 
son of the 9th earl of Kintore and Arabic professor at Cambridge; 
an American Presbyterian Mission on the Persian Gulf; and the 
Church Missionary Society's Mission at Bagdad. The American 
Robert College at Constantinople and the work of the Friends' 
Missionary Association in Syria are honourable and successful 
enterprises. The chief difficulties have been (i) the antagonism 
of the officials of the Oriental churches, (2) the suspicion and 
hostility of Islam, (3) the jealousies, religious and political, 
cDnnQcicJ w[[h the Eastern Question. 

Miiucns in ChrUiinn ljin.4i. — Au^cralia has b«n rtfirnred to 
alrcddjF {sec S^tdh Sf^u, abovf), Jn the Western Hcmispliirre wc 
may distinguish the foMawitig: (i) Early firman MininKs U-^an with 
the discovery of the contintnt and practicallv emsed in tht middle 
of the 1 3th century. Conspicuous among tlieir acHicvemrntA waj 
the conversion of Mexico, aoo^ooo cociverti beina cnroUed witliiq 
f.\x yean after the C3 failure of the capital (iJjrO, and a mtUiga 
bAptifcd tiy the Franciscan* alone witnin ihirry years. In South) 
America the passivf? character of tlie popubUon made them suLmi$^ 
sive alike to thje Speni:^h government and the Roitian faith. Tfieir 
natural devotion and their ftUiceptihiliCy to pomp and ritual waa a 
factor (kilfiilly used by the prieits, but hardly anything waa done 
to strengthen their mcml power. The infliut of ba» European 
strata helped to reduce the Whole continent wuth of Mcitico In about 
a ccntur>' to a level aj low a« that pn^ci^ln^ the ftr^t mJ^on. About 
I too the Franciscans dDd FrcncJi Jce-uit* began their work in North 
America and amonK the Indians did a aucce»ful work marked by 
much heralim. They alw enabled the Roman Church to keep its 
hold on the French colonists of Qtictwc and MonFreal. and were 
pionctrK In California. (2) Mtufttn Mhshni in Naeth A mtr if a.— 
Mi^isbnj am^^ut the Red Indian iriks in the North West Territories 
of both the United States and Canad<i have long been carried on by 
sevxjral societies* The firat workers were Thomai Mayhew, junior 
and John Eliot at Miirthg'a Vintyiinl it^^) and Roxbury (16^6). 
Bishop Uliipplc of Minnesota was just I v talletl the Apostle of the 
[ndianjs. so far as the *ofk of the Americ^in Episcopal Church wai 
concerned. En the Canadian North- West the Church Mifaionary 
Sodetye Missioni have reached many tribes tip To the chores of the 
Polar Bta, and made come thnuMinds of converts- Even the wan- 
dering Eskimo*, thanfcs to the Moravians, arc mainly Christ 13 na, 
The AnKliain Church has nine diocears in th<; province of Rupert's 
Land. The Roman Catholic; missionaries also are scattered over 
these immcnv tcrriioriefl. and have a large number of InfJian 
adherents, Bt-ftidlei the Oblates many are Jesuits from Fit? nch 
Canada. The Ruaw Greek Church has a missronin Ab^ka, dating 
~*SoeJ* Rkhtcr* A HisteryVf FroUita)ti Jdiutons in the NtOf Eiut 
(1910). 



598 



MISSIONS 



(RES0LT5 



from the time when it t^ Ruuian tetrttofVf &nd v^noua Aqiencan 
•ocieties are also reprc*cnicd. The total number of India n« in 
British North America if 99.000, of whtjm shout j 7^000 am ttilS 
paean, and the rest arc about equally iitvided between the Frotefitaiit 
and Roman Catholic Mi£5iofis. (j) Cmirat and Simlh America r — 
Protestant missions to Indian;) here have been wry limited. Von 
Wcltzdid somethine in Dutch CuUeia U. 1670), nnd the Moravians 
among the Arrawak indla n s ^f Su ri nam ( 1 738^ < ^^) ■ Sinct 1 S4 7 r h cy 
have worked on the M^j&quUo i:oiii-t ol Central America, American 
Missions are at work in Mcxito and adjacent countries. In the Wc^t 
India Islands the nejpo pqpnt^iion has been tcachc^d by mo*i of the 
larger British societies- Ihc Scrnth American Mia^iondry Society, 
founded by the ill-fat£Kl Ctipi^in Alien Gardiner, has much attended 
its work among the IndUns oi the interior of what has bvcn ftcM 
called " the Neglected CctiUincnt "; it has been sptfUHy eucct$«ful 
among the Araucanians t,yt Chile and the Taraguayaa Chico, Th*ir 
work among the Fue^i.inii drt-w a warm tribute from Charle* Dar* in. 
Several American miH.^i(jnti are also at work* The S-jtlot^y for the 
Propagation of the Go^eh:! h.3.i an important mi^^ion in British 
Guiana. But there are nymcjrou* heathcrn tribes never yet ncAjchtd. 
The Roman Church, which la dominant throughout the continent* 
has been engaged in K-rious strLiggltf wiih theanti-rHigiouj teJidc^n^ 
ciesof the Republican governments, and LAnnf^del'K^te malotj no 
mention of missions ^cnong; the [ndisnSi fn fact the Pope in 1^97 
was obliged to send a i^verL- rebuke to the clergy for their bek of con- 
sistency and real. Protestant tocurties have done much to brin^ the 
Bible to the knowledge of lh€ nominally Roman Catholk population. 
Re$ult3 of Wl5aiOK3 
The Christian CKorch bases iti missionary cuterpriae tipoD 
the spirit, the example^ ajid tJie commandment of iLs Founderj 
and regards the duty &s, just the same whether the rcsulu be 



results. If, however, we are to take statisticml returns for what 
they are worth, it is estimated that the Christians in heathen 
lands gathered by Protestant missions probably amount to 
five millions, and a similar total may be ascribed to Roman 
Catholic missions, making ten millions in alL This, however, 
includes adherents still under instruction for baptism, and their 
children. The inner circle of communicant members is hardly 
more than one-third of the totaL 

Missions are however a far greater thing after all than simple 
proselytism. It would require many a volume to tell of what 
they have done for civilization, freedom, the exploration of 
unknown regions, the bringing to light of ancient literatures, 
the founding of the science of comparative religion, the broad- 
ening of the horizon of Christian thought in the homelands, 
and the. bringing of distant peoples into the brotherhood of 
nations. These are results that cannot be put into figures. 
While it is true that very diverse opinions are held concerning 
missions, it is indisputable that the most favourable testimonies 
come from those who have really taken the most pains to 
examine and understand their work. The one disomraging 
feature, from the Christian point of view, is the backward- 
ness of Christendom in its great enterprise. If the Churches 
did their foreign work with the same energy which they throw 
into their home work, the results would be very different. 

The figures given below are taken from a table compiled by 
Dr D. L. Leonard, and refer only to Protestant missioas to 000- 



I.— STATISTICS OF THE GREAT RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD. 

(From Tin B/w Bm* «/ Missuus, 1907). 





Christians. 


Jeir^ 


Moham- 
oedans. 


Buddhists. 


Hindus. 


Coofodan- 
btsaod 
Taoiats. 


Shintoists. 


Animlsts, 
Fetishistt, 


Uadaaed. 


Tobk. 




Protesunts. 


Roman 
CatMics. 


Eastern 
Ouirches. 




Africa . . . 

JSSS^-: : 
JSUi: : 

Europe . . . 
MolayiU . . 
Oceania. . . 

AoRcate .' . 


569,000 

I.S4J.OOO 

5*494,000 

99,999/>00 

4I6.SOO 

U7fioo 


56.'695,ooo 

56,195,000 

5,385,000 

964/)oo 

185.754,000 

7,095,500 

199,000 


5,799.000 
1,000,000 

17,144.000 

liOOO 

98.915.000 


581,000 

1/969,000 

99,000 

489,000 

17,000 

9,»47.ooo 

5.000 

1.000 


50,810,000 

15.000 

10,000 

l4t,4S<i,ooo 

5.S76!ooo 
«o,76o,ooo 


11,000 
S.000 

1j7.900.000 
_^.ooo 

T5.O0O 


«77.ooo 

94.000 

108,000 

•09.l5>.ooo 

1,000 

t>,ooo 


51.000 
85.00 
4.000 
a9i/>50.aoo 
51,000 

570,000 
■65.000 


Illlllll 


97,179.500 

ao,Qoo 

1,969,000 

41,436,000 
40JO00 

16,445^000 
507.000 


1*5.500 
8,009.000 

65.000 
5,695.000 

70,000 

tS^ooo 


157.799,000 
iii,6sijoaa 

_57.9S6^w 

87«.1 90,000 

_4JS5/«oo 

5S9j05i,«oa 




166,066,500 


979.658,500 


190,157.000 


II,J99/MO 


916,650,000 


157,955,000 


•09,659,000 


991,816,000 


14,900,000 


I57/169.90O 


i5as«3» 


l,tev4«^aao 




558^9,000 





large or small. It appeals to common sense, saying in effect, 
" If it be a fact that a Divine Person came into the world to 
bless mankind, all men ought to know it, and have a right to 
know it. However much or (if you will) little a Buddhist or a 



Christian and non-Protestant peoples. The figures are for 1907, 
and should be compared with those in the Statisii^ '' 
This list gives a total of 69 Fordgn Missionary Societies, of 
34 are American, 19 British, 10 German, ami 6 other aocicurfc- - 
The statistics for these 69 societies may be grouped as foUows.'-^r- 



II.— SUMMARY OF PROTESTANT MISSIONARY WORK. 



AMBRIpAN. 



British. 



German. 



Other Societies, via. 

Parb Society, 

Swiss Romande, 

Netherlands Societies, 

Scandinavian Societies, 

&c. 



Totals for 
Christendom. 



Totals for 1895 

(showing growth 

between ifos and 

1907). 



Ordained Missionaries . . 

Laymen 

Unmarried women . . . 
Ordained natives .... 

Communicants (full members) 
Numbers added in 1906 . . 
Adherents ....... 

Schools ...... 

Scholars 



1,911 

535 

«.527 

2,312 



545.180 
l,286!359 



3,9«6 



8.855 



1,980 
1,738 
2.332 
2,141 
565.179 

1,398.306 

11,789 

619.399 



?S 



150 

IV 
340.883 

25.983 
540,073 

2.878 
139.891 



912 

466.208 

12.336 

1.X36.500 

5.346 

199402 




4.<»8 
M77 
a.57« 
4.295 

Its? 

2,770,801 

19.384 

786.003 



Moslem may need to know of Christ, he certainly has a claim to 
be told of Him. The responsibility, if there be any, of believing; 
rests with the individual told; the responsibility of telling him 
rests with the Christian Church." On this view of the matter, 
results, however desirable, are no certain test of a mission doing 
its work. A mission in Persia, with its handful of converts, has, 
on this view, as much right to support and appreciation as^ a 
mission in southern India with its tens of thousands. Again, 
on the hypothesis that Christianity is true, the statistics at a 
particular period are no test of success at all. For in them 
the dead arc not counted; and the converts who are already dead 
§r^— at least in respect of individtial salvation — tbe surest of 



III.— PROTESTANT MISSIONARY INCOME. 
1895 ... (2.724.194 «9o6 . . . .f4.256.099, 



1900 
1905 



$,095,915 
J.932.377 



1907 



iM?3^' 



A world missionary conference was held at Edinburgh m ]<« 
19 10, which aimed at making, on a scale far more oompcehcaiiv* 
than had been previously attempted, a thorough and sdexitific itwT 
of the problems involved in the relatk>n of Christianitv to the m^ 
Christian world. For two years preceding the conterence cifK 
representative commissions mvestigated the following qactfio^' 



*The Statistical Atlas (1910) puts it at £s,07ij225, 
British and American societies each find about i^,l 
German societies ^7,4$^ 



of wfckk 



MISSISSIPPI 



599 



(il CtnrySne ttw G«pc1 to at! the non-ChmiUn world; (j) the 
CnurcJi m tlhe iai$$ion fidd; (3) rducaitan in rtbUon ro the Chrii- 
t^ixatxcpn of aation^l life; (4) the cni^ioiury message in rcUtion 
to oon-Cliristian tth^m'i {$} tht pcepiratiein mi misdicinariM^ 
{fi} the' !iom<? ba^ ct miisioiu; (^) muuionft and governments; 
i&) ctxiptratson and the pfomotion of unity- The rcporta on tbese 
ftjbjecu \a dthl voluwcSt together with a ninth vobme giving the 
prciccvdi3iif4i of the canferente it^^Lf^ and ji atJitiHticdl aiU^p wit! for 
iomc time be the va^itf muvfi ol infurmatian on Chnatlan missions, 
an<i pmludet the nc^d of Jiny atti'mpt At Ji tribHofraphy here, an 
attempt which would indeed, be doomed to faPure. It laay not* 
huwevcr, b* out of place to call attenUon, in addition to literature 
already died., to a fcwf recent booJtv. diiefty manualSt m tevcral of 
which full lisu of mi^ifrioruir)- books ju% given. 
£. M. BliH, TiW Jt/(jfi£Nfdo^ ExiefpHu (t^oS); £. Stocky ^ 5A^f 



(1904I; T. Moscrop, THt Kinidam Wifh^Ht Frottiiers (1910)* VV* T* 
Whitley. MUjicmary Afkieivmtnl (igoSh S, L, Gulick. 7'hi CrfWtk of 
iht KiH^d<m efC&£{A^-;)\ B. Ltira,E, Thi Empire of CkritU a fttudy 
of the tnitt]on:ir%'^ cnterpnH; lO the li]^ht of iiiDdem ieligici-us thouBht 
(1907); R. H. .^fjld<^n, Foreizn Afi^H&ns, a Btudy of some princi^ct 



UB97J; G. Wameck, Outline vf d History vf Prvtifiant Mitsioni 
(J 901 ; new Orman cd .. 1 9 1 o). See il bo J , b, Denn is^ Ce»itnmal Sur- 
*rj tyf Fotfi^n MisnoRs ( it>crj), CkriUian AftJiwns and Smiul Frcgress 
(1 vols.. iJs^7): C. Wamcck, Medcm Mfsfif/ns and CuUute (zi3^); 
E- Stock. HJiiory ef the Church Mifii<tnary iecVrfj (3 vols.. 1899)1 
J. B. Mycti, Ctni^nary Volume 0/ the BaptUt Misjwnary SiKteiy 
h^}, R. Lovett, Historjt eflke tJmdon Murionary Society {2 volt. 
1*99): J' Lowe. Modioli Afiwwfij^ Thrir Fiaie and Pmwr, A 
•nitir*hat ovt-rlookcd sirfe of minion!, viz, the " attempt to ^timate 
thf CTjnlributioTi of ^rat races to the fulness ol the Churrb of Cod." 
h presented in Alankind and ihc Church, edited by Bishop H, H* 
Monieomery {1^7). Thi Eitcychpaedia of Mintims (2nd cd.i 1904) 
eiiiteg by Blisa. Ehvieht and Tuppcr; Tkt Blue Book pf Missianj by 
H- O Pwig^ht (19077^ and the already mentioned StaSiftic^t Atlas 
t4 iiistiont (i^to^ by If. R Beach, arc ali of the highest value. 
For Roman Catholic Mi^ons see Miiiiontx Cutkoiicae cvra S. Ccngrf- 
gtUianit J> Profmganda Fide dcscriMoi (Romae^ ex TypoRraphia 
Bolj-jslotta S. C*de Prop. Fid. [ofHeiafbienniaf jiublicationl); Lou vet, 
Lfi MiisioiiiCaikf^iqii^siou]}tiJi:*. Siicle {Lyon, Bureau dcs Missions 
CathoKquea^ t^ Rue de la Cluriti^, 1900); Piolct+ Les Missi&ns 
CitthiiiauMs ffSKfaiies[au\xiX'M^ SiiciE (6 voli.., f^aris^ A. Colin. 5 Rue 
dn Mhitfe%); H. A. Krose, Kathsiiiche Misiwn^staiiitik (1903} r 
K Stidt* Katkalijchm Mis^miattm (190S). • 

(E. 5tj H.T. a,; a, J.C.) 

MISSISSIPPI, a South Central sUte of the United Sutes, 
situated between 35" N. lat. and 31* N. lat., with its S.E. part 
extending to the Gulf of Mexico, the extreme southern point 
being in 30* 13' N. lat. near the mouth of the Pearl River. 
On the £. the line is mostly regular, its extreme E. point being 
at 88'' / W. long, in the N.E. corner of the state; the W. 
boundary has its extreme W. point at 91* 41' W. long, in the 
S.W. comer of the state. Mississippi is bounded N. by 
Tennessee, £. by Alabama, S. by the Gulf of Mexico and 
Louisiana, W. by Louisiana, from which it is separated by the 
Pearl River and by the Mississippi, and by Arkansas, from 
which also it is separated by the Mississippi. The total area 
b 46,865 sq. m., of which 503 sq. m. are water surface. 

Physical Features. — Mississippi lies for the most part in the Missis- 
sippi embaymcnt of the Gulf Coastal Plain. A feature of its surface 
is a strip 01 bottom land betWL^cn the MtAsts&ippi .ind 'hazoo rivtr^, 
known as the Yazoo Delta; it cxteadA from north to south about 
17s m., and has an average vidth of more than 60 m., and covers 
an area of about 7000 sq. m. With the exception ol a few flat ridges 
running from north to south, it is 40 low that it requires^ to protect 
it from overflows, an unbroken line of leveea averaging t^ ft. in 
height; these were built and are r(uiintain<,i3 by the state m part 
from a special tax on the land and in part from the sale of twamp 
lands of the United States (under an act of 1S5C1}, Altm^ the eaticrn, 
border of this delta, and southw.ird of it, hIohk: thu Mi^i»ippi itself, 
extends a belt of hills or bluffs (sometimes called "^caiie-hilJs"}. 
which is cut by deep ravines ami. thoucb vary rLanow in the north, 
has in the south an average \ildi\y of inilx^Lit to m. East of the belt 
arc level or gently rolling prairii'^, .ind ^lunit; the Gulf Coast ii a low, 
marshy tract. The highest f;tL'v:itirjM5, frnni Hoo to (ooo ft- aljove 
the sea, are on the Pontotoc ridge in Tippah and Union counties; 
and from this ridge there is an almost imperceptible slope south and 
west from the Appalachian Mountain system. Along the margins 
of valleys there are hills rising from 30 to 120 ft., but farther back 
from tlie water courses the differences of elevation are much less. 
The coast-line, about 85 m. long, is bordered by a beach of white 
sand, and broken by f«veral small and shallow indentations, among 
which are Sc Louis. Biloxi. Pascagoula and Point aux Chenes bays; 
separated from it by the shallow and practically unnavigaole 
&luda«ippi Sound is a chain of low, long and narrow sand islands, 



the tartest <A which are Petk Bois. Horn, Ship and Cat. The prin- 
cipal riven are: the Mini&jippi on the western border, and itt 
tributaries, the Yazoq and the Big Black; the Pear! and Pascjgoula, 
which drain much of the southern rtortion of the Mate and flow into 
the Gulf ; and the Tombigbee, which drain4h most of the north-eastern 
portion. The Pontotoc ridge separ^t^^ the drainaKc sy^tijm of the 
Mtsoissippi from that of the Tombigbec; csttndjna from the nortb-^ 
eastern part of the state soutltward, thii ridfrc dividea in Choctaw 
county, the eastern branch separatitic the drainage basin in the 
Pascagoula from that of the Pearl, and the western branch iepara- 
ting the drainajg^e basin of the Pearl from that of the Big Black and 
the MissLSftippi. The [>cU4 is draJntd chiefly by the Yaioo. A 
small area in the northeastern corm-r of the »tatc is drained north- 
ward by the Tennessee and the Hatehit Each of the Larger rivcri 
b fed by smaller streams; their fall is usually ECntlc and cjuite 
uniform. The valley* vary in width from i few hundrtrd vards 
to ftcii'eral mile*. In the east of the state much of the valky of each 
of the larger streams is Mveml feci above the stream's p^resent highr 
water mark and form* the " horn mock " or " second boitom *' lands. 
Most of the rivers flowing into the Guff are obstructed by sand ban 
and navi|fab1e only during high wster from January to April. Oxbow 
lakes and bayout are common only in the Delta. 

CfffltefV'— The older format iona are nearly all overlaid by depositi 
of the Quaternary period, which will be described last, tn the 
octrcme north-ea^t at? found the oldest rocka in the state — lower 
Devonian {the New Scotland bedi of New York) and. not so old, 
an extension gf the Lower Carboniferoui which underlies the Warrior 
coiil&cid* of Abboma. and which consist a of cherts^ limestones^ 
sandstones and shales, with a depth of §00 to 900 ft. The strata 
here show «ome traec^ of the upheaval which formed the Appalachian 
Mountain chain. When thia chain formed the Atlantic mountain- 
border of the continent except ing^ this north-easter n corner. Missi>^ 
tippi had not ennw^rfed from the waten of the ancient Gulf of Mexico. 
As ihe shore line of the Gulf slowly receded liouthward and west- 
ward, thesedhncDt at Its bottom gradually came to the surface, and 
coniitituted. the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations. Wherever 
stratification is observed in these formations in Miasisiiippi, it showi 
a dip west and *oath of jp or 30 ft. to the mile. 

The Cretaceous region includes, with the exception of the Lowef 
Carlroniferous. aH that part of the state eastward of a line cutting 
the Tennessee boundary in &Q* 50^ W. long.^ and drawn southward 
ami eastward near Ripley, Pontotoc, and Star kville, croBsins inia 
Alabama ia Utltudt^ jj" 45'. There are four format ion? of Creta- 
ceous strata in Mkstttippi, definiL>d by Lines having t!ie same general 
direction as the one iutt det»ibcd. The oldest, bordering the Lower 
Carboniferous. \% the Tuscaloosa formation of cLays and sandi 
arT^tnged as follows: dark claya. thin Ifgnite seams, hgnitic clays, 
sands and chert, arhl light claya; this fcFrmatioti |» %-%$ m^ wide and 
reaches from abant 33 ^c( on the Alabama boundary north to the 
Tennessee boundary. It la about 270 ft, thicks Tuscaloosa clayp 
are used in the manufacture of pottery. Ovtrrlyin^ the Tus-cniooKi 
are the Eutaw sanda, characterised by san^T^ lam mated clsys, and 
yellow^ orange, red and blue aandi, c/^nt^mtng lignite and foasll 
resin. The Lutaw formation is a strip atiout 5 to [3 m, wide with a 
m^imum depth ot 300 ft. Westward to Hquston and southward 
to about 32'' 4^' on the Alabama boundary and occupying a much 
larjjer area than the other Cretaceous format 10 Eis. is the Stlma chalk. 
cnlk'd " Rotten Limestone " by HiLgardj it is made up of a fnatcrial 
of prcat uniformitVf — a soft chalky rock, white or pale Uue^ composed 
chjiifly of tenacious clay, and white cattionatc of lime in minute 
crj'^talsv Borings show that tht thickness of thts gtnup varies ftora 
3S0 ft. in the north to about 1000 ft. at Starkville. Fossils are 
abundant, and forty species are recorded. The latest Cretaceous 
is the Ripley formation, which lies west of the northern part of the 
last-named, and, about Scooba, in a small strip, the most southerly 
ofi' a^ — it is compo^ 4:'i .: .-. ■f- 

lir: ..■ :t.<JTics. clays. Kinds, 3 i. ,-.:. .- . . ., !;- 

C<jliJL^fi.'vj, inJLdCC-ous, glauconitic marl-s, nih ^itMtvsE. iJniK^^tu^-^ a-* abi.iUit 
3Ho ft. its. marine fossils arc admirably preserved, and one hundred 
and eight species have been described. 

Ekpusits of the Tertiary period form the basis of more than hall 
the state, extending from the bofder oF the Cret^ceoos westward 
nearly to the Yazoo Delta and the Mis.^is<iippi Bottom, and south- 
Wc^fd to within a few miles of the GuK coast- Seven fprmationi 
(Of grotjps) of the Tertiar^^ strata have been disEingui&h^ in Missis- 
sippi. The oldest is the Midway limestone and cbys in a narrow 
strip whose western limit is nearly jKirallel to the western boundary 
of the Selma chalk : it tncludes : the Clayton formation, characterised 
by the hard blue Tutritella limestone (so named from the frequent 
fossil {TuftiUUA moTtoni)i and Porters Creek (previously Calted Flat-' 
wcKJfJs) clay, which is grey, weathering white, and ia occasionally over- 
tain by Brr>' ffTSsiliferous sandatone. The Wilcox fcrrmation (callcct 
Lipnitic by HiliyMn:!, and named by Safford the Lagrange group) lies 
to the W1-- ' H 'I f \"- 1-1 -t , 1 "' I i? ' ■■' '■■-I vtw II mit is (ffjm ^\wml 32' la' ow 
the Alabama boundary about due north-west; in its north-western- 
most part it is on the western edge of the Tertiary, in this state. 
Its minimum depth is 850 ft. It is marked by grey clays and sands, 
lignttic fossiliferous clays, beds of lignite or brown coal, sometimes 
8 ft. in thickness, and brownish days. The siliceous Claiborne 



Tallahatta Buhretonc) formation lies south-westward from the 

.t-namcd in a strip lo-^o m. wide, whoM* South-eastern cxtrcm* 

f is the intersection of the 33nd meridian with the Alabama 

>undary, is characterized by bedi* of aluminous (;rey and white 

ind-itonc, aluminous and iiili(X'ou> cl.iy-stom*. quart/ittc sindstone, 

nd Kavn sand and marl*. The ralcarwius Claiborne or (.'lailwrno- 

.islxm furmalion-Krouii lies wmth of the last, in a wiilfif-like strip 

vith thi' ajiex on the Alakima lj<)undar>-; it is a »<-rii-» kA clays and 

lands, richlv fossilifcrous. The Jacksun formation soufh-wcst of 

the Lislx)n wis, is m.idf up chii-lly of ^ny calrareous rLiy marU. 

bluish IJKnitic clays, {(rci'n-Mnd and jja-y siIirjM)u<» s-indn. Hinilo- 

saurus (or Zeuglodon) Ixuics .ire found t»nly in the Jaik-jn marls, 

and other marine f(l»^ils an; abundant. The miniiiiuiii thii kni-S!> of 

the formation is 240 ft. The Vicksbun; formation liii nrxt iu order 

south-west, in a narrow strip of fairly re);ular wi<lth uhirh alone 

of the Tertiary formution<i runs ah far west as the Mi-^i-sippj River; 

it is probably nowhere more than no ft. di-ep. It i.s characterized 

by M:mi-<-r>'stalline lime>t«ines and blue ami white s;indy marU. 

Marine fossils are very* abundant in the marl. The Ciranrl (iulf 

group, of formations of different aqe«, con-ii>tinR of s^imU. jvind^^tones 

and clays, and showing a few ft>^>il pl.ints, but no marine fossils, 

extends southward frum the last to within a few miles of the coast, 

and is 750-JSOo ft. deep. 

The older formatiim of the Quaternary period is tlie I-afayette 
(also called _" OninRe-.vind " or "stratified drift"), v,h\rh imme- 
diately overlies all tlie t"rctarr<»in groups except the prairie-* «»f the 
Selma chalk, and all the Tertiar>' exivnt the I'ort«-rs Creek and 
Vicksburg formations and parts of the Jarkson. Its depth varies 
from a few feet to over 200 ft. (in the southern part of the state), 
and it forms the Ixxly of mri->t of the hills in the state. Its materiaU 
arc iiebbles, clays and sand.-. e)f various colours fn)m white t<i dw-p 
red, tinged with jXTOxidir of inm. which sometimo cements the 
pebble!) and ^mds mto romixut rocks. The shapes of thcM* fi rrugin- 
ous sandstones an- vir>' lant.i-tii — tulMJs. hollow '.phen*s, jilatc-s. &c., 
being common. The name stratiiud drift ha-> Ixen usctl to indicate 
its connexion with the nurtli'-rn drift. The fii-.ils are fi*w, and in 
wmie cases prukibly fli'ri\i-d from the uiulfrlying f(»nnali«.ins. 
Well-worn pi:bbles of amorphnu'* quartz (a.;.ite, chaUeilony. jasfx r, 
Ac.) aa' found in the stratifn<l drill alon.:;; the western siJic of the 
Tertiary re-^inn of the st ito. and from Columbus ni»rthw.inl. I'he 
second Quaternary* formation i* the IN»rt IludMHi, occurring within 
20 m. o7 the (Vult aw^t, anil, with allu\iuin, in the Yazoo Delta. 
Heavy clays gravel and sind-.. containing c>pre*s "tumps, drift- 
wood and ma.otiMlon lKjni.-<, anr characteristic. The l<x-~s or bluff 
formation lies along the bluffs b<irdering the Bottimi. ne.-irly con- 
tinuously through the state. Its fine-grained, unsir.i tiller] bilt 
cont.iins the renulns uf many tcra'strial animals, including fifteen 
mammals. 

Fauna. — Among the more common species of game are squirrels, 
OiM>situm!:. musk-rats, rabbits, raro«ms. wild turkeys, " partrielges " 
(quail, or Hob White), g»i.-e, and durks; di^-r, bLuk Uvirs, grey (or 
timU-r) W'jIvos, bl.»ck wolves and " wild cits " (lynx), once common, 
have iK-come rare. Allik;.itor-i inhabit the southern rivcr-l»ottoms, 
and there arc s«ime r.ifth -nakes e)n the uplands. Aint>ng a great 
variety of ^ong-birds the ni<x kin,;-bird is prominent; the rxiraktet 
is found in the stiuthern part of the stat(>. Huflalo-fi-h, {hiddle-fish. 
cat-fish, drum, crajipie, blat k bass, rock U»-s, r.orman carp, sturgeon, 

Sike, iH'reh, eels, sui kers and shrimp inhabit the waters of the 
Iis.i-,-;ippi and its triiaitarir-. ami oy-tirs, ^hrimp. trout, Sjwniflh 
m.ukertl, channel bas-, bla^k Ims"*, slut p-hi ad. mullet, croakirs, 
(touiiuno, pin-fifh, blue-fi-h, llminders, rrabs and ti-rrapin arc o!>- 
taiiied from the Mi-si- .ippi Siuml and the riv«rs llowing into it. 
Floni. — Originally Mi-i-iiijii was almost eniirrly eovi-nd with 
a growth of forest trees uf lar;ie si/e, ino-.tly <hiiilu.iii-.: anil in !')<>» 
alhiut seven-tenths of it-^ .iroa was still <la>Mi| as timU-r-lan'l. 
Till- north central i«,irt i»f the state, known as the " flat w«K)th," is 
level and heavily furesiiMl. Thi-re are mon.' than uo sjH-cirs of 
trivs in the slati*. 15 «if 0.1k al'in*-. The m(»st valu.ible .-pi-i its fur 
lumber are the long-leaf pine whii h is on '>lomi riant in the low 
s«)Uthern third of th«' state, S4>miiiiiie> called the " eow-t'oiintry "; 
til"' short-leaf plnr, found farther north; the while ri.ik. «|uii«* wiilely 
di-triliuterl; cotton-wixxl and red gum. found (hi(.lly on the rich 
alluvial land-: and the ryiire-rs, foimd chiilly in t!ie mar^-hes of 
the Delta. Thi- bi'iutiful live oaks and nia^jnoli.is grow only 
in the south of the state; tlv holly in the lowlands; .ind the fnie-t 
siKcies of iMN-an, in the IXIta. The si-.s.ifra>. ivrsimmon, wild 
clierr>- and Cliii ka-aw plum are found in all parts of the state. 
The gra|H.-, Ogmhii' lime (.Yy-^a capU-iUi) ind |kiwpaw are als.3 
native fruit-. Amon:^ indiv;i'nous shrubs and vims an- the black- 
ln-rr\', tK-wbcrrv. sirawbi rrv-. yiUow ia->min<\ mi-ili.i'#e and i>oisi>n- 
o.ik:'anti anion.: molicinal h'-rbs are tion hound, viiii^ji r and |K'pi)er- 
niint. Here. t«Hi. (;rowsSpaiii-h riio.-.-.. Us«il by uph>il-ti rers. 

Climolt: — Till- NUiflurn l.itiru«l«-, the low i li vaiim and the prox- 
imity to thi" ('•nlf of Mexii-o priwlmv in •■outh'-rn Mi--i- ippi a r.itlur 
mildandi>r|uablei lim iti . but to the northward thei \ir<.iii>-sini;rea-e. 
The normal annual tmii" r.iture for thi- siati- I- '.i" \'.; on the eiKi-t 
it ii (17** I'., ancl on the n-irihi rn bordi r it is «ii* F. During a (h rio^l 
of twinty years, from Janu irv l^*"*/ to IX-efnilH-r i«)o<>, extremis of 
tempi-ratnn* at Hiloxi, on the coast, rangiil fn^m i" F. to umi* F.; 
during nearly the same {KriLxl at I'ontutoc, in the north-ea.-tvm pun 



MISSISSIPPI 



of the state, they ranged from -ii* F. to 105* F. The greater 
extremes recorded were - 15* F. at Aberdeen. Monroe county, oa 
the 13th of Februar>' 1899, and 107* F. at several places in July 
and August of different years. January is the coldest month, and 
July is the warmest. During the winter the normal temperature — 
decrease's quite stearlily from M>uth to north; thus the mean tempera- 
ture in Janujr>' at Hiloxi is 51* F., at Meridian, in the cukt central 
Ikirt, it is 46* F., and at I'ontotoc it is 43" F. But during the — 
summer, temixTatures are affc«cie<l as much by altitude a* by Uti- — 
tilde, ami the ctKist is cooletl at night by brtvzes from the (iulf. The — 
J uly mean is 82" F. at several places in the southern |jart of the stale, ^ 
and at Yazoo city, in the west central part, it is 83* F. The normal— A 
annual pa-cipitation for MisHssippi is about 51 in.; for the southenujM 

half, 54 in., and for the northern half. 49 in. An awrage of 4 in 

of snow falls in the northern half, but &outh of Natchez snow tsss=> 
seldom w-en. Nearly «ine-third of the rain falls in Januao*. February—:.-. 
and M.irch; July, alsi>, is one of the wet months. The driest seiwiirr— 
is in Si-ptemiMT ami October. The prevailing winds are from thczzs; 
south-east; but the rain-ljvaring winds are chiefly from the south — 
we-.t. and the high winds from the -vc^t and north-west. 

Sifils. — The^ most fertile soil is the alluvium erf the Delta .— 
dr|>i}-.ttcd during the overflows of the MLs^isuiippi. Oihcr» that an 
evteediniily pnxluctix'e are the bUck calcareous loam of the prainrd 
the calcareous silt of the bluff licit along the eastern Vxindcr of th ■— 
IX-lta, and the brown loam of the tableland in the central pan o^^ 
the state. Of inferior quality are the >ellow loam of the mils ii^^ 
the north-east and the sandy hiam in the pine lielt of the soutl^ 
Thnni.;hout the southern portion sand is a Large ingredient, and t -^"^ 
the northward thcni: is rnoru or less lime. 

AgrUulturf. — Missi<,>ippi is devoted largely to the cultivation c^eT 
cotton. Of the total land area of the state, 18.340,736 acn s (m -3 '^ .? 
were, in 1900, included in farms, and the improved farm lanii irx- 
creaMtl from 4.209,146 aca*s in 1870 to 7,504.^38 acn-s (41-6 \<i»: 
all farm land) in i9or>. After the abolition of sUverv, farms great l>- 
di.rnaseil in size and increa?ed in number: the numtier grew fr.>ra 
6.s,o23 in 1870 to 320.803 in 1900; the a\-erage size fell from 369 7 
acn.s in 1860 to 82-6 acn-s in 1900. Of the total numlier of farms ia 
X900, 81.413 were worked by owners or part owners (60.585 by 
whitL-s and 20,827 by ni-gnie-i); 70.699 weiv worked by cash lenanM 
fl3.5»5 l^y whites and 57,194 hy negrcxrO; and 67,153 were wartcd 
by shari- tenants (i6.74« by whites and 50405 liy negroes). 

The acreage of cotton incrt-aserl from 2,106.215 acres in 1879 to 
3,220,000 in 1907; the yield increased from 936.III bales in 1*74 to 
i,46X.i77 UiU's in 1907. Cotton is grown in even' county of th? 
state, but the Lir^e yields arc in the Dtdta (Bolivar. Co.iohma. XVoib- 
ington, Yazoo ami Lellorv countit:s), the greatest ci>tton-prulu-:inj 
n'gion of the world, and in Monnx*. Ia>wn(K-s and Noxul>ee rc-untif» 
on the Alaliama Imrder. The acreage of Indian corn in igri7 »j* 
2.500,000 acns and the crop 42.500.000 bushels. The pr(<lucii'-«o< 
other cereals deireaKfl during the Litter half of the igth cen:ur>; 
oats, from i.9S<).^>-7(> bushrls in 1879 to I.611.000 bushels in 190'r; 
wheat, fnim 5^*7.925 busheU in 1859 to zs.i^ixt in 1907: r^e, from 
39.474 busheli in 1K59 to 9^13 bushels in 1H99. af4er whith >iarthe 
cro[> has l»een negli-.;ible: and rice, from 3.719,856 lb in 1849 toaVoat 
l.oSo.noo lb in l';o7. The largest Indian-corn pn^lucing distric'.i 
are nearly the s;ime as th'v«e which produce the nio<t Ci«ti.'.n: cu:* 
and wheat .in* i;rown chiefly in the north-eastern qturtcr of the 
state, and ri< e in the ■^iuth-we-*tem quarter. 

iJetwien 1850 ami ioc»7 (liir>' cow» incre.iscd from 314,231 to 
3,V».<xx>; other neat cattle from 510.739 to 5»i<j.oix>; <.heep d<-«.TW«d 
1 1 • >m 31 ).| .0-0 to 1 8 1 .txx » ; swine decrea.-ed from 1 .58 2 .734 1 o n 1 6.«x>o; 
liorM's iacaMsid from 115,460 to 2oo,0(X>, and inulcsfrom 54.547 i>) 

270." KX). 

^u.;,ir-cane is grown princi[villy in the southern part of the st.itf. 
but sor,?hum-cane is grown to s<ime extent in luarly everj- cour.rv. 
Sw«vt jyitatoes, white p<itattx*s and onions als<> are imfmrtjnt 
crop>. Tlu- greale-t relative advance Ix-twcvn 1889 and isfi ia 
any branch oraKriculture was m.ide in the growth of market -gardes 
Iinxlure and small fruit*; for tild pine land*, formerly con^deri-d 
usi li-.<, hid Ix-en fi'uml v.iluable for the nur|>OM.'. The number (i 
or. lianl tries iniriMM-d nearly iixi "^ within the same «l«vadc. At 
Crv-%t.<.l Sf>rings toni itocs were first su(ve-<fiilly gnvAn for the market 
fis;4-iS7»i). 'Onliard tries and grajv-vincs are widely di>tr:hutrtl 
thi.->iiv:hout the st.ite, but with the e\apti\»n of peache.s thi.-ir>i<rU 
i-> en.at'T in the m rthirn portion* 

Ljimh-.r. — Mi.^i-.i|.pi ranks hkh among the southern st ^ti-* in the 
Iirii4lueti..n of InmlH-r. Its timlicr-lind in io«> w.is t-tir:ati-i at 
32.31^1 srj. m. Iroin the extreme south mo-i of the nii rrh-ri!jl k* 
iinibir hacl Innn cut, but imniediaiilv iiorth of this ihcie wire *fill 
va-t <]uii:tities of valuable long-leaf pine: in the inaishi • u: sl-c 
l^lia was mm h cyjiress, ihe cotion-wo««l was nearly ixh.i'.irtid 
and ih<- gum wa- U uig usul a« a subsiiiut«" for it: and on the rkJi 
iipl.M.d >"\\ Wire i^ik .md ricf gum, ul<o aiiton-wi>ixl, hiikory anJ 
niiple. I hi- Innilur ioid timNr |iri»«luct iniT^aM-iI in val'-e fr.^"?» 
Si,«y.'n.3:i5 in ivso to S24.03s.5V) m i«»o5. Pine stumps and »a»te 
liiubi .'f.- utili/r<l, notablv at Hatti'-sburg, for the manufacture ^-f 
cli.iri -i.il. t.ir. rno-Mii-. lurfHUtirii-, \i'. 

/•■.•\/;. 'in.— I- i-hin.; i-i a miii.tr inelii»tr>*, confined for the mi'»'t part 
to till' Mi— i-*ip|ii S'lind anrl neighlioiirlng water? ami to !*»' Mi— iv 
bipi'i and \ a^oo ri\cis. The moal valuable branch i> the o>>:kr 



MISSISSIPPI 



60 1 



fishery on the reefs in the Sound, much developed since l88a The 
shrimp fishery, too, grew during the same period. About ^% of the 
total catch of the ^tate is made by the inhabitants of Harrisoa 
county on the Gulf of Mexico. 

Minerals. — ^The mineral wealth of the state b limited. Clays and 
mineral waters are, however, widely distributed. Larae quantities 
of mineral water, sulphur, chalybeate and lithia, bottledat Meridian, 
Raymond and .elsewhere, are sold annually. The state contains 
deposits of iron, gypsum, marl, phosphate, lignite, ochre, glass-sand, 
tripoli. fuller's earth, limestones and sandstones; and then are small 
gas Hows in the Ya7oo Delta. 

Manufactures. — The lack of mineral resources, espedall;^ of coal 
and iron, of a good harbour (until the improvement of Culfport), 
and of an adequate supply of labour has discouraged most lands 
of manufacturing. The value of the total factory product was 
$57,451. 44s in 1905, when a little more than three-fourths was 
n>PreM.-nted by lumber and timber products, cotton-seed oil and 
cake, and cotton goods. The leading manufacturing centres are 
Meridian. Vicksburg, Jackson, Natchez and Biloxi. 

Transport. — Along the entire western border of the state the 
Mississippi River is navigable for river steamboats. On the south- 
ern border, the Mississippi Sound affords safe navisation for small 
coasting vessels, and from Culfport (13 m. W.S.W. of Biloxi) to Ship 
Island, which has one of the best harbours on the entire Gulf Coast, 
the Gulf & Ship Island Railroad Company, with the co-operation 
of the United States Government, in 1901 began to dredge a channel 
300 ft. wide and 19 ft. at mean low water, and to construct an anchor- 
age basin (completed in 1906) at Gulfport, ) m. long and \ m. wide, 
and 19 ft. deep. In June 1908 the maximum low-water draft of 
the channel and the basin was 19 ft. The Gulfport project reduced 
freight rates between Gulfport and the Atlantic seaboard cities and 
mx>motcd the trade of Gulfport, whk:h is the port of entry for the 
Pearl River customs district. Its imports for 1909 were valued 
at $82,028 and its exports at 58.581.471. The Yazoo, Tallahatchie, 
Yalobusha, Sunflower, Hie Black, Pascagoula and Pearl rivers are 
also navigable to a limited extent. The first railway in Mississippi 
was conipleic<l from Vicksburg to Clinton in 1840, but the state 
had suffered severely from the panic of 1837, and in 1850 it had only 
7<J m. of railway. This was mcreased to 862 ra. by i860. The 
Civil War then mterfercd, and in 1880 the mileage was only 1127 m. 
During the next decade it was a little more than doubled, and at 
the close of 1908 it was 3916-8^ m. The primrioal lines are the 
Illinois Central, the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley, tne Southern, the 
Mobile & Ohio, the New Orleans & North-eastern, the Kansas City, 
Memphis & Birmingham, the Mobile. Jackson & Kansas City, the 
Alabama & Vicksburg, and the Gulf & Ship Island. 

Populalion. — The population increased from 1,131,597 in 
1880' to 1,289.600 in iSqo, of 14% within the decade, and by 
1900 it had grown to 1,551,270 (00-48% native-born), and by 
1910 to 1,797,114. The density of population in 1900 was 
33.5 ptr sq. m.; 641,200, or 41-3%, were whites; 907,630, 
or 58-5%, were negroes; 2203 were Indians, and 237 were 
Chinese; in eight counties of the Delta the ratio of negroes 
to whites was almost 7 to i. The Indians are descendants 
of the Choctaw tribe; they are all subject to taxation, and most 
of them live in the east central part of the state. The principal 
religious denominations are the Baptist (371,518 in 1906) and 
the Methodist (21 2,105 in 1906). The cities and towns having a 
population in 1900 of 4000 or more were: Vicksburg, Meridian, 
Natchez, Jackson, Greenville, Columbus, Biloxi, Yazoo City, 
McComb and Hattiesburg. 

Covcrnmcnl.—The chief special object of the present constitu- 
tion, adopted on the ist of November 1890, was to preserve 
in a legal manner the supremacy of the whites over the ignorant 
negro majority. In addition to the ordinary suffrage qualifi- 
cations of age, sex, and residence, the voter must have paid 
all taxes due from him for the two years immediately preceding 
the election, and he must be able to read any section of the 
constitution or ** be able to understand the same when read 
to him, or give a reasonable interpretation thereof." The 
former provision, strengthened by a poll-tax for school purposes 
assessed on adult males, affects both white and blacks; the latter, 
owing to the discretion vested in the election officers, affects 
(in practice) mainly the blacks. The chief executive officials are 
the governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, treasurer, 
auditor, attorney-general, and superintendent of education. 
All are chosen for terms of four years, and the governor, 
treasurer, and auditor are ineligible for immediate re-election. 

*The population at each of the preceding censuses was: 8850 in 
1800; 40.352 in 1810; 75,448 in 1820; 136.621 in 1830; 375.651 in 
1840; 606,526 in 1850: 791.305 in i860; and 827,922 in 187a 



The method of election is peculiar, being based In part upon 
the national presidential model. Each county or legislative 
district casts as many electoral votes as it has members in the 
state house of representatives, and a nuijority of both the 
electoral and the popular vote is required. If no one has 
such a majority, the house of represenutives chooses one of 
the two who have received the highest number of popular vota; 
but this is really a provision never executed, as the Democratic 
nominees are always elected without any serious opposition. 
The governor is empowered to call extraordinary sessions of the 
legislature, to grant pardons and reprieves, and to exercise a 
power of veto which extends to items in appropriation bills; a 
two-thirds majority of the legislature is necessary to pass a bill 
over his veto. His appointing power is not very extensive, as 
nearly all officials, except judges, are elected by popular vote. 

The legislature consists of a senate and a house of represen- 
tatives, diosen every four years. It meets in regular session 
quadrennially, in special sessions in the middle of the interval to 
pass the appropriation and revenue bills, and in extraordinary 
session whenever the governor sees fit to call it. Revenue mea- 
sures may originate in either house, but a three-fifths vote in 
each is necessary to their enactment. The constitution goes into 
minute detail in prohibiting local, private and special legislation. 

The judiciary consists of a supreme court of three judges, 
thirteen (1908) circuit courts, seven (1908) chancery courts, 
county courts and justice of the pca^e courts. Under the con- 
stitution of 1890 the governor, with the consent of the senate^ 
appoints supreme court judges for a term of nine years, and 
circuit and chancery judges for four years. The local judicial 
authorities are the county board of supervisors of five members 
and the justices of the peace. 

The other county ofQcials are the sheriff, coroner, treasurer, 
assessor, surveyor and superintendent of education. The 
superintendent is chosen by the state board of education except 
in those counties (now all or nearly all) in which the legislature 
has made the office elective. The courts have interpreted this 
to mean that the manner of selection need not be uniform (JVynn 
V. StaUSt 67 Miss. 312), a rule which would possibly apply to 
other local offices. The intention seemed to be to permit the 
appointment of officials in counties and districts where there was 
any likelihood of negro supremacy. 

MississipfM has taken a leading part in the movement to bring 
about the removal of the common law disabilities of married women, 
the first statute for that purpose having been passed in 1839. Under 
the present constitution they are " fully emancipated fromall dis- 
abifjty on account of coverture," and are placed on an eqitality wiih 
their husbands in Eicquirin^ and disport ng of rropcrly and in making 
contract? relative thereto. A divorce may be framed only to one 
who bas lived for at lea&t one year in the state; amon^ the recc]^fiizi.-ct 
causes lor divorce arc desertion for two years, cruelty^ insanity or 
phy Ileal incapacity at time of marriage, habitual drunkenness of 
excessive U9C of opium or other drugSv and the conviction of either 
party of felony. The homestead old houschotdcr (with a family) 
who occupies it may be held excrmpt from sale for the collection of 
dcrbtj oEhcr than those fcr pu re hiisc- money, tajces, or improvements^ 
or for the «atUlaction o( a judgmtrnt upon a forfeited reciivnifaRce 
or bolf-bond, but a homcTitcad to c-Kcmpted is Umited to $3000 in 
value 4nd to r6o- acrts of land, A coRsidcrablc amoufit of personal 
proixTiy, including furniture, a sntall librsiy, provjsion^i, toolm asri* 
culture I [mplenKnts, Eive$cock and the priH-«tl* of a life insurance 
poMfry, is also oienipi kom wi^rurv ftV the satisfaction of debi»* Si (KB 
i9oq ihc *ile <if imtJitii'jat.ing liqtion has bwii prohi tiled by statute 

Fftuil and Charii^iifii Jn^Uiittioas. — The penitcntiftiy at Jackson 
W4* estabUihcd under an Act of i8j6, was crttted in tii^S- 11139, 
was opened b 1840^ wa* burned by the Ffifenl* in 1^63, and was 
rebuilt in ifl6&-i96/4 The lioard of conuol \i compaE>ed of th0 
gok-ernort jSLtlooicy-genera) and the three rjkilroid commiMionerx. 
The convict kftK syttem was a^wliihcd by the constitution of rSgo 
(Uk proviikin CD take cffi^ on the list of December id^), and itjte 
farms were purcbawd in Rankin, Hinda and Holmes counties. Ai 
these wpre intufllident to |;fve cmploymrnt to all the pKionera, some 
were put to work on Yaioo Delta ptantstion* on partntrshin con- 
tracts* Under an :^c£ uf K^f>o. however^ 13,8*9 acres of land were 
piirrKtE5C<J in S,. . : ^.r ,... Hid there and at Tchula^ Holmes 

onsniy, and at < ' "y, the n«gro convict*-^ihc white 

convicts are on the Rankin county farm — are kept on several large 
plantations, with saw-milb, cotton gins, &c Under a law of 1906 
these farm penitentiaries are controlled by a board of three trustees, 
elected by the people; they are managed by a superintendeatt 



6o2 



MISSISSIPPI 



Mppointitd oitnc twty ftjur yean by the govHTior. Tlic charitabte 
in^titutiDns o\ the &tate ajriupervised by ifcparate boards qF trustees 
aprxiintH by the govcfnor. The ttate ijUbanc hotpital^ opened at 
Jack von iil 185^ (act pt [A4&}, in tfme becamr cvercrowded and 
the Eaft Mississippi insane hoipttjl wa» opened, J m. west of 
Meridian in 1^5 (act of 1&B7). The itattr Lnftitution for the 
edycjiEicrn of the deaf ^nd dumb (1S54) and the state institutlcrR 
for the bhnd ([E4i9) ai? at Jackwo. State did is giveo to the 
hospitali at Vicbtburg and Natchtx. 

EducatioH. — Educational interests were fdmost entirely neglected 
durirw cbe cotonial And terhtorial periodi. The firti BcnooJ estab- 
lashed in the siAte was Jeffcrrson College^ naw Jelfcrsan Military 
College, near NatchE*!, Adanu county, incorporated in iSoj. 
Ctuuleri 4cTt^ g^nintcd to Khcnls In ClaibDrne, Wilkinson and Amite 
coumics la 1899-181^, ^nd ta Port Gibsoii Academy and Mis^iuippi 
CDlleee> at Ointoftt m ]8j& The public Khool 9yit4:m> estabbshed 
in 1846, never was tinivtrsal. because of spccitl Icgisbtion for various 
counties; p4jb1ic educatbn wa* reurcJed durlnE the Civil War and 
the Rijcunatructiod periml (when immense surns apprupri^ited for 
echools wtffc ^rm^ly miamafiiii^Mh but conditions graijuany impfflved 
after 1875+ npeciiily ihr^u^h the concentraiion oJ icb<»t5- The 
scA&iofis sue: atil^ toa shortn teacher^ are poorly paid and attciirXance 
u voluntaiy. The long tack of norniai training for white tenchcr^ 
(fram t&fO to 1904 there was 3 normal school for negroes al HoMy 
Springis} Luted until tft^O, when a teacher '1 training couru wa 
introduced into the curriculum ci the state university. There 
are separate schools for wtiitea and blackf, ajjd the equipment and 
service arc approximately equal, although the whiles pay about 
nine^tcnths of the school taxes. The schools are subject to the 
supervision of a state superintendent of public «]iJc:ition and of a 
board of educaUon, compo&ed of the superintendent^ the secretary 
of state, and the attorney-jEeneral, and within each county to a 
county superintendent. The schools ane supported by a poll-tax, 
by seneral approprtation^, by local levies, and by the Chickasaw 
hrhool fund. An act of Congr^ of the trd of March 1B03 reserved 
from sale lection sLxtevn ol the public lanila in each township for 
i^ucational purposes, \l1ieii the Chickasaws ceded their tanda to 
the national ;govemment, in 1830 and in iB'5J, thettate mndeadaim 
to the sixteenth sections, and hnatly in iS^jl rpcirivni i74iS50 ;^cres 
^-^ne tbiny-siitEh of the total cession of ^,58^,604 acres. The 
rcvf nae d^^rivcd from the siIes and Itasca ol this Und constitutes 
^fi endtiwment fund upon which the a,titc as tru-iiee pays 6% 
interests ft Is Used for the support of the schiiols In the old 
Chickasaw territniry in the nortbcrfl part of I ht state;* 

Among the institutions for higher education ^re the univenily 
flf Miuisflippi (chartered |S|4; opened ifijB), at Oxford, which *at 
opened to wotncn in iBSj; tne Agricruhural and Mechanical Coltegc 
(opened ift^), at AgriculLiiral College, near StarkvUle^ Oktibbc-ha 
'County; the Industrial Ini^titute and C<^lefle for Girls (opened tSS5), 
At Columbiu; and the Aleorn Agricukural and Mechanical College 
for ncgroea (1A71; reorganized in I&7&), at VVestside. In ij^lgi 
CongT«a granted thirty-six sections of public land for tha establish- 
ment of a university. This land was sold in 18;^ for $377,332.53, 
but the entire sum was iost in the failure of the Planters Bank in 
1B4OL In 1880 the state assumed liability for the full amount plus 
inten^t, and this balance^ S544h06i.2J, now constitutes an endoW' 
mtnt fund, upon which the state pays 6% intcreiit. Congrcaa 
jftanted another township (thtrty-sjx sections} for the university 
in 1892, And its Income 11 supplemctited by lep&lative appropria- 
tions for current cxpen&c? and spc?cial needs. 1 ne two aKncukural 
and mechanical collides were founded by the sale of public tindt 
given by Congress under the Morrill Act of iS6j. An agricultural 
experiment station estabUshetJ in ISB7 under the Flatch Act^ is at 
Africultura] College; and there are br^ndi experiment station* at 
McNetUn Pearl Kivcr county (tpob), ocar Hotly Springs, and at 
Stoneville* near Greenvillt 

Fivaw4,— The chief sourt^u of reveatie are taxc» on really, 
personalty and corfwratiofi*, a poB-taXt and liceficcs. The mote 
important expendiCures art for ]>LjbNc schools, sEate departments, 
educational and charitable institutions and pensions for Ccrn- 
federate vet^^rans. The early ^nancial history of the sute is not very 
creditable. The Bank of Mississippi, at Natthe^z, incorporated by the 
Te^Tiiorial legislature in iftog, wai rcchartered bv the state in iSSiS, 
«nd was ^uajTatitecd a monopoly cf^ the banking business until 1S40. 
la viotaition of this pled£e« and in the hope that a new bank would 
be more tractable ihan the Basic of Masusslppir the Planters' Bank 
mt established at Natchex. in tSm with a capital of f j,ddo,ooo, 
two-thirds of which was sutMcribed by the state. During the wild 
cr3 of speculation which foUoTi-ed (especially la iS^J— upon the open- 
ing of ihe Chirka*aw Cesaion to settlement) a large number of banks 
and railroad cnrporations ^ith banking privilegca were chartered. 
The climax was reached in tS^H with the Incorporation of the Union 
Bank. TbiSt the most pretentious of all the ttate banks of the period, 
wa* capitaiiwd at $15,500,000. The state subscribed Ss,txx),ooo, 
which was raised r^n bonds sold to Nicholaa Biddle^ prciidenl of the 
United Statw Bank of PennsyK-ania. As the Union Bank was 
founded in tht midj:t of a financial panic and wti mismanaged^ iEs 
lailu^rc was a foregone concinsiofu Agitation for repudiation was 
heg\iti by Governor A- G. McNutt (ifioj-i^BJ, and that duestion 
became tbe duef littue in iii£ gubcroitarial CAnijfiiiftn cu l^i. 



TiTghman M. Tucker (i8o3>i859). the Democratic candidate, repre- 
senting the repudiators and David O. Shattuck. Whig, r ep re s en ting 
the dnti-rrpudtators. The Democrats were wccessful. and the bonds 
were formally repudiated in 1842. In 1853 the High Court of 
Appeals and Errors of the sute in the case olMusissippi v. Hesicm 
Jabnion (J5 Miss. Reports, 625) decided unanimoudy that nothing 
oDuld ab^ilve the state from its obligation. The decision was disre- 
garded, however, and in the same year the Planters' Etank bonds were 
aljko repudiated by popular vote. These acts of repudiation were 
sanctioned by the constitution of 189a The $7,000,000 saved in 
this manner has doubtless been more than offset by the additional 
interest charges on subsequent loans, due to the loss of public coo* 
tide nee. Mississippi suffered less than most of the other Southern 
states during the Reconstruction period; but expenditures rose 
Ifom S4tJ3,2i9.7l in 1869 to $1,729,046.34 in 1871. At the ck»e 
o4 the Republican r^me in 1876 its total indebtedness was 
$j,63 1,704 .24. of which $814,743 belonged to the Chickasaw fund 
(see above) and $718,946.22 to the general school fund. As 
the principal of these funds u never to be paid, the real debt was 

slightly over $1,000,000. On the 1st of October 1907 the pa>'able 

debt was 51.253,020.07, the non-payable $2,336, 1^7.58,1 a total 

^^ I J .5^, 226.65. bince the Civil War the banking laws havt 
tvconie more stringent and the national banks have exercised i 
wholc^me influence. There were, in 1906. 24 national banks i 
3^9 state banks, but no trust companies, private banks or sav;' 



Hiitary. — ^At the beginning of the x6th century the territoiB^ 
included in the present state of Mississippi was inhabited b^^ 
thrn: pov^erful native tribes: the Natchez in the south-west, th ^ 
CboctawK in the south-east and centre, and the Chickasaws i-.^:^ 
the north. In addition, there were the Yazoos in the Ynffc^^ 
vdJey, the Pascagoulas, the Biloxis, and a few weaker trib< ^ ^ 
on the borders of the Mississippi Sound. The history o^ 
MiuJ55^ppi may be divided into the period of exploration (154^^^ 
tOgg), ihc period of French rule (1699-1763), the period ^ 
Eiiglish rule (1763-1781), the period of Spanish rule (17ST- 
1793], the territorial period (1798-18x7), and the period 0/ 
statehood (1817 seq.). 

Hcrnjindo de Soto (f.v.) and a body of Spanish adventurers 
cros&ed the Tombigbee river, in December 1540, near the preseor 
ctiy of Cclumbus, marched through the north part of the state, 
and reached the Mississippi river near Memphis ini 541. Ini6;j 
a Ftench expedition organized in Canada under Jacques Mxr> 
queUc and Louis Joliet sailed down the Mississippi to the moudi 
of the Arkansas, and nine years later (1682) Ren6 Robert Ov^ 
ti^r, sietir de la Salle, reached the mouth of the river, took 
formd possession of the country which it drains, and named it 
Louisiana in honour of Louis XIV. The first European settfe* 
mcnt in Mississippi was founded in 1699 by Pierre LemoToe, 
better known as Iberville, at Fort Maurepas (Old Bik>xi) on ths 
north 3idc of Biloxi Bay, in what is now Harrison county. The 
site proving unfavourable, the colony waa transferred to Twenty- 
seven M ik Bluff, on the Mobile River, in 1 702, and later to Mob2e 
(1710). The oldest permanent settlements in the state ve 
(New ) Bilozi (c. 1712), situated across the bay from OldBilon 
and nca^vti to the Gulf, and Natchez or Fort Rosah'e (i7ij^)- 
During the next few years Fort St Peter and a small adjoining 
colony were established on the Yazoo River in Warren couniy. 
and some attempts at settlement were made on Bay St LcBf 
uQd Pascagoula Bay. The efforts (171 2-1 721) to foster cok»»- 
zaLion and commerce through tradinjs corporations establislK<l 
by Aniolnc Crozat and John Law failed, and the colony «««' 
came again under the direct control of the king. It grew very 
alowfy, partly because of the hostility of the Indians and pt^I/ 
because of the incapacity of the French as colonizeis. ^ 
1 73^17 JO the Natchez tribe destroyed Fort St Peter, and s«n« 
of the small outposts, and ahnost destroyed the Fort ^as^ 
(Na.Lchc£) settlement. 

At the dose of the Seven Years* War (1763) France ceded to 
Great Britain all her territory east of the Mississippi ttff!^ 
New Orleans, and Spain ceded Florida to Great Britain. By 
a royal proclamation (Oct. 7, 1763) these new possessions «e^ 
divided into East Florida and West Florida, the latter Jyini * 
of Ihe J 1 St parallel and W. of the Chattahoochee and ApalacbicoU 
rivers. Crown orders of 1764 and 1767 extended the limits N. to 

1 The increase is due mainly to the assumptioa of the mBicniV 
obliii^tioiu in i88a 



MISSISSIPPI 603 

t fine due E. from the mouth of the Yazoo at about 3 2* 38' N. lat. interpreted as an effort to restore slavery. Under the Recon- 
Under English rule there was an extensive immigration into this struction Act of the and of March 1867 Mississippi with Arkansas 
region from England, Ireland, Georgia and South Carolina, formed the fourth military district, commanded successively 
A settlement was made on the Big Black, 17 m. from its mouth, by Generals E. O. C. Ord (1867), Alvan C. Gillem (1868) and 
in 1774 by Phlneas Lyman (1716-1774) of Connecticut and Irvin McDowell (June-July 1868), and by Gillem (1868-1869) 
other " military adventurers," veterans of the Havana cam- and Adelbert Ames (1869-1870). The notorious " Black and 
paign of 1762; this settlement was loyal during the War of Tan Convention " of 1868 adopted a constitution which con- 
Independence. Spain took military possession in 1781, and ferred suffrage upon the negroes and by the imposition of test 
in the Treaty of Paris (1783) both of the Floridas were ceded oaths disfranchised the leading whites. It was at first rejected 
back to her. But Great Britain recognized the claims of the at the polls, but was finally ratified in November 1869 without 
United Sutes to the territory as far south as the 3xst parallel, the disfranchising clauses. The fourteenth and fifteenth amend- 
the line of 1763. Spain adhered to the line of 1764-1767, and ments to the Federal Constitution were ratified in 1870, and the 
teuined possession of the territory in dispute. Finally, in the state was formally readmitted into the Union on the a3rd of 
treaty of San Lorenzo el Real (ratified 1796) she accepted the February of that year. 

1763 (31^) boundary, and withdrew her troops in 1798. Missis- From 1870 to 1875 the government was under the control of 

sippi Territory was then organized, with Winthrop Sargent as " carpet-baiggers," negroes and the most disreputable element 

governor. The territorial limits were extended on the north among the native whites. Taxes were increased — expenditure 

to the state of Tennessee in 1804 by the acquisition of the west increased nearly threefold between 1869 and 1871 — and there was 

cessions of South Carolina and Georgia, and on the south to the some official corruption; but the state escaped the heavy burden 

Gulf of Mexico by the seizure of West Florida in 1810-1813,* but of debt imposed upon its neighbours, partly because of the higher 

were restricted on the east by the formation of the Territory of character of its reconstruction governors, and partly because 

Alabama in 1817. Just after the uprising of 1729-1730 the its credit was ahready impaired by the repudiation of obligations 

French, with the help of the Choctaws, had destroyed the contracted before the war. The Democrats carried the legis- 

Natcboc nation, and the shattered remnants were absorbed by lature in 1875, and preferred impeachment charges against 

the neighbouring tribes. The Chickasaws ceded their lands to Governor Adelbert Ames (b. 1835), a native of Maine, a graduate 

the United Sutes in 1816 and the Choctaws theirs in 1830-1832; of the United States Military Academy (1861), a soldier in the 

and they removed to the Indian Territory. The smaller tribes Union army, and military governor of Mississippi in 1868-1870. 

have been exterminated, absorbed or driven farther west. The lieutenant-governor, A. K. Davis, a negro, was impeached 

An Enabling Act was passed on the ist of March 181 7, and the and was removed from office; T. W. Cardoza, another negro, 

state was formally admitted into the Um'on on the loth of superintendent of education under Ames, was impeached on 

December. The first state constitution (1817) provided a high twelve charges of malfeasance, but was permitted to resign. 

property qualification for governor, senator and representative, Governor Ames, when the impeachment charges against Um 

and empowered the legislature to elect the judges and the more were dismissed on the 29th of March 1876, immediately resigned. 

important state officials. In 1822 the capital was removed to The whites maintained their supremacy by very dubious methods 

Jackson from Columbia, Marion county.* The constitution of until the adoption of the constitution of 1890 made it no longer 

1833 abolished the property qualification for holding office and necessary. The state has alwa3rs been Democratic in national 

provided for the popular election of judges and state officials, politics, except in the presidential elections of 1840 (Whig) and 

Mississippi thus became one of the first states in the Union to 1873 (Republican). The electoral vote was not counted in 1864 

establish an elective judiciary.* The same constitution pro- and 1868. 

hibited the importation of negro slaves from other states; but Governors 

this prohibition was never observed, and the United States Territorial Period (1798-1817). 

Supreme Court held that it was ineffective without an act of the Winthrop Sargent . . , 1798-1801 

legislature. On the death of John C. Calhoim in 1850 the state, William C. C. Claiborne! *. *. . *. *. * * '. 1801-1805 

under the leadership of Jefferson Davis, began to rival South Robert Williams 1805-1809 

Carolina « leader of the extreme pro-slavery States' Ri^^^^ David Holme, ^^j^ ^^ ^^,-'- ' ' ..80^1817 

faction. There was a bnef reaction: Henry Stuart Foote David Holma ...... Democrat 1817-1820 

(1800-1880), Unionist, was elected governor in 1851 over Davis, GcAr^c Foindextcr „ 1820-1822 

the States' Rights candidate, and in the same year a Constitu- Walter Leake ■ ■ .. . Democrat (died in office) 1822-1825 

tional Convention had declared almost unanimously tha. "the <^::^^;^^ <»■' «^\ D^oSS'tSUd) !l^"^ 

asserted right of secession ' . . . "is utterly unsancUoned by Cnird C Bmndoo (ad int. 1826-1828) . . . . .1826-1832 

the Federal Constitution." But the particularistic sentiment Abram M. Scott . . Democrat (died in office) . 1832-1833 

continued to grow. An ordinance of secession was passed on Charlcs_LyiicIi * {ad int.) . . . Democrat 1833 

Ihe 9th of January ,86.. and the constitution wass^namendrf i'^rAmh^^ gl^an (ad " int.) ! Whig '^^^ 

to conform to the new constitution of the Confederate States, chirlcs Lynch . . : . . . Dement 1836-1838 

During the Civil War battles were fought at Corinth (1862), Mesandcr Gulbtifi McNutt. . . „ 1838-1842 

Port Gibson (1863), Jackson (1863) and Vicksburg (1863). Tiljjhman M. Tuckiir 1842-1844 

Wilham Lewis Sharkey (1797-1873). who had been chief jusucc j,>hfl AmMtiy Otntm^ir* . . . .. 1850-1851 

of the sute in 1832-1850, and a convention which assembled jobn l^^ucGuioti' (ad int.). . . „ 1851 

on the 14th of August recognized the " destruction " of slavery lnm« Whiifipid fad int.) ... .. 1851-1852 

and declared the ordinance of secession nuU and void. The rJl?;^'"''D-f.'*'f: ^ ■' . V ' * n^'SIHS. iffT^^ 

first reconstruction legislature met on the i6th of October 1865. j:;!;" {^'"McSe . \ '. \ ^"^* 1854-1857 

and at once proceeded to enact stringent vagrancy laws and Uiilijim McVV;ilic *I 1857-1859 

other measures against the freedmen; these laws the North John Jones Pettus „ 1859-1863 

• South Carolina ceded its western lands to the United Sutes in * Under the constitution of 1832 the president of the senate sue- 
1787 and Georgia in 1802. The government added them to Missis- ceeded the governor in case of a vacancy. 

aippi in 1804. The seizure of West Florida was supplemented by the * Governor Quitman resigned because of charges against him of 

treaty of 1819-1821 in which Spain surrendered all of her claims. aiding Lopez's expedition against Cuba. 

' Tne seats of government have been Natchez (i 798-1802). Wash- * On the 4th 01 November the term for which Guion had been 

ington (1802-1817), Natchez (1817-1821), Columbia (1821-1822), elected as a senator expired and he was succeeded in the governor* 

Jackson (1822 seq.). ship by Whit6eld, elected by the senate to be iu president. 

* This system prOved unsatisfactory, and in 1869 was aban- ' Served from the 5th of January (when Foote rengned) to the 
doocd. loth, when McRae was inauguxated. 



6o4 



MISSISSIPPI KIVER 



Charles dark* Democrat 

William Lewis Sharkey Provisional 

Benjamin Grubb Humphreys * . . . Republican 

AdelbertAmes . . Republican (Military Governor) ,_ 

James Lusk Alcorn* . . . Republican 1870-1 871 

Ridffley Ceylon Powers (ad int.) . . „ 1871-1874 

AdelbertAmes* „ 1874-1876 

John Marshall Stone (ad int. 1876-78) Democrat 1870-1883 

Robert Lowry „ 

L M.Stone • . . 
isclm Joseph McLaurin , 

Andrew Houston Longino .... „ 
James Kimble Vardaman „ 

Edmund Favor Noel „ 



1863-1865 

1865 

186S-1868 

1868-1870 

1870-1871 

1871-18: 

1874-1876 

1876-1883 

1883-1890 

1890-1896 

1896-1900 

1900-1904 

1904-1908 

1908 

Sk T, a, Owen, " A BiD!|^F>^y of Mi^iDfippi/' in the Annnal 
Repvrl 0/ ike Amtrkan HtiUrhtfU AtuKiatwri, iSgg. i. 63^ -8^ B 
(Wavhtniftoii, r^oo)'; " RtpnTt of the Miskiis'^ipipL Hiitoricai Co;nmL»* 
■ion *' in the Fuhiudicni v} ike Miijiitippi HistorUat Sfxtety, v. 5J- 
310 (OxfonJ, Mif«-, rgos}, J. F. H. Cbibomc'i Uississippi as a Prc»- 
ni»c#, Terriiory and ^uil( (fVctrwn. iSUo). siv<^ the best accfiunt vA 
the period before ihc Civjf War* R. Lowry and W. H. McCajdIe, 



HiiUfry Qf Miiiiisipbi (New Ywk* i*9J)k is useful for local history. 
01 moit value for tne hlslory arc the wntings ol P- J- HainlitonK 
J. W. Gamer and F. L, Rilry. Hamilton's Cotomai Mobilt {Btaton 



and New York. [8q«). and the Cohrtitatiim of tkt Svutk (Philadelphia. 
1904) are fta,nddrid authoKtie^ for the French and English periods 
(l6t»-t78l)r Garner^a Renfrffiruriiifn in Misiiijipfn {New york+ 
190a) i* lifdicial, ^hotarly and readable. Most of Rtley'i worli ia 
in the Pubikalwm t>f the Miijijiippi Histerital Sacvt^ (OK^ord. 
1^98 feq J, which he eait<HJ ; He his Spaniik Poiky in Misujsippi after 
tk* TrtQty of San Lctremo, i. |0-66; Loc&tisn ej ike BitMna^rit^ ttf 



Arckiveft and History. 

HISSISSIPPI » RIVER* the central artery of the river system 
which drains the greater part of the United States of America 
lying between the Appalachian Mountains on the east and the 
Rocky Mountains on the west. It rises in the basin of Itasca 
Lake, in northern Minnesota, and flows mostly in a southerly 
direction to the Gulf of Mexico. In the region of its headwaters 
are numerous lakes which were formed by glacial action, but 
the river itself was old before the glacial period, as is shown by 
the crumbling rocks on the edges of the broad and driftless 
valley through which it flows along the S.E. border of Minnesota 
and the S.W. border of Wisconsin, in contrast with the precipi- 
tous bluffs of hard rock on the edges of a valley that is narrow 
and steep-sided farther down where the river was turned from 
its ancient course by the glacier. So long as the outlet of the 
Great Lakes through the St Lawrence Valley was blocked by the 
icy mass, they were much larger than now and discharged 
through the Wabash, Illinois and other rivers into the Mississippi. 
Below the glaciated region, that is from southern Illinois to the 
Gulf, the river had carved before the close of the glacial period 
a flood-plain varying in width from 5 to 80 m., but this has been 
filled to a depth of 100 ft. or more with alluvium, and in the post- 
glacial period an inner valley has been formed within the outer 
one. The total length of the river proper from the source near 
Lake Itasca to its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico is 3553 m.; 
but the true source of the river is at the fountain-head of the 
Missouri, in the Rocky Mountains, on the S.W. border of Mon- 
tana, 8000 ft. above the sea, and from this source there is a con- 
tinuous stream to the Gulf which is 4221 m. long — the longest 
in the world. The Mississippi and its tributaries have more 
than 15.000 m. of navigable waterways and drain an area of 
approximately 1,250,000 sq. m. The system extends through 
the heart of the continent and affords a direct line of communica- 
tion between temperate and tropical regions. Certain physical 
and hydrographic features, however, make the regulation and 

* Removed from office by Federal troops, 32nd of May 1865; 
W. L. Sharkey was appointed provisional governor by President 
Johnson. 

• Removed from office by U.S. troops 15th of June 1868. 
» Resigned 30th of November 1871. 

• Resigned 29th of March 1876: succeeded by the president of 
the senate. 

* The name is from the Algonkin missi-sepe, literally " father of 
waters." 



control of the Mississippi bdaw tfae Influx oT tKe Missouri an 
exceedingly di^cult problem. 

The Upper Missinippi, ihac Is tne Miuissippi frmn its tootct to 
the mouth of the Mi^atjUiri^ drairti 173.000 sq. m.^ over wb^b the 
annual raJnfal) averages ^7 m.^ and its discharge per ircond into 
the Lowctf Misuulppi varies Jroin 25,000 tub. ft. to 550^000 cub- It- 
Tlie Missouri drains oH,doq »q. m-, over which the anniui r^mfsll 
Avrnees i^-^ lul, and ll» duchati^e per second info the MJ!K£i«d.tH|m 
varies from 15,000 cut. ft. ta 600,000 Cub- U. The Ohio 4riuii» 
3M,fioo sq. nir, aver which tht annuil rainktt averajies 43 in., a(^ 
its discharge per second variea from 35tOOO cub. Ii. lo i, 200,^000 tub- 
ft. The Arlcjnus drains tAtnODO sq. rn-* over whkh (he annvs) 
ramfall averages Ji^3 in., and its di^harve per second varies Irodl 
4000 cub. ft. to j^o^rooo cub. It. The Red drains 9?^Ocmj su. m., 
over which the annual rainfall nvm^t^ 3^"3 "^n,^ and its di:vlur|t 
per second varies from 3500 cub. ft. 10 iSo.ooo cub. ft. Thew ami 
a few smaller tributaries produce a rivtT wbkh windii its «ay ffijqi 
Cape Girardeau, MisM^uri, lo the pas^H^ ttirough a f^ood plaiaavrn|^ 
in^ about 40 m. in width and hiivin>K[ a lenerartuuthem slope ol S 14. 
to the mile. The general Later al i^fjpa towards the foothills is abqtn 
ft in., in 5000 ft., but the normal i^h in the Ar«t mile is about 7 ft. 
Thus the river sweeps onward with ^eat velociiy', tTodine its I 
in the bends and refauildini; them on the points, no%v formtnt u 

by it$ deposits, and now removing them. Chief imQU'g the ch 

it the formation of cui^oEfs. Two erodinj^ bends gradually appnoK^ 
c-jich other until the wattr forces a passage acfob^v the narrow neck. 
\f the channel distance betwL-en these bend* ttny be many nvAn, 
a ra-kcade perhaps 5 or (i ft, in height is formed, and ihc iwrcnt rutJtci 
throug.h with a roar audible for cnile^ The chM;kine 0/ the cuttthi 
at the upper and lower mouths of the ab^ndapH ckinnci too* 
obntructs them by depc^it, and lorms in a k-w yej^rs one ol the cres- 
cent laktrs which are so marked a feature on the maps- At the mouth 
of the Ked rivers 316 m. above the passes, the waiur ttirlacf at tlte 
lowest stage ii cmfy 5t ft. above the level <rf ihe Gulf, where the 
tnean tidal oscilbtion is about i| ft. The river channel m ifait 
KCtion is therefore a fresh -water lake. At the Actod stage the wrf^ce 
rises 50 ft. at the mouth of Red rivef, but of course reuins itt trvxi 
4t the Gulf, thus givine the head necessary lo force lonrard the 
increased votucne of divhar^e. Above the mouth of the Red riv^ 
the case Is euentLilly different. The width increases and (be deplh 
decR^ses. Hence the ^enera^l slope in lonj^ distances h here mvW 
the same at alt stages. The effect of these different physical coodt- 
tions appears in the comparative vDlumra which pass thrcmgh the 
chariFtel. At New Orleans the maximum dijc barge hardly itjcha 
t,;oo,Qoo cub^ ft. F»T second, and a Ti^lnfr river at high stages rarria 
only about 100,000 cub- ft. per secortd more than when hi\iM^ 
at the same absolute level; but just below the mouth of the Ohta 
the maximum flood vc^lume rrachei 1490^000 cub. ft. pt^r sijc^ifiid, 
and at some stages a rtsinf; nver may carry one- third more vatet 
than when falling at the same absolute level. The river is usually 
lowest in October. It rises rapidly until checked by the ffrtfinf 
of the northern tributaries. It b<^ins to rue ae:.&in in February, 
as a tonscquence of the storms from the Gulf whtch traverse the 
basin of the Ohio^ and attains itshighesi point about the ift of April 
ft then falls a few feet, but the rains in the Upper Mis^isaUfwpi baMs 
cause it to rise again and high water is maintained until $onAe tiiu 
in June by the late spring and early summer rains in the MisuHiri 
tiasin. As a rule the rtver is above mid -stage from January to 
August mclusive, and below that level for the remainder oi the |«rr 

Enginc€rifis IFfifJt/.— Below Cap* Girardeau ihetf *Tt al 
lusl jq,7^ iq. tn. of rich bottom lands wlucli iieqttite ptntertjoe 
from ffdods, and thi^ his bceci aecofnpIiAlicd to a great extent bf 
iht erection of levers. The fir^t levee wis begun in 1717, «bcs 
the engineer, Le Blond de La Tour (d. about 1 72%} ettcicil oaei 
mile long to protect the infant city of New Orie«iLs Itom «ve^ 
flow. Pnjgresi at firel w^ slow, tn 1770 the KlikmirBO 
e?;t ended only jo m. above and jo m. below New Orleans; bat 
in iSjS the kvecs, although quite insufficient in dimenuoiu. 
had become continuous nearly 10 the mouib ol ih* Red nvwi* 
In 1850 a great impulse was given to systematic embankment 
by the United Stales govern rm?m, which turned over to tT* 
several staled all unsold swamps and overflownJ l^inds wiihifl [heif 
limits, to provide a fund far rtclaimjtig the districts Uabk I* 
inundation. The action rcsuHIng trom this caused aUna ia 
Louisiana. The aid of the fisvemraeni was Invoked . an4 
Congress immediately ordered the lietesaary in vest igat ions aJid 
surveys. This work wis placed in charge of Captain (hw 
General) Andrew A. Humphreys (iSjo-iSSj), and in elab&mc 
report c^!Jve^il5g the results of ten years of invest igat ion «s 
published, just after the otitbreak of the Civil War in 1S61. U 
this report it wns demon^raled that lh« great bottom lan^ 
above the Red dvcr before the constniciloa ol thai kvecsdid 



MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



605 



not, as had been supposed, in Louisiana, serve as rE^crvdirs Lo 
diminish the maximum wave in great flood season^^ Fun her- 
more, the report argued that no diversion of tribuL4iri(^ wa^ 
possible; that no reservoirs artificially constructed could kttp 
back the spring freshets which caused the floods; that the malting 
of cut-ofis, which bad sometimes been advocated as a metUurc 
of relief, was in the highest degree injurious; that outlets 
were impracticable from the lack of suitable sites; and, An^Uy* 
that levees properly constructed and judiciously placed wouJd 
afford protection to the entire alluvial region. 

During the Civil War (1861-65) ibe artificial embsinknifTnls 
were neglected; but after its close large sums were expended 
by the states directly interested in repairing them. The worlt 
was done without concert upon defective plans, and a great 
flood early in 1874 inundated the country, caitsing terrible 
suffering and loss. Congress, then in session, passed an act 
creating a commission of five engineers to determine and report 
on the best system for the permanent reclamation of the entire 
alluvial region. Their report, rendered in 1875, endorsed the 
conclusions of that of 1861, and advocated a general Jcvce 
system on each bank. This system comprised: (i) a m:iLii 
embankment raised to specified heights sufficient to rffsttain the 
floods; and (3) where reasonable security against caving rc<|uired 
considerable areas near the river to be thrown out» citenor 
levees of such a height as to exclude ordinary high fruten, but 
to allow free passage to great floods, which as a rule occur otily 
at intervals of five or six years. An engineering organixaiion 
was proposed for constructing and maintaining, tht-sc Jcvcis, 
and a detailed topographical survey was recommended to deter- 
mine their precise location. Congress promptly appmved and 
ordered the survey; but strong opposition on constitutional 
grounds was raised to the construction of the levees by the 
government. 

In the meantime complaints began to be heard FHpecttng tbe 
low-water navigation of the river below the- mouth ol iJie Oh Jo- 
A board of five army engineers, appointed in 187& to c<>Dsider 
a plan of relief, reported that a depth of 10 ft. could probjibiy be 
secured by narrowing the wide places to about 3500 U. with 
hurdle work, brush ropes or brush dykes designed to cause a 
deposit of sediment, and by protecting caving banks by light 
and cheap mattresses. Experiments in these methods were 
soon begun and they proved to be effective. 

The bars at the efflux of the passes at the mouifa of the 
Mississippi were also serious impediments to coiTimcrtc. The 
river naturally discharges through three principal brnnthcs, tbc 
south-west pass, the south pass and the north-<?:kJit r^ass, the 
latter through two channels, the more northern of which ts 
called Pass i TOutre. In the natural condition the pcatc&t 
depth did not exceed 12 or 13 ft. After appropriations by 
Congress in 1837, 1852 and 1856, a depth of 18 ft, was finally 
secured by dredging and scraping. The report of 1&61 dlsoiascd 
the subject of bar formation at length, and the stirring up of the 
bottom by scrapers during the flood stages of the river (six 
months annually) was recommended by it. After ttie war this 
recommendation was carried into effect for several ycarj, but 
experience showed that not much more than- 18 ft. could be 
steadily maintained. This depth soon became insuClcienTp and 
in 1873 the subject was discussed by a board of army engineers, 
the majority approving a ship canal. In 1874 Congrt^'j tonaii- 
tuted a special board which, after visiting Europe and exitnining 
similar works of improvement there, reported in favour of con- 
structing jetties at the south pass, substantially upon tbt pkn 
used by Pieter Caland (b. 1826) at the mouth of the Metise; and 
in 1875 Captain James B. Eads (1820-1887) and his associates 
were authori2«d by Congress to open by contract a deep channel 
through the south pass upon the general plan proposed by this 
board. As modified in 1878 and 1879 the contract catled for 
the maintenance for twenty years of a channel through the pass 
and over the bar not less than 26 ft. in depth throughout, a 
width of not less than 200 ft. and with a middle depth of 30 ft. 
The work was begun on the 2nd of June 1875. Ihe reqtiirpd 
depth was obtained in 1879, and with few interruptions has been 



nuiintained. In 1903 Congress authoriaed preparat&sos for the 
construction of a deeper (35 ^t.) and a wider channel through 
the south-west pass; the work was begun in 1903 and virtually 
completed in 1909. 

In the year in which Captain Eads opened the south pass of deep- 
water navigation Congress created a commission of seven members 
to mature plans for correcting and deepjening the channel of the river, 
for protecting its banks and for preventing flood>i. and since then large 
expenditures for improvement between the head of the passes and 
the mouth of the Ohio have been under the control of this commis- 
sion. In protecting the banks, mattresses of brush or small trees, 
woven like t)asket-work, were sunk on the portion of the bank at 
the time under water, bv throwing rubble stone upon them, an excess 
of stone being used. A common size of mattress was 800 ft. long, 
counted along the bank, by 250 ft. wide. Sometimes a width of 
300 ft. was used, and lengths have reached 2000 ft. The depth of 
water was often from 60 to 100 ft. At first these mats were light 
structures, but the loss of large quantities of bank protection by the 
caving of the bank behind them, or by scour at their channel edges, 
forced the commission steadily to increase the thickness and strength 
of the mattress, so that the cost of the linear foot of bank protection, 
measured along the bank, rose from $8 or 1 10 to 130 in the later 
work. The contraction works adopted were systems of spurs or 
pile dykts, running oul from ihe rhare nearly to ibc line of the prth- 
po«|^d channel. L^ch dyke contiiteJ of from one to lour parallel 
Tciars of piles, \ht Iniurval between fow3 being about 20 ft. and be- 
iwtncni pik'3 in a row ^ or lo 1i* The pill^s and rows were strongly 
braced and tied together, and in ma-ny ca.v:h bniih wa» waven into 
the upper tvw, lorming a hurdle, in order (utrtlier to diminish th« 
velocky of the ■^^tvt bdow the spur. By iSqy n was evident that 
the co^t, which hjid been estimated at 13:1,000,000 in 16^1, would 
really be seveml time* iKat adiDtiiit> acid ih»t the works would re- 
quire heavy expeiw fof tbeif majntenance and many years for thLJf 
execution. Kavigatioa lnierc*ts demanded more ipee^ly n-lief. 
The comnLiji^n then began eiperimenting with hydraulic dredge*; 
and in 1^(96 it adopted a project for maintaining a channel fram tho 
iTiQuth al the Ohio to the passes that should he at lea^t 9 Ct. deep 
and 250 ft. wide throughout the year. Centrifugal pumpi are usedt 
the suction pipes being at the bow and the discharge at the ttcm 
through a line dI piptes about lOOO ft. lone, support <^ on pontoons^ 
Water jets or cutters stir up the material to be dredged before It 
enters the iuctioo pipes. The bter dredges have a capacity of about 
1000 cub. yds. of sand per hour, the velocity in the 13- to 34- in. dis- 
charge pipci being from 10 to 15 ft, per second. They cost frtm 
tWi.fRWi tn S[2t>,i:»x>, ;ind their wr>rkinr etiirlny .i Ifiw-watrr wastHt 

costs about t20,ooo. These dredges begin work on a bar where 
trouble u feared before the river reaches its lowest stage, and make 
a cut through it. A common cut is 2000 ft. long by 250 ft. wide, 
and 3 or 4 ft. deep. Since 1903 a channel of the proposed depth 
or more has been maintained. 

In 1883 ^xc6lrm^ iine of the greatest Howls known on the Misai^ 
fcippLn and ejiien?ive rncafiurvETiertt^ f»f it were nisde, A matimum 
fluod of J.goOfOoo cub, ft. per Eecond craised the Latitude at Cainov 
Much of it escaped into the bottom Lands, which are belc>w the level 
of the great nuod3i» and flowed throu|;ti them to re join the rivef 
below. The ^ow in the river proper at Lake Providencen 54J iOj. 
below CaJro^ waj thus reduced to about i.ooo.ooo rub. it. per second,, 
while jf the river had been confined by levees the ftow bietvreen theni 
would have been double, or about 2^000 ,CiOO cub. ft. per secondi. 
The volume ol the levees in l&^l was about 33.000,000 cub. yds.,, 
and by the 30th of June 190^ had been Incr^aKd to 279.621^504 
cub. yds., dI which the United States hi^d built about onc^hau^ 
and has expended on them 122,562.^4, The length ol the levcia 
li about 14S6 m.. and they ore continuous save whern intefiuptcd 
by tributaries or by high land;], from New Madrid, or So m, below 
Cairo, to Fort Jackson. 1030 m, Mow Cairo. The width of the 
interval between levees on the opposite ti^nks of the river variet 
great I y^; in many place* tho Itvet* arc buiU much nearer the normal 
irt<)ir;in of the river than h ci&nsiiierit with teejiipg the flood belgbta 
as bw as pouible. This ha* ariica fmm !*!,> ciu*c*: firitly* to give 
protL-ction to bnds alrcadv cultivated, which lie usually near the 
hank of the river; sccondl]^, to avt>id the lower ground < whieh, 
owiiig to the peculiar fonntitkni, 14 found as one saes back from the 
river* Another bad result of thi* nearness of thelevees to the bank 
of the rivtr U the lo** of k-vees by caving, which waa ne^ir^y 5,ooo«0da 
ctibn yd*, in. 1904-1^5, iijd can only be prevented by hantt protection, 
ccKting 3150,000 pi'T mile, ta protfizt a levee perhaps 16 ft. highceMit- 
inj5 at:K>ut l^o,ooo ptg- mile. Flie levees have top widths of S ft,^ side 
slopes of Qne-third, and banquettes when fhcir hei{;hts cured atxiiit 
to ft. The gtlLdes of the levees are ufually 3 ft. above the highest 
water, and have to be raised from year to year as great cr con Anemcnt 
of water give* greater flood heigfatK. When this syatcm i^ completed 
there wiill prowbly be hundreds of mites of levee with height! 
exceeding 14 ft. In ifi^g, after about III! .(no, 000 had been jspent 
on levee* by the Unilco States and by the^ local authorities, the 
commij^km submitted an estimate for additional work on levees* 
amounting to t24^ciop,OQD cub- yds. and ccMting |J2,ood^<]00. Th<e 
effect of the Jeveca has been to iBcrease Oood bltifihts. Though the 



6o6 



MISSISSIPPI RIVER 



Mtasiisippi River Commisaon «a> forbidden by Congress to build 
levees to protect lands from overflow, a majority oi its members 
believed them useful for the purpose of navigation improvement. 
They have, however, effected no sensible improvement in the naviga- 
tion of the river at low stages, and at other stages no improvement 
was needed for the purposes of navigation. Neither did they prevent 
a destructive flood in 1897 and agam in 1903. By the 30tn of June 
1908, 157,510,216.81 had been appropriate for the commission's 
work below the mouth of the Ohio. 

From the mouth of the Ohio to the mouth of the Missouri, a 
distance of about a 10 m., the river is affected by back water from 
the Ohio which increases the deposit of sediment, and although the 
banks increase in height above Cape Girardeau the channel was in its 
natural state frequently a mile or more in width, divided by islands, 
and obstructed by bars on which the low- water depth was only 3I 
to 4 ft. The improvement was begun in 1872. and in 1881 a project 
was adopted for narrowing the channel to approximately 3500 ft. 
In 1896 dredging was begun and in 1905 the further execution of the 
original project of 1881 was discontinued, because of a new plan 
for a channel 14 ft. deep from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. 

The Upper Mississippi carries only a small amount of sediment 
and was navigable in its natural state to St Paul, although at low 
KiTiiEcr ih(? bfvtT fiver iMiats trtiuiU ^^cnd no larther thao 1^ CroMCf 
WiscoEt^tn^ 111 1S79 CongrL-^ adopted a project for ohtAmlng a 
chAnnel with a miniciiurei depth at low wat«r ot 4f ft., chk-dy by means 
-of coQtiaction works. In 1^7 Congress aMthorired further cocitrac- 
'"' "* '-•--- (i,p conatniction of a Lateral canal at Rock Uland 



Raptdi, and the enlargement of that at Oea Moines Rapids with a 
view (0 obtalfitng a cn^nnel nowhere leas than 6 It. in depth at low 
water. By means of two ItKikj and dams^ whieh wltv besun in 1S91 
and were about threejfourths complete in [40S, a navigable ebanncl 
of the same depth will be extcndL'd [mm St Paul to Minneapolis. 
The United States EoviJrnrp'cnt has conitructed dams at the Dulk'tf< 
of lakes Winnibi^iihUh^ Ca5s, L1^cch| Pine, Sandy and Pokc^ama, 
and thereby created nrstrvoirs having a total stoiagu capuxrity of 
about 95,000.000.000 cub. It, Tbii rracrvoir syi^tvm. which ihoy 
be much enbrcedr is J»o beneficial in that it mKlgatn floods and 
tcgubtcs the (low f^r manulacturing purpwptt and for logging. 

Althotigb the Vnnal Suti'S jjowmrrieni lia* estwodedrporc thsn 
fTOjooo.ooo on the Mi^fti'^ipni rivtr btiwecsi tne mouth o* the 
Missoiiri artd Lh« head ol the pa.HB«, the improvement of n:tvigat iDn 
thert!on lias not been £fcat enough to ittake it po«iible for river 
ffcifihtcrs to force down railway rat« by cotmietition. But it is 
DO longer merely a question of competition. The productivity of 
this region has become so enormous that railways alone cannot 
meet the requirements of its commerce, and a persistent demand has 
arisen for a channel 14 ft. deep from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. 
The first great impetus to this demand was given in 1900, when a 
canal 24 u. in depth, and known as the Chicago Drainage Canal, 
was opened from the Chicago river to Lockport, Illinois, on the Des 
Plaines river, 34 m. from Lake Michi^n. Two years later Congress 
appropriated t300,ooo for the Mississippi River Commission to make 
a survey and prepare plans, with estimates of cost, for a navigable 
waterway 14 ft. in depth from Lockpo;rt to St Louis. The commis- 
sion reported favouraDly in 1905, and in 1907 Congress provided for 
another commission, wfiich in June 1909 reported against the 14 ft. 
channel, estimating that it would cost 1 128,000,000 for construction 
and 16.000,000 annually for maintenance, and considered a 9-ft. 
channel (8 ft. between Ohio and St Louis) sufficient for commercial 
purposes. 

The Ohio is commercially the most iniportant tributary, and in 
flood time most of the commerce on the Lower Missis«ppi consists 
of coal and other heavy freight received from the mouth ot this river. 
Its navigation at low water has also been improved by dredging, 
rock excavation and contraction works. In its upper reaches a 
channel 9 ft. in depth had been obtained before 1909 by the con- 
struction of a number of locks with collapsible dams which are thrown 
down by a flood. It is the plan of the government to extend this 
svstem to the mouth of the river, and it nas been estimated that a 
channel 12 to 14 ft. in depth may ultimately be obtained by a system 
of mountain reservoirs. Furthermore, the government has given to 
a corporation a franchise for the connexion of the Ohio at Pittsburg 
with Lake Erie near Ashtabula, Ohio, b)r means of a canal I3 ft. 
in depth. The Missouri is navigable from its mouth to Fort Benton, 
a distance of 2285 m., and it had become a very important highway 
of commerce when the first railway, the Hannibal & St Joseph, 
reached it in 1859. Its commerce then rapidly disappeared, out 
regular navigation between Kansas City and St Louts was re-estab- 
lished in 1907 and a demand has arisen for a 12-ft. channel from the 
mouth of the river to Sioux City, Iowa. The Red, Arkansas, White j 
Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers, which are parts of the Misassippi 
system, have each a navigable mileage exceeding 600 m. 

History. — Although the Mississippi river was discovered in its 
lower course by Hernando dc Soto in 1541, and possibly by 
Alonso Alvarez dc Pineda in 1519, Europeans were not yet 
prepared to use the discovery, and two Frenchmen, Louis 
Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette, first made it generally 
known to the civilized world by a voyage down the river from 



the mouth of the Wisconsin to the mouth of the Arkansas ia 
1673.^ In 1680 Louis Hennepin, sent by La Salle, who planned 
to acquire for France the entire basin drained by the great river 
and its tributaries, explored the river from the mouth of the 
Illinob to the Falls of St Anthony, where the city of Minneapolis 
now stands, and two years later La Salle himself descended 
from the mouth of the Illinois to the Gulf, named the basin 
" Louisiana," and took formal possession of it in the name of 
his king, Louis XIV. By the war which terminated (1763) in 
the Treaty of Paris, Great Britain wrested from France aJl that 
part of the basin lying east of the middle of the river (except the 
island of New Orleans at its mouth), together with equal ri^ts 
of navigation; and the remainder of the basin France had 
secretly ceded to Spain in 1762. During the War of Indepen> 
dence the right to navigate the river became a troublesome 
question. In 1779 the Continental Congress sent John Jay to 
Spain to negotiate a treaty of commerce, and to insist on the 
free navigation of the Mississippi, but the Spanish government 
refused to entertain such a proposition, and new instructions 
that he might forego that right south of 31" N. latitude reached 
him too late. While the commissioners from Great Britain 
and the United States were negotiating a treaty of peace at 
Paris, Spain, apparently supported by France, sought to prevent 
the extension of the western boundary of the United States to 
the Mississippi, but was unsuccessful, and the United States 
acquired title in 1783 to all that portion of the basin east of the 
middle of the river and north of 31° N. lat. In 1785 Congress 
appointed John Jay to negotiate a commercial treaty with Doa 
Diego de Gardoqui, the Spanish minister to the United States, 
but the negotiations resulted in nothing. For the next t» years 
the Spaniards imposed heavy burdens on the American comnKrce 
down the Mississippi, but in 1794 James Monroe, the United 
States minister to France, procured the aid of the French govern- 
ment in further negotiations, for which Thomas Pinckney had 
been appointed envoy extraordinary, and in 1795 Pindkney 
negotiated a treaty which granted to the United Sutes the free 
navigation of the river from its source to the Gulf and the privi- 
lege of depositing American merchandise at the port of New 
Orleans or at some other convenient place on the banks. Spain 
rctroceded Louisiana to France in x8oo, but the Tx>ufMana 
Purchase in 1803 left very little of the Mississippi basin outside 
of the United Sutes. 

As the headwaters of the river were not definitely known, the 
United States government sent Zebulon M. Pike in 1805 to 
explore the region, and on reaching Leech Lake, in Febmaiy 
1806, he pronounced that the main source. In 1820 Lewis Cass, 
governor of Michigan territory, which then had the Mississippi 
for its western boundary, conducted an expedition Into the same 
region as far as Cass Lake, where the Indians told him that the 
true source was about 50 m. to the W.N.W., but as the water 
was too low to proceed by canoe he returned, and it remained 
for Henry Schoolcraft, twelve years later, to discover Lake 
Itasca, which occupies a low depression near the centre of the 
basin in which the river takes its rise. Jean N. NicoUet, while 
in the service of the United States govenmient, visited Lake 
Itasca in 1836, and traced its principal affluent, since known as 
Nicollet's Infant Mississippi river, a few miles S.S.W. from 
the lake's western arm. Jacob VradcnbergBrowcr (1844-1905), 
who was commissioned by the Minnesou Historical Society 
in 1889 to make a more detailed survey, traced the source 
from Nicollet's Infant Mississippi to the greater ulUmate reser- 
voir, which contains several lakelets, and lies beyond Lake 
Itasca, 2553 m. by water from the Gulf of Mexico, and 1558 fL 
above the sea. Soon after this survey the state of Minnesou 
created Itasca State Park, which contains both Itasca Lake and 
its affluenU from the south. 

' It seems probable that Joliet and Marquette were preceded by 
two other Frenchmen, Pierre Esprit Radisson and Menard Chooart 
des Groscilliers, who apparently reached the Upper M issis s ip pi in 
or about 1665; but their claim to priority has been the subjiect td 
considerable controversy, and, at all events, there was no feaeral 
knowledge of the river until after the voyage of Jolitt aad 
Marquette. 



MISSOLONGHI— MISSOURI 



607 



From tbe close of the 17th century untQ the building of the 
first railways in the Mississippi basin, in the^ middle of the 
S9th century, the waterways of tbe Mississippi system afforded 
practically the only means of communication in this region. 
During the early years of the French occupancy trade with the 
Indians was the only important industry, and this was carried 
on almost wholly with birch canoes and a few pirogues; but by 
1720 immigrants were coming in considerable numbers both by 
way of the Great Lakes and the mouth of the Mississippi, and to 
meet the demands of a rapidly expanding commerce barges and 
keelboats were introduced. The development of the Mississippi 
Valley must have .been slow until the railways came had it not 
been ior the timely apph'cation of the power of steam to overcome 
the strong current of the Lower Mississippi. Even without the 
steamboat, however, the Mississippi was indispensable to the 
early settlers, and the delay of the United States in securing for 
them its free navigation resulted in threats of separation from 
the Union. The most formidable movement of this kind was 
that of 1787-1788, in which James Wilkinson, who had been an 
officer in the War of Independence, plotted for a imion with 
Spain. Steamboat navigation on this river system was begun in 
i8x X, when the " New Qrleans," which had bc«n built by Nicholas 
Roosevelt (1767-1854), nmde the trip from Pittsburg to New 
Orleans, but it was six years later before the steamboat was 
sufficiently improved to ascend to St Louis. In 181 7 the com- 
merce from New Orleans to the Falls of the Ohio, at Louisville, 
was carried in barges and keel-boats having a capacity of 60 to 
80 tons each, and 3 to 4 months were required to make a trip. 
In 1820 steamboats were making the same trip in 15 to 20 days, 
by 1838 in 6 days or less; and in 1834 there were 230 steamboats, 
having an aggregate tonnage of 39,000 tons, engaged in trade on 
tbe Mississippi. Large numbers of flat boats, especially from 
tbe Ohio and its tributaries, continued to carry produce down 
stream; an extensive canal system in the state of Ohio, completed 
in r842, connected the Mississippi with the Great Lakes; these 
were connected with the Hudson river and the Atlantic Ocean 
by the Erie Canal, which had been open since 1825. Before the 
steamboat was successfully employed on the Mississippi the 
population of the valley did not reach 2,000,000, but the 
population increased from approximately 2,500,000 in 1820 to 
more than 6,000,000 in 1840, and to 14,000,000 or more in i860. 
The well-equipped passenger boats of the period immediately 
preceding the Civil War were also a notable feature on the Ohio 
and the Lower Mississippi. 

In the Civil War the Lower Mississippi, the Ohio, and its two 
largest tributaries — the Cumberland and the Tennessee — being 
still the most important lines of communication west of the 
Appalachian Mountains, determined largely the movements of 
armies. The adherence of Kentucky to the Union excluded the 
Confederacy from the Ohio, but especially disastrous was the 
fan of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, whereby the Confederacy 
was cut in two and the entire Mississippi became a Federal high- 
way. Under Federal control it was closed to commerce, and 
wbeii the war was over the prosperity of the South was tem- 
porarily gone and hundreds of steamboats had been destroyed. 
Moreover, much of the commerce of the West had been turned 
from New Orleans, via the Mississippi, to the Atlantic seaboard, 
via the Great Lakes and by new lines of railways, the number of 
which rapidly increased. There was, of course, some revival of 
the Mississippi commerce immediately after the war, but this 
was checked by the bar at the mouth of the south-west pass. 
Relief was obtained through the Eads jetties at the mouth of the 
south pass in 187Q, but the facilities for the transfer of freight 
were far inferior to those employed by the railways, and the 
steamboat companies did not prosper. But at the beginning of 
the 20th century the prospects of communication with the western 
coast of North America and South America, and with the 
Orient by way of an isthmian canal, the inadequate means of 
transportation afforded by the railways, the effidency of 
competing waterwa3rs in regulating freight rates, and the 
consideration of the magnificent system of inland waterways 
which the Mississippi and its tributaries would afford when 



fully developed, have created the itiong demaod for river 
imprnvetnentK 

Bi BLioQ $.A fHY . —A. P. C. Criffi n^TiuD iscinfry (?/ ikt Miiiistippi- 
a Bthiioprcpkical Aicitunt (New Yorkn tSflj); J, G. SJua, The Dit* 
eovery itj the Missunpfii, m Kcport and CQl(*xtbiifi of lb* State 
HiAtcincal Swk'ty of VViseorsjiiFi, vol- v\l (M^dl^ri, i§76) ; J. V. Broww, 
Th£ MiAiuuppt River and ;/j Seurtes: a Narr&tire uwrf CrUixM 
Huli^ry {^ fJie DisctKery of tke Rjper ami itt Haniivnteri i^ii^nL^npaMtf 
1^93); r. A, Ocff, Thr Oi>ening t>f the MuiisHppi: a SfrURtlefaF 
Supr^wtiicy in the American Jnttrier {New Vorfc, 19^14) ; E. W. CouJd^ 
Fifty Year J tm the Miisiisippi% or, Gould's Hiii^try ofliiifr AW'jfoliVni 
fSi Louis. 1839): J. W* Monet (e. The Pfa^Fc/i iff Ktsfi^t^han and 
C&mmerce tm the fVaitrf afth* Mi^siifippi Ri^tf and the Great Lixttn, in 
the PubliuLiontorihf ^fij:f<ijl«ppi Hktorioil fiociciy,voLvH (Oxford 
iMiw,^ 190A); IL B. HauKhion. The Infiutnce cf the Mtiriutppi Riper 
upm the Early StUktttent 0/ lu Valley, ia the PublicaiJiJns of the 
Mi$»ssppi Historical Society, vol. iv. ; Mark Twain, iifr on fk* Mijiis- 
fippi (Borton, iflfit); A. A. Humphrt>* and H, L. Abbots J^fiw* 



PM the Pkysieiand Hydraulics of the Mifjia-ippi River (PhiladelohL, 
1 afij ) ; X nnualRtporis e/ihrMushsippi Rtvtr Camminion (Waihino^ 
tort. iSflo *qq.>; E, L. Corthcll, A Hittory -1/ tkr /citiei ai the M^uik 
i'f the Mujiiiippi Riv^ (Sew York, tS&i); J. A. CJckifrwn, The 
AtiMissippi Riner: Stmt of its fhyskaJ Chiiraitf Fifties and Measures 
emptoytd /i?r Ihe ReivlntiQn and Contttd of the Stream (P^m, rgoo); 
f. L* ^!ath^;we^ Remokini the Miiuni^pi (Bosion, 1909); R. Rl. 
Bit>wn, " The Miwisaippi River from Ope Girardeau to the Head 
of the Pa»ea," in Stdktim of ike Ameriian Geographical Society, 
voh. jtJtJtin and xxxv. (New York, 1902 and 1903); J. L, Grecnkaf, 
" 'Hie Hy^Tuloey of the A[i£&i^j(ippi," in the Amrrican Jcumal of 
Sf^iitKf, vd- ii. (New Hawn, i^)i U M. Haupt. " The Miasisiippa 
River ProbEcm, ' jn Pr^cerdingi of the Amirii^n Fhiloscphkcl Society^ 
vol^xJiii, (PhdadL'Iphia, i^o^)- 

IflSSOLOHGHI,ciT MESOLOXcm {UtffaUyyssr), the chief town 
of the monarchy of Acamania and ArtoUiif Greece. It ts on the 
N. side of the Gulf of Pntras, about 7 m, from the const; 
pop.^ about 63D0. The place is notable for the siege which 
Mavrocordato ojid Bot/aris ^ustainH in iJtas and iSaj against 
a TurkiSih army 11,000 strongTSJid for the more famous defence 
of 1SJ5-J6. Byron died heie £q iS>4, and is commemorated 
by a cenotaph ^nd a statue, 

mSSOULAf a city and the coujfity-scat of Missoula county, 
>fontisna, U.S.A,; on the Clark Fork of the Columbia (here called 
the Missoula river), about 125 m. W.N.W. of Hdcna, Pop, 
(igoo), 4.jfi6 ( 103O foreign-bom) ;{igiD), la.afiq. It b «rvcd by 
the Chicago, Milwaukee h Puget Sound railway, and by the 
Northern Pad5c rail way ^ which has shop^ here and of whieb 
Mjssoda b a division hr^dquarters. There is an dcctric railway 
from Missoula to Hamjlton, ahcut 4S m. southp The Northern 
Pacific railway maintains a Large hospital here, and St Patridc's 
hospital is maintauicd by sisters of charity. Missoula Is about 
3iOG ft. above sea -level, with Mount Jti^ibd immediately nortli^ 
and University Mount am immedialely south of the CJark Fork^ 
and the Bitter Root range to the wi^st. Tbp city is situated on 
the bed of a prehistoric fake. Misssou]a is the aat of the Eacred 
Heart academy (for girls), of a Chtbtian Brothers' school {iift 
boys), of the Garden City commerdaJ college, and of the state 
university (founded in tSg^, and opened in 1S95), which occupies 
a campus of 40 acres. On the Bitter Root river, 4 m. distant, is 
the United States army post^ Fort Missoula. Mis^ufa has con- 
siderable trade with the surrounding country in farming, fruit- 
IfTowing, lumbering and mining. The Clark Fork furnishes 
wnier power, and *il Bonner, 6 m, cast, is the CJark dam (iS ft.), 
^vhJch furnishes electric power. Missoula was founded in 1864, 
and chartered as a city in tSdj. 

«lS$OtJRI, a north<entJal state of the United States of 
America, and one of tbe greatest and richest, and economically 
one of the most nearly independent, in the Union, lying almost 
midway between the two oceans, the Gulf of Mexico and Canada. 
It is bounded N. by lon^a; E. by Illinois., Kentucky and 
Tenocisee; S- by Arkansas j and W. by OkJiboma. Kansas and 
Nebraska. Its N, and S. limits are mainly coincident with 
the parallels of 40" 3/ and j6* jo' N. bt.— the southernmost 
boundary, in the S.E. comer, is the meridian of ^fi* N. !at — 
and much of the western border is the meridian of 94* 4j' W, 
long, respectively; but natural lioundarics are afforded on the 
extreme N.E by the Des Moines river, on the E, by the Missis 
sippi, on the 5.^. by the St Francis and oo the N.Wr by the i 



6o8 



MISSOURI 



Missouri. Altogether, about 850 n., or considerably more than 
half of the entire boundary, is water-front: about 560 m. along 
the Mississippi, about 208 m. along the Missouri, and about 
xoo m. along the St Francis and Des Moines. The length of the 
state from north to south, disregarding the St Frands projection 
southward, is 282 m.,* the width from west to east varies from 
208 to 308 m., and the total area is 69,420 sq. m., of which 
693 sq. m. arc water surface. 

Physical Features. — Missouri has three distinct physiographic 
divisions: a north-western upland plain, or prairie region; a 
lowland, in the extreme south-cast; and, between these, the 
Missouri portion of the Ozark uplift. The boundary between 
the prairie and Ozark regions follows the Missouri river from 
its mouth to Glasgow, running thence south-westward, with 
irregular limits, but with a direct trend, to Jasper county at the 
south-east corner of Kansas; and the boundary between the 
Ozark and embaymcnt regions runs due south-west from Cape 
Girardeau. 

1. The prairie rraion embraces, amjpdin^ly, Admewhat more 
than " northern " ^fl^wu^i— 1>. the portiQti of the state north oJ 
the Missouri river^-^n<d tomcwbat mor« than a third of the state- 
It is a beautiful, rollitig cociDtry, with a ^t^At ahunduntt nf Efreaiti$; 
more hilly and brulien in its western than m it a eastern half. The 
elevation -in the exurme naitli'wejt 1$ about ijoo ft, and in the 
extreme north-ca»t about 500 ft^» while ihe riin of the irjion to 
the south-east, along the bordtr of the Qmrk rfgion* hai an elevation 
of about 900 ft. Tht brgier ttixiifns have valleys 250 to 300 ft* 
deep and sometimes B to 10 m^ broad » the coyntry bord(?ring them 
being the most bfokfn of the rvgion. The imAMer strtam^ have 
•o eroded the whole Jacc of the country that 111 tic of the origirujl 
surface plain is to be secii. The Miubsippi river is sViried through- 
out the lenKth of the iLate by contotirt of 400 to 600 ft. clevaiioti. 

2. The Ozark region ia ^ub^lantiaily a low dome, with \oc^[ 
faulting and minor undulationt^ domituhted by a ridge — or, more 
exactly, a relatively even belt of highUnd^that nin* from near 
the Mississippi about Ste Genevievt couttty to Barrr wynty on 
the Arkansas border; the contour Ic^-eU falling *ith dccidi.'d 
regularity in all direc Liana belaur this crest. High rwiky blulis that 
rise precipitously on the Mi^isAinpi, sometimes to a height of 150 ft. 
or so above the water, from the mouth of the Meramtc to Ste 
Genevieve, mark where that river cuts the OnrV ridge, which, 
across the river, w continuied hy the Shawnee HiJii in Klintji*, 
The elevations of the oicai in Missouri (the highest jtortion of the 
uplift is in Arkansas) vary from it 00 to iGoo ft. This iecopd 
physiographic region comprL-hfnd-i somewhat les* than lwo-thirtJ» 

of the area of thf- tt :!!'►' Tht- ItiirlintT.'.r^ f-^irpmriT, Wbfch in 

places b as much as 250 to 300 ft. in height, runs along the western 
edge of the Cambro-Ordovician formations and divides the region 
into an eastern and a western area, known rcsp>ectivcly to physio- 
graphers as the Salem Upland and the Springfield Upland.* Super- 
ficially, each is a simple rolling plateau, much broken by erosion 
(though considerable undisscctea areas drained by underground 
channels remain), especially in the cast, and dotted with hills; 
some of these arc residual outliers of the eroded Mississippian lime- 
stones to the west, and others arc the summits of an archaean topo- 
graphy above which sedimentary formations that now constitute the 
yalley-floor about them were deposited and then eroded. There 
is no arrangement in chains, but only scattered rounded peaks and 
short ridges, with winding valleys about them. The highest points 
in the state are Tom Sauk Mountain (more than 1800 ft.), in Iron 
county and Cedar Gap Plateau (1683 ft.), in Wright county. Few 
localities have an elevation cxcecdmg 1400 ft. Rather broad, 
smooth valleys, well degraded hills with rounded summits, and — 
despite the escarpments — generally smooth contours and sky-lines, 
characterize the whole of this Ozark region. 

3. The third region, the lowlands of the south-east, has an area 
of some 3000 sq. m. It is an undulating country, for the most 
part well drained, but swampy in its lowest portions. The M ississippi 
IS skirted with lagoons, lakes and morasses from Sie Genevieve 
to the Arkansas border, and in places is confined by levees. 

The drainage of the state is wholly into the Mis-^issippi, directly 
or indirectly, and almost wholly into either that river or the Mis- 
souri within the borders of the state. The latter stream, crossing 
the state and cutting the eastern and western borders at or near 
St Louis and Kansas City respectively, has a lenj^th between these 
of 430 m. The areas dramed into the Mississippi outside the state 
through the St Francis, White and other minor streams arc relatively 
small. The larger streams of the Ozark dome arc of decided interest 
to the physiographer. Those of the White system have open- 
trough valleys bordered by hills in their upper courses and cariyons 
in their lower courses; others, notably the Gasconade, exhibit rc- 

» Counting the St Francis projection the length is 328 m. 
' Both the Ozark region and the prairie region are divided by 
minor escarpments into ten or twelve bub-rcgions. . 



markable differences in the drainage areas of their two iidea, with 
interesting illustrations of shiftily water-partings: and tba white. 
Gasconade, Osage and other nvers are remarfcaUe for upUod 
meanders, lying, not on flood-plains, but around the spun of a 
highland country.* 

Caves, chiefly of limestone formation, occur in creAt nnmbcrs in 
and near the Ozark Mountain region in the •outh-weatem part of 
Missouri. More than a hundred have been discovered in Stone 
county alone, and there are many in Christian. Greene and McDonald 
counties. The most remarkable is Marble Cave, a abort HJ^ftfr 
south-east of the centre of Stone county. The entrance b thnw^ 
a large sink-hole at the top of Roark Mountain, from whkh there 
is a pastage-way to an open chamber. This extracHtlinaiy hsD-Uke 
room is about 350 ft. long and about 125 ft. wide, has Hnisli-grey 
limestone walls, and an almost perfectly vaulted roof, rising from lOO 
to 195 ft. Its acoustic properties are said to be almost perfect, and 
it has been named " the Auditorium." At one end is a remanaUe 
stalagmitic formation of white and gold onyx, about 65 ft. in heiiht 
and about 200 ft. in girth, called ^' the \Vhite Throne." Jacob's 
Cavern (q.v.), near rineville, McDonald county, discloaed oa 
exploration skeletoiu of men and animals, rude implements* Ac 
Crystal Cave, near Joplin, Jasper county, has its entire sorfaoe 
lined with calcite crystals and scalenohedron formataons, from 
1 ft. to 2 ft. in length. Knox Cave, in Greene county, and wvcral 
caverns near Ozark, in Christian county, are also of interest. Other 
caves include Fricd's Cave^ about 6 m. north-east of RoUa, Phelps 
county, Hannibal Cave (in Ralls county, about 1 m. south of 
Hannibal), which has a deep pool containing many eyelcai tahi 
and various caverns in Miller, Ozark, Grcetie and Parry counties. 

Ceoloey. — The geological history of the state covers the period 
from Algonktan to late Carboniferous time, after which there is a 
gap in the record until Tertiary time, except that there was ap* 
paj-cntly a temporary depression of the north-western and aoatn- 
we^tcrn corners in the Critacfwus age^ Northern Minouri b 
cover«i with a mantle of ^lacul dL-posits, ccncrally thick, ahbooch 
in (he itream v^tHcyB ci the north-c^t [he bed-rocks are widny 
exposed. The southern limit of these fbcijl deposits b practicaljy 
the bluffs bordcriTig the Miuouri river, except for a narrow strip 
along the Mi»iKiaupii hollow St Louis, These Pleistocene deposit s 
inclyde boul^lcry dtirt, ^ocss, terrace deposits and alluvioni. The 
till is generally less iK&n 5 ft. and rarely more than 40 ft. decpb hot 
tn Hme localiiiic^ it reaches a thkknt^ of 200 ft., or even nore. 
Modified drift and erraUc* were also widf ly deposited. The loess. 
howe\'cr — rrddiih'hrown^ buff or grey in cdlour, according to the 
varying prirpurtiQ^ni of iron oxide— u almost everywhere apnad 
nbov? the driftc It is expowd tn \Tiy deep cuts along the okiSs 
of the Mifaouri, Southern Minouri is cDvercdj generally ■p*"Mi^ 
with residuary rocks. The emb^yment rej^ion u of Ternary onna, 
containing deposit* of both neocene and cMcne periods. Regaitfiag 
now the Outcrops of bed -roc Ij, there are expcRUiies of Algonkba 
(doubtful, and at inoit a risere patch on Pilot Knob). Atchcaa. 
Cambrian, Ordavii iafii Silurijn^ Devonian, sub-Carbonilcrous and 
Cartflniferou*. The St Fran^oEs Mountains and the neighboaria| 
portion of the Ojiark region are capped with Archean rocks. Afl 
the rest of the Owrk re^^ion except the extreme south-westcn 
comcT of the statf h Ciinhro-Ordovician. Along the inaz||iB of 
this great deposit « on the Mi^u^ippi river below St Loub andTalong 
the northern »horc of (he Missoun near ifi mouth, is anoutcropoi 
Silurian. Parallel to this in the latter ^ocalitv, and lying also aMBg 
the Mistssippi near by to the norEh. a= wiiU as in the interveoiag 
country between the t*o rivers, ic 1 .ps of Devonian. Boll 
this and the Silurian are mere fringes on the great area of C 

Ordovician. Next, covering the north-eastern and south-^ 

corners of the state, and connecting them with a narrow beh, aie 
the lower Carboniferous measures (which also appear in a vaf 
narrow band along the Mississippi for some distance below St Loub). 
The western edge of these follows an irregular line from Schuyln' 
county, on the northern border, to Barton county, on the western 
border, of the state, but with a great eastward projection north 
of the Missouri river, to Montgomery county. This line defines 
the eastern limit of the Coal Measures proper, which cover a beh 
20 to 80 m. in width. Finallv, to the west of these, and covering 
the north-western corner of the state, are the upper coal measuies. 
Thus the state is to be conceived, in geological history, as graduaUy 
built up around an Archean island in successive seas, trie whole 
of the state becoming dry land after the post-Carboniferous uplift. 
Until the post-Mesozoic uplift of the Rocky Mountain region the 
north-western portion of the state drained westward. 

Fauna. — Excepting the embay ment region, Missouri lies wholly 
within the Carolinian area of the Upper Austral life-aooe; thie 

' There has been some controversy as to whether thb condition 
is due to the elevation and corrosion of original flood-plain rocandrrs 
after their development in a past base-level condition — »hich 
theory is probably correct — or to the natural, simultaneous lateral 
and vertical cut of an originally slightly sinuous stream, under 
such special conditions of stream declivity and horiiontal bed* 
strata (conditions supposed by some to be peculiariy fulfilled in 
this region) as would be favourabk? to the requisite balance of 
bank cutting and channel incision. 



MISSOURI 




la. 

popi 



/^^^W 



)V 



MISSOURI 



609 



embayment lies in the Austro-riparian area of the same sone. Among 
wild animals, deer and bear are not uncommon. Opossums, 
«accoons, woodchucks, foxes, ^v squirreb and fox-squirrels are 
common. The ^me birds mclude quail ("B<^ White") and 
partridges. Praine chickens (pinnated grouse), pheasants and wild 
turkeys, all very common as late as 1880, are no longer to be found 
save in remote and thinly-settled districts. A state fish commission 
has laboured to increase the common varieties of river fish. So far 
as these are an article of general commerce, they come, like frogs, 
terrapin and turtles, mainly from the counties of the embayment 
region. Mussel fisheries, an industry confined to the Mississippi 
river counties from Lincoln to Lewis, are economically important, 
as the shells arc used in the manufacture of pearl buttons. . There 
are state fish -hatcheries at St Louis and St Joseph. 

Flora. — The most valuable forests are in the southern half of the 
state, which, except where cleared for farms, b almost continuously 
wooded. An almost entire absence of underbrush b characteristic 
of Missouri forests. The finest woods are on the eastern upland 
and on the Mississippi lowlands. The entire woodland area of the 
state was estimated at 41.000 sq. m. by the national census of 1900. 
Ash. oaks, black and sweet sums, chestnuts, hickories, hard maple, 
beech, walnut and short-leal pine are noteworthy among the trees 
of the Carolinian area; the tupelo and bald cypress of the embays- 
ment region, and long-leaf and loblolly pines, pecans and live oaks 
of the uplands, among those characteristic of the Austro-ripafbn. 
But the habitats overlap, and persimmons and magnolias of different 
jpecies are common and notable in both areas. The heavy timber 
in the south-eastern counties (cypress, &c.),^ and even scattered 
stands of such valuable woods as walnut, white oak and red-gum, 
have already been considerably exploited. 

Climate.— 'WissoMxi has a continental climate, with wide range 
of mobture and temperature. The Ozark uplift tempers very 
agreeably the summers in the south, but does not affect the climate 
of the state as a whole. The normal mean annual temperature for 



the entire state b about 5^1* F. ; the normal monthly means through 
the year are approximately 29-6, jo-^, 42, 55-4, 64*6, 73*2, 77-1, 
75-7, 68-2, 57, 42-8 and 33*i* F. The south-eastern comer 



crossed by an annual isotherm of 60*, the north-western by one of 
50*; and although in the former region sometimes not a day in the 
year may show an average temperature below freezing-point, at 
Jefferson City there are occasionally two months of freezing weather, 
and at Rockport three. Nevertheless, the yearly means of the 
five dbtricts into which the state is divided by the national weather 
service exhibit very slight differences: approximately 52'1. 52-7, 
54-4, 56*1 and 55 7* F. respectively for the north-west, north-east, 
central, south-east and south-west. On the other hand, the range 
in any month of local absolute temperatures over the state b habitu- 
ally great (normally about ^o* in the hottest and 100^ or more in 
the coldest months), and likewise the annual range for individual 
localities (90* to 140*). Temperatures as hieh as lOO* to 105** and 
as low as -20* or -30* are recorded locally almost every year, and 
the maximum range of extremes shown by the records b from 
ii6' at Marble Hill, Bollinger county, in July 1901, to -ao* at 
Warsaw, Benton county, in February 1905. The average fall of 
snow, which is mostly within the months from November to March 
inclusive, ranges from about 8 in. in the south-east counties to 30 in. 
in the north-west counties. The Missouri river b often closed by 
ke, and the Mississippi at St Louis, partly because it b obstructed 
by bridges, sometimes freezes over so that for weeks together 
horses and wagons can cross on the ice. 

The average yearly rainfall for the state as a whole b about 39 in., 
ranging from 537 m. in 1808 to 25-3 in. in 1901. The prevail- 
ing winds are southerly, although west winds are common in 
winter. Winds from the north and west are generally dry, cool, 
clear and invigorating; winds from the south and east warm, 
mobt and depressing. Rainfall comes from the Gulf of Mexico. 
The south-east winds blow from the arid lands and carry rising 
temperatures across the state; and the winter anti-cyclones from 
the north-west carry low temperatures even to the southern border. 
Alis.souri lies very frc(iuently in the dangerous quadrant of the great 
Cyclonic storms passing over the Mississippi valley — indeed, north- 
ern Missouri lies m the area of maximum frequency of tornadoes. 

Agriculture. — Few states have so great a variety of soils. This 
Variety is due to the presence of difFercnt forms of glacial drift, 
?^nd to the variety of surface rocks. The northern halfof the state 
*« well watered and extremely fertile. The south-eastern embay- 
»*i^nt is rich to an exceptional degree. Speaking generally, the 
O^ark region is characterized by redaish clays, mixed with graveb 
^nd stones, and cultivable in inverse proportion to the amount of 
^Hese elements; northern Mbsouri by a generally black clay loam 
O'v-er a clay subsoil, with practically no admixture of stones; the 
*c>uthcm prairies, above referred to,' share the characteristics of 
^Hose north of the Missouri. The Mississippi embayment is in 
P^rts predominantly sandy, in others clayey; it is mainly under 
*irnber. The state as a whole is devoted predominantly to agri- 
<^ulture. Within its borders or close about them are the centres of 
t^otal and of improved farm acreage, of total farm values, of gross 
farm income, of the growth of Indian com, of wheat, and of oats. In 
«9co agriculture absorbed the labour of 41-3% of the toul working 
Population of the state. Of the area of the 8tate77-3% was 



included in that year in farm hnd C33t997.873 acres); and of this, 
67*4 % was improved. The average size of a farm was 1 19*^ acres; 
39*9% of all farm families owned a home clear of all incumbrance; 
and the percentages of farms operated by owners, cash tenants 
and share tenants were respectively 69'5, ii«o and 19'5. Negroes 
worked i*7% of the total acr»ge. The total value of farm- 
property was $1,033,121,897. The aggregate values of farm 
products in 1899 was $21^,296,970, and thb total consisted of 
$117,012,895 in crops (area m crops, 14,827,620 acres), $97,841,944 
in animal products, and $4,442,131 of forest by-products of farm 
operations. Indbn com b the most prominent single crop; in 1899 
it was valued at $61,246,305. Of other cereab none except wheat 
b produced in any Quantity as compared with other states. Tobacco 
b grown over bialf the area of the state, but especially in the 
central and north-central counties, and cotton along the Arkansas 
border counties, but especblly in the embayment lowlands. Orchard 
fmits, small fruits and grapes are produced in large Quantities, 
and a fmit experiment station, the only institutbn of its kind 
in the country in 1900, b maintained by the state at Mountain 
Grove, in Wnght county. To a slight extent it b possible to i^row 
fruit of distinctively southern habitat, but even pears (a prominent 
and valuable crop) are uncertain in returns. Apples are grown to 
best advantage in the north-west quarter; peaches on the Arkansas 
border; pears along the Mississippi; melons in the sandy regions of 
the embayment; small fruits in the south-west. Grapes are mainly 
grown in the Ozark region, and wine b produced in (Gasconade 
and other central and north-central counties in amounts sufficient 
to place Minouri, Califomb aside, in the front rank of wine states 
in the Union. Indian com and abundant grasses give to Missouri, 
as to the other central prairie states, a sound basb for her live- 

;!.->rlt intrrt?st?. Ill 1-. ■ - ■ . ."... .■..1)4, 

Army an[- at hjJ Louis, and Kanjutii City, Ah a mtiie market Miuoud 
h.i!i UQ rival- Shti-p an; htr^ed; in the southcm Qzarks^ 

Mine rati. — CcmI, Ifftd^ line, clays^ hgtldjrjj atancs jsnd iro«i iiB 
th^ f^EHE im^mft'int tnLnprats. Cobak and nkkcl ^ric assoctatcd 
wiili lr:id in the St Fratj^ois field; but though the Amtritan ouput 
i^ almost cxtrlu lively derived from Missouri the nrcKiurtiof) ia ism^il 
in compairLSim with the amount derive<J[ from abrcad- FtiCiic,t\\Y 
the whulf^ camei from Mine La MottCt ^n Midison ciOunLy, hVa* 
ficuri \t sIsD the tannest producer in the Lrnian of tripoli and 
oi baryres. Copper occurs in vanoui tof:alit]ea, but ia of ei:;£trie>mlc 
Lmportance only in the Ozark upltft; it was first mined in imali 
quantities in 18^7. The value of the copper mined in 1906 (UashI 
on. smelter returns) was SS4.347. Mineral waters — rtiMriatiCi 
alkaJLne chal^'beate and nulphuric: — otxur widely. Various maneral 
paint b.iBfi' (apart from lead, Einc, baryta and li^lin) are prttdutrd 
in small qcjantitics, Inon, once an extremely important product, 
haa ceased mmx about iS^to be significant in the general produc- 
tion of the Country. But it is of ^rcat imj^ortance to the state, 
nevertheless, and its production has poKibilitics much beyond 

fiiTfcnt ledlization. The otv occurs in two forms, haematites and 
Linonites; tbe ipccular hematites often beini^ gmuped, for pmctirml 
purpQ5e^, into two cLtsoet — those occurring m porphyry and th^ne 
DCCurrinig in sandstone. The haeoutitei are lounif not only in the 
arch^Jin porphyries bttC Jji Cambrian timestcn^ and sandstone, 
and in the sub-CoibonifefOU* formatioiuii while the? linronitcs are 
cnnfintd fllrflo^t tatcliiiivcly to the Cambrian. The bcddtd haema- 
tites and Itmonttts have b«fl little exploited. Mining wa» bcRun 
in Iron and Crawford coantic* in the second denadv of the t^th 
centuryj at Iron Mounuin in lajG, and at Pilot Knab in the noit 
year- Since TBSo the output oT the state ha* tw^n falling, and the 
total prodiictkjn up to »9oa^ did not exceed 9,000,000 tQrts at orej 
in 1906 the output was 60,910 tons. Iron pyrites^ which occun 
vitkly and abundantly, has become of value u material lor tint 
preparation of *ulphunc sc^tj. 

The limits of the coal b*lt have already been defined- The area 
of the Coal Measures ii about 3^,000 jq. ra.. and that of thowcUsaed 
by the National GcoIokiciI Survey as probably oroductive h about 
11, OOP Ml. m-T or nearly the entire area of the lower niea«ur», 
The coal is almost wholly bitumiivaus, with very little cannclite. 
Th* Btnms art- BcncTally Irrun one to fii.'c feet in Lhickne«s. Macon, 
l.^ira>':ttc and Adair are t! ^ . . ■ i- i. ^ in output; Lexington 
.inrj SivviiT are the Ic-n^ ^ -. The total output 

from 1840 to 1903 was about 78,500,000 short tons; the annuat 
output first passed 1,000,000 tons in 1876, and 3.000.000 tons in 1882; 
ana from 1901 to 1905 the yearly output, steadily increasing, aver> 
aged 4,196,688 tons, of a value at the mines of $6,266,154; the 
output in 1908 was 3,317,315 tons, with a spot value of $5,444,007. 
Superficial evidences of natural gas and petroleum arc abundant 
in western and north-westem Missouri, but these have not been 
found in commercbll^ profitable quantities. The total value of 
natural gas from wells in Missouri in 1908 was $22,592. A few small 
oil wells are open near the Kansas line. Both crude oil and natural 
gas are drawn from Kansas for the supply of Kansas City and other 
parts of western Missouri. 

Lead occurs in three areas in southern Missouri. In the first, 
of which St Francois county is the centre, it occurs generally alone 
disseminated in Cambrian limestone; in the second, of which the 
counties immediately south-west of Jefferson City are the centre, 



6io 



MISSOURI 



It cecun wkTi jlnr m rctktilattfd dcpcr^^its and fissure vtIhe m c!j>a 
and cLiEtic licni^tpncs; and itt the third, of which Ja«per coLnty 
n mucli the must irtaportant ccilTitytthe iwfn mt^t^li occur in pocketi 
and jjciitits in the Burllngton-Kixiktik bcda of the flub-Carbonirtmua. 
The first Is the g^reat lead sirL-a* tbe third the gjt^t lirvc area; the 
second is no longer ol rdativc impcinincc. The lead ores are 
flalena and carbonate; the iJnc ores, cabminei imithBonitc and 
blende. The minei in the St Fn^n^ij field were worked bv the 
French from early tn the iSth century. The oldest » Mine La Matte 
{Madiaon county), discovered in 1715 by De ia Mottc CaditbCt 
u Btill a heavy producer, St Fran^iii county alone prudiJCC^ 
vbout nine-tenihft the yifld oi the field; Madison, Wajthington^ 
Jeffenon and Franklin count If^ JurnJsh most of the remainder, 
Lanit quantities of lead are also obtained from the cine field ol the 
KHitA-wett, Both the St Francis and }aipcc om yield [mm 70 
\a 75% ct rnetal In final product, and oii&ay even higher. It hat 
been ciEimaied that dofin to 18^3 1^100,000 toni of ore, yicTdLni; 
metal worth $7^,000,000, had been taken froni the state, fully 
halt of thij havinjE been mined in the preceding twenty yean, 
The total output for the state in 1908 was 1^445^ tons, valued at 



{12,114,556; ol this [J6,S31 tons came Fium the ct'ntral and south' 
eait iicid, a fid of the a'ltLainder 1^,3^40 t*n* from the Webb City — 
Prosperity corip, ^iflc waa origitally a hindf^rii^g Ly-produci of 



Jcad miflmg la the south-weit, and wa* thrown awayj tut it long 
Sfo became tht chief product in value in ihis field. The icMinlled 
" Joptin district '* of south' western Missouri and ^oulh^ea^Ftem 
Kanaift-— ihrce-fourths of it beini^ in Mi&souri — pdroiuccs nine- 
tenthi of all the zinc mined in the IJnited States. Mining in «outh' 
western Missouri began about 1B5I, but 11 nc was of no imponance 
in the output until tSjl. In the neat thirty-one yean the aggre^ 

fate product was about l,O0Q,O0O tona of ore, worth some 
ioo,ooo,ooaL The output froni ii>(M. to 1905 avera^ 2t^,Bj4 
tons of ore yearly; in 1 906 it was l07r4C^ tons. The hj story of tne 
St Francis, Granby and Jodiil cfiBtHcts hai been sensational. 
The fortunes of the laat have largely revolutionised the conditions 
And proflpccts of the south- western cQiinties. Silver is found in 
connexion. %ith Irad dnd fine mining; In i^ the tot^l output wa* 
491 (^i 01,4, valued at S?6,o3^„ CUy$ wxur in Amouiits aivd varieties 
turpused by the deposits id very fcvr it any st^ttei of the iJnmti* 
Tbey art iri every fcffin frotn the raitr to tH* cotnmon — g1a» pot 
clay, bnll dayt, lcaolin$, Aint Breclaya, plastic UrtcUys, ttone-wafe 
cUya, paving -brick shales, huilding-hr [ck and ^umbo diy«. PlastiE: 
fireclajrSr paving and Lf ick clays are available m seonindly limJtl^i 
fluantities. The loesA, the rc'soried residual ckys, ancTthe [lacial 
clays are all used for the productian of brick. Clays occur, in shorty 
■11 over the stale: and their use is almost as eeneral. In 1905 and 
1907 the rank ol Missouri i^tu liiith in the Union in the value of 
cfay products— namely, $6,203411 in 19OS and £^,899,87 1 tn 1907. 
There has. been no more than the tlightest beginning made in the 
utilization ol thcH resources. Stone resources are also large. 
Limettoncs are by far the mo*t impnrtant; red and gray granitei, 
■and^toncs and marble {Ste Gcnoneve county] bein£ of I it lie more 
than locs-il Impcn-taTtce. Jn igoS the touJ value of stone quarried 
was S2.jo6,05S* TripDli h quairied pitrtieukriy in Newton county, 
where it his teen piwJuoecl frincf 1*7 J, and though AOt pnnJuced in 
fitat quantities has value frum its gen^rtil scarcity. This Missouri 
tripoli is a finely dtxom posed light rock^ about oS% &iJica, and is 
used for fihcr stones and as an abrasive- " Chat — finely crushed 
i\\nt and limestone yielded as tailing in the lead and zinc mines — 
^nds many uses. Ltmc^tone is quarried all over the state (except in 
the embayment region}. Therr ane unlimited supplies of day, ahale 
and limestone, the three essential constituents of Portland cement, 
and the manufacture of this, begun in 1902, at once assumed im-' 
porta nt proportions. Quicklime manufacture i« A\sn an important 
industry. In I904i the product of quick time was i()T^i)bO tons, 

Man n/acf H rgj. — M anufac t u ri n^ ,1 nd met hanical purau i t* absorber] 
in ttjoo the labours of 19-5% of all persons engajjcd in gainful 
cKcupations^ less than half as many as were engaged in agriculture. 
Though an a^ricultLital state, Mi^iouri had in J 900 three cities with 
fnpulations of above too,qoo< wKo$e wealth is based on manu- 
factures and tfrtfle, Miswiuri U the 1c«(din^ manufjicturing Btatc 
west of the Mississippi. Oct ween 18B0 and J 900 the value of the 
product increa.-icd frwrn $165,386,205 to $185,492.? 84, of which 
f3l6,jO4,095 was the value of pruducts of tne " factory 6>'slem "; 
Ift 190s the factory proriuct waj valued at 1455.548,957, Of the 
total output in igbo, three-fourths were made up by the output 
of St LouiA (5a3wS ►^J J.^ : of which $1<^%.J^2,7%& was from estab- 
lishments under the *" factory syutem "). Kansas City (536H5J:7HjDi; 
^3,5^3,653 being 'factory product")* St Joseph ($31,690,7^6, 
indudinff the product of aome esublishments outside the city 
Umifs; il 1*361,039 being *' factory product" within the dty 
lioiLts), and SpringJieJd (|4,ii6.S?ij 13,433,800 being ** factory 
product ")! for the lame four cities in I905 the proportion of ihe 
•tatc'« total product ($43q,54fi,<?57) manufactufrd under the 
," f^tctorv syaEem " is smaller, and lew than thtee^lourtKs was made 
up by tne folbwing sevgn cities: St Lotiii (^367 ,307,038) ^ Kan&as 
Cay (*3S,S73.fH9)- St Joseph (Sit, 57^,730) * Spfing field (f5-393-,l»5), 
I Hannibal ($4,44?, 099), j€:ff«3fjn City ff 1,926,632), antl iap\\n 
{Ij,no6,a03), In 1905 the eleven mumcipalttles with a population 
of at least d0CN> each (incJuding the seven atbove, and Qu-thage, 



Moberly, Sedalia and Webb City) produced, under the " Uetoty 
system, goods valued at $^5i43ii978- Eighteen industnes ia 
1905 employed nearly three-buns of tne wage-earners in factories 
and were represented by nearly two-thirds ($293,882,705) of the 
total product. The most prominent items in this were daughtering 
and meat-packing products (value $60,031,133 in 1905); tobacco 
fin 1905, $30,884,182), flour and grist-mill products (in 15^05, 
$38,026,142)/ malt liquors (in 1905, $24.1^64), boots and shoes 



ways (1905. $8,720,433). The increase in the slaughtering industry 
between 1890 and. 1900 (134-9%) was chiefly due to renaarkabte 
growth in St Joseph — or, to be more precise, just outside the dty 
fimits of St Joseph; between 1900 and 1905 the increase was 
39'5%- Although Missouri is not a great tobacco state, Sc Lxwa 
IS one of the gn^jTc-^E ccn[riL'i of the country in the outptit of tohaces 
products. It i^ i^Wi, Uat the ^ate, the grvat ceatrt of all the ladjnf 
interests with ihc cMziptirjit of sl.iuEhicring, The boot and shoe 
industry is ncv wr-st ol the ^f i:^ii^tppl,. but ^fis90Ll^i hold^ in it a 
high and ris^nz tank. In the JopUn mining rvngii^ii a considerable 
amount of orts is smelted, hut the bulk ni the onrs i» icnt into 
Kansas for Minelting. The finer day^^ also^ are tnainly »hi>ped 
from the state in natural form, but in the manufiictufi^ of i 
and fire-brick, Mia^uK is a very prominent state, St I 
Kansas City are the centres of the day induAtri». 

Communtcaiwns.—in 1900 rather under a fifth nf the ^ 

population were engaged in trade and transportation, la 
commerce as well as in manufactures St LxMiis is brst amoiv the 
cities of the state, but Kansas City also is one of Ihe greatest rallvay 
centres of the country, and the trade with the south-west, whica 
St Louis once held almost undisputed, has been greatly cut into bv 
Kansas City, as well as by Galveston and other ports on the Gull. 
There b still considerable commerce on the Mississippi from St 
Louis to New Orleans, and a few passeneer stean^ers are still ia 
service. In 1906-1907 there was a notable agitation for impro%-e- 
ment, following trial voyages that proved the navigatMlitv of the 
Missouri up to Kansas City. For this part of the nver the maxi- 
mum draft at mean low water was 4 ft. in 1908. I a X907 the 
amount of freight carried from the mouth of the Missouri to Sioux 
City, Iowa, was 843.863 ton^ and river rates were about 60% ol 
railway rates. In 1907 estimates were made fcH- 6 ft. and 12 ft. 
channels from £ioux Cfity to Kansas City, and from Kansas Gty 
to the mouth of the river. The improvement of the Miaaoun — 
which is far more difficult to navigate than the Missi wi pp i w a a 
begun by Congress in 1832, and (in addition to large joint appR>> 
prutions for tne Missouri, Mississippi, Arkansas and Ohio rivers 
from 1832 to 1882) cost $11,130,560 between 1876 and 190a Abo 
$6^,000 was expended from 18^ to 1876. In nothing except the 
freighting of bulky and imperishable products, like cotton, coal 
and cereals, was the river ever able to contest the monopoly of the 
railways. The mileage of these within the state rose from 3960 
in 1880 to 6142 in 1890. and to 8021-94 in 1908; the Missouri 
Padfic being far the greatest system of the state. St Looia,' Kanns 
City and St Joseph are ports 01 entry for foreign commeroe. 

Population. — The total population of Missouri in 1900 was 
3,106,665 and in 1910, 3,293,335. The population in xSto vis 
20,845; in 1820, 66,586; in 1830, 140,455; in 1840, 383,702; is 
1850, 682,044; in i860, 1,182,012; in 1870, 1,731,295; is 
1880, 2,168,380; and in 1890, 2,679,184. Thus, even in the 
years of the Civil War, there was no apparent set-bad. 
Of the aggregate of 1900, 637 % lived in " rural districts" 
(i.e. those outside all places of a population of »5oo or 
upwards), and 27*1 % in the three great dties of tJie 
state, St Louis (pop. 575,238), Kansas City (163,752) ud 
St Joseph (102,979); 5*2 % were negroes — ^iheir inoet* 
from 1890 to 1900 being less than half as rapid as that of tlie 
whites; and 7*0 % only were foreign-bom. Slightly UMHetltia 
half of all foreigners are C>ermans; Irish, English and Scotd^i 
French and English Canadians, Swiss and Scandinavians foBo** 
ing. The German element is, and has been since about iS5^ 
of great importance — an importance not indicated at aD bf in 
apparently small strength in the population to-day. Tk G^ 
man immigration began about 1845, and long ago passed its 
maximum, so that in 1900 more than half of all the foretgn^ 
(not only the Germans, but also the later-coming naiiooiliti^ 
had lived within Missouri for more than twenty years, and ncic 
than three-fourths of all had been residents of the ^ate for tea 

* Omitting here printing and publishing, and foundry and b***^ 
shop products, which (like carpentering, bakery products. ».. ■ 
cities) have little distinctive in them to set Missouri off fno ^^ 
states. But it is to be noted that St Louis ia ooe of the iftom 
producers of street-railway cart. 



MISSOURI 



6ii 



yetn or more. Thus the foreign element is an old one, and other 
statistics show that it is being effectively absorbed into the 
native mass by intermarriage.^ The German influence has been 
felt in education and in the anti-slavery cause. The early 
settlers of the state were practically all from Kentucky, Tennes- 
see, Virginia and the old ^ve-states of the south-east, and their 
influence was easily dominant in the state until well after the 
Civil War (about 1875), when northerners first began to enter 
the state in large numbers. The south-western Ozarks were 
settled originally by mountaineers from Kentucky and Tennes- 
see, and retained a character of sodal primitiveness and indus- 
trial backwardness until after the Civil War. This region has 
been industrially regenerated by the mine development. In 
addition to St Louis,' Kansas City and St Joseph, the leading 
cities in 1900 were Joplin, Springfield, Sedalia, Hannibal, 
Jefferson City, Carthage, Webb City arid Moberly. 

As Missouri was originally a French colony the Roman Catholic 
is its oldest church; and it is still the strongest with 382,642 
communicants in 1906 out of a total of 1,199,239 for all denomi- 
nations. In the same year there were 218,353 Baptists, 214,004 
Methodists, 166,137 Disciples of Christ, 71,599 Presbyterians, 
45,018 Lutherans, and 33,715 members of the German Evangelical 
Synod of North America. 

Administration. — Three constitutions, framed by conventions 
in 1820, 1865 and 1875, have been adopted by the people of the 
state, and a fourth (1845) was rejected, prindpally because it 
provided for popular election of the state judiciary, which was 
then appointed. In addition to these four constitutional con- 
ventions, mention should be made of the special body chosen in 
'x86i to decide the question of secession^ which retained supreme 
though irregular control of the state during the Civil War, and 
some of whose acts had all the force of promulgated constitu- 
tional amendments. Universal manhood suffrage was estab- 
lished by the first constitution. The constitution of 1865 was a 
partisan and intolerant document, a part of the evil aftermath of 
war; it was adopted by an insignificant majority and never had 
any strength in public sentiment.* The present constitution 
(that of 1875) was a notable piece of work when framed. The 
term of the governor and other chief executive officers, which 
had been four years until the adoption of the constitution of 
1865, under which it was two years, was restored to the long 
term (unusual in American practice). The legislature (or, as it 
is called in Missouri, General Assembly) had been permitted to 
bold adjourned sessions under the constitution of 1865. This 
e]q>ensive practice was abolished; various checks were placed 
upon legislative extravagance, and upon financial, special and 
local legislation generally; and among reform provisions, common 
enough to-day, but uncommon in 1875, were those forbidding the 
Gaienl Assembly to make irrevocable grants of special privileges 
and immunities; requiring finance officials of the state to clear 
their accounts precedent to further eligibility to public ofl^ce; 
preventing private gain to state officials through the deposit of 
public moneys in banks, or otherwise; and permitting the 
governor to veto specific items in general appropriation bills. 
The grand jury was reduced to twelve members, and nine con- 
curring may indict. The township s>'stem may be adopted by 
county option, but has not been widely established, though 
purely administrative (not corporate) " townships " are an 
essential part of state administration. St Louis and Kansas 
City have adopted their own charters under constitutional 
provision. Up to 1909 37 constitutional amendments were 
submitted to the people for adoption or rejection, and 22 were 
adopted. Three of these (1900) restrict the calling of the grand 
jury, permit two-thirds of a petit jury to render verdicts in 
courts not of record, and three-fourths to give verdict in civil 

> In 1900 only one person in six had both parents of foreign 
tnrth. 

s St Lou'is was the capital in 1812-1820, St Charles in 1820-1826, 
and Jefferson City since 1826. 

• After the proscriptive features of this constitution were abolished 
by amendments in 1870, however, there was no gn^eat discontent. 
and the vote for holdmg a constitutional convention in 1875 was 
y^xy close: 111.299 to 111.016. 



cases in courts of record. Cities have been allowed (1892), upon 
authorization by the General Assembly, to organize pension 
systems for disabled firemen, but not allowed (1904) to organize 
the same for police forces. An amendment which was adopted 
(177,615 for; X47i290 against) in November. 1908, and came in 
effect on the 4th of December 1908, provides for initiative and 
referendum applying to statutory law and to constitutional 
amendments, but emergency measures, and appropriations for 
the state government, for state institutions, and for public 
schoob are exempt from referendum. Initiative petitions, 
signed by at least 8% of the legal voters in each of two-thirds (at 
least) of the congressional districts of the state, must be filed not 
hter than four months before the election at which the measure 
is to be voted upon. The referendum may be ordered by the 
legislature or by a petition signed by at least 5% of the legal 
voters in each of two-thirds (at least) of the congressional 
districts of the state; such petition must be filed not more than 
90 days after the final adjournment of the legislature; referred 
measures become law upon receiving a favourable majority of 
the popular vote. Among defeated amendments that are indi- 
cative of socio-political tendencies was one (1896) to authorize 
Cities of a pHipuIaLion of 30,000 or mare lo purcliase^ erect or 
maintain walcrntirks or Lighting plant s< 

There [3 nothinj^ e^ctr^ordSnajy , la the g)erwTa{ judicla] tystcm^ 
The civil Uw ic^tai to have had oalv a tacit, atid as ioonsa Ajncdcaa 
imitiiientioii b<^ti a UmJtH4 AppUcraui^n. Thi- tommon bw was 
in^nxWed with the AmcdC'in -Htttkr. and alter 18-04 ^^^ the 
^plicitly declared hai^ of judicature Pr^ctic;!}]^ aa trace of 
French and Srkini^h ad minimi ml ion was hit exzvpt in (he land 
reK:i&tcrL The rnetm>pollian. ptrimacy of St Louis and ICansu Cky 
i* reflected in iht Ktrncral orgctni^Liort of the courtly The Bureau 
o( Labor Suii&tics maintains irtv cmpbymeitt-bjfeaD» in St Louifl^ 
Kan^sas Ciiy and St Jo«cph. Theje is also a State Board of Modia-^ 
lloti and Arbitration to »ttlc labour di'^putrS. A Board of Rail* 
niad and Warehouse Cornm[45iOf]cr&, elected by the people, wai 
established in 1S75. under a provision of the conisfitution rn'qi^iring 
the Gent jalAsjienibly to establish nuximurti rates and provide 
a^inst discnmination;^^ 

The homestead of a htiusekcvoer or Head of a Jamily. toficthcr 
wtth the rrats aad products of tne s^me, is cjKmpt from levy and 
att^ichcnent except to satis fy iu liabilities at tbe tinue he acqulnrd 
it. A homcstenid fo exempted is^ however, JIniited to 18 sq. rods 
cif ground and to S^OOO in value 11 it it in a city having a population 
of 4Ci,&» or morct to 30 sq. rodi and S1500 in \'a]ue if it is in a 
city having a population of 10^000 and kAs than 40,000, to 5 acita 
Am SfSOO in valye U h ii in an incorporated place having a popular 
tion of less than 10,000, and to 160 acres and $1500 in value if it 
is in the country. A husband owning a homestead u debarred from 
selling or mortgaging it without the joinder of his wife, and if the 
husband dies leaving a widow or minor children the homestead 
passes to either or to both jointly, and may be ao held until the 
youngest child u twenty-one years of age or until the marriage or 
death of the widow. The principal grounds for divorce^ are im- 
potence, bigamy, adultery, conviction of felony or other infamous 
crime subsequent to the marriage or before the marriage if un- 
known to the other party, desertion or habitual drunkenness for 
one year, such cruel or barbarous treatment as to endanger the 
life of the other, such conduct as to render the condition of the 
other intolerable, and vagrancy of the husband ; but before apply- 
ing for a divorce the plaintiff must reside in the state for one ^car 
immediately preceding, unless the cause of action was given within 
the state or while the plaintiff was a resident of int state. A 
married woman may hold and manage property as if she were 
single. She is entitled to the wages Tor her separate labour and 
that of her children, and is not liable for her husband's debts. 
A widow has a dower right to one-third of her husband's real 
estate and to the share of a child in his personal estate. If a hus- 
band dies without leaving children or other descendants, the widow 
is entitled to all the real and personal estate which came to him by 
marriage, to what remains of the personal property which came 
into his possession by the written consent of his wife, and to one- 
half his other real and personal property at the time of his death. 
If a husband dies leaving descendants only by a former marriage, 
the widow may take in lieu of dower the personal property that 
came to him by means of marriage, or if there be children by both 
marriages she may take in lieu of her dower right to his real estate 
an absolute risht therein equivalent to the share of a child. Her 
dower u not lost by a divorce resulting from the fault or mis- 
conduct of the husband. A widower is entitled to a share in hb 
wife's personal estate equal to the share of a child, and if there are 

* In 1907, in Missouri, as in various other states, passenger rates 
were reduced by law to 2 cenU per mile; but this law was declared 
unconstitutional in 1909. 



6l2 



MISSOURI 



no drscendanti lie hn! an abwlutc d&lit to onc-Kalf of her property^ 
both real [ind pcrsonaK 

fiflt]iiM,^Reveiiue 19 down mainly from a grncfal property 
tux. In 1904 the ftou valtmtion of aD Utsabk wt^ilth wa^ pyl at 
JifHt5Sh403K647p aid taxation far state purp<ja« a|xn::|;atH) $o.t7 
per |iooo.' En the yean JS51-1S57 a d^bt at :^t,7otiODD wai 
incurred ui aiding raitwaySp and all the rtj>ads niadL^ dt^f^LjIt during 
the Civil War. The atate could not meet it£ guarantee ubligations 
(hence the strict bonding provisions dJ therunatitution of 1575), nnd 
in 1865 had a bonded debt of above |f 3,6^000^000. I'hls wan rL^uccd 
to 1^21.675,000 by l^Oi, and in 1^3 *a> wholly e.\Lingtjiihcdp 
every obligation having been fully discharned, A amal debt^ (at 
the close of 1906^ $4i39^k@.W) ■* carried in the form of non^negoTi- 
able st^te certihcptcA of i[id\:bt{x1ne&9i issued in exchange for money 
taken from the educatianal funds of the atate^ and h intended as 
a permanent obli^tion to those funds. An amendment to the 
const it ution adopted in igt'M permitted counties to make aa extra 
levy of 35 cents on each 100 dolLu^ \aluatioii for the const ruction 
rnnc repair of ruads and bridgc-s. 

Cftiififablt and Pfnal iH^slitniumf.^-Thc charitable and penal 
liiBtiE.utiona of the %tate Include the penitentiary at Jefferion Clty^ 
Opened in 1836, which \^ self'Supportin^; a training school for bova 
lit Botmville [opened iA!j4)h an industrial home for ffirls at Chilli- 
cot he (e&tjibliished 1 8^7)4 ho^ipital^s for the insane at Fulton (1S47K 
St Joseph (opened 1^74). Nevada {iMj}\ and FaiminEton (1899); 
a scJioo) for th^ blind at St Louis (opened 1851): a Hzhool for the 
dirai at Fwlton (orjened 1851); a colony for the feeble-minded 
and epikptic at Ma»ha!l (established i^^): ^ state aanitorium, 
for coHiumptives, jilC Mount Vernon (established 1905, opened 
I gey); a FederE^ wMicr^' home at Si Jaines^ and j| Confederate 
■oldieni' home at Hig^insvtlle (both establtihed t**^?)- 

Educattpn* — The uxfienditunE upon public schools is mtich greater 
in Missouri than in any other of the old slave states^ Moat of the 
total eicpcndltaa- ^in 190^^ f 13,769,690) is made possible by local 
taxation. The pcftxntiiee of the enumerattfl schoisl-popiibtidn 
(children 6 to 30 yeans of age) attending schcxal in 190S was 48, 
and the percentage of the totil tngjncratior enmlkd ua* about 71 j 
the general showing being eKCtrllent, and that fur negroes remark- 
ably so- Blacks arid *hittti an* 8cgregat*."d in all schools. Vanous 
hifh-achoolfl scattered over tbjfi sUHt^ are gWtin over to the ntgroeii; 
and in 1904 the number of pupiU attend Lne these vs« enceeded 
only by the correspDnding: numbers in Te\a5 And MiHHippi-;- 
E.tatc9 with &ve- and ai^ifotd the negro population of MLHOtiri- 
riiiteratc persons above la year? of ftg?e ctinstituted in 1900 6^4% 
oJ the toul population— jS- I % of the ncgrDcsK 7-1 % o{ the native*. 
6'C^% of th«: forcign-bom. The idea of providing a uni^Ttsiiy antl 
free local schooli a* parts of a public school system occurs m the 
constitution of ift^o <and in the Acta of Congress that prrparrtj 
the way for statehood J ^ and the occurrence n noic worthy; but the 
FtsJ bojinnins^s of the ir>'Stem scarcely go back further than 1850. 
Nor was very much progress made untQ a law ft-aa passed in iSsj 
Inquiring a quarter of the general yearly revenue of the state to be 
distributed amonp the conn tie* for schooli. This appropriation 
wai made regularfy a Tier la^S (sav^j in j^i-tl^;), and since 1875 
lyis rwied on a constitutional pnaviijion. The maintenance of a 
free public school system was placed on a firm and broad fgundation 
by tfve conilitiJiEon adopted in that year. In the vtars after iflSj 
one-third of the total ^ revenue was appropriated to the public 
commoa schooU; and in igoH the total appropriation for public 
echools, normal gichocls and the state univer^iy was about three- 
filths of the entire state revenue. Local tajiation is anoihc^r Gource 
of the school tunds. In J^oS the total school fund, including «tate, 
county, township and spiX"^' district funds, was about $]4,ciO0p0O0< 
of which the slate fund was nearly onc-thinj. The schools of 
St Looi$ have a very high npulation. 

Among institutions of hiEher learning the university of Missouri 
at Columbia is the chief one maiiitji[tii.tjl by the state. It was opened 
to studtnt» in 1841, received aid for the lint lime from the state 
in 1S67; women were fir^t admitted to the mormal depaitttient in 
186^. to the academic department in 1870, and won .tJtcrwaids to 
all department i. In addition to the academic department or 
coHef^ proper, the untveriity embraces special school >> of pctbgogica 

fiB6B), aBricuiturt and mechanic arts fiB?^), minei and metaHurjgy 
jS7o,at Rolla),law U&j^), mrtjicine (1873), fine arts (1B78), enEin- 
cenug {i677)p military science, commerce, & graduata schoof of 
arlB and sctencea fi59*K and a department of journalifim {ig^^h 
An cspcrimcni station supported by the national government was 
esiabb^hetl in i»8*i, and is part of the school of agriculture. The 
state Board of A[;riculture organize* cducaltORal farmers' institutes; 
and agriculture w taught, moreover^ in the normal schools ol the 



^The conetitntional provision requiring assessments at caah 
valuations tsi not at all observed; accorflinj: to the State Revienue 
Commission oif T902 the avenge tax valuali<jO wa* 40 to 5*^% 0^ 
the real value. Tnc n-itinnal censuwsof iStoand 1890 (no estimate 
being made to 1900) put the total value of all property at 
$i,^f>2 .OQO ,D0O and f 3 ,397 .qoa ,945 respecti vcly . 

* In 19Q3 the bonded debts oF countieih and township* af^jfregated 
$&,a^,Bj&; that of towns and cities (mostly Uml of bt Louia), 
fcM9J.87*>. 



state. Of these five are maintained as follows: at Ktrksvine (1870). 
at Warrensburg (established 1870), at Cape Girardeau (establialica 
1873), at Springfield (established 1905), at Maryville (established 
>^5)> and there is a normal department in connexion with the 
Lincoln Institute, for negroes, at Jefferson City. Lincoln Institute 
(cipened in 1866) is for negro men and women. The basis of its 
endowment was a fund of S6379 contributed in 1866 by the 63nd and 
65th regiments U.S. Colored Infantry upon their discharge from 
the service; it has agricultural, industrial, sub-normal, normal and 
collegiate departments. Among privately endowed scboob the 
gieatest is Washington University in St Louis; it is non-sectariaa 
and was opened in 1857. Noteworthy, too, is the St Louis Uni- 
versity, opened in 1829, the oldest institution for higher learning 
west of the Mississippi; it is a Jesuit college and the parent school 
of six other Jesuit institutions in the states of the middle west. 
There are manv minor colleges and schools, most of them co- 
educational, ancl special colleges or academies for women are main- 
tained by different religious sects. Finally, there are various 
professional schools, most of them in St Louis and Kansas City. 

History. — ^The early French explorers of the Mississippi 
valley left the first trace of European connexion in the history of 
Missouri. Ste Genevieve was settled in 1735; Fort Orleans, 
two-thirds of the way across the state up the Missouri river, had 
been temporarily established in 1720; the famous Mine La Motte, 
In Madison county, was opened about the same time; and before 
the settlement of St Louis, the Missouri river was known to 
trappers and hunters for hundreds of miles above its mouth. 
It was in 1764 that St Lotiis (q.v.) was founded. Two yean 
birfore, the portion of Louisiana west of the Missisuppi had 
secretly passed to Spain, and in 1763 the portion east passed to 
England. When the English took possession a large part of the 
people in the old French settlements removed west of the river. 
Not until 1770, after O'Reilly had established Spanish rule by 
farce at New Orleans, did a Spanish officer at St Louis take 
actual possession of the upper country; another on the ground, 
iti 1 768-1769, had forborne to assert his powers in the face of the 
unfriendly attitude of the inhabitants. Spanish administration 
began in 1771. French remained the official language, and 
a<lministration was so little altered that the people quickly grew 
reconciled to their changed allegiance. Settlement was confined 
to a fringe of villages along the Mississippi. French>Canadian 
hunters and trappers, and soon the river boatmen, added an 
clement of adventure and colour in the primitive life of the^ 
colony. Lead and salt and peltries were sent to Montreal, 
New Orleans, and up the Ohio river to the Atlantic dties. 

The Americans were hospitably received; the immigrants, 
even Protestant clergymen, enjoyed by official goodwill complete 
religious toleration; and after about 1796 lavish land grants 
to Americans were made by the authorities, who wished to 
strengthen the colony against anticipated attacks by the British, 
from Canada.- Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia furnished moit 
of the new-comers. The French had lived in villages and main- 
tained considerable communal life; the Americans scattered 00 
homesteads. With them came land speculation, litigiousness, 
the development of mines and mining-camp law, and the passion 
of politics, of which duels were one feature of early days. In 
1S04 there were some 10,000 inhabitanU in Upper Louiaana 
(mainly in Missouri), and of these three-fifths were Americans 
and their negroes. Racial antipathies were unimportant, and 
all parties were at least passively acquiescent when Louisiana 
became a part of the United States. On the 9th of March 1804, 
at St Louis, Upper Louisiana was formaDy transferred. In 1818, 
after passing meanwhile through four stages of limited srif- 
government,' that portion of the Purchase now included in the 
state of Missouri made application for admission to the Union as 
a. state.^ In 1812-1813 a remarkable earthquake devastated the 
region about New Madrid. A large region was sunken, enorrooos 
fissures were opened in the earth, the surface soil was displaced 

• In 1804, the District of Louisiana, in the administrative system 
of the Territory of Indiana; in 1805, an independent goveminent. 
rL>named the Territory of Louisiana; in 1812, the Territory of Mis- 
souri : in 1816, another grade of territorial government. 

* Until 1836 the state boundary in the north-west was the 
meridian of the mouth of the Kansas river drawn due north to the 
Iowa line. The addition of the triangle west of that line— the 
H>-callcd Platte Purchase — violated the Missouri C 



MISSOURI 



613 



and altered, and great lakes were formed along the Mississippi. 
One of these, ReeUoot Lake, east of the river, is 20 m. long and 
7 wide, and so deep that boau sail over the submerged tops of 
tall trees. Indian troubles again disturbed the peace during 
the second war with Great Britain. By 1808 the Indian title 
was extinguished to two-thirds of the state, though actual settle- 
ment did not extend more than a few miles westward from the 
Mississippi; in 1825, by a treaty with the Shawnee made at 
St Louis on the 7th of November, the title to the rest of the 
state was cleared, and a general removal of the Indians folk>wed. 
Meanwhile, after the peace of 181 5 a great immigration had set 
in, many settlers coming from the free states north of the Ohio. 
The application for statehood precipitated one of the most 
famous and significant episodes of national history — the Missouri 
Compromise iq.v.). In August 1821, after three years of bitter 
controversy, Missouri was formally admitted to statehood. 

In the four decades before the Civil War, two matters stand 
out as most distinctive in the history of the state: the trouble 
with the Mormons, and the growth of river and prairie trade. 
In 1831-1832 Joseph Smith, the Mormon leader, selected a tract 
at the mouth of the Kansas river as the site of the New Jerusa- 
lem, to which his followers came from Ohio in 1832. They were 
not welcome. Their " revelations " in their papers predicted 
dire things for the Gentiles; they were thrifty and well-to-do, 
and were rapidly widening their lands: they were accused of 
disregard for Gentile property titles, and they obstructed the 
processes of Gentile law within their lands. In 1833 the Missou- 
rians, in mass meeting, resolved to drive them from the country. 
The five years thereafter were marked by plunder and abuse of 
the secL The militia and the courts gave them no protection. 
They were driven out, and went to Illinois, but continued to hold 
part of their abandoned lands. First St Louis, and then other 
towns on the Missouri river in succession westward, as they were 
settled and became available as d6p6ts, served as the outfit 
points for the Indian trade up the Missouri and the trade with 
Mexico through Santa F6. The trailfollowed by the latter had 
its beginning about 181 a, and (beginning in 1825) was surveyed 
by the national government. In early days Mexican and Ameri- 
can military detachments escorted the caravans on either side 
of the international line. Independence, Missouri (after about 
183 1) and Kansas City (after 1844) were the great centres of 
this trade, which by i860 was of national importance.* After 
the Civil War the railways gradually destroyed it, the Atchison 
Topeka & Santa F€ railroad running along the old wagon trail. 
No steamer traversed the Mississippi above the Ohio until 181 7, 
nor was a voyage made between New Orleans and St Louis, nor 
the lower Missouri entered, until 1819. In 1832 a steamer ran 
to the mouth of the Yellowstone, and in 1890 the last commercial 
trip was made to old Fort Benton (Great Falls), Montana. The 
interval of years witnessed the growth of a river trade and its 
gradual decline as point after point on the river — Kansas City, 
St Joseph, Council Bluffs (Iowa), Sioux Falls (South Dakota) 
and Helena (Montana) — was reached and commanded by the 
railways. In 1906-1907 an active campaign was begun at 
Kansas City for improving the channel of the Missouri and 
stimulating river freighting below that point. 

Among events leading up to the Civil War, first the annexation 
of' Texas and then the war with Mexico left special impress on 
Missouri history. Since 1828, when national political parties 
were first thoroughly organized in the state, the Democrats had 
been supreme, and carried Missouri on the pro-slavery side of 
every issue of free and slave territory. But there was always 
a strong body of anti-slavery sentiment,* nevertheless; and this 

*In 1855 ita value was estimated at $5000.000. In i860 it 
was much greater. In the latter year the trade employed 3000 
wagons. 62,000 oxen and mules, and 7000 men. 

'under the constitution of 1820 the General Assembly had 
bower to emancipate the slaves with the consent of their masters. 
In 1828 Senator T. H. Benton and others prepared a plan for 
educating the slaves and gradually emancipating them under 
state law; and undoubtedly a considerable party would have 
supported such a project, for the Whigs and Democrats were not 
then divided along party lines on the slavery issue; but nothing 



took organized form in 1849, when Senator Benton repudiated 
certain ultra pro-slavery instructions, breathing a secession 
spirit, passed by the General Assembly for the guidance of the 
representatives of the state in Congress. From that time until 
his death he organized and led the anti-disunion party of the 
state, Francis Preston Blair, jun., succeeding him as leader. 
The struggle over Kansas (q.v.) aroused tremendous passion in 
Missouri. 'Her border counties furnished the bogus citizens who 
invaded Kansas to carry the first territorial elections, and soon 
guerrilla forays back and forth gave over the border to a carnival 
of crime and plunder. Politi^ conditions were chaotic. In 
the presidential election of i860, Douglas received the electoral 
vote of the state, the only one he carried in the Union. The 
Republicans had little strength outside St Louis, where the 
German element was strong. A party led by (Claiborne F. 
Jackson, the governor-elect, was resolved to carry the state 
out of the Union. Such secession, it was supposed, would carry 
the other border states out also. With equal blindness the 
Secessionists favoured, and the Republicans opposed, the calling 
of a special state convention to decide the issue of secession. 
The election showed that popular sentiment was overwhelm- 
ingly hostile to secession; and the convention, by a vote of 
80 to I, resolved (March 4, 1861) that Missouri had " no adequate 
cause " therefor. (}ovemor Jackson thereupon sought to attain 
his ends by intrigue, and the national arsenal at St Louis became 
the objective of both parties. It was won by the unconditional- 
union men, but a smaller arsenal at Liberty was seized by tha 
Secessionists. Governor Jackson refused point-blank to con- 
tribute the quota of troops from Missouri called for by President 
Lincoln. Aggressive conflict really opened at St Louis on the 
loth of May, and armed hostilities began in June. On the loth 
of August 1861 at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield, General 
Nathaniel Lyon was defeated by a superior Confederate force 
in one of the bloodiest battles of the war. After this the 
Confederates held much of southern Missouri imtil the next 
spring, when they were driven into Arkansas, never afterward 
regaining foothold in the state. In the autumn of 1864 Sterling 
Price led a brilliant but rather bootless Confederate raid acroM 
the state, along the Missouri River, and was only forced to retreat 
southward by defeat at Westport (Kansas City). The western 
border was rendered desolate and deserted by guerrilla forays 
throughout the war. Probably 25,000 or 30,000 soldiers served 
in the Confederate armies, and 109,111 were furnished to the 
Union arms.* This was a remarkable showing. There was more 
or less internecine conflict throxighout the war, and local dis- 
affection under Union rule; and Confederate recruiting was 
carried on even north of the Missouri. 

Altogether, the state offered a difficult dvil and military 
problem throughout the Civil War. An emancipation pro- 
clamation issued by General J. C. Fr6mont at St Louis in 
August 1 86 1, though promptly disavowed by President Lincoln, 
precipitated the issue. The state convention, after voting 
against secession, had adjourned, and after various sessions 
was dissolved in October 1863. Assuming revolutionary powers, 
it deposed Governor Jackson and other state officers, appointed 
their successors, declared vacant the seats of members of the 
Assembly, and abrogated the disloyal acts of that body. In 
October 1861 a rump of the deposed Assembly passed an act 
of secession, which the Confederate States saw fit to regard as 
legitimate, and under which they admitted Missouri to their 
union by declaration of the 28th of November. In 1862 the 
convention rejected the President's suggestion of gradual eman- 
cipation, disfranchised Secessionists, and prepared a strong 
oath of allegiance. In the summer of 1863 the convention 
decreed emancipation with compensation to owners. This did 
not satisfy the Radical Republicans, and on the issue of 

came of the plan, and the manner of its defeat proves tliat it couM 
not possibly have been pushed to success The trouble over 
Lovejoy's printing office at St Louis (1833-1836) put an effectual 
end to the movement for emancipation. 

' Compare the vote of 1861. The Union death-roll of Massachu- 
setts (troops furnished. 159.165) was 13,942, that of Missouri 13,887. 



6i4 



MISSOURI COMPROMISE 



immediate and unconditional emancipation they swept the state 
In November 1864. By the constitution of 1865 slavery was 
abolished outright.* The convention of 1861, by maintaining 
continuous government, had saved the state from anarchy and 
from reconstruction by the national power; but an ironclad 
test oath (it required denial of forty-five distinct Offences) 
was provided, to be taken by ail voters, state, county and 
municipal officers, lawyers, jurors, teachers and clergymen. Its 
attempted enforcement was a grave error of judgment, and was 
attended by great abuses, and it was finally held unconstitu- 
tional by the United States Supreme Court. The legislature, 
however, maintained its ends by registration laws that reduced 
to impotence the Democratic electorate. The Radical Republi- 
cans held control until 1870, when they were defeated by a com- 
bination of Liberal RepubUcans and Democrats,* and the test- 
oath and the rest of the intolerant legislation of the war period 
were swept away. In 187 a the Democrats gained substantial 
control, and after 1876 their power was established beyond 
challenge. The constitution of 1875 closed the war period with 
blanket amnesties. Though in politics habitually Democratic, 
Missouri has generally had a strong opposition party — Whig 
in antebellum days, and since the war. Republican — which in 
recent years has made political conditions increasingly unstable. 
This instability is shown in congressional and local rather than 
in general state elections. In 1908 a Republican governor was 
elected, the first for more than thirty years. 

The Governors of Missouri since 1804 have been as follow: — 
Terrilorial Period. 



Party Affiliation. 

iames Wilkinson Appointed 
oieph Brown (acting governor) 
'rederick Bates ,. , 

Meriwether Lewis Appointed 

Frederick Bates (acting governor) ....... 

Benjamin Howard Appointed 

Frederick Bates (acting governor) 

William Clark ...... Appointed 

SUxU Period. 

Alexander McNair Democrat 

Frederick Bates (died in office) . . „ 

Abraham J. WilUams (acting governor) 

John Miller (special election to fill out 

term) ........ Democrat 

John Miller „ 

Daniel Dunklin (resigned office) . „ 

Lilbum W. Boggs (acting governor) 

Lilbum W. Boggs .... 

Thomas Reynolds (died in office) 

M. M. Marmaduke (acting governor) . . . 

John C. Edwards Democrat 

Austin A. King „ 

Sterling Price „ 

Trusten Polk (elected to United 

States Senate) „ 

Hancock Jackson (acting governor) . . 

Robert M. Stewart (elected to serve 

out term) Democrat 

Claiborne F. Jackson (deposed 
by state convention) .... „ 



Democrat 



Service. 
1805-1806 
1806-1807 
1807 

1807-1809 
1809-1810 
1810-1812 
1812-1813 
X813-1820 

1820-1824* 
1824-1825 
1825 

182^-1828 

I 828-1 832 

I 832- I 836 

1836 

I 836- I 840 

1840-1844 

1844 

I 844- I 848 

1848-1853 

1853-1857 

1857 
1857 

1857-1861 

1861 



* Thus liberating about 1 14,000 blacks, of a tax valuation of 
$40,000,000. 

* The Liberals were those who thought unjust the proacriptionary 
legislation passed against the Secessionists and Democrats; and to 
this issue of local politics were added the issues of national reform 
which the course of President Grant's administration had forced 
upon his party. A convention of Liberals that met at Jefferson 
City in January 1872 issued to all Republicans favourable to reform 
within the party an invitation to meet at Cincinnati in May; 
and this was the convention of revolters against General Grant 
that nominated Horace Greeley of New York and B. Gratz Brown 
of Missouri as Liberal Republican candidates for the presidency 
and vice-presidency respectively. The first definite organization 
of the Liberal Republican party may therefore be said to have 
been made in Missouri in 1870. 

' From 1 820- 1 844 the elections were in August and inaugurations 
in November; Governor King served from the 27th of December 
1848 till January 1853; thereafter the iiuuguration was in January, 
and beginning with 1864 the election was in November. The term 
was four years except under the constitution of 1865. 



Hamilton R. Gamble (appointed 
by state conventMn; died in 
omce). provi^nal governor 

WUlard P. Hall (Lieut.- 
govemor by same power, 
acting provisional governor) 

Thomas C. Fletcher . . 

Joseph W. McClurg .... 

B. Grata Brown 

Silas Woodson 

Charies H. Hardin .... 

John S. Phelps 

Thomas T. Crittenden . . . 
John S. Marmaduke (died in 

office) 

Albert P. Morehouse (acting 

governor) 

David R. Francis .... 

WUliamJ. Stone 

Lon V. Stephens .... 
Alexander M. Dockerey . . . 

Joseph W. Folk 

Herbert S. Hadley .... 



Party Affiliation. Service. 



Republican 

Liberal Republican 
(and Democrat) 

Democrat 



Democrat 



Republican 



1861-1864 



1864-186S 
1865-1869 
1869-1871 

1871-187J 
i873-i«75 
1875-1877 
1877-1881 
1881-iMs 

1885-1887 

1887-1889 
I889-I«9J 
l893-i»97 
1897-1901 
1901-19QS 
190S-1909 
1909 



Bibliography.— For Physiography: See Swfact Fmtwt tf 
Missouri (in Missouri Geologicar Survey Reports. voL x., Jefferpn* 
City, 1896) : publications of the Sute Bureau of Geology and Mii 



be Missouri Ceohigical Survey 
(I -Si =^'i.. kw-w rt^Eki-a, i^ \yAiy., ^ o^ 1 -190A) ; Dublications of Uittttd 
Sutci Ceulu^ical ^iurity* pankukriy BuiUUns 13a, 213, 267. 
the 2Jn,d Annttoi Rettarf, p^n u, pp. 23-227, &c.; and reports oi 
state drpinrtnieniL On adrtiitilstrntton: the annual OJSeial Mamd 
^ tie Siatf of Aiiswuri (tc^JJy private, Jefferson City); also F. N. 
JudsDn, Laie and Pracfkt pf Tax^uion im Missouri (ColunrfiU. 
t^oo) \ \l. S. SnDw» Higher Edmniicfn im Missouri {VS. Bureaa of 
EtiucjtioR^ U'jshingt<3ii» tSqH}, On History: Lucian Carr, Missovi 
('♦American CocnnionHi^aUhi " ScrieSj^ Boston, I893); L. Hoock. 
Spanifh Rifiime in MisutuH (j voU-, Chkago. 1910); T. L. Soead, 
The Fiiktfof hfiisouri (New York, r886): Wiley Brittoo. The Cisi 
War on tki Bordtr (j voU.» N^w Vmk, 1 89 1- 1 899; 3rd cd. of vol. I. 
icvJMd, 18^); H. M. Ctiftti-ndcn. History of Early Sum^Mt 
Narizaifon tm ikt MisiouTt Ritrtf (i vols., New York, 1903); W. B. 
Davi^ and D. S. Durrie^ A n Jtimirtiltd History of Missouri'tSt Loaat 



1 876) ; Ettcyclcpfdia of iht Hiiiary ef Missouri 
Conrad [6 vol*.. New V'ork^ Sic Loui», 1901). 



cd.byH.L 



MISSOURI COHPROHISB. an agreement (i8m) between the 
pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States, 
involving primarily the regulation of slavery in the paUic . 
territories. A bill to enable the people of Missouri to form a 
state government preliminary to admission into the Uaioa 
came before the House of Representatives in Committee of the 
Whole, on the 13th of February 1819. An amendment offered 
by James Tallmadge (i 778-1853) of New York, which provided 
that the further introduction of slaves into Missouri ^tsv^ 
be forbidden, and that all children of slave parents bom in the 
state after its admission should be free at the age of twenty-five, 
was adopted by the committee and incorporated in the Bill as 
finally passed (Feb. 17) by the house. The Senate refused to 
concur in the amendment and the whole measure was k>st 
During the following session (1819-1820), the house passed 1 
similar bill with an amendment introduced on the 36tli of 
January 1820 by John W. Taylor (1784-1854) of NewYoit 
making the admission of the state conditional upon itssdofh 
tion of a constitution prohibiting slavery. In the meamime the 
question had been complicated by the admission in December 
of Alabama, a slave state (the number of slave and fate stita 
now becoming equal), and by the passage throu^ the boose 
(Jan. 3, 1820) of a biU to admit Maine, a free state. The Scsite 
decided to connect the two measures, and passed a biU fortbe 
admission of Maine with an amendment enabling the peopk 
of Missouri to form a state constitution. Before the bfll «» 
returned to the house a second amendment was adopted on the 
motion of J. B. Thomas (1777-1850) of Illinois, excluding sUvery 
from the " Louisiana Purchase " north of 36** 30' (the soutkn 
boundary of Missouri), except within the limits of thepnpo*^ 
state of Missouri. The House of Representatives refused to 
accept this and a conference committee was appoiit0l> 
There was now a controversy between the two houaci not ^ 



MISSOURI RIVER 



615 



on the slavery issue, but also on the parliaraentary question of 
the inclusion of Maine and Missouri within the same bill. The 
comouttee recommended the enactment of two laws, one for 
the admission of Maine, the other an enabling act for Missouri 
without any restrictions on slavery but including the Thonuu 
amendment. This was agreed to by both houses, and the 
measures were passed, and were signed by President Monroe 
respectively on the 3rd and on the 6th of March 1820. When 
the question of the final admission of Missouri came up during 
the session of 1820-1821 the struggle was revived over a clause 
in the new constitution (1820) requiring the exclusion of free 
negroes and mulattoes from the state. Through the influence 
of Henry Clay an act of admission was finally passed, to come 
into operation as soon as the state legislature would pledge 
itself not to pass any legislation to enforce this clause. This is 
sometimes known as the second Missouri Compromise. 

These disputes, involving as they did the question of the 
relative powers of Congress and the states, tended to turn the 
Democratic- Republicans, who were becoming nationalized, back 
again toward their old state sovereignty principles — to prepare 
the way for the Jacksonian-Democratic Party. On the other 
band, the old Federalist nationalistic element was soon to 
emerge first as National Republicans, then as Whigs, and finally 
as Repubh'cans. On the constitutional side the Compromise of 
2820 was important as the first precedent for the congressional 
exclusion of slavery from public territory acquired since the 
adoption of the Constitution, and also as a clear recognition 
that Congress has no right to impose upon a state asking for 
admission into the Union conditions which do not apply to those 
states already in the Union. The compromise was specifically 
repealed by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. 

See J. A. Woodbum, " The Historical Significance of the Missouri 
Compromise" in the Annual Report of the American Historical 
Asscciatian for 1893 OVashington. D.C.); Dixon, History of the 
Missouri Compromue (Cincinnati, 1899) : Schouler's and McMaster's 
Histories of the United States. (W. R. S*.) 

MISSOURI RIVER, the principal western tributary of the 
Mississippi river, U.S.A. It is formed at Gallatin City, in the 
Rocky Mountain region of south-western Montana, by the 
confluence of the Jefferson, Madison and Gallatin forks; thence 
it flows N. into the plains, which it traverses in a course at 
first N.E., then E. Entering North Dakota, the river turns 
gradually to the S.E., then S., and again S.E., traversing both 
North and South Dakota. It forms the eastern boundary 
of Nebraska and in part of Kansas, and crosses Missouri in 
an easterly course to its junction with the Mississippi 30 m. 
above St Louis, and 2547 m. below the confluence of the three 
forks. The stream which is known as the Jefferson Fork in 
its lower course, Beaver Head River in its middle course, and 
Red Rock Creek in its upper course, is really the upper section 
of the Missouri; it rises on the border between Montana and 
Idaho, 20 m. west of the western boundary of the Yellowstone 
National Park, near the crest of the Rocky Mountains, 8000 ft. 
above the sea, and 398 m. beyond Gallatin City; and with this 
and the Lower Mississippi the Missouri forms a river channel 
^221 m. in length, the longest in the world. The Madison and 
GaUatin forks rise within the Yellowstone Park, where the former 
is fed by geysers and hot springs and the latter by both hot 
springs and melting snow. The Yellowstone river, which is the 
principal tributary of the Missouri, traverses the park. The 
lilissouri drains a basin having an area of about 580,000 sq.m.; 
this includes the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains from the 
northern border of the United States to the middle of Colorado, 
and its larger tributaries take their rise in those mountains. 
Besides the Yellowstone and the three forks there are the Platte, 
-which rises in two large branches in Colorado, and the Milk, 
^hich rises in north-western Montana. The Kansas in Kansas, 
the James and Big Sioux in the Dakotas, and the Niobrara in 
Nebraska, are the principal tributaries wholly of the plains. In 
the mountain region the Missouri flows through deep canyons 
«nd over several cascades. Below Great Falls the slower current 
li unable to cany all the silt brought down from the mountains 



and plains, and consequently a wmding and unstable 'channel 
has been formed on deposits of silt 50 to 100 ft. or more in depth. 
Bends in the river continue to develop by erosion until the 
neck between two of them is cut off, and in the process numerous 
islands, sand-bars, and crescent-shaped lakes are formed. 
Cottonwood, willow, cedar and walnut trees grow upon the 
banks that are for a time left undisturbed, but years later the 
eroding current returns to undermine these banks, the trees 
fall in and are carried down stream as snags (or " sawyers ")> 
which are especially dangerous to navigation. The variation 
of level is great and it varies greatly in different parts of the 
river's course: it is about 19 ft. at Kansas City, about 25 ft. at 
St Charles, Missouri, and about 8 ft. at Fort Benton, Montana. 
It is estimated that the Missouri's average discharge per second 
amounts to about 94iO<x> cub. ft., and that each year it carries 
into the Mississippi 550,000 tpns of silt. The waters of the 
Missouri begin to rise in March, and a high-water stage b reached 
in April as a result of the ^ring rains and the melting snow on 
the plains; a second high stage is produced in June by the 
melting of snow on the mountains, and the river is navigable 
from early spring to midsummer as far as Fort Benton, within 
40 m. of the Great Falls and 2285 m. above the mouth. Above 
Great Falls the river is navigable to Three Forks. 

The mouth of the Missouri was discovered in 1673 by Mar- 
quette and Joliet, while they were coming down the Mississippi. 
Early in the i8th century French fur-traders began to ascend 
the river, and in 1764 St Louis was established as a d6p6t; but 
the first exploration of the river from its mouth to its head- 
waters was made in 1 804-1 805 by Meriwether Lewis and William 
Clark. Until many years later the commerce on the river was 
restricted to the fur trade and was carried on with such primidve 
craft as the canoe (made from the log of a cottonwood tree); 
the pirogue ^usually two canoes side by side and with a floor 
over them on which to place the cargo); the buUboat (made by 
covering a framework of willow poles with the hides of bison 
bulls); the mackinaw boat (made of boards and having a flat 
bottom); and the keelboat (a vessel of some pretensions, with 
a keel from bow to stem, 60 to 70 ft. in length, with a 
breadth of beam from 15 to x8 ft., and drawing 20 to 
30 in. of water). A canoe, pirogue, bullboat, or mackinaw 
boat was. propelled by two or more men with paddles, poles, 
or oars; but to propel a keelboat up the river required 
20 to 40 men who walked along the shore and pulled a 
corvelUf a line about xooo ft. long and fastened to the mast. 
An average of about 15 m. a day was made with a keelboat 
going up the river. The first attempt to navigate the Mis- 
souri with steamboats was made in the spring of 1819, when 
the " Independence " made a trip from St Louis to the mouth 
of the Chariton river and back. The American Fur Company 
began to use steamers in 1830, and from then until the advent 
of railways the steamboat on the Missouri was one of the 
most important factors in the development of the Northwest. 
The traffic was at its height in 1858, when no fewer than 
60 regular packets were engaged in it, but its decline began in 
the following year with the completion of the Hannibal & 
St Joseph railway to St Joseph, Missouri, and 20 years later 
it had nearly disappeared. In an attempt to regulate railway 
rates, however, four boats were run between Kansas City and 
St Louis between 1890 and 1894 by the Kansas City & Missouri 
Transportation Company, and in 1906 the Missouri River Valley 
Improvement Association was formed at Kansas City. Congress 
began to make appropriation for the removal of snags about 1838, 
and forty years later appropriations were begun for a general 
improvement which in 1884 was placed under the charge of 
the Missouri River Commission. In 1890 its work was restricted 
to that part of the river below Sioux City and in 1902 the 
Commission was abolished. Up to the 30th of June 1908 the 
Federal government had expended $11,398,881 for the improve- 
ment of the river. 

See H. M. Chittenden, History of Early NavijMlion on the Missouri 
River (New York, 1903) ; P. E. Chappel, A History of the Missouri 
River (Kansas City. 1905); J. V. Brower, The Missouri River and 



6i6 



MISTAKE— MISTRAL, F. 



its Utmost Saunt (St Pkul, 1806); J. M. Hanson, The Conquest ef 
tkt Missouri (New York, 1909) ; L. M. Jones. " The Improvement 
oC the Missouri River and its Usefulness as a Traffic Route," in 
Annals of Ike American Academy of PdUical and Social Science 

ean. 1908), and the Annual Reports of the Chief of Engineers, 
^ Army. 

MISTAKB («.e. take amiss), a misconception or error in 
thought or action. In law, the word is often used in the sense 
of ignorance or error, as when it is said that mistake of law 
affords no excuse for crime. In the law of contract, mistake is 
of special importance, and may occur either in a matter of law 
or in a matter of fact. In general, a mistake of law cannot be 
alleged in avoidance of the consequences of contracts or acts, 
although there are exceptions in which relief may be given. 
Mistake of fact, however, may be ground for avoidance, pro- 
vided the mistake was not due to negligence. (See further 
Contract.) 

MISTLETOE* {Viscutn album), a species of Viscum, of the 
botanical family Loranthaceae. The whole genus is parasitical, 
and contains about twenty species, widely distributed in the 
warmer parts of the old world; but only the mistletoe proper is 
a native of Europe. It forms an evergreen bush, about 4 ft. in 
length, thickly crowded with forking branches and opposite 
leaves, which are about 2 in. long, obovate-lanceolate in shape 
and yellowish-green; the dioecious flowers, which are small and 
nearly of the same colour but yellower, appear in February and 
March; the white berry when ripe is filled with a viscous semi- 
transparent pulp (whence bird-lime is derived). The mistletoe 
is parasitic both on deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs. 
In England it is most abundant on the apple-tree, but rarely 
found on the oak. Poplars, willows, lime, mountain-ash, maples, 
are favourite habitats, and it is also found on many other trees, 
including cedar of Lebanon and larch. The fruit is eaten by most 
frugivorous birds, and through their agency, particularly that 
of the species which is accordingly known as missel-thrush or 
mistle-thrush, the plant is propagated. The Latin proverb has 
it that " Turdus malum sibi cacat "; but the sowing is really 
effected by the bird wiping its beak, to which the seeds adhere, 
against the bark of the tree on which it has alighted. The 
viscid pulp soon hardens, affording a protection to the seed; in 
germination the sucker-root penetrates the bark, and a connexion 
is established with the vascular tissue of the first plant. The 
growth of the plant is slow, and its durability proportionately 
great, its death being determined generally by that of the tree 
on which it has established itself. The mistletoe so extensively 
used in England at Christmas is largely derived from the apple 
orchards of Normandy; a quantity is also sent from the apple 
orchards of Herefordshire. 

Pliny {H. N., xvu 92-95: xxiv. 6) has a good deal to tell about 
the viscum, a deadly parasite, though slower in its action than ivy. 
He distinguishes three " eenera." " On the fir and larch grows 
what is called stelis in Euboea and hypkear in Arcadia." Viscum, 
called dryos hypkear, is most plentiful on the esculent oak, but 
occurs also on the robur, Prunus sylveslris and terebinth. Hyphear 
is useful for fatten! ng[ cattle if they are hardy enough to withstand 
the purgative effect it (Mroduces at first; viscum is medicinally of 
value as an emollient, and in cases of tumour, ulcers and the like. 
Pliny is also our authority for the reverence in which the mistletoe 
when found growing on the robur was held by the Druids. Prepared 
as a draught, it was used as a cure for sterility and a remeoy for 
poisons. The mistletoe figures also in Scandinavian legend as 
naving furnished the material of the arrow with which Balder 
(the sun-god) was slain by the blind god Hodcr. Most probably 
this story had its origin in a particular theory as to the meaning of 
the word mistletoe. 

MISTRAL, FR6d6rIC (1830- ), Provencal poet, was bom 
at Maillane (Bouches-du-Rh6ne) on the 8th of September 1830. 
In the autobiographical sketch prefixed to the Isclo d'or (1876) 
he tells us, with great simplicity and charm, all that is worth 
knowing of his early life. His father was a prosperous farmer, 

* Gr. l^la or 1^6%, hence Lat. viscum, lul. vischio or visco, and 
Fr. gut. The English word is the O.E. misteltan, Icelandic mistel- 
teinn, in which tan or teinn means a twie, and mistel may be associ- 
ated either with mist in the sense of fog. gloom, because of the 
prominence of mistletoe in the dark season of the year, or with the 
same root in the sense of dung (from the character of the berries 
or the supposed mode of propagation). 



and hb mother a simple and religious woman of the people, who 
first taught him to love all the songs and legends of the country. 
In these early days on the farm he received those first impressions 
which were destined to constitute one of the chief beauties ol 
MirHo. In his ninth year Mistral was sent to a small school at 
Avignon, where he was very wretched at first, regretting the 
free outdoor life of the country. Gradually, however, hb studies 
attracted him, above all the poetry of Homer and Virgil; and he 
translated the latter's first eclogue, showing his efforts to a jroung 
schoolfellow, A. Mathieu, who was destined to play a part in the 
foundation of the Filibrige. When Roumanille (see Pmovek^al 
Litesatuke) became an usher at Mistral's school, the two, fired 
by the same love of poetry and of their native Provence, soon 
became dose friends. " VoiUl Taube que mon ime attendait 
pour s'^veiUer i la lumi^re," he exclaimed, on reading Rouman- 
ille's first dialect poems; and he goes on to say: " Embras^s tous 
les deux du dfeir de relever le parler de nos m^es, nous ftudiimes 
ensemble les vieux livres Proven^aux, et nous nous proposimcs de 
restaurer la langue selon ses traditions et caractires nationaux." 
On leaving school (1847) he returned to Maillane, where be 
sketched a pastoral poem in four cantos {Li Meissotm). With 
all his love for the country, he soon realized that life on a farm 
did not satisfy his ambition. So he went to study law at Aix, 
where he contributed his first published poems to Roumanille*s 
Li Prouoenqah (1852). He had become licencii tn droit the 
year before, but now decided on a literary cazccr. The Fflibrige 
was founded in 1854, and five years later appeared Mirkio, the 
masterpiece not only of Mistral, but so far of the entire scbooL 
The tale itself was nothing— the old story of a rich girl and her 
poor lover, kept apart by the giri's parents. MireiUe, in despair, 
wanders along a wide tract of country to the church oi the Trois- 
Maries, in the hope that these may aid her. But the effort was 
too great: she sinks exhausted, and dies in the presence of her 
stricken parents and her frenzied lover. Into this simple web 
Mistral has woven descriptions of Provencal life, accDery, 
character, customs and legends that raise the poem to the 
dignity of a rustic epic, unique in literature. Nothing is forced: 
every detail is filled into the framework of the whole with a 
cunning which the poet was never again to attain. There is 
no deep psychology in the characters, but then the people 
depicted are simple rustic folk, who wear their hearts 00 their 
sleeve. CaUndau (1867), the story of a princess held in bondage 
by a ruthless brigand, and eventually rescued by a youthful 
hero, is a comparative failure. The description of scenery b 
again masterly; but the old lore, which had charmed aU readers 
in MirHo, here becomes forced, not inevitable. The diaracters 
are mere symbols— indeed the whole poem b obviously an 
allegory, the princess standing for Provence, the brigand for 
France, and the young lover for the F61ibrige. Mistral 
lavished enormous labour on thb work, which probably accounts 
for its lack of spontaneity, as also for the love he bears iu In 
1876 (the same year in which he married Mile Marie Rivi^, of 
Dijon) was published the volume Lis Isclo d'Or — a collection of 
the shorter poems Mbtral had composed from the year 1848 
onwards. Here he b again at hb very best. Old legends, 
sirventes (mostly, as in medieval times, poems with a tendency), 
and lyrics— all are admirable. Even the piices d'occasiom may 
be reckoned with the best of their kind. Two pieces, the Coupe 
and the Princesse, aroused violent controversy on thdr first 
appearance. They reproduce, in effect, the theme of Cdemdaa, 
and Mistral was accused of trying to sow discord between the 
north and south of France. Needless to say he was altogether 
innocent of such a design. Nerto (1884) b a cfaa.rming tale of 
Avignon in the olden days, in which a girl's purity triumphs 
over her lover's base designs and leads him to nobler thoughts. 
There b little individuality in the characters, which shoukl 
rather be regarded as types; and we fed no terror or pity at the 
tragic close. But we are carried along by Mistral's art and by 
the brilliancy of his espisodes; and he achieved the object he had 
in view: a pretty tale imbued with the proper toudi of local 
colour and with the true spirit of romance. The play tM RHoo 
Jano (1890) b a complete failure, if Judged bom the.d; 



MISTRAI^-MITCHELL, M. 



617 



standpoint: it is rather a brilliant panorama, a series of stage 
pictures, and the characters neither live nor arouse our sympathy. 
In the great epic ofi the Rhone {Lou PotUmo ddu Rouses 1897) 
the poet depicts the former barge-life of that river, and inter- 
twines his narrative with the legends clustering round its banks, 
and with a graceful love episode. For the first time he employs 
blank verse, and uses it with great mastery, but again the ancient 
lore is overdone. A ^lendid piece of work is Lau Tresor ddu 
Ftiibrige (1886). In these two volumes Mistral has deposited 
with loving care every word and phrase, every proverb, every 
scrap of legend, that he had gathered during his many years' 
joumeyings in the south of France. In 1904 he was awarded 
one of the Nobel prizes for literature. 

An excellent literary appreciation of the poet is that by Gaston 
Psuis, " Fridiric Mistral ' (originally in the Kame tU Paris (Oct. and 
Nov. 1894) ; then in Penseurs et Poites (Paris, 1896). More elaborate 
aocounu are Welter, FrSdMc Mistral (Marburv . 1899) ; and Downer, 
PrttUric Mistral (New York, 1901), with a fulTbibliography. 

(H.O.) 

MISTRAL, a local wind similar to the bora (f .v.), met with on 
the French Mediterranean coast. The warm Giilf of the Lion 
(Golfe du Lion) has to the north the cold central plateau of 
France, which during winter is commonly a centre of high 
bdirometric pressure, and the resulting pressure gradient causes 
persistent ciirrents of cold dry air from the north-west in the 
intermediate zone. The mistral occurs along the coast from the 
mouth of the Ebro to the Gulf of Genoa, but attains greatest 
strength and frequency in Provence and Languedoc, i.e. the 
district of the Rhone delta, where it blows on an average one 
day out of two; the record at Marseilles is 175 days in the year. 
It is usually associated with cloudless skies and brilliant sun- 
shine, intense dryness and piercing cold. With the passage of a 
cyclone over the gulf, or a rapid rise of pressure following a fall 
of snow on the central plateau, the mistral develops into a 
stormy wind of great violence. 

MISTRESS (adapted from O. Fr. maistresse, mod. mattresse, 
the feminine of maistre, mattref master), a woman who has 
authority, particulariy over a household. As a form of address 
or term of courtesy the word is used in the same sense as 
*' madam." It was formerly used indifferently of married or 
unmarried women, but now, written in the abbreviated form 
" Mrs " (pronounced " missis ")f it is practically confined to 
married women and prefixed to the stumame; it is frequently 
retained, however, in the case of spinster cooks or housekeepers, 
as a title of dignity; as the female equivalent of " master " 
the word is used in other senses by analogy, e.g. of Rome as " the 
mistress of the world," Venice " the mistress of the Adriatic," 
&c. From the common use of " master " as a teacher, " mis- 
tress " is similarly used. The old usage of the word for a lady- 
love or sweetheart has degenerated into that of paramour. 
" Miss " a shortened form of " mistress," is the term of address 
for a girl or unmarried woman; it is prefixed to the surname 
in the case of the eldest or only daughter of a family, and to the 
Christian names in the case of the younger daughters. 

MITAU (Russian, Mitava; Lettish, Ydgava), a town of Russia, 
capital of the government of Courland, 29 m. by rail S.W. of 
Riga, on the right bank of the river Aa, in a fertile plain which 
rises only xa ft. above sea level, and has probably given its name 
to the town {Mitte in der Aue). Pop. (1897), 35,01 x inhabitants, 
mainly Germans, but including also Jews (6500), Letts (5000) 
and Russians. At high water the plain and sometimes also the 
town are inundated. Mitau is surrounded by a canal occupying 
the place of former fortifications. It has regular, broad streets, 
bordered with the mansions of the Cxerman nobility, who reside 
at the capital of Courland. Mitau is well provided with educa> 
tional institutions, and is also the seat of the Lettish Literary 
Society. The old castle (1266) of the dukes of Courland, 
situated on an island in the river, was destroyed by Duke Bixen, 
who erected in its place (1738-X772) a spacious palace, now 
occupied by the governor and the courts. Manufactures are 
few, those of wax-doth, linen, soap, ink and beer being the 
most important. 

Mitau is supposed to have been founded in 1266 by Conrad 



Mandem, grand-master of the order of the Brethren of the 
Sword. In 1345, when it was plundered by the Lithuanians, it 
was ahready an important town. In x 561 it became the residence 
of the dukes of Courland. During the 17 th century it was 
thrice taken by the Swedes. Russia annexed it with Courland 
in 1795. It was the residence (1798-1801 and 1804-1807) of 
the count of Provence (afterwards Louis XVIII.). Ini8i 2 it was 
taken by Napoleon I. 

MITCHAM, a suburb of London, in the Wimbledon parlia- 
mentary division of Surrey, England, xo m. S. of London 
Bridge by the Ix>ndon, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. 
(1901), I4i903* Mitcham Common covers an area of 480 acres, 
and affords one of the best golf courses near London. The 
neighbourhood abounds in market gardens and plantations of 
aromatic herbs for the manufacture of scents and essences. 

MITCHEL. ORMSBT MACKNI6HT (1809-1862), American 
astronomer, was bom at Morganfield, Kentucky, on the 28th of 
July, 1809. He began life as a clerk, but, obtaining an appoint- 
ment to a cadetship at West Point in 1825, he graduated there in 
1829, and acted as assistant professor of mathematics x829-x83a. 
He was then called to the bar, but in X836 became professor of 
mathematics and natural philosophy at Cincinnati College. In 
X845 he was made director of an observatory established there 
through his initiative, and also in X859 superintendent of the 
Dudley observatory at Albany. In x86i he took part in the 
war as brigadier-general of volunteers, and for his skill in seizing 
certain important strategic points was on the nth of April x86a 
made major-general. He died of yellow fever at Beaufort, South 
Carolina, on the 30th of October X862. He founded the Sidereal 
Messenger in X846, was one of the first to adopt (in 1848) the 
electrical method of recording observations, and published 
besides other works, TheOrbs of Heaven (1848, &c.), and Popular 
Astronomy (i860), both reissued at London in x89a. 



Astr. Society, xxiii. 133, xxxvii. xax (C Abbe); Astr. Nack., 
No. 1401 (P. W; Hough). 

MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (X822-X908) American author, 
was bom in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 1 2th of April 1822. He 
graduated at Yale College id X841; studied law, but soon took 
up literature. Throughout his life he showed a particular interest 
in agriculture and landscape-gardening, which he followed at 
first in pursuit of health. He produced books of travel, volumes 
of essays on riiral themes, of which My Farm of Edgewood (1863) 
is the best; sketchy studies of English monarchs and of English 
and American literature; and a character-novel entitled Doctor 
Johns (1866), .&c.; but is best known as the author (under the 
pseudonym of " Ik Marvel "), of the sentimental essays contained 
in the voliuncs Reveries of a Bachelor ^ or a Booh of the Heart 
(x8so), and Dream Life, a Fable of the Seasons (1851). 

MITCHELL, MARIA (X818-1889), American astronomer, was 
bom of (^aker ancestry on the island of Nantucket on the ist 
of August x8i8. Her father, William Mitchell (179X-1869), was 
a school teacher and self-taught astronomer, who rated chrono- 
meters for Nantucket whalers, was an overseer of Harvard 
University (i8s7-x86s), and for a time was employed by the 
United States C^oast Survey. As early as X83X (during the 
annular eclipse of the sun) she had been her father's assistant in 
his observations. On the ist of October X847 she discovered a 
telescopic comet (seen by De Vico Oct. 3, by W. R. Dawes 
Oct. 7, by Madame ROmker Oct. xi), and for this discovery 
she received a gold medal from the King of Dexmiark, and was 
elected (1848) to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 
and (1850) to the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science. In x86i she removed from Nantucket to Lynn, 
where she used a large equatorial telescope presented to her by 
the women of America; and there she lived until x86s, when 
she became professor of astronomy and director of the observa- 
tory at Vassar College; in 1888 she became professor emeritus. 
In X874 she began making photographs of the sun, and for years 
she made a special study of Jupiter and Saturn. She died at 



6i8 



MITCHELL, S. W.— MITE 



Lynn on the 38th of June 1S89. In 1908 An observitory was 
established in her honour at Nantucket. 

See Phebe Mitchell Kendall, Maria MiUkeU: Life, Letters and 
JowmaU (Boston. 1896): In Memoriam (Pouffhkeepaie, iV ^ 
her pupil and successor at Vassar, Mary W. Whitney ; and i 



JoumaU (Boston. 1896): In Memoriam (Pouffhkeepaie, 1889), by 
her pupil and successor at Vassar, Mary W. Whitney ; and a sketch 
by her brotherj Henry Mitchell (1830-1902), hinueff a well-known 



hydro^pher, in the Proceedings of the American Academy of ArU 
and Sciences, vol. xxv. (1889-1890), pp. ^1-343. 

MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR (1830—), American physician 
and author, son of a Philadelphia doctor, John Kearsley 
Mitchell (1798-1858), was bom in Philadelphia on the isth of 
February 1830. He studied at the university of Pennsylvania 
in that city, and received the degree of M.D. at Jefferson Medical 
College in 1850. During the Civil War he had charge of nervous 
injuries and maladies at Turner's Lane Hospital, Philadelphia, 
and at the close of the war became a specialist in nervous 
diseases. In this field Weir Mitchell's name became prominently 
associated with his introduction of the " rest cure," subsequently 
taken up by the medical world, for nervous diseases, particidarly 
hysteria; the treatment consisting primarily in isolation, con- 
finement to bed, dieting and massage. In 1863 he wrote a 
clever short story, combining physiological and psychological 
problems, entitled " The Case of George Dedlow," in the Atlantic 
Monthly. Thenceforward Dr Weir Mitchell, as a writer, divided 
his attention between professional and literary purstiits. In 
the former field he produced monographs on rattlesnake poison, 
on intellectual hygiene, on injuries to the nerves, on neurasthenia, 
on nervous diseases of women, on the effects of gunshot wounds 
upon the nervous system, and on the relations between nurse, 
physician, and patient; while in the latter he wrote juvenile 
stories, several volumes of respectable verse, and prose fiction of 
varying merit, which, however, gave him a leading place among 
the American authors of the close of the 19th century. His 
historical novels, Hugh Wynne, Free Quaker (1897), The 
Adventures of Francois (1898) and The Red City (1909), take 
high rank in this branch of fiction. 

MITCHELU SIR THOMAS UVIN6ST0NB (i79^i85S)> Aus- 
tralian explorer, was bom at Craigend, Stirlingshire, Scotland, on 
the i6th of June 1792. From 1808 to the end of the Peninsular 
War he ^rved in Wellington's army, and was raised to the rank 
of major. He was appointed to survey the battlefields of the 
Peninsula, and his map of the Lower Pyrenees is still admired. 
In 1827 he was appointed deputy surveyor-general, and after- 
wards surveyor-general of New South Wales. He made four 
exploring expeditions between 1831 and 1846, and discovered 
the Peel, the Namoi, the Gwyder and other rivers, traced the 
course of the Darling and Glenelg, and was the first to penetrate 
into that portion of the country which he named Australia FeUx. 
His hst expedition was mainly devoted to the discovery of a route 
between Sydney and the Gulf of Carpentaria, and during the 
journey he explored the Fitzroy Downs, and discovered the 
Balonne, Victoria, Warrego and other streams. In 1838, while 
in England, Mitchell published his Three Expeditions into the 
Interior of East Australia, In 1839 he was knighted and made 
a D.C.L. of Oxford. During this visit he took with him some 
of the first specimens of gold and the first diamond found in 
Australia. In 1848 the narrative of his second expedition was 
published in London, Journal of an Expedition into the Interior 
of Tropical Australia, In 1851 he was sent to report on the 
Bathurst goldfields, and in 1853 he again visited England and 
patented his boome]t|ng propeller for steamers. He died at 
Dariing Point, Sydney, on the 5th of October 1855. 

Besides the above works, Mitchell wrote a book on Geographical 
and Military Surveying (1827), an Australian Geography, and a trans- 
lation of the Lustad of Cainoens. During his tenure of oflBce as 
surveyor-general he published an admirable map (still in use) of the 
settled districts of New South Wales. 

MITCHELL, a dty and the county-seat of Davison county. 
South DakoU, U.S.A., about 70 m. W.N.W. of Sioux Falls. 
Pop. (1905), 5719; (1910), 6515. Mitchell is Served by the 
Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul and the Chicago, St Paul, Minne- 
apolis & Omaha railways. Among its buildings and institutions 
are the dty hall, the Federal building, a Carnegie library, a 



hospital, and a sanitorium. 'Mitchell h the teat of the Dakota 
Wesleyan University (1885; Methodist Episcopal). At Mitdidl 
is a " com palace," which is decorated each autumn with spGt 
ears of Indian com, and b the -centre of an annual festival, held 
in September and October. The dty is an important shippiag 
point for grain and livestock, and has a large wholesale trade. 
There are railway repair shops of the Chicago, Milwaukee 
& St Paul railway, machine shops, and manufactories of bricks 
and dressed lumber. Mitchell was settled in 1879 and chartered 
as a dty in 1883. 

MITCHBLSTOWN, a market town of Co. Cork, Ireland, 
situated between the Rilworth and Galty Mountains, on a 
branch of the Great Southern & Western railway. Pop. 
(1901), 2146. Here is the Protestant Kingston College, a hoooe 
for poor gentlefolk, founded by James, Lord Kingston, in 176a 
The seat of the earls of Kingston was built in 1823. It is a 
massive castellated structure, among the finest of iu kind m 
Ireland. The Mitchelstown limestone caves, exhibiting beautifal 
stalactite formations, are 6 m. distant in Co. Tipperaiy (f.t.). 
On the 9th of September 1887 Mitchelstown was the scene of 1 
riot in connexion with the Irish Nationalist *' plan of campaign." 
The police were compelled to fire on the rioters, and two men were 
killed, after which the coroner's jury brought in a verdict of 
wilful murder against the police. This verdict was ignored by tbe 
government, and subsequently quashed by the Queen's Bench is 
DubUn, but additional feeling was roused in respect of the 
inddent owing to a message later sent by Mr Gladstone ending 
with the words " Remember Mitchelstown." 

MITE, a name applied to an order of small Arachnida, witk 
which this artide deals, and to a coin of very slight value. Tlie 
origin of both would appear to be ultimately tbe same, viz. t 
root met-, implying something exceedingly amalL It has becfi 
suggested that the name for the animal comes from a lecoodanr 
root of the root mei-, to cut, whence come such words as Goth. 
maitan, to cut, and Ger. messer, knife. In this case mite woald 
mean " the biter " or " cutter." The coin was originally t 
Flemish copper coin (Dutch mijt) worth one-third or, accordiaf 
to some authorities, a smaller fraction of the Flemish pesuuni, 
penny. It has become a common expression in English for a 
coin of the smallest value, from its use to translate Gr.Xcrrir, 
two of which make a KoipLrrqi, translated "farthiaf" 
(Mark xiL 43). 

In zoology, " mite " is the common name for minute ntemben 
of the class Arachnida (9.V.), which, with the ticks, constitute 
the order Acari. The woid " mite," however, is merely a pofwiar 
and convenient term for certain groups of Acari, and dk>es not 
connote a natural assemblage as contrasted with tbe ticks (f a). 
Mites are either free-living or parasitic throughout their lives 
or parasitic at certain periods and free-living at othcn. Hej 
are almost universally distributed, and are found wberercr 
terrestrial vegetation, even of tbe lowliest kind, occurs. IVr 
are spread from the arctic to the antarctic bemispbere, tsU 
inhabit alike the land, fresh-water streams and ponds, bnickiili 
marshes and the sea. The largest spedes, which occur ia tlK 
tropics, reach bardy half an inch in length; while the snuOest, 
the most diminutive of the Arthropoda, are invisible to tk 
naked eye. 

Mites are divided into a considerable number of famiiM^ IV 
Bdellidae (Bdetta) are free-living forms with long antensiforB 
palpi. The large tropical forms above mentioned belong to Oie 
genus Trombidium of the family Trombidiidae. The meobea 
of this genus are covered with vdvety plush-like hairs, ofto 
of an exquisite crimson colour. The legs are adapted lor 
crawling or running, and the palpi are raptoriaL TUy^ 
non-parasitic in the adult stage; but immature individuab of s 
British spedes (T. holosericeum) are parasitic upon vsnoos 
animals (see Harvest Bug). The Tetranychidae are aeiriy 
related to the last. A well-known example, TdW** 
telarius, spins webs on the backs of leaves, and b 90ia/fi^ 
called the money spider. The fresh-water mites or Hyditf^ 
nidae are generally beautifully coloured red or green, aad vt 
commonly globular in shape. Their legs are furnished *v 



MITFORD, M. R. 



619 



long liain for iwimming. The marine- mites of the family 
HaJacaridae, on the contrary, are not active swimmers but 
merely creep on the stems of seaweeds and zoophytes. The 
Gamasidae are mostly free-living forms with a thick exoskeleton, 
and are allied to the Ixodidae or ticks {q.v.). A common 
q>edes is Gamasus coUoplratorum, the females and young of 
which may be found upon the common dung-beetle. The 
Oribatidae or beetle-mites, so called from their resemblance to 
minute beetles, are non-parasitic, and often go through remark- 
abJe metamorphoses during development. The Sarcoptidae, as 
stated below, are mostly parasitic forms. Some members of 
this family, however, live in decaying animal substances, the 
best known perhaps being the cheese-mite {Tyroglyphus siro) 
which infests cheese, especially Stilton, in thousands. An allied 
q>edes (T. entomopkagus) often causes great damage to collec- 
tions of insects by destroying the dried specimens. They may 
be easily exterminated by application of benzine, which does not 
harm the contents of the cabinet. 

From the ea>nomic standpoint the most important mites are 
those which are parasitic upon manmials and birds. They 
belong to the four families, Gamasidae, Trombidiidae, Sarcoptidae 
and Demodiddae. Most of the Gamasidae are free-living mites. 
The family, however, contains an aberrant genus, Dermanyssus, of 
which several species have been described, although they are all 
poiiaps merely varieties of one and the same species commonly 
known as D. gaUinae or D. avium. This species is found in fowl- 
bonses, dovecotes and bird-cages. During the day they lurk 
in cracks in the floor, walls or perches, and emerge at night to 
attack the roosting birds. They are a great pest, and frequently 
do much damage to birds both by sucking their blood and by 
dq>riving tl^m of rest at night. They are sometimes transferred 
from binis to mammals. The Trombidiidae abo are mostly 
£ree-living predaceous mites. A few, however, are parasitic 
upon mammah and birds, the best-known being Trombidium 
hiiosericeum, the larva of which attacks human beings, as well 
as chickens and other birds, sometimes producing considerable 
mortality amongst them (see Harvest Bug). Another genus, 
CkeyUtikUif affects rabbits as well as birds. Birds are also 
attacked, by many spedes of Sarcoptidae, which according to 
the organs infected are termed plumicolae (Analgesinae), epi- 
dermicolae (Epidermoptinae) , and cysticolae (Cytoditinae) . The 
Analgesinae {Pterolickus, Analges) live almost wholly upon and 
between the barbules of the feathers. They are found in nearly 
every spedes of bird without apparently affecting the health in 
any way. The Epidermoptinae {EpidermopUs) occur on diseased 
fowb and live, as thdr name indicates, upon the skin at the 
base of the feathers, where thdr presence gives rise to an accu- 
molation of yellowish scales. The Cytoditinae (Cytoditcs), on 
the otber hand, live in the subcutaneous or intermiiscular con- 
nective tissue round the respiratory organs, or in the air sacs, 
especially of gallinaceous spedes. They also penetrate to certain 
internal organs, and may become encysted and give rise to 
tuberde-like nodules. Sometimes they exist in such quantities 
in the air passages as to cause coughing and asphyxia. 
r The cutaneous mites, mentioned above, and others akin to 
them, produce no very marked disturbance in the skin of the 
^}ecies they infest. They merely suck the blood or feed upon 
the feathers, scurf and desquamating epidermis. Hence they 
^re termed " non-psoric " mites. A certain number of species, 
liowever, called in contradistinction " psoric " mites, give rise 
t^y thdr bites, by the rapidity of their multiplication, and by the 
Excavation of galleries in the skin, to a highly contagious 
^Sisease known as scabies or mange, which if not treated in 
^ime produces the gravest results. These mites belong exdu- 
^vely to the Sarcoptidae and Demodicidae. A variety of 
Species are responsible for Sarcoptic mange, SarcopUs mulans 
^Moducing it in the feet of gallinaceous and passerine birds by 
>^urTOwing beneath the scales and giving rise to a crusted exuda- 
tion which pushes up beneath and between the scales. Feather 
Scabies or d^Iuming scabies of poultry is caused by another 
spedes, S, Uteris. Three genera of Sarcoptidae, namely Sarcoptes 
^koricfUs and Ptoropta cause man^e or scabies in inammals, 



the mange produced by Sarcoptes being the most serious form 
of the disease, because the females of the spedes which produces 
it, Sarcftptes scabiei, burrow beneath the skin and are more 
difficult to reach with acariddes. A considerable niunber of 
varieties of this spedes have been named after the hosts upon 
which they most commonly and typically occur, such as S. 
scabiH haminis, equi, boviSf caprae, oris, camdi, lupi, vulpis, 
&c; but they are not restricted to the mammals from which thdr 
names have been derived and structural differences between them 
are often difficult to define and sometimes non-existant. Under 
favourable conditions the multiplication of this spedes is very 
rapid. It has been computed indeed that a single pair may give 
rise to one million and a half individuals in about three months. 
PsoropUs lives in the epidermic incrustations to which it gives 
rise, without, however, excavating subcutaneous burrows. One 
spedes, P. communis, is known to affect various domestic animals. 
Of the genus Ckorioptes two spedes have been described on 
domestic animals, viz. Ch. symbiotes, which has the same mode of 
life as PsoropUs communis and Ck. cynotis, which has been 
detected only in the ears of certain camivora such as dogs, cats 
and ferrets. Mange, if taken in time, can be cured by applications 
of sulphur ointment or of sulphur mixed with an animal or 
vegetable oil Mites of the family Demodiddae give rise to a 
skin disease called " Demodedc or follicular mange," which is 
often serious and always difficult to cure on account of the 
deep situation taken up by the parasites. These infest the 
hair follides and sebaceous glands, and are therefore termed 
Demodex foUiculorum, These mites differ greatly from those 
previously noticed— in the reduction of their legs to short three- 
jointed tuberdes, and in the great elongation of the abdomen to 
form an annuUted flexible postanal area to the body. They 
live not uncommonly in small numbers in the skin of the human 
face and their presence may never be detected. They also 
occur on dogs, pigs and oth^ domesticated animals, as well as 
on mice and bats, and numerous varieties named after thdr 
hosts, hominis, batis, canis, cati, &c, have been described, but 
they apparently differ from each other, prindpally in size. 

The mites of the family Eriophyidae or Phytoptidae produce 
in various phmts pathological results analogous to those produced 
in animals by parasitical Sarcoptidae and by Demodicidae. As 
in the Demodicidae the abdomen is elongate and annulate, but 
the Eriophyidae differ from all other mites in having per- 
manently lost the last two pairs of legs. The excrescences and 
patches they produce on leaves are called " galls," the best known 
of which are perhaps the nail-galls of the h'me caused by Eriopkyes 
tiliae. A very large number of spedes have been described and 
named after the plants upon which they live. They often inflict 
very considerable loss upon fruit-growers by destroying the 
growing buds of the trees. (R. I. P.) 

MITFORD, MART RUSSELL (1787-1855), EngUsh novelist and 
dramatist, only daughter of Dr George Mitford, or Midford, was 
bom at Alresford, Hampshire, on the i6th of December x 787. She 
retains an honourable place in English literature as the authoress 
olOur Village, a series of sketches of village scenes and characters 
unsurpassed in their kind, and as fresh as if they had been written 
yesterday. Her father was a curious character. He first spent 
his wife's fortune in a few years; then he spent the greater part 
of £20,000, which in 1797 his daughter, then at the age of ten, 
drew as a prize in a lottery; then he lived on a small remnant of 
his fortune and the proceeds of his daughter's literary industry. 
The father kept fresh in his daughter the keen delight in incon- 
gnu'ties, the lively sympathy with self-willed vigorous indi- 
viduab'ty, and the womanly tolerance of its excess, which inspire 
so many of her sketches of character. Miss Mitford lived in 
close attendance on him, refused all holiday invitations because 
he could not live without her, and worked incessantly for him 
except when she broke off her work to read him the sporting 
newspapers. Her writing has all the charm of perfectly 
unaffected spontaneous humour, combined with quick wit and 
exquisite literary skill. Miss Mitford met Elizabeth Barrett 
(Mrs Browning) in 1836, and the acquaintance ripened into 
a warm friendship. The strain of poverty began to tell on her 



620 



MITFORD, W.— MITHRADATES 



work, for although her books sold at high prices, her income 
did not keep' pace with her father's extravagances. In 1837, 
however, she received a dvil list pension, and five years later 
her father died. A subscription was raised to pay his debts, 
and the siirplus increased the daughter's income. Miss Mitford 
eventually removed to a cottage at Swallowfield, near Reading, 
where she died on the xoth of January 1855. 

Miss Mitford's youthful ambition had been to be " the greatest 
English poetess," and her first publications were poems in the 
manner of Coleridge and Scott {Miscellaneous Verses, i8zo, 
reviewed by Scott in the Quarterly; CkrisHne, a metric^ tale, 
181 1 ; Blanche, 1813). Her play Julian was produced at 
Covent Garden, with Maoeady in the title-rdle, in 1823; The 
Foscari was performed at Covent Garden, with Charles Kemble 
as the hero, in 1826; Riensi, 1838, the best of her plays, had 
a nm of thirty-four nights, and Miss Mitford's friend, Talfourd, 
imagined that its vogue militated against the success of his own 
play Ion. Charles the First was refused a licence by the Lord 
Chamberlain, but was played at the Surrey Theatre in 1834. 
But the prose, to which she was driven by domestic necessities, 
has rarer qualititft than her verse. The first series of Our Village 
sketches appeared in 1824, a second in 1826, a third in 1828, a. 
fourth in 1830, a fifth in 1832. Our Village was several times 
reprinted; Belford Regis, a novel in which the neighbourhood and 
society of Reading were idealized, was published in 1835. 

Her Recollections of a Literary Life (1852) is a aeries of causeries 
about her favourite books. Her ulk was said by her friends, Mrs 
Browning and Hcngist Home, to have been even more amusing than 
her boolu, and five volumes of her Life and Letters, published in 
1870 and 1872, show her to have been a deh'ghtful letter-writer. 

MITFORD, WILLIAM (1744-1827), English historian, was the 
elder of the two sons of John Mitford, a barrister, who lived 
near Beaulieu, at the edge of the New Forest. Here, at Exbury 
House, his father's property, Mitford was bom on the xoth of 
February 1744. He was educated at Cheam School, under the 
picturesque writer William Gilpin, but at the age of fifteen a 
severe illness led to his being removed, and after two years of 
idleness Mitford was sent, in July 1 761 , as a gentleman commoner 
to Queen's College, Oxford. In this year his father died, and left 
him the Exbury property and a considerable fortune. Mitford, 
therefore, being " very much his own master, was easily led to 
prefer amusement to study." He left Oxford (where the only 
sign of assiduity he had shown was to attend the lectures of 
Blackstone) without a degree, in 1763, and proceeded to the 
Middle Temple. But when he married Miss Fanny Molloy in 
1766, and retired to Exbury for the rest of his life, he made the 
study of the Greek language and literature his hobby and occupa- 
tion. After ten years his wife died, and in October 1 776 Mitford 
went abroad. He was encouraged by French scholars whom he 
met in Paris, Avignon and Nice to give himself systematically 
to the study of Greek history. But it was Gibbon, with whom 
he was closely associated when they both were officers in the South 
Hampshire Militia, who suggested to Mitford the form which 
his work should take. In 1784 the first of the volumes of his 
History of Greece appeared, and the fifth and last of these quartos 
was published in 1810, after which the state of Mitford's eyesight 
and other physical infirmities, including a loss of memory, 
forbade his continuation of the enterprise, although he painfully 
revised successive new editions. While his book was progressing, 
Mitford was a member of the House of Commons, with intervals, 
from 1785 to 1818, and he was for many years vcrderer of the 
New Forest and a county magistrate; but it does not appear 
that he ever visited Greece. After a long illness, he died at 
Exbury on the loth of February 1827. In addition to his 
History of Greece, he published a few smaller works, the most 
important of which was an Essay on the Harmony of Language, 
1774. The style of Mitford is natural and lucid, but without 
the rich colour of Gibbon. He affected some oddities both of 
language and of orthography, for which he was censured and 
which he endeavoured to revise. But his political opinions were 
still more severely treated, since Mitford was an impassioned 
anti-Jacobin, and his partiality for a monarchy led him to be 



imjust to the Athenians. Hence his HiOary ef Creae^, afUi 
having had no peer in European literature for half a centmy, faded 
in interest on the appearance of the work of Giote. Clintoo, too, 
in his Fasti hdlemci, charged Mitford with " a general negUgenoe 
of dates," though admitting that in his philosophkal range " k 
is far superior to any former writer " on Greek history. Byron, 
who dilated on Mitford's shortcomings, nevertheless dedared thit 
he was '^ perhaps, the best of all modem historians altogether." 
This Mitford certainly is not, but his pre-eminence in the littk 
school of English historians who succeeded Hume and Gibbon 
it wotild be easier to maintain. 

Wmiam Mitford's counn, the Rev. John Mitford (X78X-1859), 
was editor of the CentUman's Magaaine tmd of various editions of the 
EncUsh poets. For the Freeman-Mitfonis, who were abo rdativcs. 
see KEDBSOALB, Eau. of. 

MITHILA, an ancient kingdom of India, c o rre spon ding to tkt 
portion of Behar lying N. of the Ganges, with an extension 
into Nepal, where was the capital of Janakpur. Its cariy 
history is obscure, but it has always been noted for its peculiar 
conservatism and the learning of its Brahmans. They form xo 
this day one of the five classes of northem Brahmans, and thdr 
head is the Maharaja of Darbhanga. The language, known as 
Maithili, is a dialect of Bihari, with an archaic system of grammar 
and a literature of its own. 

MITHRADATES, less correctly Mitbxioates, a Penian 
name derived from Mithras (q.v.), the sun-god, aiid the lodo* 
European root da, " to give," f.«. " given by Mithras." The 
name occurs also in the forms Mitradates (Herod. L no) and 
Meherdates (Tac. Ann. xiL 10). It was bome by a large 
number of Oriental kings, soldiers and statesmen. The earliest 
are Mithradates, the eunuch who helped Artabanus to ■•"wrn*** 
Xerxes I. (Diod. xi. 69), and the Biithradates who fought first 
with Cyrus the Younger and after his death with Artaxerxes 
against the Greeks (Xen. Anab. iL 5, 35; iiL 3, i-xo; iii. 4, 1-5), 
and is the ancestor of the kings of Pontus. The moat important 
are three kings of Parthia of the Arsadd dynasty, and six (or 
four) kings of Pontus. There were also two kings of Conunagene, 
two of the Bosporus and one of Armenia (aj>. 35-51). 

Mithradates I. (Arsaces VI.), successor of his brother, 
Phraates I., came to the Parthian throne about 175 bx. The 
first event of his reign was a war with Eucratidcs _ 
of Bactria, who tried to create a great Greek empire rSSm 
in the EasL At last, when Eucratides had been 
murdered by his son about 1 50, Mithradates was able to occupy 
some districts on the border of Bactria and to conquer Arachosia 
(Kandahar); he is even said to have crossed the Indus (Justio 
41, 6; Strabo xi. 515, 517; cf. Orosius v. 4, 16; Diod. 33, 18). 
Meanwhile the Seleudd kingdom was tom by internal dissen* 
sions, fostered by Roman intrigues. Phraates L had afatadjr 
conquered eastern Media, about Rhagae (Rai), and subjected 
the Mardi on the border of the Caspian (Justin 41, s; Isidor. 
Charac. 7). Mithradates I. conquered the rest of Media and 
advanced towards the Zagros chains and the Bab^oniaa plain. 
In a war against the Elymaeans (in Susiana) he took the Greek 
town Seleucia on the Hedyphon, and forced their king to become 
a vassal of the Parthians (Justin 41, 6; Strabo xv. 744). About 
14 1 he must have become master x>f Babylonia. By Dkxiontt 
33, 18 he is praised as a mild ruler; and the fact that from 140 
he takes on his coins the epithet Philhellen (W. Wroth, Catalogue oj 
the Coins of Parthia, p. 14 seq. ; till then he only calls himself " the 
great king Arsakes ") shows that he tried to condliate his Greek 
subjects. The Greeks, however, induced Demetrius II. Nicator 
to come to their deliverance, although he was much pressed 
in Syria by the pretender Diodotus Tryphon. At first he was 
victorious, but in 138 he was defeated. Mithradates settled him 
with a royal household in Hyrcania and gave him his daughter 
Rhodogune in marriage Qustin 36, i, 38, 9; Jos. Anl, 13, 
5, 11; Euseb. Chron. I. 257; Appian Syr. 67). Shortly 
afterwards Mithradates I. died, and was succeeded by his smi 
Phraates II. He was the real founder of the Arsacid Empire. 

Mfthkadates II. the Great, king of Parthia (r. 120-88 
B.C.), saved the kingdom from the Mongolian Sacae (Tochsri), 



MITHRADATES 



621 



KktgBOt 



iriw had occupied Bactria and eastern Iran, and is said to have 
extended the limits of the empire (Justin 42, 2, where he is 
afterwards confused with Mithradates III.). He defeated King 
Artavasdes of Armenia and conquered seventy valleys; and 
the prince Tigranes came as hostage to the Parthians Oustin 
42, 2; Strabo; xi. 532). In an inscription from Delos (Dittcn- 
berger, Or. gr^ inscr. 430) he is called " the great King of Kings 
Arsakes." He also interfered in the wars of the dynasts of Syria 
Qos. Ant. xiii. 141 3)- He was the first Parthian king who entered 
into negotiations with Rome, then represented by Sulla, praetor 
of Cilicia (92 B.C.). 

MiTHXADATES III. murdered his father Phraates HI. about 
57 B.C., with the assistance of hb brother Orodes. He was 
made king of Media, and waged war against his brother, but 
was soon de[)osed on account of his cruelty He took refuge 
with Gabinius, the Roman proconsul of Syria. He advanced 
into Mesopotamia, but was beaten at Seleucia by Surenas, fled 
into Babylon, and after a long siege was taken prisoner and 
killed in 54 by. Orodes I. (Dio Cass. 39, 56; Justin 42, 4; 
Jos. Bell. i. 8, 7, ArU. 14, 6, 4). 

A Parthian king Mithradates, who must have occuiMcd the throne 
for a short time during the reign of Phraates IV., is mentioned by 
T08. Ant. xvi. 8, 4. in 10 B.C.; another pretender Meherdates was 
DfouRht from Rome in a.d. 49 by the opponents of Gotarzes, 
but defeated (Tac. Ann.xi. lo.xii. 10 sqa.). The name of another 
pretender Mithradates (often called Mithradates IV.) occurs on a 
coin of the first half of the 2nd century, written in Aramaic, accom- 

?inied by the Arsacid titles in Greek (\Vroth, Catal. of the Coins of 
arihia, p. 2 10) ; he appears to be identical with Meherdotes, one of the 
rival kings ofParthia who fought against Trajan in 116; he died in 
an attack on Commagcne and appointed his son Sanatruces successor, 
who fell in a battle against the Romans (Arriah ap. Malalas, Chron. 
pp. 270. 274). (Ed. M.) 

The kings of Pontus were descended from one of the seven 
Persian conspirators who put the false Smerdis to death (see 
Darius I.). According to Diodorus Siculus, three 
members of his family — Mithradates, Ariobarzanes, 
Mithradates — were successively rulers of Cius on 
the Propontis and CarinS in Mysia. The last of these was put 
to death in 302 B.C. by Antigonus, who sus[)ected him of having 
joined the coalition against him. He was succeeded by his son 
Mithradates I. or in.(if the two dynasts of Cius be included 
the founder {Krlavrp) of the Pontic kingdom, although this 
distinction is by some attributed to the father. Warned 
by his friend Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, that he was 
threatened with the same fate as his father, he fled to Paphlagonia, 
where he seized Cimiata, a fort at the foot of the Olgassys range. 
Being joined by the Macedonian garrison and the neighbouring 
populations, he conquered the Cappadocian and Paphlagonian 
territories on both sides of the Halys and assumed the title of 
king. Before his death he further enlarged Pontic Cappadocia. 
He was succeeded by Ariobarzanes, who left the throne to 
Mithradates 1 1, {c. 256-190, according to Meyer, Mithradates 
II. and III.), a mere child. Early in his reign the Gauls of 
Galatia invaded his territory. Mithradates was at the battle 
of Ancyra {c. 241), in which he assisted Antiochus Hierax against 
his brother Seleucus CaUinicus, in spite of the fact that he had 
married the daughter of the latter with Greater Phrygia as her 
dowry. His two daughters, both named Laodice, were married, 
one to Antiochiis the Great, the other .0 his cousin Achaeus, 
a dynast of Asia Minor. He unsuccessfully attacked Sinope, 
which was taken by his successor Phamaces, the brother (not 
the son) of Mithradates III. (169-121), sumamed Philopator, 
Philadelphus, and Euergctes. According to Meyer, however, there 
were two kings (Mithradates IV. Philopator and V. Eucrgetcs). 
He was the first king of Pontus to recognize the suzerainty of the 
Romans, of whom he was a loyal ally. He assisted Attains II. 
of Pergamum to resist Prusias II. of Bithynia; furnished a 
contingent during the Third Punic War; and aided the Romans 
in obtaining possession of Pergamum, bequeathed to them by 
Attains III., but claimed by Aristonicus, a natiiral son of 

•There u much difference of opinion in rerard to the kings of 
Pontus called Mithradates to the accession of Mithradates Eupator. 
Ed. Meyer reckons five, T. Reinach three. 



Eumenes n. Both Mithradates and Nicomedes of Bithynia 
demanded Greater Phrygia in return for their services. It 
was awarded to Mithradates, but the senate refused to ratify 
the bargain on the ground of bribery. For several years the 
kings of Pontus and Bithynia bid against each other, till in 
116 Phrygia was declared independent, although in reality it 
was treated as part of the province of Asia. Mithradates 
appears to have taken it without waiting for the decision of 
the senate. He invaded Cappadocia, and married his daughter 
to the young king, Ariarathes Epiphanes; bought the succession 
from the last king of Paphlagonia, and obtained a kind of pro- 
tectorate over Galatia. He was a great admirer of the Greeks, 
who called him Euergetes; he removed his capital from Amasia 
to Sinope, and bestowed liberal gifts upon the temples of Delos 
and Athens. At the height of his power he was assassinated 
by his courtiers during a banquet in his palace at Sinope. 

Mithradates VI. Eupator^ called the Great, a boy of eleven, 
now succeeded his father. Alarmed at the attempts made 
upon his life by his mother, he fled to the mountains and was 
for many years a hunter. In 11 x he returned to Sinope, threw 
his mother into prison, and put his younger brother to death. 
Having thus established himself on the throne, he turned his 
attention to conquest. In return for his assistance against 
the Scythians, the Greeks of the Cimmerian Bosporus and the 
Tauric Chersonese recognized his suzerainty. He occupied 
Colchis, Paphlagonia and part of Galatia; set his son Ariarathes 
on the throne of Cappadocia and drove out Nicomedes UI., 
the young king of Bithynia. The Romans restored the legiti- 
mate kings, and, while apparently acquiescing, Mithradates 
made preparations for war. He had long hat^ the Romans, 
who had taken Phrygia during his minority, and he aimed at 
driving them from Asia Minor. The cause of rupture was the 
attack on Pontic territory by Nicomedes at the instigation 
of the Romans. Mithradates, unable to obtain satisfaction, 
declared war (88 B.C.). He rapidly overran Galatia, Phrygia 
and Asia; defeated the Roman armies, and ordered a general 
massacre of the Romans in Asia. He sent large armies into 
European Greece, and his generals occupied Athens. But 
Sulla in Greece and Fimbria in Asia defeated his armies in several 
battles; the Greek cities were disgusted by his severity, and in 
84 he concluded peace, abandoning all his conquests, surren- 
dering his fleet and paying a fine of 2000 talents. During 
what is called the Second Mithradatic War, Murena invaded 
Pontus without any good 'reason in 83, but was defeated in 8a. 
Hostilities were suspended, but disputes constantly occurred, 
and in 74 a general war broke out. Mithradates defeated Cotta, 
the Roman consul, at Chalcedon; but Lucullus worsted him, 
and drove him in 72 to take refuge in Armenia with his son-in-law 
Tigranes. After two great victories ut Tigranocerta (69) and 
Artaxata (68), Lucullus was disconcerted by mutiny and the 
defeat of his lieutenant Fabius (see Lucitllus). In 66 he was 
superseded by Pompey, who completely defeated both Mithra- 
dates and Tigranes. The former established himself in 64 at 
Panticapaeum, and was planning new campaigns against the 
Romans when his own troops revolted, and, after vainly trying 
to poison himself, h6 ordered a Gallic mercenary to kill him. 
So perished the greatest enemy that the Romans had to en- 
counter in Asia Minor. His body was sent to Pompey, who 
buried it in the royal sepulchre at Sinope. 

Ancient authorities have invested Mithradates with a halo 
of romance. His courage, his bodily strength and size, his 
skill in the use of weapons, in riding, and in the chase, his speed 
of foot, his capacity for eating and drinking, his penetrating 
intellect and his mastery of 22 languages are celebrated to 
a degree which is almost incredible. With a surface gloss 
of Greek education, he united the subtlety, the superstition, 
and the obstinate endurance of an Oriental. He collected 
curiosities and works of art; he assembled Greek men of letters 
round him; he gave prizes to the greatest poets and the best 
eaters. He spent much of his time in practising magic, and 
it was believed that he had so saturated his body with poisons 
that none could injure him. He trusted no one; he murdered 



622 



MITHRAS 



his mother, his sons, the aster whom he had married; to prevent 
his harem from failing to Iiis enemies he murdered all his con- 
cubines, and his most faithful followers were never safe. For 
eighteen years he showed himself no imworthy adversary of 
Sulla, Lucullus and Pompey. 

See T. Reinach. Milhridate Eupator (1890; Ger. trans, by 
A. Goetx, 189s, with the author's corrections and additions); also 
E. Meyer, Ceschichte des Kdnigreichs Pontos (1879). 

MITHRAS, a Persian god of light, whose worship, the latest 
one of importance to be brought from the Orient to Rome, 
spread throughout the empire and became the greatest anta- 
gonist of Chr^tianity. 

I. History and Distribution. — ^The cult goes back to a period 
before the separation of the Persians from the Hindus, as is 
shown by references in the literatures of both stocks, the Avesta 
and the Vcdas. Though but faintly pictured in the Vedic 
hymns, he is there invoked with Ormazd, or Ahuramazda, 
the god of the sky, and is clearly a divinity of light, the protector 
of truth and the enemy of error and falsehood. In the Avesta, 
after the separation of the Iranian stock from the Hindu and 
the rise of Zoroastrianism, which elevated Ormazd to the simmiit 
of the Persian theological system, his r61e was more distinct, 
though less important; between Ormazd, who reigned in eternal 
brightness, and Ahriman, whose realm was eternal darkness, 
he occupied an intermediate position as the greatest of the 
yazatas, beings created by Ormazd to aid in the destruction 
of evU and the administration of the world. He was thus a 
deity of the realms of air and light, and, by transfer to the 
moral realm, the god of truth and loyalty. Because b'ght 
is accompanied by heat, he was the god of vegetation and 
increase; he sent prosperity to the good, and annihilated the 
bad; he was the god of armies and the champion of heroes; 
as the enemy of darkness and of all evil spirits, he protected 
souls, accompanying them on the way to paradise, and was 
thus a redeemer. Animals and birds were sacrificed and liba- 
tions poured to him, and prayers were addressed to him 
by devotees who had purified themselves by ablution and 
repeated flagellation. As a god who gave victory, he was pro- 
minent in the official cult of Persia, the seventh month and 
the sixteenth day of other months being sacred to him. His 
worship spread with the empire of the Persians throughout 
Asia Minor, and Babylon was an important centre. Its popu- 
larity remained unimpaired after the fall of Persia, and it was 
during the ferment following the conquests of Alexander that 
the characteristics which mark it during the Roman period 
were firmly fixed. Mithraism was at full maturity on its arrival 
at Rome, the only modifications it ever suffer^ having been 
experienced during its younger days in Asia. 

Modified though never essentially changed, (i) by contact 
with the star-worship of the Chaldaeans, who identified Milhras 
with Shamash, god of the sun,(2) by the indigenous Armenian 
religion and other local Asiatic faiihs and (3) by the Greeks 
of Asia Minor, who identified Mithras with Helios, and contri- 
buted to the success of his cult by equipping it for the first time 
with artistic representations (the famous Mithras relief originated 
in the Pergamene school towards the 2nd century B.C.), Mithrai:m 
was first transmitted to the Roman world during the ist century 
B.C. by the Cilician pirates captured by Pompey. It attained no 
importance, however, for nearly two centuries. The lateness of its 
arrival in the West was due to the fact that its centres of influence 
were not in immediate contact w^ith Greek and Roman civiliza- 
tion. It never became popular in Greek lands, and was regarded 
by Hellcnizcd nations as a barbarous worship. It was at rivalry 
with the Egyptian religion. As late as the time of Augustus 
it was but little known in Roman territory, and gained a firm 
foothold in Italy only gradually, as a result of the intercourse 
between Rome and Asia consequent upon the erection of the 
Eastern provinces and the submission and colonization of 
Mesopotamia. It seems at first to have had relations with 
the cult of the Great Mother of the Gods at Rome, whose influ- 
ence served to protect it and facilitate its growth. The cult 
of Mithras began to attract attention at Rome about the end 



of the 1st century aj>. Statius (c. aj>. 80) mentions the typicaL 
Mithraic relief in his Tkebaid (i. 7x9,730); from Plutarch's (iLO. 
46-1 as) Vita Pompei (34) it is apparent that the wonhip wis 
well known; and the first Roman rdiefs show the chaiacteristics 
of about the same time. 

Towards the dose of the 2nd century the cult had begum 
to spread rapidly through the army, the mercantile class, slaves 
and actual propagandists, all of which classes were largely 
composed of Asiatics. It throve especially among military 
posts, and in the track of trade, where its monuments have 
been discovered in greatest abundance. The German frontien 
afford most evidence of its prosperity. Rome itself was a 
favourite seat of the reh'gion. From the end of the 2nd century 
the emperors encouraged Mithraism, because of the support 
which it afforded to the divine right of monarchs. The Peraan 
belief that the legitimate sovereign reigned by the grace of 
Ormazd, whose favour was made manifest by the sending of 
the Hvarendf a kind of celestial aureole of fire, resulted in the 
doctrine that the sun was the giver of the Hvarend, Mithns, 
identified with Sol Invictus at Rome, thus became the giver 
of authority and victory to the imperial house. From the time 
of Commodus, who participated in its mysteries, its supporten 
were to be found in all classes. Its importance at R<MDe may 
be judged from the abundance of monumental remains — more 
than 75 pieces of sculpture, 100 inscriptions, and ruins of temples 
and chapels in all parts of the city and suburbs. 

Finally, philosophy as well as politics contributed to the 
success of Mithraism, for the outcome of the attempt to recogmze 
in the Graeco-Roman gods only forces of nature was to make 
the Sun the most important of deities; and it was the Son with 
whom Mithras was identified. 

The beginning of the downfall of Mithraism dates from aj>. 
27s, when Dacia was lost to the empire, and the invasions 
of the northern peoples resulted in the destruction of temples 
along a great stretch of frontier, the natural stronghold of Xht 
culL The aggression of Christianity also was now more eflec* 
tive. The emperors, however, favoured the cult, which was 
the army's favourite until Constantino destroyed its hopes. 
The reign of Julian and the usurpation of Eugenius renewed 
the hopes of its devotees, but the victory of Theodosios (394) 
may be considered the end of its existence. It stfll survived 
in certain cantons of the Alps in the 5th century, and dung to 
life with more tenadty in its Eastern home. Its kgitimaU 
successor was Manichaeism, which afforded a refuge to those 
mystics who had been shaken in faith, but not converted, l^ 
the polemics of the Chiuxh against their religion. 

II. Sources, Remains^ Ritual,— The sources of present know- 
ledge regarding Mithraism consist of the Vedas, the Avesta, 
the Pahlcvi writings, Greek and Latin literature and inscriptions, 
and the cult monuments. The mommients comprise the 
remains of nearly a score of temples and about 400 statues 
and bas reliefs. The Mithraic temples of Roman times were 
artificial grottoes (spdaea) wholly or partially lindergroand, 
in imitation of the original selcudcd mountain caverns of Asia. 
The Mithraeum hewn in the tufa quarries of the Capitoline HiB 
at Rome, still in existence diiring the Renaissance, is an exam{^ 
The main room of the ordinary temple was rectangular, with 
an elevated apsidal arrangement, like a choir, containing the 
sacred relief on its wall, at the end opposite the entrance, and 
with continuoxis benches (podia) of masonry, about 5 ft. wide 
and inclining slightly towards the floor, built against the wall on 
its long sides. The ceiling was made to symbolize the firmamenL 
There were arrangements for the brilliant illumination of the 
choir and its relief, which was sometimes sculptured on both sides 
and reversible, while the podia were intentionally more obscure. 
The choir and the long space between the podia were for minis- 
trants, the podia themselves for kneeUng worshippers. Two 
altars, to the Sun and the Moon, st6od before the former, and 
cult statues along the latter. The approach to the grotto lay 
through a portico on the level with and fronting the street, 
and a pronaos, in communication with which was a kind of 
sacristy. Steps led to the lower levd of the sanctuary. The 



MITHRAS 



623 



limplicity and smallness of the Mithraic temples are to be 
accounted for by structural and financial reasons; an under- 
ground temple was difficult to construct on a large scale, and 
the worshippers of Mithras were usually from the humbler 
classes. Ilie average grotto held from fifty to a hundred 
persons. The size of the sanctuaries, however, was compensated 
for by their number; in Ostia alone there were five. 

The typical has relief, which is found in great abundance 
in the museums of Europe, invariably represents Mithras, 
under the form of a youth with conical cap and flying drapery, 
slaying the sacred bull, the scorpion attacking the genitals of 
the animal, the serpent drinking its blood, the dog springing 
towards the wound in its side, and frequently, in addition, the 
Sun-god, his messenger the raven, a fig-tree, a lion, a ewer, 
and torch-bearers. The relief is in some instances enclosed 
in a frame of figures and scenes in relief. The best example 
is the monument of Osterburken (Cumont, Texies et monuments 
JiguriSf No. 246). With this monument as a basis, Franz Cumont 
has arranged the small Mithraic reliefs into two groups, one 
illustrating the legend of the origin of the gods, and the other 
the legend of Mithras. In the first group are found Infinite Time, 
or Cronus; Tellus and Atlas supporting the globe, representing 
the union of Earth and Heaven; Oceanus; the Fates; Infinite 
Time giving into the hand of his successor Ormazd the thunder- 
bolt, the symbol of authority; Ormazd struggling with a giant 
of evil — the Mithraic gigantomachy. The second group repre- 
sents, first, the birth of Mithras; ihen the god nude, cutting 
fruit and leaves from a fig-tree in which is the bust of a deity, 
and before which one of the winds is blowing upon Mithras; 
the god discharging an arrow against a rock from which springs 
a fountain whose water a figure is kneeling to receive in his 
palms; the bull in a small boat, near which again occurs the 
figure of the animal under a roof about to be set on fire by two 
figures; the bull in flight, with Mithras in pursuit; Mithras 
bearing the bull on his shoulders; Helios kneeling before Mithras; 
Helios and Mithras clasping hands over an altar; Mithras with 
drawn bow on a running horse; Mithras and Helios banqueting; 
Mithras and Helios mounting the chariot of the latter and 
rising in full course over the ocean. Few of the Mithraic reliefs 
are of even mediocre art. Among the best is the relief from 
the Capitoline grotto, now in the Louvre. 

Cumont's interpretation of the main relief and its smaller 
companions involves the reconstruction of a Mithraic theology, 
a Mithraic legend, and a Mithraic symbolism. Paucity of 
evidence makes the first diflicult. The head of the divine 
hierarchy of Mithras was Infinite Time — Cronus, Saturn; Heaven 
and Earth were his offspring, and begat Ocean, who formed 
with them a trinity corresponding to Jupiter, Juno, and Neptune. 
From Heaven and Earth sprang the remaining members of a 
circle analogous to the Olympic gods. Ahriman, also the son of 
Tune, was the Persian Pluto. Owing to Semitic influence every 
Persian god had in Roman times come to possess a twofold 
significance — astrological and natural, Semitic and Iranian — 
the earlier and deeper Iranian significance being imparted by 
the clergy to the few intelligent elect, the more attractive and 
superficial Chaldaean symbolism being presented to the multi- 
tude. Mithras was the most important member of the circle. He 
was regarded as the mediator between suffering humanity and 
the unknowable and inaccessible god of all being, who reigned 
in the ether. 

The Mithras legend has been lost, and can be reconstructed 
only from the scenes on the above described relief. Mithras 
was bom of a rock, the marvel being seen only by certain shep- 
herds, who brought gifts and adored him. Chilled by the wind, 
the new-bom god went to a fig-tree, partook of its fruit, and 
clothed himself in its leaves. He then undertook to vanquish 
the beings already in the world, and rendered subject to him 
first the Sun, with whom he concluded a treaty of friendship. 
The most wonderful of his adventures, however, was that with 
the sacred bull which had been created by Ormazd. The hero 
seized it by the horns and was borne headlong in the flight of 
the animal, which he finally subdued and dragged into a cavern. 



The bun escaped, but was overtaken, and by order of the Sun, 
who sent his messenger the raven, was reluctantly sacrificed 
by Mithras. From the dying animal sprang the life of the 
earth, although Ahriman sent his emissaries to prevent it. 
The soul of the bull rose to the celestial spheres and became 
the guardian of herds and flocks under the name of Silvanus. 
Mithras was through his deed the creator of life. Meanwhile 
Ahriman sent a terrible drought upon the land. Mithras 
defeated his purpose by discharging an arrow against a rock 
and miraculously drawing the water from it. Next Ahriman 
sent a deluge, from which one man escaped in a boat with his 
cattle. Finally a fire desolated the earth, and only the creatures 
of Ormazd escaped. Mithras, his work accomplished, banqueted 
with the Sun for the last time, and was taken by him in his 
chariot to the habitation of the inmiortals, whence he continued 
to protect the faithful 

The symbolism employed by Mithraism finds its best illustra- 
tion in the large central relief, which represents Mithras in the 
act of shi3ring the bull as a sacrifice to bring about terrestrial life, 
and thus portrays the concluding scenes in the legend of the sacred 
animal. The scorpion, atUcking the genitals of the bull, is 
sent by Ahriman from the lower world to defeat the purpose 
of the sacrifice; the dog, springing towards the wound in the 
bull's side, was venerated by the Persians as the companion 
of Mithras; the serpent is the symbol of the earth being made 
fertile by drinking the blood of the sacrificial bull; the raven, 
towards which Mithras turns his face as if for direction, is the 
herald of the Sun-god, whose bust is near by, and who has ordered 
the sacrifice; various plants near the bull, and heads of wheat 
springing from his tail, symbolize the result of the sacrifice; 
the C3rpress is perhaps the tree of immortality. There was also 
an astrological symbolism, but it was superficial, and of secon- 
dary importance. The torch-bearers sometimes seen on the 
relief represent one being in three aspects— the moming, noon 
and evening sun, or the vemal, sunmier and autumn sun. 

Owing to the almost absolute disappearance of documentary 
evidence, it is impossible to know otherwise than very imperfectly 
the inner life of Mithraism. Jerome {Epist. cvii.) and inscrip- 
tions preserve the knowledge that the mystic, sacratus, passed 
through seven degrees, which probably corresponded to the 
seven planetary spheres traversed by the soul in its progress 
to wisdom, perfect purity, and the abode of the blest: Corax, 
Raven, so named because the raven in Mithraic mythology was 
the servant of the Sun; CryphiuSf Occult, a degree in the taking 
of which the mystic was perhaps hidden from others in the 
sanctuary by a veil, the removal of which was a solenm cere- 
monial; Miles, Soldier, signifying the holy warfare against 
evil in the service of the god; Leo, Lion, symbolic of the element 
of fire; Perses, Persian, clad in Asiatic costume, a reminiscence 
of the andent origin of the religion; Heliodromus, Courier of 
the Sun, with whom Mithras was identified; Pater, Father, 
a degree bringing the mystic among those who had the general 
direction of the cult for the rest of their lives. One relief 
(Cumont, vol. i. p. 175, fig. 10) shows figures masked and costumed 
to represent Corax, Parses, Miles and Leo, indicating the practice 
on occasion of rites involving the use of sacred disguise, a 
custom probably reminiscent of the primitive time when men 
represented their deities under the form of animals, and believed 
themselves in closer conmiunion with them when disguised 
to impersonate them. Of the seven degrees, those mystics 
not yet beyond the third. Miles, were not in full communion, 
and were called ^pcroDircs (servants); while the fourth 
degree, Leo, admitted them into the class of the fully initiate, 
the nerkxoPTfi (participants). No women were in any way 
connected with the cult, though the male sex could be 
admitted even in childhood. The time requisite for the 
several degrees is unknown, and may have been determined 
by the Patres, who conferred them in a solemn ceremony called 
Sacramentum, in which the initial step was an oath never to 
divulge what should be revealed, and for which the mystic had 
been specially prepared by lustral purification, prolonged absti- 
nence, and severe deprivations. Special ceremonies accompanied 



624 



MITHRAS 



the diverse degrees: Tertulliaa speaks of "marking the 
forehead of a Miles" which may have been the branding of 
a Mithraic sign; honey was applied to the tongue and hands 
of the Leo and the Perses, A sacred communion of bread, 
water and possibly wine, compared by the Christian apologists 
to the Eucharist, was administered to the mystic who was 
entering upon one of the advanced degrees, perhaps Leo. The 
ceremony was probably commemorative of the banquet of 
Mithras and Helios before the former's ascension, and its efifect 
strength of body, wisdom, prosperity, power to resist evil, and 
participation in the immortality enjoyed by the god himself. 
Other features reminiscent of the original barbarous rites in 
the primitive caverns of the East, no doubt also occupied a 
place in the cult; bandaging of eyes, binding of hands with the 
intestines of a fowl, leaping over a ditch filled with water, witness- 
ing a simulated murder, are mentioned by the Pseudo-Augxistine; 
and the manipulation of lights in the crypt, the administration 
of oaths, and the repetition of the sacred formulae, all contributed 
toward inducing a state of ecstatic exaltation. What in the 
opinion of Albrecht Dieterich {Eine MUkradUurgie^ Leipzig, 
1903) is a Mithras liturgy is preserved in a Greek MS. of Egyptian 
origin of about a.d. 300. It is the ritual of a magician, imbedded 
in which, and alternating with magic formulae and other occult 
matter, are a number of invocations and prayers which 
Dieterich reconstructs as a liturgy in use by the clergy of 
Mithras between a.d. xoo and 300, and adapted td this new use 
about the latter date. 

The Mithraic priest, sacerdos or atUistes, was sometimes also 
of the degree of pater, TertuUian {De praescr. haeret. 40) calls 
the chief priest summus pontifex, probably the pater patrum 
who had general supervision of all the initiates in one city, and 
states that he could marry but once. According to the same 
author, there were Mithraic, as well as Christian, tirgines et 
continentes. Besides the administration of sacraments and 
the celebration of offices on special occasions, the priest kept 
alight the eternal fire on the altar, addressed prayers to the Sun 
at dawn, midday and twilight, turning towards east, south 
and west respectively. Clad in Eastern paraphernalia, he 
officiated at the numerous sacrifices indicated by the remains 
of iron and bronze knives, hatchets, chains, ashes and bones of 
oxen, sheep, goats, swine, fowl, &c. There was pouring of 
libations, chanting and music, and bells and candles were 
employed in the service. Each day of the week was marked 
by the adoration of a special planet, the sun being the most 
sacred of all, and certain dates, perhaps the sixteenth of each 
month and the equinoxes, in conformity with the character 
of Mithras as mediator, were set aside for special festivals. 

The Mithraic community of worshippers, besides being a 
spiritual fraternity, was a legal corporation enjoying the right 
of holding property, with temporal officials at its head, like any 
other sodalUas: there were the decuriones and decern primi, 
governing councils resembling assembly and senate in cities; 
md;»/r}, annually elected presidents; curatores,^Sincia\ agents; 
defcnsores, advocates; and patroni, protectors among the influ- 
ential. It may be that a single temple was the resort of several 
small associations of worshippers which were subdivisions of 
the whole community. The cult was supported mainly by 
voluntary contribution. An abundance of epigraphic evidence 
testifies to the devotion of rich and poor alike. 

III. Moral Influence. — The rapid advance of Mithraism was due 
to its human qualities. Its communities were bound together 
by a sense of close fraternal relation. Its democracy obliterated 
the distinctions between rich and poor; slave and senator became 
subject to the same rule, eligible for the same honours, par- 
took of the same communion, and were interred in the same 
type of sepulchre, to await the same resurrection. The reward 
of title and degree and the consequent rise in the esteem of 
his fellows and himself was also a strong incentive; but the 
Mithraic faith itself was the greatest factor. The impressive- 
ness and the stimulating power of the mystic ceremonies, 
the consciousness of being the privileged possessor of the secret 
wisdom of the ancients, the sense of purification from sin, 



and the especUtioii of a better life where there was to be com- 
pensation for the sufferings of this world — were all strong appeals 
to human nature. The necessity of moral rectitude was itself 
an incentive. Coura^, watchfulness, striving for purity, were 
all necessary in the mcessant combat with the forces of evil. 
Resisunce to sensuality was one aspect of the struggle, and 
asceticism was not unknown. Mithras was ever on the side of 
the faithful, who were certain to triumph both in this world 
and the next. The worthy soul ascended to its former home 
in the skies by seven gates, or degrees, while the imworthy soul 
descended to the realms of Ahriman. The doctrine of the 
immortality of the soul was accompanied by that of the resur- 
rection of the flesh; the struggle between good and evil was 
one day to cease, and the divine bull was to appear on earth, 
Mithras was to descend to call all men from their tombs and to 
separate the good from the bad. The bull was to be sacrificed 
to Mithras, who was to mingle its fat with consecrated «-ine 
and give to drink of it to the just, rendering them immortal, 
while the unjust, together with Ahriman and his spirits, were 
to be destroyed by a fire sent from Heaven by Ormazd. The 
universe, renewed, was to enjoy etenud happiness. 

IV. RdatioH to Christianity, — ^The most interesting aspect 
of Mithraism is its antagonism to Christianity. Both religions 
were of Oriental origin; they were propagated about the same 
time, and spread with equsd rapidity on account of the same 
causes, viz. the unity of the political world and the debasement 
of its moral life. At the end of the and century each h2.d 
advanced to the farthest limits of the empire, though the one 
possessed greatest strength on the frontiers of the Teutonic 
countries, along the Danube and the Rhine, while the other 
throve especially in Asia and Africa. The points of colli<ioD 
were especially at Rome, in Africa, and in the Rhdne Valley, 
and the struggle was the more obstinate because of the rescnfi- 
blances between the two religions, which were so numerous 
and so close as to be the subject of remark as early as the 2nd 
century, and the cause of mutual recrimination. The fraternal 
and democratic spirit of the first conmiunities, and their humble 
origin; the identification of the object of adoration with light 
and the Sun; the legends of the shepherds with their gifts and 
adoration, the flood, and the ark; the representation in art of 
the fiery chariot, the drawing of water from the rock; the use 
of bell and candle, holy water and the communion; the sancii- 
fication of Sunday and of the 25th of December; the iniisicnce 
on moral conduct, the emphasis placed upon abstinence and 
self-control; the doctrine of heaven and hell, of primitive 
revelation, of the mediation of the Logos emanating from 
the divine, the atoning sacrifice, the constant warfare between 
good and evil and the final triumph of the former, the immor- 
tality of the soul, the last judgment, the resurrection of the 
flesh and the fiery destruction of the universe — are some of 
the resemblances which, whether real or only apparent, enabled 
Mithraism to prolong its resistance to Christianity, At ihcir 
root lay a common Eastern origin rather than any borrowing. 

On the other hand, there were important contrasts bctwvcn 
the two. Mithraism courted the favour of Roman paganism 
and combined monotheism with pol3rthcism, while Christianity 
was uncompromising. The former as a consequence won large 
numbers of supporters who were drawn by the possibility it 
afforded of adopting an attractive faith which did not involve 
a rupture with the religion of Roman society, and con- 
sequently with the state. In the middle of the 3rd century 
Mithrabm seemed on the verge of becoming the univcn&al 
religion. Its eminence, however, was so largely based upon 
dalliance with Roman society, its weakness so great in ha\-ing 
only a mythical character, instead of a personality, as an object 
of adoration, and in excluding women from its privileges, that 
it fell rapidly before the assaults of Christianity. Manichaeism, 
which combined the adoration of Zoroaster and Christ, bcame 
the refuge of those supporters of Mithraism who were inclined 
to compromise, while many found the transition to orthodox 
Christianity easy because of its very resemblance to their old 
faith. 



MITRE 



Plate I. 




From a photograph by Fathtr Joseph Braun, S. J., by kind permission. 

Fig. 5. — German Mitre, of red velvet embroidered with 
pearls and silver gilt plaques. 15th century. In 
the cathedral at Halberstadt. 



Plate II. 



MITRE 














« ^ J a " 

"3 T. y c 




MITRA— MITRE 



625 



See Franx Curaont. Testes <f manuMents Murit rehtifs ras 
tnystires de Mitkn (BnuKU, 1806, 1899). whKh has supeneded 
an publications on the Mibtect; Albrecht Dieterich, Eine Mithras- 



tiimrgie (Leipzig, 1903). See alto the translation of Cumont's 
Comauswus (the second part of voL L of the above work, published 
■cparately 1902, under the title Les Mystkres de Milhra), by T. J. 
NlcCormack (Chjkago and London, 1903). Extended bibliography 
In Roscher's Lexicon der Mytkologie. (G. bN.) 

MITRA, RAJENDRA LALA (1824-1891), Indian Orientalist, 
•iras bom in a suburb of Calcutta on the xsth of Febniaxy 1824, 
of a respectable family of the Kayasth or wriur caste of Bengal. 
To a large extent he was self-educated, studying Sanskrit and 
Persian in the library of his father. In 1846 he was appointed 
Librarian of the Asiatic Society, and to that society the remainder 
of his life was devoted— as philological sccretaiy, as vice- 
president, and as the first native president in 1885. Apart from 
very numerous contributions to the society's journal, and to 
the series of Sanskrit texts entitled " Bibliotheca indica," he 
published three separate woHls: (i) The Antiquities of Orissa 
(a vols., 1875 and 1880), illustrated with photographic plates, 
in which he traced back the image of Jagannath (Juggernaut) 
and also the car-festival to a Buddhistic origin; (2) a similarly 
illustrated work on Bodh Caya (1878), the hermitage of Sakya 
Muni, and (3) Indo-Aryans (a vols., 1881), a collection of 
essays dealing with the manners and customs of the people 
of India from Vedic times. He received the honorary degree 
of LL.D. from the university of Calcutta in 1875, the com- 
panionship of the Indian Empire when that order was founded 
in 1878, and the title of raja in 1888. He died at Calcutta 
on the 26th of July 1891. 

lUTRB (Lai. mitra, from Gr. /Jrpo, a band, head-band, 
Iiead-dress), a liturgical head-dress of the Catholic Church, 
generally proper to bishops. 

X. Latin Rite. — In the Western Church its actual form is that 
of a sort of folding cap consisting of two halves which, when 
sot worn, lie flat upon each other. These sides arc stiffened, 
and when the mitre is worn, they rise in front and behind like 
Iwo boms pointed at the tips {cornua mitrae). From the lower 
irim of the mitre at the back hang two bands (infulae), termi- 
xiating in fringes. In the Roman Catholic Church mitres are 
cii\ided into three classes: (i) Miira prctiosa, decorated with 
Jewels, gold plates, &c.; (2) Miira auriphrygiala, of white silk, 
sometimes embroidered with gold and silver thread or small 
pearls, or of cloth of gold plain; (3) Mitra simplex, of white 
silk damask, silk or linen, with the two falling bands behind 
terminating in red fringes. Mitres are the distinctive head- 
dress of bishops; but the right to wear them, as in the case of 
the other episcopal insignia, is granted by the popes to other 
^gnitaries — such as abbots or the heads and sometimes all the 
members of the chapters of cathedral or collegiate churches. 
In the case of these latter, however, the mitre is worn only 
in the church to which the privilege is attached and on 
certain high festivals. Bishops alone, including of course the 
pope and his cardinals, are entitled to wear the pretiosa and 
<iuriphrygiata\ the others wear the miira simplex. 

The proper symbol of episcopacy is not so much the mitre 
as tbe ring and pastoral sUff. It is only after the service of 
consecration and the mass are finished that the consecrating 
prelate asperses and blesses the mitre and places on the head 
of the newly consecrated bishop, according to the prayer which 
accompanies the act, " the helmet of protection and salvation," 
the two horns of which represent " the horns of the Old and 
New Testaments," a terror to " the enemies of truth," and 
also the horns of " divine brightness and truth " which God set 
on the brow of Moses on Mount Sinai. There is no suggestion 
of the popular idea that the mitre symbolizes the "tongues 
of fire" that descended on the heads of the apostles at 
Pentecost. 

According to the Roman Caeremoniale the bishof) wears the 
mitra pretiosa on high festivals, and always during tKe singing of the 
TV Dettm and the Gloria at mass. He is allowed, however, " on 
account of its weight," to substitute for the pretiosa the aurt- 
pkrygiata during part of the services, i ^. at Vespers from the first 
p&alm to the Magntficat, at mass from the end of the Kyrie to the 
JCVIII U 



canQfi. The aimphty^aiA b wortj durfog Advent^ and froii Scmu^ 

JiOisroi tp Mjiuncfy Ttiur&<Jjv, rjccept ori itie thitd Sunday in AdveAt 
Caud(it), the fourth in Lent {LMifiara) and Q^ ^uch jgrcutcr feativjJs 
Db Tall wiiKin this lime. It it warn, loo^ on th? v^gilj, o( (a^t*, Ernbcr 
DayE and days oi inteme&iion, on tht Fca^t of Tjoly IitnocenU (If 
on a. wcck-day),at liiajiies, penitential proccnioifu, anid al oilrn' tKaa 
sole [Tin bcrtcaictk>nt and conHcratiocis. At imfa 4nd vespcn tba 
miira limpicx ciuy be sub&tituti'd for it in the c^mc way iu tht 4ifn^ 
pkrygiali for the prttiasu. Ttie simplex is worn oei Good t'nday, 
and at niasites for tlie dead; B.\to at the bleitinf^ of the cindki at 
CandkEnaK, tbe sineing of tfie abdoLution ^t the ccihfi^ and n^t soknui 
investiture with tbe pillium. At provLncut ^yfiGfh Aahbitbopp 
wear the pr^tinsa^ bi&hopi the aanphrygi^iia, and mUndi abt«ti 
the simpkx. At general councils bbhapi wear white linc^ mitre^ 
cardiruEia mltces of white bilk dama»k; t hit is slso the rase when 
bi±hop4 and cardinals iji poKiiJiailibm assist at 4 ^olccm, potiti&cal 
function prr^ided over by tbe pope. 

Lattl^, the mitre, though a liturgu^ vcttment, dllTers from tbe 
others m chat it is never worn when the bishop addre$«a Cbtf 
Almighty in prayfa- — £.g. during mara he taltes it on when he turnt 
to the ak^r, placing it on hi* bead again when he tunu to addicw 
the people (ice i Cor. xi. 4). 

The origin and antiquity of the episcopal mitre have been 
the subject of much debate. Some have claimed for it apos- 
tolical sanction and found its origin in the liturgical 
head-gear of the Jewish priesthood. Such proofs x2SS!ri^. 
as have been adduced for this view are, however, 
based on the fallacy of reading into words {mitra, infula, &c.) 
used by early writers a s[)ecial meaning which they only 
acquired later. Mitra, even as late as the X5th century, 
retained its simple meaning of cap (see Du Cange, Glossarium, 
s.v.) ; to Isidore of Seville it is specifically a woman's cap. Infulaf 
which in late ecclesiastical usage was to be confined to mitre 
(and its dependent bands) and chasuble, meant originally a 
piece of cloth, or the sacred fillets used in pagan worship, and 
later on came to be used of any ecclesiastical vestment, and 
there is no evidence for its specific application to the liturgical 
head-dress earlier than the X2th century. With the episcopal 
mitre the Jewish miznephet, translated " mitre " in the Autho- 
rized Version (Exod. xxviii. 4, 36), has nothing to do, and there 
is no evidence for the use of the former before the middle of the 
loth century even in Rome, and elsewhere than in Rome it 
does not make its appearance until the nth.' 

The first trustworthy notice of the use of the mitre is 
under Pope Leo IX. (1040-1054). This pope invested 
Archbishop Eberhard of Trier, who had accompanied him 
to Rome, with the Roman mitra, telling him that he and 
his successors should wear it in ecclesiastico officio (i.e. as a 
liturgical ornament) according to Roman custom, in order to 
remind him that he is a disciple of the Roman see (Jaff£, 
Regesta pont. rom., ed. Leipzig, 1888, No. 4is8)* This proves 
that the use of the mitre hiad been for some time estabUshed 
at Rome; that it was specifically a Roman ornament; and that 
the right to wear it was only granted to ecclesiastics elsewhere 
as an exceptional honour.' On the other hand, the Roman 
ordines of the 8th and 9th centuries make no mention of the 
mitre; the evidence goes to prove that this liturgical head-dress 
was first adopted by the popes some time in the loth century; 
and Father Braun shows convincingly that it was in its origin 
nothing else than the papal rcgnum or phrygium which, originally 
worn only at outdoor processions and the like, was introduced 
into the church, and thus developed into the liturgical mitre, 
while outside it preserved its original significance as the papal 

* Father Braun, S. J., has dealt exhaustively with the supposed 
evidence for its earlier use — e.g. he jprovcs conclusively that the 
mUra mentioned by Thcodulph of Orleans (Paraenes. ad episc.) 
is the Jewish mismphei, and the wtrll-known miniature of Gregory 
the Great (not St Dunstan, as commonly assumed) wearing a mitre 
(Cotton MSS. Claudius A. iii.) in the British Museum, often ascribed 
to the loth or early nth century, he judges from the form of the 
pallium and dalmatic to have been produced at the end of the nth 
century " at earliest." The papal oulls granting the use of mitres 
before the nth century are all forgeries {Lilurgisehe Gewandung, 
431-448). 

> That it had been already so granted b proved by a miniature 
containing the earliest extant representations of a mitre, in the 
Exultete rotula and baptismal rotula at Bari (reproduced in Berteaux. 
L'Art dans I'llalie mendionaU, I., Paris, 1904). 



626 



MITRE 



of the head instead of the sides (the mitre said to have bebnftd 
to St Thomas Becket, now at Westminster Cathedral, b of this 
type),* and with this the essential character of the mitre, as 
it persisted through the middle ages, was established. Tlie 
exaggeration of the height of the mitre, which began at the time 
of the Renaissance, reached its dimaz in the xyth ce&taij. 



tiara (q.v,). From Leo DC's time papal grants of the mitre 
to eminent prelates became increasingly frequent, and by the 
xath century it had been assumed by all bishops in the West, 
with or without papal sanction, as their proper liturgical 
head-dress. From the X3th century, too, dates the custom of 
investing the bishop with the mitre at his consecration. 

It was not till the 12th century 
that the mitre came to be regarded 

as specifically episcopal, and 

meanwhile the custom had 

grown up of granting it 
honoris causa to other dignitaries 
besides bishops. The first known 
instance of a mitred abbot is 
Egelsinus of St Augustine's, Canter- 
bury, who received the honour from 
Pope Alexander II. in 1063. From 
this time onward papal bulls bestow- 
ing mitres, together with other 
episcopal insignia, on abbots become 
increasingly frequent. The original 
motive of the recipients of these 
favours was doubtless the taste of the 

time for outward display; St Bernard, Drawojby Father J Bnun »nd repraduced from his IMMrgUtht Gtmmduai by pmainioii of B. Herder. 

zealous for the monastic ideal, de- Fic. 1.— Evolution of the Mitre from the nth century to the present day. 



^1^ ^ ■■■■■■ U mHf iB M aM HB Bfl wm a 

Tn TTT TIjr iW ^F 




nounced abbots for wearing mitres and the like more pontijicum^ 
and Peter the Cantor roundly called the abbatial mitre *' inane, 
superfluous and puerile " ( Verb, abhrev. c. xliv. in Migne, Palrolog. 
lot. 205, 159). It came, however, to symbolize the exemption 
of the abbots from episcopal jurisdiction, their quasi-episcopal 
character, and their immediate dependence on the Holy See. 
No such significance could attach to the grant of the usus mitrae 
(under somewhat narrow restrictions as to where and when) 
to cathedral dignitaries. The first instance is again a bull of 
Leo IX. (1051) granting to Hugh, archbishop of Besancon, 
and his seven cardinals the right to wear the mitre at the altar 
as celebrant, deacon and subdeacon, a 'similar privilege being 
granted to Bishop Hartwig of Bamberg in the following year. 
The intention was to show honour to a great church by allowing 
it to follow the custom doubtless already established at Rome. 
Subsequently the privilege was often granted, sometimes to 
one or more of the chief dignitaries, sometimes to all the canons 
of a cathedral {e.g. Campostella, Prague). 

Mitres were also sometimes bestowed by the popes on secular 
sovereigns, e.g. by Nicholas II. (1058-1061) on Spiteneus 
(Spytihngw) II., duke of Bohemia; by Alexander II. on Wratis- 
laus of Bohemia; by Lucius II. (1144-1145) on Roger of Sicily; 
and by Innocent III., in 1204, on Peter of Aragon. In the 
coronation of the emperor, more particularly, the mitre played 
a part. According to the 14th Roman ordo, of 1241, the pope 
places on the emperor's head first the mitra clericalis, then the 
imperial diadem. Father Braun (Liturgische Ceioandung, p. 457) 
gives a picture of a seal of Charles IV. representing him as 
wearing both. 

The original form of the mitre was that of the early papal 
tiara (regnum), i.e. a somewhat high conical cap. The stages 
of its general development from this shape to the 
♦'S' ^^^ double-horned modem mitre are clearly trace- 
able (see fig. 1), though it is impossible exactly to 
distinguish them in point of date. The most charac- 
teristic modifications may be said to have taken place from the 
nth to the middle of the rjth century. About 1100 the conical 
mitre begins to give place to a round one; a band of embroidery 
is next set over the top from back to front, which tends to bulge 
up the soft material on either side; and these bulges develop 
into points or horns. Mitres with horns on either side seem 
to have been worn till about the end of the 12th century, and 
Father Braun gives examples of their appearances on episcopal 
seals in France until far into the 13th. Such a mitre appears 
on a seal of Archbishop Thomas Becket (Father Thurston, 
The Pallium, London, 1892, p. 17). The custom was, however, 
already growing up of setting the horns over the front and back 



This ugly and undignified type is still usually worn in the Roniia 
Catholic Church, but in some cases the earlier type has survived, 
and many bishops are also now reverting to it. 

The decoration of mitres was characterized by increasing tbhoa- 
tion as time went on. From the first the white conical cap teems to 
have been decorated round the lower edge by a band or oiphref 
{circulus). To this was added later a vertical ocphiey (ItMaj). 
usually from the centre of the front of the circtdus to that of tlie 
back, partly in order to hide the seam, partly to emphasize tbe 
horns when those were to left and right. When the horns came to be 
set before and behind, the verticsu orphrey retained its poshkm. 
Of the survivine early mitres the greater number have only tbe 
orphrey embroidered, the body of the mitre bein^ left plain. V«y 
early, however, the custom arose of omamentmg the triangular 
spaces between the orphreys with embroidery, usually a rouod 
medallion, or a star, set in the middle, but sometimes figuroa 
saints. &c. {e.g. the early example from the cathedral of Aoagn, 
reproduced by Braun, p. 469). The richness and variety of decon- 
tion increased from the lAth century onwards. Architectnm 
motives even were introduced, as frames to the embroidered figures 
of saints, while sometimes the upper edges of the mitre were ona- 
mentcd with crockets, and the horns with architectural iiiu>^ 
Finally, the traditional circuius and titulus seem all but foigottn. 
the whole front and back surfaces of the mitre being omanMOtn 
with embroidered pictures or with arabesque patterns. The Utttf 
is charaaeristic of the mitre in the modern Roman CathoUc Chnroi 
the tradition of the local Roman Church having always excluded tM 
representation of figures on ecclesiastical vestments. 

2. Reformed Churches. — In most of the reformed Churd« 
the use of mitres was abandoned with that of the other vest- 
ments. They have continued to be worn, however, ^^^^ 
by the bishops of the Scandinavian Lutheran jg^^A 
Churches. In the Church of England the use of 
the mitre was discontinued at the Reformation. There is some 
evidence to show that it was used in consecrating bishops up 
to 1 552, and also that its use was revived by the Laudian b^bops 
in the 17th century {Hierurgia anglicana ii. 242, U5, w} 
In general, however, there is no evidence to prove Ihat tkii 
use was liturgical, though the silver-gilt mitre of Bishop Wrei 
of Ely (d. 1667), which is preserved, is judged from the stated 
the lining to have been worn. The instances of the use of tbe 
mitre quoted in Hicr. anglic. ii. 310, as carried by the hisbop 
of Rochester at an investiture of the Knights of the Bath (iT'S)* 
and by the archbishops and bishops at the coronatioo of 
George II. (1727), have no liturgical significance. Thelnditioo 
of the mitre as an episcopal ornament has, nevertheless, been 
continuous in the Church of England, " and that on three linoj 
(1) heraldic usage; (2) its presence on the head of efiiKicso< 
bishops, of which a number are extant, of the i6th, 17th, i8tb 
and 19th centuries; (3) its presence in funeral processions, vbot 

* In Father Braun's opinion, expressed to the writer, this •io^ 
which was formerly at Sens, belongs probably to tbe 13th avofl' 



MITROVICA— MITSCHERLICH 



637 




kwB ffrecB s phot< 



taken by Pktlier 
b Dit_Ulurcitek$ 



r). By petnuMion of B. Hodcc 

Fig. 2.— Greek Mitre. 



Actual mitre or the figure of one was sometimes carried, 
d sometimes suspended over the tomb " {Report on the Orna- 
mls of the Church, p. 106). The liturgical use of the mitre 
IS revived in the Church of England in the latter part of the 
th century, and is now fairly widespread. 
3. Oriental Rites. — Some form of liturgical head-dress is com- 
m to all the Oriental rites. In the Orthodox Eastern Church 
: mitre (Gr. idrpa; Slav, mitra) is, as in the Western Church, 
>per only to bishops. Its form dififers entirely from that 
of the Latin Church. In 
general it rather resembles 
a closed crown, consisting 
of a circlet from which rise 
two arches intersecting 
each other at right angles. 
Circlet and arches are richly 
chased and jewelled; they 
are filled out by a cap of 
stiff material, often red 
velvet, ornamented with 
pictures in embroidery or 
appliqui metal. Surmount- 
ing sJl, at the intersection 
of the arches is a cross 
In Russia this usually lies 
flat, only certain metro- 
politans, and by prescrip- 
tion the bishops of the 
eparchy of Kiev, having 
the right to have the cross 
upright (see fig. 3). In the 
nenian Church priests and archdeacons, as well as the 
hops, wear a mitre. That of the bishops is of the Latin 
m, a custom dating from a grant of Pope Innocent III.; that 
the priests, the sagvahart, is not unlike the Greek mitre (see 
fig. 3). In the Syrian Church only the 
patriarch wears a mitre, which resembles that 
of the Greeks. The biruna of the Chaldaean 
Nestorians, on the other hand, worn by all 
bishops, is a sort of hood ornamented with 
a cross. Coptic priests and bishops wear 
the ballin, a long strip of stuff ornamented 
with crosses &c., and wound turban-wise 
round the head; the patriarch of Alexandria 
^^gg"*^"***** *• has a helmet-like jnitre, the origin of which 
. 3. — Mitre of is unknown, though it perhaps antedates the 
xnian Priest, appearance of the phrygium at Rome. The 
ronites, and the uniate Jacobites, Chaldaeans and Copts 
e adopted the Roman mitre. - 

rhe mitre was only introduced into the Greek rite in com- 
atively modern times. It was unknown in the earlier part 
of the 15th century, but had 
certainly been introduced by 
the beginning of the i6th. 
Father Braun suggests that 
its assumption by the Greek 
patriarch was connected with 
the changes due to the capture 
of Constantinople by the Turks. 
Possibly, as its form suggests, it 
is based on the imperial crown 
and symbolized at the outset 
the quasi - sovereignty over 
the rayah population which 
Mahommed II. was content to 
leave to the patriarch. In 
''Ttebbisbi^\SSi.*^ *^ 1580 it was introduced into 
IG. 4.— Af j/ra pretiosa of the Russia, when the tsar Theodore 
Cardinal Vaughan, Roman erected the Russian patriarch- 
boHc Archbithop of West- ate and bestowed on the new 
**^' patriarch the right to wear the 

re, sakkos and mandyas, all borrowed from the Greek rite. 





A hundred years later the mitre, originally confined to the 
patriarch, was worn by all bishops. 

See J. Braun. S.J., Die lUurgische Cewandung (Freiburg-im- 
Breiagau, 1907), pp. ^4-^98. The question of the use of the mitre 
in the Anglican Church is dealt with in the Report of the Sub-Committee 
of the Conoocation of Canterbury on the Ornaments of the Church 
and its Ministers (1908). See uso the bibliography to the article 
Vestmbwts. (W. A. P.) 

MITROVICA (Hungarian, Mitrovia; German, liitromts), 
a town of Croatia-Slavonia, Hungary, situated on the river 
Save, in the county of Syrmia. Fop. (1900), 11,518. Mitrovica 
is on the railway from Agram, 170 m. W.N.W. to Belgrade, 
38 m. E. by S. Roman remains have been discovered in its 
neighbourhood, and it occupies the site of Sirmium or Syrmium, 
the chief dty of Lower Pannonia under Roman rule. The 
emperor Probus (232-382) was bom and buried at Sirmium, 
where, according to some authorities, the emperor Marcus 
Aurelius (121-180) also died; but this is uncertain. In 351, 357 
and 358, ecclesiastical councils of some importance met at 
Sirmium, which became an episcopal see about 305, and was 
united with the diocese of Bosnia in 1773. llie dty was 
sacked by the Huns in 441, and by the Turks, who destroyed 
all its andent buildings, in 1396 and 1531. 

MITSCHERUCH, EILHARDT (1794-1863), German chemist, 
was bom on the 7th of January 1794 at Neuende near Jever, 
in the grand duchy of Oldenburg, where his father was pastor. 
His unde, Chsistoph Wilbeuc Mitsche&uch (i 760-1 854), 
professor at Gdttingen, was in his day a celebrated scholar. 
He was educated at Jever imder the historian F. C. Schlosser, 
when he went to Heidelberg in x8ii, devoted himself to philology, 
giving special attention to the Persian language. In 1813 he 
went to Paris to obtain permission to join the embassy which 
Napoleon I. was to send to Persia. The events of 1814 put 
an end to this, and Mitscherlich resolved to study medidne 
in order that he might enjoy that freedom of travd usually 
allowed in the East to physicians. He began at GOttingen 
with the study of chemistry, and this so arrested his attention 
that he gave up the journey to Persia. From his GOttingen 
days dates the treatise on certain parts of Persian history, 
compiled from MSS. in the university library and published 
in Persian and Latin in 1814, under the title Mirchondi historia 
Thaheridarum historicis nostris hucusque incognitcrum Persiae 
principum. In 1818 he went to Berlin and worked in the 
laboratory of H. F. Link (i 767-1851). There he made analyses 
of phosphates and phosphites, arsenates and arsenites, con- 
firming the condusions of J. J. Berzelius as to their composi- 
tion; and his observation that corresponding phosphates and 
arsenates crystallize in the same form was the germ from which 
grew the theory of isomorphism which he communicated to 
the Berlin Academy in December 1819. In that year Berzelius 
suggested Mitscherlich to the minister Altenstein as successor 
to M. H. Klaproth at Berlin. Altenstein did not immediately 
carry out this proposal, but he obtained for Mitscherlich a govern- 
ment grant to enable him to continue his studies in Berzelius's 
laboratory at Stockholm. He retumed to Berlin in x82x, and in 
the summer of 1822 he delivered his first lecture as extraordinary 
professor of chemistry in the university, where in 1835 he was 
appointed ordinary professor. In the course of an investigation 
into the slight differences discovered by W. H. WoUaston in 
the angles of the rhombohedra of the carbonates isomorphous 
with calc-spar, he observed that the angle in the case of calc-spar 
varied with the temperature. On extending his inquiry to 
other aelotropic crystals he observed a similar variation, and 
was thus led, in 1825, to the discovery that aelotropic crystals, 
when heated, expand unequally in the direction of dissimilar 
axes. In the following year he discovered the change, pro- 
duced by change of temperature, in the direction of the optic 
axes of sdenite. His investigation (also' in 1826) of the two 
crystalline modifications of sulphur threw much light on the 
fact that the two minerals calc-spar and aragonite have the 
same composition but different crystalline forms, a property 
which Mitscherlich called dimorphism. In 1833 he made a 
aeries of careful determinations of the vapour densities of a large 



628 



MITTEN— MIZRAIM 



number of volatile substances, confirming Gay-Lussac's law. 
He obtained selenic acid in 1827 and showed that its salts are 
isomorphous with the sulphates, while a few years later he proved 
that the same thing is true of the manganates and the sulphates, 
and of the permanganates and the perchlorates. He investi- 
gated the relation of benzene to benzoic acid and to other 
derivatives. In 1829-1830 he published his Lehrbuch dcr Chcmie, 
which embodied many original observations. His interest in 
mineralogy led him to study the geology of volcanic regions, 
and he made frequent visits to the Eifel with a view to the 
discovery of a theory of volcanic action. He did not, however, 
publish any papers on the subject, though after his death his 
notes were arranged and published by Dr. J. L. A. Roth in the 
Memoirs of the Berlin Academy (1866). In December 1861 
symptoms of heart-disease made their appearance, but he was 
able to carry on his academical work till December 1862. He 
died at Schdnberg near Berlin, on the 28th of August 1863. 

Mitscherlich's published papers are chiefly to be found in the 
Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, in Poggendorjf s AnntUtu, 
and in the Antu^s de ckimie et de bkysique. The 4th edition of the 
Lehrbuch der Chemie was publisheo in 1844-1847, a 5th was begun 
in 1855, but was not completed. 

MITTEN* a covering for the hand, with a division for the 
thumb only, and reaching to the lower joint of the fingers; 
it is made of silk, lace, wool or other material. The word is 
of obscure origin; it has been connected with Ger. miUe, middle, 
half, in the sense of that which half covers the hand. There 
are several Celtic words which may be cognate, e.g. Irish miotagy 
mutan, a thick glove, mitten, such as is worn by hedgers and 
ditchers. The 16th-century French word miton meant a gauntlet. 
A fine mitten made of lace or open network and extending well 
up the forearm was much worn by ladies in the early part of 
the 19th century, and has been fashionable at various times 
since that date. 

MITTWEIDA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, 
on the Zschopau, 12 m. by rail N. of Chemnitz on the railway 
to Ddbcln and Riesa. Pop. (1905), 17,465. It has a handsome 
Evangelical church, a classical, a modem and a technical school, 
and cotton and spinning mills. Other industries are the making 
of furniture, machinery, cigars and cement. 

MIVART, ST GEORGE JACKSON (1827-1900), English 
biologist, was bom in London on the 30tb of November 1827, 
and educated at Clapham grammar-school, Harrow, and King's 
College, London, and afterwards at St Mary's, Oscott, since his 
conversion to Roman Catholicism prevented him from going to 
Oxford. In 1851 he was called to the bar, but he devoted him- 
self to medical and biological studies. In 1862 he was appointed 
lecturer at St Mary's Hospital medical school, in 1869 he became 
a fellow of the Zoological Society, and from 1874 to 1877 he was 
professor of biology at the short-lived Roman Catholic University 
College, London. In 1873 he published Lessons in Elementary 
Anatomy, and an essay on Man and Apes. In 1881 appeared 
The Cat: an Introduction to the Study of Back-boned Animals. 
The careful and detailed work he bestowed on Insectivora and 
Carnivora largely increased our knowledge of the anatomy of 
these groups. In 1871 his Genesis of Species brought him into 
the controversy then raging. Though admitting evolution 
generally, Mivart denied its appUcability to the human intellect. 

His views as to the relationship existing between human 
nature and intellect and animal nature in general were given 
in Natwe and Thought (1882); and in the Origin of Human 
Reason (1889) he stated what he considered the fundamental 
difference between men and animals. In 1884, at the invitation 
of the Belgian episcopate, he became professor of the philosophy 
of natural history at the university of Louvain, which had 
conferred on him the degree of M.D. in 1884. Some articles 
published in the Nineteenth Century in 1892 and 1893, in which 
Mivart advocated the claims of science even where they seemed 
to conflict with religion, were placed on the Index ex pur gator ius, 
and other articles in January 1900 led to his excommunication 
by Cardinal Vaughan, with whom he had a curious corre- 
spondence vindicating his claim to hold liberal opinions while 



remaining in the Roman Catholic Churcli. Shortly aftemids hft 
died, in London, on the ist of April 1900. Mivart was also the 
author of many scientific papers and occasional articks, and of 
Castle and Marutr: a Tale of our Time (1900), which originally 
appeared in 1894 as Hertry Standon, by " D'Arcy Drew." 

MIZPAH, or MizPEH, the name of several places referred to 
in the Old Testament, ' in each case probably derived from a 
" commanding prospect," the Hebrew name having that sig- 
nificance. (1) MizPAU or GiLEAD, where Jacob was reconciled 
to Laban (Gen. xxxl. 49); apparently the site of the camp'ot 
the Israelites when about to attack the Ammonites onder 
Jephthah's leadership Oudges x. 1 7). This ancient sanctuary was 
probably the scene of Jephthah's vow (Judges xi. 39: cf. 9. 11). 
The identification of this Mizpeh is a diffictdt problem: it is 
supposed to be the same as Ramoth Gilead, but tiie evidence is 
scarcely conclusive. It is referred to in Hos. v. i. (2) Mizpab 
OF Benjamin. It has been suggested, on hardly sufficknc 
grounds, that the Mizpeh where the Hebrews assembled before 
the extermination of the Benjamites (Judges zz. x) was not the 
shrine where Samuel made his headquarters (x Sam. viL 5). It 
was fortified by Asa (i Kings xv. 22), and after the destraction 
of Jerusalem was the seat of government tmder the viceroy Geda- 
liah (2 Rings xxv. 23): here Gedaliah was murdered (ibid. 25). 
After the exile it retained the tradition of being a seat oi govern- 
ment (Neh. iii. 7) and a holy place (i Mace iiL 46). It a 
probably to be identified with the mountain, Neby Sanwil, 
north of Jerusalem, still considered sacred by the Moslems: a 
Crusaders' church (now a mosque), covers the traditional tomb 
of Samuel. (3) A territory near Mount Hermon, a seat of the 
Hivites, which joined the coalition of Jabin against Joshna 
Ooshua xi. 3). In the territory was the "valley of Mixpeh" 
(v. 8) where the Canaanites were routed. (4) A town in the 
tribe of Judah (Joshua xv. 38). (5) Mizpeh or Mqab, wbcie 
David interviewed the king of Moab and found an asylum ior 
his parents (i Sam. xxii. 3). (R. A. S. M.) 

MIZRAIM, the biblical name for Egypt (Gen. z. 6, 13, Hebrew 
Mifrayim; the apparently dual termination -aim may be doe 
to a misunderstanding); there is an alternative poetical form 
Ma$Or (2 Rings xix. 24, &c.). In Isa. xi. xi the name is kept 
distinct from Patbros or Upper Egypt, and represents some por- 
tion at least of Lower Egypt. It perhaps means " boundary " 
or " frontier," a somewhat ambiguous term, which illusttates 
the topographical problems. First (a), £. Schrader pointed 
out in 1874 that the Assyrians knew of some Mu^ {i^. Miznim) 
in North Syria, and it is extremely probable that this land is 
referred to in 2 Kings vii. 6 (mentioned with the Hittites), and 
in I Kings x. 28 seq., 2 Chron. L 16 seq., where the word lor 
"droves" (Heb. m-g-v-k) conceals the contiguous land KoC 
(Cilicia).* Next (6), C. T. Beke, as long ago as 1834. conduded 
in his Origines biblicae (p. 167 et passim) that " Egypt " 
in the Old Testament sometimes designates a d»trict near 
Midian and the Gulf of *Akaba, and the view restated recently 
and quite independently by H. Winclder on later evidence 
(1893) has been the subject of continued debate. Egypt is 
known to have laid claim to the southern half of Palestine 
from early times, and consequently the extension of the name 
of Egypt beyond the limits of Egypt and of the Sinaitic penin- 
sula, is inherently probable. When, for example, Hagar, the 
" Egyptian," is the ancestress of Ishmaelite tribes, the evidence 
makes it very unlikely that the term is to be understood in the 
strict ethnical sense; and there are other passages^ more suitably 
interpreted on the hypothesis that the wider extension of the 
term was once familiar. In the second half of the 8th ccntuiy 
B.C., Assyrian inscriptions allude to a powerful Mu^ri at a time 
when the Nile empire was disintegrated and scarcely in a positioo 
to play the part ascribed to it (f.e. if by Mu$ri we are to under- 
stand Egypt).' Not until the supremacy of Tirhakah docs the 
ambiguity begin to disappear, and much depends iq>on the 

> See further. H.Winckler.i4ti. tesL Untersuck. (1892). pp. 168-174- 
' So, too, according to one passage, Tiglath-pileaer IV. appoints 

a governor over Mufri before Egypt itsdl baa actiafly beotooa- 

quered. 



MNEMONICS 



629 



%jobiaaed discussion of the rdated biblicid histoiy (especiaUy the 
^writings of Isaiah and Hosea) and the Egyptian data. But 
«ven in the period of disintegration the minor princes of the 
Delta were no doubt associated with their eastern neighbours, 
mad although the Assyrian Mu^ stands in the same relation to 
^he people of Philistia as do the Edomites and allied tribes 
of the Old Testament, Philistia itself was always intimately 
associated with Egypt. (See Philistines.) 

The problem is complicated by the obscurity which over- 
lungs the history of south Palestine and the Delta (see Edom; 
Mxdian). The political importance of Egypt was not constant, 
and the known fluctuations of geographical terms combine with 
the doubtful accuracy of early writers to increase the difficulties. 
The Assyrian evidence alone points very strongly to a Mu$ri in 
north-west Arabia; the biblical evidence alone suggests an extra- 
Egyptian Mi$rayim. On the whole the result of discussion has 
been to admit the probability that Mi^rayim could refer to a 
district outside the limits of Egypt proper. But it has not 
justified the application of this conclusion to all the instances 
in which some critics have relied upon it, or the sweeping 
inferences aq^ reconstructions which have sometimes been 
based upon it. Each case must be taken on its merits. 

See further. H. Winckler. AUorient. Forschungen, i. 24 seq; MiUeU. 
i. nmUrasiat. Cesell. (1898), pp. i sqq., i6q sqq.; Htbbert Journal 
CApril 1904); Keilinxhr. u.das aUe Test., 3rd ed., 136 sqq.; and Im 
Kampfe um den alien Orient, ii. (1907) ; T. K. Cheync, especially 
Kingiom of Judak (1908), pp. xiv. sqc^. ; F. Hommel, vier neue arao. 
Lanaxkaflsnamen tn A.T. For criticisms (many of them somewhat 
captious) see Kdnig's reply to Hommel (Berlin, 1902), A. Noordtzij, 
Tneoloi. Tijdsck. (1906, July, September), and E. Meyer. Israeliten 
«. Hurt Nachbarsldmme, pp. 455 sciq. A valuable survey of the 
Geographical and other conditions is given by N. Schmidt, Htbbert 
Journal (January 1908). (S. A. C.> 

HMEHONICS (from Gr. it»aaBoi, remember; whence MJ^/iur, 
mindful; rb lunifiowiiobv, sc. rkxymta, that which mechanically 
aids the memory), the general name applied to devices for aiding 
the memory. Such devices are also described as memoria 
Uchmca. The prindple is to enable the mind to reproduce a 
relatively unfamiliar idea, and specially a series of dissociated 
ideas, by connecting it, or them, in some artificial whole, the 
parts of which are mutually suggestive. A pupil is far more 
likely to remember the cities which claimed to be the birthplace 
of Homer when he remembers that their names can be made to 
form the hexameter line, " Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, 
Rhodos, Argos, Athenae." Among the most famous examples 
of metrical mnemonics are the " gender rhymes " of the Latin 
grammars, the hexameter lines (especially that beginning 
** Barbara Celarent ") invented by logicians (for a list see 
Baldwin's Dki. of PhUos., vol. ii., 5.9. " Mnemonic Verses ")• the 
verse for remembering the number of days in the months 
(" Thirty days hath September, April, June and November "). 
Other devices are numerous. Thus the name and Ughts of the 
sides of a ship may be remembered because the three shorter 
words " port," " left," " red," go together, as compared with 
the k>nger, " starboard," " right," " green." 

Menx>ry is commonly classified by psychologists according as 
it » exercised (a) mechanically^ hf attention and repetition; 

(b) judiciously t by careful selection and co-ordination; and 

(c) ingeniously, by means of artifices, i.e. mnemotechny, 
mnemonics. It must, however, be observed that no mnemonic 
is of any value which does not possess the qualities of (a) and (6). 
A mnemonic is essentially a device which uses attention and 
repetition, and careful selection is equally necessary. A more 
accurate description of mnemonics is " mediate" or " indirect ". 
memory. In the technical sense the word " mnemonic " is 
confined to the systems of general application which have been 
elaborated by various writers. 

Systems. — Mnemonic devices were much cultivated by Greek 
sophists and philosophers, and are repeatedly referred to by Plato 
and Aristotle. In later times the invention was ascribed to the 
poet Simonides,' perhaps for no oth^r reason than that the 
strength of his memory was famous. Cicero, who attaches 

* Pliny, H.N. vii. 2^. Cicero, De or. ii. 86, mentions this belief 
without committing himself to it. 



considerable importance to the art, but more to the prindple of 
order as the best help to memory, speaks of Cameades (or 
perhaps Charmades) of Athens and Metrodorus of Scepsis as 
distinguished examples of the use of well-ordered images to 
aid the memory. The latter is said by Pliny to have carried 
the art so far' " ut nihil non iisdem verbis redderet auditum." 
The Romans valued such helps as giving fadlity in public speak- 
ing. The method used is described by the author of Rket. ad 
Heren.f iiL 16-24; see also Quintilian (Inst. Or. xi. 2), whose 
account is, however, somewhat incomplete and obscure. In his 
time the art had almost ceased to be practised. The Greek and 
Roman system of mnemonics was founded on the use of 
mental places and signs or pictures, known as " topical " 
mnemonics. The most usual method was to choose a large 
house, of which the apartments, walls, windows, statues, 
furniture, &c., were severally associated with certain names, 
phrases, events or ideas, by means of symbolic pictures; and to 
recall these it was only necessary to search over the apartments 
of the house till the particular place was discovered where they 
had been deposited by the imagination. In accordance with this 
system, if it were desired to fix an historic date in the memory, it 
was localized in an imaginary town divided into a certain number 
of districts, each with ten houses, each house with ten rooms, 
and each room with a hundred quadrates or memory-places, 
partly on the floor, partly on the four walls, partly on the roof. 
Thus, if it were desired to fix in the memory the date of the 
invention of priming (1436), an imaginary book, or some other 
symbol of printing, would be placed in the thirty-sixth quadrate 
or memory-place of the fourth room of the first house of the 
historic district of the town. Except that the rules of mnemonics 
are referred to by Martianus Capella, nothing further is known 
regarding the practice of the art until the 13th century. Among 
the voluminous writings of Roger Bacon is a tractate De arte 
memoraiiva. Raimon Lull devoted spcdal attention to 
mnemonics in connexion with his ars generalis. The first 
important modification of the method of the Romans was that 
invented by the German poet Konrad Celtcs, who, in his EpUoma 
in utramque Ciceronis rhetoricam cum arte memoraiiva nova (1492), 
instead of places made use of the letters of the alphabet. About 
the end of the isth century Petrus de Ravenna (b. 1448) 
awakened such astonishment in Italy by his mnemonic feats 
that he was beUeved by many to be a necromancer. His Phoenix 
artis memoriae (Vem'ce, 1491, 4 vols.) went through as many as 
nine editions, the seventh appearing at Cologne in 1608. An 
impression equally great was produced about the end of the 
i6th century by Lambert Schenkel {Gazophylacium, 1610), who 
taught mnemonics in France, Italy, and Germany, and, although 
he was denounced as a sorcerer by the university of Louvain, 
published in 1593 his tractate De memoria at Douai with the 
sanction of that celebrated theological faculty. The most 
complete account of his system is given in two works by his pupil 
Martin Sommer, published at Vem'ce in 1619. In 1618 John 
Willis (d. 1628?) published Mnemonica; sive ars reminiscendi 
(Eng. version by Leonard Sowersby, 1661 ; extracts in Feinaigle's 
New Art of Memory, 3rd ed., 1813), containing a clear statement 
of the principles of topical or local mnemonics. Giordano Bruno, 
in connexion with his exposition of the ars generalis of Lull, 
included a memoria technica in his treatise De umbris idearum. 
Other writers of this period are the Florentine Publidus (1482); 
Johann Romberch (1533); Hieronimo Morafiot, Ars memoriae 
(1602); B. Porta, Ars reminiscendi (1602). 

In 1648 Stanislaus Mink von Wenussheim or Winckelmann 
made known what he called the "most fertile secret " in mnemo- 
nics—namely, the use of consonants for figures, so as to 
express numbers by words (vowels being added as required); 
and the philosopher Leibnitz adopted an alphabet very similar 
to that of Winckelmann in connexion with his scheme for a 
form of writing common to all languages. Winckelmann's 
method, which in fact is adopted with slight changes by the 
majority of subsequent " original " systems, was modified and 
supplemented in regard to many details by Richard Grey 
(1694-1771), who published. a Memoria technica in 173a The 



630 



MNESICLES— MOA 



priodpal part of Grey's method (which may be compared with 
the Jewish system by which letters also sund (or numerab, 
and therefore words for dates) is briefly this: " To remember 
anything in history, chronology, geography, &c., a word is 
formed, the beginning whereof, being the first syllable or syllables 
of the thing sought, does, by frequent repetition, of course 
draw after it the latter part, which is so contrived as to give 
the answer. Thus, in history, the Deluge happened in the year 
before Christ two thousand three hundred forty-eight; this is 
signified by the word Del-etok, Del standing for Deluge and 
etok for 2348." To assist in retaining the mnemonical words 
in the memory they were formed into memorial lines, which, 
however, being composed of strange words in difficult hexameter 
scansion, are by no means easy to memorize. The vowel or 
consonant, which Grey connected with a particular figure, was 
chosen arbitrarily; but in 1806 Gregor von Feinaigle, a German 
monk from Salem near Constance, began in Paris to expound 
a system of mnemonics, one feature (based on Winckelmann's 
system) of which was to represent the numerical figures by 
letters chosen on account of some similarity to the figure to be 
represented or some accidental connexion with it. This alphabet 
was supplemented by a complicated system of localities and 
signs. Feinaigle, who apparently published nothing himself, 
came to England in 181 1, and in the following year one of his 
pupils published The New Art of Memory, which, beside giving 
Fcinaigle's system, contains valuable historical material about 
previous systems. A simplified form of Feinaigle's method 
was published by Aimi Paris (Principes et applications diver ses 
de la mnimoniqite, 7th ed., Paris, 1834), and the use of symbolic 
pictures was revived in connexion with the latter by a Pole, 
Antoni Jaiwifisky, of whose system an account was published by 
the Polish general J. Bern, under the title Exposi giniral de la 
mitkode tnnimonique polonaise^ perfectionnie d Paris (Paris, 
1839). Various other modifications of the systems of Feinaigle 
and Aim6 Paris were advocated by subsequent mnemonists, 
among them being the Phrenotypics ot Major Bcniowsky, a Polish 
refugee, the Phreno-Mnemotechny (1845) of Francois Fauvel 
Gouraud the Mnemotechnik of Karl Otto Reventlow (generally 
known as Karl Otto), a Dane, and the Mnemoteckny of the 
American Pliny Miles. 

The more complicated mnemonic systems have fallen almost 
into complete disuse; but methods founded chiefly on the so-called 
laws of association (see Association of Ideas) have been taught 
with some success in Germany by, among others, Hermann 
Kothe, author of Lehrbuch der Mneitumik (and ed., Hamburg, 
1852), and Katechismus der Ceddcktnisskunst (6th ed. by Montag, 
Leipzig, 1887); and Hugo Weber-Rumpe, author of Mnemonische 
Zahltvdrterbuch (Breslau, 1885) and Mnemonische Unterrichts- 
briefe (1887-1888); in England by Dr Edward Pick, whose 
Memory and the Rational Means of Improving it (5th ed., 1873) 
and Lectures on Memory Culture (1899) obtained a wide circula- 
tion. Passing over the work of William Day {New Mnemonical 
Chart and Guide to the Art of Memory, 1845), Rev. T. Brayshaw 
{Metrical Mnemonia,2LVQxy Tzxty/ovV), Fairchild and W. Stokes, 
the next name of any importance is the Rev. J. H. Bacon, a pupil 
0/ Edward Pick. His book {A Complete Guide to the Improvement 
of the Memory, 3rd ed., rev. 1890) contains a good summary of 
the history of mnemonics and a very reasonable account of the 
principles; it gains in value by its comparative simplicity. More 
or less successful systems were issued by Lyon Williams (1866), 
T. Maclaren (1866), Thomas A. Saycr (1867), Rev. Alexander 
Mackay (1869), George Crowthcr (1870), F. Appleby (1880), John 
Sambrook, who made use of similarities in sounds (gun, i ; Jew, 2), 
the French scientist Abb£ Moigno, J. H. Noble, and Allan 
Dalzell. Considerable interest was roused both in London and 
in America by the controversy which raged round the system of 
" Alphonse Lobctte," who taught his " art of never forgetting " 
successively in London and Washington. It claimed to be 
original in system, but was attacked in England by F. Appleby 
and in America by George S. Fellows, and is generally regarded 
as both unoriginal and inferior on the whole to preceding systems 
(for the litigation in America see e.g. Part II. of Middleton's 



Memory SysUms, pp. 96 sqq.). An interesting wmk tMemtmia 
mnemanica) was published by James Copner in 1893, containing 
a system based partly on the use of letters for figures and words 
for dates, as well as a large number of rhymes for remembering 
facts in biblical, Roman, Greek and Englkh histwy. He made 
use of Grey's system, but endeavoured as far as possible to 
invent, where necessary, words and terminations whidi in them- 
selves had some special fitness in place of Grey's monstrosities. 
More complicated systems are the Keesing Memory System 
(Auckland, 1896), the Smith- Watson SysUm of Memory awd 
Menial Training (Washington), and the Pelman memory ^stem. 
Bibliography. — ^A large number of the works referred to in the 
text contain historical material. Among histories of the subject, 
see C. F. von Aretin, Systematiscke Anteiiunt satr Theorie wad Praxis 
der Mnemonik (SuUberg, iSio); A. E. Middleton. Memory Systems, 
Old and New (cspec. 3rcrrev. ed., New York, 1888). with biMMgrapby 
of works from 1325 to 1888 by G. S. Feltows and account of the 
Loisette litigation; F. W. Colegrove,.ifnnory (1901), with biblN>- 
graphy. pp. 353-361. (J. M. M.) 

MNESICLES, the architect of the great Propylaea of tlie 
Athenian Acropolis, set up by Pericles about 437 b.c 

MOA, apparently the Maori name of the extinct Ratite birds 
in New Zealand, comprising the group Dinomitbes (cf. Bud: 
Classification; and Ratitae). The earliest account of these 
birds is that of Polack (New Zealand, London, 1838), win 
speaks of the former existence of some struthious birds in tk 
north island as proved by fossil bones which were shown to bira. 
" The natives added that, in times long past, they received the 
tradition that very large birds had existed, but the scardty of 
food, as well as the easy method of entrapping them, had caused 
their extermination." In the North Island the moas seen 
to have died out soon after the arrival of the Maoris, according 
to F. W. Hutton, some 700-500 years ago. In the South Isbod 
they seem to have lingered much longer, possibly, according 
to H. O. Forbes {Nat Sci, II. 1893, pp. 374-380), " down em 
to the time that Captain Cook visited New Zealand." Bol 
these are only surmises, based upon the fact that in variotf 
dry caves limbs still surrounded by the mummified flesh ud 
skin, feathers, and even eggs with the inner membrane, bave 
been found. Great quantities of bones have been found in 
caves and in swamps, so that now nearly every part of dx 
skeleton, of some kind or other, is known. 

The most striking feature of the moas, besides the tniiy 
gigantic size of some species, is the almost complete absence of 
the wings. In fact, the whole skeletons of the wings and of tk 
shoulder girdle seem to have been lost, excepting Anem^ 
pteryx dromaeoides, which, according to Hutton,* had still sooe 
vestiges. Such a complete reduction of the whole aoterior 
limb and girdle is unique among birds, but the casaowiries 
indicate the process. In conformity with these reductioM ik 
breastbone of the moas is devoid of any coracoidal facets; there 
is no trace of a keel, and the number of sternal ribs is reduced 
to three or even two pairs. The hind limbs are very strong; ik 
massive femur has a large pneumatic foramen; the tibia ^ 
a bony bridge on the anterior surface of the lower portion, > 
character in which the moas agree only with A pteryx amongst 
the other Ratitae. The number of toes is four, unless the hsUux 
is more or less reduced. The pelvis much resembles that of tlie 
kiwis. 

The skull has been monographed by T. J. Parker (** On ibe 
Cranial Osteology, Classification and Phytogeny of the Dinor- 
nithidae," Tr. Z. Soc. (1893), xiiL 373-431, pis. 56-^2); '^ 
resembles in its general configuration that of the emeus and 
cassowaries, while it differs from that of Apteryx most obviouly 
by the short and stout bill. 

The feathers have a large after-shaft which » of the tf^ 
of the other half, likewise in agreement with the AustnBtf 
Ratitae, while in the others, including the kiwis, the aftcrM 
is absent. Another important point, in which the moas afK* 
with the other Ratitae an>l differ from the kiwis, are the brandK^ 
instead of simple, porous canals in the eggshell. 

« •• The Moas of New ZeaUnd," 7>. N. Zea, ImsL (189s), »»»• 
93-172, pU. xv.-xvii. 



MOAB 



631 



Tlie affinities of the moas are undoubtedly with the Australian 
Katitae, and, in spite of the differences mentioned above, with 
the kiwis. In this respect Max FUrbringer and T. J. Parker 
are in perfect agreement. The relationship with Aepyomis 
«f Madagascar is still problematic. Whilst the moas seem io 
liave been entirely herbivorous, feeding not unlikely upon the 
shoots of ferns, the kiwis have become highly specialized worm- 
caters. In this respect cassowaries and emeus hold an inter* 
mediate position, their occasional zoophagous (especially pisdvo- 
rous) inclination being well known. Unmolested by enemies 
{HarpagomiSt a tremendous bird of prey, died out with the 
Pleistocene), living in an equable insular cUmat'e, with abundant 
vegetation, the moas flourished and seem to have reached their 
greatest development in specialization, numbers, and a bewilder- 
ing variety of large and small kinds, within quite recent times. 
Unfortunately no fossil moas, older than the Pleiocene, are 
known. Parker recognizes five genera, with about twenty 
species, which he combines into three sub-families: Dinomithinae 
with Ditwmis, Anomalopteryginae with Pachyornis, MesopUryx 
and Anomahpieryx, comprising the comparatively least special- 
ized forms; and Emeinae with the genus Emeus, not to be con- 
founded with the vernacular emeu. The moas ranged in size 
from that of a turkey to truly colossal dimensions, the giant 
being Dinomis maximus, which, with a tibial length of 39 in., 
stood with its small head about 12 ft. above the ground. 

(H. F. G.) 
MOAB, the name of an ancient people of Palestine who 
inhabited a district E. of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, lying N. 
of Edom and S. of Ammon (q.v.) and the Israelite Transjordanic 
districts. There is little material for its eariier history ouuide 
the Old Testament, and the various references in the latter are 
often of disputed reference and date. The national traditions of 
Israel recognize a dose relationship between Moab and Ammon, 
"sons" of Lot, and the "brothers" Esau (Edom) and Jacob 
(Israel), and Moab is represented as already a powerful people 
when Israel fled from Egypt (Exod. xv. 15). The detailed 
narratives, however, give conflicting views of the exodus and 
the conquest of Palestine. It was supposed that Moab, having 
expelled the aboriginal giants, was in turn displaced by the 
Amoritc king Sihon, who forced Moab south of the Arnon (Wadi 
Mdjib, a natural boundary) and drove Ammon beyond the 
Jabbok. The Israelites at Kadesh, almost at the gate of the 
promised land, incurred the wrath of Yahwch, and, deterred by 
a defeat at Hormah from pursuing their journey northwards, 
were obliged to choose another route (Num. xiv. 40-45; contrast 
xxi. 1-3). (See Exodus, The.) Messengers to Edom were repulsed 
(Num. XX. 14-18), or Israel was met by Edom with force 
(v. ig seq.) ; consequently a great d6tour was made from Kadesh 
round by the south of Edom (Num. xiv. 25, xxi. 4; Judges xi. 18). 
At length the people safely reached Pisgah in Moab (Num. 
zzi. 16-20; cf. Deut. iii. 27, xxxiv. i), or, according to another 
view, passed outside Moab until they reached the border of 
Sibon*s kingdom (Num. xxi. 13, 26; Judges xi. 17 seq.). There 
are other details in Deut. ii., and the late list in Num. xxxiii. 
even seems to assume that the journey was made from Kadesh 
across the northern end of Edom. Apparently no fixed or distinct 
tradition existed regarding the journeys, and it extremely 
probable that^some of the most characteristic features belong 
to much later periods than the latter half of the second millen- 
nium B.C., the age to which they are ascribed (e.g. the poem on 
the fall of Heshbon, Num. xxL 27-30). 

The account of Balaam (^.v.), the son of Beor. the soothsayer, of 
the children of Ammon (xxii. 5. some MSS.), or of Aram or of Edom 
(sec Cheyne, Ertcy. Bib., col. 3685 and below), is noteworthy for the 
prophecies of Israel's future supremacy ; but he is passed over in the 
historical sketch. Deut. ii.; and < li. 4 5cy|.» 

belongs to a context which on in i., . ..,,,.[. 10 be a 

later insertion. Israel's idalarry in M'-iiib i^ li^upjiieTrK-nTH by a 
hter story of the vengeance^ upon Ifidmn (xxv^ 6-t^4 Kxni.}. In 
Joshua xiii. 21 the latter is auociattd with both Slhon and Bilanm, 
and in tome obscure manner >tidLan and Moab arp connected in 
Num. xxii. 4-7 (cf. xxv. iS^ xixi. §). An EJomite liat of kings 
includec Bela (cf. Diram, i.e. Balaam). Kin of Beor. and statcii that 
a Hadad. ton of Bedad, sinotr Midian tn the Add of Moab (Gcfi. 



xxxvi. 3a, 3^); these events, assigned to an early age, have been 
connected with the appearance of Moabite power west of the Jordan 
in the days of the ''judge" Ehud (q.v.). However, all that is 
recorded in Num. xxii. sqq.. together with various legal and other 
matter, now severs the accounts of the Israelite occupation of east 
Jordan (Num. xxL 33-35, xxxii. 39-42)- For fuU details see G. B. 
Gray, Numbera " (InUrnat. CrUical Comment.), 

Although Moab and Ammon were " brothers," their history 
was usually associated with that of Judah and Israel respectively, 
and naturally depended to a considerable extent upon these 
two and their mutual relations. Jephthah (q.v.), one of the 
Israelite " judges," delivered Gilcad from Anmion, who resumed 
the attack under its king Nahash, only to be repulsed by 
Saul (q.v.), Ehud (^.p.) of Benjamin or Ephraim freed Israel 
from the Moabite oppression. To the first great kings, Saul 
and David, are ascribed conquests over Moab, Ammon 
and Edom. The Judaean David, for his part, sought to 
cultivate friendly relations with Ammon, and tradition 
connects him closely with Moab. His son Solomon contracted 
marriages with women of both states (i Kings xi. 5, 7), thus 
introducing into Jerusalem cults which were not put down 
until almost at the close of the monarchy (2 Kings xxiii. 13). In 
the 9th century B.C. the two states appear in more historical 
surroundings, and the discovery of a lengthy Moabite inscription 
has thrown valuable light upon contemporary conditions. 

This inscription, now in the Louvre, was found at Dhtbftn, 
the biblical DibOn, in 1868 by the Rev. F. Klein, a representa- 
tive of the Church Missionary Society stationed at Jerusalem. 
It contains a record of the successes gained by the Moabite 
king Mesha against hrael.* Omri (q.v.) had previously seized 
a number of Moabite cities north of the Arnon, and for forty 
years the Moabite national god Chemosh was angry with his 
land. At length he roused Mesha; and Moab, which had evi- 
dently retreated southwards towards Edom, now began to take 
reprisals. " The men of Gad had dwelt in the land of 'Ataroth 
from of old; and the king of Israel built *Ataroth for himself." 
Mesha took the city, slew its people in honour of Chemosh, and 
dragged before the god the altar-hearth (or the priests?) of 
D-v-d-h (apparently a divine name, but curiously similar to 
David). Next Chemosh roused Mesha against the city of Nebo. 
It fell with its thousands, for the king had "devoted" it to the 
deity 'Ashtar-Chemosh. Yahweh had been worshipped there, and 
his . . . (? vessels, or perhaps the same doubtful word as above) 
were dragged before the victorious Chemosh. With the help of 
these and other victories (at Jahaz, Aroer,&c.), Moab recovered 
its territory, fortified its cities, supplied them with cisterns, 
and Mesha built a great sanctuary to his god. The inscription 
enumerates many places known elsewhere (Isa. xv.; Jer. xlviii.), 
but although it mentions the " men of Gad," makes no allusion 
to the Israelite tribe Reuben, whose seat lay in the district 
(Num. xxxii.; Josh. xiii. 15-23; see Reuben). The revolt will 
have followed Ahab's death (see 2 Kings i. x) and apparently 
led to the unsuccessful attempt by Jehoram to recover the lost 
ground (ibid. iii.). 

The story of Jehoram in i Kings iii. now ^vca prominence to 
Elisha. his wonders, his hostility to uie rulinj^ dynasty anil h'n regard 
for the aged Jchoshaphat of Judah. Following other ^ynrhronismi^ 
the Scptuagint (Lucian's recension) names Ah:i£iah of Judah; from 
2 Kings i. 17, the reigning king coutd only have been Jthoram** 
namesake. The king of Edom appi'jrs as an ally of hrad and 
ludah (contrast l Kings xxii. 47; 2 Jvini^s^ viji. 30), and hi»titc Lo 
Moab (comp. above, and the obscure allu'iiion in AmM ii. 1-2). But 
the king of Moab's attempt to break through unto him sueDc.Hsthat 
in the original story (there are several £i|;ni of revision) nloab and 
Edom were in alliance. In this case the abject of jehorsm'a march 
round the south of the Dead Sea was ui Hriv e a wecfge between them* 
and the result hints at an Israelite ^iivaAtcf. Sinful 3 rly^ enpughp 
Jehoram of Judah suffered some dt/tvit from EJcjm at Zair. aik 
unknown name for which Ewald suggested (the Moabite) Zoar 
(2 Kings viii. 21 ; see Jehoram). 

Moab thus retained its independence, even harrying Israel 
with marauding bands (2 Kings xiii. 20), while Ammon was 

* See edition by M. Lidzbarski, AUsemitische Texle, Bd. I. (Giessen, 
1907) : also G. A. Cooke. North Semitic lHscr..*pp. 1 • 14, and the articles 
on " Moab " in Hasting's Diet. Bible (by W. H. Bennett), and 
" Mesha " in Ency. Bib. (by S. R. Driver). 



632 



MO'ALLAKAT 



perpetrating cruelties upon Gilead (Am. i. 13 iqq.)* But under 
Jeroboam II. (q.v.) Israelite territory was extended to the Wadi 
of the *Arabah or wilderness (probably south end of the Dead 
Sea), and again Moab suffered. If Isa. xv. seq. is to be referred 
to this age, its people fled southwards and appealed for protec- 
tion to the overlord of Edom (see Uzziah). During the Assyrian 
supremacy, its king Salamannu (probably not the Shalman 
of Hos. X, 14) paid tribute to Tiglath-Pileser IV., but joined 
the short-lived revolt with Judah and Philistia in 711. When 
Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in 701, Kamus(Chemosh)-nadab 
also submitted, and subsequently both Esarhaddon and Assur- 
bani-pal mention the Moabite king Mu$uri ( " the Egyptian," 
but cf. Mizraim) among their tributaries. In fact, during 
the reign of Assur-bani-pal Moab played the vassal's part in 
helping to repulse the invasion of the Nabayati and nomads 
of Kedar, a movement which made itself felt from Edom nearly 
as far as Damascus. It had its root in the revolt of Samas-sum- 
yukin (Shamash-shun-ukin) of Babylonia, and coming at a 
time immediately preceding the disintegration of the Assyrian 
Empire, may have had most important consequences for Judah 
and the east of the Jordan.* (See Palestine: History.) 

Moab shares with Ammon and Edom in the general obscurity 
which ovei;hangs later events. If it made inroads upon Judah 
(2 Kings xxiv. 2), it joined the coalition against Babylonia 
(Jer. xxvii. 3); if it is condemned for its untimely joy at the 
fall of Jerusalem (Isa. xxv. 9 seq.; Jer. xlviii.; Ezek. xxv. 8-11; 
Zeph. ii. 8-10), it had offered a harbour to fugitive Jews (Jer. 
xl. 11). The dales of the most significant passages are unfortu- 
nately uncertain. If Sanballat the Horonite was really a native 
of the Moabite Horonaim, he finds an appropriate place by the 
side of Tobiah the Ammonite and Gashmu the Arabian among 
the strenuous opponents of Nehemiah. Still later we find 
Moab part of the province of Arabia in the hands of fresh tribes 
from the Arabian desert Qos* ^*^- ^ii* i3> S)'* ^nd, with the 
loss of its former independent power, the name survives merely 
as a type (Dan. xi. 41). (See Jews; Nabataeans.) 

A populous land commanding the trade routes from Arabia 
to Damascus, rich in agricultural and pastoral wealth, Moab, 
as Mesha's inscription proves, had already reached a high state 
of civilization by the gth century B.C. Its language differed 
only dialcctically from Hebrew; its ideas and religion were very 
closely akin to the Israelite, and it may be assumed that they 
shared in common many features of culture.* The relation of 
Chemosh, the national god, to his " children " (Num. xxi. 29) 
was that of Yahweh to Israel (see especially Judges xi. 24). 
He had his priests (Jer. xlviii. 7), and Mcsha, perhaps himself 
a priest-king, receives the oracles direct or through the medium 
of his prophets. The practice of devoting, banning or annihilat- 
ing city or community was both Moabite and Israelite (cf. above, 
also Dcut. ii. 34, iii. 6, xx. 10-20; 2 Chron. xxv. 12, &c.), and 
human sacrifice, offered as an exceptional gift to Chemosh in 
3 Kings iii. 27, in Israel to Molcch iq.v.), was a rite once less 
rare. Apart from the religious cult suggested in the name 
Mount Nebo, there were local cults of the Baal of Peor and 
the Baal of Meon, and Mcsha's allusion to 'Ashtar- Chemosh, 
a compound deity, has been taken to point to a corresponding 
consort whose exbtence might naturally be expected upon 
other grounds (see Astarte). The fertility of Moab, the wealth of 
wine and corn, the temperate climate and the enervating heat 
supply conditions which directed the form of cult. Nature- 
worship, as in Israel, lay at the foundation, and the impure rites 
of Shittim and Baal- Peor (Num. xxxi. 16; Ps. cvi. 28) would not 
materially differ from practices which Israelite prophets were 
called upon to condemn. Much valuable evidence is to be 
obtained also from the survival of ancient forms of cult in Moab 

* See G. Smith, Ashurbantpal (p. 288, cyl. A. viii. 51, B. viii. 37); 
L. B. Paton, Syria and PaUitine, p. 269 seq. ; R. F. Harper, Ais. and 
Bab. Lit., pp. 118 sqq.; H. Winckler, Ketlinschr. u. das alte Test., 
3rd cd., p. 151. 

'Excavation alone can supplement the scanty information 
which the present evidence furnishes. For a representation of a 
Moabite warrior (-god ?), see G. Perrot and C. Chipiez, Art in 
Phoenicia, ii. 45 seq. 



and east of the Jordan (e.g. sacrifices on the house roofs) ud 
from a survey of epigraphical and other data from the Gicck, 
Roman, and later periods, allowance being made for coatamint* 
tion. The whole question deserves careful invesUgatioo in tk 
L'ght of comparative religion.* 

The relationship felt between Israel and the external suta 
(Moab, Edom, and Ammon) is entirely justified. It extends 
intermittently throughout the history, and certain oomplioted 
features in the traditions of the southern tribes point to affioiiies 
with Moab which find a parallel in the traditions of David 
(see Rutm) and in the allusions to intercourse between Moab 
and Benjamin (i Chron. viii. 8) or Judah (ibid. iv. 21 seq.). But 
the obscure hbtorical background of the references makes it 
uncertain whether the exdusiveness of orthodox Judaism (Ndi. 
xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3-6; Ezra ix. x, 12) was imposed upon 
an earlier catholicity, or represented only one aspect of reUsiotts 
spirit, or was succeeded by a more tolerant attitude. Evidence 
for the last-mentioned has been found in the difficult 
narrative in Josh. xxii. But Israel remained a great power 
in religious history while Moab disappeared. It is true that 
Moab was continuously hard pressed by desert hordes; the 
exposed condition of the land is emphasized by the chaiia of 
ruined forts and castles which even the Romans were compelled 
to construct. The explanation of the comparative insignificance 
of Moab, however, is not to be found in purely topographical 
considerations. Nor can it be sought in political history, since 
Israel and Judah suffered as much from external movements u 
Moab itself. The explanation is to be found within Israd 
itself, in factors which succeeded in re-shaping existing material 
and in imprinting upon it a durable stamp, and these factors, 
as biblical tradition recognizes, are to be found in the vock 
of the prophets. 

See thr articles on Moab in Hastings'i Diet. Bihk (W. H. BeflWtiK 
Ency. B\b. iG. A. SmiLh and VVdlhdus^i)), and Hajck'i ^cojEnfrU*' 
pddte (F. Uiihi!; with thL-ir rcfcrirnc^^; aIsq th« popular dncriptioft 
by W. Libtjcy and F. E. F^mkm*. /orjlflii V^lUy and /Vfr» Uv^ 
and the very elaborate and iKrivntific worbt by R. E. Brunnovtia 
A. von DomaMewski, Dk Prm-'intia Afi^tia (1904-1905)* and A. 
M usil. A rubia Piriraca ( 1 907 - 1 ooa ) . M cfl ! bn ihou Id tw madt o( iV* 
mosaic map ot Palestine lound at McdittKi, dating |>i-rhjif» Irpm il* 
«h century a.d.: for thi5, s« A, Jacuby, f^aj jfiitra^i if**c^ tm 
M. (1905), and P. Palmer and Gulht (i^potf). For UnguAgt w4 
epigraphy we Madataeans. 5ehitic L^pfc^uAe^Es; for lopoKnjJiy, 
&c., Pal^iime; and for the Uter History, Jews* (5- A- C^} 

HO'ALLAKlT (Mo'allaqAt or Mu'allaqJIt). Al-MoeU^ 
is the title of a group of seven longish Arabic poems, wUdi 
have come down to us from the time before Islam. Tbe name 
signifies " the suspended " (pi.), the traditional cxplanatioa 
being that these poems were hung up by the Arabs on or in 
the Ka'ba at Mecca. The oldest passage known to the present 
writer where this is stated occurs in the *Igd of the Spanish 
Arab, Ibn 'Abd-Rabbihi (a.d. 860-940). BOUq cd. of i^ 
A.H. vol. iii. p. 116 seq. We read there: ** Th« Arabs had suck 
an interest in poetry, and valued it so highly, that they took 
seven long pieces selected from the ancient poetry, wrote then 
in gold on pieces of Coptic linen folded up, and hung them 
up i'allaqat) on the curtains which covered the Ka'ba. Hence 
we speak of ' the golden poem of Amra*al Qais,' 'the golden 
poem of Zuhair.' The number of the golden poems is seveo; 
they are also called * the suspended ' (al-JHo'aUaqdi).** Similir 
statements are found in later Arabic works. But against 
this we have the testimony of a contemporary of Ibn 'Abd- 
Rabbihi, the grammarian N&bb&s (d. a.d. 949). who says in 
his commentary on the Mo'allaqat; "As for the assertion that 
they were hung up in [sic] the Ka'ba, it is not known to any of 
those who have handed down ancient poems. " • This cautioos 
scholar is unquestionably right in rejecting a story so utterly 
unaulhenticaied. The customs of the Arabs before Mahomet 

> Sec W. R. Smith, ReligioH of the SemiUs (and ed.). which may be 
supplemented by the scattered eloanings m Clermont-Gaoneaa s 
Recueil d'archioiogie orientate '. and more especially by P.Antooffl 
Jaussin's valuable monograph. Couiumes des Arabes am pap * 
Moab (Paris. 1908). (See also Hebrew Religion.) 

•Ernst Frcnkef. An-Nakbds' OmmaUar tmr UMraBaft its 
ImruulQais (HaUc. 1876). p. viii. 



MO'ALLAKAT 



633 



tie pretty accurately known to us; we have also a mass of 
information about the affairs of Mecca at the time when the 
Fropbeiiirose; but no trace of this or anything like it is found 
in really good and ancient authorities. We hear, indeed, of 
a Meccan hanging up a spoil of battle on the Ka*ba (Ibn Hishftm, 
ed. Wdstenfeld, p. 431). Less credible is the story of an impor- 
tant document being deposited in that sanctuary (ibid. p. 230), 
for this looks like an instance of later usages being transferred 
to pre-Islamic times. But at all events this is quite a different 
thing from the hanging up of poetical manuscripts. To account 
for the disappearance of the Mo'allaq&t from the Ka'ba we are 
told, in a passage of late origin (De Sacy, Ckrestom. ii. 480), 
that they were taken down at the capture of Mecca by the 
Prophet. But in that case we should expect some hint of the 
occurrence in the circumstantial biographies of the Prophet, 
and in the works on the history of Mecca; and we find no such 
thing. That a series of long poems was written at all at that 
remote period is improbable in the extreme. Up to a time when 
the art of writing had become far more general than it was 
before the spread of Islam, poems were never — or very rarely — 
written, with the exception, perhaps, of epistles in poetic form. 
The diffusion of poetry was exclusively committed to oral 
tradition. Moreover, it is quite inconceivable that there 
should have been either a gild or a private individual of such 
acknowledged taste, or of such influence, as to bring about a 
consensus of opinion in favour of certain poems. Think of the 
mortal offence which the canonization of one poet must have 
given to his rivals and their tribes. It was quite another thing 
for an individual to give his own private estimate of the respec- 
tive merits of two poets who had appealed to him as umpire, or 
for a number of poets to appear at large gatherings, such as 
the fair of *0q&« (Okad) as candidates for the place of honour 
in t)ie estimation of the throng which listened t6 their recitations. 
No better is the modifications of the legend, which we find, 
at a much later period, in the Moqaddima of Ibn KhaldOn 
{kJ>. 1332-1406), who tells us that the poets themselves hung 
up their poems on the Ka'ba (ed. Paris iii. 357). In short, 
this legend, so often retailed by Arabs, and still more frequently 
by Europeans, must be entirely rejected.^ The story is a 
pure fabrication based on the name " suspended." The word 
was taken in its literal sense; and as these poems were 
priced by many above all others in after times, the same 
opinion was attributed to " the [ancient] Arabs," who were 
supposed to have given effect to their verdict in the way already 
described. A somewhat simpler version, also given by Nab^ 
in the passage already cited, is as follows: " Most of the Arabs 
were accustomed to meet at 'Oqi^ and recite verses; then, if 
the king was pleased with any poem, he said, ' Hang it up, 
and preserve it among my treasures.' " But, not to mention 
other difliculties, there was no king of aU the Arabs; and it is 
hardly probable that any Arabian king attended the fair at 
*Oqi^ The story that the poems were written in gold has 
evidently originated in the name " the golden poems " (literally 
"the gilded"), a figurative expression for excellence. We 
may interpret the designation " suspended " on the same 
principle. It seems to mean those (poems) which have been 
raised, on account of their value, to a specially honourable 
position. Another derivative of the same root is *Uq, "precious 
thing." A clearer significance attaches to another name some- 
times used for these poems— oj^m^, " the strings of pearls." 
The comparison of artificially elaborated poems to these strings 
b extremely apt. Hence it became so popular that, even in 
ordinary prose, to speak in rhythmical form is called simply 
nam*—" to string pearls." 
The selection of these seven poems can scarcely have been 

• Doubts had already been expressed by various scholars, when 
HewMenberg — rigid conservative as he was in theology — openly 
challenged it, and Sprenger {Das Leben des Mohammad, t. 14, Berlin, 
1861) oeclared it a fable. Since then it has been controverted at 
Iniigth in NOldeke's Beitrdie tw Kenntniss der Potsie der alien 
Araber (Hanover, 1864}, p. xvii. sqq. Ahlwardt concurs in this con- 
clusion; see hb Bemerkungen Hber dU Auhtheit der alien arabischen 
ikiukU (1872), pp. 35 wq. 



the work of the ancient Arabs at all. It Ss much more likely 
that we owe it to some connoisseur of a later date. Now 
Nahh<s says expressly in the same passage: " The true view 
of the matter is this: when ^mmftd ar-Rftwiya (^ammld 
the Rhapsodist) saw how little men cared for poetry, he collected 
these seven pieces, urged people to study them, and said to 
them: ' These are the [poems] of renown.' " And this agrees 
with all our other information, gammid (who lived in the 
first three quarters of the 8th century a.d.) was perhaps of 
all men the one who knew most Arabic poetry by heart. The 
recitation of poems was his profession. To such a rhapsodist 
the task of selection is in every way appropriate; and it may 
be assumed that he is responsible also for the somewhat 
fantastic title of " the suspended." 

There is another fact which seeips to speak in favour of 
QammAd as the compiler of this work. He was a Persian by^ 
descent, but a client of the Arab tribe, Bakr ibn Wfill. For 
this reason, we may suppose, he not only received into the 
collection a poem of the famous poet laxhiz, of the tribe of 
Bakr, but also that of another Bakrite, ^firith, who, though 
not accounted a bard of the highest rank, had been a prominent 
chieftain^ while his poem could serve as a counterpoise to 
another also received — the celebrated verses of l^puith's con- 
temporary *Amr, chief of the Taghlib, the rival brethren of 
the Bakr. *Amr praises the Taghlib in glowing terms: ](|flrith, 
in a similar vein, extolls the Bakr — ancestors of Qamm&d's 
patrons. The collection of Qamm&d appears to have consisted 
of the same seven poems which are found in our modem editions,' 
composed respectively by Amra'al-Qais, Ta^afa, Zuhair, Labld, 
*Antara ibn Shaddid, *Amr ibn KulthQm, and Q&rith ibn ^illiza. 
These are enumerated both by Ibn *Abd-Rabbihi, and, on the 
authority of the older philologists, by Nalt^lt^; and all subsequent 
commentators seem to follow them. We have, however, evidence 
of the existence, at a very early period, of a slightly different 
arrangement. Certainly we cannot now say, on the testimony 
of ihe Jamharat ash'dr al *Arabf that two of the most competent 
ancient authorities on Arabic poetry, Mofa^^Ud (d. c, 790) 
and Abd *Ubaida (d. a.d. 824, at a great age), had already 
assigned to the " Seven " (viz. " the seven Mo*allaq&t ") a 
poem each of N&bigha and A'sh& in pbce of those of *Antara 
and ](|flrith. For meanwhile it has been discovered that the 
compiler of the above-mentioned work — who, in order to deceive 
the reader, issued it under a false name — is absolutely untrust- 
worthy. But the learned Ibn Qotaiba (9th century A.D.), in his 
book Of Poetry and Poets, mentions as belonging to the " Seven " 
not only the poem of *Amr, which has invariably been reckoned 
among the Mo'allaqSt (ed. de Goeje, p. 120), but also a poem 
of *AbId ibn Abra? (ibid. 144). In place of which poem he read 
this we do not know; and we are equally ignorant as to whether 
he counted other pieces than those indicated above among the 
seven. 

Now N&bigha and A*shft enjoyed greater celebrity than any 
of the poets represented in the Mo'allaq&t, with the exception 
of Amra'al-Qais, and it is therefore not surprising that scholars, 
of a somewhat later date, appended a poem by each of these 
to the Mo'allaq&t, without intending by this to make them 
an integral part of that work. This is clear, for instance, from 
the introductory words of Tibrlzl (d. a.d. 1109) to his com- 
mentary on the Mo'allaq&t. Appended to this he gives a com- 
mentary to a poem of N&bigha, to one of A'sha, and moreover 
one to that poem of 'Abid which, as we have just seen, Ibn 
Qotaiba had counted among the seven. It is a pure misunder- 
standing when Ibn KhaldOn {loc. cit.) speaks of nine Mo'allaq&t; 
and we ought hardly to lay any stress on the fact that he mentions 
not only N&bigha and A'sh&, but also 'Alqama, as Mo'allaqa— 
poets. He was probably led to this by a delusive recollection" 
of the Collection of the " Six Poets," in which were included 
these three, together with the three Mo'allaqa-poets, Amra'al- 
Qais, Zuhair and T&rafa. 

The lives of these poets were spread over a period of more 
than a hundred years. The earliest of the seven was Aiuia'al-' 
Qais (9.9.), regarded by many as the most illustrious of Arabian 



634 



MO*ALLAKAT 



poets. His exact date cannot be determined; but probably 
the best part of his career fell within the midst of the 6th century. 
Her was a scion of the royal house of the tribe Kinda, which 
lost its power at the death of Ring ](|flrith ibn 'Amr in the year 
529.^ The poet's royal father, 9ojr, by some accounts a son 
of this ](|flrith, was killed by « Bedouin tribe, the Band Asad. 
The son led an adventurous life as a refugee, now with one 
tribe, now with another, and appears to have died young. The 
anecdotes related of him — which, however, are very imtrust- 
worthy in detail — as well as his poems, imply that the glorious 
memory of his house and the hatred it inspired were still com- 
paratively fresh, and therefore recent. A contemporary of 
Amra'al-Qais was *AbIo ibn Absa^ one poem of whose, as we 
have seen, is by some authorities reckoned among the collection. 
He belonged to the Band Asad, and is fond of vaunting the 
heroic dead of his tribe — the murder of ^jr — in .opposition 
to the victim's son, the great poet. 

The Mo'allaqa of *Ams hurls defiance against the king of 
mra, *Amr son of Mundhir, who reigned from the summer of 
554 till 568 or 569, and was afterwards slain by our poet.* This 
prince is also addressed by QArith in his Mo'allaqa. Of Tarafa, 
who is said to have attained no great age, a few satirical verses 
have been preserved, directed against this same king. This 
agrees with the fact that a grandson of the Qais ibn Khftlid, 
mentioned as a rich and in^uential man in TsLr&fa's Mo'allaqa 
(v. 80 or 8x), figured at the time of the battle of Dha-Q&r, in 
which the tribe Bakr routed a Persian army. This battle falls 
between a.d. 604 and 6io^* 

The Mo'allaqa of 'Antara and that of Zuhair contain allusions 
to the feuds of the kindred tribes *Abs and Dhobyftn. Famous 
as these contests were, their time cannot accurately be ascer- 
tained. But the date of the two poets can be approximately 
determined from other data. Ka'b, son of Zuhair, composed 
first a satire, and then, in the year 630, a eulogy on the Prophet; 
another son, Bujair, had begun, somewhat sooner, to celebrate 
Mahomet. 'Antara killed the grandfather of Abnaf ibn Qais, 
>Nrho died at an advanced age in a.d. 686 or 687; he outlived 
*AbdaIUlh ibn §inmia, whose brother Duraid was a very old 
man when he fell in battle against the Prophet (early in a.d. 
630); and he had communications with Ward, whose son, the 
poet'Orwa, may perhaps have survived the flight of Mahomet 
to Medina. From all these indications we may place the pro- 
ductive period of both poets in the end of the 6th century. 
The historical background of 'Antara's Mo'allaqa lies somewhat 
earlier than that of Zuhair's. 

To the same period appears to belong the poem of 'Alqaha, 
which, as we have seen, Ibn Khalddn reckons amongst the 
Mo 'allaqftt. This too is cerUinly the date of NXbigha, who 
was one of the most distinguished 'of Arabic poets. For in 
the poem often reckoned as a Mo'allaqa, as in many others, 
he addresses himself to No'mftn, king of ^Ira, who reigned 
in the two- last decades of the 6th century. The same king 
is mentioned as a contemporary in one of * Alqama's poems. 

The poem of A'sha, sometimes added to the Mo'allaqftt, 
contains an allusion to the battle of Dhd Q&r (under the name 
"Battle of ^inw," v. 63). This poet, not less famous than 
Nftbigha, lived to compose a poem in honour of Mahomet, and 
died not long before a.d. 630. 

LabId is the only one of these poets who embraced Islam. 
His Mo'allaqa, however, like almost all his other poetical works, 
belongs to the Pagan period. He is said to have lived till 661, 
or even later; certainly it is true of him, what is asserted with 
less likelihood of several others of these poets, that he lived to 
a ripe old age. 

The seven Mo'allaqSt, and also the poems appended to them, 
represent almost every type of ancient Arabian poetry in its 
excellences and its weaknesses. In order rightly to appreciate 
these, we must translate ourselves into the world of the Bedouin, 



* Sec TabarVs Geschichte der Perser und Araber . . 
Th. NdUUke (Leiden, 1879), p. 171. 

• Sec NAldeke's Tabari, pp. 170,173. 
Mbid.p. 311. 



,iiberset$t von 



and seek to realize the peculiar conditions of his life, together 
with the views and thoughts resulting from those oonditiooi. 
In the Mo'allaqa of TA^ftf & we are repelled by the long, anatomi- 
cally exact description of his camel; but such a description had 
an extraordinary charm of its own for the Bedouins, every man 
of whom was a perfect connoisseur on this subject down to 
the minutest points; and the remaining parts of the poem, 
together with the other extant fragments of his songs, show 
that T<Li^a bad a real poetic gift. In the Mo'allaq&t of *Amr 
and Qftrith, for the preservation of Irhlch we are c^Mcdally 
grateful to the compiler, we can read the haughty spirit of the 
powerful chieftains, boastfully Celebrating the splendours of 
their tribe. These two poems have also a certain historical 
importance. The song of Zuhair contains the practical wiidoa 
of a sober man of the world. The other poems are fairiy typical 
examples of the customary qofldaf the long poem of andcBt 
Arabia, and bring before us the varioua phases of Bedouin Iif6 
But even here we have differences. In the Mo'allaqa of 'Antara, 
whose heroic temperament had overcome the scorn with whid 
the son of a black slave-mother was regarded by the Bedouins, 
there predominates a warlike spirit, which plays practicaOjr 
no part in the song of LabbL 

It is a phenomenon which deserves the fullest rccognitioo^ 
that the needy inhabitants of a barren country should tha 
have produced an artistic poetry distinguished by so hig^ t 
degree of uniformity. Even the extraordinary strict m^iicil 
system, observed by poets who had no inklixig of theoiy aad 
no knowledge of an alphabet, excites surprise. In the mot 
ancient poems the metrical form is as scrupulously regarded 
as in later compositions. The only poem which shows unusual 
metrical freedom is the above-mentioned song of 'AUd. It 
is, however, remarkable that'AbUl's contemporary Amra'al* 
Qais, in a poem which in other respects also exhibits certain 
coinddences with that of 'Abid (No. 55, ed. Ahlwanit),pitieDti 
himself considerable licence in the use of the very same mctie 
— one which, moreover, is extremely- rare in the ancient period. 
Presumably, the violent deviations from the ukema in 'AUd 
are due simply to incorrect transmission by compilen flio 
failed to grasp the metre. The other poems ascribed to 'AUd, 
together with all the rest attributed to Amra'al-(2ais, are cos* 
structed in precise accord with the metrical canons. It ii 
necessary always to bear in mind that these ancient poems, vUdi 
for a century or more were preserved by oral tradition aloae, 
have reached us in a much mutilated condition. Fortunatdft 
there was a class of men who made it their special buatBOi 
to learn by rote the works either of a single poet or <rf sevtnL 
The poets themselves used the services of these rlapsodistt 
(rftwl). The last representative of this dasa is Ifaminld, to 
whom b attributed the collection of the Mo'allaqit; but he, 
at the same time, marks the transition of the rhapsodist to tte 
critic and scholar. The most favouraUe opinion of these rfaapa*' 
dists would require us to make allowance for occasional mistifcfg 
expressions would be transposed, the order of verses disarraofid, 
passages omitted, and probably portions of different pocss 
pieced together. It is clear, however, that ^ammiid dealt 
in the most arbitrary fashion with the enormous quaotity 
of poetry which he professed to know thoroughly. The srves 
Mo'allaqftt are indeed free from the suspicion of forgery, bat 
even in them the text is frequently altered and many vend 
are transposed. The loose structure of Arabic poems n> 
extremely favourable to such alterations. Some of the U^ 
'allaqftt have several preambles: so, espedally, that ofAstf, 
the first eight verses of which belong not to the poeiB» 
but to another poet. Elsewhere, also, we find furious venes 
in the Mo'allaqftt. Some of these poems, which have bees 
handed down to us in other exemplars besides the colkctios 
itself, exhibit great divergences both in the order and number 
of the verses and in textual details. This is particalarfy the 
case with the oldest Mo'allaqa— that of Amra'aI-Oair-*be 
critical treatment of which is a problem of such extreme difficshy 
. that only an approximate solution can ever be reached. Tht 
^variations of the text,j>utside the Mo'allaqit coUectioiw ktvt 



MOAT— MOBILE 



63 s 



and tliere exercised an influence on the text of that 
iction. It would be well if our manuscripts at least gave 
Mo*aIlaq&t in the exact form of Qammtd's days. The 
text— in fact, we may say, a really good text—is that of 
latest Mo'allaqa, the song of Labld. 

le Mo*allaa&t exist in many nuuiusmpts, tome with old oommen- 
B, of whicn a few are valuable. They have also been several 
B printed. Especial mention is due to the edition of Charles 
rwards ^ Charles) Lyall with the commentary of Tifrrfsi 
mtta, 1894). Attempts to translate these poems, verse for 
r, in poetical form, could scarcely have a happy result. The 
igencss, both of the expression and of the subjects, only admits 
paraphrastic version for large portions, unless the sense is to be 
ely obliterated. An attempt at such a translation, in conjunc- 
with a commentary based on the principles of modem science, 
xen made by the present author: " FQnf Mo'allaqftt Qbersetzt 
erklArt," in the SittuntsberickU der kais. A had. d. Wiss. in 
(. Philos.-kist. Classe. Bde. cxl.-odv. A supplement to this is 
ed by an article, by Dr Bernh. Geiger, on the Mo'allaqa of 
(a. in the Wiener Zettukrift fUr die Kunde des Morgenlands, xix. 
iqq. See further the separate articles on the seven poets. 

^H. N.) 
9AT, a ditch filled with water surrounding a castle, town 
Lher fortified place for purposes of defence. The word is 
n from the 0. Fr. mote, or moitCf a mound or embankment 
urth used as a means of defence; the transition in meaning 
the heap of earth to the trench left by excavating the 
I is parallel with the similar interchange of meaning in 
and ditch (see Dike). In mod. Fr. moUe means a lump 
od of earth. The word is probably of Teutonic origin, 
may be connected with Eng. '' mud." (See FoKimcATiON 
SiKCECBArr.) 

)B. (i) A disorderly crowd, a rabble, also a contemptuous 
i for'the common people, the lower orders, the Greek 5xXos, 
nee "ochlocracy," mob-rule). The word is a shortened 
of Lat. mobiU (sc, vulgus), the movable or mutable 
ional, easily stirred crowd. " Mobile " in the sense of 
le was used in the X7th century, and was still used after 
shortened form, for some time considered a vulgarism, 
become common. Thus Addison {Spectator, No. 135) 
s, " It is perhaps this humour of speaking no more than 
eeds must which has so miserably curtailed some of our 
s. . . . I dare not answer that ' mob ' . . . ' incog.' 
Jie like will not in time be looked at as part of our tongue." 
T North's Exatnen, vii., 574 (1740), dates the beginning 
e use of the shortened form " mob." " I may note that 
abble first changed their title and were called the ' mob ' 
e assemblies of this club. It was their beast of burden, 
called first mobile vulgus, but fell naturally into the con- 
ion of one syllable, and ever since is become proper English." 
club alluded to is the Green Ribbon Club {q.v.), and the 
would be about x68o. (a) A kind of head-dress for women, 
ly called a '* mob cap," worn during the x8th and early 
of the xgth centuries. It was a large cap covering all the 
with a bag-shaped crown, a broad band and frilled edge. 
;ms to have been originally an article of wear for the morn- 
It is probably connected with words such as " mop," 
b," meaning untidy, nigligi. 

IBBRLT. GEORGE (1803-1885), English divine, was bom 
le loth of October X803, and educated at Winchester 
Balliol. After a distinguished academic career he became 
master of Winchester in 1835. This post he resigned in 
and retired to Brightstone Rectory, Isle of Wight. Mr. 
jtone, however, in 1869 called him to be bishop of Salisbury, 
ich see he kept up the traditions of his predecessors. Bishops 
ilton and Denison, his chief addition being the summoning 
liocesan synod. Though Moberly left Oxford at the begin- 
of the Oxford movement, he fell under its influence: the 
so that at Winchester he formed a most intimate friendship 
Reble, spending several weeks every year at Otterboume, 
lext parish to Hursley. Moberly, however, retained his 
endence of thought, and in 1872 he astonished his High 
ds friends by joining in the movement for the disuse of 
lamnatory clauses in the Athanasian Creed. His chief 
ib*ition to theology is his Bampton Lectures of x868, on 



The Administratum of tke Holy Spirit in tke Body of Ckria, He 
died on the 6th of July 1885. 

HOBBHLT, ROBERT CAMPBELL (i84$-X903), English 
theologian, was bom on the 36th of July 1845. He was the 
son of George Moberiy, bishop of Salisbury, and faithfully 
maintained the traditions of his father's teaching. Educated 
at Winchester and New College, Oxford, he was appointed 
senior student of Christ Church in 1867 and tutor in 1869. In 
1876 he went out with Bishop Copleston to Ceylon for six months. 
After his retum he became the first head of St Stephen's 
House, Oxford (1876-1878), and then, after presiding for two 
years over the Theological College at Salisbury, where he 
acted as his father's chaplain, he accepted the college living 
of Great Budworth in Cheshire in x88o, and the same year 
married Alice, the daughter of his father's predecessor, Walter 
Kerr Hamilton. In 1892 Lord Salisbury made him Regius 
Professor of Pastoral Theology of Oxford; and after a long 
period of delicate health he died at Christ Church on the 8th 
of June 1903. His chief writings were: An essay in Lux iiundi 
on " The Incarnation as the Basis of Dogma " (1889); a paper. 
Belief in a Personal God ( 1 891 ) ; Reason and Religion ( 1 896) , a pro^ 
test against the limitation of the reason to the understanding; 
Ministerial Priesthood (1897); and Atonement and Personality 
(190X). In this last work, by which he is chiefly known, he aimed 
at presenting an explanation and a vindication of the doctrine of 
the Atonement by the help of the conception of personality. 
Rejecting the retributive view of punishment, he describes 
the sufferings of Christ as those of the perfect " Penitent," and 
finds their expiatory value to lie in the Person of the Sufferer, 
the God-Man. 

MOBERLY, a dty of Randolph county, Missouri, U.S.A., 
in the north central part of the state, about X30 m. E. by N. of 
Kansas City. Pop. (1890), 82x5; (X900), 80x3, (933 negroes); 
(X9X0), 10,923. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas 
and the Wabash railways, and is a division headquarters of the 
latter. The dty is regularly laid out on a level prairie site. 
There are two public parks, a Camegie library, a commercial 
college, a Y.M.C.A. building, and a hospital maintained by the 
Wabash Employees Hospital Assodation. The most important 
industrial establishments are the large machine shops (established 
here in X872) of the Wabash railway. Moberly was platted 
in 1866, was incorporated as a town and became the county- 
seat in 1868, and in 1873 secured a special dty charter, which 
it surrendered in 1889 for dty status under the general 
statute. 

MOBILE, a dty and the county-seat of Mobile county, Ala- 
bama, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, at the mouth 
of Mobile River, and the head of Mobile Bay. Pop. (X890), 
31,076; (X900), 38,469, of whom 17,045 were negroes and 31x1 
foreign-bom (563 German, 49a Irish, 202 English); (x9xo 
census), 5x,52x. It is served by the Southern, the Louisville 
& Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, the Mobile, Jackson & Kansas 
City, and the Tombigbee Valley railways; by steamboat lines 
to ports in Europe, Cuba, Mexico, Central America (especially 
Panama) and South America; by a coastwise steamboat line 
to New York; and by river boats on a river system embracing 
nearly 2000 m. of navigable waters in Alabama, Mississippi,, 
and Georgia. The city occupies about X7 sq. m. of a sandy 
plain, which rises gradually, from a low water front along the 
river to a range of hills a few miles to the westward. Among 
the principal buildings are the customs-house and post-office, 
the court-house, the Battle House (a hotel), the United States 
marine hospital, the city hospital, the Providence infirmary. 
Barton Academy (a part of the public school system), a Young 
Men's Christian Association building, St Joseph's church 
(Roman Catholic), the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, 
the Van Antwerp office building, and the southern market and 
armoury. Mobile is the see of a Roman Catholic bishopric 
and the headquarters of the United States district court 
for the southem district of Alabama. In the dty are a public 
library; the departments of medicine and pharmacy of the 
university of Alabama; the academy of the Visitation, and the 



636 



MOBIUS 



Immaculate Conception school, both for girls and both Roman 
Catholic; the Convent of Mercy; the Emerson normal and 
industrial school (for negroes), McGill Institute, the University 
militaiy school, and the Mobile military institute; and 5 m. 
from Mobile, at Spring Hill, is Spring Hill college (Roman 
Catholic, founded in 1830, chartered 1836), controlled by the 
Jesuits. There is an annual celebration in Mobile on Mardi 
Gras (Shrove Tuesday), conducted by the Order of Myths and 
the Mystics, two social organizations, successors of the Cowbel- 
lion de Rakin Society, which was organized in 1830 and long 
conducted a somewhat similar celebration- annually on New 
Year's Eve. 

• Mobile is the only seaport of Alabanuu'ln 1826 the channel 
from it to the Gulf, about 30 m. distant, had a minimum depth 
of only 5I ft. through Choctaw Pass and 8 ft. through Dog 
River bar; but sulMequently the channel has been greatly 
improved by the United States government, and in June 1908* 
vessels drawing 23 and 24 ft. could pass at low-water to the 
mouth of Chickasaw Creek above the city. While the channel 
was still shallow, and rapidly growing railway systems were 
serving other ports, much foreign commerce was lost to Mobile, 
the value of the exports falling off from $X2,784>X7X in 1877 
to $3,258,605 in 1882, and the value of the imports, during the 
tame period, from $648,404 to $396,573; but after the improve- 
ment of the channel the value of the exports increased fropi 
$8,140,502 in 1897 to $26,81^,279 in 1908, and the value of the 
imports tost from $956,7x2 in 1897 to $4,242,169 in 1908. 
The foreign conunerce consists largely in the export of cotton, 
lumber, timber, cotton-seed oil, coal, provisions and clothing, 
and in the import of tropical fruits (especially bananas), sisal 
grass, coffee, mahogany, asphalt, and manganese and sulphur 
ores. Vegetables, particularly beans and cabbage, and small 
fruits are grown extensively in the vidnity, and the city has an 
important domestic trade in market-garden produce, fish and 
oysters, hardware, dry goods, grain and groceries. In manu- 
facturing Mobile was second (Birmingham being first) among the 
dries of the state in 1905, when the value of the factory product 
was $4,942,331, 41-8% more than in 1900. In 1905 it ranked 
first in the state in the value of fertilizer, lumber and timber,, 
and in the construcUon of railway cars; and the manufacture 
of flour and grist mill products and machinery for lumber mills 
were important industries. 

/ Founded by Pierre Lemoyne, Sieur dlberville (1661-1706), 
and his brother Jean Baptiste Lemoyne, Sieur de Bienville 
(1680-1768), in 1702, Mobile* was the capital of the French 
province of Louisiana until 1720, when the seat of government 
was transferred to Biloxi, in the present Mississippi. The 
original settlement was at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff, about 
20 m. above the present site, to which it was removed in 1710 
as a consequence of floods in 1709. By the Treaty of Paris 
(1763) Mobile, as a part of Louisiana east of the Mississippi, 
was ceded to Great Britain; but on the Z4th of March 1780 
it was captured by a Spanish force imder Don Bernardo de 
Galvez (1755-1786), the governor at New Orleans, and Spain 
was confirmed in its possession by the treaty of 1783. Spanish 
dvil institutions were introduced, and new names, such as Con- 
ception, St Emanud and St Joseph, which stiU survive, were 
given to the streets. Yet ndther the English nor the Spanish 
V)ccupation made any substantial change in the tone of the place 
or the habits of its people, even the negroes holding to their 
French jargon. The alliance between' Great Britain and Spain, 
at the outbreak of the war of 18 12, gave Mobile strategic import- 
ance for the military operaUons in the south-west. Hence, 
on the 15th of April 1813 General James Wilkinson, acting on 
President James Madison's instructions, which were based 
on the daim that Mobile was a part of Louisiana sold by France 
to the United States in 1803, seized Mobile for the United States. 

* Between 1826 and 1908 the Federal government expended 
$^,ia8,i79 on the improvement of the harbour. The bar channel 
also has been improved. 

' The dty was named from the Mobile or Maubila Indians, a 
Muskho^ean tribe, now extinct, who occupied the neighbouring 
T^ion and were Christianized by the French.' 



In August 18x4 General Andrew Jadcson made Mobile hit 
headquarters. He repaired Fort Bowyer, on Mobile Pdint 
at the mouth of the bay, and garrisoned it just in time for it 
to resist attack by the British on the 15th of September. On 
the XI th of February 1815, forty-two days after peace had been 
dedared and thirty-four days after the battle of NewOrieaos, 
a British force captured Fort Bowyer; but it made no move 
against Mobile, and withdrew on the xst of ApciL Now begu 
the Americanizarion of Mobile, a tide of immigration from the 
up-country setting in and rapidly changing the character of 
the place, which had previously been distinctly French. A 
town charter had been granted by the territorial legislature 
of Mississippi on the 20th of January 18x4, and an interestiof 
feature imder the town government was the " tariff for baken.* 
which fixed the weight of loaves of bread in accordance witk 
the price of flour. A dty charter, dated the xytb of December 
1819, was granted by the first sUte legislature of Alabama, 
and Mobile became the commerdal emporium for Alabana 
and Mississippi, its cotton exports increasing from 7000 boles 
in x8i8 to 100,000 in 1830 and 450,000 in x84a In iM 
Barton Academy, still one of the landmarks of tlie dty, w 
built; but it was not imtil 185^ that common sdiools veie 
opened in Mobile county. Branches of the United Ststs 
Bank and of the State bank were established at Mobile, and is 
the panic of 1837 the Bank of Mobile was one of the few bub 
in the United States that did not suspend payment Tke 
Mobile & Ohio railroad, begun in 1848, j[>rovided ampler con* 
munication with the Mississippi valley, and Mobile's export 
of cotton rose to x,ooo,ooo bales in x86x. 

During the Civil War Mobile was an important seaport cf the 
Confederacy. A Federal blockade was begun as eariy as the 36tli 
of May x86i, but trade with West Indian and European poiti 
was continued by a line of swift vessels, which regulariy csoped 
the blockading squadron. On the 5th of August 1864 Adoinl 
David G. Farragut iq.v.), with a Federal fleet of four iron moot- 
tors,, seven wooden sloops of war, and several gunboats, entered 
the channel by passing the Confederate defences. Fort Gainaoa 
Dauphin Island and Fort Morgan occupying the site of oM Fert 
Bowyer on Mobile Point, captured the formidable Confedenti 
ironclad ram " Tennessee," destroyed one gunboat and dmt 
another aground. One of the Federal monitors, the " Tecsi' 
seh," was destroyed by torpedoes. The Confederate fleet «is 
conmianded by Admiral Franklin Buchanan (x8oo-iS74)' 
Fort Gaines surrendered on the 7th, and Fort Morgan on the tjiol 
of the same month. In the spring of 1865 General £. It & 
Canby (1819-1873), with a Federal force of about 45iO0O, W 
siege to Fort BUkely and Spanish Fort, on the east ^ of the 
bay (opp9site the dty), defended by General RandaU L. Gib* 
(1832-1892) with 5000 men. After twenty-five days of resotiace 
the Confederates evacuated the fortifications and then thedt^ 
the Federals entering on the x 2th of April 1865. Losses fno lu* 
way enterprises and the panic of 1873 resulted in the banknptcy 
of the munidpality in 1879, whereupon its charter was yioted, 
its property vested in certain trustees a^ng under the Cfaanctiy 
Court to adjust its debt, and a munidpal government underlie 
tiame of Port of Mobile succeeded the dty of Mobfle until itt7i 
when the latter was again chartered. On the 27th of Septenber 
1906 Mobile was swept by a hurricane, which destroyed pnpoQT 
valued at $5,000,000 or more. 

See Peter J. Hamilton. CoUmud Mobile (Boston. 1807): tfd a 
chapter by the same writer in L. P. Powell's Historic Tmtastf^ 
Southtm States (New York, 1900). 

HdBIUS. AUGUST FERDINAND <x790-x868), (knnia 
astronomer and mathematidan, was bom at Schulpforta 00 tbe 
17th of November 1790. At Leipzig, G6ttingen and tbSf ^ 
studied for four years, ulUmatdy devoting himself to mttk^ 
matics and astronomy. In 1815 he settled at Leipzig as pn^it* 
docent, and the next year became extraordinary pcofesior d 
astronomy in connexion with the university. Later be ^ 
chosen director of the university observatory, which was«K*« 
(1818-1821) under his superintendence. In 1844 he wasetetw 
ordinaxy professor of higher mechmifi aiui astronomy, a postM* 



MOCATTA— MOCKING-BIRD 



637 



which be held till his death on the 36th of September x868. His 
doctor's dissertation, De computandis occullationibus fixarum per 
plandas (Leipzig, 181 5), established his reputation as a theoretical 
astronomer. Die HauptsiUze der A sironomie (1836) , Die Elemente 
itr Meckanik des Himmels (1843), may be noted amongst his 
other purely astronomical publications. Of more general in- 
terest, however, are his labours in pure mathematics, which 
Bf^tu for the most part in CrelU*s Journal from 1828 to 1858. 
These piq)ers are chiefly geometrical, many of them being develop- 
ments and applications of the methods laid down in his great 
work, Der barycentriscke Calcul (Leipzig, 1827), which, as the 
name implies, is based upon the properties of the mean point or 
centre of mass (see Algebka; Universal). This work abounds in 
suggestions and foreshadowings of some of the most striking 
discoveries in more recent times — such, for example, as are 
contained in H. Grassmann's AusdehnungsUhre and Sir W. R. 
Hamilton's Qualemions. Mdbius must be regarded as one of the 
leaders in the introduction of the powerful methods of modem 
projective geometry. 

Hb Gtsammelten Werke have been published in four volumes at 
Leipzig (1885-1887). 

MOCATTA, FREDERICK DAVID (1828-1905), English 
Jewish philanthropist, was a member of the London financial 
firm, Mocatta and Goldsmid, but retired from business in 1874 
and devoted himself to works of public and private benevolence. 
Besides this he was a patron of learning and himself an author of 
historical works, the chief of which was Tke Jews and tke Inquisi- 
H(m. On occasion of his 70th birthday, he was presented with 
a testimonial from more than 200 philanthropic and literary 
institutions. The Anglo-Jewish Historical Exhibition (1887) 
owed its inception to him. He bequeathed his fine library to the 
Je^rish Historical Society of England, of which he was at one 
time president. This library formed the basis of the collections 
which are now included in the Mocatta Library and Museum, 
founded in his memory, and located at the University of London 
(University College, Gower Street). 

See Trans. Jewisk Hist. Soc. Eng. vol. v. (I. A.) 

MOCCASIN (a North-American Indian word, of which the 
q>elling and pronunciation vary in different dialects), a shoe made 
of deerskin or other soft leather. It is niade in one piece; the 
sole is soft and flexible and the upper part is often adorned with 
embroidery, beading or other ornament. It is the footwear of 
the North American Indian tribes and is also worn by hunters, 
traders and settlers. In botany, the lady's slipper is known 
in the United States of America, as the " moccasin flower," 
from its resemblance to a shoe or moccasin. The name moccasin 
b also given to a venomous snake, found as far north as North 
Carolina and westward to the Rocky Mountains, and popularly 
called " cottonmouth," from the white rim around the mouth. 
It belongs to the family Crotalidae, species Ancistrodan (or 
Cenckris). piscivonts, b about two feet long, and b often found 
in marshy land. It is sometimes called the water moccasin to 
distinguish it from the upland moccasin (Ancistrodon contortrix 
or a^ofuscus), which is commonly called " copperhead " and is 
found further north in dry and mountainous regions. The 
name b possibly a dbtinct word of which the origin has not 
been traced. 

M0CBNI60. the name of a noble and ancient Venetian 
family which gave many doges, statesmen and soldiers to the 
republic Tommaso Mocenico (1343- 14 23) commanded the 
crusading fleet in the expedition to Nicopolis in 1396, and also 
won battles against the Genoese. While he was Venetian 
ambassador at Cremona he was elected doge (1414)1 and he 
escaped in secret, fearing that he might be held a prisoner by 
Gabrino Fondolo, tyrant of that city. He made peace with the 
Turkish sultan, but when hostilities broke out afresh his fleet 
defeated that of the Turks at Gallipoli. During his reign the 
patriarch of Aquileia was forced to cede his territories to the 
republic (1420), which also acquired Friuli and Dalmatia. 
Tommaso greatly encouraged commerce, reconstructed the ducal 
palace and commenced the library. Pietro Mocenico, doge 
from X474 to 1476, was one of the greatest Venetian admirals, 



and revived the fortunes of hb country's navy, which had fallen 
very low after the defeat at Negropont in 1470. In 1472 he 
captured and destroyed Smyrna; the following year he placed 
Catherine Comaro, queen of Cyprus, under Venetian protection, 
and by that means the republic obtained possession of the island 
in 1475. He then defeated the Turks who were besieging 
Scutari, but he there contracted an iUness of which he died. 
Giovanni Mocenico, Pietro 's brother, who was doge from 1478 
to 1485, fought against Mohammed II. and Ercole L, duke of 
Ferrara, from whom he recaptured Rovigo and the Polesine. 
Luici Mocenico was doge from 1570 to 1577. During hb reign 
Venice lost the fortresses Nicosia and Famagosta in Cyprus. 
He took part in the battle of Lepanto, but after the loss of Cyprus 
he was forced to make peace with the Turks and to hand them 
back hb conquests. Andrea Mocenico, who flourished in the 
15th and 1 6th centuries, was a senator of the republic and a 
historian; he composed a work on the league of Cambrai entitled 
Belli memorabilis Cameratensis adversus Venetos kisloriae libri vi. 
(Venice, 1525). Another Luici Mocenico was doge from 1700 
to 1709, and hb brother Sebastiano from 172^ to 1732. Alvise 
Mocenico (i 701-17 78), who was doge from 1763 imtil hb death, 
restricted the privileges of the clergy, and in consequence 
came into bitter conflict with Pope Clement XIU. 

MOCHA STONE, a name applied to chalcedony with dendritic 
markings, said to have been obtained originally from Mocha 
in Arabia. The markings which sometimes simulate with 
curious hdehty the form of miniature trees and shrubs, are 
caused by the infiltration of solutions carrying iron and manga- 
nese, which are deposited as thin films of oxide along the cracks 
of the stone, producing black, brown or red dendrites, effectively 
disposed on a ground of grey or white chalcedony. Most of the 
Mocha stones of commerce are obtained from India, where they 
are found among the agate-pebbles resulting from the disinte- 
gration of the trap rocks of the Deccan. In recent years the 
formation of dendrites has been artificially effected at the agate- 
works of Oberstein, so as to imitate the true Mocha stones. 

MOCK, an adjective meam'ng sham, feigned, spurious, falsely 
imitative. As a verb it means to deride or imitate contemp- 
tuously. The derivation of O. Fr. mocquer, mod. moquer; Ital. 
Moccare, from which the English word b adopted, b disputed. 
Some authorities refer it to Ger. mucken, muckseny to growl, 
grumble, which is probably echoic in origin; others to a supposed 
Late Lat. muccare^ formed from mucus — mucus, in the sense of 
" to wipe the nose at." 

MOCKING-BIRD, or Mock-bisd (as W. Charieton, J. Ray and 
M. Catesby called it), the popular name of birds belonging to 
the American sub-family Miminae of the thrushes, Turdidae^ 
differing by having the tarsus scutellate in front, while the typical 
thrushes have it covered by a single homy plate. Mimus poly^ 
gloUus, the northern mocking-bird, inhabits the southern part of 
the United States, being in the north only a summer visitant; 
it breeds rarely in New England, b seldom found north of the 
38th parallel, and migrates to the south in winter, passing that 
season in the Gulf States and Mexico. It appears to be less 
numerous on the western side of the Alle^anies, Uiough found in 
suitable localities across the continent to the Pacific coast, but 
seldom farther north than Virginia and southern Illinois, and it b 
said to be common in Kansas. J. J. Audubon states that the 
mocking-birds which are resident all the year round in Louisiana 
attack their travelled brethren on the return of the latter from 
the north in autumn. The names of the species, both English 
and scientific, have been bestowed from its capacity of success- 
fully imitating the cry of many other birds, to say nothing of 
other sounds, in addition to uttering notes of its own which possess 
a varied range and liquid fullness of tone that are unequalled, 
according to its admirers, even by those of the nightingale i,q.v.). 

Plain in plumage, being greybh brown above and dull white 
below, while its quills are dingy black, variegated with white, 
there b Uttle about the mocking-bird's appearance beyond its 
graceful form to recommend it; but the lively gesticulations it 
exhibits are very attractive, and therein its European rival in 
melody b far siupassed, for the cock-bird mounts aloft in rapid 



638 



MODEL 



drding 6ight, and, alighting on a conspicuous perch, pours forth 
his ever-changing song to the delight of all listeners; while his 
actions in attendance on his mate are playfully demonstrative 
and equally interest the observer. The mocking-bird b more- 
over of familiar habits, haimting the neighbourhood of houses, 
and is therefore a general favourite. The nest is placed with 
little regard to concealment, and is not distinguished by much 
care in its construction. The eggs, from three to six in number, 
are of a pale bluish-green, blotched and spotted with light 
yellowish-brown. They, as well as the young, are much sought 
ifter by snakes, but the parents are often successful in repelling 
these deadly enemies, and are always ready to wage war against 
any intruder on their precincts, be it man, cat or hawk. Their 
food is various, consisting of berries, seeds and insects. 

Some twelve or fourteen other species of Mimus have been recog- 
nized, mostly from South America; but M, orpkeus seems to be 
common to some of the Greater Antilles, and M. kiUi is peculiar to 
Jamaka. while the Bahamas have a local race in M. bakamensis. 
The so-called mountain mocking-bird (Oreoscoptes nunUcnus) is a 
form not very distant from Mimus: but it inhabits exclusively the 

Elains overgrown with sage-brush (Artemisia) of the interior table- 
md of North America, and is not at all imitative in iu notes, so 
that it is an instance of a misnomer. Of the various other genera 
allied to Mimus, the best known are the thrashers (genus Harpo- 
rkynckus) of which six or eight species are found in North Amenca, 
wnkh are thrush-like and shy m their habits and do not mimU;; 
and the cat-bird (GaieoscopUs carolinensis), which in addition to 
having an attractive song, utters clucks, whistles and mewing sounds. 
The sooty-grey colour tnat, deepening into blackish-brown on the 
crown and quills, pervades the whole of iu plumage — the lower tail- 
coverts, which are of a deep chestnut, excepted — renders it a con- 
spicuous object; and though, for some reason or other, far from being 
a favourite, it is always wuling when undisturbed to become intimate 
with men's abodes. It has a much wider range on the American 
continent than the mocking-bird, and b one of the few species that 
are resident in Bermuda, while on more than one occasion it is said 
to have appeared in Europe. 

The name mocking-bird, or more frequently mock-nightingale. 
is in England occasionally given to some of the warblers (q.v.), 
especially the blackcap {S^via atricapiUa), and the sedge-oird 
\Acroupkalus sckoenobaenus). In India and Australia the same name 
IS sometimes applied to other species. (A. N.) 

HODBL (O. Fr. modelle, mod. modiU; It. modello, pattern, 
mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard), a tangible represen- 
tation, whether the size be equal, or greater, or smaller, of an 
object which is either in actual existence, or has to be constructed 
in fact or in thought. More generally it denotes a thing, whether 
actually existing or only mentally conceived of, whose properties 
are to be copied. In foundries, the object of which a cast is to 
be taken, whether it be for engineering or artistic purposes, is 
usually first formed of some easily workable material, generally 
wood. The form of this model is then reproduced in day or 
plaster, and into the mould thus obtained the molten metal is 
poured. The sculptor first makes a model of the object he 
wishes to chisel in some plastic material such as wax, ingenious 
and complicated contrivances being employed to transfer this 
wax model, true to nature, to the stone in which the final work 
is to be executed. In anatomy and physiology, models arc 
specially employed as aids in teaching and study, and the method 
of moulage or chromoplastic yields excellent impressions of 
living organisms, and enables anatomical and medical prepara- 
tions to be copied both in form and colour. A special method 
is also in use for making plastic models of microscopic and 
minute microscopic objects. That their internal nature and 
structure may be more readily studied, these are divided by 
numerous parallel transverse cuts, by means of a microtome, 
into exceedingly thin sections. Each of these shavings is then 
modelled on an enlarged scale in wax or pulp plates, which are 
fixed together to form a reproduction of the object. 

Models in the mathematical, physical and mechanical sciences 
are of the greatest importance. Long ago philosophy perceived 
j?*pf»Mafa-the essence of our process of thought to lie in the 
tioa/a fact that we attach to the various real objects 
ThcugbL around us particular physical attributes — our con- 
cepts — and by means of these try to represent the objects to our 
minds. Such views were formerly regarded by mathematicians 
and physicists as nothing more than unfertile speculations, but 



in more recent times they have been brought Jby J. C. Mazwd, 
H. v. Helmholu, E. Mach, H. Heru and many others into 
intimate relation with the whole body of mathematical and 
physical theory. On this view our thoughu sUnd to things in 
the same relation as models to the objecu they represent. The 
essence of the process b the attachment of one concept having 
a definite content to each thing, but without implying complete 
similarity between thing and thought; for naturally we can know 
but little of the resemblance of our thoughu to the things to 
which we attach them. What resemblance there b lies principally 
in the nature of the connexion, the correlation being analogous 10 
that which obtains between thought and language, language and 
writing, the notes on the stave and musical sounds, &c. Here, 
of course, the symbolization of the thing b the important point, 
though, where feasible, the utmost possible correspondence is 
sought between the two— the musical scale, for exaimple, being 
imitated by placing the notes higher or lower. When, therefore, 
we endeavour to assbt our conceptions of space by figures, hy 
the methods of descriptive geometry, and by various thread 
and object modeb; our topography by plans, charts and gk)bcs; 
and our mechanical and physical ideas by kinematic modeb— 
we are simply extending and continuing the principle by means 
of which we comprehend objects in thought and represent them 
in language or writing. In precisely the same way the mkro- 
scope or telescope forms a continuation and multiplication of 
the lenses of the eye; and the notebook represents an external 
expansion of the same process which the memory brings about 
by purely internal means. There b also an obvious praiytwi 
with representation by means of modeb when we express kmgi- 
tude, mileage, temperature, &c., by numbers, which should be 
looked upon as arithmetical ansiogies. Of a kindred charKtcr 
b the representation of distances by straight lines, of the ooune 
of events in time by ouves, &c Still, neither in thb case nor 
in that of maps, charts, musical notes, figures, &c, can «e 
legitimately speak of models, for these always involve a oonacU 
spatial analogy in three dimensions. 

So long as the volume of matter to be dealt with in science mi 
insignificant, the need for the employment of modeb vis 
naturally less imperative; indeed, there are self-evident advaS' 
tages in comprehending things without resort to complicated 
models, which are difiicult to make, and cannot be altered aad 
adapted to extremely varied conditions so readily as can tk 
easily adjusted symbob of thought, conception and calcubtioa 
Yet as the facts of science incroued in number, the grestot 
economy of effort had to be observed in comprehending tka 
and in conveying them to others; and the firm establishment of 
ocular demonstration was inevitable in view of its enmiDOVS 
superiority over purely abstract symlxdism for the rapid tad 
complete exhibition of complicated relations. At the preseot 
time it b desirable, on the one hand, that the power of dedodil 
results from purely abstract premisses, without recourse to the 
aid of ungible modeb, should be more and more perfected, 
and on the other that purely abstract conceptions should be 
helped by objective and comprehensive modeb in cases vbeit 
the mass of matter cannot be adequately dealt with directly. 

In pure mathematics, especially geometry, modeb oonstnicted 
of papier-m&ch6 and plaster are chiefly employed to present to 
the senses the precise form of geometrical figures, surfaces 
and curves. Siurfaces of the second order, repre- nnHJt" 
sented by equations of the second degree between ''•'^J^ 
the rectangular co-ordinates of a point, are very «•"**■• 
simple to classify, and accordingly all their possible (onas 
can easily be shown by a few models, which, however, becooe 
somewhat more intricate when lines oi curvature, loxodrooKS 
and geodesic lines have to appear on their surfaces. On tbe 
other hand, the multiplicity of surfaces of the third onkf it 
enormous, and to convey their fundamental types it b xuKoeVf 
to employ numerous modeb of complicated, not to say hazardcwSi 
construction. In the case of more intricate surfaces it >» 
sufficient to present those singularities ipriiich exhibit variatioa 
from the usual type of surface with syndastic or antidastic 
curvatures, such as, for example, a sharp edge or point, v 



MODEL 



639 



an intenectioD of the surface with itself; the elucidation of 
such singularities is of fundamental importance in modem 
mathematics. 

In physical science, again, models that are of unchangeable 
form are largely employed. For example, the operation of the 
refraction of light in crystals can be pictured if we imagine a 
point in the centre of the crystal whence light is dispersed in all 
directions. The aggregate of the places at which the light 
arrives at any instant after it has started is called the wave- 
front. This surface consists of two cups or sheets fitting closely 
and exactly one inside the other. The two rays into which a 
tingle ray is broken are always determined by the points of 
contact of certain tangent-planes drawn to those sheets. With 
crystals possessing two axes these wave-surfaces display peculiar 
singularities in the above sense of the term, in that the inner 
sheet has four protuberances, while the outer has four funnel-like 
depressions, the lowest point of each depression meeting the 
highest point of each protuberance. At each of these funnels 
there is a tangent-plane that touches not in a single point, but in 
a circle bounding the depression, so that the corresponding ray of 
light is refracted, not into two rays, but into a whole cone of light 
— the so-called conical refraction theoretically prediaed by Sir 
W. R. Hamilton and experimentally detected by Humphrey 
Uoyd. These conditions, which it is difficult to adequately 
express in language, are self-evident so soon as the wave-surface 
formed in plaster lies before our eyes. In thermodynamics, 
again, similar models serve, among other purposes, for the 
representation of the surfaces which exhibits the relation between 
the three thermodynamic variables of a body, e.g. between its 
temperature, pressure and volume. A glance at the model of such 
a thermodynamic surface enables the behaviour of a particular 
substance under the most varied conditions to be immediately 
realized. When the ordinate intersects the surface but once a 
single phase only of the body is conceivable, but where there is a 
multiple intersection various phases are possible, which may be 
liquid or gaseous. On the boundaries between these regions 
lie the critical phases, where transition occurs from one type of 
phase into the other. If for one of the elements a quantity 
which occurs in calorimetry be chosen — for example, entropy — 
information is also gained about the behaviour of the body when 
beat is taken in or abstracted. 

After the stationary models hitherto considered, come 
the manifold forms of moving models, such as are used in 
geometry, to show the origin of geometrical figures from the 
motion of others — e.g. the origin of surfaces from the motion 
of lines. These include the thread models, in which threads are 
drawn tightly between movable bars, cords, wheels, rollers, &c. 
In mechanics and engineering an endless variety of working 
models are employed to convey to the eye the working either of 
machines as a whole, or of their component and subordinate 
parts. In theoretical mechanics models are often used to 
exhibit the physical laws of motion in interesting or special 
cases — e.g. the motion of a falling body or of a spinning-top, the 
movement of a pendulum on the rotating earth, the vortical 
motions of fluids, &c. Akin to these are the models which exe- 
cute more or less exactly the hypothetical motions by which 
it is sought to explain various physical phenomena — as, for 
instance, the complicated wave-machines which present the 
motion of the particles in waves of sound (now ascertained with 
fair accuracy), or the more hypothetical motion of the atoms 
of the aether in waves of light. 

The varying importance which in recent times has been 
attached to models of this kind is intimately connected with 
TB> Tiw •/ the changes which have taken place in our con- 
'*^*»' ceptions of nature. The first method by which an 
attempt was made to solve the problem of the universe 
was entirely under the influence of Newton's laws. In ana- 
k>gy to his laws of universal gravitation, all bodies were 
conceived of as consbting of points of matter — atoms or mole- 
cules — ^to which was attributed a direct action at a distance. 
The circumstances of this action at a distance, however, were 
conceived as differing from those of the Newtonian law of attrac- 



tion, in that they could explain the properties bot only of solid 
elastic bodies, but also those of fluids, both liquids and gases. 
The phenomena of heat were explained by the motion of minute 
particles absolutely invisible to the eye, while to explain those 
of light it was assumed that an impalpable medium, called 
luminiferous aether, permeated the whole universe; to this were 
attributed the same properties as were possessed by solid bodies, 
and it was also supposed to consist of atoms, although of a much 
finer composition. To explain electric and magnetic phenomena 
the assumption was made of a third species of matter — electric 
fluids which were conceived of as being more of the nature of 
fluids, but still consisting of infinitesimal particles, also acting 
directly upon one another at a dbtance. This first phase of 
theoretical physics may be called the direct one, in that it took 
as its principal object the investigation of the internal structure 
of matter as it actually exists. It is also known as the mechani- 
cal theory of nature, in that it seeks to trace back all natural 
phenomena to motions of infinitesimal particles, i.e. to purely 
mechanical phenomena. In explaining magnetic and electrical 
phenomena it inevitably fell into somewhat artificial and 
improbable hypotheses, and this induced J. Clerk Maxwell, 
adopting the ideas of Michael Faraday, to propound a theory 
of electric and magnetic phenomena which was not only new in 
substance, but also essentially different in form. If the mole- 
cules and atoms of the old theory were not to be conceived of as 
exact mathematical points in the abstract sense, then their true 
nature and form must be regarded as absolutely unknown, and 
their groupings and motions, required by theory, looked upon as 
simply a process having more or less resemblance to the workings 
of nature, and representing more or less exactly certain aspects 
incidental to them. With this in mind, Maxwell propounded 
certain physical theories which were purely mechanical so far 
as they proceeded from a conception of purely mechanical pro- 
cesses. But he explicitly stated that he did not believe in the 
existence in nature of mechanical agents so constituted, and that 
he regarded them merely as means by which phenomena coidd 
be reproduced, bearing a certain similarity to those actually 
existing, and which also served to include larger groups of 
phenomena in a uniform manner and to determine the relations 
that held in their case. The question no longer being one of 
ascertaining the actual internal structure of matter, many 
mechanical analogies or dynamical illustrations became avail- 
able, possessing different advantages; and as a matter of fact 
Maxwell at first employed special and intricate mechanical 
arrangements, though later these became more general and 
indefinite. This theory, which is called that of mechanical 
analogies, leads to the construction of numerous mechanical 
models. Maxwell himself and his followers devised many kine- 
matic models, designed to afford a representation of the mechani- 
cal construction of the ether as a whole as well as of the separate 
mechanisms at work in it: these resemble the old wave-machines, 
so far as they represent the movements of a purely hypothetical 
mechanism. But while it was formeriy believed that it was 
allowable to assume with a great show of probability the actual 
existence of such mechanisms in nature, yet nowadays philo- 
sophers postulate no more than a partial resemblance between 
the phenomena visible in such mechanisms and those which 
appear in nature. Here again it is perfectly clear that these 
models of wood, metal and cardboard are really a continuation 
and integration of our process of thought , for, according to the 
view in question, physical theory is merely a mental construction 
of mechanical models, the working of which we make plain to 
ourselves by the analogy of mechanisms we hold in our hands, 
and which have so much in common with natural phenomena as 
to help our comprehension of the latter. 

Although Maxwell gave up the idea of making a precise 
investigation into the final structure of matter as it actually is, 
yet in Germany his work, under C. R. Kirchboff's lead, was 
carried still further. Kirchhoff defined his own aim as being 
to describe, not to explain, the world of phenomena; but as he 
leaves the means of description open his theory differs little 
from Maxwell's, so soon as recourse is had to description by 



640 



MODELS, ARTISTS'— MODEL-YACHTING 



means of mechanical modek and analogies. Now the resources 
of pure mathematics being particularly suited for the exact 
description of relations of quantity, Kirchhoff's school laid great 
stress on description by mathematical expressions and formulae, 
and the aim of physical theory came to be regarded as mainly 
the construction of formulae by which phenomena in the various 
branches of physics should be detenhined with the greatest 
approximation to the reality. This view of the nature of 
physical theory is known as mathematical phenomenology; 
it is a presentation of phenomena by analogies, though only 
by such as may be called mathematical. 

Another phenomenology in the widest sense of the term, 
maintained especially by E. Mach, gives less prominence to 
mathematics, but considers the view that the phenomena of 
motion are essentially more fundamental than all the others to 
have been too hastily taken. It rather emphasizes the prime 
importance of description in the most general terms of the various 
spheres of phenomena, and holds that in each sphere its own 
fundamental law and the notions derived from this must be 
employed. Analogies and elucidations of one sphere by another 
— e.g. heat, electricity, &c. — by mechanical conceptions, this 
theory regards as mere ephemeral aids to perception, which are 
necessitated by historical development, but which in course 
of time cither give place to others or entirely vanish from the 
domain of science. 

All these theories are opposed by one called energetics (in 
the narrower sense), which looks upon the conception of energy, 
not that of matter, as the fundamental notion of all scientific 
investigation. It is in the -main based on the similarities energy 
displays in its various spheres of action, but at the same time it 
takes its stand upon an interpretation or explanation of natural 
phenomena by analogies which, however, are not mechanical, 
but deal with the behaviour of energy in its various modes of 
manifestation. 

A distinction must be observed between the models which 
have been described and those experimental models which pre- 
Exptrt- sent on a small scale a machine that is subsequently 
mtmtal to be completed on a larger, so as to afford a trial of 
ModtiM, j^g capabilities. Here it must be noted that a mere 
alteration in dimensions is often sufficient to cause a material 
alteration in the action, since the various capabilities depend in 
various ways on the linear dimensions. Thus the weight varies 
as the cube of the linear dimensions, the surface of any single 
part and the phenomena that depend on such surfaces are pro- 
portionate to the square, while other effects — such as friction, 
expansion and conduction of heat, &c., vary according to other 
laws. Hence a flying-machine, which when nude on a small 
scale is able to support its own weight, loses its power when its 
dimensions are increased. The theory, initiated by Sir Isaac 
Newton, of the dependence of various effects on the linear dimen- 
sions, is treated in the article Units, Dimensions of. Under 
simple conditions it may often be afhrmed that in comparison 
with a large machine a small one has the same capacity, with 
reference to a standard of time which must be diminished in 
a certain ratio. 

Of course experimental models are not only those in which 
purely mechanical forces are employed, but also include models 
of thermal, electro-magnetic and other engines — e.g. dynamos 
and telegraphic machines. The largest collection of such models 
is to be found in the museum of the Washington Patent Office. 
Sometimes, again, other than purely mechanical forces are at 
work in models for purposes of investigation and instruction. 
It often happens that a series of natural processes — such as 
motion in liquids, internal friction of gases, and the conduction 
of heat and electricity in metals — may be expressed by the same 
diflercntial equations; and it is frequently possible to follow by 
means of measurements one of the processes in question — e.g. the 
conduction of electricity just mentioned. If then there be 
shown in a model a particular case of electrical conduction in 
which the same conditions at the boundary hold as in a problem 
of the internal friction of gases, we are able by measuring the 
electrical conduction in the model to determine at once the 



numerical data which obtain for the analogous case of internal 
friction, and which could only be ascertained oth^wise by intri- 
cate calculations. Intricate calculations, moreover, can very 
of ctn be dispensed with by the aid of mechanical devices, such 
as the ingenious calculating machines which perform additions 
and subtractions and very elaborate multiplications and divi- 
sions with surprising speed and accuracy, or apparatus for 
solving the higher equations, for determining the volume or 
area of geometrical figures, for carrying out integrations, and 
for developing a function in a Fourier's series by mechanical 
means. (L. Bo.) 

MODELS. ARTISTS*, the name given to persons who pose 
to artists as models for their work. The Greeks, who had 
the naked body constantly before them in the exercises oC the 
gymnasium, had far less need of professional models than the 
modems; but it is scarcely likely that they could have attained 
to the high level reached by their works without constant study 
from nature; and the story told of Zeuxis by Valerius Maximus, 
who had five of the most beautiful virgins of the city <^ Crotona 
offered him as models for his picture of Helen, proves their 
occasional use. The remark of Eupompus, quoted by Pliny,, 
who advised Lysippus, " Let nature be your model, not an artist,'"^ 
directing his attention to the crowd instead of to his own work^^, 
also suggests a use of models which the many portrait statue^v 
of Greek and Roman times show to have been not unknown. Irr-^; 
^Sypl* too, although the priesthood had control of both sculpt! 
and painting as used for the decoration of temples and _ 

and imposed a strict conventionalism, there are several stat ucj g. 
of the early periods which are so lifelike in their treatment as ^ 
make it certain that they must have been worked from liC ^ 
At the period of the Renaissance, painters generally made 
of their relations and friends as modeb, of which many exanpiSi _ 
might be quoted from Venice, Florence, Rome and other plaoie^ 
and the stories of Titian and the duchess of Ferrara, and Bot.t/. 
celli and Simoneita Vespucci, go to show that ladies of exalte*/ 
rank were sometimes not averse from having their charms 
immortalized by the painter's brush. But paid models were 
not unknown, as the story of the unfortunate contadino used by 
Sansovino as model for his statue of the little Bacchus will sbov. 
Artists' models as a special class appear when the establishiBeot 
of schools for the study of the human figure created a repiiar 
demand, and since that time the remuneration offered &as 
ensured a continual supply. The prices and the houn of vnt 
vary in different art centres. In En^and seven diillinp '^ 
generally paid for a day of six hours, but models of exceptiosal 
beauty or talent frequently obtain more from successful iitiftt 
or wealthy amateurs. 

MODEL-YACHTING, the pastime of building and ncoff 
model-yachts. It has always been customary for ship-builden 
to make a miniature modd of the vessel under constnctioB. 
which is in every respect a copy of the original on a small lok. 
whether steam-ship or sailing-vessel (there is a fine coUectioo 
in the Victoria and Albert Musetmi, London). Many of tivK 
models are of exquisite workmanship, every rope, polky ^ 
portion of the engine being faithfully reproduced. In the case of 
sailing yachts these models were often pitted against each otto 
on small bodies of water, and hence arose the modem V^^ 
It was soon seen that elaborate fittings and complicated 
rigging were a detriment to rapid handling, and that, on *f^^ 
of the comparatively stronger winds in which modeb weresuW. 
they needed a greater draught. For these reasons modtfj 
model yachts, which usually have fin-keeb, are of about iS% 
or 20% deeper draught than full-sized vesseb, while riggiaf *n 
fittings have been reduced to absolute simpUdty. This aff^ 
to modeb built for racing and not to elaborate copies of steiocil 
and ships, made only for show or for " toy cruising." 

Model-yacht clubs have existed for many ytais io Gitrt 
Britain, Ireland and the United States, most of them holdinC* 
number of regattas during each season. The rules do ^ 
generally require the owner or skipper of a modd to boild te 
own craft, but among modd-yachtsmen the designing sad tbe 
construction of the boats constitute as important and intcrestBC 



MODENA 



641 



a put of the sport as the actual saOlog. Models are construcud 
of some light, seasoned wood— such as pioe (preferably white), 
white cedar or mahogany — free from knots. The hull may 
either be hollowed out of a solid block of wood, or cut from layers 
of planks in the so-called " bread-and-butter " style, or planked 
over a frame of keel and cross-sections. The first two methods 
are used in construaing " dug-out " models. Hollowing out 
from the solid block entails a great deal of labour and has there- 
fore fallen into disfavour. In the " bread-and-butter " style a 
number of planks, which have been shaped to the horizontal 
sections of the model and from which the middle has been 
sawn out, are glued together and then cut down to the exact 
lines of the design, templates being used to test the precision of 
the curves. In the planked, or " built-up ** model, which is 
generally chosen by more expert builders, the planks are tacked 
to the frame, as in the construction of large vessels. Models 
DOW are generally exaggerated cutters, so far as their imder- 
bodies are concerned, or, more often, are fitted with fin-keels 
weighted with lead, after the manner of full-sized yachts. 
They may have any rig, but schooner and sloop rigs are most 
common, the latter being the favourite for racing on account of 
its simplicity. Two kinds of steering-gear are used, the weighted 
twinging rudder and the " main-sheet balance gear," the object 
of both being to keep the model on a true course, either before 
or against the wind. Models are often sailed without rudders, 
but though a perfectly built boat will sail readily against the 
wind without steering-gear, it is almost impossible to keep it 
on its course before the wind without some contrivance to check 
divergence. This is accomplished by the weighted rudder, 
which falls over when the vessel heels and tends to counteract 
the force of the breeze. There are two varieties of the weighted 
rudder, in the first of which the weight, usually lead, is fixed to 
the edge of the rudder, while in the second the weight, usually 
a ball of lead, is made to run on the tiller above the deck, so 
that it can be placed further forward or aft, according to the 
force needed to overcome the influence of the wind. While the 
weighted rudder is almost universal in the British Isles, the chief 
model-yachtsmen in America use the " main-sheet balance 
gear," in which the boom is connected with the tiller in such a 
manner that, when it swings out with a pressure of wind, the 
rudder is automatically pulled round sufficiently to keep the 
yacht in its course. This apparatus is particularly efficient in 
sailing before the wind. 

Model-yacht regattas are very different from the toy-boat 
matches indulged in by children from one side of a pond to the 
other. They take place upon sufficiently large bodies of water 
to allow a course at least a quarter of a mile in length, which is 
generally sailed twice or three times over to windward and back- 
ward. Triangular courses are also sailed. Racing rules corre- 
spond generally to those controlling regattas of large boats, 
tod there is full scope to exhibit all the proofs of good seaman- 
ahip. The yachts are followed in light skiffs, and may not be 
touched more than a certain number of times during a race, 
oa penalty of a handicap. Racing measurements differ in the 
Various clubs, but all are based upon length and sail-area. In 
Great Britain the regular Yacht Racing Association rule has 
been generally adopted, and handicaps deducted from it. In 
America models are divided into a single schooner with a maxi- 
Hiuxn load water-line of 63 in., and three classes of sloops, tbe first 
class including yachts with water-lines between 48 and 53 in., 
the second class those between 42 and 48 in. and the third and 
Smallest class those between 35 and 42 in. A yacht with a 
shorter water-line than 35 in. must race in the third class. It has 
been found that yachts of smaller dimensions possess too little 
resistance to the wind. 

See Modd Sailint Yachts, in Marshall's Practical Manuals series, 
1905; and How to Build a Moid Yacht, by Herbert Fisher (New 
York. I9<»). 

■ODENA (ancient Muiina)^ one of the principal cities of 
Emilia, Italy, the chief town of the province of Modena and the 
seat of an archbishop, 31 m. E.S.E. of Parma by raiL Pop. 
(1906), 26,847 (town); 66,763 (commune). It is situated in a 



damp, low plain in the open country in the south dde of the valley 
of the Po, between the Secchia to the west and the Panaro to the 
east. Some of its main streets (as their names indicate) follow 
the lines of canals, which still (though now covered) traverse 
the city in various directions. The observatory stands 135 ft, 
above the level of the sea. Dismantled since z8i6, and now 
largely converted into promenades, the fortifications give the 
city an irregular pentagonal contour, modified at the north-west 
comer by the addition of a citadel also pentagonal Within this 
ciroiit there are various open areas — the spacious Ippodromo 
in front of the citadel, the public gardens in the north-east of 
the city, the Piazza Grande in front of the cathedral, and the 
Piazza Reale to the south of the palace. The Via Aemilia 
passes obliquely right through the heart of the dty, from the 
Bologna Gate in the east to that of Sant' Agostino in the west. 

Begun by the Countess Matilda of Tuscany in 1099, after the 
designs of Lanfranc, and consecrated in 1184, the Romanesque 
cathedral (S (}eminiano) is a low but handsome building, with 
a lofty crypt, under the choir (characteristic of the Tuscan 
Romanesque architecture), three eastern apses, and a fagade 
still preserving some curious sculptures of the 12th century. 
The interior was restored in 1897. The graceful bell-tower, 
erected in 1224-1319, named La Ghirlandina from the bronze 
garland surrounding the weathercock, is 335 ft. high; in the base* 
ment may be seen the wooden bucket captured by the Modenese 
from the Bolognese in the affray at Zappolino (1325), and 
rendered famous by Tassoni's Secchia Rapita, Of the other 
churches in Modena, the church of S Giovanni Decollato 
contains a Pieta in painted terra-cotta by Guido Mazzoni 
(1450-15 1 8). The so-called Pantheon Estense (the church 
of S. Agostino, containing works of sculpture in honour of 
the house of Este) is a baroque building by Bibbiena; 
it also contains the tombs of Sigonio and Muratori. San 
Pietro and San Francesco have terra-cottas by Begarelli 
(1498-1565). Tlie old ducal palace, begun by Duke Francis L 
in 1635 from the designs of Avanzini, and finished by Francis 
Ferdinand V., is an extensive building with a fine courtyard, 
and now contains the military school and the observatory. 
The Albergo d' Arti, built by Duke Francis III., accommodates 
the civic collections, comprising the Museo Lapidario (Roman 
inscriptions, &c.); the valuable archives, the Biblioteca Estense, 
with 90,000 volumes and 3000 MSS ; the Museo Civico, with large 
and good palaeo-ethnological and archaeological collections; a 
fine collection of textile fabrics, and the picture gallery, a good 
representative collection presented to the city by Francis V. 
and since augmented by the addition of the collection of the 
Marchese Campori. Many of the best pictures in the ducal 
collection were sold in the x8th century and found their way to 
Dresden. The town hall is a noteworthy building, with arcades 
dating from 1194, but in part rebuilt in 1826. The university 
of Modena, originally founded in 1683 by Francis II., is mainly 
a medical and legal school, but has also a faculty of physical and 
mathematical science. The old academy of the Dissonanti, 
dating from 1684, was restored in 1814, and now forms the 
flourishing Royal Academy of Science and Art. In industrial 
enterprise silk and linen goods and iron wares are almost the only 
products of any note. Commerce is chiefly agricultural and is 
stimulated by a good position in the railway system, and by a 
canal which opens a water-way by the Panaro and the Po to the 
Adriatic. Modena is the point at which the railway to Mantua 
and Verona diverges from that between Milan and Bologna, and 
has several steam tramways to neighbouring places. . It is also 
the starting-point of a once important road over the Apennines 
to Pistoia by the Abetone Pass. 

Modena is the ancient Mutina in the territory of the Boil, 
which came into the possession of the Romans probably in the 
war of 215-312 B.C. In 183 B.C. Mutina became the seat of a 
Roman colony. The Roman town lay inmiediately to the south- 
east of the modem; its north-western wall is marked by the 
modem Corso Umberto I. (formerly Canal Grande) It appears 
to have been a place of importance under the empire, but none 
of its buildings is now to be seen. The Roman level, indeed^ 



642 



MODERATOR— MODJESKA 



is some 15 to ao ft. bdow the modern town. Its vineyirds &nd 
lotteries are mentioned by Pliny, the latter doing a considerable 
export trade. Its territory was coterminous with thai of 
Bononia and Regium, as its diocese is now, and to the south it 
«eems to have extended to the summit of the Apennines. During 
the civil wars Maircus Brutus, the lieutenant of Lepldua, hdd 
out within its walls against Pompeius in 78 B.C., and in 44 ^c* 
the place was successfully defended by D. Brutus against Mark 
Antony for four months. The 4th century found Murina^ in a 
state of decay; the ravages of Attila and the troubtn of the 
Lombard period left it a ruined city in a wasted land, tn the 
7th century, perhaps owing to a terrible inundation,' it^ exile 
founded, at a distance of 4 m. to the north-west, a new city, 
Citti Geminiana (still represented by the village of CittanQva) ; 
but about the close of the 9th century Modena was reaiored and 
refortified by its bishop, Ludovicus. When it began to build iif 
cathedral (a.d. 1099) the city was part of the possessions of the 
Countess Matilda of Tuscany; but when, in 1184, the tdi&cc wjl& 
consecrated by Lucius III., it was a free community. In the 
wars between Frederick II. and Gregory IX. it sided with the 
emperor, though ultimately the papal party was strong enough 
to introduce confusion into its policy. In 1288 Ohiito d'Este 
was recognized as lord of the city; after the death of his successor, 
Azzo VIII. (1308), it resumed its communal independence; but 
by 1336 the Este family was again in power. Constituted a 
duchy in 1452 in favour of Borso d'Este, and enlarged and 
strengthened by Hercules II., it became the ducal residente on 
the incorporation of Ferrara with the Stales of the Church (1 59S). 
Francis I. (1629-1658) erected the citadel and commenced the 
palace, which was largely embellished by Francis II. Rjndjdo 
'iob. 1737) was twice driven from his city by French invasion. 
To Francis III. (1698-1780) the city was indebted for many of 
its public buildings. Hercules III. (1727-1803) saw hii states 
transformed by the French into the Cispadine Republic, and, 
having refused the principality of Breisgau and Ortenau, offered 
him in compensation by the treaty of Campo Formio, died an 
exile at Treviso. His only daughter, Maria Beatrice, mam'td 
Ferdinand of Austria (son of Maria Theresa), and in 1S14 their 
eldest son, Francis, received back the Stati Estensi. Hii rule 
was subservient to Austria, reactionary and despotic. On the 
outbreak of the French Revolution of 1830, Francis IV. seemed 
for a time disposed to encourage the corresponding movement, 
in Modena; but no sooner had the Austrian army put an end 
to the insurrection in Central Italy than he returned to bis 
previous policy. Francis Ferdinand V., who succeeded in (846^ 
followed in the main his father's example. Obliged to leave 
the city in 1848, he was restored by the Austrians in 1349; icn 
years later, on the 20th of August 1859, the representatives of 
Modena declared their territory part of the kingdom o{ Itdy, 
and their decision was confirmed by the plebiscite of 1 S&o. 

See Vedriani, Storia di Modena (1666); Ttraboschi, Mem. st^icht 
modenesi ' ----- ^ . . — 
Oreste 

Valdrii ,__ , 

Cresijcllani, Guida di Modena (1879); Cavedoni, Dichtarczieae dfiii 
antici marmi Modenesi (1828). 

MODERATOR (from Lat. moderare, to impose a modus, limit), 
a judge or umpire, one who acts the part of mediator, and so 
a term used of the person chosen to be president of a meeting 
(as in America, of a town meeting). In academic use M he word 
was formerly applied to the public officer who presided over the 
exercises, &c., prescribed for candidates for degrees in the univer- 
sity schools; it is now used at Cambridge of one or two o&ccrs 
who are appointed each year to preside over the examination for 
the mathematical tripos, at Oxford of an examiner in the ftrst 
public examination, kno^^Ti as " moderations," and at Dublin 
of a candidate for honours in the examination for degree oi 
Bachelor of Arts. In the Presbyterian churches th*^ nan^e h 
applied to the minister elected to preside over ecclesiaitical 
meetings or assemblies, as the synod, presbytery or general 

* Some authorities (of whom Tiraboschi was the first) attribute 
its desertion entirely to a succession of inundations, denying that it 
was even among the cities destroyed by Attila. 



assembly (see PiESBYTEftiAMlSK). Tlie name was historktOy 
given to a party of people who joined together to oppose the 

"Regulators," another party who professed to adminisrfr jta* 
tice in the Carolinas (i 767-1771). Technically, the word is abo 
used of a particular form of lamp, in which the flow tii o3 
from the reservoir to the burner is regulated by a m^h*"^^' 
arrangement to which the name is apph'ed. 

HODERATUS OP 6ADES, a Greek phUosopber of the Neo- 
Pythagorean school, contemporary with ApoUonius of Tyaoa. 
He wrote a great work on the doctrines of the Pythagoreans, 
and tried to show that the successors of Pythagoras had made no 
additions to the views of their founder, but had merely borrowed 
and altered the phraseology. He has been given a fictitiool 
importance by recent commentators, who have regarded him 
as the forenmner of the Alexandrian School of philosophy. 
Zeller has shown that the authority on which this view is based 
is entirely unsound. Moderatus Is thus left as an unimportaot 
though interesting representative of a type of thought which 
had almost disappeared since the sth century B.C. 

Stobaeus, Ecloiae, p. 3, preserves a fragment of his writings. 

HODESTINUS, HERENNIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist, who 
flourished about 250 B.C. He appears to have been a nathre 
of one of the Greek-speaking provinces, probably Dalmatia, 
and was a pupil of Ulpian. In Valentinian's Law of Citation 
he is classed with Papinian, Paulus, Gains and Ulpian. He ii 
mentioned in a rescript of Gordian in the year 240 B.C is 
connexion with a responsum which he gave to the party to whoa 
the rescript was addressed. No fewer than 345 passages ii 
the Digest are taken from his writings. 

HODICA, a town of Sicily, in the province of Syracuse, 57 n. 
W.S.W. of Syracuse by rail and SS ^' direct. Pop. (1901), 
48,962. It lies on a hill between two valleys; the hill, cxowncd 
by the church of S. Giorgio, reconstructed in the 17th catuiy. 
was the site of the Sicel town of Motyca, while the modem part 
of the town extends along the river Mauro, an intmdation of 
which did much damage in September 1902. Remains of negi* 
lithic buildings, apparently, however, houses of the Byzantiae 
period, are described in Nolizie degli Scavi, 1896, 242 seq. S> 
miles to the south-east is the valley known as the Cava d'lspica, 
with hundreds of grottoes cut in its rocky sides; of these oolyt 
few are Sicel tombs, the majority being catacombs or opea 
tombs of the early Christian and Byzantine periods, or eves 
cave-dwellings of the latter age. 

See P. Orsi in Notitie degli Scavi (1905). 431. 

HODILLION (a French word, probably from Lat. mcitAa, 
a measure of proportion), a term in architecture for the enrickd 
block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice lod 
above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It b probsl^f 
so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances. 

MODJESKA, HELENA (1844-1909), Polish actress, was bora 
at Cracow on the X2th of October 1844. Her father, Micbad 
Opido, was a musician, and her tastes soon declared thanseNei 
strongly in favour of a dramatic career; but it was not until tftcr 
her marriage in x86i that she first attempted to act, and then it 
was with a company of strolling players. Her husband (tidioie 
name, Modrzejewski, she simplified for stage purposes) died ia 
1865. In 1868 she married Count Bozenta Chlapowski. a Fo&k 
politician and critic, and almost immediately afterwards recci«<i 
an invntation to act at Warsaw. There she remained for s««* 
or eight years, and won a high position in her art. Her d«id 
tragic r6les were Ophelia, Juliet, Desdemona, Queen Anne to 
Richard III., Louisa Miller, Maria Stuart, Schiller's Princ« 
Eboli, Marion Delorme, Victor Hugo's Tisb* and Stowcki^' 
Mazcppa. In comedy her favourite r61cs were Beatrice ia 
Much Ado About Nothing, and Donna Diana in the Polish uaos* 
lation of an old Spanish play of that name. Madame Modjeskj 
was also the Polish interpretress of the most prominent plays ol 
Legouv6, Dumas, .father and son, Augier. Alfred de Mfflielj 
Octave Fcuillet and Sardou. In 1876 she went with her husband 
to California, where they settled on a ranch. This new career, 
however, proved ft failure, and Madame Modjeska letamcd » 



MODLING— MOESIA 



643 



the stage. She appeared in Sao Francisco in 1877, in an English 
vexalon of Adrienne Lecouvreur^ and, in spite of her imperfect 
command of the language, achieved a remarkable success. She 
continued to act principally in America, but was also seen from 
time to time in London and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, 
her repertory including several Shakespearian r61es and a variety 
of emotional parts in modem drama. She died on the 9th of 
April 1009 at her home near Los Angeles, California. 

SeeKIabd Collins, The Story of Helena Modjeska (London, i883),and 
the (autobiographical) Memories and Impressions (New York, 1910). 

HODLINO, an old town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 10 m. S. 
of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 15,304. It is situated at the 
entrance of the Brilhl valley and is a popular summer resort, 
possessing iron and sulphur baths. It possesses a Gothic church, 
with a crypt dating from the xsth century, and a still older 
Romanesque burial chapel. It has a considerable iron and 
metal industry, and manufactures of shoes, varnish, &c. 

MODOC (i.e. " southerners "), a tribe of North American 
Indians of the Lutuamian stock, who formerly lived around Lower 
Klamath Lake, south-western Oregon. They were always an 
aggressive people, and constantly at war with their neighbours. 
They are known mainly from their stubborn resistance to the 
United States government in 1872 and 1873. This is called 
the Modoc War, and was caused by an attempt to place them 
on a reservation. After some preliminary fighting the Modocs 
retreated to the " Lava Beds," a basaltic region, seamed and 
crevassed, and rich in caves. Here they made a stand for several 
months. During the war two members of a peace commission 
were treacherously massacred by them while under a flag of 
trace. On their final submission the leaders were hanged and 
part of the tribe was removed to Indian Territory (now 
Oklahoma), and the others were sent back to a reservation on 
the Klamath. 

MODULE (Lat. modulus, a measure), in architecture, the semi- 
diameter of the column at its base, the term was first set forth 
by Vitruvius (iv. 3), and was generally employed by the archi- 
tects of the Italian revival to determine the relative proportions 
of the various parts of a columnar ordinance. The module was 
divided by the revivalists into thirty parts, called minutes, 
aUowing of much greater accuracy than was thought necessary 
by Vitruvius, whose subdivision was usually six parts. The 
tendency now is to adopt the whole diameter instead of the 
semi-diameter when determining the height of the column or 
entablature or any of their subdivisions. The term module is 
also applied in hydraulics (g.v.) to a contrivance for regulating 
the supply of water from an irrigation channel. 

MOBRIS, ABUUS, Greek grammarian, sumamed AUicista 
(" the Attidst "), probably flourished in the 2nd century a.d. 
He was the author of an extant (more or less alphabetical) list 
of Attic forms and expressions ('Amxal X<(at), accompanied 
by the Hellenistic parallels of his own time, the differences of 
gender, accent and meaning being clearly and succinctly pointed 
out. 

Editions by J. Hudson (171 1); J. Pierson (1759); A- Koch (1830); 
i: Bekkcr (1833): with Harpocration. 

MOBRIS. LAKE OF. the Uke which formerly filled the deep 
depression of the Fayum to the Nile level, now shrunken and 
sunk more than 200 ft. to the shallow Birket el KerQn. In remote 
prehistoric times the Fayum depression was probably dry, but 
with the gradual rise of the river bed the high Nile reached a 
level at which it could enter through the natural or artificial 
channel now known as the Bahr Yusuf. The borders of the lake 
were occupied by a neolithic people, and the town of Crocodilo- 
polis grew up very early on the eastern slope south of the channel, 
where the higher ground formed a ridge in the lake. The nse 
ccmtinuing (at the rate of about 4 in. to the century) the waters 
threatened to flood the town; consequently under the Xllth 
Dynasty great embankments were made to save the settled land 
from encroachment. The line of the embankment is still trace- 
able in places and marked by monuments of the Xllth Dynasty 
kines, an obelisk of Senwosri I. at Ebgig, and colossi of 
Afl>enemh6 III. at Biahmu. The latter ornamented the quay 



of the port of CrocodilopoUs, and projected into the lake on high 
bases. As the Nile fell the broad expanse of the lake lowered, 
and the water pouring back through the chapnel was of value for 
summer irrigation; the inflow and outflow were regulated by 
sluices, and the capture of fish here and in the lake was enormous. 
The channel which was of such importance was called the *' Great 
Channel," Mew£r, in Greek Moeris. The native name of the lake 
was Shei, " the lake," later Pi6m, " the sea " (whence Fayum); 
Teshei, " the land of the lake," was the early name of the region. 
At its capital Crocodilopolis and elsewhere the crocodile god 
Sobk (Suchus) was worshipped. Senwosri U. of the Xllth 
Dynasty built his pyramid at Illahun at the outer end of the 
channel, Amenemh^ III. built his near the inner end at Hawara, 
and the vast labyrinth attached to it was probably his funerary 
temple. This king was afterwards worshipped in more than 
one locality about the lake under the name Marres (his praeno- 
men Nemar€) or Peremarres, i.e. Pharaoh Marres. The mud 
poured in at high Nile made rich deposits on the eastern slope; 
in the reign of Philadelphus large reclamations of land were 
made, Veterans from the Syrian War were settled in the " Lake " 
(Af/iri}), and the latter quickly became a populous and very 
fertile province. Strabo's account of the Lake of Moeris must 
be copied from earlier writers, for in his day the outflow had 
been stopped probably for two centuries, and the old bed of the 
lake was dotted with flourishing villages to a great depth below 
the level of the Nile. Large numbers of papyri of the Ptolemaic 
and Roman periods have been found in and about the Fayum, . 
which continued to flourish through the first two centuries of the 
Roman rule. 

See W. M. F. Petrie. Hawara Biahmu andArsinoe (London. 1889) ; 
R. H. Brown. The FayUm and Lahe Moeris (London, 1892): B. P. 
Grenfell. A. S. Hunt and D. G. Hogarth, Fayum Towns and their 
Papyri (London. 1900); H. J. C. Beadnell, rA« Topography and 
Geoloty of the Fayum Prooinu of Egypt (Cairo, 1905). (F. Ll. G.) 

MOESIA (Gr. VLvala and VLvala 1) i» "Rbpinrji, to distinguish it 
from Mysia in Asia), in andent geography, a district inhabited 
by a Thracian people, bounded on the S. by the mountain ranges 
of Haemus and Scardus (Scordus, Scodrus), on the W. by the 
Drinus, on the N. by the Danube and on the E. by the Euxine. 
It thus corre^nded in the main to the modern Servia and Bul- 
garia. In 75 B.C., C. Scribonius Curio, proconsul of Macedonia, 
penetrated, as far as the Danube, and gained a victory over the 
inhabitants, who were finally subdued by M. Lidnius Crassus, 
grandson of the triumvir and also proconsul of Macedonia, 
during the reign of Augustus c. 29 b.c. (see Mommsen, 
Provinces of the Roman Empire, Eng. trans., i. 12-14). The 
coimtry, however, was not organized as a province until the last 
years of the reign; in a.d. 6 mention is made of its governor, 
Caedna Severus (Dio Cassius Iv. 29). The statement of Appian 
(lUyrica, 30) that it did not become a Roman province until the 
time of Tiberius, is therefore incorrect. Originally one province, 
under an imperial consular legate (who probably also had contn^ 
of Achaea and Macedonia), it was divided by Domitian into 
Upper (superior) and Lower (inferior, also called Ripa Thracia) 
Moesia, the western and eastern portions respectively, divided 
from each other by the river Cebrus (Ciabrusj mod. Cibritza or 
Zibru). Some, however, place the boundary further west. Each 
was governed by an imperial consular legate and a procurator. 
As a frontier province, Moesia was strengthened by stations 
and fortresses erected along the southern bank of the Danube, 
and a wall was built from Axiopolis to Tomi as a protection 
against Scythian and Sarmatian inroads. After the abandon- 
ment of Dada (q.v.) to the barbarians by Aurelian (370~375) 
and the transference of its inhabitants to the south of the Danube, 
the central portion of Moesia took the name of Dada Aureliani 
(again divided into Dada ripensis and interior). The district 
called Dardania (in Upper Moesia), inhabited by the lUyrian 
Dardani, was formed into a spedal province by Diocletian with 
capital Naissus (Nissa or Nish), the birthplace of Constantine 
the Great. The Goths, who had already mvaded Moesia in 
250, hard pressed by the Huns, again crossed the Danube during 
the reign of Valens (376), and with his permission settled in 



644 



MOFADDALIYAT 



Moesia. But quarrels soon took place, and t)ie Goths under 
Fritigern defeated Valens in a great battle near Adrianople 
(378). These Goths are known as Moeso-Goths, for whom 
Ulfilas made the Gothic translation of the Bible. In the 7th 
century Slavs and Bulgarians entered the country and founded 
the modem kingdoms of Servia and Bulgaria. The chief towns 
of Upper Moesia were: Singidunum (Belgrade), Viminadum 
(sometimes caUed munidpium Aelium; Kostolatz), Bononia 
(Widdin), Ratiaria (Artcher): of Lower Moesia; Oescus (colonia 
Ulpia, Gigen), Novae (near Sistova, the chief scat of Theodoric), 
Kicopolis ad Istrum (Nikup), really on the latriis or Yantra, 
Odessus (Varna), Tomi (Kustendje), to which the poet Ovid was 
banished. The last two were Greek towns, which, with Istros, 
Mesambria and Apolloniaj iformed a pentapolis. 

Sec Orosius v. 23, 20; Livy, EpU. 92, 134, 135; Dio Casaus U. 
35-37; E. R. Rdsler, Romdnische Studien (Leipzig, 1871); T. Momm- 
•en, Corpus inscripiionum latinarum, vL 141, 263; J. Marquardt, 
Rdmische SlaatsverwaUunt (1881), i. 301; H. Kiepert, Lehrhuch der 
alien Geographie (1878), S( 398, 299; article in smith's Dictionary 
0/ Creek and Roman Ceography (1873). {], H. F.) 

MOFAPPAIJtAT, strictly MmrA^pAilYXT, an anthology of 
andent Arabic poems, which derives its name from al-Mufa4<^, 
son of Mu^mmad, son of Ya'Ul, a member of the tribe of Pabba, 
who compiled it some time between a.d. 762 and 784 in the 
latter of which years he died. Al-Mufa4(jal was a contempo- 
rary of Qamm&d ar-R&wiya and Khalaf al-Al^mar, the famous 
collectors of andent Arab poetry and tradition, and was some- 
what the junior of AbQ *Amr ibn al-*All, the first scholar who 
systematically set himself to preserve the poetic llteratxire of 
the Arabs. He died about fifty years before Abd 'Ubaida and 
al-A9ma*I, to whose labours posterity is largely indebted for the 
arrangement, ducidation and criticism of ancient Arabian verse; 
and his anthology was put together between fifty and sixty years 
before the compilation by Abd TammUm of the ffamdsa iq.v.)» 
. Al-Mufaiji^al was a careful and trustworthy collector both 
of texts and traditions, and is praised by all authorities on 
Arabian history and literature as in this respect greatly the 
superior of ^amm&d and Khalaf, who are accused (especially 
the latter) of unscrupulous fabrication of poems in the style of the 
andents. He was a native of KOfa, the northernmost of the two 
great military colonics founded in 638 by the caliph *Omar for 
the control of the wide Mesopotamian plain. In KOfa and Ba$ra 
were gathered representatives of all the Arabian tribes who 
formed the fighting force of the Islamic Empire, and from these 
al-Mufa^d^l was able to collect and record the compositions of 
the poets who had cdcbrated the fortunes and exploits of their 
forefathers. He, no doubt, like al-A$ma'I and Abd 'Ubaida, also 
himself visited the areas occupied by the tribes for their camping 
grounds in the neighbouring desert; and adjacent to KOfa was 
al-I;^ra, the ancient capital of the Lakhmid kings, whose court 
was the most celebrated centre in pre-Islamic Arabia, where, 
in the century before the preaching of the Prophet, poets from 
the whole of the northern half of the peninsula were wont to 
assemble. There is indeed a tradition that a written collection 
(dtwdn) existed in the family of an-Nu'mAn, the last Lakhmid 
king, containing a number of poems by the Fu(iiU, or most 
eminent poets of the pagan time, and especially by those who 
had praised the princes of the house, and that this collection 
passed into the possession of the Omayyad caliphs of the house 
of Marw&n; to this, if the tradition is to be believed, al-Mufa44^ 
probably had access. 

The date of al-Mufa^JiJal's birth is unknown; but he lived for 
many years under the caliphs of the Omayyad line until their 
overthrow by the 'Abbasids in 749. In 762 he took part in the 
rising led by Ibrahim ibn *AbdaIlah ibn al-^^san, the 'Alid, 
called " The Pure Soul," against the caliph al-Man§Qr, and 
after the defeat and death of Ibr2.hlm was cast into prison. Al- 
Man^Qr, however, pardoned him on the intercession of his fellow- 
tribesman Musayyab ibn Zuhair of Pabba, and appointed him 
the instructor in literature of his son, afterwards the caliph 
al-Mahdi. It was for this prince that, at al-Man§vlr's instigation, 
al-Mufa4d^l compiled the At ufa44<^iiy<U' 

The collection, in its present form, contains 126 pieces of 



verse, long and short; that is the number indoded in the recen- 
sion of al-Anbftrl, who had the text from Abd 'Ikrima of pabba, 
who read it with Ibn al-A*r&bI, the stepson and inheritor ol the 
tradition of al-Mufad^. We know from tiie FUtrist of Muj^am- 
mad an-NadIm (aj>. 988) that in his time 128 pieces were 
counted in the book; and this nimiber agrees with that contained 
in the Vienna MS., which gives an additional poem, besides 
those annotated by al-AnbSrl, to al-Muraqqish the £lder,and adds 
at the end a poem by al-Qarith ibn ^illiza. Tlie Fikria states 
(p. 68) that some scholars induded more and others fewer poena, 
while the order of the poems in the several recensions differed; 
but the correct text, the author says, b that handed down 
through Ibn al-A*r&br. It is noticeable that this traditional text, 
and the accompanying scholia, as represented by al-Anblri*s 
recension, are wholly due to the scholars of KoCa, to which 
place al-Mufadd^ himself bdonged. The rival school of Ba^ra, 
on the other hand, has given ciirrency to a story that the original 
collection made by al-Mufadd^ induded a much smallerntunberof 
poems. The Berlin MS. of al-Marzdq!'s commentary states that 
the number was thirty, but a better reading of the passage, 
found elsewhere,^ mentions eighty; and that al-Asma*I and his 
school added to this nucleus poems which increased the number 
to a himdred and twenty. It is curious that this tradition is 
ascribed by al-Marzdql and his teacher Abd 'AH al-Flrid to AbA 
Ikrima of Pabba, who is represented by al-AnbSxI as the trans- 
mitter of the correct text from Ibn al-A'r&bL There is no men^ 
tion of it in al-Anb£rI's work, and it b in itself somewhat im- 
probable, as in al-A^ma'I's time the schools of Kdfa and Y 
were in sharp opposition one to the other, and Ibn a]-A*rftbi i 
particular was in the habit of censuring al-A^^ma*I's intcrpcetation 
of the andent poems. It is scarcdy likely that he would havi 
accepted his rival's additions to the work of his step-father, ant 
have handed them on to Abd 'Ikrima with his annotations. 
The collection is one of the highest importance as a i 
of the thought and poetic art of Arabia during the time imme 
diatdy preceding the appearance of the Prophet. Not mopc^ 
than five or six of the 126 poems appear to have been composed 
by poets who had been bom in Islam. The great majoritjr 
of the authors belonged to the days of " the Ignorance," and 
though a certain number {e.g. Mutammim ibn Nuwaira, Sabi*a 
ibn Maqrdm, *Abda ibn a^-Taiblb and Abd Dhu'aib), bon 
in paganism, accepted IsULm, their work bears few nuub 
of the new faith. The andent virtues— hospitality to the 
guest and the poor, profuse expenditure of wodth, vakwrio 
battle, faithfulness to the cause of the tribe— are the theoa 
of praise; wine and the game of maisir, forbidden by Uin, 
are celebrated by poets who professed therasdves cooverts; 
and if there is no mention of the old idolatry, there b ibo 
little spirituality in the outlook on life. The 126 pieces ue 
dbtributed between 68 poets, and the work repcesenU s 
gathering from the compositions of those who were caOed 
al-MuqiUilnf " authors of whom little has survived," in caoUtA 
to the famous poets whose works had been collected tntoil»<sL 
At the same time many of them are extremely cdebrated, tfd 
among the pieces sdected by al-Mufadd^ several reach a vciy bi^ 
level of excellence. Such are the two long poems of 'AJqamt 
ibn 'Abada (Nos. X19 and 120), the three odes by Mutaomin 
ibn Nuwaira (Nos. 9, 67, 68), the splendid poem of Salima iba 
Jandal (No. 22), the beautiful nasib of aah-Shanfari (Xa ao), 
and the death-song of *Abd-Yaghdth (No. 30). One of the siost 
admirable and famous b the last of the series (No. 126), the loog 
elegy by Abd Dhu'aib of Hudhail on the death of hb sons; 
almost every verse of thb poem b dted in illustrati(m of some 
phrase or meaning of a word in the national lexions. Only 
one of the poets of the Mu^aUaqOl (see Mo*allakAt), al-H2rith,90B 
of ^iUiza, b represented in the collection. Of others (such is 
Bishr ibn Abl Kh&zim, al-Q&dira, *Amir ibn at-Tufail, *Alqanah 
ibn *Abadah, al-Muthaqqib, Ta'abbata Sharrft and AbQ Dba'ail)) 
dlw&ns or bodies of collected poems exist, but it b doabthd 
how far these had been brought together when al-Mufa^^ Bade 

Mn the dhaU or supplement to the AwOli of tA-QOL (Edfc 
Cairo 1324 H., p. 131). 



MOFETTA— MOGADOR 



645 



Us oompflation. An {nteresting feature of the work is the treat- 
meDt in it of the two poets of Bakr ibn W&'il, uncle and nephew, 
called al-Muraqqish, who are perhaps the most ancient in the 
collection. The elder Muraqqish was the great-uncle of T&rafa 
of Bakr, the author of the Muallaga, and took part in the long 
warfare between the sister tribes of Bakr and Taghlib, called the 
war of BasQs, which began about the end of the 5th century a.d. 
Al-Mufaddal has included ten pieces (Nos. 45-54) by him in the 
collection, which are chiefly interesting from an antiquarian 
point of view. One, in particular (No. 54), presents a very 
archaic appearance. It is probable that the compiler set down 
all he could gather of this ancient author, and that his interest 
in him was chiefly due to his antiquity. Of the younger Muraq- 
qish, uncle of J&nisL, there are five pieces (Nos. 55-59)- The 
only other authors of whom more than three poems are cited 
are Bishr ibn Abl Rh&zim of Asad (Nos. 96-99) and Rabl'a ibn 
MaqrQm of Pabba (Nos. 38, 39, 43 &nd 113). 

The Mufa44aliydt differs from the ^amdsa in being a collection 
of complete odes (qaildas), while the latter is an anthology of 
brilliant passages specially selected for their interest or effective- 
ness, all that is prosaic or less striking being pruned away. It is 
of course not the case that all the poems of al-Mufad4al's 
collection are complete. Many are mere fragments, and even 
in the longest there are often lacunae; but the compiler evidently 
set down all that he could collect of a poem from the memory 
of the rdwlSf and did not, like AbQ Tammim, choose only the 
best portions. We are thus presented with a view of the litera- 
ture of the age which is much more characteristic and comprehen- 
sive than that given by the brilliant poet to whom we owe the 
ffamdsa, and enables us to form a better judgment on the 
feneral level of poetic achievement. 

The MvJa44dPtydl is not well represented by MSS. in the libraries 
of the West. There is an imperfect copy of the recension of al- 
MaizOqi (died 1030). with his commentary, m the Berlin collection. A 
very ancient fragment (dated 1080) of al-Anbirfs recension, contain- 
ing fivejMsons In whole or part, is in the Royal Library at Leipzig. 
f : "' litre Ii a. copy t a century ago 

V- ' i I i::- ;. .:! I . :. i ; i of a MS. with \ ' • ... h; and at Vienna 
there J4 a rtniK.lit-J'Tj copy o\ a MSt erf which the i>r:iiin.il is at Constan- 
liEtoplCf the g1r>ues m which are takeii itom. alAnhAri, though the 
author h^d 3cce*& &Uo to al-Manuqir In the mosque libraries at 
Gsn^-mtinnplc there 4 re at ki&t hve M5S,: and ax. Cairo ihere is a 
fnDdcrn c^py of one o( thesft contaiTiine the vhole of al-AnbSrfs 
eommtntary* ^n America there are at Yale University a modem 
cmpy 4^ the taine recctu^ion, taken from the same original as the 
Cajro copy, and a MS. of Pf^rtian origin, d^ted [657, presenting a 
torn idcnticai vhh the Vienna code3L Quite recently a very m- 
tcrvstiiig MS-, protaHy of the fttb century of the Hegira, but not 
diied, hat come 10 light. \t purparts to be the !«cond part of a 
nimbinatioo oJ twoarttholoigies^ihe M^a^MyAl of al-MufatJdaland 
the Aima'lyat of a1-A>ma'i4 but eontalRi uuiiiy more poems than are 
m either ^ these co(3ccuoni as found elsewhere. The commentary 
vpprars to be «1«tit, drawn partly (prrhap chiefly) from Ibn 
5s Sildicit (ditd SjiJ). and partly from Abil-Ja f.ir Abmad ibn 'Ubaid 
ibn N^^ih, one of 4l-AflJ>arr* *oureei and a pupil of Ibn aI-A*r2bi; 
■nd the comp^lLation trtmi to be oliJer in dDte than d]-Anb&ri. since its 
*i.>«,,-i an- 1-1 fern quciTtH tiv Kaw w'lc tiou^c jTiv n.imth leing mentioned. 

J "• I - i '■ir I. ;•■.■ ..jw of Leicester) 

appears to represent one of the recensions mentioned by Mubammad 
an-Nadim to the Fihrist (p. 68). to which reference Ium been made 
above. 

In 1885 Professor Heinrich Thorbecke began an edition of the text 
baaed on the Berlin codex, but only the first fasciculus, containing 
forty-two poems, had appeared when hb work was cut short by death. 
In 1891 the first volume of an edition of the text, with a short com- 
mentary taken from al-Anbari, was printed at Constantinople. 
In 1906 an edition of the whole text, with short glosses taken from 
al-AnbSrfs commentary, was published at Cairo by AbQ Bakr b. 
t>mar DSghistSni al-Madani; this follows generally the Cairo codex 
above mentioned, but has profited by the scholarship of Professor 
Thorbecke's edition of the first half of the work. A complete 
eifitioa of al-AnbirTs text and commentary, with a translation of 
the poems, undertaken by Sir C. J. LyaU (see /. R. A. 5., April 1904) 
was in the press in 1910. (C. J. L.) 

MOFBTTA (Ital. from Lat. mepkUis, a pestilenUal exhalation), 
a name applied to a vtdcanic discharge consisting chiefly of carbon 
dknude, often associated with other vapours, representing the 
final phase of volcanic activity. The word b used frequently 
hi the phiral as mofette, or, foUowing the French, mcfeUes. The 
^ralcamc venU yielding the nnanitiont are ibanscivcs caUed 



f 



mofette. They are not uncommon in Auvergne and In the 
Eifel, notably on the shore of the Laacher See; whilst other 
examples are furnished by the Grotta del Cane, near Puzzuoli, 
the Valley of Death in Java, and the Death Gulch in the 
Yellowstone Park. 

MOFFAT, ROBERT (i 795-1883), Scottish Congiegationalist 
missionary to Africa, was bom at Ormiston, Haddingtonshire, 
on the 2ist of December 1795, of humble parentage. He began 
as a gardener, but in 18 14, when employed at High Leigh in 
Cheshire, offered himself to the London Missionary Society, 
and in 1816 was sent out to South Africa. After spending 
a year in Namaqua Land, with the chief Afrikaner, whom 
he converted, Moffat returned to Cape Town in 18x9 and 
married Mary Smith (2795-1870), the daughter of a former 
employer, a remarkable woman and most helpfid wife. In 1820 
Moffat and his wife left the Cape and proceeded to Griqua 
Town, and ultimately settled at Kuruman, among the Bechuana 
tribes living to the west of the Vaal river. Here he worked as a 
missionary till 1870, when he reluctantly returned finally to his 
native land. He made frequent journeys into the neighbouring 
regions as far north as the Matabele country. The results of 
these journeys he commum'cated to the Royal Geographical 
Society (Journal xxv.-zzxviil. and Proceedings ii.), and when 
in England on furlough (1839-1843) he published his well-known 
Missionary Labours and Scenes in South Africa (1842). He 
translated the whole of the Bible and The Pilgrim's Progress 
into Sechwana. Moffat was builder, carpenter, smith, gardener, 
farmer, all in one, and by precept and example he succeeded in 
turning a horde of bloodthirsty savages into a "people apprecia- 
ting and cultivating the arts and habits of civilised life, with a 
written language of their own." He met with incredible dis- 
couragement and dangers at first, which he overcame by his 
strong faith, determination and genial humour. It was largely 
due to him that David Livingstone, his son-in-law, took up his 
subsequent work. On his return to England he received a 
testimonial of £5000. He died at Leigh, near Tunbridge Wells, 
on the 9th of August 1883. 

See Li9es of Robert and Mary Moffat, by J. S. Moffat (1885) I And 
C. S. Home. The Story of the L M.S. (1894). 

MOFFAT, a burgh of barony, and police burgh, of Upper 
Annandale, Dumfriesshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2153. It 
is situated 21m. N.N.E. of Dtimfries by road and 63 m. distant 
by the Caledonian railway, from both Fxiinburgh and Glasgow. 
It is the terminus of a branch line from Beattock, 2 m. distant. 
It has been famous for its sulphur and saline waters since the 
middle of the i8th century, and also enjoys great vogue as a 
holiday resort. The hills in the locality range from the adjacent 
Gallow Hill (832 ft.) to Hartfell (2651 ft.), about 5 m. north 
there is abundance of beautiful and varied scenery on the Annan, 
the Evan, the Bimock and the Moffat. The spa, a mile to the 
north of the town, was acquired by the burgh commissioners 
in 1898, and there are also spas at Hartfell (3I m. north) and 
Garpel (2 m. south-west). Dumcrieff House, 2 m. south-west, 
is the seat of Lord RoUo. 

MOOADOR (Es-Sueira)f the most southern seaport on the 
Atlantic coast of Morocco, in 31* 50' N., 9* 20^ W., the capital 
of the province of H&hi. Pop. (1908), about 20,000, of whom 
nearly a half are said to be Jews, and about 100 Europeans. The 
town stands from 10 to 20 ft. above high water on a projecting 
ridge of calcareous sandstone. In certain states of wind u)d sea 
it is turned almost into an island, and a sea-wall protects the 
road to Saffi. On the land side stretch miles of sand-dunes 
studded with broom, and beyond, the argan forests, distinctive 
of southern Morocco. Approached from this side the dty bursts 
on the view like a mirage between sky and sea, and this perhaps 
entitles it to iu name— Es-Sueira— " the picture." It is the 
best planned and cleanest town in the empire, and this combined 
with the dimate, which is very equable, makes it a health resort, 
especially for consumptive patients. The mean tempeimture of 
the hottest month is 71^*06, and of the coldest month $8*'69. 
The rainfall varies between 13 and 20 in. anntially. The water 
wpply is carried by an overwound conduit from a fprii^ acar 



646 



MOGILA— MOHACS 



Diabat The prosperity of Mogador is due to its commerce. 
The harbour is well sheltered from all winds except the south- 
west, but escape is difficult with the wind from that quarter, 
as the channel between the town and Mogador Island is narrow 
and hazardous. It is the best-built port of the sultanate and 
is generally second in point of trade, which is carried on mainly 
with Marseilles, London, Gibraltar and the Canaries, the princi- 
pal exports being almonds, goat-skins, gums and olive-oil, and 
the principal imports cotton goods, sugar and tea. The exports 
were valued at £407,000 in 1900 and at £364,000 in 1906. Th^ 
imports were worth £246,000 in 1900 and £368,000 in 1906. 
Shipping, 1900, 132,000 tons; 1906, 140,000 tons. 

A place called Mogador is marked in the 1351 Portulan of the 
Laurentian library, and the map in Hondius's Alias minor 
shows the island of Mogador, /. Domegador; but the origin of 
the present town is much more recent. Mogador was founded 
by Mohammed XVII. (bin Abd Allah) in 1760, and completed 
in 1770. The Portuguese called it after the shrine of Sidi 
Megdul, which lies towards the south half-way to the village of 
Diabat, and forms a striking landmark for seamen. In 1844 
the dladel was bombarded by the French. 

See A. H. Dy£, " Les Ports du Maroc," in BuU. Soc. Geog. Comm. 
Paris (1908), XXX. 313 sqq., and British Consular reports. 

MOGILA, PETER (c. 1596-1647), metropolitan of Kiev from 
1632, belonged to a noble Wallachian family. He studied for 
some time at the university of Paris, and first became a monk in 
1625. He was the author of a CaUchism (Kiev, 1645) &nd other 
minor works, but is principally celebrated for the Orthodox 
Confession, drawn up at his instance by the Abbot Kosslowski of 
Kiev, approved at a provincial synod in 1640, and accepted by 
the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria and 
Antioch in 1642-1643, and by the synod of Jerusalem in 1672. 
(See Orthodox Eastern Church.) 

There are numerous editions of the Confession in Russian; It hat 
been edited in Greek and Latin by Panagiotes (Amsterdam, 1662), 
by Hofmann (Leipzig, 1695). and by Kimmel Gcna, 1843), and there 
is a German translation by Frisch (Frankfort, 1727). 

MOGILEV, a government of western Russia, situated on the 
upper Dnieper, between the governments of Vitebsk and 
Smolensk on the north and east, and Chernigov and Minsk on 
the south and west. In the north it is occupied by the water- 
shed which separates the basins of the Dvina and the Dnieper, 
an undulating tract 650 to 900 ft. above sea-level, and covered 
nearly everywhere with forests. This watershed slopes gently 
to the south, to the valley of the Dnieper, which enters the 
government from the north-cast and flows due south. The 
southern part of the government is flat and has much in common 
with the Polyesie of the government of Minsk; it is, however, 
more habitable, the marshes being less extensive. Mogilev is 
built up of Devonian deposits in the north, of Cretaceous in the 
east, and of Tertiary elsewhere, but generally is covered with a 
thick layer of Glacial and later alluvial deposits. Interesting 
finds from the Stone Age, as well as remains of the mammoth, 
have been made. 

The soil is mostly sand, clay (brick-clay and potter's-clay are 
not uncommon), and peat-bogs,with a few patches of " black 
earth." The climate is harsh and wet, the average yearly tem- 
perature at the Gorki meteorological observatory being 40°-4 F. 
(i4°-2 in January and 63°-8 in July); cold nights in summer 
are often the cause of bad crops. The government had 947.625 
inhabitants in 1870, and in 1897, 1,706,511, of whom 861,533 
were women, and 146,752 lived in towns. The estimated popu- 
lation in 1906 was 2,024,300. The population is mostly White 
Russian. Agriculture is their chief occupation. Out of the total 
area of 18,546 sq. m. 40 %;is held in communal ownership by the 
peasants, 48 % is owned by landlords possessing more than 270 
acres each, and 3 J % by small owners. Most of the private 
owners belong to the nobility. The principal crops are rye, 
oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, though wheat, beetroot, 
flax, hemp and tobacco are also grown. Paper, spirits, wire and 
nails, leather and tiles are the chief products of the manufactures. 
The government is divided into eleven districts, of which the 



chief towns with their populations in 1897 were: Mogilev-Qa* 
Dnieper, or Mogilev Gubemskiy (47,591 in 1900), Chansy 
(5550), Cberikov (5250), Homel or Gomel (45,081 in 1900), 
Gorki (6730), Klitnovicbi (4706), Mstislavl (10^82 in 1900), 
Orsha (13,161), Rogachev (9103), SUryi Bykhov (6354), and 
Syenno (4061). 

This government was inhabited in the loth century by the 
Slav tribes of the Krivichi and Radimichi. In the 14th century 
it became part of Lithuania, and afterwards oi^ Poland. Russia 
annexed it in 1772. 

MOGILEV ON THE DNIEPER, a town of Russia, capital of 
the government of Mogilev. Pop. (1900), 47,591, two-think 
Jews. It is situated on a hilly site on both banks of the Dnieper, 
120 m. by rail S.W. of Smolensk. It is the see of an archbishop 
of the Orthodox Greek Church. The public buildings indude 
the cathedral of the Orthodox Greek Church (founded by 
Catherine II. of Russia and Joseph II. of Austria in 1780), a 
Roman Catholic cathedral (built in 1692), an old castl^ a 
museum, a church dating from 1620, and an old Tatar tower. 
The principal industries are tanneries. The commerce is mostly 
in the hands of Jews. Com, salt, sugar and fish are brou^ 
from the south, whilst skins and manufactured wares, imported 
from Germany, are sent to the southern g9vemments. 

Mogilev is mentioned for the first time in the 14th century as a 
dependency of the Vitebsk, or of the Mstislavl prindpality. At 
the beginning of the 1 5th century it became the personal property 
of the Polish kings. But it was continually plundered— cither 
by Russians, who attacked it six times during the x6th century, 
or by Cossacks, who plundered it three times. In the X7th 
century its inhabitants, who belonged to the Orthodox Greek 
Church, suffered much from the persecutions o£ the United. 
Greek Church. In 1654 it surrendered to Russia, but in i66x 
the Russian garrison was massacred by the inhabitants. In tb& 
i8th century the town was Uken several <jmes by Russians. 
and by Swedes, and in 1708 Peter the Great ordered it to be 
destroyed by fire. It was annexed to Russia in 1772. Near 
here the French under Davodt defeated the Russians ondcs' 
Bagration on the 23rd of July 181 2. 

MOGILEV ON THE DNIESTER, a town of Russia, in the 
government of Podolia, on the left bank of the Dniester, 57 m. 
E.S.E. of Kamenets- Podolsk. Pop. (1900), 25,141, nesriy 
one-half Jews; the remainder are Little Russians, Poles and a 
few Armenians. The Little-Russian inhabitants carry on agri- 
culture, gardening, wine-growing and mulberry culture. Tbe 
Jews and Armenians are engaged in a brisk trade with Odessa, 
to which they send com, wine, spirits and timber, floated dom 
from Galicia, as well as with the interior, to which they send 
manufactured wares imported from Austria. 

Mogilev, named in honour of the Moldavian hospodar Mohih, 
was founded by Count Potocki about the end of the 16th century. 
Owing to its situation on the highway from Moldavia to the 
Ukraine, at the passage across the Dnieper, it devek^)ed ra[»dly. 
For more than 150 years its possession was disputed between the 
Cossacks, the Poles and the Turks. It remained in the hands of 
the Poles, and was annexed to Russia in 1795. 

MOGUL, MoGHAL, or Mughal, the Arabic and Persian 
form of the w.ord Mongol, usually applied to the Mahommedan 
Empire in India, which was founded by Baber. In consequence 
the name is applied to all foreign Mahommedans from the can> 
tries on the west and north-west of India, except the Pathans. 
The Great Mogul is the name given to the Mogul emperors of Delhi 
by the Portuguese and subsequently by Europeans generally. 

MOHACS, a market town of Hungary, in the county of 
Baranya, X15 m. S. of Budapest. Pop. (1900), 15312. It is 
situated on the right bank of the Danube, and carries on a brisk 
trade in wine and the agricultural produce of the neighbourhood. 
Amongst its principal buildings are an old castle and the somma 
pabce of the bbhop of P^. Mohics b famous in tbe histoiy 
of Hungary by the two fateful battles which took place in the 
plain situated about 3 m. south-west of the town, and marked 
the beginning and the close of the Turkish dominion in Hongaiy. 
In the first GVug. 29, 1526) the Hungarian army under LooiftlL 



MOHAIR— MOHICAN 



647 



vas annihflated by tbe Ottoman forces led by Soliman the Mag- 
nificent. In the second (Aug. 12, 1687) the Austrians under 
Charles of lA>rrame gained a decisive victory over the Turks, 
whose power was afterwards still further broken by Prince 
Eugene of Savoy. 

MOHAIR, the hair of a variety of goat originally inhabiting 
the regions of Asiatic Turkey of which Angora is the centre, 
whence the animal is known as the Angora goat. The Arabic 
mu^yyar, from which the word came into English probably 
through the Ital. moccacaro or Fr. mocayart, meant literally, 
" choice " or " select," and was applied to cloth made of goats' 
hair. In the 17th century the word, which before appears in 
such forms as mocayare or mokaire, became corrupted by con- 
nexion with " hair," cf. " cray-fish " from icrevisse. From the 
English " mohair " the French adapted nunre, a watered silk 
fabric. 

The typical mohair fibre is 7 to 8 in long, very lustrous owing 
to its phjrsical structure (which although akin to wool is different 
in that the wool scales are indicated only instead of being fully 
developed, while the fibre is always solid), j^ to -j^ of an 
inch in diameter, of a soft elastic handle, and usually of a clear 
white transparent colour. The staples of which the fleece is 
formed should be uniform in length and dearfy defined, naturally 
lending themselves to a good " spin " — a difficult attainment in 
tbe case of mohair (see Woollen and Worsted Manufactures). 
There are many varieties of mohair, from the first qualities as 
here defined to lower qualities of a kempy, unsatisfaaory 
character. Thus in Constantinople, the chief centre of the 
Turkey mohair trade, a large variety of fleeces is recognized 
For example, from the Lake Van district a distinctly inferior kind 
known as " Van " mohair is obtained, while other districts pro- 
duce varieties ranging from Van up to the typical quality 
described above. 

The animal from which mohair was originally obtained was 
a finely-bred Angora goat. Owing to the demand for raw 
material exceeding the supply, from 1820 onwards there has been 
a great deal of crossing of the well-bred Angora with the common 
kind of goat: in fact it has been said that by 1863 the original 
Angora had practically disappeared The growing demand for 
mohair further resulted in attempts on a commercial scale to 
introduce the goat into South Africa— where it was crossed 
with the native goat— the United Sutes, Australia, and later 
still New Zealand Perhaps the introduction of the Angora 
into Austraha and New Zealand may in part be due to its value 
as a scrub and blackberry browser; these growths being the 
" pests " of the two respective countries. 

The manufacture of fabrics from mohair— as In the case of 
alpaca and cashmere — was in the first instance due to the genius 
of the rearers of the goat. It would, indeed, be interesting to 
know if the present day mohair goods — often styled " alpacas " 
really had their origin in the earlier products of Asia Minor 
That fabncs of mohair were in use in England early in the x8th 
century is obvious from Pope's allusion: — 

" And, when she sees her friend in deep despair. 
Observes how much a chintz exceeds mohair." 
Raw mohair was first exported from Turkey to England about 
1830, and from that date onwarda marked stndes were made in 
its manufacture into useful yarns and fabrics. England has 
always had. and still maintains, supremacy in this manufacture. 
Practically the whole of both the Turkish and Cape clips is at 
least converted into yam in Yorkshire mills. Quantities of 
these yams are also woven into dress goods, dust cloakings, 
pile fabrics, imitation furs, &c , in Yorkshire, but even greater 
quantities of mohair yarn are exported to Russia, Germany, 
Austria, &c., to be converted into astrakans, ordinary braids, 
brush braids, &c. In the first decade of the 2otb century the 
mohair braid trade received a blow from the introduction of 
artificial silk. 

The history of the introduction of the Angora goat from Asia 
Minor into the other countries mentioned is as follows. In 
1838 pure bred Angoras were introduced into Cape Colony — 
nshmeres having been previously tried and found unsatisfac- 



tory. These pure-bred goats crossed with th^ common goat laid 
the basis of the Cape flocks. In 1 856-1 857 other importations of 
pure-bred goats were made. From x868 to 1897 further impor- 
tations were made, but these were not of the pure-bred goat and 
consequently were not so valuable. It should here bie noted 
that the Cape flock-owner ch'ps twice — the summer clip yielding 
a staple which should be of not less than 7 in., and the winter clip 
a staple which should be of not less than 3 in. to 4 in. Bradford 
from time to time has objected to the winter clip as being too 
short, but this clip seems to have established itself and at least 
once during recent years has been as saleable as the summer 
clip. The introduction of Angoras into the United States took 
place in 1849. Other importations of goats from Asia Minor were 
made between 1857 and 1880, and interchanges of blood also 
took place between the United States and Cape Colony Be- 
tween 1856 and 1875 some three himdred goats were introduced 
into Austrab'a. Other importations from Cape Colony and the 
United States have also been made from time to time, and it 
seems at least possible, if not probable, that Australia may yet 
find the Angora goat an important asset. 

From the following statistics relating to mohair it will be realised 
that tbe mohair supply practically comes from two sources, viz. 
Turkey in Asia and south Africa : — 

Country. No of Coats. Yield of Hair. 

Asia Minor 3) to ^ millions. 1 1 to 12.000,000 lb. 

South Africa 4 millions. la to 14.000.000 lb. 

United Sutes .... 800.000 1,600,000 lb. 

Australia . . . . . . 30,000 

The price per lb of mohair has varied from 4s. id. in 1870 to t3d. 
or t4d. in 1903. and it is interesting to note that the shipments from 
Turkey to England follow these price fluctuations in a most curious 
manner. 

Of the consumers of English mohair yarns Russia takes from 15 
to 35%, and the continent of Europe as a whole a very large per- 
centage of the total mohair yarn production of Bradford. 

MOHAVE (corrupted from hamok-hahif "three mountains," 
their native name, with reference to three peaks, which form a 
prominent feature of their country), a tribe of North American 
Indians of Yuman stock. They have always lived along both 
banks of the lower Colorado river, in Arizona and Califomia. 

MOHAWK, a tribe of North American Indians, the chief 
people of the Iroquois confederacy. The name probabl3r means 
" man-eaters "i they call themselves Kaniengehanaf' "flint 
people."' Their villages were in the valley of the Mohawk river, 
New York. Their territory extended northward to the St 
Lawrence and southward to the Delaware river and Catskill 
Mountains. They were thus early in touch with Dutch and 
English, and were the first Indians to obtain firearms. In the 
War of Independence they fought with the English, and finally 
took refuge in Canada, where most of them have remained. 

See Indians, North American. For Mohawk cosmology see 
21 St Annual Report Bureau Amer. Ethnol. (1899-1900). 

MOHICAN. MAHICAN and MOHEGAN. the first two the 
altemative names of an important tribe and confederacy of 
North American Indians of Algonquian stock, and the last a 
dialectic form of the name applied to a branch tribe. The 
Mohicans inhabited the Hudson valley, and their domain 
extended into Massachusetts. The Mohicans were called by the 
French Lcups (wolf Indians), a translation of " Mohican." At 
first their c6uncil-fire was at Schodac, on an island near Albany, 
and they were grouped in forty villages. In consequence of 
attacks by the Mohawks, they moved their council-fire to what 
is now Stockbridge, Massachusetts, in 1664, in 1730 many 
migrated to the Susquehanna valley, Pennsylvania, and became 
absorbed into the Delawares. In 1736 those left in Massachu- 
setts were placed on a reservation at Stockbridge, and called 
by that name. A few of these Stockbridge Indians, who may 
be truly called " the last of the Mohicans," are now settled, with 
some of the Munsees, on a reservation at Green Bay, Wisconsin. 
The Mohegans, originally an offshoot of the Mohican, lived on 
Thames river, Connecticut, their county extending into Massa- 
chusetts and including Rhode Island. In 1637, on the destruc- 
tion of the Pequots, an offshoot of the Mohegans, the Mohegans 
claimed their country too, and thus the territorial power of tbe 



648 



MOHL— MOHLER 



two tribes was consolidated under one Mohegan chief. For some 
time the Mohegans remained the supreme Indian people of 
southern New England. Eventually they sold most of their 
lands and centred in a small reservation on Thames river. They 
have now practically become extinct. 

MOHL, HUGO VON (1805-1872), German botanist, was born 
at Stuttgart on the 8th of April 1805. He was a son of the 
WUrttemberg statesman Benjamin Ferdinand von Mohl (1766- 
1845)1 ^be family being connected on both sides with the higher 
class of state officials of WUrttemberg. While a pupil at the 
gymnasium he pursued botany and mineralogy in his leisure 
time, till in 1823 he entered the university of Tubingen. After 
graduating with distinction in medicine he went to Munich, 
where he met a distinguished circle of botanists, and found ample 
material for research. This seems to have determined his career 
as a botanist, and he started in 1828 those anatomical investiga- 
tions which continued till his death. In 1832 he was appointed 
professor of botany in Tubingen) a post which he never left. 
Unmarried, his pleasures were in his laboratory and library, 
and in perfecting optical apparatus and microscopic preparations, 
for which he showed extraordinary manual skill. He was largely 
a self-taught botanist from boyhood, and, little influenced in 
his opinions even by his teachers, preserved always his indepen- 
dence of view on scientific questions. He received many honours 
during his lifetime, and was elected foreign fellow of the Royal 
Society in 1868. Von Mohl's writings cover a period of forty- 
four years; the most notable of them were republished in 1845 in 
a volume entitled Vermischte Schriften (For lists of his works 
see Botanische Zeitung, 1872, p. 576, and Royd Soc. Catalogue, 
1870, vol. iv.) They dealt with a variety of subjects, but chiefly 
with the structure of the higher forms, including both rough 
anatomy and minute histology. The word " protoplasm " was 
his suggestion; the nucleus had already been recognized by 
R. Brown and others, but von Mohl showed in 1844 that the 
protoplasm is the source of those movements which at that time 
excited so much attention. He recognized under the name of 
" primordial utricle " the protoplasmic lining of the vacuolated 
cell, and first described the behaviour of the protoplasm in cell- 
division. These and other observations led to the overthrow of 
J. M. Schleiden's theory of origin of cells by frec-cell-formation. 
His contributions to knowledge of the cell-wall were no less 
remarkable, he held the view now generally adopted of growth 
of cell-wall by apposition. He first explained the true nature 
of pits, and showed the cellular origin of vessels and of fibrous 
cells; he was, in fact, the true founder of the cell theory. Clearly 
the author of such researches was the man to collect into one 
volume the theory of cell-formation, and this he did in his treatise 
Die vegetabilische Zelle (1851), a short work translated into Eng- 
lish (Ray Society, 1852). Von Mohl's cariy investigations on 
the structure of palms, of cycads, and of tree-ferns permanently 
laid the foundation of all later knowledge of this subject: so also 
his work on Isoetes (1840). His later anatomical work was 
chiefly on the stems of dicotyledons and gymnosperms; in his 
observations on cork and bark he first explained the formation 
and origin of different types of bark, and corrected errors relating 
to lenticels. Following on his early demonstradon of the origin 
of stomata (1838), he wrote a classical paper on their opening 
and closing (1850). In 1843 he started in conjunction with 
F. Schlechtendal the weekly Botanische Zeitung, which he jointly 
edited till his death. He was never a great writer of comprehen- 
sive works; no text-book exists in his name, and it would indeed 
appear from his withdrawal from co-operation in W. F. B. 
Hofmcistcr's Handbuch that he had a distaste for such efforts. 
In his latter years his productive activity fell off, doubtless 
through failing health, and he died suddenly at Tubingen on 
the ist of April 1872. 

See Sachs History of Botany, p. 292, &c.; De Bary, Botanische 
Zeitung (1872). p. 561 , Proc. Roy. Soc., xxiii. 1 ; Allgemeine Deutsche 
Biographic, xxii. 55. (F. O. B.) 

MOHL. JUUUS VON (1800-1876), German Orientalist, brother 
of Hugo von Mohl {q.v.), was bom at Stuttgart on the 2sth of 
October x8oo. Having studied theology at Tubingen (1818- 



1823), he abandoned the idea of entering the Lutheran miiustry, 
and in 1823 went to Paris, at that time, under Silvestre De Sacy, 
the great European school of Eastern letters. From 1826 to 
1833 he was nominally professor at Tubingen, but had permissioo 
to continue his studies abroad, and he passed some years n 
London and in Oxford. In 1826 he was charged by the Frend 
government with the preparation of an edition of the Skak Nami 
{Litre des rots), the first volume of which appeared in 1838, while 
the seventh and last was left unfinished at his death, being com- 
pleted by Barbier de Mejmard. Discerning this to be his Ufe'i 
work, he resigned his chair at Tubingen in 1834, and settled per* 
manently in Paris. In 1844 he was nominated to the academy 
of inscriptions, and in 1847 he became professor of Persian at the 
CoUdge de France. But his knowledge and interest extended to 
all departments of Oriental learning. He served for many yean 
as secretary, and then as president of the Sod6t6 AsiatiqiK. 
His annual reports on Oriental science, presented to the sodety 
from 1840 to 1867, and collected after his death in Paris on the 
3rd of January 1876, under the title Vingt-sepi am d'kistmn its 
etudes orientates (Paris, 1879), are an admirable history of the 
progress of Eastern learning during these years. Coocenuag 
the discoveries at Nineveh he wrote Lettres de M. Bctta sur la 
dicotnertes d Khorsabad (1845). He also published anonymously, 
in conjunction with Justus Olshausen (1800-1882), Fragments 
relatifs d la religion de Zoroastre (Paris, 1829); Confncii Cki-kiMt 
sive liber carminum, ex latina P. Lackarmi imierprelctimi 
(Stuttgart, 1830); and an edition of Y-Ring, Atiti^uissinaa 
Sinarum liber, ex interpretatione P. Regis (Stuttgart, 1834-1839). 

His wife Mary (1793-1^3)1 daughter of Charles Clarke, had 
passed a great part of her early life in Paris, where she was very 
intimate with Madame R£camier, before their marriage in 1&471 
and for nearly forty years her house was one of the most popular 
intellectual centres in Paris. Madame Mohl's friends included a 
large number of Englishmen and Englishwomen. She died is 
Paris on the 14th of May 1883. Madame Mohl wrote Madem 
Ricamier, with a Sketch oj the History of Society m Frua 
(London, 1862). 

See Kathleen O'Mcara. Madame Mohl, her Sahn OMi Frietds 
(188O; and M. C. M. Simpson, Letters and RuoUectiens of Jwliat 
and Mary Mohl (1887). 

Mohl's elder brother, Robert von Mohl 79^187 5)t «** 
a well-known jurist and statesman. From 1824 to 1845 be vas 
professor of political sciences at the university of TUbingeB, 
losing his position because of some frank criticisms which brou^t 
him under the displeasure of the authorities of WOrttembei^ 
In 1847 he was a member of the parliament of WUrttembers, 
and in the same year he was appointed professor of law at 
Heidelberg; in 1848 he was a member of the German parliamest 
which met at Frankfort, and for a few months he was minister 
of justice. His later public life was passed in the service of the 
grand-duke of Baden, whom he represented as ambassador at 
Munich from 1867 to 1871. He died in Berlin on the sth of 
November 1875. Among his numerous writings may be meo* 
tioned, Die deutsche Polizevwissenschajl nach den CrundsStsen its 
Rechtsstaats (Tubingen, 1832-1834, and again 1866), Ceschttkt 
und Literatur der Staatswissenschajten (Erlangen, 1855-1858), 
Encyklopadie der Staatswissenschajten (Tubingen, 1859, *^ 
t88i); and Staatsrecht, VlUkerrecht und PciUik (Tubingen, 186&- 
1869). 

See Mohl's own Lebenserinnerungen (Leiprig, T901); and H. 
Schulze, Robert von Mohl, Etn Ermnerungsbtatt (neidclbaii. 1S86). 

Another brother, Moritz vo^ Mohl (1802-1S88). entmd 
official life at an early age and was a member of the Frankfort 
parliament, and )ater of the parliament of WUrttemberg sad 
of the imperial Reichstag. He was a voluminous writer oa 
economic and political questions. 

MdHLER. JOHANN ADAM (1796-1838). German thcokigiaa, 
was bom at Igcrshcim in WUrttemberg on the 6th of May 1796^ 
and after studying philosophy and theology in the lyceum at 
EUwangen, entered the university of Tubingen in 181 7. Ordained 
to the priesthood in 181Q, he was appointed to a curacy at 
Riedlingen, but speedily returned as " repetent " to TfibuiiBeii 



MOHMAND 



64.9 



iriiere he becaiAe pritatdczent in iSa, eztraordinaiy professor 
of theology in 1826 and ordinary professor in x8a8 His lectures 
drew large audiences, including many Protestants. The con- 
troverisies excited by his SymMik (1832) proved so unpleasant 
that in 1835 he accepted a call to the university of Munich. In 
1838 he was appointed to the deanery of Wttrzburg, but died 
shortly afterwards (April la, 1838). 

Mohl«r wrote Dit Einhtk in dcr KircKt oder dloj Prinzip tUi 
KathfiifiimiU {Ttibing^?n, 1815) , Atkamisiuj dtr Grassf u. d. KirLkt 
ttimer Zttt (3 vcti-. ntaini, tSay), Sym^iilik, odet QurattUun^ dir 
^ofwcolijcAfii Gct^iu^tit d^r KaikMiktn. u. ProUilamten fu^ tkrei^ 

Eog, ttans. by J. ti^ Robertion, 1S43); .md NtH€ UnUtmchun^iK 
4tr Lehrgrgtmuttf. ,ticiscktri dm Katkoiiken a. PrfiUstani^n (1334) 
Hit CeiamimJti Sckrifien a, Aufmtie were edited by DQllingcr ici 
1830; hla Fairalo^fe by RdthinayTp alia m 1^39; aod m. Btaffaphie 
by B, Wdrner wa& published at Keg«naburg in 1A66. It is witK ihe 
Syn^Mik that hia lUmt jb chit^fly dneoci^ted. the interHt excittd 
by it in Protestant circles it ihown by the fact that within two 
ye»n of its ippparance it h^d elicited three replies of considerable 
unportance, those namely of F C- B^iur, P K- Marheifielce aad 
C. J^ NitEJch, Sutn although characterised by learninc and actitene^, 
as welt as by considerable breadth of ipiritual sympatny. it cannot be 
•aid to have betin accepted by Catholics themselvesi as embodying an 
Mxurate object! %'e view of the actujiE doctrine of their church. The 
tiberal Kbool of thought of which M<ihier was a prominent exponent 
was discount d in official circles, while Protestants, on the other 
hand* compllia that the author failed to grasp thoroughly the 
s^nificance of the Reformatton as a great movement in the spiritual 
htttory of mankind, while needlessly dwelling on the doctrinal 
shortcomings, inconsistencies and contradictions of its leaders. 

MOHMAND. a Pathan tribe who inhabit the hilly country to 
the north-west of Peshawar, in the North- West Frontier Province 
of India. They are one of the strongest tribes on the border 
after the Afridis and Waziris, and have given much trouble to 
the government of India. The country of the Mohmands may 
be defined roughly as boimded on the £. by British districts 
from near Jamrud to Fort Abazai, and thence by the Utman 
Khel country; on the N by Bajour; on the W. by Kunar; and 
on the S. by the territories of the Shinwari and Afridi, area, 
about 1200 sq. m. The Indo- Afghan boundary line now nms 
throtigh the Mohmand country, but the amir of Afghanistan 
formerly claimed allegiance from all the Mohmands, and only 
handed over the greater part of this tract to the British by the 
Durand Agreement of 1803. The government has given 
assurances to the Burban Khel, Dawezai, Halimzai, Isa Khel, 
Tarakzai and Utmanzai sections of the Mohmands that they 
will not suffer by the severance of their ancient connexion with 
Afghanistan, and these are known as the Assured Clans. The 
tribe are Afghans by descent, and are more akin to the Yusafzais 
than any of their neighbours. The aspect of the Mohmand 
hills is exceedingly dreary, and the eye is everywhere met by 
dry ravines between long rows of rocky hills and crags, scantily 
clothed with coarse grass, scrubwood and the dwarf palm In 
summer great want of water is felt, and the desert tracts radiate 
an intolerable heat. This, coupled with the unhealthiness of 
the lowlands, probably accounts for the inferior physique of 
the Mohmands as compared with their Afridi and Shinwari 
neighbours, who in summer retire to the cool highlands of Tirah 
and the Safed Koh. The crops in the Mohmand hills are almost 
entirely dependent on the winter and autumn rams, and should 
these fail there is considerable distress, but the Mohmands 
supplement this source of livelihood by a through trade on rafts 
along the Kabul river between the Bntish districts and the hill- 
country beyond them The exports are wax, hides, ghi and rice 
from Kunar, and iron from Bajour, the imports are salt, cloth, 
paper, soap, tea, indigo, sugar, grain, tobacco, needles, scissors 
and other manufactures of civilization. The Mohmands are 
characterized by great pride and haughtiness, they bear a bad 
reputation for treachery and ruthless cruelty, and are not as 
brave as their Afridi neighbours. They number some 18,000 
fighting men, giving roughly a population of 65,000, but all the 
cUns would never act together under any circumstances. British 
punitive expeditions have been sent against the Mohmands in 
185Z-52, 1854. 1864. 1879. 1880, but the principal operations 
prcre those of 1S97 (T H. H.*) 



Campaign ef x^p^.— The year 1897 witnessed an almost 
general outbreak among the tribes on the north-west frontier of 
India. The tribes involved were practically independent, but 
the new frontier arranged with the amir of Afghanistan, and 
demarcated by Sir Mortimer Durand 's cooAmission of 1 893-1 894, 
brought them within the British sphere of influence. The great 
dread of these high-spirited motmtaineers was aimezation, 
and the hostility shown during the demarcation led to the 
Waziri expedition of 1894. Other causes, however, contributed 
to bring about the outbreak of 1897. The easy victory of the 
Turks over the Greeks gave rise to excitement throughout the 
Mahommedan world, and the publication by the amir of Afghan- 
tstan, in his assumed capacity of king of Islam, of a religious 
work, in portions of which fanatical antipathy to Christians was 
thinly veiled, aroused a warlike spirit among the border Mahom- 
medans. The growing unrest was not recognized, and all 
appeared quiet, when, on the loth of June 1897, a detachment 
of Indian troops escorting a British frontier officer was suddenly 
atucked during the mid-day halt in the Tocbi valley, where, since 
the Waziri expedition of 1894-95, certain armed posts had been 
retamed by the government of India. On the 29th of July, 
with equal suddeimess, the fortified posts at Chakdara and Mala- 
kand, in the Swat valley, which had been held since the Chitral 
expedition of 1895, were for several days fiercely assailed by the 
usually peacefid Swatis under the leadership of the Mad Mullah. 
On the 8th of August the village of Shabkadar (Shankarghar), 
withm a few miles of Peshawar, and in British territory, was 
raided by the Mohmands, while the Afridis besieged the fortified 
posts on the Samana ridge, which had been maintained since 
the expeditions of 1888 and 1891 Finally, the Afridis, within 
a few days, captured all the British posts in the Khyber Pass. 
A division commanded by Major-General Sir Bindon Blood was 
assembled at Nowshera. The post at Malakand was reached on 
the ist of August, and on the following day Chakdara was re- 
lieved. The punishment of the Afridis was deferred till the 
preparations for the Tirah campaign (see Tikah) could be com- 
pleted The Mohmands, however, could be immediately dealt 
with, and agamst them the two brigades of Sir Bmdon Blood's 
division advanced from Malakand simultaneously with the move- 
ment of another division under Major-General (afterwards Sir 
Edmund) R Elles from Peshawar, it was intended that the two 
columns should effect a jimction in Bajour About the 6th of 
September the two forces advanced, and Major-General Blood 
reached Nawagai on the 14th of September, having detached a 
brigade to cross the Rambat Pass. This brigade being sharply 
atucked in camp at Markhanai at the foot of the pass on the 
night of the 14th, was ordered to ttyn northwards and punish 
the tribesmen of the Mamund valley On the X5th Brigadier- 
(afterwards Major-) General Jeffreys camped at Inayat KiUa, 
and on the following day he moved up the Mamund valley in 
three columns, which met with strong resistance A retirement 
was ordered, the tribesmen following, and when darkness fell 
the general, with a battery and a small escort, was cut off and 
with difficulty defended some buildings until reheved The 
casualties m this action numbered 149- This partial reverse 
placed General Blood in a position of some difficulty He deter- 
mmed, however, to remain at Nawagai, awaiting the amval of 
General Elles, and sent orders to General Jeffreys to prosecute 
the operations in the Mamtmd valley From the x8th to the 
23rd these operations were carried on successfully, several villages 
being burned, and the Mamtmds were disheartened. Mean- 
while, the camp at Nawagai was heavily attacked on the night 
of the 20th by about 4000 men belonging to the Hadda Mullah's 
following The attack was repulsed with loss, and on the 21st 
Generals Blood and Elles met at Lakarai The junction having 
been effected, the latter, in accordance with the scheme, advanced 
to deal with the Upper Mohmands in the Jarobi and Koda Khel 
valle3rs, and they were soon brought to reason by his well-con- 
ducted operations The work of the Peshawar division was now 
accomplished, and it returned to take part in the Tirah campaign. 
Its total casualties were about 30 kiUed and wounded On the 
a 2nd General Blood joined General Jeffreys, and on the 34th he 



650 



MOHONK LAKE— MOHUR 



sUrted with his staff for Panjkon. On the 37th General 
Jeffreys resumed punitive operations in the Mamund valley, 
destroying numerous villages. On the 30th he encountered 
strong opposition at Agrah, and had 61 casualties. On the and 
of October General Blood arrived at Inayat Killa with reinforce- 
ments, and on the xith the Mamunds tendered their submission. 
The total British loss in the Mamund valley was 282 out of a 
force which never exceeded 1200 men. After marching into 
Buner, and revisiting the scenes of the Umbeyla expedition of 
1863, the Malakand field-force was broken up on the aist of 
January. The objects of the expedition were completely 
attaint, in spite of the great naturai difficulties of the country 
The employment of imperial service troops with the Peshawar 
column marked a new departure in frontier campaigns. 

(C. J B.) 

MOHONK LAKE, a summer settlement at the northern end of 
Lake Mohonk, Ulster county, New York, U.S A., about 14 m. 
NW. of Poughkeepsie. It is served from New Palta, about i m. 
S.E. (about si m. by stage), by the Wallkill Valley railway, a 
branch of the West Shore. The lake is a small body of water, 
picturesquely situated 1245 ft. above the sea-level, on Sky Top 
Moimtain (1542 ft. ), one of the highest peaks of the Shawangunk 
range. The highest point of Sky Top lies just east of the south 
end of the lake; close by, to the west, Eagle Cliff rises to a height 
of 141 2 ft. The development of this beautiful region into a 
summer resort and the holding of Indian and arbitration con- 
ferences here have been due to Albert Keith Smiley (b. 1828), 
a graduate of Haverford College (1849), who conducted an 
English and classical academy in Philadelphia in 1853-1857, 
was principal of the Oak Grove academy at Vassalboro, Maine, 
in 1858-1860, was principal and superintendent of the Friends' 
school at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1860-1879, and became a 
member of the United States Board of Indian Commissioners in 
1879. In 1869 he bought, at the northern' end of Lake Mohonk, 
a tract of land on which he built a large hotel. Here, in October 
1883, the first Conference of the Friends of the American Indian 
met; these conferences have since been held annually, their 
scope being enlarged in 1904 to include consideration of the 
condition of " other dependent peoples " — i.e. the natives of the 
Philippines, Porto Rico and Hawaii. The first conference on 
international arbitration was held here in June 1895. 

MOHR, KARL FRIEDRICH (1806-1879), German pharmacist, 
son of a well-to-do druggist in Coblentz, was bom on the 4th 
of November 1806. Being a delicate child he received much of 
his early education at home, in great part in his father's labora- 
tory. To this may be traced much of the skill he showed in 
devising instruments and methods of analysis. At the age of 
twenty-one he began to study chemistry under Leopold Gmelin, 
and, after five years spent in Heidelberg, Berlin and Bonn, 
returned with the degree of Ph.D to join his father's establish- 
ment. On the death of his father in 1840 he succeeded to the 
business, retiring from it for scientific leisure in 1857 Serious 
pecuniary losses led him at the age of fifty-seven to become a 
privatdount in Bonn, where in 1867 he was appointed, by the 
direct influence of the emperor, extraordinary professor of 
pharmacy He died at Bonn on the 28th of September 1879. 
Mohr was the leading scientific pharmacist of his time in Ger- 
many, and he was the author of many improvements in ana- 
lytical processes. His methods of volumetric analysis were 
expounded in his Lehrhtuh der chemisch-cnalytischen Tttrir- 
nuthodc (1855), which won the special commendation of Liebig 
and has run through many editions. His Ccschtchie der Erde, 
etne Ceologie auf neuer Crundlage (1866), also obtained a wide 
circulation In a paper " Uber cUe Natur der Warme," published 
in the Zeilschnft jfUr Physik in 1837, he gave one of the earliest 
general statements of the doctrine of the conservation of energy 
in the words " besides the 54 knowTi chemical elements there 
is in the physical world one agent only, and this is called Kraft 
(energy) It may appear, according to circumstances, as motion, 
chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light and magnetism; and 
from any one of these forms it can be transformed into any of 
the others." 



MORS. PRIBDRICH (i 773-1839), German mineralogist, wii 
bom at Gemrode in the Harz Mountains, on the 39th of January 
1773. He was educated at Halle, and at the mining academy 
at Freiburg. He spent much time in Austria in studying miner- 
alogy and mining, and became professor of mineralogy at Grau 
in 181 2. On the death of Werner in 181 7, he was appointed to 
the chair of mineralogy in the mining academy of Freiburg, 
and in 1826 he became professor of mineralogy and superinten- 
dent of the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna. His great work was the 
Crundriss der Htneralogie (Eng. trans. Treatise on Mineralety, 
by Wilhelm Haidinger, 1825). He died at Agardo, near BeiluDO, 
Italy, on the 29th of September, 1839. 

MOHUN, CHARLES MOHUN. 4th Baaon (c. 1675-1712). was 
the son of the 3rd Baron Mohun, who died in October 1677 as the 
result of a wound received while acting as second in a duel 
The boy had no regular guardian, and before he was seventeen 
he had earned an unpleasant notoriety in London for rowdyism 
and brawling, had fought a duel and had been tried on a 
charge of murder His friend, Captain Richard Hill, a roystering 
young officer, was in love with the actress Mrs Brace^rdle, 
and thought William Moimtfort, the actor, to be his successful 
rival. On the night of the 9th of December 1692 Mohua 
assisted Hill to attempt the actress's abduction. The attempt 
failed, and Mohun and Hill then escorted Mrs Bracegirdle to her 
house, and subsequently remained together outside drinking till 
the appearance of Mountfort, who liv«l close at hand. Greetings 
were exchanged between Mohun and Mountfort, and the lauer 
made a disparaging remark about Hill, who either without 
warning (according to Mountfort's deathbed statement) or in 
fair fight (according to other evidence) ran Mountfort through 
the body, and then absconded. Klohun was arrested and put 
on trial in Westminster Hall before his peers for murder as an 
accessory before the fact (1693), but by an overwhelming 
majority the peers foimd him not guilty. This verdict has been 
severely criticized, noubly by Macaulay, who saw in it merely 
a gross instance of class favouritism. But a careful examination 
of the evidence (in the State Trials) justifies the decision, and 
establishes the presumption that the fight was a fair one. lo 
1699 Mohun was put on his trial for another alleged murder, but 
was unanimously and quite justly acquitted His boon coib- 
panion, Edward Rich, eari of Warwick (i 673-1 701), who was 
tried on a separate indictment for the same crime, was found 
guilty of manslaughter On this occasion Mohun expressed 
regret for his past Ufe, and he seems subsequently to have cade 
a genuine attempt to alter his ways and to have taken a practial 
interest in public affairs But in 1712 his violent temper again 
got the better of him. and he forced the 4th duke of HamilloQ, 
with whom he had been at law for some years, into 1 desperate 
duel in Hyde Park in the early hours of the 15th of November, is 
which both combatants were killed. Thackeray has utiliicd 
this incident in Esmond Lord Mohun had no issue, and on his 
death the barony, which was created in 1628 in favour of his 
great-grandfather John Mohun (c 1592-1640). became extina 

Sec The mole Life and History of My Lord Mokun amd the EM 
of Warmck (London, 1711). J Evelyn, Diary and Correspendemt; 
Historical Manuscripts Commission, nth report, appendix v. 
(Dartmouth MSS ) . G. C Boase and W P Courtney. Btblietkin 
cornubtensu (1874-1882), Howell. Stau TruUs, and CoUey Gbber. 
Apology, edited by R. W Lowe (1889). 

MOHOn, MICHAEL (c. 1625-1684). English actor. pUyed at 
the Cockpit in Drury Lane before the Civil War He served 
on the king's side with credit and was promoted captain, 
and subsequently, in Flanders, nujor At the Restoration be 
returned with Charles II. and took up his former professiao, 
playing a great variety of parts, usually as second to Charies 
Hart. 

MOHUR, the name of a Persian gold coin, used in India from 
the i6th century. The word is taken from the Persian laaAr, 
a seal or ring Between 1835 and 1891 a gold coin, also called a 
" mohur," was struck by the government of Britkh India and 
was of the nominal value of 1 5 rupees. On the establishment of 
a £old standard in India in 1899^ on the basis of i6d. 1 i 



MOIDORE— MOKSHANY 



651 



tbe British sovereign was declared legal tender and the mohur 
was thus superseded. 

MOIDORB, (a corruption of the Portuguese moeda d'ourOf 
literally, money of gold), the name of a gold Portuguese coin, 
coined from 2640 to 1732. This was of the sterling value of 
xjs. 5 id. It is the double tiMtda d*owro^ of the value of 4800 
reis in x688, that was current in western Europe and the West 
Indies for a long period after it ceased to be struck. It was 
the prindpal coin current in Ireland at the beginning of the 
i8th century, and spread to the west of England. At the same 
period it was current in the West Indies, particularly in Barbados. 
It was rated in English money at 278. 

MOIR, DAVID MACBETH (1798-1851), Scottish physician 
and writer, was bom at Musselburgh on the 5th of January 
1798. He studied medicine at Edinburgh University, taking his 
degree in x8i6. Entering into partnership with a Musselburgh 
doctor he practised there until his death on the 6th of July 1851. 
He was a contributor of both prose and verse to the magazines, 
and particularly, with the signature of " Delta," to Blackwood's. 
A collection of his poetry was edited in 1852 by Thomas Aird. 
Among his publications were the famous Life of Mansie Wauch^ 
Tailor (1828), which shows his gifts as a humorist, Outlines 
of the Ancient History of Medicine (1830, and Sketch of the 
Poetical Literature of the Past Half Century (1851). 

MOISSAC* a town of south-western France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Tam-et-Garonne, 17 m. 
W.N.W. of Montauban on the Southern railway between 
Bordeaxiz and Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 4523; commune, 
BazS. Moissac stands at the foot of vine-clad hills on the right 
bank of the Tarn; it is divided into two parts by the lateral 
canal of the Garonne, which crosses the Tarn by way of an 
aqueduct a short distance above the town. It contains little 
of note except the abbey-church of St Pierre, a building of the 
X5th century with a porch of the 12th century which is decorated 
with elaborate Romanesque carving unsurpassed in France. 
The cloister of the early 12th century adjoining the north side 
of the church is also one of the finest of its kind. Romanesque 
in character, it has pointed arches resting alternately on single 
and clustered columns with sculptured, capitals. Among other 
remains of the abbey is the abbot's palace, which contains two 
halls of the Romanesque period. St Martin, the oldest of the 
other churches of Moissac, dates from before the year 1000. 
The town has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, 
a communal college for boys, a library and a museum. 
Trade is in oil, wine, eggs, wool, poultry and iruit (peaches, 
^ricots, &c) 

The town owes its origin to an abbey probably founded in the 
7th century by St Amand, the friend of Dagobert. After being 
devastated by the Saracens, the abbey was restored by Louis 
of Aquitaine, son of Charlemagne. Subsequently it was made 
dependent on Cluny, but in 1618 it was secularized by Pope 
Paul v., and replaced by a house of Augustim'an monks, which 
was suppressed at the Revolution. The town, which was 
erected into a commune in the 13th century, was taken by 
Richard Cceur de Lion and by Simon de Montfort. 

M0IS8AN, HENRI (185 2- 1907), French chemist, was boni at 
Paris on the 28th of Sieptember 1852. Educated at the Museum 
of Natural History, he was successively professor of toxicology 
(1886) and of inorganic chemistry (1889) at the School of Phar- 
macy, and of general chemistry at the Sorbonne (1900). In 
x886 he succeeded in obtaining the element fluorine in the free 
state by the electrolysis of potassium fluoride and anhydrous 
hydrofluoric acid at a low temperature. Thence he was led to 
study the production of carbon in its three varieties and to 
attempt the artificial preparation of diamond, of which he was 
able to make some minute specimens (see Gems, § Artificial). 
In connexion with these experiments he developed the electric 
furnace as a convem'ent means of obtaining very high tempera- 
tures in the laboratory; and by its aid he prepared many new 
compounds, especially carbides, silicides and borides, and 
melted and volatilized substances which had previously been 
regarded as infusible. For his preparation of fluorine he was 



awarded the Lacase prize in 1887, and in 1906 he obtained the 
Nobel prize for chemistry. He died in Paris on the 20th of 
February 1907. 

Hb published works include Lefour (Uarique (1897), and Lefluor 
et ses composis (1900), besides numerous^pers in the Comptes 
rendus and other scientific penodicab. A Tratti de chtmte mtneraU 
in five volumes was publbhed under hb direction in 1904-1906. 

MOJI, a town of Japan, on the Kiushiu side of the Shimono- 
seki Strait. The strait being only i m. m width, Mcji and 
Shimonoseki would be practically the same port did not the 
swiftness of the current along the latter shore make it con- 
venient for vesseb to anchor off Moji. Moji is one of the places 
voluntarily opened by the Japanese for purposes of direct 
export. It b the starting-point of the Kiushiu railway, and 
as there b abundance of coal in its neighbourhood, it has become 
a town of considerable importance. In 1890 it was little more 
than a hamlet, but it had in 1901 a population of 25,274, and 
a considerable foreign trade. 

MOJSISOVICS VON MOISVAR. JOHANN AUGUST OBORG 
EDMUND ( 1 839-1 907), Austro-Hungarian geologist and palae- 
ontologbt, son of the surgeon Georg Mojsisovics von Mojsvar 
(1799-1860), was bom at Vienna on the i8th of October 1839. 
He studied law in Vienna University, taking hb doctor's degree 
in 1864, and in 1867 he eptered the Geological Institute, becom- 
ing chief geologbt in 1870 and vice-director in 1892. He retired 
in 1900, and died at Mallnitz on the 2nd of October 1907. He 
paid special attention to the cephalopoda of the Austrian Trias, 
and his publications include Das Cebirge um Hallstatt (1873-* 
1876); Die Dolomitrisse von Siidtirol und Venetien (1878-1880); 
Grundlinien der Geologie von Bosnien-Henegowina (1880) with 
E. Tietze and A. Bittner; Die Cephalopoden der mediterranen 
Triasprovinz (1882); Die cephalopoden der HaUstdtter Kalko 
(1873-1903); and Beitrdge tur Kenntniss der ohertriadischen 
Cephalopodenfaunen des Himalaya (1896). With Melchior 
Neumayr (1845-1890) he conducted the Beitrdge tur Paldon- 
tologie und Geologie Oesterreich-Ungams. In 1862, with Paul 
Grohmann and Dr Guido von Sommaruga, he founded the 
Austrian Alpine Club, and he also took part in establbhing the 
German Alpine Club, which combined with the former in 1873. 

MOKANNA {al-Moqanna\ the Veiled), the name given to 
Qakim, or *Ati, a man of unknown parentage, originally a 
fuller in Merv, who posed as an incarnation of Deity, and headed 
a revolt in KhorSsftn against the caliph Mahdl. For about three 
years he sustained himself in the field against the troops of the 
caliph and for two years longer in hb fortress of Sanam; then, 
reduced to straits in 779, he and his followers took poison and 
set fire to the fortress. Much is related to his mapcal arts, espe- 
cially of a moonlike light vbible for an enormous distance 
which he made to rise from a pit near Nakhshab. He is the 
hero of the first part of Moore's Lalla Rookh. 

MOKHA (Mocha, properly Makha), a town in Arabia on the 
Red Sea coast in 13** 19' N. and 43* 1 2' E. Formerly thechief port 
for the Yemen coffee export, it has much diminished in im- 
portance. The ccffee grown in the mountain districts of Haraz, 
Uden, and Ta'iz b now shipped at Hodeda or Aden, though the 
article retains the trade name of " Mocha." The town lies in 
a small bay 40 m. N. of Perim at the southern entrance to the 
Red Sea. The anchorage is not good, and the port b only used 
by native vesseb. Seen from the sea the town has rather an 
imposing appearance, but a near review shows that the houses 
though large and built of stone are mostly in ruins. The 
neighbouring country b an arid plain without fresh water, the 
town being supplied by an aqueduct from the village of Muza, 
situated 16 m. to the east. This b probably identical with the 
Muza of the Periplus, a great seat of the Red Sea trade in 
antiquity, which like Betel Fakih, Zubed and other old Tehama 
towns, formerly seaports, has long since been left by the receding 
sea. There' is a Turkish kaimakam and a small garrison at 
Mokha, which is part of the civil district of Taiz in the vihiyet 
of Yemen. 

MOKSHANT, a town of Russia, in the government of Penza, 
24 m. N.W. of the city of Penza. Pop. (1900). 10,710. The 



652 



MOLASSES— MOLDE 



inhabitants are engaged In agriculture, or work in flour-mills, 
oilworks, tanneries and potasb-works. Moksbany, which was 
built in 1535 as a fort to protect the country from the raids of the 
Tatars and the Kalmucks, is supposed to occupy the site of the 
Meshcheryak town of Murunza, mentioned as early as the 9th 
century. 

MOLASSES, the syrup obtained from the drainings of raw 
sugar or from sugar during the process of refining. In American 
usage the word usually appUes to both forms of the syrup, but 
in English usage the second form is more usually known as 
" treacle " (see Sugar) The word, which in early forms appears 
as melasseSf molassos, &c , is from the Port, melaqo, or Fr. nUUuse, 
cf. the Late Lat. mellaceum^ syrup made from honey {met) 
The geological term " molasse " must be distinguished, this 
word, applied to the soft greenish sandstone of the district 
between the Jura and the Alps, is French, meaning "soft," 
Lat. mollis. 

MOLAT, JACQUES DE (d. 13x4), last grand master of the 
Knights Templars, was bom of a noble but impoverished family, 
at a village of the same name in the old province of Franche- 
Comt£ (mod. department of Haute-Sa6ne), about the middle of 
the 13th century. The family property being the inheritance 
of an elder brother, Jacques was thrown upon hb own resources. 
Having been brought up in the neighbourhood of a commandery 
of the Temple, he entered the order in 1265 at Beaune in the 
diocese of Autun. It is probable that he at once set out for the 
East to take part in the defence of the Holy Land against the 
Saracens. About 1 295 he was elected grand master of the order 
After the Templars had been driven out of Palestine by the 
Saracens, De Molay took refuge with the remnant of his followers 
in the island of Cyprus. Here, while attempting to get together 
a force to retrieve the disasters to the Christian arms, he received 
a summons (in 1306) from Pope Clement V to repair to Paris 
The pope's pretext for the summons was his desire to put an end 
to the quarrels between the Templars and the Kmghts of St John, 
and to concert plans for k new crusade, in reality he had entered 
into a secret agreement with the king of France for the sup- 
pression of the Templars. Molay left Cyprus with a retinue of 
60 followers, and made a triumphal entry into Paris. On the 
13th of October 1307 every Templar in France was arrested, 
and a prolonged examination of the members of the order was 
held De Molay, probably under torture, confessed that some 
of the charges brought against the order were true. He was 
kept in prison for several years, and in 1314 he was brought up 
with three other dignitaries of the Temple before a commission 
of cardinals and others to hear the sentence (imprisonment for 
life) pronounced. Then, to the surprise of the commission, 
De Molay withdrew his confession. Immediately the king heard 
of it he gave orders that De Molay and another of the four, who 
had also recanted, should be burnt as lapsed heretics. The 
sentence was carried out on the nth (or 19th) of March 1314. 
De Molay *s ashes were gathered up by the people, and it is said 
that with his last breath he summoned the king and the pope 
to appear with him before the throne of God. 

For the charges brought against the Templars and the famous 
process in connexion with them, sec Templars; J Michelct. Proch 
des Tempiiers (184I-1851) and Lavocat. Prods desjrires et de I'otdre 
du Temple d'ahris des pihes inidiies puNiies par Af Michelst (1888) , 
E Bcsson, " Etude sur Jacques de Molay in Afemotres de la soc 
d'imulalion du Doubs (Besan<;on. 1876); H. H Milman. Hist oj 
Latin Christianity, bk. xii., chs. i and 2; H. Prutz, Entvnckelung und 
Untergang des Tempelherrenordens (Berlin, 1888). 

MOLD (formerly Mould, Welsh Y Wyddgrug, a conspicuous 
barrow, Lat. Mons alius, the translation of the Welsh name), 
a market town, contributory parliamentary borough of Flint- 
shire, N. Wales; on the London & North-Western railway 
(Chester and Denbigh branch), 182 m. from London and 11 m. 
from Chester. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4263. The locality 
is populous owing to the collieries and lead-smelting works in 
the vicinity At the north end of the town there is a height, 
Bailey Hill (perhaps from ballia, the architectural term applied 
to fortified castle courts). This hill, partly natural and partly 
artificial, was once the site of a Roman fortihcation, and in old 



records is known as Moaldes, Monhault, or Momhauh {de 1 
alto). Mold Castle was probably built by Robert Monthault 
{temp William Rufus), was taken and destroyed by Owes 
Gwyncdd m 1144-1145, its site lost to the English and retaken 
by Llewelyn ap lowerth in 1201, and by Gruffydd Llwyd ui 
1322 On this site, too, where there are now no remains of any 
fortress, were found, in 1849, some 15 skeletons, supposed to bie 
of the 13th or 14th centuries. Maes Garmon (the battlefield of 
Germanus) is about a mile west of Mold Here, as is supposed, 
the " Alleluia Victory " was gamed over the Pias and &ois by 
Lupus and Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, according to some 
about A.O. 430, but others give a.d. 448, the date of the saint's 
death A commemorative obelisk was eieaed on the Maes by 
N Griffith ol Rhual (1736) Over a mde south of Mold, 
on the right of the road to Nerquis, is the "Tower" (isth 
century, but perhaps restored in the 18th), where, in 1465 or 
1475. the royal chieftain, Rheinallt ab Gruffyd ad Bkddyn, 
hanged Robert Byrne, mayor of Chester, and subsequently 
burned alive some 200 Chester folk who tried to arrest him. 
Many tumuli are visible round Mold. 

Mold county gaol, bought in x88o by Jesuits ezpeUed from 
France, was by them named St Germanus's House. St Mary's 
church, a Gothic building, b mentioned as early as the time of 
Henry VII. Its important collieries and lead mines, fire-brick, 
tile, earthenware, mineral oil, tinplate and nail manufactures, 
tanneries, breweries and malt-houses, have made Mold the 
business centre of the county. About 4 m. distant is Cikain 
village, of which the church has a carved oak roof, stolen from 
Basingwerk Abbey at the dissolution of the monasteries. 
Among the neighbouring Clwyd hills Moel Fammau and Mod 
Arthur are specially noticeable On the summit of the former 
IS George Ill's jubilee pyramid. The Ordovices and tbe 
Romans fortified Moel Arthur The sites of seven posts 
established against Rome may be traced along the bills bound- 
ing Flintshire and Denbighshire 

MOLDAVIA, a former principality of south-eastern Europe, 
coiistiiuting, after its union with Wallachia on tbe 9th of 
November 1859, a part of Rumania {q.v.) 

MOLDAVITE, an olive-green or dull greenish vitreous sub- 
stance, named by A Dufr6noy from Moldauthein in Bohenis, 
where it occurs. It is sometimes cut and polished as an orna- 
mental stone under the name of pseudo-cbr>*solitc. Its bottk* 
glass colour led to its being commonly called BouUitlaukiK, 
and kt one time it was regarded as an artificial product, but this 
view is opposed to the fact that no remains of glass-works are 
found in the neighbourhood of its occurrence, moreover pieces 
of the substance are widely distributed in Tertiary and eaily 
Pleistocene deposits in Bohemia and Moravia. For a k>ng tine 
it was generally believed to be a variety of cAsldian, but its 
difficult fusibility and its chemical composition are rather 
against its volcamc origin. Dr F. E. Suess pointed out that 
the nodules or small masses of moldavite presented curioas 
pittings and wrinkles on the surface, which could not be due 
to the action of water, but resembled the characteristic mariri'y 
on many meteorites. Boldly attributing the material to a 
cosmic origin, he regarded moldavite as a special type of metew* 
ite for which he proposed the name of tectite (Gr. r^trk, 
melted) To this type are also referred the so-called obsidiao 
bombs and buttons from Australia and Tasmania, known some- 
times as australite, and called by R. H. Walcott obsidiamtcs. 
Similar bodies have been found in Malaysia and have been 
termed billitonite, from the isle of Billiton where they occur ia 
tin-bearing gravels. Usually they are flat, rounded or ellipsoidal 
bodies, sometimes surrounded by an equatorial girdle or rim, 
and often with a brilliant black superficial lustre, as thoogk 
varnished. Moldavite' has been reported also from Scania ia 
Sweden. 

Sec Franz E Sueas. Jahrlmch der k.-k. geelog. ReiekstnslA 
(Vienna). 1901. p. 193: £. Weinschenk, CeniraUian /. ifiwrofocti 
(Stuttgart), 1908, p. 737. (F. W. E-*) 

MOLDE, a small seaside town of Norway, in Romsdal «a^ 
(county), 204 m. by sea N.N.E. of Bergen, in 6a* 45' N. (that 



MOLE, L. M.— MOLE 



653 



of the Faroe Islands). It has little trade, but is the prindpal 
tourist centre on this part of the coast.and the steamers from 
Hull and Newcastle, the Norwegian ports, Hamburg, Antwerp, 
&c., call here. The town fronts the broad Molde Fjord, with 
its long low islands, and to the east and south a splendid 
panorama of jagged mountains is seen, reaching 6010 ft. in 
Store Troldtinder of the Romsdal group. Molde is the port for 
the tourist route through the Romsdal. 

MOLfi, LOUIS MATHIEU.COMTE (1781-1855), French states- 
man, was born in Paris on the 24th of January 1781. His 
father, a president of the pariement of Paris, who came of the 
family of the famous president noticed below, was guillotined 
during the Terror, and Count Mold's early days were spent in 
Switzerland and in England with his mother, a relative of 
Lamoignon-Malesherbes. On his return to France he studied 
at the ^ole centrale des travaux publics, and his social educa- 
tion was accomplished in the salon of Pauline dc Beaumont, 
the friend of Ch&teaubriand and Joubert. A volume of Essais de 
morale ei de politique introduced him to the notice of Napoleon, 
who attached him to the suff of the council of state. He became 
master of requests in 1806, and next year prefect of the C6te 
d'Or, councillor of state and director-general of bridges and 
roads in 1809, and count of the empire in the autumn of the 
same year. In November 1813 I^ became minister of justice. 
Although he resumed his functions as director-general during 
the Hundred Days, he excused himself from taking his seat 
in the council of state and was apparently not seriously com- 
promised, for Louis XVIII. confirmed his appointment as 
director-general and made him a peer of France. Mold supported 
the policy of the due de Richelieu, who in 18 17 entrusted to him 
the direction of the ministry of marine, which he held until 
December 1818. From that time he belonged to the moderate 
opposition, and he accepted the result of the revolution of 1830 
without enthusiasm. He was minister for foreign affairs in the 
first cabinet of Louis Philippe's reign, and was confronted with 
the task of reconciling the European powers to the change of 
government. The real direction of foreign affairs, however, 
lay less in his hands than in those of Talleyrand, who had gone 
to London as the ambassador of the new king. After a few 
months of office M0I6 retired, and it was not until 1836 that the 
f^ of Thiers led to his becoming prime minister of a new govern- 
ment, in which he held the portfolio of foreign affairs. One of 
hb first actions was the release of the ex-ministers of Charles X., 
and he had to deal with the disputes with Switzeriand and 
with the Strassburg coup of Louis Napoleon* He withdrew the 
French garrison from Ancona, but pursued an active policy 
in Mexico and in Algeria. Personal and political differences 
rapidly arose between M0I6 and his chief colleague Guizot, and 
icd to an open rupturo in March 1837 in face of the general 
opposition to a grant to the due de Nemours. After some 
attempts to secure a new combination M0I6 resonstructed his 
ministry in- April, Guizot being excluded. The general election 
in the autumn gave him no fresh support in the Chamber of 
Deputies, while he had now to face a formidable coalition between 
Guizot, the Left Centre under Thiers, and politicians of the 
D)mastic Left and the Republican Left. M0I6, supported by 
Louis Philippe, held his ground against the general hostility 
until the beginning of 1839, when, after acrid discussions on the 
address, the chamber was dissolved. The new house showed 
little change in the strength of parties, but M0I6 resigned on 
the 3xst of March 2839. A year later he entered the Academy, 
and though he continued to speak frequently he took no im- 
portant share in party politics. Louis Philippe sought his help 
In his vain efforts to form a ministry in February 1848. After 
the revolution he was deputy for the Gironde to the Con- 
stituent Assembly, and in 1849 to the Legislative Assembly, 
where he was one of the leaders of the Right until the coup 
d'itat on the and of December 1851 drove him from public 
life. He died at Ctiampl&treux (Seine-et-Oise) on the a3rd of 
November 1855. 

See P. Thureau-Dangtn, Histoire de la monarckie de jui^et (1884- 
1193); and R<rf)crt Cougny, Iha. des parlementatret franfa$s (1891}. 



MOlA MATHIEU (1584-1656), French statesman, son of 
Edouard M0I6 (d. 1614), who was for a time procureur-ginirai, 
was educated at the university of Orleans. Admitted wn5«7/<r 
in 1606, he was president aux requites in i6ro, procureur-ghitral 
in succession to Nicolas de Bellidvte in 16 14, and he took part 
in the assembly of the Notables summoned at Rouen in 1617. 
He fought in vain against the setting up of special tribunals, or 
commissions, to try prisoners charged with political offences, 
and for his persistence in the case of the brothers Louis and 
Michel de Marillac he was suspended in 1631, and ordered to 
appear at Fontainebleau in his own defence. Hitherto Mold's 
relations with Richeh'eu had been fairly good, but his inclination 
to the doctrines of Port Royal increased the differences between 
them, and it was not until after Richelieu's death that he was 
able to secure the release of his friend, the abbd de St Cyran. 
In 1641 he was appointed first president of the pariement, with 
the preliminary condilion that he should not permit the genei^ 
assembly of the chambers except iJy express order of the king. 
After Richelieu's death the pretensions of the pariement in- 
creased; the hereditary magistrature arrogated to itself the 
functions of the states-general, and in 1648 the pariement with 
the other -sovereign courU (the cow des aides, the gjrand conseil, 
and the cour des comptes) met in one assembly and proposed for 
the royal sanction twenty-seven articles, which amounted in 
subsUnce to a new constitution. In the long conflict between 
Anne of Austria and the pariement, M0I6, without yielding the 
rights of the pariement, played a conciliatory part. In the popu- 
lar tumult known as the day of the barricades (Aug. 26, 1648) 
he sought out Mazarin and the queen to demand the release of 
Pierre Broussel and his colleagues, whose seizure had been the 
original cause of the outbreak. Next day the pariement marched 
in procession to repeat Mol6's demand. On their way back they 
were stopped by the crowd. " Turn, traitor," said one of the 
rebels to Mol£, seizing him by the beard, " and unless you wish 
to be massacred, either bring back Broussel, or bring Mazarin 
as a hostage." Many magistrates fled; the remnant, headed by 
the intrepid M0I6, returned to the Palais Royal, where Anne of 
Austria was induced to release the prisoners. 

Mold's moderating counsels failed to prevent the outbreak 
of the first Fronde, but he negotiated the peace of Rueil in 165 x, 
and averted a conflict between the partisans of Cond6 and of 
the Cardinal de Retz within* the precincts of the Palais de 
Justice. He refused honours and rewards for himself or his 
family, but became keeper of the seals, in which capacity he was 
compelled to follow the court, and he therefore retired from the 
presidency of the pariement. He died on the 3rd of January 1656. 
The MSmoires of Mol£ were edited for the Soci6t6 de IHiistotre de 
France (4 vols., 1855) by Aim^ Champol|ion-Ftgeac, and his life was 
written by Baron A. G.P. de Barante in Le Pariement el la Fronde 
(1859). See also the memoirs of Omer Talon and of De Retz. 

MOLE, (i) A, small animal of the famUy Talpidae (see below). 
(2> A mark, or stain, and particularly a dark -coloured raised spot 
on the human skin. This word, O. Eng. pidl, appears in such 
forms as meil or mailf in old forms of Teutonic languages, and 
in malf a sign; cf. Ger. Denkmal, a monument. It is probably 
cognate with Lat. maculust spot Its meaning of stain is seen 
in the corrupted form " iron-mould," properly " iron-mole," a 
stain produced on linen or cloth by rust or ink. (3) A large 
structure of rubble, stone or other material, used as a breakwater 
or pier (see Breakwatek), or the space of water so enclosed} 
forming a harbour or anchorage. This word comes through 
the French from Lat. mdes, a mass, large structuro. The name 
of the " Mole of Hadrian " (moles Hadriant) is sometimes given 
to the mausoleimi of that emperor, now the castle of St Angelo 
at Rome. 

In zoology the name of mi^ (a contracted form of mould- 
warp, i.e. mould-caster), is properly applicable to the common 
mole (Talpa europaea), a small, soft-furred, burrowing mammal, 
with minute eyes, and broad fossorial fore-feet, belonging to 
the order Inscctivoraandthe family Talpidae. In a wider sense 
may be included under the same term the other Old World 
moles, the North American star-oosed and other moles, and the 



65+ 



MOLECULE 



African golden moles of the family CkrysockUriiae. In a still 
wider sense the name is applied to the Asiatic zokors and the 
African Strand-moles, belonging to the order Rodentia, as well 
as to the Australian marsupial mole. 

The common mole is an animal about six inches in length, 
with a tail of one inch. The body is long and cylindrical, and, 
owing to the forward position of the front limbs, the head 
appears to rest between the shoulders; the muzzle is long and 
obtusely pointed, terminated by the nostrils, which are close 
together in front; the minute eye is almost hidden by the fur; 
the ear is without a conch, opening on a level with the sur- 
rounding skin; the fore-limbs are rather short and very muscular, 
terminating in broad, naked, shovel-shaped feet, the palms 
normally directed outwards, each with five sub-equal digits 
armed with strong flattened claws; the hind-feet, on the contrary, 
are long and narrow; and the toes are provided with slender 
claws. The body is densely covered with soft, erect, velvety fur — 
the hairs uniform in length and thickness, except on the muzzle 
and short tail, the former having some straight bristles on its 
sides, whilst the latter is clothed with longer and coarser hairs. 
The fur is generally black, with a more or less greyish tinge, or 
brownish-black, but various paler shades up to pure white have 
been observed. 

The food of the mole consists chiefly of earthworms, in pursuit 
of which it forms its well-known underground excavations. 
The mole is one of the most voracious of mammals, and, if 
deprived of food, is said to succumb in from ten to twelve hours. 
Almost any kind of flesh is eagerly devoured by captive moles, 
which have been seen, as if maddened by hunger, to attack 
animals nearly as large as themselves, such as birds, lizards, frogs, 
and even snakes; toads, however, they will not touch, and no 
form of vegetable food attracts their notice. If two moles be 
confined together without food, the weaker is invariably devoured 
by the stronger. Moles take readily to the water — in this respect , 
as well as in external form, resembling their North American 
representatives. Bruce, writing in 1793, remarks that he saw 
a mole paddling towards a small island in the Loch of Clunie, 
180 yds. from land, on which he noticed molehills. 

The sexes come together about the second week in March, 
and the young — generally from four to six in number — which 
are brought forth in about six weeks, quickly attain their full 
size. • 

Much mtaconception has prevailed with resard to the structure 
of the mole's " fortress," i.e. the large breeding hillock, which is 
generally placed in bushes, or amid the roots of a tree; but a trust- 
worthy account, by Mr L. E. Adams, will be found in the Memoirs 
of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society for 1903, vol. 
xlvii., pt. 2. 

The geoj^raphical distribution of the mole exceeds that of all the 
other species of the genus taken together. It extends from England 
to Japan, and from the Dovre-Fjeld Mountains in Scandinavia and 
the Middle Dwina region in Russia to southern Europe and the 
southern slopes of the Himalaya, where it occurs at an elevation of 
10,000 ft. In Great Britain it is found as far north as Caithness, 
but in Ireland and in the Western Isles of Scotland (except Mull) 
it is unknown. (See Insectivora.) (G. E. D.; R. L.*) 

MOLECULE (from mod. Lat. moUcula, the diminutive of 
moles, a mass), in chemistry and physics, the minutest particle 
of matter capable of separate existence. The word appears to 
have been invented during the 17th century, and remained 
synonymous with " atom " (Gr. iroiuKt from o-, privative,* and 
r^/xvetv, to cut) until the middle of the 19th century, when a 
diflcrentiation was established. " Atom " has mainly a chemical 
import, being defined as the smallest particle of matter which 
can take part in a chemical reaction; a 'molecule" is composed 
of atoms, generally two or more. For the detailed chemical 
significance of these terras, see Chemistry; and for the atomic 
theory of the chemist (as distinguished from the atomic or 
molecular theory of the physicist) sec Atom; reference may 
also be made to the article Matter. 

The doctrine that matter can be divided into, or regarded as 
composed of, discrete particles (termed " atoms " by early 
writers, and " molecules " by modem ones) has at all times 
played an important part in metaphysics and natural science. 



The leading historical stages in the evohition ol the modem 
conception of the molecular structure of matter are tremted ia 
the following passage from James Clerk Maxwell's axtide Atom 
in the 9th edition of the Ency, Brit, 

" Atom* (Areyiot) is a body which cannot be cut in two. The 
atomic theory is a theory of the constitution of bodies which asMfta 
that they are made up of atoms. The opposite theory b that of the 
homogeneity and continuity of bodies, and asserts, at kaat in the 
case oT txxlics having no apparent oq{anixation. such, for in«»^ i wT. as 
water, that as we can divide a drop of water into two parts wfaick 
are each of them drops of water, so we have reason to Mieve that 
these smaller drops can be divided again, and the theory nes on 
to assert that there is nothing in the nature of things to hinder this 
process of division from being re()eated over and over again, times 
without end. This is the dfoctrine of the infinite div-uibflity of 
bodies, and it is in direct contradiction with the theory of atoms. 

" The atomists assert that after a cert2un number of sudi division 
the parts would be no longer divisible, because each of them would 
be an atom. The advocates of the continuity of matter asaert that 
the smallest conceivable body has parts, and that whatever has 
parts may be divided. 

" In ancient times Democritus was the founder of the atonnc 
theory, while Anaxagoraa propounded that of continuity, undo- the 
name of the doctrine of homoeoroeriaCpMo«aMp««). or of tne ainularity 
of the parts of a txxly to the whole. The aiiguments of the atomistic 
and their replies to the objections of Anaxagoras, are to be found ia 
Lucretius. 

"In modem times the study of nature has brought toUghtnaBf 
properties of bodies which appdir to depend on the magmtude and 
motions of their ultimate constituents, and the question of the cisst« 
ence of atoms has once more become conspicuous amoc^ wdn u & c 
inquiries. 

' We shall beein by stating the opposing doctrines of atoms and 
of continuity. The most ancient pfiilosophers whose fcpeculatioiH 
are known to us seem to have discussed the ideas of number aad of 
continuous nugnitude. of space and time, of matter and motioo. 
with a native power of thought whifJi has probably never been snr* 
passed. Their actual knowledge, however, and their s cie atifc 
experience were necessarily limited, because in their days the reconb 
of human thought were only beginning to accumulate. It is 
probable that the first exact notions of quantity were founded on the 
consideration of number. It is by the help of numbers that ooocirte 
quantities are practically measured and calculated. Now, auaber 
is discontinuous. We pass from one number to the next pir mAbsl 
The magnitudes, on the other hand, which we meet with in geometry, 
are essentially continuous. The attempt to apply nuroerkai methooi 
10 [he rampdfL!^n o\ {geometrical quahtitica led to the doctrtae of 
incommpnsijr.Lbk>§» and to that of the infinite divisibility of yaty. 
Me;inwhile. the s^me considerations had not been applied to t*^», 
K> that in the dayi of Zc no of Elea time was still regaixied as nude 
up or a finite number oF ' moments,' while space was confessed to 
be divisible wittiout liniit. This was the state of opinion whca the 
cekbraicd orEumenif .1 gainst the possibility of motion, of vUcfc 
that of AchiJlp» and the tortoise is a specimen, were pn^tounded bjr 
Zcno, and uch, apparently, continued to be the state of opiaiss 
till AriatQitt? pointed out that time is divisible without Itfut, n 
pTi^ii«ly the same sense that space is. And the slowness of the 
dpvclaprnertt of scientific ideas may be esdmated from the (act tfcit 
BnyU^ does not sec any force in this statement of Aristotle, bst 
continue? (O adntir^ thr paradox of Zeno (Bayle'a DiOianerj, ui. 
' ?.v no 1 ' Thu* t he d i riT non of true scientific progress was for losnjr 
a^ towards the recognition of the infinite divisibility of sf»ce sad 
time. 

" It was easy to attempt to apply similar arguments to msner. 
If matter is extended and fills space, the same mental opentioa hf 
which we recognize the divisibility of space may be applied, ia imtti* 
nation at least, to the matter which occupies space. Frooi tail 
point of view the atomic doctrine might be regarded as a relic of the 
old numerical way of conceiving magnitude, and the opposite doc* 
trine of the infinite divisibility of matter might appear for a tkne 
the most scientific. The atomists. on the other hano, asKrtcd iwy 
strongly the distinction between matter and space. The atooii 
they said, do not fill up the universe: there are void naccs betveca 
them. If it were not so, Lucretius tells us. there couldbe m morioa, 
for the atom which gives way first must have some empty place u> 
move into. 

* Quapropter locus est intactus. inane, vacanaque 
Quod SI non esset. nulla ratione moveri 
Res possent ; naroque. officium quod corporis exstat. 
Officere atque obstare, id in omni tempore adesaet 
Omnibus: haud ip^tur quicquam procedere posset, 
Principium quomam cedenai nulla daret res.* 

De rtmm nattn, i 33f 

" The opposite school nuintatned then, as they ha ve ahraysda''^ 

> It will be noted that Clerk MaxwelPs " atom " aiul "atonie 
theorv " have the significance which we now attach to * 
and '^molecular theory." 



MOLECULE 



65s 



tlMt there b no vacuum— that every part of space b full of matter, 
that theie b a universal plenum, and that all motion is like that of a 
fish in the water, which yields in front of the fish because the fish 
leaves room for it behind. 

Cedere squamigeris btices nitentibus aiunt 
Et liquidas aperire vias, oub post loca pisces 
Linquant. quo possint ceoentes confluere undae.* 

Ibid. L 375. 

** In modem timet Descartet held that, as it b of the essence of 
matter to be extended in length, breadth and thicknesa, so it b of 
the essence of extension to be occupied by matter, for extension 
cannot be an extension of nothing. 

" ' Ac proinde si quaeratur quid fiet, si Deus auferat omne corpus 
quod in aliauo vcsc continetur, et nullum aliud in ablati locum 
venire permittat? respondendum est, vasis btera sibi inviccm hoc 
ipso fore contigua. Cum enim inter duo corpora nihil interjacet, 
oecesae est ut se mutuo tangant, ac manifeste repugnat ut distent, 
sive ut inter ipsa sit distantw, et tamen ut ista dbtantb sit nihil ; 
quia omnb dirtantb est modus extensionis, et ideo sine substantb 
extensa esse non potest.' — Principia, ii. 18. 

" Thb identification of extension with substance runs through the 
whole of Descartes's works, and it forms one of the ultimate founda- 
tions of the system of Spinoza. Descartes, consistently with this 
doctrine, denies the existence of atoms as parts of matter, which by 
their own nature are indivisible. He seems to admit, however, that 
the Deity might make certain particles of matter indivisible in this 
sense, that no creature should be able to divide them. These par- 
ticles, however, Would be still divisible by their own nature, because 
the Deity cannot diminish his own power, and therefore must retain 
hb power of dividing them. Leibniz, on the other hand, regarded 
hb monad as the ultimate element of everything. 

" There are thus two modes of thinking about the constitution of 
bodies, which have had their adherents both in ancient and in modern 
tiroes. They correspond to the two methods of regarding quantity 
— the arithmetical and the geometrical. To the atomist the true 
method of estimating the quantity of matter in a body is to count the 
atoms of it. The void spaces between the atoms count for nothing. 
To those who identify matter with extension, the volume of space 
wxupied by a body is the only measure of the quantity of matter 
bi it. 

"Of the different forms of the atomic theory that of R. J. 
Boscovich may be taken as an example of the purest monadism. 
According to Boscovich matter is made up of atoms. Each atom 
b an indivisible point, having position in space, capable of motion 
n a continuous path, and possessing a certain mass, whereby a 
certain amount of force is required to produce a given change of 
\ motion. Besides this the atom is endowed with potentbl force, 

I that b to say, that any two atoms attract or rcjpcl each other 
with a force depending on their distance apart. The bw of this 
force, for all distances greater than say the thousandth of an inch, 
i b an attraction varying as the inverse square of the disunce. For 
f smaller disunces the force is an attraction for one distance and a 
repubbn for another, according to some bw not yet discovered. 
Boscovich himself, in order to obvbte the possibility of two atoms 
ever being in the same pbce, asserts that the ultimate force is a 
reoubion which increases without limit as the distance diminishes 
wuhout limit, so that two atoms can never coincide. But this 
«ems an un^varrantable concession to the vul^r opinion that two 
bodies cannot coexist in the same pbce. This opinion is deduced 
from our experience of the behaviour of bodies of sensible size, 
but we have no experimental evidence that two atoms may not some- 
tiroes coincide. For insunce, if oxygen and hydrogen combine 
to form water, we have no experimental evidence that the molecule 
of oxygen b not in the very same pbce with the two molecules of 
hydrogen. Many persons cannot get rid of the opinion that all 
matter b extended in length, breadth and depth. This is a pre- 
judice of the same kind with the bst, arising from our experience 
of bodies consisting of immense multitudes of atoms. The system 
of atoms, according to Boscovich, occupies a certain region of soace 
b virtue of the forces acting between the component atoms of the 
system and any other atoms when brought near them. No other 
nntera of atoms can occupy the same region of space at the same 
Uroe, because before it could do so the mutual action of the atoms 
vouM have caused a repulsion between the two systems insuperable 
by any force which we can command. Thus, a number of soldiers 
wnh brearms may occupy an extensive region to the exclusion of the 
enemy's armies, though the space filled by their bodies is but small. 
In this way Boscovich expbmed the apparent extension of bodies 
consisting of atoms, each of which is devoid of extension. According 
to Boscovich's theory, all action between bodies is action at a dis- 
tance. There is no such thing in nature as actual contact between 
two bodies. When two bodies are said in ordinary language to be in 
contact, all that is meant is that they are so near tof^cther that the 
repulsion between the nearest pairs of atoms belonging to the two 
bofies is very great. 

*• Thus, in Boscovich's theory, the atom has continuity of existence 
h time and space. At any instant of time it is at some point of 
tpice. and it is never in more than one place at a time. It passes 
voa one place to another along a continuous path. It has a definite 



mass which cannot be increased or diminished. Atoms are cifdowed 
with the power of acting on one another by attraction or repulsion, 
the amount of the force dependine on the disunce between them. 
On the other hand, the atom itself has no parts at dimensions. In 
its geometrical aspect it is a mere geometrical point. It has no 
extension in space. It has not the so-called property, of Impene- 
trability, for two atoms may exist in the same pbce. Thb we may 
regard as one extreme of the various opinions about the constitution 
of Dodies. 

"The opposite extreme, that of Anaxagoraa— the theory that 
bodies apparently homogeneous and continuous are so in reality— 
is, in it? cjitrtme (ornir a ihtKjry inca^hitilL' *A dcvttopmejit. To cit- 
pLiin the properties of any sub^^tancc by thi§ thcur>' i& impoftuble, 
Wo can only Eulmit the obferved piiDpKrtics of such BubiLance as 
ultimate facts. Tht^ic ii a certain stai^, tiowe^icr, of iciFDtlfx; 
pragTiHA in which a method carrL-z^pandtng, to this theory is <A servLcp. 
In liydro^tiatlcs, for instance, we define a fluid by means of one of 
iifi keiijw^n properties, and from this definition we make fhe fcysiteiq 
of deductions which constitutes the science of hydros^laticfL In 
thia way the edencc of hydnutatic^ may be built upon an experi- 
mental basis, n-ithout any consideratii^m of the con&tiiution of a 
llujct a* to whk^ther it Is moiecuLir or cnnlinuout In like mJinncf* 
after thu French mathematiciiiknt bad Oittemplcd, i*ilh m&rt or k-« 
iiit:truity, to cnnttruct a theory of elastic solids from the hypotheut 
I hilt thfv consist of aiom* in cquifibrium under the attbfl of iheir 
mutuiil fnrtes. Stoker ^nd othfli ahowed that ai[ the* rt<iuU9 of thb 
h> potHcsis, w far &t Icftit «> tbev afreed with facts, might be deduced 
Irrjim the poKul4.te th,u ebstic twdtes exists and from the bypothefis 
ih Hit the ipnidllcst portions into which we Cdn divide tbrm ore fcn^ibly 
homogeneous In this my the principk of continuity, which 
"5 the bail J of the method of Fluxions and the whole o( modem 



msthematicsv may be appli^ to the analysis of problems connected 
with material bodies by assuming them^ for the purpo» of this 
analysis, to bt homogi^ncoui. All that ifi rKiuired lo make the results 



aftpliErable to the real case is that the »malleit portions of the ^b- 
ttanceof which we take any noEice shall be senubly of the ame kind. 
ThuSk if a railway contractor has to make a tunnel thrciufh a liill of 
{[mvcl, and if one cubic yard of the gravel is so like anisth^f cul>ic 
yard that for the purposes of the contract they may be tnken as 
equivalt'rtt, thc-n, in e^timnting the wr>rk itrquiffi:! to n:mr>\T the 
\iv<'...\ '.'. \\ i'.:. "•• !■■ I 1.- .;■ .- , \ ].'■■■•:: r^ ir I r i-rr r, :•■. ,V, his 

..,;..■ if 

a worm has to make his way through the gravel, it makes the greatest 
possible difference to him whether he tries to push right against 
a piece of gravel, or directs his course through one of tne intervals 
between the pieces; to him, therefore, the gravel is by no means a 
homogeneous and continuous substance. 

"In the same way, a theory that some particular substance, say 
water, is homogeneous and continuous may be a good working 
theory up to a certain point, but may fail when we come to deal 
with quantities so minute or so attenuated that their heterogeneity 
of structure comes into prominence. Whether this heterogeneity of 
structure is or is not consistent with homogeneity and continuity 
of substance is another Question. 

" The extreme form 01 the doctrine of continuity is that stated by 
Descartes, who maintains that the whole universe is equally full of 
matter, and that this matter is all of one kind, havine no essentbl 
property besides that of extension. All the properties which we 
perceive in matter he reduces to its parts being movable among one 
another, and so capable of all the varieties which we can perceive 
to follow from the motion of its parts (Principia, ii. 33). Descartes's 
own attempts to deduce the different qualities and actions of bodies 
in this way are nut of much value. More than a century was 
required to invent methods of investigating the conditions of the 
motion of systems of bodies such as Descartes imagined. But the 
hydrodynamical discovery of Helmholtx that a vortex in a perfect 
liquid possesses certain permanent characteristics has been applied 
by Sir vV. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) to form a theory of vortex atoms 
in a homogeneous, incompressible and frictionlcss liquid." 

The Moleculax Structure of Mattek 
An enormous mass of experimental evidence now shows quite 
conclusively that matter cannot be regarded as having a con- 
tinuous structure, but that it is ultimately composed of discrete 
parts. The smallest unit of matter with which physical pheno- 
mena are concerned b the moUcuU. When chemical phenomena 
occur the molecule may be divided into atoms, and these atoms, 
in the presence of electrical phenomena, may themselves be 
further divided into electrons or corpuscles. It ought accordingly 
to be possible to expbin all the non-electrical and non-chemical 
properties of matter by treating matter as an aggregation of 
molecules. In point of fact it is found that the properties which 
are most easily expbined are those connected with the gaseous 
stale, the expbnation of these properties in terms of the mole- 
cubr structure of matter b the aim of the " Kinetic Theory of 
Gases." The results of thb theory have pbced the molecubr 



656 



MOLECULE 



conception of matter in an indisputable position, but even 
without this theory there is such an accumulation of electrical 
and optical evidence in favour of the molecular conception of 
matter that the tenability of this conception could not be 
regarded as open to question. 

The Scale of Molecular Structure. — Apart from speculation, 
the first definite evidence for the molecular structure of matter 
occurs when it is found that certain physical phenomena change 
their whole nature as soon as we deal with matter of which the 
linear dimensions are less than a certain amount. As a ungle 
instance of this may be mentioned some experiments of Lord 
Rayleigfa {Proc. Roy. Soc.f 1^90, 47, p. 364), who found that 
a film of olive oil spread over the surface of water produced a 
perceptible effect on small floating pieces of camphor, at places 
at which the thickness of the film was io-6Xio"» cms., but 
produced no perceptible e£fect at all at places where the thickness 
of the film was 8'iXio~* cms. Thus a certain phenomenon, 
of the nature of capillary action, is seen to depend for its existence 
on the linear dimensions of the film of oil; the physical properties 
of a film of thickness io-6Xio~* cms. are found to be in some 
way qualitatively different from those of a film of thickness 
8'iXio~* cms. Here is proof that the film of oil is not a con- 
tinuous homogeneous structure, and we are led to suspect that 
the scale on which the structure b formed has a unit of length 
comparable with 8Xio~* cms. The probability of this con- 
jecture is strengthened when it is discovered that in all pheno- 
mena of this type the critical length connected with the stage 
at which the phenomenon changes its nature is of the order of 
magnitude of io~* cms. 

Lord Rayleigh (Phil. Mag. 1890 [5], 30, p. 474) has pointed 
out that the earliest known attempt to estimate the size of 
molecules, made by Thomas Young in 1805, was based upon the 
consideration of phenomena of the kind just mentioned. Dis- 
cussing the theory of capillary attractions. Young ^ found that 
at a rough estimate " the extent of the cohesive force must be 
limited to about the 250-millionth of an inch " (=io"* cms.), 
and then argues that " within similar limits of uncertainty we 
may obtain something like a conjectural estimate of the mutual 
distance of the particles of vapours, and even of the actual 
magnitude of the elementary atoms of liquids. ... It appears 
tolerably safe to conclude that, whatever errors may have 
affected the determination, the diameter or distance of the 
particles of water is between the two thousand and the ten 
thousand millionth of an inch" (-between -lasXio"* and 
•o2sXio~* cms.). 

The best estimates which we now possess of the sizes of mole- 
cules are provided by calculations based upon the kinetic theory 
of gases. In the following table are given the values of the 
diameters of the molecules of six substances with which it is 
easy to experiment in the gaseous state, these values being 
calculated in different ways from formulae supplied by the 
kinetic theory. 



Gu. 


Diameter calculated by the kinetic theory of gisa. 1 


From devu- 
lionsfrom 
Boyle's Uw. 


FronictH 
effidenl 61 
viscosity. 


efficient ol 

cooductioo of 

bMt. 


Fromco- 
efticicnt of 
diflusioo. 


Mcu value. 


Hydrogen 
Carbon 

monoxide 
Nitrogen 
Air • . . 

a?Sn" . • 

dioxide 


205XIO-* 

312X10-* 
2-9OXl0r* 

300XIO-* 


205Xl0r« 
2-9oXio-« 

2-90XIO-" 

2.86Xio-« 
2-8IXI0-* 

3-47XIO-* 


i-99Xio-« 

2-74 XIO-* 
2-74XIO-* 
2 72XIO-* 
2-58Xio-« 

3-58XIO-* 


2-02X10-* 
2-92XlO-« 

2-70X10-* 

3-28XIO-* 


203Xio-« 
2-85Xio-« 

2-92XIO-* 
2-83XlOr« 

270Xio-« 
3-33 X 10-* 



The agreement of the values obtained for thQ same quantity 
by different methods provides valuable confirmation of the 
truth of the molecular theory and of the validity of the methods 
of the kinetic theory of gases. That the results do not agree even 

>"0n the Cohesions of Fluids," Phil. Trans. (1805); Young's 
CM. Worhs, L 461. 



better need not cause surprise when it is itated tbat the qoanthia 
are calculated on the hypothesb that the molecules are spheiical 
in shape. This hypothesis is introduced for the sake oC am- 
plicity, but b known to be unjustifiable in fact. What b gives 
by the formulae is accordingly the mean radius of an irregulaxijr 
shaped solid (or, more probably, of the region in which the fidd 
of force surrounding such a solid is above a certain intensity), 
and the mean has to be taken in different ways in the different 
phenomena. This and the difficulty of obtaining accurtte 
experimental results fully account for the differences tuier « 
in the values of the quantities calculated. 

He<U a Manifestatum of Molecular Motion. — ^Aa estentitl 
feature of the modem view of the structure of matter b thit 
the molecules are supposed to be in rapid motion rdativtljr to 
one another. We are led to thb conception by a number of 
experimental results, some of which will be mentioned' later. 
We are compelled also to suppose that the motion awma 
different forms in different substances. Roughly qpeaking, it 
b found that there are three main types of molecular mMioi 
corresponding to the three states of matter — solid, liquid and 
gaseous. That the dbtances traversed by the molecules flf t 
solid are very small in extent b shown by innumerable facts 
of everyday observation, as for insUnce, the fact that the soriace 
of a finely-carved metal (such as a plate used for sted engraving) 
will retain its exact shape for centuries, or again, the fact that 
when a metal body is coated with gold-leaf the molecules of the 
gold remain on its surface indefinitely: if they moved thnwsh 
any but the smallest distances they would soon become mind 
with the molecules of the baser metal and diffused throag^ id 
interior. Thus the molecules of a solid must make only anl 
excursions about their mean positions. In a gas the state of 
things is very different; an odour b known to spread nfiitf 
through great distances, even in the stillest air, and a gaaeooi 
poison or corrosive will attack not only those objects wUdi are 
in contact with its source but also all those which can he icacbed 
by the motion of its molecules. 

As a preliminary to examining further into the nature ol 
molcodar motion and the differences of character of thb DOtioi, 
let us try to picture the state of things which would eziit ia 
a mass of solid matter in which all the moleciUes are imagiocd 
to be at rest relatively to one another. The fact that t solid 
body in its natural state b capable both of c o au pi ca u on aad 
of dilatation indicates that the molecules of the body most doI 
be supposed to be fixed rigidly in position relative to one anotkr, 
the further fact that a motion of either compression or of d3aU^ 
tion b opposed by forces which are brought into play in the 
interior of the solid suggests that the position of rest is one b 
which the molecules are in stable equilibrium under their 
mutual forces. Such a mass of imaginary matter as we are oov 
considering may be compared to a collection of heavy pirtkki 
held in position relatively to one another by a system of 6|ht 
spiral springs, one spring being supposed to connect each pair 
of adjacent particles. Let two such masses of aattff 
be suspended by strings from the same point, and 
then let one mass be drawn aside, pendulom-wise, 
and allowed to impinge on the other. After impact 
the two masses will rebound, and the process aaj 
be repeated any number of times, but ultimatetf 
the two masses will be found again hanging b oo*> 
tact side by side. At the first impact ndi layer of 
surface molecules which takes the shock of the 
impact will be thrust back upon the layer I 
it: thb layer will in thb way be set into 1 
and so influence the layer still further b 
and so on indefinitely. The impact will accordiBgly 
result in all the molecules being set into 1 
the time that the masses have ceased impi 



and by 

on one another the molecules of which they are < 

will be performing ' oscillations about their positioe ■ 

equilibrium. The kinetic energy with which the moving ■» 

originally impinged on that at rest b now represented by the 

energy, kinetic and potential, of the small motioBS of tht 



MOLECULE 



657 



individau molecules. It ts known, however, that when two 
bodies impinge, the kinetic energy which appears to be lost 
from the mass-motion of the bodies is in rnjity transformed 
into heat-energy. Thus the molecular theory of matter, as we 
have now pictured it, leads us to identify heat-energy in a body 
with the energy of motion of the molecules of the body relatively 
to one another. A body in which all the molecules were at rest 
rektively to one another would be a body devoid of heat. This 
conception of the nature of heat leads at once to an absolute 
aero of temperature — a temperature of no heat-motion — which 
is identical, as will be seen later, with that reached in other 
ways, namely, about - 273* C. 

The point of view wldch has now been gained enables us to 
interpret most of the thermal properties of solids in terms of 
molecular theory. Suppose for instance that two bodies, both 
devoid of heat, are placed in contact with one another, and 
that the surface of the one is then rubbed over that of the other. 
The molecules of the two surface-layers will exert forces upon 
one another, so that, when the rubbing takes place, each layer 
win set the molecules of the other into motion, and the energy 
of rubbing will be used in establishing this heat-motion. In 
this we see the expknation of the phenomenon of the generation 
of heat by friction. At first the heat-motion will be confined 
to molecules near the rubbing surfaces of the two bodies, but, 
as already explained, these will in time set the interior molecules 
into motion, so that ultimately the heat-motion will become 
spread throughout the whole mass. Here we have an instance 
of the conduction of heat.* When the molecules are oscillating 
about their equilibrium positions, there is no reason why their 
mean distance apart should be the same as when they are at 
resL This leads to an interpretation of the fact that a change 
of dimensions usually attends a change in the temperature of 
a subatance. Suppose for instance that two molecules, when 
at rest in equilibrium, are at a distance a apart. It is very 
possible that the repulsive force they exert when at a distance 
a^eraay be greater than the attractive force they exert when 
at a distance a + €. If so, it is clear that their mean distance 
apart, averaged through a sufficiently long interval of their 
motion, will be greater than a. A body made up of molecules of 
this kind will expand on heating. 

As the temperature of a body increases the average energy 
of the molecules will increase, and therefore the range of their 
ezcorsions from their positions of equilibrium will increase also. 
At a certain temperature a stage will be reached in which it 
is a frequent occurrence for a molecule to wander so far from its 
position of equilibrium, that it does not return but falls into a 
new position of equilibrium and oscillates about this. When 
the body is in this state the relative positions of the molecules 
are not permanently fixed, so that the body is no longer of 
unalterable shape: it has assumed a plastic or molten condition. 
The substance attains to a perfectly h'quid state as soon as the 
energy of motion of the molecules is such that there is a constant 
rearrangement of position among them. 

A molecule escaping from its original position in a body will 
lonally fall into a new position in which it will be held in 
equilibrium by the forces from a new set of neighbouring mole- 
cules. But if the wandering molecule was originally close to 
the surface of the body, and if it also happens to start o£F in the 
right direction, it may escape from the body altogether and 
docribe a free path in space until it is checked by meeting a 
second wandering molecule or other obstacle. The body is 
continually losing mass by the loss of individual molecules in 
this way, and this explains the process of evaporation. More- 
over, the molecules which escape are, on the whole, those with 
the greatest energy. The average energy of the molecules of 
the liquid is accordingly lowered by evaporation. In this we see 
the explanation of the fall of temperature which accompanies 
evaporation. 

When a liquid undergoing evaporation is contained in a closed 
vosel, a molecule which has left the liquid will, after a certain 

* Other processes also help in the conduction of heat, especially 
ia wbitancrs which are conductors of ekctricity . 
XYIU U* 



number of collisions with other free molecules and with the sides 
of the vessel, fall back again into the liquid. Thus the process 
of evaporation is necessarily accompanied by a process of recon- 
densation. When a stage is reached such that the number of 
molecules lost to the h'quid by evaporation is exactly equal to 
that regained by condensation, we have a liquid in equilibrium 
with its own vapour. If the whole liquid becomes vaporized 
before this stage is attained, a state will exist in which the vessel 
is occupied solely by free molecules, describing paths which 
are disturbed only by encounters with other free molecules or 
the sides of the vessel This is the conception which the 
molecular theory compels us to form of the gaseous state. 

At normal temperature and pressure the density of a substance 
in the gaseous state is of the order of one-thousandth of the 
density of the same substance in the solid or liquid state. It 
follows that the average distance apart of the molecules in the 
gaseous state is roughly ten times as great as in the solid or 
liquid state, and hence that in the gaseous state the molecides 
arc at distances apart which are large compared with their 
linear dimensions. (If the molecules of air at normal tem- 
perature and pressure were arranged in cubical order, the edge 
of each cube would be about 2-gXio-^ cms.; the average 
diameter of a molecule in air is 2-8X10-* cms.) Further 
and very important evidence as to the nature of the gaseous state 
of matter is provided by the experiments of Joule and Kelvin. 
These experiments showed that the change in the temperature of 
a gas, consequent on its being allowed to stream out into a 
vacuum, is in general very slight. In terms of the molecular 
theory this indicates that the total energy of the gas is the sum 
of the separate energies of its different molecules: the potential 
energy arising from intermolecular forces between pairs of 
molecules may be treated as negligible when the matter is in 
the gaseous state. 

These two simplifjring facts bring the properties of the gaseous 
state of matter within the range of mathematical treatment. 
The kmetic theory of gases attempts to give a mathematical 
account, in terms of the molecular structure of mattn*, of all 
the non-chemical and non-electrical properties of gases. The 
remainder of this article b devoted to a brief statement of the 
methods and results of the kinetic theory. No attempt will 
be made to follow the historic order of development, but the 
present theory will be set out in its most logical form and order. 

The Kinetic Theory of Gases. 

A number of molecules moving in obedience to dynamical 
laws will pass through a series of configurations which can be 
theoretically determined as soon as the structure of each molecule 
and the initial position and velocity of every part of it are known. 
The determination of the series of configurations developing 
out of given initial conditions is not, however, the problem (2 
the kinetic theory: the object of this theory is to explain the 
general properties of all gases in terms only of their molecular 
structure. We are therefore caUed upon, not to trace the series 
of configurations of any single gas, starting from definite initial 
conditions, but to search for features and properties common to 
all series of configurations, independently of the particuktr 
initial conditions from which the gas may have started. 

We begin with a general dynamical theorem, whose special appli- 
cation, when the dynamical system is identified with a gas, will 
appear later. Let 91, ^, ... 9* be the generalized co- , 
oroinatesof any dynamical system, and let ^,^, . . . ^« . 
be the corresponding momenta. If the system is 
supposed to obey the conservation of enei]^ and to move solely 
unoer its own internal forces, the changes in the coK)rdinates and 
momenta can be found from the Hamiltonian equations 

where d, denotes dq^/dt, &c., and E is the total energy expressed as 
a function of ^, ^, . . . pn,q». When the initial values of ^, ft . . . 
pn, 9«. are given, the motion can be traced completely from these 
equations. 

Let us suppose that an infinite number of exactly similar systems 
start simultaneously from all possible values o( pi, Oi,. . . p%, ^m, 
each moving solely under its own internal forces, and therefore m 
accordance with equations (i). Let us confine our attention to those 



658 



MOLECULE 



syrtems for which the initial values o( Pi, ^, . . . p», q^He within 
a range such that 

pi is between pi and pi-\-dpi 
flk .. ., 91 .. fli+<^t. and so on. 
Let the product dpi dqi.,. dp, dq» be spoken of as the " extension ** 
of thu range of values. 

After a time dt the value of Pi will have increased to pi-\-pidl, 
where pi is given by equations (i), and there will be similar changes 
in Oi. p»,qi,.,.qm. Thus after a time di the values of the co- 
ordinates and momenta of the small group of systems under con- 
sideration will lie within a range such that 

Pi is between Pi+pidl and pi+dpi+ {kf^^dp!j dt 

51 .» M 9i+4idt „ qi+dqi+(<ii+^liiqi)df» 
and so on. Thus the extension of the range after the interval dl b 

or, expanding as far as first powers of dt, 

Jp.ij....d/>^.j.+r»-(|^+gj)AJ. 
From equations (i), we find that 

so that the extension of the new range is seen to be dpid^ . . . dpwdqn, 
and therefore eoual to the initial extension. Since the values of the 
co-ordinates and momenta at any instant during the motion mav be 
treated as " initial " values, it is clear that the " extension " 01 the 
range must remain constant throughout the whole motion. 

This result at once disposes of the possibility of all the systems 
acquiring any common characteristic m the course of their motion 
through a tendency for their co-ordinates or momenta to concentrate 
about any particular set, or series of sets, of values. But the result 
goes furtner than this. Let us imagine that the systems had the 
initial values of their co-ordinates and momenta so arranged that the 
number of systems for which the co-ordinates and momenta were 
within a given range was proportional simply to the extension of 
the range. Then the result proves that the values of the co- 
ordinates and momenta remain distributed in this way throughout 
the whole motion of the systems. Thus, if there is any character- 
istic which is common to all the systems after the motion has been 
in progress for any interval of time, this same characteristic must 
equally have been common to all the systems initially. It must, 
in fact, be a characteristic of all possible states of the systems. 

It is accordingly clear that there can be no property common to 
all systems, but it can be shown that when the system contains 
a gas (or any other aggregation of similar molecules) as part of it 
there are properties wnK:h are common to all possible states, except 
for a number which form an insignificant fraction of the whole. 
These properties are found to account for the physical properties of 
gases. 

Let the whole energy £ of the system be supposed equal to Et+Eii 
where Ei is of the form 
E,-i2(mii«-i.m»»-fim««-f-aA«-faiW«+ . . . +a,itf.») 

+i2(m'»'«+m'ir^-|-m'tcr^-f A*,«-f-A^-|- . . . -f^.^/«) (a) 

where 0ifii, . . .$» and similarly ^, ^, ... ^ are any momenta 
or functions of the co-ordinates and momenta or co-ordinates alone 
which are subject only to the condition that they do not enter into 
the coefficients ai, ot. &c 

In this expression the first line may be supposed to represent the 
energy (or part of the energy) of s similar molecules of a icind which 
we shall call the first kind, the terms J(wK'+mt^-fmtr») being 
the kinetic energy of translation, and the remaining terms arising 
from energy of rotation or of internal motion, or from the energy, 
kinetic ana potential, of small vibrations. The second line in Et 
will represent the energy (or part of the energy) of ^ similar mole- 
cules of the second kind, and so on. It is not at present necessary 
to suppose that the molecules are those of substances in the gaseous 
state. Considering only those states of the system which have a 
given value of Ei, it can oe proved, as a theorem in pure mathematkrs,^ 
that when s, s*, . . . are very large, then, for all states except an 
infinite«mal fraction of the whole number, the values of tt, v, w lie 
within ranges such that 

(i) the values of u (and similariy of v, w) are distributed among 
the 5 molecules of the first kind according to the law of trial and error ; 
and similarly of course for the molecules of other kinds: 

(ii) 2\mu* Ziim>> Zimv^ J:\ai9i* 



(3) 



^ See Jeans, Dynamical Theory of Cases (1904), ch. v. 



A sute of the system in whkrh these two piou e nl e a aie trm 
will be called a " normal sute "; other states will be spoken of m 

" abnormal." Let all possible sUtes of the system be ^ . 

divided into small ranges of equal extension, and of^^"** 
these let a number P correspond to normal, and a number 
P to abnormal, states. What is proved is that, as «, y, . 
very great, the ratio P/p becomes infinite. Considering only 
systems starting in the p abnormal ranges, it is clear, frxMn the fact 
that the extensions of the ranges do not change with the motkn. 
that after a sufficient time most of these systems must have passed 
into the P normal ranges. Speaking loosely, we may say that there 
is a probability P/(P-|-A)t amounting to certainty in the limit, that 
one of these systems, selected at random, will be in the normal sute 
after a sufficient time has elapsed. Again, considering the systesv 
which sUrt from the P normal ranges, we see that there is a pnb* 
ability^/(P-f p) which vanishes in the Umit, that a s>-stem selected 
at random from these will be in an abnormal state after a suffidett 
time. Thus, subject to a probability of error which is tn fiqi^f^ ^ B^^ 
in the limit, we may state as general laws that — 

A system starting from an abnormal state tends to assume tke nermd 
state; while 

A system starting from tke normal staU wiU remain in tie nemd 
state. 

It will now be found that the various properties of gases foOow 
from the suoposition that the gas is in the normal sute. 

If each 01 the fractions (3) is put equal to i/aii. it is readily foosd, 
from the first property of the normal sute, tnat, of ti^tiMwetUf 
s molecules of the first kin d, a number ^mmdutl 

*V (*»mV»»)«-*^«**^**^i«<Ww . (4)*«W** 
have velocities of which the components lie between « and s-Mi. 
V and v+dv, w and w-\-dw, while the corresponding number of iDak>- 
cules of the second kind is, similarly. 

If c is the resultant velocity of a molecule, so that ^•-••-H'+ii*. 
it is readily found from formula (4) that the number of moienik* 
of the first kind of which the resultant velocity lies between c ud 
«+dcis 

4«V(*»mVtr»)r*-»c>tfc. (6) 

These formulae express the " law of distribution of velodtie*" 
in the normal sute: the law is often called liaxweWs Lew^Dts- 
tribution. 

If )m? denote the mean value of ima* averaged o\-«r the 
s molecules of the first kind, equations (3) may be written in the (ora 
i«i?-Jwi?-Jmu;»-Ja,»»,- ... -1/44, (7) fiiMw** 

showing that the mean energy represented by each <*«*' 
term in Et (formula 2) is the same. These equations C*"!^ 
express the " law of equipartition of energy," commonly spokes 
of as the MaxwcU-Boltzmann Laxo. 

The law of equipartition shows that the various mean eoerpw 
of different kinds are all equal, each being measured by the quastky 
1/4A. We have already seen that the mean energy in- _ ._ 
creases with the temperature: it will now be sui^osed jy^ 
that the mean energy is exactly proportional to the "■* _ 
temperature. The complete justification for this suppositioa sw 
appear later: a partial justification is obtained as soon as it iiiK* 
how many physical laws can be explained by it. We accordio^y 
put 1/2A-RT, where T denotes the temperature on the abjolme 
scale, and then have equations (7) in the form 

mi!^^'^^ ... -RT. 1*) 

When a system is composed of a mixture of different kinds «f 
molecules, the fact that k is the same for each constituent fa 
formulae (5) and (6)] shows that in the normal sute the ^«eA 
substances are all at the same temperature. For instance, if w 
system is composed of a gas and a solid boundary, some of the tcnn 
in expression (2) may be supposed to represent the kinetic eoeiT ? 
the molecules of the boundary, so that equations (7) shov tkat is 
the normal state the gas has the same temperature as the boundary- 
The process of equalization of temperature is now seen to bea ipKia 
form of the process of motion towards the normal sute: the genera 
laws which nave been suted above in connexion with the nonsal 
sute are seen to include as special cases the following bw»^' 

M<Mer originally at non-uniform temperature tenis to «««* * 
uniform temperature', while 

Matter at uniform temperaturewSl remain ai uniform lemptf^'f: 

It will at once be apparent that the kinetic theory of matter enabM 
us to place the second law of thermodynamics upon a purdydysu"** 
cal basis. So far it has not been necessary to suppose the ff^^ 
to be in the ^seous sute. We now pass to the consideratios 01 •«* 
and properties which are peculiar to the gaseous sUte. . 

A simple approximate calculation of the pressure catfted bf« 
gas on its containing vessel can be made by supposing that tke SM*' 
cules are so small in comparison with their distances n^g^y^ 
apart that they may be treated as of infinitesimal sise. J^^ 
Let a mixture of gases contain per unit volume r mde- , 
cules of the first kind, r' of the second kind, and so on. 1^ 
ut fix our attention on a small area ^ of the booadsry « ^ 



MOLECULE 



659 



el. and let^o-ordinate axes be taken such that the origin is in 
iml the axis of x is the normal at the origin into the gas. The 
ber ot molecules of the first kind of gas. whose components 
slocity lie within the ranges between u and «+<<«, * and *+<^i 
id w-\-dWt will, by formuh {$). be 

rvU*m»/»^)«-*-<'^»«*^»rfikW«r (9) 

jnit volume. Construct a small cylinder inside the gas, ha^ang 
s base and edges such that the projections of each on the co- 
late axes are udt, vdl, wdt. Each of the molecules enumerated 
ipression (9) will move parallel to the edse of thu cylinder, and 
will describe a length equal to its ed{^e in time dL Thus 
of these molecules which is initially inside the cylinder, will 
nge on the area dS within an interval dt. The cylinder is of 
me M ^ ^, so that the product of this and expression (9) must 
the number of impacts between the area dS and molecules of 
and under consideration within the interval di. Each impinging 
cule exerts an impulsive pressure equal to mu on the boundary 
T the component of velocity of its centre of gravity normal to 
KMindary is reduced to zero. Thus the contribution to the total 
ilsive pressure exerted on the area dS in time dt from this cause 



mu X ttdtdS X r V {h*m>lw*)e-^'>i'**^^*^idudvdw (10) 

le total pressure exerted in bringing the centres of gravity of 
ie colliding molecules to rest normally to the boundary is ob- 
d by first integrating this expression with respect to m, v, w, 
imits being all values for which collisions arc possible (namely 

— 00 to o for u, and from —00 to + oo for v and w), and then 
ning for all kinds of molecules in the gas. Further impulsive 
ures are required to restart into motion all the molecules which 

undergone collision. The aggregate amount of these pressures 
arly the sum of the momenta, normal to the boundary, of all 
cules which have left dS within a time di, and this will be given 
cpression (10). integrated with respect to 11 from o to «, and 
respect to v and w from — ao to +00 , and then summed for all 
^ 01 molecules in the gas. On combining the two parts of the 
ure which have been calculated, the aggregate imt>ulsive 
ure on </S in time dt is found to be 



Zdi dSjJjp^'{J?m^JP)«r^'^*^^*'*HnuHudvdw, 

i Z denotes summation over all kinds of molecules. This is 
ralent to a steady pressure ^ per unit area where 

Px - 2/7} rV (A»«*M)«^-<-**'**^mi««i«fwfw. 

aHy the integral is the sum of the values of mil' for all the 
:ulc^ of the first kind in unit volume, thua 

^-rmi?+r'«^+... (ll) 

ibstituting from equations (7) and (8), this expression assumes 
trms 

-(r+r'+.. -~ 



.)RT 



{13) 



z number of molecules per unit volume in a ga? at normal tem- 
ure and pressure is known to be about 2-75 X 10". If in formula 
(13) we put ^-i-oi3Xio*. (»+!''+...}- 2-75 Xio» 
■JJ^ T-273. we obtain R-i'35Xio-'« and this enables us 
"*•• to determine the mean velocities produced by heat 
n in molecules of any given mass. For molecules of known 
the calculation is still easier. If o is the denuty correspond- 
< pressure p, we find that formula (11) assumes the form 

• C is a velocitv such that the gas would have its actual transia- 
energy if each molecule moved with the same velocity C. By 
tuting experimentally determined pairs of values of p and p 
n calculate C for different eases, and so obtain a knowled^ 
'. magnitudes of the molecuUr velocities. For instance, it u 
that 

hydrogen at o* Cent. C- 183.900 cms. per sec. 

air „ 15" " C- 49.800 ,. „ „ 

mercury vapour at o* „ C- 18,500 „ „ «, 

ther velocities can readily be calculated, 
rn the value R - i 35 X io-»» it is readily calculated thata mole- 
»r aggregation of molecules, of mass 10 '*^ grammes, ought to 
have a mean velocity of about 2 millimetres a second at 
'■■•■„ o* C. Such a velocity ought accordingly to be set up in a 
••■"• particle of 10 "** grammes mass immersed in air or liquid 
C. by the continual jostling of the surrounding molecules or 
les. A particle of this mass is easily visible microscopically. 

velocity of 2 mm. per second would of course be visible if 
lued for a suflficient length of time. Each bombardment will. 
'CT, change the motion of the particle, so that chanipes are too 
•nt for the separate motions to be individually visible. But 

be shown that from the aggregation of these separate short 
DS the particle ought to have a resultant motion, described 



with an average velocity which, althourii much nnaller than 2 mm. 
a second, ought still to be microscopically visible. It has been shown 
by R. von. S. Smoluchowski {Ann. i. Phys., 1906, 21, p. 756) that this 
theoretically predicted motion is simply that seen in the " Brownian 
movements " first observed by the botanist Robert Brown in 1827. 
Thus the " Brownian movements " provide visual demonstration 
oi the reality of the heat-motion postulated by the kinetic theory. 

Daiton's Law. — ^The pressure as given by formula (12) can be written 
as the sum of a number of separate terms, one for each 
ras in the mixture. Hence we have Daiton's law: Avsswv, 
Tht pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pres- Vo^ uao mm 4 
sures which would be exerttd separately by the several Toatperwtmrm 
constituents if each alone were present. Rolatlmma, 

Avogadro's Law. — From formula (13) it appears that r+/+ . . ., 
the total number of molecules per unit volume, is determined when 
p, T and the constant R are given. Hence we have Avogadro's law : 
uifferetU gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain ejual 
numbers of molecules per unit volume. 

Boyle's and Charles* Laws. — If v is the volume of a homogeneous 
mass of gas, and N the total number of its molecules, N '»lr+i/-h 
. . .). so that 

^-RNT. (14) 

In this equation we have the combined laws of Boyle and Charles: 
When the temperature of a gas is hett constant the pressure varies 
inoersdy as the volume, and when the volume is kept constant the 
pressure varies as the temperature. 

Since the volume at consunt pressure is exactly proportional to 
the absolute temperature, it follows that the coefficients of expansion 
of all gases ought, to within the limits of error introduced by the 
assumptions on which we are working, to have the same value 1/273. 

Van der Waals's Equation. — The laws which have just been stated 
are. obeyed very approximately, but not with perfect accuracy, by 
all gases of which tne density is not too great or the temperature too 
low. Van der Waals, in a famous monograph. On the Continuity 
of the Liquid and Caseous States (L^dcn, 1873), has shown that the 
imperfections of equation (14) may be traced to two causes: — 

(i.) The cakulation has not allowed for the finite sixe of the 
molecules, and their consequent interference with one another's 
motion, and 

(ii.) The calculation has not allowed for the field of inter-molecubr 
force between the molecules, which, althoudi small, is known to 
have a real existence. The presence of this field of force results in 
the molecules, when they reach the boundary, being acted on by 
forces in addition to those originating In tneir impact with the 
boundary. 

To alk>w for the first of these two factors, Van der Waals finds that 
* in equation (14) must be replaced by v—b, where b is four times 
the aggregate space occupied by all the molecules, while to allow for 
the second factor, p must be replaced by p+a/i^. Thus the pressure 
is given by the equation 

(^+o/»»)(»-ft)-RNT. 
which is known as Van der Waals's equation. This equation is 
found experimentally to be capable of representing the relation 
between p, v, and T over large ranges of values. (See Condensation 
OF Cases.) 

Let us conuder a nngle gas, connsting of N similar molecules in a 
volume 9. and let the energy of each molecule,.as in Cahrkmelrj, 
formula (2) be given by 

E-|2:(mii«+m»«+«»»+«A*+ ...*A.«) (15) 

-N(»»+^)/4* by equation (7) 

-i(»+3)RNT. (16) 

Let a quantity dQ of energy, measured in work units, be absorbed 
by the gas from some external source, so that its pressure, volume 
and temperature change. The equation of energy is 

dQ^dE+pdv, (17) 

expressing that the total energy dQ is used partly in increasing 
the internal energy of the gas, and partly in expanding the gas 
against the pressure p. If we take ^-*RNT/» from e<)uation (14) 
and substitute for E from equation (16), thu last equation becomes 
<«Q-i(«+3)RN<rr+RNTA»y^, (18) 

which may be taken as the general equation of calorimetry, for a 
gas which accurately obeys equation (14). 

Second Law of Thermodynamics. — If we divide throughout by T. 
we obtain 

|(ii+3)RN^+RN7. 

showing that dOfT is a perfect differential. This not only verifies 
that the second law of thermodynamics is obeyed, but enables us 
to identify T with the absolute thermodynamlcal temperature. 

If the volume of the gas is kept constant, we put is-o in 
equation (18) and ^ - JC.Nfiufr, where C. is the specific S^eeme 
heat of the gas at consunt volume and J is the mechani- iioate, 
cal equivalent ol heat. Weobuin 

C.-4(ii+3)R/Jii.. (19) 

On the other hand, if the preanre of the gu ia iKpt conataaf 



^- 



66o 



MOLE-RAT— MOLESWORTH, LORD 



throttgliout the motios, Tfn is oonstant and dQ-JC^iiMrr, whence 
C,-4(ii+5)R/J'»». (») 

By division of the values of C, and C we find for y, the ratio of 
the q)ecific heats. 

7-1 + 2/(11+3). . (21) 

The comparison of this formula with expteriment provides a 

striking confirmation of the truth of the kinetic theory but at the 

same time diadoses the most formidable difikulty which the theory 

has so far had to encounter. 

On giving different values to fi in formula (21), we obtain the 
values for t: 

« - o. I, 2, 3. 4. 5. 

7 - 1-66, 1-5, 1-4, 1-33. 1-28, 1-25, &c 

. Thus, to within the degree of approximation to which our theory 

b accurate, the value of 7 for every gas ought to be one of this series. 

The following are the values of 7 for gases for which 7 can be observed 

with some accuracy ^— 

Mercury .... i'66 Nitrogen . . . ^ l'40 
Krypton .... i*66 Carbon monoxide . .. . 1*41 
Helium .... 1-65 Hydrogen .... i'40 

Argon .... P62 Oxygen 1*40 

Air 1*40 Hydrochloric acid . . 1*39 

It is cleaf that for the first four gases 11 -o, while for the remainder 
n—2. To examine what is meant by a zero value of 11 we refer to 
formuU (15). The value of n is the number of terms in the energy 
ol the rodecule beyond that due to translation, Thus when «-o, 
the whole energy must 'be translational : there can be no energy of 
rotation or of internal motion. The molecules of gases for which 
n^o must accordingly be spherical in shape and in internal structure, 
or at least must behave at collisions as though they were spherical, 
for they would otherwise be set into rotation by the forces expe- 
rienced at collisions. In the light of these resulu it is of extreme 
significance that the four gases tor which «->o are all believed to be 
monatomic: the molecules of these gases consist of single atoms. 
Moreover, these four are the only monatomic gases for which the 
value of 7 is known, so that the only atoms of which the shape can 
be determined are found to be spherical It is at least a plausible 
conjecture, until the contrary u proved, that the atoms of all 
elements are spherical.* 

The next value which occurs is n'2. The kinetic energy of the 
molecules of these gases must contain two terms in addition to those 
represenring translational energy. For a rigid body the kinetic 
energy will, in general, consist 01 three terms (A*»i'+Ban*+C«jP) in 
addition to the translational energy. The value 11 > 3 is appropriate 
to bodies of which the shape is that of a solid of revolution, so that 
there is no rotation about the axis of symmetry. We must accord- 
ingly suppose that the molecules of gases for which n>3 are of this 
shape. Now this is exactly the shape which we should expect to 
fina in molecules composed of two spherical atoms distorting one 
another by their mutual forces, and all gases for which n-2 are 
diatomic 

No molecule couki possibly be imagined for which n had a negative 
value or the value n^i. The theory therefore passes a crucial 
test when it b discovered that no eases exist for which n is either 
negative or unity. On the other hand, the theory encounters a 
very serious difficulty in the fact that all molecules possess a great 
number of possibilities of internal motion, as is shown by the 
number of distinct lines in their spectra both of emission and of 
absorption. So far as is known, each line in the sptectrum of, say, 
mercury, represents a possibility of a distinct vibration of the 
mercury atom, and accordingly provides two terms (say o^+/5*', 
where ^ is the normal co-ordinate of the vibration) in the expression 
for the energy of the molecule. There are many thousands of 
lines in the mercury spectrum, so that from this evidence it would 
appear that for mercury vapour n ought to be very great, and 7 
almost equal to unity. Instead of this we have fi»o, and ytl. 
As a step towards removing this difficulty we notice that the enerzy 
of a vibration such as is represented By a spectral line has tiic 
peculiarity of being unable to exist (so far as we know) without 
suffering dissipation into the ether. This energy, therefore, comes 
under a different category from the energy for which the law of 
equipartition was proved, for in proving this law conservation of 

' Very significant confirmation of this conjecture is obtained 
from a study of the specific heats of the elements in the solid 
state. If a solid body is regarded as an aggregation of similar atoms 
each of mass m, its specific heat C is given, as in formula (19) by C'a 
i('*+3)R/Jm. From Dulong and mit's law that Cm is the same 
for all elements, it follows that n+3 must be the same for all atoms. 
Moreover, the value of Cm shows that n + t must be equal to six. 
Now if the atoms are regarded as points or spherical bodies oscillating 
about positions of equilibrium, the value of n+3 is precisely six, 
for we can express the energy of the atom in the form 

E-J(m««+«s»+m«,»+x'|^+y«p+,»0). 

where V is the potential and x, y, t are the displacements of the atom 
rtferred to a certain set oi orthogonal axes. 



IS assumed. The difficulty is further diminished whea it 
b proved, as it can be proved.' that the modes of energy repre- 
sented in the atomic spectrum acquire energy so sfewly that the 
atom might undergo collisbns with other atoms for centuries 
before being set into oscillations which would possess an apprccbble 
amount of energy. In fact the proved tendency for the gas to pas 
into the " normal state " in which there b equipartition of energy, 
represents in thb case nothing but the tendency for the trax^ 
tional energy to become dissipated into the energy ol innnmersble 
small vibrations. We find that this dissipation, althoiwh an- 
doubtedly going on^ proceeds with extreme slowness, so that the 
vibrations pass their energy on to the ether as ramdly as thef 
acquire it. and the " normal state '* b never established. These 
considerations suggest that the difficulty which has been pointed cot 
may be apparent rather than real. At the same time this difficulty 
is only one aspect of a wider difficulty which cannot be lightly 
passed over; Maxwell himself regarded it as the jprindpal obstsde 
in the way of the full acceptance of the theory 01 which he was » 
brgdy the author. (J. H. JB.) 

MOLE-RAT, the name of a group of blind buTrowing lodeoUk 
typified by the large grey Spalax typUus of eastern Europe tad 
Egypt, which represenU the Old World family Spaladdit. 
All the mole-rats of the genus Spalax are characteiuMi by tbe 
want of dbtinct necks, small or rudimentary ears and eyes, 
and short limbs provided with powerful digging daws. Thee 
are three pairs of cheek-teeth which are rooted, and show fokb 
of enamel on the crown. Mole-rats are easily recognixed by tbe 
peculiariy flattened head, in which the minute eyes are covered 
with skin, the wart-like ears, and rudimentary tail; they make 
burrows in sandy soil, and feed on bulbs and roots. Bamboo- 
rats, of which one genus (Rhitomys) b Indian and Burmese, lad 
the other {Tachyoryctcs) East African, differ by the absence of 
skin over the eyes, the presence of short ears, and a short, 
sparsely-haired tail. They burrow cither among tall gns, 
or at the roots of trees (sec Rooenha). 

HOLE-SHREW, any individual of the genera UrdnckMS lad 
UropsUus (see Insectivora). These animab, which are soim- 
tiraes called shrew-moles, are not moles with shrcw-hke hsbits, 
but shrews with the burrowing habits of moles and resembling 
them in appearance. 

MOLESKIN, a term employed not only for the skin of a mok 
but also, from a real or fancied resemblance, for a stout heavy 
cotton fabric of leathery consbtence woven as a satin twill 00 a 
strong warp. It b shorn before being dyed or bleached, ficiog 
of an exceedingly durable and economical texture, it has beea 
much worn by working-men, especially outdoor labouren. It 
b also used for gim-cases, carriage-coveis, and several poipoits 
in which a fabric capable of resbting rou^ usage b deirabk. 

MOLESWORTH, MARY LOUISA (183^ ). Scottish 
writer, daughter of Major-General Stewart, of Strath, NJ., 
was bom in Rotterdam on the 39th of May 1839, tad tm 
educated in Great Britain and abroad. In 1861 Miss Stevait 
married Major R. Molesworth. Her first novels, Um «d 
Husband (1869) to Cicely (1874), appeared under the pseudooym 
of " Ennis Graham." Mrs Molesworth b best known as a writer 
of books for the young, such as Tell Me a Story {iSj d,CaMli 
(1876), and The Cuckoo Clock (1877). 

MOLESWORTH, ROBERT MOLESWORTH, iST VncoovT 
(1656-1725), came of an old Northamptonshire family. ^ 
father Robert (d. 1656) was a Cromwellian who made a fortsae 
in Dublin, and he himself supported William of Orange and is 
1695 became a prominent member of the Irish privy concfl. 
In 1 7 16 he was created a viscount. He was succeeded by bis 
two sons, John, 2nd viscount (1679-1726), and Richaid jrf 
viscount (1680-1758), the latter of whom saved Marlborough^ 
life at the battle of Ramillies and rose to be a fiekl-manhaL 
The 3rd viscount's son Richard Nassau (1748^1793) soceeeded 
to the title, which has descended accordingly. 

A great-grandson of the ist viscotmt, John Eowa» Nassav 
Molesworth(i790-i877), vicar of Rochdale, was a weB-ki»"» 
High Churchman and controversialist ; and two of Us *'' 
became prominent men— Wiluam Nassau Molcswoiti (i*»^ 
1890), author of History of England 1830- tSjt (i87i-i87Jj» 
History of the Reform BiU (1865), and History of the CkmAi 
* J. H. Jeans, Dynamical Tkoory of Cant, ch. is. 



MOLESWORTH, SIR W.— MOLIERE 



66i 



JSn^and (1882); and Sn Guilford Moleswokih (b. 1828), an 
eminent engineer and economist. 

MOLESWORTH. SIR WILUAH, Bart. (1810-1855), English 
politician, son of the 7th baronet, was born in London on the 
33rd of May 1810, and in 1823 succeeded to the baronetcy. At 
Cambridge be fought a duel with his tutor, and for some time 
studied abroad. On the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 
he was returned to parliament for the eastern division of Cornwall, 
to support the ministry of Lord Grey. Through Charles Buller 
be made the acquaintance of Grote and James Mill, and in April 
1835 he founded, in conjunction with Roebuck, the London 
Review, as an organ of the " Philosophic Radicals." After the 
publication of two volumes he purchased the Westminster 
Review, and for some time the united magazines were edited 
by him and J. S. Mill. From 1837 to 1841 Sir William Moles- 
worth sat for Leeds, and acquired considerable influence in the 
House of Commons by his speeches and by his tact in presiding 
over the select committee on transportation. But his Radical- 
ism made little impression either on the house or on his con- 
stituency. From 1841 to 1845 he had no seat in parliament, 
occupying his leisure time in editing the works in Latin and 
English of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, a recreation which 
cost him no less than £6000. In 1845 he was returned for 
Southwark, and reUined that seat until his death. On his 
return to i>arliament he devoted special attention to the condition 
of the colonies, and was the ardent champion of their self- 
government. In January 1853 Lord Aberdeen included him 
in the cabinet as first commissioner of works, the chief work 
by which his name was brought into prominence at this time 
being the construction of the new Westminster Bridge; he also 
was the first to open Rew Gardens on Sundays. In July 1855 
he was made colonial secretary, but he died on the 22nd of 
October. Molesworth was for many years a great friend of Mr 
and Mrs Grote, and Mrs Grote's privately printed work on 
The Philosophical Radicals (1866) contains an account of his 
life. He married in 1844, but had no children, and the baronetcy 
passed to a cousin. His sister (d. 19 10) married Richard Ford, 
famous for his Handbook of Spain, 

A Life by Mrs Fawcctt was published in 1903. A full pcdi|n[ee 
of the Molesworth family is pnnted in Sir John Maclean s Trifg 
MtmoTt vol. i. ; the titles of his speeches and works may be found m 
the Btbl. Comubiensis, voU i. and iiu 

HOLFETTA* a seaport and episcopal see of Apulia, Italy, in 
the province of Bari, from which it is x6 m. N.N.W. by rail. 
Pop. (iQox), 42,363. The old cathedral of S. Conrad is a 
Romanesque structure. The old town is surrounded by walls, 
and has medieval houses; the new town is more spacious, and 
b an active seaport. The origin of Molfetta is uncertain, 
though there was a neolithic settlement here. The town was 
given by Charles V. to the duke of Termoli in 1522, and during 
his lordship it was sacked by the French under Lautrec. In 
163 z Cesare Gonzaga took the title of duke of Guastalla and 
prince of Molfetta; but in 1640 the fief was sold to the Spinola 
family, and in 1798 incorporated with the royal domain. The 
bishopric is directly subject to the papal see. 

MOUteB (1622-1673), the nom de ihidtre chosen, for some 
Undiscovered reason, by the great French dramatist Jean 
Baptiste Poquelin, and ever since substituted for his family 
&ame. He was bom in Paris, probably in January 1622. The 
baptismal certificate which is usually, and almost with absolute 
certainty, accepted as his is dated 15th January 1622, but it is 
iK»t possible to infer that he was born on the day of his christen- 
ing. The exact place of his birth is also disputed, but it seems 
tolerably certain that he saw the light in a house of the Rue St 
^nor£. His father was Jean Poquelin, an upholsterer, who, in 
1631, succeeded his own uncle as " valet tapissier de chambre 
^U roi." The family of Poquelin came from Beauvau, where for 
*Oine centuries they had been prosperous tradesmen. The 
^gend of their Scotch descent seems to have been finally dis- 
proved by the researches of M. E. R6v6rend du Mesnil. The 
■iiother of MoUdre was Marie Cress6; and on his father 's side he 
^v^ connected with the family of Mazuel, musicians attached to 



the court of France. In 1632 Moli^ lost his mother; his father 
married again in 1633. The father possessed certain shops in 
the covered Halle de la Foire, Saint Germain des Pr<s, and the 
biographers have imagined that Moli^re might have received his 
first bent towards the stage from the spectacles offered to the 
holiday people at the fair. Of his early education little is known ; 
but it is certain that his mother possessed a Bible and Plutarch's 
Lives, books which an inteUigent child would not fail to study. 
In spite of a persistent tradition, there is no reason to believe 
that the later education of Moli^ was neglected. " II fit ses 
humanitez au college de Clermont," says the brief h*fe of the 
comedian published by his friend and fellow-actor. La Grange, in 
the edition of his works printed in 1682. La Grange adds that 
Molidre *' eut I'advantage de suivre M. le Prince de Conti dans 
toutes ses classes." As Conti was seven years younger than 
Moli^re, it is not easy to understand how Moli&e came to be the 
school contemporary of the prince. Among more serious studies 
the Jesuit fathers encouraged their pupils to take part in ballets, 
and in later life Moh'dre was a distinguished master of this sort of 
entertainment. According to Grimarest, the first writer who 
published a life of Molidre in any detail (1705), he not only 
acquired " his humanities," but finished his '* philosophy " in 
five years. He left the CoU^ de Clermont in J641, the year 
when Gassendi, a great contemner of Aristotle, arrived in Paris. 
The Logic and Ethics of Aristotle, with his Physics and Meta- 
physics, were the chief philosophical textbooks at the College de 
Clermont. But when he became the pupil of Gassendi (in 
company with Cyrano de Bergerac, Chapelle, and Hesnaut), 
Molidre was taught to appreciate the atomic philosophy of 
Lucretius. There seems no doubt that Molidre began, and 
almost or quite finished, a translation of the De natura rerum. 
According to a manuscript note of Trallage, published by M. Paul 
Lacroix, the manuscript was sold by Moli^'s widow to a book- 
seller. His philosophic studies left a deep mark on the genius 
of Molidre. In the Jugement de Pluton sur Us deux parties des 
nouveavx dialogues des marts (1684), the verdict is "quQ 
Molidre ne parleroit point de philosophie." To "talk philo- 
sophy " was a favourite exercise of his during his life, and his 
ideas are indicated with sufficient clearness in several of his plays:. 
There seems no connexion between them and the opinions of 
" Molidre le Critique " in a dialogue of that name, published in 
Holland in 1709. From his study of philosophy, too, he gained 
his knowledge of the ways of contemporary pedants: of Pancrace 
the Aristotelian, of Marphorius the Cartesian, of Trissotin, " qui 
s'attache pour I'ordre au P6ripat6tisme," of Philaminte, who 
loves Pktonism, of Belise, who relishes " les petits corps," and 
Armande, who loves "les tourbillons." Grimarest has an 
amusing anecdote of a controversy in which Moh'^re, defending 
Descartes, chose a lay-brother of a begging order for umpire, 
while Chapelle appealed to the same expert in favour of GassendL 
His college education over, Moh'^ studied law, and there is 
even evidence — that of tradition in Grimarest, and of Le Bou- 
langer de Chalussay, the libellous author of a play called £lomire 
hypochondre — to prove that he was actually called to the bar. 
More trustworthy is the passing remark in La Grange's short 
biography (1682), "a» sortvr des Scales de droit, il choisit la 
profession de comMien." Before joining a troop of half- 
amateur comedians, however, Molidre had some experience 
in his father's business. In 1637 his father had obtained 
for him the right to succeed to his own office as "valet 
tapissier de chambre du roi." The document is mentioned 
in the inventory of MoUdre's effects, taken after his death. 
When the king travelled the valet tapissier accompanied 
him to arrange the furniture of the royal quarters. There 
is very good reason to believe (Loiseleur, Points obscurs, p. 94) 
that MoIiCre accompanied Louis XIII. as his vald tapissier to 
Provence in 1642. It is even not impossible that Molidre was the 
young valet de chambre who concealed Cinq Mars just before his 
arrest at Narbonne, on the 13th of June 1642. But this is 
part of the romance rather than of the history of Molidre. 
Our next glimpse of the comedian we get in a document of 
6th January 1643. Molidre acknowledges the receipt of moner 



662 



MOLIERE 



due to htm from his deceased mother's esute, and gives up his 
daim to succeed his father as '* valet de chambre du roi.*' On 
the 28th of December of the same year we learn, again from 
documentary evidence, that Jean Baptiste Poquelin, with 
Joseph B6jard, Madeleine B£jard, Genevieve B^jard, and 
others, have hired a tennis-court and fitted it up as a stage 
for dramatic performances. The company called themselves 
L'lUustre Thiktre, illustre being then almost a slang word, 
freely employed by the writers of the period. 

We now reach a very important point in the private history of 
MoU^re, which it is necessary to discuss at some length in defence 
of the much maligned character of a great writer and a good man. 
Molidre's connexion with the family of Bijard brought him much 
unhappiness. The father of this family, Joseph B£jard the elder, 
was a needy man, with eleven children at least. His wife's 
name was Marie Herv£. The most noted of his children, com* 
panions of Molicrc, were Joseph, Madeleine, Genevieve, and 
Armande. Of these, Madeleine was a woman of great talent 
as an actress, and Molidre's friend, or perhaps mistress, through 
all the years of his wanderings. Now, on the 14th of February 
1662 (for we must here leave the chronological order of events), 
Molicre married Armande Claire £lisabeth Gr£sinde B£jard. 
His enemies at that time, and a number of his biographers in 
our own day, have attempted to prove that Armande B£jard 
was not the sister, but the daughter of Madeleine, and even 
that Molidre's wife may have been his own daughter by Madeleine 
B6jard. The arguments of M. Ars^ne Houssaye in support 
of this abominable theory are based on reckless and ignorant 
confusions, and do not deserve criticism. But the system of 
M. Loiseleur is more serious, and he goes no further than the 
idea that Madeleine was the mother of Armande. This, cer- 
tainly, was the opinion of tradition, an opinion based on the 
slanders of Montfleury, a rival of Molidre's, on the authority 
of the spiteful and anonymous author of La Fameuse comidienne 
(1688), and on the no less libellous play, £hmire hypochondr^. 
In 1 82 1 tradition received a shock, for Beffara then discovered 
Molidre's "acte de mariage," in which Armande, the bride, is 
i^>oken o{ as the sister of Madeleine B£jard, by the same father 
and mother. The old scandal, or part of it, was revived by 
M. Foumier and M. Bazin, but received another blow in 1863. 
M. Souli6 then discovered a legal document of the loth of March 
1643, in which the widow of Joseph B£jard renounced, in the 
name of herself and her children, his inheritance, chiefly a collec- 
tion of unpaid bills. Now in this document all the children 
are described as minors, and among them is "une petite non 
encore baptis£e." This Uttle girl, still not christened in March 
1643, IS universally recognized as the Armande Bcjard afterwards 
married by Moliire. We reach this point, then, that when 
Armande was an infant she was acknowledged as the sister, 
not as the daughter, of Madeleine B£jard. M. Loiseleur refuses, 
however, to accept this evidence. Madeleine, says he, had 
already become the mother, in 1638, of a daughter by Esprit 
Raymond de Moirmoron, comte de Moddne, and chamberlain of 
Gaston due d'Orieans, brother of Louis XIII. In 1642 Moddne, 
who had been exiled for political reasons, "was certain to 
return, for Richelieu had just died, and Louis XIII. was likely to 
follow him." Now Madeleine was again — this is M. Loiseleur's 
hypothesis — about to become a mother, and if Modene returned, 
and learned this fact, he would not continue the liaison, still 
less would he marry her — which, by the way, he could not do, 
as his wife was still alive. Madeleine, therefore, induced her 
mother to acknowledge the little girl as her own child. In the 
first place, all this is pure unsupported hypothesis. In the 
second place, it has always been denied that B£jard's wife could 
have been a mother in 1643, owing to her advanced age, probably 
fifty-three. But M. Loiseleur himself says that Marie Herv£ 
was young enough to make the story "sufficiently probable." 
If it was probable, much more was it possible. M. Loiseleur 
supports his contention by pointing out that two of the other 
children, described as legally minors, were over twenty-five, 
and that their age was understated to make the account of 
Annande's birth more probable. Nothing is less likely than 



that Moddne would have consulted this docitment to ascotifa 
the truth about the parentage of Armande, yet M. Loodeoi^ 
whole theory rests on that extreme improbability. It must ibo 
be observed that the date of the birth of Joseph Bcjard ii on* 
known, and he may have been, and according to M. Jal {Dk6m' 
naire critique^ p. 178) mtut have been, a minor when he ms 
so described m the document of the xoth of MamJi 1643, wli3e 
Madeleine had only passed her twenty-fifth birthday, her kgil 
majority, by two months. This view of Joseph's age b supported 
by Bouquet {MolUre d Rouen^ p. 77). M. Loheleur's atif 
other proof is that Marie Herv£ gave Armande a respectable 
dowry, and that, as we do not know whence the nxmey caine, 
it must have come from Madeleine. The tradition in Grimarest, 
which makes Madeleine behave en femme furicMse, wheo ibe 
heard of the marriage, is based on a juster appreciaiioD of tbe 
character of women. It will be admitted, probably, that the 
reasons for supposing that Moliere espoused the dau^ter of a 
woman who had been his mistress (if she had been his mistiess) 
are flimsy and inadequate. The affair of the dowry b insited 
on by M. Livet (La Fameuse comidienne, reprint of 1877, 
p. 143). But M. Livet explains the dowry by the hypothesis 
that Armande was the daughter of Madeleine and the comte 
de Moddne, which exactly contradicts the theory of M. Loisekv, 
and is itself contradicted by dates, at least as understood hf 
M. Loiseleur. Such are the conjectures by which the fod 
calumnies of Molidre's enemies are suoported in the essays of 
modem French critics. 

Michelet accepted the scandal apparently as a buttres to 
his charges against Louis XIV. and Madame (Histoin de fmcc, 
1879, XV. 63, 64, 332). 

To return to the order of events, Moh'ere passed the jtu 
1643 in playing with and helping to manage the Thdfttre lUiBtie. 
The company acted in various tennis-courts, with very little 
success. Molidre was actually arrested by the tradesnua vbo 
supplied candles, and the company had to borrow maatf fna 
one Aubrey to release their leader from the Grand Chitdct 
(Aug. 13, 1645). The process of turning a tennis-court into 
a theatre was somewhat expensive, even though no seats were 
provided in the pit. The troupe was for a short time eader 
the protection of the due d'Orldans, but his favours were 001 
lucrative. The due de Guise, according to some veiscs pciated 
in 1646, made Molidre a present of his cast-off vanfaobe. 
But costume was not enough to draw the public to the 
tennis-court theatre of the Croix Noire, and empty houses at 
last obliged the Th£&tre Illustre to leave Paris at the end of 
1646. 

"Nul animal vivant n'entra dans n6tre salle," says the author 
of the scurrilous play on Moliere, £lomire kypockndrt. Bat 
at that time some dozen travelling companies found oieaa 
to exist in the provinces, and Molicre determined to playaoMnf 
the rural towns. The career of a strolling player is moch the 
same at all times and in all countries. The RomoM emifti 
of Scarron gives a vivid picture of the adventures and ■is*' 
adventures, the difiiculty of transport, the queer cavakadi 
of horses, mules, and lumbering carts that drag the wardrobe 
and properties, the sudden metamorphosis of the teofliS' 
court, where the balls have just been rattling, into a staf^ 
the quarrels with local squires, the disturbed ni|^ts in crowded 
country inns, all the loves and wars of a troupe oa the 
march. Perrault teUs us what the arrangements to the thestR 
were in Molidre's early time. Tapestries were bung roood 
the stage, and entrances and exits were made by strvaN( 
through the heavy curtains, which often kixKked «i the 
hat of the comedian, or gave a strange cock to the befaact 
of a warrior or a god. The lights were candles stodi n til 
sconces at the back and sides, but luxury sometimes vest so 
far that a chandelier of four candles was suspended froa the 
roof. At intervals the candles were let down by a rope sad 
pulley, and any one within easy reach snuffed them with hii 
fingers. A flute and tambour, or two fiddlers, supplied the 
music. The highest prices were paid for seats in the dadM 
(cost of admission fivepence); for the privikce of suadivf 9 



MOLIERE 



663 



B tbe pit twopence-halfpenny was the charge. The doors 
rere opened at one o'clock, the curtain roscrat two. 

The nominal director of the Th£&tre Illustre in the provinces 
ras Du Fresne; the most noted actors were Moli&«, the B^jards, 
jid Du Pare, called Gros Ren6. It is extremely difficult to 
oilow exactly the line of march of the company. They played 
t Bordeaux, for example, but the date of this performance, 
rhen Moli^ (according to Montesquieu) failed in tragedy 
nd was pelted, is variously given as 1644-1645 (Trallage), 1647 
Lioiseieur), 1648-1658 (Lacroix). Perhaps the theatre prospered 
ctter elsewhere than in Paris, where the streets were barricaded 
1 these early days of the war of the Fronde. We find Moll^re 
t Nantes in 1648, at Fontenay-la-Compte, and in the spring 
f 1649 ^( Agen, Toulouse, and probably at Angoul^me and 
imoges. In January 1650 they played at Narbonne, and be- 
ween 1650 and 1653 Lyons was the headquarters of the troupe, 
n January 1653, or perhaps 1655, Molidre gave L'£tourdi at 
.yons, the first of his finished pieces, as contrasted with the 
light farces with which he generally diverted a country audience, 
t would be interesting to have the precise date of this piece, 
tut La Grange (1682) says that " in 1653 Moli^re went to Lyons, 
rhere he gave his fint comedy, L'£tourdi," while in his 
legistre La Grange enters the year as 1655. At Lyons de Brie 
nd his wife, the famous Mile de Brie, entered the troupe, and 
a Pare married the " marquise " de Goria, better known as 
dUe du Pare. Tbe libellous author of La Fameuse conUdienne 
eports that Molidre's heart was the shuttlecock of the beautiful 
u Pare and de Brie, and the tradition has a persistent life, 
loli^re's own opinion of the ladies and men of his company 
lay be read between the lines of his Impromptu de Versailles. 
Q 1653 Prince de Conti, after many political adventures, was 
esiding at La Grange, near P&£nas, in Languedoc, and chance 
woght him into relations with his old schoolfellow Molidre. 
^nti had for first gentleman of his bed-chamber the abb£ 
>amel de Cosnac, whose memoirs now throw light for a moment 
n the fortunes of the wandering troupe. Cosnac engaged 
be company *' of Molidre and of La B^jart "; but ano^er 
ompany, that of Cormier, nearly intercepted the favour of the 
rince. Thanks to the resolution of Cosnac, Molidre was given 
ne chance of appearing on the private theatre of La Grange. 
!he excellence of his acting, the splendour of the costumes, 
nd the insistence of Cosnac, and of Sarrasin, Conti's secretary, 
ained the day for MoUdre, and a pension was assigned to l^s 
ompany (Cosnac, Afimoires, L 128; Paris, 1852). As Cosnac 
■reposed to pay Moii^re a thousand crowns of his own money 

recompense him in case he was supplanted by Cormier, it 

1 obvious that his profession had become sufficiently lucrative, 
n i6s4i during the session of the estates of Languedoc, Molidre 
nd his company played at MontpcUier. Here Molidre danced 
B a ballei {Le Ballet des incontpaiibles) in which a number of 
oen of rank took part, according to the fashion of the time, 
dolidre's own r^es were those of the Poet and the Fishwife, 
lie sport of the little piece is to introduce opposite characters, 
bmdng and singing together. Silence dances with six women, 
Truth with four courtiers. Money with a poet, and so forth. 
Whether the ballet, or any parts of it, are by Moliere, is still 
lisputed {La Jeunesse de MolUre, suivie du ballet des incompat- 
Vef, P. L. Jacob, Paris, 1858). In April 1655 it is certain that 
be troupe was at Lyons, where they met and hospitably enter- 
lined a profligate buffoon, Charles d'Assoucy, who informs the 
ges that Molidre kept open house, and " une table bien gamie." 
November 1655 found Moliere at Pezdnas, where the estates 
( Languedoc were convened, and where local tradition points out 
be barber's chair in which tbe poet used to sit and study 
haracter. The longest of Molidre's extant autographs is a 
ecdpt, dated at Pdzdnas, on the 4th of February 1656, for 
000 livres, granted by the estates of Languedoc. This year 
ras Double for the earliest representation, at Bcziers, of Moliere's 
fiCKmd finished comedy, the DipU amoureux. Conti now 
1656) began to " make his soul." Almost his first aa of peni- 
eoce was to discard Molidre's troupe ( 1657), which consequently 
xmd that the liberality of the estates of Languedoc was dried I 



up for ever. Conti's relations with Molidre must have definitively 
dosed long before x666, when the now pious prince wrote a 
treatise against the stage, and especially charged his old school- 
fellow with keeping a new school, a school of atheism {TraitS 
de la commie, p. 24; Paris, x666). Molidre was now (1657) 
independent of princes and their favour. He went on a new 
drcuit to Nismes, Orange and Avignon, where he met another 
old dass-mate, Chapelle, and also encountered the friend of his 
later life, the painter Mignard. After a later stay at Lyons, 
ending with a piece given for the benefit of the poor on the 27th 
of February 1658, Molidre passed to Grenoble, returned to 
Lyons, and is next found in Rouen, where, we should have said, 
the Thd&tre Illustre had played in 1643 (F. Bouquet, La Troupe 
de Mollire A Rouen^ p. 90; Paris, x88o). At Rouen Molidre must 
have made or renewed the acquaintance of Pierre and Thomas 
Comdlle. His company had played pieces by Comeille at 
Lyons and elsewhere. The real business of the comedian in 
Rouen was to prepare his return to Paris. " After several 
secret journeys thither he was fortunate enough to secure the 
patronage of Monsieur, the king's only brother, who granted 
him his protection, and permitted the company to take his 
name, presenting them as his servants to the king and the 
queen mother " (Preface to La Grange's edition of 1682). The 
troupe appeared for the first time before Louis XIV. in a theatre 
arranged in the old Louvre (Oct. 24, 1658). 

Molidre was now thirty-six years of age. He had gained all the 
experience that fifteen years of practice could give. He had seen 
men and cities, and noted all the humours of rural and dvic 
France. He was at the head of a company which, as La Grange, 
his friend and comrade, says, "sincerely loved him." He 
had the unlucrative patronage of a great prince to back him, 
and the jealousy of all playwrights, and of the old theatres 
of the H6tel de Bourgogne and the Marais, to contend 
against. In this struggle we can follow him by aid of 
the Registre of La Grange (a brief diary of receipts and 
payments), and by the help of notices in the rhymed chronides 
of Loret. 

The first appearance of Molidre before the king was all but 
a failure. NicomUe, by the dder Comeille, was the piece, 
and we may believe that the actors of the H6tel de Bourgogne, 
who were present, found much to criticize. When the play 
was over, Moliere came forward and asked the king's permission 
to act " one of the little pieces with which he had been used to 
regale the provinces." The Docteur amoureux^ one of several 
slight comedies admitting of much " gag," was then performed, 
and "diverted as much as it surprised the audience." The 
king commanded that the troupe should establish itself in Paris 
(Preface, ed. 1682). Tbe theatre assigned to the company 
was a salle in the Petit Bourbon, in a line with the present Rue 
du Louvre. Some Italian players already occupied the house 
on Tuesdays, Fridays, and Sundays; the company of Molidre 
played on the other days. The first piece played in the new 
house (Nov. 3, 1658) was V£tourdi. La Grange says the comedy 
had a great success, producing seventy pistoles for each actor. 
The success is admitted even by the spiteful author of £lomire 
kypochondre (Paris, 1670): — , 

" Je jouai Vitourdi, qui fut une mervctUc." 
The success, however, is attributed to the fardcal dement in 
the play and the acting — the cuckoo-cry of Molidre's detractors. 
The original of L'£lourdi is the Italian comedy (1629) L'Ihop- 
vertitOf by Nicold Barbieri dctto Bdtrame; Molidre pushed 
rather far his right to " take his own wherever he found it." 
Had he written nothing more original, the contemporary critic 
of the Festin de Pierre might have said, not untruly, that he 
only excelled in stealing pieces frotn the Italians. The piece 
is conventional: the stock characters of the prodigal son, the 
impudent valet, the old father occupy the stage. But the 
dialogue has amazing rapidity, and the vivadty of M. Coquelin 
to Mascarille made Vtiourdi a favourite on the modem stage, 
though it cannot be read with very much pleasure. The next 
piece, new in Paris, though not in the provinces, was the Dlpit 
amouremx (first acted at B^dexs, 1656). The play wa& vtcA. 



664 



MOLIERE 



less successful than VtiowU, It has two parts, one an Italian 
ifHbro^%o\'\.\i^ other, which alone keeps the stage, is the original 
work of Molidre, though, of course, the idea of amantium irae 
is as old as literature. " Nothing so good," says Mr Saintsbury, 
" had yet been seen on the French stage, as the quarrels and 
reconciliations of the quartette of master, mistress, valet and 
soubrette." Even the hostile Le Boulanger de Chalussay 
(£2amire kypockondre) admits that the audience was much of 
this opinion ^- 

" Et de tous les c6t^ chacun cria tout haut: 
* C'est la faire et jouer Ics pidces comme il faut.' " 
The same praise was given, perhaps even more deservedly, to 
Lts Pricieuses ridicuUs (Nov. x8, 1659). Doubts have been 
raised as to whether this famous piece, the first true comip satire 
of contemporary foibles on the French stage, was a new phy. La 
Grange odls it piice nouvdle in his Registre; but, as he enters it 
as the third piice notndltt he may only mean that, like L*£knirdi, 
it was new to Paris. The short life, of 1682, produced under 
La Grange's care, and probably written by Marcel the actor, 
says the Pricieuses was " made " in 1659. There is another 
controversy as to whether the ladies of the H6tel RambouiUet, 
or merely their bourgeoises and rustic imitators, were laughed 
at. Manage, in later years at least, professed to recognize an 
attack on the over-refinement and affectation of the original and, 
in most ways, honourable pricieuses of the H6tel RambouiUet. 
But Chapelle and Bachaumont had discovered provincial 
pricieuses, hyper-aesthetic literary ladies, at Montpcliier before 
MoliSre's return to Paris; and Furctiere, in the Roman bourgeois 
(1666), found Paris full of middle-class pricieuses, who had 
survived, or, like their modem counterpajrts, had thriven on 
ridicule. Another question is: Did Moli^re copy from the earlier 
Pricieuses of the abb6 de Pure ? This charge of pkgiarism is 
brought by Somaize, in the preface to his ViriuMes pricieuses. 
De Pure's work was a novel (1656), from which the Italian 
actors had put together an acting-piece in their manner — that 
is, a thing of " gag," and improvised speeches. The reproach 
is interesting only because it proves how early Moliere found 
enemies who, like Thomas Comeille in 1659, accused him of 
being skilled only in farce, or, like Somaize, charged him with 
literary larceny. These were the stock criticisms of Molidre's 
opponents as long as he lived. The success of the Pricieuses 
ridicules was immense; on one famous occasion the king was 
a spectator, leaning against the great chair of the dying Cardinal 
Mazarin. The play can never cease to please while literary affec- 
tation exists, and it has a comic force of deathless energy. Yet 
a modem reader may spare some sympathy for the poor heroines, 
who do not wish, in courtship, to " begin with marriage," but 
prefer first to have some less formidable acquaintance with their 
wooers. Molidrc's next piece was less important, and more 
purely farcical, Sganarelle; ou le cocu imaginaire (May 28, 1660). 
The public taste preferred a work of this light nature, and Sgana- 
relle was played every year as long as MoliOre lived. The pby 
was pirated by a man who pretended to have retained all 
the words in his memory. The counterfeit copy was published 
by Ribou, a double injury to Molidre, as, once printed, any 
company might act the play. With his habitual good-nature, 
Moliere not only allowed Ribou to publish later works of his, 
but actually lent money to that knave (Souli6, Rcckerches, 
p. 287). 

On the nth of October 1660 the Th64tre du Petit Bourbon 
was demolished by the superintendent of works, without notice 
given to the company. The king gave Moliere the Salle du Palais 
Royal, but the machinery of the old theatre was maliciously 
destroyed. Meanwhile the older companies of the Marais and 
the H6icl de Bourgogne attempted to lure away Moliere's 
troupe, but, as La Grange decbrcs (Registre, p. 26), " all the actors 
loved their chief, who united to extraordinary genius an honour- 
able character and charming manner, which compelled them 
all to protest that they would never leave him, but always share 
his fortunes/' While the new theatre was being put in order, 
the company played in the houses of the great, and before the 
kiitg at the Louvre. In their new house (originally built by 



Richelieu) Molidre began to play on the aoth of January 1061. 
Mohdre now gratified his rivals by a failure. Doh Carek it 
Navarre, a heavy tragi-comedy, which had long lain amoof 
his papers, was first represented on the 4th of February x66i. 
Either Molidre was a poor actor outside comedy, or his manner 
was not sufficiently " stagy," and, as he says, " demoniac," 
for the taste of the day. His opponents were determined tint 
he could not act in tragi-comedy, and he, in turn, burlesqued 
their pretentious and exaggerated manner in a later piect 
In the Pricieuses (sc. ix.) Moli^ had already rallied *' les grandi 
com6diens " of the H6tel Bourgogne. *' Les autres," he makes 
Mascarille say about his own troupe, " sont des ignorants qoi 
r£citent comme Ton parie, ils ne savent pas faire ronfler 
les vers." All this was likely to irritate the grands comt^m, 
and their friends, who avenged themselves on that unfortunate 
jealous prince, Don Garde de Navarre. The subject of tla 
unsuccessful drama is one of many examples which show bow 
Moliere's im'nd was engaged with the serious or comic aspects 
of jealousy, a passion which he had soon cause to know most 
intimately. Meantime the everyday life of the stage vent 
on, and the doorkeeper of the Th£&tre St Germain was wonoded 
by some revellers who tried to force their way into the ho«e 
(La Grange, Registre). A year hiter, an Italian actor was stabbed 
in front of Moliere's house, where he had sought to take sheber 
(Campardon, Nouvdles pibces, p. 20). To these dangers acton were 
peculiarly subject: Moliere himself was frequently threatened 
by the marquises and others whose class he ridiculed on the itafe, 
and there seems even reason to believe that there is some tratb 
in the story of the angry marquis who rubbed the poet's beid 
against his buttons, thereby cutting his face severely. Tbe 
story comes late (1725) into his biography, but is supported 
by a passage in the contemporary play, Zilinde (Paris, x66j, 
scene viii.). Before Easter, Moh^re asked for two shares in tbe 
profits of his company, one for himself, and one for his wife, 
if he married. That fatal step was already contempbted (U 
Grange). On the 34th of June he brought out for the first tine 
U^ole des maris. The general idea of the piece is as dd as 
Menander, and Moliere was promptly accused of pilfering fioa 
the Addphi of Terence. One of the ficdles of the oonxdy is 
borrowed from a story as old, at least, as Boccaccb, and stl 
amusing in a novel by Charles de Bernard. It is significant 
of Moliere's talent that the grotesque and bafSed .paternal wuoer, 
Sganarelle, like several other butts in Moliere's comedy, doei 
to a certain extent win our sympathy and pity as wdl ts oar 
bughter. The next new piece was Les Fasckeux^ a cmt^*- 
ballet, the Comedy of Bores, pbyed before the king at Ftraquet'ii 
house at Vaux le Vicomte (Aug. is-20, 1661). The comedians, 
without knowing it, were perhaps the real *' fascbeux ** ob 
this occasion, for Fouquet was absorbed in the schemes of his 
insatiable ambition {Quo non ascendant? says his motto), and 
the king was organizing the arrest and fall of Fouquet, hh rival 
in the affections of La Vallidre. The author of the prologue to 
Les Faschcux, Pellisson, a friend of Fouquet 's, was arrested with 
the superintendent of finance. Pellisson 's prologue and oame 
were retained in the btcr editions. In the dedication to the 
king Moliere says that Louis suggested one scer>e (that of the 
Sportsman), and in another pbce he mentions that tbe piece 
was written, rehearsed, and pbyed in a fortnight. Tbe funds* 
mental idea of the play, the interruptions by bores, is suggested 
by a satire of R^gnier's, and that by a satire of Horace. Perhaps 
it may have been the acknowledged suggestions of tbe kinf 
which made gossips declare that Moliere habitually worked op 
hints and mimoires given him by persons of quality {NmaeBts 
nouvdlcs, 1663). 

In February 1662 Molidre married Armande B^jard. The 
date is given thus in the Registre of La Grange: " Afardy- i4f 
Les Visionnaires, L'£col des M. 

" Part. Visite chez M* d'Equeuilly." 
And on the margin he has painted a blue drde — his way <' 
recording a happy event — with the words, ** mariage de M. <k 
Moliere au sortir de la Visite." M . Loiscleur gives tbe date in oee 
passage as the 29th of Februaiy; in another as the a«ih «f 



MOLIERE 



665 



Febniaiy. But La Grange elsewhere mentions the date as 
" Shrove Tuesday/* which was, it seems, the X4th of February. 
Elsewhere M. Loiseleur makes the date of the marriage a vague 
day " in January." The truth is that the marriage contract is 
dated the 23rd of January 1663 (Souli6, Documents, p. 203). 
Where it is so difficult to establish the date of the marriage, 
a simple fact, it must be infinitely harder to discover the truth as 
to the conduct of Mme Moli^e. The abominable assertions of the 
anonymous libel, Les Intrigues de Molitre et celles de sa femme; 
ou la fameuse cotnidienne (1688), have found their way into 
tradition, and are accepted by many biographers. But M. Livet 
and M. Bazin have proved that the alleged lovers of Mme Molidre 
were actually absent from France, or from the court, at the 
time when they ara reported, in the libel, to have conquered her 
heart. A conversation between Chapelle and Molidre, in which 
the comedian is made to tell the story of his wrongs, is plainly 
a mere fiction, and is answered in Grimarest by another dialogue 
between Moli^re and Rohault, in which Moli^e only complains 
of a jealousy which he knows to be unfounded. It is noticed, 
too, that the contemporary assailants of Molidre counted him 
among jealous, but not among deceived, husbands. The hideous 
accusation brought by the actor Montfleury, that Moli^re had 
married his own daughter, Louis XIV. answered by becoming 
tlw godfather of Molidre's child. The king, indeed, was a firm 
friend of the actor, and, when Moli^re was accused of impiety 
on the production of Don Juan (1665) Louis gave him a pension. 
We need not try to make Mme Molidre a vertu, as French 
ladies of the theatre say, but it is certain that the charges against 
her are unsubstantiated. It is generally thought that Molidre 
drew her portrait in Le Bourgeois gentilhonltne (acte m. sc. ix.), 
" elle est capricieuse, mais on souffre tout des belles." 

From 1662 onwards Molidre suffered the increasing hatred 
of his rival actors. La Grange mentions the visit of Floridor 
and Montfleury to the queen mother, and their attempt to 
obtain equal favour, " la troupe de Molidre leur donnant beau- 
coup de jalouzie " (Aug. 12, 1662). On the 26lh of December 
was playe^i for the first time the admirable £coU des femmes, 
which provoked a literary war, and caused a shower of " paper 
bullets of the brain." The innocence of Agnes was called 
indecency; the sermon of Amolphe was a deliberate attack 
on Christian mysteries. We have not the space to discuss the 
religious ideas of Moli^re; but both in L'£cole des femmes and 
in Don Juan he does disphy a bold contempt for the creed of 
** boiling chaldrons " and of physical hell. A brief list of the 
plays and pamphlets provoked by L'£cole des femmes is all 
we can offer in this place. 

December 26, 1662. — £cole des femmes. 

February ^, i^^.^NoueeiUs nom>€ikt, by De ViaL Moli^ b 
■ccuicd of piUcrirvK trora Straparola, 

Juof I, i66j,— KloU^fre's own picct, Criiique de Vicole des femmes. 
In thtft pl^y Moliire retorts on th« critics, and especially on his 
Uvo^rtte butt> the critical marquess. 

Aiizufi J 66 J. — ZUind*y a play by Dc Vi^d* i* printed. The scene 
is in tne ^hop of a seller of lace, whcrti person's oi quality meet, and 
ttiack ihe ftputaticn df *' £lcimire "— thwi i^, Molidre. He steals 
ItTCnn the ItAliann the Spanish, from Fuittiire^ Francion, " il lit tous 
fei vieux bouquia)," he lAbuhi tbe not4tsSi,hii insults Christianity. 
tad n forth* 

Kovrmbef T7, i66j.— Poffrflti du peinire is printed-^n attack 
On MoliiTv by Bourisiult. This piece 11 a detailed criticism, bv 
BTvenJ prrvjn.9t of L'HcoU dfi femmff. tt b pronounced dull, 
vulgar, farcical, obscene and (what chiefly vexed Molidre, who 
knew the danger of the accusation) impious. Perhaps the only bio- 
naphical matter we gain from Boursault's play is the interesting 
fact that Moli^ was a tennis-player. On the 4th November 1663, 
Molidre replied with L' Impromptu de Versailles, a witty and merciless 
attack on his cridcs, in which Boursault was mentioned by name. 
The actors of the Hdtel de Bourgogne were parodied on the stage, 
and their art was ridiculed. 

The next scenes in this comedy of comedians were : — 
^November 30. — ^The Pantgyrique de Vicole des femmes, by 
Hobioet. 

December 7. — Riponse d Vimpromptu; ou la vengeance des 
marquis, by Ue Vis^. 

January 19. 1&S4.—L' Impromptu de I'hStel de Condi. It is a 
lC|uy by a son of Montfleury. 
_ March 17, 1664. — La Guerre comtqus; ou difense de Picole des 



1664.— £«ttr» sur Us affairts du Mitre, published in Dioersitis 
galanles, by the author of ZUinde. 

In all those quarrels the influence of Comeille was opposed 
to Moli^re, while his cause was espoused by Boileau, a useful 
ally, when " les com6diens et les auteurs, depuis le cidrc [Cor- 
neille?] jusqu'i I'hysope, sont diablement anim£s contre lui" 
{Impromptu de Versailles, sc v.). 

Moh^re's next piece was Le Mortage forci (Feb. 15, 1664), 
a farce with a ballet. The comic character of the reluctant 
bridegroom exdtes contemptuous pity, as well as laughter. 
From the end of April till the 22nd of May the troupe was at Ver- 
sailles, acting among the piauresque pleasures of that great 
festival of the king's. The Princesse d*£lide was acted for the 
first time, and the three first acts of Tartuffe were given. Molidre's 
natural hatred of hypocrisy had not been diminished by the 
charges of blasphemy which were showered on him after the 
£cole des femmes. Tartuffe made enemies everywhere. Jan- 
senists and Jesuits, like the two marquesses in Vimpromptu 
de Versailles, each thought the others were aimed at. Five 
years passed before Moli^re got permission to play the whole 
piece in public. In the interval it was acted before Madame, 
Condi, the legate, and was frequently read by Moli^re in private 
houses. The Gazette of the 17th of May 1664 (a paper hostile to 
MoliSre) says that the king thought the piece inimical to religion. 
Louis was not at that time on good terms with the diw^, whom 
his amours scandalized; but, not impossibly, the queen mother 
(then suffering from her fatal malady) dbliked the play. A 
most violent attack on Moli^re, " that demon clad in human 
flesh," was written by one Pierre Roull6 {Le Roy glorieux au 
monde, Paris, 1664). This fierce pamphlet was suppressed, 
but the king's own copy, in red morocco with the royal arms, 
remains to testify to the bigotry of the author, who was cur6 
of Saint Barth61emy. According to Roulli, Moli^ro deserved 
to be sent through earthly to eternal fires. The play was pro- 
hibited, as we have seen, but in August 1665 the king adopted 
Molidre's troupe as his servants, and gave them the title of 
" troupe du roy." This, however, did not cause Molidre to relax 
his efforts to obtain permission for Tartuffe (or Tartufe, or 
Tartuffe, as it was variously spelled), and his perseverance was 
at length successful That his thoughts were busy with contem- 
porary hypocrisy is proved by certain scenes in one of his greatest 
pieces, the Festin de Pierre, or Don Juan (Feb. 15, 1665). The 
legend of Don Juan was familiar already on the Spanish, Italian 
and French stages. Molidre made it a new thing: terrible and 
romantic in its portrait of un grand seigneur mauvais komme, 
modem in its suggested substitution of la humaniU for religion, 
comic, even among his comedies, by the mirthful character 
of Sganarelle. The piece filled the theatre, but was stopped, 
probably by authority, after Easter. It was not printed by 
Molidre, aqd even in 1682 the publication of the full text was 
not permitted. Happily the copy of De la Regnie, the chief 
of the police, escaped obliterations, and gave us the full scene 
of Don Juan and the Beggar. The piece provoked a virulent 
criticism (Observations sur le festin de Pierre, 1665). It is 
allowed that Moli^re has some farcical talent, and is not unskilled 
as a plagiarist, but he " attacks the interests of Heaven," 
" keeps a school of infidelity," " insults the king," " corrupts 
virtue," " offends the queen-mother " and so forth. Two 
replies were published, one of which is by some critics believed 
to show traces of the hand of Moli^re. The king's reply, as 
has been shown, was to adopt Moli^re's company as his servants, 
and to pension them. L* Amour midecin, a light comedy, 
appeared on the 22nd of September 1665. In this piece MoWre, 
for the second time, attacked physicians. In December there 
was a quarrel with Racine about his play of Alexandre, which 
he treacherously transferred to the H6tel de Bourgogne. The 
4th of June 1666 saw the first representation of that famous 
play, Le Misanthrope (ou L* Atrabiliaire amoureux, as the ori- 
ginal second title ran). This piece, perhaps the masterpiece 
of Moli^re, was more successful with the critics, with the court, 
and with posterity than with the public. The rival comedians 
called it " a new style of comedy," and so it was. Tbit t^xxoaX. 



666 



MOLIERE 



passions and sentiments of human nature, modified by the 
influence of the utmost refinement of civilization, were the 
matter of the piece. The school for scandal kept by C£limdne, 
with its hasty judgments on all characters, gave the artist a wide 
canvas. The perpetual strife between the sensible optimism 
of a kindly man of the world (Philinte) and the saeva indigna- 
tio of a noble nature soured (Alcestc) supplies the intellectual 
action. The humours of the joyously severe C61imdne and of 
her court, especially of that deathless minor poet Oronte, supply 
the lighter comedy. Boileau, Lessing, Goethe have combined 
to give this piece the highest rank even among the comedies 
of Molidre. As to the " keys " to the characters, and the guesses 
about the original from whom Alceste was drawn, they are as 
valueless as other contemporary tattle. 

' A briefer summary must be given of the remaining years 
of the life of MoUdre. The attractions of Le Misanthrope were 
reinforced (Aug. 6) by those of the Mtdecin malgri lui, an 
amusing farce founded on an old fabliau. In December the 
court and the comedians went to St Germain, where, among 
other diversions, the pieces called MHicerte, La Pastorale comique 
(of which Moliire is said to have destroyed the MS.) and the 
charming little piece Le Sicilien were performed. A cold 
and fatigue seem to have injured the health of Molidre, and 
we now hear of the consumptive tendency which was cruelly 
ridiculed in £lotnire kypochondre. Moli^re was doubtless obliged 
to see too much of the distracted or pedantic physicians of an 
age when medidne was the battlefield of tradition, super- 
stition, and nascent chemical science. On the xyth of April 
1667 Robinet, the rhyming gazetteer, says that the life of Moli^re 
was thought to be in danger. On the loth of June, however, 
he played in Lt Sicilien before the town. In the earlier months 
of 1667 Louis XIV. was with the army in Flanders. There 
were embassies sent from the comedy to the camp, and on the 
5th of August it was apparent that Moli^re had overcome the 
royal scruples. Tartuffe was played, but Lamoignon stopped 
it after the first night. La Grange and La Torilii^re hastened 
to the camp, and got the king's promise that he would reconsider 
the matter on his return. MoUire's next piece (Jan. 13, x668) 
was Amphitryon f a free — a very free—adaptation from Plautus, 
who then seems to have engaged his attention; for not long 
afterwards he again borrowed from the ancient writer in VAvare. 
There is a controversy as to whether Amphitryon was meant 
to ridicule M. de Montespan, the husband of the new mistress 
of Louis XIV. Michelet has a kind of romance based on this 
probably groundless hypothesis. The king still saw the piece 
occasionally, after he had purged himself and forsworn sack 
under Mme de Maintcnon, and probably neither he nor 
that devout lady detected any personal references in the coarse 
and witty comedy. As usual, Molidre was accused of plagia- 
rizing, this time from Rotrou, who had also imitated Plautus. 
The next play was the immortal George Dandin (July 10), first 
played at a festival at Versailles. Probably the piece was a 
rapid palimpsest on the ground of one of his old farces, but the 
addition of these typical members of a county family, the De 
Sotenville, raises the work from farce to satiric comedy. The 
story is borrowed from Boccaccio, but is of imknown age, and 
always new — Adolphus Crosbie in The Small House at AUington 
being a kind of modem George Dandin. Though the sad 
fortunes of this peasant with social ambition do not fail to make 
us pity him somewhat, it is being too refined to regard George 
Dandin as a comedy with a concealed tragic intention. Moli^re 
must have been at work on L'Avare before George Dandin 
appeared, for the new comedy after Plautus was first acted 
on the 9th of September. There is a tradition that the piece 
almost failed; but, if unpopular in the first year of its produc- 
tion, it certainly gained favour before the death of its author. 
M.dePourccaugnac (Sept. 17, 1669) was first acted at Chambord, 
for the amusement of the king. It is a rattling farce. The 
physicians, as usual, bore the brunt of Moli^re's raillery, some 
of which is still applicable. Eariier in 1669 (Feb. 5) Tartuje 
was played at last, with extraordinary success. Les Amants 
maiH(/igua, a comedy-ballet, was acted fiat at St Germain 



(Feb. zo, 1670). The king might have been expected to dnei 
in the ballet, but from Racine's Britannicus (Dec. 13, 1660) the 
majestical monarch learned that Nero was blamed forexhifaitiooi 
of this kind, and he did not wish to out-Nero Nero. Astrology 
this time took the place of medicine as a butt, but the satire 
has become obsolete, except, perhaps, in Turkey, where astro* 
logy is still a power. The Bourgeois gentHkamme, too familitf 
to require anaiysb, was first played on the 33rd of October 
X 770. The lively Pourberies de Scapin '* saw the footUghu " (if 
footlights there were) on the 24th of May 167 1, and on the 7th 
of May we read in La Grange, " les Repetitions de Spsycbe cot 
commanc6." La Grange says the theatre was newly decorated 
and fitted with machines. A " concert of twelve vi<dins*'vsi 
also provided, the company being resolute to have evexT- 
thing handsome about them. New singers were introduced, 
who did not refuse to sing unmasked on the stage. Quinaslt 
composed the words for the nnisic, which was by Lulli; Moli^ 
and Pierre Corneille collaborated in the dialogue of thb macni* 
ficent opera, the name of which {Psyche) La Grange eveotulljr 
learned how to spelL The Comtesse d^ Escarbagnas (Feb. t, 
1672) was another piece for the amusement of the court, and 
made part of an entertainment called Le Balla des Mbtt. 
In this play, a study of provincial manners, Moli&re attacked tk 
financiers of the time in the person of M. Harpin. The comedy 
has little importance compared with Les Femmes siutla 
(Feb. xi), a severer Prlcieuses^ in which are satirized the vaoitj 
and affectation of sciolists, pedants and the women who admire 
them. The satire is never out of date, and finds its moden 
form in Le Monde oil Von s'ennuie, by M. Pailleron. On the i7tk 
of February Madeleine B6jard died, and was buried at St Pad 
She did not go long before her old friend or lover 'iidakt. 
His Mariage Jorci^ founded, perhaps, on a famous aaecdott 
of Gramont, was played on the i8th of Jiily. On the Ttb of 
August La Grange notes that Moliire was indisposed, and there 
was no comedy. Molidre's son died on the nth ol Oct(to. 
On the 22nd of November the preparations for the Mdak 
imaginaire were begun. On the xoth of February X67J the 
piece was acted for the first time. What occurred on the XTth 
of February we translate from the Registre of La Graofe>— 



" This same day, about ten o'clock at night, after the oooeajr. 
Monsieur de Moliere died in his house. Rue de Richelieu. He had 
played the part of the said Malade, mfferii» much from cold and 
inflammation, which caused a violent coush. In the vicdeoce of 
the cough he burst a vessel in his body, and did not live more tku 
half an hour or three-ouarters after the burstiiv of the vead 
His body b buried at St Joseph's, parish of St bustache. TkfC 
is a gravestone raised about a loot above the ground.** 

Molidre's funeral is thus described in a letter, said to be hy 
an eyewitness, discovered by M. Benjamin Fillon. — 

*' Tuesday, 21st February, about nine in the evening, «as boned 
Jean Baptiste Poquelin Niolidre, tapissier vaUt de chnAn, aad a 
famous actor. There was no procession, except three eccksiascks: 
four priests bore the body in a wooden bier covered with a oal, 
six children in blue carried candles in silver holders, and tkre 
were lackeys with burning torches of wax. The body...tni 
taken to St Joseph's churchyard, and buried at the foot of tk 
cross. There was a great crowd, and aonae twelve handled Ihrm 
were distributed among the poor. The archbishop had givea onkn 
that Moli^ should be interred without any oereniooy. aod had 
even forbidden the clergy of the diocese to do any servne for bia. 
Nevertheless a number of masses were commancfed to be said for 
the deceased." 

When an attempt was made to exhume the body of MoGire it 
X792, the wrong tomb appears to have been opencxL Unkaova 
is the grave of Moliere. 

Molidre, according to Mile Poisson, who had seen hiffl ia 
her extreme youth, was " neither too stout nor too thin, tal 
rather than short; he had a noble carriage, a good kg. walked 
slowly, and had a very serious expression. His nose was thkk, 
his mouth large with thick lips, his complexion brovn, hii 
eyebrows black and strongly marked, and it was his way of 
moving these that gave him his comic expression on the sta^" 
" His eyes seemed to search the deeps of men's hearts,** 9p 
the author of Zilinde. The inventories printed by U. SodX 
prove that Moli^ was fond of rich dicM, s pl e ndid f 



MOLINA— MOLINIER 



667 



and dd books. The chann of his conversation is attested by 
the names of his friends, who were all the wits of the age, and 
the greater their genius the greater their love of Molidre. As an 
actor, friends and enemies agreed in recognizing him as most 
successful in comedy. His ideas of tragic declamation were 
in advance of his time, for he set his face against the prevalent 
habit of ranting. His private character was remarkable for 
gentleness, probity, generosity and delicacy, qualities attested 
not only by anecdotes but by the evidence of documents. He 
b probably the greatest of all comic writers within the limits 
of social and refined, as distinguished from romantic, comedy 
like that of Shakespeare, and political comedy like that of 
Aristophanes. He has the humour which is but a sense of the 
true value of life, and now takes the form of the most vivacious 
wH and the keenest observation, now of melancholy and pity 
and wonder at the fortunes of mortal men. In the literature 
of France his is the greatest name, and in the literature of the 
modem drama the greatest after that of Shakespeare. Besides 
his contemplative genius be possessed an unerring knowledge of 
the theatre, the knowledge of a great .actor and a great manager, 
and hence his plays can never cease to hold the stage, and to 
charm, if possible, even more in the performance than in the 



The best biography of Molidre on a level with the latest researches 
into his life is that in vol. x. of his works in Grands icrioains de la 
fnmce (Eugdne Despois and Paul Mesnard). The next best is 
probably that <A M. Taschereau, prefixed to an edition of his works 
iGSwres complies, Paris, 1863). To this may be added Jules 
Loiedeur's Les Points obscurs de la ne de Molikre (Paris, 1877). 
We have seen th;it Mr Loi^cli^ur is not alwayf accijrjte> but he u 
hborious. For other books iE is enoui^h to T<econiincnd the ex^ 
ceOent BMiograftkte midiirf-jque oi M. Paul Lacroix OS75), which 
is an all but fduEcteu guide. Thf beat edit^an of Mohil^re h workA 
for the purpo^-!^ or the student ii that pybli&hcd Ln l,es Grands 
krwains de la France tHachette, Pari*, tS?4-iflfi2j. [t contains 
reprints of many contemporary tract*, and, with the Reitstrw of 
La Grange, and the CpiUdien mf^ti^ffiqvf of M^ Lacroix, ia the 
chief source of the facti stated in this not ire. m cases where the 
rarity of document? ha^ pre\'entcd the writer ffom «tudvm^ them 
in tfcic original texts. Another vDlunibtc nuthoirity i$ the RtnAtrthff 
stir iidi&e et smr sa familU of Kd. Souli^ (iSi&j)^ Lothci»cn'a 
MeUkre, sein Lebex and stim Werke {Frankfurt. i^So), is a respect- 
able German campilation. Le Motilristr [Trpssc. Pari*, dd. by 
M. Georges Monva!) waa a monthly serial. containinK note* on 
MoiiAre and hib plnya^ by a number of contributors. The euay9> 
biographies, pUiy^ and poecnii on Moh^ne are extremely numcrou!?. 
The best guide to these is the indliipeiual^k Bihtiotrafikif o\ M. 
Lacrotx. ( A. L.) 

MOLINA, LUIS (1535-1600), Spanish Jesuit, was bom at 
Coenca in 1 53 5. Having at the age of eighteen become a member 
of the Society of Jesus, he studied theology at Coimbra, and after- 
wards became professor in the university of Evora, Portugal. 
From this post he was called, at the end of twenty years, to the 
chair of moral theology in Madrid, where he died on the X2th 
of October 1 600. Besides other works he wrote Libert arbilrii cum 
gratiae donis^ divina praescientiOf protidcntia^ pracdcslinatione 
et repfobalioney concordia (410, Lisbon, 1588); a commentary 
on the first part of the Sumtna of Thomas Aquinas (2 vols., 
foL, Cuenca, 1593); and a treatise De justUia et jure (6 vols., 
1593-1609). It is to the first of these that his fame is principally 
due. It was an attempt to reconcile, in words at least, the 
Augustinian doctrines of predestination and grace with the 
Semipelagianism which, as shown by the recent condemnation 
of Baius iq.v.), had become prevalent in the Roman Catholic 
Qiurch. Assuming that man is free to perform or not to perform 
any act whatever, Molina maintains that this circumstance 
renders the grace of God neither unnecessary nor impossible: 
not impossible, for God never fails to bestow grace upon those 
who ask it with sincerity; and not unnecessary, for grace, 
although not an efficient, is still a sufficient cause of salvation. 
Nor, in Molina's view, does his doctrine of free-will exclude 
predestination. The omniscient God, by means of His " scientia 
media " (the phrase is Molina's invention, though the idea is 
■ho to be foimd in his older contemporary Fonseca), or power 
of knowing future contingent events, foresees how we shall 
onploy our own free-will and treat His proffered grace, and 



upon this foreknowledge He can foimd His predestinating 
decrees. These doctrines, although in harmony with the pre- 
vailing feeling of the Roman Catholic Church of the period, and 
further recommended by their marked oppontion to the teachings 
of Luther and Calvin,exdted violent controversy in some quarters, 
especially on the part of the Dominicans, and at last rendered 
it necessary for the pope (Clement VIU.) to interfere. At 
first (1594) he simply enjoined silence on both parties so far 
as Spain was concerned; but ultimately, in 1598, he appointed 
the " Congregatio de auziliis Gratiae " for the settlement of 
the dispute, which became more and more a party one. After 
holding very numerous sessions, the " congregation " was able 
to decide nothing, and in 1607 its meetings were suspended 
by Paul v., who in 161 z prohibited all further discussion of 
the question " de auziliis," and studious efforts were made to 
control the publication even of commentaries on Aquinaa. The 
Molinist subsequently passed into the Jansenist controversy (see 
Jansenism). 

A full account of Molina's theolo^ will be found in Schneeman's 
" Entstehung dcr thomistisch-molinistischen Controverae," pub- 
lished in the Appendices (Nos. 9, 13, 14) to the Jesuit periodical, 
Slimmen aus Maria-Loach, To the lay rraider maybe recommended 
Ernest Renan's article, " Les congnSgations de auxUiis " in his 
Nouvelles itudes d'kistoire religieuse. 

MOLINB. a dty of Rock Island county, Illinois, U.S.A., 
in the north-west part of the state, on the Mississippi river, 
adjoining the city of Rock Isknd and opposite the upper end 
of Rock Island. Pop. (1900), 17,248, of whom 5699 were fordgn- 
bom, prindpally Swedes and Belgians; (1910 census), 24,199. 
It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & (^uincy, the Chicago, 
Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Rock Island & Padfic, 
and the Davenport, Rock Island & North-Westem railways. 
A channd in the Mississippi river here, 250 ft. wide and 4 ft. 
deep at low water, projected in 1905, was completed in 1908; 
and in 1907 a lock was finished which affords a draught of 6 fL 
and is a part of the 6 ft. channd improvement of Rock Island 
Rapids. The dty has large and varied manufacturing industries; 
water-power is derived from a dam maintained by the Moline 
Watcr-Power Company; and there is a large electric-power 
plant. The most important industry is the manufacture of 
agricultural implements (particularly steel ploughs, which seem 
to have been made here first in the United States, and com- 
planters). Among the other manufactures are boilers and 
gasolene engines, wagons and carriages, automobiles, and pianos 
and organs. The Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific railway has 
a 900-acre yard and machine shop east of the dty limits, and 
there is a large U.S. arsenal on Rock Island. Moline was settled 
in 1832, laid out as a town in 1842, and was chartered as a dty 
in 1855 and rechartered in 1872. | 

HOLINET, JEAN (1433-1507), French poet and chronider, 
was bom at Desvres (Pas de Calais). In 1475 he succeeded 
Georges Chastellain as historiographer of the house of Burgundy, 
and Margaret of Austria, govemor of the Low Countries, made 
him her librarian. His continuation of Chastcllain's chronicle, 
which covers the years from 1474 to 1504, remained unpublished 
until 1828 when it was edited (Paris, 5 vols.) by J. A. Buchon. 
It is far from possessing the historical value of his predecessor's 
work. A selection from his voluminous poetical works was 
published at Paris in 1531, Les Faictz et Diets de feu , . . Jekan 
Molinet. ... He also translated the Roman de la rose into prose 
(pr. Lyons, 1503). He became, in 1501, canon of the church 
of Not re-Dame at Valenciennes, where he died on the 23rd of 
August 1507. He is noteworthy as the head of the vidous 
Burgundian school of poetry known as the rhitoriqueurs, charac- 
terized by the excessive use of puns and of puerile metrical 
devices. His chief disdple was his nephew, Guillaume Cretin 
(d. 1525), ridiculed by Rabelais as Raminagrobis, and Jean 
Lemaire des Beiges was his friend. 

See A. Wauters in the Biographie nationale de Belgique (vol. xv., 
1899). 

MOLINIER, AUOUSTB (1851-1904)1 French historian, was 
bom at Toulouse on the 30th of September 1851. He was a 
pupil at the £cole des Chartes, which he left in 1873, and also 



668 



MOLINOS— MOLIQUE 



at the ficole des Hautes £tudes; and he obtained appointments 
in the public libraries at the Mazarine (1878), at Fontainebleau 
(1884), and at St Genevieve, of which he was nominated libra* 
nan in 1885. He was a good palaeographer and had a thorough 
knowledge of archives and manuscripts; and he soon won a 
first place among scholars of the history of medieval France. 
His thesis on leaving the £cole des Chartes was his CalaJogue 
des actes de Simon d d*Amauri de Montfort (inserted in vol. 
xxxiv. of the Bibliothhque de I'icole, an important contribution 
to the history of the Albigenses. This marked him out as a 
capable editor for the new edition of Uhistoire glnirde de 
Languedoc by Dom Vaiss^te: he superintended the reprinting 
of the text, adding notes on the feudal administration of this 
province from 900 to 1250, on the government of Alphonso 
of Poitiers, brother of St Louis from 1226 to 1271, and on the 
historical geography of the province of Languedoc in the middle 
ages. He also wrote a Bibliographie du Languedoc^ which 
was awarded a prize by the Acadimie des inscriptions ei beUes- 
litres, but remained in manuscript. He also published several 
documents for the Soci£t6 de I'Orient Latin {Itinera kierosoty- 
mitana, in collaboration with Ch. Kohler, 1885); for the Sod£t£ de 
I'Histoire de France (Chronique normande du xiif siicUt assisted 
by his brother £mile, 1883); for the CoUcclion de textes relatifs 
d renseignement de Vkistoire ( Vie de Louis le GroSf by Suger, 
1887); for the Collection des documents inidits (Correspondance 
adminislralive d*Alfonse de Poitiers, 1894-1900); for the Recueil 
des kistoriens de la France {Ohituaires de la province de Sens 
Z904, 1906), &c, and several volumes in the Recueil des catalogues 
des bibliotkiques publiques de France. Applying to the French 
classics the rigorous method used with regard to the texts of 
the middle ages, he published the Pensies of Pascal, revised 
with the original manuscript (1887-1889), and the Provinciales 
(1891), edited with notes. In 1893 he was nominated professor 
at the £cole des Chartes, and gave a successful series of lectures 
which he published (Manuel des sources de I'kistoire de France 
au moyen Age, 1902-1906). He also taught at the £)cole des 
Hautes Etudes. He died on the 19th of May 1904, after a short 
illness, leaving in manuscript a criticism on the sources of the 
Speculum kistoriale of Vincent de Beauvais. 

His elder brother, Charles (b. 1843), is also of some importance 
as an historian, particularly on the history of art and on the 
heresies of the middle ages. He was appointed professor of 
history at the university of Toulouse in 1886. 

A younger brother, £mile (1857-1906), became an assistant 
in the print-room at the Bibliothdque Nationale, and afterwards 
jomed the staff at the Mus£e du Louvre, of which he eventually 
became keeper, retiring in 1902. He was a well-known con- 
noisseur of Art, He organized the famous Exposition R£tro< 
spective held at the Petit Calais in 1900, and published a number 
of expert volumes on enamels, ceramics and furniture. 

HOUNOS, MIGUEL DE (c. 1640-1697), Spanish divine, the 
chief apostle of the religious revival known as Quietism, was 
bom about 1640 near Saragossa. He entered the priesthood 
and settled in Rome about 1670. There he became well known 
as a director of consciences, being on specially friendly terms 
with Cardinal Odescalchi, who in 1676 became Pope Innocent XI. 
In the previous year Molinos had published a volume, Guida 
spirituale, eke disinvolge Vanima e la conduce per Vinterior 
camino all* acquisito delta perfelta contemplazione e del ricco 
tesoro delta pace interiore. This was shortly followed by a brief 
Trattalo delta colidiana communione. No breath of suspicion 
arose against Molinos until 168 1, when the Jesuit preacher, 
Segneri, attacked his views, though without mentioning his 
name, in his Concordia Ira la fatica e la quiete nell* orazione. The 
matter was referred to the Inquisition. It pronounced that 
the Guida spirituale was perfectly orthodox, and censured the 
intemperate zeal of Segneri. But the Jesuits set Father La 
Chaise to work on his royal penitent, Louis XIV., who prided 
himself on being a pillar of orthodoxy; but he was on very bad 
terms with Innocent XI., and soon yielded to the pleasure of 
discovering heresy in an intimate friend of the pope. Following 
on ofidal represenutions by the French ambassador in Rome, 



who happened to be a cardinal, Molinos was arrested m Hi| 
1685. At first his friends were confident of an acquittal, Uft 
in the beginning of 1687 a number of his penitents of both leni 
were examined by the Inquisition, and several were arrested 
A report got abroad that Molinos had been conviaed of moral 
enormities, as well as of heretical doctrines; and it was seen that 
he was doomed. On the 3rd of September 1687 he made public 
profession of his errors, and was sentenced to in^risonm«)t for 
life. In the following November, Innocent signed a bull cod* 
demning sixty-eight propositions from the Guida spirituaU and 
other unpublhhed writings of its author. At some djite unknon 
in 1696 or 1697 Molinos died in prison. 

Contemporary Protestants saw. in the fate of Molinos notbiiV 
more than a persecution by the Jesuits of a wise and enli^toted 
man, who had dared to withstand the petty ceremonialism of 
the Italian piety of the day. But Molinos was muck more 
than the enlightened semi-Protestant that his English admires 
took him to be; and his Quietism, had it been suffered to ran 
its course would have swept aside beliefs and practices moit 
imporUnt than the rosaries of nims, though it is most unlikdy 
that he realized the consequence of his own theories. Segneri 
and La Chaise were not so easily deceived. They were Jetoits; 
and Jesuitism is buOt up on the double assumption that God 
reveals Himself wholly and only through Jesus, and that Jesos 
reveals Himself wholly and only through the Church of Rome. 
Luther had already broken through one link in this chain, vhen 
he taught the Protestant world to come directly to Jesas, 
without troubling about the Church; but Luther stOl asnuned 
that God could only be reached through the intennediacy of 
Jesus. Molinos wished to find a royal road to God nitbout 
any intermediaries at alL The Reformation maintained that 
the Church, so far from being a help, was a hindrance, to osioB 
with Jesus; whereas Molinos welcomed both Church and Jesas 
as helps to union with God, always provided that the befievcr 
treated both as means to an end beyond themselves. In other 
words, he held that there was a triple stage in piety. Beginners 
gave themselves wholly to the Church. At the second step 
came devotion to Jesus. At the third and highest stage both 
Church and Jesus were left behind as dciformes, sed mm Dctt, 
and God remained alone. 

But how could a finite being bring himself into direct rdlatioi 
with Infinity? Following very ancient precedents, MoKiwldl 
back on those phenomena of our consciousness which seem kist 
within our own power. The less sense of proprietorship ve had 
in a thought or action — the less it was the fruit of <wr ddibcnte 
will — ^the more certain might we be that it was divindy is^iirtd. 
But what state of mind is most likely to be visited by that 
spontaneous illuminations? Plainly the state that MoIiiMScalb 
the " soft and savoury sleep of nothingness," where the sod i> 
content to fold its hands, and wait in dreamy musing till the 
message comes; meanwhile it will think, do, wiU as Kttk ai 
it can. For this reason disinterested love became the grtat 
hall-mark of Quietist sanctity. Why it is unfitted to be a test 
of sanctity in general has been explained at length by Bossaet 
in a remarkable Instruction sur les Hats d'oraisou, pobfisbed 
while the Quietist controversy was at its height. But, althoci^ 
Molinos's system did not long survive him, he had at least 
the double merit of courage and tenacity. Few writers hate 
struggled so long and so hard to disengage the essence of religiaB 
from its transitionary embodiment in an historical creed. 

The Cuida spirituale was published in Italian in 1675. and bs 
been reprinted. An English translation appeared in 1688: it M* 
been re-editcd by Mrs Arthur Lyttdton. French, Sfwiish and 
Latin translations have also appeared. For the history of o 
author see C. E. Scharling. Michael de Molinos (Gcr. traas. fn^ 
Danish; Gotha, 1855). H. Hcppe, Gtukickte der MM<uaurba 
Mystik (BerHn,^i875). On the whde subject of Quictin «* 
H. Delacroix. Eludes d'kistoire et de psyckologie du mysOcam 
(Paris, 1908). There is a brilliant, but very fandfut, •eaai* 
Molinos and his doctrines in J. H. Shorthouae*s fonaoce, J«* 
IngUsant. (St O 

HOUQUE, WILHELM BERNHARDT (1802— 1869). Gcmi 
violinist and composer, was bom at Nuremberg on the 7*^" 
October, 1802, and learnt the violin at Mimidi imdcr FkOt 



MOLKO— MOLLUSCA 



669 



RovdH. Id x8t6 he became muslcnlirector at Stuttgart. As 
a composer for the violin Molique was commonly compared with 
Spohr. He also wrote some charming songs. He died at 
Cannstadt in 1869. 

MOLKO (1500-153 2), a Marano kabbalist, who proclaimed 
the advent of the Messiah. He was associated with David 
Reuben!, who also made Messianic claims. Molko, after a 
chequered career, was condemned to death by the ecclesiastical 
court at Mantua. He was offered his life by the emperor 
Charles V. if he would return to Christianity, in which he had 
been educated. He refused, and died at the stake. (I. A.) 

MOLLENDORF, RICHARD JOACHIM HEINRICH VON 
(1724-1816), Prussian soldier, began his career as a page of 
Frederick the Great in 1740. The outbreak of the Silcsian wars 
gave him his first opportunity of seeing active service, and the 
end of the second war saw him a captain. In the Seven Years' 
War his brilliant conduct at the churchyard of Leuthen (1757) 
and at Hochkirch won him his majority. In 1760 his exertions 
retrieved the almost lost battle of Torgau, and the last success 
of the great king was won by the brigades of Prince Wied and 
M5llendorf (now major-general) at the Burkersdorf heights. 
Seventeen years later, as lieutenant-general, he won at Brix one 
of the few successes of the Bavarian Succession (or " Potato ") 
War. In the years of peace he occupied considerable posts, 
being made governor of Berlin in 1783. Promoted general of in- 
fantry in 1787, and general field marshal in 1793, he commanded 
the Prussian army on the Rhine in 1794. In the disastrous 
campaign of Jena (1806) Moiiendorf played a considerable 
jMirty though he did not actually command a corps. He was 
present with the king at Aucrstfidt, falling into the hands of 
the French in the dibdcle which followed. After his release 
he passed the remainder of his life in retirement. He died 
in ]8i6. 

MOLUEN, NICOLAS FRANCOIS, Count (1758-1850), French 
financier, was horn at Paris on the 28th of February 1758. The 
son of a merchant, he early showed ability, and entered the 
ministry of finance, where he rose rapidly; in 1784, at the time 
of the tenewal of the arrangements with the farmers-general 
of the taxes, he was practically chief in that department and 
made terms advantageous to the national exchequer. Under 
Calonne he improved the returns from the farmers-general; 
and he was largely instrumental in bringing about the erection 
of the octroi walls of Paris in place of the insufficient wooden 
barriers. He, however, advocated an abolition of some of the 
restrictions on imports, as came about in the famous Anglo- 
French commercial treaty of 1786, to the conclusion of which 
he contributed in no small measure. The events of the French 
Revolution threatened at times to overwhelm Mollien. In 
X794 he was brought before the revolutionary tribunal of 
Evreux as a suspect, and narrowly escaped the fate that befell 
many of the former farmers-generaL He retired to England, 
where he observed the financial measures adopted at the crisis of 
1796-1797. After the coup d'ital of Brumaire (November 1799) 
be re-entered the ministry of finance, then under Gaudin, who 
entrusted to him important duties as director of the new cause 
d*amortissement. Napoleon, hearing of his abilities, frequently 
consulted him on financial matters, and after the Proclamation 
of the Empire (May 1804) made him a councillor of state. The 
severe financial crisis of December 1805 to January 1806 served 
to reveal once more his sound sense. Napoleon, returning in 
baste not long after Austerlitz, dismissed Bargf-Marbois from 
the ministry of the treasury and confided to Mollien those 
Important duties. He soon succeeded in freeing the treasury 
from the interference of great banking houses. In other respects, 
however, he did something towards curbing Napoleon's desire 
for a precise regulation of the money market. The conversations 
between them on this subject, as reported in Mollien's Memoirs^ 
are of high interest, and show that the ministry had a far truer 
judgment on financial matters than the emperor, who often 
twitted him with being an idiologtu. In 1808 Mollien was 
awarded the title of count. He soon came to see the impossi- 
bOity of the measures termed collectively "the continental 



system "; but his warnings on that subject weie of no avail 
After the first abdication of the emperor (April 11, 1814), 
MoUien retired into private life, but took up his ministerial duties 
at the appeal of Napoleon during the Hundred Days (1815), after 
which he again retired. Louis XVIII. wished to bring him back 
to office, but he resisted these appeals. Nominated a peer in 
18 19, he took some part in connexion with the annual budgets. 
He lived to see the election of Louis Napoleon as president of 
the Second Republic, and died in April 1850, with the exception 
of Pasquier, the last surviving minister of Napoleon L 

See Mollien's Uimoires d'un ministre du trisor public tjSo-iStS* 
4 vols. (Paris 1845; new ed., Paris, 3 vols., 1898): A. G. P. Barante, 
EAwUi historiques et biotraphuiues; Salvandv. Notice sur iioUien; 
also M. M. C. Gaudin (due ac GaSte). Notice historique sur les finances 
de la France 1800-1814 (Paris, 1818). (J- Hl. R.) 

MOLLUSCA, one of the great "phyla," or sub-kingdoms, 
of the animal pedigree or kingdom. The shell-bearing forms 
belonging to this group which were known to Linnaeus were 
placed by him (in 1748) in the third order of his class Vermes 
under the name " Tesucea," whilst the Echinoderms, Hydroids 
and Annelids, with the naked Molluscs, formed his second order 
termed "Zoopbyta." ^Ten years later he replaced the name 
'^ Zoophyta " by " Molluscs," which was thus in the first instance 
applied, not to the Mollusca at present so termed, but to a group 
consisting chiefly of other organisms. Gradually, however, the 
term Mollusca became used to include those Mollusca formerly 
placed among the " TesUcea," as well as the naked Mollusca. 

It is important to observe that the term /loXoioa, of which 
Mollusca is merely a latinized form, was used by Aristotle to 
indicate a group consisting of the cuttle-fishes only. 

As now classified, the Mollusca consist of the following sub- 
divisions: — 

Grade A. — Isopleura. 

Class I. — ^Amphineura (see Chiton). 
Grade B. — Prorhipidoglossomorpha. 
Class II. — Gastropoda {q.v.). 
Class III. — Scaphopoda ig.v.). 
Class IV. — Lamellibrandiia (q.v.). 
Grade C. — Siphonopoda. 
Class V. — Cephalopoda (q.v.). 

History of Classification. — ^The definite erection of the Mollusca 
into the position of one of the great primary groups of the anirnal 



indcpcndcL- _, „_ 

earned on by the remarkable Neapolitan naturalist Poli 079i)» 
whose researches' were not published until after his death (i8k7), 
and were followed by the beautiful works of another Neapolitan 
zoologist, the illustrious Dellc Chiaje.* 

The embranchement or sub-kingdom Mollusca, as defined by 
Cuvicr, included the following cl3xS54s of &hellfis^tt: (l) the cuttles 
or poulp^^ under the i]3,itLe Cbpha,lofdda; (2) the snails, whelks 
and glugs, bath terrF^triiil and marine, under the n:t me GASTROPODA; 
(j) the Bcn- butterflies cr wingcd^aruiils^ under the name Pteropoda; 

(4) the clam^, musdcla attd Dystcri, under the name Acephala; 

(5) the brnp-ahelEip under the tia.mc llKjikCEiiOFOOA; (6) the iea- 
squirts or ast'ldians, under the ruime NuoA; and (7) the barpkcles 
and sca-acDrns, under the name Cirrkopoda. 



The main limitaitcni f»I the sijb-kinj?dDm or phylum Mollusca. 
I laid down by Cuvirr, and the chi« divisions thus recogn' 
within hi Lmitfi by him^ hold ^ood to the present day. At the s 



divisions thus recognized 
present day. At the same 
Lime, three at the claaara con>;idered by him aa MoUusca have been 
one by one rernoved from th-at aa4ociation in cDn:^>eciuence of improved 
knowk'ndgeT and one additional class, incorpordied since his day 
with the Mollusca with gcneni approval, h^s, after more than forty 
ycin, been again detached and asfii^nal an independent position 
Gwinjg to newly acquired knowledge. 

Ihe firit of Cuvier'i classes to be removed from the Mollusca 
was that of the Cirrhopoda. Their a^nki^a with the lower Crustacea 
were riMrognized by Cuvier and his contemporaries, but it was one of 
the brilliant ditcovenes of that remarkable and too-little-honoured 
namnti^t, J. Vaughan Thompson, of Cork, which decided their pou- 
tion as Crustacea. The metamoiphafica of tiic Cirrhopoda were 
ijy*crihed and fsgured by him in ifljo in a very complete manner. 



^ ,-^^^ — ^ „„- . -. -- --^- ,-, r-Jic manner. 

.tnd I he legitimate conc'uMgm afi to their afhnitics was formulated 

np«n (1830), and not to Burmcister 

CfB34>, 39 em3tioou*!y stated by Kcf^crsteiii, that the merit of this 



-tnd the legit in: . _ 

by hicn,* Thu« it is to Thampwn (^830), and not to Burmcister 
CrB34>, 39 em3tioou*!y stated by Kcf^crsteiii, that the merit of this 
dlKovcry belongs. Th-^ rir-^r r^^fl** tf^ b" rom^'ved from Cuvier's 

* These figures refer to the Bibliography at the end of the article. 



670 



MOLLUSCA 



Moniuca was that of the Nuda. better known as Tunkata. In 1866 
the Russian embiyologist Kowalcwsky startled the zoological world 
with a minute account of the developmental changes of Ascidia, one 
of the Tunicata.' and it became evident that the aflfinities of that 
class were with the Vertebrata,'^ whilst their structural agreements 
with MoUusca were only superficial. The last class which has been 
removed from the Cuvierian Mollusca is that of the Lamp-shells or 
Brachiopoda. The history of its dissociation is connected with that 
of the clrss. viz. the Polyzoa or Bryozoa. which has been both added 
to and again removed from the Mollusca between Cuvicr's date and 
the present day. The name of ). Vaughan Thompson is again that 
which is primarily connected with theliistory of a Molluscan class. 
In 1830 he pointed out that among t)ie numerous kinds of " polyps" 
at that time associated by naturalists with the Hydroids, there were 
many which had a peculiar and more elaborate type of organization, 
and lor these he proposed the name Polyzoa. Subsequently* they 
were termed Bryozoa by Ehrenberg (1831). 

Henri Milne-Edwards in 1841 demonstrated the aflfinities of 
the Polyzoa with the Molluscan class Brachiopoda, and proposed to 
associate the three cla»es Brachiopoda, Polyzoa and Tunicata in a 
large group " MoUuscoidea," co-ordinate with the remaining classes 
of Cuvier s Mollusca, which formed a group retaining the name 
Mollusca. By subsequent writers the Polyzoa have in some cases 
been kept apart from the Mollusca and classed with the " Vermes "; 
whilst by others they have, together with the Brachiopoda, been 
regarded as true Mollusca. Increase of knowledge has now, however, 
established the conclusion that the agrecnnent of structure supposed 
to obtain between Polyzoa and true Mollusca is delusive; and accord- 
ingly they, together with the Brachiopoda, were removed from the 
MoUuscan phylum by Lankester in his article in the 9th edition of 
this work (on the which present article is based). Further details 
in regard to this, the last revolution in Molluscan classification, will 
be found in the article Polyzoa. 

As thus purified by successive advances of embryological research, 
the Mollusca were reduced to the Cuvierian classes of Cephalopoda, 
Pteropoda, Gastropoda and Acephala. Certain modifications m the 
disposition of these classes are naturally enough rendered necessary 
by the vast accumulation of knowledge as to the anatomy and em- 
bryology of the forms comprised in them. Foremost among those 
who between 1840 and 1880 laboured in this field are the French 
zoologists Henri Milne-Edwards* and Lacaze Duthicrs,'* to the 
btter of whom we owe the most accurate dissections and beautiful 
illustrations of a number of different types. To K6lUker,»* 
Gegenbaur," and more recently Spcnger," amongst German anato- 
mists^ wc arc indcbtttl for t|x<h-makifig rcsearchet oi the same 
kind. In EctgUnd, Onteti'a AnatDmy of the^ pearly nauTilus.'^ 
Huxlvy's dLH^uv^n of ttte gct^^-ii! tnomhDlo^y oiT the MdIIusca,'^ 
and L.idkcitL'r'ii etnbrYDlctgkal iJivestiiMtianiH''* have aided in 
advancing uur kitowk-dge at the ^roitp. Twa fcmarkabk' works qC 
m sysicnutic characief dt^^ling with the MitilusfA desent'e jncniion 
hen — the Mami^ of ih£ M^luicat by Dr S. P. Woodward » a modtl 
of tdcar lyfttertiatSc eK(>ositie>ni and the exhaustive treatise on the 
Malacopoa or ^^'ekhtniefe by PTDfeaKir Keferstcin ol C'OtUn^n, 
' published as part or Brocin's Klatsm vnd Ordnvn^e^n dei Tkitr^Rmhs. 

The arfangemcrt adapt iMi by Ray l^nke^iter m the 9th ediiit^n q( 
tht F-ticy. Bni. (art. '' Mollusca " ; jSSj} was as follows: Of tbu foyr 
Cuvii'tiiti claAsea mentioned above^ the Plcmpoda were ynittd with 
the Cephalopoda, on account of the appan^nt EimlLaiity of I he 
cephalic tentacles in some of the lormer to the arms ol tnt lattfr. 
An :(c|dilional clan was in4titutcd fur the reception of Dinlalium and 
it? few allies, and Tor this cbii fironn'a name Scaphopoda wa* u^^ 
The Chit am and their allies were ptaccd under the GaEiropoda, a-■^ a 
distinct branch cahed Isoplcura, and for the Acephata de Blainvitlc^s 
name Lamellibranchia was substituted. The utter were ixEardcd 
as foftning a. distinct branch, equivalent jn rank to the othfr Three 
clasiics ioi:;tihcr, the btter all possessing the ladula which a wanting 
in Lamcllibranchs. 

Since the 9th edition of the Ency. Brit, was published important 
advances have been made in our knowledge of the Mollusca, as the 
result of researches largely due to the interest excited in the subject 
by Lankester's article. Attention has been especiallv directed to 
the investigation of the most primitive forms m each group, and 
accordingly we can now form much more definite conceptions of the 
phylogeny and evolution of the various classes. The most important 
and extensive contributions to this progress have been made by the 
Belgian zoologist, Dr Paul Pelseneer, who has. made the Mollusca his 
special study. 

. The Chitonidae and the Aplacophora are now separated from the 
Gastropoda and raised to the rank of a distinct class, under the name 
of Amphineura. On the other hand. Boas and Pclseneer have shown 
that the Pteropoda have nothing to da with the Cephalopoda, but 
are Gastropoda modified for a pelagic life ; they are therefore now 
united with the Gastropoda. The Lamellibranchia are no longer 
regarded as a distinct branch in contrast to the remaining Mollu&ca; 
according to Pelscneer they are allied to the Gastropoda and Sca- 
phopoda, all three classes being derived from a common hypotheti- 
cal ancestor, called Prorhipidoglossum. These three classes have 
therefore been united by Grobben into one branch or grade, the 
Prorhipidoglossomorpha, 



General Characters of the Moilusca.-^'Tht forms comprised 
in the various groups, whilst exhibiting an extreme range of 
variety in shape, as may be seen on comparing an oyster, & 
cuttle-fish, and a sea-slug such as Doris; whilst adapted, some 
to life on dry land, others to the depths of the sea, bthen to 
rushing streams; whilst capable, some of swimming, others ol 
burrowing, crawling or jumping, some, on the other hand, 
fixed and immobile; some amongst the most formidable of 
carnivores, others feeding on vegetable mud, or on the minutest 
of microscopic organbms— yet all agree in possessing in comnoQ 
a very considerable number of structural details which are not 
possessed in common by any other animals. 

The structural features which the MoUusca do possess ii 
common with other animals belonging to other great phyla of 
the animal kingdom are those characteristic of the Coelomata, 
one of the two great grades (the other and lower being that of 
the Coelentera) into which the higher animals, or Metaioa as 
distinguished from the Protozoa, are divided. The Metaioa 
all commence their individual existence as a single cell or plastid, 
which multiplies itself by transverse division. Unlike the celk 
of Protozoa, these embryonic cells of the Metazoa do not remain 
each like its neighbour and capable of independent life, but 
proceed to arrange themselves into two layers, taking the fona 
of a sac. The cavity of the two-cell-layered sac or diblastula 
thus formed is the primitive gut or arch-enteron. In the 
Coelentera, whatever subsequent changes of shape the littk 
sac may undergo as it grows up to be polyp or jelly-fish, the 
original arch-enteron remains as the one cavity pervading aB 
regions of the body. In the Coelomata, on the other hand, 
there is another cavity, dividing the body-wall into two layers: 
an internal layer surrounding the gut, and an external layer. 
This cavity is excavated ih a third mass of cells distinct from the 
cells lining the gut, forming the endoderm, and the cells covering 
the surface of the body, the ectoderm. This third mass of ceUs 
is the mesoderm. The MoUusca agree in being coelomate with 
the phyla Vertebrata, Platyhelmia (flat-worms), Echinodenu, 
Appendiculata (insects, ringed-worms, &c.), and others— ia 
fact, with aU the Metazoa except the sponges, corals, polyp** 
and medusae. 

In common with aU other Coelomata, the MoUusca are at 
one period of life possessed of a prostomium or region in front 
of the mouth, which is the essential portion of the "bead," 
and is connected with the property of forward locomotkia in 
a definite direction and the steady carriage of the body (as 
opposed to rotation of the body on its long aids). As a result, 
the Coelomata, and with them the MoUusca, present (in the 
first instance) the general condition of body known as bOateral 
symmetry; the dorsal is differentiated from the ventral sorficc, 
whilst a right and a left side sinular to, or rather the compkmenu 
of, one another are permanently estabUshed. In common with 
aU other Coelomata, the MoUusca have the mouth and first part 
of the alimentary canal which leads into the metrenteron fbcined 
by a special invagination of the outer layer of the primitive 
body-waU, not to be confounded with that which often, bat not 
always, accompanies the antecedent formation of the ar^ 
enteron; this invagination is termed the stomodaeum. Similariy 
an anal aperture is formed in connexion with a special invagi* 
nation which meets the hinder part of the met-enteroo, and is 
termed the proctodaeum. 

The coelom is primarily and essentiaUy the generative cavity: 
the reproductive cells arise from its walls, i.e. from the codooic 
epithelium. True nephridia do not primarily <^Kn into the 
coelom, as was formcriy taught, but are intra-cdlular ducts 
in the mesoderm. Such organs are absent in Mollusca in the 
adult state, but a pair of nephridia usually occurs in the larva. 
The coelom opens to the exterior by ducts which are primarily 
genital ducts by which the ova or sperms are discharged. These 
ducts, however, as well as the coelomic epithelium, may assoat 
excretory functions. In MoUusca the coelom is reduced and 
consists of two parts, the pericardial cavity which sttROundi 
the heart, and the cavity of the gonads or generative otfaoa 
There is usuaUy one pair of coelomic ducts leading from the 



MOLLUSCA 



671 



perfcaRfiara to the exterior, and tbese are the excretory organs 
or kidneys, formerly known as the organs of Bojanus. The 
walls of the pericardium are also excretory in parts, these parts 
forming the pericardial glands. In the majority of MoUusca the 
gonads are provided with a pair of ducts of their own. There 
are thus two pairs of coelomic ducts. This fact gives rise to 
the question whether the MoUusca are to be regarded as primi- 
tively segmented animals or not. In animals which exhibit 
typical segmentation or metamerism, such as segmented worms 
(Chaetopoda), each segment or metamere possesses its own 
coelomic cavity, a pair of coelomic ducts, and a pair of nephridia. 
The structure of the MoUusca in the greater number of cases 
agrees with the hypothesis that the primitive form was unseg- 
mented, and therefore had but one pair of coelomic ducts and 
one pair of nephridia. In existing forms the latter disappear 
in the adult. In the most primitive forms of several classes 
there are no distinct genital ducts, the gonads when mature 
discharging into or through the kidneys. Among the Gastropoda, 
in the Aspidobranchia, there is no genital duct, and the gonad 
opens into the right kidney; in the more modified forms the 
left kidney alone is functional, the right has been converted 
into the genital duct. Among the LameUibranchia again the 
kidneys serve as genital ducts in the Protobranchia and some 
Filibranchia. In the higher forms the opening of the gonad 
it shifted more and more towards the external aperture of each 
kidney until finaUy it is situated on the external suriace, and 
thus the gonad secondarily acquires an independent aperture. 
In the Scaphopoda there is no distinct genital duct, the relations 
are as in Aspidobranchia. Among the Amphineura we find one 
pair of coelomic ducts in the Aplacophora, two pairs in the 
Chitons. In the former the genital coelom and the pericardial 
coelora are continuous and the reproductive cells escape by the 
renal ducts. In the Chitons or Polyplacophora, on the other 
hand, the two cavities are separate, and there are independent 
genital ducts. It is possible therefore to regard the latter 
condition as secondary, and to conclude that the separate 
genital ducts have been derived from the original single pair of 
coelomic ducts, as in LamcUibranchs. 

The Cephalopoda, however, do not harmonize so well with this 
view. The earUcst forms of this class geoIogicaUy are the 
Nautiloidea. Assuming that these ancestral forms resembled 
the existing Nautilus in their internal anatomy, they had two 
pairs of renal ducts and one pair of genital ducts, which would 
apparently indicate, not a single metamere or unsegmented 
body, but three mctameres. There are however only two pairs 
of branchiae. The Dibranchia, with only one pair of branchiae, 
one pair of renal organs, and one pair of genital ducts, are much 
more recent, not appearing tiU the end of the Secondary epoch, 
and therefore must be regarded as descended from the Tetra- 
branchia. The latter are represented in the Upper Cambrian 
formations, together with LameUibranchia and Gastropoda, and 
there are no earUcr MoUuscan fossib than these. Palaeontology 
therefore throws no Ught on the question whether the metameric 
or the unsegmented MoUusca were the earUer. The development 
of the Cephalopoda affords at present no better evidence that 
the metamerism is secondary. That of Nautilus, which would 
be most important in this inquiry, is unfortunately stUl unknown. 
In the Dibranchia true nephridia have not been detected in the 
embryo, nor has it been shown that the genital ducts are derived 
from the renal tubes. On the other hand, there is no evidence 
that the forms which show no metamerism, such as the Gastro- 
poda, are descended from metameric ancestors. On the whole, 
then, the most probable conclusion is that the original ancestral 
form of the MoUusca was unsegmented. possessed one pair of true 
nephridia, and one pair of coelomic ducts whose function was 
to conduct the generative products to the exterior. The chief 
types of MoUusca were already differentiated at the beginning 
of the geological record, and the metamerism which occurs in 
the Cephalopoda has been evolved within the limits of that 
i;Iass. 

External CharacUrs. — The characteristic organs of MoUusca 
«ze the mantle and sheU, the foot, the ctenidia and the radula. 



of which all but the last are external. The original form was 
bilateraUy symmetrical, and this symmetry is retained in aU 
the classes except the Gastropoda. At the anterior end the head 
is differentiated; it bears the sense-organs, and contains the 
muscular pharynx within which is the radular apparatus. The 
rest of the body consists of the foot ventraUy and the visceral 
mass dorsaUy. The foot is a muscular mass without cuticle 
or skeleton, excepting certain cuticular struaures such as the 
byssus of Lamellibranchs and the Operculum of Gastropods, 
which do not aid in locomotion. The foot is usuaUy the only 
organ of locomotion. It corresponds to the ventral part of the 
body-waU in other aninuils. The muscular tissue of the dorsal 
body-waU is much reduced and the integument here is thin and 




Fig. I. — Ctenidia of various MoUusca (original). 

A, Of Chiton: f.t., fibrous tissue; a.h.v., afferent blood-vesad; 

e.b.v., efferent blood-vessel ; gJ,, laterally paired lamellae. 

B , Of Se^: letters as in A. 

C, Of Ftssurella: letters as in A. 

D, Of Nucula: d, position of axis with blood-vessels; a, inner: 

b and e, outer row of lamellae. 

E, Of Paiudina: i, intestine running parallel with the axis of the 

ctenidium and ending in the anus a; br., rows of elongate 
processes corresponding to the two series of lamellae of the 
upper figures. 

soft. The external epithcUum of the dorsal region secretes the 
sheU. Between the edge of the sheU and the foot there is a 
groove or cavity, chiefly developed laterally and posteriorly. 
The dorsal border of this groove is extended outwards and 
downwards as a fold of the integument. There is some confusion 
of terms here: some writers caU the free fold the mantle or 
palUum, and this is the proper use of the term; but others apply 
the term to the whole of the dorsal integument, including both 
the projecting fold and the part covering the viscera. The 
sheU extends to the edge of the mantle-fold, and the cavity 
between the mantle and the side of the body is the paUial 
chamber. This chamber serves two purposes: it is primarily 



672 



MOLLUSCA 



the respintoiy cavity containing the gills, but it also serves 
to enclose the body so that the latter is surrounded by the 
shell, from which the head and foot can be protruded at the will 
of the animal. 

The shell consists of an organic basis the substance of which 
is called conchiolin, impregnated with carbonate of lime, with 
a small proportion, x-3 %, of phosphate of lime. On the outside 
of the shell is a non-caldfied layer of conchiolin called the 
periostracum, secreted by the thickened edge of the mantle. 
The zone of the external surface of the mantle within the edge 
secretes a byer formed of prisms of calcite; the rest of the 
epithelium from this zone to the apex secretes the inner layer 
of the shell, composed of successive laminae; this is the nacreous 
layer, and in certain species has a commercial value as nacre 
or mother-of-pearl. Thus the growth of the shell in extent 
is due to additions to the prismatic layer at the edge, its growth 
in thickness to new layers of nacre deposited on its inner surface. 
In many cases in various classes the mantle is reflected over 
the edges of the shell, so as to cover more or less completely 
its outer surface. When this covering is complete the shell 
is contained in a dosed sac and is said to be " internal," but 
the sac is lined by ectoderm and the shell is always morpho- 
logically external. In one or two cases the epithelium of the 
foot secretes a caldficd shell, which is cither free as in Argonauta 
or adherent as in Hipponyx. 

The ctenidia ((ig. i) are the branchial organs of the Mollusca. 
In the primitive condition there is one on each side in the 
mantle cavity, towards the posterior end of the body. Each 
is an outgrowth of the body-wall at the side of the body, and 
consists of an axis containing two main vessels, an afferent and 
efferent, and bearing on cither side a series of transverse plates 
whose blood-sinuses communicate with the vessels of the axis. 
The afferent vessd of the ctenidium receives blood from the 
vena cava or principal blood-sinus of the body, the efferent 
vessel opens into the auricle of its own side. Near the base of 
the ctenidium is a patch of sensory epithelium innervated from 
the branchial nerve, forming a sense-organ called the osphra- 
dium, whose function is to test the water entering the branchial 
cavity. The branchial current is maintained by the cilia which 
cover the surface of the ctenidia, except in Cephalopoda, in 
which cilia are absent and the current is due to muscular action. 
Thus in the primitive mollusc the mantle-cavity contains a 
symmetrical group of structures at the posterior end of the 
body, and this group of structures is called the pallial complex. 
It consists of the anus in the middle, a renal organ and renal 
aperture on each side of this, and a ctenidium outside or anterior 
to the renal organ, an osphradium being situated at the base 
of the ctenidium. 

Internal Anatomy: Digestive Tube. — In primitive Mollufca the 
mouth and anus arc the two extremities of the body, but the anus 
may be brought to an anterior position by a ventral flexure, compli- 
cated in Gastropoda by a lateral torsion. The alimentary tube 
consists of three regions: firstly, the anterior buccal mass with the 
oesophagus, of cctodcrmic origin, and therefore bearing; cuiicular 
structures, namely the jaws and radula; secondly, the mid-gut, of 
endodcrmic origin and including the stomach and Uvtrr^, and. Uilrdly, 
the hind-gut or intestine. The radula consists of a chiliriouf banc] 
bearing teeth, secreted by a ventral caecum of [hfr phifnyx iind 
movod by an apparatus of cartilage and muscles, it was present in 
the ancestral mollusc, occurs in ncarljr all archaic type«, and it only 
absent in the most specialized forms, in which it has c^ridcniiy been 
lost; these forms are certain Ncomcniomorpha, all the Laiiidli- 
branchia, various degenerate Gastropoda, and the Cirrhoteulhtdae 
among Cephalopoda. The teeth are secreted by a small number of 
cells at the closed end of the caecum, the basal membrane by a trans- 
verse row of cells in front of these. The teeth arc disposed in trans- 
verse rows, and in each row they are arranged symmetrically on 
either side of a central tooth. In Polyplacophora there are eight 
on each side (8.1.8); in Scaphopoda two on each side (2.I.2); in 
almost all Cephalopoda three on each side (5.I.3) : in Gastropoda the 
number varies very much in different subdivisions. Beneath the 
anterior parts of the radula where it emerges from the caecum are a 
pair of cartilages, and attached to these a number of special muscles 
by which the radula is moved backwards and forwards to act as a 
rasp. The secretion of the radula at the closed end of the caecum 
is continuous, so that it is constantly growing forward as fast as its 
exposed anterior portion is worn away by use, just as a finger- 
ttMi) is pushed forward by constant growth at its posterior end* 



and u worn amy or has to be cnt short from time to tiasitlli 
outer end. 

Circulation,— The system of blood-vessels is entirely septate 
from the codomic cavities. It consists of arteries, vam uA 
sinuses, but ramified capillaries are usually absent eacept a tke 
integuments of Cephalopoda.' The arteries and vdns have pro|Kr 
endothelial walls; they pass abruptl^r into the sinuses and in «ne 
cases communication is effected by orifices in the walls of the vaKk 
as for example in the vena cava of Nautilus. The heart b ataattd 
in the pericardium on the dorsal side of the intestine and st tke 
posterior end of the animal. The pericardium never contains Uood, 
as is well shown in those forms which have red corposcks is their 
blood : these corpuscles are never found in the pericardium. 

The heart receives blood from the gills and mantle, and ponpik 
through arteries to the body. It consists of a n»edian veotncle 
with muscubr walls and a cavity traversed by muscular stnadi 
On either side of the ventricle, in the primitive condition, isstkia* 
walled auricle, opening into the ventricle by a valved opeaiflc- 
Each auricle forms the terminal enlarge :-- -: vi il-^ <^:\^i,.:a 
the ctenidium of its own side. In NauHiui two paira ol ^untlmFi 
present, corresponding with the two pair* o^ cicnidia. In th* wv!» 
tive form a single anterior aorta is given oH from tht vt^ntrkt, [k 
two together representing the dorsal b^cKxl^ve^Aoi of Clueto^ 
In more specialized forms a posterior aorta |uas«& luiittwardilnB 
the ventricle, as in Gastropods and the majonty of J-jmEtlifcruds 
The ramifications of the arteries convey tlbc blood to all part* d tte 
body, and it finally reaches the venous sanuieis, \\\t tKiti ol wtkt «it 
the pedal, the paflial and the median-ventral. Th« U^t it bcE««s 
the pericardium and the foot ; from it the blood passes through tke 
renal organs to the ctenidia. Some blood, however, enters the auricb 



directl)r''from the mantle, without passing through the ctenitfii. Is 
'le maiority of Gastropoda one gill and one auricle are k>st 
The blood is usually a colourless liquid containing amoeboid crib 



and sometimes other corpuscles called haematids. It nuy be 
coloured blue by haemocyanin, a respiratory compound coDtainiiit 
copper. In a few forms the blood contains haemoglobin, either is 
solution or in haematids (red blood -corpuscles). In the Gutropoda 
the muscular tissue of the buccal mass is coloured red by baefflo> 
globin. 

Nervous System. — ^The central nervous sytrtem may be de«ribedas 
con«sting^ of a collar surrounding the oesophagus, and two pain cf 
cords arismg from the collar and passing backwards. The two pain 
of cords arise from the same point of tiie collar. The ventral cordi 
are the pedal, the dorso-lateral, the pleural, the former innemtiaf 
the foot, the latter the mantle. The dorsal half of the collar ii tbe 
cerebral commissure, the ventral the labial commissure. Tbe pedal 
cords are connected by commissures, and the pedal and pleural cf 
each side are similarly connected. The pallial cords are uoited to 
one another posteriorly, dorsal to the rectum. This is the cooditios 
of the nervous system found in Chiton and the other AnphiMora, 
but may not be in all respects the ancestral condition. GeflenDy 
the system is differentiated into ganglia connected by nerveconti 
consisting of nerve-fibres only. At the point of the collar whence 
the nerve-cords arise are the cerebral ganglia ; from the« cae pa^ 
of connectives passes to a pair of pedal ganglia, and another pstf 01 
connectives to a pair of pleural ganglia. Pedal and pleural on each 
side are connected by a pleuro-pedal connective Each pkaral 
ganglion gives off a long nerve which supplies the viscera, aJid tbe 
two unite posteriorly below the intestine. There are usually three 
small ganglia on the course of this visceral commissure, oamcty. the 
right and left visceral ganglia and the abdominal. The per^ 
esophageal nerve-ring of Chaetopoda and Arthropoda is rrtvesenud, 
not by the collar first mentioned in the above description, out b> the 
commissures connecting the cerebral and pedal ganglia. The btw 
commissure supplies only the buccal mass and the oesophagus aad 
stomach. , 

The special senseK>rgans are a pair of eyes on the head, s pair « 
otocysts or statocysts, and a pair of osphradia which have aJrw 
been mentioned. In certain cases accessory eyes are al<<o pmcSL 
e.t. the pallial eyes of Pecten and other Lamellibranchs, and fl> 
Chitons. The otocysts are invaginations of the epithelium of the 
foot, but are innervated from the cerebral ganglia, and the ftOt 
innervation has been proved in some cases for the osphradia. 

Reproduction and Develofnnent. — Molluscs are usually of "P"*" 
sexes, but sexual dimorphism is seldom highly developed Hcn^ 
phroditism is secondary, and occurs in one sut>-clas8 of Ga&tropoda,is 
some Lamellibranchs, and in one sub-<»rder of Amphineura. I> 
Cephalopods and the majority of Gastropods c(>pulatiofi occur*. A» 
a rule no parental care is exhibited, but incubation of the dcvekniat 
ova within some part of the parental body, or rec<*ptacles attached 
to the parent, (xxurs in some Lamellibranchs. some Gastropoda asd 
in Argonauta among the Cephalopods. True viviparity, tkat ' 
the development of the ova within tne oviduct, is very rate, occimi«l 
only in one case among the Amphineura and in some aqustic aw 
pulmonale Gastropoda. 

The cgg-ccll of' Mollusca is either free from food-ipatefiiM 
simple protoplasmic corpuscle — or charged with food-maiecial »• 
greater or less extent. Those cases which appear to be roost lypic" 
— I.e. which adhere to a procedure which was probably comrooa stool 
time to all then existing Mollusca and has been departed frosi wr 



MOLLUSCA 



673 



I Iftter and ipedal linn of dctct n t ■ A aw ap pio xim atdy the 
lUowini^ history. By division of the egg-cell a oiulberry-iiutM of 
nbtyomc-cells u formed (nM>rula), whichdiUtes. forming a one-cell- 
yered lac fblaatula). By invagination one portion of this sphere 
soocnes tucked into the other— as in the preiMtratioa of a woven 
icht-cap for the head. The orifice of invagination (blastopore) 
UTOws, and we now have a two<elMayered sac — the gastrula. 
he inva^inated layer is the enteric cell-layer or endoderm ; the outer 
U-layer u the dermic cell-layer or ectodotn. The cavity communi- 
iting with the blastopore and lined ty the endoderm is the arch- 
iteroo. The blastopore, together with the whole embiyo, now 
oogatea. The blastopore then closes along the middle portkm of 
ft extent, which corre^Kxads with the later developed foot. At 
le same time the stomodaeum, or oral invagination, forms around 
MS anterior remnant of the blastopore, and the proctoidaeum, or anal 
vaginatton, forms around the posterior remnant of the blastopore. 
here are, however, variations in regard to the relation of the blasto- 
x« to the mouth and to the anus which are probably modifications 
' the original process described above. 

In ens which contain a larger quantity of food-yolk, the process 
f which the endoderm u enveloped by the ectoderm is somewhat 
iffcrent. Segmentation in these is very unequal, and results in the 
irmation of small cells called micromeres and large cells called 
icgameres, as in fig. 4. As the mic r ome r es become more numerous 
ley gradually envelop the megameres until the latter are compktely 
idoaed. The gastrufa is in these cases said to be formed by ratbole. 
ectoderm and endoderm a third intermediate cell-layer 




I' / 

UUrLukotcr.zs.) 
Fig. 3. — Development of the Pond-Snail, Limnaeus stapwlis. 

A, First four cells resulting from 



, Directive corpuscle. 

f. Blastopore. 

f , Endoderm or enteric cell layer. 

;, Ectoderm or deric cell-layer. 

Vehim. 
I, Mouth. 

Foot. 

Tentacles. 
>, Pore in the foot (belonging' 

to the pedal gland?). 
/,The mantle-flap or limbus 



^ThesbelL 
The sub-pallial space, here 
destined to become the lung. 



H, 



the cleavage of the original 
egg-cell. 

Side-view of the «ame. 

Diblastub stage showing the 
two cell-layers and the 
blastopore. 

E, F, Trochosphere sUge, D 
older than E or F. 

Three-quarter view of a Dib- 
lastula, to show the orifice of 
invagination of the endo- 
derm or blastopore, (60* 

I, Veliger stage later than 
D. 



formed, which is called the mesoderm, and gives rise to the 
macular and connective tissues to the vascular system, and to the 
Gcretory and generative ornns. The mesoderm arises for the most 
irt from the endoderm. When the segmentation is unequal one of 
le megauneres gives rise by successive divisions to two primary 
lesoderm cdls called mesomeres; these divide to form two masses 
' cdls called roesoblastic bands. The coelom is formed as a cavity 
r cavities in the interior of these cell-masses. In tome cases the 



coelom is formed as a sinrie cavity, and renal and generative organs 
are formed from its walls. Thb b the primitive method, but in 
other cases the organs mentioned may be formed separately in the 
mesoderm. The renal organs are tubular outgrowths of the peri- 
cardial parts of the coek>m; the reproductive cells are derived from 
cells timng the generative portion. 

The external form of the embryo meanwhile paases through 
highly characteristic changes, which are on the whole fairly constant 




(After Ltakcstcr. 17) 

Fig. 3.— Development of the River-Snail, Paludina vivipara, 
dc. Directive corpuscle (outcast A, CastniU pHaw (optkaL 

cell). 
M, Arch-enteron or ca^ty lined 

by the enteric cell-layer or 

endoderm. 
bl. Blastopore, 
vf, Velum or circlet of ciliated 

cells. 
d9. Velar area or cephalic dome, 
m. Site of the as yet unformed 

mouth. 
/, Foot. 
mes. Rudiments of the skeleto- 

trophic tissues. 
pi, The pedicle of invagination, 

the future rectum. 
skef,Tht primitive shell-sac or 

shell-gland, 
m. Mouth, an, anus. 

N.B. — In this development the blastopore is not eIons[ated; it 
persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum iorm indepen- 
dently of the blastopore. 

throughout the Molluscs. A circlet of cilia forms when the embryo 
is still nearly spherical in an equatorial position. As growth pro- 
ceeds, one hemisphere remains relatively small, the other elongates 
and enlarges. Both mouth and anus arc placed in the larger area; 
the smaller area is the prostomium simply; the ciliated band is 
therefore in front of the mouth. The larval form thus produced 
is known as the trochosphere. It exactly agrees with the larval 
form of many Chaetopod worms and other Coelomata. Most remark- 
able is its resemblance to the adult form of the Wheel animalcules, 
or Rotifera, which reuin the prae-oral ciliated oand as their chief 
organ of kicomotion and prehension throughout life. So far the 
youn^ mollusc has not reached a definitely molluscan stage 01 



tion)* 
B, The GdstruU hi* b«ome «1 

TrothospHwe by ihc <irve|-! 

oprtlvjil <vf the cilLiUd ridt 

vr {optical rtctioo). 
C,- Side view oi the TiOchop§plierc 

with romniciKiiiB: formation 

of tbc fuQi. 

D, Further advaticcd Trocha- 

tpht're (opiit^l Aectioo). 

E, The Tn^rhosphwc pasRing to 

the Vrligtr 5f sge, J<>^wl view 
showing x^Uq (ormation of the 
phmiiivF thell-sac- 

F, 5i(le view oi i Kc same, ehowing 

fmi. Eiiitll^cac iskii), vtWm 
(?r), mouth and ina%* 



674 



MOLLUSCA 



development, being only In a condition common to it and other 
Coelomata. It now paaaes to the veliger phase, a definitely moUuacan 
form, in which the disproportion between the area in front of the 
ciliated circlet and that behind it » very greatly increased, so that 
the former is now simply an emarginated region of the head fringed 
with cilia. It is termed the " velum," and is frequently drawn out 
A 




(From BaUour. after BobicCiky.) 
Fig. 4. — Early Stages of division of the Fertilized Egg<ell in Nassa 
tnutabUis. 

A, The egg-cell has divided into two spheres, of which the lower 

contains more food-material, whilst the upper is again incom- 
pletely divided into two smaller spheres. Resting on the dividing 
upper sphere arc the eight-shaped " directive corpuscles." better 
called praeseminal outcast cells or apoblasts." since they are the 
result 01 a cell-diyision which aflfeas the egg-cell before it is 
impregnated, and are mere refuse, destined to disappear. 

B, One of the two smaller spheres is reunited to the larger sphere. 

C, The single small sphere has divided into two, and the reunited 

mass has divided into two, of which one is oblong and 
practically double, as in B. 

D, Each of the four segment-cells gives rise by division to a small 

pellucid cell. 

E, The cap of small cells has increased in number by repeated for- 

mation of pellucid cells in the same way. and by division of 
those first formed. The cap will spread over and enclose the 
four segment-cells, 
into lobes and processes. As in the Rotifera. it serves the veliger 
larva as an organ of locomotion. The body of the veliger is charac- 
terized by the development of the visceral hump on one surface, and 
by that of the foot on the other. Growth is greater in the vertical 
dorso-ventral axis than in the longitudinal oro-anal axis; consequently 
the foot is relatively small and projects as a blunt process between 
mouth and anus, which are not widely distant from one another, 
whilst the antipedal area projects in the fijrm of .; -;. ot 

dome. In the centre of this antipedal artj ilus.' !;■ ri^-jfcd 
(often at a very early period) a glana-Iike dcyfcsfiion at lolLicLt ul the 
integument. This is tne primitive shell-sac discos-ered by Lankeiter 
in 1&71, and shown by him to precede the d^rMelapment cf the 
permanent shell in a variety of molluscan types. The ihell'|Lafid is 
bounded by a ridge of ectodermic cells. Tms rid^e forms th^ edge 
of the shell-secreting epithelium, and therer^re of the mantlet 
since the shell extends to the edge of the manile. The ibeU-gbiKi, oii 
development proceeds, extenos from itn point ol origiEi ai an 
ectodermic thickening, which may be only slightly concave or may 
be deeply invaginated and then cvaginated. 

In tne larvae of several Gastropoda and Lamellibranchia occur 
excretory organs which have the characters of true nephridia.^ There 
is a single pair of these organs situated immediately behind the 
velum. They a^rce with primitive nei>hridia in being of ectodermic 
origin, in consisting of perforated cells in linear series, and in having 
no communication with the coelom. The inner end of each of these 
organs consists of a flame-cell, ix. a cell with an internal cavity 
containing a vibrating filament or flagellum. They are best de- 
veloped in the Pulmonata ; in some cases they are very rudimentary 
and may be destitute of an external opening. They invariably 
disappear before the adult stage is reached, but their presence in 
the larva is evidence that the ancestral mollusc possessed a pair of 
true nephridia quite distinct from the coelomic excretory organs, 
which arc so characteristic of existing forms in the adult condition. 

The ctenidta, it will be observed, nave not yet been mentioned, 
and they arc indeed the last of the characteristic Molluscan organs 
to make their appearance. They arise as outgrowths of the sides 
of the body withm the cavity formed by the development of the 
mantle. The veliger, as soon as its shell has attained some extent 
and begins to assupie definite shape, is no longer of a form common 



to MoUusca generally, but acquires charactcn pecnGar to the |iiiti> 
cular class to which lU parenu belong. For the later devetopool 
therefore the articles on the several daases must be coonilted. 

Relations between the Classes. — From the preceding dixniori 
an idea'may be formed of the pzimitive charactcxs oC the F^yini 





(Ftom GcgenlMttr.) 

Fig. 5. — " Veliger " embryonic form of Mollusca. 

p. Velum. A. Eariier,and(B),Uter,Vdirr 

c. Visceral dome with dependent of a Gastropod. 

mantle-skirt. C, Veliger of a Pteropod showiil 

Foot. lobe-Uke processes d the 

Cephalic tentacles. velum and the gnat paired 



op. Operculum. outgrowths oT the foot. 

Mollusca, and it b possible to construct a diagrammatic moUuac, 
as was first done by Lankester, which will possess these primitive 
features. The figure here given represents such a hypotheticil 
form according to present views. We cannot assert that tbis 
was in all respects the condition of the common ancestor, as 
will be seen when we attempt to derive the various sub-typei 
from iL In the Amphineura the nervous system, hivioi tf 




CPtamlMxikeittx^TmtistonZMbty. A. sad C BIm±.) 
Fig. 6. — Diagram of a primitive Mollusc, viewed from the left idk 
pa.n. Pallia! 1 



Anus. 
eg. Cerebral ganglion. 
/, Foot. 
t. Gill, in the pallial cavity. 

{0, Gonad. 
, Heart. 
k. Kidney. 
lax. Labial commissure, 
m. Mouth. 
pa, Mantle. 



Pl-i, 



Pericardium. 



p.g. Pedal ganglion. 
Pleural gangUoa. 



r». Radula. 

r.puf, Reno-pericardial orifice. 

a. Stomach. 

a.i, Stomato-gastric g 

v.g. Visceral ganglion. 



separate ganglia and no ventral visceral commissure, maj be 
still more primitive. The metameric repetition of the shdl* 
plates and of the ctenidia are probably special mnttifinttm 
but it is difi&cult to explain the spictiles of the dorsal integOBOt 
except as a condition more primitive than the sbdl itsdi. The 
Prorhipidoglossomorpha are distingtilshed by the septntkMi if 
the genital coelom from the pericardium, and by the kit 
visceral commissure passing ventral to the intcstiBe. Tht 
Lame'libranchia have markedly diverged from the original typs 
by the adoption of filtratioQ as a method of feediog. TUi iM 



MOLLUSCOIDA— MOLLY MAGUIRES 



67s 



« of tbe nulula, And is accompanied by the division 
nto two valves. The peculiarities of the Gastropoda 
the torsion of the shell and body. The Cephalopoda 
ved without much difficulty from the schematic 
re assume that some metameric repetition of organs 
I, as explained above in reference to the coelom. 
s been developed into long processes which have 
a circle round the mouth; all the ganglia, including 
have been concentrated around the oesophagus. 
i Distribution. — More than 38,000 species of living 
^e been distinguished, of which more than half are 
They are essentially aquatic animals,, and the 








■-^^iL^"^* fw 




^J 


'-—kJ^^Nj 




V 


<7VN^ 


Tnatis*^ 


ZooL.fy. 


A. and C. Black.) 


rams of the five classes of Mollusca, from the left side. 


ira. 




h. Heart, in the pericardium. 


da. 




h.a. Posterior adductor. 


la. 




m. Mouth. 


anchia. 




pa, Pallium or mantle. 


oda. 




p.g. Pedal ganglion. 
pl.g. Pleural ganglion. 






idductor. 




ra, Radula. 


janglion. 




si, Stomach. 

st.g. Stomal o-gastric ganglion. 

v.g. Visceral ganglion. 



in the sea. Some, like many Cephalopods and 
J, are pelagic or free-swimming; others creep or lie 
torn. Some are littoral, living between tide-marks; 
ind at very various depths, up to 2800 fathoms, 
have invaded the fresh waters, while the pulmonale 
al Gastropods are distributed over the whole 
land in all latitudes and to a height of 1 5,000 ft. As 
scs are free and more or less active, but many 
is are sedentary, and a few of these and of Gastro- 
Tianently fixed to their habitat. Commensalism 
few instances, but parasitism either external or 
e. The latter is confined to certain Gastropods 
I Echinoderms and arc extremely degenerate in 
Protective resemblance is exhibited by some 
Gastropods which have assumed the colour and 

their habitat. 

I. — I. Morphology, (i) G. Cuvier, Mimoires pour servir 
I'analomie des moUusques (Paris, 1816). (2) J. Poli, 
que Sicilian, eorumque historia et anatome, tabtdis aeneis 
rols. i.-iii., fol. (Parma, 1791-1795 and 1826-1827). 
hiaje, Memorie suUa storia e anatomia degli animali 
Id regno di Napoli (Naples, 1823-1829), new edition 



with 173 plates, fol., 1843. U) J. Vaughan Thompson, Zoolopcaf 
Ruearekes ((Cork, 1830) ; memoir iv., " On the Cirripedes or Barnacles, 
demonstrating their deceptive character." Qs) A. Kowalewsky. 
" Entwickelungageschidite der einfachen Ascidien," in Mim. de 
Vacad. des sciences de St Petersbourg (1866), and " Entwickelungs- 
geachichte des Amphioxus lanceolatus, ibid. (1867). (6) J. Vaughan 
ThomiMon, Zoologtcal Researches (Cork, 1830) ; memoir v., Polyzoa, a 
new animal discovered as an inhabitant of some Zoophytes." (7) C. G. 
Ehrenberg, " Die KoraUentkiere des Rolhen Meeres " (Berlin, 1834): 
Abhand. d. k. Akad. d. Wissenschaften in Berlin (1832). (8) H. 
Milne-Edwards, /2«cil(«rcl(e5 snr Us p^ypiers de France (Paris, 1841- 
1844). (9)iH. Milne-Ed wards, papers in the Annates des sciences 
naturelles (1841-1860). (10) H. de Lacaze-Duthiers. papers in the 
AntuUes des sciences na{ureUes, e.g. " Anomia " (1854). *' Mvtilus" 
(1856), " DenuUum " (1856-1857), " Purpura '' (1859), " Haliotb 
(1859). "Vermetus" (1860). (11) A. Kdlliker, Entwickelungsges- 
chichte der Cepkalopoden (ZQrich, 1844). (12) C. G. Ckgenbaur, 
Untersnckun^n Ober Pterofoden und Heteroitoden, (Leipzig. 185M. 
(13) J* W. Spengel, " Die oeruchsorgane una das Nervensystem der 
Mollusken.'^ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. (,1881). (14) Richard Owen, 
Memoir on tke Pearly Nautilus (London, 18^2). (15) L. Cuenot, 
" Excretion chez les mollusques." Arck. d. biot. xvi. (1899). (16) P. 
Geddes, " On the Mechanism of the Odontophore in certain Mol- 
lusca." (17) T. H. Huxley, " On the Morphology of the Cephalous 
Mollusca," Pkil. Trans. (1853). (18) Von Jhering, Vergteickende 
Anatomic des Nervensystems una Pkylogenie der MoUusken (Leipzig, 
1IS77K {|i) j I er, " Contributions to the Developmental 

K i story ol ; I Pkil. Trans. ( 1 875) ; " Note on the Coelom 

and Vascular ^y^tfim of Mollusca and Arthropoda." Quart. Journ. 
Micr. Sci. XXXIV. (18911). (20) P. Pclscneer; introduction <i I'itude 
des MoUjiiouti (Hruaseli, 1 894); " Reckerckes sur les MoUusques 
archaiqvest Mem. cour. Acad, belg., LVii. (1899); "Mollusca," 
LankciEer'ft Trtaiise on ZeMogy, pt. v. (1906). 

II. Con(ihoJoffy.—(Ji) Cooke,'* Molluscs,' Cambridge Natural His- 
tcry, vol. iii. ( I Sgs)- (?J) Fischer, Manuel deconckvliologte (1887). (23) 
Jcftrtyt , Briiifk Corukf^hjiy (1862-1869). -^24) Simroth. " Mollusca," 
Broun' iKlassen und Ordrmngetides Tkierretcks, Bd. iii. (1805). in prog. 
(15) Tryon, Maifual of Gy«ckology (1878), in prog. (26) VvMdward, 
* " ' " ■ " tiUSi ' .--«•- 



A Manuai of tke Moifusca (1880). 



(E. R.L.; J.T.C) 



MOLLUSCOIDA, a name long employed to denote a division 
of the animal Idngdom which contained Brachiopods {q.v.), 
Polysoa (q.v.), and Tunicate {q.v.), the members of the three 
groups having been supposed to resemble the Mollusca. As it 
is now known that these groups have no relation to molluscs, 
and very little to one another, the name Molluscoida has been 
abandoned. 

MOLLY MA0U1RBS, an Irish American secret society which 
maintained numerous branches in the anthracite coal regions 
of Pennsylvania, U.S.A., from 1854 to 1877, and perhaps later. 
The name was imported from Ireland, where it had been used 
to designate one of the Ribbon societies that devoted its energies 
to intimidating and maltreating process servers and the agents 
of landlords, and whose greatest activity was between 1835 
and 1855. Th« Insb society of Molly Maguires seems to have 
been organized in 1843 in the barony of Farney, Co. Monaghan, 
to co-operate with the ribbonmen, and its membership seems 
to have been confined to the very lowest classes. The 
Molly Maguires of Pennsylvania consisted of similar classes 
of Irishmen, but there seems to have been no connexion between 
ihe two societies. Every member of the American organization 
was also a member of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, an 
association organized for benevolent purposes, and having 
branches throughout the United States and Great Britain. To 
the Ancient Order of Hibernians none might be admitted but 
persons of Irish birth or descent, who were Roman Catholics, 
and whose parents were Roman Catholics; but notwithstanding 
this requirement, the organization— being a secret society — was 
under the ban of the Catholic Church. At the head of each 
division or lodge there was a " body master," who communicated 
iirectly with a county delegate; the county delegates reported 
10 the state delegate, and the state delegates to a national 
delegate. The supervision of the whole order was vested 
in a " Board of Erin," meeting quarterly in England, Ireland 
or Scotland, and at each meeting arranging a new code 
of signals and passwords, which were communicated to the 
national delegate in Ihe United States by the steward of a 
transatlantic steamship, and thence were transmitted to the 
various subdivisions. In the mining districts of Pennsylvania 
the organization fell under the control of a lawless element. 



676 



MOLOCH 



which created the inner order of " MbUy Maguires," with the 
object, it appears, of intimidating the Welsh, English, and 
German miners, and of ridding the region of mine superin- 
tendents, bosses and police who should make themselves in 
any way objectionaUe to members of the order. Any member 
having a grievance might lay a formal complaint before his 
" body master," who thereupon conferred with the officers of 
the neighbouring divisions and secured members from a distance 
to make away with the offending person. Under this system 
the crimes in a given district were always committed by strangers 
rendering identification of the criminal difficult and escape 
easy. ITie society grew in strength during the Civil War, when 
the increased demand for coal caused an influx of miners, many 
of them lawless characters, into the coal-fields, and in Z862-X863 
it opposed enlistments in the Federal Army and roughly treated 
some of the enlisting officers. After the war its activity was 
shown by an increasing number of assassinations, burnings 
and other outrages, until by 1875 it completely dominated the 
mining classes and forced a general strike in the coal regions. 
After repeated efforts to bring the criminals to justice had failed, 
Franklin B. Gowen (1836-1889), president of the Philadelphia 
and Reading Coal and Iron Company, sent James McParlan, 
9J1 Irish Catholic and a Pinkerton detective (who some thirty 
years later attracted attention in the investigation of the assas- 
sination of Governor Steuncnberg of Idaho), to the mining 
region in 1873; he joined the order, lived among the " Molly 
Maguires " for more than two years, and even became secretary 
of the Shenandoah division, one of the most notoriously 
criminal lodges of the order. The evidence he secured led to the 
arrest, conviction, and execution or imprisonment of a large 
number of members during the years 1876-1877, and subse- 
quently the outrages ceased and the society was disbanded. 
See F. P. Dewces, The Molly Maguires Philadelphia. 1877): 



Allan Pinkerton, The Molly Maguires and the Detectives (New Yorl . 
1877) ; E. W. Lucy, The Molly Maguires of Penruylvania; (London, 
n:d.); The Commonwealth versus John Kehoe et af. (PottsvUle, Pa., 
1878); and an article by J. F. Rhodes in Amer, HisU Review, 



n:iS I The Commonwealth versus John Kekoe et af. (Pottsville, Pa.i 

im\ * .... - ^ - . 

April, 1910. 

MOLOCH, or Molech (in Hebrew, with the doubtful exception 
of X Kings xi. 7, always " the Molech "), the name or title of 
the divinity which the men of Judah in the last ages of the 
kingdom were wont to propitiate by the sacrifice of their own 
children. According to the Hebrew consonants it might simply 
be read " the king " (milek), an appellation for the supreme 
deity of a Semitic state or tribe. The traditional pronunciation 
(MoX6x), which goes back as far as the Septuagint version of 
Kings, probably means that the old form was perverted by 
giving it the vowels of bdshetk " shame," the contemptuous name 
for Baal {q.v.). In i Kings xi. 7 (see above) it is the name of 
the god of the Ammonites, elsewhere called Milcom or Malcam; 
but it appears from 2 Kings xxiii. 10, 13 that the worship of 
Milcom at the shrine set up by Solomon was distinct from 
Molech worship, and the text should probably therefore be 
emended to the longer form (so the Septuagint). 

The phrase employed in speaking of these sacrifices is that of 
dedication — " to make one's son or daughter pass through 
(or by means of) fire to (the) Molech " (2 Kings xxiii. 10; 
but elsewhere without the words " through fire " Lev. xviii. 
21); and it appears from Jer. vii. 31, xix. 5; Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., 
that this phrase denotes a human holocaust,' and not, as some- 
times has been thought, a mere consecration to Molech by passing 
through or between fires, as in the Roman Palilia and similar 
rites elsewhere (on which see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed., 
ii. 40 sqq., iii. 237 sqq.). Human sacrifice was common in 
Semitic heathenism, and at least the idea of such sacrinces was 

Mn 3 Chron. xxviii. 3 (parallel to 2 Kings xvi. 3) a single letter is 
transposed in the phrase, changing the sense from " caused to pass 
throuKh the fire " to " caused to burn with fire." Gciger {Urscnnft 
und Uebersetzung, p. 30O very unnecessarily sup()09ed that this was 
everywhere the onginaT reading, and that it had been changed to 
soften the cnormitv ascribed to the ancient Hebrews. The phrase 
" 10 give one's seea to Molech " (Lev. xx. 2 seq.), and the fact that 
these victims were (like other sacrifices) regarded as food for the 
deity (Ezek. xvi. 20) explain and justify the common reading. 



not unknown to Israel from tufy times (see Isaac; Jspnui).* 
We learn from a Kings iii. 27 that the piacular sacrifice of bii 
son and heir was the last offering which the king of Moab Bade 
to deliver his country. Even the Hebrew historian ascribes to 
this act the effect of rousing divine indignation agaiut the 
invading host of Israel; it would not, therefore, be surprisog i 
under the miseries brought on Palestine by the westward much 
of the Assyrian power, the idea of the sacr^ce of one's owa 
son, as the most powerful of atoning rites, should have tikes 
hold of those kings of Judah (Ahaa and Manasseh, a Kings xrl 3. 
Kxi. 6) who were otherwise prone, in their hopelessness of help 
from the old religion (Isa. vii. la), to seek to strange peoples ud 
their rites. Ahaz's sacrifice of his son (which indeed rests oo i 
somewhat Ute authority) was apparently an isolated set of 
despair, since human sacrifices are not among the omtiptioBS 
of the popular religion spoken of by Isaiah and Micah. lo the 
7th century, however, when the old worship had sastaiixd 
rude shocks, and aU religion was transformed into servile fear 
(Mic. vi. I seq.), the example of Manasseh did not sund alooe, 
and Jeremiah and Ezekiel made frequent and indignant rcferenoe 
to the " high places " for the sacrifice of children by their psreats 
which rose beneath the very walls of the temple from the giooajr 
ravine of Hinnom or Tophet.* (Jer. viL 31, ziz., xzxiL 35; 
Ezek. xvi. z8 sqq., xxiii. 37). The children apparently voe 
not burned alive; they were slain and burned like any other 
holocaust (Ezek. loc. cit.; Isa. Ivii. 5), their blood was shed 
at the sanctuary (Jer. xix. 4; Ps. cvi. 38). Thus the late 
Rabbinical picture of the calf-headed brasen image of Mokch 
within which children were burned alive is pure fable, aad 
with it falls the favourite comparison between Moledi and the 
Carthaginian idol from whose brazen arms children were ndled 
into an abyss of fire, and whom Diodorus (xix. 14) natnra^ir 
identifies with the child-eater Kronos, thus leading oubj 
moderns to make Molech the planet Saturn. 

It is with these sacrifices that the tuune of " the Moledi* 
is always connected; sometimes " the Baal " (lord) appcantf 
a synon3rm. At the same time, the horrid ritual was so ckaetf 
associated with Yahweh worship (Ezek. xxiiL 39) that Jereniah 
more than once finds it necessary to protest that it b not of 
Yahweh's institution (vii. 31, xix. 5). So too it is the kks of 
sacrifidng the firstborn to Yahweh that is discussed aad rejected 
in Micah vL It is indeed plain that such a sacrifice— for «e 
have here to do, not with human victims in general, bat with the 
sacrifice of the dearest earthly thing — could only be paid to the 
supreme deity; and Manasseh and his people never ceased ta 
acknowledge Yahweh as the God of Isnd. Thus the way ii 
which Jeremiah (Jer. xix. 5) and the legislation of LevitkB 
(xviii. 21, XX. 2-5) and the author of Kings, seem to oaik ool 
the Molech or Baal as a false god, distinct from Yahwck,ii 
precisely parallel to the way in which Hosea speaks of the 
golden calves or Baalim. In each case the people thoackt 
themselves to be worshipping Yahweh under the titk of Mokck 
or Baal; but the prophet refuses to admit that this is so, becaat 
the worship itself is an apostasy to heathenism. Noie, ak^ 
the attitude of Ezekiel in xx. 25 seq., 31, references ^^ 
cannot be expUuned away. 

Although the motive came from within, the /ami takes I9 
the cult has appeared to many to be of non-Israelite onf^ 
Babylonia and Assyria, however, seem to be out of the qnesiifla' 
malik, " arbiter, decider," is there an epithet of various gods, aad 
as an appellative means " prince " and not king; farther, Sttk 

' In Hos. xiii. 2, the interpreution " they that acrifioe met" i^ 
improbable, and 2 Kings xviL 17 and Lev. xviii., xx. are of too^ 
date by themselves to prove the immolation of children to Mdip 
in old Israel. The " ban " (ot). which was a reU^io«a caeo^ 
of criminals or enemies, was common to Israel with ia Iwathea 
neighbours (cf. the inscription of Mesha), but lacked the <fittiicoM 
character of a sacrifice in which the victim is the food of the dBtft 
conveyed to him through fire. 



> The etymology of the word Tophet is obscure; it is uu w M y^ 

py^-^sS 

^^,. - • haviot P*^ 

the vowel-points of bdsheth. See W. R. Smith. JUUgiam efumi^^ 



Aramaic origin and means" fire-place," cf. topkidk, " pyre." 
-...-- havioi 



33). The vocalization is artificial, the Mawretcs I 
the vowel-poii '■-•-• *-..»«*' .-^ ~ .• 

and ed.. 377* 



MOLSHEIM— MOLTKE 



677 



evidence for the prevalence of homan sacrifice has as yet been 
found in those lands (A. Jeremias, Das AUe Test, im LichU d.alUn 
Oritnls, 2nd ed., p. 454). Among the Canaanite branch, the 
king-god is more prominent, and apart from the Ammonite 
vmriant Milcom, numerous names compounded with Milk- are 
found on Phoenician inscriptions and among western Semites 
mentioned in cuneiform literature (H. Zimmem, Keilinsckr. «. 
das Aite Test., 3rd ed. pp. 470 sqq.). It is true that child- 
sacrifice in connexion with fire prevailed among the Phoenicians, 
and, according to the Greeks, the deity honoured with these 
grisly rites was Kronos (identified with the Phoenician £1, 
" God *'). On the other hand, the seat of the cult appears to 
have been at Jerusalem, and the period during which it flourished 
does not favour any strong Phoenician influence. Again, the 
form of the word Tophet and Ahaz's association with Damascus 
might point to an Aramaean origin for the cult; but it would 
not be safe to support this view by the statements and names 
in a Kings xvii. 31. On the whole, the biblical tradition that 
the Molech-cult wju Canaanite and indigenous (Deut. xii. 29 sqq., 
zviii. 9 seq.) holds the ground. There was a tendency in time 
of misfortune to revert to earlier rites (illustrated in some 
ancient mourning customs), and it may have been some old 
disiinH practice revived under the pressure of national distress. 
^ ^ je, Etudes sur 

iesf ■• • -- - • ^- - • • 

AU. 

l44*Cq«^-. -M>ll —.-J ,.^..,^^..w^.j, .,^^.„ ^,^. -^.,., .-yw^, 

L 40 aqq. On archaeological evidence for hunuui sacrifice from 
PaliBstinian soil, see H. Vincent, Canaan d^aprhs fexptoration 
f^cenU, pp. 50. 1 16, 189 sqq. (W. R. S. ; S. A. C.) 

■0L8HBIM, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of 
Alsace-Lorraine at the foot of the Vosges, on the Breusch and 
at the junction of railways to Zahem and Strassburg. Pop. 
(1905), 3x64. It contains a beautiful Roman Catholic and a 
Protestant church, a handsome new town-hall and an agricultural 
idbool. Its industries embrace the manufacture of iron and 
sted goods, tanning and organ-building. There is also some 
trade in wine. Molsheim was known in the 9th century as 
MoUeshem, and formerly was the seat of a famous Jesuit college, 
which in 1702 was removed to Strassburg and united with the 
nniver sityo f that dty. 

■OLTKE; ADAM OOTTLOB, Count (171^x792), Danish 
courtier, was bom on the xoth of November 1710, at Riesenhof 
in Meddenburg. Though of German origin, many of the 
Moltkes were at this time in the Danish service, which was 
considered a more important and promising opening for the 
3roung north German nobleix\cn than the service of any of the 
native principalities; and through one of his uncles, young 
Moltke became a page at the Danish court, in which capacity 
he formed a life-long friendship with the crown prince Frederick, 
afterwards Frederick V. He never had any opportunity of 
enriching his mind by travel or study, but he was remarkable 
for a strongly religious temperament and seems for some time 
to have been connected with the Moravians. Immediately 
after his accession, Frederick V. made him hofmarskal (court 
marshal), and overwhelmed him with marks of favour, making 
him a privy councillor and a count and bestowing upon him 
Bregentved and other estates. As the inseparable companion 
of theking, Moltke's influence soon became so boimdless that the 
foreign di|domatists declared he could make and unmake 
ministers at wilL Fortimately he was no ordinary favourite. 
Naturally tactful and considerate, he never put difficiilties in 
the way of the responsible ministers. Especially interesting 
b Moltke's attitude towards the two distinguished statesmen 
who played the leading parts during the reign of Frederick V., 
Johan Sigismund Schulin and the elder Bemstorff. For Schulin 
be had a sort of veneration. Bemstorff irritated him by his 
grand airs of conscious superiority. But though a Prussian 
intrigue was set up for the supersession of Bemstorff by Moltke, 
the latter, convinced that Bemstorff was the right man in the 
right place, supported him with unswerving loyalty. Moltke 
was far less liberal in his views than many of his contemporaries. 
Be looked askance at all projects for the enumcipation of the 



serfs, but, as one of the largest landowners of Denmark, he did 
much service to agriculture by lightening the burdens of the 
countrymen and introducing technical and scientific improve- 
ments which greatly increased production. His greatest merit, 
however, was the guardianship he exercised over the king, 
whose sensual temperament and weak character exposed him 
to many temptations which might have been very injurious 
to the state. Frederick had the good sense to appreciate the 
honesty of his friend and there was never any serious breach 
between them. On the death of Qutea Louisa the king would 
even have married one of Moltke's daughters had he not 
peremptorily declined the dangerous honour. On the decease 
of Frederick V., who died in his arms (Jan. 14, 1766), Moltke's 
dominion was at an end. The new king, Christian VII., could 
not endure hiin» and exclaimed, with reference to his lanky 
figure: " He's stork below and fox above.t' He was also 
extremely unpopular, because he was wrongly suspected of 
enriching himseljf at the public expense.^ In July 17(^6 he was 
dismissed from all his offices and retired to his estate at Bre- 
gentved. Subsequently, through the interest of Russia, to 
whom he had always been favourable, he regained his seat in 
the council (Feb. 8, 1768), but his influence was slight and of 
bfief endurance. He was again dismissed without a pension, on 
the xoth of December X770, for refusing to have anything to 
do with Stmensee. He lived in retirement till his death on the 
25th of September 1792. 

His memoirs, written in German and published in 1870, have 
considerable historical importance. Sec H. H. Langhom. Historiscke 
Nachrickt Hber die ddniscken Moltkes (Kiel, 1871). (R. N. B.) 

MOLTKE. ADAM WILHELM, Count (X785-1864), Danish 
statesman, son of the minister Joachim Godske Moltke (1746- 
x8i8), and grandson of Adam Gottlob Moltke, was bom at 
Einsiedelsborg in Funen, on the 25th of August 1785. Under 
the influence of the agricultural reformer Christian Colbjdmsen 
he abandoned the legal career he had adopted and entered the 
administrative service of the state, to which he devoted the 
remainder of his life. In X831 he succeeded Johan Sigismund 
Mating (i 789-1843), as minister of finance. On the death of 
Christian VIII. he was one of the most prominent members 
of the Council of State, and when the constitutional crisis came 
in X848 he seemed marked out as the man who could bridge over 
the gap' between the old era and the new. The services which 
Count Moltke rendered to Denmark cannot be too highly appre- 
ciated. The mere fact that a distinguished statesman who had 
served the last two absolute kings of Denmark now voluntarily 
placed himself at the head of a ministry which included tho> 
most advanced of the popular agitators, gave the new govern- 
ment the hall-mark of stability and trustworthiness, whUst 
the fact that he still retained the ministry of finance was of 
itself a guarantee of security during the earlier years of a trouble- 
some and costly war. It was this, his first administration, 
which introduced the coi»titution of the 5th of June X849, 
and he also presided over the third constitutional ministry 
which was formed in July i8sx; but he resigned on the 27th of 
January x8s2, because he could not approve of the decree which 
aimed at transforming Denmark into a composite, indivisible, 
monarchy. Moltke continued to take part in public life as a 
member of the Landsting, or Upper House, but henceforth kept 
in the background. On the 2nd of October 1855 he was elected 
a member of the consiiltative Rigsraad, a position he continued 
to hold till X863. He died on the xsth of Febmary 1864. 

See Swalin. Det danske Staalsraad (Stockholm, 1881); Madvig. 
Livstrindringer (Copenhagen, 1887). (R. N. B.) 

MOLTKE, HELMUTH CARL BERNHARD, Coitmt von 
(1800-1891), Prussian field marshal, for thirty years chief of 
the staff of the Pmssian army, the greatest strategist of the 
latter half of the xoth century, and the creator of the modem 
method of directing armies in the field, was bom on the 26th of 
October 1800, at Parchim in Mecklenburg, of a German family 
of ancient nobility His father in 1805 settled in Holstein and 

* He was said to be worth 10 million rix-dollars, but proved that 
he had leas than one million. 



678 



MOLTKE 



bedame a Danish subject, but about the same time was impover- 
ished by the burning of iiis country house and the plunder by 
the French of his town house in Liibeck, where his wife and 
children were. Young Moltke therefore grew up in straitened 
circumstances. At the age of nine he was sent as a boarder 
to Hohenfelde in Holstein, and at the age of eleven to the cadet 
school at Copenhagen, being destined for the Danish army and 
court. In 1 8 18 he became a page to the king ol Denmark 
and second lieutenant in a Danish infantry regiment. But at 
twenty-one he resolved to enter the Prussian service, in spite 
of the loss of seniority. He passed the necessary examination 
with credit, and became second lieutenant in the 8th Infantry 
Regiment stationed at Frankfort-on-Oder. At twenty-three, 
after much less than the regulatioa term of service, he was 
allowed to enter the general war school, now the war academy, 
where he studied the full three years and passed in 1826 a brilliant 
final examination. He then for a year had charge of a cadet 
school at Frankfort-on-Oder, after which he was for three years 
employed on the military survey in Silesia and Posen. In 1832 
he was seconded for service on the general staff at Berlin, to which 
in 1833 on promotion to first lieutenant he was transferred. 
He was at this time regarded as a brilliant officer by his superiors, 
and among them by Prince William, then a lieutenant-general, 
afterwards king and emperor. He was well received at court 
and in the best society of Berlin. His tastes inclined him to 
literature, to historical study and to travel. In 1827 he had 
published a short romance. The Two Friends. In 183 1 it was 
followed by an essay entitled Holland and Belgium in their 
Mutual Relations, from their Separation under Philip II. to 
their Reunion under William /., in which were displayed the 
author's interest in the political issues of the day, and his 
extensive historical reading. In 1832 appeared An Account 
of the Internal Circumstances and Social Conditions of Poland^ 
a second study of a burning question based both on reading 
and on personal observation of Polish life and character. In 
1832 he contracted to translate Gibbon's Decline and Fall into 
German, for which he was to receive £75, his object being to 
earn the money to buy a horse. In eighteen months he had 
finished nine volumes out of twelve, but the publisher failed to 
produce the book and Moltke never received more than £25, 
so that the chief reward of his labour was the historical know- 
ledge which he acquired. He had already found opportunities 
to travel in south Germany and northern Italy, and in 1835 
on his promotion as captain he obtained six months' leave 
to travel in south-eastern Europe. After a short stay in Con- 
stantinople he was requested by the sultan to enter the Turkish 
service, and being diily authorized from Berlin he accepted 
the offer. He remained two years at Constantinople, learned 
Turkish and surveyed for the sultan the city of Constantinople, 
the Bosporus and the Dardanelles. He travelled in the sultan's 
retinue through Bulgaria and Rumelia, and made many other 
journeys on both sides of the Strait. In 1838 he was sent as 
adviser to the Turkish general commanding the troops in 
Armenia, who was to carry on a campaign against Mehemct 
Ali of Egypt. During the summer he made extensive recon- 
naissances and surveys, riding several thousand miles in the 
course of his journeys, navigating the dangerous rapids of the 
Euphrates, and visiting and mapping many districts where no 
European traveller had preceded him since Xenophon. In 
1839 the army moved south to meet the Egyptians, but upon 
the approach of the enemy the general became more attentive 
to the prophecies of the moUahs than to the advice of the 
Prussian captain. Moltke resigned his post of staff officer and 
took charge of the artillery, which therefore, in the ensuing 
battle of Nezib or Nisib, was the last portion of the Turkish 
army to run away. The Turks were well beaten and their 
army dispersed to the four winds. Moltke with infinite hardship 
made his way back to the Black Sea, and thence to Constanti- 
nople. His patron Sultan Mahmoud was dead, so he returned 
to Berlin where he arrived, broken in health, in December 1839. 
When he left Berlin in 1834 he had already " the courtier's, 
ioldicr's, scholar's eye, tongue, sword." When he returned it was 



with a mind expanded by a rare experience, and witli a diaxactcr 
doubly tempered and annealed. While away, he had been a 
constant letter-writer to his mother and sisters, and he now 
revised and published his letters as Letters on Conditions end 
Events in Turkey in the Years 1835 to 18 jg. No other book 
gives so deep an insight into the character of the Turkish Empire, 
and no other book of travels better des^ves to be regarded as a 
German classic. One of his sisters had married an English 
widower named Burt, who had settled in Hobtein. Her step* 
daughter, Mary Burt, had read the traveller's letters, and when 
he came home as a wooer was quickly won. The marriage took 
place in 184 1 , when Mary was just turned sixteen. It was a veiy 
happy union, though there were no children, and MoUke's 
love-letters and letters to his wife are among the most valuable 
materiab for his biography. On his return in 1840 Moltke had 
been appointed to the staff of the 4th army corps, sUtiooed at 
Berlin; he was promoted major on his wedding day. The fnuts 
of his Eastern travels were by no means exhausted. He published 
his maps of Constantinople, of the Bosporus and of the Darda- 
nelles, and, jointly with other German travellers, a new map of 
Asia Minor and a memoir on the geography of that country, as 
well as a number of periodical essays on various factors in the 
Eastern Question. In 1845 appeared The Russo-Turkish Cam- 
paign in Europe, 1828-29, described in 1845 by Boron ton Moltke, 
Major in the Prussian Staff, a volume which was recognized by 
competent judges as a masterpiece of military hist<»y and 
criticism. Moltke at this period was much occupied with the 
development of railways. He was one of the first direaors of 
the Hamburg-Berlin lailway, and in 1843 published a review 
article entitled What Considerations should determine the Ckeia 
of the Course of Railxoayst which reveab a mastery of the technicil 
questions involved in the construction and working oC railway 
lines. 

In 1845 Moltke was appointed personal adjutant to Prince 
Henry of Prussia, a Roman Catholic who lived at R<»Be. & 
thus had the opportunity of a long stay in the Eternal Qtj, 
with no more than nominal duties to perform. It was a Vk 
which he and his wife much enjoyed, and he spent mudi of fail 
leisure in a survey, of which the result was a splendid map of 
Rome, published at Berlin in 1852. In 1846 Prince HeMj 
died, and Moltke was then appointed to the staff of the &h 
army corps at Coblenz. In 1848, after a brief return to the great 
general staff at Berlin, he became chief of the staff of the 4th vmj 
corps, of which the headquarters were then at Magdeburg, wboe 
he remained seven years, during which he rose to lieotenaflt- 
colonel (1850), and colonel (1851). In 1855 he was appointed 
first adjutant to Prince Frederick William (afterwards aon 
prince and emperor), whom he accompanied to EngUod 00 )» 
betrothal and marriage, as well as to Paris and to SLPeterdxaf 
to the coronation of Alexander II. of Russia. Prince Frcdend 
William was in command of a regiment stationed at BreslA 
and there as his adjutant Moltke renuuned for a year, beooou4 
major-general in 1856. On the 23rd of October 1857, o«iii| w 
the serious illness of King Frederick WUliam IV., Prince Williia 
became prince regent. Six days later the regent selected 
Moltke for the then vacant post of chief of the general staff «< 
the army. The appointment was made definitive in Januaiy 
1858. Moltke's posthumously published military works dbckee 
a remarkable activity, beginning in 1857, devoted to the adapts 
tion of strategical and uctical methods to changes in amanest 
and in means of communication, to the training of suff offices 
in accordance with the methods thus worked out, to theperfectioB 
of the arrangements for the mobilization of the army, and to 
the study of European politics in connexion with the plaas ^ 
campaigns which nught become necessary. In 1859 came tke 
war in Italy, which occasioned the mobilization of the Pnantt 
army, and as a consequence the reorganization <^ that army, blT 
which its numerical strength was neariy doubled. The reoffiw- 
zation was the work not of Moltke but of the king, and of Rms. 
minister of war; but Moltke watched the lulian campaiP 
closely, and wrote a history of it, published in 1862, and ali^ 
buted on the title-page to the historical division of the f 



MOLTKE 



679 



tuff, which is the clearest account of the campaign and contains 
the best criticism upon it. In December 1862 Moltke was asked 
for an opinion upon the military aspect of the quarrel with 
Denmark then becoming acute. He thought the difficulty 
would be to bring the war to an end, as the Danish army would 
if possible retire to the islands, where, as the Danes had the 
command of the sea, it could not be attacked. He sketched 
a plan for turning the flank of the Danish army before the 
attack upon its position in front of Schleswig, and hoped that 
by this means its retreat might be intercepted. When the 
war began in February 1864, Moltke was not sent with the 
Prussian forces, but kept at Berlin. The plan was mismanaged 
in the execution, and the Danish army escaped to the fortresses 
of Dttppel and Fredericia, each of which commanded a retreat 
across a strait on to an island. The allies were now checked; 
DGm>el and Fredericia were besieged by them, Dfippel taken 
by storm, and Fredericia abandoned by the Danes without 
assault; but the war showed no signs of ending, as the Danish 
army was safe in the islands of Alsen and Fttnen. On the 30th 
of April Moltke was sent to be chief of the staff to the commander- 
in-chief of the allied forces, and, so soon as the armistice of 
May and June was over, persuaded Prince Frederick Charles to 
attempt to force the passage of the Simdewitt and attack the 
Danes in the island of Alsen. The landing was effected on the 
39th of June, and the Danes then evacuated Alsen. Moltke 
next proposed a landing in FUnen, but it was unnecessary. The 
Danes no longer felt safe in their islands, and agreed to the 
German terms. Moltke's appearance on the scene had quickly 
transformed the aspect of the war, and his influence with the 
king had thus acquired a firm basis. Accordingly, when in 
1866 the quarrel with Austria came to a head, Moltke's plans 
were adopted and he was almost invariably supported in their 
execution. A disciple rather of Clausewitz, whose theory of war 
was an effort to grasp its conditions, than of Jomini, who ex- 
poimded a system of rules, Moltke regarded strategy as a practical 
art of adapting means to ends, and had developed the methods of 
Napoleon in accordance with the altered conditions. He had 
been the first to realize the great defensive power of modem 
fiDearms, and had inferred from it that an enveloping attack had 
become more formidable than the attempt to pierce an enemy's 
front. He had pondered the tactics of Napoleon at Bautzen, 
when the emperor preferred to bring up Ney's corps, coming 
from a distance, against the flank of the allies, rather than to 
unite it with his own force before the battle; he had also drawn 
a moral from the combined action of the allies at Waterloo. 
At the same time he had worked out the conditions of the march 
and supply of an army. Only one army corps could be moved 
along one road in the same day; to put two or three corps on 
the same road meant that the rear corps could not be made use 
of in a battle at the front. Several corps stationed close together 
in a small area could not be fed for more than a day or two. 
Accordingly he inferred that the essence of strategy lay in 
arrangements for the separation of the corps for marching and 
their concentration in time for battle. In order to make a large 
army manageable, it must be broken up into separate armies or 
groups of corps, each group under a commander authorized to 
regulate its movements and action subject to the instructions 
of the commander-in-chief as regards the direction and purpose 
of iu operations. In the strategy of 1866 the conspicuous 
points are: (1) The concentration of effort. There were two 
groups of enemies, the Austro-Saxon armies, 270,000; and the 
north and south German armies, 120,000. The Prussian forces 
were 64,000 short of the adverse total, but Moltke determined 
to be superior at the decisive point against the Austro-Saxons; 
be therefore told off 278,000 men for that portion of the struggle, 
and employed only 48,000 men in Germany proper. His 
briUiant direaion eiuibled the 48,000 to capture the Hanoverian 
army in less than a fortnight, and then to attack and drive 
asunder the south German forces. (2) In dealing with Austro- 
Saxony the difficidty was to have the Prussian army first ready 
— no easy matter, as the king would not mobilize until after the 
Auatrians. Moltke's railway knowledge helped him to save 



time. Five lines of railway led from the various Prussian 
provinces to a series of points on the southern frontier on the 
curved line Zeitz-Halle-Gdrlitz-Schweidnitz. By employing all 
these railways at once, Moltke had the several army corps 
moved simultaneously from their peace quarters to points on 
this curved line. When this first move was finished the corps 
then marched along the curve to collect into three groups, one 
near Torgau (Elbe army), another at the west end of Silesia 
(first army. Prince Frederick Charies), the third between Lands- 
hut and Waldenburg (second army, crown prince). The first 
army when formed marched eastwards towards GOrlitz. The 
small Saxon army at Dresden now had the Elbe army in its 
front and the first army on its right flank, and as it was out- 
numbered by either of them, its position was untenable, and so 
soon as hostilities began fell back into Bohemia, where it was 
joined by an Austrian corps, with which it formed an advance 
guard far in front of the Austrian main army concentrated near 
Olmtitz. The Elbe army advanced to Dresden, left a garrison 
there, and moved to the right of Prince Frederick Charles, under 
whose command it now came. (3) Moltke now had two armies 
about 100 miles apart. The problem was how to bring them 
together so as to catch the Austrian army between them like 
the French at Waterloo between Wellington and BlUcher. If, 
as was thought likely, the Austrians moved upon Breslau, the 
first and Elbe armies could continue their eastward march to 
co-operate with the second. But on the 15th of June Moltke 
learned that on the zzth of June the Austrian army had been 
spread out over the country between Wildenschwerdt, Olmtttx 
and Brttim. He inferred that it could not be concentrated at 
Josef stadt in less than thirteen days. Accordingly he deter- 
mined to bring his own two armies together by directing each 
of them to advance towards Gitschin. He foresaw that the 
march of the crown prince would probably bring him into 
collision with a portion of the Austrian army; but the crown 
prince had 100,000 men, and it was not likely that the .Austrians 
could have a stronger force than that within reach of him. 
The order to advance upon Gitschin was issued on the 22nd of 
June, and led to one of the greatest victories on record. The' 
Austrians marched faster than Moltke expected, and might 
have opposed the crown prince with four or five corps; but 
Benedek's attention was centred on Prince Frederick Charles, 
and he interposed against the crown prince's advance four 
corps not under a common conmiand, so that they were beaten 
in detail, as were also the Saxons and the Austrian corps with 
them, by Prince Frederick Charles. On the 1st of July Benedek 
collected his already shaken forces in a defensive position in front 
of KdniggrStz. Moltke's two armies were now within a march 
of one another and of the enemy. On the 3rd of July they were 
brought into action, the first against the Austrian front and the 
second against the Austrian right flank. The Austrian army 
was completely defeated and the campaign decided, though an 
advance towards Vienna was needed to bring about the peace 
upon Prussia's terms. Moltke was not quite satisfied with the 
battle of Kdniggriitz. He had tried to have the Elbe army 
brought up to the Elbe above KOniggrUtz so as to prevent the 
Austrian retreat, but its general failed to accomplish this. He 
also tried to prevent the first army from pushing its attack, 
hoping in that way to keep the Austrians in their position until 
retreat should be cut off by the crown prince, but he could 
not restrain the impetuosity of Prince Frederick Charles and 
of the king. During the negotiations Bismarck, who dared 
not risk the active intervention of France, opposed the king's 
wish to annex Saxony and perhaps other territory beyond what 
was actually taken. Moltke would not have hesitated; he was 
confident of beating both French and Austrians if the French 
should intervene, and he submitted to Bismarck his plans in 
case of need for the opening moves against both French and 
Austrians. 

After the peace, the Prussian Diet voted Moltke the sum of 
£30,000, with which he bought the estate of Creisau, near 
Schweidnitz, in Silesia. In 1867 was published The Campaign 
of 1866 in Cermanyf a history produced under Moltke's personal 



68o 



MOLTKE 



superviBion, and Temarkable for its combination of accuracy 
with reticence. On the a4th of December x868 Moltke's wife 
died at Berlin. Her remains were buried in a small chapel 
erected by Moltke as a mausoleum in the park at Creisau. 

In 1870 suddenly came the war with France. The probability 
of such a war had occupied Moltke's attention almost con- 
tinuously since 1857, and a series of memoirs is preserved in 
which from time to time he worked out and recorded his ideas 
as to the best arrangement of the Prussian or German forces 
for the opening of the campaign. The arrangements for the 
transport of the army by railway were annually revised in 
order to suit the changes in his plans brought about by political 
conditions and by the growth of the army, as well as by the 
improvement of the Prussian system of railways. The great 
successes of z866 had strengthened Moltke's position, so that 
when on the isth of July 1870 the order for the mobilization 
of the Prussian and south German forces was issued, hb plans 
were adopted without dispute and five days later he was ap- 
pointed " Chief of the general staff of the army at the head- 
quarters of his Majesty the King " for the duration of the war. 
This gave Moltke the right to issue in the king's name, though 
of course not without his approval, orders which were equivalent 
to royal commands. Moltke's plan was to assemble the whole 
army to the south of Mainz, this being the one district in 
which an army could best secure the defence of the whole 
frontier. If the French should disregard the neutrality of 
Belgium and Luxemburg, and advance on the line from Paris 
to Cologne or any other point on the Lower Rhine, the German 
army would be able to strike at their flank, while the Rhine 
itself, with the fortresses of Coblenz, Cologne and Wesel, would 
be a serious obstacle in their front. If the French should 
attempt to invade south Germany, an advance of the Germans 
up either bank of the Rhine would threaten their communica- 
tions. Moltke expected that the French would be compelled 
by the direction of their railways to collect the greater part of 
their army near Metz, and a smaller portion near Strassburg. 
The German forces were grouped into three armies: the first 
of 60,000 men, under Steinmetz, on the Moselle below Treves; 
the second of 131,000 men, under Prince Frederick Charles, 
round Homburg, with a reserve of 60,000 men behind it; the 
third under the crown prince of 130,000 men, at Landau. Three 
army corps amoimting to 100,000 men were not reckoned upon 
in the first instance, as it was desirable to keep a considerable 
force in north-eastern Germany, in case Austria should make 
common cause with France. If, as seemed probable, the French 
should take the initiative before the German armies were ready, 
and for that purpose should advance from Metz in the direction 
of Mainz, Moltke would merely put back a few miles nearer to 
Mainz the points of debarcation from the railway of the troops 
of the second army. This measure was actually adopted, 
though the antidpated French invasion did no.t take place. 
Moltke's plan of operations was that the three armies while 
advancing should make a right wheel, so that the first army 
on the right would reach the bank of the Moselle opposite Metz, 
while the second and third armies should push forward, the 
third army to defeat the French force near Strassburg, and the 
second to strike the Moselle near Pont-d-Mousson. If the 
French army should be found during this advance in front of 
the second army, it would be attacked in front by the second 
army and in flank by the first or the third or both. If it should 
be found on or north of the line from Saarburg to Lun^ville, 
it could still be attacked from two sides by the second and 
third armies in co-operation. The intention of the great right 
wheel was to attack the principal French army in such a direction 
as to drive it north and cut its communications with Paris. The 
fortress of Metz was to be observed, and the main German 
forces, after defeating the chief French army, to march upon 
Paris. This plan was carried out in its broad outlines. The 
bailie of Worth was brought on prematurely, and therefore 
led, not to the capture of MacMahon's army, which was intended, 
but only to its total defeat and hasty retreat as far as Ch&lons. 
The battle of Spicheren was not intended by Moltke, who wished 



to keep Bazahie's army on the Star tiD he could attack il 
with the second army in front and the first army on its left 
flank, while the third army was dosing towards iU rear. But 
these unintended or unexpected victories did not disconcert 
Moltke, who carried out his intended advance to Pont-i-Moussoa, 
there crossed the Moselle with the first and second annies, thca 
faced north and wheeled round, so that the effect of the battle 
of Gravelotte was to drive Bazaine into the fortress of Meti 
and cut him off from Paris. Nothing shows Moltke's insi^ 
and strength of purpose in a clearer light than his determinatioa 
to attack on the x8th of August, when many strategists wouU 
have thought that, the strategiod victory having been gained, 
a tactical victory was unnecessary. He has been blamed for 
the last local attack at Gravelotte, in which there was a fruitless 
heavy loss; but it is now known that this attack was ordered by 
the king, and Moltke blamed himself for not having used hit 
influence to prevent it. During the night following the battk 
Moltke made his next decision. He left one army to invest 
Bazaine and Metz, and set out with the two others to mardi 
towards Paris, the more southerly one leading, so that when 
MacMahon's army should be foimd the main blow might be 
delivered from the south and MacMahon driven to the north. 
On the 25th of August it was found that MacMahon was mo\-inf 
north-east for the relief of Bazame. The moment Moltke was 
satisfied of the accuracy of his information, he ordered the 
German columns to turn their faces north instead of vesL 
MacMahon's right wing was attacked at Beaumont while 
attempting to cross the Meuse, his advance necessarily aban- 
doned, and his army with difficulty collected at Sedan. Here 
the two German armies were so brought up as completely to 
surround the French army, which on the ist of Septonber was 
attacked and compelled to raise the white flag. After the 
capitulation of. Sedan, Moltke resumed the advance on Puis, 
which was surrounded and invested. From this time his 
strategy is remarkable for its judicious economy of force, for 
he was wise enough never to attempt more than was pnctiobie 
with the means at his disposal. The surrender of Metz and of 
Paris was a question of time, and the problem was, while miia- 
taining the investment, to be able to ward off the attach of 
the new French armies levied for the purpose of raising the 
siege of Paris. Metz surrendered en the 37th of October, ud 
on the 28th of January 187 1 an armistice was concluded at 
Paris by which the garrison became virtually prisoners and ibe 
war was ended. 

On the 29th of October 1870 Moltke was created graf (cooot 
or earl), and on the x6th of June 1871, field marshal After 
the war he superintended the preparation of its history, wbidi 
was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great genoal tfaf. 
In 1888 he resigned his post as chief of the staff. In 1S67 
Moltke was elected to the Nonh German Diet, and in 1871 to 
the Reichstag. His speeches, dealing mostly with militaiy 
questions, were regarded as models of conciseness and relevtocy. 
He died suddenly on the 24th of April 1891, and after a nta|u* 
ficent funeral ceremony at Berlin his remains ^-erc laid beside 
those of his wife in the chapel which he had erected as her tflob 
at Creisau. 

As a strategist Moltke cannot be estimated by comparisa 
with Frederick or Napoleon, because he had not the autbority 
either of a king or of a commander-in-chief. While it is doublM 
whether he can be convicted of any strategical errors, it steal 
beyond doubt that he never had to face a sit nation which pb«^ 
any strain on his powers, for in the campaigns of 1866 and 1S70 
his decisions seemed to be made without the slightest cflbit, 
and he was never at a loss. 

He had a tall spare figure, and in his latter years hb tanaej 
features had received a set expression which was at once kaid 
and grand. He was habitually taciturn and reserved, tbotck 
a most accomplished linguist, so that it was said of hiffl tlt^ 
he was " silent in seven languages." The stem school flf k* 
early life had given him a rare self-control, so that no iDdisn<(^ 
or unkind expression is known to have ever fallen fro» W* 
Long before his name was on the lips of the public he was kncfsi 



MOLUCCAS— MOLYBDENUM 



68 1 



fai the trmy and in the staff as the " man of gold," the ideal 
character whom every one admired and who had no enemies. 

AvTHOUTiBS.— CMammdlte Sckrifttn und DenkwHrdigkeiUm des 
Gemeni FeUmarukaUs Grafen Hdmuik wm MoUke (8 vols.. BerUn. 
i8q»-i893) ; MoUkt's milUdnscke Werks (Berlin, o vok, 1892-1900) ; 
PMmvukaU MoUkt, by Max Jihn* (3 voU.. Berlin. 1894-1900); 
FeUmarukaU Graf MoUhe: Ein mititdrisdus LebensbOd, by W. Bine. 
Oberac. Ac (a voUp Munich. 1901). (H. S. WJ 

MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands, a name which in its wider 
sense includes all the islands of the Malay Archipelago between 
Celebes on the W., New Guinea on the £., Hmor on the S., and 
the open Pacific Ocean on the N. They are thus distributed 
over an area between a" 45' N. and 8** 23' S. and xa4" 22' 
and 135" £., and include: (x) the Moluccas proper or Temate 
group, of which Halmahera is the kixgest and Temate the capital; 
(a) the Bachian, Obi, and Xulla groups; (3) the Ambosma group, 
of which Ceram (Serang) and Bum are the largest; (4) the Banda 
Islands (the spice or nutmeg islands par excdlenu) ; (5) the south- 
eastern islands, comprising Timor-LAut or Tenimber, Larat, 
Ac; (6) the Kei Islands and the Am Islands, of which the former 
are sometimes attached to the south-eastern group; and (7) 
the south-western islands or the Babar, Sermata, Leti, Damar, 
Roma and Wetar groups. At the close of the z6th century 
this part of the archipelago was divided among four rulers 
settled at Temate, Tidore, Halmahera and Bachian. The 
northern portion belongs to the Dutch residency of Temate, 
the southern portion to that of Amboyna. 

The name Moluccas is said to be derived from the Arabic 

for "king." Argensola (1609) uses the forms islas MalucaSt 

Malmco, and d Maluco; Coronel (1633), islas dd Moluco; and 

Caxnoens, Maluco. Since 1867, when the political imity, under 

a fovcmor, was dissolved, the Moluccas are often named by 

the Dutch the " Gxeat East " {Groote Oost), Most of the islands 

«ie mountainous, with still active volcanoes. As they lie near 

or nnder the equator,, the monsoons blowing over them are less 

ceguUr, and the rainfall, of large volume throughout the year, 

is dependent on the height and direction of the chains. The 

'Vefetation of the small and narrow islands, all encompassed 

hf the sea, is very luxuriant, and the products, principally 

suitmegs, mace, and other spices, include also rice and sago. 

The inhabitants are of mixed descent. In some islands are 

people of obvious Papuan blood, while in others are Polynesian 

or Malayan tribes. With these three main races have crossed 

traders and colonists, Macassars, Buginese, Javanese and 

Europeans. 

The geology of the Moluccas is very imperfectly known. The 
^rcat chain of volcanoes which runs through Sumatra and Java is 
Continued eastwards into the Moluccas, and tehninates in a hook- 
like curve which psMes through the Damar Islands to the Banda 
Koap. Outside this hook lies a concentric arc of non-volcanic 
»^^.«#i«, including Tenimber, the Lesser Kei Islands, Ceram and 
team: and beyond is still a third concentric arc extending from 
^aUaba to the Greater Kd Islands. The islands of these outer 
^fca conmst chiefly ol crystalline schists and limestones, overlaid 
\gy Jurassic. Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. On the whole it 
appears that the older rocks are found more particulariy towards 
"^be interior of the curve, and the newer rocks towards the exterior. 
Eruptive rocks of supposed Cretaceous age are met with in these 
«3acer islands, but Tertiary and recent vokanic lavas are confined to 
%]ie ionennost arc Halmahera lies outside these arcs. It appears 
%o consist chiefly of gabbro, peridotite. serpentine and other very 
'^auic eruptive rocks, which are believed to be of Cretaceous age. 
^nnunuhtic limestone occurs in the south-east. Upon the floor of 
raider rock rise a number of volcanoes, some of which are now extinct 
'^vfaile others are still active. Most of them lie near the west coast or 
«>o the islands off this coast; and they are arranged in lines which 
«nm approximately from north to south, with, generally, a slight 
Convexity towards the west. 

See further Malay Archipelago, and separate articles on the 
lariflcipal islands and groups. 

' VOLT (Gr. pwXv), a mysterious plant with magical powers 
^lescribed in Homer, Odyssey^ x. 302-306. Hermes pulls it up 
^nd gives it to Odysseus as a protection against Uie arts of 
Grce. It is further described as " having a black root and a 
Hover like milk, and hard for mortals to pull up." There has 
Ifeeen much controversy as to the identification. Philippe 
Cbtmpault—PiUiifdCTu d Crecs en Italic d'apris VOdysUe (1906), 



pp. 504 seq.—deddes in favour of the Pegamtm karmala (of the 
order Rutaceae), the Syrian or African rue (Gr. iH^apor), 
from the husks of which the vegetable alkaloid harmaline 
(CuHi4NsO) b extracted. The flowers are white with green 
stripes. Victor BeniH—Les PhSmciens d FOdyssU, iL 288 
seq.— relying partly on a Semitic root, prefers the AtripUx 
halimus (atripUXt a Lat. form of Gr. drpd^a^vt, and AXi/iof, 
marine), order Chenopodiaceae, a herb or low shrub common 
on the south European coasts. These identifications are noticed 
by R. M. Henry in Class. Rtv. (Dec 1906), p. 434, who illustrates 
the Homeric account by passages in the Paris and Leiden 
magical papyri, and argues that mdy is probably a magical 
name, derived perhaps from Phoenician or Egyptian sources, 
for a plant which cannot be certainly identified. He shows that 
the " diffiailty of pulling up " the plant b not a merely physical 
one, but rather connected with the peculiar powers claimed 
by magidans. In Tennyson's Lotus Eaters the moly is 
coupled with the anummth (" propt on beds of amaranth and 
moly ••). 

MOLYBDBHm; a mineral consbting of molybdenum 
disulphide. MoSs. It closely resembles graphite in appearance, 
but may readily be dbtinguished from this by its greater density 
(4.7) and by its behaviour before the blowpipe. Ctystab have 
the form of six-sided plates or scales, but they are never sharply 
defined, and their reference to the hexagonal system b doubtful 
They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the large surface of the 
plates, and the flakes are readily bent, but are not elastic 
The im'neral b very soft (H» x to x}) and unctuous, and makes 
a bluish-grey mark on paper: it b opaque and has a bright 
metallic lustre. The colour b lead-grey differing slightly from 
that of graphite in having a bluish tinge. The name molybdenite 
b from the Greek fMlikuffSos, meaning lead or lead ore, with 
which graphite (black-lead) and molybdenite were confused; 
the latter was dbtinguished by P. J. Hjehn, who in X783 
discovered the element molybdenum in thb mineraL 

Molybdenite occurs as disseminated scales in crystaUine 
xocksr-such as granite, gneiss, schbt and marble — and also in 
quartz-veins. It has been found in small amounts at many 
localities, but only those which have yielded large crystab need 
be specially mentioned here, viz. in a pyroxene-rock at Aldfield 
in Pontiac coimty, (Quebec; with native bbniuth at Kingsgate 
in (jougb county. New South Wales; with wolframite and 
scheelite in quartz-veins at C^dbeck Fdb in Cumberland; and 
recently, as crystab 6 in. across, at Slangsvold near Raade in 
Norway.. 

Molybdenite has been used mainly for the preparation of 
molybdates for use as chemical reagents. RecenUy, however, 
it has been used in the manufacture of molybdenum steel 
(ferro-molybdentmi), which by reason of its hardness and 
toughness b specially suitable for tools. (L. J. S.) 

HOLTBDENUM [symbol, Mo; atomic weight, 96 (0«x6)] 
a metallic chemical element. The name b derived from 
Gr. p6Xi;/35of, lead, and was originally employed to denote 
many substances contaim'ng or resembling lead; ultimately 
the term was applied to graphite and to molybdenum sulphide. 
The difference between these two latter substances was first 
pointed out by Cronstedt, and in X778 C. Scheele prepared 
molybdic add from the sulphide. Molybdentun occurs in 
nature chiefly as the im'nerab molybdenite (MoSi) and wulfenite 
(PbMo04), and more rarely as molybdic ochre (MoOa) and ilse- 
mannite; it also occurs in many iron ores. The metal may be 
obtained by heating the trioxide with carbon in the electric 
furnace (H. Moissan, Comptes rendus, X893, xi6, p. X225), or by 
the Goldschmidt method (Rosenheim and Braun, Zeit. anorg. 
Chem., 1Q05, p. 311) or by dissodating the tetra- and penta^ 
chloride in a graphite cmdble with an electric current bekm 
1330' (J. N. Pring and W. Fielding, Jour. Ckcm. Soc., X909, 95, 
p. 1497). It forms a grey coloured powder of spedfic gravity 
9-oi; it b malleable, and not as hard as glass. It b rapidly 
oxidised on heating to a temperature of 5oo"-6oo" C, and also 
when fused with nitre or potassium chlorate. It b soluble in 
dilute nitric add, and in concentrated su^uric add; in the 



68a 



MOLYNEUX— MOMBASA 



latter case with the formation of a bbe solution which on heating 
becomes colourless, molybdenum triozide being formed with 
the liberation of sulphur dioxide. 
Ml * ■ ■ ■ ' ' * . my^n to form many oxid«»» the mort 

impoii.-.;.; -.1 VL . . ,, ,L. .i;-;n MJ.rjxidF, MoO.fi (HfOK tbe 9rsqumjde» 
Mo^i. the I'ljovide, M0U3, Afid the trioicidef MuOa. Mtilybd^^um 
monoindi^ MoO.n(HfO), la a black powder atitnintd when the 
dichloride Lb boiied vf\ih concent rated potaah lolution. Acconilne to 
W. MuLhduinnand W. Nagel (^rr., id^tt. ^^i P- ^00^)^ thuaude dtiea 
not exi^^^ the reaction leading to the fcBmation of iia hydrD\id4* 
accordine to the equation: Mo,CU(OH>, 4- 4RIIO -f 314,0 = 
3Mo(0}i)3-^4KBr4'3Jl Molybdenum x^qui^xidf, MojO^ a bLick 
iniiM Ln&olubk ui ncEds^ Li fanned by heating the corresponding 
hydroxide in Hjnup, or by di^efiting the trioxlde with nnc and 
hydrocbloric acid. Molybdtntim diexidr, MoQ], i^ rormed by heating 
■odium trimoiybdite^ NaiModOiii, to redness in a current of hydrogen 
(L. Svanbcrig and H. Stru^-e, Jour. prak. Chcm,^ 1848, 44, p. 301 )► or 
by long [usicn of a miJtture of ammonium molybdste, potaiSLum car- 
bonate> and boron tdaxidt (W, Muthmann, Ann., 1S67, 2i.S,p. T[4), 
It farmj quadra tk pn>m^ having A violet nrilrx and ins-oiuble in 
boiling hydrochloric acid+ Molybiifnum tri&xidf, MoOi, i» prrpaird 
by ojodifin^ the metal or tht sulphide bv hating them in air* or 
with nitric acid, k t» a white powdor, wtiich turns pale yellow on 
heating, and mclts at a r^ heat. It fluhhrnefl ifi atnAU rhombii: tabW 
or needles, and If slightly soluble in cold water, the Eoluiion po&aoi^ 
ing ii a aci j rcactioix, Btvcfal h ydraied form* of the oxide are known^ 
and a eollDidal v^anety may be obtained by the dlalysij of a ttron^ 
hydrochloric add wfLJilon of sodium mcLybdate. Molybdenum 
inoudCi Uke chromium trioxide, u an acidic oudc, and forms salts 
knowTt as moiybdntes. The normal molybdatea thow a tendency 
to pass into polymolybdatca. The mcil^bdat^ ire alio capabb 
of combining with other oxides (such aa phonpliomg and an^nic 
pentoxides) yielding very complex salts. The ordinary ammo- 
ftiMffl moi^^tdatir, utai as a tcst^ reag^t for phoephateSr Is a ult of 
composition (XHJiaMOjiOu; k has been examined phyHcochcmi- 



acids td their Bolutions, and that with redticinir aficnts (lifcc and 
sulphuric add) thv>' give gcrKrally a blue ooloratioa wbkh turns to 
a greeii and finally to a brown c^Joun 

Molybdfnijm conrbine* with thv halo||^ cletnenU m Tan'inff j>ro- 
ponionjit forming with chlorine a dl-^ tn-n tetra* and pcnta-chloridc, 
and ^mitar ccnif>otinds with bromine and iodine, Mttiybdrnum 
duh^ctidi: (Modi) I oc CUMoiCli (chlormotybdcnum chloride), 11 
prepared (tog^thirr with *otne tetrachloride) by heating the tri- 
chloride in a stream of eartfon dioxide {C. W. Efom^trand, Jour. f. 
pm Jt,CA:«n^, tS^j^ji^T^ J40 : 1 36 1 , 8j , p. 4,\^ )* It is a yellow am orpho u s 
powder which is splubiL* in dilute alkatis, the i>olutk>ii OA acidlfi^ 
cation giving an hydroxide* Cl4Moj{011)t, which \i soluble in mtric 
add, and docs not |pve a rL-action with Bilver nitrate* The moleculy 
wci^t determinations of VV. Muthmann and W. Nagel (Sen* I89B, jr, 
p.aoQg)riiowtheBalt topo^cMthccompo at tionMoiCU. Molybamum 
tHcktamt McChi la dbuined wbco the pentachlorisSe is heated to a 
tHBpenttmof about JSo^'C tnacurraitof hydnwen. Itfxmsred 
croMs, b Insoluble in told watc^. but is decompoeea by boiUne water. 
It if easily toluble in hot nitric add. MtHybdrntm ptniatlJondtt 
MdCU it obtained when molybdenum if ssntly wnted in diy 
chlorine (L. P, Liechii and B. kempc* Akk„ 1875, 1*0, p 345). ft 
h a dark-coloured crystalline £olid which melts At 194 C and boils 
at 3^* C, It fiime4 in moist air and deliquesces gi^duaJly. tt ii 
ocouioDally used as a chlorine carrier, ft is soluble in abeolutc 
alcc^Kil aod in etber. MoiybdeTtum dizutphidt^ MoSi, is found as 
the mineral molybdenite^ and may be pr™,red by heating the 
trioxkle with suTphur or Eulphurettcd^ hydnoficrL It ia a &bck 
crystalline poHTler, resembling graphite In appearance It is readily 
oxidized by nitric arid, and when strongly hc4tcd in a current 
ol hydrogen is reduced to the tnct^kUtc condition. Molyhdmiim 
trisjdishide^ MoSi, is obtained by saturating a solution of an alkaline 
molybdate with sulphurcttwl hydrogen and adding a mineral acid. 
It is a brown powdcf which on heating in air loses Aulphur and 
leaves a reriduc of the disulphidc A tttrasulpkidft MiiS^ has aImi 
been described. 

Many varying values have been riven for the atomic weight of 
molybaenum. f. J . Bcrzclius {Pogg. Ann„i 826, 8, p. 23) , by convcrt- 
inglead molybdate into lead nitrate, obtained the value 05*2 ; while 
J. B. A. Dumas (Ann., i860, 113, p. X2), by converting tnc trioxide 
into the meul, obtained the value 95*os. K. Seubert and W. Pollard 
(Zeit. anorg. Chan., 1895, 8, p. 434) using this second method 
obtained the value 96-28; whilst E. F. Smith and P. Maas {ZeiL 
anorg. Chan., 189^, 5, p. 280), by heating pure sodium molybdate 
in hydnxhioric aad and estimating the amount of sodium cnloride 
formed, obtained the value 96*087. 

MOLYNEUX. This historic English name came Into the 
country from France at the time of the Norman Conquest 
through William de Molines (Molcyns, Molyneux), who obtained 
a grant of Sef ton, in Lancashire, whence come the earls of Sef ton 
to-day. His descendant Adam de Molyneux (Moleyns or 



Molins), who died in 1450, was bishop of Chichester and keeper 
of the privy seal ; he was a son of Sir Richard Molyneux of Sef tea, 
and uncle of the Sir Richard Molyneux (d. 1459), the Lancaslriaa 
and favourite of Henry VI., whose descendant Richard Molyneux 
(1593-1636) was created in 1628 xst Viscount Molyneux of 
Maryborough, a title now merged in that of Sefton (created 
1771). Another Molyneux family of some importance is the 
Irish one, descended from Sir Thomas Molyneux (t53T-xS97)f 
Irish chancellor of the exchequer, who, bom at Calais, settled in 
Ireland in 1576. He was the great-grandfather of Sir Thomas 
Molyneux, Bart. (1661-1733), a well-known physidan and 
zoologist, and of William Molyneux (1656-1698), the philoaopher, 
astronomer and politician, the friend of Locke, and author 
of Dioptrica tuna (1692), whose famous worit on the legislative 
independence of Ireland {The Case oj Ireland, &c. 1698) created 
much stir at the time. The latter's son Samuel Molyneux 
(1689-1728), was also a well-known astronomer. 

MOMBASA, the principal seaport of British East Afrio, 
in 4*^ 4* S., 39^ 43' £., 150 m. N. of Zanzibar. IV>p. about 
30,00a Mombasa is built on a coralline island which neariy 
fills the mouth of a deep arm of the sea. The channd on diher 
side of the isbnd — Mombasa to the N.E., KilinHmj to the S.W.— 
affords safe harbourage, and each leads to a deeper ramification 
of the sea, Mombasa Harbour to Port Tudor, Kilindini Harbour 
to Port Rcitz. Mombasa town is on the N.E. side of the isUnd, 

2 m. from Kilindini, with which it is connected by tail and 
tramways. Viewed from the sea Mombasa has a pictuicsqae 
appearance, the most con^icuous object being the fort, built 
on a coral hill 40 ft. high. Except for the main street and 
Government Square (close to the harbour and containing the 
customs-house and other official buildings), Mombasa proper 
presents the usual aspect of an Oriental city — a maze of narrov, 
irreguUur streets and lanes. To the south, overlooking the sea, 
is the European suburb. There are Angbcan and Rooub 
Catholic churches (the Roman Catholic church and missioa 
house is one of the finest buildings in Mombasa), mission scboofc, 
Hindu, Parsec, and Mahommedan temples, and hospitals and 
law courts, the last named completed in 1902. Built into tbe 
facade of the courts is a stone with an inscription recordiag 
the building of a fort, dedicated to St Joseph, by the Portugooe 
at Kilindini in x666. This stone was foimd in the ruins of Fort 
St Joseph. Mombasa Fort, or citadel, quadrangular in fans, 
was buUt by the Portuguese in 1593-1595 (as an inscriptiooiB 
the interior testifies), was dedicated to the Saviour, and koon 
as the Jesus Fort. It bears the S3rmbol I JI.S. The fort mi 
repaired by Seixas de Cabreira in 1635, the restoration bd8{ 
recorded in an inscription over the gateway. By the British 
authorities the fort is used as a military store and central gsoL 
In the public garden on the point of the town facing the xt 

a bronze statue of Sir William Mackinnon — to whom Mombasa 
owes its renaissance — has been placed. The populatioa of 
the city is cosmopohtan, with three well-marked racial disliB^ 
tions: the Arab (Swahili), the Indian and the European. Tht 
climate is fairly healthy, and Europeans live there with ocofod. 
The harbour at Mombasa is more than a mile in kngllii 
but only 1200 ft in width. It is consequently not so suitaUc 
for large ships as Kilindini (" the place of deep water "), ^^ 
possesses the finest land-locked harbour on the East Cotst cf 
Africa. The entrance is about the same width as that of 
Mombasa, but Kilindini Harbour widens to } m. aod ■ 

3 m. long, the depth of water varying from 25 to 30 ftthoiii. 
Kilindini is a depot of the British navy. Port Reitz, it)aA 
opens out of Kilindini Harbour westward, is 4 ni. loQI.*'' 
X m. broad, with excellent anchorage. At Kilindim ■ * 
pier alongside which ships 450 ft. in length and daviBf 
27 ft. can load and imload cargo. Here is the virtual tei»n0 
of the Uganda railway, and the offices, workshops and laagfiu^ 
connected therewith, also a branch customs-house. Tbe U|U^ 
railway crosses to the mainland on a bridge, } m. kng, ^ 
over the shaUow channel which on the north-west sepsnW* 
the island from the continent. Mombasa is the outlet for tht 
produce of a large traa of territory, including tbe £vnp(i> 



MOMEIN— MOMMSEN 



683 



settlements in the highlands of the protectorate, and by means 
of the railway to Victoria Nyanza taps the rich regions of the 
Nile sources. German, British, French and Austrian mail- 
boats call regularly at the port, which is connected by submarine 
cable with Zanzibar. Trade statistics are included in those of 
British East Africa (9.9.)- 

Mombasa Island (named after the town) is 3 m. long by 2I m. 
broad, with an area of 9 sq. m. Except at the western end, 
the coast of the island consists of cliffs from 40 ft. to 60 ft. high. 
The island contains many fertile plantations, chiefly of coco-nut 
palms, except on the side facing the ocean, where there is little 
vegetation, the coral reefs being but thinly coveied with earth. 
There are no springs and the bland is dependent for water on 
rain collected in tanks or drawn from wells — the latter brackish. 
Ruins of Arab, Portuguese and Turkish buildings are found in 
various parts of the island. At Ras Serani are the ruins of a 
chapel " Nossa Senhora das Merces," built by the Portuguese 
in the xyth century on the site of a Turkish fort, and afterwards 
turned into a fort again by the Arabs. 

Mombasa takes its name from Mombasa in Oman. A Perso- 
Arabic settlement was made here about the nth century. It is 
mentioned by Ibn Batuta in 1331 as a large place, and at the 
time of Vasco da Gama's visit (1498) it was the seat of consider-, 
able commerce, its inhabitants including a number of Calicut 
Banyans and Oriental Christians. The ruler of the dty tried 
to entrap da Gama (or so the Portuguese navigator imagined), 
and with this began a series of campaigns which gave full force 
to its Swahili name MvUa (war). The principal incidents are 
the capture and burning of the place by Almeida (1S05), Nuno 
da Cunha (1529), and Duarte de Menezes (1587) — this last as 
a revenge for its submission to the sultan of Constantinople — 
the revolt and flight (163 1) of Yusuf ibn Ahmed (who murdered 
aQ the Portuguese in the town — over 100), and the three-years' 
siege by the imam of Omam i696-98(the garrison being reduced 
to eleven men and two women), ending in the expulsion of 
the Portuguese. From the 12th of March 1728 to the 29th of 
November 1 729 a Portuguese force from Goa again held Mombasa, 
when they were finally driven out by the Muscat Arabs. In 
December 1823 the Mazrui family, who had ruled in Mombasa 
from the early part of the i8th century, first as representatives 
of Oman, afterwards as practically independent princes, pUced 
the dty under British protection; and in February 1824 Lieut. 
J. J. Reitz was appointed commandant or resident at the dty 
by Captain (afterwards Vice-Admiral) W. F. W. Owen. Reiu, 
after whom Port Rdtz is named, died at Mombasa either in 
1834 or 1825. The protectorate was repudiated by the British 
government, which left the place to be bombarded and captured 
by Seyyid Said of Oman, who made repeated attacks between 
1829 and 1833, and only got possession in 1837 by treachery. 
Said thereafter made Zanzibar his capital, Mombasa becoming of 
•eoMidary importance. A revolt against Zanzibar in 1875 was 
pat down with British assistance. The British government in 
the following year vetoed a proposal by the khedive Ismail to 
annex Mombasa and its hinterland up to the equatorial lakes to 
Egypt — a project which originated with General C. G. (jordon, 
when that officer administered the Upper Nile provinces. In 1 887 
the dty was handed over by the sultan of Zanzibar to the British 
for administration. It became the capital of the province of 
Seyyidie and of the East Africa proteaorate. In 1907, how- 
ever, the seat of the central government was removed to 
Nairobi (q.v.). Mbmbasa still forms, nominally, part of the 
sultanate of Zanzibar. The dty,' together with Mahndi, is 
mentioned in Paradise Lost. 

MOMEIN. the Burmese name of the Chinese dty Ttog-yueh- 
cbow, in the S.W. of the province of Yunnan, China. It was 
opened to fordgn trade by the Burmese Convention of 1897. 
but so far no advantage has been taken of the permission. 
It lies close to the Burmese frontier and on the old trade route 
from Bhamo to Yunnan, but its importance as an outpost of 
the British Empire is political rather than commerciaL The 
distance from Ttog-yueh to Bhamo by the usual trade route 
h 160 m., and is generally traversed by pack-animals in sevco 



or dg^t days. In a straight line the two towns are only 80 m. 
apart. Near Momein and within its jurisdiction is the frontier 
town of Manwyne, where A. R. Margary was assassinated in 
January 1875. 

MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817-1903), German historian and 
archaeologist, was bom on the 30th of November 181 7 at 
Carding, in Schleswig. After being educated at the imiversity 
of Kiel he devoted himself to the study of Roman law and 
antiquities. In . 1843 a grant from the Danish government 
enabled him to undertake a journey to Italy, which was to be 
decisive for his future career. There he began the study of 
Roman inscriptions, in association with other Italian and German 
scholars, especially Borghesi, de Rossi and Henzen. His first 
work was directed to the restoration of the old Italian dialects, 
and the French government, which at one time proposed to 
undertake the task of compiling a complete collection of all 
extant Roman inscriptions, asked for his co-operation. When 
they gave up the project it was taken up by the Beriin Academy, 
which had recently completed the collection of Greek inscriptions 
edited by Boeckh. They had already made a grant to Mommsen, 
and in 1844 Savigny proposed that he should be appointed 
to carry out the great work. Many years, however, passed 
before the plan was finally approved. Meanwhile Mommsen 
continued his work in Italy: he drew up a full memorandum 
explaining the prindples on which a Corpus inscriptionum 
should be compiled, and on which alone he could undertake 
the editorship. As a specimen he collected the inscriptions 
of Samnium, and in 1852 published those of the kingdom of 
Naples. These works caused him to be recognized as the 
first authority in this field of learning. In 1847, however, he 
was obliged to return to Germany: he first went to Schleswig, 
where during the Revolution he edited a paper in which he 
supported the claims of the Elbe Duchies; at the end of 1848 
he was appointed professor of dvil law at Leipzig. His work 
there was Interrupted by his political opinions. During 1848, 
when the extreme party was in the ascendant, Mommsen 
supported the monarchy against the Republicans. With 
characteristic courage and independence, next year, when the 
Revolution had spent its force and Beust executed his coup 
d^itatt he protested, with many of his colleagues, against this 
act. In consequence he was summoned before a disdplinary 
court, and, together with Haupt and Jahn, dismissed from 
his professorship. 

Mommsen found an asylum in Switzerland, and became 
professor at Zurich: he repaid the hospitality of the Republic 
by writing exhaustive monographs on Roman Switzerland. 
His spare time was occupied with the Roman History, the three 
volumes of which appeared between 1854 and 1856. His name 
at once became known throughout Europe. In this work, 
with a true insight into the relative importance of things, he 
passed over with a few strong broad touches the antiquarian 
discussions on the origins of the dty, on which previous historians 
had laboured so long; but in place of this he painted with 
astonishing vigour the great political struggle that accompanied 
the fall of the republic. It was, above all, his new reading 
of old characters which demanded attention, if not always 
approval: Cicero, the favourite of men of letters, was for him 
"a journalist in the worst sense of the word"; Pompey, the 
hero of Plutarch and the Moralists, was brushed aside as a 
mere drill-sergeant; and the book culminated in the pipture 
of Caesar, who established absolute rule in the name of demo- 
cracy, " the complete and perfect man." 

The three volumes ended with the dictatorship of Caesar. The 
book has never been continued, for the volume on the Roman 
Provinces under the Empire, which appeared in 1884, is in reality 
a separate work. Mommsen was henceforward fully occupied 
with work of a more technical nature. In 1854 the definite 
offer was made to him by the Academy that he should be chief 
editor of a Corpus inscriptionum, with full control, and in order 
that he might carry on the work he was appointed in 1858 
to a professorship at Berlin. The first volume appeared in 
1861 ; five of the succeeding volumes he edited himself, and the 



684 



MOMORDICA— MONACX) 



whole was executed under his immediate supervision and with 
the co-operation of scholars whom he had himself trained. 

Enormous as was the labour, this task occupied only a small 
part of his extraordinary intellectual energy. He found time 
to write two larger works, the History .of the Roman Coinage 
and the Rdmisches Staaisrechi^ a profound analysis of Roman 
constitutional law, and RSmisches Strafrecht, on Roman criminal 
jurisdiction. His Roman Provinces already mentioned gives 
a singularly interesting picture of certain aspects of social L'fe 
under the empire. His smaller papers amount to many hundreds 
in number, and there is no department of Roman life and learn- 
ing, from the earliest records of the Roman law to the time of 
Jomandes, which he has not illuminated. As secretary to the 
Berlin Academy for over twenty years he took a leading part m 
their deliberations, and was their spokesman on great occasions. 
His interest in political problems of the present was as keen 
as in those of the past. He was one of the founders of the 
Preussische JahrhUcheTt the most influential of German political 
periodicals. For many years he was a member of the Prussian 
Parliament. His political opinions were strong but ill-regulated. 
Intensely nationalist, he acquiesced in the annexation of his 
native land to Prussia, and in a public letter to the Italian nation 
in 1870 defended the German cause before the nation which had 
become to him a second fatherland; but he was of too independent 
a character ever to be quite at ease under Prussian government. 
Loving liberty, he hated its consequences; a democrat, he had 
and always expressed a profound contempt for the mob. Like 
many idealists, he was a severe critic of the faults of his own 
and other countries, and he added something to the increasing 
Chauvinism in Germany. 

It was, however, above all, German scholarship which remained 
his first interest. There is probably no other instance in the 
history of scholarship in which one man has established so 
complete an ascendancy in a great department of learning. 
Equally great as antiquary, jurist, political and social historian, 
he lived to see the time when among students of Roman history 
he had pupils, followers, critics, but no rivals. He combined 
the power of patient and minute investigation with a singular 
faculty for bold generalization and the capacity for tracing 
out the eflfects of thoughts and ideas on politi^ and social 
life. Partly, perhaps, owing to a philosophical and legal train- 
ing, he had not the gift of clear and simple narrative, and he 
is more successful in discussing the connexion between events 
than in describing the events themselves. Though his History 
ends with the fall of the republic, his most enduring work has 
been that on the empire; and if he has not written the history 
of the empire, he has made it possible for others to do so. 

Mommsen died at Chariot tenburg on the xst of November 
1903. His brothers, Carl Johann Tycho (1819-1900), a great 
authority on Pindar and Shakespeare, and August (b. 182 1), 
who wrote chiefly on ancient chronology and Greek festivals, 
were also prominent among German scholars in their day. 

The History of Rome (including the volumes of the provinces) 
has been translated into English by W. P. Dickson (the Provinces, 
revised by F. Haverfield, 1909) ; there is a French edition of his work 
on Roman Coinage. Many of his pamphlets and articles have been 
collected under the title ROmiscke FoncHungen. Of his other works, 
the more important are the Roman Chronology to the Time of Caesar 
(1858), a work written in conjunction with his brother August; his 
editions of the Monumentum Anr^anum and of the Digest in the 
Corpus juris civilis, and of the Chronica of Cassiodorus in Monu- 
menta uermaniae historica, the Auctores antiquissimi section of 
which was under his supervision. A great part of his work is 
to be found in the German learned publications such as Hermes, 
Rheinisches Museum, &c. His Reden und Aufsdtze and Gesammelte 
Schriften, i. ii., were published after his death. A full list of his 
works is given by Zangemeister, Mommsen als SchriftsteUer O887 ; 
continued by Jacobs, 1905). See also monographs by C. Bardt 
(1903) and Gradcnwit2(i904, in the Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiflung 
fur Rechtsgeschichte), and O. Hirschfeld. Cedachtnisrede auf Theodor 
Mommsen (1904). 

MOMORDICA, in botany, a genus of annual or perennial 
climbing herbs belonging to the natural order Cucurbitaceae, 
natives of the tropics, especially Africa, and known in cultivation 
chiefly as hothouse plants. They are grown for their ornamental 



fleshy fruits, which are oblong to cylindrical in shape, < 
to red in colour, prickly or warted externally, and burst \ 
ripe, generally with elastic force, into irr^pilar valves. M, 
Balsamina, known as balsam apple, b a very pretty annaa^ 
well adapted for trellises, &c, in warm outside situations. 

MOMUSt in Greek mythology, the son of ND( (Night), ths 
personification of censoriousness. He is frequently menUoned 
in Ludan as the lampooner of the gods. It is said that 
Pallas, Hephaestus, and Poseidon entered into a competitioB 
as to which of them could create the most useful this(, 
Hephaestus made a man, Poseidon an ox, Pallas a bouse. Momns, 
being called upon to pronounce an opinion as to the merits of 
these productions, expressed dissatisfaction with aS: with the 
man, because a window ought to have been made in his breatt, 
through which his heart could be seen; with the ox, beone 
its horns were in the wrong place; with the house, because, it 
ought to have been portable, so as to be easily moved to avoid 
unpleasant neighbours. Momus is reported to have bant 
with chagrin at being unable to find any but the most triffiag 
defects in Aphrodite. He is represented sometimes as a yoiio& 
sometimes as an old man, wearing a mask, and carrying a Ibofli 
bauble. 

Hesiod, Theogony, 314; Lucian, HemuaimuSt 30, and eapedalf 
Deorum Concilium; Philostratus, EpiUdae, 37. 

MONA, the name used by classical writos, and in particohr 
by Tacitus, to denote Anglesey {q.v.). This island was raided 
by the Roman general Suetonitis about A.D. 60 and conquered by 
Agricola about a.d. 79. The Romans probably mined copper 
there, but no trace has yet been fotmd of any Roman militaiy 
post, and the villages of the inhabitants which have been rcoentJIy 
excavated show only mediocre traces of Roman dvilizatioo. 
The name Mona seems also to have been occasionafly used, 
perhaps from ignorance, for the other large island lying betweeR 
England and Ireland, Man. The ancient name of this latter 
was probably not unlike that of Mona, but is not accurate 
known to us (? Monapia, Manavia). (F. J. R) 

MONACO, a territory of south-eastern France, the smallest of 
the sovereign principalities of Europe. Area about 8 sq. ol, tbe 
length being 2^ m. and the width varying from 165 to iioojrdi 
Pop. (1900), 15,180. Monaco is situated on the coast of tk 
Mediterranean, 9 m. east of Nice, and is bounded on all skki 
by the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. It includes tie 
towns of Monaco (3292), Condamine (6ai8) and Monte Cario 
(3794). The principality at one time included Mentoae and 
Roccabruna, now known as Roquebrune, which towns, hoirewr, 
were ceded to France in 1861 for a sum of four millioD fiaoa. 
The town of Monaco occupies the level summit of a rodcy hetd- 
land, rising about 200 ft. from the shore, and stiU defended 
by ramparts. Though largely modernized, the palace is an inter* 
esting specimen of Renaissance architecture; the "cathednl' 
(Romanesque-Byzantine style), and the oceanographical museon 
may also be mentioned. For this museum a fine buikfiflfr 
appropriately decorated, was opened in March 1910 by the pnoct 
of Monaco. It stands on the edge of the cliff rising from theses 
at the gardens of St Martin, and was designed to hoose tke 
collections made by the prince during twenty-five yean flf 
oceanographical research, and others. Behind the rock, betvea 
Mont TC'tc de Chien and Mont de la Justice, the high grounds ii> 
towards La Turbic, the village on the hill which takes its aiae 
from the tropaca with which Augustus marked the boondiiy 
between Gaul and Italy. On the north lies the bay of Moasco; 
along the lower ground on the west of the bay stretches the beiUk 
and bathing resort of Condamine, with orange-gardens, niana^ 
turcs of perfumes and liqueurs, and the chapel of Ste Divotti 
the patron saint of Monaco; to the north of the bay on the roc^ 
slopes of the Sp^lugues (speluncae) are grouped thevariMB 
buildings of the (Ilasino of Monte Carlo with the elaborate gaidefl 
and the numerous villas and hotels which it has called bt0 
existence. Adjoining the Casino terrace and overiookiog the 
sea is the pigeon-shooting ground, the competitions on which «> 
celebrated. 

There appear to have been gambling-tatJes at Moott Gpto 



MONAD— MONAGHAN 



685 



in the year 1856, but it was in 186 1 that Francois Blanc, seeing 
his tenancy at Homburg coming to an end, with no hope of 
renewal, obtained a concession for fifty years from Charles III. 
This concession passed into the hands of a joint-stock company, 
which in 1898 obtained an extension to 1947, in return for a 
payment to the prince of £400,000 in 1899 and of £600,000 in 
X913, together with an increase of the annual tribute of £50,000 
to £70,000 in 1907, £80,000 in 1917, £90,000 in 1927, and £100,000 
In 1937. None of the inhabitants of Monaco have access to the 
tables; and their interest in the maintenance of the status quo 
is secured by their complete exemption from taxation and the 
large prices paid for their lands. The ruler of the principality. 
Prince Albert, born 1848, succeeded his father. Prince Charles 
ni., in 1889. He married in 1869 Lady Mary Douglas Hamilton, 
by whom in 1870 he had a son. Prince Louis: that marriage was, 
however, annulled in x88o, and subsequently Prince Albert 
married Alice, dowager-duchess of Richelieu, from whom he was 
divorced in 1902. The prince is absolute ruler, as there is no 
fMurliament in the principality. He is advised by a small council 
of state, the members of which are appointed by himself. The 
maire and other municipal authorities are also appointed by the 
prince. A governor-general presides over the administration. 
The judicial system is the same as (hat of France, there being a 
court of first instance and a juge de paix. By arrangement, 
two Paris judges form a court of appeal Monaco is the seat of a 
Roman Catholic bishop. 

A temple of Heracles seems to have been built on the Monaco 
lieadland by the Phoenicians at a very early date, and the same 
god was afterwards worshipped there by the Greeks under the 
nmame of Minouof, whence the name Monaco. Monoeci 
Portus or Portus Herculis is frequently mentioned by the bter 
Latin writers. From the loth century the place was associated 
with tlie Grimaldi, a powerful Genoese family who held high 
oflEices under the republic and the emperors; but not till a much 
later date did it becpme their permanent possession and residence. 
In the beginning of the 14th century it was notorious for its 
piracies. Charles I. (a man of considerable mark, who, after 
doing great service by sea and land to Philip of Valois in his 
English wars, was severely wounded at Crecy) purchased 
Mentone and Roccabruna, and bought up the claims of the 
Spinola to Monaco. The princes of Monaco continued true to 
f ranee till 1524, when Augustin Grimaldi threw in his lot with 
Charles V. Honor6 I., Augustin's successor, was made marquis 
of Campagna and count of Canosa, and people as well as rulers 
%rere accorded various important privileges. The right to 
«zact toll from vessels passing the port continued to be exercised 
till the close of the i8th century. Honor6 IL in 1641 threw off 
Zhe supremacy of Spain and placed himself under the protec- 
torate of France; he was compensated for the loss of Canosa, &c., 
"With the duchy and peerage of Valenlinois and various lesser 
llordships; and " duke of Valentinois " long continued to be the 
%itle of the heir-apparent of the principality. In 1731 Antoine, 
Kiis great-grandson, was succeeded by his daughter Louise 
Ktppolyte; she had married Jacques Goyon, count of Matignon 
aand Thorigny, who took the name of Grimaldi and succeeded 
Ills wife. The National Convention annexed the principality 
%o France in 1793; restored to the Goyon Grimaldis by the 
^Treaty of Paris in 1814, it was placed by that of Vienna under the 
SKOtection of Sardinia. The Sardinian government took the 
^>pportunity of disturbances that occurred in 1848 to annex 
Mentone and Roccabruna, which were occupied by a Sardinian 
^pirrison till 1859. With the transference of Nice to France in 
s86o the principality passed again under French protection. 
See H. M^tivier. Monaco el set princes. La Fl^chc (1862). 
■OMAO (Gr. yoviiSt unit, from tibvoij alone), a philosophic 
term which now has currency solely in its connexion with the 
|>|ii]osophy of Leibnitz. In the earlier Greek philosophy the 
term meant unity as opposed to duality or plurality; at a later 
time it meant an individual, or, with the Atomists, an atom. It 
-was first used in a sense approximate to that of Leibnitz by 
Bruno, who meant by it a primary spiritual element as opposed 
to the material atom. Leibnitz, however, seems to have 



borrowed the term not directly from Bruno, but from a con- 
temporary, Van Helmont the younger. Leibnitz's view ojF things 
is that the world consists of monads which are immaterial 
centres of force, each possessing a certain grade of mentality, 
self-contained and representing the whole universe in miniature, 
and all combined together by a pre-established harmony. 
Material things, according to Leibnitz, arc in their ultimate 
nature composed of monads, each soul is a monad, and God is the 
monas monadum. Thus monadism, or monadology, is a kind 
of spiritual atomism. The theory has been revived in recent 
years by C. B. Renouvier. 

HONADNOCK, a term derived from Mount Monadnock in 
New Hampshire, U.S.A., to denote the " isolated remnants of 
hard rock which remain distinctly above their surroundings in 
the late stages of an erosion cycle " (T. C. Chambcrlin, R. D. 
Salisbury). Examples are frequently found where a hard pipe 
of igneous rock surrounded by softer rock is gradually exposed 
by the washing away of the softer rock and becomes a con- 
spicuous feature of the landscape, forming a volcanic " neck," 
and finally, in the later stages of erosion, a stump. The Peak 
Downs, Queensland, furnish many examples, and Mato Tepee, 
Wyoming, is a remarkably conspicuous instance of this type of 
formation. 

MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland in the province of Ulster, 
bounded £. by Armagh, S.E. by Louth, S. by Meath, S.W. by 
Cavan, W. by Fermanagh, and N. by Tyrone. The area is 
319,741 acres, or about 496 sq. m. The north-western part of 
the country b included in the great central plain of Ireland; but 
to the south and east the surface is irregular, although none of 
the hilb is of great elevation. The principal range is that of 
Slievebeagh, a rugged and barren tract extending into the county 
Fermanagh, its highest summit being 1254 ft. above sea-level. 
The principal rivers are the Finn, which rises near the centre of 
the county and passes into Fermanagh, and the Blackwater, 
which forms the boundary with Tyrone. The Ubtcr Canal 
passes the towns of Monaghan and Clones, affording communi- 
cation between Lough Ncagh and Lough Erne. In geological 
structure the county drops from the Upper Carboniferous 
outlier of Slievebeagh in the north-west to a Carboniferous 
Limestone area towards Monaghan town; but south of this a 
tumbled Silurian area stretches across the Cavan and Armagh 
borders. At Carrickmacross, an outlier of Carboniferous 
Limestone, Coal Measures (with poor seams of coal) and Trias 
is encountered. Gypsum has been quarried in the Trias, and 
lead ore was formerly mined in many places in the Silurian area. 
The Triassic clay furnishes excellent bricks. Eskers or glacial 
ridges occur at several places. The limestone is not only abun- 
dant and good, but from the position of the rocks it can be 
obtained at small expense in working. Freestone and slates 
are quarried in considerable quantities. The soil in the more 
level portions of the county is fertile where it rests on limestone, 
and there is also a mixed soil of deep clay, which is capable of 
high cultivation; but in the hilly regions a strong retentive clay 
prevails, which could be made productive only by careftd 
draining and culture. Spade husbandry generally prevails. 
The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as i to i\. 
Oats, potatoes and turnips are the principal crops, but the 
quantity grown decreases. The number of cattle, sheep, pigs, 
goats and poultry, on the other hand, increases or is well main- 
tained. Linen is the only manufacture of consequence, but the 
cultivation of flax has almost died out. The Belfast and Clones 
line of the Great Northern railway crosses the county from 
north-east to west, passing the town of Monaghan, and the 
Dundalk and Clones line of the same company runs from south- 
east to west, with branches to Carrickmacross and to Cootehill 
(county Cavan). 

The papulation (86,206 in 1891; 74,611 in 1901) decreases 
as rapidly as any county population in Ireland, and emigration 
is very heavy. The total includes about 73% of Roman 
Catholics, and about 12% each of Protestant Episcopalians 
and of Presbyterians. The principal towns are Monaghan (the 
county town, pop. 2932),. Clones (2068), Carrickmacross (1874), 



686 



MONAGHAN— MONARCHY 



Castleblayney ( 1 5 76) and Ballybay ( 1 208) . The county includes 
five baronies. Assizes are held at Monaghan, and quarter ses- 
sions at Carrickmacross, Castleblayney, Clones and Monaghan. 
The two county members sit for the north and south divisions 
respectively. The county is in the Protestant and Roman 
Catholic dioceses of Clogher. 

The district now called the county Monaghan was included 
in the district of Uriel or Orgial, and long known as Macmahon's 
country. It was made shire ground undei its present name by 
Sir John Perrot in the reign of Elizabeth. At Clones there is a 
round tower in good preservation, but very rude in its masonry, 
another at Inishkcen is in ruins. Near Clones there are two 
large raths. Although there are several Danish forts there arc 
no medieval castles of importance The only monastic structure 
of which any vestiges remain is the abbey of Clones, which was 
also the seat of a bishopric. The abbey dates from the 6lh 
century, but was rebuilt in the 14th century after destruction 
by fire 

MONAGHAN. a market town and the county town of county 
Monaghan, Ireland, on the Ubtcr Canal and the Belfast and 
Clones line of the Great Northern railway, by which it is 52 m. 
S.VV by W. of Dublin. Pop (1901), 2932. There is a modem 
Roman Catholic cathedral (186 2-1 89 2) for the diocese of Clogher, 
a convent of the Sisters of St Louis, and a Protestant church 
(1836;, and the public and county buildings include court-house, 
gaol, workhouse, asylum, hospital and barracks. Educational 
establishments include a national model school and the college 
of St Macartan, preparatory for the Roman Catholic priesthood. 
The town takes its name (Muinechan, the town of monks) from 
an early monastery. It was incorporated by James I , but was 
little more than a hamlet until the close of the i8ih century 
Rossmore Park, the fine demesne of Lord Rossmore, is the most 
noteworthy of several neighbouring residences The town is 
governed by an urban district council. 

NONA MONKEY a West African representative of the group 
of monkeys generally known as guenons, and scientifically as 
CcrcopUhecus. The mona (C. mono) typifies a sub-genus of the 
same name {Mona) characterized, among other features, by the 
presence of a black band running from the angle of each eye to 
the ear. In the mona itself the general colour of the upper parts 
is black, with a pair of oval while spots near the root of the tail, 
while a band across the forehead and the whole under surface 
are likewise while. (See Primates ) 

MONARCHIANISM, a theological term designating the view 
taken by those Christians who, within the Church, towards ihe 
end of the 2nd century and during the 3rd, opposed the doctrine 
of an independent personal subsistence of the Logos During 
the middle of the 2nd century a number of varying christological 
views began to germinate, growing for a time side by side. They 
fall into two great classes: (a) Christ was a man in whom the 
Spirit of God had dwelt; (6) Christ was the Divine Spirit who had 
assumed flesh. Each class based its position on Scripture, but 
the latter (which prevailed) had the advantage of being able 
easily to combine with cosmological and theological propositions 
current in the religious philosophy of the time. The opposition 
to it arose out of a fear that it threatened monotheism. The 
representatives of the extreme monotheistic view, which while 
regarding Christ as Redeemer, clung tenaciously to the numerical 
unity of the Deity, were called Monarchians, a term brought into 
general use by Tertullian It has to be remembered (i) that the 
movement originated within the pale of the Church, and had a 
great deal in common with that which it opposed; (2) that it was 
ante-Catholic rather than anti-Catholic, e.g. the Canon of the 
New Testament had not yet been established. It is usual to 
speak of two kinds of monarchianism — the dynamistic and the 
modalistic, though the distinction cannot be carried through 
without some straining of the texts. By monarchians of the 
former class Christ was Jjcld to be a meie man, miraculously 
conceived indeed, but constituted the Son of God simply by the 
infinitely high degree in which he had been filled with Divine 
wisdom and power. This view was represented in Asia Minor 
about the year 170 by the anti-Montanistic Aiogi, so called by 



Epiphanius on account of their rejection of the Fouith Gospel. 
it was also taught at Rome about the end of the 2od century bj 
Theodotus of Byzantium, a currier, who was ezcooununicatcd 
by Bishop Victor, and at a later date by ArtemoUp ezcommiini- 
cated by Zephyrinus. About the year a6o it was again pio- 
pounded within the Church by Paul of Samosata (9.9.). who held 
that, by his unique excellency, the man Jesus gradually rose to 
the Divine dignity, so as to be worthy of the name of God. 
Modalistic monarchianism, conceiving that the whok fuUoesi 
of the Godhead dwelt in Christ, took exception to the " subordi- 
natianism '* of some Church writers, and maintained that the 
names Father and Son were only two different designations of 
the same subject, the one God, who '* with reference to the rda- 
tions in which He had previously stood to the world is called the 
Father, but in reference to His appearance in humanity is called 
the Son." It was first taught, in the interesu of the ** omo- 
archia " of God, by Praxeas, a confessor from Asia Minor, ii 
Rome about iqo, and was opposed by Tertulhan in his wA 
known controversial tract. The same view — the " patripassian * 
as it was also called, because it implied that God the Father had 
suffered on the cross — obtained frc^ support in Rome about 215 
from certain disciples of Noetus of Smyrna, who received t 
modified support from Bishop Callistus. It was on this accoot 
that Hippolytus, the champion of hypostasian subordmatiuifl^ 
along with his adherents, withdrew from the obedience d 
Callistus, and formed a separate community. In Caithife 
Praxeas for a time had some success, but was forced by Tcr 
tullian not only to desist but to retract. A new and condliatorf 
phase of patripassianism was expounded at a somewhat httf 
date by Bcryllus of Bostra, who, while holding the divinity ef 
Christ not to be liia, or proper to Himself, but warpud^ (beloofffC 
to the Father), yet Recognized in Hjs personality a new v|p60wiv 
or form of manifestation on the part of God. Beryllus. however, 
was convinced of the wrongness of this view by Origea (f j). 
and recanted at the synod which had been called together ii 
244 to discuss it. (For the subsequent history of modiBtfic 
monarchianism see Sabeluus ) 

See the Histories of Dogma by A. Hamack. F. Loofs R. Sectaf; 
also R. L. Octley, The Doctrine 0/ the Incamaiaom, 

MONARCHY (Fr. monarchie, from Lat m&nttnkU, Gt 
ItovoLffxla, rule of one, /i6yos, alone, ^x^, rule), strictly, tk 
undivided sovereignty or rule of a single person. Hena tke 
term is applied to states in which the supreme authority b 
vested in a single person, the monarch, who in his ova lii^ 
is the permanent head of the state. The charaaer of tm 
monarchy is well defined in the well-known lines of Cowpfr 
{Verses supposed to be u-rtlten by Alexander Selktrk)', 
" I am monarch of all I survey. 

My right there is none to dispute.** 
The word " monarchy " has, however, outlived ihs ocfhil 
meaning, and is now used, when used at all, somewhat k»K^ 
of states ruled over by hereditary sovereigns, as distinct fn* ■ 
republics with elected presidents, or for the "Doairdial 
principle," as opposed to the republican, involved in this A" 
tinction. 

The old idea of monarchy, viz that of the prince as itpiaia^' 
ing within the limits of his dominions the monarchy of Godonf 
all things, culminated in the 17th century in the doctrine of ^ 
divine right of kings, and was defined in the famous dictiB cf 
Louis XIV.: L'ital c'est moil The conception of monardiy vs 
derived through Christianity from the theocracies of the East; it 
was the underlying principle of the medieval empire and aba 
of the medieval papacy, the rule of the popes during the petio^ 
of its greatest development being sometimes called '* the p9^ 
monarchy." The monarchical principle was shaken to ^ 
foundations by the English revolution of 1688, it wasahstteicd 
by the French revolution of 1789; and though it survivcitf * 
political force, more or less strongly, in most European coubUK*> 
" monarchists," in the strict sense of the word, are every***** 
small and dwindling minority. To express the change phn^ 
were invented which have come into general use, tkooi^ 
involving a certain contradiction in urms, via. ** limited''* 



MONASSIR— MONASTICISM 



687 



itiOTuI monarchy/' as opposed to "absolute" or 
tic monarchy." 

, a distinction is drawn between "elective" and 
\xy " monarchies. Of the former dass the most 
us was the Holy Roman Empire; but in Europe all 
» were, within certain limits, originally elective; and, 
introduction of Christianity, the essential condition 
umption of sovereign power was not so much kinship 
reigning family as the "sacring" by the divine 
of the Church. The purely hereditary principle 
omparatively late growth, the outcome of obvious 
ce, exalted under the influence of various forces into 
s or quasi-religious dogma. (See also Govekmhent 

REICNTY.) 

SIR (Monasir), an African tribe of Semitic stock, 
Lhe Nile valley (Berber mudiria) between Birti (their 
ers) and Dar RobaUb. They are a prosperous, 

tribe, claim kinship with the Ababda, and speak 
•ut are of very mixed blood. Next to Birti their 
lement is at Salamat. Both places are on the left 
he Nile. It was by Monassir tribesmen that Colonel 

Stewart, Gordon's comrade at Khartum, was mur- 
884. 

nCISM (Gr. tiova<rruUn, living alone, pSvoi), a system 
rhich owes its origin to those tendencies of the human 
h are summed up in the terms " asceticism " and 
m." Mysticism may broadly be described as the 
ive effect to the craving for a union of the soul with the 
:ady in this life; and asceticism as the efTort to give 
be hankering after an ever-progressive purification of 
nd an atoning for sin by renunciation and self-denial 
lawful. These two tendencies may well be said to be 
istincts of humanity; because, though not always 
I activity, they are always liable to be evoked, and in 
id among all races they frequently have asserted them- 
ee AscETiCTSM and MysnasM.) Indeed the history of 
lows that they are among the most deep-rooted and 
1 instincts of the human soul; and monasticism is 
ipt to develop and regulate their exercise. Thus 
;m b not a creation of Christianity; it is much 
d before the Christian era a highly organized 
;m existed in India. (See the articles on Brahuanism; 
; and Lhasa.) 

Christian Monasticism. — Greek asceticism and mysti- 
ncver to have produced a monastic system; but among 
both in Judaea and in Alexandria, this development 
;. In Judaea the Esscnes before the time of Christ 
ly organized monastic life (see Schtirer, Jewish People, 
ind the same is true in regard to the Therapeutae in 
tx)urhood of Alexandria (the authenticity of Philo's 
onlcmplaliva, which describes their manner of life, is 
gnized by scholars). 

il sketch of pre-Christian asceticism and monasticism, 
ition of the chief authorities, b Riven in O. ZOcklcr's 
[ Monchtum (1897), pp. 32-1^5. This account b epito- 
. O. Hannay, Spirit and Origin of Christian Monasticism 
p. i: the view now common among scholars is there 
I, that these pre-Christian realizations of the monastic 
tie, and indeed no, influence on the rise and development 
n monasticism. 

nnings of Christian Monasticism. — The practice of 
asserted itself at an early date in Christian life: men 
n abstained from marriage, from flesh meat, from the 
oxicating drink, and devoted themselves to prayer, 
fxerdses and works of charily (S. Schiwictz, Das 
iische MOnchlum, 1904, pt. i.; J. O. Hannay, op. cit. 
This they did in their homes, without withdrawing 
families or avocations. In time, however, the ten- 
vithdraw from society and give oneself up wholly to 
» of religious and ascetical exercises set in; and at any 
rpt, at the middle of the 3rd century, it was the custom 
scetics to live in solitary retirement in the neighbour- 
le towns and villages. Thb was the manner of life 



which St Antliony {q.v.) began to lead, c. 270; but after fifteen 
years he withdrew to a deserted fort on the east bank of the 
Nile, opposite the Fayum. Here he enclosed himself and led a 
life cut off from all intercourse with man. There are reasons 
for doubting that Anthony was the first Christian hermit: 
probably there b some hbtorical foundation for the tradition 
that one of those who fled to the desert in the Dedan persecution 
continued to dwell in a cave by the shore of the Red Sea, un- 
known to men, till visited by St Anthony long years afterwards 
(see E. C. Butler, Lausiac History of Palladius, 1898, pt. i. 
p. 230). But thb was a single case which does not affea the 
fixed tradition of monastic Egypt in the 4th centtiry that 
Anthony was the father of Christian monachism. 

During twenty years Anthony lived a life of seclusion, never 
coming forth from hb fort, never seeing the face of man. But hb 
fame went abroad and a number of would-be disciples came and 
took up thdr abode in the caves and among the rocks that sur- 
rounded hb retreat, and called on him to guide them in the path 
of life they had chosen. In response to these appeab Anthony 
came forth and set himself to organize the life of the multitude 
of ascetics that had grown up around him. Thb act, which took 
place in the first years of the 4th century, must be regarded as 
the inauguration of Christian monachbm. 

3. St Anthony's Monachism.— Tht form of monastic life 
directly derived from St Anthony was the type that prevailed 
in middle and northern Egypt up to the middle of the 5th 
century. The chief authorities for the study of thb type of 
monastic life are the Vita Antonii (probably by Athanasius), the 
Historia monachorum (ed. E. Preuschen), the Historia lausiaca 
of Palladius (ed. E. C. Butler) — th^ works are to be found in 
Latin in Rosweyd's Vitae Patrum (Migne, Patrol Lot. LXXIU., 
LXXIV.) — and the writings of Cassian (English translation by 
Gibson in " Nicene and Post'Nicene Library "). A generation 
ago all (hb literattirc was in dbrepute; but it has been revindi- 
cated, and its substantially hbtorical character b now recognized' 
on all hands (see E. C. Butler, op. cit. pt. ii. $ x). 

Antonian monachism grew out of the purely eremitical life, 
and it retained many of the characteristic features inherited 
from its origin. The party of travellers whose journey in 394 b 
narrated in the Historia monachorum found at the chief towns 
along the Nile from Lycopolb (Assiut or Siut) to Alexandria, 
and in the deserts that fringed the river, monastic habitations, 
sometimes of hermits, sometimes of several monks living to- 
gether but rather the life of hermits than of cenobites. It b at 
the great monastic settlements of Nitria and Scete that we are 
best able to study this kind of Egyptian monastidsm. Here in 
one portion of the desert, named Cellia, the monks lived a purely 
eremitical life; but in Nitria (the Wadi Natron) they lived either 
alone, or two or three together, or in communities, as they 
preferred. The system was largely voluntary; there was no 
organized community life, no living according to rule, as it is 
now understood. In short the life continued to be semi- 
eremitical. (See Butler, op. cit. pt. i. p. 233; Haimay, op. cU, 
chs. 4> 5; Schiwietz, op. cit. pt. ii. {§ i-i i.) 

4. St Pachomitts's Monachism. — Very different was the type 
of monastic life that prevailed in the more southerly p&xjA of 
^Sypl- Here, at Tabennbi near Dendcra, about 3x5-320, St 
Pachomius (q.v.) establbhed the first Christian cenobium, or 
monastery properly so called. (On St Pachomius and hb 
monastic institute see P. Ladeuze, Cinobitisme Pakhomien 
(1898); Schiwietz, op. cit. pt. ii. SS 12-16; E. C. Butler, op. cit. 
pt. i. p. 234, pt. ii. notes 48, 49, 54, 59). Before his death in 
346 Pachomius had established nine monasteries of men and one 
of women, and after his death other foundations continued to 
be made in all parts of Egypt, but especially in the south, and 
in Abyssinia. Palladius tclb us that c. 410 the Pachomian or 
Tabennesiot monks numbered some seven thousand. The life 
was fully cenobitical, regulated in all detaib by minute rules, 
and with prayer and meals in common. As contrasted with the 
Antonian ideal, the special feature was the highly organized 
system of work, whereby the monastery was a sort of agricul- 
tural and industrial colony. The work wat an integral part 



688 



MONASTICISM 



of the life, and was undertaken for its own sake and not merely 
for an occupation, as among the Antonian monks. This marks 
a distinctly new departure in the monastic ideaL 

In another respect too St Pachomius broke new ground: 
not only did he inaugurate Christian cenobitical life, but he 
also created the first " Religious Order." The abbot of the head 
monastery was the superior-general of the whole institute; he 
nominated the superiors of the other monasteries; he was 
visitor and held periodical visitations at all of them; he exercised 
universal supervision, control and authority; and every year a 
general chapter was held at the head house. This is a curious 
anticipation of the highly organized and centralized forms of 
government in religious orders, not met with again till Cluny, 
Citeauz, and the Mendicant orders in the later middle ages. 

A passing reference should be made to the Coptic abbot 
Shenout, who governed on similar lines the great " White 
Monastery," whereof the ruins still survive near Akhmim; the 
main interest of Shenout's institute lies in the fact that it 
continued purely Coptic, without any infiltration of Greek ideas 
or influence. (See J. Leipoldt, Sckenuie von Atripe^ 1903.) 

Egyptian monachism began to wane towards the end of the 
5th century, and since the Mahommedan occupation it has ever 
been declining. Accounts of its present condition may be foimd 
in R. Curzon's Monasteries of the Levant (1837), or in A. J. 
Butler's Ancient Coptic Churches (1884). Hardly half a dozen 
monasteries survive, inhabited by small and ever dwindling 
communities. 

5. Oriental Monachism. — The monastic institute was imported 
early in the 4th century from Egypt into Syria and the Oriental 
lands. Here it had a great vogue, and under the influence of the 
innate Asiatic love of asceticism it tended to assume the form of 
strange austerities, of a kind not found in Egyptian monachism 
in its best period. The most celebrated was the life of the 
Stylites or pillar hermits (see SiSiEON Styutes). Monastic 
life here tended to revert to the eremitical form, and to this day 
Syrian and Armenian monks are to be found dwelling in caverns 
and desert places, and given up wholly to the practice of 
austerity and contemplation (sec E. C. Butler, Lausiac History 
of Palladius, pt. i. p. 239, where the chief authorities are indi- 
cated). Before the close of the 4th century monachism spread 
into Persia, Babylonia and Arabia. 

6. Basilian and Greek Monachism. — Though Eustathius 
of Sebastc was the first to introduce the monastic life within the 
confines of what may be called Greek Christianity in Asia 
Minor (c. 340), it was St Basil who adapted it to Greek and 
European ideas and needs. His monastic legislation is explained 
and the history of his institute sketched in the article Basilian 
Monks. Here it will suflice to say that he followed the Pacho- 
mian rather than the Antonian model, setting himself definitely 
against the practice of the eremitical life and of excessive 
asceticism, and inculcating the necessity and superiority of 
labour. The lines laid down by St Basil have continued ever 
since to be the lines in which Greek and Slavonic monasticism 
has rested, the new multitudinous modifications of the monastic 
ideal, developed in such abundance in the Latin Church, having 
no counterpart in the Greek. But the element of work has 
decreased, and Creek and Slavonic monks give themselves up 
for the most part to devotional contemplation. 

7. Early Western Monachism. — The knowledge of the monas- 
tic life was carried to western Europe by St Alhanasius, who 
in 340 went to Rome accompanied by two monks. The Vita 
Antonii was at an early date translated into Latin and propagated 
in the West, and the practice of monastic asceticism after the 
Egyptian model became common in Rome and throughout 
Italy, and before long spread to Gaul and to northern Africa. 
A risumS of the chief facts will be found in E. C. Bullcr, op. cil. 
pt. i. p. 245; sec also Hannay, op. cit. ch. 7. The monastic ideals 
prevalent were those of the Antonian monachism, with its 
hankering after the eremitical life and the practice of extreme 
bodily austerities. But climatic conditions and racial tempera- 
ment rendered the Oriental manner of monasticism unattainable, 
as a rule, in the West. Hence it came to pass that by the end of 



the 5th century the monastic institute In western Europe, aad 
especially in Italy, was in a disorganized condition, sinking under 
the wei^t of traditions inherited from the East. It vis St 
Benedict who effected a permanently woriung adaptation «( 
the monastic ideal and life to the requirements and fonditkiw 
of the western races. 

8. St Benedict's Monachism.—^ Benedict {c. soo) effected 
his purpose by a twofold break with the past: he diminated 
from the idea of the monastic life the element of Orientsl 
asceticism and extreme bodily austerity; and he put dom the 
tendency, so marked in Egypt and the East, for the monks to 
vie with one another in ascetical practices, commanding all to 
live according to the nde. The life was to be self-denying and 
hard, but not one of any great austerity (for details mc 
Benedict of Nursia; and E. C. Butler, op. of. pt. L pp. aj7 
and 251). The individual' monk was sunk in the community, 
whose corporate life he had to live. St Benedict's rule vas a 
new creation in monastic history; and as it rapidly suppianlcd 
all other monastic rules in western Europe, and was for several 
centuries the only form of monasticism in Latin Christianity 
(outside of Ireland), it is necessary to speak in some little detail 
of its spirit and iimer character.^ It has to be emphasised at the 
outset that the monasteries in which the Benedictine rule vas 
the basis of the life did not form a body or group apart viilni 
the great " monastic order," which embraced all monasteries of 
whatever rule; nor had Benedictine monks any special voriL « 
object l^yond that common to all monks — viz. ibt sanctifyiig 
of their souls by living a community life in accordance vith ik 
Gospel counsek. St Benedict defines his monastery as 't 
school of the service of the lord " (Reg., Prol.). The great ad 
of service is the public common celebration of the canonifil 
office, the " work of God " he calls it, to which " nothing is to be 
preferred " (Rei. c. 43)- The rest of the day is filled up vith t 
round of work and reading. Work, and in St Benedia's tine 
it was predominantly field work, took an even more recogniaed 
and integral place in the life than was the case under St Packs' 
mius or St Basil, occupying notably more time than the cbvck 
services. St Benedict introduced too into the monastic ffe 
the idea of law and order, of rule binding on the abbot do tai 
than on the monks; thus he reduced almost to a vanishing poiflt 
the element of arbitrariness, or mere dependence on the abbsii 
will and whim, found in the earlier rul(& Lastly, he introdoocd 
the idea of stability, whereby monk and community were boaad 
to each other for life, the normal thing for the Benedictine boaf 
to live and die in the monasteiy of his profession: thus tk 
power hitherto enjoyed by monks, of wandering from aoauiaf 
to monastery, was cut away, and the Benedictine commiakf 
was made into a family whose members were bound to oae 
another by bonds that could not be severed at wilL 

9. Western Monachism in the Early Middle Ages. — ^It ii ca9 
to understand that a form of monastic life thus emptied of A> 
tinctively Oriental features and adapted to the needs of tbe Wat 
by a great reh'gious genius Uke St Benedict, should sooo b« 
distanced all competitors and have become the cmly mooaitic 
rule in western Europe. The steps in the pr<^>agalion of tk 
Benedictine rule are traced in the article BENEDicnKclk 
only serious rival was the Irish rule of Columban; and baek 
will be in place to say a word on Irish monasticism, vhich, ii 
its birthplace, stood aloof to the end from the general movcBXiL 
The beginnings of Celtic monachism are obscure, but it aeeM 
to have been closely connected with the tribal system.* Wkii 
however, Irish monachism emerges into the full light of bittoiy. 
it was in its nunifestations closely akin to the Egyptian, or cwi 
to the Syrian type: there was the same love of the eremiticil , 
life, the same craving after bodily austerities of an eztraordisuy 
kind, the same individualistic piety. The Irish monks «et* 
great missioners in the north of England and the northers aad 

1 Thii topic is dealt with by F. A. Gasauet. SkeUk of MoMStkO^ 
slitutional History (pp. vtii.-xxii.). the introduction to 2nd editio 
of the translation of Montalcmbert's Monks of the West (i»95)- 

* Sec Willis Bund. Celtic Church in Wales (1897): H. Zinuncr.tft 
" Kcltische Kirche " in HerzoK-Hauck. ReaUneyUopdOe (jfd mi» 
translated into English by Kuno Meyer (1902). 



MONASTICISM 



689 



nl parts of Europe, and in the course of the 7th century the 
I nile of St Columban and the Roman rule of St Benedict 
in the monasteries in central Europe that had been founded 
Cohimban and his Irish monks. The Benedictine rule 
ilanted the Irish so inevitably that the personnel ceased to be 
I. that even in St Columban's own monastery of Luxeuil 
-ule was no longer observed, and by Charlemagne's time all 
rmbrance of any other monastic rule than the Benedictine 
died out. 

uring the 7th and 8th centuries the Benedictine houses were 
chief instrument in the christianizing, civilizing and educat- 
3f the Teutonic races. In spite of the frequent pillage and 
ruction of monasteries by Northmen, Saracens, Arabs and 
r invaders; in spite of the existence of even widespread 
I abuses, St Benedict's institute went on progressing and 
olidating; and on the whole it may be said that throughout 
early middle ages the general run of Benedictine houses 
inued to perform with substantial fidelity the religious and 
il functions for which they were created. 
K Offshoots and Modifications of Benedictine lionachism: 
Rise of " Orders.'* — Up to the bcginnmg of the lolh century 
lo not meet in the West such a thing as an "order" — an 
nised corporate body composed of several houses, diffused 
ugh various lands, with centralized government and objects 
methods of its own. As stated above, St Pachomius's 
asteries formed an order— a curious anticipation of what 
enturies later was to become the vogue in Western monasti- 
. The Benedictine houses never coalesced in this manner; 
I when, later on, a system of national congregations was 
iduced, they were but loose federations of autonomous 
lys; so that to this day, though the convenient expression 
eoedictine order *' is frequently used, the Benedictines do 
form an order in the proper sense of the word. But with 
[Oth century we reach the period of orders, and it is on this 
that all subsequent developments in Western monasticism 
: run. 

le fiist order was that of Cluny, founded in 910; in rule and 
tier of life it continued purely Benedictine, and it wielded 
lordinary power and religious influence up to the middle of 
ath century. (See Cluny.) 

te chief offshoot from the Benedictine institute were the 
rrdans (c. 100); their ground idea was a return to the letter 
. Benedict's rxile, and a reproduction, as close as could be, 
e exterior conditions of life as they exbted in St Benedict's 
monastery; consequently field work held a prominent place 
le Cistercian ideal. This ideal it has not been possible 
ianently to maintain in the great body of the order, but only 
nited circles, as Trappists (q.v.). But for a century (1125- 
) Citcaux supplanted Cluny as the spiritual centre of western 
pe. The Cistercians were an organized, centralized order 
e full sense of the word. (See Cistercians.) 
•wards the end of the loth century and during the nth a 
ig tendency set in to revert to the eremitical life, probably 
g to the example of the Greek monks, who at this time 
«d Sicily and south Italy in great numbers. This tendency 
(iced the orders of the Camaldulians or Camaldolese 
f 5) in Italy, and in France the Grandmontines (1076) and 
husians (1084), all leading practically eremitical lives, 
assembling ordinarily only for the church services. The 
»inbrosians (1038) near Florence maintained a cenobitical 
>ut eliminated every element of Benedictine life that was not 
ted to pure contemplation. At Fontevrault (founded in 
) the special feature was the system of " double monasteries " 
leighbouring, but rigorously separated, monasteries of men 
of women— the govenimcnt being in the hands of the 
sses. 

all these lesser orders may be discerned the tendency of 
urn to the elements of Eastern monasticism discarded by 
enedict — to the eremitical life; to the purely contemplative 
rilh little or no factor of work, to the undertaking of rigorous 
ly austerities and penances — it was at this time that the 
Lice of self-inflicted scourgings as a penitential exercise was 

vm 12 



introduced., All this was a Yeaction from St Benedict's recon- 
struction of the monastic life— « reaction which in the matter of 
austerities and individualistic piety has made itself increasingly 
felt in the later manifestations of the monastic ideal in the West. 

1 1 New Kinds of Religious Orders. — Up to this point we have 
met only with monasticism proper, and if the term were taken 
strictly, the remainder of this article would be concerned only 
with the later history of the institutes already spoken of; for 
neither canons regular, friars, nor regular clerks, are in the strict 
sense monks. But it is usual, and it will be convenient here, to 
use the term monasticism in a broader sense, as equivalent to 
the technical "religious life," and as embracing the various 
forms that have come into being so prolifically in the Latin 
Church at all periods since the middle of the^ nth century. 

The first of these new forms was that of 'the canons regular 
or Augustinian canons {q.v.) who about the year 1060 arose out 
of the older semi-monastic canonical institute, and lived ac- 
cording to the so-called ** Rule of St Augustine." The essential 
difference between monks and regular canons may be explained 
as follows: monks, whether hermits or cenobites, are men who 
live a certain kind of life for its own sake, for the purpose of 
leading a Christian life according to the Gospel's counsel and thus 
serving God and saving their own souls; external works, either 
temporal or spiritual, are accidental; dericature or ordination 
is an addition, an accession, and no part of their object, and, as a 
matter of fact, till well on in the middle ages it was not usual 
for monks to be priests; in a word, the life they lead is their 
object, and they do not adopt it in order the better to compass 
some other end. But canons regular were in virtue of their 
origin essentially clerics, and their common life, monastery, 
rule, and the rest, were something additional grafted on to their 
proper clerical state. The difference manifested itself in one 
external point: Augustinian canons frequently and freely 
themselves served the parish churches in the patronage of their 
houses; Benedictine monks did so, speaking broadly, hardly at 
all, and their doing so was forbidden by law, both ecclesiastical 
and civil. In other respects the life of canons regular in their 
monasteries, and the external policy and organization among 
their houses, differed little from what prevailed among the Black 
Benedictines; their superiors were usually provosts or priors, 
but sometimes abbots. As contrasted with the friars they are 
counted among the monastic orders. Alongside of the local 
federations or congregations of houses of Augustinian canons 
were formed the Premonstratensian order (1120) (?.«.), and the 
English'* double order" of St Gilbert of Sempringham (11 48) 
iq.v.), both orders, in the full sense of the word, composed of 
Augustinian canons. 

Two special kinds of orders arose out of the religious wars 
waged by Christendom against the Mahommedans in the Holy 
Land and in Spain: (i) the Military orders: the Knights 
Hospitallers of St John and the Knights Templars, both at the 
beginning of the 12th century, and the Teutonic Knights at its 
close; (2) the orders of Ransom, whose object was to free 
Christian prisoners and slaves from captivity under the 
Mahommedans, the members being bound by vow even to offer 
themselves in exchange; such orders were the Trinitarians iq.v.) 
founded in 11 98, and the order of Our Lady of Ransom (de 
Mercede), founded by St Peter Nolasco in 1223; both were 
under the Augustinian rule. 

At the beginning of the xjth century arose the series of great 
Mendicant orders. Their nature and work and the needs that 
called them into being are explained in the article Mendicant 
Movement, and in the separate articles on St Francis op Assist 
and Franciscans (1210), St Dominic and Dominicans (121 5), 
Carmeutes (1245), Augustinian Hermits (1256) — these were 
the four great orders of Mendicant friars — to them were added, 
in 1487, the Servites iq.v.) founded in 1233. 

It will be in place here to explain the difference between friars, 
monks, and canons regular. The distinction between the two 
last has already been brought out; but they agree in this that the 
individual monk and canon alike belongs to his house of 
profession and not to any greater or wider corporation. They 



690 



MONASTICISM 



are bound by place and the unit is the individual community. 
Thus among monks and canons regular each monastery has its 
own fixed community, which is in a real sense a family; and the 
monk or canon, no matter where he may be, looks on his monas- 
tery as his ** home," like the ancestral home of a great family. 
With the friars this is all changed: the friar does not belong to 
any particular house, but to the province or order, so that there 
is no reason, beyond the command of his superiors, why he should 
be living in one house rather than another. In the monk 
attachment to his own one monastery is a virtue; in the friar 
detachment is the ideal. The monk, or the canon, nonnally exer- 
cises his influence on the world in and through his community, 
not as an individual but as a member of a corporate body. 
The friar's sphere of work is normally outside his convent, and 
he works and influences directly and as an individual. Lastly, 
in regard to the object aimed at there was an imporunt differ- 
ence, for the professed object of the friars was to be clerical 
helpers of the parochial clergy in meeting the specifically religious 
needs of the time. Already, in St Francis's lifetime, his friars 
had grown into an order dedicated to spiritual ministrations 
among the poor, the sick, the ignorant, the outcasts of the great 
cities; while by the very conception of their institute the Domini- 
cans were dedicated to the special work of preaching, especially 
to heretics and heathens. Here, too, should be mentioned St 
Francis's other great creation, the Tertiaries {q.v.),OT devout 
men and women living in the world, who while continuing their 
family life and their ordinary avocations, followed a certain rule 
of life, giving themselves up to more than ordinary prayer and 
the pursuit of good works, and abstaining from amusements of a 
workily kind. 

12. The Religious Orders in Ike Later Middle Ages.— Tht xjth 
century was the heyday of monasticism in the West; the 
Mendicant orders were in their first fervour and enthusiasm; the 
great abbeys of Benedictines, Cistercians and Augustinian canons 
reflected the results of the religious reform and revival associated 
with Hildebrand's name, and maintained themselves at a high 
and dignified level in things religious and secular; and under the 
Benedictine rule were formed the new congregations or orders 
of Silvestrines (1231), Celestines (c. 1260) and Olivetans (1319), 
which are described under their several headings. But towards 
the end of the century a period of decline set in, which ran its 
course in increasing volume throughout the 14th century. A 
great wave of secularity rolled over the Church, engulfing the 
religious orders with the rest; love waxed cold, fervour lan- 
guished, learning declined, discipline was relaxed, bitter rivalries 
broke out, especially between Franciscans and Dominicans. 
The great schism was reflected in the Mendicant orders which 
were divided into two obediences, to the destruction of discipline. 
The great wealth of the old monastic orders exposed them, 
especially in France and Italy, to the vicious system of commen- 
dation, whereby a bishop, an ecclesiastic, or even a layman was 
appointed " commendatory abbot " of a monastery, merely for 
the purpose of drawing the revenues (see Abbot); the monas- 
teries were often deprived even of necessary maintenance, the 
communities dwindled, and regular observance became impos- 
sible. There is reason to believe that in England a relatively 
good level was maintained throughout, thanks in great measure 
to the fact that the kings resolutely refused to allow the 
introduction of commendation — Wolsey was the first and last 
commendatory abbot in England. In the German lands, the 
lowest level was touched, and the writings of the Augustinian 
canon Johann Busch, and of the Benedictine abbot Trithemius 
reveal a state of things in the first half of the zsth century 
that urgently called for reform. The first move in this direction 
was made in the Netherlands and north Germany imder the 
influence of Gerhard Groot {q.v.), and issued in the formation 
of the Windcshcim congregation of Augustinian canons and 
the secular congregation of Brotheis of Common Life (q.v.) 
founded c. 1384, both of which became centres of religious 
revival. During the first half of the 15th century numerous 
and effective efforts at reform were initiated in all the 
orders without exception, and in every part of Europe. These 



movements, promoted by the coimcib of ConaUnoe add. Bad, 
partook of the spirit of the time and were characterised by 
an extreme austerity of life and a certain hardnos ef 
spirit, and a sort of police regulation easily understaadable 
at a time of reaction from grave abuses. At thb time siok 
the Hieronymites iq.v.) founded in 1375, under the Augustiniaa 
rule, the Observants (141 5) among the Franciscans (^.r.), and 
the Minims (founded c. 1460 by St Francis of Paola. q.v.), mhote 
programme was to outdo the Minors or Franciscans. These 
various reform movements among the orders were widely but 
not universally successful; and so the Reformation found rdi* 
gious houses in an unsatisfactory state in sufficient numbers to 
afford the reformers one of their chief handles against the old 
religion. The Reformation and the religious wars that foUovcd 
in its wake destroyed the monasteries and religious orders of 
all kinds in northern Europe and crippled them in ccninl 
Europe. 

13. The Modem Orders.— During the Reformation period 
there sprang up, to meet the needs of the time, a new kind of 
religious order, called Regular Gerks. These are religioas 
orders in the full sense of the word, as the members take tk 
solemn religious vows. Regular clerks are by their institute 
clerics and priests, and they are devoted to some particukr vod 
or works as their own special object — as education, the preadiiif 
of missions and retreats, or the going on missions to the heatki. 
They carry still further the tendencies that differentiate the friin 
from the monks; and in particular, in order to be more free h 
devoting themselves to their q)ecial works, the orders of regohr 
clerks have conmionly given up the choral celebratioo ef tk 
canonical office, which had been maintained by the friars. 

Of regular clerks by far the most important are the Jesdts 
(q.v.), founded in 1540; there are also the Theatines (fooaded 
1524 by St Cajetan and Caraffa, afterwards Paul IV.); tk 
Bamabites (founded 1530, by St Antonio Zaccaria) and ockis 
(see Max Heimbucher, Ordem u. Kongregatioruu (1897), E. 
SS Z08-X14). Strictly speaking the **reli^us congregatiosi * 
should be distinguished from the orders of regular clerks, tk 
difference being that in the former the vows, though taken fo 
life, are only " simple vows " and more easily ^i'cp«Hi««Mi» hf 
authority; but the character and work of the two institute ii 
very similar. The chief of these congregations are the Fubob- 
ists (founded by St John of the Cross, 1725) and tk | 
Redemptorists (founded by St Alfonsus Liguori, 1749), ktk ' 
dedicated to giving missions and retreats. The Chiiius 
Brothers, devoted to primary education, fotmded by Si Jea 
Baptiste de k Salle in 1679, are not in orders (HeiakKkf; 
op. cU. SS 115-118). 

Besides the religious congregations there are a mmta ^ 
" secular congregations," composed of secular piiestt JSflnH 
together under temporary vows and free to leave at wdi: tk 
following deserve mention: Oblates of St Charles (founded h/ 
St Charles Borromeo, 1578); Oratorians (founded by Si FtfP 
Neri, c. 1570); the French Oratory (founded by Cardinal BoA 
1613), a similar but distinct institution, which prodaced t 
number of scholars of the highest distinction— ThoMM 
Morin, Marlebranche, Richard Simon, Jufnio, Lebrun, Mnfcii 
and others; Lazarists (founded by St Vincent de Fsul, 16x1); 
Sulpicians (foimded by M. Olier, 1641), and a vast nuberef 
others, including several for the mission to the beathoi (|M 
Heimbucher op. cit. S$ 124-140). 

During the period under review, from the Re(brmsti0l* 
the French Revolution, the old orders went on alongside «( 1^ 
new, and many notable revivals and congregations arose ta^f 
them: the most noteworthy were the Capuchins {q.9.) aaoaflk 
Franciscans (1528); the Discalced Carmelites iq.v.) of St TcK* 
and St John of the Cross (1562); the TrappisU {q.9.) UBtH^ 
Cistercians (1663); and, most famous of all, the Maiirirts(f*) 
among the Benedictines of France (162 1). 

14. The Religious Orders in Recent rtmes.— At tbecad«((k 
i8th century and the opening of the 19th the religiovssrfo* 
received a succession of blows in those countries in wbicb ikf 
had survived the Reformation from which thej ksft ^ 



MONASTIR 



691 



in the preientgeiientioD recovered. Tbe Jesuits were suppresred 
byj\>pe Clement XIV. in 1773, and restored by Pius VII. in 1814. 
As the result of the ecclesiastical policy of the emperor Joseph II. 
nearly all rdigious houses of all kinds were suppressed through- 
out the Austrian dominions (1780). The French Revolution 
swept them out of France and caused the secularization of the 
great nuijority in central Europe and Italy. In Portugal and 
Spain they were dissolved in 1834-1835; in Italy in z866; in the 
Prussian domim'ons in 187 1. The last half of the 19th century, 
and more especially the last quarter, witnessed a remarkable 
revival of vitality and growth in most of the older orders in 
Marly every country of western Europe, and besides, an extra- 
ordinaiy number of new congregations, devoted to works of 
every sort, were founded in the xgth century: Heimbucher 
{»p, cii., (( 1x8, 134-X40) numbers no fewer than seventy of 
these new congregations of men. In the new countries, especi- 
ally in the United States and Australia, but also in South Africa, 
orders and congregations of all kinds are most thriving. The 
chief set-back has come again in France, where, by the Associa- 
tk>n Laws of 1903, the religious orders have neariy all been 
luppresied and expelled and their property confiscated. 

15. The Nuns, — In the foregoing sketch nothing has been said 
concerning the nuns; and yet in all ages women, hardly less than 
nen, have pbyed their part in monasticism. In the earliest 
Christian times the veiled virgins formed a grade or order apart, 
more formally separated from the community than were the male 
ascetics. There is reason for believing that there were organized 
convents for women before there were any for men; for when 
St Anthony left the world in 370 to embrace the ascetic life, 
the Vila says he placed his sister in a nunnery (rop^cor). 
We Icam from Palladius that by the end of the 4th century 
minneries were numerous all over Egypt, and they existed also 
fa Palestine, in Italy and in Africa— in fact throughout the 
Christian world. It is a curious coincidence that the sister of 
each of the three great cenobitical founders, Pachomius, Basil 
Mad Benedict, was a nun and ruled a community of nuns ac- 
cording to an adaptation of her brother's rule for monks. In the 
West the Benedictine nuns played a great part in the Christian 
aettJexnent of north-western Europe. As the various monastic 
mnd mendicant orders arose, a female branch was in most cases 
formed alongside of the order; and so we find canonesses, and 
liermitesses, and Dominicanesses, and Franciscan nuns [or Clares 
C^.v.)] — requisite information will be found in the respective 
articles. Then there were the " double orders " of Sempringham 
(ace St Gilbekt) and Fontevrault, in which the nuns were the 
IMedoininant, or even the dominant, element. Of the modem 
orders of men only a few include nuns. But on the other there 
%fe a vast number of purely female orders and congregations. 
the great majority of these modem congregations of women 
follow the Augustinian mie, supplemented by special constitu- 
tions or by-laws; such are the Brigittines, the Ursulincs and the 
Visitation nuns: others follow the rule of the third order of the 
Franciscans or other Mendicants (sec Tertiaries). In early 
tiroes nuixs could go out of their enclosure on occasion; but in 
tbe later middle ages, up to the council of Trent, the tendency 
^vas to keep them more and more strictly confined within their 
Convent precincts. In 1609 an English lady, Mary Ward, 
founded at Munich the " Institute of Mary," the nuns of which 
l»ere not bound to enclosure. 1 his new departure, or rather, 
x^urn to old ideas, encountered vehement opposition and 
^lifficultics that nearly wrecked.it; but it has survived, and has 
Ikcen the pioneer in the extraordinary development of institutes 
«if women devoted to external good works of every kind. St 
Vincent of Paul soon followed; in 1633 he established the Sisters 
«lf Charity, bound only by yearly vows, and wholly given up to 
^•orks of charity — chiefly nursing in hospitah and in the homes 
tif tbe poor, and primary education in poor schools. 

As women are debarred from exercising the spiritual functions 
^ tbe ministry, it follows that nuns have to devote themselves 
^tber to a more purely contemplative life, or else to a more wholly 
Active one, than is usual among the orders of men. who commonlyj 
^ wirtue of their priesthood, have been able to find a mixed form 



of life between the two eztremet. The nuns belonging to ttie 
older orders tend to the contemplative idea, and they still find 
recruits in sufficient numbers, in spite of the modem rush to the 
active congregations. These ktter exist in wondrous ntimber 
and variety, exercising every imaginable form of good work — 
education, both primary and secondary; the care of hospitals, 
orphanages, penitentiaries, prisons; of asylums for the blind, 
the deaf and dumb, the insaxie; of refuges for the aged poor and 
the destitute. 

See the works of Helyot and Heimbucher, referred to below under 
" Literature " ; also Lina Eckenstein, Woman under Monasticism 
(1896): and for information on the various orders of women, J. N. 
Murphy. Terra incognita (1873); and F. M. Steele, ConoenU ofurtat 
Britain and /rctoiid (1902). 

x6. ConclHsioH. — Few phenomena are more striking than the 
change that has come over educated Protestant opinion in its 
estimate of monasticism. The older Protestantism uncompro- 
misingly judged the monastic ideal and life to be both unchristian 
and unnatural, an absolute perversion deserving nothing but 
condemnation. But now the view of the critico-historical school 
of Protestant thought, of which Dr Adolf Hamack is so represen- 
tative a spokesman, is that the preservation of spiritual religion 
in Catholic Christianity, both Eastern and Westem, has been 
mainly, if not wholly, due to monasticism (see Hamack's early 
tractate Das M&nchtumt translated under the title Monasticism^ 
by E. E. Kellett, 1901 ; also the lectures on Greek and Roman 
Catholicbm in Das Wesen des Christenlums^ translated by Bailey 
Saunders, 1902; the first-named work is the most suggestive 
general apcrqu of the whole subject — though written from a 
frankly hostile standpoint, it b in large measure a panegyric). 

The views of the new Protestantism concerning monasticism 
are probably no less excessive than those of the old. The truth 
probably lies somewhere between them. It may perhaps be 
agreed that not the least of the services rendered to the Christian 
people at large by monasticism is this: Into fvery life the spirit 
of renunciation must enter; in most lives there are crises in which 
the path of mere duty can be followed only in virtue of a great 
renunciation; if we are able to make these ordinary and necessary 
renunciations, it is in some measure owing to the fact that the 
path has been made easier for us by those who (like the author 
of the Imitation of Christ) have shown the example, and thereby 
been able to formulate the theory, of renunciation in a supreme 
degree. 

Liter ATURB. — ^Theliteratureon monasticism is immense. Thechtef 
repertory for information on the historical side is Helvot's Histoirt 
des ordres religieux (8 voliu ijiy,2nA ed. 1792; digested in dictionary 
form by Migne, i860). This information has txen condensed and 
brought up to date by Max Heimbucher. Orden und Kongregationen 
.-- ■. ■'•■ . t -■■'■' -r .-, ; 4 and cfL in ji ^ali,, iijjo?)— thi.-. ... . 1 :. ,i-.jl 
n.iniiLhjaK n t-tjuipjiMrcI throughout with an riteeltent and tivcII tlio^cn 
bibliography, Ouq Zockkr's Aiktie und M&ncktam {t&tyj)., sUva 
coven the whole ground, dnd it writt^^n m^nc from the poini of view 
ul theory. The inner ipirit ^nd working ol I he olfltT n^ttnatlicum is 
wdl fjofirayed in F.A- Gabquct'* Haf/u* M^tttinii Lift ^1904); 
mot\*jiopubr atcounts arc given in H L FcJ'py'i l^o/tnituism O&gtl^. 
and t M- Sicfle'* Miffiu firrirt ani Rrtitioui iJoujfs ofCrrat Briiatn 
and Ire/and {i<^ih Tlitr lulcs ui the variout orders are coHcfted 
in B roe kie'i ed i Lion of Holstcn ^i Codrx rcfTtloF um {6 voU. ^ L 7SQ1). The 
^rticl^f Maniktum m Me nog -Ha tick R^tmyklopadieilf^ ciT), and lit 
W'cUiT LiinJ Weltt- Kiftkrnhxkon (jnd ed) jjo over ihe same general 
grountJ a* the pfrscfit srtide, in ihe tjHlcf raorticn entering into 
greater detail as to facts, but in the later dealing much more sum- 
marily. The relevant separate articles in these two great diction- 
anc», Protestant and Catholic respectively, will supply adequate 
information and ample references on most points. The Catholic 
Dictionary contains useful articles on most of the subjects here 
touched on ; and an extenuve Catholic Encyclopaedia is in course of 
preparation at the Catholic University of Washington. The habits 
and dress of the various orders may be seen in Helyot's Histoire, 
which atwunds in plates, coloured, in the ed. of 1793* There are 
pbtes representing members of the chief orders in Dugdale's Monas- 
ticon. and in the books of Gasquct and Steele mentioned above; 
also (coloured) in Tukcr and Malleson, Handbook to Christian Romtt 
PL iu. (1900). (E. C. B.) 

MONASTIR, or BrrouA, the second dty of Macedonia, and 
the capital of the vilayet of Monastir in European Turkey, on 
the Salonica- Monastir railway, 400 m. W* of Constantinople. 
Pop. (1905), about 60,00a Monastir is situated at an altitude 



692 



MONAZITE— MONBODDO 



of 3019 ft. on the eastern venant of the richly wooded mountains 
which ctilminate in the Peristeri (8300 ft.) and sever Lake 
Prespa from the valley of the Kara-Su or Tzema. A tributary 
of this river, the Dragor or Drahor, traverses Monastir through a 
rocky channel which b rarely filled except after a thaw or heavy 
rain. The dty possesses many mosques, churches and schools, 
baths and a military hospital It is the seat of numerous con- 
sulates, an American Protestant mission, and a Lazarist mission. 
The annual value of its trade is alx>ut £400,000. Grain, flour, 
cloth, hides and bones are exported, and a large amount of gold 
and silver ornaments is manufactured, though this industry 
tends to decline. 

The military advanuges of its position at the meeting-place 
of roads from Salonica, Durazzo, Uskub, and Adrianople led 
the Turks, about z8ao, to make Monastir the headquarters of 
an army corps. Since then the general and commercial impor- 
tance of the city has greatly increased, and in 1898 it was made 
the see of a Bulgarian bishop. The ancient diocese of its Greek 
archbishop is known as Pelagonia, from the old name of the 
Rara-Su Plain. Monastir itself has been identified with the 
ancient Heradea Lyncestis on the Via Egnatia; its modem name 
is derived from the monastery of Bukova (" the beeches ") near 
the southern outskirts of the city. 

MONAZITE, a mineral consisting of anhydrous phosphate of 
the cerium metals (Ce, La,Di)P04, together with small and vari- 
able amounts of thorium (ThO», x-io%) and yttrium. It is 
of considerable commercial importance as a source of thoria 
for the manufacture of the Welsbach and other mantles for 
incandescent gas-lighting: the cerium is used to a limited extent 
in pharmacy. 

The following analyses are of monazite from: (!•) Burke county. 
North Carolina; (II.) Arendal, Norway; (III.) EmmavUle, Gough 
county, New South Wales, 

I. II. III. 

Phoipharua pcntfjxide (PiOt) . 29-28 27-55 35-09 
Cerium oxide (CciOi) . . . 31-38 29-20 36-64 
Lanthanum oxide (LajOi) { .^ ao aa <«< «a «* 

Vtiriiim o^dt (VttOj) * , . — 3*82 — 

Thorium oiidc (ThOi) * . . 6-49 9-57 1-23 

Silica tSdOi) .,**.. 1-40 1-86 3-21 

Alumina (AtiO*) » . . . — — 3-II 

Iron ojdde (fc^i) ... — I'I3 — 

Lime ^CaOJ , — 0-69 — 

Water tHiO) . » . . . 0-20 0-52 — 

9963 I00-60 99.49 
Speafic gravity ., . . . . 510 515 .5001 . 
Thona and siUca being often present in the molecular ratio i : i, it 
has been suggested that they exist as thorite (ThSiO«) as a mechanical 
impurity in the monazite. 

Crystals of monazite belong to the monodinic sjrstem, and are 
usually fattened parallel to the ortho-pinacoid (a in the figure). 
The large (up to 5 in. in length) reddish- 
brown, dull and opaque crystals from 
Norway and the Urals are simple in form, 
whilst the small, translucent, honey-yellow 
crystals from the Alps are bounded by 
numerous bright faces. Crystals of the 
latter habit were described in 1823 from 
Dauphin^ under the name tumerite, and 
owing to their rarity were not until many 
years afterwards analysed chemically and proved to be iden- 
tical with monazite. Monazite from the Urals was described 
by A. Breithaupt in 1829, and named by him from Gr. /lovd^'cty, 
to be solitary, because of the rarity of the singly occurring 
crystals. The hardness is 5), and the specific gravity 5*z--5-2. 
Light which has traversed a crystal or grain of monazite 
exhibits a characteristic absorption spectrum, and this affords a 
ready means of detecting the mineral. 

As minute idiomorphic crystals monazite is of wide distribu- 
tion in granites and gneisses, being present in very small amounts 
as an accessory constituent of these rocks. By powdering the 
rock and washing away the lighter minerals in a stream of water 
the heavy minerals (zircon, anatase, rutile, magnetite, garnet, 




monazite, xenotime, &c.) may be collected. Tliti sepantkn hii 
been effected naturally by the weathering and disintegratioA of 
the rocks and the accumulation of the heavier minerab in the 
beds of streams. Under these conditions monazite has been 
found as rounded water-worn grains in the alluvial gold-washingi 
of the Urals, Finbnd, Siberia, the United States, Brazil, Cdom- 
bia, New South Wales, &c., and in tin-gravels in SwaziUod, 
South Africa. Larger crystals of monazite are found embedded 
m pegmatite veins in the Uroco Mountains (southern Urab); at 
Arendal and other places in southern Norway, where it is col- 
lected in the feldspar quarries to the extent of about one too per 
annum; and in the mica mines at Villeneuve in Quebec, where 
masses of monazite weighing so lb have been found. The smaB 
crystab of the ** tumerite " habit occur implanted, often with 
anatase and rutile, on the crystallized quartz and albite. wfaid 
line crevices in the crystalline schbts of the French. Swiss asd 
Tirolese Alps; similar czystab with the same associati<»s occur 
very exceptionally in the day-slate at Tintagd in ComvaB. 
Microscopic crystab of monazite (cryptolite, tmm syNrHi, 
concealed) have been observed embedded to the czynaBiied 
apatite of Arendal in Norway. 

The deposits worked commerdally are the monaate-bemi 
sands of North Carolina and Brazil, and to a smaller extent tbiae 
of South Carolina. In North Carolina it occurs over a wide ant 
in tlie streams riung in the South Mountains, an taAen oatficr 
of the Blue Ridee. The rocks of the dbtrict are granitic biotite* 

f;neiss and hornblende-gneiss, and are intersected w veins of un- 
erous quartz. The percentage of monazite in the river-|iaKii 
varies from very small amounts up to 1 or 2 %. The heavy muKiVi 
contained in the graveb are collected in the mune manner «i is 
washing for gold (which U often also present) ; magnetite u sejaated 
with a magnet ; but other minerab, such as zircon, rutile, pmt, 
corundum, &c., cannot be separated by mechanical means, nc 
product b a fine-grained )rellowish sand containing 65-85% « 
monazite and 3-9% of thoria. In Brazil it occurs in rivcrfnvrii 
and also in the sand on the sea-beaches; an extenave accanohtiai 
of verjr rich monazite sand occurs on the seashore near Akobsfa 
in Bahia, and thb has been shipped as ballast in the natmal Malt 
See H. B. C. Nitze, " Monazite " U6th A nnmal Rgpoii 0(At VM 
States Geohgical Survey, pt. iv. (1895). pp. 667-693}. IL. J. &) 

MONBODDO. JAMES BURNETT. LoxD (i7X4:-i799), ScottiA 
judge and anthropologist, was bom in 1714 at Mofd)odd»ii 
Kincardineshire. He studied at Aberdeen, and, after 1 
hb law examinations in Edinburgh, he quickly took a 1 
position at the Scottish bar, being made a Lord of Seaaoi it 
1767 with the title of lord Monboddo. Many of hb eoa* 
tridties, both of conduct and opimon, appear less icmaikibkt* 
us than they did to hb contemporaries; moreover, he secai M 
have heightened the impression of them by hb humorow wfe 
in their defence. He may have had other reasons thn iki 
practice of the andents for dining late and petfocniRg Ml 
journeys on horseback instead of in a carriage. HebitmeBbae' 
more particularly for hb writings on human origins. bMi 
Antient Metaphysics (1779-1799)1 Monboddo concdvedan* 
gradually dcvating himself from an animal amditkn, li ^^ 
hb mind b immersed in matter, to a state in which 1 ' ' 
independently of body. In hb < 
Origin and Proptess of Language ( 
the same species as the orang-outang, 
elevation of man to the sodal state, which he oooccxvediit 
natural process determined by " the necessities of humia B^* 
He looked on language (whict b not " natural " to man b ike 
sense of being necessary to hb self-preservation) as a canseqjaaB 
of his sodal sUte. His views abK>ut the origin of sodetj nd 
language and the faculties by which man b dbtinguiihed inB 
the brutes have many curioiis points of contact with DaiviB* 
and neo-Kantianism. Hb idea of studjring man as one of t^ 
animab, and of collecting facts about savage tribes to tbo* 
light on the problems of dvilization, bring him intocoatactw 
the one, and hb intimate knowledge of Greek phikHopty *^ 
the other. In both respects Monboddo was far in adms ■ 
hb neighbours. Hb studied abstinence from fine writint-^ 
" the rhetorical and poetical style fashionable among wn tca* 
the present day " — on such subjects as he handled lu aii*' 
the idea of hb contemporaries that he was only aa ccsv 



r, to a sUte m wbidi mno kb 
> equally voluminous woik, Hi 
^ (i773)> l>c brought man ■A' 
sutang. He traced the fisAi' 



MONCEY— MONDOVI 



693 



DOBOocter of ntpremdy absurd ptndoxa. He died <in the a6th 
9f May 1799- 

BoaweirB Life of Johnson gives an account Of the leidcographer'B 
vUt to Burnett at Monboddo, and iB full of rrferences to the natural 
Dootemporary view of a man who thought that the human race 
Qould be descended from monkeys. 

MONCEY. BON ADRIEN JEANNOT DB, Duu o? Coneguano 
(1754- 1842), marshal of France, was the son of a lawyer of 
Besancon, where he was born on the 31st of July 1754. In his 
boyhood he twice enlisted in the French army, but his father 
procured his discharge on both occasions. His desi."e was at bist 
gratified in 1778, when he received a commission. He was a 
captain when, in 1791, he embraced the principles of the French 
Revolution. Moncey won great distinction m the campaigns 
of 1793 and 1794 on the Spanbh frontier (see French Revolu- 
noNARY Wars), rising from the command of a battalion to the 
command in chief of the Army of the Western Pyrfnto in a 
few months, and his successful operations were largely instru- 
mental in compelling the Spanish government to make pea(?e. 
After this he was employed in the highest commands until 1799, 
when the government, suspecting him of Royalist views, dis- 
missed him. But the foup <fitat of 18. Brumdire brought him 
back to the active list, and in Napoleon's Italian campaign of 
1800 he led a corps from Switzeriand into Italy, surmotmting 
tO the difficulties of bringing horses and guns over the then 
fbfmidable pass of St Gothard. In 1801 Napoleon made him 
oaapector-general of gendarmerie, and on the assumption of the 
imperial title created him a marshal of France. In 1805 Moncey 
received the grand cordon of the legion of honour, and in x8o8 
Lhe title of duke of Conegliano. In the latter year, the first of 
the Peninsular War, Moncey was sent to Spain in command of 
in army corps. He signalized himself by his victorious advance 
Ml Valencia, the effect of which was, however, destroyed by 
Lhe disaster to Dupont at Baylen, and took a leading part in 
Lhe emperor's campaign on the Ebro and in the second siege of 
Saragossa in 1809. He refused to serve in the invasion of 
Ruasia, and therefore had no share in the campaign of the 
Urande armie in 1812 and 1813. When, however, France was 
invaded (18 14) Marshal Moncey reappeared in the field and 
fought the Ust battle for Paris on the heights of Montmartre 
ind at the barrier of Clichy. He remained neutral during the 
Hundred Days, feeling himself botmd to Louis XVIII. by his 
engagements as a peer of France, but after Waterloo he was 
punished for refusing to take part in the court-martial on Ney 
t)y imprisonment and the loss of his marshaiate. He was 
reinstated in 18 16, and re-entered the chamber of peers three 
feart later. His last active service was as commander of an 
umy corps in the short war with Spain, 1823. In 1833 he 
tiecame governor of the Invalides. He died on the aoth of 
April 1842. 

■ONCHIQUB, a town of southern Portugal, In the district 
if Faro (formcriy the province of Algarve); 13 m. S. of Saboia 
itation on the Lisbon-Faro railway, and 12 m. N. of Villa Nova 
» the Atlantic. Pop. (1900), 7345. Monchique is one of the 
principal Portuguese health-resorts, finely situated among the 
ivocKled heights of the Serra de Monchique, which rise on the 
vest to 2963 ft. There are hot sulphur springs, with baths 
ind a sanatorium 4 m. south. Wheat, millet, rye, b^ns, oranges, 
irine, olive oil and chestnuts are the chief products, and there is 
I woollen factory. 

■ONCTON, a city and p6rt of entry in Westmoreland cotmty, 
Hew Brunswick, Canada, 89 m. by rail N.E. of St John, at the 
head of navigation on the Petitcodiac river, the seat of the 
vorkshops and general offices of the Inter-Colonial railway and 
the eastern terminus of the new Grand Trunk Pacific railway. 
Pop. (1901), 9026. It has large stove factories, engine and boiler 
porks, and is a flourishing manufacturing town. The workshops 
)f the railway and great part of the town were swept away by 
be in February 1906, but have been rebuilt on a larger and 
Bore modem scale. 

IIOIID, LUDWIO (1839-1909), British chemist, was born at 
Otmd in Gennaay 00 the jtb of March 1839. After studying 



at Marburg under Hermann Kolbe and at Heidelberg under 
Robert Bunsen, he came to England in 1862 and obuined a 
position in a chemical works at Widnes, where he elaborated the 
practical application of a method he had devised for recovering 
the sulphur lost as calcium sulphide in the black ash waste 
of the Leblanc alkali process. He . became a naturalized 
British subject in 1867. In 1873 he entered into partnership 
with Sir John Tomlinson B runner (b. 184 2- ),whom he had 
met when he was at Widnes, and thus founded the great chemical 
manufacturing firm of Brunner, Mond & Co. They began to 
make alkali by the ammonia-soda process, under licence from 
the Belgian chemist, Ernest Solvay, but at first the venture 
threatened to prove a failure. Gradually, however, the tech- 
nical difficulties were overcome and success assured, largely as a 
result of improved methods worked out by Mond for the recovery 
of the ammonia. About 1879 he beg^ experiments, in the 
economical utilization of fuel, and his efforts led him to the 
system of making producfer-gas, known by his name (see Gas: 
II. For Pud and Power). Later, while attempting to utilize the 
gas for the production of electricity by means of a Grove gas 
battery, he noticed that the carbon monoxide contained in it 
combined with nickel. The resulting compound, nickel car- 
bonyl, which was describe to the Chemical Society in 1890, is 
both formed and de<5ompo8ed within a very moderate range of 
temperature, and on this fact he based a successful process for 
the extraction of nickel from its ores. A liberal contributor to 
the purposes of scientific research, Mond founded in 1896 the 
Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory in connexion with the 
Royal Institution. On his death, which occurred in London on 
the nth of December 1909, he bequeathed a large part of his 
collection of pictures to the nation. 

MONDAY (m O.E. Monandaig, the moon's day, a transk^ 
tion of the Late Lat. Lunae dies^ from which the French lundi 
is taken), the second day of the week (see Calendar). The 
day has been humorously canonized as St Monday, the festival 
of cobblers, who seldom work on Mofida}^ and were supposed 
not to know exactly on whi€;h day St Crispin's (their patron 
saint) festival fell, save that it should be a Monday, and thus 
celebrated each Monday in the year as a holiday so as to be 
certain to honour the day. In some parts of Yorkshire any 
holiday is called Cobblers' Monday. CoUop Monday, in the 
north of England, is the Monday before Shrove Tue^y, so 
called in allusion to th^ dish of fried eggs and bacon, and slices 
of salted, dried meat, called coUops, taken on that day prepara- 
tory to the Lenten fast. Plough Monday in England is the 
Monday after Twelfth Day, the first Monday after Epiphany, 
in allusion to the fact that in medieval times the ploughmen 
had their f£te-day and went around the villages begging plough- 
money. The lord mayor of London holds a Grand Court of 
Wardmote at the Guildhall on Plough Monday of each year, to 
receive returns from the wards of the election of commoA. 
cotmdlme n an d to hear petitions against such returns. 

MONDOftBDO, a city of northern Spain, in the province of 
Lugo, 27 m. N.N.E. of the dty of Lugo, on the river Masma. 
Pop. (1900), 10,590. Mondoiiedo occupies a sheltered valley 
among the northern outliers of the Cantabrian Mountains. The 
prindpal buildings are the cathedral, a Corinthian structure of 
the 17th century, an ex-convent of Franciscan friars of Alcantara, 
which is used for a theatre and a public school, and the dvil 
hospital The industries indude laCe-making, linen-weaving, 
and leather manufacture. 

According to local tradition, the bishopric of Dumtum, near 
Braga, was transferred to San Martin de Mondofiedo (10 m. 
from Mondofiedo) in the 8th century; it was brought to 
Mondofiedo itself in the beginning of the 12th century. After 
having been for nearly a century and a half in the hands of the 
Moors, Mondofiedo was recaptured by Ordofio I. in 858; and the 
Christian possession was made permanent by Alphonso III. in 
870. It was taken by surprise by the French in 1809. 

MONDOVt, a town and episcopal see of the province of Cuneo, 
Piedmont, Italy, 17 m. by rail £. of Cuneo. Pop. (1901), 
5379 (town); z8,98a (commune). The lower town is it^i ft; 



694 



MONET— MONEY 



above jea-Ievel, the upper 1834 ft. Tbere is a ichool of the 
industrial arts and handicrafts, and majolica, paper, and silk 
tocoons are produced. The upper town contains the hex- 
agonal piazza, a citadel, erected in 1573 by Emanuel Philibert, 
the cathedral of S. Donatus, a spacious episcopal palace, and 
higher up is a tower, the Belvedere, with a fine view. At the 
foot of the hill along the banks of the EUero (a tributary of the 
Po) lie the industrial and commercial suburbs of Breo, Borgatto, 
Plan della Valle and Carassone, with their potteries, tanneries, 
paper-mills, marble-works, &c The mansion of Coimt San 
Quintino in Plan della Valle was the seat of the printing-press 
which from 1472 issued books with the imprint Mons Regali:.. 

Mondovi— Mons Vici,Mo|is Regalis,Monteregale — did not uke 
its rise till about a.d. xooo. The bishopric dates from 1388. 
About 3 m. to the east is the sanctuary of Vico, a church 
designed by Ascanio Vittozzi in 1596 and crowned by a famous 
dome (i 730-1 748), which has been declared a national monu- 
ment. In the square before, it is a monument (1891) to 
Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy. 

See L. Melano Rossi, The Sanctuario of the Madonna di Vico 
(London, 1907). 

- MONET, CLAUDE (1840- ), French painter, was bom in 
Paris on the 14th of November 1840. His youth was passed 
at H&vre, where his father had settled in 1845. Until he was 
fifteen years old he led a somewhat irregular life, learning little 
at school, and spending all his time in decorating his books with 
drawings and caricatures which gave him notoriety m H&vre. 
At the same time he became acquainted with Boudin, a clever 
sea-painter, under whose guidance he learned to love and to 
understand nature. At the age of twenty he became a soldier, 
and spent two years of his military time with the regiment of 
the Chasseurs d'Afrique in. the desert. Falling ill with fever, 
he was sent home, and entered the studio of Gleyre. This 
classical painter tried in vain to keep him to conventional art 
and away from truth and nature, and Monet left his studio, 
where he had become acquainted with two other *' impression- 
istic " painters— Sislcy and Renoir. At that time he also knew 
Manet iq.v.), and in 1869 he joined the group of C£zanne, Degas, 
Duranty, Sisley, and became a pUin air painter. During the 
war of 1870 he withdrew to England, and on his return was 
introduced by Daublgny to a dealer, M. Durand-Rucl, in whose 
galleries almost all his works have been exhibited. In 187 a 
he exhibited views of Argenteuil, near Paris; in 1874 a series 
entitled " Cathedrals,*' showing the cathedral of Rouen under 
different lights. He afterwards painted views of V£theuil (i875f 
see Plate), PourvUle and cliffs of Etretat (1881), of Bordighera 
(1886), of the Creuse (x889),Le Meulcs (1891), and some further 
views of cathedrals (1894). In December 1900 he exhibited 
«ome pictures called " Le Bassin des Nymphdas," and was 
engaged at the beginning of 1901 in painting views of London. 
Several of Monet's paintings, bequeathed by M. Caillebotte, arc 
in the Luxembourg Museum, Paris. (See Impressionism.) 

MONETARY CONFERENCES (International). These 
assemblies were one of the features of the httcr half of the 19th 
century, due to the decided tendency towards securing reforms 
by concerted international action. The disorganized state of 
the European currencies, which became more serious in conse- 
quence of the great expansion in trade and industry, came into 
notice through the great gold discoveries and their effect on the 
relations between the two precious metals. Both by its situation 
and its currency system, France was the country that was first 
led to aim at the establishment of a currency union, in which 
French ideas and influences would be predominant. A pre- 
liminary step was the formation of the Latin union, whereby 
the currencies of France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland were — 
in respect to their gold and silver coins — assimilated. In 1867 
the Paris Exhibition furnished the occasion for summoning a 
monetary conference, to which the principal countries of the world 
sent representatives. The guiding spirit of this assembly was 
the eminent economist, De Parieu, who had originated the Latin 
Union. By his advice a scheme was approved recommending 
the adoption of the single gold standard, the use of the decimal 



system, and the coordination of the varioas currendet with the 
French system. Difficulties as to the mode of bringing these 
principles into practical operation were discussed, and full 
liberty had to be given to the several nations to carry out the 
proposals in the way that seemed best. The result proved that 
the obstacles were insurmountable, e.;. the British government 
could not obtain the assent of a Royal Commission to the asaini- 
lation of the sovereign to the 2s-franc piece; and the coune 
of political events soon completely altered the relative positkm 
of the leading countries, even in their monetary relations. 
Cxermany and the United States reformed their cuneDries, 
without reference to any international considerations. 

The meeting of the next intematk>nal conference took place 
under very different conditions. A great fall in the value of 
silver as measured in gold, in progress from 1873, had affected 
the relations of silver-using countries, and disturbed the level of 
prices. Indian interests as well as those of American producos 
of silver suffered, while the management of all double-standard 
currencies became a task of increasing difficulty. The govern- 
ment of the United States invited the representatives of the 
leading powers to meet in Paris for the purpose of oonsidcriiig 
(i) the desirability of retaining the unrestricted use of silver lor 
coinage, (2) the adoption of international bimetallism (9.V.), by the 
acceptance of a ratio to be fixed by agreement. Eleven natioiis 
sent delegates, Gennany being the only great power unrepce- 
sented. After somewhat protracted discussion and the pieses- 
tation of a large number of documents the European states 
accepted the American proposition "that it b neccssaiy to 
maintain in the world the monetary functions of silver **; hot 
declined to bind the discretion of particular states as to the 
methods to be employed. They further declared it impossihle 
to enter into an agreement for a common ratio. The coofcxaxt^ 
therefore, separated without any result being obtained. 

In consequence of the continuing fall in the value of ahrar, 
which stimulated the bimetallic agitation, a third conference «u 
Convened by the joint action of France and the United States; it 
also met in Paris, and was more influential than its predecessor, 
since Germany sent representatives, as did Spain, Poctngal. 
Denmark and India, lie charaaeristic of this conference wts 
the greater strength of the support given to the biroetalKc 
proposal by France and the United States, together with the 
opposition of the delegates of the smaller European ooontries, 
and the refusal of (Germany to promise any co-operation. The 
inevitable consequence of this situation was the adjoaminent of 
the conference to obtain fresh instructions, which, however, were 
never furnished. 

After several abortive attempts the fourth (and last) of the 
conferences of this class was brought together at Bruasds a 
November 1892 on the im'tiative of the United Sutes. A fnl 
representation of the powers attended, but delay arose from the 
absence of defim'te proposals by the American goveraineaL 
These, when they were presented, proved to be only a reaffinns- 
tion of the bimetallic policy, and showed no advaoce. The 
conference, therefore, proceeded to consider the plans of Levy, 
Baron de Rothschild and Solbeer for the more extcodcd ve 
of silver. Such devices, being merely allcvialions, fafled ts 
gain any effective support. Appeals to Enghind and Gennai^ 
to grant some concessions likewise faUed. Thus, like its Parii 
forerunners, the Brussels .conference adjourned, but never 
resumed its sittings. 

After 1892 the currency problem passed into a new stage, in 
which action was national rather than intemationaL The method 
of procedure by conferepce was for the time abandoned. 

The proceedings of the several conferences have been imied by tltt 
governments taking part in them. Those of the United Sitatcs 
are the most convenient for English and American rewieffB. See 
alaoH. B. Russell, IntemaHonal Monetary Conferemces (New York, 
1898). (C F. B.) 

MONEY. I. Definition and PunctioMS.—Tht difficult qocstiai 
as to the best definition of money has been complicated hf the 
efforts of writers so to define the term as to give support to their 
particular theories. It is haid to frame a precise acooont sdvch 



MONEY 



695 



win hold good of the maay objects that have served for monetary 
use. From denoting coined metal, money has come to include 
anything that performs the money work: though there has been 
considerable hesitation in extending the term to those forms of 
credit that are in modem societies the chief instrument of 
exchange. It is therefore best to avoid a formal definition; 
and, instead, to bring out the character of money by describing 
the functions that it performs in the social system. The most 
important b, clearly, that of facilitating exchange. It is not 
necessary to dwell on the great importance of this office. The 
slightest consideration of industrial organization shows that it 
is based on the division of employments; but the earliest economic 
writers saw plainly that division of emplo3rments was only 
possible through the agency of a medium of exchange. They 
recognized that the result of increasing specialization of labour 
was to establish a state of things in which each individual pro- 
duced little or nothing for the direct satisfaction of his own wants, 
and had therefore to live by exchanging his product for the 
products of others. They saw, further, that this only became 
feasible by the existence of an article that all would be wiUing 
to accept for their special products; as otherwise the difficulty 
of bringing together persons with reciprocal wants would prove 
an insurmountable obstacle to that development of exchange, 
which alone made division of labour possible. A second function 
hardly inferior in importance to the one just mentioned is that 
of affording a ready means for estimating the comparative values 
of different commodities. Without some common object as a 
standard of comparison this would be practically impossible. 
** If a tailor had only coats and wanted to buy bread or a horse, 
It would be very troublesome to ascertain how much bread he 
ought to obtain for a coat or how many coats he should give for 
a horse "; and as the number of commodities concerned increased 
the problem would become harder, " for each commodity would 
have to be quoted in terms of every other commodity." There 
is, indeed, a good deal to be said for the view that the conception 
of general exchange value could never have been formed without 
the previous existence of money; it has certainly support from 
the evidence of competent observers respecting the methods of 
exchange followed by savage communities. The selection of 
some particular article as the criterion makes the comparison of 
values easy. "The chosen commodity becomes a common 
dtnominator, or common measure of value in terms of which we 
estimate the value of all other goods," and in this way money, 
which in its primary function renders exchange possible by acting 
as an intermediate term in each transfer, also nuikes exchanges 
easier by making them definite. Still another fimction of money 
comes into being with the progress of society. One of the 
most distinctive features of advancing civilization is the increas- 
ing tendency of people to trust each other. There is thus a con- 
tinuous increase in relations arising from contract, as can be seen 
by examining the development of any legal system. Now, a 
contract implies something to be done in the future, and for 
estimating the value of that future act a standard is required; 
and here money which has already acted as. a medium ofeicchange 
and as a measure of value at a given time, performs a third 
function, by affording an approximate means of estimating the 
present value of the future act; in this respect it may be regarded 
as a standard of value, or as some prefer to say, of deferred payments. 
Nor does this exhaust the list of services that money renders. 
In the earlier stages of economic life it acts as a store of value; 
for in no other way could a large body of wealth be concentrated. 
Though this is no longer needed by individuals, even at the 
present day the great banks find that their reserves must take 
the form of a monetary store. Again, money in its various forms 
has been the great agency for transmitting values from place to 
place. Its international function in this respect still continues. 
The balance of debt between countries is ultimately settled by 
the passage of bullion from the debtor to the creditor nation. 
But, though money has these powers, it is nevertheless correct 
to say that its essential functions are three in number, i.e. it 
supplies: (i) the common medium by which exchanges are made 
ponible; (2) the common measure by which the comparative 



values of those exchanges are estimated; (3) the standard by 
which future obligations are determined. 

a. The Value of Money, its Determining Causes. The Quantity 
of Money required by a Country.— The value of money is in 
principle only a special case of the general problem of value; but 
owing to its peculiar position the medium of exchange has in 
this respect become surrounded by difficulties that need to be 
removed The very phrase " value of money " is employed in 
two senses, which on the surface seem to have no connexion with 
each other, and are the cause of much confusion to those who 
have not looked into the matter. In mercantile phraseology the 
value of money means the interest charged for the use of loanable 
capital. When the market rate of interest is high, money is 
said to be dear; when it is low, money is regarded as cheap. 
Without entering into the reasons for this use of the term, it is 
sufficient to state the other and for our present purpose more 
correct meam'ng of the phrase. As the value of a thing is what 
it will exchange for; so " the value of money is what money will 
exchange for, or its purchasing power. If prices are low, money 
will buy much of other things, and is of high value; if prices 
are high, it will buy little of other things, and is of low value. 
The value of money b inversely as general prices, falling as they 
rise and rising as they fall." Now the proximate condition 
under which value is determined is admittedly the establish- 
ment of an equation between demand and supply. In the case 
of money, however, some explanation as to the nature of both 
these elements in the problem becomes necessary. In what 
forms is the supply of, and the demand for, money exhibited ? 
The supply of a commodity is the quantity of it which is offered 
for sole. But in what shape does the sale of money take place ? 
Plainly, by- being offered for goods. The supply of money is the 
quantity of it which people are wanting to lay out, i.e. all the 
money in circulation at the time. Demand, in like manner, 
means the quantity of a commodity desired, or, according to 
another mode of expression, the amount of purchasing power 
offered for it. Taking the latter as the more convenient for the 
case of money, we can say that the .demand for it consists in all 
goods offered for sale. The position of money as the medium 
of exchange introduces a further novel feature; for the market 
in its case is woHd-wide and the demand is unceasing; money is 
consequently in a constant state of supply and demand. It thus 
appears that the factors determining the value of money at a 
given time are: (i) the amount of money in circulation, and 
(2) the amount of goods on sale. Closer examination reveab 
other influencing conditions. The mere quantity of money is 
not the only element on the supply side. The varying circula- 
tion of the monetary units must be taken into account. Some 
coins do not nuike a sin^e purchase in a year, while others change 
hands in transactions hundreds of times. By averaging, we may 
estimate the effect of the rapidity with which money does its 
work, or, to employ a technical term, the " efficiency of money." 
Similarly, the amount of^sales rather than the quantity of 
commodities is the determining element on the demand side. 
Thus, if the influence of credit be omitted, it is true to say that 
the value of money varies inversely as its quantity multiph'ed 
by its efficiency; the amount of transactions being assumed to be 
constant. Some additional explanation is required before this 
formula can be accepted as an expression of the whole truth on 
the subject. It must be noticed that it is not commodities 
only that are exchanged for money. Services of all kinds consti- 
tute a large portion of the demand for the circulating medium, 
while the payment of interest on the many kinds of obligationa 
makes a further call on it. The potent influence of credit must 
also be recognized. The latter force is indeed the.chief agency 
to be considered in dealing with the variations of prices; though 
so far as it is based on deposits of metallic money it may be 
regarded as a form of increased monetary efficiency, and therefore 
as coming within the formula given above. In its wider aspect, 
credit acts as a substitute for ordinary money, and may be 
interpreted as equivalent to a system of perfected barter, or, 
better, as a new currency development. An interesting but 
paradoxiol conclusion should be noticed: it is that iocxeaaed 



696 



MONEY 



trade, apd expanding businesa are cause* which operaie not 
to raise, but to lower prices; for by enlarging the work ihAt 
money has to do they raise its value, i.e provided that other 
things remain the same. Another more obvious deduaba h 
that a large addition to the stock of money does not nece$uri]y 
raise prices, since money is only effective when brought into 
drculation. 

The chief topic of dispute in respect to the theory of money- 
value has been concerned with the question as to the uhimaic 
regulating influence. The value of freely produced commodities 
ift — according to economic theory — determined by "cost of 
production," or, where the article is produced at different costs > 
by the cost of production under the most unfavourable circum- 
stances. As demand varies with price, it follows that an 
adjustment of value takes place through the interaction of tost 
and demand, the latter indicating the influence of the uUiky 
of the commodity on the quantity required. In applying the 
theory to the special case of money, the first consideraiioa h 
the fact that gold and silver, the principal money materiab, arc 
the products of mines, and are produced at different costs, ho 
that their values depend on the portions raised at greatest cos\. 
We thus obtain the proposition that has figured in so many tejct- 
books; viz. that *' the value of money depends on its co^t of 
production." The theory of normal value, however, invqivcs 
certain assumptions, which are significant in this conncicion. 
Competition is conceived as absolutely free; it is assumed that 
there are accurate data for computing costs, and that the dt^iet- 
mination of value by cost is effective only " in the long mn/* 
It is recognized, also, that cost operates on value through id 
power in regulating supply. " The latent influence," sajrs Mill, 
by which the value of things are made to conform in the bng 
run to the cost of production is the variation that would Dihcr- 
wise take place in the supply of the commodity." From such 
considerations it follows that the influence of cost on the value 
of money is not so predominant as a rigid interpretation of the 
theory of value seems to suggest. 

In earlier times it has been a commort proceeding on the part of 
governments to restrict or stimulate both mining for the pr<-<:iou!^ 
metals and the business of coining. At all times the warkir^ 
of gold and silver mines has been rather a hazardous spccubtiGn 
than a leeitimate business. *' When any person undertakes to vork 
a new rome in Peru," says Adam Smith. " he is universally looked 
upon as a man destined to bankruptcy and ruin, and is upon ihut 
account shunned and avoided by everybody. Mining, it frfcms^ 
is considered there in the same light as here, as a lottery in which 
the prizes do not compensate the blanks." The modern capiuiUiMic 
organization of gold mining has not done much to alter tlu5 con- 
dition. As regards the adjustment of suoply to meet an altered 
cost of productron the difficulties are, ii possible, ^^reatcr. The 
actual supply of money is so large, when compared with the annuLil 

Eroduction of the precious metals, that a change in output can opt.' rate 
ut slowly on its value. The total stoppage of fresh supplies 
from the mines would not be sensibly felt for some years; and thougli 
increased production is more rapid in its operation, it Ukes Mtnt 
time to produce a decided effect. Hence the conclusion is rriichi-^ 
that " tne effects of all changes in the conditions of production 
of the precious metals are at first, and continue to be for mitiy 
years, questions of quantity only, with little reference to ctMi of 
production." This is the position which b usually known at tlut 
of the " quantity " theory; thoufh very different degrees of docuiiic 
are comprised under the general title. With due qualification ;ird 
comment it may be taken as the prevalent theory. At all events 
it is beyond dispute that the cost of production is not for ^hort 
periods the controlling force which governs the value of mortey ; 
while even for long periods its influence is very hard to asccrUin, 
in consequence of the speculative nature of the industries of i^old 
and silver mining. Another peculiar feature of the problem of 
money value arises from the fact that it is only through an actual 
change in the supply of money that its value can be altered. W'itl^ 
other commodities the knowledge that they can be produtcil at 
lower cost will bring about a reduction in their value. In the case 
of money, this docs not hold. There must be an adjustment ot 
the amount, or of the efficiency, of the money stock, since, as ex- 

flained above, it is in a constant state of supply and denniind. 
ts value is established in the very process of carrying on exchange-, 
and that process is influenced by the available supply. In regj.fd tu 
another form of money the effect of ibe amount in existence isstln 
more decisive. This is paper money, not immediately redeemable 
in coin. In this case tne idea of cost is manifestly inapplkabii?; 
Che quantity in circulation is evidently, as proved by abunddfit 
experience, the ruling influence on value. In laa. the * quantity "" 



theory receives its simpleat itltutfrntioo in the case of ia co o v mib le 
paper. The truth that the theory is but an instance of the actiea 
of supply and demand b equally diown by thb prominent cImb of 
instances. Where metallic coinage b artifically limited the mat 
principle holds good. The value of such currencies plainly dqaads 
on the conditions of supply and demand. 

The immense growth of credit and its embodiment m instm- 
ments that can be used as substitutes for money has led to the 
promulgation of a view respecting the value of money which msy 
be called the " credit " theory. According to the uphokien of 
thb doarine, the actual amount of metallic money has bat a 
trifling effect on the range of prices, and therefore on the vahe 
of money. What b really important b the volume of credit 
instruments in drctilation. It b on their amount that pact 
movements depend. Gold has become only the smaO change of 
the wholesale markets, and its quantity b comparativdy on- 
imporunt as a determinant of prices. The theory has some 
connexion with the view of " money " as consbting in the 
toanable capital of the mariiet, taking shape in the cheques that 
transfer liabilities. Thus the rate of interest comes to forai a 
factor in the creation of " money," and the mercantile use of 
the phrase " value of money " receives a justification. Like the 
pure " cost " theory of money value, the *' credit " theory gives 
too one-sided a view of the facts. In particular, it fails to 
recognize the ultimate dependence of all kinds of credit 00 the 
stock of money in the full sense, t.e. on metallic kgaJ-tendcr 
money. The truths adumbrated in the theory are better ex- 
pressed in the sUtement of the quantity theory in its devckpcd 
form, as set forth above. It b necessary to take into acoonat 
the varying quantities of the precious metals, the modes of nsc 
in respect to them; the influence of cost of production, tnd 
the way in which credit expedients replace standard money. 
A complete theory must include all these dements, while not 
unduly emphasizing any one of them. 

At the beginning of sUtbUcal inquiry much attentioa wis 
given to the question: What quantity of money does a conatiy 
require for the proper working of its industrial system? Petty 
and Locke were ready to give definite answers; but moden 
inquirers decline making any quantitative statement, and coateat 
themselves with indicating the conditions to be co n si dered. 
Amongst these arc: Population, amount of transactions, the 
efficiency of money, the development of credit, and the I ' ' 
to which banking organization has attained. Other < ' 
the problem are the dii^xnition towards hoarding, and the 
employment of some form of barter in transactioas. The 
contrast between India and the United States in monetaiy aad 
industrial habits supplies an effective series of illustrmtiouoo tUi 
matter. The conclusion b obvious that economic progress ii 
accompanied by a more sparing use of money. The no* 
important aspect of the question in modem times is in idstiol 
to the division of money between countries. Regarded from tUi 
point of view, the quantity of money that a coimtry needs ii 
that which will keep its prices in due level with those of the 
countries with which it has commercial relations. For, thb ii 
the condition of equilibrium; there would otherwise be an eaam 
of either exports or imports, involving a transfer of moaey to 
adjust the balance. It nuiy be added that the ' 
works automatically, since fluctuations in the stock of 1 
are corrected by the action of trade. The best estimates pba 
the gold drctilation of the United Kingdom at somewhat nder 
£100,000,000, the token currency at about £15,000,000. and the 
note circulation as neariy £43.coo,ooa The French ok «f 
metallic money b much larger; probably over £200,000^000^ aa< 
the note drculation b aUo over £200,000,000. 

3. Early Forms of Currency.— Up to the present we lt*e 
considered money as being fully established and properly adapted 
to fulfil its various funaions. We have now to trace the steps 
by which a suitable system of currency was evolved fren a sutc 
of barter. It b important for a right underitandlng of the 
question to grasp the fact that exchanges took place oeigMf 
between groups, and not between individuals. The stow growth 
of exchanges is thus explained, as each group produced BOrt <( 
the articles necessary for itself, and such acu of baiter m Mik 



MONEY 



697 



phce were nther reciprocal presents than mereantile exchanges. 
Such is actually the case among modern savages. " It is in- 
structive to see trade in its lowest form among such tribes as 
the Australians. The tough greenstone valuable for making 
hatchets is carried hundreds of miles by natives, who receive 
from other tribes in return the prized products of their districts, 
such as red ochre to paint their bodies with; they have even got 
so far as to let peaceful traders pass unharmed through tribes 
at war, so that trains of youths might be met, each lad with a 
slab of sandstone on his head to be carried to his distant home 
and shaped into a seed-crusher. When strangers visit a tribe 
they are received at a friendly gathering or corrobboree, and 
presents are given on both sides. No doubt there is a general 
sense that the gifts are to be fair exchanges, and if either side is 
not satisfied there will be grumbling and quarrelling; but in this 
roughest kind of barter we do not yet find that clear notion 
of a unit of value which is the great step in trading." This 
vivid description of E. B. Tylor's enables us to realize the way 
in which money came into existence. When any commodity 
becomes an object of desire, not merely from its use to the 
perscMis desiring it, but from their wanting it as being readily 
exchangeable for other things, then that article may be regarded 
as rudimentary money. Thus the greenstone and ochre are on 
their way to being promoted to the position of currency, and 
the idea of a " unit of value " is all that is needed to complete 
the invention. " This higher stage is found among the Indians 
of British Columbia, whose strings of haiqua-shells worn as oma- 
mental borders to their dresses serve them also as currency to 
trade with — a string of ordinary quality being reckoned as 
worth one beaver's skin.*' Such shells are in reality money, 
inasmiirh as they discharge its functions. 

On a review of existing aava^ tribes and ancient races of more 
or less dvilization we are surprucd at the great variety of objects 
which have been used to supply the need oT a circulating medium. 
Skins, for instance, seem to be one of the earliest forms of money. 
They have been found among the Indians of Alaska performing 
this service, while accounts of leather money seem to show that 
their use was formerly more general. As the hunting stage gives 
place to the pastoral, and animals become domesticated, the animal 
Itself, instead of its skin, becomes the principal form of currency. 
There b a great mass of evidence to show that, in the most distant 
>v:^rii andT at very different times, cattle formed a currency for 
pastoral and rarly a ^cultural nations. Alike among exuting 
Eurturoua iribcs, and m the survivals discovered among classical 
natioAi, sh«p and QiLtn both appear as units of value. Thus we 
ftnd that at Komt, and through tne Italian tribes generally, " oxen 
and kbcep formed th? oldest medium of exchange, ten sheep being 
PKkoned equivalent to one ox. The recognition of these objects as 
vni vcrut IcgaJ reprrvntatives of value, or, in other words, as money, 
ifuy be traced back to the epoch of a purely pastoral economy. 
The Jcctarulic law^ bears witness to a similar state of things; while 
the variout fin« bt the different Teutonic codes are estimated in 
^ t tie. The Lat in word pecunia (pecus) is an evidence of the earliest 
RcscnaTi money being composed ot cattle. The English /(r« and the 
lamtoiu tcirm ftudai, according to its most probable etymok^gy, are 
d^ved from the ^me root. In a well-known passage of the Iliad 
<vi-. ajiS-^) the value of two different sets of armour ts estimated in 
titrnm ^ oven. The Irish law tracts bear evidence as to the use of 
cattk ^ one of tKc measurts of value in eariy Irish civilization. 
SiiniUrly, oxtn frorn tK« principal wealth and the circulating medium 
among I he tu\u^ a nil Kaffirs. On the testimony of an eye-witness 
we are assured that, " as cattle constitute the sole wealth of the 
peoole, so they are their only medium of such transactions as involve 
CHcaange, payment or reward." So also we find that cattle-rents 
are paid by the pastoral Indian tribes to the United States govem- 
ment. From the prominence of slavery in early societies it is 
reasonable to suppose that sbves would be adopted as a medium 
of exchange, and one of the measures of value in the Irish law tracts, 
tmmkal, is said to have originally meant a female slave. They are 
at present applied to this purpose in Central Africa, and also in 
New Guinea. On passing to the a^cultural stage a greater number 
of objects are found capable of bemg applied to currency purposes. 
Among these are com — used even at present in Norway — maize, 
oGve oil. coco-nuts and tea. The most remarkable instance of an 
agricultural product being used as currency is to be found in the 
case of tobacco, which was adopted as legal tender by the Englbh 
oaionists in North America. Another class of articles used for money 
cooflists of ornaments, which among all uncivilized tribes serve this 
p ur pose . The haiqua-shells mentioned before are an instance, 
cowries in India, whales' teeth among the Fijians, red feathers 
asBoiv some South Sea Island tribes, and finally, any attractive kinds 
of stone ilhkh can be eaaly worked. Mineral products, so far as 



they do not come under the preceding head, furnish another chus. 
Thus salt was used in Abyssinia and Mexko; while the metals — 
a phenomenon which will require a more careful examination — have 
succeeded in finally driving all their inferior competitors out of the 
field, and have become the sole substances for money. 

4. The Metals as Money. Reasons for their Adoption. Superi- 
ority of Silver and Cold. — The employment of metals as money 
material can be traced far back in the history of civilization; 
but as it is impossible to determine the exact order of their 
appearance in this capacity, it will be convenient to take them 
in the order of their value, beginning with the lowest. Iron — 
to judge from the sutement of Aristotle— was widely used as 
currency. One remarkable instance is the Spartan money, 
which was clearly a survival of a form that had died out among 
the other Greek states; though it has often been attributed to 
ascetic policy. In conjimction with copper, iron formed one 
of the constituents of early Chinese currency, and at a kter time 
was used as a subsidiary coinage in Japan. Iron spikes are used 
as money in Central Africa, while Adam Smith notes the employ- 
ment of nails for the same purpose in Scotland. Lead has 
served as money, e.g. in Burma. The use of copper as money 
has been more extensive than is the case in respect to the metals 
just mentioned. It, as stated, was used in China along with 
iron— an early instance of bimetallism — and it figured in the 
first Hebrew coins. It was the sole Roman coinage down to 
369 B.C. and it has lingered on to a comparatively recent date 
in the backward European currencies. It even survives as a 
part of the token coinage of the present. Tin has not been a 
favourite material for money: the richness of the Cornish mines 
accounts for its use by some British kings. Silver holds a more 
prominent place than any of the preceding metab. Down to 
the close of the x8th century it was the chief form of money, and 
often looked on as forming the necessary standard substance. 
It waa the principal Greek money material, and- was introduced 
at Rome in 369 B.C. The currencies of medieval Europe had 
silver as their leading constituent; while down almost to the 
present day Eastern countries seemed to prefer silver to gold. 

The pre-eminence of gold as money is now beyond dispute; 
there, is, however, some difficulty in discovering its earliest 
employment. It is, perhaps, to be found in " the pictures of the 
ancient Egyptians weighing in scales heaps of rings of gold and 
silver. " According to W. Ridgeway's ingenious theory gold 
comes into use as a currency in due equation to the older cattle- 
unit, the ox. It was certainly employed by the great Eastern 
monarchs; its further development will be considered kter on. 
Metals of modem discovery— such as nickel and platinum — are 
only used by the fancy of a few governments, though the former 
makes a good token coinage. 

The preceding examination of the varied materials of currency, 
metallic and non-metallic, suggests some conclusions respecting 
the course of monetary .evolution, viz.: (i) that the metals tend to 
supersede all other forms of money among progressive com- 
munities; and (3) that the more valuable metals dispkice the less 
valuable ones. The explanation of these movements b found 
in the qualities that are specially desirable in the articles used 
for money. There has htca a long process of selection and 
elimination in the course of monetary history. 

First, it is plain that nothing can serve as money which has 
not the attributes of wealth; >.e. unless it is useful, transferable 
and limited in supply. As these conditions are essential to the 
existence of value, the instrument for measuring and transferring 
values must possess them. A second requisite of great effect 
is the amount of value in proportion to weight or mass. High 
value in small btilk gives the quality of portability, want of 
which has been a fatal obstacle to the continued use of many 
early forms of money. Skins, com and tobacco were defective 
in this quality, and so were iron and copper. Sheep and oxen, 
though technically described as "self-moving," are expensive 
to transport from place to pkice. That the material of money 
shall be the same throughout, so that one unit shall be equal ^ 
value to another, is a further desideratum, which is as decidedly 
lacking in cattle-currency as it is prominent in the metals. It 
b, further, desirable that the substance used as moneY shaSLV^ 



698 



MONEY 



capable of being divided- without loss 6( value, and, if needed, 
of being reunited. Most of the articles used in primitive 
societies— such as eggs, skins and cattle— fail in this quality. 
Money should also be durable, a requirement which leads to 
the exclusion of all animal and most vegetable substances from 
the class of suitable currency materials. To be easily recognized 
is another very desirable quality in money, and moreover to 
be recognized as of a given value. Articles otherwise well fitted 
for money-use, e.g. precious stones, suffer through the difficulty 
of estimating their value. Finally, it results from the function 
of money as a standard of value that it should alter in its own 
value as little as possible. Complete fixity of value is from the 
nature of things unattainable; but the nearest approximation 
that can be secured is desirable. In early societies this quality 
is not of great importance; for future obligations are few and 
inconsiderable. With the growth of industry and commerce 
and the expansion of the system of contracts, covering a distant 
future, the evil effects of a shifting standard of value attract 
attention, and lead to the suggestion of ingenious devices to 
correct fluctuations. These belong to the later history of money 
and currency movements. It is enough for the ordinary pur- 
poses of money that it shall not alter within short periods, which 
is a characteristic of the more valuable metals, and particularly 
of silver and gold, while in contrast such an article as com changes 
considerably in value from year to year. 

From the foregoing examination of the requisites desirable 
in the material of money it is easy to deduce the empirical laws 
which the history of money discloses, since metals, as compared 
with non-metallic substances, evidently possess those requisites 
in a great degree. They arc all durable, homogeneous, divisible 
and recognixable, and in virtue of these superior advantages they 
are the only substances now used for money by advanced nations. 
Nor is the case different when the decision has to be made 
between the different metals. Iron has been rejected because of 
iU low value and its liability to rust, lead from its extreme 
softness, and tin from its tendency to break. All these metals, 
as well as copper, are unsuitable from their low value, which 
hinders their speedy transmission so as to adjust inequalities of 
local prices. 

The elimination of the cheaper metals leaves silver and gold 
as the only suitable materials for forming the principal currency. 
Of late years there has been a very decided movement towards 
the adoption of the bttcr as the sole monetary standard, silver 
being regarded as suitable only for a subsidiary coinage. The 
special features of gold and silver which render them the most 
suitable materials for currency may here be noted. " The value 
of these metals changes only by dow degrees; they are readily 
divisible into any number of parts which may be reunited by 
means of fusion without loss; they do not deteriorate by being 
kept; their firm and compact texture makes them difficult to 
wear; their cost of production, especially of gold, is so consider- 
able that they possess great value in small bulk, and can of 
course be transported with comparative facility; and their 
identity is perfect." The possession by both these metals of 
all the qualities needed in money is more briefly but forcibly 
put by Cantillon when he says that " gold and silver alone are 
of small volume, of equal goodness, easy of transport, divisible 
without loss, easily guarded, beautiful and brilliant and durable 
almost to eternity." This view has even been pushed to an 
extreme form in the proposition of Turgot, that they became 
universal money by the nature and force of things, independently 
of all convention and law, from which the deduction has been 
drawn that to proscribe silver by law from being \xsed as money 
is a viobtion of the nature of things. 

5. Tke Introduction and Development of Coinage, The State and 
Money. — The earliest metallic currencies passed by^ weight; they 
were, in fact, commodities, though used m a special way. The 
Hebrew records, as well as the Greek writers, bear witness to the 
prevalence of this primitive system. Thus, Aristotle, after ex- 
plaining the circumstances that led to the invention of money, 
points out how it was at first defined simply by size and weight, 
although finally men went further and net a stamp on every coin 
to itUeve them from the trouble of weighing it." {Pol, u 9, 8.) 



Cainaee fy^ems hav« had a long period of srowth, ia wlncli t«o 
distinct sugl^fi cdn be noLcd. In toe first only .the quality or fise- 
nt:n <A the metal is denattd by ttie stamp, no attempt being nade 
to hx thp i¥ci|ght. Tlie itampn u) to speak, acts as a kind of ioil- 
mark* The cubes o! gold empfoyH^ by the Chinese may have been 
rhc carli^ist coins. Modern authorities accept the view oil Herodotos 
ilui gpSd and ail^'cr ccrlna were Grat used by the Lydians; the same 
ijuttior mcntiDns tbut the fir>it Greek coinage was at Acgina by 
Pheldon of Argos. In onlcr to cooiplete the invention it Decanie 
necessary to certiry the weight ol metal in the c<»n as well as its 
fiLnen«s. A further resuK v^i the establishment of a regabr 
shape for the purpose of previ:fning[ any tampering with the coia 
afcrr its miinuf^cturv. Tfitxnjh v^inous experiments in form wtre 
maj|c, by the production of hes^gonal aitd octagonal coins, the 
Mriivcnaffly accepted shape c^me to be that of a flat circle, each 
Mdv E>f which is iiiiiTLpcdH ai al^i in many cases the edge. The great 
iiumlicr of the GrtitL ctt^ UAte* afforded ample opportunities for 
experimcnE nnd competition, and rapid progress in the directioa 
of H^unng good currencies was made. The improvement in the 
Gn^k cmna^es cna^ be reganied as the consequence, and in some 
iJc^nx a cause, of thdr grovrin(t commerce. From Greece the ait 
of cainmg was introduced into Italy by the Hellenic settlers aad 
trndeff, and became one of the I'ssential features of a dvifijed 
*ocseij,v Progress, however, did not stop with the establiahnxat 
of tho institution of coined monej^. A number of practical questioas 
had to be decided ictpcctsn^ the best way of overcomia| the 
ditlicukics that ccrtatn technica! problems presented. In ipte of 
early ^^prdknce, it has at times been suggested that the arcubr 
fukrm might be replaced by icme other, e.g. the square or obkng. 
Practice has confirmed the wlidom of the old<-establtahed shape. 
Anotht-r question was m respect to the limits of stae that were ncMt 
suitable for roinsw Here the loiver limit is prescribed by the roe* 
VL-nienco of the UEcrs. Coins that are easily lost, or picked up vitk 
troublct such at the British threepennypece and the Aaierkaa 
l^old dollar, ought not to be i^iui^. The determinatioa of the 
upper Limit pfc!icnt» grt^ter difTiculties. ^V<»y large pieces ait 
hanl to coin, and they give facHtties for improper treatnent by 
drilling holes anrj BHirte them up vith cheaper metad. or even for 
the entire removal of ine inferior, the faces ocing preserved. The 
;it tractive appearance of Un^ fOJit coins is no compensation for this 
danger. Tnq English sovereign, and. in silver, the kjdf-crovs 
seem to come ne^f the upper lintit of ttfe issue. The compaiative 
wear of coins of di(TerL-t\t tues muft be considered. A Vaag scries 
of expcrimetitA, &upporied by ordinary experience, goes to shoe 
that the fimaller coini wear mote rapidly. The English mist ia 
J Bj3 estimated the lo$a per eent^ ptr annum at 2s, 6d. on half<ro«Mt 
4i. on shilEine^, and ?^ 6d. on ainLpences. There are acoordingly 
reasons for au opting a medium sife in preference to large or nul 
coini. The actual coins L&^ucd h^ve« ojf course, to be adapted to 
the lequin'ments of the particular community. Even preiadiceB 
mutt be taken into due account. The designs empkiyed u coa- 
ncxJon with coinnge have proved a fruitful field for the stndeot of 
Numjiinidticj {q.r.}. From the monetary standpoint the aim of 
the design » to prevent either counterldting or the abstmctias 
of any portion of the metaL For the former purpose caiifd 
execution in designing and the use of powerful machincfy are the 
really cfTefitJve uf^uards. The Latter is best obviated by pn^ 
teciing the ed^s by the proceu of milling, to which a raued 
inscription has sometimes been added. Creat advances love 
been made in the organization of the modem Mint (9 J.) by the 
use of new appli;inces and scientific methods. The qoestioa of 
the proper alloy in coini has received a great deal 01 attratioB. 
As gold and silver arc Lxtth by nature soft, some other metal. sack 
as copper or tin, has to be added, in order to secure the ncusniT 
hardness. The English gold coins have an alloy of ooe-ivctftk; 
the silv^er coins one of three-fortieths. Far more general as the 
alloy of one-tenth, which is pmbab!/ due to the sentiment in favour 
of a decimal syitem; but ^t any rate b sample for calmlatiooa 
Theie doei not appc;ar ta be any strong technical reason for pie> 
ferrins; either of these albyji to the other. The French aust 
authorities an? in favour of their oite-tenth; while the Engliih o»s 
adhere to the alloy of oeic-E^-cIFeK. There is agreement otHy as 
the point th^t a very tmall aitiount of alloy, ej^. that of one is 
ncventy-two, as used in the Austrian ducat, does not give the 
rcqui&itc hirditess, 

A {fucgtion of far more importance, both politically and coonomic^ 
all>', Lfi that of the iuue of cnoney, and the power of the state in 
regard to it^ In the ntder sorieiici, where money was not sbupjy 
diitinguiihed from eommoditieis. no difBcuIty presented itinf. 
Skin*, shells or cattle were tnoncy-— so to speak—by the force of 
things; and the same condition p<=tsi$ted as long as crude metali 
were emplo^-vd. But with the ititroduction of coinage the idea of 
a nebula tmf authonty came into being. The necessity of eafofciag 
contracts and the parallel tystem of penalties made it iacanbeat 
on the ruler and judges to pn^vide due standards of onwtast. 
The combined effect of thrv iniluences was reinforoea by the 
establishment of the rudimentary forms of state revenue, vUch 
made it a matter of interest tci the ruler to provide a good UMdisa 
of payment. Accord tnsljr, wtth the origin of the organised states 
we find the ooknage as a special prerog^ve of U» Idag, thomlb 



MONEY 



699 



prtvate penons often exercised the |>rivflege of coining. The very 
fairge number of the autonomous cities of Greece, which possessed 
the right of issuing money, was the cause of the competition between 
different currencies, each having legal tender power only within 
itM own city. In its practical outcome this " free coinage ' system 
proved beneficial, for it compelled the maintenance of the true 
■tandard in order to gain wiaer circulation. With the establish- 
ment Of larger sutes the control over the iwue of money grew more 
stringent. In the later Roman Empire the right of coming was 
reserved to the emperor exclusively. After the fall of the empire 
the traditions of prerogative passed on to the medieval kings, 
a right cait^uUy guarded by the English sovereigns. In France 
and Germany the principal nobles claimed this sdgnorial right, 
but in the modem sUte tne regulation money has been definitely 
vested in the supreme authority, i.e. the sovereign. 

One reason for the close connexion of money with the state is 
the fact that there is one attribute of currency which comes within 
the area of work specially allotted to the public authority. Money 
ought to have' the power finally to close a transaction, «.e. to say 
it should be " 1^1 tender." This " liberating power," as^ the 
French call it, might be regarded as one of the money functions. 
lliose who look on money as a purely legal institution naturally 
take this view; it seems, however, better to take the economic 
conditi<ms aa the really fundamental ones. It is only on account 
of tbdr economic effects that legal regulations require consideration. 
These effects are, indeed, very far-reaching. By prescribing the 
standard and amount of penalties, by their power of selecting the 
substances to be used as money, and by their frequent interferences 
with existing currencies, the governments of the world have guided — 
as well as very often disturbed — the normal course of development. 
What Aristotle regarded as the " unnatural " character of money 
tt mainly attributable to state intervention. But it is important 
to remember that the sphere of governmental action in respect to 
mcMiey is limited. A currency system is never an arbitrary creation ; 
it must grow slowly out of the habits and customs of the community, 
and must subserve its economk: needs. No sudden change at the 
caprice of the state is likely to continue. Further, it is clear that 
no government can determme the results of its interference; these 
will depend on the existing conditions and will conform to economic 
law. Monetary history is rich in examples of the failure of legal 
enactment to clircct the course of events, and of the disasters that 
have fdlowed on the ill-advised measures of public authority. 

One result of the close connexion of the state with the bunness 
of coining has been the establishment of regulations in reference to 
the expense .of the process. As coins are manufactured articles 
it seems evident that a charge sufficient to cover the cost may 
rightly be imposed. Such a charge is described by the term Seignior- 
«ge iq.r^)^ U has in mnr.y rases been so fixed as to bring in a large 
pruAt to the gDvemmcnr^ but then it amounts to a ocpreciation 
of the curreacy ; far the levy of a charge on coining is the same as 
the (nbstraction of so much metal from the coins issued. English 
policy h pecbiltar iii its adaption of ^tuitous coinage of gold, an 
Anomaly due in its crrigln to the prejudices of the mercantile doc- 
trirtcsv but dcfcndi^d on the ground of the convenience to trade 
from the equivalemre of gold bullion and coin. The heavy seienior- 
age OR the tilvcr coitis — M present over 60% — is a source olcon- 
ticlerable profit; in soirK- years exceeding /Soo.ooo. All other 
countries fc^-Y modernie rh,=irgcs on their gold coinages, and make 
profit OR their silver issues, though in different ways. As it has 
become the duty ol the ftate to maintain the currency in a sound 
oodition, $t baa to deal with the question of its expense. This is 
composed of several elements, viz. (i) the cost of manufacture, 
just mentioned; (2) the loss through the wear which money under- 
goes in the work of circulating ; and (3) the interest on the capital 
•unk in the monetary stock. A country with a metallic circulation 
of £100,000,000 incurs a loss of the interest which that amount of 
capital would produce by investment. i.e. at 4% £4,000,000. The 
expense is amply justified by the services that a good currency 
renders; but, at the same time, it proves the desirability of any 
economies that do not detract from efficiency. The great economiz- 
ing agency is the use of representative money and the various 
forms of credit, in which so much of the latest advances consist. 

6. Representative Money; its Introduction and Development. 
The Mode in which Credit is used as Money. — Economy in the 
employment of the precious metals is naturally suggested by 
ordinary experience; but the way in which states have profited 
by the expedient of depreciation affords a special inducement 
Id follow what is practically the same course, and issue paper 
documents in place of the more costly metallic medium. In 
theory, as Ricardo explained, a paper currency is one in which 
the whole value has been appropriated as seigniorage. The cost 
of keeping a stock of valuable money is obviated, and the new 
instrument of exchange is supported by state authority. Here 
the action of economic conditions is instructively illustrated; 
lor though a government can set up a paper currency, it b not 
vfthis its power to prescribe iu value. The quantity theory 



(S a) is confirmed by the ineviuble dedine in value when 
issue passes a definite point. The only effective mode of pre- 
venting depreciation is by limiting the amount of paper money 
to that of the metallic money previously In circulation. The 
easiest way to accomplish this is to leave the use of the paper 
currency optional by making it convertible into coin at the will 
of the holder. The amoimt of the circulation is thus automatic- 
ally fixed by the action of the community. An evident dis- 
advantage Is the necessity of keeping an adequate reserve of coin 
to meet actual and prospective demands. For Ideal security 
the whole amount of paper Issue should be covered by an equal 
value of metal. In practice the reserve may be much smaller; 
but so far as it is required, It means a deduction from the gain 
of issue. The temptation to reduce the reserve to an inadequate 
amount and then to escape the difficulty by resorting to the 
expedient of refusing to pay coin for notes, i.e. making the notes 
Inconvertible, has proveid too strong for nearly all governments 
at times of pressure. The history of state dealings with paper 
money may broadly be described as a history of Inconvertibility. 
Hard-bou^t experience has only now forced on the notice of 
governments the loss that follows from a disturbance of the 
standard used In ordinary payments. They are evident to all 
careful observers, and may be concisely stmimarized as consisting 
In: (i) the injustice to creditors through being paid In a much 
lower standard than that In which they lent; (2) the disturbance 
to trade, both domestic and foreign, by the fluctuations in the 
value of money; (3) the pressure on the working classes from 
the slower rise of money wages, in contrast with the quicker 
movement of the prices of commodities, resulting in a fall of 
real wages; and (4) the check to dealings in relation with the 
international money market, due to the risk of exchange 
fluctuations. The only gains are the temporary stimulus to 
certain branches of trade, and the advantage to the state by 
contracting a forced loan without paying interest. 

The origination of paper money by state direction is the easiest 
to consider and explain. It does not follow that It Is the most 
important or the earliest kind of representative currency. As 
W. Bagehot has pointed out, the real origin of economic institu- 
tions is often very different from the apparent one. In truth, 
representative money seems to have grown up out of the elemen- 
tary cpntrivances of early credit. A daim could be expressed and 
transferred by a document, which might be used for facilitating 
exchanges. The rigid formalism of early law hindered the 
extensive use of this convenient machinery. It was not till the 
institution of banking that the coining of credit was made easy. 
Thus the bank-note comes into use, resting, not on the fixt of the 
state, but on the repute of the Issuer. At this stage the history 
of the two distinct forms of representative money becomes mixed, 
owing to the control exercised over banks by government and 
to the fact that banking companies were In many cases the 
agents by which what was virtually state money was issued. 
There b, however, the fundamental difference that bank money 
finds its way Into use through the ordinary system of granting 
credit; while government money is used In the purchase of 
commodities and the hire of services. The former, therefore, 
returns In a short time; the latter remains In circulation and 
displaces metaUic currency. In the long controversy over the 
Bank Charter Act 1844 this distinction was brought into promi- 
nence. Since that date the extraordinary development of deposit 
banking in both Great Britain and the United States has 
furnished these countries with by far the most flexible form of 
currency yet known in the cheques that transfer claims on the 
capital held by the banking institutions. The confusion so 
often shown regarding the relation of credit to money is con- 
nected with this latest progress. When it is remembered that 
in its origin money is only an instrument to facilitate exchange 
— we might even say to render it possible — it follows that from 
its earliest to its latest form the ruling influence Is the need of 
society for the best mechanism of exchange. 

7. Production and Consumption of Ote Precious Metals in their 
Economic Aspects. — In considering various monetary questions 
it is essential to have some acquaintance with the economic 



700 



MONEY 



aspects of the production of gold and sflver. The fifst point 
to which attention may be directed is the field over which 
production extends. At one time or other these two metals 
have been found in every continent. Asia Minor in early times 
possessed its goldfields, or rather auriferous sands. Ceylon 
also undoubtedly contained gold-mines. China and India both 
produced silver to a considerable extent. Egyptian remains 
show that gold was commonly known in that country, prob- 
ably procured from Nubia and Abyssinia. On the opposite 
side of Africa, too, the name of Gold Coast shows that that metal 
was thence exported. The mines of Laurium in Attica were a 
source of supply to the Athenians, and were worked as a state 
monopoly. At an earlier date the Babylonian and Assyrian 
empires had each accumulated large stores of gold. The 
Phoenician importations of gold from the Red Sea coasts (Ophir) 
are known from Scripture. The Persian kings from the time 
of Darius levied tribute on all their provinces— in gold from 
India, in silver from the remaining districts, the larger part 
of wfaich was stored up in the royal treasuries. This tendency 
of despotic rulers to accumulate treasure had all through andent 
history important effects on the economic structure of society. 
At present it is quite natural to assume that the materials of 
money are distributed by means of international trade, and tend 
to keep at an equal level all the world over — an assumption 
which is in general well grounded, though an important excq;)tion 
exists. Ancient history presents a widely different set of forces 
in operation. Gold and silver were produced by slaves under 
the pressure of fear, and were drawn towards the ruling parts 
of the great empires; in a word, war, not commerce, was the 
distributing agency. From this condition of affairs it is easy to 
see that, whatever may be the reasons for assigning to cost of 
production a potent influence over the value of money in modem 
times (and grounds have been already advanced for the belief 
that its influence has been exaggerated), no such reasons then 
existed. The production of the precious metals was carried 
on in similar maimer to the great buildings and other works 
of those periods, on non-economic grounds, and therefore 
produced quite different effects. The whole history of the 
Persian monarchy to its overthrow by Alexander (330 B.C.) 
shows that the hoarded mass of the precious metals continued 
constantly to increase. On the capture of Pcrscpolis by the 
Grecian army an enormous treasure was found there, some 
estimates placing it as high as 120,000 talents of gold and silver 
(£37,600,000). All the temples, too, were receptacles for the 
precious metals, so that the stock accumulated at about 300 B.C. 
must have been very great. The only causes which tended to 
diminish the store were the losses arising from wars, when the 
various treasuries were liable to be plundered and their contents 
dispersed. There was therefore a more unequal distribution of 
the material of money than at present. The growth of the 
Roman dominion led to important results, since tmder their 
rule the Spanish mines were developed and became a leading 
source of supply. The great masses of treasure set towards 
Rome, so that it became the monetary centre of the worid. The 
overthrow of the republican government and the peace which 
followed also affected the conditions of production. The in- 
efficiency of the Roman administration made it advantageous 
to let out the mines to farmers, who worked them in a wasteful 
and improvident manner, while the supply of slaves was reduced, 
thus depriving the lessees of their principal agency for carrying 
on production. The result was a continuous decline in the store 
of money. W. Jacob has made an attempt to estimate the 
amount at the death of Augustus (a.d. 14), and arrives at the 
conclusion that it was £358,000,000. {Precious Metals, i. 225 ) 
Without placing much value on this necessarily conjectural 
estimate, it is safe to assume that thb period marked the 
highest point of accumulation. 

The succeeding centuries exhibit a steady decline, though 
it is of course impossible to attach any value to even the most 
carefully guarded numerical estimates. The phenomenon which 
has since so often attracted notice — the drain of the precious 
netals to the East— began at this time, and was a subject of 



complaint by the Roman writen, while the stock of fold and 
silver being thrown into geaeral drculatlon suffered from abmkn, 
and was more likely to be lost than when stored up in the royal 
treasure-houses and temples. These causes tended to dcpras 
the scale of prices, while the harharian invasions produced a 
strong effect on the supply by drawing off the mining population 
and damaging the various erections used for woridng the 
mines. The conjectural estimate is that about aj>. 800 the 
total supply had been reduced to £53,000,000 (or about one- 
eleventh of what it had been at the death of Augustus). A 
new period in the history of gold and sflver production may be 
fixed at this date. The Moors, now firmly established in Spam, 
began to reopen the mines in that country which had been allowed 
to fall into disuse. Other European mines also were opened, 
notably those of Saxony and the Harz Mountains, as wcO as 
the Austrian mines — the chief medieval sources of supply. The 
international system of currency, based on the pound of silver 
as a unit, which was introduced by Charlemagne, most ha^ 
tended to economize the wear of the metals. We may t h eic f oie 
conclude that from this date (aj>. 800) the supply was suflkicot 
to counteract the loss by wear and exp<Mtation, and acooniinily 
regard the metallic supply as fixed in amount until the not 
change in the conditions of production, which was the result of 
the discovery of America. Though 1492 is the date of the first 
landing, yet for some time no important addit&Mis were made U> 
the supply of money. The conquest of Mexico (15x9) gaveoppor* 
tunities of working the silver-mines of that country, while the fint 
mines of Chile and Peru were almost simultaneously discovered, 
and in 1545 those of Potosi were laid open. From this latter 
date we may regard the American supply as an influential factor 
in causing a continuous increase in the stock of money. The 
aimual addition to the store of money has been estinutcd as 
£2,100,000 for the period from 1545 to 1600. At this date the 
Brazilian supply began. The course of distribution off these 
fresh masses of the precious metals deserves some notice. The 
flow of the new supplies was first towards Spain and Poftngal, 
whence they passed to the larger commercial centres of the other 
European countries, the effect being that prices were raised a 
and about the chief towns, while the value of money in the coob- 
try districts remained uiialtered. The additions to the supply 
of both gold and silver during the two centuries 1600-1800 
continued to be very considerable; but, if Adam Smithli 
view be correct, the full effect on prices was pfx>duced by 1640^ 
and the increased amount of money was from that time counter 
balanced by the wider extension of trade. At the commence- 
ment of the 19th century the aimual production off gold had 
been estimated as being from £2,500,000 to £3,ooo,ooa The 
year 1809 seems to mark an epoch in the production of these 
metals, since the outbreak of the revolts of the various Spanicb 
dependencies in South America tended to check the usnal 
supply from those countries, and a marked increase in the 
vaJue of money was the consequence. During the period t8o^ 
1849 the value of gold and silver rose to about two and a 
half times its former level, notwithstanding fresh discoveries 
in Asiatic Russia, which became considerable from 1823. The 
aimual yield in 1849 was estimated at £8,000,000. The neit 
important date for our present purpose is the year 1848, when 
the Californian mines were opened, while in 1851 the Australiaa 
discoveries took place. By these events an enormous mass off . 
gold was added to the world's supply. The most careful esti- 
mates fix the addition during the years X851-X87X at£5oo,ooo,oo0b 
or an amount nearly equal to the former stock in existence 
The problems raised by this phenomenon have received cvcfil 
study. The main features of interest may be briefly bit!«ii>*^ 
up. (i) The additional supply was almost entirely off H"^ 
thus tending to produce a distinction between the two principal 
monetary metals and an alteration in the currency of bimetallic 
countries. Under this influence France, from being a silva» 
using, became a gold-using country. (2) The oontemporaneoos 
development of the continental railway systems, and the paitid 
adoption of free trade, with the consequent facilities for freer 
droUation of commodities, led to the oourw of 



MONEY 



701 



hang different from that of the x6th century. The more back- 
ward districts were the principal gainers, and a more general 
equalization of prices combined with a slight elevation in value 
was the outcome. (3) The increased supply of gold rendered 
a general currency reform possible, and made the use of a gold 
monometallic standard appear feasible. The movements for 
currency reform, as will be seen, all arose after these discoveries. 
U) The change in the value of money, which may for the period 
1849- 1869 be fixed at 20 %, enabled a general increase of 
wages to be carried out, thus improving the condition of the 
dasses living on manual labour. It may be added that the 
difficulty of tracing the effects of this great addition to the money 
stock is a most striking proof of the complexity of modem 
economic development. (5) The last point to be noticed is the 
very small influence exercised on the value of silver by the 
new gold. The gold price of silirer in London rose only from 
59|d. per oz. to 62\d. per oz. — t.e. between 4 and 5%. Hardly 
had the gold discoveries of 1848-1851 ceased to produce a 
decided effect when new silver mines of unusual fertility came 
into working. During the period immediately succeeding the 
fold discoveries the production of silver remained at an annual 
amount of from £8,000,000 to £9,000,000. This amoxmt suddenly^ 
about 1870, increased to £15,000,000, and remained at that 
amount for the next five years. More than half of the supply 
came from new mines opened in Nevada. This increased 
supply was accompanied by a marked depreciation in the gold 
price of silver, though the prices of commodities in countries 
having a silver standard did not rise. The disturbances resulting 
from the combined cffea of the new silver and the diminution 
in the annual output of gold which began about 1870 and 
continued for nearly twenty years were the cause of much contro- 
versy and led to the propounding of novel monetary theories. 
BiwUtatlism came into prominence; and the modes of relieving 
trade depression caused by the fall in prices were keenly discussed. 
Before any monetary adjustment took place the situation 
•gain changed in consequence of a renewal of the Australian 
gold production, soon followed by the great gold discoveries 
in South Africa. The annual output of gold, which had fallen 
below £20,000,000, in 1884 rose rapidly to £60,000,000, and in 
1908 reached the prodigious figure of over £80,000,000, with 
the prospect of still larger yields in the near future. By this 
change the difficulties that had led to the agitations for " free 
tflver " in the United Sutes, and for " international bimetal- 
lism " in Europe and in India were removed, showing the dose 
connexion between the production of the predous metals and 
the economic, especially the monetary, policy of all periods. 

The modes of consumption of the predous metals— under which 
their use b included — are of equal importance with those of their 
production. Classed roughly, they come under three heads, viz. 
(l) their use as merchandise, (2) their use as money, (3) the " drain" 
to the East. With regard to the first, though predse data are 
not available, it may be said with some confidence that the demand 
for personal use tends, after society has made some progress, to 
dechne in strenjgth. The desire for adornment is not a keen one 
with roost dvilueed persons; and, so far as it exists, is gratified in 
other ways than by using silver or ^old. For purposes of manu- 
facture tneir use is large and increasmg. The second head is that 
with which we are principally concerned. It b evidently connected 
with the need for metallic currency; and thb again depends on the 
levd of prices and the monetary organization, including in the 
latter the banking system. Currency requirements still form the 
hfjgest part of the demand for the preaous metals. Under the 
third head a remarkable exception to the tendency towards the 
equal diffusion of the predous metab is presented. For nearly 
two thousand years the movement of silver from west to east has 
been noticed. Humboldt has made the ingenious remark that the 
course of these metab is in the opposite direction to that of dviliza- 
tion, and hbtory supports hb view. During the middle ages the 
cfaieC Eastern products used in Europe were luxuries, such as silk 
and spices, and silver was sent from Europe to pay for them. 
Eastern trade increased, owing to the discovery of the passage 
round the Cape of Good Hope, and the flow of silver became greater. 
Special drcumstances have from time to time influenced the move- 
ment. Thus, the new supplies of gold in the middle of the last 
eentury caused by their action on the bi-mctallic currendes of 
Europe an acceleration in the flow, the amount exported between 
1851-1862 reaching £110,000,000. To this drain of silver a more 
; one of gold has been added. India takes year ^ year a 



considerable amount of gold bars, whkh may in the future have a 
monetary ust. but up to thc: pre^^t Appear to be hoarded or used 
for GrnAQicnt. With the comptific prconstniction of Eastern 
cunvnda that now tccmh pmtuible t here may come a dedded change 
in the chanicter of the demand. AnQtha influendng condition 
\s also undergoing chartH; the tendency tu fix prices on a customary 
bfub i» bound to yield to the pre^urc of competition. The in- 
evjtjible ttAuh wiU be to m^im the prict Icvd alter with each influx 
of money, And thus to limit the dcinand for bullion through the 
actioo of the cJt chanties. 

One of tbe t^^hmca! fi^atujts of the production of the precious 
metili stiouTd be noit^dp in conAcqurnce of its economic effect. 
Cold has more frequently been found near the surface; stiver b 
uiuiiMy obuinvd by deep mining. It follows that the amount of 
the fanner mctnl produced depend} ni[>ie on acddental ctrcum- 
fctdnpcei„ in contrnft to that uf ^Ivfr, m hkh a affected by the standard 
of mining »kitL Tbe mine* ol Nevatia were exceptional in their 
pcHJii^sainK both metali and in nearly fqu^l value. The eold-mines 
of South Africa have cnme to he woiVx-4 at deep leveb and therefore 
are technlcrnlly in the same cUs* a* silver ones. In fact, thoe b 
a pronouncod teniilency all the wo^ld over towards the ^stem of 
CipitiLiitic working. 

8. Review of tU History of Some Important Currenties.^ 
Monetary theory requires to be eluddated by the constant 
reference to hbtory; just as in turn the hbtory of currency 
has to be interpreted by the aid of general principles. Each 
cotmtry has its peculiar problems, which call for special 
treatment; though at the same time there b no way of avoid- 
ing the operation of those economic conditions and forces 
that are to be foimd in all countries. The first decisive fact 
that emerges from the vast material presented by the hbtory 
of money b the tendency at most periods towards deterioration. 
In the time of purdy metallic currency debasement b the most 
serious danger; when representative money has come into being 
extravagant issues of paper are chosen afi the readiest way of 
evading the limits of a sound currency. It b perhaps too 
extreme to say that monetary hbtory b altogether made up of 
accounts of debasements and over-issues. 'Die truth b better 
expressed in the proposition that there has been a constant 
struggle between the influences that make for deterioration and 
those that give support to the maintenance of a good currency 
condition. There b also the cheering circumstance that in spite 
of much popular ignorance there has on the whole been a st«uly 
improvement in the treatment of monetary systems. Expert 
knowledge has more effect in the later than in the earlier 
periods. The crude expedients of the Tudors would not be 
tolerated in modem England. There b much fuller recognition 
of the danger of over-issue in paper money; and thb b 
accompanied by greater care in the treatment of credit institu- 
tions in their relation to the modem media of circulation. It 
b also noteworthy that mere popular agitation has lost a great 
deal of its power, as shown in the failure of both the "soft 
money" and the "free silver" movements in the United 
States. On the other hand the tendency to accept sdentific 
methods b illustrated in the treatment of the Indian currency 
question. 

Creek Currencies. — ^As already noticed the political conditiom 
of Greek life supplied a varied fidd for monetary experiments. 
Unfortunately the deuib are very incompletely known, and the 
subject of Hellenic monev has not Seen suffidently studied from the 
economic side. Certain broad facts are prominent. The Atheman 
use of silver as the standard substance, coupled with the later 
employment of ^Id to serve for an extra or commerdal currency, 
b a characteristic feature. The alteration of the standard by Solon 
appears in the light of an exceptional revolutionary expedient. 
It amounted to the creation of a new standard unit— the Attic-" 
which was imitated by other states, e.g. Corinth. Only one doubtful 
insUnce of debasement can be found in the subsequent history of 
Athens. Thb honesty in respect to the monetary standard seems 
on the whole to have prevailed in the Greek states. Some deroots. 
as Diomrsius, issued adulterated coins, ' but these were iaoiatea 
cases. The use of gold and silver in an amalgam, known as electrum, 
was an admissible device; it, however, had Uie evil effect of suggest- 
ing the use of poorer alloys. 

Koman Money.— The history of money in Rome is rather different 
Beginning with copper, the currency was chang^ into a double 
sundard one by the introduction of silver (269 B.C.). Gold came 
in for commercbl use with the extension of the Roman dominions, and 
copper was reduced to a token coinage. In the stress of the Punic 
Wars debasement was one of the finandal devkes of tbe magbtrates. 
The conquest of the Greek territories brought about the regulatioo 



702 



MONEY 



ii their ojrrencia, SUvtr was prtsarlfaed at the money lubsunce. 
The stablishFTiiCnt of the empire led to the definite concentration 
qf the fbftht of coitiinE id the sovereign; though coill.: l'lvji.- were 
nude in varioua Tocaljuef^ where the »rtiaHer coinages wtre allowed 
to continue. But the principal interest oi the money of the Roman 
Empire is due to the rejnarkablc way in which it illustrates the 
tendency ^ du^potic and bun^ucratic rule to lower tlie condition 
oi gwd adminL^tration. A long course of debasement is the 
characicri^tic aspect (rf the currency system. *' Under the empire," 
we arr told^ " the history of the silver troinage is one of mt^bncholy 
debasement. The most extensive frauds in connexion with money 
were perpetrated by the Romaiu.'* The gold aureus^ which in the 
time of Au Justus WM one forty- fifth of a nound, woj under 
ConitJintine only one seventy-second of a pound. The alloy in the 
Bilver cojni eira dually fuse to thnee fourths of the weight. Plated 
coini came into OKiensiv^ ust The practice of debasement was 
in accordance with ihc theorie* of the jurists, who seem to have 
r^arded money Hi simply the creature of the state, i^ the personal 
ruler. 

Medieval Money. — ^Aftcr the overthrow of the Western Empire, 
though the invacicrs were in the condition of what has been called 
" natural economy," the state in which money has not come into 
being, they soon were clIsiKPitd to cany «n the Roman tradltionn 
and their rulers fldoptnl some form of silver currency. With the 
temporary revival of the tmpire tinder Charlemagne there comes 
the effort to found a general Eptniin^iartj money on the basii of the 
ftilvtr pound. From, this new ipt^^ntng-pciint it is poasible to trace 
the cour»^ of wmc of the le^drng currency eyBtems of Europe^ 
For purpo?e« of il lust ration it will Ge sutlicicnl to sketch the move- 
meiitf in En^hnd and FrartPft whifth are typical of the general 
course of monetary dcvekipmcnt. The tyfttctns of these countries 
arc moreover remarkable (i) \n the contrasts that they pnescnt 
to each other, and (>) in the widespread inftucnce that they have 
ekcrrised on the monetary arranjomcnt^ of other nations^ 

EniiisK Monifiiry J/ijto^y.— The Er^glijh currency; begins with 
the pound of silver (tfoy weight] aj the standard unit, subdivided 
into 30 shitlings, cnch contaifiing 13 pvnnicL The only coin at 
fint in use was the tilver penny. This system, in force before the 
Conquest, j» the direct descendant of the Carlovingian system , and 
It continiJ«d without change until about 1^76, when a slight dcjire- 
ciation was introduced by coining the pound into 34 j pennies, 
Loiiead of the original 240. This was the Rr*t of a «rica of changes, 
fEfieralty in the direction of Itt^wenng the wetght of the coiiu Two 
periods ajre rcmartable for the operation of thtJ tendency, vii. 
h) the reign of Edward 1.+ when the silver wm debaied by Jo% 
in the period y44-i 35 1 ; and { 3 ) the close of I he rdgn nf E J enry VI 1 1 . 
and that of &iwartJ Vf., 1541-155^, In (hi* short space of ten 
yean the expniicm of degrading the quality of the coinage by 
brir^ging the alloy up to three-fourth* of the crvas* was practised 
for the only lime in English history* The tubstitution of the 
pound troy for the Tower iwund in 15^7 was accompanied by 
a towering in weight which far cxccefled the gain from the higher 
vreiEht of the new pound (5760 in^icad of 5400 graim). The 
reloTtnatJon of ibc silver coinage under Elii^Scth OStio), and its 
definite settk-ment in J 601 on the basis of coining 61 ihillings from 
the pound lrt)y also deserve mentioa. Tyming to the ^old currency, 
w* find some gold pennies issued in 1^57, ptobjtbly m imitation of 
the issue of the Italian cities, which were due to the opening of 
eavtem trade and the rvample ol the Creek Empire, which Tiad 
always retained its sold currency. The regular neries of English 
sold coins be^ns in t^4,^, when Inward Uh ordered the coinam^of 
ilorins — the title is ^igniBcant— at So to the Tower pound. The 
*' ooble '* ioon follow™ ► Tbe "tovereign" was ftrst isstied in 
I4S9, But gold w^iiS treated ai a commercial money » to be used 
at Fubsidiaiy to the standard silver. Its value was therefore 
■varied from time to time to meet tbe difliajiiy that local bimeuUism 
is certain to cause, in consequence of the undervaluing of one nr 
01 her metaL During the i7th ttotury the moet noliceabte mone- 
tary events are; the projxwals for dcpftciation, of which the most 
femarkable was that of W. Lowndes (1653-17341, lor lowering 
the sundard by tome 3*%» the introduction of the guinea as the 
lading gold cotn, and the fre<juent readjustment of the values ol 
the two metals by proclamation. The creat rtcoinage of 1696, 
carried nut on the principle* advocated oy Locke, relormed the 
tilver currency. In the tSth century the estsbU&hment of the 

Srinea at a is. by Newton*s advice m;ade the adoption of gold as 
e standard ineviuble, since it was ovrrvalufd in an ap^ircciabte 
dcsree- The posiiion of gold as I be praaicaJ standard is dearly 
iKOgnifed by Ailam Smith (177^) and is rt^arded as settled by 
Ri^rdo (tlop). The full legal estjbti^hment of the present metallic 
currency toot place in iSiC, when tbe guinea made way for the 
PCiKDt pound or " sovCTcign," and Eilver wai formally rrduced 
to llic level of a token coinage, being bliKh^^y lowered by the coinage 
of the pound of n Wer intD6&9thillin^. Thu9,byacQurseDfdcvclDp- 
ment extending over 700 yoin^ tbe English c^rreniry has been 
traiuf firmed from a crude eiIvct standard eystem into one resting 
on gold, but employing both Bilver and representative money for 
ibc gTKJtcr part of the actuEi) work, 

Frtnch Aitmry: Us /?ffwto/»menl, ^-Though the monetary aystem 
of ChKrienuciic aoou dssappeued m Gerauny aad^ltaly, it ootn- 



tinued in the part of his empire that became France. TheetteoK 
confusion of the time of his sucoeseon enabled the feudal lords to 
claim the right of coinage. No leas than i«o aeigneurs an said to 
have exercised thia power at the accession of the first Capet. With 
the growth of the royal authority tbe freedom of private coiniw 
was restricted, in order to .reserve to the Crown the proitafaie 
right of seigniorage. Unfortunately tbe legitimate profit iiom this 

TfKT. :■:. I r^!^ l! iv-,. r:,^ his-ry ■: \^^ >^'<:'\ ^> .. ! ^ -r. -.J 
debAMJrjit?nti, ei tending from the time of Philip 1^ ta tlui of 
Louis XV^ (1060-1774}. In sharp contrast to Engliib polky tbt 
tampering with the currency ?^s penistent^ so that Louis IX^ vwh 
looked on as quite etceptionaK "In bto- daytii hi& min^gcmrst ol 
the royal mint was always appealed to as the cQuitAble Etaodud 
for the observance ol bis tuccesson,'^ Vet in his time the ti^re had 
been debased to km than one-fourth of its primiti^i'e level The 
tlundred Veara' War presented the occasion for still further i^c^r^A^ 
tion« At theaoocfidoo of Louis XL {1461) tbe bvne had been brtwiht 
dow n to otve-f)f lecntb of its origi nal value. Tbe 1 6t h cent uc) is eqia% 
an age of depreciation, no less than nineteen occurring beti 
[497 and itaj. Again, in contrast to the £n];li&h ftyst^a, 



absolute monarchy coniinued Xht proc&is of debaiinff the ita iiaBa 
under Louis X1V.» and the livre was odTy one-half wivt It bad int 
under Henri [V, At the Revolution the decline li 1 1 luiiLiinki] wi faf 
that the Uvrc had been reduced to one sc^-enty-cighth of its ; gi^i tiTT 
vsiuc. The new spirit of reform produced an entire change. Th* 
franc was suhatituted for the Itvre at the equations Bo \rkTs\ 
fi] livTcs^ In factt until the cataUiabmeot o^con^tituttonal govern- 
ment the French people had to d^Kod on popular violence to piv 
cure any icmp^rarv reform In thdrcitmncy. Since the Revohrtka 
the course of development has beai esKntially orderly and 
All through the tioie of the fliKien te^mt giU-er wat the 



money ancJ the atandaid, as the use of ihe word " argetit " ii. a 
synonym for money shows, fust as ElngUnd got a gold cnma^ 
by overvaluing ^D^d^ ao did Frar " ' * ' 

ttlver. Indeed, it ma 



* did France get a silver one by ovn 
may be aaid that the dilTefent ratio* cl 



the two countries necesaril}^ caused a rieciproca.1 drain, affa(dla| 
example of the action pf Socal bimetallic vy^ci^ «jvl 



f£ 



dinerent ratios between the tm-o metals- A further rnult I 
the comparison of the systems of England and Franoe is the fmltf 
maturity of the former. EngUno gained an hoifcst c uffO i t 
before France ; she led tbe way in the adoption of the gold tUAlirai 
whiLe in her treatment of representative money she bds bdd li 
decided a priority. The difference in economic coodiiioTu in tbi 
nations in part explains the contrast. There is no doubt ftnE ii 
both cases a high degree of de\-elopment his been reached, FiniDf, 
It should be remarked, that as England hu worked out in pi^xiat 
the system of " composite lcB:aI tender," so bA* France, witb to 
monetary allic*, been the first to show effectively the apcratiH m 
the " limping standard " [ii^don bQiitux}. Each oatioa has tte 
supplied a typCn which recent monetary change* give evideiHe of 
having been used as tbe pauern for other tea advaoizd QQtD]^ri& 

9. Some General Quesiums respecting the Constiimtiom «f Memtf. 
—The consideration of the histoiy of currency systcnis natmBy 
suggests the general problems that the more advanced coustriet 
have had to encounter. Of these, some may be desoibed as 
formalt i.e. they relate to the arrangement and the **«^'"'»««' 
of coinage and standards. Others are in essence issues of prmdple 
involving the most complicated theoretical doctrines, on lAiA 
there is even yet sharp differences of opinion between oompcteat 
students of economics. In some instanres an intcrmeifiate 
class may be found, e.g. the question of subdivisioB of the 
coins does raise some difficult matters of application; tlnagh 
it clearly belongs of right to the group of formal qoestioofc 
But the distinction is a valid one. Whether a coimtxy sbookl 
adopt the " gold standard " or prefer a " bimetallic " standard 
is obviously very different from the elementary points aboot 
units and the different dasses of coins. We wili thercfoce begia 
by noticing some of the characteristics that are fowKl in all 
modem currencies and some of which are implied in the idea 
of money. Thus it is true that every currency system moat be 
based on a stondori tmd 0/ m/mc which consists of a " find qnaality 
of some concrete substance defined by leferenoe to tbe units of 
weight or space." The Engilish unit, for example, is the fwiW, 
which consists of a definite quantity of gold (laj* 37447 V*- 
standard fineness) while the French unit is tbe/^mK (ooofMvd 
of 5 grammes of silver nine-tenths fine). It b not necesMiy. 
though it is usually the case, that there shall be a coin aimip oei d - 
ing to the standard unit, all that is needed is that the OBicst 
coins shall be multiples or submultiples of the unit, or at the 
least easily reducible to it. The Portuguese rci is too ohI ts 
be corned, and tbe pound of silver tb^ forowd tbfi oil of the 



MONEY 



703 



eaily English and French conendes was too large. Quite 
distina from both the actual coins and the unit of value is the 
money of account, though in practice it is usually identical with 
one of them. In Russia in early times the rouble was an imagi- 
nary money of account not coined, while the copper copeck was 
the unit of value. Coimected with the distinction between 
the coins and the unit is the highly important one between 
standard and token money, the former being of full power for 
discharging debts, and in the case of most systems only of 
equal value to the metal out of which it is made, while the latter 
b rated at a nominal value higher than that of its material. 
The silver and copper coinage in England and the smaller coins 
in the Latin union are only tokens; in the case of English silver 
coins, the cost value is less than 40% of the nominal one. The 
French tokens are made of inferior fineness (835 per xooo) to 
the full tender silver. Two restrictions are applied to token 
isBues: (x) they are only legally available to discharge small 
debts— in England silver is liinited to the payment of 408.; 
(a) they can be coined only by the permission of the state. Thus 
in England the Bank of England is ^he state agent for the silver 
coiiuige. The limitations are evidently required to prevent 
the expulsion of standard money, and to avoid the flooding of 
the circulation with coinage that is not needed for the purpose 
of the limited exchanges to which it is confined. Intermediate 
between standard and token cunency are those forms of coinage 
that are free from the first limitation, but restricted by the second. 
They have this further point of resemblance to tokens in that 
their nominal value is higher than that of their nuiterial— the 
French 5-franc pieces and the Indian rupees are prominent 
examples. Similarly, the analogy between representative 
money and token money is deserving of attention, and suggests 
the desirability of the latter being regarded as in some respects 
a fiduciary issue, for which the issuing authority incurs 
responsibility. 

A class of constdeiatkms already referred to (S 5) requires explicit 
notice here, vix. the influence of popular sentiment on the character 
and forms of a country's currency. The fact that money has to 
circulate amongst all dasses of society makes it indbpensable that 
it diould be suited to the wants and even the prejudices of the users. 
Many curious instances of preferences for particular coins or special 
forms of paper money can be given. The Austrian Maria Theresa 
dollar of 1780 is a favourite on the African coasts and has been 
frequently reissued for use there. Reasons of convenience and of 
security combine with sentiment; as in the determined rejection 
of the U.S. " greenbacks " by the inhabiunts of California during 
the inconvertibility of that currency. Reo^nition of the desires 
and tastes of the community is almost essential in carrving out 
any monetary reform. It b only by building on the habits and 
customs that have become established that improvements in the 
monetary system can be effectively completed. Not only is this 
careful observance of the disposition of the mass of society expedient : 
there u still greater need for taking account of the methods and 
interests of those sections of the business worid that deal specially 
with money. A currency chanee that was bitterly opposed b)r the 
banking interest would certainly be difficult to introduce in either 
England or the United States; traders have great influence as to 
the forms of money that they will accept and facilitate the use of. 
In another aspect tne study of the interest of dealers in the arrange- 
ment of the monetary system presents itself. One of the features 
that caused much surprise in the infancy of economic study was the 
disappearance of good coins from the circulation, w i.rior 

ones remained in use indefinitely. To the first obsLivLi^ lUcre 
seemed to be something perverse in the preference apparently 
shown towards debased or worn coins. In buuness traii*iactEon» 
inferior articles arc taken only at a lower price. The cjtpknaiion 
b easily understood, when furnished; -it consbts in stall n^ the 
difference between a commodity which is sought for its uitc, and 
money which is taken as merely a medium of exchanffr. (Vj.vidpd 
chat coin is not too bad for further circulation it will ' fi'td 

without difficulty. Still less will there be any trouble I'kr- 

ence b only in tne relative value of two metaU, such as silver and 
gold. The great majority of any population will give and take 
money without particulariy observing it. It b enough if the 
coin conforms to the usual type. There exists, however, in all 
oiercantile communities a class of dealers in money, who make a 
profit by selecting the best coins for exportation, or if two metals 
are in concurrent use. the coins of that metal which is undervalued 
in the proportion fixed. In the case of inconvertible paper issues 
the withdrawal b also for the purpose of hoarding to secure the 
profit eniccted when there b a high premium on bullion. The 
•ctioa of self-interest under these Gonditions produces an effect 



1 wfiich has bcM briefly formulated m the itatemcnt " that bad 
moiKzy tendf to drive out good mojiey.'' The proponitiofi has been 
ityled " Gruham's Law (f .p.). Abundant illuatfationa of ttm 
workini; Arc avjillable^ The atabUahrei^At of the EiiglLih g^ 
currency and the French «Awr one in the iSUi cientufy, already 
mentioned (9 8), b an effective one. Quite a* good in. the iransitioii 
of France (torn the silver to the pJd cuntdcy form after the great 
Kold disoovcrict of the middle of the 19th century^ In truth it 
may be tAid that most <^ the monetary transitions have been due 
to the Dperatjoii of the force indicated in Gntabam'B Law. The 
irrtportance of the law lies in the warning that it [i^^ ai^ainst the 
atrerrpt to rerorm a degraded cunency tiy the isiuc of tietter 
money. Such "operations of the mint arc." in Adam Smith's 
iudsmcnt, " somewhat like the wtb of Peneiope." The catidoio 
holdi equally in respect lo the rt^iotm of a depreciated mper cui^ 
rency or to an effort to force an unden-aJuc*! metal into cErculation* 
The success of fio many monetary rpforma in the last forty y«f» 
has bctn iti s^neat measure due to the? better apprrtiation <m the 
workiiiE of the principle. Its aid can ali^ be obtaiortl by M-ttina 
up the iui tabic conditioua: while It can be conntfUictet) throuEh 
tlie Lie of the principle of limitation, so clrarly expounded by 
Ricardo. Some of the constituent parts of the French and American 
currencies r«t altogether on the maintenance of an overvalued 
coina^p alonj; with one of higher Value by the limitation of the 
quantity of the former to the amount that can be employed without 
txpvWms 'He remaining part of the circulating medium from 
monetary use. 

Another part of the structure of any currency b the scale on 
which its accounts, and by consequence the degrees of its coins, 
a re arranged. The pound, the shilling, and the penny in the older 
Lnj^lJih nrstcm represented so many grades in the subdivision of 
value, Alt ocber currencies have the same need for divisions. 
The simplest scale would be what b called the " binary " ; in which 
each coin \i the hatf of the next higher, and double the one immedi- 
m\y bctow it. Most actual systems have series of coins on the 
binary scale. The penny, the halfpenny, the farthing; the 4s. 
piece, the Oorin^ the shilling, the sixpence, the threepenny: at a 
higher level the sovereign, the half-sovereign, the crown, the half- 
crown » are English examples. The Latin and Scandinavian unions, 
as alu Germany gnd the United States, have several binary coinage 
ficriu. But tia country adopts a purely binary scale. England 
in part rctatns the old "duodecimal " divbion in the relation of 
the sbiillne and the penny. Nearly all dvilixed nations have come 
to accept tlie system of Decimal Coinage (,q.vX though in their actual 
currencies they admit certain divergences from the strict decimal 
«yateni. The convenience of having the monetary scale of accounts 
in accordance with the arithmetical scale will probably secure the 
tjitimatc victory of the decimal system everywnere. in spite of the 
obiecFtons to it on the ground of its having only two factors — 

2 and s. — as afptnst the larger number of the duodecimal scale 
(2, ^p 4 and 6}. The immense trouble involved in altering accounts 
and the difficulty of overcoming the hostility to change u:lt by the 
ordinary rnemhcrs of the community are the obstacles that prevent 
the adoption of the decimal system in England. 

Cortnccled with the composition of a currency and the scale on 
%'liich it \i IxiTiEd is the question of its relation to other currencies. 
From a Very early time the conception of a money that should 
not be conlined hy a political limit appears to have existed. In 
fjt^t until the state took over the control of money its more important 
forrris had a ^ide diffusion. The talent, equated to the ox, b a 
ptornincni instance. Even when the city-state provided its par- 
ticular coinage we can still perceive the circulation of the better 
cos nages out 3 fde I heir legal area. The effect on the Greek currencies 
has been noted above ({ 8). Under the Roman hegemony and the 
empire that arose out of it there was the equivalent of an inter- 
national cuirency in the wide circulation of the coinages adopted 
from the con(]ucrcd states. Such coins as the drachma and the 
denarius were of general use in the then civilized worid. In later 
times. iJie Carol ingian silver currency for a short period supi^ied 
ar^ international medium, which vanished in the confusion of the 
middle age«. Owing to the rise of national governments money 
became a national distinction peculiar to each state. It b only in 
the lA%t sixty years that the i(fea of international money has been 
revi^fd in a practical form. Unfortunately the revival was speedily 
checlcetS by the reaction in favour of nationalism that followed 
the Frddcti-Gcnnan War (1870-71) and by the controversies as to 
the proper standard. (See Bimetallism and Monetary Con- 
FEHENces for further discussion of thb topic.) 

10- Typica! Currency Systems: Ikeir Evolution and Governing 
Ffiadples.—Ai first sight it appears that the systems of currency 
are almost infinite in their variety. They have grown up in 
diflcrent nations under the influence of local conditions and reflect 
the customs of the particular society. But, underlying these 
superAcLiI differences, there are certain general principles that 
permit of a grouping into a small number of clearly marked types. 
The classification, though resting on logical grounds, b very 
largely in conformity with the course of historical developmeot. 



704 



MONEY 



Better fonns hsve come into htSng as sodd progress liss 
become more pronounced; and further improvement may be 
expected in the future. The condition of things when money 
b coming into being is characterized by the weighing or measur- 
ing of the substances used for aiding the course of exchanges. 
It has therefore been called the system of " currency by weight." 
In strictness, it is better regarded as the stage before the intro- 
duction of real money; and thus outside the field of currency 
systems proper. The simplest system of currency seems to be 
that in which the state coins ingots of di£ferent metals and allows 
them to circulate without assigning any ratio for their req)ective 
values. Such an inconvenient form is not likely to be of long 
continuance; but it has sometimes arisen at a later time through 
the introduction of foreign coinages. Holland at the end of the 
1 6th century, Turkey down to the present day may be given as 
countries approaching this state. The title of " currency by 
tale " is Jevons's apt denomination for such a currency system. 
The next form in logical order is that in which a single metal is 
definitely appointed as the sole standard money. In early 
ages this is the most natural arrangement, and it has, therefore, 
been widely adopted. Silver has been the metal generally 
used in this way; as the instances previously given (§ 8) 
prove. The title of " single legal tender " system is the obvious 
one for this form. With the growth of transactions a difficulty 
soon presents itself. If the chosen metal is not of high value 
it is cumbrous for making large payments; if on the other hand 
its value is high, it is unsuitable for use in small transactions. 
Hence there almost inevitably follows the use of other metals, 
which are better suited for certain particular uses. Thus silver 
is at once too heavy and too light. To pay £1000 in silver at its 
present value woiUd take 800 lb troy, while a silver penny 
would be under the convenient limit of size. Partly for these 
reasons, but also to a large extent through the persistence of 
currency by tale, we find that along with the standard money 
other kinds are brought into or retained in use. Copper long 
survives beside silver; and gold is employed for the more impor- 
tant commerdal transactions. Public convenience leads to the 
valuation of these subsidiary forms of money, and in this easy 
manner another cxirrency system — that of " multiple legal 
tender" — comes into being. Though, theoretically, several 
substances might be valued for us^ as money, in practice some 
kind of bimetallism is used, and generally gold and silver are 
the constituents of the system. Thus for over three centuries 
England had a currency in which the values of gold and silver 
were fixed from time to time by royal proclamation. France 
and the United States, as well as many other countries, have had 
long experience of national bimetallism. The great problem 
in such a form of currency has always been that of keeping the 
two metals in effective circulation. As the values of the precious 
metals fluctuate, the principle of Gresham's Law is exemplified 
by the expulsion of the undervalued one. Each change in the 
conditions of production or in the ratios fixed by other countries 
tends to disturb the balance and is harassing to trade. Local or 
national bimetallism comes to be unsustainable, and is replaced 
by other currency types. The most remarkable is that known 
as the " composite legal tender " system. Its object is to 
combine any advantages of multiple legal tender with the main- 
tenance of the single standard principle. One metal is selected 
as the standard and is legal tender to any amount; other metals 
are utilized for the purpose of token currency. Thus in the 
system of the United Kingdom gold is the only standard coinage; 
but silver and copper are employed for the lower coins and for 
smaller payments. The establishment of this ingenious arrange- 
ment is rather the outcome of the circumstances that governed 
the English monetary situation in the 18th century than any 
refined considerations of theory; but its justification on grounds 
of prindple is furnished in Lord Liverpool's Coins of the Realm 
(1805). The extent to which the system has been copied by 
other nations and the stability of the English currency are 
strong confirmations of its merits as a solution of currency 
difficulties. Though the composite legal tender system has been 
s dedded succeu, it does not follow that it supplies the only 



mode of dealing with the tronbles that attend on the use of the 
local double standard. Other methods have been evolved from 
the monetary experiences of France and India, iHuch take 
distinct forms according to the spedal features of the case. 
There is the cxirrency system known as the " limping standard," 
the essence of which is the concurrent use of two metals, ooe 
being overvalued and coined only by state authority. The 
quantity of this favoured metal is necenarfly limited in amooat, 
to avoid depreciation or the ejection of the other metal from the 
circulation. It, however, has the position fA money in the 
fullest sense, in that it is legal tender for any amount. The 
5-franc pieces issued by the Latin union ate the best kson 
specimen of such coinage. In this case also the origin of the 
system was not theorcti^, it was the result of the fall in the value 
of silver and the fear entertained by the French goveranent 
that gold would be displaced by the dae^ier oKtaL The 
temporary expedient of limiting the coinage of standard silver 
has devdoped into the maintenance during moie than thirty- 
five years of the limping standard, which derives its name from 
the shortness of one limb of the currency body. EqaaDy 
suggestive for monetary theory is another phase or system, 
usually described as the "gold-exchange stai.dard" system, 
in which the ordinary currency is of a metal coined only by the 
state, and so limited as to keep it in a prescribed value ratio 
to another metal (gold) which does not circulate, but acts as the 
standard of value. This variation on the limping standard 
has been produced by the effort of the Indian govemmeot to 
meet the embarrassment caused by the continuous faU in the 
gold value of silver. Under the pressure of failing rcvenoe and 
of persons suffering from the rupee depredation in gold, the 
limitation on silver coinage was firtt enacted (1893); to be 
followed some years later ti899) by the establishment cif gokl ss 
the standard, with a definite parity assigned for the state sihcr 
issues. The success of the Indian experiment — for such it 
avowedly was— has led to its imitation by the American adnmu- 
tration in the Philippine Islands and by Mexico. It may be 
looked on as the natural product of the condition in which the 
single legal tender system is proving unfit, while the material 
for the composite legal tender system is wanting. The empby* 
ment and theoretic explanation of these methods of currcnqr 
adjustment mark the greatest advance made in monetaiy 
sdence and practice in recent years. Whether the limping, « 
the gold-exchange standards will be permanent forms is difficult 
to determine; but they are beyond doubt eA much importaaoe 
in meeting the risks of a period of transition. In any case they 
are entitled to recognition as distinct forms ol aantsxy ofgan* 
zation, resting on a sdentific basis. 

The types presented by purely metallic cuncndes can be 
considered by themsdves for the purpose of theoretical expon* 
tion. In actual working they are now affected by the ezisteocc 
of representative money. The state issues paper money wfakh 
may be dther convertible or inconvertible, or if it re&aias froa 
so doing, the banks take up the task and supply a medium of 
exchange in the form of notes, or by a later development thronib 
providing for the use of cheques by their customcn. As 
inconvertible paper currency has some i»onounoed affinities 
with overvalued metal; a duly regulated issue of this kind is 
quite on the lines of the gold-exchange system, and the difr 
culties of the two forms are very similar. But, just as the cnder 
systems of metallic money have gradually given way to the 
higher ones, so it may be said that the grosser forms of misBttS- 
agcment in representative money are being renM>vcd, notvitb* 
standing the recurrence of such monetary crises as that of 1907 
in the United States. The great instance of government pspcr 
money is the United States notes, known, as " greenbacks," 
which are fixed at the amount of $346,681,0x6. The BMSt 
prominent case of bank issue of notes is that of the Bank of 
France, with somewhat over £200,000,000 in drculatioa. 
Examples of the cheque currency are more difficult to state is 
quantitative shape; as the constituent parts are contianVy 
being created and cancelled, but the ckaring-home ictwas iN 
some idea of its extent m Faigiand. .The f^gnic lor 1909 Mi 



MONEY 



70s 



^6,000. It seems highly probable that the next stage 
rement will be the extension of currency based on 
er the Anglo-American pattern, to the other commer- 
ries of the world. But this movement can only be 
ill not affect Eastern countries. For a long time they 
in in the metallic currency stage, with the moderate 
laranteed note circulation. , 

re several plans which have been advocated as superior 
the systems actually in use. Mosi of these schemes 
erving of notice; a few, however, claim attention on 
d of theoretical or practical importance. The most 
us is that known as " international bimetallism," 
i designed to obviate the evils said to result from the 
:ation of silver and the overflow of the established 
vccn the precious metals. Its central idea was the 
»f a monetary league, composed, if not of all, at least 
idlng states (the larger the number the better), the 
being bound to coin any amount of gold and silver 
eed ratio. By such an agreement an adequate field 
« of both metals would be provided, and fluctuations 
tative value of silver and gold would be completely 
.. The expulsion of the cheaper metal would be 
:, owing to the absence of any place to which it could 
. Variations in the production of the precious metals 
on both metals, not on one. Another plan for meeting 
set of difficulties is the composition of the monetary 
by taking assigned amounts of both metals in combina- 
le unit — say i oz. of gold with 10 oz. of silver. The 
nmetallism " has been given to this ingenious mode of 
obtain a more stable standard than that afforded by 
lymcnt of a single metal. Amongst the many donees 
use of paper money has suggested the most noticeable 
that aim at the replacement of metallic money 
other basis. The socialist conception of a 
note " may be paralleled by the idea of 
iity notes," resting on a development of the 
ystem. Viewed from the practical standpoint 
e said that the double standard in any form 
nned by the course of events; it has been 
by the gold standard. In respect to the other 
methods there is the almost insurmountable 

of making them in any way sufficiently 
to overcome the resistance that they must 
y encounter. This criticism holds good, quite 
m the objections of principle to which they 
?en, in very different degree it is true. The 
of custom in relation to money can never be 

For this reason it is certain that very gradual 
i the only possible kind of monetary reform 
hope for success. It is essential to preserve 
possible the old surroundings and avoid the 

of novel devices. The adoption of what 
iffen has styled " fancy monetary standards " 
:d for a distant future. 
J course of the development of monetary 
mportant theoretical problems have pre^nted 
es. For the middle ages the great question 

best mode of securing an honest metallic 

At the beginning of the modem national 

e problem of keeping a parity between silver 

was the most serious issue which each state 
d to solve independently. With the rise of 
lere followed debate on the proper manage- 
paper money in its various forms, which has 
i>een completely closed. But the tendency in 
fifty years has been to concentrate attention 
leaning and due constitution of the monetary 
. In particular, the difficulties that result 
alteration in general prices, and the incon- 

to foreign trade from different currency 
s have been exhaustively considered. It is 
: desirable to present in a concise form what 



appears to be the outcome of these discussions. The first 
established conclusion is the impossibility of obtaining an 
absolute and invariable standard. The best that can be hoped 
is a near approximation by balancing the elements of fluctuation. 
The construction of the most suitable monetary system is a work 
of practical adjustment. The influence of the actual conditions, 
which has been already emphasized, helps to indicate the limits 
of profitable inquiry. In respect to the metallic basis the choice 
is between the single standard — gold or silver, and some combina* 
tion of these. The single standard of diver can be set aside, 
though it has had influential supporters. On the other hand the 
only combinations that need be considered are those indicated 
above by the titles " bimetallism " and " symmetallism." 

The theory of the gold standard rests on the principle that one 
metal is a better criterion for measuring values than two, since the 
fluctuations that occur by the substitution of one mcul for the 
other are certain to be disturbing. There is the further difficulty 
that no ratio can be permanently fixed between two metals, as their 
values must vary with the alterations in production. The inherent 
simplicity, and, so to speak, " naturalness," of the single standard is 
best realized by emboaying it in gold, which is universally desired, 
of high cost and yet found in suifficient amount to discharge the 
money work of the standard. The verdict of history b appealed to 
as confirming the theoretic presumption, for gold has been gaining 
ground from century to r ■ ' \t 

process have only made it : I ■■■. — ■ ; .--.i ■ 1 .. ■ \i..-. : t m--, ( "n- 
FERENCES). Most of the Ltb]iL%:t.J4J^[iii tu UiL- gQ\d giandiikrd re^^t an 
ideas which are the support of cnhcr cconomiic fullncin. The ai- 
tempts to supersede it involve tb<? reject ton of the rule of econcrmic 
law. The foundation of the iloctrtne of '^ LinneLJillkin " is the theory 



that the value of money is doiermbed, not utrtply by cD»t a( pro- 
duction, nor by unregulated supply and di^-mafid. but by the action 
of regulated demand, in ironj unction with the actufiL conditioni 



of production. States are th« domandcra cf metal for monetary 
use, and by adjusting that demand they can pQwvrfufly influence 
the course of production, eapeciaily u the cost at which dihcr 



Table \.— Estimated Production of Cold and Siher, 


1493-^900. 


Tcnod. 


No^ 


Amount 


n KLioL 


Value in MiUionf 
of Franc*. 


Ratio of 
Vafutof 


Yeart 










Gold to 






Gold. 


Silver. 


Goy. 


Silver. 


Silver. 


M^J-iSJO 


a« 


161400 


1,316,000 


560 


29a 


n*3 


1541-IS+4 
1545-15*0 


34 


171^800 


3, 165 .OOP 

iOh'976.ooo 


593 I 


4SJ 


n-3 


3* 


373.000 


940 


vm 


11-5 


is3j-i6oo 


30 


147,600 


*.3rft.ooo 


50a 


U'9 


tboi-r6jo 


20 


ITD.4<» 


8.45S,(»o 
7,g7j,ooo 


5S7 


1.S80 


i3*» 


1621-1640 


JO 


166.000 


S 


'^ 


\u 


1641-1660 


20 


I7S,4M1 


7.^36,000 


t66i-i6»o 


20 


1 85.100 


;,?4o,ooo 

«,aia,ooo 


149» 


14 7 


1681-1700 


30 


2154«* 


% 


t.Sio 


»5c 


IJOt'lJJQ 


30 


»S640o 

381,600 


7.113,000 
8,634.000 


t,5So 


15*3 


i7Jt-t74d 


JO 


i,3M 


%m^ 


15' 


1741-1760 


30 


4^s.^*™ 


lQ*66j.OO0 


1,695 
t>4J6 


3,170 


U-fl , 


1761-1780 
1781^1800 


30 


41+.J™ 


I3t055*«» 
l7.S&i,ODo 
fi. 943 ,000 


3.900 


U-R 


30 


J55.f*» 


1,326 


3-90* 


IS- 1 


iSoi-1810 




i77.fco 


612 


l.9«7 


15 6 


iflt 1-1820 




1 14,4« 


5.4Q»,QOO 


394 


t.2oa 


»55 
158 


iSai-18^ 




141^00 


4.606,000 


f 


t/wj 


1S31-1&40 




Joa.9«» 


5.964,000 
7,ao4,ooo 


t^3S 


157 
15a 


1841-1850 




M7.600 


J,ftS6 


''M 


'tH^^^^^ 




1 987*6dO 


4,43t^«xi 


340J 


!5-4 


1656-1860 




tJOJO.OOO 


#,535,000 


3.549 


1.006 


15-3 


1861-1*65 




g^S^Aoo 


S.SOQ'OOO 

6,695.000 


3,1^ 


1.223 


\u 


1866-1870 




U?:^ 


3aos 


ia7t-ii7S 




9J47-000 


3.98S 


s.iS^ 


160 


r9T6-ilWto 
ia4]-]i«s 




463.100 


13,351,000 


2,960 


2.532 


I7» 




K 


i4,30*,oao 


a.S79 


3,640 


ia-6 


I8li6-i§90 




17.36^,000 


tJ4J 


3.8J2 


21-1 


iBgi 




196.600 


4^66,000 


1 677 


669 


20-9 


mi 




ajo.90a 


4.a53,«» 


sn 


659 


33-7 


ifl93 




336.700 


5.'&5.«» 


640 


26.S 
33-6 


1^4 




373.^00 


S.IJI.OOD 


941 


5J3 


'^ 




301,500 


5,>34rO«> 


t.045 


544 


3^6 




305.700 
35S1900 


4,908,000 


1.049 


W9 


30-7 


■i 




5,013,000 


1*215 


499 


340 




433. JW 
4S3.5W 


S,413nWW 


1.4B6 


53" 


35 3 


iM 




5*JJS*«>o 


^500 


5ffO 


339 


1900 




3»4.6m 


5.S77.0W 


>i:!S 


55& 


33 4 


t49j-*eso 

1S£&-I900 


35fl 


4,75?t*oo 


t49.«=8,ooo 


33*293 


14 03 
16-3 


35 


57,563.000 


2U96§ 


12.052 


,i? 


3,^69 H*oo 


53^70.000 


UM7 


fl.Sio 
53.854 


27-3 


1491-1000 


15,101.700 


260461,000 


14-73 



7o6 



MONEY 



gold or silver b obtained varies with the produc tl v en e M of the 
poorest mine in working. Thus by directin|[ consumption, states are 
controlling production, and therefore — within limits — fixing the 
relative value of the two metals. This power has been shown m the 
stability of the ratio durins the continuance of the French double- 
■tandanl (1803-1873). The possibility of maintaimng 4 givtn. 
ratio being thus established, the argument proceeds to iKaw thr 
advantages of the system, (i.) It secures the concurrent uw at the 
precious metals and avoids throwing all the money work on gd[d. 
(ii.) Greater stability in value may be expected, since the flu^^tLLa- 
tions of either metal will be compensated by those of the othtr. 
At the worst the variation can only be as great, (iii.) The hrv^cr 
stock of money tends to keep up prices to the benefit of tr^dr; 
for falling prices hamper production, (iv.) The fixed ratio firovidn 
a stable par of exchange between silver-using and Eotd-uiing; 
oountries; though universal bimetallism would remove this di«- 



tinction. fv.) The esubltshment of a woHd-cttrreocy woold fat 
faciliuted by allowing both metab a well-defined reUukm. Ths 



enumeration of the hauls of the ' _ 

working depends on the area of its operation. It must be ** iater* 
national " and the states composing the unkm must be " gicat 
powers'* in the monetary sense. Otherwise, tlietr action would 
be comparatively ineffective. The crudal difficulty has been the 
determination of the common ratio. The risk of faflure in carryiw 
out the policy has proved a deterrent to such great powers as EngUnd 
and Germany, who are in possession of the gold standard. On the 
theoretic side the chief weakness of bimetalkmi has been its failuie 
to supply any clear account of the limits within which oatcs can 
regulate the ratio of gokl to silver. If the ratio 15-5:1 can be set 
up why shoukl not the ratio 100:1, or that of eouality ? lu 
practical failure has resulted partly from political conditicms, 
partly from the removal of most of the difficulties whidi it was 



Table ll.—Tlu Coinage Systems of Continental Europe, exhibiting the told and siher coins, tketr weigkt, fineness, remedy amd 


















Rnn 


Apip^ibTiuK 












&«■ 


ilpp»-... 


0^ 


1 


^0 


11 


p. JAM 


Moory V»lur 




^ 


1 






p. IWfl. 


W«VJ«| 


1 


^ 


3 


11 


IT 

.2 


1 


} 


II 


AmruA nttifotiTf "— 












ail Jt 


1 L 














£ *. A 


It 


100 Hmmt Rj LrOTCT ptoc 


GoU 


6 nidbj 
i 4|ibt 


9H e 


i 


1 J 


4 0| 




itoLM. - 10 OflOdcr pin 


QM 


A }M 


AA'4 


1 1 


< 9 


tui a 


* I Giddtm. 19 H y^ 




*» a 


1 


J J 


a B 4 


J** 




tCiitU*. s ^ „ 




iH^ 


«6D e 


*'l 


M « 


B 1 J 




i CuJtf CD H 




oeti a 


* a 


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* Present system introduced in 1894. in place of the system 
adopted in 1870. The Maria Theresa dollar is only used as a com- 
mercial money in Levantine trade. 

' The system of the Scandinavian union came into force on the 
1st of January 1875. It is based on gold monometallism. 

* The coinage system of France came into force on the 6th of 
May 1799. It was extended to the countries forming the Latin 
union in 1865; it has been adopted by Greece, Rumania. Servia 
and Spain. It is the most widely extended system in Europe. 
The Austrian 8 and 4 gulden pieces were (equivalent to the 20 
and lo franc pieces. In 1879 it was estimated that the system 
was used by populations amounting to 148.000,000. In its origin 
a double standard (with ratio of i^'S'.i) it has become a limping 
standard by the limitation of the silver coinage. The unit is the 
same value all through the union, but receives different names in 
different countries. The titles are: in France. Belgium and 
Switzerland, franc and centime: in Italy, lira a^d centesimo; in 
Greece, drackme and Upta; in Rumania, liu and ban; in Servia, 
dinar and para: in Spain, peseta and centesimo. 

* The German coinage law came into force on the tst of January 



1875. It was modelled on the English system, but it b oohr iatk 
last few years that the old silver has bem com|rfetely withoava. 

* The Dutch sundard has been changed more than once. !■ 
18^7 a ulver standard was introduced, and retained till 1873. tk 
unit being the silver guilder. In 1875 the free coinage of gold «as 
decreed: silver coinage having been restricted nnce 1873. Thai 
the limping standard is in force. 

•The nominal standard of Portugal ia gold. The EflgfiA 
sovereign is legal tender at 4500 reis. 

'The Russian currency until 1897 waa nominally a d«cr 
standard one; but really was inconvertible. The cvrreaqr «•> 
improved in 1885: and in 1897 the gokl standard was adopttd, 
provision being made for the withdrawal of the paper aH«qr. 
Finland, which had a currericy 00 the French model, b now bdaf 
compelled to accept the Russian currency. 

'The Spanish coinage was assimilated to that of the Utii 
union in 1871. Spain, differing from the other countries of the 
group, coins a 2>$ peseta (Mece. 

*The Medjidie coinage was introduced in 1844. Eoi^ ***** 
reigns circulate at 125 piastres; ao franc pieoes at 100 prnmeL 



MONEY 



707 



intended to meet by the subtequent economic development. Tlie 
propoaal for a joint itandard formed by using a unit m which the 
two metals are combined has the advantage of escaping the risk 
of failure to maintain the ratio, for it makes the employment of 
both silver and gold essentiaL Its influence in causing stability 
b also likely to be greater ; but it is open to the danger that a shortage 
of one metal would not be compensated by the abundance of the 
other. The further advantage that it does not need international 
agreement (for each country could settle its own combination) is 
counterbalanced by the strangeness of the plan and by its necessi- 
tating the use of representative money. The suggestion of 



" goloid " coins on the model of the Greek electnun wodd hardly be 
acceptable. 

II. The Present Money Systems of the World: Changes of the 
last Half Century.— Tht facts as to the money of the leading 
countries of the world are given in Tables II. and III. It is, 
however, necessary to explain the way in which this position 
has been reached by the reforms of the last fifty years. Since 
i860 the alterations in standards and in coin denominations 
have been of a very extensive nature. England is one of the 



Table III. — Currencies of the more important rum'European Slates. 



\-noJtrH AUEHICA 




ID Ddldr DMct 



js C«( p 



B.-SOUTH AMERICA 






Cold 






4 

B S 



*1JJ 
4I» 



U43fi 

J I*" J 
i07r 












p. laao 



£ • d 



* 11 

& 4 






4 toi 



19 9* 






[Cdb^> 



I SoMi LOin) 






GdEl 



OdM 



Gold 
Silw 



lA'LJV 

lofts 

no 

n 
I ij 






4 104 

I 695 



f|i4 6 
f tAA 
mtb 

lis E^ 






fttao 
»t60 









« As 
> 4J 



:s 



* [iv»ver1IUe paper currcarf . 



* Until IQ06 there was no mint in Canada. English and American 
coins circulate. The standard is eold (£1 -4866 dollars). There 
were formerly different methods of counting, viz. English sterling, 
Halifax currency and Canadian sterling; the respective ratios 
being 100:120:108. 

' The Mexican currency has been entirely altered in its standard 
by the legislation of 1^5. The gold-exchanee system has been 
brought into force. The old-established dollar, which is called 
piastre, is reduced so as to represent a ratio of about 33-1. 

*The dollar was introduced in 1787 as the unit. In 1792 the 
ratio of gold to silver was fixed at 1 to 15. This valuation under- 
rated gold, consequently silver became the standard. In 1834 the 
ratio was altered to i to 16, and it was again chaneed in 1837. 
In these chances gold was overrated, and silver was oriven out of 
circulation. This led. in iSm. to the reduction of the metal in 
the silver coins, which therefore became a token<urrcncy. The 
suspenrion of cash payments took place in 1861. In 1873 silver 
was demonetized, and gold became the standard. In 1878 the 
" Bland Bill " was passed, making the silver dollar a legal tender. 
but confining its coinage to the executive, and fixing the amount 
at from two to four million dollars per month The aifficulties that 
resulted from this measure led to the Sherman Act of 1890. pro- 
viding for the coinage of silver to the annual amount of 54,000.000 ox 
Owing to the critical situation created hy these efforts to aid silver. 
the repeal of the Sherman Act was earned in 1893. Since then the 
chief problem has been to maintain an effective gold reserve. 

*Tne Argentine currency is. in practice, one of inconvertible 
paper. The gold coins were altered in 1881 The old South 
American onaa weighed 27 grammes, was 875 &ne and worth 
i3.4a.6d. 



*The Brazilian currency is greatly depreciated. It is derived 
from the Portuguese. 

* The Chilean coinage was reformed in 1895, when the goM 
itandard was adopted, and the system brought into relation to the 
English one. Two Chilean Condors (20 peso pieces) being equal 
toZj. 

Mn 1904 Colombia adopted the goM standard b]^ taking the 
equivalent of the U.S. dollar as the unit; but the inconvertible 
paper is the main currency: and the old coins pass as commercial 
money. 

■Alter attempting a parity with the Latin union, and passing 
through aperioc of inconvertible paper. Peru has adopted the English 
gold stanoiard and coinage, but keeps her own silver denominations, 

*The silver sundard was prescnbed in India in 1835. with the 
use of the gokj mohurs. The latter was demonetized in iB^ 
In consequence of the fall in the gold value of silver, the Indian 
mints were ckMed to the coinage of silver, otherwise than by the 
government, in 1893. The amount of currency was so hmited as 
to bring the rupee to the value of is. 4d. On the realization of this 
portion. English sovereigns were made legal tender at the ratio 
of 15 rupees— I sovereign. India has, by these measures joined 
the class, now becoming numerous, of gold-exchange standard 
countries. 

**The old Japanese currency conasted of gold cobangs and 
silver itzibus, with a ratio of 4 to 1. This antique system was 
replaced in 1871 by a double-standard one on the French plan, 
the ratio being 16*17: ii. The system passed first into one of silver 
monometallism: and then became one of inconvertible paper. 
The great reform of 1807. aided by the Chinese War indemnity, 
placed the currency on the gold baaa. 



7o8 



MONEY-LENDING 



lew count rici that fau not found change desirable. France lias 
reDr£:amE«d her token coins £1^64), cnlercd in Id the L^itin 
union (1865) and Jidopted ihe Jjmpirtg atmdard jn 1S74. Ger- 
ms ny lias conipiclply iran^loTincd the ciohctar)' system biihcrlo 
uisLJng in ihc GerniEtn SlaLes (1873), The Scandinaviin union 
hu been act up (1B7S). Holland haft changed her system mofE 
than onct Still later, AusLria-Hunguy (iS^i) and Rusam 
OS^?) have come over from the eil ver standard with the pracuc^ 
use of tncofiveruble paper Lo new currfnci^ on the g^^ld ha^k. 
In America the United StatM^ alter a series of tnonctaiy expe- 
riences, has made the gold dd\&x Its standard unit, though 
the silver complication still exists. AUdco haa succeeded in 
establishing a gold-excbangf? slandard at such a ratio as to induce 
the import of gold. British India has had its rupee currency 
put into relalion to the English gold unit* and ha* been folio tved 
by the Straits Settlements^ Japan tx%l abandoned its ancient 
currency C1S71). It then adopted & double sUndard system 
which became in practice * silver one and later passed into 
incon vert ibie paper* FinaUy , it has ( i flg 7 ) established a co m po&i tc 
legal tender system on the gpld basis. The Dutch Indies have 
ihe gold-excbanEe standard on the same plan as British India. 

R£marki.'~ln addition to ihe tabular ^itcments, thr folt^viring 
pointi respecting the currencies of less advanced countries mtky U: 
indicated. Tboug:h there is m tendency to establish the money of 
the mather-country in colonies, some of the British po^iscs^m, 
mcqnirtd by conqueft,^ have kept their fonner currency. There 
has been a widespread movement in the backward rountries of 
the world toH.'aidn rctoFmins their money: chtel^y by setting \tp 
tome Line of connejuoci with the i^old standard. In South and 
Central America the doLlar has been retained as the unit; but the 
iDO^^ment tor eo^rdinaljon with the French system hae erased. 
The Eneliflh ataadard ha been preferred at a modeE by Chile and 
Peru. Hi A^ta the currency of the PhiLipptnes ha a been reorganized 
uadrr American control* China is conuderinK monetary reform, 
and Siani hai nude progree in the direction of the gold -exchange 
ttandard, Pirubtibly the mo^ defective currencloi ate now thoie 
of Turkey and her tributary states. 

BiDLiOGaATHV.— The literature on the lubject <A money has been 
Well described as " almost measureless." The Hst of iiTiter* who 
have contributed to It begins with ArigtoLle, and include^ ^^uch 
famous names as Copemicut, Locke and Newton. A full enumera- 
tion would fill a volume of no slight siie. All that can be doAv here 
u to HTve a short cEasfihed list of the mo4t serviceable books. 

L Economic text -book*: English and American — 1, S, Milln 
PrincipUi af Poiitkal Economy (London^ 1^4^; new cd. by Ashley, 
1909); Sid&wickf Ffitici^ci of Pttiitiasl Efffnomy i( London, 1JJ83; 
3rd cd.,, 190O; J, S* Nicholsonn Pnmiplti of Fulitiiai Economy 
n vols,, [^ndon, 1897-1901); F. A, Vvalktr^ Pirliucol Etoimtmy 
(New York, i8Sa; 3n<f ed-, iSiTr often rtptinti-i]} ; A* T* Hadtey* 
EtftH^mici (New York, iftg*); E. R. A, Seticman, PrimtpUs aj E^cmo- 
miu (New York. 1905); \\. R, Seager, Introduciion ta ELmamui 
(New York, 1904: trd ed., njoS). French: M, Chevalier, Cfl*f" 
tiionomuppliiiqur fvoL lil. '* La Monnaie," Paris, J 850); P, Lerny* 
Beau lieu, Traitl d'icQnom^ poiiiique U vols,, Paris, 1896); C, Cinen 
Cmfi diconcmie poiiiiistte (Paris* 1909). German: n. EVlangoldt, 
Grundrits dfr VaUumrtichaniiehre (ind ed., Stuttgart., jS?!^; 
C, ScJionberSt itsnd^sk da- poiitutken Ckeanomie [Tflbingen, 
ISSj; ^th ed.H 1904); C Schmaller, Grundrin d^r a/i£rBtrtMiTf 
VotksmtHchaJhUhrt (Unpcigr 1900-1^4)* The Dutch work by 
N. C* Piersdn has been transbted into Engli^ with the title 
PriHiiptiurf Efiommici LLofldonn igoj), 

IL Special treatises on " Money '^ W. S, Jevon*, Afpnfv and 
the Mejrhaitiim 0/ ExchfiHtt (London, 1S73); F, A. Walker, Menty 
(New Yorkn 1878); j. S. Nicholson, Mcnry and hfenrt^ry ProMfms 
(London, ]A8^:6ih ed., 1902); C. A. Conantn Thr Pfin^tpics itj Mtmry 
nnd Bankin% (a vols,. New York, 1905) h A. Arnsunen La MoHnait, 
kcrMit et It change (Paris, t89j; 3nd ed., IQ02): A de Foville. La 
"— "- ''^aris. 1907!: C. Kmes, Cttd und Kredti (Berlin^ i^"* 
, Knappn SiaaUiche Thecrif des GeMri (Leipzii;, 1003) 



MoHmait (Paris. 1907! : C. Kmes, did und Kredti (BerltOH i87J- 
<#79); C F^ Knappn SiaaUiche Thecrif des GeMri (Leipzii;, looS)- 

ill. Wnrk;< on upecial question^ r See BudETMLrssi ; 0^neihg ; and 
MoxHTARvCo.'^FEiiELpiCEsforwdtinBTion the pmlilcm* of ihe stand- 
ard and depreciation. For the history of tnoney— F, LrrtomidTti, iff 
Mommit liinj i^^niioviU (Paris, iHr6J; W, A- Shaw, tintary (jf 
Current y, t3$S-^lSQ4 {Londonx 1895I For The history of the English 
currency, besides the works on the nu minima tic side — Lord Liverpool, 
Cmni t^f tkt Re<ilm (1805: reprinted iSfto). For America— W. C 
Sumner, fftstary ef American Currfucy (New York. tS7j}, On the 
production and coniumption ot mom-y matL-rijlst W. J 3 cob, 
TrijdwttOH and C^ium^ian a/" iht Prtaffvi Mrtdi {2 vott, 
London, 1831!; and A. Del Mar, thslory 6/ /Af Precwus Mrtds 
{London, iftio). Technical details in Tate^s Cambift (many 
edition*). {C F. B.J 

HONEY-LElfCHHO, the lending of money on usury (9.T.). 
The busineu of the profcMJonal money-lajikdii^ it one which, ia 



tyranny and abuse are likely to appear, all cocmtrks haiw at 
different times endeavoured to regulate. In England the Icsnot 
of experience have shown that the abuses of this busanes are 
best regulated by a system of registration coupled with relief 
to debtors against harsh and tmconscionable bargains. Other 
countries however still appear to ding to the belief that it is 
wisest to fix a maximum rate of legal interest. Thus in Germany 
the commercial code fixes the legal rate of interest on commercial 
transactions at 5%. Moreover in that country traden can 
demand interest on commercial debts from the day on which 
the debts fall due. In France, again, the Code fixes the rale 
of interest on ordinary loans at 5%, and on commercial trass- 
actions at 6%. In the United States of America the lav 
relating to the lending of money on usury varies in the different 
states. All the states have what is called a *' legal rate " of 
interest; and when no rate of interest is specified in the contract 
between the parties, there is a presumption that the borrowtr 
has agreed to pay the legal rate. This legal rate varies fron 
5% in Loiusiana to 8% in Wyoming; in the Eastern states 
it is generally 6%. Some of the states have usury laws giviag 
relief to borrowers in cases where circumstances have conijpelled 
them to agree to extortionate rates; but other states have no such 
laws, except that a contract in writing is invariably requred 
in all cases where the " legal rate " is exceeded. 

Practically every form of investment in which a man is 
capable of indulging involves the lending and borrowing of 
money, the interest exacted beirg the profit which the knder 
receives for the tise of his capital. The existence of the pro* 
fcssional lender, as apart from the ordinary facilities lot borrow- 
ing money on good security, is obviously due to the fact that 
it is not every borrower who is in a position to give good secwity 
for a loan. Where the security is bad the market is narrowed; 
the individuals who are prepared to lend the money on merely 
personal security require a high rate of interest. 

The first people to practise the profession of nooney-lesdiBg 
in England regularly were the Jews, and the business has 
remained largely in their hands, though they are in the habct 
of trading under assumed names. The Norman and Angevia 
kings were fully alive to the advantages which accrued to the 
people through borrowing at usury from the Jews, but they were 
also alive to the advantages which they themselves were able 
to reap by extorting from the Jews the wealth which the latter 
had acquired from the people. The Jews were regarded as the 
king's serfs, and squeezing them was but a popular form of 
taxing the people. Indeed in the reign of Henry IL the Scat- 
carium Jndaeorum was established as a separate branch of the 
exchequer and Used for the purpose of filling the royal coffers. 
The English people on the other hand were not so prone to faster 
the money-lending business. Sections 10 and 11 of Magna 
Carta provided that when a person died owing money to a Jew 
no interest should accrue during the minority of the heir, and 
further that the widow should be entitled to her dower, and aoy 
children who were minors should be provided with ■»*« *— ri *t 
before the repayment of the loan. Then followed a large nombcr 
of statutes known generally as the Usury Laws (see also Usubt). 
The first of these was pa^ed In 1235 (20 Hen. III. c j). The 
acts were directed to restrain the lending of money at Murioai 
rates. The earUcr ones in some cases prohibited the lending of 
money on usury at all, as in a statute of Jewry of the reiga of 
Edward I. ; but the later statutes were chiefly confined to Uniting 
the rate of Interest. Thus 21 Jac. I. c. 17 declared void al 
contracts where the interest was more than 8%. In 1818 a 
select committee of the House of Commons was appointed to 
consider the Usury Laws and in 1841 a similar committee ctf tkt 
House of Lords was appointed. As a result an act was paacd 
in 1854 (17 & 18 Vict. c. 90) whereby all the existing lawsaguart 
usury were repealed. 

The question whether any interest is payable or not, and 
also the amoimt of such interest, depends on whether tke 
parties to the transaction have expressly or impliedly agiced 
to the payment of interest by the borrower; for apart ftoa Mcfc 
agreement no interest can lawfully be demanded oa • Ih^ 



MONFORTE— MONGE 



709 



Atthoii^ in general there is no limit on tlie amount of interest 
which a borrower may agree to pay, equity has always been 
ready to grant relief from unconscionable bargains. This 
equitable relief is still available, though it is not so wide as the 
relief now given to borrowers under the Money-lenders Act 
1900. This act provides that where proceedings are taken in 
any court by a money-lender for the recovery of money lent, 
and there is evidence which satisfies the court that the interest 
charged on the loan, or the amounts charged for expenses, 
hiquiries, fines, bonus, premium, renewals, &c., are excessive, 
and that in either case the transaction is harsh and uncon- 
scionable, or is otherwisa such that a court of equity would 
grant relief, the court may reopen the transaction and take 
an account between the money-lender and the person sued, and 
may, notwithstanding any statement or settlement of account 
or any agreement purporting to dose previous dfs lings and 
create a new obligation, reopen any account already taken 
between them and relieve the person sued from payment of any 
sum in excess of the sum adjudged by the court to be fairly due 
in respect of such principal, interest and charges as the court, 
having regard to the risk and all the circumstances, may adjudge 
to be reasonable. 

• The Money-lenders Act of 1900 was passed in consequence 
of grave abuses which had arisen. It had been the practice of a 
certain class of lender to trade under a variety of names; so that 
onder one name the same individual would lend money to a 
person who borrowed from him under another name; the 
second loan would be spent in liquidating the first, and the 
borrower finding it always easy to obtain more money would 
oontinue borrowing imtil he became hopelessly involved. The 
act struck at the root of this pernicious system by providing 
that every money-lender, as defined by the act, must register 
himself as such, under his oWn or usual trade luune, and in no 
other name, and with the address, or all the addresses if more 
than one, at which he carries on his business of a money-lender. 
If a money-lender fails to register himself, or if he carries on a 
money-lending business otherwise than in his registered name, 
or in more names than one, or elsewhere than at his registered 
address, he is liable on summary conviction to a fine, not 
fxfewling one hundred pounds. For the purposes of the act 
"money-lender" is defined as including every person whose 
bfudness b that of money-lending, but it does not include 
pawnbrokers, in respect of business carried on by them under 
the Pawnbrokers Act, Registered Friendly, Loan or Building 
Societies, coporate bodies incorporated or empowered by 
special act of parh'ament to lend money, persons bona fide 
carrying on the business of banking or insurance, or bona fide 
carrying on any business not having for its primary object the 
lemting of money, or bodies corporate for the time being 
exempted from registration by order of the Board of Trade. 

The act is not confined to providine; for the registration of money- 
lencteTB and for the reopening of harsh and unconscionable bargains. 
A check is pbced on false representations and promises made with 
the intention of inducing a borrower to enter into a loan transaction. 
If any money-lender, or any manager, agent or clerk of a money- 
lender, or any person being a director, manager or other oflkerof 
a corporation carrying on the business of a money-lender, by any 
false, misleading or deceptive statement, representation or promise, 
or by any dishcMiest concealment of material facts, fraudulently 
Induces, or attempts to induce, any person to borrow money or to 
fl«ree to the terms on which money is to be borrowed, he is declared by 
the act to be guilty of a misdemeanour and is liable on indictment to 
imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not exceeding 
twoyears, or to a fine not exceeding five hundred pounds, or to both. 

The act further provides that if any one for the purpose of earn- 
ing interest, commission, reward or other profit sends or causes to 
be sent to a person whom he knows to be an infant any circular or 
other document which invites the person receiving it to borrow 
BBOoey or to apply to any person or at any place with a view to 
obtaining information or advice as to borrowing money, he shall 
be liable, if convicted on indictment, to impnsonment with or 
without hard labour, or to a fine, or to both imprisonment and fine. 
If any such circular or document sent to an infant purports to issue 
frooi any address named therein er indicates any address as the 
place at which application is to be made with reference to the 
aobject matter of the document, and at that place there is carried 
on any business connected with loans, every person who attends 
■Kb place for the purpose of taking part in or assisting in the 



carrying on of such business will be deemed to have sent or caused 
to be sent such circular or document, unless he proves that he was 
not in any way a party to and was wholly ignorant of the sending 
of such document. Moreover, by section 5 of the Money-lenders 
Act 1900, where any proceeding are taken against the senders of 
these circulars to infants, if it is proved that the person to whom 
the document was sent is an infant, ^the person charged will be 

[)roves that he 
full age. 
, ^ ^ - only oc- 

cijrTc<l a the drcui.ir had been sent to any person at any university, 
coKi^Cp Mihool or other place of education. 

As for the rpcovt^rv ol money lent; if the loan is not tainted with 



ille^nLity or jon morality, or made for a purpose contrary to public 
id bjr a common la^ 
ks 
- ^„ grantee. „ 

able must be incji&ujed bv the loss susuined through the breach 



policyp tiic amount may be recovered 

V^liCTtf an iotertdirtg borrower breaks bis agreemci 

frpctrific p^di^rmana: will not be granted, and the damages recover* 



and not by thir »um apreea to be lent {The South AJricau Territories, 
Limiifd v. WsUin^iim (1897), l Q.B. 692). 

AuTiiORiriES. — On equiuble relief to borrowers reference should 
be made to Eel Jot and Willis's Bargains with Money4enders. On 
the Uw under the mci of IQOO see Hastings's Law reiating to Money" 
UmUrs o-nd UnttfnsiionabU Bargains; and Edmondson's Moftey- 
Unders Act 1900. For the taxation of the Jews in the middle 
ages, see Bridges, The Jews of Europe in the Middle Ajges, and 
Gneist's History of the En^isk Constitution. For American law 
relating to Usury, see Stimson's American Statute Law, and the 
statutes of the various states. For France and Germany, see the 
codes of those countries. (C. G. Ala.) 

MONFORTE, or Montorte oe Lem os, a town of north-western 
Spain, in the province of Lugo, on the Cabe, a small right-hand 
tributary of the Sil, and at the junction of the railways from 
Tuy and Astorga to Corunna. Pop. (1900), 13,9x2. Monforte 
is built on a hill surmoimted by a ruined medieval dtadel; it 
contains an ancient Benedictine monastery converted into a 
hospital, a Jesuit college, and a fine Renaissance parish church, 
besides several convents and palaces of the Leonese nobility. 
Monforte has manufactures of soap and linen, and some trade 
in timber and livestock. 

MONOB, OASPARD (x746'x8x8), French mathematician, the 
inventor of descriptive geometry, was bom at Beaune on the 
xoth of May 1746. He was educated first at the college of the 
Oratorians at Beaune, and then in their college at Lyons— where, 
at sixteen, the year siter he had been learning physics, he was 
made a teacher of it. Returning to Beaune for a vacation, he 
made, on a large scale, a plan of the town, inventing the methods 
of observation and constructing the necessary instruments; the 
plan was presented to the town, and preserved in their library. 
An officer of engineers seeing it wrote to recommend Monge to 
the commandant of the military school at Moires, and he was 
received as a draftsman and pupil in the practical school attached 
to that institution; the school itself was of too aristocratic a 
character to allow of his admission to it. His manual skill was 
duly appreciated: " I was a thousand times tempted," he said 
long afterwards, " to tear up my drawings in disgust at the 
esteem in which they were held, as if I had been good for nothing 
better." An opportunity, however, presented itself: being 
required to work out from data supplied to him the "defile- 
ment " of a proposed fortress (an operation then only performed 
by a long arithmetical process), Monge, substituting for this 
a geometrical method, obtained the result so quickly that the 
commandant at first refused to receive it— the time necessary 
for the work had not been taken ; but upon examination the value 
of the discovery was recognized, and the method was adopted. 
And Monge, continuing his researches, arrived at that general 
method of the application of geometry to the arts of construction 
which is now called descriptive geometry (see Geometry, 
Descriptive). But such was the system in France before the 
Revolution that the officers instructed in the method were 
strictly forbidden to communicate it even to those engaged In 
other branches of the public service; and it was not until many 
years afterwards that an account of it was published. 

In X 768 Monge became professor of mathematics, and in 1771 
professor of physics, at M6zidres; in 1778 he married Mme 
Horbon, a young widow whom he had previously defended in 
a very spirited manner from an unfounded charge; in 1780 be 
was appointed to a chair of hydraulics at the Lyceum in Paiia 



7IO 



MONGHYR— MONG NAI 



(held by hixn together with his appointments at M6zi2tes), and 
was received as a member of the Acadimie\ his intimate friend- 
ship with C. L. Berthollct began at this time. In 1783, quitting 
M£zidres, he was, on the death of £. Bizout, appointed examiner 
of naval candidates. Although pressed by the minister to prepare 
for them a complete course of mathematics, he declined to do 
80, on the ground that it would deprive Mme B^ut of her 
only income, from the sale of the works of her Ute husband; 
he wrote, however (1786), his TraiU iUmerUaire de la statique. 

Monge contributed (i 770-1790) to the Memoirs of the 
Academy of Turin, the Mimoires dts savantes iUangers of the 
Academy of Paris, the Mimoires of the same Academy, and the 
AnnaUs de ckimie, various mathematical and physical papers. 
Among these may be noticed the memoir " Sur la th£orie des 
d^blais et des remblais " {Mim, de Vacad. de Paris, 1781), which, 
while giving a remarkably elegant investigation in regard to the 
problem of earth-work referred to in the title, establishes in 
connexion with it his capital discovery of the curves of ctirvature 
of a surface. Lionhard Euler, in his paper on curvature in the 
Berlin Memoirs for 1760, had considered, not the normals of the 
suriace, but the normals of the plane seaions through a par- 
tioUar normal, so that the question of the intersection of 
successive normals of the surface had never presented itself to him. 
Mongc's memoir just referred to gives the ordinary differential 
equation of the curves of curvature, and establishes the general 
theory in a very satisfactory manner; but the application to 
the interesting particular case of the ellipsoid was first made by 
him in a later paper in 1795. A memoir in the volume for 1783 
reUtes to the production of water by the combustion of hydrogen; 
but Monge's results had been antidpated by Henry Cavendi^. 

In 1792, on the creation by the Legislative Assembly of an 
executive council, Monge accepted the office of minister of the 
marine, but retained it only until April 1793. When the 
Committee of Public Safety made an appeal to the savants to 
assist in producing the maUriel required for the defence of the 
republic, he applied himself wholly to these operations, and 
distinguished himself by his indefatigable activity therein; he 
wrote at this time his Description de Vart defabriquer les canons, 
and his i4pu atix ouvriers en fersurla fabrication de t'acier. He 
took a very active part in the measures for the esublishment 
of the normal school (which existed only during the first four 
months of the year 1795)1 &nd of the school for public works, 
afterwards the polytechnic school, and was at each of them 
professor for descriptive geometry; his methods in that science 
were first published in the form in which the shorthand writers 
took down his lessons given at the normal school in 1795, and 
again in 1 798-1 799. In 1796 Monge was sent into Italy with 
C. L. Berthollct and some artists to receive the pictures and 
statues levied from several Italian towns, and made there the 
acquaintance of General Bonaparte. Two years afterwards he 
was sent to Rome on a political mission, which terminated in 
the establishment, under A. Mass^na, of the short-lived Jloman 
republic; and he thence joined the expedition to Egypt, taking 
part with his friend BcrthoUet as well in various operations of 
the war as in the scientific Ubours of the Egyptian Institute of 
Sciences and Arts; they accompanied Bonaparte to Syria, and 
returned with him in 1798 to France. Monge was appointed 
president of the Egyptian commission, and he resumed his 
connexion with the polytechnic school. His later mathematical 
papers are published (1794-1816) in the Journal and lheC<WT«- 
spondance of the polytechnic school. On the formation of the 
Senate he was appointed a member of that body, with an ample 
provision and the title of count of Pelusium; but on the fall of 
Napoleon he was deprived of all his honours, and even excluded 
from the list of members of the reconstituted Institute. He died 
at Paris on the 28th of July 1818. 

For further information see B. Brisson, Notice historique sur 
Caspard Monge; Dupin, Essai historique sur Us services ettes tra9aux 
scicntifiques de Gaspard Monge (Paris, 1819), which contains (pp. 162- 
166) a list of Monge's memoirs and works; and the biography by 
F. Arajjo {CEuvres, t. ii., 1854). 

Monge's various mathematical papers are to a considerable 
extent reproduced in the Application d€ I'analyu a la giomilrie (4th 



ed.. last revbed by the tuthor, Paris, 1819): the pore text of tlii 
IS reproduced in the 5th ed. (revue, corngte ct annocte par It 
Liouville) (Paris. 1850), which contains also Gauss's Meinoir, " Db- 
qutsitiones generales circa superficies curvas," and some valuable 
notes by the editor. The other orindpal separate works are Tn^ 
ilimentaire de la statique, 8* idtiton, confermie d la preUdenU. per 
M. HachetU, et sume d'une noU 6fc., par M. Camcky (Pans. 1&46): 
and the Ciomitru deurtpttve (orisinating, as mentioned above, is 
the lessons giv'en at the normal school). The 4th ediuon. pubUsM 
shortly after the author's death, seems to have been substantially 
the same as the 7th (Ciomitne discrtplive par C. Mcmge, same 
d'une tkiorie des ombres et de la perspeettoe^ extraile des papters 4t 
FauUur, par M. Bnsson (Pans, 1847). (h. Ca.) 

MONGHTR, a town and distria of British India, in the 
Bhagalpur division of Bengal The town is on the right bank 
of the Ganges, and has a railway station, with steam ferry to the 
railway on the opposite bank of the river. Pop. (1901), ssMa. 
In X195 Monghyr, a fortress of great natural strength, appeals 
to have been taken by Mahommed Bakhiyar Khilji, the fint 
Moslem conqueror of Bengal. Henceforth it is often mentkmed 
by the Mahommedan chroniclers as a place of military importance, 
and was frequently chosen as the seat of the local fovcnuncBL 
After 1590, when Akbar established his supremacy over the 
Afghan diiefs of Bengal, Monghyr was long the headquarters of 
his general, Todar Mai; and it also figtues prominently during the 
rebellion of Sultan Shuja against his brother, Aurangseb. la 
more recent times Nawab Mir Kasim, in his war with the Englii^ 
selected it as his residence and the centre of his military pctpara- 
tions. Mon^yr is famous for its manufactures of iron : fireama^ 
swords, and iron articles of every kind are produced in abondance 
but are noted for cheapness rather than quality. The ait of 
inlaying sword-hilts and other articles with gold and aKcr 
affords employment to a few families. 

The DiSTKXCT or Monchys has an area of 3922 sq. m. Tbc 
Ganges divides it into two portions. The northern, intcnerted 
by the Burhi Gandak and Tiljuga, two important tiibataries of 
the Ganges, is always liable to inundation daring the laiqr 
season, and b a rich, flat, wheat and rice country, snpportinf 
a large population. A considerable area, immediatdy b uidcri^ 
the banks of the great rivers, is devoted to permanent pasture. 
Immense herds of buffaloes are sent every hot season to grasc os 
these marshy prairies; and the gki, or clarified butter, made btm 
their milk forms an important article of export to Cakotta. 
To the south of the Ganges the country is dry, much less fcitik, 
and broken up by fragmentary ridges. Irrigation is ncocsoiy 
throughout the section lying on the south of the Ganges. The 
population in 1901 was 2,068,804, showing an increase of 1-6% 
in the decade. The principal exports sent to Calcutta, boik 
by rail and by river, are oil-seeds, wheat, rice, indigo, gnis 
and pulse, hides and tobacco; and the chief imports consist of 
European piece-goods, salt and sugar. The southern poctioB 
of the district is well provided with railways. At |iVHm« 
junction the arc and chord lines of the East Indian railway divide, 
and here also starU the branch to Gaya. At Jamalpur, wti± 
is the junction for Monghyr, are the engineering worksliops of 
the company. In the e^y years of British rule ilat^P 
formed a part of Bhagalpur, and was not created a aepsnte 
district till 1832. 

See Monghyr District Casetteer (Calcutta, 1909). 

MONO NAI (called by the Burmese and on most old nips 
Moni), one of the largest and most important of the sutes ia 
the eastern subdivision of the southern Shan States of Banu* 
The state of KCng Tawng (Burmese Kyaing Taung) is a depot- 
dency of MOng Nai. It lies approximately between so* loi' and 
21^ N. and between 97° 30' and 98* 45' £., and occupies an area 
of 3717 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 44»a52i of whom more than five-ntbs 
are Shans. The Salween river boimds it on the east. The BBsia 
state and the sub-state of KCng Tawng consist of two pliias 
with a ridge between them. There is much flat rice botton, 
but a considerable portion consists of gently undulating plaia- 
land. In the central plain rice is the only crop. Outside this 
considerable quantities of sugar are produced. Tobacco of a 
quality highly esteemed by the Shans is grown in the Na««| 
Wawp drde at an altitude of 3x00 ft. ab>ve ica4enl; iptfW 



MONGOLIA 



711 



Aamatpei (a leaf used for cigar- wrappers), and garden crops are 
the chief produce otherwise. In the outlying tracts quantities 
of coarse native paper are manufactured from the bark of a 
species of mulberry, and much is exported to other parts of the 
Shan States. 

MONGOLIA, a vast territory belonging to the Chinese empire, 
the administrative limits of which cannot be determined with 
precision. On the N. it is bounded by the frontier of Russia, 
beginning at Mount Ralas or Kanas (49^ 5' N., 87® 40' E.) in 
the Altai, and running to the S.E. comer of Transbaikalia in 
the vicinity of Dalai-nor, thus having on the N. the Siberian 
provinces of Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Irkutsk and Transbaikalia. 
In the £. the boundary line which separates Mongolia from 
Manchuria runs past Dalai-nor and Lake Buir, crossing the 
Great Khingan in 47® 30' N., towards Tsitsihar in Manchuria; 
then, crossing the Nonni river, it strikes the Sungari at Khulan- 
chen, where it turns westwards up this river, reaching the 
Shara-muren river in 123* 30' E. From China proper on the S. 
Mongolia is separated by a line running in a south-westward 
direction up the Shara-muren and across the MongoUan 
plateau to the bending of the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in 
about 40" N. and no® 30' E. Thence the boundary describes 
a sinuous Une, following the Great Wall, and thus includes the 
Ordos (Ho-tau) and Alashaft (Si-tao), and reaches its most 
southern point in 36° 40' N., 104" 20' E. Thence it turns 
north-west, following the Great Wall for over 300 m.; it then 
crosses the plateau so as to separate Mongolia from the Chinese 
province of Sin-Kiang {HaA'Su-sin-tiiang, which includes the 
Nan-shan highlands and eastern Turkestan), and from Dzungaria, 
reaching the Chinese or Ektagh Altai in 46*^ 30' N., 92° 50' E. 
From that point the boundary coincides with the main water- 
parting of the Altai Mountains till it reaches Moimt Kalas. 

Geographically, Mongolia may thus be said to occupy both 
terraces of the great plateau of east Asia, which stretches in the 
south of Siberia, between the Sailughem range of the Great 
Altai and the Great Khingan — with the exception of the Dzun- 
garian depression. From Manchuria and China it is separated 
by the border ridge of the plateau — the Great Khingan, while 
in the south-west it runs up to the foot of the high northern 
border ridges of the Tibetan plateau — an artificial frontier 
separating it from east Turkestan and Dzungaria. Broadly 
^>eaking, Mongolia may be divided naturally into three parts: 
(1) north-western Mongolia, which occupies the high terrace 
of the plateau; (3) the Gobi, in its wide sense, covering the 
lower terrace of the plateau, together with a slightly more 
elevated and better-watered zone along the western slope of the 
Great Khingan and its south-western continuation; and (3) south- 
eastern Mongolia, on the eastern slope of the Khingan. Of these 
parts, the second is considered in detail under the heading Gqbl 

North-western MongoHa was formcrlv represented as a npon 
intersected by lofty mountain chains. It appears, however, (rom 
,, ^ Russian explorations during the last third of the 19th 

'*■'**" century, that it has all the characteristics of an elevated 
JJ'J'^L plateau, of a rhomboid shape (like Bohemia), bounded 
'i^VMia- [yy four mountain ranees; namely, the Russian Altai on 
the N.W., the Sayans on the N.E., the Kentci range on the S.E., 
and the Ektagh Altai on the S.W. The border-ridge charartcr 
of the Sayans (Ergik-targak-taiga) is well established, and the 
same orographic character is confirmed bjr recent explorers with 
regard to the Sailughem range of the Altai. The only point still 
remainmg undecided is whether the >'alleys of the Bom-kemchik 
(a tributary of the Yenisei) and its left-hand tributaries do not be- 
kmg geographically to the Altai region. At any rate, throughout 
the whole of north-west Mongolia, which covers an area of nearly 
370,000 sq. m., the altitude nowhere falls below 2370 ft (Ubsa-nor) : 
and the area round this lake which has less than 3000 ft of 
altitude covers only 6600 sq. m. The remainder of this extensive 
territory ranees at altitudes of 3000 to 4500 ft . even in the 
bottoms of tne river valleys and. in the lower plains: while the 
ridges which constitute the water-partings rise about 2000 ft. 
above the general level of the plateau. Along the south-western 
border of tnis division of Mongolia a gigantic border-ridge, the 
Ektash (or Mongolian) Altai, runs in an E.S.E. direction from 
the Kussaan Altai to 99** E. and is probably continued even 
farther by the Artsa-bogdo, the Saikhat and other ranges as far 
as the northern loop of the Yellow river The passes across the 
Ektagh Altai tie at altitudes of 10,000 ft. in the north-west and 



9250 ft. in 93* 20' E. ; farther east they become much lower. But 
while its southern foot stands in the Dzungarian trench, t.e. at 
altitudes of 1550 ft. only near Lake Ulungur. and at 3000 ft. in 94* E., 
its north-eastern foot rests on the high plateau. «'.«. at 4260 ft. at 
Kobdo, S4ro at Oshku, 4070 at Orok-nor on the route from Kiakhta to 
Su-chow, and so on. Thus the Ektagh Alui is a true border-range — 
that b, a lofty and steep escarpment facing the Dzungarian deprcs- 
non, with a gentle and relatively short slope towards the plateau. 

In the same way the Kentei (or Gentei) Mountains, as they are 
called, to the north of Urga, and the Yablonoi Mountains of Trans- 
baikalia, separate the higher terrace of north-west Mongolia (drained 
by the tributaries of the Selenga) from the lower terrace of the Gobi, 
which is drained by the upper tributaries of the Onon and the 
Kerulen, both belonging to the l»nn of the Amur. It is also very 
probable that the Tannu-ola Mountains north-east of Ubsa-nor, 
and the Khangai Mountains between Ulyasutai and the upper 
Orkhon, both running W.N.W. to E.S.E., border another slightly 
higher terrace of the same great plateau of north-west Mongolia, 
upon which Lake Kossogo! hes, at an altitude of 5320 ft. On this 
vast upper terrace even the bottoms of the river valleys are at 
altitudes of 4200 to 5S00 ft., with one single exception — the narrow 
gorge of the Khua (Khi)-khem, or upper Yenisei; while the highest 
pass across the Tannu-ola Mountains is 7090 ft., though the others 
are much lower. The conception of north-west Mongolia as a 
region filled with mountain ranges radiating from the Altai must 
thus be abandoned. It is a massive swelling of the earth's cnist. 

l:^^.^L.1.liLii,^^ (I, (J l,M7Lli^4"ri L.JL.l,Ii Hy^J L uf lI.v JiUlL.inJ (if Ti^^i- 

This massive swelling \& cut imro, bee wren the ELlctn^eh Alt^i and the 
eastmi T'ien-Eihaji, by the rrljtive depres&lDci of F^rba^tiital and 
Dfungaria, [500 to JDOO ft. in iltirude; while to the »0iitU of the 
eastern T'len-alun eome^ tlie Tarim dH:;pres.Man, from iJOQ to jodq ft^ 
high, and Dcrunying an are^L of about 88,ddo m. en. Neithi;r of 
ihest ** depressiofiE, howe^-er, penetrate* be-j^Qfia 94* E^h and OA 
the nouie from KLaLkhta 10 Su-cl^ow, in too" E^ there 'a only one 
itftgle pLi<;e (4^* N.) in which the siltitude dro^** as Jow as 3300 ft*;^ 
everywhere el^u it varies between 4000 ^nd 50QQ (t. 

hikta and /Jinm;— Nonh-westem Morkeglui h well waterrd. and 
ha( in it* w^iterti pan a group cf lake* which ^secs* no outlet to 
the oce3,ii, being in reality the rapidly dtsittating remains of what 
were formerly much htger b4*ms. The chid of them is Ubsa-nor 
(3370 fi,), whkh receive* iht Urp; riter Tc». It lies in the middle 
oE a bc^e pbin, and ha* to the west of it a smaller but much higher 
lake, Uhsa-poc, ht*(de* several smaller ones. Farther south on 
the same wide plutn lie ibe sister lake* Klrghlf-nor sind Air\'k-nor, 
which i^eive nno^her larg^ rivetr the Dj3.p'hyn^ and the Kungui. 
Many small lakes ar* scatirr^ over the plain to the east of them. 
A third KToup ot lAu^ occut in the neighbourhood of Kobdo. 
The Koboo river, which riw* in the Dain-gDl (7060 ft,) in the Ektagh 
Altai, winds in great curve* acrosa the plateau, a cut enleri Lake 
K.in-usu Q840 ft.), which also receives the BuyantUt an outflow 
from Lake Kobdo, and is connected by a small river with another 
brge Lake, Durga-nor, situated a score of miles to the east. There 
iire also many smaUer lakes fed by the glaciers of the Sailughem 
(Ac hit -nor, 46^0 ft., and Ur>'u-[ior\ and others scattered through 
the El: T:\trh Alt^t. The largest bke of this region ist however^ 
K'--- ,■.! ^:Kh'j^^^:ij.:ul)H which lie* at an altiLude 01^:^10 ft,, close to 
ill.' ki:--..i:i ir'.n!.lcr, skt the foot of the inow-cbd Mtrfiku-sgtjyk* 
Ik^iili s iliL' vWlt^ jusii mentioned ^ there are other* belonging to the 
Ijisin d the Vctitsei (Khua^r Khikhetttt Bcl-khetn *nd Bom* 
ketnchik); while yet others belons to the Selcnsa, a rivet formed 
by the i unction of the &Jtr *iih tnt TclghirH The Selenga fcccivc* 
the Orkhon, at the head of whkh remAtkablc insrription* wcfe 
tlistovcTTd in the end of the 19th century, and ckvcrly d^Tinhcred 
by rrr>fc59or V, Thomsen of CopcnhJE^n,^ The rivers which fltjw 
down the outer slopes of the border-ridges become lost in the Gobi 
shortly after entering it. 

A very large portion of north-west Mongolia constitutes a high 
plain, 3000 to 4200 ft. in altitude, which penetrates from the south- 
east in a north-western direction between the Ektagh Altai and the 
Khangai Mountains. It has a true Mongolian cluiracter, «.e. itis 
coverra with gravel, and presents the appearance of a dry prairie 
devoid of forests. This same character is also exhibited bv the 
bottoms of the broad valleys, while the more elevated ana hilly 
portions of the territory, especially on their northern slopes, are 
covered with larch, cedar, pine and deciduous trees belonging to the 
Siberian flora, where the forests fail they are marshy or assume the 
character of Alpine meadows— e.g. in the Khangai, the Tannu-ola. 
and on the slopes of the border-ridges. The whole of this region 
is covered witn excellent pasture. The forests decrease as one 
travels southwards. For instance, while both slopes of the Sayans 
are covered with forests, the Tannu-ola and the Khangai Mountains 
have woods on their northern faces only, and the Ektagh Altai is 
quite devoid of woods, even on its northern slope. 

Chmale. — Owing to its high altitude, north-western Mongolia 
b very cold, and the severity of the winter is intensified by the 
prevalence of cold but dry north-western winds. The nortn-east 
wind brings more moisture. In summer the warm winds come 
from the south and south-east, but having first to cross the Gobi. 



* See V. Thomsen. JuseripHons it VOrkhom (Helsingfocs, 1900) 



712 



MONGOLS 



they are dried before they reach north-western Mongolia. The 




may be taken as typical, its average temperatures being: year 
31 -e*. January -la*. July 66*. 

The geology is still very imperfectly known. The plateau is 
built up of granites, gneisses and crystalline schitts ol Archean 
and probably Primary age. Coal b known to exist to the south- 
cut of Kobdo. in the Tannu-ola, and in the basin of the Yenisei, 
but its age is unknown (frcsh-watcr Jurassic ?). Graphite and some 
silver ores have also been found. 

Tht fauna is a mixture of the Siberian and the Daurian-<^he latter 
penetrating ud the valleys of the Selenga basin. The chief towns 
of north-west Mongolia arc Urga. Ulyasutai, Kobdo and Ulankom. 

South-eastern Mongolia is the part of Mongolia which lies on the 
eastern slope of the Great Khingan Mountains, entering like a wedge 
between the lower course of the Nonni nver and the 
middle Sungari. Chiefly owing to the dryness of climate, 
its physical characteristics are similar to those of 
Mongolia proper, except that the altitude of the plains b 
much lower. This portion of Mongolia is also much better watered, 
namely, by the Khatsvr. the Lao-ho and the Shara-muren, all flowing 
from the Khingan Nlouniains eastwards, and the last making the 
frontier between Mongolia and the Chinese province of Chihu. 

Population, — ^The population of the whole of Mongolia is 
estimated at about 5,000,000. It consists of Mongols— Eastern 
Mongols and Kalmucks in the west — various Turkish tribes, 
Chinese and Tunguses. The Mongols proper, with the exception 
of those who inhabit north-west Mongolia, may be divided into 
northern and southern (more properly north-western and south- 
eastern) Mongols. The former, belonging to the Khalkas, 
occupy the Gobi and the regions of the Rentei Mountains and 
Khingan Mountains, while the second, divided into numerous 
minor branches, roam over south-eastern and southern Mongolia. 
The principal occupation of the Mongols is cattle-breeding, and 
Russian writers estimate that on an average each yurto, or family, 
has about 56 sheep, 35 horses, 15 horned cattle and 10 camels. 
The transport of goods is their next most important occupation. 
It is calculated that xoo,ooo camels are- used for the transport of 
tea only from Kalgan to Siberia, and that no less than 1,200,000 
camels and 300,000 ox-carts are employed in the internal 
caravan trade. Agriculture is only carried on sporadically, 
chiefly in the south, where the Mongols have been taught by 
the Chinese. Various domestic industries are also carried on. 
The trade is chiefly concentrated at Urga, Ulyasutai and Kobdo 
in north-west Mongolia; Kalgan, Kuku-khoto, Kuku-erghi, 
Dolon-nur and Biru-khoto in southern and south-eastern 
Mongolia; and at Kcnilen in the north-east. 

Administration. — Before the Manchurian conquest the Mongols 
were governed by their own feudal princes, who regarded 
themselves as being descended from seven different ancestors, 
all, however of the same kin. Each group of principalities 
constituted a separate aimak, and each principality a separate 
koshun. Under Manchu rule the aimaks became converted into 
the same number of military corps, each composed of so many 
koshuns as military units. Each of these again was divided 
into sumuns or squadrons, each containing 150 families. In 
case a koshun contained more than 6 sumuns, every 6 
of the latter were organized into a regiment — tsalan. Four 
Manchu tsian-tsunSt or governor-generals, acted as chiefs 
of the troops, and the prince of each aimak, nominated from 
Peking, was considered as the lieutenant or assistant of his 
respective Manchu chief. The hoskuns were subject to their 
own princes, each of whom had a military adviser, generally 
a Manchu. Their internal or tribal affairs were in the hands 
of the princes, those which concerned a whole aimak being 
settled at gatherings of the princes under the eldest of them, 
named khan. This organization was maintained by the Manchu 
rulers, the khan being elected from among the princes, and the 
latter having each an adviser, tusalakchi, nominated from Peking. 

Mongolia is now administered by a Lifan Yuen or superin- 
tendency with headquarters at Peking. Excluding the territory 
to which the name of Mongolia is geographically applied, but 
which is included in the provinces of Shansi and Chihli, Mongolia 
ir divided into iiuer and outer divisions. Inner Mongolia, 



lying between the desert of Gobi, China proper and ] 
is divided into 24 aimaks. Theine are two military eovemoo* 
general and two commissaries of the viceroy of Chihli, having 
control of dvil matters. One of each pair <rf officials ii 
stationed at Kalgan, and the other at Jehc^ Outer Mot^oUi, 
the remainder of the territory, has 4 cimaks, three of whkh are 
under hereditary kkans. There is a Chinese imperial agent at 
Urga. 

Althokittgs. — The rollowin^ works in Rustlan are Che racst 
Important : Frj'nni.Uky, Mimti^ia and iiu Land ^f ikf T^mpit$ {l^Tj^lt 
and his Third and Fovrih Journtv (1S81 Aiid t^A;^); G. N. PotHajHO. 
Skftfbfs of Nerth-Wfsi Monxotia (lifi-tSBj); 7 A* Tawrmi-T^^ 
Bordrr cf China and Cenirai ^f^^nf;{iJia ( rSg^ lor^T) ; V- Pj-evtsofl, S^iik 
pf a Journey to Alontolia, &t. (Om&k. tt^3h P- PoJrJn^^, TawrS 
0/ North Mongisiia (tMo)\ Mon^oiia aid tlu Moxiali ii9*jlb mud 
l&^i^); aind the article *" MtmgaVin. '" in Rusnan E.Kryt(. DitU^Kary, 
vol. TLJL. (18^); G. and M. GnimGrzitfuJIa, Dticripiiirn aj n Jimrrgj 
in WcsUrn China (t89&-ift09U V. Pyevtsoff. K. Briigdaooviidi, 
V. I. RoboTOvsJty and P. K. Kozlofl, The Tibet E^ptditt^mt (itt6- 
iq03): V. Obruchcll. Cfniral Asia, Nsrthetn China aivd ijbc tfn- 
ihun (igoCKtcjnO; 2. Ktatuuvikiy. Ge^gr. Deser. af C^toctf Emfiww 



S<?c aiio R. PumpcElyH Giot. Rftearchei (W&shington, iS£6): Key 
KItas, in Jovmai RrG.S. tiBTi}: Daron Richthaftn. Chiiui {t^uh 
j. Cilmour^ Aman^ iha Afjn|<?/i (tflS^J^ W. VV. Ruckhill. Jpvntj 
thFouf^h Mnnzoiia and ThiM (1694}; F. E, Youi^ehu^band, Tkt 
Hmri flfa CofUineni (1896). (P. A. K) 

MONGOLS, the name of one of the chief ethnographical 
divi»ons of the Asiatic peoples (see also TtTULs). The early 
history of the Mongols, like that of all central-Asian tribes, ii 
extremely obscure. Even the meaning of the name " Moagol * 
is a disputed point, though a general consent b now gjren to 
Schott's etymology of the word from meng, meaning bnve. 
From the eariiest and very scanty notice we have of .the lloQgoli 
in the history of the T'ang dynasty of China (aj>. 6x^H^) •ad 
in works of later times, it appears that their original campim- 
grounds were along the courses of the Kenilen, Upper Nonai 
and Argun rivers. But in the absence of all historical paiticnlan 
of their origin, legend, as is usual, has been busy with thor 
eariy years. The Mongol historian Sanang Setzen gives airrencj 
to the myth that they sprang from a blue wolf; and the sobottt 
story on record is that their ancestor Budantsar was miracoknaiy 
conceived of a Mongol widow. By craft and violence Budaatsir 
gained the chieftainship over a tribe living in the nei^boor- 
hood of his mother's tent, and thus left a heritage to his kml 
Varying fortunes attended the descendants of Budantsar, hot 
on the whole their power gradually increased, until Yenksi, 
the father of Jenghiz Khan, who was eighth in descent fn» 
Budantsar, made his authority felt over a considerable azci. 
How this dominion was extended under the rule of Jenghis Khia 
is shown in the article Jenghiz Khan, and when that gmt 
conqueror was laid to rest in the valley of KHien in 1227 he kft 
to his sons an empire which stretched from the China Ses to the 
banks of the Dnieper. 

Over the whole of this vast region Jenghiz Khan set fail 
second surviving son Ogotai or Ogdai as khakan, or chid khu. 
while to the family of his deceased eldest son Juji he asagoed 
the country from Kayalik and Khwarizm to the boiden 
of Bulgar and Saksin " where'er the hoofs of Mongol hofse kid 
tramped "; to Jagatai, his eldest surviving son, the tciriloiy 
from the borders of the Uighur country to Bokhara; while Totf, 
the youngest, received charge of the home country of the 
Mongols, the care of the imperial encampment and family, sad 
of the archives of the state. The appointment of Ogdai as fail 
successor being contrary to the \isual Mongol custom CUM 
of primogeniture, gave rise to some bitterness of "** 
feeling among the followers of Jagatai. But the commands of 
Jenghiz Khan subdued these murmurs, and Ogdai waa fiaaflT 
led to the throne by his dispossessed brother amid tbeplawfitsef 
the assembled Mongols. In accordance with Mongol costooit 
Ogdai signalized his accession to the throne by distribvtiac 
among his grandees presents from his father's treasures, and ta 
his father's spirit he sacrificed fbrty maidens and 0110000 
horses. Once fairly on the throne, be set himself vig ow ^ y M 



MONGOLS 



7»3 



follow up the conquests won by his father. At the head o! a 
brge army he marched southwards into China to complete the 
ruin of the Kin dynasty, which had already been so rudely 
shaken, while at the same time TuK advanced into the province 
of Honan from the side of Shensi. Against this combined attack 
the Kin troops made a vigorous stand, but the skill and courage 
of the Mongols bore down every opposition, and over a hecatomb 
of slaughtered foes they captured Kai-f^ng Fu, the capital of 
their enemies. From Kai-fSng Fu the emperor fled to Ju-ning 
Fu, whither the Mongols quickly followed. After sustaining a 
siege for some weeks, and enduring all the horrors of starvation, 
the garrison submitted to the Mongols, and at the same time the 
emperor committed suicide by hanging. Thus fell in 1234 the 
Kin or " Golden " dynasty, which had ruled over the northern 
portion of China for more than a century. 

But though Ogdai's first care was to extend his empire in the 
rich and fertile provinces of China, he was not forgetful of the 
obligation under which Jcnghiz Khan's conquests in western 
Asia had laid him to maintain his supremacy over the kingdom 
of Khwarizm. This was the more incumbent on him since 
JeUl ed-din, who had been driven by Jenghiz into India, had 
returned, reinforced by the support of the sultan of Delhi, whose 
daughter he had married, and, having reconquered his hereditary 
domains, had advanced westward as far as Tiflis and Kelat.' Once 
more to dispossess the young sultan, Ogdai sent a force of 300,000 
men into Khwarizm. With such amazing rapidity did this army 
march in pursuit of its foe that the advanced Mongol guards 
reached Amid (Diarbekr), whither Jcl&l ed-dIn had retreated, 
before that unfortunate sovereign had any idea of their approach. 
Accompanied by a few followers, Jelftl ed-dIn fled to the Kurdish 
Mountains, where he was basely murdered by a peasant. The 
primary object of the Mongol invasion was thus accomplished; 
but, with the instinct of their race, they made this conquest but 
a stepping-stone to another, and without a moment's delay 
pushed on.still farther westward. Unchecked and almost un- 
opposed, they overran the districts of Diarbekr, Mesopotamia, 
Eibil and Kelat, and then advanced upon AzerbSijSln. In the 
following year (1236) they invaded Georgia and Great Armenia, 
committing frightful atrocities. Tiflis was among the cities 
captured by assault, and Kars was surrendered at their approach 
in the vain hope that submission would gain clemency from the 
victors. Meanwhile, in 1235, Ogdai despatched three armies 
in as many directions. One was directed against Korea, one 
against the Sung dynasty, which ruled over the provinces of 
China south of the Yangtsze Kiang, and the third was sent 
westward into eastern Europe. This last force was commanded 
by Batu. the son of Juji, Ogdai's deceased eldest brother, who 
took with him the celebrated Sabutai Bahadur as his chief 
adviser. Bolgari, the capital dty of the Bulgars, fell before the 
force under Sabutai, while Batu pushed on over the Volga. With 
irresbtible vigour and astonishing speed the Mongols made 
their way through the forests of Penza and Tambov, and appeared 
before the " beautiful city " of Ryazan. For five days they 
discharged a ceaseless storm of shot from their ballstas, and, 
having made a breach in the defences, carried the city by assault 
on the 2ist of December 1237. "The prince, with his mother, 
wife, sons, the boyars and the inhabitants, without regard to 
age or sex, were slaughtered with the savage cruelty of Mongol 
revenge; some were impaled, some shot at with arrows for sport, 
others were flayed or had nails or splinters of wood driven under 
their nails. Priests were roasted alive, and nuns and maidens 
ravished in the churches before their relatives. ' No eye 
remained open to weep for the dead.' " Moscow, at this time 
a place of little importance, next fell into the hands of the 
invaders, who then advanced against Vladimir. After having 
held out for several days against the Mongol attacks, the city at 
length succumbed, and the horrors of Ryazan were repeated. 
If possible, a more dire fate overtook the inhabitants of Kozekk, 
near Kaluga, where, in revenge for a partial defeat inflicted on 
a Mongol force, the followers of Batu held so terrible a "carnival 
of death " that the city was renamed by its captors Mobalig, 
** the dty of woe." With the tide of victory thus strong in 



their favour the Mongols advanced against Kiev, "the mother 
of dries," and carried it by assault. The ineviuble massacre 
followed, and the dty was razed to the ground. 

Victorious and always advandng, the Mongok, having deso- 
lated this portion of Russia, moved on in two divisions, one 
under Batu into Hungary, and the other under Baidar and 
Kaidu into Poland. Without a check, Batu marched to the 
neighbourhood of Pest, where the whole force of the kingdom 
was arrayed to resist him. The Hungarian army was posted 
on the wide heath of Mohi, which is bounded by " the vine-clad 
hills of Tokay," the mountains of Lomnitz, and the woods of 
Diosgyor. To an army thus hemmed in on all sides defeat 
meant ruin, and Batu instantly recognized the dangerous 
position in which his enemies had placed themsdves. To add 
to his chances of success he determined to deliver his attack by 
night, and while the cardess Hungarians were sleeping he 
launched his battalions into their midst. Panic-stricken and 
helpless, they fled in all directions, followed by their merciless 
foes. Two archbishops, three bishops, and many of the nobility 
were among the slain, and the roads for two days' journey from 
the field of battle were strewn with corpses. The king, B€la IV., 
was saved by the fleetness of his horse, though dosely pursued'^ 
Cy a body of Mongols, who followed at his heels as far as the 
coast of the Adriatic, burning and destroying everything in 
their way. Meanwhile Batu captured Pest, and on Christmas 
Day X241, having crossed the Danube on the ice, took Esztergom 
by assault. While Batu had been thus triumphing, the force 
under Baidar and Kaidu had carried fire and sword into Poland. 
While laying waste the country they recdved the atmouncement 
of the death of Ogdai, and at the same time a summons for Batu 
to return eastwards into Mongolia. 

While his lieutenants had been thus carrying his arms in aU 
directions, Ogdai had been giving himself up to ignoble ease and 
licentiousness. Like many Mongols, he was much given to 
drink, and it was to a disease produced by this cause that he 
finally succumbed on the nth of December 1241. He was 
succeeded by his son Kuyuk, who reigned only seven years. 
Little of his character is known, but it is noticeable that his two 
ministers to whom he left the entire conduct of affairs were 
Christians, as also were his doctors, and that a Christian chapd 
stood before his tent. This leaning towards Christianity, how- 
ever, brought no peaceful tendencies with it. On the death of 
Kuyuk dissensions which had been for a long time smouldering 
between the houses of Qgdai and Jagatai broke out into open 
war, and after the short and disputed reigns of Kaidu and Chapai, 
grandsons of Ogdai, the lordship passed away for ever from the 
house of Ogdai. It did not go, however, to the housc.of Jagatai, 
but to that of Tule. 

On the ist of July 1251 Mangu, the ddest son of Tule, and 
nephew to Ogdai, was dected khakan. With perfect impar- 
tiality, Mangu allowed the light of his countenance 
to fall upon the Christians, Mahommedans and 
Buddhists among his subjects although Shamanism 
was recognized as the state religion. Two years after his 
accession his court was visited by Rubruquis (q.v.) and other 
Christian monks, who were hospitably received. The descrip- 
tion given by Rubruquis of the khakan's palace at Karakorum 
shows how wide was the interval which separated him 
from the nomad, tent-living life of his forefathers. It was 
" surrounded by brick walls. ... Its southern side had three 
doors. Its central hall was like a church, and consisted of a 
nave and two aisles, separated by columns. Here the court sat 
on great occasions. In front of the throne was placed a silver 
tree, having at its base four lions, from whose mouths there 
spouted into four silver basins wine, kumiss, hydromd and 
terasine. At the top of the tree a silver angel sounded a trumpet 
when the reservoirs that supplied the four fountains wanted 
replenishing." On his accession complaints reached Mangu that 
dissensions had broken out in the province of Persia, and he 
therefore sent a force under the command of his jijmm» 
brother Hulagu to punish the Ismailitcs or Assassins ■'^i* 
(9.9.), who were held to be the cause of the disorder. Marching 



7H 



MONGOLS 



by Sa m arkand and Kanhi, Hulaga crossed theOzos and advanced 
by way of Balkh into the province of Kuhistan or Kohistan. 
llie terror of the Mongol name induced Rukneddin Gurshah II. 
(Rokn al-din), the chief of the Assassins, to deprecate the wrath 
of Hulagu by offers of submission, and he was so far successful 
that he was able to purchase a temporary immunity from mas- 
sacre by dbmantling fifty of the principal fortresses in Kohistan. 
But when once the country had thus been left at the mercy of 
the invaders, their belief in the old saying " Stone dead hath no 
fellow " sharpened their battle-axes, and, sparing neither man, 
woman, nor child, they exterminated the unhappy people. 
Rukneddin having been killed, 1256 (see Assassins), Hulagu 
marched across the snowy mountains in the direction of Bagdad 
to attack the last Abbasid caliph and his Seljuk protectors. On 
arriving before the town he demanded its surrender. This being 
refused, he laid siege to the walls in the usual destructive Mongol 
fashion, and at length, finding resistance hopeless, the caliph was 
induced to give himself up and to open the gates to his enemies. 
On the xsth of February 1258 the Mongols entered the walls 
and sacked the city (see Caliphate ad Jin), While at Bagdad 
Hulagu gave his astronomer, Nftsir al-din permission to build 
an observatory. The town of Maragha was the site chosen, 
and, under the superintendence of Nfisir al-din and four western 
Asiatic astronomers who were associated with him, a handsome 
observatory was built, and furnished with "armillaiy spheres 
and astrolabes, and with a beautifully-executed terrestrial globe 
showing the five climates." The fall of Bagdad was almost 
contemporaneous with the end of the Seljuks of Ronia as an 
independent power, though their actual destruction did not 
take place until 1308 (see Seljuks). One terrible result of the 
Mongol invasion was a fearful famine, which desolated the 
provinces of Irak-Arabi, Mesopotamia, Syria and ROm. But, 
though the inhabitants starved, the Mongols had strength and 
energy left to continue their onward march into Syria. Aleppo 
was stormed and sacked, Damascus surrendered (1260) and 
Hulagu was meditating the capture of Jerusalem with the 
object of restoring it to the Christians when he received the 
news of Mangu's death, and, as in duty bound, at once set out 
on his return to Mongolia, leaving Kitboga (Kitubuka) in 
command of the Mongol forces in Syria. 

Hitherto a vassal of Mangu, as is shown by his striking 
coins bearing the name of Mangu as well as his own, Hulagu was 
now recognized as ruler of the conquered provinces. He assumed 
the title of ilkhan, and, although acknowledging the khakan as 
supreme lord, was practically independent. The title of ilkhan 
was that borne by his successors, who ruled over Persia for 
about a century (see infra, " The Ilkhans of Persia "). 

While Hulagu was prosecuting these conquests in western 
Asia, Mangu and his next brother Kublai were pursuing a like 
course in southern China. Southward they even advanced into 
Tong-king, and westward they carried their arms over the 
frontier into Tibet. But in one respect there was a vast differ- 
ence between the two campaigns. Under the wise command 
of Kublai all indiscriminate massacres were forbidden, and 
probably for the first time in Mongol history the inhabitants 
and garrisons of captured cities were treated with humanity. 
While carrying on the war in the province of Szech^uen Mangu 
was seized with an attack of dysentery, which proved fatal after 
a few days' illness. His body was carried into Mongolia on the 
backs of two asses, and, in pursuance of the custom of slaughter- 
ing every one encountered on the way, 20,000 persons were, 
according to Marco Polo, put to the sword. 

At the Kuriltai, or assembly of notables, which was held at 
Shang-tu after the death of Mangu, his brother Kublai (see 
Kublai Khan) was elected khakan. For thirty-five years he 
sat on the Mongol throne, and at his death in 1 294, in his seventy- 
ninth year, he was succeeded by his son Timur Khan, or, as 
he was otherwise called, Oldjeitu or Uldsheitu Khan (Chinese 
Yuen-cheng). The reign of this sovereign was chiefly remarkable 
for the healing of the division which had for thirty years separated 
the families of Ogdai and Jagatai from that of the ruling khakan. 
Uldsheitu was succeeded by his nephew Khaissan, who was 



gathered to his fathers In Febniaiy 131 1, after a short leigB, 
and at the early age of thirty-one. hL nephew and soccoHr, 
Buyantu (Chinese Yen-tsung), was a man of consideiable cultuic^ 
and substantially patronized Chinese literature. Among otha 
benefits which he conferred on letters, he rescued the celebrated 
inscription-bearing " stone drums," which are commonly said 
to be of the Chow period (^.i 22-255 B.C.), from the decay and 
ruin to which they were left by the last emperor of the Kio 
dynasty, and placed them in the gateway of the temple of 
Confucius at Peking, where they now stand. After a leign of 
nine years, Buyantu was succeeded by his son G^en (Chinese 
Ying-tsung), who perished in 132: by the knife of an assassia. 
YissuaTimur (Chinese Tai-ting-ti;, who was the neztsoveitigB, 
devoted himself mainly to the administration of his empire 
He divided China, which until that time had been apportioned 
into twelve provinces, into eighteen provinces, and rearranged 
the system of state granaries, which had falkn into disorder. 
His court was visited by Friar Odoric, who gives a minute 
description of the palace and its inhabitants. Speaking of tlie 
palace this writer saysr— 

" Its basement was raised about two paces from the ground, aiad 
within there were twenty-four columns of gold, and iix the vab 
were hung with skins of red leather, said to be the finest in tkc 
world. ^ In the midst of the palace was a great jar more than tvo 
paces in height, made of a certain precious stone called merdicai 
Ciade) ; its price exceeded the value of four large towns. . . . lBt» 
this vessel drink was conducted by certain conduits from the oooft 
of the palace, and beside it were many golden gobkts, from vbkii 
those drank who listed. . . . When the khakan sat on his tfanne 
the queen was on his left hand, and a step k>wer two others of his 
women, while at the bottom of the steps stood the other l^iesof 
his family. All those who were married wore upon their heads tbe 
foot of a man as it were a cubit and a half in length, and at tbe 
top of the foot there were certain cranes' feathers, the whole foot 
being set with great pearis, so that if there were in the whole worfd 



any line and large p^b they were to be found in tbe 
of those lacjies." 

The foUowing years were years of great natural and politkal 
convulsions. Devastating floods swept over China, can^iiv 
death and ruin to thousands of homes; earthquakes muk 
desolate whole districts; and in more than one part of the 
empire the banners of revolt were unfurled. Under variooi 
leaders the rebels captured a number of cities in the provinces 
of Kiang-nan and Honan, and took possession of Hug-chow, 
the capital of the Sung emperors. At the same time pirates 
ravaged the coasts and swept the imperial vessels off the sea. 

In 1355 a Buddhist priest named Chu Yuen-chang became 
so impressed with the misery of hb cotmtrymen that be threw 
off his vestments and enrolled himself in the rebel army. His 
military genius soon raised him to the position of a leader, and 
with extraordinary success he overcame with his rude levies tbe 
trained legions of the Mongol emperor. While unable to defeat 
or check the rebels in the central provinces, Toghon Timur Kkaa 
was also called upon to face a rebellion in Korea. Nor vere 
his arms more fortunate in the north than in the south. Aa 
army which was sent to suppress the revolt was cut to picoei 
almost to a man. These events made a dream ^diich tbe 
emperor dreamt about this time of easy interpretation. He 
saw in his sleep " a wild boar with iron tusks rush into the dty 
and wound the people, who were driven hither and thither 
without finding shelter. Meanwhile the sun and the doqb 
rushed together and perished." " This dream,*' said the diviner, 
"is a prophecy that the khakan will k»e his empire.** Tht 
fulfilment followed closely on the prophecy. By a sabteffofe 
the rebels, after having gained possession of most of the central 
provinces of the empire, captured Peking. But Toghon Tiomr 
by a hasty flight escaped from his enemies, and sou^t safely 
on the shores of the Dolon-nor in Mongolia. For a time the 
western provinces of China continued to hold out agaimt the 
rebels, but with the flight of Toghon Timur the Mongol troops 
lost heart, and in 1368 the ex-Buddhist priest ascended the 
throne as the first sovereign of the Ming or " Bright *' dynasty* 
under the title of Hung-wu. 

Thus ended the sovereignty of the house of Jenghis KhsB 
in China, nor need we look far to find the cause of its falL Brave 



MONGOLS 



7»S 



and hardy the Mongols have always shown themselves to be; but 
bthe capacity for consolidating the fruits of victory, 
for establishing a settled form of government, and 
for gaining the allegiance of the conquered peoples, 
have invariably been wanting in them. 

Not content with having recovered China, the emperor 
Hungwu sent an army of 400,000 men into Mongolia in pursuit 
of the forces which yet remained to the khakan. Even on their 
own ground the disheartened Mongols failed in their resistance 
to the Chinese, and at all points suffered disaster. Meanwhile 
Toghon Timur, who did not long survive his defeat, was suc- 
ceeded in the khakanate by Biliktu Khan, who again in 1379 was 
followed by Ussakhal Khan. During the reign of this last 
prince the Chinese again invaded Mongolia, and inflicted a 
crushing defeat on the khan's forces in the neighbourhood of Lake 
Buyur. Besides the slain, 2994 officers and 77,000 soldiers 
are said to have been taken prisoners, and an immense booty 
to have been secured. This defeat was the final ruin of the 
eastern branch of the Mongols, who from this time surrendered 
the supremacy to the western division of the tribe. At first 
the Keraits or Torgod, as in the eariy days before Jenghiz Khan 
rose to power, exercised lordship over the eastern Mongols, but 
from these before long the supremacy passed to the Oirad, who 
for fifty years treated them as vassals. Notwithstanding their 
subjection, however, the Keraits still preserved the imperial 
h'ne, and khakan after khakan assumed the nominal sovereignty 
of the tribe, while the real power rested with the descendants 
of Toghon, the Oirad chief, who had originally attached them 
to his sceptre. Gradually, however, the Mongol tribes broke 
away from all governing centres, and established scattered 
communities with as many chiefs over the whole of eastern 
Mongolia. The discredit of having finally disintegrated the 
tribe is generally attached to Lingdan Khan (1604-1634), of 
whom, in reference to his arrogant and brutal character, has 
been quoted the Mongolian proverb: " A raging khakan disturbs 
the state, and a raging saghan (elephant) overthrows his 
keepers." 

At this time the Mongols, though scattered and in isolated 
bodies, had recovered somewhat from the shock of the disaster 
_. which they had sufTered at the hand of the first Ming 

aukbsn. sovereign of China. When first driven northwards, 
they betook themselves to the banks of the Kerulen, 
from whence they had originally started on their victorious career; 
but gradually, as the Chinese power became weaker among the 
frontier tribes, they again pushed southwards, and at this time 
had established colonies in the Ordus country, within the 
northern bend of the Yellow River. The Mongol royal family 
and their immediate surroundings occupied the Chakhar country 
to the north-west of the Ordus territory, where they became 
eventually subjugated by the Manchus on the overthrow of the 
Ming dynasty in 1644 by the present rulers of China. At times 
the old vigour and strength which had nerved the arm of Jenghiz 
Khan seemed to return to the tribe, and we read of successful 
expeditions being made by the Ordu Mongols into Tibet, and 
even of invasions into China. The relations with Tibet thus 
inaugurated brought about a rapid spread of Buddhism among 
the Mongolians, and in the beginning of the 17th century the 
honour of having a Dalai Lama born among them was vouchsafed 
to them. In 1635 Toba, one of the sons of Bushuktu Jinung 
Khan, went on a pilgrimage to the Dalai Lama, and brought 
back with him a copy of the Tanjuf to be translated into Mon- 
golian, as the Kanjur had already been. But though the prowess 
of the Ordu Mongols was still unsubdued, their mode of living 
was as barren and rugced as the steppes and rocky hills which 
make up their territory. Their flocks and herds, on which they 
are entirely dependent for food and clothing, are not numerous, 
and, like their masters, are neither well fed nor well favoured. 
But though living in this miserable condition their princes yet 
keep up a certain amount of barbaric state, and the people have 
at least the reputation of being honest. 

Several of the tribes who had originally migrated with those 
who finally settled in the Ordu territory, finding the country to 



be so inhospitable, moved farther eastward into richer pastures. 
Among these were the Tumeds, one of whose chiefs, Altan Khan 
(Chinese Yen-ta), is famous in later Mongol history for the power 
he acquired. For many years during the i6th century he carried 
on a not altogether unsuccessful war with China, and finally, 
when peace was made (1571), the Chinese were fain to create him 
a prince of the empire and to confer a golden seal of authority 
upon him. In Tibet his arms were as successful as in China; 
but, as has often happened in history, the physical conquerors 
became the mental subjects of the conquered. Lamaism has 
always had a great attraction in the eyes of the Mongols, and, 
through the instrumentality of some Lamaist prisoners whom 
Altan brought back in his train, the religion spread at this time 
rapidly among the Tumeds. Altan himself embraced the faith, 
and received at his court the Bogda Sodnam Gyamtso 
Khutuktu, on whom he lavished every token of honour. One 
immediate effect of the introduction of Buddhism among the 
Tumeds was to put an end to the sacrifices which were commonly 
made at the grave of their chieftains. In 1584 Altan died, and 
was succeeded by his son Senge Dugureng Timur. The rich 
territory occupied by the Tumeds, together with the increased 
intercourse with China which sprang up after the wars of Altan, 
began to effect a change in the manner of Ufe of the people; 
By degrees the pastoral habits of the inhabitants became more 
agricultural, and at the present day, as in Manchuria, Chinese 
immigrants have so stamped their mark on the fields and 
markets, on the towns and villages, that the country has become 
to all intents and purposes part of China proper. 

Passing now from the inner division of the Mongols who live 
in the southern and eastern portions of the desert we come to the 
outer division, which occupies the territory to the r^g^^j^^. 
north of the desert. Of these the chief are the '"•**«^ 
Kalkas, who are divided into the Western and Eastern Kalkas. 
These people form the link of communication between Europe 
and eastern Asia. Early in the 17th century the Russians sent 
an embassy to the court of the Golden Khan with the object of 
persuading the Mongol khan to acknowledge allegiance to the 
tsar. This he did without much hesitation or inquiry, and he 
further despatched envoys to Moscow on the return of the 
Russian embassy. But the allegiance thus lightly acknowledged 
was lightly thrown off, and in a quarrel which broke out between 
the Khirghiz and the Russians the Kalkas took the side of the 
former. The breach, however, was soon healed over, and we 
find the Golden Khan sending an envoy again to Moscow, asking 
on behalf of his master for presents of jewek, arms, a telescope, 
a clock, and " a monk who had been to Jerusalem that he might 
teach the Kalkas how the Christians prayed." Their sub- 
mission to Russia on the north did not save them, however, 
from the Chinese attacks on the south. At that time the present 
Manchu dynasty ruled in China, and to the then reigning 
sovereign the Kalkas gave in their submission. For some time 
the Chinese yoke sat lightly on their consciences, but diffi- 
culties having arisen with the Kalmucks, they were ready enough 
to claim the protection of China. To cement the alliance the 
emperor K'ang-hi invited all the Kalka chiefs to meet him at the 
plain of Dolon-nor. This ceremony brought the separate history 
of the Kalkas to a close, since from that time they have been 
engulfed in the Chinese Empire. 

During the Kin dynasty of China the Keraits, as has been 
pointed out, were for a time supreme in Mongolia, and it was 
during that period that one of the earliest recognized sovereigns, 
Merghus Buyuruk Khan, sat on the throne. In an engagement 
with a neighbouring Tatar tribe their khan* was captured and 
sent as a propitiatory present to the Kin emperor, who put him 
to death by nailing him on a wooden ass. On the treacherous 
Tatar chief the widow determined to avenge herself, and chose 
the occasion of a feast as a fitting opportunity. With welN 
disguised friendship she sent him a present of ten oxen, a hundred 
sheep and a hundred sacks of koumiss. These, last, however, 
instead of being filled with skins of the liquor which Mongolians 
love so well, contained armed men, who, when the Tatar was 
feastedi rushed from their concealment and killed him. 



7i6 



MONGOLS 



A grandson of Merghus was the celebrated Wang Khan, who 
was sometimes the ally and sometimes the enemy of Jenghiz 
Khan, and has also been identified as the Prester John of early 
western writers. In war he was almost invariably unfortunate, 
and it was with no great difficulty, therefore, that his brother 
Ki Wang detached the greater part of the Kerait tribes from 
TttTanod.^^ banner, and founded the Torgod chieftainship, 
*''*^ named probably from the country where they settled 
themselves. The unrest peculiar to the dwellers in the Mongolian 
desert disturbed the Torgod as much as their neighbours. Their 
history for several centuries consists of nothing but a succession 
of wars with the tribes on either side of them, and it was not 
until 1672, when Ayuka Khan opened relations with the Russians, 
that the country obtained an even temporarily settled existence. 
Its position, indeed, at this time made it necessary that Ayuka 
should ally himself cither with the Russians or with his southern 
neighbours the Turks, though at the same time it was obvious 
that his alliance with the one would bring him into collision with 
the other. His northern neighbours, the Cossacks of the Yaik 
and the Bashkirs, both subject to Russia, had the not un- 
common propensity for invading his borders and harassing 
his subjects. This gave rise to complaints of the tsar's govern- 
ment and a disposition to open friendly relations with the Krim 
khan. A rupture with Russia followed, and Ayuka carried 
his arms as far as Kazan, burning and laying waste the villages 
and towns on his route and carrying o£f prisoners and spoils. 
Satisfied with this vengeance, he advanced no farther, but made 
a peace with the Russians, which was confirmed in 1722 at an 
audience which Peter the Great gave him at Astrakhan. On 
Ayuka's. death shortly after this event, he was succeeded by 
his son Cheren Donduk, who received from the Dalai Lama a 
patent to the throne. But this spiritual support availed him 
little against the plots of his nephew Donduk Ombo, who so 
completely gained the suffrages of the people that Cheren Donduk 
fled before him to St Petersburg, where he died, leaving bis 
nephew in possession. With consummate impartiality the 
Russians, when they found that Donduk Ombo had not only 
seized the throne but was governing the country with vigour 
and wisdom, formally invested him with the khanate. At his 
death he was succeeded by Donduk Taishi, who, we are told, 
went to Moscow to attend the coronation of the empress Eliza- 
beth, and to swear fealty to the Russians. After a short reign 
he died, and his throne was occupied by his son Ubasha. The 
position of the Torgod at this time, hemmed in as they were 
between the Russians and Turks, was rapidly becoming unbear- 
able, and the question of migrating " bag and baggage " was 
very generally mooted. In the war between his two powerful 
neighbours in 1769 and 1770, Ubasha gave valuable assistance to 
the Russians. His troops took part in the siege of Ochakov, 
and gained a decided victory on the river Kalaus. Flushed 
with these successes, he was in no mood to listen patiently 
to the taunts of the governor of Astrakhan, who likened him 
to a " bear fastened to a chain," and he made up his mind to 
break away once and for all from a tutelage which was as galling 
as it was oppressive. He determined, therefore, to migrate 
eastward with his people, and on the 5th of January 1771 he 
began his march with 70,000 families. In vain the Russians 
attempted to recall the fugitives, who, in spite of infinite hard- 
ships, after a journey of eight months reached the province of 
Hi, where they were welcomed by the Chinese authorities. 
Food for a year's consumption was supplied to each family; 
and land, money and cattle were freely distributed. It is 
believed that 300,000 persons survived to receive the hospitality 
of the Chinese. By this desperate venture the Torgod escaped, 
it is true, the oppression of the Russians, but they fell into 
the hands of other masters, who, if not so exacting, were equally 
determined to be supreme. The Chinese, flattered by the 
compliment implied by the transference of allegiance, settled 
them on lands in the province of Hi, in the neighbourhood of 
the Altai mountains, and to the west of the desert of Gobi. 
But the price they were made to pay for this liberality was 
absorption in the Chinese empire. 



Among the Mongol chiefs who rose to tame during tbe nfe 
of the Ming dynasty of China was Toghon, the Kalmuck kkaa, 
who, taking advantage of the state of confusion whkh 
reigned among the tribes of Mongolia, established 2^„^ 
for himself an empire in north-western Asia. 
Death carried him off in 1444, and his throne devolved npot 
his son Ye-seen, who was no degenerau offspring. Bdng 
without individual foes in Mongolia he turned his arms agsmst 
China, which through all history has been the happy huatini- 
ground of the northern tribes, and had the unexampled pod 
fortune to take prisoner the Chinese emperor Chfog-t'oufi 
But victory did not always decide in his favour, and after haviqf 
suffered reverses at the hands of the Chinese, he deemed it nt 
to open negotiations for the restoration of his imperial prisooer. 
Thus, after a captivity of seven years ChCng-t'ung re-entered 
his capital in 1457, not altogether to the general sattsfadios 
of his subjects. On the death of Yi-sien, shortly after this emit, 
the Kalmucks lost much of their power in eastern Asia, bat 
retained enough in other portions of their territory to aimojr 
the Russians by raids within the Russian frmitier, and I9 
constant acts of pillage. In the xjth century their antlwriqr 
was partly restored by Galdan, a Lama, who succeeded bf 
the usual combination of wile and violence to the throne df 
his brother SenghC. Having been partly educated ^^ 
at Lhasa, he was well versed in A^tic politics, ^i^ 
and, taking advantage of a quarrel between tbe 
Black and White Mountaineers of Kashgar he overran liitk 
Bokhara, and left a viceroy to rule over the province with bis 
capital at Yarkand. At the same time be opened rdstioos 
with China, and exchanged presents with the emperor. Exng 
thus secured his powerful southern neighbour, as he thongjbt, 
he turned his arms against the Kalkas, whose chief grovndcf 
offence was their attachment to the cause of his brotbexs. Bat 
his restless ambition created alarm at Peking, and the cnpoor 
K'ang-hi determined to protect the Kalkas against their tamf. 
The emperor, in person commanding one of the two kma, 
marched into Mongolia. After enduring incredible hardsUps 
during the march through the desert of Gobi the imperial anqr 
encountered the Kalmucks at Chao-modo. The engagement «is 
fiercely contested, but ended in the complete victory of tbe 
Chinese, who pursued the Kalmucks for ten miles, and compkleif 
dispersed their forces. Galdan, with his son, daughter and a lev 
followers, fled westward and escaped; and thus ooQapied a 
power which had threatened at one time to overshadow tbe 
whole of Central Asia. For a time Galcian still maintained 
resistance to his powerful enemy, but death overtook him vhik 
yet in the field against the Chinese. 

But though Galdan was dead the Chinese did not enjoy 
that complete immunity from war at the hand of his sncoesHr 
that they had looked for. Tsi-wang Arabian was, hovevci; 
but the shadow of his brother and predecessor, and a <&pB!e 
which arose with the Russians during his reign weakened hs 
power in other directions. Little Bokhara was said to be ricb 
in gold mines, and therefore became a coveted region in tbe 
eyes of the Russians. Under the vigorous administiation d 
Peter the Great an expedition was despatched to force a ptsapt 
into the desired province. To oppose this invasion the Kahnncb 
assembled in force, and after a protracted and undedded ettglt^ 
ment the Russians were glad to agree to retire down the lit^ 
and to give up all further advance. 

To Tsi-wang Arabtan succeeded Amursama owing to tbe 
support he received from the Chinese emperor K*xcn-lttn& *bo 
nominated him khan of the Kalmucks and chief of Dzm^aria. 
But, though to the ear these titles were as high-sounding as those 
of his predecessors, in reahty the power they represented «as 
curtailed by the presence of Chinese commissioners, in vbose 
hands rested the real authority. The galling weight of this slate 
of dependence drove Amursama before long into revolt He 
dispersed the Chinese garrisons stationed in Hi (Kulja). kiDed the 
generals, and advanced his own forces as far as Palikun oa tbe 
river Hi. To punish this revolt, K*ien-lung sent a large force 
into tbe rebellious province. As on tbe previous iwrtPtfH tbe 



MONGOLS 



717 



Cliinese were everywhere victorious, and Amursanui fled into 
Siberia, where he died of small-pox after a short illness. 

While China was thus absorbing the Mongob within her reach, 
Russia was gathering within her borders those with whom she 
came into contact. Among these were the Buriats, who occupied 
a large territory on both sides of Lake Baikal. As usual in such 
cases, disputes arose out of disturbances on the frontier, and were 
ended by the Buriats and the neighbouring Mongol tribes 
becoming one and all tributary to Russia. 

The dominions given by Jcnghiz Khan to his son Jagatai were 
involved in the quarrels between Kaidu and Kublai for the 
^ ^^ khakanate, but at the beginning of the 14th century 
9iJ9gmtak ^"^» * great-great-grandson of Jagatai, made him- 
self undisputed lord of the whole region. Shortly 
after Dua's death the Mongols of Eastern Turkestan, descen- 
dants of those who had favoured the pretensions of Kaidu 
to be khakan, separated from their western brethren and chose 
a son of Dua as their khan. Henceforth the Jagataids were 
divided into two dynasties, the western reigning at Samarkand, 
the eastern first at Kashgar and later at Yarkand and Aksu. 
Kazan (1343-1346) was the last independent khan of the western 
Jagataids; thereafter power fell into the hands of amirs, who, 
however, continued to place a titular khan on the throne. In 
X360 Toghluk-Timur, a grandson of Dua and khan of the eastern 
Jagataids (the kingdom called by the Persian historians Mogo- 
listan), invaded the territories of the western Jagataids. About 
this time Timur (g.t.), otherwise Timur-i-lcng (Tamerbnc), a 
young amir at the court of the western Jagataids, allied himself 
with the leaders who had dethroned Kazan, and after the death 
of Toghluk-Timur became by right of conquest khan of both 
sections of the Jagataids. After Timur's death the two sections 
again divided, while a third kingdom, Ferghana, was held by the 
Timurids (descendants of Timur). At the beginning of the i6lh 
century all three dynasties were swept away by Mahommed 
Shalbani, head of the Uzbeg Mongols (see infra ^ Uzbegs). 

The empire of the Ilkhans established by Hulagu lasted 
nominally imtil 1353, but after the death of the Ilkhan Abu Said 
in 1335 the real power was divided between five 
'petty dynasties which had been formed out of the 
provinces conquered by Hulagu. Meantime Islam 
had made great progress among the Mongob, the third 
Ilkhan, Nikudar Ahmed (reigned 1281-1284) having embraced 
that faith. The western frontiers of their empire bordering on 
the Syrian possessions of Egypt there was frequent intercourse, 
sometimes friendly, sometimes warlike, between the Ilkhans and 
the sultans of Egypt {q.v.). Of the petty d>'nastics which 
supplanted that of Hulagu, one known as the Jebirids held 
Bagdad until about 1400. Another dynasty which reigned in 
Azerbaijan was overthrown in 1355 by the western Kipchaks 
(see injra^ Golden Horde). Between 1369 and 1400 Timur had 
made himself master of the greater part of Persia and established 
there a second Mongol dynasty, which in turn gave place to that 
of the Ak Kuyunli (see Persia). 

Of the Mongol tribes who became entirely subject to Russia 
the principal are those of the Crimea, of Kazan, and Astra- 
^^ khan; of these the Tatars of Kazan are the truest 

representatives of the Golden Horde or western 
Kipchaks, who originally formed the subjects of 
Batu and Orda. Batu, whose victorious campaign 
in Russia has already been sketched, was finally awarded as his 
fief the vast steppes which stretch from the Carpathian Moun- 
tains to Lake Balkash. He fixed his headquarters on the Volga, 
and there set up his Golden Tent from which the horde acquired 
the name of the Golden Horde. In 1255 Batu died and was 
succeeded by hb brother Bereke Khan. During the reign of this 
sovereign the exactions which were demanded from the Russian 
Christians by the Mongols aroused the Christian world against 
the barbarian conquerors, and at the command of Pope Alex- 
ander IV. a general crusade was preached against them. But 
though the rage of the Christians was great, they lacked that 
united energy which might have availed them against their 
s; and, while they were yet breathing out denunciations, 



a Tatar host, led by Nogai and Tukbagha, appeared in Poland. 
After a rapid and triumphant march the invaders took and des- 
troyed Cracow, and from thence advanced as far as By thorn 
(Beuihcn) in Oppeln, from which point they eventually retired, 
carrying with them a crowd of Christian slaves. From thb time 
the Mongob became for a season an important factor in European 
politics. They corresponded and treated with the European 
sovereigns, and intermarried with royal families. Hulagu 
married a daughter of Michael Palaeologus; Toktu Khan took 
as hb wife Maria, the daughter of Andronicus II. ; and to Nogai 
Michael betrothed hb daughter Irene. Toktu, the second khan 
in succession to Bereke, b the first Mongol ruler whom we hear 
of as having struck coins. Those issued during hb reign bear 
the mint marks of Sarai, New Sarai, Bulgar, Ukek, Khwarizm, 
Krim, Jullad and Madjarui, and vary in date from 1291 to 
1312. 

The adoption of Islam by the rulers of the Golden Horde had 
as one result the drawing closer of the relations of the Mongob 
with Constantinople and Egypt. Embassies passed between the 
three courts, and so important was the alliance with the Mongob 
deemed by the sultan Na$ir, ruler of Egypt, tliat he sent to demand 
in marriage a princess of the house of Jengbiz Khan. At first 
his request was refused by the proud Mongob, but the present 
of a million gold dinars, besides a number of horses and suits of 
armour, changed the refusal into an acquiescence, and in 
October 13 19 the princess knded at Alexandria in regal state. 
Her reception at Cairo was accompanied with feasting and rejoic-, 
ing, and the members of her escort were sent back laden with 
presents. With that religious toleration common to hb race, 
Uzbeg Khan, having married one princess to N&^, gave another 
in marriage to George the prince of Moscow, whose cause he 
espoused in a quarrel existing between that prince and hb uncle, 
the grand-prince Michael Assuming the attitude of a judge in 
the dispute, Uzbeg Khan summoned Michael to appear before 
him, and, having given hb decision against him, ordered hb 
execution. The sentence was carried out with aggravated 
cruelty in sight of hb nephew and accuser. From thb time 
Uzbeg's sympathies turned towards Christianity. He protected 
the Russian churches within hb frontiers, and put hb seal to hb 
new religious views by marrying a daughter of the Greek emperor, 
Andronicus III. He died in 1340, after a reign of twenty-eight 
years. Hb coins were struck at Sarai, Khwarizm, Mokshi, 
Bulgar, Azak and Krim, and are dated from 1313 to 1340. Hb 
son and successor, Tinibeg Khan, after a reign of only a few 
months, was murdered by hb brother Janibeg Khan, who 
usurped hb throne, and, according to the historian Ibn Haidar, 
proved himself to be " just. God-fearing, and the patron of the 
meritorious." These excellent qualities did not, however, 
prevent hb making a raid into Poland, which was conducted in 
the usual Mongol manner, nor did they save his countrymen from 
being decimated by the black plague. The throne Janibeg had 
seized by violence was, in 1357, snatched from him by violence. 
As he lay ill on his return from a successful expedition against 
Persia he was murdered by his son Bcrdibeg, who in his turn 
was, after a short reign, murdered by his son Kulpa. With the 
death of Berdibeg the fortunes of the Golden Horde began 
rapidly to decline. As the Uzbeg proverb says, " The hump of 
the camel was cut off in the person of Bcrdibeg." 

But while the power of the Golden Horde was dwindling away, 
the White Horde or Eastern Kipchak, which was the inheritance 
of the elder branch of the family of Juji, remained 
prosperous and full of vitality. The descendants ?*^** 
of Orda, Batu's elder brother, being far removed EmxttnT 
from the dangerous infiucnces of European courts, Kipcbsk, 
maintained much of the simplicity and vigour of 
their nomad ancestors, and the throne descended from 
father to son with undiminished authority until the reign 
of Urus Khan (1360), when complications arose wEich changed 
the fortunes of the tribe. Like many other opponents of the 
Mongol rulers, Khan Tuli Khoja paid with his life for his temerity 
in opposing the political schemes of his connexion Urus Khan. 
Toktamish, the son of the murdered man. fled at the news of bit 



7i8 



MONGOLS 



father's death and soiight refuge at the court of Timur, who 
received him with honour and at once agreed to espouse his cause. 
With this intention he despatched a force against Urus Khan, 
and gained some advantage over him, but, while fitting out 
another army to make a fresh attack, news reached him of the 
death of Urus. Only at Sighnak are coins known to have been 
struck during the reign of Urus, and these bear date from 1373 
to 1375. 

He was followed on the throne by his two sons, Tuktakia and 
Timur Malik, each in turn; the first reigned but for a few weeks, 

and the second was killed in a battle against Tok- 
ffJltSy taniish. the son of his father's enemy. Toktamish 

now (1378) seized the throne, not oidy of Eastern 
Kipchak but also of the Golden Horde, over which his arms had 
at the same time proved victorious. He reigned as Nft$ir ed-din 
Jetal ed Mahmud Gbujas Toktamish. His demands for tribute 
from the Russian princes met with evasions from men who had 
grown accustomed to the diminuthcd power of the later rulers 
of the Golden Horde, and Toktamish therefore at once marched 
an army into Russia. Having captured Serpukhov, he advanced 
on Moscow. On the 23rd of August 1382 his troops appeared 
before the doomed city. For some days the inhabitants bravely 
withstood the constant attacks on the walls, but failed in their 
resistance to the stratagems which were so common a phase in 
Mongolian warfare. With astonishing credulity they opened 

the gates to the Mongols, who declared themselves 
sUSZ the enemies of the grand -prince alone, and not of the 

people. The usual result followed. The Russian 
general, who was invited to Toktamish's tent, was there 
slain and at the same time the signal was given for a general 
slaughter. Without discriminating age or sex, the Mongol 
troops butchered the wretched inhabitants without mercy, 
and, having made the streets desolate and the houses tenant- 
less, they first plundered the city and then gave it over to the 
flames. The same pitiless fate overtook Vladimir, Zvenigorod, 
Yuriev, Mozhaisk and Dimitrov. With better fortime, the 
inhabitants of Pereslavl and Kolomna escaped with their 
lives from the troops of Toktamish, but at the expense of 
their cities, which were burned to the ground. Satisfied with 
his conquests, the khan returned homewards, traversing and 
plundering the principality of Ryazan on his way. Flushed 
with success, Toktamish demanded from his patron Timur the 
restoration of Khwarizm, which had fallen into the hands of the 
latter at a period when disorder reigned in the Golden Horde. 
Such a request was not likely to be well received by Timur, and, 
in answer to his positive refusal to yield the dty, Toktamish 
marched an army of 90,000 men against Tabriz. After a siege 
of eight days the dty was taken by assault and ruthlessly ravaged. 
In the meantime Timur was collecting forces to punish his 
rebellious prot6g6. When his plans were fully matured, he 
advanced upon Old Urgenj and captured it. More merciful 
than Toktamish, he transported the inhabitants to Samarkand, 

but in order to mark his anger against the rebellious 
fS!^ dty he levelled it with the ground and sowed barley 

on the site where it had stood. On the banks of 
the Oxtis he encountered his enemy, and after a bloody battle 
completely routed the Kipchaks, who fled in confusion. A lull 
followed this victory, but in 1390 Timur again took the field. To 
each man was given " a bow, with thirty arrows, a quiver, and a 
buckler. The army was mounted, and a spare horse was supplied 
to every two men, while a tent was furnished for every ten, and 
with this were two spades, a pickaxe, a sickle, a saw, an axe, an 
awl, a hundred needles, 8§ lb of cord, an ox's hide, and a strong 
pan." Thus equipped the army set forth on its march. After 
a considerable delay owing to an illness which overtook Timur 
his troops arrived at Kara Saman. Here envoys arrived from 
Tuktamish bearing presents and a message asking pardon for 
his past conduct; but Timur was inexorable, and, though he 
treated the messengers with consideration, he paid no attention 
to their prayer. In face of innumerable difficulties, as well 
as of cold, hunger, and weariness, Timur marched forward 
month after month through the Kipchak country in pursuit 



Of Toktamish. At last, on the 18th of June, he overtook \kk 
at Kandurcha, in the coimtry of the Bul^trs, and at once farced 
him to an engagement. For three days the battle lasted, aod, 
after inclining now to this side and now to that, victory fioaDj 
decided in favour of Timur. The Kipchaks were compktdjr 
routed and fled in all directions, while it is said as many 11 
100,000 corpses testified to the severity of the fi ghting 

Toktamish, though defeated, was not subdued, and in 139$ 
Timur found it necessary again to undertake a rarhpiig ti aguat 
him. This time the armies met upon the Terek, and after t 
fiercely-contested battle the Kipchaks again fled in confuaoa 
Timur, threatened by the advancing autumn, gave up fortkr 
pursuit, and retired with a vast broty of gold ingots, silver 
bars, pieces of Antioch linen and of the embroidered doth of 
Russia, &c On his homeward march southwards he anind . 
before Azak, which was then the entrep6t where the merdnats 
of the east and west exchanged their wares. In vain the natirei, 
with the Egyptian, Venetian, Genoese, Catalan and Basqae 
inhabitants, besought him to spare the dty. His answer ns 
a command to the Moslems to separate themselves from the 
rest of the people, whom he put to the sword, and then gavt 
the dty over to the flames. Circassia and Georgia next fak 
his iron hed, and the fastnesses of the central Caucasus vtR 
one and all destroyed. After these successes Tunur gave hiiudf 
up for a time to feasting and rejoicing, accompanied by evay 
manifestation of Oriental luxury. " His tent of audience vis 
hung with silk, its poles were golden, or probably covticd 
with golden plates, the nails being silver; his throne vas of 
gold, enriched with predous stones; the floor was sprinkkd 
with rose water." But his vengeance was not satisfied, sod, 
having refreshed his troops by this halt, be marched northvvds 
against Astrakhan, which he utteriy destroyed. The it>ii*lMfiiK 
were driven out into the country to perish with the cold, iri& 
the commander of the dty was killed by being forced beneath 
the ice of the Volga. Sarai next shared the same fate, aad. 
Timur, having thus crushed for the second time the empie d 
Toktamish, set out on his return home by wmy of DcrbcBt lad 
Az€rb&ij&n. 

The power in the hands of the successors of Toktamish sever 
revived after the last campaign of Timur. They were constastljr 
engaged in wars with the Russians and the Krim Tatars, 
with whom the Russians had allied themsdves, and by degrees 
their empire decayed, until, on the seizure and death of Atoed 
Khan at the beginning of the i6th century, the dominatioB of 
the Golden Horde came to an end. 

The fate which thus overtook the Golden Horde was destined 
to be shared by all the western branches of the great Uongal 
family. The .khans of Kazan and Kasimov had ^ 
already in 1552 succumbed to the growing power of JJln*" 
Russia, and the Krim Tatars were next to fall 
under the same yoke. In the 15th century, when the Knis 
Tatars first appear as an independent power, they atteo^ted 
to strengthen their position by allying themselves with the 
Russians, to whom they looked for hdp against the attacb 
of the Golden Horde. But while they were in this state of 
dependence another power arose in eastern Asia which mocked 
the political events of that region. In 1453 Cotpstantinopk 
was taken by the Osmanli Turks, who, having quarrelled irith 
the Genoese merchants who monopolized the trade on the 
Black Sea, sent an expedition into the Crimea to punish the 
presumptuous traders. The power which had captured Coo* 
stantinople was not likdy to be hdd in check by any forces at 
the disposal of the Genoese, and without any serious opposi- 
tion Kaffa, Sudak, Balaklava and Inkerman fell befocc the 
troops of the sultan Mahommed. It was plain that, situated as 
the Crimea was between the two great powers of Russia sad 
Turkey, it must of necessity fall tmder the direction of oae 
of them. Which it should be was decided by the invaskn of 
the Turks, who restored Mengli Girai, the deposed khan, to 
the throne, and virtually converted the khanate into a depeo- 
dency of Constantinople. But though under the tutdage of 
Turkey, Mengli Girai, whose leading policy seems to have bccsi 



MONGOLS 



719 



the desire to strengthen Himsdf against the khans of the Golden 
Horde, formed a dose alliance with the grand-prince Ivan of 
Russia. One result of this friendship was that the Mongols 
were enabled, and encouraged, to indulge their predatory habits 
at the expense of the enemies of Russia, and in this way both 
Lithuania and Poland suffered terribly from their inclusions. 
It was destined, howler, that in their turn the Russians should 
not escape from the marauding tendencies of their allies, for, 
on pretext of a quarrel with reference to the succession to the 
Kazan throne, Mahommed Girai Khan in 1521 marched an 
army northwards until, after having devastated the country, 
massacred the people, and desecrated the churches on his route, 
he arrived at the heights of Vorobiev overlooking Moscow. 
The terror of the unfortunate inhabitants at the sight once 
again of the dreaded Mongols was extreme; but the horrors 
which had accompanied similar past visitations were happily 
averted by a treaty, by which the grand-prince Basil undertook 
to pay a perpetual tribute to the Krim khans. This, however, 
provMi but a truce. It was impossible that an aggressive 
state like Russia should live in friendship with a marauding 
power like that of the Krim Tatars. The primary cause of 
contention was the khanate of Kazan, which was recovered 
by the Mongols, and lost again to' Russia with that of Astrakhan 
in XS55. The sulun, however, declined to accept this condition 
of things as final, and instigated Devlet Girai, the Krim khan, 
to attempt their recovery. With this object the latttt marched 
«n army northwards, where, finding the road to Moscow unpro- 
tected, he pushed on in the direction of that ill-starred dty. 
On arriving before its walls he found a large Russian force 
occupying the suburbs. With these, however, he was saved 
from an encounter, for just as his foremost men approached 
the town a fire broke out, whichi in consequence of the high 
wind blowing at the time, spread with frightful rapidity, and 
in the space of six hours destroyed all the churches, palaces 
and hotises, with -the exception of the Kremlin, within a com- 
pass of 30 miles. Thousands of the inhabitants perished in the 
flames. " The river and ditches about Moscow," says Horsey, 
" were stopped and filled with the multitudes of people, laden 
with gold, silver, jewels, chains, ear-rings and treasures. So 
many thousands were there burned and drowned that the riVer 
could not be deaned for twelve months afterwards." Satisfied 
with the destruction he had indirectly caused, and unwilling to 
attack the Kremlin, the khan withdrew to the Crimea, ravaging 
the country as he went. Another invasion of Rusua, a few 
years later (1572), was not 'so fortunate for the Mongols, who 
suffered a seyere defeat near Molodi, 50 versts from Moscow. 
A campaign against Persia made a diversion in the wars which 
were constantly waged between the Krim khan and the Russians, 
Cossacks and Poles. So hardly were these last pressed by their 
pcrtinadous enemies in 1649 that they bound themselves by 
treaty to pay an annual subsidy to the khan. But the fortunes 
of war were not always on the side of the Tatars, and with 
the advent of Peter the Great to the Russian throne the power 
of the Krim Mongols began to. decline. In 1696 the tsar, sup- 
ported by a large Cossack force under Mazeppa, took the field 
against 3dim Girai Khan, and gained such successes that the 
latter was compdled to cede Azov to him. By a turn of the 
wheel of fortune the khan had the satisfaction in i7n of having 
it restored to him by* treaty; but this was the last real success 
that attended the Tatar arms. In 1735 the Russians in their 
turn invaded the Crimea, captured the celebrated lines of 
Perekop, and ravaged Bakhchi-sarai, the capital. The inevitable 
fate which was hanging over the Krim Tatars was now being 
rapidly accomplished. In 1783 the Krim, together with the 
eastern portion of the land of the Nogais, became absorbed 
into the Russian province of Taurida. 

It will now only be necessary to refer briefly to the Uzbcgs, 
who, on the destruction of the Golden Horde, assumed an 

important position on the east of the Caspian Sea. 
2L«. The founder of their greatness was the khan Abulk- 

hair, who reigned in the isth century, and who, like 
another Jenghiz Khan, consolidated a power out of a number 



of small dans, and added histre to it by his successful wait. 
Shaibani Khan, his grandson, proved himself a worthy successor, 
and by him Baber (9.V.), the Timurid khan of Ferghana, who 
afterwards founded the Mogul Empire in India, was driven 
from his ancestral dominions. In 1500 he inflicted a severe 
defeat on Baber's forces, and captured Samarkand, Herat 
and Kandahar. By these and other conquests he became 
possessed of all the country between the Oxus and the Jazartes, 
of Ferghana, Khwarizm and Hissar, as well as of the territory 
of Tashkent from Kashgar to the frontiers of China. In the 
following year, by a dashing exploit, Baber recovered Samarkand, 
but only to lose it again a few months later. During several 
succeeding years Shaibani's anns proved victorious in many 
fields of battle, and but for an indiscreet outrage on the 
territories of the shah of Persia he might have left behind 
him a powerful empire. The anger, however, of Shah Ismail 
roused against him a force before which he was destined to falL 
The two armies met in the neighbourhood of Merv, where, after 
a desperate encounter, the Uzbegs were completdy defeated. 
Shaibani, with a few follow^, sought refuge in a cattle-pound. 
But finding no exit on the farther side, the refugees tried to leap 
thdr horses over the walL In this attempt Shaibani was killed 
(1510). When his body was recognized by his exultant enemies 
they cut off the head and presented it to the shah, who caused 
the skull to be mounted in gold and to be converted into a 
drinking-cup. After this defeat the Uzbegs withdrew across 
the Oxus and abandoned KhoriLs&n. farther east the news 
aroused Baber to renewed activity, and before long he reoccupied 
Samarkand and the province " Beyond the River," which had 
been dominated by the Uzbegs for nine years. But though 
the Uzbegs were defeated they were by no means crushed, 
and ere long we find their khans reigning, now at Samarkand, 
and now at Bokhara. As time advanced and European powers 
began to encroach more and more into Asia, the history of the 
khanates ceases to be confined to the intemedne struggles of 
rival khans. Even Bokhara was not beyond the reach of 
Russian ambition and En^ish diplomacy. Several European 
envoys found their way thither during the first half of the 
19th century, and the murder of Stoddart and Conolly in 1842 
forms a melancholy episode in British relations with that 
fanatical capital. With the absorption of the khanate of Bokhara 
and the capture of Khiva by the Russians the individual history 
of the Mongol tribes in Central Asia comes to an end, and their 
name has left its imprint only on the dreary stretch of Chinese- 
owned country from Manchuria to the Altai Mountains, and 
to the equally \mattractive country in the ndghbourhood of 
the Koko-nOr. 

BiBLiocRAPHT.— Sir H. Howorth, History of the Mongols (1876, 
1878); D'Ohsson, Histoiredes Mongols (18^); Cahun, Ititroductton 
d rhistoire d'Asie; K6hler, Die Entwicldung des Kriegswesens; 
Strakosch-Crossmann, Der Einj[<dl der Mohmuh in MiUet-Europa', 
(for the general reader) Jeremiah Curtin, The. Mongols, a history 
(1908). (R. K. D.) 

Language. — ^The Mongol tongue is one of the members of 
the great stock which recent acholare designate as Ural-Altaic, 
which also includes the Finno-Ugric, Turkish, Manchu and Samo- 
yede. The members of this group are not so closely related to one 
another as those of the Indo-European stock; but they are all 
bound together by the common principle of aralutinative formation, 
especially the so-called harmony of vowels,^y their grammatical 
structure, and also by certain common elements in the stock of 
roots which run through them all, or through particular more 
closely-connected families within the group.* The fatherland proper 
of the Mongols is Mongolia (q.v.). The sum total of the Mongol 
population under Chinese government is calculated at between 
two and three millions. 

Generally the whole Mongol tribe may be divided into three 
branches: East Mongols, West Mongols and Buriats. 

I. The East Mongols are divided into the Kalkas in the bordere 
just mentioned, the Shara Mongols south of the Gobi along the 
Great Wall north-eastward to Manchuria, and lastly the Shiraigol 
or Sharaigol in Tangut and in northern Tibet. 



* Compare W. Schott, Versuch Hber die tatarischen Sprachen 
(Berlin. 1836); Ueber das ahaVsche oder finniuh-tatarische Sprachen^ 
geschlecht (Berlin, 1849); Altajische Studien, parts i.-v. (Beriin, 
1860-1870); and A. Castr^n, Eihnologische VorUsungen iiher die 
AUai'schen V6lher, ed. by A. Schiefner (St Petersburg, 1857). 



720 



MONGOLS 



a^ On cSc cignlAcatLQTi vnd etnploynifrnt o\ the diffcrFnt n^mcti 
o\ the West MongaW (Kal!iiuqkiKO>t;lbdj CHrad or DdrbOn Oiriid ^the 
four Oiradt Mongol Oirid)» and aUo as Kf(ard& the EulxJivkioD of 
the tribcij.^ there Li much uDcertaimy. The EUkme Kalmuck, so 
cencriilly e^pioycil airiDng us^ !.» id fact only used by the Volgti 
Kalmucks (KhallmakK but even with them the namely not commas, 
and ftlmuit a byname Jt ia of fomgn oFigin, and moit liMy 
B, Taiaric wotd which has yet to be eiplalriL^d- Otrad mtan* the 
" near otic»»" the '* fqbtcd* ' The U4ua( expbnatian giv^-n i* that 
thy vingiSc tribe* coo>i<lfr thcinstlvca a^ Ix-ifig rv laced to sch other 
^bence Mtyttg&t Otr&d, "the Mongol nlyt*xl tribt'* Thi* t* the 
favouriceiLimeannan^KalTiiuclu. iJ&rb^fl Oirad , or the four f^ktc-d 
tribes, compriw (j J Diungars. U3 TofEOd. UJ Koihod. (4) Dertjct, 
The EJKnificailon of the name Oti&4, b ibc EiSt Mongolian Otitttd, 
now the nn^it wirjL-ly-&pRad among the Ifibcs living in China, is 
Klcewise very doubtful, ^iflc aswrt thit " Oclod '" i>i nt^thinK l^ut 
the Chinese transcription of Oiiad, as the Cfdlnary ChinCw: lAngu^ge 
docs not possess the sound r. VVc have, however, to bear in mind 
thai we have a Mongolian root e^kkH, with the «cn»c " to be 
inimical/' "'to bear hatreds ili-will, &c. The main population of 
the Kalmticlu livCn or rather drag out^ their rxi&tcnce aJter the u^uai 
i^bhion of ni[>rtiad tribe^i in Ozunfraria. in the eastern part of the 
Tian-ihan. rm ihc wjuiSi ti.j,rdi^T nl ilrL- C^-jlii. rn^ I^ttliunur, unil in the 
pcovti- .^i I • ■ '. ■ ' . • ..-.....,■ ,, pt, 

In itti' ■ . ■ . . i'iit 

in Ttan-shan and Abuu, many hordes have come under the Russian 
sway. According to an approximate account we may reckon in 
the territory Semiryetshcnsic (Kulja) and Scmipalatinsk 34,000 
Kalmucks, while in the southern part of the government Tomsk, 
on the Altai, the Kalmuck popubtion amounted formerly to 19,000. 
Besides these we find a section of Kalmuck popubtion far in the 
west, on the banks of the Volga (near Astrakhan). From their 
original seats in Dzungaria they turned in their migrations to the 
north, crossed the steppe of the Kirghiz, and thus gradually reached 
the Emba and the Or. Between these two rivers and the Ural the 
Torgod settled in 1616; thence they crossed the Volga in 1650, and 
took possession of the now so-called steppe of the Kalmucks, being 
followed in 1673 by the Derbet and in i67^s by the Koshod. In 
1 77 1 a considerable number returned to the Chinese empire. There 
is still a not unimportant population in the so-called steppe of the 
Kalmucks, which extends between the Caspian and the Volga in 
the east and the Don in the west, and from the town of Sarepta 
in the north to the Kuma and the Manych in the south. According 
to modem statistical accounts, this pQpulation amounts to 76,000. 
To these we have to add 25,000 more on the borders of the Cossacks 
of the Don, and lastly 8000 in the bordering provinces of Orenburg 
and Saratov. 

3. In the southern part of the Russian province of Irkutsk, in 
a wide circle round Lake Baikal, lies the ncirdom proper of the 
Buriats, which they also call the " Holy Sea " ; the country east 
of the lake is commonly called Transbiakalia. Their country 
practically extends from the Chinese frontier on the south within 
almost parallel lines to the north, to the town Kircnsk on the Lena, 
and from the Onon in the east to the Oka, a tributary of the Angara, 
in the west, and still farther west towards Nizhni-L'dinsk. They 
are most numerous beyond the Baikal Lake, in the valleys along 
the Uda, the Onon and the Selcnga, and in Ncrtchinsk. These 
Transbaikalian Buriats came to these parts only towards the end 
of the 17th century from the Kalkas. While Mongols and Kal- 
mucks generally continue to live after the usual fashion of nomads, 
we find here agricultural pursuits, most likely, however, due mainly 
to Russian influence. Christianity is also making its way. The 
sum total of the Buriats amounts to about 250.000. 

Another tribe separated from the rest of the Mongols is the so- 
called HazSra (the thousand), and the four Aimak (1.*. tribes), who 
wander about as herdsmen in Afghanistan, between Herat and 
Kabul. In external characteristics they are Mongols, and in all 

Rrobability they are the remains of a tribe from the time of the 
longol dynasty. Their language, which shows, of course. Persian 
influence, is strictly Mongolian, more particularly West Mongolian 
or Kalmuck, as has been proved by H. C. von der Gabelcntz.* 

Agreeably with this threefold division of the Mongols we have 
also a threefold division of their respective languages: (i) East 
Mongolian or Mongolian proper, (2) West Mongolian or Kalmuckn 
(3) Buriatic. 

The dialects just mentioned arc found to be in close relation to 
each other when we examine their roots, inflections and grammatical 
structure. The difTcrcnce between them is indeed so slight that 
whoever understands one of them understands all. Phonetically a 
characteristic of them all is the " harmony of vowels," which arc 
divided into two chief classes: the hard a, o, u and the soft e, 6, H. 
between which i is in the middle. All vowels of the same word 
must necessarily belong to the same class, so that the nature of the 
first or root-vowel determines the nature of the other or inflection- 
vowels: now and then a sort of retrogressive harmony takes 
place, so that a later vowel determines the nature of the former. 



The consooanta preoediag the vowels are eqmOy OMkr tWrii- 

Buence. 

The Mongolian characters, which in a slightly altered fans aic 
Also in use among the Manchus, are written perpendicukriy ftoa 
above don'dward^ aod the lines follow from left to ri^ht. the alpia* 
bet having ii%m lot xvcn vowels^-a, «, t, o. u, d, d. and diphtboBp 
di-rived from thrm—a?. at, ei, m, oi, at, di tit. and for seventccocos* 
$otuiiiti — n. b, kh, ih, k. g, m, I, r (never initial), t, i, v. s, {4s). t, 
iS, sk, w. AHI These are modified in shape according tc their positioa, 
in the bceinningH middle, or end of a word, and also by certaia 
orthocrapliic niics. En Mongolian and Manchn writing the lyBable 
(i>, the consonant tcmt^ther with the vowel) is considered ass Bsit, 
in other words a sylbbdrium rather than an alphabet. The aatun 
charactcra are lineal duKendants of the original Utghuriaa ioaat, 
which were themvlvt^ derived from the Syriac. having been brouffat 
to the Uighiirs by NV^iEorian missionaries. An Indian and Tfteos 
^jif*,„.„^^ ^-.,. „]...-, v.^ -oticed, while the arrangement of thechv* 
a'^ ' nes is common to the Chinese. Thevridof 

was broueht into its present shape bv the learned Lamas Ssikyi 
Pandiu, Phags-pa Lama, and Tshoitshi Odser in the 13th cemviT.' 
but is exceedingly imperfect. To express the fre<^uently-ocnirnB| 
letters borrowed from Sanskrit and Tibetan, which are vaBtist 
in the Mongol alphabet, a special alphabet, called Galik, isemptoytd. 
Every one who has tried to read Mongolian knows how but 
difficulties have to be overcome, arising from the amfaigtBty of 
certain letters, or from the fact that thesaroesignistobepcoeaaiied 
differently, according to its position in the wwd. Thus, there are 
no means for distinguishing the and u, 6 and il. the comoaaats 
g and k, t and d, y and s {is). A and «. 9 (a) and 6 (d). a (f) aad 
ft, g and kk, t (J) and on, are liable to be misuken for each otka. 
Other changes will be noticed and avoided by advanced stwksti 

tht"f^"J, endt (luTC'J zi-nd ncda (rui. ), aldcji {Unhf.-m) ftrnj tf^JuJJi 'J,^'''i''. 
ardn (coy rt -resilience) iind vHa (long), omttkku (to seize) and niii* 
(to ddc). iere (thi») *ml dttf (pillow), irhf (said) and k^bt \m^\. 
gfjrt (irvil) iind kcm (itKas-urc), £r*HbDiu5c) and ktr {haw]l» mat^m I an) 
and ntrr (n^.^itnc). yugpri (what) and dio-fon (hundfed), iheuiA bt 
Written Ci^ttly nlitr. Thii list mi^ht be larjtfly lotrtiBQ^ "fhoK 
defects apply efiiMily to the MongoTian and Burntkr ftlphal^ii 

In I ^^b the ^lyrt T^ndita competed a new alphabet (thr KaImiHe), 
in which ihcx ambiiiuitiei area^'oided, t haugli the anr^phic diffmscd 
between the ti^o alpha l.>ett art: only slights Tbv Kalmuek itp^jhit 
avoid'! the an^br and clum&y siliapcs of the Mongolian^ ttiA ba, 
on the contra rVr a rounded zind pleasing sliape. The Kjbaudt 
ntphabet has aUo thii great ad'V'anlaf^c — that every khuuJ tuku it> 
distinct graphic character; a mi^t^ke between two char^ctrn cu 
scarcely occur. The Kilmock wofiJs once Enattered. th*> cifl be 
easily rccocniacd in their MongoUj^n shape. The dia^tk^ (iifla- 
cncf* are alio v'ery «3i^ht. 

The Kalmuck, therefore. i» the %ey ol the Xtoii»c>1iaa, and ^AfJ^ 
form the ground wofkol Monf;olian studies^ The Kainmc^ '" ' 
Mongolia n diitk£:[_^ do not diller much, at Jeasl in tbe 1 
guoce; but the Kalmutks write aceonding to tbdr pra_ 
white the Ntongok do not. For exampk^ j^m {di^}, "I 



* Sec his e?say, " Ucber die Sprache der Haz^ras und Aimaks," in 
the Zeitsckrift der detUscken morgenldndtscken CeseUsckajt, xx. 32&- 
355- 



ioiou. The dialectic diffefcnce txtween the two dialsji *tiy 
frequently lies only in a difTennt pronunciation of loine IrtUr^ 
Thug East Mangcrlian ds I'j- *r\ Kalmuck icft t, &c. The duief !^<^ 
cnce between the two diikc t!^ Tivs. in tin*- Tjct that in K^lo^Lick il* 
t'.jfl ^"utturaL g betwf. :; ■ =• > '■■ \ \- • w. • \ •>...'■.. -l - r -t 
joining of the two vowels, a long vowel is produced, la the pro- 
nunciation of common East Mongolian the g is likewise on^tted, 
but it is written, while in Kalmuck, as just now mcntioDed, die 
guttural can onlv be traced through the lenjgthening of the s>'llabie. 
Thus we find: Mongol kkagan, " prince, " Kalmuck Uidn: M. dagm, 
" voice, sound,'* K. ddn, dun, M. dologan, ** seven/' K. iolim; IL 
azoi'i, "mouniain/* K, 6la,uia; M. aagor, '* lake," ICa^, «tir: M. 
;.A;ci«, ^'red." K. u'An: M. yagon, *^what." K. ydn (j»): M. 
dtihiiian, " mocjntziln ridge," K. dabdn; M. ssanagan, ^^ thoo^t," 
K. iiaii&n; M. barofiim, "on the rieht.*' K. AorAs, harim: M. 
jkiha^on. " bird^'^ K. skcwni M. ciUapm, *' stone,** K. ciaUs 
UhulUtt}; M.jif^eran. " «x," K. surg&n; M#drgrre, " high, above," 
K. dhi^i Mr uiuitfiy. ■ to drink," K. ikku; M. togo^Jkt. "histoiy." 
K. iUshi, t^ikr, M, fgudtn, " door." K. dden; M. dsegin, "left." 
tC. an. M. otedt. "in the height," K. ddoi M. dgeUd, "die 
KalmucW K. ^iod: M. iiiUged, " if one has dooe."^ K. iM; 
U, koiKgun. *'mnr K. kdw6n; M. gcraia, " mare." K. c<«: M. 
Jtt<u^ " corpse." K. kur; M. kkarigad, '*^ returned." K. kharid, fc- 
The Buriatic, in these peculiarities, is almost always foond villi 
Ea4t Mongolian, with which it is in every respect closely alKrd. 
In f he pronunciation of some letters the transition of East Mottgoiias 
tso tse into Buriatic ss is noticeable; for instance: Mone. tsitxk, 
" flo-*er," Buriatic ssessek; M. tsak, " time." B. ssak; M. tug*^ 
" white," B. ssagan: M. tsetsen, " orudent," B.ssessen. SrisMwe* 
timci pronounced like (the German) ck: East M. ssain, ** good." B. 



* Cl. H. C. von der Gabclentz. in the Zeitsckrxft /. d. Ktadt L 
Morgmlandes* (G6ttinjKn, 1838), iL i-ai. " Versuch Qbcr ciae site 
mongolische Inschrift. 



MONO PAI 



721 



ck«M , M. MtedJnl, " hnrt." B. citdkil. JT in the begjinniaf or 
nlddfe qI m word u alwiyi a»pinit«l 

Thr noun ii d«:Uncd: by the help of Appended panic (cj, •omt of 
which i.rv indepcndrnt pott-potitiDn^, vu, Ot^n. yit, a, un\ Dat. 
4mr, a. Ace 71, 1, Ablat ^'^jFh Instruni f^r, ^tr, Av^octitivt^ /tipj, 
tAge The dative nn^ accusative biive alio tpocial forma which 
liAvv at the same cinie a pi«3%acs»v« «cnse, vu DaL dainn^ ^fnt; 
Aozui. 6<w. ye*. The plural j* exprt»dcd by ajfixes {tur, nw, ^, 
lit, rfj., or frequemly by words of plurality, " jUih" " many/* r.j. 
AuffTilH fio{iM tm^n. many -men} Thit oblique ca.«eA have the 
feame ending^ in angular and plural^ Gender ii not mdicated. 
The adjecuve U uninftected boLh ai attribute and as predicate, 
there U 00 comparative form, thii id^ beijig cKpresaed bv the con' 
•tntction cf by the uwe ol certain particles. The perkocufprDnauni 
%TW fri, t , Uk\, thou , 5i^, we , Id, ye , their genitives serve aa poi- 
trwiveib The demonstntivea are ent^ icrt (thi», that), plural Mt, 
ttd£. inteiTfwattve ken, who? The relalive is Uckin^, And it« place 
B vupplied by circumlocutioDE. The numcrsLls are: E* KtrrFi, J, 
kk^yar. 3, iurbam, 4. dSrbcit. 5, /a^npi; 6^ jtrgut^m 7. ihh^: 
1, HHMtM, ^, ytfKR; lOr orfrdJi; ico, d'mjic'rt, looo, mtitftuit. The 
o^nab are foirned by appending fufat^ iu£€r. The theme oF the 
iftfb b teen in the iitiperative, aa fcaW. fttasp- The conjtr[jaiion ia 
fich in fonns for ttn-ic and niood> but the perpon ai^d numbtf are 
Vfith few ejEiceptioni unexpressed. The present ij, formed from the 
theme by adding mut {banmuii^ the preteriie bj^ ^t or iufa {baribar^ 
^Fttu^aj, the future by ssu);at ar ssu iAnnum^ai, bartssn}. The 
preterites has also in the third person the terminations ttsutui and 
futt; the fuiure hat in tbe third prrbon yu, and in the firrt ya. The 
conditional enda in boiju {tro-ribixssu}, the precaiive tn /ufdt, f^f^i^ 
the potential in ta {bcrimuua}, the imperative plural m ktun^ the 
Ecnind in the present in n, ^Ju {barin, bandiit) or to^, " while, tilt " 
(teritoi^t " inter capienrfum "}i in the jjretente it U formed in lad 
i^drigitd}. the pr»cnt part. ha« ktikt ibankUki)^ the past part, 
kssam ibonksmti); the supine ends in ror the infinitive in kku 
ifiiiTsiku^ or when used substantively ttartkhui}. There is but one 
perfectly refular eonJuRation, and derivative forms, derived frDiti 
the theme by infixes, are canjuE^aTcd on tbe i&me scheme^ Thua 
the paiftiw ha& infixed id or Jbla {batikdakhUt to be grasped ), the 
causative gvl {barisrdkhv. to cause to eniap), tlw co-operative of 
•ociative Usa or ida {bortiisakkH, to graip toijether). 

Th eie are n o pre po^niori s, on ty po*i -posit ions. Adverb* are cither 
nmple partkies (affirmative, negative, interrogative^ modal, &c.) 
«r are fonncd by auffijces froni other parts (^t ipeech. There are 
very few conjunctions; the relations of clauses and lentenccs ore 
subnly indicated by the verbal forms (part., eup., conditional, but 
mainly by the eerund). 

The order or wonb and •entences in conttruetjon 11 pretty much 
the opposite of that which *e foBow. Jn A simple lenteTice the 
ind teat ion of time and plate, whether ffiven by asi ariverU ot a *ub- 
Kancive with a post tbow Lion, always cowes firit; then comfa the 
iubiert, aNiiyt preceJed by its adjective or genitive, then the object 
and other caaes dt-^pcmdin^ en the verb, ladt of all the verb itself 
preceded by any adverbs that belong to it. So in the itructure of 
a period all causa L hypothetical, troncesfilve clauses, which can be 
eo4lccived as preceding the main predkatioji In point of time, or 
even as contemporary with iti or aa in any way modifying it, mu^t 
Qonte fcrsi ; ibe finite verb appears only at the end of the main 
pndication or apodous. The periods are longer than in other 
bnpuages, a ungle one m^y hM several pages. 

AuTHOHiTiE^t,— Gmmmars and dictEonaries may be divided 

'chmJdt 
gokian- 



according iq the three dial^ta. For East Mongolian, L j, Schmidt 
gave the firrt grartimar {^i Fctershiirg, 1851), and a Mongolian' 
CWrmati- Russian th^ tiunary (Sc Petersburg, iJi^j). Nr^t Jos. RovaU 



ev^ti puh1iiih4td in Kus&ian a hlonjiohan grammar (Kaaan, 1^3^)^ a 
chrestomathy (^ vola^^ Kaian, JS^ftn iS^^Jh and his gre:]t Dutuynnair€ 
jRvKfaf-rarsf'/ranf^aij (^ vols., Kaun, li^^n, t^^6, tE4^). We may 
ncnttoa R. Vuiltc^ Sfurrt Aftfffgoiiam Growunar fin MongoKan), Jryli>- 

E'led at the mi»ion presa near Selengin'?i)c beyond Lake B'likal 
) A. Bobrovnikov's RusaiJkii Crammar oj tht Af^^rtf^um- 
uik Laniuaie (Kaian, 1R45) is alw vtry ijood. An aliridg- 
ment of Schmidt' § worlt is C. Puini. Efcmrnfi deUa ffiimmaiita 
moncffiiin {Florence, 187S}, A. Popov'* Afanfc'^^ft Chrfittmuslhy 
appeared in i vok at l^aun (i&j^). For the Kolnituck we have 
■ramTnarm by Popov (Ka^n, 1847)* BoUrovnikov, a$ above, and 
H A' Zwick U I. tl aj, autograpSeiJ at DurLaueschinfcen (1851). 
Z^kk's autographed Kalmuck and German dictionary with a printed 
German index appeared {i. I. fi aO in tfiji l B. jUlg a edition of the 
IsIh of SJddhi-kur (Leipzig, 1 166) gives a complete glossary to thrw 
Atones- Tt>ere are small Russian and Kalmuck vocabularies by 
P Smirnov (Kaian. 1857^ and C. Golatunskyi tSt Pttersbui^, lft6o). 
For the B una tic we have Gastrin, Vfrsurk e%ntr bmrj4Htcktn 
S^roihlehre. ed bySrhiefner f i8s7Kand A Orlov's Russian grammar 
of the Mongol- Buriatic cotloquiaf ianguafte (Kasan. lti7'(). 

Litt^ai^re,^h clear distinction must be drawn between the 
higher and nobler written or book-language and ihe common or con- 
venmtional language of every -day life. The difftTcnrc between the 
two ii very considerable, and may be fairly compared tp that Viet ween 
I he modern >ligh German book-UnpuaKc *tnd the difTferent dialects. 
All grammar! and dictionaries as yet published treat only of the 
book-language; and m» also, with a few exceptions, the published 

xviii ra* 



literary docuinenta are written m this higher ityle. The exceptions 
are the Cesser-Kkan. and the Stddki-kAr and Djangfuriad (the last 
two published by Colstunsk)ri). The popular or conversational 
languaKe has been fixed in writing by A. rozdnecv in his Russian 
work, Specimens of tke Potvlar LUeraiure oj the Mongolian Tribes, 
pt. i., "Popular Songs " (St Petersburg, i8»o), which conuins rich 
material for the study of the popular literature. 

The literature consists mostly of translations from the Tibetan, 
the holy language of Buddhism, which is still the language of the 
learned. The Tibetan Buddhist literature is itself translated from 
the Sanskrit ; hence, now and then, through Mongols and Kalmucks 
we get acquainted with Indian works the originals of which are not 
known in Sanskrit. Such is the case, for insunce, with the tales 
of Stddhi-kQr. Many books have also been translated from the 
Chinese. Most of the writings are of a religious, historical, phtlo> 
SOphical. mfdical, astronomirzil or astrotogiciiiT chn^racter UavauriEo 
subjects are fullf-torc and fairy taU-s, Among the religious booki. 
perhaps the most important i» that cuntaining the legends entitled 
aJteer an dalai, ** ocean of comparisons " (edi, hy [, J^rob Schmidt 
under the tiile^ Der IV^se una d^r Tkor^ in Tibetan and Germag 
(St Petersburg, 1A45). To this may be added the toddki tndr. or " the 
holy path/' the aJian gcret, " gleaming of fiold," the munt gumba atid 
ytrthntchU yiB Ufii, " mirror of the world." l^'hat was icnown uf 
CkKtirAl literature before Poidnecv is scarcely ih'orth mentioning. 
In !H>me parts of the historical and narrotive literature we find, 
wherever the aarratiw tAkes a higher flight, an admiiftupc of poetical 
diction. The poetry appears in a certain parallelii^m of the phrases, 
with a return either of the same endings (rhyme) or of the same 



words (refrain). Frtqueetly we fiad, bcvidca the rh>Tre or refrain^ 
alliteration. The esaay of H. C. vott der GaU-lent^ ^^ ^J ''- ^** 
de^ Mcrgtnla-mdet, L 30-37, " Eimges tlber moEigotische Poesie," 



, Kumdi 



been fupeneded by the work of Paidiu^v 

Among historical works a high place Is due to that compo^d by 
the tnlial prince, Sanang Seticn, in the middle of the tyrh ceotuify 
{Ges£kti:kst dff OfhMov^^ien vnd%krts Fiinicnkaujei, Mongotlanand 
Cermati, by E. L Schmidt, St Petersburg, i§39), and to the Ailni$ 
tobtckiy i.fy ' golden knob '* or " precious contents " (text and Ruj^an 
trans, by the i-ama Galsang Gomboyevr St Petersburg, iSsH>. Of 
folk-lore and fairy tales, »^ have the legend of the hero Gener- 
■" ' xt ed. by L J. Schmidt. St Petersburg, 1836, and German 
iSt^: cL Schott, L'eber <f« Snie t. Cnrr Khiui. Bivlin, 
3 B. jQlg in the TVaitjaffumi of the WLinburEer J'hiloL 



JCAdii (text ed. by J. J. Schmidt. St Petersburg, 1836, and German 
: cL Sclic " ■ '■ -^ '- 

Ver^m. of jSd@, pp. ^S sqi., Lcipzii^;^ iS^)^ and the rales about 



\Ss,lr and 



Afdiki Bffrdihi CKua&ian version by Galung Gomboyi-v3i Petcfibufgi. 
IB^S: teiLt and German trans, by B. Julgn Innsbruck, 1^67, iHfiAh 
A favourite book is the tales of Siddf]i-kar, based on the Sansknc 
Vei&la ^oifcAdiTi Id (d^i (Russian trans, by Calaang Gomfaoyev, St EVteri- 
burg, t(l6s, nine of the tales in Mongolian and Cermann by B. Julg, 
Innsbruck, 1S6S). The f tiller collection of these talc* in Kalmuck first 
became knonn by the German rrans. of Br Bergmann in vol. i. of hit 
Sifmadfifke S^reijereien ttnt^td. Knimuken (^ vol*,, Riga, 1804, iSosJ: 
an autographed Kilt ion in the vulgar dialect was published Iby 
Ch Golstunskjyi fSt Petersburg, t8&4>; text and German trsmsn witb 
glc^Kiry by B. Jalg (Le ipaig , I b&6). A poetic heroic ftxory it the 
pja.n^iftfiii4, extracts fmm which were given by Bergmann {op, ciL^ 
iv lat Bqtl-)| a complete Ru5«ian verwon by A, Bobmvnikov (St 
Peiersbiurg, 1^54) , a German vcriiQn by F v Erdmann in Z.D JlfC, 
1 S57 t Ka Im uc k t c*t by Gol St u n iky i , St Petenbu rg , l *64 ) . A simitaT 
poem is the history a( Ubasha Khuntaidshi and his war with the 
Diradn Kalmuck text and Russian tranii, by C. Combojev in his Altan 
tobtchi at abcrt-e. and text alone autographed by Goistuns,kyi tSt 
Peterfburjg, ]S64). Some books of religion for tf^c Christian Buriata 
(rran«:ribcd in Russian characters) represent the Buriatic dialect* 
The Russian and Lngliyh Dibic Societies have givi.'n U4 a translation 
of the whole Bible. I J. Schmidt translated the GoK>els and the 
Act* into Mongolian and Kalmuck for the Russian Bible Socitty 
(Bvok.St Petersburg, (JJi^-titJi)— a masterly work. The Enghhfi 
miuioTiarie^ E, Stallybni»< and W Swan, and afterwards R. Yuille, 
translated the whole Old Testament into Mongolian (tajt-iS40). 
This work was prinied at a mission press erected at great cent for 
the purpose near Selenginsk, beyond Lake Baikal in Siberia, Id 
t{U6 the New Te^ament by the same hands appeared at London^ 
AuT H aim tSd.^The richest colkctions of Mongolian and Kalmuck 

Erinted books and MBS. are in the Astatk museum ol the St Peters* 
urg Academy, and in the libraries of Kaaan and Irkutsk ^ there It 
also a good collection in the royal library' at Dresden. Consult in 

FneraL besides the already-cited works of Bergmann and Pozdneev, 
5- Pallas, Sammtunifn ktsiariicker Nofkncktrn k. d, mfffieoiUcke* 
V^kfri£hf}ftfn (3 vf)li., St Petersburg, 1776-iikn). I. ] Schmidt, 
FfinthvTifir* int GfbitU dtf 6ii*rm BtldttngsjiR^kick^e der 

VAtkef MiiiiUjient, tprj, 4. MtmttflfH viid Tibfifr (St Petersburg 
and Leipzig, 1824); B. JQlg, " On the Present Sute of Mongolian 
Researches," Joum, R. As. Soc., xiv. (1882), pp. 42-65. (B. J.) 

MGNG PAI (called Mobyi by the Burmese)^ the most south- 
westerly of the British Shan States of Burma. It has an approx- 
imate area of 1000 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 19,351. 
The general character of the country is hilly, rising westwards 
in a gentle slope from the chief stream, the Nam Hpilu or Balu. 



722 



MONO PAN— MONITOR 



This is navigable for native boats throughout the year to the 
point where it sinks underground in Karen-ni. The chief culti> 
vation is rice, with about two acres of dry or hill rice to one of wet 
bottom. The hill fields are left fallow for ten years after two 
years' cultivation. The chief, the Sawbwa Hkun YOn, held 
charge through the reigns of four Burmese kings; and submitted 
early in 1887 on the first arrival of British troops. He abdicated 
in favour of his son in 1890, and died a few years later. 

MONG pan (the Burmese Maingpan), a state in the eastern 
division of the southern Shan States, lying approximately 
between 19* 45* and ao" 25* N. and between 98" and 99" E., 
with an area of 2299 sq. m., and a population (1901) of 16,629. 
The main state lies, except for a few insignificant circles, entirely 
west of the Salwcen, but beyond that river are the four sub- 
feudatory states of MOng Tun, MOng Hang, MOng Kyawt and 
MOng Hta. The only considerable area of flat land is round the 
capital, wUch lies in a large and fertile plain, marking roughly 
the centre of the sUte. From this plain rise on all sides low 
hills covered with scrub jungle, sloping up to ranges of about 
50C0 ft. on nearly every side. Rice is the only crop, irrigated 
where possible; elsewhere dry cultivation prevails. The state 
has valuable teak forests on both sides of the Salween, which 
cover a considerable but undetermined area. The general 
altitude of the valleys is about 2000 ft. The capital is small, 
and has only about 200 houses. The chief is of Sawbwa rank. 

MONGREL (earliest form mengrd, probably from the root 
mcng', or tnong-f to mix, cf. mingle, among), a dog that is 
the progeny of two different breeds, or one whose breed it is 
impossible to tell on account of the various crossings. In the 
case of other animals or plants it is the result of a fertile cross 
between two varieties of the same spedes, and so to be distin- 
guished from a " hybrid," the result of a fertile cross between two 
distinct species (see HYBRmiSM). 

HONIER-WILUAMS, SIR HONIER (18x9-1899), British 
orientalist, son of Colonel Monier-Williams, surveyor-general in 
the Bombay presidency, was bom at Bombay on the 12th of 
November 18x9. He matriculated at Oxford from Balliol 
College in X837, but left the university on receiving in 1839 a 
nomination for the East India Company's dvil service, and 
was completing his course Of training at Hailcybuxy when the 
entreaties of his mother, who had lost a son in India, prevailed 
upon him to relinquish his nomination and return to Oxford. 
As Balliol was full, he entered University College and, devoting 
himself to the study of Sanskrit, he gained the Boden scholarship 
in X843. After taking his degree he was appointed professor 
of Sanskrit, Persian and Hindustani at Haileybuxy, where he 
remained until th6 abolition of the college upon the transfer of 
the govenmient of India from the Company to the Crown. He 
taught oriental languages at Cheltenham for ten years, and in 
x86o was elected Boden professor of Sanskrit at Oxford after a 
contest with Professor Max Mtiller (q.v.), which attracted great 
public interest and severe critidsm, the motive of the non- 
resident voters, whose suffrages turned the scale, being notoriously 
not so much to put Monier-Williams in as to keep Max MUUer 
out. Although, however, far inferior to his rival in versatility 
and literary talent, Monier-Williams was in no way inferior in the 
special fidd of Sanskrit, and did himself and his professorship 
much honour by a succession of excellent works, among which 
may espedally be named his Sanskrit-English and English- 
Sanskrit dictionaries; Jiis Indian Wisdom (1875), ar anthology 
from Sanskrit literature; and his translation of Sakuntala (1853). 
In his later years be was espedally attracted by the subject of 
the native religions of India, and wrote popular works on Brah- 
manism, Buddhism and Hinduism. His principal undertaking, 
however, was the foundation of the Indian Institute at Oxford, 
which owes its existence entirely to him. He brought the pro- 
ject before the imiversity in May X87S, and in that year and the 
following, and again in 1883, visited India to solicit the moral 
and financial support of the native princes and other leading men. 
Lord Brassey came to his aid with a donation of £9000, and in 
November 1880 the institute was adopted by the university, 
but the purchase of a site and the erection of a building were left 



to the professor. Upwards of £30,000 was eventoany coOectt^ 
the prince of Wales, in memory of his visit to India, laid tlie 
foundation stone in May 1883; and the edifice, erected in tbee 
instalments, was finally completed in 1896. Ere this, failii^ 
health had compelled Monier-Williams to withdraw from tk 
active duties of his professorship, which were discharged by tk 
deputy-professor, Dr A. Macdonell, who after w a ids succeeded 
him. He continued, nevertheless, to work upon Saoskrit 
philology until his death at Caimes on the xith ol April lig^. 
He had been knighted in 1886, and was made K.CXE. in t% 
when he adopted his Christian name of Mooier as an additioml 
surname. 

MONISM (from Gr. it&ifot, alone), the phiknophic view of the 
world which holds that there is but one form of reality, wfaetbff 
that be material or spirituaL The aim of knowledge is expbot* 
tion, and the dualism or pluralism which acquiesces in neat 
nizing two or more wholly disparate forms of reality his in 
so far renoimced explanation (see Dualism). To this extent 
monism is justified; but it becomes mischievous if it praopts « 
to ignore important differences in facts as they present tkn* 
sdves to our intelligence. All forms of monism from Flotinis 
downwards tend to ignore personal individuality and volitioB, aad 
merge all finite existence in the featmeless unity of the Absolute; 
this, indeed, is what inspires the passion of the protest agust 
monism. Tumingtothehistoricalformsofthetheofywemijrdtfi 
Plotinus as a mystical monist: he attains to the One idikh a tke 
All by an act of mystic union- raising him above the phenoBMoal 
sphere. Spinoza is a materialistic monist with an iaooostUA 
touch of mysticism and a certain concession, more appareat tha 
real, to the spiritual side of experience. Hegel's is an intePectiiilrt 
monism, explaining matter, sensation, personal iiKiividuality aad 
will as forms of thought. The doctrine of Scbopohaixr lad 
von Hartmann is a monbm of cosmic will which submeiges the 
individual no less completdy than Hegdianism, thoii^ la i 
different manner. Haeckd's monism is mere matfri*'** 
dignified by a higher title. Those who maintain that all tkse , 
forms of synthesis are hasty and supofidal staixi by the caavic> 
tion that the right philosophic attitude is to accept provisio D afly 
the main distinctions of conmion sense, above all the distJiKlkai 
of personal and impersoruil; but to press torwud to the trnder- 
lying unity so far as experience and reflection justify. 

See Absoluts: Dualism: Metaphysics; MateualxsmiIobalbl 

MONinON, or ADMONmoN (Lat. m&nere, to admonish), ia 
English ecdesiastical law, an order requiring or aHtwow^Aim the 
person complained of to do something specified in the monitiflB, 
or appear and show cause to the contrary, ** under pain of the 
law and penalty thereof." It is the lightest form of fcdfwrifsl 
censure, whether to dergymen or laymen, but doobedieiKX to it, 
after it has been duly and regxilarly served, entails the penahies 
of contempt of court. Monitions of a disdplinaxy daiacter 
are either for the purpose of enforcing residence on a benefice, 
or in connexion with suits to restrain ritual alleged to be onlawfuL 

MONITOR (from Lat. monere, to warn, advise), an advisor or 
counsellor, one who warns another perscm as to his couse of 
action, also tised of things that are more or less personified, is 
consdence. The word is chiefly applied to senkn' pxsfSii (also 
known as " prefects ") in some of the great seocmdary schools ia 
England; in America to senior students in certain colleges to 
whom spedal duties are assigned, particularly that of keeping 
order; and also to pupil teachers in English dementary schools. 
It is tised in a general way of anything that gives warning, aod 
in this sense is applied to a lizard of the family MionUthd^, or 
Varanidaej found in Africa and Australia, whidh is s u pposed to 
give warning of the approach of crocodiles. The name of mofi}> 
tor was also given to a particular kind of ixondad invented for 
the American navy by Captain John Ericsson {q.9,) in iKs, 
which had a very low freeboard aikl revolving gun-turrets. 
The letter of Ericsson to the assistant aecxetaxy of the navy, of 
the 3oth of January i86a (quoted in the CaUury DkHtmvyi, 
gives the inventor's reason for the name. " The impRgnsbk 
and aggressive character of this structure wiU i^^i»w^»*h the 
leaders o{ the Southern Rebellion that the batteries on the t 



MONK, GEORGE 



723 



of their riven win no longer present barriers to the entrance of the 
Union forces. The ironclad intruder will thus prove a severe 
monitor to those leaders . . . ' Downing Street ' will hardly 
view with indifference this last * Yankee notion/ this monitor." 
It is also the name of an ironclad railway truck used for carrying 
a big gun. In America the raised part of the roof of a railway 
carriage or omnibus in which the lights or ventilators are placed 
is known as a monitor roof or top. In mining the word is applied 
to a jointed nozzle which may be t\xmed in all directions, and is 
used in hydraulic mining. 

MONK (or Monck), GEORGE, xst Duke or Albehakle 
(X60S-X669), second son of Sir Thomas Monk, a gentleman of 
good family but in embarrassed circumstances, was bom at 
Potheridge, near Torrington, in Devonshire, on the 6th of Decem- 
ber 1608. Having thrashed the under-sheriff of the county in 
revenge for a wrong done to his father, he had to leave home, 
and naturally took to the career of arms. He served as a 
volunteer in the expedition to Cadiz, and the next year did good 
service at the Isle of Rh6. In 1629 Monk went to the Low 
Coiintries, then the school of war, and there he gained a high 
reputation as a leader and disciplinarian. In 1638 he threw up 
his commission in consequence of a quarrel with the civil autho- 
rities of Dordrecht, and came to England. He obtained the 
lieutenant-colonelcy of Newport's raiment. During the opera^ 
tions on the Scottish border he showed his skill and coolness in 
the dispositions by which he saved the English artillery at 
Newbum, though himself destitute of ammunition. At the 
outbreak of the Irish rebellion he was appointed colonel of Lord 
Leicester's regiment. All the qualities for which he was noted 
through life— his talent of making himself indispensable, his 
imperturbable temper and his impenetrable secrecy — were fully 
displayed in this employment, llic governorship of Dublin was 
vacant, and Monk was appointed by Leicester. But Charles I. 
overruled the appointment in favour of Lord Lambart, and 
Monk with great shrewdness gave up his claims. Ormonde, 
however, who viewed him with suspicion as one of the two officers 
who refused the oath to support the Royal cause in England, 
sent him under guard to BristoL But he justified himself to 
Charies in person, and his soldierly critidsms on the conduct of 
the Irish War impressed the king, who gave him a command in 
the corps sent over from Ireland during the English Civil War. 
Monk was, however, soon taken prisoner, at Nantwich (1644). 
and spent the next two years in the Tower, where he found it 
difficult to live owing to his want of means. The king himself 
sent him £100, a gift for which Monk himself was sincerely 
gratefuL He beguiled his imprisonment by writing his Observa- 
tions on Military and PolUical Affairs, 

Monk's Irish experience, however, led to his release and an 
inviution to take service in the parliament's army against the 
Irish rebels. Making a distinction like other soldiers of the time 
between fighting the Irish and taking arms against the king, 
he accepted the offer and took the covenant. At first as adju- 
tant-general to the Parliamentary lord-lieutenant, his old friend 
Lord Lisle, and afterwards as governor of Ulster, he rendered 
great services to his new masters. In conjunction with Colonel 
Michael Jones, governor of Leinster, he made head against the 
rebels for two years, but in the third (1649) the Parliamentarians, 
weakened by defections brought about by the execution of the 
king, were no longer able to keep the field. Losing one strong 
place after another, Monk concluded an armistice with the rebel 
Owen Roe O'Neill upon terms which he knew the parliament 
would not ratify. The conveniion was indeed a military 
expedient to deal with a military necessity, and although 
most of his army went over to the Royalist cause, he him- 
self remained faithful to his employers and returned to 
England. As he expected, parL'ament " utterly disapproved " 
of the armistice but exonerated their general His next 
service was in Cromwell's army in Scotland. He commanded 
a brigade at the great victory of Dunbar, and afterwards 
captured a number of small places. \Mien in 1651 Cromwell with 
the field aumy hurried southward into England to bring the 
invading Scots to battle. Monk was left behind to complete the 



subjugation of the country. In Febmary 1653 he left ScotUnd 
to recruit his broken health at Bath, and in Novembaof the same 
year he became an admiral, or rather a " general at sea," instead 
of a soldier. Ten days after hoisting his flag for the first time he 
was engaged with his colleagues, Blake and Deane, in the battle 
of Portland (Feb. x8, 1653). In the action of June s-3 Monk 
exercised the general command after Deane's death. A third 
battle followed on the 39th and 30th of July, which was a decisive 
victory for the Commonwealth's fleet (see Dutch Wars). On 
his return he married Anne Clarges, a woman of low extraction, 
often supposed to have been his mistress, " ever a plain homely 
dowdy," says Pepys, who, like other writers who mention her, 
is usually still less compUmentaxy. Next year he was back in 
Scotland, methodically beating down a Royalist insurrection 
in the Highlands, and when this service was over settled down 
to a steady government of the country for the next five years. 
The timely discovery of a pk>t fomented by Overton, his second 
in command, in 1654, gave him an excuse for thoroughly purging 
his army of all Anabaptists, Fifth Monarchy men, and other 
dangerous enthusiasts. It is improbable that at this time Monk 
had proposed to himself the restoration of the king, though so 
astute a diplomatist must have weighed the chances of such an 
event. His very reticence, however, caused alarm on one side and 
hope on the others In 1655 he received a letter from Charles II., 
a copy of which he at once sent to Cromwell, who is said to 
have written to him in 1657 in the following terms: " There be 
that tell me that there is a certain cunning fellow in Scotland 
called George Monk, who is said to lye in wait there to introduce 
Charles Stuart; I pray you, use your diligence to apprehend 
him, and send him up to me." Monk's personal relations with 
Cromwell were those of sincere friendship on both sides. 

During the confusion which followed Cromwell's death Monk 
remained silent and watchful at Edinburgh, careful only to 
secure his hold on his troops. At first he contemplated armed 
support of Richard Cromwell, but gave up this idea on realizing 
the young man's incapacity for government, and renewed his 
waiting policy. In July 1659 du-ect and tempting proposals 
were again made to him by the king. His brother Nicholas, a 
clergyman, was employed by Sir J Grenvil to bring to him Uie 
substance of Charles's letter. No bribe, however, could induce 
him to act one moment before the ri^t time. He bade his 
brother go back to his books, and refused to entertain any 
proposal. But when Booth rose in Cheshire for the king, so 
tempting did the opportunity seem that he was on the point of 
joining forces with him, and a manifesto was prepared. His 
habitual caution, however, induced him to wait until the next 
post from England, and the next post brought news of Booth's 
defeat. 

For a moment he thought of retinng mto private life, but 
soon Fleetwood and Lambart declared against the parliament, 
and to their surprise Monk not only refused to join them, but 
(OcL 20, 1659) at once took measures of active opposition. 
Securing his hold on Scotland by a small but trusty corps of 
occupation, he crossed the border with the rest of his army 
Holding Lambart in play without fighting until his army began 
to melt away for want of pay. Monk received the commission of 
commander-in-chief of the parliament's forces (Nov 24) The 
navy, some of the En^ish garrisons and the army in Ireland 
declared for the parliament, and the army from Scotland crossed 
the Tweed on the and of January x66o. It was inferior in 
number, but in all other respects superior to Lambart's, and 
Monk dowly marched on to London, disbanding or taking over 
on his way the detachments of Lambart's army which he met, and 
entered the capital on the 3rd of February. In all this his 
ultimate purpose remained mysterious. At one moment he 
secretly encouraged the demands of the Royalist City of London, 
at another he urged submission to the existing parliament, 
then again he refiised to swear an oath abjuring the house of 
Stuart, and further he hinted to the attenuated Long Parliament 
the urgent necessity of a dissolution. Lastly, acting as the stem 
military agent of the infuriated parliament, he took away the 
gates and portcullises of the dty. This angered not only the 



724 

dtizens but his own army, and gave him the lever that he desired 
to enforce the dissolution of parliament, while at the same time 
enabling him to break up as a matter affecting discipline, the 
political camarillas that had formed in his own regiments. He 
was now master of the situation, and though he protested his 
adherence to republican principles, it was a matter of common 
knowledge that the new parliament, which Monk was imposing 
on the remnant of the old, would have a strong Royalist colour. 
Monk himself was now in communication with Charles II., 
whose Declaration of Breda was based on Monk's recommenda- 
tions. The new parliament met on the 25th of April, and on the 
ist of May voted the restoration of the monarchy. 

With the Restoration the historic interest of Monk's- career 
ceases. Soldier as he was, he had played the difficult game of 
diplomacy with incomparable skill, and had won it without 
^ng a shot. That he was victor sine sangftinef as the preamble 
of h^ patent of nobility stated, was felt by every one to be the 
greatest service of all. He was made gentleman of the bedcham- 
ber, knight oi the Garter, master of the horse and commander- 
in-chief, raised to the peerage with the titles of Baron Monk, 
earl of Torrington and duke of Albemarle, and had a pension of 
£7000 a year allotted to him. As long as the army existed of 
which he was the idol, and of which the last service was to 
suppress Venner's revolt, he was a person not to be displeased. 
But he entirely concurred in its disbandment, and only the 
regiment of which he was colonel, the Coldstream (Guards), 
survives to represent the army of the Civil Wars. In 1664 he 
had charge of the admiralty when James, duke of York, was in 
command oT the fleet, and when in 1665 London was deserted 
on account of the plague, Monk, with all the readiness of a man 
accustomed to obey without thinking of risk, remained in charge 
of the government of the cily. Once more, at the end of this 
year, he was called upon to fight, having a joint commission 
with Prince Rupert against the Dutch. The whole burden of 
the preparations fell upon him. On the 23rd of April 1666 the 
admirals joined the fleet, and on the ist of June began the great 
four days' battle, in which Monk showed not only all his old 
coolness and skill, but also a reckless daring which had seemed 
hitherto foreign to his character. Later in the same year he 
maintained order in the dty of London during the Great Fire. 
His last service was in 1667, when the Dutch fleet sailed up 
the Thames, and Monk, though ill, hastened to Chatham to 
oppose their farther progress. From that time he lived much in 
privacy, and died of dropsy on the 3rd of January 1670, " like 
a Roman general with all his officers about him." The dukedom 
became extinct on the death of his son Christopher, and duke of 
Albemarle (1653-1688) 

See the Life of Monk, by Dr Gamble, his chaplain (London, 1671), 
and the memoir and bibliography by C. H. Firth in the Diet. Nat. 
Btogr 

HONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856), English divine and 
classical scholar, was bom at Buntingford, Herts. He was edu- 
cated at Charterhouse School and Trinity College, Cambridge, 
and m 1809 was elected professor of Greek in succession to Porson. 
The establishment of the classical tripos was in great measure 
due to his efforts. In 1822 he was appointed dean of Peter- 
borough, m 1830, bishop of Gloucester (with which the see of 
Bristol was amalgamated m 1836) He is best known as the 
author of a Ltfe of Bentlcy (1830) and as the editor (with C J 
Blomfield) of Porson 's Adversaria (181 2) 

HONK, MARIA (c 181 7-1850), an adventuress and impostor, 
who. coming to New York in 1835, claimed to have escaped from 
the Montreal nunnery of the H6tcl Dieu, concermng which, and 
the practices prevalent there, she circulated sensational charges 
in Auful Disclosures by Marta Monk (1836) Over 200,000 
copies of this book and a sequel were sold, and a violent anti- 
Catholic agitation resulted. She was finally exposed as a woman 
of bad character, and her story proved to be absolutely false, 
but not until she had deceived many people of good standing 

HONK (O.Eng. munuc, this with the Teutonic forms, e.g 
Du. monnik, Ger Monch, and the Romanic, e.g Fr moine, Ilal. 
wumacho and Span, monje, are from the Lai. monachuSt adapted 



MONK, J. H.— MONKSWELL 



from Or. /ioyax6f, one living alone, a loBtaiy; jajnof, alone), t 
member of a community of men living a life under vows o( 
religious observance; the term is properly confined to a. member 
of a Christian community, but is sometimes applied to men* 
bers of Buddhist and Mahommedan religious brotheriioodi. 
The Greek and Latin name was first used of the hermits, but «is 
early widened to embrace the coenobites. The term ** monk ** 
should not be used either of " friars " or of ** canons regulir.* 
(See MoNAsnasM.) 

MONKEY, a term apparently applicable to all membcn of 
the order Primates {q.v.) except man and perhaps the lai|cr 
apes. In zoology it may be used in this wider sense, as indusivc 
of all the Primates except man and lemurs; but it may also be 
employed in a more restricted application, to as to denote tl 
ordinary " monkeys " as distinct from baboons on the one bud 
and the tail-less man-like apes on the other. The word appeas 
in English first in the 1 6th century. The Low-German versMO d 
Reynard the Fox {Reinke de F05, 1479) calls the son of Martin, 
the ape, Moneke; and the French version has Momukin, MutMe- 
quin; these are apparently Teutonic diminutives of a word lor 
ape which occurs in sevend Romanic languages, e.g. Fr. ««««, 
It. monna, &c 

HONKHOUSB, WILUAM COSMO (1840-1901), English poet 
and critic, was bom in London on the z8th of Mj^ch i&4a Hit 
father, Cyril John Monkhouse, was a solicitor; his mother^ 
maiden name was Delafosse. He was educated at St Piul'i 
School, quitting it at seventeen to enter the board of trade as a 
junior supplementary clerk, from which grade he rose eventually 
to be the assistant-secretary to the finance department of tbe 
office. In 1870-1871 he visited South America in connexioo vitb 
the hospital accommodation for seamen at Valparaiso and odter 
ports; and he served on different departmental oomaittea, 
notably that of 1 894-1 896 on the Mercantile Marine Fund. He 
was twice married: first, to Laura, daughter of James fitytaa 
of Dartford; and, secondly, to Leonora Eliza, dau^ter oi 
Commander Blount, R.N. He died in London <m the 20tb oi 
July 1901. Cosmo Monkhouse was one of those who have not 
only a vocation, but an avocation. His first bias was to poeuy, 
and in 1865 he issued A Dream of Idleness and Other Poems, a 
collection strongly coloured by his admiration for Wqrdsvortb 
and Tennyson. It was marked by exceptional maturity, and 
scarcely received the recognition it deserved. Owing periiaps 
to this circumstance, it was not till 1890 that he put forth 0> 
and Popptes, a collection which contains at least one memorabk 
effort in the well-known " Dead March." Five yean later 
appeared a limited edition of the striking ballad off The Christ 
upon the fliU, illustrated with etchings by Mr William Stiaof. 
After his death his poetical output was completed by Pasikks 
the Elder and other Poems (including The Christ upon the Hiffj. 
In x868 Monkhouse essayed a novd, A Qmestwn of Honem. 
Then, after preluding with a Life of Turner m the "Grctt 
Artists Series " (1879), he devoted himself almost exdusiveljr 
to art criticism Besides many contributions to the Academy, 
the Saturday Review, the Magaztne of Art and other periodkah, 
he published volumes on The Italian Pre-RapkaeiiUs (1887), 
The Earlier English Water-Colour Painters (1890 and 1897), 
In the National Gallery (1895) and British Cantempenrj 
ArtisU (1899) He was a contributor to the Diet. Nat. Btog. 
from the beginning Monkhouse also wrote an ezccDent 
Memoir of Letgh Hunt m the " Great Writers Series " (1887). 
As an art critic Monkhousc's judgments were highly valued, 
and he had the rare gift of diffenng without offending, wbfle 
he invariably secured respect for his honesty and ability As 
a poet, his ambition was so wide and his devotion to the ait 
so thorough, that it is difficult not to regret the slender bulk of 
his legacy to posterity 

MONKSWELL. ROBERT PORRETT COLUER, TSt Baeoii 
(181 7-1886), English judge, was bom at Pl>'mouth, on tbe tist 
of June 181 7, and was the son of a prominent merchant of (^oaker 
extraction. He was educated at Oxford, was called to tbe bsr 
in 1843, And went the western circuit He obtained a bil^ 
repuution by his successful defence of Braailian pirates in 1815: 



MONLUC— MONMOUTH, DUKE OF 



725 



diey were, indeed, convicted at the assizes, but G>nier ultimately 
procured their escape upon a point of law which the judge had 
refused to reserve. He was elected member of parliament for 
Plymouth in the Liberal interest in 1852, and in 1859 was 
appointed counsel to the admiralty and judge-advocate to the 
fleet. In this capacity he gave in 1862 an opinion in favour of 
detaining the Confederate rams building in the Mersey, which 
would have saved his country much money and much credit if 
it had been acted upon. In 1863 he became solicitor-general, 
and in 1868 attorney-general, and in 1869 successfully passed 
a bankruptcy bilL In 1871 he was appointed by Mr Gkidstone 
one of four new judges upon the judicial committee of the privy 
council, although it was expressly provided by the act creating 
these offices that none of them should be filled by a law-officer of 
the Crown. This prohibition was evaded by making Collier a 
judge of common pleas, and transferring him after a few days 
to the privy council. This arrangement was unanimously 
condemned by public opinion, and gave the Gladstone cabinet 
a serious blow. He officiated, nevertheless, with distinction 
until his death on the 3rd of November 1886, and was raised 
to the peerage as Baron Monkswell in 1885. He was a man 
of many accompL'shments, and especially distinguished as an 
amateur painter, frequently exhibiting landscapes at the Royal 
Academy and elsewhere. In his younger days he had been 
noted as a clever caricaturist. He was succeeded in the peerage 
by his elder son, Robert (b. 1845), who, after taking a first class 
b law at Cambridge, went to the bar, and became (1871) 
conveyancing counsel to the treasury, and (i 885-1 886) an 
official examiner of the High Court, and, taking to politics as a 
liberal, under-secretary for war (1895). The younger son, 
John Collier (b. 1850), inherited his father's artistic tastes, 
and became a well-known painter. 

MONLUC, or Montluc, the name of a French family. The 
house of Lass£ran-Mansencomme, which possessed the estate 
of Monluc in Agenais, and took its name in the i6th century, 
is held to be a branch of the family of Montesquiou. Marshal 
Blaise de Monluc (d. 1577), author of the Commentcires, had a 
son, Pierre Bertrand, called the Capitaine Peyrot, who perished 
in an expedition to Madeira in 1566, and another son, Fabien 
de Monluc, whose granddaughter, Jeanne de Monluc (d. 1657), 
countess of Carmaing, princess of Chabanais, brought the estates 
of her house to the family of Escoubleau by her marriage with 
Charles d'Escoubleau, marquess of Sourdis and Alluyes. Jean 
de Monluc, brother of the marshal, was bishop of Valence and Die, 
and distinguished himself in several embassies. He died in 
1579, leaving a natural son, Jean de Monluc (d. 1603), seigneur 
de Balagny, who was at first a zealous member of the League, 
but made his submission to Henry IV., and received from him 
the principality of Cambrai and the b&ton of a marshal of France. 

MONMOUTH, JAMES SCOTT, Duke of (1649-1685), leader 
xA his abortive insurrection against James II; in 1685, was the 
son of Lucy Walters, "a brown, beautiful, bold but insipid 
creature," who became the mistress of Charles II. during his 
exile at the Hague. He was born at Rotterdam on the 9lh of 
April 1649. That Charles was his father is more than doubtful, 
for Lucy Walters had previously lived with Robert Sidney (son 
of the earl of Leicester), brother of Algernon, and the boy 
resembled him very closely. Charles, however, always recog- 
nized him as his son, and lavished on him an almost doting 
affection. Until the Restoration he was placed under the care, 
first of Lord Crofts, by whose name he was known, and then of 
the queen-dowager, receiving his education to the age of nine 
from Roman Catholics, but thenceforward from Protestant 
tutors. In July 1662 he was sent for by Charles, and at thirteen 
was placed under the protection of Lady Castlcmaine and 
in the full tide of the worst influences of the court. No formal 
acknowledgment of his relation to the king was made until his 
betrothal to Anne Scott, countess of Bucdeuch, the wealthiest 
heiress of Scotland, whom he married in 1665. During 1663 he 
was made duke of Orkney, duke of Monmouth and knight of the 
Garter, and received honorary degrees at both universities; and 
on bis marriage he and his wife were created duke and duchess 



of Bucdeuch, and he took the surname of Scott. At court he 
was treated as a prince of the blood. In 1665 he served with 
credit under the duke of York in the sanguinary naval battle off 
Lowestoft. A captaincy in the Life Guards was given him, and 
in 1670, on the death of Monk, he was made captain-general of 
the king's forces. In 1670 Monmouth was with the court at 
Dover, and it is affirmed by Reresby that the mysterious death 
of Charles's sbter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, was due to her 
husband's revenge on the discovery of her intrigue with the duke. 
It is certain, from an entry by Pepys, that as early as 1666 he 
had established a character for vice and profligacy. He was the 
direct author of the attack in December 1670 on Sir John 
Coventry, and only a few months later received the royal pardon 
for his share in the wanton murder of a street watchman. 

Hitherto Monmouth had been but the spoiled child of a wicked 
court. Now, however, by no act or will of his own, he began to 
be a person politically important. As early as 1662 the king's 
excessive fondness for him had caused anxiety. Even then the 
fear of a " difference " between Monmouth and James, duke of 
York, exercised men's minds, and every caress or promotion 
kept the fear alive. Who could tell but that, in default of legiti- 
mate issue from his queen, Charles might dedare Monmouth 
himself his lawful son? A dvil war would be the certain conse- 
quence. Soon after 1670 the matter took a more serious aspect. 
The anti-popery spirit was rapidly becoming a frenzy, and the 
succession of James a probability and a terror. Charles was 
urged to legitimize Monmouth by a declaration of his marriage 
with Lucy Walters. He returned answer that, much as he loved 
the duke, he would rather see him hanged at Tyburn than own 
him for his legitimate son. Every attempt, however, was hence- 
forth made, especially by Shaftesbury, to accustom people to 
this idea, and his position was emphasized by James's second 
marriage, with the Roman Catholic princess Mary of Modena. 
From this time his popular title was " the Protestant duke." 
In 1674 he was made " commander-in-chief"; and in connexion 
with this another unsuccessful attempt, graphically described 
in Clarke's Life of JameSf was made to gain from Charles a tacit 
admission of his legitimacy. At Shaftesbury's instance he was 
placed in command of the army employed in 1675 against 
the Scottish Covenanters, and was present at Bothwell Bridge. 
(June 22, 1679). Iq 1678, when Charles was driven into war* 
with Louis, Monmouth took the command of the English contin- 
gent, and again gained credit for personal coiuage at the battle of 
St Denis. On his return to London England was in the throes of 
the popish terror. The idea of securing the Protestant succes- 
sion by legitimizing Monmouth again took shape and was eagerly 
pressed on by Shaftesbury; at the time it seemed possible that 
success would wait on the audadty. 

The pensionary parliament was dissolved in January 1678- 
1679, and was succeeded by one still more determined in its anti- 
popery spirit. To avoid the storm, and to save, if possible, his 
brother's interests, Charles instructed him to leave the country. 
James retired to Brussels, the king having previously signed a 
declaration that he " never was married, nor gave contract to 
any woman whatsoever but to my wife Queen Catherine." In 
the summer of 1679 the king suddenly fell ill, and the dangers of 
a disputed succession became terribly apparent. The party 
opposed to Monmouth, or rather to Shaftesbury, easUy prevailed 
upon Charles to consent to his brother's temporary return. 
When, after the king's recovery, James went back to Brussels, 
he received a promise that Monmouth too should be removed 
from favour and ordered to leave the country. Accordingly, 
in September 1679, the latter repaired to Utrecht, while shortly 
afterwards James's friends so far gained ground as to obtain for 
him permission to reside at Edinburgh instead of at Brussels. 
Within two months of his arrival at Utrecht Monmouth secretly 
returned to England, arriving in London on the 27th of Novem- 
ber. Shaftesbury had assiduously kept alive the anti-popery 
agitation, and Monmouth, as the champion of Protestantism, 
was received with every sign of popular delight. The king 
appeared to be greatly incensed, deprived him of all his offices, 
and ordered him to leave the kingdom at once. This he refuted 



726 



MONMOUTH, DUKE OF 



to do» and the only notice taken of the disobedience was that 
Charles forbade him to appear at court. 

It was at this time that the Appeal from the Country to the City, 
written by Ferguson, was published, in which the legitimacy 
was tacitly given up, and in which it was urged that " he that 
hath the worst title will make the best king." Now it was, too, 
that the exdusionists, who in the absence of parliament were 
deprived of their best basis for agitation, developed the system 
of petitioning. So promptly and successfully was this answered 
by the " abhorrers " that Charles, feeling the ground safer under 
him, recalled James to London — ^a step immediately followed by 
the resignation of the chief Whigs in the council. 

Once more, however, a desperate attempt was made, by the 
fable of the " black box," to establish Monmouth's claims; and 
once more these claims were met by Charles's public declarations 
in the Gazette that he had never been married but to the queen. 
Still acting under Shaftesbury's advice, Monmouth now went 
upon the first of his progresses in the west of England, visiting 
the chief members of the country party, and gaining by his open 
and engaging manner much popularity among the people. In 
August 1680 James returned to Edinburgh, his right to the 
succession being again formally acknowledged by Charles. 
Monmouth at once threw himself more vehemently than ever into 
the plans of the exdusionists. He spoke and voted for exclusion 
in the House of Lords, and, used language not likely to be for- 
gotten by James when an opportunity should come for resenting 
it. He was ostentatiously feasted by the dty, the stronghold of 
Shaftesbury's influence; and it was observed as he drove to 
dinner that the mark of illegitimacy had been removed from 
the arms on his coach. 

The year 1681 seemed likely to witness another dvil war. 
The parliament finished a session of hysterical passion by passing 
a series of resolutions of extreme violence, of which one was that 
Monmouth should be restored to all his offices and commands; 
and when Charles summoned a fresh parliament to meet at 
Oxford the leaders of the exdusionists went thither with troops 
of armed men. Not until the dissolution of this last parliament, 
on the 27th of March 1681, did the weakness of Monmouth's 
cause appear. The deep-seated respect for legitimate descent 
asserted itself, and a great reaction took place. In November 
:Dryden published Absalom and Achitophel. Shaftesbury was 
attacked, but was saved for the time by a favouring jury. 
Monmouth himself did not escape insult in the street and from 
the pulpit. He was forbidden to hold communication with the 
court; and when he went, in September 1682, on a second progress 
through the western and north-western counties his proceedings 
were narrowly watched, and he was at length arrested at Stafford. 
Severity and extreme lenity were strangely mingled in the treat- 
ment he received. He was released on bail, and in February 
1683, after the flight and death of Shaftesbury, he openly broke 
the implied conditions of his bail by paying a third visit to 
Chichester with Lord Grey and others on pretence of a hunting 
expedition. 

It is probable that Monmouth never went so far as to think of 
armed rebellion; but there is little doubt that he had talked 
over schemes likely to lead to this, and that Shaftesbury had 
gone farther still. The Rye House plot gave an excuse for 
arresting the Whig leaders; Russell and Sidney were judicially 
murdered; Monmouth retired to Toddington, in Bedfordshire, 
and was left untouched. Court intrigue favouring him, he 
succeeded, by the betrayal of his comrades and by two submissive 
letters, in reconciling himself with the help of Halifax both to 
the king and to James, though he had the humiliation of seeing 
his confessions and declarations of penitence published at length 
in the Gazette. His character for pettishness and folly was thus 
amply illustrated. Charles heartily despised him, and yet 
appears to have retained affection for him. His partial return 
to favour raised the hopes of his partisans; to check these, 
Algernon Sidney was executed. Monmouth was now subpoenaed 
to give evidence at the trial of young Hampden. To escape 
from the difficulties thus opened before him he fled to Holland, 
probably with Charles's connivance, and though he once more, 



in November 1684, visited Enfljaiulf it b doubtfnl vhctlierlie 
ever again saw the king. 

The quiet accession of James II. soon brou|^t Monmouth 
to the crisis of his fate. Within two months of Charles's datk 
he had yielded to the impetuosity of Argyll and others of the 
exiles and to vague invitations from England. It b curiws, 
as showing the Ught in which hb claims were viewed by hit 
fellow-conspirators, that one of the terms of the compact between 
them was that, though Monmouth should lead the expeditko, 
he should not assume the title of king without their coosett, 
and should, if the rebellion were successful, resign it and accept 
whatever rank the nation might offer. Now, as always, be ns 
but a puppet in other men's hands. 

On the 2nd of May Argyll sailed with three ships to raise tbe 
west of Scotland; and three weeks later, with a followiog d 
only eighty-two persons — of whom Lord Grey, Fletcher d 
Saltoun, Wade, and Ferguson, the author of the Appeal from tk 
Country to the City, were the chief — Monmouth himself set oat 
for the west of England, where, as the stronghold of Protestant 
dissent and as the scene of his former progresses, he could alooe 
hope for immediate .support. Even here, however, there vas 
no movement; and when on the xith of June Monmouth's 
three ships, having eluded the royal fleet, arrived off Lyne 
Regis, he landed amid the curiosity rather than the sympathy 
of the inhabitants. In the market-place hb " dedaraUoa,** 
drawn up by Ferguson, was read aloud. In this documeot 
James was painted in the blackest colours. Not only was he 
dedared to be the murderer of Essex, but he was directly charged 
with having poisoned Charles to obtain hb crown. Monmouth 
soon collected an undisciplined body of some 1500 men, with 
whom he seized Axminster, and entered Taunton. Meanwhile 
the parliament had declared it treason to assert Monmouth's 
legitimacy, or hb title to the crown; a reward of £5000 was 
offered for him dead or alive, and an act of attainder was passed 
in unusual haste. Troops had been hurriedly sent to meet him, 
and when he reached Bridgwater Albemarle was already in bs 
rear. From Bridgwater the army marched through Glastonbury 
to attack Bristol, into which Lord Feversham had hastily thrown 
a regiment of foot-guards. The attempt, however, miscarried; 
and, after summoning Bath in vain, Monmouth, with a disordered 
force, began his retrograde march through Philips Norton and 
Frome, continually harassed by Feversham *s soldiers. At the 
latter place he heard of Argyll's total rout in the western 
Highlands. He was now anxious to give up the enterprise, but 
was overruled by Grey, Wade and others. On the 3rd of July he 
reached Bridgwater again, with an army little better thajn a 
rabble, living at free quarters and behaving with reckless violeiKe. 
On Sunday, the 5th, Feversham entered Scdgemoor in puisuit; 
Monmouth the same night attempted a surprise, but hb troops 
were hopelessly routed. He himself, with Grey and a few otbeis, 
fled over the Mendip Hills to the New Forest, hoping to reach 
the coast and escape by sea. The whole country, however, was 
on the alert, and at midnight on the 8th, within a noonth of their 
landing, James heard that the revolt, de^ierate from the fiist, 
was over and that hb rival had been captured close to Ringwood 
in Hampshire. 

On the day of his capture Monmouth wrrote to James in terms 
of the most unmanly contrition, ascribing his wrong-doings to 
the action of others, and imploring an interview. On the 13th 
the prisoners reached the Tower, and on the next day Monmouth 
was allowed to see James. No mercy was shown him, nor did 
he in the least deserve mercy; he had wantonly attacked the 
peace of the country, and had cruelly libelled James. The king 
had not, even in his own mind, any family tie to restrain him fnxn 
exercising just severity, for he had never beUeved Monmouth 
to be the son of any one but Robert Sidney. Two painful 
interviews followed with the wife for whom he bore no knt, 
and who for him could feel no respect; another imploring letter 
was sent to the king, and abject protestations and besexchingi 
were made to all whom he saw. He offered, as the last hope, 
to become a Roman Catholic, and thb mif^t possibly have 
proved successful, but the priests sent by James to aMBtaii 



MONMOUTH, EARL OF— MONMOUTH, BATTLE OF 727 



tlie sincerity of his " conversion " declared that he cared only 
for his life and not for his soul. 

He met his death on the scaffold with calmness and dignity. 
In the paper which he left signed, and to which he referred in 
answer to the questions wherewith the busy bishops plied him, 
he expressed his sorrow for having assumed the royal style, 
and at the last moment confessed that Charles had denied to 
him privately, as he had publicly, that he was ever married to 
Lucy Walters. Be died at the age of thirty-six, on the 15th of 
July 1685. 

Monmouth had four sons and two daughters by his wife, 
who in x683 married the 3rd Lord Comwallis and died in 1732. 
The elder of the two surviving sons, James, earl of Dalkeith 
(1674-1705) had a son Francis (1695-1751), who through his 
grandmother inherited the title of duke of Bucdeuch in 1732, 
and was the ancestor of the later dukes. The younger son, 
Henry (1676-1730), was created earl of Deloraine in 1706, and 
rose to be a major-general in the army. 

The best accounts of Monmouth's career, apart from the modem 
histories, are G. Roberts's detailed Life (1844), the articles in the 
Diet. Nat. Biog. (by A. W. Ward) and in Colhns's Peerage, and the 



Correspondence of Lord Clarendon laith James, earl of Abingdon^ 
1683-1685 (Clarendon Press, 1896). For the rebellion. Lord Grcy'j 
Secret History (1754) should be consulted. See also Evelyn's and 



MONMOUTH, ROBERT CAREY, iST eakl oj{c, i 560-1639), 
youngest son of Henry Carey, ist Baron Hunsdon, chamberlain 
and first cousin of Queen Elizabeth, by Anne, daughter of Sir 
Thomas Morgan, of Arkestone in Herefordshire, was bom about 
the year 1560. As a young man he accompanied several diplo- 
matic missions abroad and took part in military expeditions. 
In 1587 he joined in the attempt to relieve Sluys, in 1588 served 
as a volifnteer against the Spanish expedition, and commanded 
a regiment in Essex's expedition to Normandy in 1591, taking 
part in the siege of Rouen. He was knighted by Essex the same 
year for having by his intercession with the queen procured his 
recall. In the parliaments of 1586 and. 1588 he represented 
Morpeth; in that of 1593, Callington; and in those of 1596 and 
1601, Northumberland. From 1593 till the end of Elizabeth's 
reign he occupied various posts in the govemmcnt of the Scottish 
borders, succeeding to his father's appointment of lord warden 
of the marches in 1596, which he held till Febmary 1598. In 
March 1603 he visited the court, and witnessed the queen's 
last illness, which he described in his Memoirs. Anxious to 
recommend himself to her successor, and disobeying the orders 
of the council, he started on horseback immediately after the 
queen's death on the moming of the 24th of March, in order to be 
the first to communicate the tidings to James, arrived at Holy* 
rood late on the 26th, and was appointed by the king a gentleman 
of the bedchamber. But his conduct met with general and 
merited censure as " contrary to all decency, good manners and 
respect," and on James's arrival in England he was dismissed 
from his new post. On the 23rd of February 1605, however, 
be was made governor of Prince Charles, in 1611 his master of 
the robes, in 161 7 his chamberlain, and on the 6th of February 
1622, he was created Baron Carey of Leppington. In 1623 he 
followed Charles to Spain, and after the latter's succession to 
the throne he was created earl of Monmouth in 1626. He died 
on the 1 2th of April 1639. His eldest son Henry (i 596-1661), 
succeeded him as 2nd earl of Monmouth, and on his death 
without survivmg male issue the peerage became extinct. 

His Memoirs were published first by the earl of Cork and Orrery 
in 1 759. a new edition, annotated by bir Walter Scott, twing printed 
io 1808. 

MONMOUTH (Welsh Myttwy), a municipal and contributory 
parliamentary borough, and the county town of Monmouthshire, 
England, 18 m. S. of Hereford, on the Great Western railway. 
Pop. (1901), 5095. It is picturesquely situated at the confluence 
of the Wye and the Monnow, between the two rivers, and is 
almost surrounded by hills. Portions of the town walls remain, 
and there is a picturesque old gateway on the Monnow bridge; 
tnit there are only insignificant ruins of the castle, which was 
orisiBally a Saxoo fortress, and was twice taken by the Parlia- 



mentary forces during the Civil War. Besides the churches— 
that of St Mary, completed in 1882 on an ancient site, and the 
chapel of St Thomas, a late Norman structure— the principal 
buildings are the town-hall, the Rolls Hall and the free grammar- 
school, which was founded in 161 4, and educates about 150 boys 
on the usual lines of a public school. A statue of Henry V., 
who was born in its castle, stands in the market-place. With 
Newport and Usk, Monmouth forms the Monmouth parlia- 
mentary district of boroughs, returning one member. 

Monmouth (Monemuta) from the coincidence of position is 
supposed to be the Blaeslium of Antoninus. Situated between 
the Severn and the Wye its strategic importance was early 
recognized by the Saxons, who fortified it against the Britons, 
while in later years it played a leading part in Welsh border 
warfare. At the time of the Domesday Survey the castle was 
in the custody of William Fitz Baderon. Henry III. granted it, 
together with the lordship of the borough, to his son Edmund 
Crouchback, through whose descendants both borough and 
castle passed into the duchy of Lancaster. Since the 18th 
century the dukes of Beaufort have been lords of the borough. 
Monmouth was a borough by prescription as early as 1256, and 
was governed by a mayor in 1461, but was not incorporated 
until 1550 under the title of "Mayor, Bailiffs and Commonalty." 
This charter was confirmed in 1558, 1606 and 1666, a recorder 
and town clerk being added to the constitution. In accordance 
with the act of 1535-1536 Monmouth as county town obtained 
the right o£ representation in parliament; the earliest returns 
existing are for 1553, since which date one member has been 
returned regularly. Wednesday and Saturday markets were 
confirmed to Monmouth in 1550, with the further proviso that 
no others were to be held within five miles of the borough. 
Friday is now the weekly market-day. At the same time 
an annual three-days' fair, which still exists, was granted on 
Whit-Tuesday and successive days. During the 16th and 17th 
centuries the manufacture of Monmouth caps was an important 
industry, fostered by legislation and mentioned by Fuller in his 
Worthies of England. 

See Charles Heath, The Toum of Monmouth (Monmouth, 1804). 

MONMOUTH, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, 
Illinois, in the W. part of the state, about 40 m. S. of Rock 
Island. Pop. (1890), 5936; (1900), 7460, (594 foreign-bora); 
(1910), 91 38. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 
and the Iowa Central railways, and by electric railways to Gales- 
burg and to Rock Island. The dty is the seat of Monmouth 
College (1856; United Presbyterian), which in 1908 had 28 
instructors and 454 students. Among the public buildings and 
institutions are the county court-house, the federal building, a 
hospital and the Warren county library (1836). Monmouth is 
situated in a good farming region, and cattle, swine and ponies 
are raised in the vicinity. The dty has various manufactures. 
Monmouth was settled about 1824, first incorporated as a village 
in 1836, chartered as a dty in 1852 and in 1882 reorganized under 
a general state law. 

MONMOUTH, BATTLE OP (1778), a battle in the American 
War of Independence. The prospect of an alliance between 
France and America in 1778 induced the British to concentrate 
their forces. Sir Henry Clinton, who had succeeded Sir W. 
Howe in command, determined to abandon Philadelphia, 
captured in the previous year, and move his troops direct to 
New York through New Jersey. Washington, who had spent 
the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, and had materially 
recruited his army, immediately marched to intercept the British, 
and overtook them near Monmouth Court House (now Freehold), 
New Jersey, on the 28th of June 1778. A strong detachment of 
Americans under General Charles Lee was sent forward to harass 
the enemy's rear and if possible cut oflF a portion of their long 
baggage train. Clinton strengthened his rearguard, which 
turned upon the Americans and compelled them to retreat. 
When Washington, who was well up with his main body, heard 
of Lee's retreat, he spurred forward and exerted himself in 
forming a strong line of battle in case the British continued their 
determined attack. Wann words passed between Washington 



728 



MONMOUTHSHIRE 



and Lee, which subsequently led to the latter's court-martial 
and suspension for a year. The readjusted American line was 
composed of the divisions of Lafayette, Greene, Alexander and 
Patterson, while Wayne's brigade, which had been in Lee's 
advance from the first, was posted in a favourable position. 
The British attacked this line and a warm, though brief, engage- 
ment ensued. Both sides encamped at night on the ground 
occupied. The British, having accomplished their object in 
delaying Washington's pursuit, continued their march the next 
day towards New York. Washington turned to the left, crossed 
the Hudson above, and encamped for the remainder of the season 
at White Plains, New York, within striking distance of the dty. 
Each side suffered about the same loss in the battle, that of the 
British being 400 (60 due to sunstroke), the American somewhat 
less. In this engagement Lieut .-Colonel Henry Monckton (1 740- 
1778) of the British Grenadiers was killed in leading a charge. 

MONMOUTHSHIRE, a western border county of England, 
bounded E. by Gloucestershire, N. £. by Herefordshire, N.W. 
by Brecknock, W. and S.W. by Glamorganshire (Wales), and 
S. by the estuary of the river Severn. The area is 534 sq. m. 
The surface is varied, and in many districts picturesque, especi- 
ally along the valley of the Wye, and between that river and 
the Usk. In the west and north the hills rise to a considerable 
height, and this mountain region encircles a finely undulating 
country. The highest summits are Sugar Loaf (1955 ft.), 
Blorenge (1838), and Skirrid Fawr (1601), summits of the hills 
which almost encircle the town of Abergavenny. On the other 
hand, along the shore of the Severn estuary on either side of 
the Usk, are two extensive tracts of marshland, called the 
Caldicot and WcntUoog levels, stretching from Cardiff to 
Portskcwct, and protected from inundations by strong embank- 
ments. The principal rivers are the Wye, which forms the 
greater part of the eastern boundary of the county with Glouces- 
tershire, and falls into the Severn; the Monnow, which forms a 
portion of its boundary with Herefordshire, and falls into the 
Wye at the town of Monmouth; the Usk, which rises in Breck- 
nock, and flows southward through the centre of the county; 
the Ebbw, which rises in the north-west, and enters the estuary 
of the Usk below Newport; and the Rhymney, which rises in 
Brecknock, and, after forming the boundary between Monmouth 
and Glamorgan, enters the Bristol Channel a little cast of Cardiff. 
Salmon abound especially in the Wye and the Usk, and trout are 
plentiful in many of the streams. 

Geology. — ^Thc oldest rocks in the county arc the Silurian strata 
(Wenlocic Shale and Limestone, and Ludlow Beds) which form 
an extensive anticline at Usk ; a smaller inlier appears at Rumney 
on the south-west borders of the county near Cardiff. These beds 
dip under the Old Red Sandstone, a great scries of^ red marls, 
sandstones and concretionary limestones (comstones) which occupies 
the north-eastern part of the county; the highest beds contain 
{fits and conglomerates which give rise to bold escarpments and 
ofty plateaux {ej. the Sugar Loaf and Skirrid Fawr) alongside the 



grits and conglomerates which give rise to bold escarpments and 
lofty plateaux {ej. the Sugar Loaf and Skirrid Fawr) alongside the 
outcrop of the Carboniferous Limestone. The western part of the 



county, between Pontypool and the river Rhymney. is occupied 
by the eastern end of the ercat South Wales coal-field, where the 
Carboniferous Limestone. Millstone Grit and Coal Measures (Lower 
Coal Scries. Pennant Sandstone and Upper Coal Scnes) dip west- 
ward and succeed each other from east to west. The Coal Measures 
abound in coal-scams and ironstone, and their densely populated 
valleys offer a marked contrast to the agricultural and pastoral 
districts of the rest of the county. The Carboniferous Limestone 
comes in again in the south-east near Chepstow, and has imparted 
its characteristic scenery to the lower reaches of the Wye. After 
a prolonged interval, during which these older formations were 
folded, faulted, upheaved and finally carved by erosion into hills 
and valleys, the southern portion of the region was submerged 
beneath the waters of the Triassic lake in which the Keuper Marls 
were deposited. These consist of red conglomerates and marls 
which wrap round the heights and fill up the hollows among the 
older rocks to the south-west of Chepstow, and the subsidence 
continuine, admitted the waters of the Jurassic sea which deposited 
the fossiliferous Rhactic and Lias limestones and shales of Llanwem 
and Goldcliff near Newport. Glacial gravel and boulder-clay are 
found in the valleys and a broad tract of alluvium borders the 
shores of the Bristol ChanncL 

AgricuUure. — Along the Severn shore the soil *is deep and loamy, 
and admirably suit^ for the growth of trees. The most fertile 
land Is that resting on the Red Sandstone, especially along the 
banks o< the Usk, where wheat oi fine quality is raised. In the 



mountainous rpgions mort attentnn k p«id to pvxiDf fhu to 

I he nixing of crops. Theft arc m. mnsiderabltt number of dtiry 
|arm«, but ihcep-farnting is much more Largely foilowcid. Odj 
about $even-tcniEis of the tot a! arta of the cDimty ta uEuler cukiTS* 
lion. There U a larve extent of hill pasture* ud a coasidcnbk 

A/jr]rn|,-^The coal-mincs mnd iron^vorlu which MooitiaatlHiufe 
■ liiri^-- wnb South Wjtci mm veiy LmporLaniL, They occur in tbe 
uialiL .iiiij mountainous w«siem part ol the couniy, where a aeris 
0i upiiail valleys, ru fining parallel from N.NAV. u S. ku 
each iis po^ubuB mining towmshlpt and r^Llways^ which have ii 
many ci£ii^ jiv^vsuiiaied remaiLable engineering workit— soditt 
lUv £reai Crumlin viaduct. The^ val1e>'B« in o^er fittEn cut to 
«c-»i, with the principal townships in each, are za toUoin: Afoe 
LwytJ fPaflttg, Pontypool, Abcrivchaji and BLaenavqn); Ebiw 
Fach (i\b?riiUcry, NanLyglo and Biairui), joining the Ebbw (Rkd, 
RUUw VakJ i^ Sirhowy (BcdwcUty and Tredegar) ; Rhymitcy (Nev 
Tredrcar and Rhyninry). B'nides coal, a com^dcfablt qnakity 
of fire-clay and sotnie iron are raised. 

Ce^ritunvaiioits, — The principal railway lervinj the c^oustjr il 
the Gr^at Wes^itm, but in the mi nine districts thete are ^Isovinoai 
I] ranches of the London and North- Western ^ Rhyrnney ind Brecoa 
and Mcnhyr systems^ The Cm ml in Canal from the £hl>« Vslkjr, 
and the Monmouth^hln; Canal ffDm Pontypool converge apos 
Newport^ Vfhkh it the principal port in the county; The Bfecn 
Canal ruju aatth tram Pootypool mt<} tbe vi^ley ol the Uik. 



Poputatiott and Admim^trciion, — The area of the 
ccunly ii 341,^88 acr«^ with a population in 1R91 of 152416^ 
and in 1901 of 2^3,317. The area of the admiuiitrativt coialy 
is 340,71a acres. The county cooaptisea 6 hundrcdi. T^ 
municipal boroughs are Aberg&veiiny (pop. 7795), Moflmootk 
(sogs)t and Newport^ a county borough (67**70)* The ({^DoniiC 
are urban dislricli: Abcrcam (i},()o7)^ Abmycban ((7,768), 
Abcrtillcry Uj:»04S}> BedweLlty (q^S), Blaen^von (10^869), 
Caerleon (1367), Chcpscow (3067) ^ Ebbw Vale C>o.994}i Un> 
rrcchfa, Upper (2[>79)f Lbniarnam (5iS7>, MynyddalvyB 
(33 J7), NaiJtygloand Elaina U^A^), Pani.tg {ja&a), Poalypool 
(6136), Rhymney (7515), Risca t^6i)^ Tredegar (iS,497), tad 
Usk (1476]. Monmoulhshire is. in the Osmond drodi, tod 
assizes arc held at Monmouth. It has one court ol quarter 
sessions, and is divided into ii petty sesstona] diviskms. TU 
boroughs of Monmoulb and Newport have commi^ofii <rf tbc 
peacrj bul no sepurau court of quarter sessions. The pMfi*" 
mentary divisions arc the northern, western and ^utlscm, tick 
reluming one metnber- and ibe Monmoutb district d pti^ 
mentiry borDughSf consisting of the to^ums of Moomonlh, 
Newport and Usk, returns one member. 

i/ufor^,— Thtdistriei which i& now Monmoutltshirc formed tbe 
Wdsh kingdorn of Gwcnt at iht time of the Heptarchy, and. 
owing to the cjitractdiiiary courage of the Gwcniians in rcasliag 
The repeated inroad* of the Sasmu, no permanent English srtll^ 
nicnl was effected in ihe dislrict until clos* upon the middle of 
the E iih century. The incursions of ihc West Sixons began ii 
ihc 7th century, and, durttig ibe reign of Alfred, Brocbmad 
and Fermact, kings ol Cwent^ acknowledged Alfred as tbdi 
lord, and sought his protect ion again&i their eikemiet. In the 
0th and loth centunes the dis.trict was frequenily harried by 
the Danes, who in c*5i under Obter and Hvirald. sailed round 
Wcsscx and Cornwall to the mouth of the Severn And plundered 
all along the banks of the Wye, finaJly taking prboncr tbe 
bishop of Llandaff, whom they only nJeased on a ransom of 
£40. In g3& ^i^ihelsian obliged the kings of the north Britons 
to meet him at Hereford and fixed the Wye as the limii of tbeir 
lerrifoty. In 976 the Danes destroyed Caerleon, at thb tine 
the chid town of the district. The eaHy nth century wa 
taken up with a wrics of interrointblc contests between tbe 
Welsh princes tor the succession io South Wales, ai a resnll 
of which the WulEh Chronicle relates that in 1047 tbe wbok 
of South Wales lay waste^ and in 104Q, when a fleet ci IvA 
pirates entered the Severn eituary, Gril^lh, Lhe king of Sootb 
Wales, aisled them in plundering the neighbourbood. In 
1065 ifarold conquered the whole districi between the b>»tr 
reaches of the Wye and the Usk, and gave order* for tbe 
construction of a hunting-bos at Portskewel for Edward 4« 
Confessor, but very shorUy after Caradoc ap Griffith, wi^ 
a Uigfi body ol loUowcn, kiUed all th« workmeii ^ 



MONNIER— MONOCHORD 



729 



the buflding and carried awiy the provisions prepaied for the 
king's reception. 

After the Conquest the district conquered by Harold was 
bestowed on William Fiu Osborne, earl of Hereford, who built 
Monmouth Castle, and continued the line of defence against 
the Welsh frontier along the Wye, while a second line of fortifi- 
cations along the Usk Valley marked the continued advance 
of the Normans, who by 1085 had subjugated almost the whole 
of Gwent. The lordship of Overwent fell to Hamelin de Baladun, 
who founded the castle and priory of Abergavenny, and from 
him passed to Brian FiU Count and later to Walter Fitz Miles, 
earl of Hereford. The lordship of Netherwent remained for many 
centuries with the Clare family. Penhow Castle was a strong- 
hold of the family of St Maur or Seymour, from whom are 
descended the present dukes of Somerset, and Grosmont and 
Skenfrith Castles of the family of Braosc. Gwent still ranked 
as Welsh territory at the time of the Domesday Survey, but 
the town of Monmouth, the castle of Caerleon, and the district 
of Archenfeld, are assessed under Herefordshire, and the 
three hardwicks of Llanwem, Portskewet and Dinam under 
Gloucestershire. The Norman lords of the present county held 
their lands " per baroniam," so that the king's writ did not run 
an them, and the lives and property of the poorer inhabiunts 
were entirely at the mercy of these lords marchers as they were 
termed. The county still exhibits remains of no less than 
twenty-five Norman castles. The province of Gwent was 
formerly divided into four cantrefs, each comprising several 
commotes. Cantref Uwchcoed, or Upper Gwent, comprised the 
commotes of Erging and Ewyas, now principally in Hereford- 
shire, and the greater part of the present hundreds of Skenfrith, 
Abergavenny and Usk; Cantref Iscoed, or Lower or Nether 
Gwent, comprised the present hundred of Raglan and parts 
of Caldecote and Usk; Cantref Gwentlwg comprised the present 
hundred of Wentlwg; while the fourth cantref, Cantref Coch, 
now forms the Forest of Dean in Gloucestershire. Leland, 
writing in the x6th century, describes Gwent as comprising 
the three divisions of low, middle and high "Ventdand," 
and at this period it included no less than 24 lordship 
marches, each governed by its own ancient laws and customs 
and ruled by its own lord. Under the act of 1536 for the 
abolition of the marches, these 24 lordships were united to 
form a shire; Monmouth was constituted the shire town, 
and the sheriff's court was ordered to be held alternately at 
Monmouth and Newport. A commission was also appointed 
to divide the shire into hundreds, which were made 6 in 
number: Abergavenny, Caldecote, Raglan, Skenfrith, Usk 
and Wentlwg, the bounds being subsequently ratified by act of 
parliament of 1542-1543. No sheriffs were actually appointed 
for Monmouthshire until 1541, and the legal authority of the 
lords marchers was not finally abolished until 1689. The act 
of 1536 did not expressly separate the county from Wales, and 
it was only gradually that Monmouthshire came to be regarded 
as an English county, being included in the Oxford circuit for 
the first time in the reign of Charles II. 

Ecclesiastically Monmouthshire has been almost entirely included 
in tbe diocese of Llandaff since the foundation of that diocese in 
the 6th century. Monmouth, however, was in the diocese of Here- 
ford, and a few parishes formed part of the diocese of St Davids, 
until under the sutute of 1836 the whole county was placed under 
tbe jurisdiction of the bishop of Llandatf. It contains, wholly or 
in part, 134 ecclesiastical parishes. 

The river fisheries of Monmouthshire have been famed from very 
cariy times, Caerleon with seven fisheries in the Wye and the Usk 
yielding a rvtum of £7, los. at the time of the Domesday Survey. 
Coal is said to have been worked in the reign of Edward 1., but 
the industry lapsed altogether until it received new life from the 
construction ol the canal between Blacnavon and Newport, begun in 
1792 and completed in 1795. The first iron- workers at Pontypool 
were a family of the name of Grant, who were succeeded in 1565 
by Mr Richard Hanbury. In 1740, however, Monmouthshire 
contained only two furnaces, making 900 tons annually. Fifty 
years later three new furnaces were constructed at Blaenavon, 
and from that date the industry steadily improved. 

By the act of 1536 two knights were to be returned for the shire 
and one burgess for the borough of Monmouth, but the first returns 
far the county were made in 1547 and for the borough in 1553. 



From Kjofi the boroughs cf Newport and Usk Fttumed one member 
rafh. l/nder the Redinribution ci beats Act ol [845 the co-unty 
HQw returns thfce member^ m ihn^ (divisiocif^ 

Aniiyutitfr — Q( fiormao \ortn^ibiA in Momiioutb^liirf, eiihet 
bulk or takm poixihion ot by the lord* ol thi; maixhirj, there ant 
n? mains of no lc*s than twcnty-fivt The motv im^tviK'mfi and 
important are. Caldkot, the seat o\ the Dt B^hufi!^, ^hh a round 
keep of (he rith century^ gatchou^ arud oEhcr portions, still partiy 
iiTihjbited; Chepstow, ont of the Jin^at eiun^ple^ of the NDrman 
lortms extant, in an ifn posing aituatkin on a cUH i^buve the Wye; 
Newport, AbergavennVp the cateway and hall of CfOsmonl^ once 
the residence oT the dukes of Lancajt<^r; and \Jsk Castle, rebuilt 
hy the CUres in the time of Edward [V Raglan Castle, tM'gun in 
the reign of Henry V-p it a very extensive rum, still in coud pre^ 
bervation, and of sprcLili interest as a very kite eiUimpT? o( the 
feudal stroni^hold. Charles T. rci&ided In it after ihc bait1<c <A 
NaK'by, and m 1646 it was delivered up to the parliaitiefLtary forta 
alter a «EuLborn resistance of ten wecic^ 0Lg4in$t Colonel Morgan 
and Gcneisl Fairfax, 

At the Reformat Ion thrre were in Monmouth two hospitals 
and Afteen other religious houses; but of the>c rhtre are now im- 
portant reinains of only iwo^ — Lbnthony Abb<ry and TintCfn 
Abbey, both Cistercian. Llanthor>y Abbey in (he mutik MouiiUins 
v^as founded by Wiiliarn de Lacy in tioj, and the cKurtb, datii^if 
from about ISOQ, ii one of the earlicrst eitamplcs in England of the 
Pointed style. The ruins consiet ol portions of the navt^ tnnsept. 



central towef and choir- Tintern Abbey {q.v.}, foundLxl by Waller 
de C1>are in i [IIt occupies a position ol g.reat beauty on the Wye* 
and is among the finest monastic ruinj, in England- Of the chuitKcs* 



lho*e chiefly worthy of mention are at Abergavenny, belonginff to 
a Benedict ine prioryp and containing a number of old tombs; C^p» 
fttow, partly Norman^ and possessini a richly moulded doorway; 
St \Vod1qs' Churchy Newport, al» norman; the Norman chapti 
of 5t Thomas, ^fonmouth, Chri^tchurch, principally Norman; 
Mat hem. Early English, with a tablet to Ten-drig, king of Gwent 
in the 6th century^ and LUk^ formerly attached to a Benedictine 
pnory. 

See Victoria County History, MftHmeuihiktrei Wiiliarn Cove^ 
An Historical Tour tn Monmouthshire, 2 pts. (London, ifiot); 
N. Rogers. Memoirs on Afonmouthihire (London, tjo^); Dai,>iii 
Williams, History of Monmouthskirt (1796); George Ormerod^ 
Strigulensia. Archaeological Memoirs Trkhng to the District adjaeent 
to the Confluence of the Severn and the Wye: M, E. Ba$:nall'OaLelcy, 
Account of the Rude Monuments in Mimmouihikire (Newport, 
1889); J. A. Bradney. A History of hrpntncuthikirg (i«J4, &c4» 
also the publications of the Caerleon Antiq,uarU^ AsKKiatioo- 

MONNIER, MARC (1827-1885), French writer, was bom at 
Florence on the 7th of December 1827. His father was French, 
and his mother a Genevese; he received his early education 
in Naples, he then studied in Parb and Geneva, and he completed 
his education at Heidelberg and Berlin. He became professor 
of comparative literature at Geneva, and eventually vice-rector 
of the university. He died at Geneva on the i8th of April 
1885. He wrote a series of short, satirical, dramatic sketches 
collected as Thidtre de marionettes (187 1), and stories, notably 
NotneUes napolitaines (1879), niunerous works ofi Italian history, 
a translation of Goethe's Faust, Gentve e/ ses poites (1873), &c 
The first volume of his Histoire de la lUtirature modernej La 
Renaissance, de Dante d Luther (1884), was crowned by the 
French Academy. 

See E. Rambert, ^erioains nationaux suisses, voL L (Geneva, 
1874). 

HONNIKENDAM, a fishing village of Holland, in the province 
of North Holland, on an inlet of the Zuidcr Zee known as 
the Gouw Zee, 12 m. N.N.E. of Amsterdam, with which it is 
connected by steam tramway. It was once a flourishing town, 
but its quietness now is only disturbed by the advent of the 
numerous tourists who visit it in the summer, crossing hence 
to the island of Marken. Among the notable buildings are 
the weigh-house (17th century), the bcU-lowcr (1591), formerly 
attached to the town-hall before this was destroyed in the i8th 
century, and the church of St. Nicholas, with its beautiful 
massive tower. Mention is made of this church in a document of 
1356, but it was not completed until the beginning of the isth 
century. It contains some fine carvings, many interesting 
old tombs, and a monument of Jan Nieuwenhuizen, the founder 
of the Society for Public Welfare {Tot Nut van kel Algemeen) 
in 1785. 

MONOCHORD (Gr. nov6xop6oif, kop&p /jnovauek): med. Lat. 
monoch4frdum)f an instrument having a single string, used 



730 



MONOD, A.— MONOGENISTS 



by the ancient Greeks for tuning purposes and for measuring 
the scale arithmetically. The monochord, as it travelled 
westwards during the middle ages, consisted of a long board, 
or narrow rectangular box, over which was stretched the single 
string; along the edge of the sound-board was drawn a line 
divided according to simple mathematical ratios to show all 
the intervals of the scale. A movable bridge was so contrived 
as to slide along over the string and stop it at will at any of 
the points marked. The vibrating length of string, being thus 
determined as on the guitar, lute, violin, &c., yielded a note 
of absolutely correct pitch on being twanged by fingers or 
plectrum. In order the better to seize the relation of various 
intervals, a second string tuned to the same note, but out of 
reach of the bridge, was sometimes added to give the funda- 
mental. (K. S.) 

MONOD. ADOLPHB (1802-1856), French Protestant divine, 
was born on the 21st of January 1802, in Copenhagen, where 
his father was pastor of the French church. He was educated 
at Paris and Geneva, and began his life-work in 1825 as founder 
and pastor of a Protestant church in Naples, whence he removed 
in 1827 to Lyons. Here his evangelical preaching, and especially 
a sermon on the duties of communicants (" Qui doit com- 
munier '?), led to his deposition by the Catholic Minister of 
education and religion. Instead of leaving Lyons he began 
to preach in a hall and then in a chapel. In 1836 he took a 
professorship in the theological college of Montauban, removing 
in 1847 to Paris as preacher at the Oratoire. He died on the 
6th of April, 1856. Monod was undoubtedly the foremost 
Protestant preacher of 19th-century France. He published 
three volumes of sermons in 1830, another. La CridulUi de 
VincridttU in 1844, and two more in 1855. Two further volumes 
appeared after his death. His elder brother Fr£d6ric ( 1 794-1863), 
who was influenced by Robert Haldane, was also a distinguished 
French pastor, who with Count Gasparin founded the Union 
of the Evangelical Churches of France; and Fr6d£ric's son 
Th6odorc (b. 1836) followed in his footsteps. 

MONOD. GABRIEL (1844- )> French historian, was bom 
at Havre on the '7th of March, 1844. Adolphe Monod {q.v.) 
was his uncle. Having studied at Havre, he went to Paris to 
complete his education, and whilst there lived with the family 
of De Pressens6. The influence of Edmond de Pressensi, a 
pastor and large-minded theologian, and of Madame de Presscns6, 
a woman of superior intellect and refined feeling, who devoted 
her life to educational works and charily, made a great impres- 
sion on him. In 1865 he left the icoU normaU supirUure, and 
went to Germany, where he studied at G5itingen and Berlin. 
The teaching of George Waitz definitely directed his studies 
towards the history of the middle ages. Returning to France 
in 1868 he was nominated by V. Duruy to give lectures on history, 
following the method used in German seminaries, at the icde 
da hautes iludes. When the Franco- Prussian War broke out, 
Gabriel Monod, with his* cousins, Alfred and Sarah Monod, 
organized an ambulance with which he followed the whole 
campaign, from Sedan to Mans. He wrote a small book of 
memoirs of this campaign, Allemands et Jran^ais (187 1), in 
which he spoke of the conquerors without bitterness; this 
attitude was all the more praiseworthy as his mother was an 
Alsatian, and he was unable to resign himself to the loss of 
Alsace and Lorraine. The war being over he returned to 
teaching. At this period of his life he wrote Grigoire de Tours 
et Marius d'Avenche (1872); Fridigaire, whose history, taken 
from original MSS., he published in 1885; a translation of a 
book of VV. Junghans, Hisloire critique des rhgnes de Childerick 
et de Chlodovech, with introduction and notes (1879); £tudes 
critiques sur Us sources de V hisloire carolingienne (1898, ist part 
only published) ; and Bibliographic de Thistoire de France (1888). 
He himself said that his pupils were his best books; he intended 
to teach them not so much new facts as the way to study, 
endeavouring to develop in them an idea of criticism and truth. 
They showed their gratitude by dedicating a book to him in 
1896, £tudes d'histoirc du tnoyen dge, and after his retirement 
in 1905 by having his features engraved on a slab (see ^1 Cabrid 



MoHodf en souvenir de son enseignement: icoU pratique des kauki 
itudes, 1868-igoSt icole normale supirieure, 1880-1904, Mef 
26, 1907). In 1875 he founded the Retue HiUarique^ whidi 
rapidly became a great authority on scientific education. Sotat 
of his articles in this and other periodicals have been pot 
together in book form, Les Matires de fkistaire: Renam, Taitu, 
MicheUt (1894); Portraits et souvenirs (1897: on Hugo, Fostd 
de Coulanges. V. Duruy, &c.). 

MONODELPHIA (i.e. " single uterus,"— in allusion to the 
fusion of at least the basal portions of this organ, and in cob* 
tradistinction to their duality in the Didelphia, or Marsupialii), 
Cuvier's name for the group which includes all the orders of 
mammals (See Mammalia) except the Marsupialia and Mono- 
tremata; other titles for this group being Plaoentalia and 
Eutheria. With the Monotremata (q.v.) this group has 00 
near affinity; and while more nearly related to the Marsupialia 
iq.v.), in which an imperfect allantoic placenta is sometimes 
developed, it is broadly distinguished therefrom by the invariable 
presence of a functional placenta by the aid of which the foetus 
is nourished throughout the greater portion of intra-uterioe 
life. Other distinctive features by which marsupials are 
separated from monodelphians or placentals will be foood 
in the article last mentioned. (R. L*) 

MONOGENISTS, the term applied to those 'anthropolo(ists 
who claim that all mankind is descended from one ori^ 
stock (ji6v<K single, and ytvoi, race), and generally from a 
single pair; while polygenists (voX6f, many) contend that 
man has had many original ancestors. Of the okler sdiool 
of scientific monogenists J. F. Blumenbach and J. C. Prkhard 
are eminent representatives, as is A. de Quatrefages of the more 
modem. The great problem of the monogenist theory b to 
explain by what course of variation races of man so (Uffereat 
have sprung from a single stock. In ancient times little diffi- 
culty was felt in this, authorities such as Aristotle and Viinivius 
seeing in climate and circumstance the natural cause of radal 
differences, the Ethiopian having been blackened by the tropical 
sun, &c. Later and closer observations, however, have sbova 
such influences to be, at any rate, far slighter in amount and 
slower in operation than was supposed. M. de Quatrefages 
brings forward {Uniti de Vespice kumaine^ Paris. 1861, cb, 13) 
his strongest arguments for the variability of races under change 
of climate, &c. (action du mt/ieu), instancing the asserted 
alteration in complexion, constitution, and character of ocsroes • 
in America, and Englishmen in America and Australia. But 
although the reality of some such nnodification is not disputed, 
especially as to stature and constitution, its amount b not eoough 
to countervail the remarkable permanence of type displa)td 
by races ages after -they have been transported to dinuio 
extremely different from that of their former homes. Moieover, 
physically different races, such as the Bushmen and the poit 
negroid types in Africa, show no signs of approximation under 
the influence of the same climate; on the other hand, the coast 
tribes of Tierra del Fuego and forest tribes of tropical Brad 
continue to resemble each other, in spite of extreme differences of 
climate and food. Darwin, than whom no naturalist could be 
more competent to appraise the variation of a species, is moderate 
in his estimation of the changes produced on races of man hf 
climate and mode of life within the range of history (Dext^ 
of Man, pt. i. chs. 4 and 7). The slightness and slowness cf 
variation in human races having been acknowledged, a grrtt 
difficulty of the monogenist theory was seen to lie in the shortness 
of the chronology with which it was formeriy associated. Inasp 
much as several well-marked races of mankind, such as tbe 
Egyptian, Phoenician and Ethiopian, were much the same 
three or four thousand years ago as now, their variation froa 
a single stock in the course of any like period could hardly be 
accounted for except by a miracle. This difficulty was escaped 
by the polygenist theory (see Georges Pouchet, Plurality 4 
the Human Race, 1858, and ed., 1864, Introd.). Two moden 
views have, however, intervened which have tended to restoie. 
though under a new aspect, the doarine of a single bamas 
stock. One has been the recognition oi the fact that nua h» 



MONOGRAM— MONOMOTAPA 



73» 



existed during a vast period of time, which has made it easier 
to assume the continuance of very slow natural variation of 
races. The other view is that of the evolution or development 
of species. It docs not follow necessarily from a theory of 
evolution of species that mankind must have descended from 
1 single stock, for the hypothesis of development admits of the 
uguraent that several simian species may have culminated 
n several races of man (Vogt, Lectures on Man, London, 1864, 
X 463). The general tendency of the development theory, 
lowever, is against constituting separate species where the 
iiiferences arc moderate enough to be accounted for as due to 
rariation from a single type. Darwin's summing up of the 
vidence as to unity of type throughout the races of mankind 
s as distinctly a monogenist argument as those of Blumenbach, 
*richard or Quatrefages: — 

" Although the existing races of man differ in many r e sp e cts , as 
1 colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet if 
bcir whole organization be taken into consideration they are found 
3 resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of 
liese are so unimportant, or of so singular a nature, that it is ex- 
nemcly improbable that they should have been independently 
crquired by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark 
olds good with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous 
oints of mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. 
. . Now when naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous 
nail details of habits, tastes and dispositions, between two or 
lorc domestic races, or between nearly allied natural forms, they 
se this fact as an argument that all are descended from a common 
rogcnitor who was thus endowed, and, consequently, that all 
lould be classed under the same species. The same argument 
lay be applied with much force to the races of man." {Descent oj 
tan, pt. 1. ch. 7.) 

A suggestion by A. R. Wallace has great importance in the 
[>pUcation of the development theory to the origin pf the various 
ices of man; it is aimed to meet the main difficulty of the 
lonogenist school, how races which have remained comparatively 
Kcd in type during the long period of history, such as the white 
lan and the negro, should have, in even a far longer period, 
assed by variation from a common original. Wallace's view 

substantially that the remotely ancient representatives of 
le human race, being as yet animab too low in mind to have 
cveloped those arts of maintenance and social ordinances by 
hich man holds his own against influences from climate and 
rcumstance, were in their then wild state much more plastic 
lan now to external nature; so that " natural selection " and 
Lhcr causes met with but feeble resistance in forming the 
ermanent varieties or races of man, whose complexion and 
ructure still remain fixed in their descendants {Contributions 

the Theory of Natural Selection, p. 319). 

MONOGRAM (from Late Lat. monogramma, in Late Gr. 
wSypaniiov, from fibvot, single, ypafxixa, letter), originally a 
pher consisting of a single letter, now a design or mark 
insisting of two or more letters intertwined together. The 
tters thus interlaced may be either all the letters of a name, 
r the initial letters of the Christian and surnames of a person 
»r use upon note-paper, seals, &c. Many of the early Greek 
id Roman coins bear the monograms of nilers for whom or 
le towns in which they were struck. The Late Latin and 
reek words were first apph'ed to the signatures, which took this 
►rm, of the emperors of the Eastern Empire. The signatures 
of the Prankish kings also took the form of a 
monogram. The accompanying monogram, from 
i a coin of Charles the Bald, is a good example 
I of a " perfect " monogram, in which all the 
letters of the name Karolus can be traced 
(see Diplomatic and Autograph). The most 
famous of monograms is that luiown as the 
Sacred Monogram," formed by the conjunction of the two 
litial letters of Xpiaros, Christ. The most usual form of 
lis is the symbol f, and sometimes the a (alpha) and 
(omega) of the Apocalypse were placed on either side 
f it. The symbol was incorporated in the Labarum (q.v.) 
hen the imperial standard was Christianized. The interlaced 
.H.S. (also called " The Sacred Monogram ") apparently 
osscsses no great antiquity; it is said to have been Xhe 




creation of St Bernard of Siena in the middle of the isth 
century. Monograms or ciphers were often used by the early 
printers as devices, and are of importance in fixing the identity 
of early printed books. Similar devices have been used by 
painters and engravers. The middle ages were, indeed , extremely 
prolific in the invention of ciphers alike for ecclesiastical, artistic 
and commercial use. Every great personage, every possessor of 
fine taste, every artist, had his monogram. The mason's mark also 
wa,S, in effect, a cipher. As the merchant had as a rule neither 
right nor authority to employ heraldic emblems, he therefore fell 
back upon plain simple letters arranged very much in monogram 
form. These " merchants' marks " generally took the form of a 
monogram of the owner's initials together with a private device. 
They nearly always contain a cross, either as a protection against 
storms or other catastrophes, or as a Christian mark to dis- 
tinguish their goods from Mahommedan traders in the East. 
There is a fine example of a x6th century gold ring with a 
merchant's mark in the British Museum. One of the most 
famous of secular monograms is the interlaced " H.D." of 
Henri II. and Diane de Poitiers. Upon every building which 
that king erected it was sown profusely; it was stamped upon 
the buildings in the royal library, together with the bow, the 
quiver and the interlocked crescents of Diana. It has been 
argued that " H.D." is a misreading of " H.C.," which would 
naturally point to htisband and wife; but the question is set at 
rest by the fact that Henri II. sometimes signed his letters to 
Diane with this very monogram. Henri IV. invented a punning 
cipher for his mistress Gabrielle d'Estries, the surname being 
represented by a capital S. with a trait, or stroke through it. 

See F. Builliot, Dictionnaire des monogrammes (1832-181^, 3 parts) ; 
G. K. Naglcr, Die Monoframmisten (1857-1876, 5 parts) ; Kis-Paquot, 
Dictionnaire encyclopidique des marques et monogrammes, ckiffres, (fc. 



(1893); also Du Cange, Clossarium {s.v. Monogramma), with plates 

giving examples of the monograms of ear' "' ' 

the Western Empire, and of other kings. 



> monograms of early popes, the emperors of 



MONOLOGUE (from Gr. tibvoti, alone, and XAyor, speech), a 
passage in a dramatic piece in which a personage holds the 
scene to himself and speaks unconsciously aloud. The theory 
of the monologue is that the audience overhears the thoughts of 
one who believes himself to be alone, and who thus informs them 
of what would otherwise be unknown to them. The word is 
also used in cases when a character on the stage speaks at great 
length, even though not alone, but is listened to in silence by the 
other characters. The old-fashioned tragedies of the 17th and 
i8ih centuries greatly affected this convention of the monologue, 
which has always, however, been liable to ridicule. There is 
something of a lyrical character about the monologue in verse; 
and this has been felt by some of the classic poets of France 
so strongly, that many of the examples in the tragedies of 
Comeille are nothing more or less than odes or cantatas. The 
monologues of Shakespeare, and those of Hamlet in particular, 
have a far more dramatic character, and are, indeed, essential 
to the development of the play. Equally important are those 
of Racine in Fhtdre and in Athalie. The French critics record, 
as the most ambitious examples of the monologue in two cen- 
turies, that of Figaro in Beaumarchais's Le Mariage de Figaro 
and that of Charles V. in Victor Hugo's Hernani, the latter ex- 
tends to 160 lines. In the Elizabethan drama, the popularity of 
Kyd's Spanish Tragedy, in which Hieronymo spouts intermin- 
ably, set a fashion for ranting monologues, which are very 
frequent in Shakespeare's immediate predecessors and contem- 
poraries. After 1600 the practice was much reduced, and the 
tendency of solitary heroes to pour forth columns of blank 
verse was held in check by more complex stage arrangements. 
After the Restoration the classic tragedies of the English play* 
Wrights again abused the privilege of monologue to such a 
degree that it became absurd, and fell into desuetude. 

MONOHOTAPA. In old maps of south-east Africa, derived 
originally from Portuguese and from Dutch sources, an extensive 
region on the Cu^nia or Zambezi and to the south of it is styled 
regnum numomotapae. The precise character of the kingdom 
or empire to which allusion is made has been the subject of 
much discussion, and some modem historians have gone so far 



732 



MONONGAHELA— MONOPHYSITES 



as to relegate the monomotapa to the realm of myth. But 
such scepticism is unjustifiable in view of the perfect una- 
nimity with which, in spite of variations of detail, all Portuguese 
writers from the beginning of the i6th century onwards reiter- 
ated the assertion that there was a powerful rule known far and 
wide by that title. 

The word " monomotapa " is of Bantu origin and has been 
variously interpreted. Father J. Torrend, Comparative Grammar 
of the South African Bantu Languages (p. loi) renders it " Lord 
of the water-elephants," and remarks that the hippopotamus 
is even to the present day a sacred animal among the Karanga. 
The earliest recorded bearer of the name is Mokomba Menamo- 
tapam, mentioned by Diogo de Alca^ova in 1506 as father of 
the Kwesarimgo Menamotapam who ruled at that date over 
Vealanga, a large kingdom that included Sofala. His capital 
was called Zumubany, an obvious corruption of the term 
" Zimbabwe," regularly used to describe the residence of any 
important chief. The title is still found during the i8th century, 
but had probably become extinct by the beginning of the XQth 
if not earlier. Possibly ita use was not confined to a single 
tribal section, occurring as it does in conjunction with the distinct 
dynastic names of Mokomba and Mambo, but the Karanga 
is the only tribe to which the Portuguese chroniclers attribute 
it. The latter, indeed, not only refer to the territory and the 
people of the monomotapa as " Mocaranga " (i.e. of the Karanga 
tribe), but explicitly assert that the " emperor " himself was a 
" Mocaranga." Consequently, he must have been a negro, 
and the Dominican who records the baptism of Dom Filippe 
by a friar of the order in the middle of the 17th century actually 
states that thk " powerful king " was a black man (" com as 
cames prctas "). This alone would be sufl5cient to controvert 
the baseless assumption that there existed in southern Rhodesia 
a ruling caste of different radal origin from the general Bantu 
population. The events following on the murder of the Jesuit 
father Dom Gongalo da Silveira (cf. Lusiads X. 93) sufficiently 
demonstrate that the monomotapa, though susceptible to 
the persuasion of foreigners, was an independent potentate 
in the i6th century. The state and ceremony of his court, 
the number of bis wives, and the order and organization of his 
officials, are described by several of the chroniclers. 

It is difficult to arrive at an estimate of the extent of territory 
over which this great negro chief exercised direct or indirect 
control The most extravagant theory is naturally that which 
was expressed by the Portuguese advocates in connexion with 
the dispute as to the ownership of Delagoa Bay. The crown of 
Portugal based its case against England on the cession of territory 
contained in a well-known treaty with the monomotapa (1629), 
and stated that this monarch's dominions then extended nearly 
to the Cape of Good Hope. A more moderate and usual view 
is given by Diogo de Couto, who in 1616 speaks of " a dominion 
over all KafTraria from the Cabo das Correntes to the great 
river Zambezi." Several i7lh-century writers extend the 
" empire " to the north of the Zambezi, Bocarro giving it 
in all " a circumference of more than three hundred leagues." 
It was " divided among petty kings and other lords with fewer 
vassals who are called inkosis or fumos." According to these 
authors, however, including Dos Santos, the paramountcy of 
the monomotapa was impaired in the 17th century by a series 
of rebellions. His Zimbabwe, wherever it may have been in 
earlier days, was now fixed near the Portuguese fort of Masapa, 
only a short distance south of the Zambezi. A Portuguese 
garrison was maintained in it, and the monarch himself from 
the year 1607 onwards was little more than a puppet who 
was generally baptized by the Dominicans with a Portuguese 



The only authorities of value are the original^ Portuguc! 

" "* " ' cai ui 



! docu- 



ments collected, translated and edited by G. McC. Thcat under the 
title Records of South Eastern Africa (9 vols., I^ndon, i89»-i903). 
Reference may be made to A. WUmot's Monomotapa (London, 1896), 
which is, however, to a large extent superseded by Theal's far richer 
collect'ion of materiaL (D. R.-M.) 

MONONGAHELA* a city of Washington county, Pennsyl- 
vania, U.S.A., on the Mooongahela river, 31 m. by rail S. of 



Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 4096; (1900), 5173 (71X foreSgn-bon 
and 34S negroes); (1910) 7598. It is served by the 
Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie railways, 
and by electric railways to Pittsburg and Washington, Pa. 
Monongahela is in a coal region, and the mining of coal is iu 
principal industry. It was laid out as a town in x 792 by Joseph 
Parkinson, and named by him Williamsport; but it was com- 
monly known as Parkinson's Ferry until 1833, when it wu 
incorporated as a borough. Four years later the present nune 
was adopted, and in 1S73 MonongiQiela was chartered as a dty. 
It was here that the Whisky Insurrection conventioa met oo 
the 14th of August 1794. 

MONOPHYSITES (Gr. fUfPo^vcXrai), the name given to those 
who hold the doctrine that Christ had but one (/i6»oi) composite 
nature (06a(s)i and especially to those who maintained this 
position in the great controversies of the 5th and 6th centuries. 
The synod of Chalcedon (q.v.) in 451, following the lines of 
Pope Leo I.'s famous letter, endeavoured to steer a middle 
course between the so-called Nestorian and Eutychian positions. 
But the followers of Cyril of Alexandria, and with them those 
of Eutyches, saw in the Chalcedon decree of two natures only 
another form of the " Nestorian " duality of persons in Christ, 
and rose everywhere in opposition. For a century they were 
a menace not only to the peace of the Church but to that ol 
the empire. 

The first stage of the controversy covers the seventy-five 
years between the council of Chalculon and the accesnoo of 
Justinian in 527. In Palestine the fanatical monks led by 
Theodosius captured Jerusalem and expelled the bishop, Juvnul 
When he was restored, after an exile of twenty months, Theodo- 
sius fled to Sinai and continued his agitation anoong the monks 
there. In Alexandria an insurrection broke out over the super- 
session of the patriarch Dioscurus by the orthodox Proternis, 
who was killed during the struggle. Timothy Adorus was 
chosen bishop, and a synod which he called was so powerful 
as to impress even the emperor Loo L at Constantinople, who, 
however, deposed him as well as Peter Fullo, who at Antioch had 
usurped the see of the orthodox bishop ^fartyrius. The dioit 
reign of Basiliscus U74-476) favoured the Monophysites, but 
the restoration of the rightful emperor Zeno marked an attempt 
at conciUatk>n. On the advice of Acadus, the energetic patriarch 
of Constantinople, Zeno issued the Henotikon edia (482), ia 
which Nestorius and Eutyches were condemned, the twd^t 
chapters of Cyril accepted, and the Chalcedon Definition ignored. 
This effort to shelve the dispute was quite in vadn. Pope 
Felix III. saw the prestige of his see inv^ved in this slighting 
of Chalcedon and his predecessor Leo's epistle. He condemned 
and deposed Acacius, a proceeding which the latter regarded 
with contempt, but which involved a breach between the t«o 
sees that lasted after Acacius's death (489), through the h>ng and 
troubled reign of Anastasius, and was only healed by Justin L 
in 519. The monophysite cause reached its crowning point 
in the East when Severus was made bishop of Antioch in $15- 
This man was the stormy petrel of the period. A law student 
who had been converted from paganism, he became a noeo- 
physite monk at Alexandria. Expelled from that dty in s^S> 
he went with his followers to stir up strife in Constantinople, 
and succeeded in bringing about the deposition of the orthodoi 
bishop, Macedonlus, and of Flavian, bishop of AntiodL Bat 
Severus himself was deprived in 518: he went bad: to Akx* 
andria, and became leader of the Phthartdatrai (see belov), a 
subsection of the Monophysites. 

Justin I. was only a tool in the hands of hb nephew Justisiaa, 
who sided with the orthodox and brought about the recon- 
ciliation between Rome and Constantinople. In Jenisaka. 
Tyre, and other centres also, orthodoxy was re-established. !> 
Egypt, however, monophysitism was as strong as ever, ami 
soon at Constantinople the arrogance of Rome caused a rescii<*< 
led by Theodora, the wife of the new emperor Justinian (s^ 
565). Justinian himself, with the aid of Leontius til Bysanthia 
{c. 485-543), a monk with a dedded ttim for Aristotdiaa k|ic 
and metaphysics, had tried to lecoiidk the CyxiOiao tf' 



MONOPOLI— MONOPOLY 



733 



Chalccdonian positions, but he inclined more and more towards the 
monophysite view, and even went so far as to condemn by edict 
three teachers (Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret, the opponent 
of Cyril, and Ibas of Edessa) who were offensive to the monophy- 
sites. The Eastern bishops subscribed these edicts, and even 
Pope Vigilius yielded, in spite of the protests of the Western 
bishops, and at the 5th General Council (Constantinople, 553) 
agreed to the condemnation of the "three chapters"^ and 
the anathematizing of any who ^ould defend them by 
an appeal to the Definitions of Chalcedon. In the last 
years of his life (565) the emperor adopted the extreme 
Aphthartodocetae position, and only his sudden death pre- 
vented this being forced on the Church. His successor, Justin II. 
took no action either way for six or seven years, and then in- 
stituted a qtiiet but thorough system of suppression, closing 
monophysite churches and imprisoning their bishops and 
priests. 

Meanwhile monophysitism had split into several factions. 
Of these that represented by Scverus stood nearest to the 
Christology of Cyril. Their objection to Chalcedon was 
that it was an innovation, and they fully acknowledged the 
distinctness of the two natures in Christ, insisting only that 
they became indissolubly united so that there was only one 
energy (/ila xoun) BtavSpuc^ ly^aa) of Christ's will. Thus, as 
Hamack points out, " there is no trace of a Uteological differ- 
ence between Severus and Leontius," only a difference of termin- 
ology and of degree of willingness to assent to the formula of 
Chalcedon. Severus laid such stress on the human infirmities 
of Christ as proving that His body was like ouis, created and 
corruptible {tt>$af)T6¥) that his opponents dubbed him and 
his followers Phthartolatrae — worshippers of the corruptible." 
The school of Themistius of Alexandria extended the argu- 
ment to Christ's human soul, which they said was, like ours, 
limited in knowledge. Hence their name Agnoetae and their 
excommunication. 

An opposite tendency was that of the Aphthartodocetae or 
Phantasiasue, represented by Julian, bishop of Halicamassus, 
and, in his closing days, by Justinian. They held that Christ's 
body was so inseparably united with the Logos as not to be 
consubstanrial with humanity; its natural attributes were so 
heightened as to make it sinless and incorruptible. An extreme 
school, the Aktistetae or Gaianists (Gaianus was bishop of 
Alexandria c. 550) even held that from the moment the Ix>gos 
assumed the body the latter was uncreated, the human being 
transmuted into the divine nature; and the Adiaphorites went still 
further, denying, like Stephen Barsudaili, an Edessan abbot, all 
distinction of essence not even between the manhood and the 
Godhead in Christ, but between the divine and the human, and 
asserting that " all creatures are of the same essence with the 
Creator." 

A third variety of monophysitism was that known as Theopas- 
chitism, a name given to those who accepted the formula that 
in the death of Christ " God had suffered and been crucified." 
Peter FuUo introduced these words into the Trishagion, and 
after much controversy the council of Constantinople (553)1 while 
disallowing this, gave its sanction to the similar statement — 
tmum crucifixum esse ex sancia el consubstantiaii Trinitale. The 
development of this line of thought led in some thinkers like 
John Philoponus to a kind of tritheism. 

There is no doubt that the disintegration caused by mono- 
physitism largely facilitated the rapid and easy victory of 
Islam in Syria and Egypt. The " ethical complement " of 
monophysitism is monothelitism (see Mon'OTHELITEs). 

Sec the Histories of Dogma by A. Hamack. F. Loofs and R. 
Seeberg ; also R. L. Ottley. The Doctrine of the Incarnation. 

MONOPOLI, a seaport town and episcopal see of Apulia, 
Italy, in the province of Bari, from which it is 25 m. S.E. by 
rail, 30 ft. above sea-leveL Pop. (1901), 23,616. The medieval 

'7.0. (l) The person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
(2) the writings <rt Theodorct in defence of Nestortus, (3) the letter 
written by Ibu to the Persian Maris. 

*460fHtt oomiptible. from ^tipta^, destroy. 



walls are preserved and the castle dates from i ss^* The harbour 
is smaU, the principal trade being in agricultural products. 
Close to it are rock-hewn tombs, possibly belonging to the 
ancient Gnathia (q.v.). 

MONOPOLY (Gr. ttoPoruiUa or ixoiwri>\io»t exclusive sale, 
from fihvos, alone, and wuXtlv, to sell), a term which, though 
used generally in the sense of exclusive possession, is more 
accurately applied only to grants from the Crown or from 
parliament, the private act of an individual whereby he 
obtains control over the supply of any particular article, 
being properiy defined as "engrossing." It was from the 
practice of the sovereign granting to a favourite, or as a 
reward for good service, a monopoly in the sale or manufacture 
of some particular class of goods that the system of protecting 
inventions arose, and this fact lends additional interest to the 
history of monopolies (see Patents). When the practice of 
making such grants first arose it does not appear easy to say. 
Sir Edward Coke laid it down that by the ancient common law 
the king could grant to an inventor, or to the importer of an 
invention from abroad, a temporary monopoly in his invention, 
but that grants in restraint of trade were illegaL Such, too, was 
the law laid down in the first recorded case, Darcy v. Alien (the 
case of monopolies, 1602), and this decision was never overruled, 
though the law was frequently evaded. The patent rolls of 
the Plantagenets show few instances of grants of monopolies 
(the earliest known is temp. Edw. III.), and we come down to 
the reign of Henry VIII. before we find much evidence of this 
exercise of the prerogative in the case of either new inventions 
or known articles of trade. Elizabeth, as is well known, granted 
patents of monopoly so freely that the practice became a grave 
abuse, and on several occasions gave rise to serious complaints 
in the House of Commons. Lists prepared at the time show 
that many of the commonest necessaries of life were the subjects 
of monopolies, by which their price was grievously enhanced. 
That the queen did not assume the right of making these grants 
entirely at her pleasure is shown, not only by her own statements 
in answer to addresses from the house, but by the fact that the • 
preambles to the instruments conveying the grants always 
set forth some public benefit to be derived from their action. 
Thus a grant of a monopoly to sell playing-cards is made, because 
" divers subjects of able bodies, which might go to plough, 
did employ themselves in the art of making of cards "; and one 
for the sale of starch is justified on the ground that it would 
prevent wheat being wasted for the purpose. Accounts of 
the angry debates in 1565 and 1 601 are given in Hume and 
elsewhere. The former debate produced a promise from the 
queen that she would be careful in exercising her privileges; the 
latter a proclamation which, received with great joy by the 
house, really had but little effect in stopping the abuses 
complained of. 

In the first parUament of James I. a " committee of griev- 
ances " was appointed, of which Sir Edward Coke was chairman. 
Numerous monopoly patents were brought up before them, and 
were cancelled. Many more, however, were granted by the king, 
and there grew up a race of " purveyors," who made use of the 
privileges granted them under the great seal for various purposes 
of extortion. One of the most notorious of these was Sir Giles 
Mompesson, who fled the country to avoid trial in 1621. After 
the introduction of several bilb, and several attempts by James 
to compromise the matter by orders in council and promises, 
the Statute of Monopolies was passed in 1623. This made all 
monopolies illegal, except such as might be granted by parliament 
or were in respect of new manufactures or inventions. Upon 
this excepting clause is built up the entire English system of 
letters patent for inventions. The act was strictly enforced, 
and by its aid the evil system of monopolies was eventually 
abolished. Parliament has, of course, never exercised its power 
of granting to any individual exclusive privileges of dealing in 
any articles of trade, such as the privileges of the Elizabethan 
monopolists; but the licences required to be taken out by dealers 
in wine, spirits, tobacco, &c., are lineal descendants of the 
old monopoly grants, while the quasi-monopolies enjosred by 



73+ 



MONOTHELITES— MONOTREMATA 



railways, canals, gas and water companies, &c., under acts of 
parliament, are also representative of the andent practice. 

See W. H. Price. The Englisk Patents of Monopoly (1906). 

MONOTHEUTES (/loradeX^oi, monothelUae, from Gr. /idi>Of, 
only, 0€Kiuf, to will),* in Church history, the name given 
to those who,' in the 7th century, while otherwise orthodox, 
maintained that Christ had only one will. Their effort, as 
defined by Dormer, was " an attempt to effect some kind of 
solution of the vital unity of Christ's person, which had been 
so seriously proposed by monophysitism, on the basis of the 
now firmly-established doctrine of the two natures." The 
controversy had its origin in the efforts of the emperor Heraclius 
to win back for the church and the empire the excommunicated 
and persecuted Monophysites or Eutychians of Egypt and 
Syria. In Egypt especially the monophysite movement had 
assumed a nationalistic, patriotic character. It was in Armenia, 
while on bis expedition against Persia, in 622 that, in an inter- 
view with Paul, the head of the Severians (Monophysites) there, 
Heraclius first broached the doctrine of the ida b4prfHa of 
Christ, i.e. the doctrine that the divine and human natures, 
while quite distinct in His one person, had but one activity and 
operation.' At a somewhat later date he wrote to Arcadius of 
Cyprus, commanding that " two energies" should not be spoken 
of; and in 626, while in Lazistan (Colchis), he had a meeting 
with the metropolitan, Cyrus of Phasis, during which this com- 
mand was disaissed, and Cyrus was at last bidden to seek further 
instruction on the subject from Sergius, patriarch of Constanti- 
nople, a strong upholder of the ida ^vep7cta, and the emperor's 
counsellor with regard to it. So well did he profit by the teach- 
ing he received in this quarter that, in 630 or 631, Cyrus was 
appointee* to the vacant patriarchate of Alexandria, and in 
633 succeeded in reconciling the Severians of his province 
on the basis of fda Otapdpudi Mf/yHa (one divine -human 
energy). He was, however, opposed by Sophronius, a monk 
from Palestine, who, after vainly appealing to Cyrus, actually 
went to Constantinople to remonstrate with Sergius himself. 
Shortly afterwards Sergius wrote to Pope Honorius, and 
received a friendly reply.* Sophronius, however, who mean- 
while had been made patriarch of Jerusalem (634), refused 
to be silenced, and in his Epislota synodica strongly insisted 
on the " two energies." So intense did the controversy now 
become, that at last, towards the end of 638, Heraclius published 
an Ecthesis, or Exposition of the Faith (composed by Sergius), 
which prohibited the use of the phrase " one energy," because 
of its disquieting effects on some minds, as seeming to miliute 
against the doctrine of the two natures; while, on the other 
band, the expression " two energies " was interdicted because 
it seemed to imply that Christ had two wills. That Christ 
had but one will was declared to be the only orthodox doctrine, 
and all the faithful were enjoined to hold and teach it without 
addition or deduction. The document was not acceptable, 
however, to Popes Severinus and John IV., the immediate 
successors of Honorius; and Maximus, the confessor, succeeded 
in stirring up such violent opposition in North Africa and Italy 
that, in 648, Constans II. judged it expedient to withdraw his 
grandfather's edict, and to substitute for it his own Typus 
or Precept {rirwos mpl Tltrrttoi), forbidding all discussion of 
the questions of the duality or singleness of either the energy 
or the will of Christ. The scheme of doctrine of the first four 
general councils, in all its vagueness as to these points, was to 
be maintained; so far as the controversy had gone, the disputants 
00 either side were to be held free from censure, but to resume it 

* The name seems to occur first in John of Damascus. 

' Paul, speaking for the monophysite bishops, had said that what 
was particularly repugnant in the definition of Chalcedon (a.v.) was 
the implication of two wills in Christ. See Hcfcle, Concutengesch. 
Ui. 124 seq. (1877), who also traces the previous history of the expres- 
sions jiXa Mprfua, dtavipucl^ ivipYcta, especially as found in the writings 
of the Pseudo- Dionysus Areopagita, which first appeared in Egypt 
in the 5th century. 

* In two letters Honorius expressed himself in accord with the 
monothelite view, for which he was denounced as heretical by the 
Siiuh General Council and anathematised by Pope Leo H. 



would involve penal consequences. The reply of tlie Westcra 
Church was promptly given in the unambiguously dyothdite 
decrees of the Lateran synod held by Pope Martin I. in 649; 
but the cruel persecutions to which both Martin and MazimiB 
were exposed, and finally succumbed, secured for the impeiial 
Typus the assent at least of silence. With the accession of 
Constantine Pogonatus in 668 the controversy once more revived, 
and the new emperor resolved to summon a general coundL 
It met at Constantinople in 680, having been (Mrcceded in 679 
by a brilliant synod under Pope Agatho at Rome, where it had 
been agreed to depart in nothing from the decrees of the Laterui 
synod. The will, Agatho said, is a property of the natnre, 
so that as there are two natures there are two wills; bat the 
human will determines itself ever conformably to the divine 
and almighty wilL 

See R. L. Ottley. The Doctrine of the Inewmatiou (pt. viL |l 5. 6. 7): 
A. Hamack, History of Dogma, iv. 25^-267; art ^ Mouotholecca ** 
in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyklop. f&r proL Tkeolope (voL 13} by 
W. M6Uer and G. Kriiger. 

MONOTREMATA (a name referring to the'ungle outlet for 
all the excretory channels of the body), the lowest subdass 
of the Mammalia, represented at the present day solely by the 
platypus and the echidnas. It has been proposed to replace this 
name, when used as a subclass, by Prototheria; but it is perhaps 
on the whole preferable to retain it both for the subdass and 
for the single order by which it is now represented, distinguish 
ing the latter as Monotrcmata Vera. 

Existing monotremes are characterized by the foQowing 
features. In the first place they differ broadly from aU other 
mammab in being oviparous, or possibly in the case of one 
family ovoviviparous; and also in the absence of mammae, or 
teats, the milk-glands opening on the surface of the skin of the 
breast by means of a number of fine pores. Moreover, the 
milk-glands themselves are commonly believed to leprcs c at 
sweat-glands and not those of other mammals, althougli it has 
been suggested that this distinction may not i^ove to be valid. 
In the strict sense of the term monotremes are not, theiefbre, 
mammals at alL Another feature in which these creatures 
differ from all other living mammals is the presence of a pair 
of coracoid bones, which articulate with the sternum, or brust- 
bone, as well as of paired precoracoids, or epicoracoids, and 
an unpaired T-shaped interdavide, the arms of which overfie 
the davides or collar-bones. In all these rcq>ects monotremes 
closely resemble many reptiles. The brain lacks a ce^ptu 
caUosum, or band of nerve-tissue connecting the two hemisphfres. 
Again, the bodies of the vertebrae are for the most part without 
terminal caps, or epiphyses; and each rib articulates to the 
vertebral column solely by its head or capitulum, instead of 
by a capitulum and a tuberculum. More important b the 
circumstance that the testes, which remain throughout hfe 
within the abdominal cavity, do not discharge by means of 
their ureters into a urinary bladder, but into a urino-fenital 
sinus, which b in close commum'cation with the lower end of the 
alimentary canal, so that the genital and waste products of the 
body are discharged by means of a common tube, or doaca 
— another reptilian feature, although met with in certain other 
mammals. As regards other soft parts, the heart has the vabc 
dividing the right auricle and ventricle incomplete and to a great 
extent fleshy— a feature which may, in some degree, account for 
the k>wer temperature of monotremes as compared with higher 
mammals. The presence of an anterior abdominal vein, or 
at least its supporting membrane, running right through the 
abdominal cavity, b another dbtinctive feature of the group. 
Of less importance b the presence of a pair of epipubk. or 
marsupial, bones attached to the front edge of the pelvis. The 
females have a complete or rudimentary pouch on the abdo m w- 

In the presence of hair, the relativdy high temper a ture of the 
blood, the absence of nuclei to the red blood-corpuscles, and the 
existence of only the left aortic arch, as wdl as in the absence cf a 
separate quadrate-bone, and the ample structure of the lower )•«• 
monotremes conform to the ordinary mammalian type. Oa the 

a pfcoliar "daa^ 



other hand the skull of the pbtypus poasea 
bell bone," believed to represent the reptilian 



MONOTRIGLYPH— MONOTYPIC 



735 



The females produce their young from eggs, which are relatively 
large, and develop in the same manner as those of birds and reptil<9, 
a portion only of the yolk segmenting to form the embryo, while the 
remainder serves for the nutriment of the latter. In the case of 
Omitkorhynckus it has been said that two eggs are laid in the chamber 
at the end of the burrow,^ but those of the Echidnidae are carried 
about in the pouch on the abdomen of the female, which becomes 
enlarged during the time of incubation. In the adult state neither 
of the living groups of Monotrcmata have teeth ; but this is evidently 
only a specialized feature, the young platypus having functional 
teeth. In the latter, three pairs of these teeth are developed in the 
upper, and three in the lower jaw; but after being for some time in 
nae, they gradually become worn away, and are finally shed. Under 
and around the teeth are developed the homy pUtes, or " cornuks," 
which gradually grow round them and assume their function, the 
hollows on the surface of the comules indicating the positions ot 
the teeth. In form these teeth make a distant approximation to the 
molars of some of the extinct Multituberculata iq.v.), 

A peculiarity of the males is the presence in the hind-limb of an 
additional, flat, curved ossicle on tne hinder and tibial side of the 
plantar aspect of the tarsus, articulating chiefly to the tibia, support- 
ing in the adult a sharp-pointed perforated homy spur, with which 
b connected the duct of a gland situated beneath the skin of the back 
of the thigh. (A rudimentary spur is found in the young female 
Omilhorhynchus, but this disappears when the animal becomes adult.) 
The stomach is sub-globular and simple; the alimentary canal has 
no ileo-caecal valve, or marked distinction between large and small 
intestine, but is furnished with a small, slender vermiform caecum 
with glandular walls. The liver is divided into the usual number of 
lobes, and is provided with a gall-bladder. 

The trunk-vertebrae are nineteen in number. The transverse 
processes of the cervical vertebrae are independently developed, and 
remain suturally connected with the bodies of the vertebrae until 
the animal is full-grown. Though in this respect monotremes pre- 
sent an approximation to reptiles, they differ in that there is not a 
gradual transition from these transverse processes of the neck-verte- 
Drae (or cervical ribs, as they mav be considered) into the thoracic 
ribs, for in the seventh vertebra the costal element is much smaller 
than in the other, indicative of a very marked separation of neck 
from thorax, not seen in reptiles. The sternal ribs are well ossified, 
and there are distinct, partly ossified, intermediate ribs. The brain- 
cavity, unlike that of the lower marsupials or reptiles, is large and 
hemispherical, flattened below, arched above, and about as broad 
as long. The cribriform plate of the ethmoid is nearly horizontal. 
The cranial walls are very thin, and smoothly rounded externally, 
and the sutures become completely obliterated in adults. The 
brood occipital region slopes upwards and forwards, and the face 
is produced into a Ions depressed beak. The bony palate is pro- 
longed backwards, so that the posterior nares are nearly on a level 
with the glenoid fossa. The lower jaw, or mandible, is without 
distinct ascending ramus; the coronoid process and angle being 
rudimentary, and the two halves loosely connected at the symphysis. 
The fibula has a broad, flattened process, projecting from its upper 
extremity above the articulation, like an olecranon. 

The first family, Ornithorhynchidae, is represented solely by the 
duck-billed platypus, or platypus {OmUhorhynchtu anatinus), in 
which the hemispheres of the brain are relatively small and 
smooth, while the muzzle is expanded to form a spatula-like 
beak, covered during life with a delicate sensitive skin, which 
dries in museum-spedmens to a homy consistency. Although, 
as mentioned above, functional teeth are developed in the young, 
in the adult their function is discharged by "comules," or 
homy stuctures — elongated, narrow and sharp-edged, along 
the anterior part of the sides of the mouth, and broad, flat- 
topped or molariform behind. The legs are short and adapted 
for swimming; the feet webbed, each with five well-developed 
toes armed with large claws, and beyond which in the fore-feet 
the interdigital membrane is extended. Vertebrae: C. 7, D. 17, 
L. a, S. 2, Ca. 31. Acetabulum of pelvis not perforated. Tongue 
not extensile. Mucous membrane of small intestine covered 
with delicate, dose-set transverse folds or ridges. Tail rather 
short, broad, and depressed. Eyes very small. Fur close and 
soft. 

The platypus, or water-mole, is common to Australia and 
Tasmania, and entirely aquatic in habits, diving freely, and 
making its burrow in the river-banks. It feeds on insects, 
snails, small bivalve molluscs, and worms. In the adult state 
bivalves form its chief food; and it is believed that the sub- 
stitution of homy plates for brittle teeth is an adaptation for 
cracking the shells of these creatures. (See Platypus.) 

* There does not appear to be authentic evidence that the eggs in 
thia genus are actually laid. (See Platypus.) 



The second family, Echidnidae, has a wider geographical 
distribution, induding Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea, 
and is represented by two genera. The hemispheres of the 
brain are large and convoluted; and the muzzle is produced 
into a long, tapering, tubular beak, at the end of which the 
nostrils are situated. The two branches of the lower jaw are 
siender and rod-like. Opening of mouth small, and placed 
below the extremity of the beak. No teeth, though the palate 
and tongue are furnished with spines. Tongue very long, 
vermiform, slender and protractile. Lining membrane of 
small intestine villous, but without transverse folds. Feet with 
long strong claws for scratching and btirrowing. The hind-feet 
with the ends of the toes turned outwards and backwards in 
the ordinary position of the animal when on the ground. Tail 
very short. Acetabulum with a large perforation. Calcaneal 
spur and gland of the male much mailer than in Ornitkorhynchus. 
Fur intermixed with strong, sharp-pointed spines. Terrestrial 
and fossorial in habits, feeding exclusively on ants. 

The typical genus Echidna is represented by the echidna, 
or porcupine-onteater (£. acuUala)^ which has a distribution 




Bruijn's Echidna {Pfoukidna bruijni), 

equivalent to that of the family, and indudes several local 
races. It is characterized by the presence of five daws to 
each foot, the moderatdy long and straight beak, the Upering 
tongue, with its spines restricted to the basal portion, and the 
vertebrae numbering C. 7, D. 16, L. 3, S. 3, Ca. 1 2. In ProecMdnat 
represented by tiie larger P. bruijni and P. nigroactdeata^ both 
from New Guinea, on the other hand, terminal phalanges and 
claws are present only on the three middle toes of each foot, 
the tongue is somewhat spoon-shaped and carries three rows 
of spines along its upper surface, and there are 17 dorsal and 
four lumbar vertebrae. (See Echidna.) 

At present no light is shed by palaeontology on the past 
history of the Monotremata Vera. Spedes of Echidna and 
Omithorkynckus have indeed been described from the superficial 
formations of Australia, but they apparently differ in no struc- 
tural detaUs from their existing representatives. 

Possibly some of the extinct Jurassic mammals with a mar- 
supial or insectivorous type of dentition referred to in the 
article Marsxtpiaua may be monotremes, but there is no 
definite evidence that this is the c&se. On the other hand, 
there is a possibility that another extinct group of mammals, 
dating from the Trias and continuing till the Lower Eocene, 
mdy belong to the present subdass, of which they form a second 
order. (See Multituberculata.) 

The most important recent information with regard to the Mono- 
trcmata will be found in Dr R. Semon's Reise in Australien, in the 
Denkschnft of the Jena Natural History Society. (R. L.*) 

MONOTRIGLYPH. in architecture, the interval of the inter- 
columniation of the Doric column, which is observed by the 
intervention of one triglyph only between the triglyphs which 
come over the axes of the columns. This is the usual arrange- 
ment, but in the Propylaea at Athens there are two triglyphs 
over the central intercolumniation, in order to give increased 
width to the roadway, up which chariots and beasts of sacrifice 
ascended. 

MONOTYPIC (Gr. p6vof, alone, single, and Hnros, a type), 
a term used in biology, &c., for subjects having only one 
exponent, for example a genus containing only one spedes. 



736 



MONREALE— MONROE 



MONREALB (contraction of monU-reaJet so called from a palace 
built here by Roger I.), a town of Sicily, in the province of 
Palermo, 5 m. inland (W.S.W.) from it, on the slope of Monte 
Caputo, overlooking the beautiful and very fertile valley called 
"La Conca d*oro" (the Golden Shell), famed for its orange, 
olive and almond trees, the produce of which is exported in 
large quantities. Pop. (1901), 17,379 (town); 23,556 (commune). 
The town, which for long was a mere vilkige, owed its origin 
to the founding of a large Benedictine monastery, with its 
church, the seat of the metropolitan archbishop of Sicily.^ 
This, the greatest of all the monuments of the wealth and 
artistic taste of the Norman kings in northern Sicily, was begun 
about 1 1 70 by William II., and in ii8a the church, dedicated 
to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, was, by a bull of Pope 
Lucius III., elevated to the rank of a metropolitan cathedral. 

The archiepiscopal palace and monastic buildings on the 
touth side were of great size and magnificence, and were sur- 
rounded by a massive precinct wall, crowned at intervals by 
twelve towers. This has been mostly rebuilt, and but little 
now remains except ruins of some of the towera, a great part 
of the monks' dormitory and frater, and the splendid cloister, 
completed about 1200. This last is well preserved, and is 
one of the finest cloisters both for size and beauty of detail 
now extant. It is about 170 ft. square, with pointed arches 
decorated with diaper work, supported on pairs of colunms in 
white marble, 216 in all, which were alternately plain and 
decorated by bands of patterns in gold and colours, made of 
glass tesserae, arranged either spirally or vertically from end 
to end of each shaft. The marble caps are each richly carved 
with figures and foliage executed with great skiU and wonderful 
fertility of invention — no two being alike. At one angle, a 
square pillared projection contains the marble fountain or 
monks' lavatory, evidently the work of Moslem sculptors. 

The church is fortunately well preserved. In plan it is a curious 
mixture of Eastern and Western arrangement. The nave b like 
an Italian basilica, while the large triple-apsed choir b like one of 
the early three-apsed churches, of which so many examples still 
exist In S>ri : ;, , r ciiicrn cotirTrics, It i*, lU f^ft^ like two 

quite diflfert i r ^ ;,,.i. :,. -, put ttreeiticr rndwise. The bj^itifan nave 
u widcp with nairaw ahtcs^^ MonDJithic c:Dlunnn.f of ^ny uricntal 
granitr (excrpt onr. wbich ia of cipailido), evldenily the ,. tils of 
older fauilfJings, on each side support eight points a^T^l. - much 
stilted. The c:ipit^ls of these [mainly CDrinthian} arc ^t^r. of the 
cUuical period. There Is no trifDiiium, but a bigh ckrvstory 
with wide two-light windows^ with sininle tracery tike thobt in the 
nave-aii^les and throughout the churcn^ which give lufil^^Letit (if 
anything too much) light. The other half, EAj,tern in two ^ccims, is 
both wider and higher than the nave. It aUo U divided into a 
cemtTa! spact with i^tto aiile^nearh of the dlviuona cndlnff at the east 
with an ap«* The roof a thrytighoui are of open woodwork very low 
in pitch. con^tructionalEy plain, but richty decor:atcd *iih colour, 
flow mostly restored. At th6 wtst end of the fid vc arc two project- 
ing towers^ with a nan hcTi-cn trance between thfm. A large open 
Atnum.K which once exitt^ dt the w-est, \^ now cornplettly dcMroyed, 
haviiiE been replaced by a Reruissanor portico. The outside of the 
church 19 plain, except the aiale waIIi and three eastern apset, which 
are decorated with intersect in g pointed arch« and other ornaments 
inlsid in marble. The outsidta of the principaJ doorwayi and their 
pointed arches are magnificently cnrkhE>d with carving and coloured 
tnlay, a curioui combination of three stylesi — Norman-Fjcnch, 
Byzantine and Argi;*. 

It is, however, the ennrn- ■■.:■ ■ •..■■ -.- l;-'.--.-' ■" ■•;- i'-: -i;-'. J Bering 

Slendour of the glass mosaics covering the'intenor which make this 
urch so splendid. With l". . ■ ■ : . * t h\'r- <:■.■]■- ii . T vrry 
beautiful, made of marble sltl^'i wirh Kind-i i>f jnti^^nr between them, 
the whole interior surface of the WjiUf, including xyitiii and jaTntTa of 
all the arches, b covered with minute moNiic-pictures in brilliant 
colours^ on a gold ground. The mi^aic pictures arc arranged in 
tiers, divided by honzontal and vertical band^. Injmm of the choir 
there are five of these tiers of jubjecl* or single figure* one abo^tr 
another. The half dome of the ccnint ajise has a colouaL half- 
length figure of Christ, with a leated Virgm and Child below^ the 
other apses have full-length coId'^^iI figures of St Peier and Sf Paul. 
Inscriptions on each picture ■■-rl ;;r. 1-;- -.i" [.■'. -.r' ■]•> r^ •■'' .. nrcd; 
these are in Latin, except some few which are in Greek. The sub- 
jects in the nave begin with scenes from the Book of Genesis, illus- 
trating the Old Testament types of Christ and His scheme of redemp- 
tion, with figures of those who prophesied and prepared for hiis 
coming. Towards the east are subjects from the New Testament, 

* An earlier church appears to have existed at Monreale since the 
6ch century, but no traces of it now remain. 



chiefly representing Chrbt's miractet tnd tofferinff. vttk tmAa, 
evangelists and other saints. The design, execution and choice 
of subjects all appear to be of Byzantine origin, the subjects betng 
sclectcxl from the ilntologium drawn up by the emperor Basfliut 
Porphyrogcnitus in the loth century. 

In the central apse at Monreale, behind the high altar, b a fine 
marble throne for the archbishop. This position of the throoe is a 
survival of the early basiiican arrangement, when the apse aad 
altar were at the west end. In that case the celebrant atooa bduad 
the altar at mass, and looked over it eastwards towanis the people. 
On the north side, in front of the high altar, b another soraevut 
similar throne for the use of the king. The tomb of William I., the 
founder's father — a magnificent porphyry sarcophagus oontenponiy 
with the church, under a marble pilkired canopy — and the founder 
William II.'s tomb, erected in 1^7^, were both shattered by a fire, 
which in 181 1 broke out in the choir, injuring some of the mosaics, 
and destroying all the fine walnut chou'-fittings. the oceans, and nxMt 
of the choir roof. The tombs were rebuilt, and the whole of the 
injured part of the church restored, mostly very clumsily, a few 
vcars after the fire. On the north of the choir are the tombs of 
Margaret, wife of Willbm I., and her two sons Roger and Henry, 
together with an urn contaimng the viscera of St Loub of Fnnce, 
who died in 1370. The pavement of the triple choir, though Bwch 
restored, b a very magnificent specimen of marble aatd porphyry 
mosaic in opus alexanarinum, with signs of Arab influence m its 
main lines. Thepavement of the nave, on the other hand, b of the 
1 6th century. Two barooue chapels were added in the 17th aad 
1 8th centunes, which are lortimately shut off from the rest of the 
church. 

Two bronie doors^ those on the north and '■'est of the churdu 
arc of great interest in the hiAtofy of art. Tl^cy are both divided 
into a number of square panels with Skibwcts and »ngle fifuitik 
chiefly fmm Dible history, cast in reJicf. That on the iwrth u br 
Ifarisanui of Tram in southern Italy, an a.Tit$t probably el Greec 
origin. It ii in^ribcd &.<iar!iANUS TaA?i. me f^CiJ* llie cathedrals 
at Trani and Ravello also have bmoze doors by the same sculptor. 
The western door at Monreale, inferior to the r»orTbem onti both ia 
richncsi o{ desigii and in workEnan&hip, U by BonanrHn ol Pisa, for 
the cathedra] of which place he cast the still cxistinf; bronie door 
on the south, opposite the JeanJng tower. The one at Klanreale u 
inscribed a.d.mclxjcxvi tt^o.itj.^oNANKuscivis fi^ANvsHxracn. 
it h $tiperidjr in execution to the Pisan one. The door by Ebrisanns 
ii prabably of about the tame time* m other exainpl« of hb woric 
with ifucnbcd dates show that he W4s a con temporary of Ikdianaos. 
The t(!ect of the fa^de is not improvetl by ihc Kenai»ance poitaco 
iliat ha* twen ad tied to it. The monastic library contains noe 
vaiuabtc MSS., «tw:iall/ a number of bilingual documenis in Greek 
nnd Arabic, the earliest being dated ti4^ The archUj>hop now 
itccupics the eastern part of the monasiic buildings, the origiaal 
jubfc htl^g deftroyea. 

Set D. O.Gravina, U Dmmo di Mmftak CPaV'TTT^. ^*^f>-i96A. 

a.H.M.;T.As.) 

MONRO, DAVID BINNINO (1836-1905), English Homeric 
scholar, was bom in Edinburgh on the x6th of November 1856. 
He was a grandson of Alexander Monro, tertius (1771-1859), 
professor of anatomy in Edinbtirgh University, whoae father, 
Alexander Monro, seomdus (i 733-1 81 7), and grandfather, Alex- 
ander Monro, primus (1697-1767), both filled the same positioe. 
He was educated at Glasgow University, and Brascnose and 
Balliol Colleges, Oxford. In 1859 he was elected fellow, and 
in 1 88a provost of Oriel, which office he held till hb death at 
Heiden, Switzerland, on the a and of August 1905. He was 
a man of varied attainments, an excellent linguist, and p o t s se d 
considerable knowledge of music, painting and architeanre. 
His favourite study was Homer, and hb Grammar oftkt Htmak 
Dialect (and ed., i8qi) established hb reputation as an authority 
on that author. He also edited the last twelve books of the 
Odyssey, with valuable appendices on the composition of the 
poem, its relation to the Iliad and the cyclic poets, the history 
of the text, the dialects, and the Homeric house; a critical 
text of the poems and fragments (Homeri opera et rdiqtdee^ 
1896); Homeri opera (190a, with T. W. Allen, in Scripitrwm 
classicorum HMiotheca oxoniensis); and an edition of the llioi 
with notes for schools. His article on Homer, written for the 
9th edition of the Encyclopaedia BriUxnnica^ was revised by hia 
for this work before he died. Mention may also be made d 
his Modes of Ancient Greek Music (1894), 00 which see CUssicd 
Review for December 1894, with author's reply in the sane 
for February 1895. 

See Memoir by J. Cook Wilson (Oxford. 1907). 

MONROE, JAMES (1758-1831), fifth president of the United 
Sutes, was bom on Monroe's creek, a tributary of the Focooac 



MONROE 



737 



river, in Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the i8th of April 
1758. His father, Spence Monroe, was of Scotch, and his 
mother, Elizabeth Jones, was o( Welsh descent. At the age 
of sixteen he entered the College of William and Mary, Williams- 
burg, Virginia, but in 1776 he left college to take part in the 
War for Independence. He enlisted in the Third Virginia 
regiment, in which he became a lieutenant, and subsequently 
took part in the battles of Harlem Heights, White Plains, 
Trenton (where he was wounded), Brandywine, Germantown, 
and Monmouth. In November 1777 he was appointed volunteer 
aide-de-camp to William Alexander (" Lord Stirling "), with 
the rank of major, and thereby lost his rank in the Continental 
line; but in the following year, at Washington's solicitation, | 
be received a commission as lieutenant-colonel in a new regiment , 
to be raised in Virginia. In 1780 he began the study of law ' 
under Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia, and between 
the two there developed an intimacy and a sympathy that had 
a powerful influence upon Monroe's later career. 

In 178a he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates, and 
though only twenty-four years of age he was chosen a member of 
the governor's council. He served in the Congress of the Con- 
federation from 1783 to 1786 and was there conspicuous for his 
vigorous insbtence upon the right of the United Sutes to the 
navigation of the Mississippi River, and for his attempt, in 1785, 
to secure for the weak Congress the power to regulate commerce, 
in order to remove one of the great defects in the existing central 
governmenL On retiring from Congress he began the practice 
of law at Fredericksburg, Virginia, was chosen a member of 
the Virginia House of Delegates in 1787, and in 1788 was a 
member of the state convention which ratified for Virginia 
the Federal constitution. In 1790 he was elected to the United 
States senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of William 
Grayson, and although in this body he vigorously opposed 
Washington's administration, Washington on the 37th of May 
1794 nominated him as minister to France. It was the hope 
of the administration that Monroe's well-known French sym- 
pathies would secure for him a favourable reception, and that 
his appointment would also conciliate the friends of France 
in the United States. His warm reception in France and his 
enthusiastic Republicanism, however, displeased the Federalists 
at home; he did nothing, moreover, to reconcile the French 
to the Jay treaty (see Jay, John), which they regarded as a 
violation of the French treaty of alliance of 1778 and as a possible 
casus bdli. The administration therefore decided that he was 
unable to represent his government properly and late in 1796 
recalled him. 

Monroe returned to America in the spring of 1797, and in 
the following December published a defence of his course in 
a pamphlet of 500 pages entitled A View of Ihc Conduct of the 
Executive in the Foreign Affairs of tlte United States, and printed 
in Philadelphia by Benjamin Franklin Bache (1769- 1798). 
Washington seems never to have forgiven Monroe for this, 
though Monroe's opinion of Washington and Jay underwent a 
change in his later years. In 1799 Monroe was chosen governor 
of Virginia and was twice re-elected, serving until 1802. At 
this time there was much uneasiness in the United States as 
a result of Spain's restoration of Louisiana to France by the 
secret treaty of San Itdefonso, in October 1800; and the sub- 
sequent withdrawal of the " right of deposit " at New Orleans 
by the Spanish intendant greatly increased this feeling and led 
to much talk of war. Resolved upon peaceful measures. 
President Jefferson in January 1803 appointed Monroe envoy 
extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to France to aid 
Robert R. Livingston, the resident minister, in obtaining by 
purchase the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi, including 
the island of New Orieans, and at the same time authorized 
him to co-operate with Charies Pinckney, the minister at 
Madrid, in securing from Spain the cession of East and West 
Florida. On the 18th of April Monroe was further commissioned 
as the regular minister to Great Britain. He joined Livingston 
ia Paris on the 12th of April, after the negotiations were well 
ander way; and the two ministers, on finding Napoleon willing 



to dispose of the entire province of Louisiana, dedded to exceed 
their instructions and effect its purchase. Accordingly, on the 
30th of April, they signed a treaty and two conventions, whereby 
France sold Louisiana to the United States (see Louisiana 
Purchase). In July 1803 Monroe left Paris and entered upon 
his duties in London; and in the autumn of 1804 he proceeded 
to Madrid to assist Pinckney in his efforts to secure the definition 
of the Louisiana boundaries and the acquisition of the Floridas. 
After negotiating with Don Pedro de Cevallos, the Spanish 
minister of foreign affairs, from January to May 1805, without 
success, Monroe rettumed to London and resumed his negotia- 
tions, which had been interrupted by his journey to Spain, 
concerning the impressment of American seamen and the 
seizure of American vessels. As the British ministry was 
reluctant to discuss these vexed questions, little progress was 
made, and in May 1806 Jefferson ordered William Pinkney of 
Maryland to assist Monroe. The British government appointed 
Lords Auckland and Holland as negotiators, and the result of 
the deliberations was the Jtreaty of the 31st of December 1806, 
which contained no provision against impressments and pro- 
vided no indemnity for the seizure of goods and vessels. In passing 
over these matters Monroe and Pinkney had disregarded their 
instructions, and Jefferson was so displeased with the treaty 
that he refused to present it to the senate for ratification, and 
returned it to England for revision. Just as the negotiations 
were re-opened, however, the questions were further complicated 
and their settlement delayed by the attack of the British ship 
" Leopard " upon the American frigate " Chesapeake." Monroe 
returned to the United States in December 1807, and was elected 
to the Virginia House of Delegates in the spring of 18 10. In 
the following winter he was again chosen governor, serving 
from January to November 18 11, and resigning to become 
secretary of state under Madison, a position which he held until 
the 3rd of March 181 7. The direction of foreign affairs in the 
troubled period immediately preceding and during the second 
war with Great Britain thus devolved upon him. On the 
27th of September 1814, after the disaster of Bladensburg and 
the capture of Washington by the British, he was appointed 
secretary of war to succeed General John Armstrong, and 
discharged the duties of this office, in addition to those* of the 
state department, until March 181 5. 

In 181 6 Monroe was chosen president of the United States; 
he received 183 electoral votes, and Rufus King, his Federalist 
opponent, 34. In 1820 he was re-elected, receiving all the 
electoral votes but one, which William Plumer (1759-1850) of 
New Hampshire cast for John (^incy Adams, in order, it is 
said, that no one might share with Washington the honour of 
a unanimous election. The chief events of his administra- 
tion, which has been called the *' era of good feeling," 
were the Seminole War (1817-18); the acquisition of the 
Floridas from Spain (1819-21); the "Missouri Compromise" 
(1820), by which the first conflict over slavery imder the con- 
stitution was peacefully adjusted; the veto of the Cumberland 
Road Bill (1822)* on constitutional grounds; and — most 

1 The Cumberland (or Ndtmnat) Road from Cumberland, Mary- 
la nd^ to Wheelinf;, Weit Virginia, was projected in 1806, by an 
oppropriatjon of i8t9 wai rxttrndpd to the Ohio River, by an act of 
ifiiJ5 (srigned by Monroe qti the last day of his terro of office) was 
cottlinuc^ ta L^in^wiMct and by an act of 1829 was extended west- 
w:ird (mm Z3.nch\\iJc. The oppropriation of 1806 for the construe- 
lion <st ihf road had brouslil into n^x^onal politics the question of 
the authofity of the Federal govfmmeni to make " internal improve- 
mtnt%," The btll vetoed by Monroe would in effect have given to 
thp Federal novrmment jurif^JidLion over the road; and in his 
.'jL^raie memorandum (May 4^ 1822) accompanying his veto 
message. Monroe discussed at length the constitutional questions 
involved, argued that the Federal government was empowered 
by the Constitution to appropriate money for " internal improve- 
ments." and in concert with the states through which a road was to 
pass might supervise the construction of such a road, but might not 
exercise jurisdiction over it, and advocated the adoption of an 
amendment to the constitution giving larger power to the Federal 
government " confined to great national works only, since, if it were 
unlimited it would be liable to abuse, and might be productive of 
evil." For the history of the Cumberland Road, see Archer B. 
Hulbert, The Cumberland Road (Cleveland. Ohio. 1904). 



738 



MONROE— MONROE DOCTRINE 



intimately connected with Monroe's name — the enunciation in 
the presidential message of the 2nd of December 1823 of what 
has since been known as the Monroe Doctrine (9.v.)i which has 
profoundly influenced the foreign policy of the United States. 
On the expiration of his second term, he retired to his home at 
Oak Hill, Loudoun county, Virginia. In 1826 he became a 
regent of the university of Virginia, and in 1829 was a member 
of the convention called to amend the state constitution. 
Having neglected his private affairs and incurred, large expendi- 
tures during his missions to Europe, he experienced considerable 
pecuniary embarrassment in his later years, and was compelled 
to ask Congress to reimburse him for his expenses in the public 
service. Congress finally (in 1826) authorized the payment of 
$30,000 to him, and after his death appropriated a small amount 
for the purchase of his papers from his heirs. He died in New 
York City on the 4th of July 183 1, while visiting his daughter, 
Mrs Samuel L. Gouvemcur. In 1858, the centennial year of his 
birth, his remains were rcinterred with impressive ceremonies 
at Richmond, Virginia. Jefferson, Madison, John Quincy Adams, 
Calhoun, and Benton all speak loudly in Monroe's praise; but he 
suffers by comparison with the greater statesmen of his time. 
Possessing none of their brilliance, he had, nevertheless, to 
use the words of John Quincy Adams, ^'a mind . . . sound 
in its ultimate judgments, and firm in its final conclusions." 
Schouler points out that like Washington and Lincoln he was 
"conspicuous ... for patient considerateness to all sides." 
Monroe was about six feet tall, but, being stoop-shouldered 
and rather ungainly seemed less; his eyes, a greyish blue, were 
deep-set and kindly; his face was delicate, naturally refined, 
and prematurely lined. The best-known portrait, that by 
Vanderlyn, is in the New York City Hall. Monroe was married 
in 1786 to Elizabeth Kortwright (i 768-1 830) of New York, and 
at hi<i death was Eurvivcd by iwo d=^uu I.:. ! - 

Scd The Writinp ofJamrs Monrot (7 voli^ New Vork, 1898-1903), 
editt^d by S. M. Hamilton ; Daniel C. Cilirun^ Jamri Monroe (Boston, 
), in the " American Statci^nian Scries"; J. R. Irelan, History 



i88^>, in the " American ^tatc^man Scries"; 1. 

Djf jr*f L^i, Admini^tfJitiifn aifd Timrs ef Jawifi Afafttoet being yol. v. 

. ^ . , and, j 

Monroe' t Muiiort. lo France ^ i7Qj^i7g6 (Baltimarv, 1907); Hcniy 



of hii Rtjuthlic (Chicago, iSfl?}; John Quincy Adams, Thei^wes of 
i Mad * * " " " ' ^ ... -. . . 



Jamti Madiisjn and Jamri Monroe (Buffalo, 1 !*5Ci) ; B, W. Bond, jun. 
Monroe's Misiutn l^ France^ 17^4-1 jg6 (Baltimarv, 1907); Heni> 
A^iaFHs. Htstory ff Ihi Unitrd States {g voli-^ New York, 1889-1891), 
containing a full but un^-mparheric aixount of ^Ic^n roe's career as a 
diplornatiit; and T )i' ' '■■■ " 1 . ^.' ' - . ' ' ■ "■ .{5^a/rj, vols. ii. 
and iii. (New Vork , Bervlccs highly. 

MONROE. & dty of Loiiisiana, U.S.A., the capital of Ouachita 
parish, in the northern part of the state, on the cast bank of the 
Ouachita river, 72 m. W. of Vicksburg, Mississippi, and 96 m. E. 
of Shreveport, Louisiana. Pop. (1890), 3256; (1900), 5428 
(2834 negroes); (1910), 10,209. It is served by the Arkansas, 
Louisiana & Gulf, the Little Rock & Monroe, the Vicksburg, 
Shreveport & Pacific (Queen & Crescent), and the St Louis, 
Iron Mountain & Southern railways, and by river steamers 
plying between New Orleans and Camden, Arkansas, Across 
the Ouachita is the town of West Monroe (pop. in 1910, 1127). 
The improvement of the river, by the removal of snags and the 
construction of dams and locks in order to give it a navigable 
depth of 10 ft. at Monroe and 6} ft. beyond Camden, was nearly 
completed by the United States government in 1909. Monroe 
lies in a level valley, and has broad streets shaded by live oaks. 
Among the public buildings are a handsome city-hall, a city 
market-house, a charity hospital and a high school There 
are also a parish high school and St Hyacinth's Academy 
(Roman CathoL'c). The leading industries are the manufacture 
of lumber and cotton products. 

In 1785, during the Spanish occupation of Louisiana, Juan 
Filhiol, commandant of the district of Ouachita, founded a 
settlement on the site of the present Monroe, which was called 
Ouachita Post until 1790 and then Fort Mir6, inhonourof the 
governor-general. In 1819 the place was renamed Monroe, in 
honour of President James Monroe, and in the following year 
the town was incorporated. Monroe was chartered as a city 
in 1 87 1, and received a new charter in 1902. 

MONROE, a city and the county-seat of Monroe county, 
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Raisin river, 2 m. from Lake Erie, 



near the south-eastern comer of the sUte. Piop. (1890), 51$$; 
(1900), S043; (i904)> 6128; (1910), 6893. It is served by the 
Michigan Centra], the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the 
P&re Marquette, and the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line railways, 
and by electric lines to Detroit and Toledo. There b a 
statue here (dedicated in x9to) of Gen. G. W. Coster. Monroe 
has a German Altenheim and St Mary's academy and colkfe 
for girls. The dty has a large trade in farming-produce and fish, 
and various manufactures. The place was settled in 1783 by 
French Canadians and called Frenchtown. In January i8ij 
the inhabitants, fearing destruction from the British and their 
Indian allies, pleaded to the Americans for protection, and 
about 660 men from the army of General James Winchester 
(17 52-1826), sent from the rapids of the Maumee river, 00 the 
1 8th of January drove a small British force from the village. Huee 
days later General Winchester arrived with 300 more men; bat 
at dawn on the 22nd Colonel Henry A. Proctor (1787-1859) irith 
a force of British and Indians surprised the Americans, defeated 
their right wing, captured General Winchester and obtained 
from him an order for the surrender of his entire force. In 1815 
Monroe recdved its present name in honour of James Monroe; 
In 1817 it was made the county-seat, and in 1827 it was ilKO^ 
porated as a village. It was chartered as a dty in XS37 
(being rechartered in 1874), and as a dty of the fourth dui 
in 1895. 

MONROE DOCTRINE. That the United States should avoid 
entangling itself in the politics of Europe was a policy recofli- 
mended by Washmgton. The counterpart of this, that Eoropeaa 
powers should be prevented from taking a controlling share io 
the politics of the American continent, grew gradually as the 
importance and influence of the United States increased. TtiM 
American attitude towards the European powers bccanf 
crystallized in what is known as the Monroe Doctrine, since 
it was first announced officially in a concrete form, though not 
originated, by President Monroe. His declaration was tke 
result of American apprehension that the combinatioo of 
European powers known as the Holy Alliance would interfeic 
in South America to restore the Spanish colonies, which had 
asserted their independence, to the crown of Spain. To meet and 
check this moven\ent, in his message to Congress on the lad of 
December 182^, Monroe made the following p^onouncemeBt^- 

In the wars of the European powers in matters relating to the** 
selves we have never taken any part, nor does it comport wiih otf 
policy so to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or aeriou4f 
menaced that we resent injuries or make preparatioos for otf 
defence. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of Beo» 
sity more immediately connected, and by causes which mutt he 
obvious to all enlightened and impartial otwerven. The politial 
system of the aliira powers is essentially different in th» respcd 
from that of America. . . . We owe it, therefore, to candov. aad 
to the amicable relations existing between the United Sutet ud 
those powers, to declare that we should consider any attenpc «■ 
their part to extend thdr system to any portion of this faeau»krfc 
as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existiw coioaio 
or dependencies of any European power we have not intencffd sad 
shall not interfere. But with the governments who have dedbni 
their independence and maintained it, and whose indepeodcMr «t 
have on great consideration and on just prindpla acuiovledH* 
we could not view any interposition for tne purpose of opnesHil 
them or controlling m any other manner thdr destiny of V7 
European power in any other light than as the nunifcstatioa of ai 
unfriendly disposition towards the United States. ... It is af^ 
sible that the allied powers should extern! their political syswa • 
any portion of either continent without endangering our pesor ts' 
happmess; nor can any one believe that our Southern bretfans.' 
left to themselves, would adopt it of their own accord. It is cqoalf 
impossible, therefore, that we should behold such intcrpoBlioa ia 
any form with indifference. 

Earlier in the same message, while discussing negodatiatf 
for the settlement of the respective claims of Russia, OkA 
Britain, and the Um'ted States in the north-west, MoBneak* 
said:— 

In the discussion to which this interest has given rne aai the 
arrangements by itidiich they may terminate, the *>or?iwT«* h0 b^ 
judged proper for asserting as a principle in which the rkto*" 
mterests of the United States are involved, that the ftauiua 
continents, by the free and in d e p e ndent ronditioo which tJkf^^ 



MONROSE— MONSIGNOR 



739 



•Mnmed and maintain, .are henceforth not to be oonndered as 
subjects for future colonization by any European powers. 

With this message Great Britain was in hearty agreement. 
Indeed it was Canning's policy, summed up three years later 
by his famous reference to the necessity of calling the New 
World into existence to restore the balance of the Old. 

This announcement of policy, it wUl be noticed, involved, 
firstly, a declaration aimed at foreign: intervention in the political 
affairs of independent American states; secondly, a warning 
against future European colonizatioji on the American continents. 
The first was avowedly based on the right of self-defence; it 
was a policy, not a law; it was not to constraia the ipinor 
republics, but to protect them. The second, as explained by 
John Quincy Adams, was intended to state the fact that the 
American continent was occupied by contiguous states, leaving 
DO room for further colonization and introduction of foreign 
sovereignty. No legislative sanction was given to Monroe's 
statement of poUcy at the time, and in fact none was needed, 
for the mere announcement served to prevent foreign acUon 
in South America. It has never formed part of the body of 
International Law, being unilateral. Nor has the United States 
bound itself by compact with the other republics of the American 
continent to protect them from £uro[>ean aggression. Thus 
it hcsjuted to send delegates to the Panama Congress in 1826, 
and took no part in any congress with the Latin American 
sUtes until 1889. 

Nevertheless, on several occasions since its conception the 
Monroe Doctrine has been enforced. Its spirit permeated the 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, in which Great Britain and the United 
States, in 1850, mutually renounced the right of colonizing, 
fortifying or occupying any porton of Central America. It 
was enforced against Maximilian, who, by French intervention 
in Mexico, had been made emperor, and until the close of the 
American Civil War had perforce been left undisturbed. Its 
applicability was urged when de Lesseps's Panama Canal was 
thought possible of completion. Both Cuba and the Hawaiian 
fyyan/jjt at various periods have felt its influence, the general, 
though not consistent policy of the United States being, while 
disclaiming the desire of annexation itself, to deny the right of 
any European power (except Spain in Cuba's case, until 1898) 
to control them. And it was applied to the claims of British 
Guiana to Venezuelan territory by President Cleveland's message 
in 1895, which proposed a commission .to settle the boundary 
and threatened war if its line were not accepted. This com- 
mission never reported, but th6 disputants finally agreed to 
arbitrate, and the British claim was in the main upheld. 
' Between 1823 and 1895 the development and enlargement 
of this policy on the part of the United States was very striking. 
To prevent the overthrow of an independent republic is one 
thing; to interfere in the settlement of a boundary dispute 
between two sUtes, also on the ground of self-defence, is quite 
another. Yet Cleveland's doctrine met with general acceptance, 
and in fact it had been in a sense antidpated by President Grant, 
who, in urging the annexation of San Domingo upon the United 
States Senate in 1870, used this language:— 

The Doctrine promuI^Ced by President Monroe has been adhered 
to by all political parties, and 1 now deem it proper to assert the; 
cqiouly important principle that hereafter no territory on this 
continent shall be regarded as subject of transfer io a European 



Never having been formulated as lawyer in exact language, 
the Monroe Doctrine has meant different things to different 
penons at different times. It has become deeply rooted in 
the American heart, and a permanent part of the foreign policy 
cf the United States. It tends to change into the principle that 
cvciy portion of the American continent must be free from 
Enopean controL It is still coupled, however, with the converse 
principle that America takes no part in European politics, as 
the disclaimer of the American delegates to the first Peace 
(Soofeience at the Hague proved. 

See Tucker's Monroe Doctrine ; Gilman's Lije of Monroe ; Wharton's 
Iwknatioitol Law Dig/est (title, "Monroe Doctrine"}; Snow's 



AmericoM DipUmacy; also an article by Sir Frederick Pbllock in the 
NineUaUh Century and After (1902). (T. S. W.) 

MONROSB (1783-1843), French actor, whose real name was 
Claude Louis S^raphin Barizain, was born in Besan^on on the 
6th of December 1783, and was already playing children's 
parts at the time of the Revolution. He was called to the 
Comidie Fran^aise in 181 5, and was received sociitaire in 181 7. 
A small, active man, with mobile and expressive features and 
quick, nervous gestures, he was noted as the rascally servant 
in such plays as Le Barbier de SiviUe and Les Fourberies de 
Scapin. His son, Lotns Martial Barizain (1809-1883), also 
called Monrose, was also an actor. He succeeded Samson as 
professor at the Conservatoire in 1866. 

MONS (Flemish Bergen), a town of Belgium situated on a 
small river called the Trouille in the province of Hainaut of 
which it is- the capital. Pop. (1904), 27,072. Mons was 
the capital of the ancient countdom of Hainaut, well 
known in English history from the marriage of Edward III. 
with its Countess Philippa. The town was founded by the 
Countess Waudru in the 8th century, whereupon Charlemagne 
recognized it as the capital of Hainaut, and it has retained the 
portion ever since. It was only in the nth century, however, 
that it became the fixed residence of the counts, who had 
previously occupied the castle of Hornu, leaving Mons to the 
abbey and the church of St Waudru. Regnier V. moved to 
Mons at the beginning of that century, and his only child— a 
daughter— Richilde, married Baldwin VI. of Flanders. The 
junction of the two countdoms was only temporary, and they 
again separated in* the person of Richilde's sons. In this age 
Hainaut was known as " the poor land of a proud people," and 
it was not until the beginning of the 14th century that Mons 
was converted into a trading town by the establishment of a 
cloth market. At the same time the count transferred his 
prindpal fortress from Valendennes to Mons. When the 
Hainaut title became merged in the duchy of Burgundy, Mons 
was a place of considerable importance on account of its being 
a stronghold near the French frontier. Its capture, defence 
and surrender by Louis of Nassau in 1572 was one of the striking 
incidents of the religious troubles. In the long wars of the 
17th and z8th centuries Mons underwent several sieges, but 
none of the same striking character as those of Namur. Several 
times dismantled and refortified, Mons was finally converted 
into an open town in 1862. 

The most remarkable building in the city is the cathedral of 
St Waudru, named after the first countess, which was begun 
in the middle of the xsth century, but not finished for more 
than a century and a half later. It is a fine specimen of later 
Gothic, and contains some good glass as well as a few pictures 
by Van Thudden. The H6tel de Ville is about the same age as 
the cathedral, having been commenced in 1458 and finished in 
1606. The tower was added a century later. There is also a 
fine belfry with a peal of bells. Mons is now a flourishing town 
with a good trade in cloth, lace, sugar refinery, &c.; but its chief 
importance is derived from its proximity to the Borinage (place 
of boring), district containing mines of the finest coal in B^lgiumr 
The military engineering college for the Belgian army is here, 
and not far from Mons are the battle-fields of Malplaquet (1709) 
and Jemappes (1792). 

MONSIEUR (Fr., formed from mon, my, and sieur, lord), 
the general title of address in France used vocativcly in speaking 
formally to any male person, like the English " sir " or prefixed 
to the name like the English " Mr." It is, however, in France 
also prefixed to nobiliary, official, and other titles, e.g. Monsieur 
le president, Monsieur le due d'E., &c. It is abbreviated M., 
not Mons. As a specific title " Monsieur " (tout court) was 
used from the time of Louis XIV. of the eldest brother of the 
king, as " Monseigneur " was of the dauphin; as a general 
title of address it was given to the princely members of a royal 
house. 

MONSIGNOR (It. monsignore, my lord), a title of honour 
granted by the pope to bishops and to high dignitaries and 
offidals of the papal household. It is abbreviated Mg^, 



7+0 



MONSON— MONSTER 



MOmOH, SIR WfLUAM {c. i569-x643)> British admlnl, was 
the third son of Sir John Monson of South Carlton in Lincohi- 
shire, where the family was of old standing. He matriculated 
at Balliol College. Oxford, in 1581, but ran away to sea in 1585, 
being then according to his own account sixteen. His first 
services were in a privateer in an action with a Spanish ship in 
the Bay of Biscay, of which he gives a somewhat Munchausen- 
like account in his Naval Tracts. In the Armada year he served 
as lieutenant of the " Charles," a small ship of the queen's. 
There being at that time no regular naval service, Monson is 
next found serving with the adventurous George Clifford, 3rd 
earl of Cumberland (i 558-1605), whom he followed in his 
voyages of 1589, 1591 and 1593. During the second of these 
ventures Monson had the ill-luck to be taken prisoner by the 
Spaniards in a recaptured prize, and was for a time detained 
at Lisbon in captivity. His cruises must have brought him 
some profit, for in 1595 he was able to marry, and he thought 
it worth while to take his M.A. degree. The earl offended him 
by showing favour to another follower, and Monson turned 
elsewhere. In the expedition to Cadiz in 1596, he commanded 
the " Repulse " (50). From this time till the conclusion of 
the war with Spain he was in constant employment. In 1602 
he commanded the last squadron fitted out in the reign of Queen 
Elizabeth. In 1604 he was appointed admiral of the Narrow 
Seas, the equivalent of the Channel squadron of modem times. 
In 1 614 he was sent to the coasts of Scotland and Ireland to 
repress the pirates who then swarmed on the coast. Monson 
claimed to have extirpated these pests, but it is certain that 
they were numerous a generation later. After 1614 he saw no 
further active service till 1635, when he went to sea as vice- 
admiral of the fleet fitted out by king Charles I. with the first 
ship-money. He spent the last years of his life in writing his 
Tracts^ and died in February 1643. 

His claim to be remembered is not based on his services as 
a naval officer, though they were undoubtedly honourable, but 
on his Tracts. These treatises consist in part of historical 
narratives, and in part of argumentative proposals for the reform 
of abuses, or the development of the naval resources of the 
country. They form by far the best account by a contemporary 
of the naval life and transactions of the reign of Queen Elizabeth 
and the beginning of the reign of King James. Monson takes 
care to do himself full justice, but he is not unfair to his con- 
temporaries. His style is thoroughly modem, and has hardly 
a trace of the poetry of the Elizabethans. He was the first 
naval officer in the modern sense of the word, a gentleman 
by birth and education who was trained to the sea, and not 
simply a soldier put in to fight, with a sailing-master to handle 
the ship for him, or a tarpaulin who was a sailor only. 

Monson 's elder brother. Sir Thomas Monson (i 564-1641), 
was one of James I.'s favourites, and was made a baronet in 
161 1. He held a position of trust at the Tower of London, a 
circumstance which led to his arrest as one of the participators 
in the murder of Sir Thomas Ovcrbury. He was, however, soon 
released and he died in May 1641. His eldest son was Sir 
John Monson, Bart. (1600-1683), a member of parliament under 
Charles I., and another son was Sir WilUam Monson (c. 1607- 
1678), who was created an Irish peer as Viscount Monson of 
Castlcmaine in 1628. Having been a member of the court 
which tried Charles I. the viscount was deprived of his honours 
and was sentenced to imprisonment for life in 1661. Sir John 
Monson's descendant, another Sir John Monson, Bart. (1693- 
1748), was created Baron Monson in 1728. His youngest son 
was George Monson (1730-1776), who served with the English 
troops in India from 1758 to 1763. The baron's eldest son 
was John, the 2nd baron (i 727-1 774), whose son William Monson 
(1760-1807) served in the Mahratta War under General Lake. 
William's only son William John (i 796-1862) became 6th 
Baron Monson in succession to his cousin Frederick John, the 
5lh baron, in October 1841. His son William John, the 7th 
baron (1829-1898), was created Viscount Oxenbridge in 1886. 
When he died without sons in 1898 the viscounty became extinct, 
but the barony descended to his brother Debonnaire John 



(1830-1900), whose son Augustas Debonnilre John (K 1868) 
became 9th Baron Monson in 1900. Another of Viscount 
Oxenbridge 's brothers was Sir Edmund John Monson, Bart, 
(b. 1834), who, after filling many ether diplomatic appointments, 
was British ambassador in Paris from 1896 to 1904. 

The one authority for the life of Sir William Monson is hit ova 
Tracts, but a very good account of him is included by Southey in his 
Lives of the Admirals, vol. v. The Tracts were first printed in ibe 
third volume of Churchill's Voyates, but they have been edited for 
the Navy Record Society by Mr Oppenbeim. 

MONSOON (Arabic Afausim, season), the nnme given to 
seasonal winds due to differences of pressure between areas of 
land and sea, which are primarily caused by «^ay>nal diffefcaccs 
of temperature. Monsoons may be regarded as the tfiniwtl 
analogue of the diurnal land and sea breexes. The tern is, 
however, also applied to seasonal winds which change in diiectioo 
on account of the migrations of wind-belts in the planetaiy 
circulation. During the season of rising temperatui« the surface 
of the land warms more quickly, and becomes hotter than that 
of the sea, and during the season of falling temperature the 
reverse is the case. Barometric pressure tends to be higher 
over the colder region than over the warmer, and there ii 
accordingly a tendency for air to flow, in the lower levels of 
the atmosphere, from the former towards the Utter. Thai 
there is in general a movement from land to sen during the 
cold season, and from sea to land during the warm season. 

Within a belt extending from 10 to 15 degrees on each side 
of the equator, seasonal changes of temperature are insuAcicot 
in range to permit of the occurrence of temperature differtnca 
adequate to the development of true monsoons. In the higher 
latitudes of the west wind belt, and in the polar tones, the 
generally low temperature docs not favour the occurrence of 
wide differences between land and sea. Thus the condiiioos 
required for the occurrence of monsoonal winds are best satisfied 
in intermediate latitudes in the neighbourhood of the tiofMS. 
But, as in the case of land and sea breexes, the strength aod 
extension of the monsoon produced by the action described 
depends to a large extent on the configuration of the bad 
surface. When the land area consists of a low plain, or of a 
plateau having a steep coastal strip of small width, the ciicah- 
tion upon it tends to be local, and to approximate to the typical 
*' continental " climate of the temperate xones. liMierc, oa 
the other hand, the land slopes upwards gradually to a ccninl 
massif or ridge the effect of the differences of teoiperatue 
is, as it were, cumulative, and the monsoons may extend over 
large areas, affecting regions distant from those in which the 
causes producing them are directly operative, and the Doosooa 
winds may develop great strength. Ferrel {Popular Trtttisi 
on the Winds) has compared the conditions in the two casd 
to those of a stove with a long horizontal ilue and with a veitiol 
or inclined flue of the same length. 

It is of course to be noted that the hot season monsoon ii 
in general of greater strength than that of the cold seaioa, 
because being usually a sea wind the air is fuUy charged «^ 
moisture, condensation takes place as ascensional movcwot 
sets in on reaching the land, and the latent heat icC bet 
strengthens the upward current. 

The position, outline and relief of the continent of Asi 
favour the development of monsoons to a much greater exuH 
than any other part of the world; so much so that the diwstt 
of the whole of the southern and eastern parts is caiiR^ 
controlled by these winds, forming what is typically kaovt * 
" the monsoon region," a region having distinctly charactcritfic 
products. Monsoons form an important element in the c£aiie 
of Australia, western and southern Africa, and the soutkcd 
part of the United States of America, but with a few excrptio* 
the monsoons of those regions arc local in character, moiljH 
the prevailing winds of the planetary circulation (vsaJif^ 
trade winds) for a bnger or shorter period every year. 

MONSTER (Lat. monstrum, from root of monere, to wan:*^ 
something terrible or portentous). In zoology, monsUis * 
monstrous births are the subject of Aniinal TcntohgTi * 



MONSTER 



7+1 



department of morphological science treating of deviations from 
the normal development of the embryo. The term " embryo " 
is conventionally limited, in human anatomy, to the ovum in 
the first three months T>f its intra-uterine existence, while it 
is still developing or acquiring the rudiments of its form, the 
term *' foetus " being applied to it in the subsequent months 
during which the organism grows on the lines of development 
already laid down. It is mostly in the first or embryonic period 
that those deviations from the normal occur which present 
themselves as monstrosities at the tim^ of birth; these early 
traces of deviation within the embryo may be slight, but they 
" grow with its growth and strengthen with its strength," until 
they amount to irreparable defecu or accretions, often incom- 
patible with extra-uterine life. The name of " teratology," 
introduced by Etienne Geoffroy St Hilaire (1832), is derived 
from ripaf, the equivalent of monstrum; teratology is a term 
new enough to have none but scientific associations, while the 
Latin word has a long record of superstitions identified with 
it. The myths of siren, satyr, Janus, cydops and the like, 
with the corresponding figures in Northern mythology, find a 
remote anatomical basis in monstrosities which have, for the 
moat part, no life except in the foetal state. The mythology 
of giants and dwarfs is, of course, better founded. The term 
monster was originally used in the same sense as portent. Luther *■ 
■peaks of the birth of a monstrous calf, evidently the subject 
of contemporary talk, as pointing to some great impending 
change, and he expresses the hope that the catastrophe might 
be the Last Day itself. The rise of more scientific views will 
be sketched in the course of the article. 

Although monstrosities, both in the human species and in 
other animals, tend to repeat certain definite types of erroneous 
devdopment, they do not fall readily into classes. The most 
usual grouping (originally suggested by G. L. L. Buffon^ x8oo) 
is into monsira per excessum^ numstra per defectum^ and monstra 
per fabricam alienam. It seems useful, however, to place the 
more simple cases of excess and of defect side by side*, and it 
b necessary, above all, to separate the double monsters from the 
single, the theory of the former being a distinct chapter in 
teratology. 

I. Monstrosities in a Single Body.— The abnormality may 
extend to the body throughout, as in well-proportioned giants 
and dwarfs; or it may affect a certain region or member, as — to 
take the simplest cxue — when there is a finger or toe too many 
or too few. It is very common for one malformation to be 
correlated with several others, as in the extreme case of acardiac 
monsters, in which the non-development of the heart is associated 
with the non-development of the head, and with other radical 
defects. 

Giants are conventionally limited to persons over 7 ft. in height. 
The normal proportions of the frame are adhered to more or 
less closely, except in the skull, which is relatively small; but 
accurate measurements, even in the best-proportioned cases, 
prove, when reduced to a scale, that other parts besides the 
skull— notably the thigh-bone and the foot— may be undersized 
though overgrown. In persons who are merely very tall the 
great stature depends often on the inordinate length of the 
lower limbs; but in persons over 7 ft. the lower limbs are not 
markedly disproportionate. In many cases the muscles and 
viscera are not sufficient for the overgrown frame, and the 
individuals are usually, but not always, of feeble intelligence 
tod languid disposition, and short-lived. The brain-case especi- 
ally is undersized — the Irish giant in the museum of Trinity 
College, Dublin, is the single exception to this rule — but the 
booes of the face, and especially the lower jaw, are on a large 
•tale. Giants are never born of gigantic parents; in fact, 
tierility usually goes with this monstrosity. Their size is some- 
times excessive at birth, but more often the indications of great 
Stature do not appear till Liter, it may be as late as the ninth 
year; they attain their full height before the twenty-first year. 
Tbey have been more frequently male than female. 

* In a passage quoted by T. L. W. Bischoff from the 19th volume 
«f leather's works, Halle ed., p. 2416. 



Dwarfs Mxt conventionally limited to persons under 4 ft. 
They are more likely than giants to have the modulus of the 
body perfect. Where disproportion occurs in the true dwarf 
it takes the form of a large-sized head, broad shoulders and 
capacious chest, and undersized lower limbs. Dwarfs with 
rickets are perhaps to be distinguished from true dwarfs; these 
are cases in which the spine is curved, and sometimes the bones 
of the limbs bent and the pelvis deformed. As in the case of 
giants, dwarfs are seldom the progeny of dwarfs, who are, in 
fact, usually sterile; the unnatural smallness may be obvious at 
birth, but 'A more likely to make itself manifest in the years of 
growth. Dwarfs are much more easily brought up than giants, 
and are stronger and longer-lived; they have usually also strong 
passions and acute intelligence. The legends of the dwarfs 
and giants are on the whole well based on facL (See Dwary 
and Giant.) 

Redundancy and Defed in Single Parts.— The simplest ease 
of this redundancy is a sixth digit, well formed, and provided 
with muscles (or tendons), nerves, and bloodvessels like the 
others; it is usually a repetition of the little finger or toe, and 
it may be present on one or both hands, or on one or both feet, 
or in all four extremities, as in the giant of Gath. The want of 
one, two, or more digits on hand or foot, or on both, is another 
simple anomaly; and, like the redundancy, it is apt to repeat itself 
in the same family. J. F. Meckel saw a girl who had an extra 
digit on each extremity, while a sister wanted four of the fingers 
of one hand. Where the supernumerary digits are more than 
one on each extremity, the whole set are apt to be rudimentary 
or stunted; they look as if two or more of the embryonic buds 
had been subject to cleavage down the middle and to arrest 
of longitudinal growth. There are several authentic instances of 
a whole lower limb appearing at birth as two withered halves, 
as if from embryonic cleavage. Other redundancies of the 
skeleton are extra vertebrae (sometimes the coccygeal, giving 
the appearance of a rudimentary tail), or an extra rib. A 
double row of teeth is occasionally met with; the most interesting 
case of this anomaly is that in which the rudiments of a double 
row exist from the first, but the phenomenon is sometimes 
produced by the milk teeth persisting along with the second 
set. Among redundancies of the soft parts, by far the most 
frequent relate to the mammary glands and espedxdly to the 
nipples. These organs are normally paired amongst mammals, 
and the glands of each pair are placed symmetrically on a 
curved line running from the axilla towards the pubes. When 
many pairs occur, the glands of each pair diverge less from 
the median line than those of the immediately anterior pair, 
the abdominal glands lying close together, those towards the 
axilla being farther apart. When only a single pair is normally 
present, the pair is abdominal, pectoral or axillary; and whether 
the normal be one pair or many pairs, additional glands are not 
infrequent, but occupy the expected position on the mammary 
lines. Accessory glands or nipples in human beings, if anterior 
to the normal pair, lie farther from the median ventral line, 
and vice versa. Among the sense-organs there b a remarkable 
instance recorded of doubling of the appendages of the left eye, 
but not of the eyeball itself; the left half of the frontal bone is 
double, making two eye-sockets on that side, and the extra 
orbit has an eyebrow and eyelid. The external ear (pinna} 
has also been found double on one side and its orifice has 
frequently been found doubled in man and lower animals, and 
the additional ears lie in a definite relation to the branchial clefts 
of the embryo. Doubling of any of the internal organs or parts 
of organs may occur and innumerable cases have been recorded. 

Montrosities from Defective Closure in the Middle Line.— Vn^tr 
this head come some of the commonest congenital malformations, 
including slight deficiencies such as harelip, and serious defects 
such as a gap in the crown of the head with absence of the 
brain. The embryo is originally a circular Battened disk spread 
out on one pole of the yolk, and it is formed into a cylindrical 
body (with four appendages) by the free margins of the disk, 
or rather its ventral laminae, folding inwards to meet in the 
middle line and sO close in the pelvic, abdominal, tboradc. 



742 



MONSTER 



pharyngeal and oral cavities. Meanwhile, and indeed rather 
earlier, two longitudinal parallel ridges on the top or along the 
back of the disk have grown up and united in the middle line to 
form the second barrel of the body — the neural canal — of small 
and uniform width in the lower three-fourths or spinal region, 
but expanding into a wide chamber for the brain. This division 
into neural (dorsal) and haemal (ventral) canals underlies all 
vertebrate development. Imperfect closure along either of 
those embryonic lines of junction may produce various degrees of 
monstrosity. The simplest and commonest form, hardly to be 
reckoned in the present category, is harelip with or without cleft 
palate, which results from defective closure of the ventral 
laminae at their extreme upper end. Another simple form, 
but of much more serious import, is a gap left in the neural 
canal at its lower end; usually the arches of the lumbar vertebrae 
are deficient, and the fluid that surrounds the spinal cord bulges 
out in its membranes, producing a soft tumour under the skin 
at the lower part of the back. This is the condition known 
as hydrorhachis, depending on the osseous defect known as spina 
bifida. More rarely the gap in the arches of the vertebrae is in 
the region of the neck. If it extend all along the back, it will 
probably involve the skull also. Deficiency of the crown of the 
head, and in the spine as well, may be not always traceable to 
want of formative power to close the canal in the middle line; 
an over-distended condition of the central canal of the cord and 
brain may prevent the closure of the bones, and ultimately lead 
to the disruption of the nervous organs themselves; and injuries 
to the mother, with inflammation set up in the foetus and its 
appendages, may be the more remote cause. But it is by defect 
in the middle line that the mischief manifests itself, and it is 
in that anatomical category that the malformations are included. 
The osseous deficiency at the crown of the head is usually 
accompanied by want of the scalp, as well as of the brain and 
membranes. The bones of the face may be well developed 
and the features regular, except that the eyeballs bulge forward 
under the closed lids; but there is an abrupt horizontal line above 
the orbits where the bones cease, the skin of the brow joining on 
to a spongy kind of tissue that occupies the sides and floor of 
the cranium. This is the commonest form of an aticncephalous 
or brainless monster. There are generally mere traces of the 
brain, although, in some rare and curious instances, the hemi- 
spheres are developed in an exposed position on the back of 
the neck. The cranial nerves are usually perfect, with the 
exception sometimes of the optic (and retina). Vegetative 
existence is not impossible, and a brainless monster has been 
known to survive sixty-five days. The child is usually a very 
large one. 

Closely allied, as we have seen, to the anencephalous condition 
is the condition of congenital hydrocephalus. The nervous 
system at its beginning is a neural canal, not only as regards 
its bony covering, but in its interior; a wide space lined by ciliated 
epithelium and filled with fluid extends along the axis of the 
spinal cord, and expands into a scries of chambers in the brain. 
As development proceeds the walls thicken at the expense of 
the internal spaces, the original tubular or chambered plan of the 
central nervous system is departed from, and those organs assume 
the practically solid form in which we familiarly know them. If, 
however, the spaces persist in their embryonic proportions 
notwithstanding the thickening of the nervous substance forming 
their walls, there results an enormous brain which is more than 
half occupied inside with fluid, contained in spaces that corre- 
spond on the whole to the ventricles of the brain as normally 
bounded. A hydrocephalic foetus may survive its birth, and 
will be more apt to be affected in its nutrition than in its intelli- 
gence. In many cases the hydrocephalic condition does not 
come on till after the child is born. 

Returning to the ventral middle line, there may be defects of 
closure below the lips and palate, as in the breast-bone (fissure 
of the sternum), at the navel (the last pobt to close in any case), 
and along the middle line of the abdomen generally. The 
commonest point for a gap in the middle line of the belly is at 
its lower part, an inch or two above the pubes. At that point in 



the embryo there issues the allantois, a btUoon-Uke 
from the ventral cavity, which carries on its outer surface bkwd- 
vessels from the embryo to interdigitate with those of the mother 
on the uterine surface. Having served its temporary purpose 
of carrying the bloodvessels across a space, the balloon-like 
allantois collapses, and rolls up into the rounded ston-Iike 
umbilical cord through most of its extent, but a portion of the 
sac within the body of the foetus is retained as the permaneot 
urinary bladder. That economical adaptation of a portkii 
of a vesicular organ, originally formed for purposes of com- 
munication between the embryo and the mother, appears to 
entail sometimes a defect in the wall of the abdomen just above 
the pubes, and a defect in the anterior wall of the bladder itselL 
This is the distressing congenital condition of fissure of the 
urinary bladder, in which its interior is exposed through aa 
opening in the skin; the pubic bones are separated by an interval, 
and the reproductive organs are ill-formed, the uradras is 
wanting, and the umbilicus is always placed exactly at the upper 
end of the gap in the skin. A monstrosity recalling the ctotcal 
arrangement of the bird is met with as a more extreme defect 
in the same parts. 

Hermaphroditism. — Although this anomalous conditioo docs 
not fall under defective closure in the middle line, it may be 
said to be due to a similar failure of purpose, or to an oncertaiaty 
in the nisus formativus at a corresponding stage of development. 
Strictly speaking, a hermaphrodite is a creature containing 
ovaries and testes — the essential organs of each sex. Evidence 
accumulates, however, that at least in all the higher vertebrates, 
including man, the sex is predetermined in the fertilized ovum, 
and it is more than doubtful if true hermaphroditism occurs. Ob 
the other hand, if there be no such double sex in the essential 
organs (as in the majority of so-called hermaphrodites) there is a 
great deal of doubling and ambiguity entailed in the secoodaiy 
or external organs and parts of generation. Those parts which 
are rudimentary or obsolete in the male but highly devdqied a 
the female, and those parts which are rudimentary in the female 
but highly developed in the male tend in the hermaphrodAC 
to be developed equally, and all of them badly. Amongst 
human beings the greater number of so-called hermaphrodites 
are really females, in which there is an abnormal developmenl 
of the clitoris, but it also happens that true males may be bon 
with a small clitoris-like penis, with h3rpospadia — that is to say. 
with imperfect urethra, open on the ventral side, and vitk 
undescended testes. Failure of the development of the tests 
or ovary, or their removal in the adult condition induces u 
ambiguous condition of the body in which the secondary sexual 
characters approach those, of the other sex. Experimental 
removal of the ovaries or testes, followed by implantatioa 
of organs of the other sex, has produced an inversion of tbe 
secondary sexual characters. 

Cyclops, Strcn,brc. — The same feebleness of the ioaauxtt 
energy which gives rise to some at least of the cases of defectire 
closure in the middle line, and to the cases of ambiguous so, 
leads also to iniperfect separation of symmetrical parts. Tk 
most remarkable case of the kind is the cyclops monster. M 
a point corresponding to the root of the nose there is found i 
single orbital cavity, sometimes of small size and with no eyetal 
in it, at other times of the usual size of the orbit and contaiini 
an eyeball more or less complete. In still other cases, wUcft 
indicate the nature of the anomaly, the orbital cavity extcaik 
for some distance on each side of the middle line, and ooatain 
two eyeballs lying close together. The usual nose is wutJH 
but above the single orbital cavity there is often a nasal pncoi 
on the forehead, with which nasal bones may be articulated, u' 
cartilages joined to the latter, these form the framework «f* 
short fleshy protuberance like a small proboscis. The lov^ 
jaw is sometimes wanting in cydopeans; the cheek-bona >* 
apt to be small, and the mouth a small round hole, or ahopt^ 
absent ; the rest of the body may be well developed. The hj *• 
the Cyclopean condition is found in the state of the bram. J^ 
olfactory nerves or lobes are frequently absent; the hnii ^ 
very imperfectly divided into heniispberes, aad appMB * * 



MONSTER 



743 



•omewhat pear-shaped sac with thick walls, the longitudinal 
partition of dura mater (falx cerebri) being wanting, the surface 
almost unconvoluted, the corpus callosum deficient, the basal 
ganglia rudimentary or fused. The optic chiasma and nerves 
are usually replaced by a single mesial nerve, but sometimes 
the chiasma and pair of nerves are present. Tlie origin of this 
monstrosity dates back to an early period of development, to 
the time when the future hemispheres were being formed as 
pn>tn»ions from the anterior cerebral vesicle or fore-brain; 
it may be conceived that, instead of two distinct buds from 
that vesicle, there was only a single outgrowth with imperfect 
traces of cleavage. That initial defect would carry with it 
naturally the undivided state of the cerebrum, and with the 
latter there would be the absence of olfactory lobes and of a 
nose, and a single eyeball placed where the nose should have 
been. A cyclops has been known to live for several days. The 
monstrosity Is not uncommon among the domestic animals, and 
is especially frequent in the pig. 

' Another curious result of defective scparatk>n of sjrmmetrical 
parts b the siren form of foetus, in which the lower limbs occur 
as a single tapering prolongation of the trunk like the hinder 
part of a dolphin, at the end of which a foot (or both feet) may 
or may not be visible. The defects in the bones underlying 
this siren form are very various: in some cases there is only 
one limb (thigh and leg-bones) in the middle line; in others all 
the bones of each limb are present in more or less rudimentary 
condition, but adhering at prominent points of the adjacent 
surfaces. The pelvis and pelvic viscera share in the abnormality. 
A much more common and harmless case of unscparated sym- 
metrical parts is where the hand or foot has two, three, or more 
digits fused together. This syndactylous anomaly runs in 
families. 

Limbs Absent or Stuntcd.^AUicd to these fused or unseparated 
states of the extremities, or of parts of them, are the class of 
deformities in which whole limbs are absent, or represented 
only by stumps. The trunk (and head) may be well formed, 
and the individual healthy; all four extremities may be reduced 
to short stumps either wanting hands and feet entirely, or with 
the latter fairly well developed; or the legs only may be rudi- 
mentary or wanting, or the arms only, or one extremity only. 
Although some of these cases doubtless depend upon* aberrant 
oi^ deficient formative power in the particular directions, there 
are others of them referable to the effects of mechanical pressure, 
and even to direct amputation of parts within the uterus. 

Acardiac and Acranial Monsters. — It sometimes happens in 
a twin pregnancy that one of the embryos fails to develop a 
heart and a complete vascular system of its own, depending 
for its nourishment upon blood derived from the placenta of 
its well-formed twin by means of its umbilical vessels. It grows 
Into a more or less shapeless mass, in which all traces of the 
human form may be lost. Other viscera besides the heart 
will be wanting, and no head distinguishable; the most likely 
parts to keep the line of development are the lumbar regioCi 
(with the kidneys), the pelvis, and the lower limbs. The twht 
of this monster may be a healthy infant. 

Reversed Position oj the Viscera. — This is a developmental 
error associated with the retention of the right aortic arch as 
in birds, instead of the left as is usual in mammak. The position 
of all the unsymmetrical viscera is transposed, the spleen and 
cardiac end of the stomach going to the right side, the liver 
to the left, the caecum resting on the left iliac fossa, and the 
ligmoid flexure of the colon being attached to the right. This 
aondition of situs inversus viscerum need cause no inconvenience, 
uad it will probably remain undetected until the occasion should 
irisc for a physical diagnosis of post-mortem inspection. 

The causes of congenital anomaUes are difficult to spedfy. 
rhere is no doubt that, in some cases, they are present in the 
ipcnn or germ of the parent; the same anomalies recur in 
leveral children of a family, and it has been found pos- 
lible, through a variation of the circumstances, to trace the 
oafliience In some cases to the father alone, and in other 
cues to the mother alone. The remarkable thing in this 



parental influence is that the malformation in the child n)ay 
not have been manifested in the body of either parent, or 
in the grandparents. More often the inalformation is acquired 
by the embryo and foetus in the course of development and 
growth, either through the mother or in itself independently. 
Maternal impressions during pregnancy have often been alleged 
as a cause, and this causation has been discussed at great length 
by the best authorities. The general opinion seems to be that it 
is impossible to set aside the influence of subjective states of the 
mother altogether, but that there is no direct connexion between 
the cause of the subjective state and the resulting anomaly. 
The doctrine of maternal impressions has often been resorted 
to when any other explanation was either difiicult or incon- 
venient; thus, Hippocrates Is said to have saved the virtue 
of a woman who gave birth to a black child by pointing out 
that there was a picture of a negro on the wall of her chamber. 
Injuries to the mother during pregnancy have been unquestion- 
ably the cause of certain malformations, especially of congenital 
hydrocephalus. The embryo itself and its membranes may 
become the subject of inflammations, atrophies, hypertrophies, 
and the like; this causation Is doubtless accountable for a good 
many of them. But a very large residue of malformations must 
still be referred to variation in the embryonic cells and cell-groups. 
The nisus formativus of the fertilized ovum is always subject to 
morphological laws, but, just as in extra-uterine life, there may 
be deviations from the beaten track; and even a slight deviation 
at an early stage will carry with it far-reaching consequences. 
This is particularly noticeable in double monsters. 

2. Doubie Monsters. — ^Twins are the physiological analogy of 
double monsters, and some of the latter have come very near 
to being two separate individuals. The Siamese twins, who 
died In 1874 at the age of sixty, were joined only by a thick 
fleshy ligament from the lower end of the breast-bone (xiphoid 
cartilage), having the common navel on its lower border; the 
anatomical examination showed, however, that a process of 
peritoneum extended through the ligament from one abdominal 
cavity to the other, and that the blood-vessels of the two livers 
were in free communication across the same bridge. There 
are one or two cases on record in which such a ligament has 
been cut at birth, one, at least, of the twins surviving. From 
the most intelligible form of double monstrosity, like the Siamese 
twins, there are all grades of fantastic fusion of two individuals 
into one down to the tnily marvellous condition of a small 
body or fragment parasitic upon a well-grown infant — the 
condition known as foetus in jfoetu. These monstrosities are 
deviations, not from the usual kind of twin gestation, but from 
a certain rarer physiolo^cal type of dual development. In 
by far the majority of cases twins have separate uterine appen- 
dages, and have probably been developed from distinct ova; 
but In a small proportion of (recorded) cases there Is evidence, 
In the placentad and enclosing structures, that the twins had 
been developed from two rudiments arising side by side on a 
single blastoderm. It is to the latter physiological category 
that double monsters almost certainly belong; and there Is some 
direct embryological evidence for this opinion. Allen Thomson 
observed in the bl&stoderm of a hen's egg at the sixteenth or 
eighteenth hour of incubation two "primitive traces "or rudi- 
ments of the backbone forming side by side; and in a goose's 
egg incubated five days ha found on one blastoderm two embryos, 
each with the rudiments of upper and lower extremities, crossing 
or cohering in the region of the future neck, and with only one 
heart between them. A very large number of similar observa- 
tions have been published and appear to be found In all cases 
where a large m'aterial is available. The developing ova of fish, 
available in large numbers in hatcheries, and the laboratory 
investigation of the chick and the frog have provided cases of 
almost every degree of blending. The perfect physiological 
type appears to be two rudiments on one blastoderm, whose 
entirely separate development produces twins (under their rarer 
circumstances), whose neariy separate development produces 
such double monsters as the Siamese twins, and whose less 
separate development croduces the various grotesque ionns 



744 



MONSTER 



of .two individuals in one body. There can be no question of 
a literal fusion of two embryos; either the individuality of each 
was at no time complete, or, if there were two distinct primitive 
traces, the uni-axial type was approximately reverted to in the 
process of development, as in the formation of the abdominal 
and thoracic viscera, limbs, pelvis or head. Double monsters 
are divided in the first instance into those in which the doubhng 
is symmetrical and equal on the two sides, and those in which 
a small or fragmentary foetus is attached to or enclosed in a 
foetus of average development— the latter class being the 
so-called cases of " parasitism." 

Symmetrical Double Monsters are subdivided according to 
the part or region of the body where the union or fusion exists 
— head, thorax, umbilicus or pelvis. One of the simplest 
cases is a Janus head upon a single body, or there may be two 
pairs of arms with the two faces. Again, there may be one 
head with two necks and two complete trunks and pairs of 
extremities. Two distinct heads (with more or less of neck) 
may surmount a single trunk, broad at the shoulders but with 
only one pair of arms. The fusion, again, may be from the 
middle of the thorax downwards, giving two heads and two pairs 
of shoulders and arms, but only one trunk and one pair of legs. 
In another variety, the body may be double down to the waist, 
but the pelvis and lower limbs single. The degree of union 
in the region of the head, abdomen or pelvis may be so shght as 
to permit of two distinct organs or sets of organs in the respective 
cavities, or so great as to have the viscera in common; and 
there is hardly ever an intermediate condition between those 
extremes. Thus, in the Janus head there may be two brains, 
or only one brain. The Siamese twins are an instance of union 
at the umbilical region, with the viscera distinct in every respect 
except a slight vascular anastomosis and a common process of 
peritoneum; but it is more usual for union in that region to be 
more extensive, and to entail a single set of abdominal and 
thoracic viscera. The pelvis is one of the commonest regions 
for double monsters to be joined at, and, as in the head and 
abdomen, the junction may be slight or total. The Hungarian 
sisters Helena and Judith (1701-17 23) were joined at the 
sacrum, but had the pelvic cavity and pelvic organs separate, 
the same condition obtained in the South Carolina negresscs 
Millie and Christina, known as the " two-headed nightingale," 
and in the Bohemian sisters Rosalie and Josepha. More usually 
the union in the pelvic region is complete, and produces the 
most fantastic shapes of two trunks (each with head and arms) 
joining below at various angles, and with three or four lower 
limbs extending from the region of fusion, sometimes in a 
lateral direction, sometimes downwards. A very curious kind 
of double monster is produced by two otherwise distinct foetuses 
joining at the crown of the head and keeping the axis of their 
bodies in a line. It is only in rare instances that double 
monsters survive their birth, and the preserved specimens of 
them arc mostly of foetal size. 

Unequal Double Monsters, Foetus in Foetu. — There are some 
well-authenticated instances of this most curious of all anomalies. 
The most celebrated of these parasite-bearing monsters was a 
Genoese, Lazarus Johannes Baptista Collorcdo, bom in 17 16, 
who was figured as a child by Licclus, and again by Bartholinus 
at the age of twenty-eight as a young man of average stature. 
The parasite adhered to the lower end of his breast-bone, and 
was a tolerably well-formed child, wanting only one leg, it 
breathed, slept at intervals, and moved its body, but it had no 
separate nutritive functions. The parasite is more apt to be 
a miniature acardiac and acephalous fragment, as in the case 
of the one borne in front of the abdomen of a Chinaman figured 
by I. Geoff roy St Hilaire. Sometimes the parasite is contained 
in a pouch under the skin of the abdominal wall, and in another 
class (of which there is a specimen in the Huntcrian Museum) 
it has actually been included, by the closure of the ventral 
laminae, within the abdominal cavity of the foetus — a true 
foetus ill foetu. Shap>cless parasitic fragments containing masses 
of bone, cartilage and other tissue are found also in the space 
behind the breast-bone (mediastinal teratoma), or growing from 



the base of the skuU and protruding thxougli the mootli {"tfi^ 
gnathous teratoma," appearing to be seat^ on tlie jaw), aad^' 
most frequently of all, attached to the sacrum. These last pass 
by a most interesting transition into common formsof congenital 
sacral tumours (which may be of enormous size), consisting 
mainly of one kind of tissue having its physiologkal type in the 
cunous gland-like body (coccygeal gland) in which the mi(klle 
sacral artery comes to an end The congenital sacral tumouis 
have a tendency to become cystic, and they are probably 
related to the more perfect congenital cysts of the neck region, 
where there is another minute gland-like body of the same 
nature as the coccygeal at the point of bifurcation of the conunoo 
carotid artery. Other tumours of the body, especially ccftaia 
of the sarcomatous class, may be regarded from the point of 
view of monstra per excessum\ but such cases suggest not so 
much a question of aberrant development within the Uastodcnn 
as of the indwelling spontaneity, of a single post'Cmbiyooic 
tissue. (See Titmour and Pathology.) 

Monstrosities in man and animals have attracted attcntioD 
since the earliest times, and amongst primitive and uncivilixed 
peoples have been regarded as of supernatural origin. Aristotle 
himself appears to have been the first to examine them as a 
naturalist, and to explain that although they were ontsklc 
the usual course of nature they were in the strictest sense d 
natural origin. Pliny described many well-known forms, but 
did not distinguish between legendary and actual monstrosities. 
In the middle ages they were treated in the fullest spirit d 
superstition, and many relics from such a point of view stiO 
survive. The human monstrosities were regarded as having 
been engendered in women by the devil who had commerce 
with them either in his own form or in the guise of some animsL 
The belief still to be found amongst uneducated penoos that 
unnatural union between women and male animals, or betweei 
men and female animals, may be fertile and produce monsten, 
is an attenuated form of the satanic legend. The sdeBlik 
appreciation of monsters has grown with the study of embryologj. 
William Harvey in Exercitalionesde generaticne aniimalimm (1651) 
first referred monstrosities to their proper place as abnormalitia 
in embryonic reproduction. The doctrine of pre-fbnnatka 
(see Heredity) obsessed biological science untU 1759 whn 
C. F. Wolff overthrew it, and Harvey's advance was not puxsaed, 
except that a number of anatomists pubbshed careful stodics 
and descriptions of monsters or monstrous organs. Those who 
believed that the normal process of development was an unroBini 
and expansion of a pre-formed miniature of the adult had to 
apply a similar theory to monsters, and Sylvain Regis, a cot- 
temporary of Malbranche, obuined acceptance of his view tktt 
monstrous germs as well as normal germs had been created at 
the beginning of the world. A discussion almost as meraoiabk 
as that between E. G. St Hilaire and Cuvier on specific typs 
was pursued in the French Academy from 1724 to 1743, J- 1" 
Winslow, who supported the current pre-formationist rirv, 
having the better of the argument with Louis L^mery, whom 
almost alone in a rational interpretation of monstrosities. Fna 
the time of Wolff it was accepted that normal and abnonnalea' 
bryos alike develop^ by processes of epigenetic change. Wolf 
himself, however, and even J. F. Meckel at the begianiagflf 
the 19th century, did not recognize the influence of physiobfic'' 
causes in the production of abnormalities; they bdiered tk 
latter to proceed certainly in an orderly and natural waj, brt 
from abnormal ova. E. G. St Hilaire was the first to attcBpt 
experimental teratology and to lay down that many bm* 
strosities were the result of influences causing deviatkios &>■ 
the normal course of cmbryomc development. I. G. St fO^H, 
the son of E. G. St Hilaire, carried the ezpcrinnental nelM 
little further, but pubUshed an elaborate descriptive treativ* 
anomalies (Paris, 1832-1837) which remains one of the ■■• 
valuable records of the subject. A similar treatise vitk 1* 
incomparable atlas of illustrations was issued by W. VroB,*^ 
great Dutch anatomist, between 1840 and 1849, whilst A. FBnitf 
issued in 1861 a valuable textbook with a very Urge aa*^ 
of illustrations chiefly from preparations in the inaaeaa <t 



MONSTRANCE— MONTAGU 



7+5 



Wflnbuif. Tlie great museums devoted much attention to 
Che colkoion and display of malformations, and no account of 
the subject can be adequate which does not include reference 
to the magnificent series in the Museum of the Royal College of 
Surgeons of England, with the descriptive catalogues of the 
animal malformations written by B. T. Lowne (1893) and of the 
vegetable malformations by M. T. Masters (1893). 

The work hitherto referred to, as well as a vast bulk of 
scattered contributions to teratology throughout the 19th 
century, was chiefly descriptive, anatomical and embryological 
teratology, and carried the experimental side little beyond where 
it had been left by the St Hilaires. In 1891 Camille Dareste 
published his Ruherches sur la production artificielle des tnan- 
struosiUSt ou essais de Uratogtnie expirimentak; his experiments, 
chiefly on the developing egg of the fowl, not only showed the 
probable cause of many of the most common abnormalities, 
but practically created a new branch of science, experimental 
embryology. Teratology has since become a side issue of the 
genend study of the inter-relations between the inherited 
tendendes of the developing organism and the play of the 
circumambient media, and must be studied in relation to the 
work of O. Hertwig, W. Roux, H. Driesch, O. Batschli, J. Loeb 
and their schooL J. Bland Sutton's popular Evoluihn and 
Disease (1890) puts in a cogent way the relation between com- 
parative anatomy and common abnormalities, whilst W. Bateson 
in his Materials for the Study of Variation (1894) describes the 
acquisition of new symmetries by abnormal organs, and discusses 
the possible relation between abnormalities and the origin of 
species. 

E. Schwalbe*s Morpheiope der ifissMdungen (1906-1909) is a veiy 
complete study of the most modern devebpments of teratology, and 
contains a caieful and elaborate list of authorities from the earliest 
times. (C.C;P.CM.) 

MONSTRANCE (through the French from Lat. monstrare, 
to show), a vessel used in the Roman Church for the exhibition 
of the Host at Benediction {q.v.) and also when carried in 
processions. Another name for the vessel is ostensoriutHj from 
astenderef to exhibit, show; whence the usual French name 
cstensoir. The monstrance was formerly used of a reliquary, 
exposing the sacred object to view. The earlier monstrances 
followed the usual shape of these reliquaries, viz. a cylindrical 
crystal case mounted in metal frames, elaborately ornamented 
and jewelled. Such often took the form of a turret. There 
is a 15th-century Italian example in South Kensington Museum 
of a pilastered tturet containing an oblong crystal case, the 
whole resting on a stemmed base, and surmounted with a cupola. 
In the i6th century the present shai>e was adopted, viz. a 
crystal or gkss circular disk, more suited to the shape of the 
sacred wafer; this is mounted in a frame of golden rays, and 
the whole is supported by a stem and bases. The exhibition 
of the Host dates from the institution of the Festival of Corpus 
Christi (q.v.) by Urban IV. in 1264. 

MONSTRELET. EN6UERRAND DB (c. 1400-1453), French 
dironider, belonged to a noble family of Picardy. In 1436 
and later be held the office of lieutenant of the gavenier (i.e. 
receiver of the gave, a kind of church rate) at Cambrai, and Ke 
seems to have made this city his usual place of residence. He 
was for some time bailiff of the cathedral chapter and then 
provost of Cambrai. He was married and Idt some children 
when he died on the 20th of July 1453. Little else is known 
about Monstrelet except that he was present, not at the capture 
of Joan of Arc, but at her subsequent interview with Philip the 
Good, duke of Burgundy. Continuing the work of Froissart, 
Monstrelet wrote a Chronique, which extends to two books and 
covers the period between 1400 and 1444, when, according to 
another chronider, Matthieu d'Escouchy, he ceased to write. 
But following a custom which was by no means uncommon in the 
middle ages, a dumsy sequel, extending to 15 16, was formed 
out of various chronicles and tacked on to his work. Monstrelet 's 
own writings, dealing with the latter part of the Hundred Years' 
War, are valuable because they contain a large number of 
documents which are certainly, and reported speeches which 



are probably, authentic The author, however, shows little 
power of narration; his work, althous^ clear, is dull, and is 
strongly tinged with the pedantry of its century, the most 
pedantic in French history. His somewhat ostentatious asser- 
tions of impartiality do not doak a marked preference for the 
Burgundians in their struggle with France. 

Among many editions of the Chronique may be mentioned the 
one edited for the Sociiti de fhisUnre de France by M. DouSt d'Arcq 
(Paris, l857-i862).which,howevcr,unotverygocKL See A. Molimer, 
Les Sources de I'kistoire de France, tomes iv. and v. (Paris, 1904). 

MONTAGNAIS (Fr. " mountaineers ")f the collective French 
name (i) for a group of North American Indian tribes of Quebec 
province, (2) for four tribes of the northern division of the 
Athabascan stock of North American Indians in the- interior 
of British North America. 

MONTAGU (Family), Dru of Montaigu or Montagud, the 
ancestor of the Montagus, earls of Salisbury, came to England 
with Robert, count of Mortain, half-brother of William the 
Conqueror. He is found in Domesday among the chief tenants 
of the count in Somerset, where Dru held the manor of Shepton, 
afterwards called Shepton Montagu. Upon the hill of Lutgares- 
burg, in Bishopston, Robert built the castle which he called 
Montaigu — but there is no reason for believing that Dru's surname 
was derived from the castle, he being probably a Norman bom — 
from Montaigu or MonUigu-les-bois, both in the neighbourhood 
of Mortain. The Domesday holding of Dru is represented in the 
return of i x 66 by the ten knights' fee upon which his descendant, 
another Dru, is assessed. William Montagu of Shepton is among 
the knights summoned by Henry UI. to the Gascon War and to 
the Welsh border in 1257. His son Simon, the first of the family 
to make a figxire in history, followed Edward I. in 1277 against 
Llywelyn ap Gruffydd, being then, as it would appear, a minor, 
and he served again in 1282, when Llywelyn's power was broken 
for the last time. By a charter dated in 1 290 his Somersetshire 
manors and the manor of Aston Clinton were confirmed to him 
by a grant from the Crown. In 1296 a ship imder his command 
broke the blockade of Bordeaux. In 1298 he was summoned 
as a baron; and in 1301, as Simon lord of Montagu, he scaled the 
famous letter of the barons to the pope with his seal of the arms 
of Montagu, the counterseal showing a griffon. One of the 
earliest examples ol quartered arms seen in England was afforded 
when Simon's banner displayed at Falkirk in 1298 quartered 
this griffon, gold on a blue fidd, with the Montagu's indented 
fesse of three fusils. He died in 13x7 and was succeeded by his 
son William (d. 13 19), a favourite of Edward II., whose household 
steward he became, and seneschal of Aquitaine and Gascony. 
His eldest son, another William, came of age in 1322, and in 1330 
led the young king's partisans by the secret way into Nottingham 
Castle, and carried off the earl of March. The day before 
Mortimer had denounced Montagu as a traitor, but Montagu 
struck at once and his success was rewarded by grants from the 
forfeited lands of March. In 1337 he was created earl of Salis- 
bury, and on the death of Thomas of Brotherton in 1338 he was 
made marshal of England. His king employed him in missions 
to France, Scotland, Germany and Castile, but war was, as with 
most of the men of his house, the chief business of his short life. 
At some time between 1340 and 134Z he led an expedition of 
his own against the Isle of Man, winning from the ScoU the little 
kingdom to which he had inherited a claim. His grandfather 
Simon is said to have nuirried a certain Auffray or *' Aufrica," 
sometimes described as "daughter of Fergus and sbter of 
Orray, king of Man," and sometimes as the grand-daughter and 
heir of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, whose wife 
" Affreca " was sister of King Olaf II. John de Courcy, however, 
died childless, and in 1287 Simon names his wife as Ha wise. 
The second Aufrica or Affreca claimed the island as heir of 
Magnus II. (d. 1265), a letter of Edward I. in 1293 dting John 
of Scotland to answer her appeal to king John's suzerain. By her 
charter of 1306 the same Aufreca, styling herself " Aufreca of 
Counnoght, heir of the land of Man," granted the island to Simon, 
and this grant, rather than the marriage universally asserted by 
Simon's biographers, was probably the origin of the Montagu 



746 



MONTAGU, E. R.— MONTAGU, EADY 



cl&im. The first earl died in 1344 and was buried in the White- 
'friars Church in London. His wife, Kalherine, daughter of 
William de Graunson, and co-heir, in her issue, of her brothers, 
is connected by a legend of no value with the foundation of 
the Order of the Garter. Between William, his son and heir, the 
second earl (132S-1397) and Joan of Kent, daughter of Edmund 
of Woodstock, there was a contract of marriage which was made 
null by the pope's bull in 1349. William was one of the knights- 
founders of the Order of the Garter, fought at Crccy, and com- 
manded the rearward battle at Poitiers. According to Froissart 
he attended the young Richard in Smithficld when the king faced 
the mob after the death of Wat Tyler. His only son was killed 
in 1383 at a tournament, and in 1393 the earl sold the lordship 
and crown of Man to William Scrope of Bolton. He was suc- 
ceeded by his nephew John, the third earl (c. 1350-1400), son 
of Sir John Montagu by Margaret, the heir of the barons of 
Monthermer. The new earl was notorious as a Lollard, and was 
accused, after Henry IV.'s accession, of a share in Gloucester's 
death, from which he was tg have cleared himself in combat with 
the Lord Morley. But he joined Kent, Huntingdon and Rutland 
in their plot against Henry, and was beheaded with the earl of 
Kent by the Cirencester mob. By his wife Maude, daughter of 
Sir Adam Francis, he had Thomas (1388-1428), who was sum- 
moned as an earl in 1409, his father's dignities being restored to 
him in 1421, by which time his services at Harfleur and Agin- 
court had earned him French lordships, the lieutenant-general- 
ship of Normandy and the earldom of Perche. The last of a 
race of warriors, he ended his service at the famous siege of 
Orleans, a cannon-ball dashing into his face the stone and iron- 
work of the window from which he was gazing at the city. By 
his second wife, the daughter of Thomas Chaucer the Speaker, 
he had no issue. By his first wife, Eleanor, daughter of Thomas- 
Holand, earl of Kent, he had an only daughter Alice, wife of 
Richard Neville, a younger son of the first earl of Westmorland, 
who claimed and was allowed the earldom of Salisbury in right 
of his marriage. The famous " Richard Make-a-King," earl of 
Warwick 'and Salisbury, was the grandson of the last of the 
Montagu earls. 

Sir Edward Montagu of Boughton, a chief justice of the king's 
bench who died in 1557, was ancestor of three lines of peers, the 
dukes of Montagu, the dukes of Manchester, and the carls of 
Sandwich. These Montagus of Boughton claimed, by a false 
pedigree, descent from the third earl of Salisbury. It is possible 
that there may have been some kinship between the two families, 
but none, apparently, that could justify the persistent quartering 
by these later Montagus of the arms of Monthermer. 

Authorities.— Collinson's Somerset; G. E. C.'s Com^te Peerage; 
Victoria County History of Somerset (J. H. Round's introduction to 
Domesday); Kymer's hoedera; Palgrave's Parliamentary Writs; 
Rolls of Parliament; Ramsay's Lancaster and York; Cesta Ilenrici V. 
(English Hist. Soc.); Chronicles of Walsingham, Knighton, Cap- 
erave Wavrin, Frousart, Monstrclet, &c. Inquests. Post mortem, 
Close, Patent, Charter and Fine Rolls; Dugdalc's Monasticon Publi- 
cations of Somerset Record Society; Charters in British Museum 
and Public Record Office. (O. Ba.) 

MONTAGU, EUZABETH ROBINSON (1720-1800), English 
leader of society, was born at York on the 2nd of October 1720. 
In 1742 she married Charles Montagu, cousin of Edward Wortley 
Montagu and son of the earl of Sandwich — a wealthy man, 
considerably her senior. Thanks to her, his Mayfair house 
became the social centre of intellectual society in London, and 
her breakfast parties and evening conversaziones gained for her 
from her admirers the title of " The Madame du DefTand of the 
English capital." In other .quarters the term " blue-stocking " 
was applied to her guests. From her husband, who died in 1775, 
she inherited a considerable fortune and large estates, in the 
management of which she showed much ability. In 1781 she 
built Sandlcford Priory, near Newbury, and Montagu House, 
now 22 Portman Square, London, the latter from designs by 
James Stuart. With the colliers in the north she was extremely 
popular, and every May-day she entertained the London chimney- 
sweeps. She died on the 2sth of August 1800. There is an 
Admirable portrait of her by Reynolds. 



See Bitabetk Montagu, tke Queen of Ou B/m SloeUitgs: Her Crnn^ 
spondencefrom 1720 to t76t, edited by E. J. Climensoo (2 voU., IQ06): 
and R. Huchon, Mrs Montagu and lur Friends, 1720-1800 (Eag. 
trans., 1907). 

MONTAGU, LADY MARY WORTLBT (1689-1762), Eogiisb 
letter-writer, eldest daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, afterwards 
duke of Kingston, was baptized at Covent Garden on the 26th 
of May 1689. Her mother, who died while her dau^ter was 
still a child, was a daughter of WiUiam Feilding, earl of DoibiglL 
Her father was proud of her beauty and wit, aiid when she was 
eight years old she is said to have been the toast of the Kil-Kat 
Club. He took small pains with the education of his duMren, 
but Lady Mary was encouraged in her self-imposed studies by 
her uncle, William Feilding, and by Bishop Burnet. She formed 
a close friendship with Mary Astell, who was a champion of 
woman's rights, and with Anne Wortley Montagu, grand- 
daughter of the first earl of Sandwich. With this lady she carried 
on an animated correspondence. The letters on Anne's side, 
however, were often copied from drafts written by her brother, 
Edward Wortley Montagu, and after Anne's death in 1709 the 
correspondence between him and Lady Mary was prosecuted 
without an intermediary. Lady Mary's father, now marquess 
of Dorchester, declined, however, to accept Montagu as a son- 
in-law because he refused to entail his esute on a possible heir. 
Negotiations were broken off, and when the marquess insisted oa 
another marriage for his daughter the pair eloped ( 1 7 1 2). The early 
years of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's married life were spent 
in rigid economy and retirement in the country. Her husband 
was M.P. for Westminster in 1715, and shortly afterwards was 
made a commissioner of the treasury. When Lady Mary joined 
him in London her wit and beauty soon made her a prominent 
figure at court. Early in 17 16 Montagu was appdnted 
ambassador at Constantinople. Lady Mary accompanied him to 
Vienna, and thence to Adrianople and Constantinople. He vas 
recalled in 1717, but they remained at Constantinople until 1718. 
The story of this voyage and of her observations of Easten life 
is told in a series of lively letters full of graphic descriplioo. 
From Turkey she brought back the practice of inoculation for 
small-pox. She had her own children inoculated, and encoaa- 
tered a vast amount of prejudice in bringing the matter forward. 
Before starting for the East she had made the acquaintance of 
Alexander Pope, and during her absence he addressed to her a 
series of extravagant letters, which appear to have been diiefljr 
exercises in the art of writing galhnt epistles. Very few lettcis 
passed after Lady Mary's return, and various reaisoiu have bees 
suggested for the subsequent estrangement and violent quarrd. 
Mr Moy Thomas suggests that the cause is to be found in the bA 
of the " Letters during the embassy to Constantinople." It is 
addressed to Pope and purports to be dated from Dover, the est 
of November 17 18. It contains a parody on Pope's ** Epitaph 
on the Lovers struck by Lightning." The MS. collection of these 
letters was passed round a considerable circle, and Pope my 
well have been offended at the circubtion of this piece of satoe. 
Jealousy of her friendship with Lord Hervey has also bcoi 
alleged, but Lady Louisa Stuart says Pope had made Lady Maiy 
a declaration of love, which she had received with an outbont 
of laughter. In any case Lady Mary always professed compk|^ 
innocence of all cause of offence in public. She is alluded to n 
the Dunciad in a passage to which Pope affixed one of his iasok- 
ing notes. A Pop upon Pope was generally supposed to be 
from her pen, and Pope thought she was part autb(tf of Ott 
Epistle to Mr A. Pope (1730). Pope attacked her agaio u^ 
again, but with especial virulence in a gross couplet in the " bn* 
tation of the First Satire of the Second Book of Horace,]' » 
Sappho. She asked a third person to remonstrate, and reodted 
the obvious answer that Pope could not have foreseen that ike 
or any one else would apply so base an insult to herselL Yifitf 
addressed to an Imitator of Horace by a Lady (1733), a 9caB^ 
reply to these attacks, is generally attributed to the jointeffofts 
of Lady Mary and her sworn ally, Lord Hervey. She bid * 
romantic correspondence with a Frenchman named R£*a>^ 
who addressed to her a scries of eicessivtly galknt kites bcfctt 



MONTAGU, DUKE OF 



7+7 



r seeing her. She invested money for him in South Sea 
Jc at hb desire, and as was expressly stated, at his own risk. 
i value fell to half the price, and he tried to extort the original 
I as a debt by a threat of exposing the correspondence to her 
band. She seems to have been really alarmed, not at the 
utation of gallantry, but lest her husband should discover 
extent of her own speculations. This disposes of the second 
' of Pope's line " Who starves a sister, or forswears a debt " 
nlogue to the Satires^ i. 1 13), and the first charge is quite devoid 
Dundation. She did in fact try to rescue her favourite sister, 

countess of Mar, who was mentally deranged, from the 
iody of her brother-in-law, Lord Grange, who had treated 
own wife with notorious cruelty, and the slander originated 
ii hit"T 

a 1739 she went abroad, and although she continued to write 
lier husband in terms of affection and respect they never 
. again. At Florence in 1740 she visited Horace Walpole, 
» cherished s great spite against her, and exaggerated her 
mtricities into a revolting slovenliness (see Letters^ ed. 
iningham, i. 59). She lived at Avignon, at Brescia, and at 
ere, on the Lago d'Iseo. She was disfigured by a painful 
I disease, and her sufferings were so acute that she hints at 
possibility of madness. She was struck with a terrible " fit 
ickness " while visiting the countess Palazzo -and her son, 

perhaps her mental condition made restraint necessary. 
Lady Mary was then in her sixty-third year, the scandalous 
rprelation put on the matter by Horace Walpole may safely 
discarded. Her husband spent his last years in hoarding 
ley, and at his death in 1761 is said to have been a million- 
. His extreme parsimony is satirized in Pope's Imitations of 
race (2nd satire of the and book) in the portrait of Avidicu and 
wife. Her daughter Mary, countess of Bute, whose husband 

now prime minister, begged her to return to England, She 
le to London, and died in the year of her return, on the 21st 
kugust 1762. 
ler son, Edward Wortley Montagu (1713-1776), author 

traveller, inherited something of his mother's gift and more 
n her eccentricity. He twice ran away from Winchester 
ool, and the second time made his way as far as Oporto, 
was then sent to travel with a tutor in the West Indies, 

afterwards with a keeper to Holland. He made, however, 
rious study of Arabic at Leiden (1741), and returned twenty 
rs later to prosecute his studies. His father made him a 
igre allowance, and he was heavily encumbered with debt, 
was M.P. for Huntingdon in 1747, and was one of the secre- 
ts at the conference of Aix-Ia-Chapellc. In 1751 he was 
>lved in a disreputable gaming quarrel in Paris, and was 
risohed for eleven days in the Chitclet. He continued to 
In parliament, and wrote Reflections on the Rise and Fall of 

Antient Republics . . . (1759). His father left him an 
uity of £1000, the bulk of the property going to Lady Bute. 

set out for extended travel in the East, and George 
tiney describes him as living in the Turkish manner at 
ice. He had great gifts as a linguist, and was an excellent 
er. His family thought him mad, and his mother left 

a guinea, but her annuity devolved on him at her death, 
died at Padua on the 29th of April 1776. 

idy Mary's " Town Eclogues " were published in a pirated 
on as Court Poems in 17 16. Of her famous Letters from the 
; she made a copy shortly after her return 10 England. She gave 
MS. to Benjamin Sowden, a clergyman of Rotterdam, in 1761. 
r Lady Mary's death this was recovered by the earl of Bute, 
meanwhile an unauthenticated edition, supposed to have been 
ared by John Cleland, appeared (1763), and an additional 
me, probably spurious, was printed in 1767. The rest of the 
pspondcnce printed by Lord WharnclifTe in the edition of her 
Ts is edited from originals in the Wortley collection. This 
on (1817) contained " Introductory Anecdotes " by Lady Bute's 
{htcr, Lady Louisa Stuart. A more critical edition of the text, 
I the " Anecdotes," and a " Memoir " by W. Moy Thomas, 
ared in 1861. A selection of the letters arranged to give a 
inuous account of her life, by Mr A. R. Ropes, was published in 
t; and another by R. Brimlcy Johnson in " Everyman's Library " 
ao6. See also George Paston, Lady Mary Wortley Montaf^u and 
Times (1907), which contains some hitherto unpublished letters. 



Lady Mary's journal was preserved by her daughter, Lady Bute, 
till diortly be^re her death, when she burnt it on the ground that it 
contained much scandal and satire, founded probably on insufficient 
evidence, about many distinguished persons. There is a full and 
amusing account of Edward Wortley Montagu in K\t)xo\s't Anecdotes 
of Literature^ iv. 625-656. 

MONTAGU. RALPH, iST DtncE op (c. 1638-1709), En^ish 
diplomatist, was the second son of Edward, snd Baron Montagu 
of Boughton (1616-1684), whose peerage was one of several 
granted in the 17th century to different members of the Montagu 
family {q.v.). Sir Edward Montagu, chief justice of the king's 
bench in the time of Henry VIII., was grandfather of the first 
earl of Manchester (see Manchester, Earls and Dukes of), 
and of Edward, ist Baron Montagu of Boughton (i 562-1644), 
who was imprisoned in the Tower by the parliament on account 
of his loyalty to Charles I. The eldest son of the latter, Edward, 
who succeeded him as 2nd baron, took the side of the parlia- 
ment in the Civil War, and was one of the lords who conducted 
the king from Newark to Holmby House after his surrender 
by the Scots in January 1647. He had two sons, of whom 
Ralph was the younger. The eldest son, Edward, was master of 
the horse to Queen Catherine, wife of Charles II., a post from 
which he is said to have been dismissed by the king for showing 
attention to the queen of too ardent a nature. Catherine imme- 
diately appointed the younger brother, Ralph, to. the vacant 
situation, and the latter soon acquired a reputation for gallantry 
at the court of Charles II. He took an active part in the nego- 
tiations in which Louis XIV. purchased the neutrality of England 
in the war between France and Holland. Having quarrelled 
with Danby and the duchess of Cleveland, who denounced him 
to the king, Montagu was elected member of parliament for 
Northampton in 1678, with the intention of bringing about 
the fall of Danby; but, having produced letters seriously com- 
promising the minister, the dissolution of parliament placed 
him in such danger of arrest that he attempted to fly to France. 
Foiled .in this design, he continued to intrigue against the govern- 
ment, supporting the movement for excluding the duke of York 
from the succession and for recognizing Monmouth as heir to 
the crown. His elder brother having predeceased his father, 
Ralph became Baron Montagu of Boughton on the death of the 
latter in 1684. Notwithstanding his former intrigues he gained 
^he favour of James II. on his accession to the throne; but 
this did not deter him from welcoming William of Orange, who 
created him Viscount Monthermer and earl of Montagu in 1689. 
Montagu was no less avaridous than unscrupulous. In 1673 
he had married the wealthy widow of the eari of Northumberland, 
Elizabeth Wriothesley, daughter of the eari of Southampton, 
who brought him a large fortune; and after her death in 1690 he 
married the still more wealthy Elizabeth Cavendish, daughter of 
the duke of Newcastle, and widow of Christopher Monk, 2nd 
duke of Albemarle. Montagu's position was further strength- 
ened in 1705 by the marriage of his son and heir to Mary, 
daughter of the great duke of Marlborough. In the same year 
he was raised to the dukedom as duke of Montagu and marquess 
of Monthermer. He died on the 9th of March 1709. His 
London residence, Montagu House, Bloom'sbury, was bought by 
the government in 1753 to hold the national collection of antiqui- 
ties, and on its site was built the British Museum. 

llie duke was succeeded by his son John, 2nd duke of Montagu 
(i 689-1 749), who in 1745 raised a cavalry regiment known as 
Montagu's Carabineers, which, however, was disbanded after 
CuUoden. He was made a K.G. in 17 19, and was a fellow of the 
Royal Society. As neither of his two sons survived him the 
title became extinct at his death in 1749, but in 1730 his daughter 
Mary married George Brudencll, 4th earl of Cardigan (1712-1 790), 
who on his father-in-law's death assumed the name and arms 
of Montagu, and in 1766 was created duke of Montagu. On 
his death, in 1790, this second dukedom of Montagu also 
became extinct; his only son, who was created Baron Montagu 
of Boughton, having predeceased him. His daughter Elizabeth 
married Henry, 2nd duke of Bucclcuch, who thus acquired all 
the unentailed property of the dukes of Montagu, the entailed 
portion passing to the earls of Cardigan. 



748 



MONTAGU, R.— MONTAIGNE 



See Abel Bbyer, History ef the Reim of Queen Anne, vol. vvi. 
(ii vols.. London, 1703-1713): Sir J. B. Burk^ GenealogicalHistory 
t^ Dormant (6ff.) Peerages (London, 1883). 

MONTAGU (or Mountague), RICHARD (1577-1641), English 
divine, was bora at Domey, Buckinghamshire, and educated 
at Eton and Cambridge. In 1613 he was elected fellow of Eton 
and became rector of Stanford Rivers, Essex. He was appointed 
to the deanery of Hereford in 1616, but exchanged it next year 
for a canonry of Windsor, which he held with the rectory of 
Pctworth, Sussex. He was also chaplain to James I. Like 
Laud, he disliked the extremes of Calvinism and Romanism, 
and this attitude constantly involved him in difficulties. About 
1619 he came into collision with some Roman Catholics in his 
parish, and Matthew Kellison (i56o?-i642) attacked him in a 
pamphlet entitled The Cagg oj the Reformed GospeU (Douai, 
1623). Montagu replied with A Cagg for the New Gospdlt No. 
A New Cagg for an Old Goose (London, 1624). The pubUcation 
of the Immediate Addresse unto Cod alone (London, 1624) 
incensed the Puritans, who appealed to the House of Commons, 
but Montagu was protected by the king. After the appearance 
of his famous Appello Caesarem (London, 1625). his case fre- 
quently came before parliament and conferences of bishops, but 
his influence at court and with Laud enabled him to hold his 
ground. He was consecrated bishop of Chichester in 1628, and 
became bishop of Norwich in 1638. He died on the 13th of 
April 1 64 1. 

MONTAIGNE, MICHfiL DE (1533-1592). French essayist, was 
born, as he himself tells us, between eleven o'clock and noon on 
the 28th of February 1533. The patronymic of the Montaigne 
family, who derived their title from the chAteau at which the 
essayist was born and which had been bought by his grandfather, 
was Eyquem. It was believed to be of English origin, and the 
long tenure of Gascony and Guienne by the English certainly 
provided abundant opportunity for the introduction of English 
colonists. But the elaborate researches of M. Malv6zin {Michel 
de Montaigne, son origine et safamille, 1875) proved the existence 
of a family of Eyquems or Ayquems before the marriage of 
Eleanor of Aquitainc to Henry II. of England, though no 
connexion between this family, who were sieurs de Lesparre, 
and the essayist's ancestors can be made out. Montaigne is not 
far from Bordeaux, with which the Eyquem family had for some 
time been connected. Pierre Eyquem, Montaigne's father, had 
been engaged in commerce (a herring-merchant Scaliger calls 
him, and his grandfather Ramon had certainly followed that 
trade), had filled many municipal offices in Bordeaux, and had 
served under Francis I. in Italy as a soldier. He married 
Antoinette de Louppcs (Lopez), descended from a family of 
Spanish Jews. The essayist was the third son. By the death of 
his elder brothers, however, he became head of the family. He 
had also six younger brothers and sisters. His father appears, 
like many other men of the time, to have made a hobby of educa- 
tion. Montaigne was not only put out to nurse with a peasant 
woman, but had his sponsors from the same class, and was 
accustomed to aSk>ciate with it. He was taught Latin orally by 
servants (a German tutor, Horstanus, is especially mentioned), 
who could speak no French, and many curious fancies were tried 
on him, as, for instance, that of waking him every morning by 
soft music. But he was by no means allowed to be idle. A plan 
of teaching him Greek by some kind of mechanical arrangement 
is not very intelligible, and was quite unsuccessful. These 
details of his education (which, like most else that is known about 
him, come from his own mouth) are not only interesting in them- 
selves, but remind the reader how, not far from the same time, 
Rabelais, the other leading writer of French during the Renais- 
sance, was exercising himself, though not being exercised, in plans 
of education almost as fantastic. At six years old Montaigne 
was sent to the college de Guienne at Bordeaux, then at the 
height of its reputation. Among its masters were Buchanan, 
afterwards the teacher of James I., and Muretus, one of the first 
scholars of the age. At thirteen Montaigne left the college de 
Guienne and began to study law, it is not known where, but 
probably at Toulouse. In 1548 he was at Bordeaux during one 



of the frequent rioti caused by the gabelle, or salt-tax. Sii 
years afterwards, having attained bis majority, be was made a 
counsellor m the Bordeaux {Nurlement. In 1 558 be was present at 
the siege of Thionville, in 1559 and 1561 at Paris, and in 1562 
at the siege of Rouen. He was also much about the court, and 
he admits very frankly that in his youth he led a life of pleasure, 
if not exactly of excess. In 1565 he married Fran^oise de U 
Chassaigne, whose father was, like himself, a member of the 
Bordeaux parlemcnt. Three years Uter his father died, and be 
succeeded to the family possessions. Finally, in 1571, as be 
tells us in an inscription still extant, he retired to Montaigne 
to take up his abode there, having given up his magistracy the 
year before. His health, never strong, bad been further 
weakened by the hard living which was usual at the time. Ht 
resolved, accordingly, to retire to a life of study and contempla- 
tion, though he indulged in no asceticism except careful diet. 
He neither had nor professed any enthusiastic affection for hb 
wife, but he lived on excellent terms with her, and bestowed 
some pains on the education of the only child (a daughter, 
L6onore) who survived infancy. In his study — a tower of refuge, 
separate from the house, which he has minutely described— he 
read, wrote, dictated, mediuted, inscribed moral sentences 
which still remain on the walls and rafters, annouted his books, 
some of which are still in existence, and in other ways gave 
himself up to a learaed ease. 

He was not new to Uterature. In his father's lifetime, and 
at his request, he had translated the Theologia nciuniii of 
Raymund de Sabunde, a Spanish schoolman (published 1560). 
On first coming to live at Montaigne he edited the works of Us 
deceased friend £tienne de la Bo^tie, who had been the comrade 
of his youth, who died early, and who, with poems of ml pro* 
mise, had composed a declamatory and school-boyish theme oa 
republicanism, entitled the Contr* un, which is one of the most 
over-estimated books in literature. But the years of his studioos 
retirement were spent on a work of infinitely greater importance. 
Garrulous after a fashion as Montaigne is, he gives us no dear 
idea of any original or definite impulse leading him to write the 
famous Essays, It is very probable that if they were at fint 
intended to have any spedal form at all it was that of a tabk* 
book or journal, such as was never more commonly kept that 
in the i6th century. It is certainly very noticeable that tk 
earlier essays, those of the first two books, differ from the laur 
in one most striking point, in that of length. Speaking geBe^ 
ally, the essays of the third book average fully four times tlie 
length of those of the other two. This of itself would toggetf 
a difference in the system of composition. These first tio 
books appeared in 1580, when their author was forty^eves 
years old. 

They contain, as at present published, no fewer than mnety-tlHce 
essays, besides an exceedingly long apology for the already bms- 
tioncd Raymund Sabunde, m which some nave seen the kernd flf 
Montaigne's philosophy. The book begins with a short osw (addroi 
to the reader), opening with the well-known words, ** Cest kj fl 
livre de hon foy, lecteur, and sketching in a few lively aeateacesthe 
character of meditative egotism which is kept up througboat. Hii 
sole object, the author says, is to leave for his friends and iriatins 
a mental portrait of himself, defects and all; he canes neither fcr 
utility nor for fame. The essays then begin, without any attcavt 
to explain or classify their subjects. Their titles are of^cfae noa 
diverse character. Sometimes they are proverbial sayings or oof^ 
adages, such as " Par divers moyens on arrive k parriUe fis.' 
*' Qu'il ne faut juger de notre heur ou'apr&s la mort " '"^Le p«fc* 
Ton est le dommage de I'aultre. Sometimes they are kotid 
like the chapters of a treatise on ethics: " De la tnstesae." "^ 
roisiveti^," " De la peur," " De ramitit" Sometimes a fart of «■« 
sort which has awaked a train of associations in the mind of tk 
writer serves as a title, such as " On est ptini de s'opiniastfcri<s> 
place sans raison." " De U bataille de Ureux," &c. OccaaovV 
the titles seem to be deliberately fantastic, as " Des puces.**" D^ 
I'usage de se vestir." Sometimes, though not very oitra. the i(^ 
tions are in no proper sense essays, but merely comnKwpbce bo* 
entries of singular facts or quotations, with hardly any coaa^ 
These point to the haphazard or indirect origin of them, wUch M* 
been already suggested. But generally the eMay-character-rtsl^ 
to say, the discussion of a special point, it may be with wide Sf^ 
sions and divergences— displays itself. The digressions are is^g 
constant, and sometimes nave the appearance of being •b^^''? 
wilful The nominal title, even when moat atrktly tIb&Brm, • 



MONTAIGNE 



749 



nrdy more tlian a •tartinc-point: and. though the brevity of theie 
first ettays for the most part prevents the author from iourneying 
vtxy far, he contrives to get to the utmost range of his tether. 
Quotations are very frequent. 

In 1 57 1 he had received the order of Saint-Michel; in 1574 
was with the army of the duke de Montpensier; two years later 
was made gentlcman-in-ordinary to Henry III., and next year 
again to Henry of Navarre. He visited Paris occasionally, and 
travelled for health or pleasure to Cauterets, Eaux Chaudes 
and elsewhere. But his health grew worse and worse, and he 
was tormented by stone and gravel. He accordingly resolved 
to journey to the baths of Lucca. Late in the i8th century a 
journal was found in the ch&teau of Montaigne giving an account 
of this journey, and it was published in 1774; part of it is written 
in Italian and part dictated in French, the latter being for the 
most part the work of a secretary or servant. Whatever may 
be the biographical value of this work, which has rarely been 
reprinted with the Essays themselves, and the MS. of which 
disappeared early, it is almost entirely destitute of literary 
interest. The course of the journey was first northwards to 
Plombi^res, then by Basel to Augsburg and Munich, then through 
Tirol to Verona and Padua in Italy. Montaigne visited most of 
the famous cities of the north and centre, staying five months 
at Rome, where he had an audience of the pope and was made a 
Roman citizen, and finally establishing himself at the baths of 
Lucca for nearly as long a time. There he received news of his 
election as mayor of Bordeaux with a peremptory royal 
endorsement enjoining residence, and after some time journeyed 
homewards. The tour contains much minute information about 
roads, food, travelling, &c., but the singular condition in which 
it exists and the disappearance of the MS. make it rather 
difficult to use it as a document. The best argument in its 
favour is the improbability of anybody having taken the trouble 
to forge so bald and awkward a heap of details. Of the fact of 
the journey there is no doubt whatever. 

Montaigne was not altogether delighted at his election to 
the mayoralty, which promised him two years of responsible 
if not very hard work. The memory of his father, however, and 
the commands of the king induced him to accept it; and he 
seems to have discharged it neither better nor worse than an 
average magistrate. Indeed, he gave sufficient satisfaction to 
the citizens to be re-elected at the close of his term, and it may 
be suspected that the honour of the position, which was really 
one of considerable dignity and importance, was not altogether 
indifferent to him. Unfortunately, it cannot be said that 
" nothing in his office became him like the leaving of it." It 
was his business, if not exactly his duty, to preside at the formal 
election of his successor, the roar£chal de Matignon; but there 
was a severe pestilence in Bordeaux, and Montaigne writes to 
the jurats of that town, in one of the few undoubtedly authentic 
letters which we possess, to the effect that he will leave them to 
judge whether his presence at the election is so necessary as to 
make it worth his while to expose himself to the danger of going 
into the town in its then condition, " which is specially dangerous 
for men coming from a good air, as he docs." It may be urged 
in his favour that the general circumstances of the time, where 
they did not produce reckless and foolhardy daring, almost 
necessarily produced a somewhat excessive caution. However 
this may be, Montaigne had difficulty enough during this 
turbulent period, all the more so from his neighbourhood to the 
chief haunts and possessions of Henry of Navarre, who actually 
visited him at Montaigne in 1584. He was able, despite the 
occupations of his journey, his mayoralty, and the pressure 
of civil war and pestilence, which was not confined to the town, 
to continue his essay-writing. His second term of office termi- 
nated in 1585; and in 1588 after a visit of some length to Paris, 
the third book of the Essays was published, together with the 
former ones considerably revised. The new essays, as has been 
remarked, differ strikingly from the older ones in respect of 
length; and the whimsical unexpectedness of the titles reappears 
in but two of them: " Des Coches " and " Des Boiteux." They 
•cc;, however, identical with the earlier ones in spirit, and make 



with them a harmonious whole— a book which has hardly been 
second in influence to any of the modem world. 

This influence is almost equally remarkable in point of matter 
and in point of form. The latter aspect may be taken first. Mon« 
taigne is one of the few ^^reat writers who have not only perfected 
but have also invented a literary kind. The essay as he gave it had no 
forerunner in modern literature and no direct ancestor in the litera- 
ture of classical times. It has been suggested that the form which 
the essavs assumed was in a way accidental, and this of itself pre- 
dudes the idea of a definite model, even if such a model could be 
found. Bc^nnin^ with the throwing together of a few stray thoughts 
and quotations hnked by a community of subject, the author by 
degrees acquires more and more certainty of hand, until he produces 
such masterpieces of apparent desultonness and real unity as the 
cs«ay " Sur des vers de Virgile." In matter of style and language 
Montaigne's position is equally important, but the ways which led 
him to It are more clearly traceable. His favourite author was be- 
yond all doubt Plutarch, and his own explicit confession makes it 
undeniable that Plutarch's transbtor, Jacoues Amyot, was his master 
in point of vocabulary and (so far as he took any lessons in it) of style. 
Montaigne, however, followed with the perfect independence that 
characterized him. He was a contemporary of Ronsard, and his first 
essays were published when the innovations of the Pl^de had fully 

K • : ■" ';< ! : I. i . .. ;m -. Jti .;,! .i.- . ■ '"1. 'i, 1.- .1 ,;;. . I . ►,' . ;, ' , ^ ... I u ^t h 

mLic:h Ui^riminaLlQn, s-nd hu u^d his awn judgn^cEit iti Laiini^ng 
wlicn he plKixd, In the sarne way ho retained archaic and prov^tn,- 
rial words with a, good deal of freedom, but by no mcAm to n^e^rt. 
In the arriirtg:rmeE)i, as tn the select ion« ol hii lanEua^e hi^ is ^ually 
DTi^nal. He has not the excc^iive claitietun orityk! which man 
even the fine prose of jean Calvin^ and which makes Xhii of some 
of Calvin's fauowers intolerably stiff. As a njte he h cartltsi of 
definitely rhythmit^l cadence, thauffh hia sentecice^ are always 
pleasant to tlie ear. But the princifiaT charact.eristic of Montaigne's 

Krose style ii. its remarkable eaie and fl^xibitjty^ h ftw yc^ri aftor 
tDntaigne's death a great revolution^ a& i% etneraLly known, pa'»Kd 
over France. The criticism of Malherf^e, foTtowcd "by the cstabU&h" 
mcnt of the Academy, the minttte grammatical ctn$tire» of Claude 
Favrc Vaugelai, and the sfvere litefary cenM3fihjp«| BoikaUt tyrncd 
French in leu than three-quarter^ of a century from one of the 
frecAt languagei in Europe to one of the most reftricted^ During 
this revO'lution only two writers ^f otder date heTd their gro^ind, tni 
ttiQ^ two were- FLabelaia and Mantaicne — Montaigne being of him 
natuire mor? generally readable than Rabelais. Airthe gri^t ptwt 
writtTs of France could not (ail to be iafluenciKl by the racy pbraat^ 
the quairit and pklure^Que vocabulary , and the uncoDStraincd 
constnictions of Montaigne. 

it wgutdl be impossiblt, howevw. for the stoutest defender of the 
trti]jnrta,ncr of form in litumtum to 4i«irn the chief pdrt in Monr 
tJignc't influcncjc to &tylc. It is the meiTiod, or rather the manner 
of thinkini;, of which that Etyle is the j^armeni. »hith ha* in rd&hty 
excrtiicd inHycncc on the world. Like all the Breatest writers 
except Shakespeare, ^fontaig^ne thorouahly and completely exhibici 
the intellectual and moral complexion of his own time. When hp 
reached manhood the f-~rench Renai»ance w^a at hieh water, 
and the turn of the tide wa& berinninjf, Rabelaii>, who died when 
Montaigne was still in carTy mannood, ejthtbits the earlier and ritinc 
spirit K tnouzh he nixdi to be completed on the poetical side. With 
Montai];ne begina the aRe of disenchantment. ^ By the time at Isast 
when he be^an to meditate hit essays in the lellxvment of his country 
house h WA3 tolerably certain that no ngoldtrn age was about to 
return. Ai the earlier Renaissance fiad specially' occupitd itself with 
the practical business and pleasures of life, so the later Renaissance 
fipccirilly mused on the vanity at this busineM and these plea!i:urei^ 
The prc^rhTipo&lnff circumstances which aJTected Montaigne were thus 
liitcciy EC iittline him to scepticism, to ethical nmslnes on the vanity oi 
life ;ind the lilcc, But to all this there had to be ndded the peculiirity 
of Sisi own tecnperainr-nt. This was a decidedly complicated one, 
and neglect of it has led some readers to adopt a more positive idea 
of Montaigne's scepticism than is fully justified by all the facts. 
The attitude which he assumed was no doubt ephectic and critical 
chiefly. In the " Apologie de Raymund Sabunde. he has apparently 
amused himself with gathering together, in the shape 01 quota- 
tions as well as of reflections, all that can be said against certainty 
in aesthetics as well as in dogmatics. It is even said by some who 
have examined the original (vide infra) that the text and altera- 
tions show a progressively frcethinking attitude, side by side with a 
growing tendency to conceal it by ambiguity and innuendo. But 
until all the documents are accessible this must remain doubtful. 
The general tenor of the essays is in complete contrast with this 
sceptical attitude, at least in its more decided form, and it is worth 
notice that the motto " Que scai-je? " does not appear on the title- 
page till after the writer's death. Montaigne is far too much occu- 
f>ied about all sorts of the minutest details of human life to make it 
or a moment admissible that he regarded that life as a whole but 
as smoke and vapour. And it is almost certainly wrong, though 
M. Brunetiire may have given countenance and currency to the idea, 
to regard his philosophy as in the main intended as a succour against 
the fear of death. The r^son of the misapprehension of him which 
is current is due very mainly to the fact that he was eminently a 



75© 



MONTALBAN 



humorist. PerhaiM the only actual parallel to Montaigne in literatia n 
is Lamb. There are diflFcrences between them, ansing naturally 
enough from differences of temperament and experience; but botn. 
agree in their attitudc-7-an attitude which is sceptical without being 
negative and humorous without being satiric. There is hardly any 
wntcr in whom the human comedy is treated with such completeness 
as it is in Montaigne. There is discernible in his essays no attempt 
to map out a complete plan, and then to fill up its outlines. But 
in the desultory and haphazard fashion which distinguishes hirn 
there are few parts of life on which he does not touch, if only tD 
•how the eternal contrast and antithesis which dominate it. The 
exceptions are chiefly to be found in the higher and more poetical 
strains of feeling to which the humorist temperament lends it^'lt 
with reluctance and distrust, thouj^h it by no means excludes thcra. 
The positivencss of the French disposition is already noticeable in 
Rabelais; it becomes more noticeable still in Montaigne. He is 
always charming, but he is rarely inspiring, except in a very few 
passages where the sense of vanity and nothingness possesses him 
with unusual strength. As a general rule, an agreeable eroiesqiie 
of the affairs of life (a grotesque which never loses hold of gofxl 
taste sufficiently to be called burlesque) occupies him. There h a 
kind of anticipation of the scientific spirit in the careful zeal with 
which he picks up odd aspects of mankind and comments upon 
them as he places them in his museum. Such a temperament in 
most pleasantly shown when it is least personal. A dozen geneira- 
tions of men have rejoiced in the gentle irony with which MonUign* 
handles the ludicrum kunuini sofculi, in the quaint felicitv of hn 
selection of examples, and in the real though sometimes fantastic 
wisdom of his comment on his selections. 

Montaigne did not very long survive the completion of his 
book. On his way to Paris for the purpose of getting it printed 
he stayed for some time at Blois, where he met De Thou. la 
Paris itself he was for a short time committed to the Bastille by 
the Leaguers, as a kind of hostage, it is said, for a member of 
their party who had been arrested at Rouen by Henry of Navarre. 
But he was in no real danger. He was well known to and 
favoured by both Catherine de* Medici and the Guises, and was 
very soon released. In Paris, too, at this time he made a 
whimsical but pleasant friendship. Marie dc Jars de Goumay 
(1565-1645), one of the most learned ladies of the i6th and 
i7lh centuries, had conceived such a veneration for the author of 
the Essays that, though a very young girt and connected wilb 
many noble families, she travelled to the capital on purpose to 
make his acquaintance. He gave her the title of his " filk 
d'alliance *' (adopted daughter), which she bore proudly for thcf 
rest of her long life. She lived far into the 17th century, and 
became a character and something of a laughing-stock to the new 
generation; but her services to Montaigne's literary memory 
were, as will be seen, great. Of his other friends in these last 
years of his life the most important were fitienne Pasquicr and 
Pierre Charron. The latter, indeed, was more than a friend, he 
was a disciple; and Montaigne, just as he had constituted 
Mile de Gournay his " fiUe d'alliancc," bestowed on Charron 
the rather curious compliment of desiring that he should 
take the arms of the family of Montaigne. It has been thought 
from these two facU, and from an expression in one of the later 
essays, that the marriage of his daughter Ignore to Gaston de 
La Tour had not turned out to his satisfaction. But familj* 
affection, except towards his father, was by no means Montaigne's 
strongest point. When Henry of Navarre came to the throve 
of France, he wished Montaigne, whom he had again visited in 
1587, to come to court, but the essayist refused. It would seem 
that he relumed from Paris to his old life of study and medita- 
tion and working up his Essays. No new ones were found after 
his death, but many alterations and insertions. His various 
maladies grew worse; yet they were not the direct cause of bis 
death. He was attacked with quinsy, which rapidly brouglri 
about paralysis of the tongue, and he died on the 13th of 
September 1592, in circumstances *which, as Pasquier reports 
them, completely disprove any intention of displaying anti- 
Christian or anti-Catholic leanings. He was buried, though not 
till some months after his death, in a church in Bordeaux, which 
after some vicissitudes became the chap)el of the college. During 
the Revolution the tomb, and 4s it was supposed the coffin, were 
transferred with much pomp to the town museum; but it v,is 
discovered that the wrong coffin had been taken, and it viai 
afterwards restored to iu old position. Montaigne's widow 



survived him, and his daughter left posterity which became 
merged in the noble houses of S^gur and Lur-Saluces. Bat it 
does not appear that any male representative of the familjr 
survived. 

When Mile de Goumay heard of the death of Moataigae 
she undertook with her mother a visit of ceremony and ooodalence 
to the widow, which had important results for litetature. Mne 
de Montaigne gave her a copy of the edition of 1588 annotated 
copiously: at the same time, apparently, she bestowed another 
copy, also annotated bv the author, on the convent of the FeuiUanu 
in Bordeaux, to which the church in which his remains lay was 
attached. Mile de Goumay thereupon set to work to praduce 
a nfw and final edition with a zeal and energy which wouM ha%e 
done credit to any editor of any date. She herself worked with her 
own copy, inserting the additions, marking the alteratkMis and 
translating all the quotations. But when she had got this to press 
she sent the proofs to Bordeaux, where a poet of some note. Fierre 
de Brach. revised them with the other annotated copy. The editioo 
thus produced in 159^ has with justice passed as the sundard, 
even in preference to those which appeared in the autlior's Ufetioie. 
Unluckify, Mile de Gournay's original does not appear to exist 
and her text wai said, until the appearance of VlM. Courfaet 
and Rover's edition, to have been somfwhat «-an;onlycQmipted, 
espccialfy in the itnpcirtant point of spelHn;^. Thr FcuilUnts copy 
IS in eKJstenGCii being the only manuscript^ or [lAnly nuinnscripC 
authority ror the t^xt: but access to it and repttMJuttktn of it are 
tub)ecied Co nther unfcrtunaie restrictions by the autljcnties, and 
until it is eompletcly edited students are rather ai ihe mercy of 
thoK who have actually consulted it„ It wai edit'C^d i^ [801 by 
Nai^eon, the diaciple of Diderot; but, accofdinf to Utcf iJiquiriei^ 
coniidembte liberties were taken with it. The nrst ctiJiion ol 158OC 
with the viihousi rvudrngi of tivo others which appK:Lrrd during tht 
author 'itifet idle, waa reprinted by MM. Dczeimeritand Burrikhainei 
in 1870. That of Lc Clerc {x volv, Paris, i8j6-i^7^> and m a more 
comp;ict forrn that of Louanure (4 voh., Paris, 1S54) kiv« beeamoit 
iiwlul ; but that of MM . Courbct and Koyer ( i ^^^i-i^ao} h at pctMSt 
the siandard. The Jfiumalt Igng neslc-cted and ttill (ti'it npf*) 
ddubtruln was rc-cdiitd by IVofr*iOr A, d'Ancona (Citti di Castrla 
18^5) and translated into ilntli»b by W. C, Water* (t^cj). The 
cdiLioiu c^ Mctntdignc In France and elsewhere, and ihc rprks npoa 
him durin;(F the_ past thrte centuries, are irinumenblc. The moit 
recent bookii of importance a^ P. Bonnefon's JJtmMtpit^ i'k^mmid 

icritniHs. the latter a book of remarkabte exn^ttrtice. Ednf 
Champion^a Inirtidviiisin cux tsfo^is m^y aJw be notitrJ, aad Pn^ 
feiior Dowdcft's Mpniaisiit (190^)1 wb«h has an cxr^tlcnt bibUo* 
trapby. The somcwb^ii earlier UaitiiSifnt ef M. E. Lowqdo (Cao* 
bridge, 1S98) ii noteworthy In rtprtiaT (of its atteniion to h» Ue 
and Erharacter. In EnfUnd Montaigise was eirl]^ popular* h waskM 
supposctl ihAt the aui«t^ph xA Shak««pcane in « copy ^ Flocios 
translation thowedi kit iiudy ol the Esmys. The autet^nfrii kH 
been disputed^ byt divtn pauaces, and especially one in Tit fmfn; 
show tliat at Jif^t or second band the pr^et wa^ ac^^t^^ntcd with the 
euav'tst. The book best worth roowfting on this hcid i* J. Feii'i 
ShJiffpfSH and Mmtaitm <ltS4>. Toward* the lattcf er.d of tk 
17 th century. Cotton, ine fflead ol ]su£ Walton, cKc^utedaca» 
plete translation, whkh, though not cJttraordinaflly faithful. pQS> 
cesses a good deal ci rough vigour. It has bern fi^uenily rvprioted 
with additions aod aheratioru. Rtprinrn of Florio an *1» nana- 
ous. One in the " Tudor Tr^rularion* " O^J) h.11 an Intnsdoctioa 
by G- Sdintsbury* An Eii|li3,h biognphy of Monuienc by Bayfc 
St John appeancd in t^(8, arwj Wahcr Pater's ungnuihcd GuStmii 
Lo/crur borro*-* from Montaigne and his story. The t&om. note* 
worthy critical hanUting ol the wbjcct La English is umme^uoaiblr 

Emrr-win's in Rtprrirntativ^ Men, n'l, Sa.) 

MONTALBAN, JUAN PERBZ^B (1602-1638), Spanish dnaa- 
tist, poet and novelist, was born at Madrid in 1602. At the ap 
of eighteen he became a licentiate in theology, was ordaiaed 
priest in 1625 and appointed notary to the InquisitioiL Ib 
1619 be began writing for the stage under the gtudance if 
Lope de Vega, who is said to have assisted him in conpociB| 
El Orfeo en lengua castellanc (1634), a poem obviotisly intcaded 
to compete with J&uregui's Orfeo^ published earlier in the siae 
year. The prose tales in Sucesos y proditim de amor (1614) aod 
Para lodos (1652) were very popular. Montalb&n's father, s 
publisher at Madrid, issued a pirated edition of Qucvedo's 
Buscdn, which roused an angry controversy. The violence of 
these polemics, the strain of overwork, and the death of U^dt 
Vega so affected Montalb&n that he became insane: he died at 
Madrid on the 25th of June 1638. His last work was a eulogistic 
biography of Lope de Vega in the Fama pdstuma (1636). I& 
plays, published in 163 5- 1638, are all in the manner of that 
great dramatist, and were represented with much succca^ 
but, with the exception of Los AmamUs dg Ttrmd, tie litdi 



MONTALEMBERT 



751 



more than clever improvizatioiis. A libellous atUck on 
Quevedo entitled El Tribunal de la justa venganxa (1635), 
b often ascribed to him. 

MONTALEMBERT, CHARLES FORBES REN^ DB (1810- 
1870), French publicist and historian, was bom on the X5th of 
March x8io. The family was a very ancient one, belonging 
to Poitou, or rather to Angoumois. Direct descent is said to 
be traced back to the 13th century, and charters carry the 
history of the house two centuries further. For some genera- 
tions before the historian the family had been distinguished, 
not merely in the army, but for scientific attainments. Mont- 
alembert's father, Marc Ren6, emigrated, fought imder Cond6, 
and subsequently served in the English army; he married £lise 
Rosfe Forbes, and his eldest son, Charles, was bom in London. 
At the Restoration of 1814 Marc Ren6 returned to France, was 
raised to the peerage in x8ig, and became ambassador to Sweden 
(where Charles completed his education) in 1826. He died in 
1831, a vear after the overthrow of the legitimate monarchy. 
Charles de Montalcmbert was too young to take his seat as a peer 
(twenty-five being the necessary age), but he retained other 
lights, and this, combined with his literary and intellectual 
activity, made him a person of some importance. He was a 
Liberal, in the English sense, and had he not resolutely separated 
himself from the new regime on the religious question he would 
have approved of the policy of the golden mean represented by 
Louis Philippe. He wished to see the Church free from the 
control of the state, and passionately attacked the monopoly 
of public instmction by which the monarchy fortified its position. 
This latter scheme first brought Montalembert into notice, as 
he was formally charged with unlicensed teaching. He claimed 
the right of trial by his peers, and made a notable defence, of 
course with a deliberate intention of protest (1833). On the 
other hand, he thought that the Church should not obstinately 
oppose new ideas. He had eagerly entered into the plans of 
his friends, Lamennais and Lacordaire, and collaborated with 
them in the newspaper I'Avenir. The Ultramontane party was 
roused by their boldness, and Montalembert and his two friends 
then left for Rome. This famous pilgrimage proved useless to 
mitigate the measures which the Roman curia took against the 
PAvenir, Its doctrines were condemned in two encyclicals 
{Mirari vos^ 1832, and Singulari vohis^ 1834), and Montalembert 
submitted. He still clung to his early Liberalism, and in 1848 
taw without regret the end of a govemmcnt towards which be 
bad always been hostile. He had a seat in the Chamber of 
Deputies till 1857, but to his great regret was then obliged to 
retire into private life. He was still, however, recognized as one 
of the most formidable opponents of the empire. Meanwhile his 
Liberal ideas had made him some irreconcilable enemies among 
the Ultramontanes. Louis Veuillot, in his paper, VUnivers, 
fought desperately against him. Montalembert answered by 
reviving a review which had for some time ceased publication, 
the Correspondant (1855), in which he set himself to fight both 
against the fanatical party of Pius IX. and the Syllabus, and the 
more or less free-thinking Liberals of the Revue des deux mondes. 
He took great interest in the debuts of the Liberal empire, whilst 
trying to parry the blow which the Ultramontanes were preparing 
to deal to Liberal ideas by proclaiming in the Vatican council 
the dogma of papal infallibility. But once again he would not 
allow himself to be seduced from obedience to the pope; he now 
severed his connexion with P^re Hyacinthe (Loison) as he bad 
with Lamennais, and made the submission expected of him to 
the council. It was his last fall. Broken down by the trial 
of these continued fights against people of his own religion, he 
died prematurely on the 13th of March 1870. 

In addition to being an eloquent orator, Montalembert wrote 
a style at once picturesque, fiery and polished. He was an 
ardent student of the middle ages, but his medieval enthusiasm 
was strongly tinctured with religious sentiments. His first 
historical work, La Vie de Ste Hisabeth de Hongrie (1836), is not 
so much a history as a religious manifesto, which did much to 
restore the position of hagiography. It met with great success; 
but Montalembert was not elected a member of the Acad6mie 



Francaise till later, after the fall of the July monarchy (Jan. 9, 
1851). From this time he gave much of his attention to a great 
work on monachism in the West. He was. at first attracted by 
the figure of St Bernard, and devoted one volume to him; this 
was, however, afterwards withdrawn on the advice of his friend 
Dupanloup, and the whole edition was destroyed. He then 
enlarged his original plan and published the first volumes of 
his Moines d* Occident (i860), an eloquent work which was 
received with much admiration in those circles where language 
was more appreciated than learning. The work, which was un- 
finished at the time of the author's death, was completed later 
from some long fragments found among his papers (vols. vi. and 
vii., 1877). 

Montalembert married Mile de Mfrode, sister of one of 
Pius IX.'s ministers. His daughter married the vicomte de 
Meauz, a Roman Catholic statesman and distinguished writer. 

Bibliography. — Mrs OHphant, Memoir of Count de Montalembert, 
(eer of France, deputy for the department of Doubs (Edinburgh, 1872). 
Mrs Oliphant, who has also translated into English Moines d'occiaent, 
has given a most charming account of the youth of Montalcmbert, 
and especially the first years passed at Stanmore. See also the 
vicomte de Meaux, Montalembert (1897); see alsoL. R. P. Lecanuet, 
Montalembert, d'aprhs son journal et sa correspondance (3 vols., 1895- 
1902) a work 6llcd with important documen|s^and Leon Lef^bure, 
Portraits de croyants au XIX* siicle: Montalembert, A uguste Cochin, 
Francois Rio (who was Montalembert 's professor of philosophy); 
A. Cuthlin (190^): and Lettres d'Alphonse d'Herbelot d Charles de 
Montalembert et i Lion Comudet (i 828-1 830). 

MONTALEMBERT, MARC REN6, Masqihs de (1714-1800), 
French military engineer and writer, was bom at Angoul£me 
on the i6th of July 17 14, and entered the French Army in 1732. 
He fought in the War of the Polish Succession on the Rhine 
(« 733-34). and in the War of the Austrian Succession made the 
campaigns of 1 742 in Bohemia and Italy. In the years preceding 
the Seven Years' War, Montalembert (who had become an asso- 
ciate member of the Acad6mie des Sciences in 1747) devoted 
his energies to the art of fortification, to which Vauban's Traiti 
de Vattaque attracted him, and founded the arsenal at Ruelle, 
near his birthplace. On the outbreak of war he became French 
commfssioner with the allied army of Sweden, with the rank 
of brigadier-general. He constructed the field fortifications of 
Anklam and Stralsund. In 1761 he was promoted marickal 
de camp, and began the works on which his fame rests. Monta- 
lembert 's fortress has been aptly described by an English 
author as an " immense battery." The intricacies of trace by 
which Vauban and Cormontaigne sought to minimize the power 
of the attack, are abandoned in favour of a simple tenaille plan 
so arranged that the defenders can bring an overwhelming fire 
to bear on the works of the besieger. Montalembert, who him- 
self drew his idea from the practice of Swedish and Prussian 
engineers, furnished the German constructors of the early 19th 
century with the means of designing entrenched camps suitable 
to modem conditions of warfare. The " polygonal " method 
of fortification is the direct outcome of Montalembert's Systems. 
In his own country the caste-spirit of the engineer corps was 
roused to defend Vauban, and though Montalembert was allowed 
to constmct some successful works at Aix and Ol^ron, he was 
forbidden to publish his method, and given but little opportunity 
for actual building. After fifteen years of secrecy he published 
in Paris (i 776-1 778) the first edition of La Fortification perpen- 
diculaire. At the time of the Revolution he surrendered a 
pension, which had been granted him for the loss of an eye, 
although be was deeply in debt, particularly on account of his 
Ruelle foundry, on which 6000 livres were due to him from the 
state, which he never received. Persuaded by his wife, he joined 
in the emigration of the noblesse, and for a time lived in England. 
All his possessions were thereupon sequestrated by the republi- 
can govemment. He very soon returned, divorced his wife, and 
married again. He obtained the annulment of the sequestration. 
Carnot often called him into consultation on mUitary affairs, and, 
in 1792, promoted him general of division. Proposed as a 
member of the Institul in 1797, he withdrew his candidature in 
favour of General Bonaparte. He died at Paris on the 39th of 
March x8oo. His wife, Marie Josephine de Comarieu, was the 



752 



MONTALIVET— MONTANA 



hostess of one of the best-known salons of Louis XVI. 's time. 
She wrote two noveb of merit, £/iM Dumesnil (1798) and Horace 
(1822). She died in 1832. 

Besides his masterpiece, he wrote L'Ari difenuvt sufflriettn A 
VoffensiJ (1793; in reply to attacks made ldod hiii earliest work. 
La Fortification terpe^uliculairej of which in uter editions it fornix 
part): Mimoire historique sur U fontt des canam (Pari a, 175^), and 
other works on the same subject ; Corrtspend<ince fvndani la guerTt 
d« 1757-1760 (London, 1777;: Rotation dii bouleij (Aca4., [75^); 
and RiUUions du siige de S. Jean d'Acre (Paris, 1 789). He also wroie 
short stories and verse, as well as comedies. He alio modelled a 
complete course of Fortification (92 modeEj)^ which he offered to the 
Committee of Public Safety. His bust was iculpt ured by Bcnvallet. 
Montalembert's position m the history ol It^riiCicatiDn may be 
summed up as a realization of his own wish to da for the^dt^lence 
what Vauban had done for the attack. It was the inabLlity of his 
contemporaries to see that Vauban's strength by in his parallels and 
batteries and not in his bastions that vitiated their methods, and it 
was Montalembert's appreciation of this fact whleh made him the 
father of modem fortincatton. See Trip;cr. La Foriifitaihn dMniia 
de son histoire (Paris, 1866). 

MONTAUVET. MARTHE-CAHILLB BACHASSON. Coicte de 
(1801-1880), French statesman, was born at Valence on the 25th 
of April x8oi, the second son of Jean Pierre Bachasson, comte 
de Montalivet (1766-1823), who had been made a peer of France 
in 18 1 9. Both his father and his elder brother Simon Pierre 
Joseph (i 799-1823) had been engineer officers, and he was edu- 
cated at the £cole Polytechnique and the £cole des Ponts et 
Chauss^es. Under Louis Philippe he occupied the ministry of 
the interior from, with short intervals, 1830 to 1840. After 1840 
he was intendant of the civil list, occupying himself with the 
museums of Versailles and the Louvre, and the restoration of 
the palaces of Fontaincbleau and Saint-Cloud. In 1847 he 
tried to induce Louis Philippe to adopt electoral reform, and 
after the catastrophe of the next year undertook the defence of 
the July monarchy in two works, Le Rot Louis Philippe et la lisle 
civile (1851) and Rien! Dix annies de gouvememerU parUmen' 
laire (1862). He had become a member of the Academy of 
Fine Arts in 1840 and in 2843 gnLud cross of the Legion of 
Honour. The attitude of the comte de Chambord after 1870 
led him to accept the republic, and he entered the Senate a 
year before his death, on the 4th of January 1880. 

MONTANA, a north-western state of the United States, 
situated between latitudes 44^ 26' and 49^ N., and between 
longitudes 27** and 39** W. from Washington. It is bounded 
N. by the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta and 
Assiniboia; £. by North Dakota and South Dakota; S. by 
Wyoming and Idaho; W. by Idaho. Montana has an area 
of 146,573 sq- ni., 796 sq. m. of which are water surface. 
(For map, sec Idaho.) 

Physical Features. — The Rocky Mountains cross the state 
from north-west to south-east, and with their spurs and outlying 
ranges occupy nearly one-third of its area in the west and south- 
west; the remaining portion is occupied chiefly by the Great 
Plains. The main range of the Rockies follows the boundary 
hne between Montana and Idaho west and north-west from 
Yellowstone Park in Wyoming to Ravalli county, then turns east- 
north-east to Lewis and Clark county, and from there extends 
north-north-west into Canada. From where the main range 
turns east from the Idaho boundary line the crest of the Bitter 
Root Mountains continues on that line with a downward slope 
to within one degree of latitude from the Canadian border. This 
range of mountains, which was formed by a great fault, has 
a maximum elevation at its southern end of about 9000 ft. 
above the sea. On its slope, which rises abruptly from the 
Bitter Root Basin, glaciers have cut cafions between high and 
often precipitous walls, and between these caAons are steep and 
rocky ridges having peaked or saw-toothed crest lines. To the 
east and north-east of the Bitter Root Mountains is a consider- 
able basin or peneplain dissected by short ranges having a north- 
west and south-west trend. To the south-east of this basin 
are the greatest mountain masses of the state; lofty and rugged 
ranges radiate in all direaions, and in many instances rise to 
heights of 10,000-11,000 ft., the highest peak in the state being 
Granite Peak (12,834 ft.) in Carbon county. Deep and narrow 



caflons are common, and, at higher fevda, i^sders, carved oat 
amphitheatres, or *' cirques " and '* U "•shaped txou^^ In 
the north the Rocky Mountains consist prindpally of two paralld 
ranges, the Lewis and Clark Range to the east, and the Living- 
ston Range to the west, which were formed by a great over- 
thrust; between them is the Waterton-McDonald valley, 8-15 m. 
wide. The east slope of the Lewis and Clark range is marked by 
long high spurs, and the valleys between them end in radiating 
cafions that are crowned with bold cliffs. On the higher som- 
miu the range rises to 8500-10,400 ft. above the sea, but in 
the wind-gaps only to 5500-6500 ft. The Livingston range is 
less rugged and more massive. Like the Lewis and Clark range, 
its crest is broken by numerous U-shaped wind-gaps and its vest 
slope is cut by glacial troughs containing long narrow lake basins. 
Extending far to the eastward, especially in the south ol the 
state, are isohited mountain groups. Among these are the 
Bear Paw Mountains, in the north central part, which 
occupy a tract 40 m. long and 20 m. wide that on the western 
side rises abruptly from the plains and reaches an eleratioa in 
Bear Paw Peak of 7040 ft. above the sea. The Great PUins 
in Montana slope from about 4000 ft. (above the sea), at the foot- 
hills of the mountains, to 2000 ft. in the north-east ol the sute. 
The valleys of the principal streams are deeply eroded; blufls 
are common along their borders, and buttes dsewhere on the 
plains. The main range of the Rocky Mountains separates 
that part which is drained west into the Coltimbia river and the 
Pacific Ocean from that which is drained east into the Miaooii 
and Mississippi rivers and the Gulf of Mexico, and from a very 
small part which is drained north-east into Hudson Bay; the 
water-parting which in MofiUna separates the drainage into 
Hudson Bay from the drainage into the Gull of Mexico doas 
only the north-west of Teton county. The principal tivca 
east of the Rockies are the Missouri and three of its tributaries; 
the Yellowstone in the south-east, the Musselshell in the middle, 
and the Milk in the north. The Missouri is fonned by a union 
of the Jefferson, the Madison and the Gallatin. It flows first 
east-north-east and then nearly east until it passes into North 
Dakota. Its channel is generally erratic and constantly shifting; 
its bed is sandy and its water muddy. In contrast, the Vettow- 
stone is a stream of bright clear water running over a graveOjr 
bed and among numerous forest-dad islands. The Miswoxi 
is navigable for small boats to Fort Benton in Chouteau county, 
but farther upstream near Great Falls, Cascade county, to wluci 
it is navigable at high water, it falls 512 ft. in 10 m. The 
Yellowstone is navigable for about 300 m. The principal rivers 
west of the Main Divide of the Rockies are the Clark Fork of the 
Columbia and its principal tributary, the Flathead, which rises 
in British Columbia. Montana has a few mineral springs, the 
best known being the Lissner Springs at Helena. Small lakes 
and waterfalls, the result of gladal action, are numerous m the 
mountains. There is, however, only one large lake in the state— 
Flathead (or Selish) Lake, which may be regarded as an enlarge 
ment of Flathead river; it is 27 m. long, has an average width of 
12 m., and a depth of more than xooo ft. 

Cfpia^y^ — In the Great Plain-s irgion the feolofici] stiu c t i a e h 
ver>' i^Tnple, conaiiting of nearly borlKontal etrali cl CretaceoM 
rock in the middle and western pcrtionA^ and of Tertiary rock on the 
eastern border, but in the moufitain rL-gi^n ibe rocks have beet 
folded and faulted until the struerure u inincatc «nd utrtcure. Sone 
of the deeper cafloni &how nxks of n^ly all agUL The Ueher 
elevationt are moitly cither Archean Of Paleozoic formunM 
pToJccting above Tertiary deport k In the Biiier Root VaOey at 
large depcnit of Qu4tCf nary. Fh^I nfnvsin* of mamm^Ua, fifh aad 
reptiles found in the Ttrtiiry deports of *cHJih'»e*ttfti hlootauaiv 
pre»rvi'<l in the Carnegie Museum ai FittsbunE. EVati3>lvaBta.«od 
in the museum of the umvcn-ily of Moniafu. Tltry iadude the 
m^ndiblt ol a mastodon and a ponton of a venvhr^ of a laifc fiaii* 
h(yih found in the Lower Madiwn Valley i the mkull And other pvts 
of a d OK (MtfKyon drvrnmondirtmiiJound near Drumraaad.Gnatie 
county^ theikull of a Featrfph^i paimdirfata^ found near NewChingOk 
Granite county^ a portion of iW skull of a Mti^ipfms lehinu, 
found near the confluence of ihe thnre fork}i which form ibe MisMnri 
river; and st portion of the skull ol m Hyratityuj pri^tuj. found aear 
LiiTL>;i, Bt:avcThead county. In the region ca&t of tim Crasy Moua- 
taina, in Swi^ttKrau county, are marine bcijii of Mpv^t Cretaoeoat 
Qf lower Tertiary fonsJtioQ com aim n; ComuU of Din ^ 



MONTANA 



753 



Mosasaun, and in the nMueum of the univentty of Montana u the 
creater part of the skeleton of a Dinosaur which was found here. 
Interesting fossil remains have also been found in Carboniferous 
formations in the south-west of the state. 

Fauna. — ^The native fauna is not sharply distinguished from that 
6L the surrounding states. The bison, which once ranged the plains 
in large herds, have been exterminated; the moose and the elk are 
found only occasionally in the wilder regions; mountain sheep, 
antelopes, black and grizzly bears, wolves, coyotes and lynx (" wild 
cats "j are also becoming rare. Black-tailed and mule deer are still 
favourite game for sportsmen. Geese, ducks and grouse are numer- 
ous about the lakes and rivers. Several kinds of nsh, among which 
are trout, salmon, gfrayling and white fish, inhabit many of tnc lakes, 
rivers and mountain streams, and a government fish hatchery at 
Bozeman, Gallatin county, restocks waters in which the supply has 
been diminished. 

Flora. — ^Thc Great Plains are covered for the most part only with 
bunch grass which grows in tufts, leaving the ground visible between, 
and -except in May and June presents a yellow and withered appear- 
ance. Mixed with the buncri grass are occasional patches of sage 
brush. Most of the bluffs along the principal river valleys, espe- 
cially those in the south-east, are entirely bare of vegetation, but on 
the bottom hnds along the rivers and streams considerable patches 
6L Cottonwood and willows arc common. The mountain valleys are 
covered with little except grasses; on the higher parts of the moun- 
tains there are barren rocks or only a tcant growth of timber; but 
many of the lower mountain slopes, cspeaally those along the 
western border, are clothed with heavy timber, yellow pine, red fir 



and tamarack being the principal'species. 

Climate. — ^The climate is generally dry, although less so on the 
mountains and in the Flathead river basin than on the Great 



Plains, and is subject to sudden changes and to great extremes of 
temperature; but the temperature varies more than the amount of 

Kapitation. In the west the climate b generally deliehtful, it 
ng there greatly affected by the warm, dry " Chinook " wind 
which blows from the Pacific Ocean; to some extent the wind 
modifies the temperature nearly to the eastern border. It is the 
prevailing wind of winter in the mountains and in consequence the 
periods of cold, though often severe, are short. In the east the 
winters are often long and very cold, and the summers dry and hot. 
The mean annual temperature ranges from 37** F. in the north-east to 
47* in the sheltered valleys among the mountains. On the Great 
Hains a range of extremes within a vear from —40* F. to 100* is 
not unusual, out in the mountain valleys the range n rarely greater 
than from —30^ to 90*. The records from 1880 to 1907 show a 
maximum range from 117* at Glendive, near the eastern border, in 
July 1893, to —63* at Poplar, about 80 m. north by west of Glendive, 
in January 1885. The amount of precipitation is greater in the 
north-west and on the mountains, because in the one case the 
mountains of lower elevation are a less obstruction to the moisture- 
bearing winds from the west, and in the other the mountains con- 
dense the moisture; the mountains which stand in isolated groups 
upon the plains are frequently in summer the focus of local thunder 
showers. The average annual precipitation ranges from 10 to 15 in. 
ofi the Great Plains to 20 in. or more in the north-west, and over 
limited areas in the higher mountain region. Nearly one-half of 
the rain falls during the four months from May to August inclusive. 
Storms endangering life and property occur only in the east, caused 
by a high north wind with snow or rain and a low temperature. 

Soil. — In the river bottoms the soil is for the most part a black 
clayey loam lacking in natural drainage, but on the " bench lands " 
higher up there is a deep layer of sandy, loam beneath which is a bed 
oljfravcl. Some of the best soil is in the mountain valleys, for these 
valleys were once lakes and rich deposits of alluvium were made in 
them. The mountain slopes are often bare or covered only with a 
thin layer of niould. 

Agrtadiure. — ^The , rainfall is sufficient for good grazing, but 
except in the Flath«id valley cultivation was long considered to 
be oependent on irrigation; and consequently farming was only 
incidental to stock raising and mining until after 1970, and as late 
as 1*900 the ratio of improved farm land to the total land area was less 
than in any other state or territory except New Mexico, Wyoming, 
Arizona and Hawaii. In 1906 the farm area was almost equally 
divided between " dry " farming and farming under irrigation, 
three-fourths <^ the wheat produoed was grown without irrigation, 
and tho dry farming was very successful with the comparatively 
new and valuable crops of durum, or macaroni wheat, and Russian 
barley, which is used in straw for winter feed to sheep and neat 
cattle. The counties where dry farming had been carried on on the 
brrat scale were Missoula, Ravalli, Flathead, Cascade, Fergus 
and Gallatin, where cereal yields, though not nearly so brge as from 
irrigated lands, were high compared with the average for the country. 
But even where dry farming was successful, the increase of crops 
made possible by cheap irrigation seemed to be indudng farmers 
to abandon it. Amon^ the larger privately irrigated tracts are: 
16,000 to 18,000 acres in Yellowstone county, fed by a canal built 
by the Billings Land & Irrigation ComfMny ; about 35.000 acres of 
orchard land in the Bitter Root Valley, in Kavalli county, irrigated 
by canals from Lake Como, a natural reservoir; and 100.000 acres 
hk Missoula county, to be watered from a 28 ft. dam across the Clark 
XVIU 13 



Fork (or Misaoula River) at Bonqer. Private irrigation by pumping 
was first successfully introduced about 1901, and in 1906 a state 
report estimated that 125 pumping irrigation planu were in use 
in the state. Boring for underground water supply to be used in 
irrigation was tried on a small scale. An area of 16,000 acres in 
Missoula county is watered by a ditch 10 m. long built in 1902-1905 
by the co-operative Grass Valley-Frenchtown Irrigation Company, 
and the Teton Co-operative Canal Company in 1906 began work 
on a diversion canal from the Teton River, whose waters are to be 
stored by a dam 62 ft. high and 2100 ft. long. But more important 
than private and co-operative undertakings are the Federal irxigation 

Krojects. In 1894 Congress passed the Carey Act, under which 
fontana received titk; to 1.000,000 acres of and land on condition 
that the state would reclaim it by providing an adequate supply 
of water; the state accepted the offer, created an irrigation commis- 
sion, and provided means for securing the necessary funds. Further- 
more, Congress in 1902 appropriated the receipts from the sales of 
public lands in the state to the construction ol irrigation work. In 
1899 there were 6812 m. of irrigation canals and large ditches in the 
state; the irrigated acreage had increased from 350,582 acres in L889 

[ gated area was 

in L^iL ..jjuii.r .v^.L. V\.^ .o<^-!i iLJ.r..j j.;..ii, L r ...^v' not begun until 
aUiT 190a Afncinifr ihem are: tht llutuhy projtm in Yellowstone 
county, bqnin in 1«14^ and practically' campktcd in 1908, covering 
laTid formerly in tnc Crow 1 fid tart rcitrrviatiun, the irrigable area 
bring 2il,9Ji acres; the Lo\trer Milk nvct prL^jcrt (ana the sub- 
sidiary St Mary project), in Chouteau, Valley and 'I'rton counties, by 
vhich the wa[er of St Nfary rivtr ^ is &tcri?d and diverted to the 
hcadqudrtera of the Mtlk^ river to irriy^ate an arc:i nf 300,000 acres; 
the Sjei river pcojeci (Teton, Lcwii arid Cljrt, (Chouteau and Cas- 
cade cQuntiefi), by which, as the ordinary ftaw of i^JiJt river is already 
utilised for irrigation, the flood waters are atortM] and carried to 
the hie her bench liinda of 1 he district : in Munianji (Dawson county) 
and North Dakota (McKciuie county), the l^wer Yellowstone 
project: and the Blackfect project, to irrigate the Blackfeet reset* 
vatLon in Teton ootinry. 

[n 1900, iT.fl44,45A acres, or 11-7 % of the am. was included in 
farms; of this, 1,730.701 acres, or 14-7%. was improved: 54-7% 
of the improved farm land was irrigated; 79*4% of the irrigated 
land was used for growing crops and 20-6% tor pasturage; the total 
acreage of all crops was 1,151.674, and of this 755.865, or 6^*6%, 
was irrigated. In the same year there were 13,370 farms exclusive 
of those on Indian reservations; of these, 6665 contained less than 
175 acres each; 1289 contained more than 1000 acres each; 8043 
contained some irrigated land, the average amount being 118 acres; 
If. ^2 were worked by owners or part owners, 624 by cash tenants, 
and 606 by share tenants. 
Of the total acreage of all crops in 1899, 875,712 acres, or 76%, 
ere hay and forage, and 254,231 acres, or 22-1 %, were cereals; <^ 



. ^ . „ 1909 

was 3^0,000 and the production 10.764.000 bushels; the acreage 
of barley in 1909 was 50,000 acres, and 1,900.000 bushels were 
raised; the acreage of Indian corn in 1909 was 5000 acres, and 
175,000 bushels were grown.' 

Sugar beets were first grown in Montana at Evans, Cascade 
county, in 1893 without irrigation. In 1906 a refinery (with a daily 
slicing capacity of 1200 tons) was built at Billings, Yellowstone 
county. Russians, with experience in beet-growinff, and Japanese 
are furnished by the sugar company to the growers lor the bunching, 
thinning, hoeing and topping of the beets. In 1906 sugar refineries 
were projected at Hamilton, Kalispell, Clunook, Laurel, Missoula, 
Dillon and Great Falls; and in 1907 the crop was so large that 12,000 
freight cars were needed to carry it and the railways had a car and 
coal " famine." 

The east is devoted chiefly to stock raising; for cattle, horses and 
sheep thrive well on the bunch grass except when it is covered with 
snow. The principal sheep-raising counties are Custer, Yellowstone, 
whither many shecp.are brought to be fattened. Rosebud, Beaver- 
head, Valley, and Meagher. In 1909 the number of sheep in Montana 
was ^.747,000. being exceeded only by the number in Wyoming: the 
number of cattle was 922,000, only 80,000 being milch comts, and the 
number of horses 319,000. 

Lumber. — ^The woodland area was estimated in 1900 at 42.000 
sq. m., much of which had been burned over. It is confined mainly 
to the mountain slopes, and in March 1909 31,858*9 sq. m., more 
than three-fourths ol this total, had been set apart in the following 
" national forests": Absaroka (980.440 acres), Beartooth (685,293 
acres), Beaverhead (1.506,680 acres in Montana; and a smaller area 
in Idaho), Bitterroot (1,180,900 acres), Blackfeet (1,956,340 acres). 



* The St Mary and both forks of the Milk river flow northward 
into the Dominion of Canada, and as there has been much private 
irrigation both north and south of the international boundary, the 
present Federal project and other undertakings in the same region 
necessitate an international agreement as to the division of the 
waters, especially of the St Mary, and commissioners representing 
the Canadian government and the United States conferred in regard 
to it in May 1908. iq 



75+ 



MONTANA 



Cabinet (1,020,960 acret). Custer (S90.7ao acres), Deerlodge 
(1, 080.220 acres). Flathead (2.002,785 acres), Gallatin (Qoy.iteacres). 
Helena (930,180 acres), Jenerson (1,255.3^ acres), Kootenai 
(1.661.260 acres), Lewis and Clark (844.136 acres). Lolo (1.211.68a 
acres). Madison (i. 102.860 acres), Missoula (1.237.509 acres) and 
Sioux (I45>253 acres in Montana; 104400 acres in South DakoU). 
A large part oi the woodland contains no trees fit for lumber; never- 
theless the value of the lumber was t3.024.674 in 1905. More than 
one-half of the product is yellow pine and the remainder is princi- 
pally red fir and tamarack. There is scarcely any hardwood timber 
m the state. 

Minerals and Mining. — Mining has bnn thp leading industry of 
Montana ever since the discovery of cold in t86j. U containi ihe 
largest copper producing district in xhc world, amd in 1^07 m»iifd 
more copper than any other state or ler^itory tKccpc Ariiotu; xhxK 
metal constituted nearly three-fourths m vaEuc of the «tatg'« mintng 
products in 1907. the total value being lbo.663.51 1 ;ind (hat ait^p^jcr 
$44.8^2.758. The most important cot^rK^r mim-^ arc in SiKt^Ihiw. 
Broadwater. Jefferson and Beaverhend couTittcaw Gold was di^ 
covered in Deerlodge county as early a« iA^3 but very Uult mi nine 
was done until ten years later. In 1863 tht famDUt Alder Gukh in 
Madison county was discovered and in ih« uKtt ymr< Lait Chancx^ 
Guk:h in the south of Lewis and Clark tuunty. lit [865 Xhe product 
reached its maximum, as the value of ^rjlil and «i1v«r combined ([he 
Value of the silver being relatively sm.i]t) was fliJi.om.oooi ihe pro- 
duction then decreased and in 1903 the value of the gold was only 
|i, 800.000. Then copper mining rapidly developed and consider- 
able gold was obtaineo from copper ores. ^ Until the development 
of copper mining, silver was proauccd only in small quantities along 
m'ith gold, but as much more silver than gold was obtained from the 
copper ores the value of the silver product increased from $2,630,000 
in 1881 to $24,615,822 in 1892. The product then fell off. but in 
1907. when it amounted to 9.3 1 7,605 fine ounces, val ued at $6. 149:619. 
more than nine-tenths of it was derived from the copper ores in 
Sitverbow county. It was in 1882 while Marcus Daly was sinking 
a shaft at Anaconda in preparation for milling gold and silver ores 
that he discovered the first rich copper ledge. Other discoveries 
about Butte followed, and the output of copper increased from 
ll.oii long tons in 1883 to 129.80^ long tons in 1906. more than 
90-6% from Silvcrbow county. The industrial and political life 
01 Montana have been strongly influenced by the copper industry 
and by the tremendous wealth controlled by tlie copper interests; 
in the industry three men were lonp dominant — ^Niarcus Daly, 
William A. Clark and F. Augustus Heinxe; later the Amalgamated 
Copper Company gained control of a large part of the mines. 

Coal was discovered in Montana before 1880, when 224 10119 were 
mined. In 1907 the output was 2.016,857 tons, and in tgoS 
1,920.190 tons. The coal underlying the east half of the ^i.\iv, il^e 
** Great Plains," is lignitic and oi inferior quality, but that in i^o 
mountain districts is oituminous and generally suitable fcr cokings 
The principal fields are: the isolated Bull Mountain dcpo-it, ^s m. 
north-east of Billings, in Yellowstone county; the large Cl^rlt furli 
field in Meagher. Sweet Grass. Yellowstone and Carbon couniics i i \\v 
small but valuable Rocky Fork field in the south cenirfti isirt of 
Carbon county: the Red Lodge field in Carbon county; ih*- S t-Jlov-- 
stone field, chiefly in Gallatin and Park counties; the Triiil CrLtV 
deposits. 10 m. south of Bozeman: the Cinnabar field in stiuih J'jrk 
county; the Great Falls field in Cascade county; and the U. [ 
Gallatin, the Toston and the Ruby valley fields. The output 
steadily increased until 1895 when it was i. 504.193 short tons; 
but from then to 1905. when it was 1 ,643,832 short tons, the Quantity 
varied little from year to year. From 1905 to 1907, when the 
output was valued at $3,907,082, the increase in production was 
steady. 

Granite, sandstone and limestone are abundant in the state, but 
have been little developed. Granite was quarried in 1907 to the 
value of $102,050. Limestone quarried in the same year was worth 
$12^.690; and sandstone was valued at $39,216. Some light grey 
sandstone found in Rocky Cafton, Gallatin county, looks much like 
the Berea (Ohio) sandstone; and a sandstone quarried at Columbus, 
Yellowstone county, was manufactured into grindstones equal to 
those made from the Berea stone. Gypsum in Carbon county and 
in Cascade county is worked for plaster. Sapphires are found in 
several gulches, especially on Yogo Creek, 16 m. from Utica. Fergu* 
county, where blue stones are found, and on Rock and Cottonwood 
creeks, where green, yellow, red and blue sapphires have been 
found. Many of the sapphires are shipped to Switzerland for watch 
jewels and for bearings. In 1907 the total value of precious stones 

AfcBu/di'fttrrj,— With the exception of the smelting and refining 
of copn^fH marufaciuring is in Montana a decidedly minor industry, 
In 1QQ5 rhc total v^luc of the " factory " product was $66,415,452. 
an. J rhc V3lu<^ of the roppcr (by state reports) was $48,165,277 
Lumber and iJmlje-r products, which ranked second, increased in 
value from Z2M^*^^^ >" >900. to $3,024,674 in 1905. Flour and 
grist m\\\ producu rose during that period from $937,462 to 
$2,003,136; and miilt liquors increased in value from $1,267,331 to 
$1,731,601. In 1905 the value of the products of the factories of 
Anacondj and Great Falls was 63-5% ol that for the entire state. 

TraiMptfrf.— 'Monuna is served by three transcontinental railways; 



tht Great N'orthcrm tnver»ngr the north, the Northern Pacific 
traverstng the bouth-castr Mituth and south-west portions, and, north 
of the Northern Pacific, the Chir3^c7, Milwaukee & Paget Sound, aa 
etU'tijion of the ChicngOn Milwaukee & St Paul to Seattle and 
TacomD. practice Ely cDrnpletitJ in T909: branch lines of the Great 
N'orrii^rn, from the north, cofinect with the Northern Pacific and 
the Chit£:a£a. Milwaukee & Puget Sound at Butte, and with the 
NoriKc^rn Pacific at Laurel. The Oregon Short Line from the south 
connKu WLih the Northern P;icific. the Great Northern, and the 
Chicago* Milwaukee & Puget Sound at Butte, and the Burlington 
i^ysteiTir alM from the touth. connects with the Northern Pacific 
it Bi] lings, Yel1ovi'atL>ne county. The Butte, Anaconda & Pacific 
railwaiy carries ore (mm the mines at Butte to the smelters at 
An^cond^- The first railway vt-a^ the Oregon Short Line, which was 
conn pic ted by the Union Pacific Company from Qgden. Utah, to 
Buitc in [fl^t. The ^ofther^ Pacific reached Helena two yesis 
later and the mi I way niileage \n the state increased frocn 106 ni. in 
(SSo to 4011^63 m- in 1909. River transport has been of relativdy 
little importance since th^ advent of railways^ 

Po^uia/um.— The population of the state incretaed from 
39,159 in 1880 to 243,339 in 1900, and to J76,053 in 1910. In 
1900, 67,067 were foreign-bom, 11,343 were Indians, 2441 
Japanese, 1739 Chinese and 1523 negroes; most numerous among 
the foreign-bom were 13,826 Canadians, 9436 Irish, 8077 
English, 7162 Germans and 5346 Swedes. The Indians ait 
mostly members of the following tribes: the Piegan, the Crow, 
the Salish (or Flathead), the Sioux, the Assiniboin, the Arapabo 
Atsina (miscalled Grosvcntres) and the Northern Cheyenne. 
The Piegans, with small remnants of a few other tribes, number- 
ing (1900) about 2060, occupy the Blackfeet xcservation 
in the north-west of Teton county, the Crows, numbecisg 
1857, occupy the Crow reservation in the south central part of 
the state; the Salish, with small remnants of the Fend OteiUe, 
the Spokan, the Lower Kalispell and the Kutenai, numbering 
1837, occupy the Flathead reservation in the north of ilissoals 
and the south of Flathead county; Assiniboins and otheis of 
Sioux stock, numbering about 1793, occupy Fort Peck 1 
tion in the south-east of Valley county: Atsina and / 
numbering about 1429, occupy Fort Belknap reservation in the 
east of Chouteau county; and the Northern Cheyennes, munber- 
ing about 1357, occupy Northern Cheyenne reservation in tbe 
south-east of Rosebud county. Many of the Indians are engapd 
in stock-raising; the Crows have an irrigation system and are 
extensively engaged in farming. Roman Cath<^cs are noie 
numerous in Montana than Protestants, having 72j59Conun«Bi- 
cantsoutof a total of 98.984 of all denominations in 1906, when 
there were 7022 Methodists, 4096 Presbyterians, 3290 Protestast 
Episcopalians and 2020 Baptists. In 1900 the urban poptxlatioa 
{i.e. population of places having 4000 inhabitants or more) wis 
60,989; the semi-urban (i.*. population of incorporated pUcc$ 
having less than 4000 inhabitants) was 30»37o; and the rani 
(i.e. population outside of incorporated places) was i4J.07a 
The rural population was therefore in that year 58-8% of tbe 
total, and the urban was only 28-7% of the total, but from iSgo 
to 1900 the urban increased 185% while the rural increased 
only 55-6%. The principal cities are: Butte, whose popalatios 
increased from 10.723 in 189010 30,470 in 1900 and to 39ti65is 
1910; Great Falls (1910) 13,948; Helena, the capital, (i9««» 
12,515; and Anaconda (19 to) 10,134. 

Administration.— Tht stale is governed under a constitution 
adopted in 1889, a month before Montana's admission into the 
Union. The requirements for amending thb constitution «ie: 
an affirmative vote in each house of the legislature of iwonhinh 
of its members, followed, not less than three months later. Vf 
an affirmative vole of a majority of the electors voting thereoa 
at a general election; or. by a like vote of each house of the k|^ 
lature and of the electorate, a convention may be called to itviae 
or amend it, a revision or amendment in this manner reqairing 
the ratification of the electorate not less than two months nor 
more than six months after the adjournment of the conventioa 
General suffrage is conferred on every male citizen of the United 
Stales who is iwenly-onc years of age and who has lived in the 
stale one year, and in the county thirty da>'s iraraedisldy 
preceding an election, the only exceptions being idiots or iostae 
persons; a woman who has the qualifications for suffrage thtt 
are required of a man, may vote at any school disida ckctifla 



MONTANA 



755 



and if a tax-payer she may vote on all que&tions submitted 
to Ihe tax-payers of the state or o( any political division 
thereof. 

The officers of the executive department are the governor, 
lieutenant-governor, secretary of state, attorney-general, 
treasurer, auditor and superintendent of public instruction, 
each of whom is elected for a term of four years. No person is 
eligible to any of these offices who shall not have lived within 
the state for two years next preceding the election; no person 
is eligible to the office of governor, lieutenant-governor, attorney- 
general or superintendent of public instruction who is not thirty 
years of age; no person is eligible to the office of secretary of 
state, treasurer or auditor who is not twenty-five years of age; 
no person is eligible to the office of attorney-general who has not 
been admitted to practice in the supreme court of the state; and 
the treasurer is ineligible to his office for the immediately suc- 
ceeding term. The governor's powers are limited. As in other 
states he is commander-in-chief of the militia. With the advice 
and consent of the senate he appoints various administrative 
officers. With the approval of the majority of a board of pardons 
(composed of the secretary of state, attorney-general and auditor), 
he may pardon offences or commute punishment, and remit fines 
and forfeitures. He may veto any bill passed by the assembly, 
or in the case of a bill making appropriations of money he /nay 
veto any item of it, and no bill or item of an appropriation 
bill which he vetoes within five days (Sunday excepted) 
after it ha« been presented to him, can become a law or part of a 
law unless passed over his veto in each house by a two-thirds 
vote of the members present. Under an amendment to the 
Constitution adopted in 1906 his veto power does not extend 
to measures referred to the people by the legislative assembly 
or by initiative and referendum petitions. Without his ap- 
proval, also, no order or resolution of cither House, other than 
to adjourn or relating solely to the business of the assembly, can 
take effect until passed again by a two-thirds vote as in case 
of a bill. 

The legislature consists of a senate and a house of represen- 
tatives. Except when called in special session by the governor 
it meets (at Helena) on the first Monday of January in odd num- 
bered years only, and the length of its session is limited by the 
constitution to sixty days. Senators are elected, one from each 
county, for a term of four years; representatives are elected, one 
or more from each county according to population, for a term of 
two years. The qualifications for a senator are that he be at 
least twenty-four years of age and have resided in his county or 
district at least one year next preceding his election; for a repre- 
sentative there are no qualifications other than those required 
for suffrage. The action of the legislature is much restricted 
by the constitution: a long list of cases is named m which that 
body b prohibited from passing any local or special laws; it is 
prohibited from delegating to any special commission power to 
perform any municipal functions whatever; from making any 
appropriations for charitable, industrial, educational or benevo- 
lent purposes to any person, corporation or community not 
under the absolute control of the state; and from authorizing 
the stale to contract any debt or obligation in the construction 
of any railway, or to lend its credit in aid of such railway con- 
struction. In 1906 an amendment to art. 5, sec. i of the state 
constitution, authorized the initiative and referendum, but two- 
fifths of the entire number of counties must each furnish for 
initiative petitions signatures amounting in number to 8% of 
the whole number of votes cast for governor at the election last 
preceding the filing of the petition; for referendum petitions 
two-fifths of the counties must each furnish as signers 5% of the 
legal voters; and any measure referred to the people shall be in 
full force unless the petition for the referendum be signed by 15% 
of the legal voters (whose number is that of the total votes cast 
for governor, &c., as above) of a majority of the whole number 
of counties, but that in such case the law to be referred shall be 
inoperative until it is passed at the popular election. 

The administration of justice is intrusted to a supreme court, 
an increasing number of district courts, and at least two justices' 



courts in each organized township, besides police and municipal 
couru. The supreme court is composed of a chief justice and 
two associate justices elected for a terra of six years. It holds 
four sessions a year at Helena and has both original and appellate 
jurisdiction. For most district couru there is only one judge, 
but for the more populous there are two; they are all elected for 
four years. These courts have original jurisdiction in cases at 
law and in equity in which the value in controversy exceeds 
$50, in criminal cases amounting to felony, in all matters 
of probate, in actions for divorce, &c., and appellate jurisdiction 
in cases arising in the inferior courts. Justices of the peace are 
elected for two years and have civil jurisdiction in several 
classes of actions in which the amount demanded does not 
exceed $300, and in such cases as petit larceny, assault in the 
third degree and breach, of the peace. 

For purposes of local government the state is divided into 
counties; each county into townships, school districts and road 
districts; and there are incorporated cities and towns. The 
county officers are a board of three commissioners, a treasurer, 
a sheriff, a county clerk, a clerk of the district court, an attorney, 
a surveyor, a coroner, a public administrator, an assessor, a 
superintendent of schools, and in some instances, an auditor. 
The commissioners are elected for six years, the other officers, 
for two years. Among the commissioners' powers and duties 
are: the management of county property; the levying of taxes; 
the equalizing of assessments; the divbion of the county into 
townships, school districts and road districts; the laying out 
and management of public highways and ferries, and the care 
of the poor. The township is of minor importance, its principal 
officers being two justices of peace and two constables. Muni- 
cipar corporations are classified according to population; those 
having 10,000 inhabitants or more are cities of the first class; 
those having less than 10,000 but more than 5000 inhabitants, 
cities of the second class; those having less than 5000 but more 
than 1000 inhabitants, cities of the third class, and those having 
less than 1000 but more than 300 inhabitants towns. In a 
city of the first class, a mayor, two aldermen from each ward, a 
police judge, and a treasurer who may be ex ojficio tax-collector 
are elected, and an attorney, a clerk, a chief of police, an assessor, 
a street commissioner, a jailer, a surveyor, and, where there is a 
paid fire department, a chief engineer with one or more assis- 
tants, may be appointed by the mayor with the consent of the 
council The officers of cities of the second and third class are 
the same, except that the clerk is ex officio assessor. In towns* 
only a mayor and aldermen are elected, and the mayor with the 
consent of the council appoints a clerk who is ex officio assessor, 
a treasurer who is ex officio collector, and a marshal who may 
be ex officio street commissioner. The principal municipal 
officers hold office for two years. 

A wife may hold property and make contracts as if she were single, 
and neither nusl>and nor wife is accountable for the acts of the other. 
The huslMnd is required to support himself and his wife if he is 
able to do so; if he is unable, his wife is required to assist him. On 
the death of either hust)and or wife at least one-third of his or her 
property passes to the other. Recognized causes for divorce are 
adultery, extreme cruelty, wilful desertion, wilful neglect, habitual 
intemperance or conviction for felony. The homestead of a head 
of a family consisting either of a farm not exceeding 160 acres or 
12500 in value, or of a house and lot — the lot not exceeding \ acre, 
and the house and lot not exceeding I2500 in value — is secured 
against debtors except in case of judgments obtained before the 
homestead was recorded as such, in case of labourers', mechanics' 
or vendors* liens, and in case of a debt secured by mortgage ; if the 
owner is a married person the homestead cannot be mortgaged 
without the consent of both husband and wife. For the settlement 
of disputes between labourers and employers there is a state board, 
appointed by the governor and consisting of an employer of labour, 
a labourer and a disinterested citizen, upon application of either 
or both of the parties, provided the emplovees be not less than 
twenty, this board is required to inquire into the cause of the dispute, 
with the aid of two expert assistants, who shall be nominated by the 
parties, and to render a decision, which is binding for at least six 
months upon the parties to the application. 

Charitable and Penal Institutions. — These are a state prison at 
Deer Lodg:e. managed by contract; a reform school at Miles City, 
an industrial school at Butte, an orphans' home at Twin Bridges, 
the soldiers' home at Columbia FallK a school for deaf and bund 



756 



MONTANA 



at Boulder, and an insane asylum at Warm Springs, managed by 
contract. They are all under the supervision of a state board of 
charities and reform. The state also has a bureau of child and 
animal protection. 

Education. — The public schDol system ifi administered by $tate» 
county and dEithct o^cem. The common school of each district 
is under the innmedtate ^upE^rvision of a. board of truatt<^i but a frtate 
text-book corriFTiL^on dctcrcnirL'i what teKt-boolu ^hall be u^cd 
in these schcoU^ the be ate Euperiintetideat of public Instruction 
prepares the qoe?.t ion a that are u^fd in examining: applicants to teach, 
passes judgmtcnt on publicaiions for use in school libraries^ and 
advises with tlu^ county ^LLperintendcfit of ftchooU, A countv board 
of education turntncs, applJupts for tcach<^rV po^Ulons and pupils 
applying to eniifr high t^hwls. The couniy superintendent advifcs 
trie teachers, and holds t^-dchera' JEirikuite^ Each Khool district 
is required by law to keep its Echool open at leutt three months A 
year and alt children bctwrrn the ages of eight and fourteen are 
required to aticntl for the full term ; if unemployed they arc retjuirtd 
to continue in tchool until Lhcy have attained the attc? of sixteen. 
In 1908 fifteen oF the counties had a county hifih urhaol, and there 
were also 10 accredited city high schaoU in igoS, The etate educa- 
tional institution:^ are the univeriitv uf Montiina (iSo^i.). at MjsMmla, 

the normal col I i;hte at Dillon, th. - ■■ ■■! mt>chank 

arts (1893) at Bojetnan; ^m 1 (iQOO) at 

Butte. They are all under the supervision and control of the state 
board of education, which consists of the governor, the state super- 
intendent, the attorney-general and eight other members appointed 
by the governor for a term of four years, two retiring annually. 
The entire educational system is maintained very largely out of 
funds derived from lands appropriated by Congress for that 
purpose. 

Finance. — About one-half of the revenue for state and county 
purposes is derived from a general property tax. All taxable 
property in each county except that of railways in more than one 
county is assessed at its full value by the county assessor. The 
franchise, roadway, roadbed, rails and rolling stock of railways 
in more than one county are assessed at their full value by the state 
board of equalization. The assessment rolls of the county assessor 
are subject to alteration by the board of county commisaoners 
sitting as a county board of equalization and the assessments as 
between counties are subject to alteration by the state board of 
equalization. The state legislature biennially fixes the rate of 
taxes for state purposes; the amount of this levy is now limited by 
the Constitution to 2i mills on the dollar. Tfie board of county 
commissioners fixes the rate of county taxes and levies those taxes; 
and the county treasurer collects the taxes of the state and those of 
the county. Among the other sources of revenue are a poll-tax of 
two dollars on each n)an between the ages of twenty-one and sucty, 
licences, an inheritance tax, rent of staite lands and the income 
from invested funds received from the sale of state lands. 

The state had a bonded debt in 1009 of I384.000, authorized 
by popular vote in November 1908 ; by the constitution the aggregate 
indebtedness of the state was kmited to 1 100,000 except in case of 
war, invasion or insurrection, or in case a measure authorizing a 
greater indebtedness should be submitted by the legislature to the 
electorate and should receive a majority 01 the votes cast. The 
constitution limits the indebtedness of a county to 5% of the value 
of its taxable property and that of a city, town or school district 
to 3%, except that tne question may be submitted to a vote of 
the tax-payers affected when it is deemed necessary to construct a 
sewerage system or procure a water supply. 

History. — The first exploration within the borders of Montana 
was made in 1743 by Sieur de la Verendryc, who in that year 
led an expedition up the Missouri river to the Great Falls and 
near where Helena now stands; the first exploration in that part 
of the state which hes west of the main range of the Rocky 
Mountains was made by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark 
in 1805. That part which lies east of the mountains was 
included in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and became succes- 
sively a part of Missouri Territory in 181 2, of Nebraska Territory 
in 1854, of Dakota Territory in 1861 and of Idaho Territory in 
1863; that which lies west of the mountains became successively 
a pan of Oregon Territory in 1848, of Washington Territory in 
1853 and of Idaho Territory in 1863. In 1864 Montana Terri- 
tory was created, and in 1889 this Territory was admitted to 
statehood. The report of Lewis and Clark attracted many 
traders and trappers, and within a few years the Missouri Fur 
Company, the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, the Hudson Bay 
Company and the American Fur Company had established 
fortified trading posts on the Missouri, the Yellowstone, the 
Marias, the Milk and other rivers; the most prominent among 
these was Fort Benton, which was established in 1846 at the 
head of navigation on the Missouri, and was made the head- 
guartexs of the American Fur Company. In 1841 Father 



Peter John De Smet (1801-1873), a Belgian Jesuit miarioBaiy 
established Saint Mary's Mission in Bitter Root Valky, but, as 
the Indians repeatedly attacked the mission, it was aKaw^ftHf^j 
in 1850. Fort Owen was, however, esublished in iu place and 
continued for several years the chief settlement west of the 
mountains. 

The development of Montana was scarcely begun when the 
discoveries of gold were made at Bannack, Beaverhead VaUey, 
in 1862, at Virginia dty. Alder Gulch, in 1863 and at Helena, 
Last Chance Gulch, in 1864. Several tiiousand people now 
rushed in, and before the Territorial government was created, the 
gold districts and the roads thereto suffered from a reign of law- 
lessness. The citizens organized a " vigilance committee " and 
hanged many of the outlaws. Many traders and trappers were 
butchered by the Indians, who became still more troubleiome 
after the invasion of the Territory by the gold-seekexs, and the 
surveying of railway routes bad been undertaken. Treaties 
and military operations were at first of no avail, but in 1876 the 
United Sutes government took steps to reduce them to sob- 
mission, and Generals George Crook (1828-1890), Alfred Howe 
Terry (1827- 1890) and John Gibbon (i 837-1896), with 3700 
troops (besides the Crow scouts) were sent against the Siovz 
under Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse and others. On the 17th of 
June General Crook with 1000 men defeated a large force of the 
Indians near the Rosebud river. On the 33nd of June Geoenl 
George A. Custer was sent up the Rosebud, and on the moniii« 
of the 25th passed over the divide of the Little Big Horn, wbeie 
the Sioux were soon discovered. Custer divided his regiment 
into four conunands, his own comprising 263 men. fymtifmi"! 
a few miles down stream, he came upon what was supposed to be 
a single Sioux village; the Indians, however, proved to ntunbcr 
from 8000 to 10,000, including 2500 to 3000 warriors. Custer 
was soon completely surrounded and the entire cntnmaiMi save 
a single Crow scout, was slaughtered. This was, however, the 
beginning of the end of the Indian troubles. On the 39U1 of 
September a band under American Horse was defeated and their 
leader killed; in October some 5000 Indians surrendered; and oa 
the 22nd of April 1877, 3000 more under Crazy Horse laid down 
their arms. General Crook and Colonel Nelscm A. Miles especi- 
ally distinguished themselves. In October 1877 the Nez Percys 
under Chief Joseph after a masterly retreat from Idaho of over 
1000 m., probably unequalled in Indian warfare, were hemmed 
in by greatly superior forces and captured in the Bear Paw 
Mountains in Chouteau county. 

In most of the territorial or state elections the Democrats, 
or the Democrats and Populists imited, have been triumphant, 
a Republican governor having been elected only in 1892; bst 
the contesu have often been ardent and bitter. In 1889 the 
Democrats were charged with fraud in the 34th election predaa 
of Silverbow county, and, the dispute remaining unsettled, 
two legislatures were seated. Each legislature elected two sena- 
tors to the United States Senate, which, having a RepufalicaB 
majority, seated the Republicans. More notable, however, 
was the feud between W. A. Clark and Marcus Daly, both Demo- 
crats. William Andrews Clark (b. 1839) removed in 1856 fron 
Pennsylvania to Iowa, in 1863 to Colorado and in 1863 to Moa- 
tana, where he became the wealthiest mine-owner. Maica 
Daly (184 2- 1 900) went from Ireland about 1857 to New Yocfc 
City, and thence to California and Nevada, and in 1876 reached 
Butte, Montana. In 1882 he discovered one of the richest copper 
deposits in the world. Clark a^red to be a United States 
senator, but by ridiculing Daly, provoked a powerful oppositioo. 
Clark was one of the two Democratic daimanu who hall beei 
denied a seat in the senate in 1890. Three years later he was 
again nominated, but Daly prevented his electioo. Qui 
secured his election to the senate. in 1899, but Daly fumisbed to 
the Committee on Elections and Privileges such evidence of 
bribery and fraud that it decided against seating him. Dtly 
died on the 12th of November 1900, and in 1901 Cbri 
was elected senator for the full term, which expired in 1907, 
when he was succeeded by Joseph Moore Diaon (b. 1867), a 
Republican. 



MONTANELLI— MONTANISM 757 

The governon of Montana have been, as foUows:— Ignatius and the St Francis of Borja in the university church 

T-^^^o'^' of SeviUe. Montaftes died in 1649, leaving a large famUy. 

Tbo^^K^rC.c;i.g) :::::::: :TfTd His works are more realisUcUjank^ 

Grwn Clay Smith . rS66-i869 With an impeccable taste, produced remarkable results. The 

lani4c^ Monrot A«lilcy id^ij^iiiiTf) equestrian Statue of King Philip IV., caste in bronze by Pietro 

Binjimm F. Pottt liTo-iSftj Tacca in Florence and now in Madrid, was modelled by MontaAcs. 

fe'^'pLS^cIrwrn*^^ * * litl-Jsts "* ***** "*°y imiutors, his son Alonzo Martiiiex, who died 

Smrnel Thorn** Hauser! !!!!!!!;! ififij-iM; in 1668, being among them. 

WnmoA Hopkitxs Leslie lUj-tS^ See B. Haendeke. Studieu ntr GtukkkU ier spaniuken Plastik 

Beojamiji F, \V^Jtc lll^ (Strai^sburg, 1900): F. G6mez, Historia dt la euuUura en EspaMa 

State. (Madrid, iSfisJT '^ 

Toeeph Kemp Toole .... Democrat 1889-1893 MONTAHISM, a somewhat misleading name for the movement 

bi^B^^rmth : : : benK,S^?"a'n3"populi.t Ig?:;??! in the aiul «ntury whkh, along with Gno^^ 

loteph Kemp Toole .... Democrat 1901-1909 most critical period in the history of the Early Church. It was 

fcdinn L. Norris . . « . " 1909- the overthrow of Gnosticism and Montanism that made the 

BiB:^iOQJiA'tnY.--Uniud Siatfi Geoimphkaj and Crai^gkai Survey "Catholic" Church. The credit of first discerning the true 

tf tkt Ttfriiuriet (WjL^hiiietun, iii72-i8;4h maccnal indcjteti in the significance of the Montanistic movement belongs to Ritschl.' 

iraHoiis bibljogruphiLS r^ ;. fl*riif/m toi) of the U S. Cwlosical Sur- j^ j^is article an account will be given of the general significance 

WtvzA.nnii^ K^potli of tJu Bxrtua of AirKuilwe, Labvr ana Industry , «« ^ • . 1 .. .. ^». •• -. * ?». ^i. l . l 

?ii* 54ji* ^fHaniafm: Si mud Fort icr. Irrtgoinfn m Afcnta«k <>« Montanism m relaUon to the history of the Church m the 

nVuhinEiun. if^h tjcinic Bulletin No. 17J prevised} o( the U.S. 2nd century, followed by a sketch of its origin, development 

Depart mcnt uf Agriculture, ofljce of Emix-nmeiit Station^; iht and decline. 

tlfporiii^ the UtiitcU Stite* Ctnsu.; H. t(. B^ncmfi^A* Hui^y , ^^^^ ^^ j^dj,^ ^y ^^e 3nd centwy a change began to 

pf Wajhmilan, Jdaho and Montana <&an trantisco^ It^h Joaqum . , , . ,, ^ . . , * ^t_ • .• •. ^W 

JllHer. AmlU^ir^ud IliMory oj the 5^^ 0/ Mimtana (Chicago, i^s); lake pUce in the outward Circumstances of Chnstiamty. The 

M. A. Leracn (cfJ.) lliitary of Jl/otiMM (ChicaRo^ ift^)- A\kv Christian faith had hitherto been maintained in a few small 

Hinimait^ PociAn iiitimy Sk-tiri. Mociun^ Edition. (San Franci^a, congregations scattered over the Roman Empire. These con- 

^^l^'' 'J^^J^rt Vauihti, Tknand Ncrjf;or Thifiy-ifs I'r^riiniht gregalions were provided with only the most indispensable 

£^ (ViWi"« CWiS^H *nd the OmifihntUmi to ^A« /l^w«^ constitutional forms (" Corpus sumus de consacnUa reUgionis, 

5- r-f r* }f-T'-T:-{ >M-]-v.:-. T^7'^ -f^ i ). de wutatc disciplinae, de spei foedere "). This state of things 

MONTANELLI, GIUSEPPE (1813-1862), Italian statesman Phased away. The Churches soon found numbers within their 

and author, was bom at Fucecchio in Tuscany, and in 1840 Pa'« ^^ »t«x* »" °««* o^ supervision, instrucUon and regular 

was appointed Uw professor at Pisa, He contributed to the control. The enthusiasm for a life of hoUness and separation 

Antotona, a celebrated Florentine review, and in 1847 founded ^^ '*»« ^o'^ no longer swayed aU minds. In many cases 

a newspaper caUed V Italia, the programme of which was «<>*>«' convictions or submissive assent supplied the want of 

" Reform and NaUonality." In 1848 MontaneUi served with spontaneous enthusiasm. There were many who did not become, 

the Tuscan student volunteers at the battle of Curtatone, where *>"l ^*w> «^*» *°** therefore remained. Christians. Then, in 

be was wounded and taken prisoner by the Austrians. On addition to this, Christians were already found in all ranks 

being liberated he returned to Tuscany, and the grand duke and occupaUorw-m the Impenal palace, among the officials, 

Leopold n, knowing that he was p6pular with the masses, sent »« ^^^ a*»d« <>' labour and the halls of learning, amongst slaves 

him to Leghorn to queU the disturbances. In October, Leopold, •? d freemen. Should the Church take the dedsive step into 

much against his incUnations, asked him to form a ministry. th« jo^d, conform to its customs, and acknowledge as far as 

He accepted, and on the loth of January 1849, induced the possible its authonties? Or ought she, on the other hand, 

grand duke to csublish a national constituent assembly. But ^ remain a soaety of rehgious devotees, separated and shut 

Leopold, alarmed at the turn affairs were taking, fied from out from the world? That this was the question at issue is 

Florence, and Monunclli, Guerrazri and Maaaini were elected obvious enough now, althou^ it could not be dearly perceived 

" triumvirs " of Tuscany. Like Mazzini. MontaneUi advocated ft the tune. It was natural that warning voices should then 

the union of Tuscany with Rome. But after the restoration be raised m the Churdi against secular Undencics, that the weU- 

of the grand duke, MonUneUi, who was in Paris, was tried and ^^V' ?>V°^^ about the imitation of Chnst should be hdd 

condemned by default; he remained some years in France, "P "^^^^eir hteraJ strictness before worldly Christians. The 

where he became a partizan of Napoleon III. On the formaUon Church as a whole, however, under pressure of arcumstances 

of the kingdom of Italy he returned to Tuscany and was dected ^^^^ ij*^" ^V a spontaneous impulse, dcodcd otherwise. She 

member of parliament; he died in i86a. He was an enthusiastic, marched through the open door mto the Roman state, and 

but a fickle and ambitious demagogue, and he adiieved a better ?«"J«J <*°*n ^J«« ^« Christianize the state by imparting to 

reputation as a writer. '\^}^^ ^o«* ">[ ^^^ Gospel, but at the same time leaving it every- 

Hi. most important literary work is hU Memarie stdT Italia ^^"^^ except its gods. On he other hand, she furnished herscU 

e specialmenU suUaToscanadaIi8i4alt8so,\n 2 yo\s.(Junn.iB^); with everything of value that could be taken over from the 

he alao wrote // Partita nazionaU ttaliano (Turin, 1856). L'lmtero, world without overstraining the elastic structure of the organiza- 

a papato, e ta democrazia in Italia (Florence, 1859) : and DeU' ordina- ^on which she now adopted. With the aid of its philosophy 

?ss.r':s?iii^^?^'^L"Si?Si*J'^".r^i;:7h^ »"' "^'H '^' "" ^"""^ '^"^- '"•'"!"^ "^"^ 

day. See Assunto Marradi, C. ToscaneUi e la Toscana dal 1815 al ber with the most exact constitutional forms; its jurisprudence, 

t862 (Rome, 1909). its trade and commerce, its art and industry, were all taken 

MONTAflES, JUAN KARTINEZ {c. 1580-1649), Spanish into her service; and she contrived to borrow some hints even 

sculptor, was bom at Alcala-la-real, in the province of Granada, from its religious worship. With this equipment she undertook, 

HU master was Pablo de Roxas, his first known work (1607) and carried through, a worid-mission on a grand scale. But 

bdng a boy Christ, now in the sacristy of the captUa antigua believers of the old school protested in the name of the 

in the cathedral of Seville. The great altar at Sintiponce Gospel against this secular Church. They joined an enthusiastic 

near Seville, was completed in 181 2. Montaftes executed most movement which had originated in a remote province, and had 

of his sculpture in wood, covered with a surface of polished gold, at first a merely local importance. There, in Phrygia, the cry 

and coloured. Other works were the great altars at Santa for a strict Christian life was reinforced by the belief in a new 

Clara in Seville and at San Miguel in Jerez, the Conception and final outpouring of the Spirit— a coincidence which has 

and the realistic figure of Christ crucified, in the Seville cathedral; been observed elsewhere in Church history— as, for instance, 

the figure of St John the Baptist, and the St Bruno (1620); among the early (Quakers and in the Irvingite movement. These 

a tomb for Don Perez de Guzman and his wife (1619); the St * EntsUkung der oltkatkolisckeK Kirche, and cd. Bonn, (1857). 



7S8 



MONTANISM 



lealots hailed the appearance of the Paraclete in Phrygia, and 
surrendered themselves to his guidance. In so doing, however, 
they had to withdraw from the Church, to be known as " Mon- 
tanists," or " Kauphrygians," and thus to assume the character 
of the sect. Their enthusiasm and their prophesyings were 
denounced as demoniacal; their expectation of a glorious earthly 
kingdom of Christ was stigmatized as Jewish, their passion 
for martyrdom as vainglorious and their whole conduct as 
hypocriticaL Nor did they escape the more serious imputation 
of heresy on important articles of faith; indeed, there was a 
disposition to put them on the same level with the Gnostics. 
The effect on themselves was what usually follows in such 
circumstances. After their separation from the Church, they 
became narrower and pettier in their conception of Christianity. 
Their asceticism degenerated into legalism, their claim to a 
monopoly of pure Christianity made them arrogant. As for 
the popular religion of the larger Church, they scorned it as an 
adulterated, manipulated Christianity. But these views found 
very little acceptance in the 3rd century, and in the course of 
the 4th they died out. 

2. Such is, in brief, the position occupied by Montanism in 
the history of the ancient Church. The rise and progress of the 
movement were as follows. 

At the close of the reign of Antoninus Pius — probably in 
the year 156 (Epiphanius) — Montanus appeared at Ardabau 
in Mysia, near the Phrygian border, bringing revelations of the 
'* Spirit " to Christendom. Montanus claimed to have a pro- 
phetic calling in the very same sense as Agabus, Judas, Silas, the 
daughters of Philip, Quadratus and Ammia, or as Hermas at 
Rome. At a later time, when the validity of the Montanistic 
prophecy was called in question, the adherents of the new move- 
ment appealed explicitly to a sort of prophetic succession, in 
which their prophets had received the same gift which the 
daughters of Philip, for example, had exercised in that very 
country of Phrygia. The burden of the new prophecy seems to 
have been a new standard of moral obligations, especially with 
regard to marriage, fasting and martyrdom. But Montanus had 
larger schemes in view. He wished to organize a special com- 
munity of true Christians to wait for the coming of their Lord. 
The small Phrygian towns of Pcpuza and Tymion were selected 
as the headquarters of his church. Funds were raised for the 
new organization, and from these the leader and missionaries, 
who were to have nothing to do with worldly life, drew their 
pay. Only two women, Prisca and Maximilla, were moved 
by the Spirit; like MonUnus, they uttered in a state of frenzy 
the commands of the Spirit, which urged men to a strict and holy 
life. This does not mean that visions and significant dreams may 
not have been of frequent occurrence in Montanistic circles.^ 

For twenty years this agitation appears to have been confined 
to Phrygia and the neighbouring provinces. But after the 
year 177 a persecution of Christians broke out simultaneously 
in many provinces of the Empire. Like every other persecution 
it was regarded as the beginning of the end. It would seem that 
before this time Montanus had disappeared from the scene; but 
Maximilla, and probably also Prisca, were working with redoubled 
energy. And now, throughout the provinces of Asia Minor, 
in Rome, and even in Gaul, amidst the raging of persecution, 
attention was attracted to this remarkable movement. The 
desire for a sharper exercise of discipline, and a more decided 
renunciation of the world, combined with a craving for some 
plain indication of the Divine will in these last critical times, had 
prepared many minds for an eager acceptance of the tidings 
from Phrygia. And thus, within the large congregations where 
there was so much that was open to censure in doctrine and 
constitution and morals, conventicles were formed in order 
that Christians might prepare themselves by strict discipline 
for the day of the Lord. 

* Theodotus, " the first steward of the New Prophecy," was a 
fellow-workrr with Montanus, and almost certainly a prophet. 
Later on, Firmilian, writing to Cyprian, mentions a prophetess 
who appeared in Cappadocia about a.d. 236, and Epiphanius (Haer. 
49) tells of another called QuintUla. — (Ed.) 



Meanwhile in Phrygia and iti neighbourliood— especially in 
Galatia, and also in Thrace — a controversy was raging between 
the adherents and the opponents of the new prophecy. Between 
150 and 176 the authority of the episcopate had been immensdy 
strengthened, and along with it a settled order had been intro- 
duced into the Churches. As a rule, the bishops were resdule 
enemies of the Montanistic enthusiasm. It disturbed the peace 
and order of the congregations, and threatened their safety. 
Moreover, it made demands on individual Christians such as 
very few could comply with. But the disputation which Bishops 
Zoticus of Cumana and Julian of Apamea arranged with Maxi- 
milla and her following turned out disastrously for its im>raotcrs. 
The '* spirit " of Maximilla gained a signal victory, a certain 
Themiso in particular having reduced the bishops to silence. 
Sotas bishop of Anchialus attempted to refute Prisca, but with 
no better success (Eusebius, Hist. ecd. v. 19). These proceedings 
were never forgotten in Asia Minor, and the report ol them 
^read far and wide. In after times the only way in which the 
discomfiture of the bishops could be explained was by averting 
that they had been silenced by fraud or violence. This was 
the commencement of the excommunication or secession of 
the Montanists in Asia Minor. Not only did an extreme party 
arise in Asia Minor rejecting all prophecy and the Apocalj-pae 
of John along with it, but the majority of the Churches and 
bishops in that district appear (c. 178) to have broken off all 
fellowship with the new prophets, while books were written 
to show that the very form of the Montanistic prophecy was 
sufficient proof of its spuriousness.' In Gaul and Rome the 
prospects of Montanism seemed for a while more favourable. 
The confessors of the Galilean Church at Lyons were of opinioa 
that communion ought to be maintained with the zealots d 
Asia and Phrygia; and they addressed a letter to this effect to the 
Roman bishop, Eleutherus. There was a momentary vacillaiioo 
even in Rome. Nor is this to be wondered at. The evcots 
in Phrygia could not appear new and unprecedented to the 
Roman Church. If we may believe Tertullian, it was Prazeas 
of Asia Minor, the relentless foe of Montanism, who succeeded 
in persuading the Roman bishop to withhold his letters of 
conciliation.* 

Eariy in the last decade of the 2nd century two considerable 
works* appeared in Asia Minor against the Kataphrygians. The 
first, by a bishop or presbyter whose name is not known, b 
addressed to Abircius bishop of Hiera^Iis, and was written 
in the fourteenth year after the death ci Maximilla — i.e. appa- 
rently about the year 193. The other was written by a certain 
Apollonius forty years after the appearance of Montaoos, 
consequently about 196. From these treatises we learn thai 
the adherents of the new prophecy were very numeroos ia 
Phrygia, Asia and Galatia (Ancyra), that they had tried to 
defend themselves in writing from the charges brought againrt 
them (by Miltiades), that they possessed a fully devckped 
independent organization, that they boasted of many martyi% 
and that they were still formidable to the Church in Asia Htnor. 
Many of the small congregations had gone completely over u> 
Montanism, although in large towns, like Ephesus, the opposile 
party maintained the ascendancy. Every bond of intercouse 
was broken, and in the Catholic Churches the worst mlun*r'»* 
were retailed about the deceased prophets axKi the leaden of 
the societies they had founded. In many Churches outside of 
Asia Minor a different state of matters prevailed. Those who 
accepted the message of the new prophecy did not at once leave 
the Catholic Church in a body. They simply formed snatt 
conventicles within the Church. Such, for example, appeais 
to have been the case in Carthage (if we may judge frcMn the 
Acts of the martyrs Perpetua and Felidtas) at the cxaatataa- 
ment of the persecution of Septimius Severus about the year 
203. But even here it was impossible that an open raptwe 

'Miltiades, r^ rcG ^4 iup wpo^^r^v b> UwrAm XmXum. Atik 
same time as Miltiades, if not earlier, Apollinaris of Hicrapofis she 
wrote again<tt the Montanists. 

* It was Zcphynnus in A.D. 202 who took the decisive step of 
refusing to communicate with the Asiatic Montanists. — (En.) 

* Quoted in Eusebius, Hist. Ecd. v. 16-18. 



MONTANISM 



759 



should be indefinitely postponed. The bishops and their flocks 
gave offence to the spiritualists on so many points that at last 
it could be endured no longer. The latter wished for more 
fasting, the prohibition of second marriages, a frank, courageous 
profession of Christianity in daily life, and entire separation 
from the world; the bishops, on the other hand, sought to make 
it as easy as possible to be a Christian, lest they should lose the 
greater part of their congregations. And lastly, the bishops 
were compelled more and more to take the control of discipline 
into their own hands, while the spiritualists insisted that God 
Himself was the sole judge in the congregation. On this point 
especially a conflict was inevitable. It is true that there was 
no rivalry between the new organization and the old, as in Asia 
and Phrygia, for the Western Montanists recognized in its main 
features the Catholic organization as it had been developed 
in the contest with Gnosticism; but the demand that the 
" organs of the Spirit " should direct the whole disdpline 
of the congregation contained implicitly a protest against the 
actual constitution of the Church. Even before this latent 
antagonism was made plain there were many minor matters 
which were sufficient to precipitate a rupture in particular 
congregations. In Carthage, for example, it would appear that 
the breach between the Catholic Church and the Montanistic 
conventicle was caused by a disagreement on the question 
whether or not virgins ought to be veiled. For nearly five years 
(207-207) the Carthaginian Montanists strove to remain within 
the Church, which was as dear to them as it was to their oppo- 
nents. But at length they quitted it, and formed a congregation 
of their own. 

It was at this juncture that Tertullian, the most famous 
theologian of the West, left the Church whose cause he had so 
manfully upheld against pagans and heretics. He too had come 
to the conviction that the Church had forsaken the old paths and 
entered on a way that must lead to destruction. The writings 
of Tertullian aifford the clearest demonstration that what is 
called Monunism was, at any rate in Africa, a reaction against 
secularism in the Church. There are other indications that 
Montanism in Carthage was a very different thing from the 
Montanism of Montanus. Western Montanism, at the beginning 
of the 3rd century, admitted the legitimacy of almost every 
point of the Catholic system. It allowed that the bishops were 
the successors of the apostles, that the Catholic rule of faith 
was a complete and authoritative exposition of Christianity, and 
that the New Testament was the supreme rule of the Christian 
life. Montanus himself and his first disciples had been in quite 
a different position. In his time there was no fixed, divinely 
instituted congregational organization, no canon of New Testa- 
ment Scriptures, no anti-Gnostic theology, and no Catholic 
Church. There were simply certain communities of believers 
bound together by a common hope, and by a free organization, 
which mi^t be modified to any required extent. When Montanus 
proposed to summon all true Christians to Pepuza, in order to 
live a holy life and prepare for the day of the Lord, there was 
nothing whatever to prevent the execution of his plan except 
the inertia and lukewarmness of Christendom. But this was 
not the case in the West at the beginning of the 3rd century. 
At Rome and Carthage, and in all other places where sincere 
Montanists were found, they were confronted by the imposing 
edifice of the Catholic Church, and they had neither the courage 
nor the inclination to undermine her sacred foundations. This 
explains how the later Montanism never attained a position 
of influence. In accepting, with slight reservations, the results 
of the development which the Church had undergone during 
the fifty years from 160 to 210 it reduced itself to the level of 
a sect. Tertullian exhausted the resources of dialectic in the 
endeavour to define and vindicate the relation of the spiritualists 
to the " psychic " Christians; but no one will say he has succeeded 
in clearing the Montanistic position of its fundamental incon- 
sbtency. 

Of the later history of Montanism very little is known. But 
it is at least a significant fact that prophecy could not be 
RsosdUted. Montanus, Prisca, and Maximilla were always 



recognized as the inspired authorities^ At rare mtervals a vision 
might perhaps be vouchsafed to some Montanistic old woman, 
or a brother might now and then have a dream that seemed to be 
of supernatural origin; but the overmastering power of religious 
enthusiasm was a thing of which the Montanists knew as little 
as the Catholics. Their disdpline was attended with equally 
disappointing results. In place of an intense moral earnestness, 
we find in Tertullian a legal casuistry, a finical morality, from 
which no good could ever come. It was only in the land of its 
nativity that Montanism held its ground till the 4th century. 
It maintained itself there in a number of close communities, 
probably in places where no Catholic congregation had been 
formed; and to these the Novatians at a later period attached 
themselves. In Carthage there existed down to the year 400 
a sect called Tertullianists; and in their surxaval we have a 
striking testimony to the influence of the great Carthaginian 
teacher. On doctrinal questions there was no, real difference 
between the Catholics and the Montanists. The early Montanists 
(the prophets themselves) used expressions which seem to indi- 
cate a Mouarchian conception of the person of Christ. After 
the close of the 2nd century we find two sections amongst the 
Western Montanists, just as amongst the Western Catholics—' 
there were some who adopted the Logos-Christology, and others 
who remained Monarchians.^ 

Sources. — The materials for the hbtory of Montanism, although 
plentiful, are fragmentary, and require a good deal of critical 
sifting. They may be divided into four groups: (i) The utterances 
of Montanus, Priaca and Maximilla ' are our most important sources, 
but unfortunately they consist of only twenty-one short saying 
(2) The works written by Tertullian after he became a Monunist 
furnish the most copious informatbn — not, however, about the 
first stages of the movement, but only about its later phase, after 
the Catholic Church wm esublished. M The oldest polemical 
works of the 2nd century, extracts from which have been preserved, 
especially by Eusebius \Hist. Ecdes. bk. v.), form the next group. 
These must be used with the utmost caution, because even the 
earliest orthodox writers give currency to many misconceptions 
and calumnies. (4) The later lists of heretics, and the casual notices 
of Church fathers from the 3rd to the 5th century, though not 
containii^ much that b of value, yet contain a little.* 

* It is evident that Montanism was by no means homogeneous. 
Too often the primitive " heresy of the Phrygians " has been studied 
in the light 01 the matured system of Tertullian. One great diver- 
gence is manifest : Tertullian never himself deviated from orthodoxy 
and vehemently asserts the orthodoxy of all Montanists, but both 
Montanus (" I am the Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost ") 
and Maximilla (" I am Word and Spirit and Power ") used language 
which has a distinctly " roonarchian " flavour. There were really 
divided views on the question of the Divine Monarchy among the 
Montanists as among the Catholics. The orthodox party were known 
as the Cataproclans, the heterodox as Cataeschinites, and both 
appealed to the oracles of their prophets. Other influences tending 
to diversitv were the rise of later prophets and visionaries, Uie per- 
sonality of prominent members of the sect (like Tertullian himself, 
who gave to Montanism much more than he received from it), and the 
power of local environment. An examination of Phrygian as dis- 
tinct from African Monunism leads to the following conduswns: 
(1) The Phrygians claimed to have received the prophetic gift 
by way of succession just as the bishops traced their ofnce back to the 
apostles; Tertullian seems to ignore the intermediate steps between 
the apostles and Montanus; (2) the " ecstasy '* of the African section 
was much more restrained than the ravinss of the Phry|^ns; (3) 
the original Montanists followed the example of the Phrygian native 
cults in assigning a (Mrominent place to women, Tertullian on the 
other hand We virg. vd. 9) says, "It b not permitted to a woman 
to speak in church, nor yet to teach, nor to baptize, nor to offer, nor 
to assume any office which belongs to a man, least of all the priest- 
hood : " (4) while both sections gave to prophets the power of 
absolution, the Phry^ns extended it to martyrs also — at Carthage 
the Catholics did this contrary to the views of Tertullian. There 
is also good reason to doubt whether the Phrygian Montanists were 
anything like so ascetic and desirous of martyrdom as has been 
generally considered. Apollonius (Eusebius, Hist. Ecd. v. 16) 
accuses them of covetousncss and tells us that Themiso purchased 
his freedom from imprisonment by a considerable payment. Sir 
William Ramsay has also shown that martyrdoms in Phrygia were 
rare during the end of the 2nd and the whole of the 3rd century, 
a spirit of religious compromise prevailing between the Christian and 
pagan populations (see a paper by H. I. Lawlor in the Jonrltal 
of Theoiogical Stwties for July. 1908, vol. ix. 481). 

' Collected by Munter and by Bonwetsch, CeukkkU des Montaw- 
ismus, p. 197. 

* On the sources see Bonwetsch, pp. 16-^ 



760 



MONTARGIS— MONTAUSIER 



LiTC^ATune, — Rit«:7ir«itiveietiEtition 5, referred to above, ^uper*cijt 
the older k'Orks of TillcmontT Wernsdorf, Mosheim, W'alch^ Ni^ndtr, 
Baur and A, Schitr^ler {Dfr Afontonitmai und die t-hristiulu Ktrche 
des lien JakrhuudfrtJ, TilM(iE>'f>' 1*40- The later works^ at whieh 
the best ami n?oat fshJiiiAffVc i* that <A N. Bonwetsch, Die Gfickitku 
des MoniisniimHi {iB$%), All MntMr the Vmth bid down by RUscliE. 
See Alfio Goitwald, De mtmt^nijma TfrlMliiami (1K63); R6\'i]|c, 
" Tenullien et Je motitanisimc " in the Rrvue ets dtux mottdei 
(Nov. 1, 1864): Sirtwlin, Estai ijtr U mtfn^nisme (1^70); L>c 
S<Jyrrs, MffnUmism and iki PrrmiitPi Ckartk (London^ 1878^; 
W. Cunmngb.rm* The Chwrchctof Aiitt (London. L8S0); Kenarr, 
•* Lea Crises dj CiitboltrUmc N'lumnl " in Rce. d, dtux motidn 
(Feb. t^. iflSiJ: H. WVirtrJ, Die Wirkangm jlfs Ceaiei yttd drw 
Ceistfr tm nucha pffttet. ZeifaJirr [Freiburg, i^90); C. C- Sclwyrit 
Tki Ckrisiian Prppkrfj (London, rooo) : Honwetsch, art. " Muniati- 
isRius *^ in Hjiuck-HmoK's Rmuncykiopadie. SpeirUI points of 
importance in the hi^toF>' of Montansim have betn inv-^tig^^tcd by 
LipsiuE^ Overl:M?ck, WVizsacker {Tke<A. Lit.-Zeiiung, Nov. 4^ )ttl^J)r 
Harnark, Dns AftmrhikKm, leinr Jdeale vnd setne QenkiiMe, jnd 
ed., \Mi; Eng. trans,, i^i : And Z. /. Kitthenie^ck, iii. 3&9-40H), 
and M. J. Law lor. WeiEiAclcer'i short ciuiiayK ait? tKlftmi'ly v;i}u- 
able, and have elucidated several important points pK^iou^ly 
overlooked. (A. Ha.) 

MONTARGIS, a town of central France, capital of an arron- 
dissement in the department of Loiret, 47 m. E.N.E. of Orleans 
by rail. Pop. (1906), 11,038. The town is traversed by the 
Vemisson, by numerous arms of the Loing, and by the Briare 
canal, which unites with the canal of Orleans a little below it. 
It has a church (Ste Madeleine), dating in part from the i3th 
century and including a fine choir of Renaissance architecture, 
and still preserves portions of its once magnificent castle (12th 
to 15th centuries), which, previous to the erection of Fontaine- 
bleau, was a favourite residence of the royal family. A hand- 
some modem building contains the town-hall, public library, 
and museum; in the courtyard is a bronze group, " The Dog 
of Montargls "; the town has a statue of Mirabeau, bom in the 
neighbourhood. Montargis is the seat of a sub-prefecture, and 
has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and colleges for 
both sexes. It manufactures paper, gold chains, rubber, tar, 
asphalt, chemical manures, woodwork and leather. The town 
is an agricultural market, and its port has trade in coal, 
timber, sheep and farm produce. 

Montargis was formerly the capital of the GAtinais. Having 
passed in 1188 from the Courtenay family to Philip Augustus, 
it long formed part of the royal domain. In 1538 Francis I. 
gave it as dowry to Rende d'Este, daughter of Louis XII., the 
famous Huguenot princess; from her it passed to her daughter 
Anne, and through her to the dukes of Guise; it was repurchased 
for the Crown in 161 2. From 1626 till the Revolution the 
territory was the properly of the house of Orleans. Montargis 
was several times taken or attacked by the English in the 1 5th 
century, and is particularly noted for its successful defence 
in 1427. Both Charles VII. and Charles VIII. held court in 
the town; it was the latter who set the famous Dog of Montargis 
to fight a duel with his master's murderer whom he had tracked 
and captured. 

MONTAUBAN. ARTHUR DB (d. 1479), French magistrate 
and prelate, belonged to one of the great families of Brittany. 
To satisfy a private grudge against Gilles, brother of Duke 
Francis II. of Brittany, he intrigued to such good purpose 
that Gilles was arraigned for treason, and finally assassinated 
in prison in 1450. When Montauban's duplicity was discovered 
he was deprived of his office of haiUi of Cotentin and banished. 
He then turned monk, and through the support of his brother, 
John de Montauban (141 2-1466), Louis XI.'s favourite, obtained 
the archbishopric of Bordeaux in 1468. He died in Paris on 
the Qth of March 1479. 

MONTAUBAN, a town of south-western france, capital of 
Tam-ct-Garonne, 31 m. N. of Toulouse by the Southem railway. 
Pop. (1906), town, 16,813; commune, 28,688. The town, buUt 
mainly of a reddish brick, stands on the right bank of the Tarn 
at its confluence with the Tescou. Its fortifications have been 
replaced by boulevards beyond which extend numerous suburbs, 
while on the left bank of the Tam is the suburb of Villeboxirbon, 
which is connected with the town by a remarkable bridge of the 
early 14th century. It is a brick struaure over 200 yds. in 
Jeqgth, and though its fortified towers have disappeared it b 



otherwise in good preservatbn. l^e h6tel de viBe, on the site of 
a castle of the counts of Toulouse and once the residence of the 
bishops of Montauban, stands at the east end of the bridge. It 
belongs chiefly to the 17th century, but some portions are mudi 
older, notably an underground chamber known as the Hall 
of the Black Prince. Besides the municipal offices it contains 
a valuable library, and a museum with collections of antiquities 
and pictures. The latter comprise most of the work (induding 
his " Jesus among the Doctors ") of Jean Ingres, the celebrated 
painter, whose birth in Montauban is commemorated by an 
elaborate monument. The Place Nationak b a square of the 
X7th century, entered at each comer by gateways giving access 
to a large open space surrounded by houses oirried 00 doable 
rows of arcades. The prefecture, the law-courts and the remaining 
public buildings are modern. The chief churches of Montauban 
are the cathedral, remarkable only for the possession of the 
" Vow of Louis XIII.," one of the masterpieces of Ingres, and 
the church of St Jacques (14th and 15th centuries), the facade 
of which is surmounted by a handsome octagonal tower. Mont- 
auban is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assize. 
It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber 
of commerce and a board of trade arbitration, lyctes and a 
training college, schools of commerce and viticulture, a branch of 
the Bank of France, and a faculty of Protestant tbeokiQr. The 
commercial importance of Montauban is due rather to its trade 
in agricultural produce, horses, game and poultry, than to its 
industries, which include nursery-gardening, cloth-weaving, 
cloth-dressing, flour-milling, wood-sawing, and the manufacture 
of furniture, silk-gauze and straw hats. The town is a junctioa 
of the railways of the Soythera and Orleans companies, and 
communicates with the Garonne by the Canal of Montech. 

With the exception of Mont^le-Marsan, Montauban b the 
oldest of the bastides of southern France. Its foundation dates 
from 1 144 when Alphonse Jourdain, count of Toulouse, granted 
it a liberal charter. The inhabitants were drawn chiefly from 
Montauriol, a village which had grown up around the neigliboQr- 
ing monastery of St Thiodard. In the ijtb century the tova 
suffered much from the ravages of the Albigenaians and from the 
Inqabition, but by 131 7 it had recovered suflkiently to be 
chosen by John XXII. as the head of a diocese <^ which the 
basilica of St Thfodard became the cathedral By the treaty 
of Br6tigny (1360) it was ceded to the English; but in 1414 they 
were expelled by the inhabitants. In 1560 the * bishops and 
magistrates embraced Protestantism, expelled the monks, 
and demolished the cathedral. About ten years later it became 
one of the Huguenot strongholds, and formed a small independent 
republic. It was the headquarters of the Hugtienot rebeUioo 
of 1621, and was vainly besieged by Louis. XIII. for eighty-siz 
days; nor did it submit until after the fall of La RocheUe ia 
1629, when its fortiflcations were destroyed by Richdieo. Ia 
the same year the plague cut off over 6000 of iu inhabitants. 
The Protestants again suffered persecution after the repeal of 
the Edict of Nantes. 

MONTAUSIER. CHARLES DE SAIMTB-MAURS. Due k 

(1610-1690), French soldier, was bora on the 6th of October 
1610, being the second son of Lten de Sainte-Maure, baroa de 
Montausier. Hb parents were Huguenots, and he was educated 
at the Protestant College of Sedan under Pierre du Moufia. 
He served brilliantly at the siege of Casale in 1630. Bccomicg 
marqub de Montausier by the death of hb elder brother in 1635. 
he was the recognized aspirant for the hand of Mme de 
RambouiUet's daughter Julie Ludne d'Angennes (1607-1671). 
Having served under Bernard of Saxe-Wdmar in Germany ib 
1634 he returned to the French service in 1636, and foofte 
in the Rhenbh campaigns of the following years. He wis 
taken prisoner at Rantzau in November 1643, *^ only ransomed 
after ten months' captivity. On hb return to France he becaae 
a lieutenant-general. On the 15th of July 1645 he msnied 
" the incomparable Julie, " thus terminating a courtslup 
famous in the annals of French literature because of tk 
Guirlande de JulUy a garland of verse consisting of madiipii 
by Montausier, Jean Chapcfain, GuiUaume CoOetet, Onde dt 



MONTBELIARD—MONTCALM DE SAINT VERAN 



761 



Malleville, Georges dc Scud6ry, Pierre Comeille (if M Uzanne 
is correct in the attribution of the poems signed M.C.)> Philippe 
Hubert, Simon Amauld de Pomponne,^ Jean Desmarests de 
Saint Sorlin, Antome Gombaud (•« nain de la Princesse Julie) 
and others. It was copied by the famous calligraphist N. 
Jarry in a magnificent MS., on each page of which was painted 
a flower, and was presented to Julie on her f^te day in 1641. 
The MS. is now in possession of the Uz^ family, to whom it 
passed by the marriage of Julie's daughter to Emmanuel de 
Cnissol, due d'Uz^ 

Montausier had bought the governorship of Saintonge and 
Angoumois, and became a Roman Catholic before his marriage. 
During the Fronde he remained, in spite of personal grievances 
against Mazarin, faithful to the Crown. On the conclusion of 
peace in 1653 the marquis, 'who had been severely wounded 
in 1652, obtained high favour at court in spite of the roughness 
of his manners and the general austerity which made the Parisian 
public recognize him as the original of Alceste in the Misanthrope. 
Montausier received from Louis XIV. the order of the Sidnt 
Esprit, the government of Normandy, a dukedom, and in x668 
the of^ce of governor of the dauphin, Louis. He ihitiated the 
series of classics Ad usum Ddphini^ directed by the learned Huet, 
and gave the closest attention to the education of his charge, 
who was only moved by his iron discipline to a hatred of learning. 
Court gossip assigned some part of Montausier's favour to the 
complaisance of his wife, who, appointed lady-in-waiting to 
the queen in 1664, favoured Louis XIV. 's passion for Louise 
de la Valli^re, and subsequently protected Mme de Montespan, 
who found a refuge from her husband with her. He died on the 
17th of November 1690. 

See P^ Nicolas Petit. Vie du due de Montausier (1729); Puget 
de Saint Pierre, Histoire du due de Montausier (1784); Amddde 
Roux. Un Misanthrope d la cour de Louis XIV. Montausier (i860); 
O. Uzanne, La Cuirlande de Julie (1875): E. FI6chier. Oraisons 
funibres du due et de la duchesse de Montausier (Paris, 1691): and 
contemporary memoirs. 

MONTBfiLIARD. a town of eastern France, capital of an arron- 
dissement in the department of Doubs, 49 m. N.E. of Besan^n 
on the Paris-Lyon line between that town and Belfort. Pop. 
(1906), town, 8725; commune, 10,455. Mojitb^liard is situated 
1050 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Allaine at its 
junction with the Luzine (Lizaine or Lisaine). It is an impor- 
tant point in the frontier defences of France since 1871. Forts 
on outlying hills connect it with Belfort on the one side and 
(through Blamont and the Lomont forti6cations) with Besangon 
on the other. The old castle of the counts of Monlb£Uard is 
now used as barracks; its most conspicuous features, the Tour 
Bossue and the Tour Neuve, date respectively from 1425 and 
1594. Most of the inhabitants are Protestant, and the church 
of St Martin, built early in the 17th century, now serves as a 
Protestant place of worship. The old market-hall and some 
old houses of the i6th century also remain. A bronze statue 
of George Cuvier, the most iUustrious native of Montb£Iiard, 
and several fountains adorn the town. Montb£liard is the 
seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a 
board of trade-arbitrators, a communal college, a practical 
school of industry, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a 
museum of natural history. Since 1870 a considerable impetus 
has been given to its prosperity by the Alsatian immigrants. 
Its industries include watch and clock making and dependent 
trades, cotton spinning and weaving, the manufacture of hosiery, 
textile machinery, tools, nails and wire, and brewing. There 
is commerce in wine, cheese, wood and Montbiliard cattle. 

After belonging to the Burgundians and Franks, Montb^liard 
(Mons Peligardi) was, by the treaty of Verdun (843), added to 
Lorraine. In the nth century it became the capital of a count- 
ship, which formed part of the second kingdom of Burgundy 
and latterly of the German Empire. Its German name is 
Mdmpelgard. In 1397 it passed by marriage to the hous6 of 
WQrttemberg, to whom it belonged till 1793. It resisted the 
attacks of Charles the Bold (1473)* ^^^ Henry I. of Lorraine, 

* (1618-1699), a ton of Arnauld d'Andelly and minister of foreign 
affairs in sucoeasioa to Lionne. 



(1587 and 1588), duke of Guise, but was taken in 1676 by Marshal 
Luxemburg, who razed its fortifications. The tolerance of the 
princes of Wiirttemberg attraaed to the town at the end of 
the i6th century a colony of Anabaptists from Frisia, and their 
descendants still form a separate community in the neighbour- 
hood In 1793 the inhabitants voluntarily submitted to annex- 
ation by France. In 187 1 the battle of the Lisaine between the 
French and Germans was fought in the neighbourhood and 
partly within its walls. 

MONTBRISON, a town of east-central France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Loire, France, 21m. N.W. 
of St £tienne, on the railway from Clermont to St £tienne. 
Pop. (1906), 6564. It is situated on a volcanic hill overlooking 
the Vizezy, a right-hand affluent of the Lignon du Nord. The 
principal buildings are the once collegiate church of Notre- 
Dame d'£sp6rance, founded about 1220 but not finished till 
the xsth century, and the X4th-century edifice known as the 
Salle de la Diana (Decana), which was restored by VioUet-le- 
Duc. There is a statue of the poet Victor de Laprade (d. 1883), 
a native of the town. Montbrison is the seat of a sub-prefect, 
of a court of assize and of a tribunal of first instance. There 
are liquetir-distiUerics and flour-mills, and silk ribbons are 
manufactured; there is considerable commerce in grain. 

Montbrison belonged to the counts of Forcz during the middle 
ages. In 1801 it became the capital of its department in place 
of Feurs, but in 1856 the more important town of St. £Uenne 
was substituted for iC. 

MONTBRUN, LOUlft PIERRE, CoxmT (1770-18x2), French 
cavalry general, served with great distinction in the cavalry 
arm throughout the wars of the Revolution and the ConsuUte, 
and in x8oo was appointed to command his regiment, having 
served therein from trooper upwards. At Austcrlitz (Dec. 3, 
1805) he was promoted general of brigade. He earned further 
distinction in Ciermany and Poland as a dashing leader of 
horse, and in x8o8 he was sent into Spain. Here occurred 
an incident which unfavourably influenced his whole career. 
He found himself obliged to overstay his leave of absence in 
order to protect the lady who afterwards became his wife. 
Napoleon was furious, and deprived him of his command, and 
Montbrun was awaiting his master's decision when an oppor- 
tunity came to retrieve his reputation. Some doubt exists as 
to the events of the famous cavalry charge at the Somosicrra, 
but Montbrun's share in it was most conspicuous. Soon after- 
wards he was promoted to be general of division, and in 1809 
his cavalry took no inconsiderable part in the victories of 
Eckmiihl and Raab. He was employed in the Peninsula, x8xo- 
x8ii. He was killed, when commanding a cavalry corps, at the 
beginning of the battle of Borodino (Sept. 7, 181 2). Mont- 
brun was considered, as a leader of heavy cavalry, second only 
to Kellermann of all the generals of the First Empire. 

MONTCALM DE SAINT V6RAN, LOUIS JOSEPH. Mabquis 
DE (17 1 2-1759), French soldier, was bom at Condiac near 
Nlmes on the 28th of February 17x2,' and entered the army 
in 1721, becoming captain in 1727. He saw active service 
under Berwick on the Rhine in X733, and in X743, having become 
a colonel of infantry, he served in Bohemia under Maillebois, 
Broglie and Belleisle. He became intimate with Francois de 
Chevert (1695-1769), the gallant defender of Prague, and in 
Italy repeatedly distinguished himself, being promoted brigadier 
in 1747, shortly before the disastrous action of Exilles, in which 
he was severely wounded. In 1749 he received the colonelcy 
of a cavalry regiment, and in 1756, with the rank of marickal 
de camp, he was sent to command the French troops in Canada. 
In the third year of his command, having been meanwhile 
promoted lieutenant-general, he defended C^ebec (q.v^ against 
General Wolfe. The celebrated siege ended with the battle 

'■A younger brother, Jean Louis Pierre (or Philippe) Elizabeth 
Montcalm de Condiac (1719-1726), was a child of astonishing pre- 
cocity. At the age of four he read L.attn; at six he understood 
Greek and Hebrew. It was for his benefit that the bureau typo- 
grapkigue—A mechanism for teaching children reading, wnting 
and anthmetic at the same time that it amuied them — was contrived 
by their tutor Louis Dumas (1676-1744)* 



762 



MONTCEAU-LES-MINES— MONTDIDIER 



of the Heights of Abraham (Sept. 12, 1759), in which Wolfe was 
killed and Montcalm mortally wounded. The French com- 
mander died two days later, while the place, with which his 
name and Wolfe's are for ever associated, was still in the hands 
of the garrison. 

Bibliography.— See Canada : History; and Seven Years' War, 
also Parkman's Monkalm and Wolfe. The chief French authorities 
are Pinard, Ckronologie milUatre, v. 616 (1762): Montcalm et U 
Canada franfais, by F. Jpublcau (Paris, 1874) and C. de Bonne- 
chose (Paris, 1877); Le Moine, La Mimoire de Montcalm vengU 
(Montreal, 1889). 

MONTCEAU-LES-MINES, a town of east-central France, in 
the department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, 14 m. S. by W. of L« Creusot 
on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), town, 9701 ; commune, 
36,505. Its importance is due chiefly to its position as the 
centre of the Blanzy coal basin, on the Canal du Centre, which, 
is connected with the coalfield by numerous lines of railway. 
Its manufacturing esUblishments include weaving artd spinning 
factories, iron and copper foundries, and engineering work- 
shops. 

MONT CENIS, a pass (6893 ft.) in Savoy (France) which forms 
the h*mit between the Cottian and Graian Alps. A carriage 
road was built across it between 1805 and 1810 by Napoleon, 
while a light railway (named after its inventor, Mr. Fell, and 
worked by English engine-drivers) was opened alongside the 
road in 1868, but was destroyed in 187 1, on the opening of the 
tunnel. This tunnel (highest point 4249 ft.) is really 17 m. west 
of the pass, below the Col de Fr6jus. From Chamb^ry the line 
runs up the Isere valley, but soon bears through that of the 
Arc or the Maurienne past St Jean de Maurienne to Modane 
(61 m. from Chamb^ry). The tunnel is 8 m. in length, and 
leads to Bardonndche, some way below which, at Oulx (18 m. 
from Modane) the line joins the road from the Mont Gendvre. 
Thence the valley of the Dora Riparia is followed to Turin 
(64I m. from Modane). The carriage road mounts the Arc 
valley for 16 m. from Modane to Lanslebourg, whence it is 8 m. 
to the hospice, a little way beyond the summit of the pass. 
The descent lies through the Ccnis valley to Susa (37 m. from 
Modane) where the road joins the railway. Tc the south-west of 
the Mont Ccnis is the Little Mont Cenis (7166 ft.) which leads 
from the summit plateau (in Italy) of the main pass to the 
£tache valley on the French slope and so to Bramans in the 
Arc valley (7 m. above Modane). This pass was crossed in 
1689 by the Vaudois, and by some authors is believed to have 
been " Hannibal's Pass." (W. A. B. C.) 

MONTCHRtaEN, ANTOINE DB (1575 or 1576-1621), French 
dramatist and economist, son of an apothecary at Falaise named 
Mauchrcstien, was born about 1576. In one of his numerous 
duels he had the misfortune to kill his opponent. He con- 
sequently took refuge in England, but through the influence of 
James I., to whom he dedicated his tragedy, L'£cossaise, he 
was allowed to return to France, and established himself at 
Auxonnc-sur-Loirc, where he set up a steel foundry. In 16 21 
he abandoned this enterprise to serve on the Huguenot side 
in the civil wars. He raised troops in Maine and Lower Kor- 
mandy, but was killed in a skirmish near Touraillcs on the 
8th of October 162 1. There is no evidence that he shared the 
religious opinions of the party for which ho fought, and in 
any case he belonged to the moderate party rallied round 
Henry IV. In 1615 he published a valuable Traiti de Vlconomie 
politique, based chiefly on the works of Jean Bodin. He had the 
good fortune to write before the pruning processes of Vaugclas 
and Balzac had been applied to the language, and M. Lanson 
praises him as one of the best prose-writers of his time. 

His dramas are Sophonishe (1596), afterwards remodelled 
as La Cartaginoiscf L'£cossaise, Les Lacincs, David, A man 
(in 1601); Hector (1604). As plays they have little technical 
merit, but they contain passages of great lyrical beauty. In 
V^ossaise Elizabeth first pardons Mary Queen of Scots, and 
no explatution is given of the change that leads to her execution. 
Aman has been compared not too unfavourably with Esther j 
and the hatred of Haman for Mordecai is expressed with more 



vigour than in Racine's play. All Montchr6tien's heroes face 
death without fear. M. Petit de JuUeville finds the character- 
istic note of his plays in the same cult of heroism whkh was 
later to inspire the plays of Corneille. Poet, economist, iron- 
master, and soldier, Montchr6tien represents the many-sided 
activity of a time before literature had become a profession, 
and before its province had been restricted in France to polite 
topics. 

The tragedies were edited in 1901 by M. Petit de JuHcvine with 
notice and commenury; the Traiti de ficonomie polUtque in 1889 
by Th. Funck BrenUno, whose eatinnate of Montchr6tien i« acvercly 
criticized by W. 1. Ashley in the En%. Hist. Ra. (Oct. 1891). See 
also Emile Faguet, La TratUie auXVI^ siicle, ch. xL (1883): 
G. Lanson, Rente des deux mondes (Sept. 1891). 

MONTCLAIR, a town of Essex county, New Jeney, USA., 
5 m. N.N.W. of Newark. Pop. (1910 census) 21,550. It is 
served by the Erie and the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
railways, and by electric lines to Caldwell and Newark. It b 
situated at the base and on the slopes of the Orange Moumains 
(its altitude above the sea varying from 217 to about 665 ft.), 
has an irregular street phin, and is a residential suburb of New 
York and other neighbouring cities. Montdair has czcdlent 
public schools. Among the town's institutions are the Moun- 
tainside hospital, a state normal schocA (190S), Montdair 
academy (1887), a public library, and two orphan asylums. 
An annual Bach festival was first held here in June 1905. The 
lower part of Montdair was settled about 1675 and gradually 
became known as Cranetown, which name it retained untB 
1812. In that year Bloomfield, including Cranetown, was 
organized as a separate township. In x868 Cranetown, then 
popularly known as West Bloomfield, with the addition of 
the Dutch-settled Speertown, was incorporated as Montdair. 
Montdair became a town in 1894. 

See Henry Whittemore, History of Montdair (New York, 1894). 

MONT-DE-MARSAN, a town of south-west France, capital of 
the department of Landes at the confluence of the Midiou and 
the Douze, 92 m. S. of Bordeaux on the Southern railway bet«-eca 
Morcenx and Tarbcs. Pop. ( 1 906) , 9059. Most of the buildings 
are in the older quarter, on the peninsula between the two 
rivers forming the Midouze. La P6piniere, a beautiful public 
garden, extends along the right bank of the Douze. A keep 
of the X4th century, now used for military purposes, was built 
by Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix. to overawe the inhabitants, 
and goes by the name of Nou-li-Bos (in modem French " To 
ne I'y veux pas "). The finest of the modem buildings is in 
officers' club, which contains a small museum. A court of 
assizes sits in the town; the local institutions comprise a tribooal 
of first instance, a branch of the Bank of France, and a lyc^. 
The industries include distillation of turpentine and resiocus 
oils, tanning, the founding and forging of metal, wood-saving 
and manufactures of machinery and straw envelopes for botiks. 
There is trade in resin, wine, brandy, timber, cattle, horsK aod 
other live stock. 

Mont-de-Marsan, the first of the Bastides (g.v.) of the middk 
ages, dates from 1141, when it was founded by Pierre, viccmte 
de Marsan, as the capital of his territory. In the 13th ceotaor 
it passed to the viscounts of B£am, but the harsh rule of Gastca 
Phoebus and some of his successors induced the pcopk to 
favour the English. The territory was united to the Frcfick 
Crown on the accession of Henry IV. 

MONTDIDIER, a town of northern France, capital of an xnoor 
dissement in the department of Somme, 23 m. S.E. of Amtens bjr 
rail. Pop. (1906), 4159. The town, situated on an eminence oa 
the right bank of the Don, dates from the Merovingian period, 
and perhaps owes its name to the imprisonment <^ the Lombud 
king Didier in the 8lh century. The church of St Pient. 
dating chiefly from the 15th century, has a beautiful podil 
of the 1 6th century and contains the tomb of Raoul III., coed 
of Crfpy (i2th century), fonts of the nth century and otbcr 
works of art. The church of St S^pulcre belongs, with the 
exception of the modern portal, to the 1 5th and x6th centuries. 
In the interior there is a wdl-koown *^iioly Sepulchre ** of tk 



MONT-DORE-LES-BAINS-^MONTE CORVIND, G. DI 763 



Utter period. The law-court* once the castle, partly dating 
from tJie 12th century, possesses fine tapestries of the X7th 
century. A statue commemorates the birth at Montdidier of 
Antoine Parmentier (1737-1813), with whose name are con- 
nected the beginnings of potato-culture in France. The town 
has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance; its 
industries include tanning and the manufacture of zinc-white. 

Held first by its own lords, afterwards by the counts of CHpy 
and Valois, Montdidier passed to the Crown in the 1 2th century, 
at the end of which it was granted a charter of liberties. The 
town o£fered a brave and successful resistance to the Spanish 
troops in 1636. 

MONT-DORE-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of central France 
in the department of Puy-de-D6me, situated at a height of 
3440 ft., on the right bank of the Dordogne not far from its 
source, and 31 ro. by road S.W. of Clermont-Ferrand. Pop. 
(1906), 1677. The Monts Dore close the valley towards the 
south. The thermal springs of Mont Dore, now numbering 
twelve, were known to the Romans. Bicarbonate of soda, iron 
and arsenic are the principal ingredients of the waters, which are 
used both for drinking and bathing, baths of high temperature 
being characteristic of the treatment; they are efficacious in cases 
of pulmonary consumption, bronchitis, asthma, and nervous 
and rheumatic paralysis. From the elevation and exposure 
of the valley, the climate of Mont-Dore-Ies-Bains is severe, 
and the season only lasts from the 15th of June to the xsth of 
September. The bath-house was rebuilt in 1891-1894. In 
the " park," along the Dordogne, relics from the old Roman 
baths have been collected. The surrounding country, with its 
fir woods, pastures, waterfalls and mountains, is very attrac- 
tive. To the south is the Puy de Sancy (6188 ft.), the loftiest 
peak of central France. 

MONTEAGLE, THOMAS SPRING-RICE, xst Bason (1790- 
1866), English statesman, son of S. E. Rice and Catherine 
Spring, came of a Limerick family, whose ancestor was Sir 
Stephen Rice (1637- 171 5), chief baron of the Irish exchequer 
and a leading Jacobite. In 1820 be became Whig member for 
Limerick (from 1832 member for Cambridge); and after holding 
minor offices became secretary for war and the colonics in 1834 
and in 1835-1839 chancellor of the exchequer. He was dis- 
appointed in not obtaining the speakership, but in 1839 was 
created Baron Montcagle of Brandon (a title intended earlier 
for his ancestor Sir Stephen Rice), and made controller of the 
exchequer. He differed from the government as regards the 
exchequer control over the treasury, and the abolition of the 
old exchequer (q.v.) was already determined upon when he died 
on the 7th of February 1866. His eldest son, Stephen Edmund 
Spring-Rice (1814-1865), deputy chairman of the board of 
customs, having predeceased him, he was succeeded in the title 
by his grandson, Thomas, 2nd baron (b. 1849). Another son 
was father of S. E. Spring-Rice (1856-1902), of the treasury, 
and of Sir Cecil A. Spring-Rice (b. 1859), the diplomatist. 

MONTEAGLE. WILLIAM PARKER. 4TH Baron, and iith 
Baron Morley (i 575-1622), was the eldest son of Edward 
Parker, loth Baron Morley (d. 1618), and of Elizabeth, daughter 
and heiress of William Stanley, 3rd Baron Monteagle (d. 1581). 
When quite a youth he married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir 
Thomas Trcsham, and was styled Lord Monteagle in right of 
his mother. He was allied with many Roman Catholic families, 
and during the reign of Elizabeth was in sympathy with their 
cause. He received knighthood when with Essex in Ireland 
in 1599. and in 1601 took part in the latter's rebellion in London, 
when he was punished by imprisonment and a fine of £8000. 
He subsequently in 1602 joined in sending the mission to Spain 
inviting Philip III. to invade England. He was intimate with 
Catesby and others, and according to Father Garnet expressed 
an opinion some few months before gunpowder plot that the 
Romanists had a good opportunity of making good their claims 
by taking up arms against the king. It is certain that he was 
one of those who acquiesced in James I.'s accession and assisted 
Southampton in securing the Tower for the king. He was 
taken into favour, and received a summons to attend the parlia- 



ment of the 5th of November 1605 as Lord Monteagle. On 
the 36th of October 1605, while sitting at supper at Hoxton, 
he received the celebrated letter giving warning of the gun- 
powder plot, probably written by Francis Tresham. After having 
caused it to be read aloud by Ward, a gentleman in his service 
and an intimate friend of Winter, one of the chief con^iratois, 
he took it to Whitehall and showed it to Lord Salisbury and 
other ministers. On the 4th of November he accompanied 
Lord Suffolk, the lord chamberlain, in his visit to the vault 
under the parliament house, where Guy Fawkes was found. 
Monteagle received £700 a year for his services in averting the 
disaster. In 1609 he was chosen a member of the coundl of 
the Virginia Company and subscribed to its funds. The same 
year " disorders in his house " are reported, probably referring 
to his harbouring of Roman Catholic students from St Omcr 
{Cal. of St Pap: Dom: 1603- 1610, p. 533). In 16 18, on the death 
of his father, he was summoned to parliament as Baron Morley 
and Monteagle. He died on the xst of July 162a at Great 
Hallingbury, Essex, where he was buried. By his marriage 
with Elizabeth Tresham he had, besides daughters, three sons, 
the eldest of whom', Henry, (d. X655) succeeded him as X2th 
Baron Morley and 5th Baron Monteagle. These baronies fell 
into abeyance when Henry's son Thomas died about x686. 

MONTE CASSINO. an isolated hill overhanging the town of 
Cassinum, about midway between Rome and Naples. Hither 
St Benedict migrated from Subiaco in the early years of the 
6th century, and established the monastery that became the 
metropolis of Western monachlsm. About 580-590 it was sacked 
by the Lombards, and the monks fied to Rome, where they were 
established at the Lateran basilica. The monastery was rebuilt 
in 720, again destroyed by the Saracens in 884, and restored 
seventy years later. It reached its highest point of prosperity 
and influence from X059 to 1 105, under Deslderius (who became 
Pope Victor III. in 1087) and Oderisius. The abbot became 
overlord of an extensive territory and bishop of several dioceses: 
now, though not a bishop, he is ordinary of seven dioceses. 
At the dissolution of monasteries in 1866 Monte Cassino was 
spared, owing mainly to a remonstrance by English well-wishers 
of United Italy. The monastery became a national monument 
and the monks were recognized as custodians. There is a large 
secondary school with 250 boys, and rich archives. 

See L. Tosti, Staria della hadia di M.C. (iSai; and ed., 1888); 
Wctzer u. Wclte, KirckenUxicon (and ed.) and Herzog, ReaUncykUh 
pddie (3rd ed.). (E. C. B.) 

MONTECATINIt two much-frequented mineral baths of 
Tuscany, Italy, (x) Montecatini in Val di Cecina, in the province 
of Pisa, s m. W. of Volterra. Pop. (1901), 5009. The water 
is saline, with a temperature of 78*8** F. There are copper 
mines, which have been worked since the 15th century, 1358 ft. 
above sea-level. (2) Montecatini in Val di Nievole, in the 
province of Lucca, 7 m. W. by S. of Pistoja, 105 ft. above sea- 
level. Pop. (1901), 3048 (Bagni di Montecatini); 2856 (Monte- 
catini). The springs, which number ten, are saline, and range 
in temperature from 82-4** to 86® F. The water Is both drunk 
and used for bathing by some 40,000 visitors annually, and is 
exported in bottles. There is also a natural vapour bath 
(8o*'-95*' F.) in the Grotta Giusli (so-called from the satirist 
Giuseppe (}iusti, a native of the place), at Monsummano near 
by, discovered in 1849. Another attraction of the place is the 
gardens of CoUodi. At the town of Montecatini, on the hill 
above (951 ft.), the Florentines were defeated by Ugucclone 
della Faggiuola of Pisa In 13 15. 

MONTE CORVINO, GIOVANNI DI {c. 1247-1328), Franciscan 
missionary, traveller and statesman, founder of the earliest 
Roman Catholic missions in India and China, and archbishop 
of Peking. In 1272 he was commissioned by the emperor 
Michael Palaeologus. to Pope Gregory X.. to negotiate for the 
reunion of Greek and Latin churches. From 1275 to 1289 he 
laboured Incessantly as a missionary in the Nearer .and Middle 
East. In 1289 he revisited the Papal Court, and was sent out 
as Roman legate to the Great Khan, the Ilkhan of Persia, and 
other leading personages of the Mongol world, as well as to the 



76+ 



MONTECRISTO— MONTECUCCULI 



"emperor of Ethiopia" or Abyssinian Negus. Arriving at 
Tabriz, then the chief city of Mongol Persia, and indeed of all 
Western Asia, Monte Corvino moved down to India to the 
Madras region or " Country of St Thomas, " from which he wrote 
home, in December 1291 (or 1292), the earliest noteworthy 
account of the Coromandel coast furnished by any Western 
European. He next appears in " Cambalicch " or Peking, 
and wrote letters (of Jan. 8, 1305, and Feb. 13, 1306), describing 
the progress of the Roman mission in the Far East, in spite of 
Nestorian opposition; alluding to the Roman Catholic community 
he had founded in India, and to an appeal he had received to 
preach in " Ethiopia " and dealing with overland and oversea 
routes to " Cathay,'' from the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf 
respectively. In 1303 he received his first colleague, the Fran- 
ciscan Arnold of Cologne; in 1307 Pope Clement V. created 
him archbishop of Peking, and despatched seven bishops to 
consecrate and assist him; three only of these arrived (1308). 
Three more suffragans were sent out in 13 12, of whom one at 
least reached East Asia. A Franciscan tradition nuin tains that 
about 13 10 Monte Corvino converted the Great Khan (i.e. 
Khaishan Kuluk, third of the Yuen dynasty; 1307-1311) : this 
has been disputed, but he unquestionably won remarkable suc- 
cesses in North and East China. Besides three mission stations 
in Peking, he established one near the present Amoy harbour, 
opposite Formosa. At his death, about 1328, heathen vied 
with Christian in honouring him. He was apparently the only 
effective European bishop in the Peking of the middle ages. 
The MSS. of Monte Corvino's Letters exist in the Laurcntian 
Library, Florence (for the Indian Epistle) and in the National 
Library. Paris, 5006 Lat. — vir. the Liber de aetatibus. fols. 170, 
v.- 1 72, r. (for the Chinese). They arc printed in Wadding, Annates 
minorum (a.d. 1305 and 1306) vi. 69-72, 91-92 (cd. of 17^3, &c.), and 
in the Afunckner geUhrte Anzeigen (1855), No. 22, part iii. pp. 171- 
175. English translations, with valuable comments, arc in 
Sir H. Yule's Cathay, i. 197-221. Sec also Wadding, Annates, v. 
195-198. 199-203, vi. 93, &c., 147, &€., 176, &c., 467. &c.; 
C. R. Beazfcy. Davm of Modern Geography, iii. 162-178. 206-210; 
Sir H. Yufc, Cathay, i. 165-173. (C. R. B.) 

MONTECRISTO, (anc. Oglasa), an island of Italy, belonging 
to the province of Leghorn, 25 m. S. of Elba. Its highest point 
is 2126 ft. above sca-lcvcl, and its area about 6 sq. m. It 
contains the ruins of a Camaldulensian monastery, founded in 
the 13th century and destroyed in the i6th, and is the private 
property of the king of Italy, who has a shooting-lodge there. 
The fame of the island is diie to the novel, Le Comte de Monle- 
crislo, by the elder Dumas. 

MONTECUCCUU (Montecuccou), RAIMONDO, Count of 
(1609-1680), prince of the holy Roman Empire and Neapolitan 
duke of Melfi, Austrian general, was born on the 21st of 
February 1608/9, at the castle of Montecucculo in Modcna. His 
family was of Burgundian origin and had settled in north Italy 
in the loth century. At the age of sixteen Montecucculi began 
as a private soldier under his uncle, Count Ernest Montecucculi, 
A distinguished Austrian general (d. 1633). Four years later, 
after much active service in Germany and the Low Countries, 
he became a captain of infantry. He was severely wounded 
at the storming of New Brandenburg, and again in the same year 
(1631) at the first battle of Brcitenfeld, where he fell into the 
hands of the Swedes. He was again wounded at Ltitzen in 
1632, and on his recovery was made a major in his uncle's 
regiment. Shortly afterwards he became a lieutenant-colonel of 
cavalry. He did good service at the first battle of NSrdL'ngen 
(i6j^4), and at the storming of Kaiserslautem in the following 
year won his colonelcy by a feat of arms of unusual brilliance, 
a charge through the breach at the head of his heavy cavalry. 
He fought in Pomcrania, Bohemia and Saxony (surprise of 
Wolmirsiadi, battles of Wittslock and Chemnitz), and in 1639 
he was taken prisoner at Melnik and detained for two and a half 
years m Stettin and Weimar. In captivity he studied, not only 
military science, but also geometry in Euclid, history in Tacitus, 
and architecture in Vilruvius, and planned his great work on 
war. On his release he distinguished himself again in Silesia. 
Jn 1643 he went to Italy, by the emperor's request, and made a 
successful campaign in Lombardy. On his return to Germany 



he was promoted Ueutenant-field-marshal and <^taiaed a seat 
in the council of war. In 1645-46 he served in Hungary against 
Prince Rakoczy of Transylvania, on the Danube and Neckar 
against the French, and in Silesia and Bohemia against the 
Swedes. The victory of Triebel in Silesia won him the rank of 
general of cavalry, and at the battle of Zusmarshausen in 1648 
his stubborn rearguard fighting rescued the imperialisu from 
annihilation. For some years after the peace of Westphalia 
Montecucculi was chiefly concerned with the business of the 
council of war, though he went to Flanders and England as the 
representative of the emperor, and to Sweden as the envoy of the 
pope to Quctn Christina, and at Modena his lance was victorious 
in a great tourney. In 1657, soon after his marriage with 
Countess Margarethe Dietrichstein, he took part in, and after 
a time commanded, an expedition against Rakoczy and the 
Swedes who had attacked the king of Poland. He became fieki- 
marshal in the imperial army, and with the Great Elector of 
Brandenburg completely defeated Rakoczy and his allies (peace 
of Oliva, 1660). From 1661 to 1664 MontecuccuU with inferior 
numbers defended Austria against the Turks; but at St Gotthard 
Abbey, on the Raab, he defeated the Turks so completely that 
they made a truce for twenty years (Aug. i, 1664). He was 
given the Golden Fleece, and became president of the council 
of war and director of artillery. He also devoted much time 
to the compilation of his various woiiis on military history ami 
science. He opposed the progress of the French arms under 
Louis XIV., and when the inevitable war broke out received 
command of the imperial forces. In the campaign of 1673 be 
completely out-manoeuvred his great rival Turenne on the Neckar 
and the Rhine, and secured the capture of Bonn and the juoctioo 
of his own army with that of the prince of Orange on the bver 
Rhine. He retired from the army when, in 1674, the (keat 
Elector was appointed to command in chief, but the brilliant 
successes of Turenne in the winter of 1674 and 1675 brought him 
back. For months the two famous commanders mancxtivred 
against each other in the Rhine valley, but on the eve of a 
decisive battle Turenne was killed and Montecucculi promptly 
invaded Alsace, where he engaged in a war of manoeuvre »iih 
the great Cond^. The siege of Phih'psburg was Montecucculi s 
last achievement in war. The rest of his life was spent in mih'tary 
administration and h'terary and scientific work at Vienna. lo 
1679 the emperor made him a prince of the empire, and shortly 
afterwards he received the dukedom of Melfi from the king of 
Naples. Montecucculi died at Linz on the 16th of Octoiber 
1680, as the result of an acddent. With the death of Iws only 
son in 1698 the principality became extinct, but the title of 
count descended through his daughters to two branches, Austrian 
and Modenese. As a general, Montecuccub shared with Turenne 
and Cond6 the first place amongst European soldiers of his time. 
His Memorie delta guerra profoundly influenced the age which 
followed his own; nor have modem conditions rendered the 
advice of Montecucculi wholly valueless. 

Authorities.— The Memorie delta guerra, &c., was pubtisbed at 
Venice in 1703 and at Cologne in the following year. A Latio 
edition appeared in 1718 at Vienna.. a French versKm at Parts in 
1712. and the German Kriegsnackrickteu des FursUn Raymmndi 
Montecuccdi at Leipzis in 1736. Of this work there are MSS. 
in various libraries, and many memoirs on military history, tactin, 
fortification, &c., written in Italian. Latin and German. mnatB still 
unedited in the archives of Vienna. The collected Opere ii Rm- 
mondo MorUecuccoli were published at Milan (1807). Tnria (I&21) 
and Venice (1840). and include political essays and poetry. 

See Campori. Raimondo Montecuccoli (Florence, 1876); Speohottz. 
A ureum veilus uu catena, &c (Vienna, 1668) ; memoir pnrfaccd to the 
Memorie (Cologne edition) ; this appears also in v. der Gfod)Cfi's 
Neuer Kriegsbibltolhek, vi. 230 (Breslau, 1777): Morgeostcm, Oestrr- 
reuhs Helden (St Polten, 1782); Schweteerd, Oesttrreicks HeUet 
(Vienna. 1853): Paradisi. Elogto starico dH conte Raim'mde Msak- 
cucculi (Modcna. 1776); Schcls, Oenerreukiscke militiriscke leH' 
schnfl (Vienna. 1818, 1828 and 1842): Pezzl. LebensbeMkreAaMg 
Montecucculis (Vienna. 1792); Hormayr. OesierreiclUscker Phaarck, 
XI II (Vienna. 1808): Reilly. Biographu der behikmtesUm Feidkerm 
Oeslerreicks (Vienna, 1813): WOrzbach, Biotrap^dsckts Uxikem in 
Kaiserthums, &c., pt. 19 (Vienna, 1868); Tcuffenbach. Vatirkai- 
isches Ehrenbueh (Viei..ia and Tcachen, 1877); Die Hefkriegtrtiks, 
prasidenUn (Vienna. 1874); Wcingirtner. HMenbmck {IteAem, 
1883): Grosunann, Arcku fir M, Gesekkhie (Yicnna. 1878): ate 



MONTEFALCO— MONTEIL 



765 



ntpplefnent to MUUdr. WochetMaU (Bertin, 1878) \ Or^an dM mUiUir- 
tnssenschafU. Vereins (Vienna. 1881): Reaie tnstUuto veneto di 
uienu, vtit. 5, 6 (Venice, 1881); Rivista mUUwe Italiana (March 
and April 1882); AUgemeine deulsche Biograpkie, vol. xxii. (Leipzig, 
1885). Important controversial works are those of Turoin and 
Warnery, two distinguished soldiers of the i8th century (Comfn«ii- 
iaires sur Us nUmoires, &c. (Paris), 1769, and ComnuTitaires sur Us 
comm. . . . du comU Turpin, Breslau, 1777). A critical estimate of 
Montccucculi's works will be found in J&hns Cesch. der Kriegs- 
wissenschafUn, ii. I162-1178 (Leipzig, 1890). 

MONTEFALCO, a town of the province of Perugia, Italy, 
6 m. S.W. of Follgno, situated on a hill, 1550 ft. above sea-level. 
Pop. (1901), 3397 (town); 5726 (commune). Its churches con- 
tain a number of pictures of the Umbrian school; S. Francesco 
l)as good frescoes (scenes from the life of S. Francis) of 1452, 
by Benozzo Ck>zzoli, in the choir. There is also a communal 
picture-gallery in the picturesque Palezzo Comunale. 

MONTEPIASCONE, a town and episcopal see of the province 
of Rome, Italy, built on a hill (2077 ^t.) on the S.E. side of the 
Lake of Bolsena, 70 m. by rail N.W. of Rome. Pop. (1901), 
3041 (town); 9731 (commune). The cathedral (1519) is one of 
the earliest structures by Sammicheli, S. Maria dcUa Grazie is 
also by him. The town has in San Flaviano (built in 1032, 
repaired and enlarged in the Gothic style late in the 14th century), 
A curious double church of importance in the history of architec- 
ture (cf. G. T. Rivoira, Origini ddl' archiUUura hmhardct i. 326 
sqq.); in its interior some 14th-century frescoes were discovered 
in 1896. In the crypt is the grave of a traveller, who succumbed 
to excessive drinking of the local wine known as Est, est, est. 
The story is that his valet who preceded him wrote " est " on 
the doors of all the inns where good wine was to be had, and that 
here the inscription was thrice repeated. It is possible that 
Montefiascone occupies the site of the Fanum Voltumnae, at 
which the representatives of the twelve chief cities of Etruria 
met in the days of their independence; while under the Empire 
the festival was held near Volsinii. 

MONTEFIORB, SIR MOSES HAIM (1784-1885), Jewish 
philanthropist, eldest son of Joseph Elias Montcfiore, a London 
merchant, and of Rachel, daughter of Abraham Lumbroso de 
Mattos Mocatta, was bom at Leghorn, on the 24th of October 
1 784. His paternal ancestors were Jewish merchants who settled 
At Ancona and Leghorn in the 17th century, whibt his grand- 
father, Moses Haim Montefiore, emigrated from the latter town 
to London in 1758. Montcfiore entered the Stock Exchange, his 
uncle purchasing for him at a cost of £1200 the right to practise 
as one of the twelve Jewish brokers licensed by the dty of 
London. Although belonging to the Scphardlc or " Spanish " 
congregation of Jews, he married in 1812 Judith, a daughter of 
Levi Barent Cohen, of the " German " Jews, another of whose 
daughters was the wife of Nathan Mayer Rothschild, the head 
of the great banking firm; this relationship led to a close con- 
nexion in business between Montefiore and that house, and his 
brother Abraham married Henrietta Rothschild, a sister of the 
financier. In 1824 Montefiore, having amassed a fortune, 
retired from the Stock Exchange. From his forty-third year 
Montefiore devoted all his energies to ameliorating the lot of his 
co-religionists. His first pilgrimage to Palestine was undertaken 
in 1S27, and resulted in a friendship with Mehemet Ali which 
was to lead to much practical good. Immediately on his return, 
Montcfiore began to take an active part in the struggle which 
British Jews were then carrying on to obtain full political and 
dvic rights. In 1837 he became the city of London's second 
Jewish sheriff, and was knighted. In 1838, accompanied by 
Lady Montefiore, he started on a second voyage to Palestine, 
in order to submit to Mehemet Ali a scheme for Jewish coloni- 
zation in Syria. Though political disturbances rendered his 
efforts again unsuccessful, the year 1840 brought Montefiore 
once moie before Mehemet, this time to plead the cause of some 
Jews imprisoned at Damascus on a charge of ritual murder. 
He obtained their release, and on his way back wrung from the 
Porte a decree giving Jews throughout Turkey the utmost 
privileges accorded to aliens. In 1846 the threatened re-issue 
in Russia of an Imperial ukase (first promulgated in 1844) 
ordering the withdrawal of all Jews from within ^oyeisU of the 



German and Austrian frontiers, caused Motitefiore to proceed 
to St Petersburg, where in an interview with the tsar he sue- 
ceeded in getting the ukase rescinded. On his return, Qaetn 
Victoria, on the reconunendation of Sir Robert Peel, made him a 
baronet. In 1859 a case of injustice which attracted the atten- 
tion of all Europe brought Sir Moses to the gates of the Vatican. 
A Jewish child named Mortara had been secretly baptized by 
its nurse and stolen from its mother, who died of grief. Cardinid 
Antonelli, in the name of the pope, refused to give up the boy, 
who became a priest. In 1863 we find Montefiore on a mission 
in Constantinople to obuin from the Sultan, Abdul Aziz, the 
confirmation of his predecessor's decrees in favour of the Jews; 
in 1864 in Morocco to combat an outbreak of anti-Semitism; in 
1866 in Syria, relieving the distress resulting from a plague of 
locusts and an epidemic of cholera; and in 1867 in Rumania, 
once more pleading the cause of the oppressed Jews with Prince 
Charles. In 1872 Montefiore was deputed by the British Jews 
to present to Alexander II. their congratulations on the bicen- 
tenary of the birth of Peter the Great, and was received by the 
tsar with great honour at the Winter Palace. His seventh and 
last pilgrimage to the Holy Land was made in 1875, of which he 
wrote an account in his Narrative of a Forty Days* Sojourn in the 
Hdy Landf published in that year. The last decade of his life 
was passed in comparative quiet upon his estate near Ramsgate, 
in Kent; and there, after having received general congratulations 
on the completion of his hundredth year, he passed peacefully 
away on the 28th of July 1885. Sir Moses Montefiore was a 
strictly orthodox Jew, scrupulously observant of both the 
spirit and the letter of the Scriptures; in his grounds he had a 
synagogue built where services are still held twice a day, ft 
college where ten rabbis live and expound the Jewish law, 
and a mausoleum that contains the remains of himself and 
of Lady Montefiore, who died in 1862. 

MONTEPRIO, a town of southern Spain, in the province of 
Granada, on the river Bilano. Pop. (1900), 10,725. Montefrio 
is largely .Moorish in character, and dominated by a Moori3b 
castle. Being built midway betvreen the Sierra de Priego and 
Sierr^ Parapanda, and commanding the open valley between 
these ranges, it became one of the chief frontier fortresses of the 
Moors in the i^th century. Its industfies include manufactures 
of cotton stuffs, alcohol and soap. 

MONTfiGUT, JEAN BAPTISTB JOSEPH ^ILE (1825-1895), 
French. critic, was bom at Limoges on the 14th of June 1825. 
He began to write for the Revue des deux numdes in 1847, 
contributing between 1851 and 1857 a series of articles on the 
English and American novel, and in 1857 he became chief Uterary 
critic of the review. £mile . Mont£gut translated Essais de 
philosophie amirUaine (1850) from Emerson; Rivolutibn de 1688 
(2 vols. 1853) from Macaulay's History; and also produced the 
(Euvres computes (10 vols. 1868-1873) of Shakespeare. Among 
his numerous critical works are £crivains modernes d*AngUterr$ 
(3rd series, 1885-1892) and Heures de Uctured'un critique (1891), 
studies of John Aubrey, Pope, Wilkie Collins and Sir John 
Mandeville. Mont^gut died in Paris on the zith of December 
1895. 

MONTEIL, AMANS ALEXIS (176^1850), French historian, 
was bom at Rodez in 1769, and died at Ccly (Scine-et-Marae) 
in 1850. His tastes were historical, and he taught history at 
Rodez, at Fontainebleau and at St Cyr. He held that a dis- 
proportionate importance had been given to kings, their ministers 
and generals, and that it was necessary rather to study the 
people. In his Histoire des fran^ais des divers itals^ ou histairg 
de France aux cinq dernicrs sticks (10 vols., 1828-1844) he 
undertook to describe the different classes and occupations of 
the community. For this he made a collection of manuscripts, 
which he sold in 1835 (many of them passed into the library of 
Sir Thomas Philipps), drawing up a catalogue under the singular 
title of Train de matiriaux manuscrits de divers genres d^kistoire. 
He boasted of having been the first to write really " national " 
history, and he wished further to show this in a memoir entitled 
V Influence de Vhistoire des divers flats, ou comment fUt allie la 
Franu si elU tiU eu cette histoire (1840; reprinted in 1841 under 



766 



MONTEITH— MONTENEGRO 



the title: Les Francis pour la premiire fois dans Pkistoire de 
Franut ou poiiique de Vkistoire des divers ttats). Monteil did 
not invent the history of civilization, but he was one of the 
first in France, and perhaps in Europe, to point out its extreme 
importance. He revised the third edition of his history himself 
(5 vols., 1848); a fourth appeared after his death with a preface 
by Jul es Janin (5 vols., 1853). 

MONTEITH, the name given to a large bowl, often made of 
silver, with a movable rim and scalloped edges, from which 
wine glasses, punch ladle, &c, could be hung, so that they 
might be cooled in the water with which it was filled. According 
to Anthony Wood {Life and Times^ iii. 84, quoted in the New 
English Dictionary) the name was given to the bowl from a 
" fantastical Scot . . . Monsieur Monteigh who . . . wore the 
bottome of hb doake or coate so notched," ix. scalloped. 

MONTELEONB CALABRO, a city of Calabria, Italy, in the 
province of Catanzaro, beautifully situated on an eminence 
gently sloping towards the Gulf of Sta Eufemia, 1575 ft. above 
sea-level, 70 m. N.N.E. of Reggio di Calabria by raiL Pop. 
(iQoi), 10,066 (town); 13,481 (conunune). It was almost 
totally destroyed by earthquake in 1783, but under the French 
occupation it was rebuilt and made the capital of a province. 
It su£Fered, however, considerably in the earthquake of 1905. 
The castle was built by Frederick II. The principal church 
contains some sculptures by the Gagini of Palermo. 

Monteleone is identical with the ancient Hipponium, said to 
be a Locrian colony and first mentioned in 388 B.C., when its 
hihabitants were removed to Syracuse by Dionysius. Restored 
by the Carthaginians (379), occupied by the Brultii (356), held 
for a time by Agathoclcs of Syracuse (294), and afterwards again 
occupied by the Bruttii, Hipponium ultimately became as Vibo 
Valcntia a flourishing Roman colony, founded in 239 or 192 B.C. 
It was important as the point where a branch from Scolacium 
(Squillace) on the east coast road joined the ViaPopillia. The 
harbour established by Agathodes proved of great service as a 
naval station to Caesar and Octavian in their wars with Pompeius 
Magnus and Sextus Pompeius, and remains of its massive 
masonry still exist at the village of Bivona on the coast, while 
the fort occupies the site of a temple. Its tunny-fish were 
famous. In the town itself there are remains of a theatre, of 
Roman baths (?), a mosaic pavement in the church of St Lcoluca 
(patron saint of Monteleone), and some Latin inscriptions. The 
town walls too of the Greek city can be traced for their whole 
extent, about 4 m. They are well constructed of regular 
parallelograms of a sandy tufa, laid in headers and stretchers. 
The Roman town occupied only a part of the Greek site, the 
portion occupied by the modem town, the streets of which still 
preserve the Roman arrangement. It was supplied with 
water by an aqueduct, the reservoir of which is situated at the 
village of Papaglionti. The Capialbi and Cordopatri families 
have private collections of antiquities. 

Sec V. Capialbi in Mem. Inst. (Rome, 1832), pp. 159 sqq.; F. 
Lenormant, La Crande-Crice (Paris, 1 882) , iii. 1 55 sqq. (T. As.) 

MONT^LIMAR, a town of south-eastern France, capital of 
an arrondissement in the department of Drdme, near the left 
bank of the Rhone, 93 m. S. of Lyons on the railway to Marseilles. 
Pop. (1906)^ town, 9162; commune, 13,554. The andent castle 
is now used as a prison. Remains of the ramparts and four old 
gates are also preserved. The chief public institutions are the 
sub-prefecture, the tribunal of first instance and the communal 
college. The industries include flour-milling, silk-throwing and 
spinning, and the manufacture of hats, lime, fanning implements, 
preserved foods and nougat. 

Mont^limar was called by the Romans Acunum. At a later 
period it belonged to the family of Adh6mar and received the 
name Monteil d'Adh6mar, whence the present name. Towards 
the middle of the X4th century it was sold by them partly to the 
dauphins of Viennois and partly to the pope, and in the next 
century it came into the possession of the Crown. During the 
religious wars it valiantly resisted Gaspard de Coligny in 1570, 
but was taken by the Huguenots >n 1587. 



HOMTBMATOR (or MoNTCvdK), JOROB (i530?-i56i), 
Spanish novelist and poet, of Portuguese descent, was bora 
about 1520 at Montem6r o Velho (near Coimbia), whence he 
derived his name, the Spanish form of which is Montemayor. 
He seems to have studied music in his youth, and to have 
gone to Spain in 1543 as chorister in the suite of the 
Portuguese Infanta Maria, first wife of Philip IL In 1552 
he went back to Portugal in the suite of the Infanta 
Juana, wife of D. Jofto, and on the death of this prince 
in 1554 returned to Spain. He is said to have served in 
the army, to have accompanied Philip II. to England in 1555 
and to have travelled in Italy and the Low Countries; but it is 
certain that his poetical works were published at Antwerp in 
1554, and again in 1558. His reputation is based on a prose 
work, the Diana^ a pastoral romance published about 1559. 
Shortly afterwards Montemayor was killed in Piedmont, appar- 
ently in a love affair; a late nlition of the Diana gives the exact 
date of his death as the 26th of February 1561. The Diana is 
generally stated to have been printed at Valencia in 1542; but, 
as the Canto de Orfeo refers to the widowhood of the Infanu 
Juana in 1554, the book must be of later date. It is important 
as the first pastoral novd published in Spain; as the starting* 
point of a universal literary fashion; and as the indirect 
source, through the translation included in Googe's E^s^ 
epytapkes and sonnets (1563), of an episode in the Tieo Gentlemen 
of Verona. Though Portuguese was Montemayor's native 
language, he only used it for two songs and a short prose passage 
in the sixth book of the Diana, His mastery of Spanish is 
amazing, and even Cervantes, who judges the verses in the 
Diana with unaccustomed severity, recognizes the remarkable 
merit of Montemayor's prose style. That he pleased his own 
generation is proved by the seventeen editions and tvo 
continuations of the Diana published in the i6th century, by 
parodies, imitations and renderings in French and En^ish. 

BiBi.i0GRAPHV.-~O. Schdnherr, Jorgf de Montemayor, sein LAn 
und sein Schdfroman (Hatlc, 1886); D. Garda Peres, CaSdlogo rasuh 
ado biogrdjuoy bibliogrdfico de los aulores Portugueses que etcribierM 
en castellano (Madrid, 1890); Hugo A. Renncrt, T/re Spaniik Pa^ord 



Novel (Baltimore, 1892): J. Fiumaurice-Kelly, "The Bibliocraf^ 
of the Diana " in the Roue hispanique (1895); R. Tobler, " bhake- 
spearc's Sommemachtstrautn una Montemayor's Diana ** in tbe 



Jahbiuh der deuUchen Skakespeare-CtseUsckaft (1898) ; M. Men£iide« 
y Pclayo, Orlgenes de la novela (Madrid, 1905). 

MONTENEGRO, a country of south-eastern Europe, formii^ 
an independent kingdom situated upon the western side of the 
Balkan Peninsula, and possessing a small coast-line <m the 
Adriatic Sea. The name is the Venetian variant of theltafioa 
Monte NerOf and together with the Albanian Mai Esiya, the 
Turkish Kara-dagh, and the Greek Monro Vouno^ reproduces the 
native, or Serb, Tzrndgora^ "the Black Mountain"; it is derived 
from the dark appearance of Mount Lovchen, the culminating 
summit of Montenegro proper, of which the northern and eastern 
declivities, those which are viewed from the country itsdf, are 
in shadow for the greater part of the day.' The dusky pine 
forests, which once dothed the mountain and of which renuuots 
exist on its northern slope, contributed to its sombre aspect 
Up to the end of the 15th century, when its territ(»y beome 
restricted to the mountainous districts immediatdy north aad 
east of Mount Lovchen, the kingdom was known as the Zenu 
or Zeta, but the name Tzrnagora was probably used locally ia 
this region from the time of the earliest Slavonic settlements. 

Montenegro extends between 41® 55' and 43' 21' N., sod 
between 18° 30' and 20^ £.; its greatest length from Doith to 
south is about 100 m.; its greatest breadth from east 
to west about 80 m. It is bounded by the Adriatic ^ {J ^^^- 
on the S., the seaboard extending for 28 m.; by 
the Primore, a strip of the Dalmatian littoral, on the S.W. 
and W.; by the Austrian (formeriy Turkish) provioces 

* Cf. the similarly-named Ttma Planina in eastern Montenesn), 
Tcherni Vrkh, the culminating summit of Mount Vitosh in Bulprk, 
and Mavro Vouno in the island of Salamis. Various other eipuas* 
tions of the name Montenegro, mostly of a fanciful character, have 
been put forward : see Kurt Hasscrt, " Der Name Moateacgro ** is 
Clobust No. 67, pp. III-II3 (Leipxig, 1895). 



MONTENEGRO 



767 



of Bosnia, and Herzegovina on the NW. and N.; by 
the Ottoman empire iMth in the sanjak of Novibazar, on 
the N. and N.E., and also in the vilayets of Kossovo and 
Scutari on the N.E., E. and S.E. Its area, as officially 
estimated after the treaty of Berlin had been enforced in 
1880, amounts to 3255 sq. m., or considerably less than half 
the size of Wales. The present frontier, which was not finally 
delimited till 1881, ascends the Boyana river from its mouth as 
far as Lake Sass (Shas), then follows the river Megured to the 
summit of Mount Bratovitza, reaching Lake Scutari at a spot 
opposite the island of Goritza Topal. Crossing the lake north- 
east to a point a little south-east of Plavnitza, and leaving the 
territory of the Hoti and Klementi tribes to the south, and the 
districts of Kutchka Kraina to the north, it passes north of 
the districts of Plava and Gusinye and reaches the western end 
of the Mokra Planina, where it turns to the north-west. After 
crossing the Lim at its junction with the Skula, it coincides with 
the old frontier for some distance; then reaching the Tara at 
Maikovatz, it follows the course of that river to its junction with 
the Piva: turning southwards, it reaches the old frontier once 
more at Klubuk, and, passing between the district of Grahovo 
and the Krivoshian Mountains, approaches to within a few miles 
of the Bocche di Cattaro: then, following the maritime mountain 
ridges for a considerable distance, it rejoins the coast a little 
south of Spizza. 

Physical Features. — Montenesro, which forms the meeting-point 
of the Dalmatian, Bosnian and Albanian ranges, seems at first a 
mere chaos of mountains. It is, however, naturally divided into 
three parts, each with its own character, (i) Fertile and well- 
watered plains, not unlike those of Lombardy, border the river 
Zcta, ana after its junction with the MoratcKa extend along the 
course of that river to Lake Scutari. A fringe of similar lowland 
forms the maritime plain extending between the Sutorman range 
and the mouth of the Boyana. (2) Westward, under the shadow of 
Lovchen. is the Katunska, or " Shepherds' Huts," the cradle of 
Montenegrin liberty. This region presents a surface of hard crystal- 
line rock, bare and calcined, with strata sinking to the south-west 
at an an^'lc otntn of 70*. The rockn have been iiplit hy atmospheric 
agenctes Into hugv pri^matif blocWs, and ihc cracks have been 
gradually worn into nsnircs sei'c-ml raiNam& deep, in some places 
the interior of the itoiiy mi** i* htjlbw-wl out inti> galleries and 
caves. 8on]<* of gnat length; during the rainy sea«<:in subterranean 
landslips frequcrtEly produce kxal M4thqijak«, exttnding over an 
area 01 10 or i? m* The small baaiiu of Cfttli^n* and Niegush are 
practically the only cultivable di$trict» in ihi* region. (3) Over the 
entire north stretch the massive mountain chain!) which link the 
HerzegovinJan Alps to iboac of Albania, ihc scetttry recalling that 
of Swititrbnd or the Tirol. In the floriti-wc*t ihere are finely 
wooded tracij extendini^ north of Nik^buch to the Dormitor moun- 
tain group. The Dorm i lor district contains rich hnassy uplands 
dotted vtiih fiumcrDiia small Ia1ce»» from which it durivcs its name 
of Yczera {th*' Uke*); the riv£^^aTa^L3^d fiv^ flow through magnifi- 
cent gorj^rt, rJritbed with rich ftrests^ ^nd unite near tne extreme 
north of tSc fnonticr. On the norrh-ca^t are the hjch but rounded 
Brda Mountains, covered with virgin forest or Alpine pastures, 
and broken here and there by jagged dolomitic peaks. In the 
district of the Vasoyevitchi, which surrounds the little town of 
Andriyevitza, is the fine double peak of Kom, and, a little to the 
south-west, the summit of Maglitch, commanding a magnificent 
view over the wooded valley of Cusinye to the great Proklctia range 
in Albania.* The contrast between the rich undulating landscape of 
the northern regions and the sterile calcined rocks of Montenegro 
proper is very remarkable. 

The Montenegrin mountain system is divided into four masses: (1) 
the group enclosed by the Tara and Piva rivers with Dormitor, one of 
the highest mountains in the peninsula (9146 ft.), Yablo- 
MomaUia j^Qy Vrkh (7113 ft.), and the Vrkhove Pochoratz (6601 
f?^^ . ft): (2) the group between the Zeta and the Moratcha 
2!!^'S? with Ostri-Kuk (7546 ft.), Vlasulya (7533 ft ), Brnik 
"'"***■• (6860 ft.) and MaganJk (6621 ft.); (3) the ranges between 
the Moratcha and Tara with Sto (7323 ft.) and Gradishte (7156 ft.) , 
and (4.) those between the upper Tara and the upper Lim with Kom, 
the second highest mountain m the country (Kom Kutchki, 8032 ft., 
Kom Vasoyevitchki, 7946 ft.), separating the districts of the Vasoye- 
vitchi on the north-east from that of the Kutchi on the south-west, 
and Visi tor (6936 ft.) on the frontier. In Montenegro proper the 
only prominent summit is Lovchen (S653 ft.),^ between Cettigne 
ana tne western frontier. Between Lake Scutari and the sea is the 
Sutorman range with the fine pyramidal .summit of Rumiya (5148 ft.) 



overhanj^sng AnLtvari. The pTievuHing format font of ttie north and 
ti*.t are PjTjeazolc undatorte^ and Achisti, with uodrrlyiFig trap 
TTimuj^hrttJt Monte ntjitra the folJoM^ine h^tve been IdentLfied* (i) 
Pabeoioic *chU(v fjj WIfko vtrata of LowtrTria*. (jj Trap of the 
Pabeo/oic and Wirfcn *tMi3^ {^} Triiwic limestoni^, f5) Jurassic 
lLJtit$tonc> {b) Cni't^cift>ij* lim^totie, (7) Klysth, in part certainly 
Eocune, (H) NeoRcnic or younger Teiii:try format Ions. 

The wjTerfhcd between the Adriatic and the UlackSea crosses the 
country from vtst to east in a very ijtugular line, ihe suuthem 
di-^rricu beinj drained fay the !!U:ta- Moratcha river 
system, »hich find* in way to the Adriatic by Lake JrT[**"* 
^urari and the Bo>-a[u« while the stirami from the *-*■»•• 
northern districts form the headwaters of the Drina, which reaches 
the Danutte by way of the Save. ^ The Zcta, rising in Lakt Slano, 
near Nik::»h[tch» is remarkable for its ubtcrramcan rjn\u(n; lieneath 
a moutiujn raiigc IQOO ft. bish. At Ponor, not far from that 



* This mountain must be distinguished from the higher Maglitch 
(7699 ft.), on the northern frontier, near the junction of the rivers 
Tara and Piva. 



MONTENEGRO 




town, the water vanishes in a deep chasm, reappearing at a 
distance of several miles on the other side of the mountains. 
Its whole course to its junction with the Moratcha is about' 
30 m. Rising in the Yavoi^ Planina. the Moratcha sweeps 
throueh mountain gorges till it reaches the plain of Podgoritza; 
then for a space it almost disappears among tne pebbles and other 
alluvial deposits, nor does it agam show a current ot any considerable 
volume till it approaches Otlce Scutari. In the neighbourhood 
of Dukl6'and LesKopoIye it flows through a precipitous ravine from 
50 to too ft. high. In the dry season it is navigable from the lake 
to Zhabliak. The whole course is about 60 m. Of the left-hand 
tributaries of the Moratcha the Sem or Trem deserves to be men- 
tioned for the magnificent cafion through which it flows betii-een 
Most Tamarui and Dinosha. On the one side rise the mountains of 
the Kutchi territory on the other the immense flanks of the Prokletia 
rang^c — the walls of the gorge varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. of 
vertical height. Lower down the stream the rocky banks approach 
so close that it is possible to leap across without trouble. The Sero 
rises in northern Albania, and nas a length of 70 m. The Rieka 
issues full-formed from an immense cave south-east of Cettigne and 
falls into Lake Scutari. The three tribuuries of the Drina whk:h 
belong in part to Montenegro are the Piva, the Tara, and the Lim, 
respectively 55. 95 and idO m. in length. The Tara forms the 
northern boundary of the kingdom for more than 50 m., but the 
Lim flop's beyond the border after the first 30 m. of its course. The 
western half of Lake Scutari, or Skodra, belongs to Montenegro; 



• Duklea is the name still borne by the ruins of the Roman Doclea, 
often, but wrongly, written Dkiclea, from its association with the 
Emperor Diocletian. 



768 



MONTENEGRO 



the eastern, with Scutari iti^lf, to AJlttnlL It ii ■ magnificefiE ikhcct 
of wa.ttt, meaaurtng about 1 35 iq. m.^ with an averaj^ depth ol two 
to thtve fathami. Th«? nonnem. «n.d la itudded Hkiih pictureiqiie 
ialandft. The Level af Lak? Scutari underwent seven] change^ jn 
the [9th century; ncpuhly when the Dria, an Albanian river^ which 
t»focc Xftjo entefed the Adriatic nea; San Giovanni di MedtiAt 
chknged its couric «io as to join the Boyana jujt below its «ii from 
the lake, Thii railed tht level of the lakc^ flooding the lower va.Uleys 
of Its tributary jtreatns and ptrmancntly enlargini; tti afea, A few 
inuU Uikn Ate icatt«r^d amunff the moufitalnA, and it 11 evidfrnt 
that their number was formerly rrtuch^rtattTn Monttncgro proper 
(1^. the department* of Katunska, Rjctchka and Liaiiiati«W) is 
t ibvAui ' . . . ^ 



ucdy waterleH, iht ynty irtreapi ijeing the Rjeka, which 
prbfaibly drains the Cetti^nc baiiiFt by an tindrt^round fiutlet. Ua 
lavra-CDUFK is pnicticiilly an inlet f rgm Lake Scutari, aitd i» navig;able 
Up to the town of Rifka. The upUnd plain <^ Cetli^^^t uow wat^r^ 
leH^ wai doubtless the bed d a lake at no very distant {geologicjil) 
period; it ii still sometini^fl doodf^d afier heavy miiuu The icarcity 
ci water larcely contributed to the ifucceB^'^ul defence of tbt country 
AfaioAt TurkJBh invasion : the few Sipringsare hidden in devpcrannics 
^mong the locki, and the inhabitants are accustomed to prt'scrve 
melted snow for use durin? the summer. On the other hand, the 
Brda' and north-eastero district j Arc abundaatly Wj^tH^ed. Tbe 
BnaHtime difitrict pcp&KSiiea two small strisiniiL 

Climate. — The climate ^neraEly^ nsembln that ol northern 
AJihania; it Ufleve^^ In the higher reeionB, and comparatively mild in 
the vatlcya^ while In the man time districts of Antivari and DuVci^no 
it may K compared with that of central Italy. The mean annual 
temperature is about fS" P^ Snow lies for moat of the year on many 
hclKht*, and in some of the darter gorces it la never thawed. The 
higb baain of Ccitigoe {3093 ft.^ it deeply covered with snow durinj; 
the *int*r moflthi, and the capital la AometifnesaEinott inacceswhle; 
in summer the day* are hotn but the nights art cool and frequently 
chilly. Thf c:li£aatc is gcncfally healthy except in a few manhy 
distncti 

Flora and FautiA, — Th« Alpine vegetation of the furDiniU t^vvt 
way to pine forests in the sub- Alpine fone (about 6000 ft.}; betow 
these the beech, and then the oak the walnut, tbe wild pear, and 
wild pluRi make their ajppoarancc ; the fiK-tree, the mulberry, and the 
vine gwv in the middle Zcta and l^oratcha valleys^ the myrtle, 
orange, laurt'l and olive in the lower Moratcha n^gioTi, and more 
abundantly in the T^rmnit^a and maritime diitrict*. In the forest 
districts the bc^rch i* the prevailing tree up to a height of about 
5000 fL The cht'stnut forms little igroves m the country between 
the sea and Lake Scutari but nrver aacendi mofc than 1000 ft. 
Fomegraoate busbes jjnjw wild, and in many parla of the south 
cover the foot of the ha Its with dense thkkttSt the crimson bloflsomi 
of which one one of the specrial cbartns ol the spring landscapes. 
The leaves of the sumach {Rhm ifi(imn), which flouriihe* in the 
tvanner districts, are exported for u« in dy«-*ork*; the Pyrfihtum 
ctnetarifufciium sunpties material fof the manufacture of insect- 
powder; the froit of the wild plum (CtmiKS maicj^a), aii well as the 
p:ape, is employed for the production of raki or raJkiya, * mild 
tpintt which is a favourite bevcra,ge with the people. Bears ate 
ttiH found in the higher forcsti; woUes, and cspreially foxei, over a 
much wider ariia, A few chamoLa atilE roam on the loftiest iummits, 
the roebuck is not infrequent in the backwoods, the wild boar may 
be met with in the aame dittrict^ and the hare is abundant wherever 
the frotind ts covered with hcrbaet There are one or two ipecies 
of inake» in the country, tncluoine the poisonous Itlyrian viper 
(Vif>ifa ammodytt^i). Esculent frogs, tree frogs, the ct?mmon tor- 
toise, and various kindi of lizards an? all common. Scorpions and 
numerous reptiles Infest the arid rocks of the Katunska. The list 
of birdi includes golden eagles and vulture, twelve «pecie» of 
falcons, several species of owls, nightingales, larks, buntings, hoo- 
poes^ partridges,, herons, pelicans, ducks ften ipecies). night jan, &c. 
Immense flocks of waterfowl haunt the upper reaches of Lake 
Scutari. The rivers abound with trout, tench, carp and eelaj the 
trout of the Moratcha are especially 6ne, More important from an 
econormc point of view is the scoransf (Lfttiiicui tiibttntuf 
Serrian ukfiiva), a kind of sardine, which supplies an article of food 
and merchandise to a considerable portion of the population, ^ The 
GaHh ^hich enter the Rieka inlet of Lake Scutari tiunng the winter, 
aiT taken with net4 during a few weeks in the spring, when the fishing 
■cason is inAugu rated wi^h a reUjdous service; they arc salted and 
tdcported in large quan tines to Trieste and the Dalmatian coast. 
The annual take is valued at £4000. The sea fisheries are erf le» 
value. A% re^rds mineral resources, traces of iron, copper and 
coaI are «aid to eust; there is a natural petroleum ■pring ia the 
neighbourhood of Virba^car, 

I A Culture and Stxk farming. — Except in the lowlands, which 
icrvc a* the granary of Montenecfo. furnishing *htat» inai;iCf barley^ 
rye, potatoes and opsicums^ there is httle till^^. Method* and 
implements are alike primiiivt In the Katunska the peasants arc 
Blad to encloM tJie smallest spaa4 of the fertile red soil which Li 




left after rain in the crevicet of the rocks, nod < 
only a few yards square. The vinevards produce excdleat | 
but wine production, which might become an important im 
it at present limited to home coosumptioo. Tobacco is 
cultivated, r^wyially in the neighbourhood of Pbdgoritza; the a 
produce amounts to 550,000 lb. Stock-raising u more largdy carried 
on than agriculture. In the north droves of swine fatten 00 the 
mast of the beech woods; goata and large Bocks of sheep, cele- 
brated for their thick fleeces, thrive on the high pastur«a» and the 
lower slopes a£Ford excellent grasing for luver stock. The native 
breed of cattle is small, but among other eSorts made to imp 
it a stock-farm is maintained by^ Prince Nicholaa near ND 



breed of cattle is small, but among other 
it a stock-farm is maintained by Prince 
The horses, as elsewherejn the Balkan Peninsula, are 



* The name Brda (literally " tnountaina ") slsnifies in ordinary 
speech the mou main- group c3Et of the Zeta whtrh wa* incorpofated 
in the principality in i 7q6. [t fi^iures in the prince's title, but is not 
Mhcrwise used in o&cial documentsi. 



wiry and intelligent. Bee-keepinff is . 
districts, and mulberries are grown for silkworma. 

Commerce and Industries. — ^The exports, valued at (9o,J65 in 
1906, include cattle (large and small), smoked and salted meat 
known as castradimit cheese, undressed hides, Aoorsicae, sumach, 
pyrethrum, tobacco and wool The imports, valued in the same yesr 
^ i2d9«505> consist mainly of manufactured artides, sodi as iroa 
utmals and weapons, soap, candles, &c, and fofcWiial p rodi KU . 
In 1904, when NIontenegro renounced its commercial treaties, the 
old 8 % oJ so/fffsiM duty levied on imports was in many caaea raised to 
35%* This caused much discontent among the peopw, who had bees 
growing steadily poorer since 1900; and many famiKra emigratei 
The exportation of cattle u greatly hindered by the high tariff 
imposed on the Austrian frontier, nhxh is productive of moch Ofidt 
tniiding. There are practically no manufactures: the men diadcia 
industnal employment, itdiile the women are occupied by h o u s eh nl d 
duties or work in the fields. A brewery and a cloth factoiy. 
however, exist at Nikahitch, a soda-water factory at Cettigne. aad 
an olive-oil refinery at Antivari The coaraer cloth worn by the 
peasants is home-aoade; the finer kind worn by the wealthier diM 
ts imported. 

C&mmuHkalvttts.—Thc progress of trvde and the 
of the natural r«9mircos of the country inuft larptly 
improved means of comnnunication. In this direction cgnn . 
progT^^ss has already been achieved. Montenegro posaeased ie in/Sl 
23S m. of excellent carriage foad^, admirtLbly engineered and aiit* 
tained. The remarkable iigzitg mad frr^m Cattaro to NieguiJi tod 
Cettijgne was completed in iSSi ; it was afterwards proloogc^ 10 
Rieka. Podgoritja, DanJlovgrad (where a fiiie bridge acro» the Zdt 
was erected in [870). and Niksliitch. Another rnd coeacca 
Podgoritca filth its port, Flavnitra, on Lake Scutari; attiir^ntts 
from Antivari Co Rieka » and unites the lea-coa^s with the rxh^ 
dittrictd, of the interior. The ports of Antivari and Dukifaa M 
tjisuffirfentlv sheltered^ but are eapjible of ronfiidrrrr^^*" ;— ^-«'-*t* 
f\i' rif : *M'-rfi .ifc pLices of call for the Austrian Lhivft -f . "'^i 

regular service between Antivari and Ban on the Italian cosst ii 
maintained by the " Puglia " Steamship Company. The Boyaaa 
ia navigable by aea-going veaaela aa f ar aa Oboti (13} m. btm its 
mouth), where cargoes Uom Scutari must be tia n af erred to nsl 
river craft. Important harbour worfca were inaiwurated ia 1905 
at Antivari by the Italo-Montenegrin Compagmia d'AiUimri, wUciia 
the same year began the conatruction oia railway from that port 
to Virbazar on Laice Scutari. Four steamera bdopiging to the aae 
company ply on the lake. Postal and telegrai^iic commuwiratioa 
is fairiy comi>lete. There were, in I9|06, 16 post offices aad M 
telegraph stations, with 413 miles of wire. The number of kttoi 
posted in that year was 91,350. The telegraph is much used by tk 
people: the number of tel^rams sent in 1906 was 54.7Sa 

PopvkUum. — In 1883 the population of Montenegro was crti> 
mated as low as 160,000 by Schwartx. A more uwal cstinate 
is 230,000. AccordiiDig, however, to information offidaOy fB^ 
nished at Cettigne, the total number of inhabitants in 1900 «m 
311,564, of whom 393,527 bebnged to the Orthodox Chmd; 
13,493 were Moslems and 5544 were Roman Catholics; 7i»5^ 
or 33%, were literate and 340,036, or 77%, were iDitentc 
The total ntmiber in 1907 was offidaUy given as 382,00a Tht 
population is densest in the fertile eastern districts; Montcscgro 
proper is sparsely inhabited. Emigration is K^tttly incictsiBt 
especially to America, the number of emigrants is given as 6674 
in 1905 and 4346 in 1906. The bulk of the inhabitants bekofi 
to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Savonic race. That vete 
about 5000 Albanians resident in the country in 1900, beiida t 
small colony of gipsies, numbering about 800, a few of wboa 
have abandoned their nomadic life and settled on the soiL Tie 
Moslems, whose thnft and industry have won encouiagenoi 
from the Crown, greatly decreased for some yeaxs after iSSb 
owing to emigration. The capital of Montenegro is Cetti|K 
(3300 inhabitants in 1900, 5138 in 1907) The chief comocrail 
centres are Podgoritza (12,347) an<l Nikshitch (6873), with tk 
ports of Antivari (2717) and Huldgno (5166). These tow« ■» 
described under separate Leadings. Danilovgrad (1226) oa tk 



MONTENEGRO 



769 



ZeUt vu founded in 187 1 by Prince Nicholas and named after 
his predecessor, Danilo II. In the vicinity is Orialuka, the 
prince's palace, with its mulberry nurseries. Spuzh (xooo), a 
little lower on the east bank of the Zeta, possesses a fortified 
acropolis. Niegush or N}regosh ( 1 893) , on the road from Cettigne 
to Cattaro, is the ancestral abode of the juling family, which 
originally pame from Niegush in Herzegovina. Zhabliak (xsoo), 
near Lake Scutari, was the capital until late in the 15th century. 
It was a Venetian stronghold. Rieka (1768), near the northern 
end of Lake Scutari, derives some commercial importance from 
its position. Grahovo(iooo),in the extreme west, is famous for 
the Turkish defeats of 1851 and 1876. Other small towns are 
Kolashin, Yirbazar and Andriyevitza. 

The Montenegrins present all the characteristics of a primitive 
race as yet but little affected by modem civilization. Society 
is still in that early stage at which personal valour 
^is regarded as the highest virtue, and warlike prowess 
constitutes the principal, if not the only, claim to 
pre-eminence. The chiefs are distinguished by the splendour of 
their arms and the richness of their costume; women occupy a 
subject position; the physically infirm often adopt the profession 
of minstrels and sing the exploits of their coimtrymen like 
the bards of the Homeric age. A race of warriors, the Monte> 
negrins are brave, proud, chivalrous and patriotic; on the other 
hand, they are vain, lazy, cruel and revengefuL They possess 
the dbmestic virtues of sobriety, chastity and frugality, and are 
well-mannered, affable and hospitable, though somewhat con- 
temptuous of strangers. They are endowed in no small degree 
with the high-flown poetic temperament of the Serb race, and 
delight in interminable recitations of their martial deeds, which 
are sung to the strains of the giisla, a rudimentary one-stringed 
fiddle. Dancing is a favourite pastime. Two characteristic 
forms are the slow and stately ring-dance ikolo),^ in which women 
sometimes participate, though it is usually performed by a circle 
of men; and the livelier measure for both sexes (oro), in which the 
couples face one another, leaping high into the air, while each 
man encourages his partner by rapid revolver-firing. The oro 
is the traditional dance in the Katunska district. Women chant 
irild dirges, generally improvised, over the dead; mourners try 
to excel one another in demonstrations of grief; and funerals 
are celebrated by an orgy very like an Irish "wake." Like 
most imaginative peoples, the Montenegrins are extremely 
superstitious, and belief in the vampire, demons and fairies is 
almost imiversal. Among the mountains they can converse 
fluently at astonishing distances. The physical type contrasts 
with that of the northern Serbs: the features are more pro- 
nounced, the hair is darker, and the stature is greater. The men 
are tall, often exceeding 6 ft. in height, muscular, and wonder- 
fully active, displaying a cat-like elasticity of movement when 
scaling their native rocks; their bearing is soldier-like and manly, 
though somewhat theatrical. The women, though frequently 
beautiful in youth, age rapidly, and are short and stunted, 
though strong, owing to the drudgery imposed on them from 
childhood; they work in the fields, carry heavy burdens, and 
are generally treated as inferior beings. Like the Albanians, 
the Montenegrins take great pride in personal adornment. The 
men wear a red waistcoat, embroidered with gold or black braid, 
over which a long plaid is sometimes thrown in cold weather; a 
red girdle, in the folds of which pistols and yataghans are placed ; 
loose dark-blue breeches and white stockings, which are generally 
covered with gaiters. The opanka, a raw-hide sandal, is worn 
instead of boots; patent leather long boots are sometimes worn 
by military officers and a few of the wealthier class. The head- 
dress is a small cap {kapa), black at the sides, in mourning for 
Kossovo; red at the top, it is said, in token of the blood shed 
then and afterwards. On the top near the side, five semicircular 
bars of gold braid, enclosing the king's initials, are supposed 
to represent the five centuries of Montenegrin liberty. There 

• The ring-dance, known as the kolo (literally, " wheel ") in all 
Serb countries, corresponds with the Bulgarian horo (to be dis- 
tinguished from the Montenegrin oro), and is almost universal 
throughout the Balkan Peninsula ; it is seldom, however, danced in 
Che rocky Katunska district, where level spaces are rare. 



is little authority, however, for this and other fanciful interpre- 
tations of the pattern, which was adopted in the reign of Peter I.; 
the red fez, from which the kapa probably derives its colour, 
was previously worn. A blue or green mantle is sometimes 
worn in addition by the chiefs. The poorer mountaineers are 
often dressed in coarse sacking, but all without exception carry 
arms. The women, as befits their servile condition, are generally 
clothed in black, and wear a black head-dress or veil; on Sundays 
and holidays, however, a white embroidered bodice, silver girdle, 
and bright sUk skirt are worn beneath an open coat. Over this 
is placed a short, sleeveless jacket of red, blue, or violet velvet, 
according to the wearer's age. Unmarried girls are allowed to 
wear the red kapa, but without the embroidered badge. The 
Vasoyevitch tribe retain the Albanian costume, in which white 
predominates. Turkish dress is often seen at Antivari, Duldgno 
and Podgoritza. The dwelling-houses are invariably of stone, 
except in the eastern districts, where wooden huts are found. 
As a rule, only the mansions of cattle-owners have a second 
storey: the groimd floor, which is dark and im ventilated, is 
occupied by the animals; the upper chambers, in which the 
family reside, are reached by a ladder or stone staircase. Chim- 
neys are rare, and the smoke of the fireplace escapes through the 
windows (if any exist) or the open doorway. The principal 
food of the people is rye or maize cake, cheese, potatoes and 
salted scoranze; their drink is water or sour milk; meat is seldom 
tasted, except on festive occasions, when raki and red wine are 
also enjoyed. The Montenegrins are great smokers, especially 
of cigarettes; in the districts which formerly belonged to Turkey 
the men, whose dignity never permits them to carry burdens, 
may be seen going to market with the ckibiUlt, or long pipe, slung 
across their backs. The mother possesses Uttle influence over 
her sons, who are trained from their earliest infancy to cultivate 
warlike pursuits and to despise the weaker sex. Betrothals 
often take place in early childhood. Young men who are 
attached to each other are accustomed to swear eternal brother- 
hood ipobratimstvo); the bond, which receives the sanction of 
the Church, is never dissolved. Marriages between Montenegrins 
and converted Turkish girls are a common source of blood-feuds. 
The sadruga, or house-commxmity, under the rule of a stareskina, 
or house-father, is found in Montenegro as in other Slavonic 
lands (see Servia). The tribal system stiU exists, but possesses 
Less significance than in Albania, owing to the centralization 
of authority at Cettigne. The tribe (piemen pL plemena) is 
subdivided into clans {bratstva). 

ConstUution and Govemmait. — Notwithstanding the creation 
of an elective senate in 183 1, the grant of a so-called constitution 
in 1868, and the establishment of a responsible ministry in 1874, 
the government remained autocratic till 1905, the whole power, 
even the control of religion and finance, which the consti- 
tution of 1868 had conceded to the senate, being centred in the 
hands of the prince, who in 19 10 assumed the title of king. The 
senate, instituted by Peter II. with the object of limiting the 
power of the tribal chieftains, was in 1881 merged in a council of 
state, the members of which, six in number, were nominated and 
dismissed by the prince. The council supervises measures to be 
laid before the Skupshiina, or national assembly, and exercises 
a disciplinary control over officials. The ministry comprises six 
departments: (i) the interior, with separate sections for public 
works, posts and telegraphs, commerce and industry, shipping, 
sanitary service and agriculture; (3) foreign affairs; (3) war; 
(4) finance; (5) justice; and (6) education. On the 19th of 
December 1905 a new constitution was proclaimed by Prince 
Nicholas. A Skupshtina was instituted, consisting of 62 elected 
deputies, 9 ex officio members (the higher ecclesiastical and 
civil dignitaries), and 3 generals nominated by the prince. 
The Skupshtina is elected by manhood suffrage for a period of 
four years, and b summoned annually on the 31st of October. 
In conjunction with the Crown it exercises the legislative power; 
the ministers are responsible to it as well as to the Crown. The 
constitution affords financial supervision to the Skupshtina, 
which elects a board of control and votes an annual budget; it 
guarantees liberty of the person, of religious belief, and of the 



77© 



MONTENEGRO 



press, together mth the right of public meeting, and abolishes 
the destth penalty for political offences. 

Administration and Justice. — For purposes of local administra- 
tion the country is divided into 5 departments {oblastt), each 
governed by a prefect {upravUd), and 56 districts (kapetanati), 
each under an official styled kapctan. The prefects and kapetans 
are nominated by the king on the recommendation of the 
minister of the interior. Rural communes, each under an 
elected kmd, or mayor, exist in Montene^ as in all Slavonic 
countries. The kmets act as justices of the peace, and there is 
an appeal from their decisions to the courts of first instance 
{kapttansH sudffve), of which there is one in each district, the 
kapetan acting as judge. In each of the five departments there 
is a superior court {oblasni sud), with a president and two judges; 
at Cettigne there is a high court of justice (veliki sud), which is 
the final court of appeaL The ultimate appeal to the prince 
was abolished in 1903, when Prince Nicholas la^d aside his 
judicial functions, retaining only the prerogative of pardon. 
The judges, who are removable, are nominated by the king on 
the recommendation of the minister of justice. With a single 
exception there are no professional advocates in Montenegro; 
each man is his own counsel, bringing his own witnesses. The 
local gendarmerie, numbering 150 men, is distributed in the five 
departments. The kapetanati have replaced the former local 
divisions according to plemena; in each of the communes 
there is one or more of the hratstva. The codification of the 
law, which had previously been administered according to un- 
written custom, was first imdertaken by Peter I. in 1796. An 
improved code, issued by Danilo II. in 1855, still contained many 
quaint enactments. The excellent code drawn up by Professor 
Bogishitch, a native of Ragusa, in 1888, was revised and enlarged 
in 1899. It contains elements from various foreign systems 
scientifically adapted to national usages and requirements. A 
large number of judicial reforms were carried out by Count 
V'olnovitch, who succeeded Professor Bogishitch in 1899; in 1905 
a new code of civil procedure was promulgated, and a criminal 
code in the following year. The only prison is at Podgoritza. 
In the old prison at Cettigne, closed after 1902, many of the 
inmates were free to walk in and out at pleasure. Some were 
burdened with fetters, rather as a puiushment than for restraint. 
Until the completion of an asylum in 1903, dangerous lunatics 
were confined in prison. The commonest offences are murder 
and robbery; despite vigorous measures taken by the king and 
his predecessors, the blood-feud, or vendetta, cannot be stamped 
out, being approved, and even enforced, by public sentiment. 
Only women are held exempt from the duty of avenging their 
next-of-kin; they have been known, however, to undertake it, 
disguising themselves in male attire. A man who kills his 
slanderer, or otherwise avenges his honour, often receives a 
nominal term of imprisonment. Robbery, if practised by means 
of raids across the frontier, is popularly regarded as a venal 
offence. Other forms of crime are rare, and foreigners may 
traverse all parts of the kingdom, except the neighbourhood 
of the Albanian border, in perfect safety. The death penalty 
was first introduced by Peter I. Executions are carried out 
by a firing party selected from the various tribes, in order to 
prevent the relatives of the criminal from exacting vengeance. 
Exceptional severity is sHouti in the treatment of political 
offenders, who in some instances have been subjected to solitary 
confinement for years without trial. 

Finance. — Financial statistics are not published. The total 
receipts were estimated in 1907 at 2,773,690 Austrian krone,* the 
principal sources of income heme the taxes on land, houses and cattle, 
the monopolies of tobacco, salt, petroleum and alcohol, and the 
customs clues. The total expenditure was estimated at 2,730,994 
krone, the principal items being: civil list, &c., 189.586 Icrone; 
ministry of interior, 574.822 krone; of foreign affairs, 1^4,547 
krone; of justice. 232.710 krone; of finance, 592,561 krone; of war, 
133.696 krone; of worship and education, 269.208 krone; service of 
national debt, 244.500 krone. The public debt is under £300.000. 
The contribution of Montenegro to tne Ottoman debt has not been 
fixed. From time to time considerable subventions have been 



* The krone - lod. English. 



received from Russia and Austria. The anmtal Runn 
mainly for military and educadonal purpoMs, is Mated to be about 
£40,000. Montenegro has no mint; Austrian paper money and 
coins are ^nerally employed together with Monten^rin nkkd and 
bronze corns struck in Austria. Turkish gokl and ^ver are abo 
in circulation. The former Turkish and Venetian weights and 
measures have been superseded by the French. 

Dejence. — ^The Montenegrin is a bom warrior; his weapons, which 
he never lays aside, are his most precious possession, ana distinction 
in battle is the sole object of his ambition. Persons ci aQ classes 
we^r 1 rp vok'cr in the k&U,n or waistband. '* You mtgbt as wcfl 
take from rtie my tfrdchcr a a my rile," says a native proverb: and 
rifles arc almost Einiv^rrhilly cairicxl near the Albanian frontier, 
wh?re the tribi'STntti on i:iihcr iidc are in a state ojf chronic hostility. 
Brave to a fault, an urif rring marksman, hardy, affQe, crafty and 
4;ndunn|f, the M^Dritrnr^rin jia^ few rivals in the practice of guerrilla 
w^irfane. The traditin^iul method of fightina is by ambuscade; 
the (ncmv ia eniiced into Eomc intricate dcAle, surrounded, and 
>ianis«ed by rifle-ftrcr ihcrt the mountaineers, throwing aside their 
firearms, deliver a liwift ^tuck with the kanjar, or yataghan, whick 
they w[c\d Muhh temhc ifiKt* A number 01 beads cut <^ in battle 
adorned the parapet o( a smaU tower outside Cettigne. caUed the 
" Turfci*' To* eft' a* Ute ai 1650, When reduced to extremity the 
Montcncgrina often com muted «ukide rather than fall into the hands 
of the enemy, the kit canridge being reserved for thb purpose; 
doubled cDinrada who could ttot be removed used to be beheaded. 
\n 1S7& a Af cmtenegrin olTered to perform thia kindly service for a 
Russian oflcer who vrai wounded at Klobuk. Savage methods of 
warfare, however, have been ttroogly discountenanced by King 
Nicholas an4 hi* pmieceuor. TUi the middle of the 19th century 
the forces q[ the prittdplity cotuiisted of undisdf^ined bands of 
tribesinen under local chiefs, who$e rivalries often proved injorions 
tQ the national C4tjse. The supreme command, however, always 
rested with the prince. The nucleus of a permanent corps was 
created by Peter II., who formed a bodyguard of picked men knowa 
as peruxniki, from the feathers ipera) whkJi adorned their caps. 
The name is still borne by a small corps (20 men in 1907) whxk 
guards the residences of the kins and his sons, but the feathers 
are no longer worn. In 1853 Daniio 11. ordered the enrolment of all 
persons capable of bearing arms, and instituted a military hierarchy 
of voievodts (generals), sirdars (colonels) and kapetans; the organizap 
tion, which was based on the tribal system, was remodelled by 
Servian officers in 1870, when the chiefs were brought to Cetcifne 
to receive miliury instruction. In the same year arms of precisioa 
were introduced : the cost and complex structure of the new wap(x» 
threatened to cause serious difficulty, but Russian akl was sooa 
forthcoming. Since 1870, though arms and ammunition are mami- 
factured on a small scale withm the kingdom, the chief supplies 
have come from Russia. In 1805 the tsar presented Prince Nicholas 
with 30.000 Berdan rifles, besides ordnance and other war macerial. 
and in 1898 sent a further gift of 35.000 Moskovska rifles. Every 
able-bodied citizen must serve in the army, except Moslems, who are 
exempt on payment of a capiution ux. The military organtzatkm 
has undergone a gradual transformation under Pnnce Nicholas 
in conformity with the changed circumstances 0^ thue country and 
the reouirements of modern warfare. The militia system on the 
tribal oasis is maintained, but in 1896 a permanent battalkm of 
500 men was established at Cettigne, and two years later 'another 
at Podgoritza. each under a komandir, or major, 4 captains and 15 
lieutenants. A permanent brigade of artillery was formed at Nik- 
shitch in 1897. In 1905 these were abolished through motives of 
economy. There is a standing corps of officers, but no sum^ng 
army. All young men of military age go througu an cMigatory 
period of twelve days' service at the various local military centres. 
Candidates for a commission afterwards proceed to a military 
school at Podgoritza for one year; the best and most promisinc 
then receive commissions as pod-ofitieri or sous-coders^ and are 
sent for a further course of instruction of two years to milit^ury scboob 
either at Cettigne for the infantry, or at NikiAutch for the artilkr>'. 
They tl>en receive full commissions and are sent to the local centres 
to superintend the training of the militia, thus gradually superseding 
the old militia officers, and replenishing the standing corps of oftcers 
of the regular army. Officers who nave completed a course a( 
study abroad are allowed to wear a distinctive emblem on the k&pa. 
The war strength is estimated at from 38,000 to 42,000 men. the 
infantry being composed of about 32.000 men of the first ban and of 
5000 or 6000 of the second or reserve (which, however. »ouki 
scarcely be employed in the field), the artillery of about 1500. Con- 
siderable deduction must be made from these numbers in ^-iew of the 
emigration of recent years; according to some authorities between 
30.000 and 22,000 men of military age are absent in America and 
elsewhere. It is expected, however, that many of these w-ould 
return should the country become involved in war. The infantry 
is divided into 1 1 brigades, each containing from 4 to 6 battaliow: 
the total number of l^ttalions b 56. The battalion is composed of 
a varying number of tcktte, or companies, each of which beiongi 
to a separate clan and has its own hainUttor, or standard-bearrr. 
The younger men of the first ban are occasionally e xe t cis fd in the 
neighbourhood of their homes on Sundays and holidays^ They at 
armed with the Moskovska (repeating) rifle, but a Bcndu ine ii 



MONTENEGRO 



771 



also kept in each household. The artillery was composed in 1910 of 
18 siege, 7$ field and 38 mountain guns, with 4 howitzers, 15 mortars 
and 18 machine-guns (6 Catling and la Maxim-Nordenfeldt) ; the 
principal arsenal is at Spuzh, where the heavier guns are kept, the 
others are distributed among 8 of the 11 local brigades. Ttu 
Pfrianiki, whose numbers were increased by Prince Danilo, were 
disbanded in 1898, when steps were taken to form a bodyguard 
of 3000 picked men under Prince Mirko, King Nicholas's second 
son, but the project was abandoned in view of the jealousies to 
which the selection gave rise. Owing to the lack of open country 
there is no cavalry. In 1894 the sulun presented Prince Nicholas 
with equipment for a small mounted body-guard (32 men), and 
offered the services of three instructors. This corps, however, 
ceased to exist in 1898. About 20,000 men can concentrate at a 
given spot within 48 hours. The signal for mobilization is mainly 
given by telegraph; bonfires, trumpet-calb and volley-firing are 
also employed. The warriors were formerly summoned by sten- 
t(»ian couriers, who shouted from the tops of the mountains. An 
ambulance corps has been formed. Transport is deficient, all 
draught animab, however, in the country nave been registered 
and a few carts have been provided. The wives and daughters of 
the troops provide the commissariat, and carry the ammunitbn. 

Religion. — ^The Montenegrin Church is an autocephalous branch 
of the Eastern Orthodox communion. In 1894 it fornmlly vin- 
dicated its independence against the claims of the Russian synod. 
The daJiitaJ, nr prsncc-tji^htip&. ^armcrty dcpendtvl <.r. ■ 3i- 

ateoflpek. Thf tliirwcriiticsysiernicjrpcjvcrpment wfn , .mi 

1^16 to 1B151 tended lo ui:iite the p^Ciriotii: and the re'ii>;i..'iF:; lud.-^Lrr.kiia 
01 the people. Since the reparation of the spirituat and temporal 
powers in 1S5], the see of Cettlgnc, iTt ^hicli the diocef« of Ostro^ 
IS included, ha§ been occupied by a metropolitjn {fnciropciit], who 
possesses a nomiiul juriidicrion crv'er Scut^iri and the Pitmore. 
in judgmc^nta relative to divorce hi( verdicts may be revereed 
by the king. Otbcrwii* he i» supreme in mitter* apirttuaL There 
are 159 pari&h« of ihc Orihodox Ctiurchi 10 Roman Catholic 
parishes under the arthbts^too of Anitvari aiul 10 Mahommcf^an 
parishes yndtr a mufii. The clmrfhefl on? small unptrttcnding 
structures, almost M tJuctly alike; a hiindwme cathedral howcvtr ► 
has been erected at Nikshitch. The prinjcipil indnastcrie^, in 
addition to the consent nt Crttigne. are those of Si NicholairH on the 
Moratcha. and of St Qaail at Ostrog. The monaitic ondpf h almost 
extinct; the parochial clergy, vho numbered about 400 in 1900, 
are only diiitingu.i3Kab!e from the lajty by their brardi; cTiej' wear 
the national co>:tLime, cirr^ weapons, take part in warfarr, and 
follow the ofdinary avctcaufjns o| the peawntry. Even the old 
vladikas discarded the episcopal robe, except when engaged in 
sacerdotal duties. The clergy are still for the most part extremely 
ignorant. 

Education. — Tht ' Boioslovia, a seminary for the instruction of 
the young priests and schoolmasters, was established at Ccttigne 
in 1869. It is maintained by a subvention from the emperor of 
Russia, while the empress supports the Zhenski Tzrnogorski 
Institut, an excellently managed school for girls (98 pupils in 1907). 
Government lecturers go on circuit to instruct the older men. They 
may be seen on Sundays, not only distributing general information, 
but teaching the shepherds how to safeguard their flocks from 
disease, ana the lowland cultivators how to tend their vines and 
totkacco crops. An agricultural college at Podgoritza suj.plomentA 
their work. Primary education is compulsory. In the rural dis- 
tricts it is free; in the towns a small fee is charged. In rgtJO ihere 
were 112 primary schools in the principality with iso Teacher* 
and 9756 pupils; and two secondary schools (at Cetct^nc and 
Podgoritza) with 21 professors and about 1000 pupils; the Mos^ 
lems and Roman Catholics have separate schools. There are &]^ 
gymnasia, or high schools, at Cettigne and Podgoritza, i^-ith about 
TOO pupils. Students desirous of higher education prx-i^eij abroadn 
lor tne most part to the university in Belgrade. T hi^ riroRrt-*& of 
education under Prince Nicholas was very remarkable. In tne time 
of his predecessor, Danilo II., who taught the sons of his chieftains 
in the palace, there were only three schools in the principality. 
In 1876, at the beginning of the war, there were 52 schools, with 62 
teachers and 3159 pupils. The schools were closed during the war, 
and at its conclusion only 22 could be reopened, owing to want of 
funds. Elementary education was reorganized in 1878. 

Language and Literature. — The Montenegrin language is practically 
identical with the Serbo-Croatian: it exhibits certain dialectical 
variations, and has borrowed to some extent from the Turkish and 
Italian. Existing manuscripts and ptnted books, chiefly psalters 
and gospels, bear witness to a period of literary culture among the 
clergy contemporaneous with the activity of the printing-press at 
Ob(x]. This was established in 1493, a ievf years after Caxton set 
up his first press in Westminster. It was destroyed by the Turks 
in 1566, after sending out copies of the gospel into all Slavonic 
countries. The folk-songs, however, of which the first collection was 
9iade in the reign of Peter II., constitute the bulk of the national 
literature. The poems of that ruler are accounted among the classics 
of the Servian language, especially his Gorski Vienatz, or " Mountain 
Wreath,"- a drama describing the massacre of the Montenegrin 
Moslems by their Christian kinsmen in 1702. The reigning family 
has pNToduccd a succcsnon of poets; the songs of Mirko Petrovitcli* 



the father of Prince Nicholas, and the lyrics and dramas of Prince 
Nicholas himself enjoy great celebrity. The Crlitu, or " Turtle- 
doves," a kind of almanac published at Cettigne by Milakovitch 
between 1835 and 1839, contained poems, Ules, sUtistics and an 
abridgment of the Montenegrin annals down to 1830; it was succeeded 
in the time of Danilo II. by the Orlitck, or " Eaglet." The first 
Montenegrin newspaper, the Ttmogori^^ or Montenegrin," 
founded in 1870, was prohibited on the Austrian frontier, and soon 
disappeared; it was replaced by the Glas Ttmogortta, or " Voice 
of the Montenegrin," a semi-omcial publication. There were in 
19 10 three other journals in the kingdom. 

Antiquities. — In Montenegro, as in Albania, the monuments of 
early avilization bear witness to Roman rather than to Greek 
influence. Roman remains occur in many parts of the country 
east of the Zeta, and early Latin churches exist at Dulcigno 
(l/lcinium) and other fdaces. " The organization and forms of 
the churches, the architecture and ornamentation, point to the 
West and not to the East." It is evident that Latin civilization 
was firmly planted in lUyria before the barbarian incursions of the 
6th century. Latin sepulchral inscriptions and some finely cut 
marble blocks have been found at Berane, a little beyond the eastern 
frontier, and at Budimlye in its neighbourhood. Especially interest- 
ing and important are the extensive ruins of Doclea, now known 
as Dukli, the birthplace of the Emperor Diocletian. The city, 
which received the franchise under the Flavian emperors, occupied 
a remarkable site at the junction of the rivers Zeta and Moratcha. 
The outer walls are standing in many places, and excavations 
carried out in 1893 by M. Rovinsid and Messrs J. A. R- Munro, 
Milne and Anderson revealed a considerable portion of the ground- 
plan, including several streets and a forum. Among the buildings 
are a fine civil basilica, with a great inscription on the architrave, 
two small temples, an early Christian basilica, and a later church; 
several inscriptions, columns, richly worked capitals and tracery, 
and mosaic pavements have been brought to light. At Medun 
there are remnants of polygonal masonry. Illyrian forts are found 
in many parts of the country. The ravages of the Turks obliterated 
almost every trace of medieval culture. The fortress of Obod, the 
site of the famous printing-pre», is a heap of ruins; a fragment of 
one of the first missals printed here is shown at Cettigne; it bears 
the date 1494. Other editions are preserved at the monastery of 
Tzainitza, on the Bosnian side of the frontier, and at Moscow. The 
precious books and relics stored in the monastery of Ivan the Black 
at Cettigne perished with the destruction of the monastery in 1687. 
The building, the home of the reigning vladikas, had been previously 
sacked by tne Turks in 1623, and was again destroyed by them ia 
1714. In the fortress-monastery of St Nicholas (founded in 1252), 
which overlooks the headwaters of the Moratcha, are some interest- 
ing and well-preserved frescoes which date from the Mth century. 
The monastery of Ostrog, about twelve miles from Nikshitch, is a 
comparatively recent foundation, dating from the i8th century. 
It has been styled " the Lourdes of the Balkans," owing to its reputa- 
tion for miraculouir cures, and is visited annually by thousands of 
Orthodox pilgrims, and even by Roman Catholics and Moslems. 
The upper portion, situated in the cleft of a precipitous rock, was 
in 1768 and again in 1862 successfully defended by a handful of 
men against the Turks. 

History. — ^The history of Montenegro as an independent statel 
begins with the battle of Kossovo (1389), but the country had 
enjoyed periods of independence or semi-independence at various 
epochs before that event. It formed a portion of the district 
of Praevab'tana in the Roman province of Illyria, and, lying on 
the borderland of the empires of the West and East, it alternately 
shared the fortunes of either till the close of the sth century. It 
was then conquered by the Ostrogoths (a.d. 493), but half a cen- 
tury later definitely passed under Byzantine rule, having already 
acknowledged the ecclesiastical authority of Constantinople, 
a circumstance which determined the course of its subsequent 
history. Illyria and Dalmatia succumbed to the great Serbo- 
Croat invasion of the 6th and 7th centuries; the Serb race by 
which Montenegro is now inhabited occupied the country about 
the middle of the 7th century. A confederacy of Serb states 
was formed under zhupans, or feudal princes, dependent on the 
grand zhupan, who was nominally the vassal of the Greek 
emperor. The Serb principality of the Zeta, or Zenta, originally 
included the Herzegovina, Cattaro and Scutari, as well as the 
Montenegro of to-day, and was ruled by a thupan resident at 
Doclea. The principality, though retaining its zhupans, was 
practically united with the Servian kingdom between 1x59 and 
1356 under the Nemanya dynasty, which sprang from Doclea. 
After the death of the great Servian tsar Dushan in 1356 the 
feudatory princes of his empire became more or less independent, 
and the powerful family of Balsha established a dynasty in the 
Zeta, eventually transferriDg its capital from Dodea to Scutari. 



772 



MONTENEGRO 



After the fatal defeat of Kossovo, which exdnguished the inde- 
pendence of Servia for more than four centuries (see Servia), 
George Balsha, the ruling prince of the Zeta, withdrew to the 
mountainous portion of his realm, which became an asylum for 
many of the Servian nobles and for others who had been outlawed 
or persecuted by the Turkish conqueror. The principality now 
owned no suzerain, and the history of its heroic struggle with 
the Turks began. The long record of warfare is varied by 
conflicts with the Venetians, who at times allied themselves 
viith the mountaineers, but usually deserted them in the hour 
of need. The Balsha family became extinct in 143 1, and a new 
dynasty was founded by Stephan Tzemoyevitch, or Tzemovitch, 
who fixed his capital at Zhabliak on the north-east side of Lake 
Scutari, and joined with his relative, the famous Scanderbeg 
iq.v.) in many campaigns against the Turks. After the Turkish 
conquest of Bosnia in 1463, of the Herzegovina in 1476 and of 
Albania in 1478, and the surrender of Scutari by the Venetians 
in 1479, the Montenegrins found themselves surrounded on all 
sides by the Ottoman power, and the struggle was henceforth for 
existence. Abandoned by Venice and unable to obtain succour 
from any Christian state, Ivan the Black, the son and successor 
of Stephan, set fire to Zhabliak in 1484, and withdrew with his 
people to the mountain village of Tzetinye (Cettigne) which has 
ever since been the capital of the little principality. Here he 
founded the famous monastery and created a bishopric in order 
to establish the spiritual power at the seat of government. Ivan 
was one of the greatest heroes of Montenegrin history: according 
to the national legend, he still sleeps in a cave near his fortress 
of Obod— to awake when the hour arrives for the expulsion of 
the Turks from Europe. 

The Tzernoyevilch dynasty came to an end in 1516, and from 
this date till 1696 the mountaineers were ruled by the idadikas 
TheEiaethra^^ bishops of Cettigne, elected by assemblies of the 
vtaOikMM, chiefs and people, and consecrated by the patriarch 

of Ipck. The elective vladikas were aided in matters 
relating to national defence by a civil governor. The institution 
of a theocratic sovereignty probably saved the country from 
absorption in the Turkish Empire, the supteme power being 
vested in a sacrosanct person, whose position was unattainable by 
ambitious chieftains, and whose holy office precluded the possi- 
bility of his defection to Islam. The earlier vladikas were left 
comparatively unmolested by the Turks, and were enabled to 
devote their attention to the issue of numerous psalters, missals 
and gospels from the printing-press at Obod. But the beginning 
of the 17th century was marked by renewed Turkish aggression. 
Cettigne was taken in 1623 and again in 1687, when the monas- 
tery of Ivan the Black was blown up by the monks; a tribute 
was for a time imposed on the mountaineers, but the bolder 
spirits maintained their resistance in the heights, and the 
invading armies found it impossible to prolong their stay in 
these inhospitable regions. 

In 1696 it was decided to continue the hereditary principle 
with the theocratic system, and Danilo Petrovitch of Niegush, 

the first ruler of the present reigning family, was 
efPttn^" nominated vladika with power to select his successor 
vitcit. from among his relatives. The succession was 

henceforth regularly from uncle to nephew, owing 
to the rule of celibacy imposed on the monastic order. The 
reign of Danilo I. was memorable for the massacre of the Moslems 
settled in the principality (the " Montenegrin vespers *') on 
Christmas Eve 1702, the great defeat of the Turkish invaders 
at Tzarevlalz (1712), the capture of Cettigne by the Turks and 
the destruction for the third time of its monastery (i7i4)» and 
the inauguration of the intimate relations which have ever since 
existed with Russia by the visit of the vladika to Peter the Great 
in 171 5. With Russian aid Danilo was enabled in some degree 
to repair the ruin which had overtaken his little realm. In 
the time of his successor Sava (1737-1782) an impostor named 
Stephan Mali, who represented himself as the Russian emperor 
Peter III., won the confidence of the Montenegrins, and governed 
the country with ability for several years (1768-1773), the 
mountaineers defeating the combined efforts of the Turks and 



Venetians to remove him. He was eventually assassinated by 
a Greek suborned by the pasha of Scutari. Peter I. (i 782-1830), 
the greatest of the vladikas, took part in the war of Austria and 
Russia against Turkey (1788-92), but was abandoned by his 
allies in the treaties of Sistova and Jassy. He nevertheless 
completely routed the Turks in the battle of Rnissa (1796), 
annexed the Brda region to the principality, and obtained a 
formal recognition of Montenegrin independence from the sultan 
in 1799. In concert with the Russians he besieged the French 
in Ragusa (1806), and in 18x3-14 expelled them from the 
Bocche di Cattaro uith the aid of a British fleet under Admiral 
Fremantle. The much-coveted seaport, however, was almost 
immediately occupied by an Austrian force. Peter L reor* 
ganized the internal administration and promulgated the first 
Montenegrin code of laws. After his death he was canoniwd 
as a saint by the people. His successor Peter II. (1830-1851), 
a poet, statesman and reformer, as well as a capable militaiy 
chief, instituted a senate (1831), abolished the office of dv3 
governor (1832), revived the national printing-press, and did 
much to educate and civilize his people. He was buried by his 
desire on the summit of Mount Lovchen that his spirit loight 
survey his beloved land. He was the last of the vladikas; hit 
nephew Danilo II. (1851-1860) at once declined the ecclesiasiJaJ 
dignity, and assuming the title of gospodar, or prince, settled 
the succession on his direct male descendants. He defeated 
the Turks near Ostrog in 1853, but refrained from attacking 
them during the Crimean War. His pacific policy produced 
much discontent among the warlike mountaineers, which culmi- 
nated in an open revolt. His demand for the recognitioQ of 
Montenegrin independenccf and other claims were set aside by 
the Congress of Paris. In 1858 his brother Mirko, " the S«oid 
of Montenegro," routed the Turks with great slaughter at 
Grahovo. In 1855 Danilo II. promulgated a new code, asonioK 
civil and religious liberty to his subjects. On the i ith of Aupist 
x86o he was shot at Persano on the Bocche di Cattaro by t 
Montenegrin whom he had exiled after the revolt, and died t«o 
days afterwards. He left no male offspring, and was succeeded 
by Nicholas, the son of his brother Mirko. 

Shortly after the accession of Prince Nicholas (Aug. I3i 
x86o), an insurrection broke out in Herzegovina, and the sjb* 
pathy which the mounuineers displayed with their .^^ 
Christian kinsmen led to a rupture with Turkey j«kM» 
(1862). Notwithstanding the heroic defence of 
Ostrog by the prince's father, Mirko, the war proved disastioa, 
owing to the superior armament and discipline of the Turkisk 
troops, and severe terms were imposed on the principality by 
the convention of Scutari (Aug. 31). During the fourtca 
years of peace which followed, the country suffered greatly froo 
pestilence and famine. Within this period a series of itforas 
were carried out by the prince: the army was rearmed and rwf- 
ganized, an educational S3rstem was initiated, and a comtitutioB 
under which the prince surrendered various prerogati\ts to 
the Senate was granted. In 1869 the Krivoshians, or Seh 
inhabitants of the northern shores of the Bocche di (^tiio, 
rose against the Austrian government; the ezdtemen: ii 
Montenegro was intense, but the prince succeeded in diediol 
the warlike ardour of his subjects. The revolt in Bosnia aod 
Herzegovina in 1875 had more important consequences for the 
principality. On the and of July 1876 Prince Nidiobs, is 
alliance ^ith Prince Milan of Servia, dcdared war asadost 
Turkey and invaded Herzegovina. A victory was gained at 
Vuchidol (July 28), and Medun was captured; but the Ser^ 
army suffered reverses, and an armistice was amoged n 
November. In the following spring the deterxninatioo of ^vbsa 
to take the field against Turkey encouraged the l^foDteDefnni 
to renew the war. The Turks succeeded in occupying Ost^i 
but were subsequently repulsed; the greater part of their forces 
was soon withdrawn to Bulgaria, and Prince Nicholas captaied 
successively Nikshitch,Antivari and Duldgno. Thereoov^o^ 
the seaboard, which had belonged to Montenegro in the isiddk 
ages, was perhaps the prindpal achievement of the war. Th* 
enlargement of territory stipulated for by Russia under the tntfjf 



MONTE OLIVETO MAGGIORE— MONTEREY 



773 



ol San StefiftO (lifarch j, 1S7S) would have brought ^fontencgjo ' 
inUt ddat contiguity with Servia, thins facilit&titig the «ventun] 
union of the Serb rajce and cloamg the path of Austria towards 
the Aegean. The Berlin Treaty (artick xxviii.) gave to Monte- 
t^c^TO NikshUch^Spuih. Fodgorilza, PUva, Gusinye and Antivsri, 
but restored Ddcigna to Turkey. The resistance of the Moalcm 
inhabitants oE' FUva and Gusimyc to anncxatbn led to lajig 
nE^^otiations, and eventually the " Cortl Compromise " wrs 
agreed to by a eonrereoce of the Powera at Const antmaple 
{April iS, 1S80). Fbva and Gusmye were lo be reslOTed to 
Ttiifccy, while the Montenegrin frontier was extended so na to 
include the Hoti. and the greater pa^rt of the Klemcnti tribes. 
This arTiingc?EnentT which could hardly have proved syccessful, 
was not carried out by Turkey, and the Powers $ul^cqucotly 
di:cided to annex Dulcigno to Ittonle negro {n exchange for Plavji 
and Cusinye. Thii Porte interpOf^ed dcla^is^ though conscntinig 
tn principle, and the Albanian. League (see Albania) assumed a 
tneaacing attitude. On the ^Hth of September the fleets ot the 
Powers under Admiral Seymour appeared off Dulcigno, and the 
BritUih government shortly alterwarrds proposed to occupy 
Smyrna, On the 11th of November the Forte yielded; on the 
3?nd the Turkish troops defeated the Albanians. a.nd on the 35th 
l^fontenegio obtained possession of Dulcigno. The present fron- 
tier, as already described, was shortly afterwards delimited by an 
international cominisiion. With the ciccplion of tome frontier 
Iroublt^T the years isincc iSSo have been spent in peace, and the 
country has advanced jo prosperity tinder the atitocfaiic but 
enlightefled rule of Prince Nicholas. The relations with Ttirkey, 
the traditional foe, have improved-^ i^'hUe those with Austria 
have become less friendly. In July i^:^ the four-hundredth 
Anniversary of the foundation of the print ing-pre&& at Obod was 
CL'lcbrated at Cettignc^ severid foreign universities and learned 
bodies being repiesernted at the festivities. In September i&0 
the bi-ccntenary of the Petmvltch dynasty was commemorated. 
The marriage in the same year of Princess Helen, fourth daughter 
of Prince Nicholas, wilh the crown prince of Italy, subsequently 
King Victor Emmanuel 111., led loan increase of Italian Influence 
ill the principality. In December igK» Prince Nicholas asaumed 
the title " Royal Highness." In October 2go6 the first Monte- 
negrin piu-liament assembled at Cettigne; and 00 the sSth of 
August 1910, Prince Nicholas {q.v.) assumed the title of king- 

Authorities.— Mil u tin ov itch. J/iJtory^/ Monicnr^rv (fn Ru»iafi), 
<St Pcter-bura, ttj;^) j VViL^in«on, Dalmaiui and Mofttenr^rfi {Londi>n. 
184 UK Vuk Karajichn Mirtfrnrpra Kfid die MsTttenrs^rinrr ^Stutt- 
gart, 1*57)': Kat]ay^ Gtszkkkie dfr Serixn van den aftfsteJi Zcitfn Hf 
m8iS (tran*. from the Hungarian by J. H, Sch wicker; Buda- 
pest ^ iBJls), Servian Cnini, Jitvna Srtuhr^a mirodn, tBelgrade. 
lij^) : FriTlcy and Wlaho*iiJ. Le l/dBf^ffejjffl ftmicmfmrain (Pari*. 
ihjt)', RA*h, MitnkHfgm (U-ipiig. i&Jj); Milakovitch. ^jrom dd 
Manitn^lta (Raguju, iSjy); GofichcvtLch, Monttntiro xnd 4i$ 
Mttnitnt^riner (ijemjig, 1^177); 'S'riarte, Les Bordi de rAdrialipte 
0i It Mifiittnlp^ (Partii, 1B7S); SicfanoviccH von Vilovo. Waniif' 
t^ngrn durch Monitufsp^o (Vienna. t^iJia); Chiudina, Sie>ria dei MffHtt- 
metro (SpdLitf), iSHj); Tiettt, Ctt^ogtjckf Uf&eriukS von jl/ffnlmffrd 
[Vienna, iB&J^)x Rcivinskyn 7V*rr»a£«3fEt (In Ruisian; St Petcrtbyrf. 
i£fi^}; Di;ic hitch. T^Tttagora (iin Servian; Belgrade, 1&51); Meda- 
kovitch, PigfrflJI. Ftirevic Nietux (Nrgsiti. ifi^J); tlosirert, Reii<s 
dufch MonUnepo (Vienna, jSgjjt Cotiuelle^ Hiii^re du MonUnf^ro 
€i de ta Botrnt ( Paris » t^$)\ xMirttr, Tk^ Balkans, pp. 353 4<^ 
(London, iHf^]; Man^cga^jaH Ai Miyhienff^ra {Florence, 1896); 
Tomanovitch, Pdat Drv^i Peira^kh Nifttah (Cettigcie, iS^ti); 
Antonio MaTtioi, // Monifntj^rt} tTurirt, (897) j Bourchitr, " Monte- 
negro and hir IVincc." in farlni^hlly Reitrnf {[>e€emt>erH 1898); 
Rouvaratz, j^fjinVjjr^rijsct {in SfniJn; Scmlin. iSgg}; Gekhitch. 
Zd Zedda. e ia difi^iSiia dri BdSidi [Spalato. 1899) ; H. Wyon and C. 
Prance, Tk£ Lind ef ihr Bhik Mffbtiiain (London, ^9^^}^ The best 
oi*p i* thjt of the Au5triAn Pt.tff. 0- ^- B) 

MOHTE OUVEIO ltA.(iatORE« a monastery of Tuscany, 
Jtaly, 6 m. S. of Asciano. It was founded in 1330, and is mainly 
celebrated for the beautifnl fres^roes in the monastery court t 
which are by Lnca Signorelli <t4«57-i4^5S) and Anlomo Baizi, 
called Sodoma (1505), representing scenes from the legend of 
St Benedict. The church and library contaia fine inlaid wood- 
work by Fra Giovanni da. Verona. 

110NTK»ULClAlfO, a town and episcopat see of the province 
of Siena, Tuscany, Italy, 44 m. S.E. of Siena by rail. Pop. 
(i90i), fijfiS (town); 15^34 tcoaiinuiic). The town, 6 dl W. of 



the station, crowns the summit of a hill (1984 ft), and is 
surrotmded by medieval walls. It is not traceable in history 
before A.D. 715. It was under the protection of Siena tiU 1202, 
when it declared for Florence and thenceforward passed from 
one mistress to the other, until early in the i6th century when 
it finally became Florentine. In 1561 it became an episcopal 
see. Most of the buildings belong to the Renaissance; except 
the castle, the 14th-century Palazzo Pubblico, and the portals 
of two or three churches, especially that of S. Maria (13th 
century). There are a nimiber of fine private houses, some 
built by Antonio da Sangallo the elder (14551^-1534) and 
Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536) and others by Vignola (1507- 
1 573)* The beautiful church of the Madonna di S. Biagio — 
probably Sangallo's masterpiece — ^was built in 1 518-1537. The 
cathedral built by Bartolommeo Ammanati (1570), modified 
by Ippolito Scalza, and completed in 1680 (with the exception 
of the facade, which is still unfinished) contains a large altar-piece 
by Taddeo di Bartolo of Siena, and the fragments of an imposing 
monument erected in 1427-1436 by the Florentine architect 
Michelozzo in honour of Bartolommeo Aragazzi, secretary of 
Pope Martin V., which was taken down in the i8ih century. 
The facade of S. Agostino is probably also Michelozzo's work. 
Montcpulciano is famous for its wine, and was the birthplace 
of the scholar and poet Angelo Anbrogini (i454-J4Q4). generally 
kftown as Poliziano (Polltian) and of Cardinal Bellarmine 
(1542-1621). 

See F. BargagU-Petrucci, MonUpukiano, Ckiu^i, &c. (Bergamo, 
1907). 

MONTERBAUf a town of northern France, in the department 
of Seine-et-Mame at the confluence of the Yonne with the Seine, 
21 m. S.E. of Melun by rail. Pop. (1906), 7870. The church 
dates from the 13th century, with a facade of the Renaissance 
period. The industries include the manufacture of porcelain^ 
fire-proof and decorative bricks, boots and shoes and agricultural 
machines and colours, varnish, &c Among the institutions 
are a tribunal of commerce and a chamber of arts and manu- 
factures. 

Montereau was in the beginning of the X5th century a place 
of some importance. Here, on the bridge over the Yonne, 
Jean Sans-Peur, duke of Burgundy was assassinated in the 
presence oi the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., in 1419. 
In 1438 the town was captured by Charles VII., and during 
the wars of religion it was several times taken and retaken. 
In 1814 Napoleon gained a victory at Montereau over the 
WQrttemberg troops under Schwarzenberg, and in memory of 
this his statue has been erected on the bridge. 

MONTEREY, a city of Monterey county, California, U.S.A., 
on the Pacific coast, about 90 m. in a straight line S. by E. 
from San Francisco, at the S.E. extremity of the Gulf of Monterey, 
a great open bay 22 m. wide from headland to headland and 
fadng S.W. The harbour is protected by a peninsula extend- 
ing N.W. Pop. (1900), 1748, largely of Spanish descent; (1910) 
4923. It is served by the Southern Pacific railroad, and for freight 
by the Pacific Coast Steamship Co. It is built in an amphi- 
theatre formed by gently sloping pine-dad hills. In i88x the 
Southern Pacific Company erected the Del Monte hotel, with 
beautiful grounds several miles in extent, and since then the 
city has come to be one of the favourite resorts of the Pacific 
coast. The difference between the mean temperatures of the 
coldest and warmest months of the year (rarely below 47® or 
above 66° F. respectively) is from 10° to 20"; while the ther- 
mometer rarely registers below freezing or above 80" F. Within 
the city limits there b a United States Army post, the Presidio 
of Monterey, with a musketry school. There are sardine 
canneries here and good salmon and other fishing; some salmon 
are shipped to Germany to be smoked. In 1907 the south 
side of the Gulf of Monterey was made by the state legislature 
into a preserve for squid and other food for salmon. To San 
Francisco, Hawaii, Alaska, and elsewhere, Monterey ships 
annually about 60,000 tons of crude oil, piped here into great 
steel tanks from the Coalinga oil fields zz2 m. away. Sand 
lime brick is manufactured here. 



774 



MONTERREY— MONTE SANT ANGELO 



Before the coming of the Americans, Monterey was the gayest 
and roost ambitious city of California. It was discovered by 
Sebastian Vizcaino in December 1602, and was named in honour 
of the then viceroy of New Spain. For a time all trace was 
lost of Monterey, but in May 1770 the bay was found again by 
Junfpero Serra and Captain Caspar de Portol&. The San Carlos 
mission of the Franciscans was founded on the 3rd of June 
X770, and a presidio was completed in 1778. Near Monterey, 
in Carmel Valley, whither the mission was almost immediately 
removed. Father Junfpero built a church, in which his remains 
now rest. In 1891 a statue, representing Junfpero stepping 
from a boat, was erected on the site of the old Mexican fort, 
on a hill near the landing-place of both Vizcaino and Junfpero. 
Monterey necessarily played a prominent part in the jealousies 
that divided the north and south; the rivalry of Los Angeles 
for the dignity of capital being a powerful iiU3uence in politics 
from 1827-1846. In 1845 Los Angeles gained the prize, but 
in 1847 the American authorities again made Monterey the 
capital. Even in these years the treasury, custom-house and 
military headquarters had remained at Monterey. In x8i8 
it was captured and momentarily held by a Buenos Aires 
privateer. Here, in 1842, Commodore T. ap C. Jones raised 
the flag of the United States for a day, and here on the 7th of 
July 1846, Commodore J. D. Sloat again raised the same flag, 
which this time was not to come down again. The first American 
newspaper on the Pacific coast was published at Monterey; 
and the convention that framed the first constitution of the 
state met here in September 1849 in Colton Hail, still standing 
and originally built for a schoolhousc by Walter D. Colton, 
the first alcalde under American rule. Monterey was never 
the capital of the new state, and its importance declined after 
the discovery of gold near Sacramento, San Francisco becoming 
the leading city. In 1872 the county-seat was removed from 
Monterey to Salinas. For many years Monterey remained one 
of the most Spanish towns of California, and though tourists 
have somewhat disturbed its peace and checked its decay, it 
still retains much of the quaint aspect and the drowsy content- 
ment of spirit of Mexican days. Since 1900 the population has 
considerably increased. 

MONTERREY (usually spelled Monterey in English), a city 
of Mexico and capital of the state of Nuevo Le6n, 606 m. by 
the old wagon road, and 671 m. by the Mexican National railway 
N. by W. of the city of Mexico, in lat. 25° 40' N., long. 100® 25' 
W. Pop. (1900), 62,266. Railway communications are pro- 
vided by the Mexican National with the United States, with the 
national capital and southern Mexico, and with Matamoros, 
and by the Belgian line with Tampico on the Gulf coast, and 
with Treviflo, or Venadito, on the Mexican International line, 
which gives access to the iron deposits of Durango The city 
stands 1624 ft. above sea-level, between two spurs of one of the 
Sierra Madre ranges— the Cerro de la Silla (4149 ft ) on the east, 
and the Cerro de las Mitras (3618 ft.) on the west. The Santa 
Catarina river furnishes water-power for some of its industries. 
The surrounding district is fertile, and the rainfall about 22 in. 
The climate is dry and mild, and the city is frequented in winter 
by invalids from the United States. Monterrey is laid out with 
broad, straight streets crossing each other at right angles, and 
spreads over a large area. It is the see of the bishop of 
Linares, and has a large cathedral, a bishop's palace and 
numerous churches. Among the public edifices are the govern- 
ment palace, municipal hall, national college, girls' college, 
medical school, public hospital, theatre and penitentiary. Its 
public works include an interesting old reservoir, called the 
" Ojo de Agua," and the " Puente Nuevo " (new bridge). 
Monterrey is the most important centre of northern Mexico, 
and large sums of foreign capital have been invested in its 
industries. Among its manufactories arc woollci) mills, smelting 
works, brass and iron foundries, a steel producing plant, saw- 
mills, flour-mills, breweries, and a carriage and wagon factory. 

Monterrey was founded in 1560 under the name of Santa 
Lucfa de Le6n; and in 1596, as Monterrey, was raised to the 
dignity of a city. In 1777 it became the see of a bishop, now 



suffragan to the archbishop of Guadalajarm. Duxing the war 
between Mexico and the United States General Zachaiy Taykir 
arrived before the city on the 19th of September 1846, with 
about 6600 men. Monterrey was defended by a Mexican force 
of about 10,000 under General Pedro de Ampudia. On the 
20th Colonel John Garland (i792-z86i) aissauUfd the lover 
(north-eastern) part of the dty, he was driven back, but CH>tured 
one of the forts. The attacks on the other forts 00 the east 
were unsuccessful On the 21st and 22nd General W. J Worth 
carried the forts west of Monterrey, and on the a3rd attacked 
the western part of the dty, the troops slowly working their 
way toward the central plaau On the same day American 
troops again advanced from the east, and were again forced 
back. On the morning of the 24th the terms of a capitolatioo 
were agreed upon — the Mexicans were permitted to retire, 
retaining their small arms and one field battery of six pieces 
with twenty-one rounds of ammunition, and an armistice of 
eight weeks was arranged. A disastrous flood, caused by hetvy 
rains and the sudden overflow of the Santa Catarina river oa 
the 28th of August 1909, swept away about one-fourth of the 
city, drowning 1200-1400 persons, and destroying abott 
$12,000,000 (Mex.) worth of property. 

MONTE SAN GIUUANO, a town and episcopal see of Sidly, 
in the province of Trapani, 2 m. E.N.E. of Trapani, on the sumnil 
of an isolated bare hill, 2465 ft. above the sea. Pop. of comimoe 
(1901), 28,939; of town, about 3000. The town occupies the 
site of the ancient Eryx, a city of the Elymi, a people who daioed 
to be sprung from a mixed settlement of Trojans and Phodtas 
after the fall of Troy (E. A. Freeman, History of 5tafy, 1 195. 
542), but regarded as /S^opoc by the Greeks. The dty was 
famous for the temple of Venus Erydna, to the foundatiocs of 
which a wall of 12 courses of nuisonry in the castle proUbly 
belongs. The worship was a relic of the Phoenician cvk of 
Astarte. In 415 B.C. the Athenian envoys were shown tbe 
treasure of the temple at Eryx as available for the expenses of 
the war, which treasure turned out to be only aalver-gih and 
not of solid gold (Thucydides vi. 46). The town must have 
become a part of the Carthaginian dominion in 405 b.c It 
was seized by Pyrrhus in 278 b.c, and was ceded to Rome at 
the end of the First Punic War. In Roman times the tempk 
(like that of Diana Tifatana, near Capua) possessed tefritocy 
of its own, being dependent ndther on the sute nor 00 asy 
neighbouring town, and a considerable number of femak 
slaves. The place was the residence of the quaestor in diaiie 
of the western half of the island, and Verres, as praetor, seens 
to have, spent a good deal of time here. Considerable portioos 
of the city wall are preserved on the north-west » on the east aad 
south the precipitous cliffs formed a suffident defence. Ike 
remains date from a reconstruction of Roman times,* is 
which the material of two earlier periods has been used: die 
large blocks belonging to the original fortifications bear 
Phoenician masons' marks; but the long line of towers at regular 
intervals is a thoroughly Roman characteristic. The castle, 
dating from the middle ages, with three lofty towers gnardinf 
the entrance, occupies the south-eastern extremity of tbe 
town. The cathedral, founded in 1314, has a fine porch and 
Gothic facade. 

MONTE SAN 8AVIN0, a town of Tuscany, Italy, io tk 
province of Arezzo, from which it is 12 m. S.W. by road, 10S3 ft 
above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 4810 (town); 840S (commune). 
It was the birthplace of the sculptor and architect Andrea 
Contucd, generally known as Sansovino (1460-1529), and tbeft 
are various works in the town by him, a loggia oppostt the 
Palazzo Munidpale (itself by Antonio da -Sangallo the ckkr 
and one of his best works), the monastery courts of S. Agostino 
and S. Giovanni Battista, and some sculptures. 

MONTE SANT ANGELO, a town of Apulia, Italy, m the pro- 
vince of Foggia, 10 m. N. of Manfrcdonia by road, 2765 ft. abo«c 
sea-level, on the southern slopes of Monte Gargano. POp. (1901)1 
i7i3^ (town) , 21,997 (commune). It has a castle and a faaioat 

> This has been demonstrated by O. Racfater, Vbtr aaHkt Sld^ 
tiutMMeicken (Berlin, 1885}, pp. 43-51. 



MONTESPAN— MONTESQUIEU 



775 



actuary of S. Michele, founded in 491 over a cave in which 
e archangel is said to have appeared to S. Laurentius, arch- 
ihop of Sipontum; the bronze doors, made in Constantinople, 
ar the date 1076. The octagonal campanile dates from 1273. 
le portal of S. Maria Maggiore is noteworthy. The Tomba 

Rotari is a domed building of the Norman period. To the 
rth lies the highest point of the Monte Gargano (3460 ft.). 
rabo speaks of an oracle of Calchas on the top ol the 
>untain, and a healing spring at Podalirius at the bottom, 

ra. from the sea. 

See S. BeltramelU. // Gcrgano (Bergamo, 1907). 
■ONTESPAN, FRANCOISE-ATHENAlS DB PARDAILLAN, 
ASQuiSE DE (1641-1707), mistress of Louis XIV., was born 

the ch&teau of Tonnay-Charente (Charente-Inf6rieure), the 
ughter of Gabriel de Rochcchouart, due de Mortemart. She 
s educated at the Convent of St Mary at Saintes, and when 
: was twenty she became maid-of-honour to Queen Maria 
leresa. She married in January 1663 L. H. de Pardaillan de 
mdrin, marquis de Montespan, who was a year younger than 
rself. By him she had two children, L. H. Pardaillan de 
tndrin, due d'Antin, bom in 1665, and a daughter. Her 
lliant and haughty beauty was only one of the Montespan's 
inns, she was a cultivated and amusing talker who won 
: admiration of such competent judges as Saint-Simon and 
me de S6vign6. Nevertheless she was a profound believer 
witchcraft, and La Rcynie, the chief judge of the court before 
lich the famous poisoning cases were brought, places her 
(t visits to La Voisin {qv.) in 1665. She received from the 
xrercss loVe powders concocted of abominable ingredients 

Louis XIV., and in 1666 the " black mass " was said by the 
est £ticnne Guibourg over her with the usual horrible cere- 
mial. In 1667 she gained her end, becoming Louis XIV.'s 
stress in July. Montespan astoimded the court by openly 
cnting his wife's position. He made a scandal by accxising 
lie de Montausicr of acting as go-between in order to aeciu-e 
; governorship of the dauphin for her hiisband. He even 
re mourning for his wife. Montespan was arrested, but 
eased after a few days' imprisonment. The first of the seven 
Idrcn whom Mme de Montespan bore to the king was born 
March 1669, and was entrusted to Mme Scarron, the future 
Tie de Maintcnon, who acted as companion to Mme de 
>ntcspan while the king was away at the wars. Her children 
re legitimatized in 1673 without mention of the mother's 
lie for fear that Montespan might claim them. The eldest, 
uis Auguste, became due de Maine, the second, Louis 
sar, comte de Vcxin, and the third, Louise Frangoise, 
noisclle de Nantes (afterwards duchess of Bourbon). Mean- 
ilc Montespan had been compelled to retire to Spain, and in 
74 an official separation was declared by the procureur-giniral 
hille de Harlay, assisted by six judges at the Ch4telet. When 
uis's aiTcctions showed signs of cooling, Mme de Montespan 
1 recourse to magic. In 1675 absolution was refused to the 
ig, with the result that his mistress was driven from the court 

a short time It has been thought that she had conceived 
• intention of poisoning even as early as 1676, but in 1679 
uis's intrigue with AngcUquc de Fontangcs and her own 
rgalion to the position of superintendent of the queen's 
jsehold brought matters to a crisis. Mile de Fontanges 
d a natural death in 1 681, though poisoning was suspected 
ranwhile suspicion was thrown on Mme de Montespan's 
mcxion with La Voisin and her crew by the frequent recur- 
ce of her maid's name, Mile Desoeillcts, in the evidence 
tught before the Chambre Ardcnte. From the end of 1680 
wards Louvois, Colbert and Mme de Maintenon all helped 
hush up the affair and to prevent further scandal about 

mother of the king's legitimatized children. Louis XIV 
itinued to spend some time daily in her apartments, and 
5arcntly her brilliance and charm in conversation mitigated 
some extent her position of discarded mistress. In 1691 she 
ired to the Convent of St Joseph with a pension of half a 
Jion francs. Her father was governor of Paris, her brother, 
t due de Vivonne, a marshal of France, and one of her sisters, 



Gabrielle, whose vows were but four years old, became abbess 
of the wealthy community of Fontevrault. Besides the expenses 
of her houses and equipage Mme de Montespan spent vast 
sums on hospitals and charities. She was also a generous 
patron of letters, and befriended ComeiUe, Radne and La 
Fontaine. The last years of her life were given up to penance. 
When she died at Bourbon I'Archambault on the 37th of May 
X707 the king forbade her children to wear mourning for her. 
Real regret was felt for her by the duchess of Bourbon and by her 
younger children — Frangoise Marie, Mile de Blols (1677-1749), 
married in 169a to the future regent Orleans, then due de 
Chartres, and Louis Ait^andre^ i;w..Lt; dc Jk^iA-^u^ ^0^16- i.;y,}. 
See P. Cn-mETii:, Madame de M&nut$pan ej Ijfun XIV (naru, 
1869); inonoi^rjphB by Ars^ae l^ou^^ye (iWi) And by H* WiUi^mi 
0903); fll^ J' J^ir^ Lcufise de ia Vaiiiku (Eng, tran«., ]9o3)r F. 



'unck-Brinuna, Le Drame dts poisons (1^99}; A, Dtimnd, " Vn 
Episode du g^rand rtpno " in Rm. dft qursiwrn histr (Parit, i&t^}; 
tfic contemporary mtmoir^ of Mmt de S^vigri*, vi Saint -Simon. 
of Bussy-Rjbutin and othtr*; alao iKc prorctding^ of the CKaitibrt 
Ardente preserved in the Anhiofi d* ia. BciUlSt; (Anen^l Libf^fv) 
and the rotw of La Re^ynic preier\pd in ihe Hibtioth^uc Naiionaft. 
She figur^i in V Sardou'j ptay. L'AfatTg d^s pM^ens hcjojjr 

MONTESQUIEU, CHARLES LOUIS DE SECONDAT, BAftOK 
DE LA BRioE ET DE (168^1755), French philosophical his- 
torian, was bom at the chAteau of La BrMe, about zo m. 
south-east of Bordeaux, in January 1689, and was baptized 
on the z8th of that month. His mother was Marie Frangoise 
de Penel, the heiress of a Gascon-English family. She had 
brought La Br^e as a dowry to his father, Jacques de Secondat, 
a member of a good if not extremely ancient house, which 
seems first to have risen to importance in the early days of the 
i6th centiuy. The title of Montesquieu came from his uncle, 
Jean Baptiste de Secondat, *'pr£sident i mortier" in the 
parliament •of Bordeaux — an important office, which, as well as 
his title, he left to his nephew. Montesquieu was in his youth 
known as M. de la Br^e. His mother died when he was seven 
years old, and when he was eleven he was sent to the Oratorian 
school of Juilly, near Meaux, where he stayed exactly five 
years, and where, as well as afterwards at Bordeaux, he was 
thoroughly educated. The family had long been connected 
with the law, and Montesquieu was destined for that profession. 
His father died in 1713, and a year later Montesquieu was 
admitted counsellor of the parliament. In little more than 
another twelvemonth he married Jeanne Lartigue, an heiress 
and the daughter of a knight of the order of St Louis, but 
plain, somewhat ill-cducsCted, and a Protestant. Montesquieu 
does not seem to have made the slightest pretence of affec- 
tion or fidelity towards his wife, but there is every reason to 
believe that they lived on perfectly good terms. In 17 16 his 
uncle died, leaving him his name, his important judicial office 
and his whole fortune. 

He continued to hold his presidency for twelve years, and 
took part in the proceedings of the Bordeaux Academy, to which 
he contributed papers on philosophy, politics and natural 
science. He also wrote much less serious things, and it was 
during the earlier years of his presidency that he finished, if 
he did not begin, the Lettrcs persatus. They were completed 
before 1721, and appeared in that year anonymously, with 
Cologne on the title-page, but they were really printed and 
published at Amsterdam. In the guise of letters written by 
and to two Persians of distinction travelling in flurope, Montes- 
quieu not only satirized unmercifully the social, political, 
ecclesiastical and literary follies of his day in France, but 
indulged in a great deal of the free wnting which was charac- 
teristic of the tale-tellers of the time. But what scandalized 
grave and precise readers naturally attracted the majority, 
and the Lettres persanes were very popular, passing, it is said, 
through four editions wthin the year, besides piracies. Then 
the vogue suddenly ceased, or at least editions ceased for nearly 
nine years to appear. It is said that a formal ministerial 
prohibition was the cause of this, and it is not improbable, for, 
though the regent and Guillaume Dubois must have enjoyed 
the book thoroughly, they were both shrewd enough to per- 
ceive that underneath its playful exterior there lay a q>irit of 



776 



MONTESQUIEU 



very inconvenient criticism of abuses in church and state. 
The fact is that the Leiires persanes is the first book of what 
is called the Philosophe movement. It is amusing to find 
Voltaire describing the Lettres as a "trumpery book," a 
" book which anybody might have written easily." It is not 
certain that, in its peculiar mixture of light badinage with not 
merely serious purpose but gentlemanlike moderation, Voltaire 
could have written it himself, and it is certain that no one 
else at that time could. 

The reputation acquired by this book brought Montesquieu 
much into the literary society of the capital, and he composed 
for, or at any rate contributed to, one of the coteries of the day 
the clever but rather rhetorical Dialogue de Sj^la et d*Eucrate, 
in which the dictator gives an i^>ology for his conduct. For 
Mile de Clermont, a lady of royal blood, a great beauty and 
a favourite queen of society, he wrote the curioUs prose- 
poem of the Temple de Cnide. This is half a narrative, half 
an allegory, in the semi-classical or rather pseudo-classical 
taste of the time, decidedly frivolous and dubiously moral, but 
of no small elegance in its peculiar style. A later jeu d'esprit 
of the same kind, which is almost but not quite certainly Montes- 
quieu's, is the Voyage d Paphos, in which his warmest admirers 
have found little to praise. In 1725 Montesquieu was elected 
a member of the Academy, but an almc^t obsolete rule requiring 
residence in Paris was appealed to, and the election was annulled. 
It is doubtful whether a hankering after Parisian society, or an 
ambition to belong to the Academy, or a desire to devote himself 
to literary pursuits of greater importance, or simple weariness 
of not wholly congenial work determined him to give up his 
Bordeaux office. In 1726 he sold the life-tenure of his office, 
reserving the reversion for his son, and went to live in the capital, 
returning, however, for half of each year to La BrMe. There 
was now no further formal obstacle to his reception in the 
Acad6mie Frangaise, but a new one arose. Hi-wishers had 
brought the Lettres persanes specially under the minister Andr6 
Hcrcule de Fleur/s attention, and Fleury, a precisian in many 
ways, was shocked by them. There are various accounts of the 
way in which the difficulty was got over, but all seem to agree 
that Montesquieu made concessions which were more effectual 
than dignified. He was elected and received in January 1728. 

Almost immediately afterwards he started on a tour through 
Europe to observe men, things and constitutions. He travelled 
through Austria to Hungary, but was unable to visit Turkey 
as he had proposed. Then he made for Italy, where he met 
Chesterfield. At Venice, and elsewhere in Italy, he remained 
nearly a year, and then journeyed by way of Piedmont and the 
Rhine to England. Here he stayed for some eighteen months, 
and acquired an admiration for English character and pob'ty 
which never afterwards deserted him. He returned, not to 
Paris, but to La Brede, and to outward appearance might have 
seemed to be settling down as a squire. He altered his park 
in the English fashion, made sedulous inquiries into his own 
genealogy, arranged an entail, asserted, though not harshly, 
his scignorial rights, kept poachers in awe and so forth. But 
these matters by no means engrossed his thoughts. In his 
great study at La Brdde (a ball rather than a study, some 60 ft. 
long by 40 wide) he was constantly dictating, making abstracts, 
revising essays, and in other ways preparing his main book. 
He may have thought it wise to soften the transition from the 
Letires persanes to the Esprit des lots, by interposing a publication 
graver than the former and less elaborate than the latter. The 
Considirations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la dicadence des 
Romains appeared in 1734 at Amsterdam, without the author's 
name. This, however, was perfectly well known; indeed, 
Montesquieu formally prescnlcd a copy to the French Academy. 
But the author's reputation as a jester stuck to him, and the 
salons affected to consider the Lettres persanes and the new book 
respectively as the " grandeur " and the " d6cadence de " M. de 
Montesquieu; but more serious readers at once perceived its 
extraordinary merit, and it was eagerly read abroad. A copy 
of it exists or existed which had the singular misfortune to be 
AxmoUted by Frederick the Great, and to be abstracted from 



the Potsdam library by Napoleon. It b said, momnrer, by 
competent authorities to have been t he most enduiingjy popular 
and the most widely read of all its author's works in his ovo 
country, and it was certainly been the most frequently and 
carefully edited. Merely scholastic criticism may of coune 
object to it, as to every other book of the time, the absence d 
the exactness of modem critical inquiry into the facts of histoiy; 
but the virtue of Montesquieu's book is in its views, not in its 
facts. It is (putting Bossuet and Giovanni Vico aside) almost 
the first important essay in the philosophy of history. The 
point of view is entirely different from that of Bossuet, and it 
seems entirely improbable that Montesquieu knew anything of 
Vico. In the Grandeur et dicadence the characteristics of the 
Esprit des his appear with the necessary subordination tot 
narrower subject. Two things are e^>ecially noticeable in k: 
a pecuh'arity of style, and a peculiarity of thought. The styk 
has a superficial defect. The page is broken up into short 
paragraphs of but a few lines each, which look very ugly, wfakh 
irritate the reader by breaking the sense, and which prepaie 
him to expect an undue and ostentatious aententiousness. Ob 
the other hand, the merits of the expression are very greaL It is 
grave and destitute of ornament, but extraordinarily lumioous 
and full of what would be called epigram, if the woird epigraa 
had not a certain connotation of Hi^ptncy about it. It is t 
very short book; for, printed in large type with tolerably 
abundant notes, it fills but two hundred pages in the standard 
editioh of Montesquieu's works. But no work of the centuiy, 
except Turgot's second Sorbonne Discowru, contains, m pro* 
portion to its size, more weighty and original though os 
historical subjects, while Montesquieu has over Turgot the 
immense advantage of style. 

Although, however, this ballon, d'essai, in the style of his great 
work, may be said to have been successful, and though moch 
of that work was, as we have seen, in all probability already 
composed, Montesquieu was in no hurry to publish it He 
went on " cultivating the garden " diligently both as a stndeot 
and as an improving landowner. He wrote the sketdi of 
Lysimaque for Stanislaus Leczinski; he published new and final 
editions of the Temple de Gnide, of the Letires persana, of Sjie 
et Eucrate (which indeed had never been published, propedy 
speaking). After allowing the Grandeur et dicadence to be 
reprinted without alterations some half-dozen times, he revised 
and corrected it. He also took great pains with the education 
of his son Charles and his daughter Denise, of whom be «as 
extremely fond. He frequently visited Paris, where his favovite 
resorts were the salons of Mme de Tendn and Moe 
d'AiguiUon. Yet it seems that he did not begin the final task 
of composition till 1743. Two years of uninterrupted work at 
La BrMe finished the greater part of it, and two more the resL 
It was finally published at Geneva in the autumn of 174^ >• 
two volumes quarto. The publication was, however, pceceded 
by one of those odd incidents which in literature iDastnte 
Clive's well-known saying about courts-martial in war. Mont^ 
squieu summoned a conunittee of friends, according to a vety 
common practice, to hear and give an opinion <mfais«o(k 
It was an imposing and certainly not an unfriendly one, cc»> 
sisting of Charles Jean Frangois H6nault, Helv^tius, the fixttnder 
Etienne de Silhouette, the dramatist Joseph Saurin, Crftifloa 
the younger, and, lastly, Fontenelle — in fact, all sorts and 
conditions of literary men. They unanimously advised the 
author not to publish a book which has been described as " one 
of the most important books ever written," and which may be 
almost certainly ranked as the greatest book of the French 
x8th century. 

Montesquieu, of course, did not take his friends' advice, b 
such cases no man ever does, and in this case it was ceitaialy 
fortunate. The Esprit des lois represents the reflections of a 
singularly clear, original, and comprehensive mind, corrected 
by forty years' study of men and books, arranged in accocdaace 
with a long deliberated plan, and couched in language of »• 
markable freshness and idiosyncrasy. In the original editlotf 
the full title runs L* Esprit des Ms: w dm rapport qutloUt 



MONTESQUIEU 



777 



dohent atoir one ta coHstUution d« ehaque gotnenumetU^ Us 
wutursj U dimat, la religioH, U commerce^ brc. It consists of 
thirty-one books, which in some editions are grouped in six 
parts. Speaking summarily, the first part, containing eight 
books, deals with law in general and with forms of government; 
the second, containing five, with miliury arrangements, with 
taxation, &c.; the third, conuining six, with manners and 
customs, and their dependence on climatic conditions; the 
fourth, containing four, with economic matters; and the fifth, 
containing three, with religion. The last five books, forming 
a kind of supplement, deal specially with Roman, French, and 
feudal law. The most noteworthy peculiarity of the book to 
a cursory reader lies in the section dealing with effects of climate, 
and this indeed was almost the only characteristic which the 
vulgar took in, probably because ft was easily susceptible 
of parody and reductio ad ahswdum. The singular spirit^ 
of moderation which distinguishes its views on politics and 
religion was indeed rather against it than in its favour in 
France, and Helv£tius, who was as outspoken as he was 
good-natured, had definitely assigned this as the reason of his 
unfavourable judgment. On the other hand, if not destructive 
it was sufficiently critical, and it thus raised enemies on more 
than one side. It was long suspected, but is now positively 
known, that the book (not altogether with the goodwill of the 
pope) was put on the Index, and the Sorbonne projected, though 
it did not carry out, a regular censure. To all these objectors 
the author replied in a masterly defense; and there seems to be 
no foundation tor. the late and scandalous stories which represent 
him as having used Mme de Pompadour's influence to suppress 
criticism. The fact was that, after the first snarlings of envy 
and incompetence had died away, he had little occasion to 
complain. Even Voltaire, who was his decided enemy, was 
forced at length to speak in public, if not in private, com- 
plimentarily of the Espriif and from all parts of Europe the 
news of success arrived. 

Montesquieu enjoyed his triumph rather at La BrMe than at 
Paris. He was becoming an old man, and, unlike Fontenelle, 
he does not seem to have preserved in old age the passion for 
society which had marked his youth. He certainly spent much 
of his later years in the country, though he sometimes visited 
Paris, and on one visit procured the release of his admirer 
Laurent Angliviel de La Beaumelle from an imprisonment 
which La Beaumelle had suffered at the instance of Voltaire. 
He is said also to have been instrumental in obtaining a pension 
for Alexis Piron. Nor did he by any means neglect literary 
composition. The curious little romance of Arsace et IsnUnitt 
a short and unfinished treatise on Taste, many of his published 
PensitSf and much unpublished matter date from the period 
subsequent to the Esprit des his. He did not, however, live 
many years after the appearance of his great work. At the 
end of 1754 he visited Paris, with the intention of getting rid 
of the lease of his house there and finally retiring to La Br^e. 
He was shortly after taken ill with an attack of fever, which 
seems to have affected the lungs, and in less than a fortnight 
be died, on the loth of February 1755, aged sixty-six. He was 
buried in the church of St Sulpice with little pomp, and the 
Revolution obliterated all trace of his remains. 

The literary and philosophical merits of Montesquieu and his 
position, actual and historical, in the literature of France and of 
Europe, are of unusual interest. At the beginning of the next 
century the vicomte de Bonald classed him with Radne and 
Bossuet, as the object of a "religious veneration" among 
Frenchmen. But Bonald was not quite a suitable spokesman 
for France, and it may be doubted whether the author of the 
Esprit des lois has ever really occupied any such position in his 
own country. For a generation after his death he remained 
indeed the idol and the great authority of the moderate reforming 
party in France. Montesquieu is not often qtiotable, or quoted, 
at the present day, and the exact criticism of our time challenges 
the accuracy of his facts. Although he was really the founder, 
or at least one of the founders, of the sciences of comparative 
politics and of the philosophy of history, his descendants and 



followers in these sciences think they have outgrown him. In 
France his popularity has always been dubious and contested. 
It is a singular thing that for more than a century there was 
no properly edited edition of his works, and nothing even 
approaching a complete biography of him, the place of the 
latter being occupied by the meagre and rhetorical iloges of the 
last century. According to his chief admirers, he is hardly 
read at all in France to-day, and they attempt to explain the 
fact by confessing that Montesquieu, great as he is, is not 
altogether great according to French principles. It is not only 
that he is an Anglo-maniac, but that he is rather English than 
French in style and thought. He is almost entirely dispassionate 
in politics, but he lacks the imswerving deductive consistency 
which Frenchmen love in that science. His wit, it is said, is 
quaint and a little provincial, his style irregular and in no 
definite tenre. 

Some of these things may be allowed to exist and to be 
defects In Montesquieu, but they are balanced by merits which 
render them almost insignificant. It is on his three principal 
works that his fame does and must rest. Each one of these 
is a masterpiece in its kind. It is doubtful whether the Letbres 
Persanes yield at their best either in wit or in giving lively pictures 
of the time to the best of Voltaire's similar work, though they 
are more unequaL There is, moreover, the great difference 
between Montesquieu and Voltaire that the former is a rational 
reformer, and not a mere pcrsifleur or frondeur^ to whom fault- 
finding is more convenient than acquiescence for showing off 
his wit. Of course this last description does not fully or always 
describe Voltaire, but it often does. It is seldom or never 
applicable to Montesquieu. Only one of Voltaire's own charges 
against the book and its author must be fully allowed. He is 
said to have replied to a friend who urged him to give up his habit 
of sneering at Montesquieu, " II est coupable de l^-po£sie," and 
this is true. Not only are Montesquieu's remarks on poetry 
childish (he himself occasionally wrote verses, and very bad 
ones), but he is never happy in purely literary appreciation. 
The ConsidiratioHS are noteworthy, not only for the complete 
change of style (which from the light and mocking tone of the 
Lettres becomes grave, weighty and sustained^ with abundance 
of striking expression), but for the profundity and originality of 
the views, and for the completeness with which the author carries 
out his plan. These words — except, perhaps the last clause — 
apply with increasing force to the Esprit des lois. The book 
has been accused of desultorincss, but this arises, in part at 
least, from a misapprehension of the author's design. At the 
same time, it is impossible to deny that the equivocal meaning 
of the word " law," which has misled so many reasoners, has 
sometimes misled Montesquieu himself. For the most part, 
however, he keeps the promise of his sub-title* (given above) 
with fidelity, and applies it with exhaustive care. It is only 
in the last few books, which have been said to be a kind of 
appendix, that something of irrelevancy suggests itself. The 
real importance of the Esprit des lois, however, is not that of a 
formal treatise on law, or even on polity. It is that of an 
assemblage of the mo$t fertile, original and inspiriting views 
on legal and political subjects, put in language of singular 
suggestiveness and vigour, illustrated by examples which are 
always apt and luminous, permeated by the spirit of temperate 
and tolerant desire for human improvement and happiness, 
and almost unique inr its entire freedom at once from doctrin- 
airism, from visionary enthusiasm, from egotism, and from an 
undue spirit of system. As. for the style, no one who does 
not mistake the definition of that much used and much misused 
word can deny it to Montesquieu. He has in the Esprit little 
ornament, but his composition is wholly admirable. Yet 
another great peculiarity of this book, as well as of the Considira- 
tioHs, has to be noticed. The genius of the author for generali- 
zation is so great, his instinct in political science so sure, that 
even the falsity of his premises frequently fails to vitiate his 
conclusions. He has known wrong, but he has thought right. 

The best edition of Montesquieu is that of Edouard Laboulaye 
(7 vols., Paris, 1875-1879). the best biography that of Louis Viao 



778 



MONTESQUIOU-FEZENSAC— MONTEVIDEO 



(Paris, and ed., 1879). The bibliography of Montesguieu was dealt 
with by L. Dangcau in 1874. There is known to exist at La Br&de 
a great mass of MS. materials for the Esprit des lots, additional 
Lellres persanes, essays, and fragments of ail kinds, diaries, letters, 
notebooks and so forth. The present possessors, however, who 
represent Montesquieu, long refused permission to examine these 
to all editors and critics, and they were chiefly known by a paper 
contributed in 1834 to the Transactums of the Academy of Ansn. 
At last in 18^1 Baron Charles de Montesquieu published Deux 
opuscules of his ancestors, and in 1899 Baron Gaston de Montes- 
quieu added Pensies, 8tc. Nothing, however, of much interest has 
yet appeared. For a thorough student L Esprit de Montesquieu by 
A. Charaux (1885) has value, for it is written, with some ability, 
from a point of view now very uncommon, that of a convinced 
Roman Catholic, anti-parliamentarian and anglophobe critic, who 
regards Montesc^uicu as an " evangelist of social atheism " and 
the like. The view is quite untenable but useful as a corrective. 
An article by Churton Collins on " Montesquieu in England " 
{Quarterly Review, No. 394. April 1903) may be also consulted. 

(G. Sa.) 

MONTBSQUIOU-PfeENSAC, ANNE PIERRE. Marquis de 
(i739~i79S)> French general and writer, was bom in Paris on 
the 17th of October 1739, of an ancient family of Armagnac. 
He was brought up with the children of the king of France, 
and showed some taste for letters. He entered the army in 
1754, was successively colonel of the Grenadiers and the Royal- 
Vaissaux regiment, and in 17S0 was made marickal-de-camp. 
Some pieces of verse and sevenil comedies gained him admission 
to the French Academy in 1 784. He was elected deputy to the 
states general of 1789 by the nobles of Paris, and, animated 
by Liberal ideas, he soon joined the Third Estate, and seconded 
Necker's financial schemes. He served on the committee 
charged with the issue of assignats, and was named president 
of the Constituent Assembly on the 14th of March 1791. In 
May 1 79 1 he was promoted lieutenant-general, served under 
Lafayette, and in February 1792 was given the command of 
the Army of the South. In September of the same year he 
completed the conquest of Savoy, but in November 1793 he 
was accused of royalist leanings, and had to take refuge in 
Switzerland. In 1795 his name was erased from the list of 
imigris and he returned to Paris, where he died on the 30th of 
December 1798. 

See P. L. Rocdcrer, ]£loge de Monttsquiou, reprinted in Roederer's 
Works (1853-1859). 

MONTESSON, CHARUTTTE JEANNE B^RAUD DE LA 
HATE DE RIOU, Marquise de (1737-1S05), was bom in Paris 
of an old Breton family. About 1754 she married Jean Baptiste, 
marquis de Montcsson, who died in 1769. Her beauty and 
intelligence attracted the attention of Louis Philippe, duke 
of Orleans, whom she secretly married in 1773 with the authori- 
zation of the king. For her husband's amusehient she set up 
a little theatre and wrote several plays, in the acting of which 
she herself took part. She was imprisoned for some time during 
the Terror, but was released after the fall of Robespierre, became 
the friend of the empress Josephine, and was a prominent 
figure at the beginning of the empire. 

The best edition of her works appeared under the title of (Euvres 
anonymes in 1782-1785. See Charles C0II6, Journal (1868); the 
Memoirs of St Simon, Madame de Genlis, the duchesse d'Abrantis 
and .Mmc dc Levis; G. Stronger, " La Soci^t6 de la marquise de 
Montcsson," in the Nouvelte revue (1902); J. "^urquan, Madame de 
Montcsson douairihre d'Orleans (Paris, 1904): and G. Capon and 
R. Ivc-Plessis, Les Thi&tres dandcstins du xviii* siide (1904). 

MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO (1567-1643), Italian priest and 
musician, was born at Cremona in May 1567; he was engaged 
at an cariy age as violist to the duke of Mantua, and studied 
com|x>sition under Ingegneri, the duke's maestro di capella. 
His bold experiments, while bringing u|x>n him the attacks of 
Artusi and Banchicri {q.v.), led to discoveries which exercised 
a lasting influence upon the progress of musical art. He was 
the first to make deliberate use of unprepared dissonances, 
or what are now known as fundamental discords. These dis- 
cords constituted a revolution against the laws of 16th century 
music. He employed them first in his madrigals, where they 
are a sign of decadence, but afterwards introduced them into 
music of another kind with such excellent efiect that their 



value was universally recognized. Before 1595 Mootevede 
was married to the singer Claudia Cattanco, who died in 1607. 
In 1602 he succeeded Ingegneri as maestro di capella; and ia 
1607 he produced, for the marriage of Francesco Gonzaga, hii 
first opera, Ariana, in which he employed the newly-discovered 
discords with irresistible effect. Though he did not invent the 
lyric drama — Peri's Euridiu having been produced at Floreace 
in 1600— he raised it to a level which distanced all contemporaiy 
competition. His second opera, Orfeo, composed in 160ft, was 
even more successful than Ariana. In 1613 Monteverde «tf 
invited to Venice, as maestro di capella at St Mark's, with a 
stipend of 300 ducats, which in 1616 was raised to 400. Eat 
he composed much sacred music, the greater part of which is 
lost. In 1630 he wrote another grand opera, Proser^na rcpHa. 
He did not become a priest until 1632. In 1639 1^ productd 
LAdone, and in 1641 Le Noac di Enea and // Rilomo d'Ulisse. 
He died in Venice on the 29th of November 1643. Montevcnk's 
harmonic innovations and power of musical rhetoric seemed 
to put an end to the school of Palestrina, and led the way to 
modern music. (See Music.) 

MONTEVIDEO, SAN FELIPE T SANTIAGO DB. capital aad 
chief port of Uruguay, and capital of the department of Mont^ 
video, on the northern shore of the Rio de la I^ta estoazy. 
120 m. E.S.E. of Buenos Ayres, inlaL 54* 54' 33' S., h»|. 
se*" 12' 18' W. Pop. (1908, estimate), 312,946. The old dty 
(ciudad tieja) occupies a low rocky headland that projects 
westward between the estuary and an almost areolar bijr 
which forms the harbour; it was once enclosed with waDi asd 
defended by small forts, all of which have been removed. The 
new city (ciudad nueta and ciudad Hav^$ima^ extends eastiaid 
over a beautiful tract of rolling country and is extending nocth- 
ward around the eastern shore of the bay. The site of the old 
city resembles a whale's back in shape; it slopes gently to its 
western extremity at Punta Sarandi and to the water's ed|e oa 
either side. The general plan is that of rectangiilar stpures, 
except at the western extremity of the old dty aiui its mioB 
with the newer or extra-mural city, on the line of the oU ruh 
parts, known as Calle de la Ciudadela. The streets are veil 
paved and have sufficient sl<^ at all points to ^ve ea^ suxfaoe 
drainage; Montevideo has the reputation of being one of the 
cleanest cities of the world. The rainfall is ample (about 44 ia- 
a year), and the prevailing winds help to clean the streets. The 
westerly winds, however, sometimes bring across the bay the 
offensive smells of the great abattoirs and meat-curing estabbh- 
ments (saladeros) at the foot of the Cerro. The mean aioBal 
temperature is about 62^ F. An abundant water supply is 
brought from the Santa Lucia River, 33 m. distant, withaicceiv* 
ing reservoir at Piedras, too ft. above the level ol the Piaa de 
la Independenda. The ciudad vieja is largely devoted to com* 
mercial, shipping and financial interests. The goveraoest 
edifices, large retail shops and most of the fi^e urban residences 
are in the ciudad nueva, while most of the urban iodostries. 
the railway stations and the dwellings of the poorer dasss 
are in the dudad novisima. Beyond these is a friofe of 
suburbs (La Union and Paso Molino), and on the western side 
of the bay is the straggling suburb of Cerro, largely industii^ 
in character. In 1908 eight tramway lines (all dectric bst 
one) extended out to these suburbs, some of the lines exteodbg 
to the bathing resorts of Ramirez and Pocitos and the Biioeo 
cemeteries on the eastern coast. 

The principal street, which is considered one oC the iota 
boulevards in South America, is the Calle 18 de Julio, eztcsdiBi 
eastward from the Plaza de la Independenda to the sidmibcf 
Cordon; one of its features is its Sunday nnoming maifcfl. 
occupying the whole street from the Plaza de la Indcpeodeacii 
to the Plaza Libertad, a distance of half a mile — a sorvivilof 
the old market that existed here at the fortified entnnoe tt 
the walled town in the earlier years of its history. There ai* 
seven plazas, or squares, within the urban limits: Zabth or 
Rincon, Constituci6n or Matriz, Independenda, Libenad or 
Cagancha, Treinte y Tres, Flores and Frutos; and two subotia 
parks or public gardens: the Paseo del Prado aad Fu^ 



MONTE VULTURE 



779' 



Urbano. The Plaza de la Independencia stands at the junction 
of the old and new towns and is the centre of the city's poh'lical 
and social life. This square is distinguished for a uniform and 
nearly completed line of colonnades in front of the buildings 
surrounding it. The Paseo del Prado, which ranks high among 
the public gardens of South America, is beautifully situated 
beyond the suburb of Paso Molino, 3 m. from the city. The 
Paseo was originally the quinia of a German of cultivated tastes 
named Joseph Buschenthal, who spent a fortune in its adorn- 
ment. The Parque Urbano, at the Playa Ramirez bathing 
resort, is a modern creation. The buildings of Montevideo 
are chiefly of brick and broken stone, covered outside with 
plaster and stucco, of one to three storeys, with flat roofs, 
usually surmounted by a square tower, or mirador. The roofs, 
or axoUas, are largely used for domestic purposes, or roof gardens. 
The city contains a large number of handsome edifices, both 
public and private, among which are the Bolsa, Government 
House, municipal hall, cathedral. Cabildo, Hospital de Caridad, 
insane asylum, Italian hospital, Teatro Solis, Athenaeum, and 
the Club Uruguayo. The Bolsa (exchange), custom-house, 
cathedral, and Cabildo are in the old town; the Bolsa is a copy 
of the Bordeaux exchange. The cathedral faces on the Plaza 
de la Constituci6n. Its two square towers rise 133 ft. above 
the pavement, and these, with the large dome behind, rise far 
above the surrounding buildings and make a very conspicuous 
landmark. The church was consecrated in 1804, and in 1869 
was raised to the dignity of a cathedral. Montevideo is now 
the seat of a small archiepiscopal see with only two suffragan 
dioceses. Directly across the plaza is the old Cabildo, a plain, 
heavy-looking two-storeyed edifice of the colonial period, the 
scat of municipal administration during Spanish rule, but now 
occupied by the two chambers of the Uruguayan Congress and 
by the higher police authorities of the city. 

The people of Montevideo maintain more than forty charitable 
associations, including the Caridad (charity) hospital on Calle 
35 de Mayo, and the insane asylum in the suburb of La Union, 
both built and largely supported from the proceeds of frequent 
lottery drawings. They also maintain a beggars' asylum and 
a foundlings' asylum. The national museum (founded in 1830) 
and public library (founded 1833) are in one wing of the Solis 
theatre. There are a British hospital (founded 1857, the present 
edifice dating from 1867) chiefly for the use of sailors, an Anglican 
church in Calle Santa Teresa dating from 1847, and a handsome 
Italian hospital of modern construction. The university, in 
Calle Uruguay, has faculties of law, medicine, letters, mathe- 
matics, engineering, and some minor groups of studies, including 
tgnculture and veterinary science. The government maintains 
two normal schools, a school of arts and trades (artes y ojicios), 
and a military school. 

The harbour of Montevideo consists of a shallow bay, circular 
in shape and about 2} m. from shore to shore, and an outer 
roadstead exposed to the violent winds of this latitude, where 
the larger ocean-going steamers were compelled to anchor 
t>efore the construction of the new port works. In 1899 
the Uruguayan government entered into a contract for the 
Iredging of the bay, the construction of two long breakwaters, 
the dredging of a channel to deep water, and the construction 
)f a great basin and docks in front of the city. Surtaxes were 
raposed on imports and exports to meet the expenditure, and 
irork was begun in 1901. In 1908 the breakwaters and the 
p'eater part of the dredging had been completed, and the en- 
. ranee channel, with a minimum depth of 24^ ft., permitted the 
idmission of large steamers. Another important improvement. 
or which a concession was given to an English syndicate and 
vork was begun in 1909, is the construction of an embankment 
ind new shore line on the south side of the city, to be finished 
n five years at a cost of $7,311,116. There are three large 
Iry docks connected with the port, known as the Maud (275 ft. 
long, inside) and the Gounouilhou (300 ft.) on the east side of 
the bay, and Jackson & Cibils (450 ft.) on the west side at the 
foot of the Cerro. Four railways terminate at Montevideo, 
one of them (the Central Uruguay) extending to the Brazilian 



frontier. In 1908 20 Unes of ocean-going steamers made 
regular calls at the port and several lines of river steamers ran 
to Buenos Aires and the ports of the Paran&, Paraguay and 
Uruguay rivers. The exports consist chiefly of livestock, jerked 
beef, hides, wool, and other animal products, wheat, flour, corn, 
linseed, barley, hay, tobacco, sealskins, fruit, vegetables, and 
some minor products. Manufactures exist only to a limited 
extent and chiefly for domestic consumption. 

The suburbs of Montevideo include the fashionable bathing 
resorts of Playa Ramirez and Pocitos on the coast east of the 
city, the inland suburbs of Paso Molino and La Union, and 
the industrial town of Cerro, across the bay. The Flores Island 
quarantine station is ta m. east of the city. The station was 
formerly on Rat Island (within the bay), which is now used as 
a public deposit for inflammables. The chief point of interest 
in this suburb is the conical hill known as the Cerro, or " mount," 
from which the city takes its name, on which sunds an old 
Spanish fort, sometimes garrisoned and sometimes used for the 
incarceration of political prisoners. Its elevation is 486 ft. 
(Redus), and a lighthouse rises from within the fort carrying a 
revolving light that can be seen 25 ro. at sea. 

Montevideo was founded in 1726 through the efforts of Don 
Mauricio Zabala, governor of Buenos Aires, who wished to check 
the advance of the Portuguese on this side of the La Plata. A 
small military post had existed there since 1717, but efforts to 
create a town had been fruitless until 2Uibala offered to make 
hidalgos of the first settlers and to give them cattle and sheep. 
The first families to accept this offer came from the Canary 
Islands in 1726 under the direction of Don Frantisco Alzeibar; 
they were followed by others from Andalusia and some of the 
Spanish- American settlements. Its growth at first was slow, 
but on the abolition of the Cadiz monopoly in 1778 it became 
a free port and its trade increased so rapidly that it soon became 
one of the chief commercial centres of .South America. The 
city was captured in 1807 by a British expedition under Sir 
Samuel Auchmuty, but was abandoned when the expedition 
against Buenos Aires under General Whitelocke was defeated. 
In 1808 the governor of Montevideo established an independent 
junta, but after the Buenos Aires declaration of independence 
in 1810 the Spanish forces were concentrated in Montevideo 
and held it until expelled in 18 14 by the Argentine land and 
sea forces under General Alvear and Admiral Brown. The 
dissensions following the expulsion of the Spanish and the 
rivalries of Argentina and Brazil over the possession of 
Uruguay, then commonly termed the "Banda Oriental," 
greatly reduced the population of the city and partially destroyed 
its trade. It was made the capital of the republic in 1828 and 
had partially recovered its papulation and trade when the disas- 
trous struggle with Rosas, dictator of Buenos Aires, broke out 
and the city was subjected to a nine years' siege (1843-52), 
the investment being conducted by General Oribe, and the 
defence by General Paz. In 1864-1865 Brazil intervened in 
the affairs of the republic, blockaded the port, and reinstated 
ex-president Flores. The war with Paraguay that followed, 
which lasted until 1870, made Montevideo the base of supplies 
for the Brazilian army and navy and added largely to its trade 
and wealth. The valuation of the city and suburbs, which was 
$14,156,000 in i860, was $74,000,000 in 1872. In addition to 
the reckless speculation of this period, there were continued 
political dissensions, repeated dictatorships and financial mis- 
management on the part of the government. Not the least 
of these burdens were the personal and irregular drafts of some 
of the executives upon the treasury and revenue officers, particu- 
larly the custom-house of this port, upon which the republic 
depended for the major part of its revenue. The commercial 
and financial collapse that followed lasted through the greater 
part of the last three decades of the century; but settled govern- 
ment and improved finances subsequently contributed to a slow 
but steady recovery in the trade and industrial activities of 
the city. 

MONTE VULTURE (anc. Vultur), a mountain of Basilicata, 
Italy, in the province of Potenza, the summit of which is about 



780 



MONTFAUCON— MONTFLEURY 



5 m. S. of Melfi. It is an extinct volcano rising to 4365 ft. above 
sea-level, belonging in Roman times to Apulia, and lying on 
the boundary between it and Lucania. The crater is densely 
overgrown with oaks and beeches which harbour wild boars 
and wolves. There are two small lakes. On the banks of the 
upper lake stand the Capuchin monastery of San Michele and 
the picturesque ruined church of Sant' Ippolito. The city of 
Rionero in Volture is pleasantly situated 27 m. by rail N. of 
Potenza, at the foot of Monte Vulture. Pop. (1901), 11,834. 
It does not seem to be older than the first half of the 17th 
century. In 1851 it suffered severely from an earthquake. 

See G. dc Lorenzo, Venosa e la resume dd Vulture (Bergamo, 
1906). 

MONTFAUCON, BERNARD DE (1655-1741), If^rench scholar 
and critic, was born at the ch&teau of Soulage (now Soulatge, 
in the department of Aube, France), on the i3lh of January 
1655. Belonging to a noble and ancient line, and destined for 
the army, he passed most of his time in the library of the family 
castle of Roquctaillade, devouring books in different languages 
and on almost every variety of subject. In 1672 he entered 
the army, and in the two following years served in Germany 
under Turcnne. But ill-health and the death of his parents 
brought him back to his studious life, and in 1675 he entered 
the cloister of the Congregation of St Maur at La Daurade, 
Toulouse, taking the vows there on the 13th of May 1676. 
He lived successively at various abbeys — at Soreze, where he 
specially studied Greek and examined the numerous MSS. of 
the convent library, at La Grasse, and at Bordeaux; and 
in 1687 he was called to Paris, to collaborate in an edition of 
Athanasius and Chrysosiom, contemplated by the Congregation. 
From 1698 to 1701 he lived in Italy, chiefly in Rome in order 
to consult certain manuscripts, those available in Paris being 
insufficient for the edition of Chrysosiom. After a stay of three 
years he relumed to Paris, and retired to the abbey of St-Ger- 
main-des-Pr6s, devoting himself to the study of Greek and Latin 
MSS. and to the great works by which he established his 
reputation. He died suddenly on the 21st of December 1741. 
His first publication, in which he was assisted by Jacques 
Loppin and Antoine Pouget, was the first volume of a never- 
completed series of previously unpublished Analccta graeca 
(i68is). In 1690 appeared La Vfriti de Vhistoire de Judith. 
Athanasii opera omnia, still the best edition of that Father, 
was issued with a biography and critical notes in 1698. In 
connexion with this may be mentioned Colkctio nova patrutn 
et scriptorum graccorum (1706), containing some newly dis- 
covered works of Athanasius, Eusebius of Caesarea, and the 
Topographia Christiana of Cosmas Indicopleustes. His copious 
Diarium italicum (1702) gives an account of the principal 
libraries of Italy and their contents; this work has been translated 
into English by J. Henley (1725). The Palaeographia graeca 
(1708), illustrating the whole history of Greek writing and the 
variations of the characters, has not yet been superseded; in 
its own field it is as original as the De re diplomatica of Mabillon. 
In 1 7 13 Montfaucon edited Hexaplorum origenis quae supersunt, 
not superseded till the work of Field (1875); and between 1718 
and 1738 he completed his edition of Joannis Chrysostomi opera 
omnia. His VAntiquiti expUquie et rcpriscntie en figures (1719) 
laid the foundation of archaeological knowledge. It was 
continued by him in Les Monumens de la monarchic franioise, 
1729-J733. Both these works have been translated into English. 
Montfaucon's Bibliotheca bibliothecarum manuscriptarum (1739) 
is a list of the works in MS. in the libraries with which he was 
acquainted. 

A list of his works will be found in Bibliothbque des icrvvains de 
la congr(tgalion de Saint-Afaur,. by C. de Lame (1882), and in the 
article in the Nouvelle bwf^raphie g^niroU, which gives an account 
of their scope and character; sec also Emmanucf de Broglie, La 
Socidie de I'abboye de Sl-Cermain-des-PrH au iS* siicle: Bernard de 
Alottt/aucon et les bernardtns (2 vols., Paris, 1891). 

MONTFERRAT, COUNT OF, a title derived from a territory 
south of the Po and east of Turin, and held by a family who were 
in the 12th century one of the most considerable in Lpmbardy. 



In 1 147 a count of Montferrat took part in tbe Second Crusade; 
but the connexion with the Holy Land begins to be intimate 
in 1 1 76. In that year William Longs word, eldest (^ the five 
sons of Count William III., came to the kingdom of Jerusalem, 
on the invitation of Baldwin IV. and the baronage, and married 
the heiress of the kingdom, Sibylla. He died within a fcv 
months; but his wife bore a posthumotjs son, who became 
Baldwin V. Count William III. himself (uncle to Phflip of 
France and brother-in-law to Conrad III.) afterwards came 10 
the Holy Land to watch over the interests of his graadsoa; 
and he was among the prisoners taken by ^larfm ^t Hmm 
in 1 187. Shortly after the battle of Hittin there appeared in 
Palestine the ablest and most famous of the family, Cooot 
William's second son, Conrad. Conrad, following the family 
tradition, and invited by the emperor Isaac Angelus, had goDe 
to serve at the court of Constantinople. He soon became a 
considerable person; married Isaac's sbter, and defeated and 
killed a usurper; but he was repaid by ingratitude and suspidcn, 
and fled from Constantinople to Palestine in 1187. Puttinf 
into Tyre he was able to save the city from the deluge of MahoB' 
medan conquest which followed Saladin*s victory at Hittia. 
He established himself firmly in Tyre (refusing admtssioa to 
Guy, the king of Jerusalem); and from it he both sent appeab 
for aid to Europe— which largely contributed to cause tbe Thiid 
Crusade— and despatched reinforcemenu to the crusados, 
who, from xi88 onwards, were engaged in the siege of Acre. 
His elder brother had been the husband of the heiress SibySa; 
and on the death of Sibylla, who had carried the crown to Gay 
de Lusignan by her second marriage, Conrad married ha 
younger sister, Isabella, now the heiress of the kingdom, aad 
claimed the crown (1190). The struggle between Conrad and 
Guy paralysed the energies of the Christians in 1191. I^liik 
Richard I. of England espoused the cause of Guy, who came 
from his own county of Poitou, Philip Augustus espoused that of 
Conrad. After the departure of Philip, Conrad fomented the 
opposition of the French to Richard, and even intrigued wilk 
Saladin against him. But he was the one man of ability vte 
could hope to rule the debris of the kingdom of Jerusalem vitk 
success; he was the master of an Italian statecraft «4udi gave 
him the advantage over his ingenuous rival; and Ridiard ms 
finally forced to recognize him as king (April 1 192). In the very 
hour of success, however, Conrad was struck down by the 
emissaries of the Old Man of the Mountain (the diief of ibe 
Assassins). 

Still another son or Count William m. achieved distioctipa 
This was Boniface of Montferrat, the younger brother of Covad, 
who was chosen leader oif the Fourth Crusade in 1201, on the 
death of Theobald of Champagne. In the winter of x 30X-i »i k 
went to Germany to visit Philip of Swabia; aund there it hai 
been suggested, he arranged the diversion of the Fourth 0«ade 
to Constantinople (see Crusades). Yet in the course of the 
crusade he showed himself not unsubmissive to Inikocent HL* 
who was entirely opposed to such a diversion. After the ca|>tae 
of Zara, however, he joined the crusaders, and played a gtctf 
part in all the events which followed till the capture o( C^bastaati* 
nople by the Latins in 1 204. But Baldwin of Flanden «a 
elected emperor over his head; and his irritation was not vfaoly 
allayed by the grant of Macedonia, the north of Theealy, aid 
Crete (which he afterwards sold to Venice). In x 107 he died, 
killed in battle with the Bulgarians. He left a son DenKtiios, 
who assumed the title of king of Thessalonica, which tbe fatber 
had never borne (cf. Luchaire, Innocent III.: La ftaim 
dVrient, p. 190). In 1222 Demetrius lost hb kingdom to Tbco- 
dore Angelus, and the house of Montferrat its rfmnnt?" «^ 
the East. 

Sec Savio, Studi storid sul marehese Cu^ielmo III. it Itmd&n^ 
(Turin, 188O: Ilecn. Markgra/ Konrad von Atonlfermt (iSSo): aid 
also the works of Cerrato (Turin, 1884) and Dcsimooi (Gcsoa, iW^ 

MONTFLEURY (d. X667), French actor, whose leil atf* 
was Zacharie Jacob, was bom in Anjou durii^ the last ytiB 
of the i6th. century. He was enrolled as one of tbe pafS v 
the due dc Guise, but be lan away to join tone strolling ffi^A 



MONfTFORT— MONTFORT, SIMON DE 



781 



aaBuming the name of Montfleury. About 1635 ^ ^"'ss a valued 
member of the company at the H6tel de Bourgogne, ai}d he was 
in the original cast of the Cid (1636) and of Horace (1640). 
Richelieu thought highly of him, and when in 1638 Montfleury 
married the actreas Jeanne de la Chaipe (d. 1683), the cardinal 
desired the ceremony to take place at his own coimtry hotise 
at RueiL Montfleury died in I^euIs from the rupture of a blood- 
vessel, while playing the part of Orestes in Andromaque, in 
December 1667. He was the author of a tragedy, La Mort 
d*Asdrobal, periformed in 1647. 

MONTFORT. the name of a famous French family long seated 
at Mont fort I'Amauri, near Paris, descended from a j^rtain 
William, a descendant of the counts of Flanders, who flourished 
during the latter part of the loth century, and who built a 
castle at Mont fort I'AmaurL Until 1209, when Simon IV. 
took the title of count, William and his successors were known 
as barons de Montfort. This Simon IV. de Montfort (c. xi6o- 
121S), a son of Simon III. (d. 1x81), is chiefly known for the 
very active part which he took in the crusade against the Albi- 
genses. Twice he went to Palestine as a crusader, and in 1209, 
answering the call of Pope Innocent III., he joined the host 
which marched against the enemies of the Church in Langu^oc. 
He became vicomte of Biziers and* of Carcassonne, and was 
soon the leader of the crusaders. He took place after place, 
defeated Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, at Castelnaudary, 
and about a year later (September 1213) gained a victory over 
Raymond's ally, Peter II., king of Aragon, under the walls of 
Muret. Simon then turned his attention to administering and 
organizing Languedoc. After a lively discussion in the Lateran 
Council of 1 31 5, the pope, somewhat reluctantly, confirmed 
him in the possession of the greater part of the lands of the coimt 
of Toulouse, and after two more years of warfare he was killed 
whilst besieging the city of Toulouse on the 25th of Jime 1218. 
The count's eldest son, Amauri de Montfort (1192-1241), was 
onable to hold his own, although Philip Augustus sent some 
troops to his assistance in 1222. He abandoned his interests 
in the south of France in favour of the new king Louis VIII., 
and in 1239 he went on crusade to the Holy Land, dying soon 
afterwards at Otranto. In 1230 Amauri was made constable 
of France. Simon IV. had a brother, Guy de Montfort (d. 1228), 
who shared his military exploits both in Asia and in Europe, 
and who was afterwards employed by Louis VIII. to jiegotiate 
with the pope at Rome. He was killed before Vareilles on the 
31st of January 1228. In 1294 Yolande (d. 1322), the heiress 
of the Montforts, married Arthur 11., duke of Brittany, and the 
county of Montfort became part of this duchy. Their son, 
John, count of Montfort, claimed Brittany in opposition to 
Charles, count of Blois, and at length secured the duchy. Except 
for one interval his descendants held it until it was united with 
the French crown at the end of the isth century. 

See A. MoUnler, Catalogue des actes de Simon et d'Amaury de 
Montfort (1873) ! and C. Douais, La Soumission de la vicomt4 de 
Carcassonne par Simon de Montfort et la croisade centre Raimond VI, 
(1884). 

MONTFORT, SIMON DB, easl of Leicester (d. r265), 
En^^h statesman and soldier, was bom in France about the 
year 1200. He was the fourth and youngest son of Simon IV. 
de Montfort (see above), the leader of the Albigensian crusade, 
by Alida de Montmorenci. Simon IV., whose mother was 
an heiress of the Beaumont family, claimed in 'her right, and 
received from King John, the earldom of Leicester (1207), only 
to lose it again through espousing the French side in the wars 
between that sovereign and Philip Augiistus. The young 
Simon, of whose youth and education nothing is recorded, 
came to England in 1230 and attached himself to Henry HI., 
obtaining with the consent of his sole surviving brother Amauri 
a re-grant of the family earldom. Simon was for a time unpopu- 
lar with the English and gloscly attached to the royal party. 
He gave, however, an early proof of religious fervour, and of 
an tmbending harshness, by the expulsion of all the Jews who 
had settled in his borough of Leicester to practise usury. In 
1238 he obtained the hand of the king's sister Eleanor, the widow 



of the younger WiUiam Marshal. The king approved of the 
match, but it was resented by his brother Richard of Cornwall 
and the baronage, and objections were raised on the ground 
that Eleanor had previously taken vows of chastity. With 
some difficulty Earl Richard was pacified; and Montfort 
obtained the pope's confirmation of the marriage by a 
personal visit to Rome. In 1239, however, the influence of 
detractors and a quarrel over some obscure financial trans- 
actions in which he appears to have used Henry's name without 
a formal warrant led to a breach between himself and the 
king. The eari and his wife went for a time to France; and, 
though a nominal reconciliation with the- king was soon effected, 
both departed on crusade with Richard of Cornwall in 1240. 
Eleanor was left behind in Apulia while her husband proceeded 
to the Holy Land. He acquitted himself with distinction, 
and there was some thought among the Frankish barons of 
appointing him to act as regent of the Latin kingdom of Jeru- 
salem. But he returned in 1241, took part in Henry's disastrous 
French expedition of 1242, and was readmitted to full favour. 
Between 1243 and 1248 he received many gifts from the king; 
he stood forward in parliament as a mediator between the court 
party and the opposition; it is only from the correspondence 
of his friends Grosseteste and Adam de Marsh that we learn 
of his dissatisfaction with the condition of church and state. 
He was keenly interested in Grosseteste's proposals for ecclesi- 
astical reformation, and was considered the mainstay of the 
reforming party. In 1248 he again took the cross, with the idea 
of following Louis DC. to Egypt. But, at the repeated requests 
of the king and council, he gave up this project in order to act 
as governor in the unsettled and disaffected duchy of Gascony. 
Bitter complaints were excited by the rigour with which the 
eari suppressed the excesses of the seigneurs and of contending 
factions in the great commimes. Henry yielded to the outcry 
and instituted a formal inquiry into the earl's administration. 
Montfort was formally acquitted on the charges of oppression, 
but his accounts were disputed by the king, and he retired 
in disgust to France (1252). The nobles of France offered 
him the regency of the kingdom, vacant by the death of the 
Queen-mother Blanche of Castile, but he preferred to make his 
peace with Henry (z 253), in obedience to the exhortations of the 
dying Grosseteste. £te helped the king in dealing with the 
disaffection of Gascony; but their reconciliation was a hollow one, 
and in the parliament of 1254 the earl led the opposition in 
resisting a demand for a subsidy. In 1256 and 1257, when the 
discontent of all classes was coming to a head, Montfort nominally 
adhered to the royal cause. He undertook, with . Peter of 
Savoy, the queen's uncle, the difficult task of extricating the 
king from the pledges which he had given to the pope with 
reference to the crown of Sicily; and Henry's writs of this date 
mention the earl in friendly terms. But at the " Mad Parlia- 
ment" of Oxford (1258) Montfort appeared side by side with 
the earl of Gloucester at the head of the opposition. It is said 
that Montfort was reluctant to approve the oligarchical constitu- 
tion created by the Provisions of Oxford, but his name appears 
in the list of the Fifteen who were to constitute the supreme 
board of control over the administration. There is better 
ground for beh'eving that he disliked the narrow class-spirit 
in which the victorious barons used their victory; and that he 
would gladly have made a compromise with the moderate 
royalists whose poh'cy was guided by the Lord Edward, Henry's 
eldest son. But the king's success in dividing the barons and in 
fostering a reaction rendered such projects hopeless. In 1261 
Henry revoked his assent to the Provisions, and Montfort left 
the country in despair. 

He returned in 1263, at the invitation of the barons, who were 
now convinced of the king's hostility to all reform; and raised 
a rebellion with the avowed object of restoring the form of 
government which the Provisions had ordained. For a few 
weeks It seemed as though the royalists were at his mercy; but 
he made the mistake of accepting Henry's offer to abide by the 
arbitration of Louis IX. of France. At Amiens, in January 1264, 
the French king decided that the Provisions were unlawful and 



78a 



MONTGAILLARD— MONTGELAS 



invalid. Montfort, who had remained in England to prepare 
for the worst, at once resumed the war, and thus exposed himself 
to accusations of perjury, irom which he can only be defended 
on the hypothesis that he had been led to hope for a genuine 
compromise. Though merely supported by the towns and a few 
of the younger barons, he triumphed by superior generalship 
at Lewes (May 14 1264), where the king, the Lord Edward, and 
Richard of Cornwall fell into his hands. Montfort used his 
victory to set up the government by which his reputation as 
a statesman stands or falls. The weak point in his scheme 
was the establishment of a triumvirate (consisting of himself, 
the young earl of Gloucester, and the bishop of Chichester) in 
which his colleagues were obviously figureheads. This flaw,' 
however, is mitigated by a scheme, which he simultaneously 
promulgated, for establishing a thorough parliamentary control 
over the executive, not excepting the triumvirs. The parh'ament 
which he summoned in 1265 was, it is true, a packed assembly; 
but it can hardly be supposed that the representation which 
he granted to the towns (see Pa&uauent and Repjiesentatign} 
was intended to be a temporary expedient. The reaction 
against his government was baronial rather than popular; and 
the Welsh Marchers particularly resented Montfort's alliance 
with Llewellyn of North Wales. Little consideration for English 
interests is shown in the treaty of Pipton which sealed that 
alliance O^ne 22, 1265). It was by the forces of the Marchers 
and the strategy of Edward that Montfort was defeated at 
Evesham (Aug. 4) • Divided from the main body of his supporters, 
whose strength lay in the east and south, the carl was out- 
numbered and surrounded before reinforcements could reach 
him For years after his death he was revered by the commons 
as a martyr, and the government had no little difficulty in 
reducing the renmants of his baronial supporters. His character 
has suffered in the past from indiscriminate eulogy as much 
as from detractors. He was undoubtedly harsh, masterful, 
impatient and ambitious. But no mere adventurer could have 
won the friendship of such men as Marsh and Grosseteste; 
their verdict of approval may be the more unhesitatingly 
admitted since it is not untempered with criticism. 

The original authorities are th<Me for the reign of Henry HI. 
The best biographies are those by R. Pauli (trans. C. M. Goodwin, 
London. 1876); G. W. Prothero (London. 1877); C. B^mont (Paris, 
1884). See also the letters of Adam de Marsh in J. S. Brewer's 
MoHumenta franciitana, vol. i (Rolls series, 1858); H. R. Luard, 
EpisloUu Roberti CrosseUsU (Rolls, scries, 1861); F. S. Stevenson, 
Robert Grosseteste (London, 1899): W. H. Blaauw, The Barons' War 
(Cambridge, 187 1). (H. W. C. D.) 

MONTGAILLARD, JEAN GABRIEL MAURICE ROQUES. 

CoMTE DE (1761-1841), French political agent, was bom at 
Montgaillard, near Villefranche (Haute Garonne), on the i6th 
of November 1761. His parents belonged to the minor nobility, 
and he was educated at the military school of Sor^, where 
he attracted the notice of the comte de Provence (afterwards 
Louis XVIII.)' After serving for some years in the West Indies 
Maurice de Roques returned to France. In 1789 he was estab- 
lished in Paris as a secret diplomatic agent, and though he 
emigrated to England after the loth of August 1792, he returned 
six weeks later to Paris, where his security was most probably 
purchased by services to the revolutionary government. He 
was again serving the Bour{}on princes when he met Francis II. 
of Austria at Ypres in 1794 and saw Pitt in London, where he 
published his Elai de la France au mois de mai if^4t predicting 
the fall of Robespierre. He was employed by Louis XVIII. 
to secure Austrian intervention on behalf of Mme Royale 
(afterwards duchess of Angoulfime), still a prisoner in the Temple, 
and he drew up the proposition made by the prince to Charles 
Pichegru, the details of which appear in his " M6moire sur la 
trahison de Pichegru " {Moniieur, April 18, 1804). In June 
1796 he made a journey to Italy in the hope of opening direct 
relations with Bonaparte. On his return to the princes at 
Blankenburg he was regarded with suspicion, and he departed 
for Paris to await events. He is thought to have indicated 
the possession by the comte d'Antraigues, agent of the princes, 
of documents compromising Pichegru. In April 1798 he 



surrendered to Claude Roberjot, the Hamburg ministeff ol tk 
Directory, further papers relating to the matter. He foUoved 
Roberjot to Holland, and there wrote a memorandum to prove 
that the only hope for France lay in the immediate retura of 
Bonaparte from Egypt, followed by assumption of the supctne 
power. This note reached Alexandria by way ol Berlin and 
Constantinople. When he ventured to return to Paris in the hope 
of recognition from the First Consul he was imprisoned, and 
on his release he was kept under police supervision. Napokoa, 
who appreciated his real insight into European politics and 
his extraordinary knowledge of European courts, attached him 
to his secret cabinet in spite of his intriguing and mendadoos 
character. He received a sahry of 14,000 francs, reduced 
later to 6000, for reports on political questions for Napoleoo's 
use, and for pamphlets written to help the imperial policy. He 
tried to dissuade Napoleon from the Austrian marriage and tbe 
Russian campaign, and counselled the limitation of the empire 
within the Rhine, the Alps and the Pyrenees. The Bourboa 
restoration made no change in his position; he was maintained 
as confidential adviser on foreign and home politics, and gave 
shrewd advice to the new government. His career ended with 
the old monarchy, and he died in obscurity at Chaillot 00 tbe 
8th of February 1841. 

His Sowenirs, which must be read with the utmort cautioa, 
were edited by C16ment dc Lacroix (3rd ed., 1895); his Mimmra 
dipUfmati^ttef (180^-1819) were published by the nine editor it 
1896. His Etat de la France was translated into English bv Ednond 
Burke. His other writings include Ma conduiU pendant Je cenrs it 
la revolution franfaise (London, 1795): Histoire secrHe de CMentt 
dans la revolution des franfais (London, 179s): De La Frona a it 
f Europe sous le louoenument de Bonaparte (Lyons, 1904); Sibuhae 



del'AngleterreeniSii (Paris, 181 l);De la restauratiandeL 

des Bourbons et du retour d I'ordre (Paris, 1814); and HiOein ie 
France depuis 182$ jusqu'd 1830 (Paris, 1839). 

MONTGELAS, MAXIMIUAN JOSEF GARNERIH, CocxT 
VON (i 759-1838), Bavarian sutesman, came of a noble (amOy 
in Savoy. His father John Sigmund Gamerin, Baron Moot* 
gelas, entered the military service of Maximilian Jos^ III., 
elector of Bavaria, and married the countess Ursula von Trauaer. 
Maximilian Josef, their eldest son, was bom on the loth of 
September 1759. He was educated successively at Naocy, 
Strassburg and Ingolstadt. Being a Savoyard on his father's 
side, he naturally felt the French influence, which was then strong 
in Germany, with peculiar force. To the end of hb life be spoke 
and wrote French more correctly and with more ease thaa 
German. In 1779 he entered the public service in the depart- 
ment of the censorship of books. The elector Charles TheodoR, 
who had at first favoured him, became offended on dlsccrveiiBC 
that he was associated with the Uluminati, the suppwts of 
the anti-clerical movement called the AufUirung. Montfdas 
therefore went to Zweibrlicken, where he was helped by lus 
brother Illuminati'to find employment at the court of the duke, 
the head of a branch of the Wittelsbach family. From this 
refuge also he was driven by orthodox enemies of the lUuxniaatL 
The brother of the duke of Zweibrticken — Maximilian Joficpb" 
took him into his service as private secretary. When las 
employer succeeded to the duchy Montgelas was named minister, 
and in that capacity he attended the conference of Rastadt 
in 1798, where the reconstruction of Germany, which was the 
consequence of the French Revolution, wa.< in full swing. la 
1799 the duke of Zweibrilcken succeeded to the electorate of 
Bavaria, and he kept Montgelas as his most trusted adviser. 
Montgelas was the inspirer and director of the policy by mtiA 
the electorate of Bavaria was turned into a kingdom, and 
was very much increased in size by the annexation of church 
lands, free towns and small lordships. As this end was achieved 
by undeviating servility to Napoleon, and the nxist cyitical 
disregard of the rights of Bavaria's German neighbours. Moot* 
gelas became the type of an tmpatriotk politician in the eyes 
of all Germans who revolted against the supremacy of Fraace. 
From his own conduct and his written defence of his policy it 
is clear that such sentiments as theirs appeared to be mer^ 
childish to Montgelas. He was a thorough politician of the 



MONT GENEVRE— MONTGOMERY, J. 



783 



tSth-century type, who saw and attempted to see nothing 
except that Bavaria had always been threatened by the house of 
Habsburg, had been supported by Prussia for purely selfish 
reasons, and could look for useful support against these two 
only from France, who had selfish reasons of her own fw wishing 
to counterbalance the power botJi of Austria and Prussia in 
Germany. As late as 18x3, when Napoleon's power was visibly 
breaking down, and Montgelas knew the internal weakness of 
his empire well from visits to Paris, he still continued to 
maintain that France was necessary to Bavaria. The decision 
Vf the king to turn against Napoleon in 1814 was taken under 
the influence of his son and of Marshal Wrede rather than of 
Montgelas, though the minister would not have been influenced 
by any feeling of sentimentality to adhere to an ally who had 
ceased to be useful. In internal affairs Montgelas carried out a 
policy of secularization and of administrative centralization 
often by brutal means, which showed that he had never wholly 
renounced his opinions of the time of the Enh'ghtenment move- 
ment. His enemies persuaded the king to dismiss him in 1817, 
and he spent the remainder of his life in retirement till his 
death in 1838. He had married the countess von Arco in 2803, 
and had eight children; in 1809 he was made a count. 

See DenkvrOrdiikeiUn des hayrr. Staalsministers Maximilian Craf 
won MontgelaSt a German version of the French original, ed. by 
Ludwig Graf v. Montgelas (Stuttcart. 1887): Brieje des Stadts- 
minisUrs Craf en Montgnas, ed. by Julie von Zerzog (Reeensburg, 
18S3): Dumoulin Eckart, Bayem unter dem Ministerium Monigda* 
(Munich, 1894). 

MONT GENdVRB, a very easy and remarkable pass (6083 ft.) 
between France and Italy, which is now considered by high 
authorities to have been crossed by Hannibal, as it certainly 
was by Julius Caesar, Charies VIII., and in the war of 1859. 
An excellent carriage-road mounts in 7 m. from Briancpn, 
at the very head of the Durance valley, to the pass. On the 
French side of the divide is the village of Bourg Mont Gendvre, 
and on the Italian side that of Clavi^rcs, both inhabited all 
the year round, as the pass runs east and west, and is thus 
sheltered from the north wind. A descent of 5 m. leads down to 
C^nne in the Doria Riparia valley, which is followed for 
5 m. more to Oubc (17 m. from Briancon), on the Mont Cenis 
railway. 

MONTOOMBRIE, ALEXANDER (r. X550-C. x6ic). Scottish 
poet, was the second son of Hugh Montgomerie of Hessilhead, 
Ayrshire, and was bom about the middle of the i6th century.* 
He spent some part of his youth in Argyleshire and afterwards 
lived for a time at Compston Castle, in Galloway. He was in 
the service of the regent Morton; thereafter, on the regent's 
demission of office in 1578, in that of the king, James VI. In 
1583 the grant by the Crown of a pension of 500 marks was 
confirmed; and three years later he set out on a tour through 
France, Flanders and other countries. He appears to have 
got into trouble, to have been imprisoned abroad, and to have 
lost favour at the Scottish court, and (for a time) his pension. 
We have no record of his closing years. 

Montgomerie's chief poem is the Cherry and the Slae^ first 
printed in 1597 (two impressions). It was frequently reprinted 
in the 17th and i8ih centuries, and appeared twice in Latin 
guise in 163 1, in Dempster's Cerasum el sylvestre prunum, opus 
poematicum. It is included in the collected edition of 
Montgomerie's Poems, by David Irving (1821), and by James 
Cranstoun, for the Scottish Text Society (1887). The text in the 
latter is a composite of 930 lines from the second impression of 
1597 i**-^) aind 666 lines from the version in Allan Ramsay's 
(q.v.) Ever Green (1734); but a better text, from a MS. in the 
Laing collection in the university of Edinburgh, has been 
prepared (1907) for the Scottish Text Society by Mr George 
Stevenson, lie poem, written in the complicated alliterative 
fourteen-lined stanza, is a confused allegory — the confusion 

* Alexander's brother. Robert Montgomerie (d. 1609). was made 
bishop or archbishop, of Glasgow, in 1 581, an appointment which 
was strongly objected to by the General Assembly. The long 
struggle which ensued was only terminated by Montgomeric^s 
resignation of the sec in 1587. 



being due to the fact that sections of the poem were written 
at different times— on Youth's choice between a richly laden 
cherry-tree on a high crag and a sloe " bush " at his feet. His 
other poems are: The Flyting betwixt Montgomery and Poiwart 
(1639; xst ed., 2621), which reproduces the hterary habit 
of the Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedies a series of 70 
sonnets; a large number of miscellaneous poems, amatory 
and devotional; and The Mindes Melodic^ Contayning certayne 
Psalmes of the Kinglie Prophete Dayvid^ applyedtoanew pleasant 
tune (Edinburgh, 1 605) . The formal value of Montgomerie's verse 
was fittingly acknowledged by James VI. in his early critical 
essay Ane Schcrt Treatise conteining some reulis and cautelis to he 
observtt and eschewU in Scottis Poesie^ where the author makes 
three quotations from Montgomerie's poems, then in drctilation 
in manuscript. Montgomerie had written a sonnet to hb majesty, 
which is prefixed to the Essayes of a Prentise. 

Montgomerie stands apart from the courtier-poets Ayton, 
Stirling, and others, who write in the literary English of the 
South. He carries on the Middle Scots tradition, and was 
not without influence in the vernacular revival, in Allan Ramsay 
and his successors. (G. G. S.) 

MONTGOMERY, GABRIEL, SEIGNEUR DE LORGES, 
CoifTE DE (c. iSiO-iS74)f French soldier, became a lieutenant 
in the king of France's Scottish guards, of which his father 
was captain, and engaged in police operations against the 
Protestants. Having inadvertently caused the death of King 
Henry II. in a tournament Oune 30, 1559) he was disgraced 
and retired to his estates in Normandy. He studied theological 
questions and espoused the cause of the Reformers. In 1562 
he allied himself with the prince of Condd, took Bourges, and 
defended Rouen from September to October 1562 against the 
royal army. In the third War of Religion he occupied 
B^m and Bigorre (1569). Escaping from the massacre of 
St Bartholomew, he went to England and returned with a fleet 
for the relief of La Rochelle (1573), but soon had to withdraw 
to ComwalL Returning to Normandy in 1574, he defended 
Domfront, which was being besieged by Marshal de Matignon, 
but was forced to capitulate on the 25th of May. He was 
sentenced to death by the parlement, and beheaded in Paris 
on the 26th of June 1574. 

See L. Marlet, Le Comte de Montgomery (Paris, 1890). 

MONTGOMERY, JAMES (1771-1854). British poet and 
journalist, son of a Moravian minister, was bom on the 4th of 
November 1771, at Irvine in Ayrshire, Scotland. Part of his 
boyhood was spent in Ireland, but he received his education 
in Yorkshire, at the Moravian school of Fulneck near Leeds. 
He edited the Sheffield Iris for more than thirty years. When 
he began his career the position of a journalist who held 
pronounced views on reform was a difficult one, and he twice 
suffered imprisonment (in 1795 -and 1796). His Wanderer of 
Switzerland (1806), describing the French occupation, attracted 
considerable attention. The author was described by Lord 
Byron in a footnote to English Bards and Scotch Reviewers^ 
as " a man of considerable genius," whose Wanderer of Switzer- 
land was worth a thousand ** Lyrical Ballads." The book had 
been mercilessly ridiculed by Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review 
(1807), but in spite of this Montgomery achieved a wide popu- 
larity with his later volumes of verse: The West Indies (1810); 
The World Before the Flood (1812); Greenland (1819); Songs of 
Zion (1822); The Pelican Island (1826). On account of the 
religious character of his poetry, he is sometimes confounded 
with Robert Montgomery, very much to the injustice of his 
reputation. His verses were dictated by the inspiring force 
of humanitarian sentiment, and he was especially eloquent 
in his denunciation of the slave trade. The influence of 
Campbell is apparent in his earlier poems, but in the Pelican 
Island, his last and best work as a poet, he evidently took Shelley 
as his model. His reputation now rests chiefly on his hymns, 
about a hundred of which are still in current use. His Lectures 
on Poetry and General Literature (1833) show considerable 
breadth of sympathy and power of expression. A pension of 



78+ 



MONTGOMERY, R.— MONfTGOMERY 



£150 was bestowed on him by Sir Robert Peel in 2835. He died 
at Sheffield on the 30th of April 1854. 

His poems were collected and edited by himself in 1841. The 
voluminous Memoirs, published in seven volumes (1856-18^8) by 
John Holland and James Everett, contain valuable informatioa on 
English provincial politics. 

MONTGOMERY, RICHARD (i736-x77S), American soldier, 
was born in Co. Dublin, Ireland, in 1736. Educated at 
St Andrew's and at Trinity College, Dublin, he entered the 
British army in 1756, becoming captain six years later. He saw 
war service at Louisbourg in 1757 and in the Lake Champlain 
expedition of 1759, and as adjutant of his regiment (the 17th 
foot) he shared in the final threefold advance upon Montreal. 
Later he was present at Martinique and Havana. In 177a he left 
the army, settled in New York, and married a daughter of 
Robert R. Livingston. Three years later he was a delegate 
to the first provincial congress of New York, and became 
brigadier-general in the Continental army. He was sent with 
Schuyler on the Canadian expedition, and, on Schuyler's falling 
ill, the command devolved upon him. Hampered by the in- 
clemency of the season and the gross indiscipline of the troops, 
he went forward, gaining a few minor successes and capturing 
the colours of the 7th (Royal) Fusiliers, and met Benedict 
Arnold's contingent at Point aux Trembles. They pushed on 
to Quebec barely 800 strong, but an assault was made on the 
31st of December 1775, and almost at the first discharge 
Montgomery was killed. The body of the American general 
was honourably interred by the Quebec garrison. Congress 
caused a memorial to be erected in St Paul's church. New York, 
and in 1818 his remains were conveyed thither from Quebec. 

MONTGOMERY. ROBERT (i8o7>i855), English poet, natural 
son of Robert Gomcry, was bom at Bath in 1807. He was 
educated at a private school in Bath, and founded an unsuc- 
cessful weekly paper in that city. In 1828 he published TheOmni- 
presence of the Dcity^ which hit popular religious sentiment so 
exactly that it ran through eight editions in as. many months. 
In 1 830 followed The Puffiad (a satire), and Saian. An exhaustive 
review in Blackwood by John Wilson, followed in the thirty-first 
number by a burlesque of Salan^ and two articles in the first 
volume of Fraser, ridiculed Montgomery's pretensions and the 
excesses of his admirers. But his name was immortalized by 
Macaulay's famous onslaught in the Edinburgh Review for April 
1830. As a poet, he deserved every word of Macaulay's severe 
censure, though the brutality of the attack cannot be defended. 
This exposure did not, however, diminish the sale of his poems; 
The Omnipresence of the Deity reached its 28th edition in 1858. 
In 1830 Montgomery entered Lincoln College, Oxford, graduating 
B.A, in 1833 and M.A. in 1838. Taking holy orders in 1835 
he obtained a curacy at Whittington, Shropshire, which he 
exchanged in 1836 for the charge of the church of St Jude, 
Glasgow. In 1843 he removed to the parish of St Pancras, 
London, when he was minister of Percy Chapel. He died at 
Brighton in 1855. He also wrote The Messiah (1832), Woman, 
the Angel of Life (1833), Oxford (1831), and many devotional 
and theological works. 

MONTGOMERY, a city of Alabama, U.S.A., the capital of 
the state and the county-scat of Montgomery county, situated 
(about 162 ft. above the sea) S.E. of the centre of the state, 
on the left bank of the Alabama river, which is here navigable. 
Pop. (1900), 30,346, of whom 17,229 were of negro descent and 
666 were foreign-born; (1910, census), 38,136^ Montgomery 
is served by the Louisville & Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, 
the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Central of 
Georgia, and the Western of Alabama railways, and by freight 
steamers plying between Montgomery and Mobile. Among 
the principal buildings are the state capitol, near which is a 
Confccicrate soldiers' monument (erected by the women of 
Alabama), the county court-house, the Federal building, the 
Carnegie library, the-masonic temple and the First National Bank 
and BcU buildings. The public institutions include the city 
infirmary and St Margaret's hospital, the latter under the direc- 
tion of the Sisters of Charity. The city has about zoo acres 



of parks. Oak Park being the most important. Situated m 
the " Cotton Belt " of Alabama, Mont^omeiy handles i6o,oo»- 
aoo,ooo bales annually. Truck-gardening b an importiat 
industry. The Alabama state fair is held here annually. 
Among the manufactures are fertilizers, machine-shop products, 
cotton goods, lumber products, cigars, harness, beer, stone- 
ware, and bricks. The value of the factory products in 190$ 
was $3,877,653 (an increase of 31-7% over that in 1900). Tk 
leading newspapers are the Montgomery Advertiser (monio^ 
and the Montgomery Journal (evening). 

The site of Montgomery was once occupied by an IwEai 
village known as Ecunchatty. The first permanent vhite 
settlement was made in 1814 by Arthur Moore. In 1817 Samod 
Dexter of Massachusetts laid out a town and named it New 
Philadelphia. In 18 19 it was united with East Alabama Towii, 
an adjoining settlement on the river, under the present Dane 
(in honour of General Richard Montgomery), and a third settle- 
ment, Alabama Town, later became a part of Montgonoy. 
Montgomery was first incorporated in 1837. The place soos 
became the commercial emporium of the Alabama "Cottaa 
Belt." In 1847 it became the capital of the state instead d 
Tuscaloosa. On the 7th of January 1 861, the Sute Cbnventioo 
through which Alabama seceded from the Union met in tk 
capitol; at the same place delegates from six states met, on tk 
4th of February, and organized the Confederate States d 
America. Montgomery was the capital of the new govemmaiC 
(hence the popular name " Cradle of the Confederacy ") untfl 
May x86i, when that honour was transferred to RiduDOod, 
Virginia. It was the seat of Confederate military factories, aad 
on the 1 2th of April 1865 it was captured by Federal troops. 
Montgomery received a new dty charter in X905. 

MONTGOMERY, a town and district of British Imfia, in tk 
Lahore division of the Punjab. The town has a' station oo tk 
North-Westem railway about half-way between Lahore and 
Multan. Pop. (1901), 6602. It was founded in 1864 on tk 
opening of the railway, and called after Sir Robert Mootgoneiy, 
then lieutenant-governor. It is situated in a desolate tqdaad, 
and though not unhealthy is singularly comfortless.. 

The District of Montcomesy lies in the Ban Dosb, ff 
tract between the Sutlej and the Ravi, extending also actcs 
the latter river. Area, 4771 sq. m.. In the former tract a 
fringe of cultivated lowland skirts the bank of either river, lot 
the whole interior upland consists of a desert plateau paitialy 
overgrown with bru^wood and coarse grass, and in places villi 
impenetrable jungle. On the farther side of the Ravi, apia. 
the country at once assumes the same desert aspect. Ik 
population in 1901 was 463,586, showing an apparent decrease 
of 0-4 % in the decade due to emigration to the Chenab Cokmy. 
The principal crops are wheat, pulse, cotton and fodder. 
Camels are bred for export. The leading manufactures are of 
cotton and silk, and lacquered woodwork, and there vt factories 
for ginning and pressing cotton. The district is traversed by 
the main line of the North-Westem railway, from Lahore to 
Multan, and is irrigated by the Upper Sutlej inimdatioB caad 
system, and also from the Ravi. 

From time immemorial the Rechna Doib has rormed thcbooK 
of a wild race of pastoral J2ts, who have constantly mainiaiBed 
a sturdy independence against the successive rulers of nortkia 
India. The sites of Kot Kamalia and Harappa contain hip 
mounds of antique bricks and other ruins, whik many otkr 
remains of ancient cities or villages lie scattered along tk 
river bank, or dot the now barren stretches of the central «aste. 
The pastoral tribes of this barren expanse do not appear to 
have paid more than a nominal allegiance to the Moslem nikts, 
and even in later days, when Ranjit Singh extended the Silk 
supremacy as far as MQlt&n, the population for the roost put 
remained in a chronic state of rebellion. British influence «tf 
first exercised in the district in 1847, when an officer was depotcd 
to effect a summary settlement of the land revenue. D«nc< 
British rule was effected on the annexation of the Punjab in iSi9> 
There was a general rising of the wild clans during the Matiay 
of 1857, several actions being fought before order m 



MONTGOMERY— MONTH 



78s 



MOMTOOIIBRT ( Ttt^ Paldwyny, a manicipal and pairliamentary 
borough, market town, and the county town of Montgomery- 
shire, Wales, situated on a wooded hill near the east bank of 
the Severn, 7 m. S. of Welshpool (Cambrian railway). Pop. 
(1901), X054. The principal feature of t|ie town is the ruined 
castle. Not far off are the traces of an extensive British fort, 
and, about a mile east, the line of Offa's Dyke, forming the 
Shropshire boundary. The borough was incorporated by 
Henry III., when the castle was enlarged, and was the scene of 
frequent contests between that king and Llewelyn the Great. 
In the 14th century the castle was held by the Mortimers, 
from whom it passed to the Yorkists. The Crown gave it, in the 
1 5th century, to the Herberts of Cherbury, one of whom, in 1644, 
surrendered it to the Parliamentarians, who dismantled it. 

MONTGOMERTSHIRB (Welsh Swydd Tre' Faldtoyn, Bald- 
wyn's town shire), a county of Wales, bounded N. by Denbigh, 
N.E. and £. by Shropshire, S. by Radnor and Cardigan, W. 
and N.W. by Merioneth. Its length from S.E. to N.W. is 
about 30 m. ; N.E. to S.W. it measures about 35 m. The surface 
is broken, though the highest hills are only round the county 
borders — to the north Berwyn (stretching into Denbighshire); 
to the south-west Piinlimmon (q.v.); east, the Breidden hills; 
south, the Kerry hills. The principal rivers and streams are: 
the Severn, flowing east and north; the Wye, farther south; 
the Dyfi, Vymwy (Fymwy), Clywedog, Tanat and Rhiw. 
Except the Wye and Dyfi, the prindpal streams are tributaries 
of the Severn. Lake Vymwy, formed in 188B, is the chief 
water-supply of Liverpool. The Montgomeryshire canal, some 
34 m. long, is connected with the Shropshire Union and 
Ellesmere canals. The county was formerly a recognized source 
of oak timber for the navy. 

Geotogically the county is occupied almost exclusively by 
Ordovician and Silurian rocks. The latter, mainly Wenlock beds 
bordered by a fringe of Llandovery rocks, lie in the form of a com- 
plex syncline*down the centre of the county from a few miles north 
of Lake Vyrnwy through Llangadfan, Llanfyllin, Llanfair, Welsh- 
pool, Montgomery and Newtown. The boundary is very irregular. 
Between Newtown and Keny hill Ludlow beds come in, and on the 
edge.of the forest of Clun the Old Red Sandstone just crosses the 
boundary into this county. North and south of the Silurian tract 
the Ordovician rocks occupy the remaining area; they contain 
bands of andeute and felsite m the Berwyn hills, also east of Criggion 
and south-west of Corndon. In the last-named hill there is a large 
laccolitic mass of dolcrite and a umitar rock occurs at Criggion. 
At Machynlleth slate is worked in the Ordoyician, and numerous 
metalliferous mines exist in the neighbourhood of Newtown from 
which lead, silver and' zinc are obtained. Glacial deposits are 
prevalent over much of the county. 

• The climate is mild, and the soil generally fertile, especially 
in the Severn valley, though towards Merionethshire there 
are heath and moss. Small holdings (under about 50 acres) 
tend to diminish The hardy, small, mountain pony is still 
to be found here. Hunters and cart-horses are bred. Sheep- 
breeding is practised, and Shropshire downs are superseding 
the little clitns. Of the relatively few green crops potatoes are 
the most important; oats are the principal grain. Permanent 
pasture covers a large area. Hill pasture is also extensive. 
Woollen cloth and flannel manufacture have revived con- 
^erably. 

The Cambrian railway, entering Montgomeryshire in the 
north-east, by Llan3rmynech, crosses it to the south-west with 
branches to Llanfyllin, Westbury and Van. There is also a 
branch from Caersws to Glandyfi (Glandovey) junction, with 
tlie coastwise branch of the same company. 

The area of the ancient and administraUve counties is 510,1x1 
acres, or 797 sq. m., with a population of 54,901 in 1901. Many 
of the people know no English, and Welsh is everywhere the 
fovourite speech. The county returns one member to parliament, 
and includes the Montgomery district of parliamentary boroughs: 
Llanfyllin (pop. 1632), Llanidloes (2770), Montgomery (1034), 
Machynlleth, Newtown and Welshpool (61 21). The first three 
sad last of these are municipal boroughs. The urban districts 
are: Newtown and Llanllwchaiam (6500), and Machynlleth 
(2038). The county is in the North Wales and Chester circuit, 
being held alternately at Newtown and Welshpool. 
XVIII 13* 



Welshpool borough has a separate commission of the peace, 
but no separate court of quarter sessions. The ancient county 
(in Bangor, Hereford, and St Asaph dioceses) has 59 ecclesiastical 
parishes or districts, with parts of 11 others. 

History and Antiquities. — ^The Welsh name of Baldwyn's 
town shire is taken from a Norman who did homage to William 
the Conqueror for this division of Wales. The English name 
is from Roger de Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury {temp. William 
Rufus). At the coming of the Romans this county was part 
of the Ordovices' territory {Britannia secunda), and there are 
remains of Roman encampments and fortifications at Caersws, 
Mathrafal, and near Montgomery. The roads connecting these 
stations can often be traced. Vestiges of a Roman camp are 
visible near WelshpooL Machynlleth was perhaps the Roman 
Maglona, Remains of old Brirish camps are to be seen at 
Dolarddyn, on Breidden hill and at Caereinion. There are 
many cairns and barrows. Crossing the county was the Via 
DevanOf joined by other roads. From the Roman evacuation 
under Flavins Honorius (d. a.d. 423) little is known of 
Montgomery tmtil Wales was subdivided into three districts at 
the death of Rhodri Fawr, when Montgomery was included in 
Powys {Powys Gwenwynwyn, Upper Powys). Powys Castle was 
founded in xio8. About the end of the nth century, probably, 
was built Baldwyn's Castle, taken later by the Welsh and 
retaken by Roger de Montgomery. In 1345 Roger Mortimer 
held it. At Camo, xx m. from Newtown and 17 from Machynll- 
eth, a battle decisive of North Wales sovereignty was fought in 
946, and in xo8x the rightful heir, Gruffydd ab Cynan, together 
with Rhys ab Tudur, prince of South Wales, here killed in battle 
Trahaem ab Caradoc, the usurper, and most of his men. At 
Machynlleth is seen Owen Glendower's senate house (1402) where 
he was crowned prince of Wales. 

MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. 
maandf Dan. moaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. 
ft^y, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; 
all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in 
nearly all those languages), originally the period between two 
returns of the new moon; generally called a lunar and sometimes 
a synodic or illuminaiive month. The anomalistic month is the 
mean time taken by the moon in passing from one perigee to 
the next; the sidereal month is the mean time in which the moon 
makes a circuit among the stars; the tropical month is the mean 
time in which the mgon traverses 360" of longitude; the nodical 
or draconie month is the mean time taken by the moon in passing 
from one rising node to the next; the stdar month is one- twelfth 
of a tropical year. The lengths of the various months are: 
synodic ■* 39*53059 days; anomalistic ■■ 37*55460, sidereal ■■ 
27*32x66, tropical ■> 27*32x56, nodical >■ 27*2x222, solar* 
30*43685. (For the calendar months see Calendas.) 

In law a month may mean either a lunar month, that is, a 
period of twenty-eight days, or a calendar month. At common 
law, " month " generally means a lunar month, although in 
mercantile matters it has been generally understood to mean 
a calendar month, but there is no general exception giving it 
that meaning in commercial documents. It can only have 
that meaning where according to the ordinary rules of construc- 
tion a secondary meaning can be admitted {Bruner v. Moore, 
1904, X Ch. 305). In bills of exchange or promissory notes 
month means a calendar month (Bills of Exchange Act, X882, 
s. X4 [4]). Where a servant is engaged subject to a month's 
notice or payment of a month's wages month is interpreted 
as a calendar month {Gordon v. Potter, x F. & F. 644). In acts 
of parliament passed before the year X850 month, unless other- 
wise specially interpreted, means lunar month, but in all acts 
passed since that date, month, unless words be added showing 
that lunar month was intended, means calendar month (Inter- 
pretation Act X889, s. 3). In the rules of the supreme court 
and in the county court rules month means a calendar month. 
In mercantile contracts in computing the period of a month 
the day from which the time is to begin to nm is excluded, 
but in sentences of imprisonment the day on which the sentence 
b<^ns is included, so that the numerically corresponding 



786 



MONTHOLON— MONTLUC 



day in the month in which the sentence expires would be 
excluded. 

MONTHOLON, CHARLES TRISTAN, Masquis de (1782- 
1853)1 was born at Paris. He was trained for a military career, 
and in his tenth year shared in the expedition of Admiral Truguet 
to the coast of Sardinia. Entering the army in 1798, he rose 
with rapidity and avowed himself, when chef d*escadron in Paris 
at the time of the coup d'itat of Brtmiaire (November 1799), 
entirely devoted to Bonaparte. He served with credit in the 
ensuing campaigns, and distinguished himself at the battle 
of Aspern-Essling (May 1809) where he was wounded. At the 
end of that campaign on the Danube he received the title of 
count and remained in close attendance on Napoleon, who 
confided to him several important duties, among others, a 
mission to the Archduke Ferdinand at WUrzburg. At the time 
of the first abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau (April iz, 
1814), Montholon was one of the few generals who advocated 
one more attempt to rally the French troops for the overthrow 
of the allies. After the second abdication (June 22, 18x5) 
he with his wife accompanied the emperor to Rochefort, where 
Napoleon and his friends finally adopted the proposal, which 
emanated from Count Las Cases (9.V.), that he should throw 
himself on the generosity of the British nation and surrender 
to H.M.S. " Bellerophon." Montholon afterwards, at Plymouth, 
asserted that the conduct of Captain Maitland of the 
" Bellerophon " had been altogether honourable, and that the re- 
sponsibility for the failure must rest largely with Las Cases. Mon- 
tholon and his wife accompanied the ex-emperor to St Helena. 
To Montholon chiefly. Napoleon dictated the notes on his career 
which form so interesting, though far from trustworthy, a 
commentary on the events of the first part of his life. Mon- 
tholon is known to have despised and flouted Las Cases, though 
in later writings he affected to laud his services to Napoleon. 
AVith Gourgaud, who was no less vain and sensitive than himself, 
there was a standing feud, which would have led to a duel but 
for the express prohibition of Napoleon. Las Cases left the 
island in November 1816, and Gourgaud in January 1818; but 
Montholon, despite the departure of his wife, stayed on at 
Longwood to the end of the emperor's life (May, 1821). In 
a letter written to his wife he admitted that Napoleon died 
of cancer, though he afterwards encouraged the belief that death 
was due to a liver complaint aggravated by the climate and 
by the restrictions to which Napoleon was subjected. After 
that event Montholon and Bcrtrand became reconciled to Sir 
Hudson Lowe (q.v.) ; but this did not prevent him, on his return 
to France, from vilifying that much abused man. Colonel 
Basil Jackson found him very frank as to the politique de Lang- 
wood which aimed at representing Napoleon as a martyr, and 
Sir Hudson Lowe as his persecutor. Montholon admitted that 
an " angel frt)m heaven as governor would not have pleased 
them." Montholon had to spend many years in Belgium; 
and in 1840 acted as " chief of staff " in the absurd " expedition " 
conducted by Louis Napoleon from London to Boulogne. He 
was condemned to imprisonment at Ham, but was released in 
1847; he then retired to England and published the Rifits de 
la captivili de NapoUon d. Ste HtUne. In 1849 he became one 
of the deputies for the Legislative Assembly under the Second 
French Republic. He died on the 2i$t of August 1853. 

See Recueil de pikces aulhentiques sur U captif de Ste HHkne: 
suivi de leUres de MM , ,..le Ciniral Montholon, Gfc. (Paris, 
1 821); Mhnoires pour servir d Vhistoire de France sous NapoUon 
(ed. Gourgaud and Montholon, Paris, 1823: Eng. ed., London, 
1823: new ed., Paris, 1905): RUUs de la captivitijde Vempereur 
NapoUon d SU HHkne (2 vols., Paris. 1847). Also the Marquise 
de Montholon's Souvenirs de SU Hilhne, 1815-16 (Paris, 1901). Of 
Monthoton's own writings the on\y one of note is De I Armie 
franqaise (1834). For the conversations of Montholon with Basil 
Jackson in 1828, see Lieut.-Coloncl Basil Jackson, Notes and 
Reminiscences oj a Staff Officer (London, 1903). (J. Hl. R.) 

MONTH'S HIND, in medieval and later England a service 
and feast held one month after the death of anyone in his or her 
memory. Bede speaks of the day as commemorationis dies. 
These " Minding days " were of great antiquity, and were sur- 
vivals of the Norse tninne or ceremonial drinking to the dead. 



"Minnying Dajrs," says Blount, "from the Saxon Lemynde, 
days which our ancestors called their Monthes mind, their Year's 
mind and the like, being the days whereon their souls (after thdr 
deaths) were had in special remembrance, and some office or 
obsequies said for them, as Orbits, Dirges." The phrase is still 
used in Lancashire. Elaborate instructions for the conduct of 
the commemorative service were often left in wills. Thus, one 
Thomas Windsor (who died in 1479) orders that " on my moneth's 
minde there be a hundred children within the age of sixteen years, 
to say for my soul,'' and candles were to be burned before the 
rood in the parish church and twenty priests were to be paid by 
his executors to sing Placebo, Dirige, &c. In the corre^wndence 
of Thomas, Lord Cromwell, one in 1536 is mentioned at vbich 
a hundred priests took part in the mass. Commonorative 
sermons were usually preached, the earliest printed eninpk 
being one delivered by John Fisher, bishop of Rochester, 00 
Margaret, countess of Richmond and Derby, in 1509. 
• MONTILLA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of 
Cordova, 32 m. S. of the city of Cordova, by the Cordova- 
Bobadilla railway. Pop. (1900), 13,603. The oil of the district 
is abundant and good; and it is the peculiar flavour of the pale 
dry light wine of Montilla that gives its name to the sherry known 
as Amontillado. Montilla was the birthplace of ** The Great 
Captain," Gonzalo or Gonsalvo of Cqrdova (1453-1515). aad 
contains the ruined castle of his father, Pedro Femandex de 
Cordova. 

MONTLOSIBR. FRANQOIS DOMINIQUB DB RBTVAim. 
COMTE DE (i7SS-»838), French publicist, was bom at Clennoct- 
Ferrand (Puy-de-D6me) on the 1 6th of April 1755, the youngest 
of a large family belonging to the poorer nobility. He ms 
returned in 1791 to the Constituent Assembly, where be sat on 
the Royalist side, and he emigrated on its dissolution in Sep- 
tember 1 791. He was received into the emigrant army at Cbb- 
lenz after some protest against the Liberal leanings he had shova 
in the Assembly. After the cannonade of Valmy, he witbdiev 
to Hamburg, and thence to London, where he avoided English 
society, moving exclusively among the French exiles. In his 
Courrier de Londres, published in London, he advocated modeia- 
tion and the abandonment by the exiles of any idea of revenge. 
He was recalled to Paris in 1801, with permission to publish his 
paper in Londoti. The Courrier was soon suppressed, neverthe- 
less, its editor being compensated by a comfortable stneciuv in 
the ministry of foreign affairs. Next year he sold his pen to the 
government to edit the violent anti-English BtMetin de Paris, 
At Napoleon's request he undertook an account of the asrient 
monarchy of France, which should serve as a justificati<n for 
the empire. After four years' labour Montlosier submitted 
his work to a spedaliy appointed committee, by which it vas 
rejected because of the stress laid on the feudal limitxtioos 
of the royal authority. The work De la monarckie fnoKeia 
' . . ourecherchessurlesanciennesinstUutioHsfranfoises . . • 
et sur les causes qui ont ameni la revolution . . . appeared in 
181 4 in three volumes, a fourth and supplementary votoae 
in the next year containing a preface hostile to Napokoo. 
His views were no more acceptable to Louis X\1II. than they 
had been to the ennperor, and he devoted himself to agricultore 
until he was roused by the clerical and reactionary pcikj of 
Charies X. His anti-clerical Mimoire d consulier sur m sjs^ 
rUigieux, politique . . . (1826) rapidly passed throng ei^t 
editions^ He had no part in the revt^ution of 1830, but 
supported Louis Philippe's government and entered the 
House of Peers in 1832. He died on the 9th of December 
1838 at Blois. Ecclesiastical burial was denied him because he 
had refused to abjure his anti-clerical writings. 

Among his works should be mentbned : Mimuires sur U rhohticn 
franfaise, U cons'idat. Vempire, la restoraticn, et les pnnnft»s 
ivhnements qui I' ont suioie (2 voU., 1829). 

MONTLUC (or Monluc), BLAISE DB LASSARAN-KASSER- 
COhE, Seigneur de (c. .1502-1577)1 marshal of France, vas 
born about 1502, at the family seat near Condom in the modcra 
department of Gers. He was the eldest son, and his fsmfljr 
was a good one, but, like most fentlemen of Gatoooy, be had to 



MONTLU9ON— MONTMORENCY 



787 



trust to his sword. He served first as a private archer and 
man-at-arms in Italy, with Bayard for his captain, fought all 
through the wars of Francis.I., and was knighted on the field of 
Consoles (x544)> to which victory he had brilliantly contributed 
as adviser to the young duke of Enghien. Having apparently 
enjoyed no patronage, he was by this time a man of middle age. 
Thenceforward, however, his merits were recognized. His chief 
feat was the famous defence of Siena (1555), which he has told so 
admirably. When the religious wars broke out in France, Montluc, 
a staunch royalist, held Guyenne for the king. Henry HI. 
made him in 1574 marshal of France, an honour which he 
had earned by nearly half a century of service and by numerous 
wounds. He died at Estillac near Agen. in 1577. Montluc's 
eminence above other soldiers of his day is due to his Commen- 
taires de Messire Blaise de Montiuc (Bordeaux, 1592), in which 
he described his fifty years of service (i 521-1574). This book, 
the " soldier's Bible "' (or " breviary," according to others), as 
Henry IV. called it, is one of the most admirable of the many 
admirable books of memoirs produced by the unlearned gentry 
of France at that time. It is said to have been dictated, which 
may possibly account in some degree for the singular vivacity 
and picturesqueness of the style. 

The Commentaires are to be found conveniently in the collection 
of Michaud and Poujoulat, but the standard edition is that of the 
SocUii de Vhistoire de France, ed. by M. de Ruble (Svols., 1865- 
1872). See RQstow, MUitarUche Biograpkien, v. L (Zarich. 1858). 

MONTLUCON, a town of central France, capital of an arron- 
dissement, and the most important industrial centre in the 
department of Allien Pop. (1906), 31,888. It is situated on the 
Cher, 50 m. S.W. of Moulins by the Orleans railway. The 
upper town, on an eminence on the right bank, consists of steep, 
narrow, winding streets, and preserves several buildings of the 
iSth and i6th centuries; the lower town, traversed by the Cher, 
is the seat of the industries, which embrace the manufacture of 
glass, chemicals, mirrors, sewing-machines, and iron and steel 
production. The Commenlry coal-mines and Niris, a town 
whh thermal springs, are a few miles distant to the south-east. 
Of the churches, Notre-Dame is of the 15th century, St Pierre 
partly of the 12th and St Paul modern. The town-hall, with a 
library, occupies the site of an old Ursuline convent, and two 
other convents are used as college and hospital. Overlooking 
the town is the castle rebuilt by Louis U., duke of Bourbon, 
and taken by Henry IV. during the religious wars; it serves as 
a barracks. Montlugon is. the seat of a sub-prefect and has 
tribimals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade 
arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a lycfe. The town, 
which formed part of the duchy of Bourbon, was taken by the 
Engh'sh in Z171, and by Philip Augustus in zi8i; the English 
were beaten under its walls in the Z4th century. 

MONTMORENCY, the name of one of the oldest and most 
distinguished families in France, derived from Montmorency, 
now in the department of Seine-et-Oise, in the immediate 
neighbourhood of Enghien and St Denis, and about 9 m. 
N.N.W. of Paris. The family, since its first appearance in 
history in the person of Bouchakd I., sire de Montmorency 
in the loth century, has furnished six constables and twelve 
marshals of France, several admirals and cardinals, numerous 
grand officers of the Crown and grand masters of various knightly 
orders, and was declared by Henry IV. to be, after that of the 
Bourbons, the first house in Europe. Matthieu I., sire de 
Montmorency, received in 11 38 the post of constable, and died in 
1 160. His first wife was Aline, the natural daughter of Henry I. 
of England; his second, Adelaide or Alice of Savoy, widow of 
Louis VI. and mother of Louis VII., and according to Duchesne, 
he shared the regency of France with Suger, during the absence 
of the latter king on the second crusade. Matthieu II. had an 
important share in the victory of Bouvines (12 14), and was made 
constable in 1218. During the reign of Louis VIII. he distin- 
guished himself chiefly in the south of France (Niort, La Rochelle, 
Bordeaux). On the accession of Louis IX. he was one of the 
chief supports of the queen-regent Blanche of Castile, and was 
successful in reducing all the vassals to obedience. He died in 



1230. His younger son, Guy, in right of his mother, became 
head of the house of Montmorency-Laval. Anne de Mont- 
morency iq.v.), so named, it is Said, after his godmother Anne 
of Brittany, was the first to attain the ducal title (1551). His 
eldest son, Francois de Montmorency (i 530-1 579), was married 
to Diana, natural daughter of Henry II.; another son, Henri I. 
de Montmorency (1534-1614), who became due de Montmorency 
on his brothers death in 15 79, had been governor of Languedoc 
since 1563. As a leader of the party called the Politiques he 
took a prominent part in the French wars of religion. In 1593 
he was made constable, but Henry IV. showed some anxiety 
to keep him away from Languedoc, which he r\iled like a sover- 
eign prince. Henry II. (1595-1632), son of duke Henry I., 
succeeded to the title in 1614, having previously been made grand 
admiral He also was governor of Languedoc. In 1625 he 
defeated the French Protestant fleet imder Soubise, and seized 
t^e islands of R6 and Ol6ron, but the jealousy of Richelieu 
deprived him of the means of following up these advantages. 
In 1628-1629 he was allowed to command against the duke of 
Rohan in Languedoc; in 1630 he defeated the Piedmontese, and 
captured Prince Qoria, at Avigliana, and took Saluzzo. In 
the same year he was created marshal. In 1632 he joined the 
party of Gaston, duke of Orleans, and placed himself at the head 
of the rebel army, which was defeated by Marshal Schomberg at 
Castelnaudary (Sept. i, 1632); severely wotmded, he fell into 
the enemy's hands, and, abandoned by Gaston, was executed 
as a traitor at Toulouse on the 30th of October. The title 
passed to his sister Charlotte-Marcuerite, princess of 
Cond6. 

From the barons of Fosseux, a branch of the Montmorency 
family established in Brabant in the X5th century, sprang the 
seigneurs de Boutteville, among whom was the dueUist Francois 
de Montmorency-Boutteville, who was beheaded in 1627. His 
son, Francois Henri, marshal of France, became duke of Piney- 
Luxemburg by his marriage with Madeleine Charlotte Bonne 
Th^rdse de Clermont, daughter of Marguerite Charlotte de 
Luxemburg, duchesse de Piney. Charles Francois Fr6d£ric, 
the son of the marshal, was created duke of Beaufort in 1688 
and duke of Montmorency in 1689. In 1767 the title of duke 
of Beaufort-Montmorency passed by marriage to another branch 
of the Montmorency-Fosseux. This branch becoming extinct 
in 1862, the title was taken by the due de Valencay, who be- 
longed to the Talleyrand-P^rigord family and married one of the 
two heiresses of this branch (1864). There were many other 
branches of the Montmorency family, among others that of the 
seigneurs of Laval (9.9.), a cadet branch of which received the 
title of duke of Laval and settled on the estate of Magnac in 
1758. It is to this branch that Mathieu, due de Montmorency 
( 1 767-1826), diplomatist and writer, and tutor of Charles X.'s 
grandson, Henri, duke of Bordeaux, belonged. 

MONTMORENCY, ANNE, Due de (1493-1567)) constable of 
France, was bom at Chantilly, and was brought up with the 
future King Francis I., whom he followed into Italy ini5i5, 
distinguishing himself especially at Marignano. In 151 6 he 
became governor of Novara; in 1520 he was present at the 
Field of Cloth of Gold, and afterwards had charge of important 
negotiations in England. Successful in the defence of M6zidres 
(1521), and as commander of the Swiss troops in the Italian 
campaign of the same year, he was made marshal of France in 
1522, accompanied Francis into Italy in 1524, and was taken 
prisoner at Paviaini525. Released soon afterwards, he was one 
of the negotiators of the treaty of Madrid, and in 1530 recon- 
ducted the king's sons into France. On the renewal of the war by 
Charles V.'s invasion of France in 1536, Montmorency compelled 
the emperor to raise the siege of Marseilles; he afterwards 
accompanied the king of France into Picardy, and on the ter- 
mination of the Netherlands campaign marched to the relief of 
Turin. In 1538, on the ratification of the ten years' truce, he 
was rewarded with the office of constable, but in 1541 he fell 
into disgrace, and did not return to public life until the accession 
of Henry II. in 1547. In 1548 he repressed the insurrections in 
the south-west, particularly at Bordeaux, fdth great leveiity. 



788 



MONTMORENCY— MONTPELIER 



and in iS49-SO conducted the war in the Boulonnais, negotiating 
the treaty for the surrender of Boulogne on the a4th of 
March 1550. In 1551 his barony was erected into a duchy. 
Soon afterwards his armies found employment in the north-east 
in connexion with the seizure of Mctz, Toul and Verdun by the 
French king. His attempt to relieve St Quentin resulted in his 
defeat and captivity (Aug. 10, 1557), and he did not regain his 
liberty until the peace of Cateau-Cambr^sis in z 559. Supplanted 
in the interval by the Guises, he was treated with coldness by 
the new king, Francis II., and compelled to give up his master- 
ship of the royal household — ^his son, however, being appointed 
marshal by way of indemnity. On the accession of Charles IX. 
in is6o he resumed his offices and dignities, and, uniting with 
his former enemies, the Guises, played an important part in 
the Huguenot war of 1562. Though the arms of his party were 
victorious at Dreuz, he himself fell into the hands of the enemy, 
and was not liberated until the treaty of Amboise (March 19, 
1563). In 1567 he again triumphed at St Denis, but received 
the death-blow of which he died at Paris, on the 15th of 
March, 1567. 

See F. Decrue, Annede Montmorency (Paris, 1885), hnd.Anne, due 
dt Montmorency (Paris, 1889). 

MONTMORENCY. MATHIEU JEAN ftUCUt DB MONT- 
MORENCY-LAVAL, Due de (1766-1826), French politician, 
was bom in Paris on the loth of July 1766. He served with his 
father, the vicomte de Laval, in America, and returned to France 
imbued with democratic opinions. Mathieu de Montmorency 
was governor of Compi^gne when he was returned as deputy to 
the states-general in 1789, where he joined the Third Estate 
and sat on the left of the Assembly. He moved the abolition 
of armorial bearings on the 19th of June 1790. The dissolution 
of the Constituent Assembly in September 1791 set him free to 
join LUckner's army on the frontier early in the next year. 
After the revolution of the xoth of August he abandoned his 
revolutionary principles; and he took no part in politics under 
the empire. At the Restoration he was promoted mardchal de 
camp, and accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent during the 
Hundred Days. At the second restoration he was made a peer 
of France, and two years later received the title of viscount. 
He adopted strong reactionary and ultramontane views, and 
became minister of foreign affairs under Vill^e in 1821. He 
recommended armed intervention in Spain at the Congress of 
Verona in October 1822, but he resigned in December, being 
compensated by the title of duke and the cross of the Legion of 
Honour in the next year. He was elected to the French Academy 
in 1825, though he appears to have had small qualifications for 
the honour, and in the next year became tutor to the six-year-old 
Henri, duke of Bordeaux (afterwards known as the comte de 
Chambord). He died two months after receiving this last 
appointment, on the 24th of March 1826. 

See Vitillard, Notice sur la vie de M. le due Mathieu de Mont- 
morency (Le Mans, 1826). and, for his curious relations with Mme 
de Stad, P. Gautier, Mathieu de Montmorency el Mme de Stael, 
d'aprh Us lettres inidiies de M. de Montmorency d Mme Necker de 
Saussure (1908). 

MONTMORENCY, a town of northern France in the department 
of Seine-et-Oise, 2| m. from the right bank of the Seine and xi m. 
N. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906), 5723. In the middle ages it 
was the seat of the family of Montmorency. There is a church 
built for the most part in the i6th century by Anne de Mont- 
morency. The town is a well-known resort of Parisians. To 
the north-east lies the fine forest of Montmorency. Bleaching 
and dyeing and the manufacture of lime plaster, bricks and tiles 
are carried on. About a mile south-west lies Enghien-les-Bains 
(pop. 4925), the waters of which are used in cases of catarrh and 
sldn disease. 

MONTMORILLON, a town of western France, capital of an 
arrondissement in the department of Vienne, on the Gartempe, 
34 m. E.S.E. of Poitiers by rail. Pop. (1906), 3924. The 
ecclesiastical seminary occupies a building of the 1 2lh century, 
formerly an Augustinian convent. The convent church is 
Romanesque in style and there is a curious two-storied chapel 



of octagonal form, of the same period. The church of Notie> 
Dame is a combination of Romanesque and Gothic, dating iron 
the 1 2th and 13th centuries. 

MONTMORIN DE SAINT HfoEN. ARMAND MARC Conn 
DE (i74S~'i792), French statesman, belonged to a cadet brandi 
of a noble family of Auvergne. He was gentleman-in-waiting 
to Louis XVI. when dauphin, and was subsequently appointed 
ambassador at Madrid. From Madrid he was suddenly 
summoned to the governorship of Brittany, and in 1787 vis 
appointed by the king to succeed Vei^nnes in the ministiy 
of foreign affairs. Montmorin was a devoted admirer of Necker, 
whose influence at the court he was mainly instrumental ia 
maintaining. He retired when Necker was dismissed on the 
1 2th of July X789, but on Necker^s recall after the taking of tbe 
Bastille again resumed his office, which he continued to boU 
till October 179X. Mirabeau (q.v.) had approached him so eirly 
as December 1788, with a plan for the poUcy to be pursued l^ 
the court towards the new states general; but Montnwrio, 
offended by Mirabeau's atUcks on Necker and by his Histein 
secrite de la cour de Berlin^ refused to see him. With the progress 
of the Revolution, however, this attitude was changed. Tbe 
comte de la Marck was exerting himself to bring Mir^wau into 
touch with the court (see Mikabeau), and for this purpose it 
was important to secure the assistance of Montmorin. Tbe 
convenience of an understanding between the two men was 
obvious; and they were soon on the closest terms. VthSt 
Montmorin continued minister in name, Mirabeau became so 
in fact. Montmorin did not dare to come to a decision viihost 
consulting his masterful friend, but on the other hand ndlher 
Mirabeau nor La Marck were under any illusions as to the broken 
character of the reed on which they had perforce to lean. Min- 
beau complained bitterly that Montmorin was " slack " UUsqae) 
and a " poltroon " (gavacke). On the other hand, La Marck 
thought that Montmorin's feebleness was occasionally useful 
in restraining Mirabeau's impetuosity. The death of Mirabean 
in April 179X was a severe blow to Montmorin, the difficuky of 
whose position was enormously increased after the fli^t of 
the royal family to Varennes, to which he was iK>t privy. He «as 
forced to resign office, but still continued to advise Louis, and 
was one of the iimer circle of the king's friends, called by tke 
revolutionists " the Austrian Committee." In June 1792 his 
papers were seized at the foreign office, without anytl^ in- 
criminating being discovered; in July hie was denounced, and 
after the xoth of August was proscribed. He took refuge ia tbe 
house of a washerwoman, but was discovered, haled before tbe 
Legislative Assembly, and imprisoned in the Abbaye, vhcie be 
perished in- the September massacres. His relative, Louis \lctor 
Henri, marquis de Montmorin de Saint H6rem, head of tbe 
elder branch, also perished in the massacre 
^ See A. Bardoux, Pauline de Montmorin, amOtsse de Hvanmmt 
ttudes surlafinduX VI 11*^ stkcU (Paris. 1884). for a defcMeof 
Montmorin's policy ; F. Masson, Le Dipartement des affaires ttreMftra 
pendant la rholution, 1787-1804, ch. ii. (Paris, 1877) : A. de Bacoort, 
Correspondance entre Mirabeau et le comte de La Marck, 1^9-17^ 
(3 vols., Paris, 1851), contains many letters of Montmorin: ** Com^ 
spondence of the Comte de Moustier with tbe Comte de MootaMria." 
in the Amer, Hist. Rev., vol. viiL (1902-1903). 

MONTORO, a town of southern Spain, in the province of 
Cordova, 27 m. E. by N. of the city of Cordova, on the Msdrid- 
Cordova railway. Pop. (1900), i4*58x. Montoro was the Epen 
of the Romans, and became an important Moorish fortress in the 
middle ages, but it has been largely modernized. It stands on s 
rocky peninsula on the south bank of the Guadalquivir, beie 
crossed by a fine bridge of four arches dating from tbe x6ik 
century. Oil is largely manufactured, and there b coawimbic 
trade in timber, agricultural produce and livestock. 

MONTPELIER, a city, the capital of Vemoont, U5A, oA 
the county-seat of Washington county, on the Winooski ri%«r. 
40 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Burlington. Pop. (1900), 6266 (oS» 
foreign-bom) , ( 19 10) , 7856. Montpelier is served by the Ceninl 
Vermont and the Montpelier & Wells River railways. Bane 
granite is mined extensively in the vidnity, and the dty ntf** 
factures marble and granite products, flour, lumber, sadM 



MONTPELLIER— MONTPENSIER 



789 



hardware and wood-working machinery. The principal building 
is the state house, crowned by a statue of Agriculture by 
Larkin G. Mead. The state house was first occupied in X836. 
It was almost completely destroyed by fire in x8s7, and was 
subsequently rebuilt and enlarged. Other prominent features 
of the city are the United States government building, the 
county court house, the Montpelier seminary and the Wood 
art galtco'y a collection consisting principally of paintings by 
Thomas Waterman Wood (1823-1903), a native of Montpelier. 
The township of Montpelier, named from the city in France, was 
granted to a company of sixty proprietors in 1780. The first 
permanent settlement was made in 17S7; and the township was 
organized in X79X under a charter of 1781, replaced by another 
in X804. In 1805 it was selected as the capital of the state, 
and in 1808 the legislature met here for the first time. At 
first the township was a part of Orange county, but in x8io 
Washington county was created, and in x8i i Montpelier became 
the seat of government of the new county. In 1849 East 
Montpelier was set apart as a separate township, and in 1894 
the township of Montpelier was chartered as a city. 

MOMTPBLUBR, a town of southern France, capital of the 
department of H^rault, about 7 m. from the Mediterranean, a»d 
31 m. S.W. of Nlmes on the Paris-Lyon railway between that 
town and Cette. Pop. (1906), 65,983. Montpellier, the seat of a 
university and the principal place of lower Languedoc, is situated 
in a fruitful plain less than a mile from the right bank of the 
small river Lez. Composed for the most part of narrow winding 
streets, the town has at the same time several spacious thorough- 
fares and some fine squares and promenades, notably the much- 
frequented Place de la Com6die, the Esplanade and the Peyrou. 
The last terminates in a terrace commanding a magnificent 
view of the coasts of the Mediterranean, and of the Pyrenees 
and Alps. On the terrace is situated the reservoir of the town, 
the water being brought from a distance of about 8 m. by an 
aqueduct. In the centrb of the square is an equestrian statue 
of Louis XIV., while opposite the entrance is the Porte de 
Peyrou, a triumphal arch erected at the end of the 1 7th century to 
commemorate the achievements of Louis XIV. The Boulevard 
Henri IV. to the north leads past the botanical garden, founded 
In X593 and^thus the oldest in France, the medical college, and 
the cathedral; to the east the Rue Nationale leads to the palace 
of justice, the prefecture, and the citadel. The cathedral 
(14th century), which until 1536 was the church of a Benedictine 
monastery, suffered severely during the religious wars, and 
about the middle of the 19th century the choir and one of the 
four towers at the angles of the nave were rebuilt in the style 
of the X3th century. The monastery, after being converted 
into the bishop's palace, has since 1795 been occupied by the 
famous medical school. A gallery devoted to the portraits of 
professors since 1239 contains one of Rabelais. Close to the 
medical school is the Tour des Pins, the chief relic of the medieval 
fortifications. The museum (Musik; Fabre) contains rich collec- 
tions of Italian, Flemish, Dutch and modem French paintings 
and of French sculptures. Its nucleus was the collection given 
to it by the painter F. X. P. Fabre (1766-1837), bom at Mont- 
pellier. The principal public buildings are the palace of justice — 
a modern structure, the theatre and the prefecture, also modem. 
Montpellier possesses old houses of the 15th and i6th centuries. 
The Lez is canalized so as to connect Montpellier with the canal 
du Midi and with the sea at Palavas. The town has a consider- 
able trade in wine, brandy, fruit and silk. The prindpal indus- 
trial establishment is a manufactory for candles and soap. 
There are also tanneries, distilleries and manufactories of cotton 
and woollen goods, chemicals, casks, hosiery and chocolate. 
The town is the centre of an acadimie (educational division) 
and has long been renowned as a seat of teaming. Montpellier 
university comprises faculties of medicine, law, science and 
letters, and a higher school of pharmacy. Montpellier is also 
the scat of a bishop and a prefect, of courts of appeal and 
aisizes, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of 
commerce, a board of trade arbitration,and headquarters of 
S the XVI. army corps. 



Montpellier first rose into importance after the destruction of 
Maguelonne by Charles Martel in 737. In the loth century it 
consisted of two portions, Montpellier and Montpelli6ret, held 
from the bishops of Maguelonne by the family of GuUhem. 
The Guilhems were succeeded, through marriage, by the house 
of Aragon, a member of which in 1349 sold his rights to Philip 
of Valois, Montpelli^ret having already in 1292 been ceded to the 
Crown by the bishops. In X141 Montpellier acquired a charter 
afterwards materially extended, and the same century saw the 
rise of its school of medicine. Several of the ablest teachers of 
that school were members of an important Jewish colony estab- 
lished in the town. It had a school of law in 1 160, and a univer- 
sity was founded by Pope Nicholas IV. towards the close of the 
13th century. Louis IX. granted to Montpellier the right of 
free trade with the whole of the kingdom, a privilege which 
greatly increased its prosperity. The importance of the town 
was enhanced when the bishopric of Maguelonne was transferred 
thither in X536. During the wars of religion the town was a 
stronghold of the Protestants, who captured it in X567. It 
strenuously supported the duke of Rohan in his revolts and in 
1622 only succumbed to Louis XIII. after a siege of eight 
months. In X628 the duke was defeated there and the walls 
of the town razed, the royal ciudel built in 1624 being, however, 
spared. Louis ^11. made Montpellier the seat of one of the 
giniraiiUs of Languedoc, and the states of that province met 
there during the X7th and z8th centuries. 

See A. C. Germain, Hisloire du comnutru ie MontptQier ant^rieure' 
ment d Pouperture du port de CetU {2 vols., Montpellier, 1861). and 
Histoire de la commune de MontpeUier (3 vols., Montpellier. i8$i); 
Aigrefeuille. HiUoirt de la ville de Montpellier (4 vols., MontpcUier, 
1 875-1 882). 

MONTPENSIER, COUNTS AND DUKES OF. The French 
lordship of Montpensier (department of Puy-de-D6me), which 
became a countship in the 14th century, was sold in 1384 by 
Bemard and Robert de Ventadour to John, duke of Berry, whose 
daughter Marie brought the countship to her husband, John I., 
duke of Bourbon, in 1400. The countship was subsequently held 
by Louis de Bourbon, yoimger son of Duke John, and by his 
descendants up to Charles de Bourbon-Montpensier, the famous 
constable, who became duke of Bourbon by his marriage with 
his cousin, Suzanne de Bourbon, in 1505. Confiscated by King 
Francis I., the countship was restored in 1538 to Louise de 
Bourbon, sister of the constable, and widow of the prince de 
La Roche-sur-Yon, and to her son Louis (15 13-1582), and was 
erected into a duchy in the peerage of France (duchi-pairie) 
in 1539. Marie, daughter and heiress of Henri de Bourbon, 
duke of Montpensier, brought the duchy to her husband Gaston, 
duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., whom she married in 
1626, and their daughter and heiress (see below), known as 
" La Grande Mademoiselle," was duchess of Montpensier. The 
title subsequently remained in the Orleans family, and was 
borne in particular by Antoine Philippe (i 775-1807), son of 
Philippe " £galit£," and Antoine Marie Philippe Louis (1824- 
1890), son of King Louis Philippe and father-in-law of King 
Alphonso XII. of Spain. 

MONTPENSIER, ANNE MARIE LOUISE D*ORLfiANS, 
DucHESSE DE (1627-1693), French memoir-writer, was bom at 
the Louvre on the 29th of May 1627. Her father was Gaston of 
Orleans, " Monsieur," the brother of Louis XIII. Her mother 
was Marie de Bourbon, heiress of the Montpensier family. 
Being thus of the blood-royal of France on both sides, and heiress 
to immense property, she appeared to be very early destined to a 
splendid marriage. It was perhaps the greatest misfortune of 
her life that " la grande mademobelle " was encouraged to look 
forward to the throne of France as the result of a marriage with 
Louis XIV., who was, however, eleven years her junior. Ill- 
luck, or her own wilfulness, frustrated numerous plans for marry- 
ing her to persons of exalted station, including even Charles II. 
of England, then prince of Wales. She was just of age when the 
Fronde broke out, and, attributing as she did her disappointments 
to Mazarin, she sympathized with it not a little. In the new or 
second Fronde she not only took nominal command of one of the 



79© 



MONTREAL 



armies on the princes' side, but she literally and in her own person 
took Orleans by escalade. However, she had to retreat to Paris, 
where she practically commanded the Bastille and the adjoining 
part of the walls. On the and of July 1652, the day of the battle 
of the Faubourg Saint Antoine, between the Frondeurs under 
Condi and the royal troops under Turenne, Mademoiselle saved 
Cond6 and his beaten troops by giWng orders for the gates under 
her control to be opened and for the cannon of the Bastille to 
fire on the royalists. In the heat of the hneuU which followed 
she installed herself in the H6tel de Ville, and played the part 
of mediatrix between the opposed parties. Her political impor- 
tance lasted exactly six months, and did her little good, for it 
created a lifelong prejudice against her in the mind of her 
cousin, Louis XIV. She was for some years in disgrace, and 
resided on her estates. It was not till 1657 that she reappeared 
at court, but, though projects for marrying her were once more 
set on foot, she was now past her first youth. She was nearly 
forty, and had already corresponded seriously with Mme 
dc Motteville on the project of establishing a ladies' society 
" sans manage et sans amour," when a young Gascon gentleman 
named Puyguilhem, afterwards celebrated as M. de Lauzun {q.v.)^ 
attracted her attention. It was some years before the affair 
came to a crisis, but at last, in 1670, Mademoiselle solemnly 
demanded the king's permission to marry Lauzun. Louis, who 
liked Lauzun, and who had been educated by Mazarin in the 
idea that Mademoiselle ought not to be allowed to carry her vast 
estates and royal blood to anyone who was himself of the blood- 
royal, or even to any foreign prince, gave his consent, but it 
was not immediately acted on, as the other members of the 
royal family prevailed with Louis to rescind his permission. 
Not long afterwards Lauzun, for another cause, was imprisoned 
in Pignerol, and it was years before Mademoiselle was able to 
buy his release from the king by settling no small portion of her 
estates on Louis's bastards. The elderly lovers (for in 168 1, 
when Lauzun was released, he was nearly fifty, and Mademoiselle 
was fifty-four) were then secretly married, if indeed they had not 
gone through the ceremony ten years previously. But Lauzun 
tyrannized over his wife, and it is said that on one occasion he 
addressed her thus, "Louise d'Orlians, tire-moi mes bottes," 
and that she at once and finally separated from him. She lived 
for some years afterwards, gave herself to religious duties, 
and finished her MStnoires, which extend to within seven years 
of her death (April 9, 1693), and which she had begim when she 
was in disgrace thirty years earlier. These Mimoires (Amster- 
dam, 1729) are of very considerable merit and interest, though, 
or perhaps because, they are extremely egotistical and often 
extremely desultory. They are to be found in the great 
collection of Michaud and Poujoulat, and have been frequently 
edited apart. Her Eight Beatitudes has been edited by £. 
Rodocanachi as Un Ouvrage de piiti inconnu (1908). 

See the series of studies on La Grande Mademoiselle, by '* ArvMe 
Barine " (1902, 1905). (G. Sa.) 

MONTREAL, a city of the Dominion of Canada, its leading 
seat of commerce and principal port of entry, as well as the centre 
of many of its important industries. It is situated on the south- 
east of the island of Montreal, at the confluence of the Ottawa 
and St Lawrence rivers, in the county of Hochelaga and province 
of Quebec. The observatory in the grounds of McGill Univer- 
sity, in the city, has been determined to be in 45* 30' 17* N. lat., 
and 73* 34' 4o«os' W. long. The dty holds a fine position at 
the head of ocean navigation, nearly a thousand miles inland, 
and at the foot of the great system of rivers, lakes and canals 
upon which the commerce of the interior is carried to the Atlantic 
seaboard. The ship channel below Montreal permits the passage 
of ocean vessels drawing 30 ft. at low water. The deepening 
of the channel, largely due to the initiative of Montreal 
merchants, was begun in 1844 by the government of Canada. 
The work was transferred to the Harbour Commissioners of 
Montreal in 1850. The depth of the channel was then 11 ft. 
Fifteen years later it had gradually been increased to 20 ft.; 
and in 1888, when the work was taken over by the Dominion 
government, the depth was 27 ft. 6 in. The Lachine canal. 



with the chain of artificial waterways that aucceeded it, opened 
the way for the shipping of the Great Lakes. The fint sod ia 
the digging of the Lachine canal was turned in July 1821 bjr 
John Richardson of Montreal The same public-spirited mer- 
chant presided in April of the following year at the prelimiiuiy 
meeting which led to the formation of the committee of trwle, 
itself the forerunner of Montreal's indispensable board of trade. 
Even before the ck)se of the French regime in Canada efiorts 
had been made to cut a canal across the island of Montreal, 
and M.de Catalogne succeeded in building a waterway practicable 
for the canoes of the fur-traders. The more ambitious caaal 
commenced in 1821 was completed four years later, at a cast 
of $440,000. Before its completion, however, the increasiDg 
draught of inland shipping made it practically usdess, and ia 
1843 work was begun on an enlargement. Since then die canal 
has been repeatedly deepened, to keep pace with the reqniie- 
ments of lake shipping, until to-day a 14-ft. channel is avaflUale. 
In the meantime the rival method of rail transporutioo was 
taking shape, and in 1836 the first Canadian railway was opened, 
between Laprairic, opposite Mpntreal and St Johns,in theeasten 
townships. In 1848 a second railway, from Longuenil to Sc 
Hyacinthe, was opened; both these projects owing their ens- 
tcnce to the enterprise of Montreal citizens. The broad St 
Lawrence, however, still lay between the dty and the outside 
world. In 1854 work was commenced upon the famous YvMbol 
tubular bridge, designed by Robert Stephenson and A. M. Ross. 
The bridge was opened by King Edward VIL, then prince d 
Wales, in i860. In 1S98 it was replaced by the Victoria Jubilee 
bridge, built on the piers of the old bridge. At the foot of Lake 
St Louis, some distance above the Victoria Jubilee bridge, tke 
Canadian Padfic railway crosses the river on a graceful cantilever 
bridge with two central spans each 408 ft. long. Montreal is on 
the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk, Intercolonial, O*"**** 
Northern, New York Central, Rutland, Central Vemwot and 
Delaware & Hudson railways. During the season of navigatioa 
several lines of well-appointed steamers maintain coromunicatioQ 
with Liverpool, London, Glasgow, Bristol and other British and 
European ports, as well as the prindpal ports on the river and 
gulf of St Lawrence and the Great Lakes. A system of electiic 
railways covers every section of the dty and affoids oqr 
communication with the suburbs and neighbouring towfts. 

Built originally along the water-front, Montreal has in the 
course of years swept back over a series of terraces — former levdi 
of the river or of a more ancient sea — ^to the foot of Mount Royal 
Held there, it has been forced around the mountain on cither 
side. Mount Royal, from which the dty derives its name and 
so much of its natural beauty, is a mass of trap-rock thmva 4> 
through the surrounding limestone strata to a height of 7S3 fi- 
above the level of the sea. Under the direction of Frederick 
Law Olmsted, it was converted into a magnificent parL B^ 
tween mountain and river the Lachine canal winds throu^ 
the plain. In the middle of the river lies the beautifully wooded 
St Helen's island, rising to a height of 150 ft. above the water, 
and itself commanding an excellent view of the dty. The sland, 
named after Helen Boull^, wife of Champlain, beloaged at one 
time to the barons of LongueuiL The British government pa^ 
chased it for military purposes, and it still contains a batiefy 
of guns and barracks, the latter tenantless, since the idand ktt 
been loaned to the dty for use as a public park. 

The dty is substantially built, grey limestone, quarried ht» 
the mountain, predominating in the publk and many of tkc 
private edifices. On the south of the Place d'Armcs, a anil 
enclosure covering the site of an andent burying-ground, itiadi 
the parish church of Notre Dame, whose Gothic outlines fomfl* 
of the striking features of the dty. Designed by James O'Bm* 
nell, the church was built in 1824 to take the place of an eaiiier 
structure dating back to 1673. The existing church is 255 ^ 
long and 134 ft. wide, and accommodates 10,000 wocskippea. 
Its twin towers (227 ft.) contain ten bells, one of whid, knoM 
as " Le Gros Bourdon," weighs 24,780 lb, the laigest in Ametict. 
Two others weigh respectively 6041 and 3633 Ibw Beside the 
church stands the historic icminaiy' of St Sulpice, one •( A> 



MONTREAL 



791 



few remaining relics of the days of French rule. This andent 
building is now used for the offices of the Order of Sulpicians, 
founded by the Abb^ Olier in the early half of the 17th century. 
This zealous enthusiast had sent out Paul de Chomedy, sieur de 
Maisonneuve, In 1641 to establish the missionary enterprise 
which afterwards developed into the city of Montreal, and six 
years later the Abb^ de Quelus, with three devoted companions, 
landed at Ville-Marie de Montreal and laid the foundations of 
the future powerful Order of Sulpicians. The seigneury of 
Montreal, acquired by Olier in 1640, is still held by the Sulpi- 
cians, and as they have retained large blocks of land in the heart 
of the city as well as elsewhere on the island, these "Gentlemen 
of the Seminary," as they were locally called, rank' among the 
wealthiest societies in America. The head offices of the Bank 
of Montreal face Notre Dame church, on the north of the Place 
d*Armes, and several other of the leading banking institutions 
of the city have their quarters in the immediate neighbourhood. 
In the Place d'Armes itself stands a striking figure in bronze 
erected to the memory of the founder of Montreal, Maisonneuve. 
At the base are a series of bas-reliefs setting forth historical 
inddents connected with the early history of the town. The 
monument is the work of a Canadian sculptor, Louis Philippe 
Hubert, C.M.G. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St James 
stands upon Dominion Square. It is an almost exact reproduc- 
tion, reduced to one-half the scale, of St Peter's at Rome. The 
building, projected by the late Archbishop Bourget to replace 
the old church on St Denis street destroyed in the great fire 
of 1852, was begun in 1868. On the west of the square stand 
the Windsor Street station of the Canadian Pacific railway; 
St George's (Anglican) church, which possesses a fine chime of 
bells; and the Windsor Hotel. A statue of Sir John Macdonald 
occupies the centre of the square. Close to the historic Bon- 
secours Market stands the church of Notre Dame de Bonsecours, 
founded by Sister Marguerite Bourgeois in 1673 as a sanctuary 
for a miraculous statue of the Virgin. The original church was 
burned in 1754, and the present building, erected in 1771, an 
example of Norman architecture transplanted to the New World, 
narrowly escaped destruction to make room for a railway 
station. Curiously enough, it remained for a number of English 
Protestants to secure the preservation of this relic of the French 
period. Jacques Cartier Square, adjoining Bonsecours Market, 
is notable for its column and statue of Nelson, erected in 1808. 
As the Roman Catholic cathedral owes its existence to the 
energy and enthusiasm of Archbishop Bourget, so Christ Church 
cathedral must always be associated with the name of the first 
resident Anglican bishop of Montreal, Dr Fulford. The church 
is a fine example of the Early English style of architecture. 
Braide it stands a memorial of Bishop Fulford, modelled after 
the famous Martyr's Memorial at Oxford. 

The mixture of races and creeds, which is so striking a charac- 
teristic of Montreal life, has not only endowed the city with many 
beautiful churches, but also with varieties of philanthropic insti- 
tutions. Each of the several national societies — St George's, 
St Andrew's, St Patrick's, and that of the French-Canadian 
patron saint, St Jean Baptiste, to mention no others — looks after 
the welfare of its own adherents. Of the several hospitals, the 
most venerable is the H6tcl Dieu, founded in 1644 by Mme de 
Bouillon, a French lady of high rank. The originaJ building, 
in the early days of Ville Marie, stood without the fort, and was 
fortified to withstand the attacks of the Iroquois. The site is 
now covered by a block of warehouses on St Paul Street. The 
present buildings, completed in 1861, contain both a hospital 
and nunnery. The Order of the Grey Nuns, founded by a 
Canadian lady, Mme d'Youville, in 1737, cares for hundreds 
of foundlings and aged and infirm people in the great hospital 
in Guy Street. The Montreal General hospital was founded in 
i8tg by public subscriptions, and the Royal Victoria hospital 
b a monument to the generosity of Lord Strathcona and Lord 
Mount -Stephen. Besides these should be mentioned the 
Kotre Dame, the Western and the Children's Memorial hospitals. 
Separate hospitals for contagious diseases are maintained both 
by the Roman Catholics and Protestants. 



Montreal provides for the education of its young people through 
two distinct systems of pubh'c schools, one for Roman Catholics, 
the other for Protestants, each governed by a board of commis- 
sioners. The schools are maintained by an annual tax based 
upon the assessment, two-fifths of x % being levied upon the 
Protestant section of the community for the support of the 
Protestant schools, and one-quarter of i % upon the Catholics 
for their schools. Unlike the neighbouring provinces of Ontario, 
Quebec makes no provision for a state university. But James 
McGill (1744-1813) left property, valued at the time of his death 
at £30,000, for the foundation of a university, one college of 
which was to bear his name. A royal charter conferring uni- 
versity powers was obtained in 1821. During early years slow 
progress was made, but with the appointment of Sir WiUiam 
Dawson as principal, in 185s, the institution entered on a career 
of prosperity. It now embraces five faculties: arts, applied 
science, law, medidne, agriculture, and comprises the following: 
MV:Gill College, Montreal, the original foundation; the Royal 
Victoria College for Women, Montreal, built and endowed by 
Lord Strathcona; four affiliated theological colleges in Montreal; 
the Macdonald College, erected and endowed by Sir William 
C. Macdonald, at Ste Anne de Bellevue, ao m. from the city; 
the McGill University College of British Columbia, Van- 
couver, B.C.; and three affiliated colleges: Stanstead Wesleyan 
College, Stanstead,P.Q.; Victoria College, Victoria, B.C.; Alberta 
College, Edmonton. The finely-equipped Macdonald scientific 
laboratories, with the Redpath Museum and University Library 
(114.000 vols, in 1907), form part of a noble group of buildings 
on the campus in Montreal. Disastrous fires in April 1907 
wiped out two buildings and destroyed the splendid medical 
museum, but the plans for rebuilding provided for further 
extension and improvement. Previous to the fires the property 
of the university in buildings in Montreal, induding equipment 
and endowment, was valued at $6,000,000. 

The French university of Laval, the chief seat of which is in the 
city of (^ebec, also maintains a branch at Montr^, established 
in 1877. It embraces the faculties of arts, law, medicine and 
theology, the latter conducted through the 'Seminary of St 
Sulpice. The college library has been enriched by a rare collec- 
tion of Canadian books and manuscripts, bequeathed by Judge 
Louis Francois Georges Baby (1834-1906), of Montreal. The 
medical school, which now occupies a portion of the university 
building, formerly hdd its sessions in the historic Chateau de 
Ramesay, built by the Chevalier de Ramesay, governor of 
Montreal, in 1704, and occupied after the conquest by the British 
governors of Canada, until the stoning of Lord Elgin and the 
burning of the Parliament Buildings in 1849 brought about the 
removal of the seat of government from Montreal. The Chateau 
de Ramesay is now the fitting home of a public collection of 
historic relics. Of other educational institutions in the city the 
most important is St Mary's College, founded in 1848 by the 
Jesuits, and removed to the present building in 1855. The 
archives boast a notable collection of early Canadian manu- 
scripts, upon which Francis Parknum drew in preparing his 
histories of New France. 

Montreal's position as the chief doorway of the outgoing and 
incoming trade of the Dominion is largely due to the foresight of 
her great merchants. With the gradual opening up of means 
of communication by land and water, and the development of 
her facilities for handling the exports and imports of the country, 
the city has increased rapidly in importance, until to day one- 
third of the imports of the Dominion come through Montreal, 
and nearly 30 % of the exports. In shipments of grain Montreal 
has outstripped all her rivals on the continent except New 
York and New Orleans, and the building of the Georgian Bay 
canal will, by materially shortening the distance between the 
western grainficlds and European markets, give her a very 
considerable advantage over both these ports. In dairy produce 
she is already the chief export centre of the continent. Montreal is 
also the financial centre of Canada, and in it are to be found the 
head offices of more than 35 important banks, of the leading insur- 
ance companies, and of the two greatest railways of the country. 



792 



MONTRESOR— MONTROND 



Montreal is governed by a mayor and 36 aldermen, elected 
every two years. The city returns $ members to the Dominion 
House of Commons and 6 to the Provincial Legislature of 
Quebec 

The population of Montreal, according to the census of 1901, 
was 266,826. With the suburbs, it was estimated in 1907 at 
over 405,000, about three-fifths French. 

The history of the town is steeped in romance. From that first 
remarkable scene, so graphically described by Francis Parkman, 
when, on the i8lh of May 1642, Maisonneuve and his little band 
of religious enthusiasts landed upon the spot where the Montreal 
Custom House now stands, and planted, in the words of the 
saintly Dumont, a grain of mustard seed destined to overshadow 
the lajid, the history of the town was to be intimately associated 
with missionary enterprise and such missionary heroism as the 
wiorld has rarely seen. Montreal began as a religious colony, 
but its very situation, on the outer confines of civilization and at 
the door of the Iroquois country, forced it to become a military 
settlement, a fortified town with a miliury garrison. Similarly 
its position, even then an ideal one from a commercial point of 
view, made it the dominating centre of the fur-trade. Fpr a 
hundred years after its foundation these three influences held 
sway, more or less mutually antagonistic, the streets of Montreal 
presenting an animated picture of sombre priests and jovial 
soldiers, savage hunters in their native finery 'and more 
than half-savage fur traders. Within another hundred years, 
although both priests and soldiers were still to be seen on 
her streets, they had become but atoms in a larger and more 
varied population. The fur trader of New France, merged after 
the conquest in the fur trader of the North West Company— 
which had its origin in Montreal — remained for a time the one 
picturesque survival of earlier and more romantic days. Finally, 
he too disappeared in the multiform and strenuous life of the 
modem dty. 

Bibliography.— Frands Parkman, Jesuits in North America 
and The Old Riiime in Canadh (Boston, new ed., 1902) ; Newton Bos- 
worth, Hochelaga detncta (Montreal, 1846; rcpr. Toronto, 1901); A. 
Sandham, Montreal Past and Present (Montreal, 1870); W. D. 
Lighthall, Montreal after Two Hundred and Fifty Years (Montreal, 
1892}: N. M. Hinshdwood, Montreal and Vicinity (Montreal, 1904); 
S. E. Dawson. Handbook for the City of Montreal (Montreal. 
1888): A. Leblond de Brumath, Hutoire populaire dt Montrial 
(Montreal, 1890); H. Beauerand, Le Vieux Montrial (Montreal. 
1884); Dollier de Casson, Hlstoire du Montrial, 1640-1672 (Mont- 
real, 1868); J. D. Borthwick. Montreal, its history, 6fc. (Montreal, 
1875). (L.J.B.) 

> MONTRESOR, CLAUDE DB BOURDBILLB, Coitte de {c. x6o6- 
1663), French intriguer and memoir- writer, was the grand- 
nephew of Pierre de Brant6roe. He was the second favourite 
of Gaston, duke of Orleans, the weak brother of Louis XUI., 
succeeding Antoine de Laage, due de Puylaurens, in this position 
in 1635. He planned the assassination of Cardinal Richelieu at 
the camp of Amiens in 1636, a plan which failed through the 
cowardice of Orleans. Montr£sor was obliged to spend the next 
six years on his estate, but in 1642 he entered into the plot of 
Cinq Mars against Richelieu. On its failure he escaped to 
England, but his estates were confiscated. Returning after 
Richelieu's death, he entered into the intrigues of the period 
just preceding the Fronde, and was imprisoned in the Bastille, 
then in Vincennes, having risked his safety by coming back from 
exile in Holland to aid the duchess of Chevreuse. Mazarin 
attempted to win him over in vain, but in 1653 ^^ made his 
submission to the victorious minister, and from that time on 
played no part in public life. He had three children by Mile de 
Guise, with whom he had a lasting liaison. 

His Memoires have preserved his name from the oblivion other- 
wise awaiting such intngucrs; they are written with naive frankness 
and are extremely interesting. They are printed by A. Petitot 
and Monmcrt^u^ in Collection des memoires relatifs d fhistoirt 
de France (Pans. 1876). 

MONTREUIL, GERBERT DE (Jl. 13th century), French 
trouvire, author of the Roman de la violelU. He dedicated Tiis 
poem (c. 1221) to the Countess Marie of Ponthieu, wife of Simon, 
count of Dammartin and a niece of Philip Augustus. The count 



Gerard de Nevers of the story stakes his domains on the fiddtty 
of his wife Euriant. Lisiard by rahimniating Euxiant wins the 
wager, but in the end the traitor is exposed, and, after v^y 
adventures, Euriant is reinstated. Another version of the stocy 
is given in the Roman du camU d$ PoiUers and in the tale in the 
Decameron (ii. 9) en which Shakespeare founded CymheUm. 
Lyrics are inserted in the narrative oif the Rmau da la mtldU, 
as they had been in the OmU da la rose (xaoo), known abo as 
Guillaume dt Dole. A prose version, dating from the early xstk 
century, provided Wilhelmine de Chfxy with the material lor her 
libretto of Weber's opera, Euryantke (1823). 

See Hist. litt. de la France, xxii. 783. xvuL 760, nS. 8s6; Lt 
comU de PoUiers (ed. F. Michel. 1831): Le RemaM de la tieldk (cd 
F. Mkhel. 1834): Le ConU de la rose (ed. ServoU. xSot): F. Kian, 
Ober Cerbert de MontreuU (Erlangen. 1897); RuddrOhle. Skake- 
tpeares Cymheline und seine romamischeu VaHdstfer (Beciia, 1890). 

M0NTRBUIL-60US-B0I8. a town of northern France in the 
department of Seine, 5 m. E. of Paris, on the slope and samzait 
of a hill, about x m. N. of Vincennes. Pop. (X906), 3s43i> 
MontreuU is specially noted for its extensive peach orchards. 
The manufactures include paint, oUs and varxiish, glass aod 
chemical products. 

MONTRBUIL-SUR-MBR, a town of northern France, capital 
of an arrondissement in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 m. 
S. by E. of Boulogne by raiL Pop. (1906), 3883. The town with 
its old citadel and ramparts, due largely to Vauban, is prettilj 
situated on an eminence on the left bank of the Cancfae xo m. 
from the English Channel. The chief buildings are the churck 
of St Saulve (12th, X3th and x6th centuries), and a hospital 
founded in x 300 and rebuilt in the xgth century, with a iae 
chapel in the Flamboyant style. The buildings of the oU abbey 
of Ste Austreberthe, founded originally in the xxthoentuiy,si3 
remain. Moniretiil is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a triboBal 
of first instance and a preparatory infantry schooL The tan 
owes its origin to a monastery established in the 7th centoy hf 
St Saulve, bishop of Amiens. 

MONTRBUX, the general name applied to the villages situated 
along the shore at the east of the Lake of GexKva in Switaer- 
Und, from Clarens to Veytaux: sometimes the name is specially 
given to Vernex only. These villages form p«rt of 3 coounuaci, 
those of Le Ch&telard (including Clarens and Vemez) and of Les 
Planches (including Territet), while a bit (not ChOlon) of that of 
Veytaux is alone included. The total population of this ** ao^ 
meration " was 14,144 in xgoo, mostly French-speaking. vUk 
there were 9730 Protestants to 430X Romanists and 55 je«s. 
There are railway stations at Clarens (15 m. south-east of Laa- 
sanne), at Vernex (} m. on), and Territet (x m. on, or ) bl froa 
Veytaux, which is 1} m. north of ViUeneuve), as well as as 
electric tramway along the shore of the lake, and frequent ooa- 
munication over the lake by steamer. From Territet there ii a 
mountain railway past Glion and Caux nearly to the top of ik 
Rochers de Naye (6710 ft.), while from Vemez the UoMna- 
Bemese-Oberland railway mounts past Les Avants, pierces tke 
ridge of the Col de Jaman by a tunnel, and so reaches (14 n) 
Montbovon in the Gruyire portion of the npper Sarine vaDey. 
At first foreigners were attracted by the cheapness and good tfo{ 
the region, added to the grape cure. As the ddights of dear, 
cold weather in winter and of tobogganing (here caDed " kigiac') 
and skiing became appreciated, the higher hoteb (such as Les 
Avants, Caux, Glion) were frequented at that season, as wcB as at 
other times. It is stated that in 1902 31,473 foreigncis C* 
1903. 39>493) visited Montreux, 7634 being Germans, 7J^ 
English, and 5651 French. Montreux was not a R«aii> 
settlement, but otherwise its history is samiUr to that if 
Vevey. 

MONTROND, CASIMIR* Coim- Dl (1768-1843). ^"^ 
diplomatic agent, was the son of a military officer; his wtthf** 
Angilique Marie d'Arius, comtcsae de Montrond <d. 1817), «« > 
royalist writer, said to be the author of the Troubadaar Msrati^ 
a song which has the refrain " Louis, lefils de Henri, Etl ftise^ 
dans Paris." Casimtr was imprisoned in 1794 in St taai^ 
where he met the divorced ducfaoie de Fleuxy (nie Ftanqsclot^ 



MONTROSE, MARQUESSES OF 



793 



Coigny), the "jeune capthe " of Aiuir6 Ch^nier's famous vencs. 
He bought her freedom and his own with xoo louis. They 
married and crossed to London, but the union proved unhappy, 
and they were divorced on their return to Paris. 

Turning to the fashionable world, Casimir de Montrond 
became famous for his successes. He was the confidant and 
poUtical agent of Talleyrand, and his inside knowledge of politics 
enabled him to make a large fortune on the Bourse. In 1809 he 
was disgraced for some imprudent comments on the imperial 
system, and exiled from Paris. After spending some time at 
Antwerp he removed to Spa, where he was on intimate terms with 
Pauline Borgh^, and in 181 1 he returned to Antwerp; here he 
was arrested by Napoleon's orders and sent to the fortress of 
Ham. After a month's imprisonment he received permission to 
reside, under police supervision, at Ch&tillon-sur-Seine, whence 
he presently escaped to England. He returned to France at the 
first Bourbon restoration, and during the Hundred Days was 
entrusted with a mission to Vienna to convert Talleyrand to 
Napoleon's interests, to see Mctternich and Nesselrode, and to 
bring back if possible Marie Louise and the king of Rome. The 
second restoration restored him to his social triumphs, though he 
was always under police supervision, and on Talleyrand's fall 
he accompanied him to Valencay and continued to help with 
bis intrigues. He followed Talleyrand to London in 1832. 
Montrond returned to Paris some time before his death in 
1843- 

* See H. Welschinger. *« L'AmI deM.de Talleyrand," in the Ranu 
dt Paris (Feb. 1895): Lanzac de Laboric, La Domtnation Iran- 
eaiu en Belgiaue (1895); and AmkAbt Pichot, Souoenirs sur ii, de 
TttiUyrand (lijo). 

'■ MONTROSE, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OP. David Lind- 
say, 5th earl of Crawford (c. 1440-1495), was created duke of 
Montrose in 1488 (the first dukedom conferred in Scotland on a 
perK>n not of royal blood), as a reward for remaining loyal to 
James III. during the rebellion of Angus and Prince James. 
Montrose was deprived of his dukedom by James IV., but it was 
restored in 1489 for life only. On his death in 1495 the title 
therefore became extinct. 

- In 1505, William, 4th Lord Graham, whose wife Annabella 
Drummond was the duke's niece, was created earl of Montrose; 
and this title was held by his descendants till 1644, when James 
Graham, 5th earl, was created marquess of Montrose and earl of 
Kincardine. This was the celebrated marquess of Montrose (9 v ) 
of the Civil War, whose son and successor. James (c. 1631-1669), 
was known as " the Good Marquess." The latter refused to vote 
at the trial of his hereditary enemy the marquess of Argyll in 
x66i, admitting that he could not act impartially in such a 
matter; and the two noblemen afterwards became firm friends. 
The good marquess died in 1669, and was succeeded by his son 
James, 3rd marquess of Montrose (d. 1684). The 4th marquess, 
son of the last mentioned, who was also named James (d. 1743), 
was lord high admiral of Scotland in 1705, and lord president of 
the council in 1706. He was an ardent supporter of the Hano* 
verian succession; he also favoured the union of Scotland with 
England, for his services in regard to which he was created duke 
of Montrose and marquess of Graham in 1707, becoming in the 
same year one of the first representative peers of Scotland in the 
parliament of Great Britain. He was one of the regents of the 
kingdom on the death of Queen Anne, and was appointed a 
secretary of state by George I. He took an active part in suppress- 
ing the Jacobite rising in 171s, after which he was made keeper 
of the great seal in Scotland. He died in 1742. During his life- 
time bis son David was raised to the peerage of Great Britain 
with the title of Earl Graham; and on David's death without 
issue in 1 73 1 this earldom passed under a special remainder to his 
brother William (c. 1710-1790), whoon his father's death in 1742 
succeeded to the dukedom also. William's son James, 3rd duke 
of Montrose (1755-1836), held office in Pitt's administrations in 
1783 and 1804, and in that of the duke of Portland in 1807. He 
obtained the annulment of the law prohibiting Highlanders from 
wearing the kilt. He was succeeded by his son James ( 1 799-1874) , 
who held office under the earl of Derby in 1852, and again in 1858 



and 1866, and was father of Douglas Beresford Malise Ronald, 
5th duke (b. 1852). In 1853 James Lindsay, 24th earl of Craw- 
ford, claimed the title of duke of Montrose on the ground that 
the patent granted to his ancestor David Lindsay in 1488 (see 
above) had not been effectively rescinded, but his petition was 
dismissed by the House of Lords. 

MONTROSE, JAMES GRAHAM, Masquess of (i6i2>i65o), 
was bom in 16x2, and became 5th earl of Montrose (see above) by 
his father's death in 1626. He was educated at St. Andrews, and 
at the age of seventeen married Magdalene Carnegie, daughter 
of Lord Carnegie (afterwards earl of Southesk). Not long after 
the outbreak of the Scottish troubles in 1637 he joined the party 
of resistance, and was for some time one of its most energetic 
champions. He had nothing puritanical in his nature, but he 
shared in the ill-feeling aroused in the Scottish nobility by the 
political authority given by Charles to the bishops, and by 
Hamilton's influence with the king, and also in the general 
indignation at the scheme of imposing upon Scotland a hturgy 
which had been drawn up at the instigation of the English court 
and corrected by Archbishop Laud. He signed the Covenant, 
and was told off to suppress the opposition to the popular cause 
which arose around Aberdeen and in the country of the Gordons. 
Three times, in July 1638, and in March and June 1639, Montrose 
entered Aberdeen, where he succeeded in effecting his object, 
on the second occasion carrying off the head of the Ciordons, the 
marquess of Huntly, as a prisoner to Edinburgh, though in so 
doing, for the first and last time in his life, he violated a safe- 
conduct. 

In July 1639, after the signature of the treaty of Berwick, 
Montrose was one of the Covenanting leaders who visited Charles. 
This change of policy on his part, frequently ascribed to the 
fascination of the king's conversation, arose in reality from the 
nature of his own convictions. He wbhed to get rid of the 
bishops without making presbyters masters of the state. His was 
essentially a layman's view of the situation. Taking no account 
of the real forces of the time, he aimed at an ideal form of society 
in which the clergy should confine themselves to their spiritual 
duties, and the king, after being enlightened by open communi- 
cation with the Scottish nation, should maintain law and order 
without respect of persons. In the Scottish parliament which 
met in September, Montrose found himself in opposition to 
Argyll, who had made himself the representative of the Presby- 
terian and national party, and of the middle classes. Montrose, 
on the other hand, wished to bring the king's authority to bear 
upon pariiament to defeat this object, and offered him the 
support of a great number of nobles. He failed, because 
Charles could not even then consent to abandon the bishops, 
and because no Scottish party of any weight could be formed 
unless Presbyterianism were established ecclesiastically. 

Rather than give way, Charles prepared in 1640 to invade 
Scotland. Montrose was of necessity driven to play something 
of adoub^part. In August 1640 he signed the Bond of Cumber- 
nauld as a protest against the " particular and direct practising 
of a few," in other words, against the ambition of Argyll. But 
he took his place an\ongst the defenders of his country, and in the 
same month he displayed his gallantry in action at the forcing 
of the Tyne at Newbum. After the invasion had been crowned 
with success, Montrose still continued to cherish his now hopeless 
policy. On the 27th of May 1641 he was summoned before the 
Committee of Estates charged with intrigues against Argyll, and 
on the nth of June he was imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle. 
When Charles visited Scotland to give his formal assent to the 
abolition of Episcopacy, Montrose communicated to him his 
belief that Hamilton was a traitor. It had indeed been alleged, 
on Clarendon's authority, that he proposed to murder Hamilton 
and Argyll, but this is in all probability only one of Clarendon's 
many blunders. (See S. R. Gardiner, H15/. of England, 1603-1642, 
X. 26). Upon the king's return to England Montrose shared 
in the amnesty which was tacitly accorded to all Charles's 
partisans. 

For a time Montrose retired, perforce, from public life. After 
the Civil War began in England (see Great Rebeluon) he 



794 



MONTROSE— MONT ST MICHEL 



constantly pressed Charles to allow him to make a diversion in 
Scotland. Hamilton's impracticable policy of keeping Scotland 
neutral for long stood in the way of Charles's consent. But in 
1644, when a Scottish army entered England to take part against 
the king, Montrose, now created a marquess, was at last allowed 
to try what he could do. He set out to invade Scotland with 
about 1000 men. But his followers deserted, and his condition 
appeared hopeless. Disguised as a groom, he started on the i8th 
of August with only two gentlemen to make his way to the 
Highlands. Highlanders had never before been known to com- 
bine together, but Montrose knew that most of the clans detested 
Argyll, and the clans rallied to his summons. About 2000 
disciplined Irish soldiers had crossed the sea to assist him. 
In two campaigns, distinguished by rapidity of movement, he 
met and defeated his opponents in six battles. At Tippermuir 
and Aberdeen he routed Covenanting levies; at Inverlochy he 
crushed the Campbells, at Auldearn, Alford and Kilsyth his 
victories were obtained over well-led and disciplined armies. 
At Dundee he extricated his army from the greatest peril, and 
actually called his men oft from the sack that had begun— a feat 
beyond the power of any other general in Europe. The fiery 
enthusiasm of the Gordons and other clans often carried the day, 
but Montrose relied more upon the disciplined infantry which had 
followed Alastair Macdonald from Ireland. His strategy at 
Dundee and Inverlochy, his tactics at Aberdeen, Auldearn and 
Kilsyth furnished models of the military art, but above all his 
daring and constancy marked him out as the greatest soldier of 
the war, Cromwell alone excepted. His career of victory was 
crowned by the great battle of Kilsyth (Aug. 15, 1645). Now 
Montrose found himself apparently master of Scotland. In the 
name of the king, who now appointed him lord-Ueutcnant and 
captain-general of Scotland, he summoned a parliament to meet 
at Glasgow on the 20th of October, in which he no doubt hoped 
to reconcile loyal obedience to the king with the establishment of a 
non-political Presbyterian clergy. That parliament never met. 
Charles had been defeated at Naseby on (he 14th of June, and 
Montrose must come to his help if there was to be still a king to 
proclaim. David Leslie, the best of the Scottish generals, was 
promptly despatched against Montrose to anticipate the in- 
vasion. On the 1 2th of September he came upon Montrose, 
deserted by his Highlanders and guarded only by a little group 
of followers, at Philiphaugh. He won an easy victory. Mon- 
trose c\it his way through to the Highlands, but he failed to 
organize an army. In September 1646 he embarked for Norway. 

Montrose was to appear once more on the stage of Scottish 
history. In June 1649, burning to revenge the death of the 
king, he was restored by the exile Charles II. to the now nominal 
lieutenancy of Scotland. Charles however did not scruple 
shortly afterwards to disavow his noblest supporter in order to 
become a king on terms dictated by Argyll and Argyll's adherents. 
In March 1650 Montrose landed in the Orkneys to take the com- 
mand of a small force which he had sent on before him. Crossing 
to the mainland, he tried in vain to raise the clans, and on the 
27th of April he was surprised and routed at Carbiesdale in 
Ross-shire. After wandering for some time he was surrendered 
by Macleod of Assynt, to whose protection, in ignorance of 
Macleod's political enmity, he had entrusted himself. He was 
brought a prisoner to Edinburgh, and on the 3oth of May 
sentenced to death by the parliament. He was hanged on the 
2 1 St, with Wishart's laudatory biography of him put round his 
neck. To the last he protested that he was a real Covenanter 
and a loyal subject. 

The principal authorities for Montrose's career are Wishart's 
Res gestae, &c. (Amsterdam. 1647): Patrick Gordon's Short Abridge' 
ment of Britane's Distemper (Spalding Club) : and the comprehensive 
work of Napier, Memorials of Montrose, is abundantly documented, 
containing Montrose's poctr>'. in which is included his celebrated 
lyric "My dear and only love." 

I MONTROSE, a royal, municipal, and police burgh and seaport 
of Forfarshire, Scotland. It is situated 30} m. N.E. of Dundee 
by the North British railway and is also connected with the 
Caledonian railway company's system by a branch to Dubton. 
Pop. (190X), 12,427. The town occupies a considerable area on a 



sandy peninsula, and is bounded on thk E. by tlie North Sea, on 
the N. by the North Esk, on the S. by the South Esk, and on the 
W. by Montrose Basin, a large depression, about 7 m. in drcuit 
The reclamation of the Basin has been attempted, but aa 
embankment constructed by Dutch diken for this purpose 
was demolished in a few hours by a storm. In the moulK 
of the channel of the South Esk lies the island of Rosaie. 
or Inchbrayock (pop. 160), which in 2829 was connected with 
the burgh by means of a suspension bridge 433 ft. long and by 
a drawbridge with the south bank near the fishing ^-illage of 
Ferryden (pop. 1330). The harbour lies between the suspensioa 
bridge and the sea, and is provided with a wet dock. The links 
form one of the best golf-courses in Scotland and are played over 
by several clubs. Besides the staple industry oi flaz-spinniDg, 
there are manufactures of linen, canvas, sheetings, starch, soap, 
chemicals, rope and mantires, while iron-foundinig, tanning sod 
brewing are also carried on. The fisheries are of very consider- 
able importance and the shipping is usually brisk. There is a 
large trade, especially in timber (the chief import), mainly «ith 
Baltic ports and Canada. The parish church is a plain structure, 
but has a handsome steeple 200 ft. high. The principal buildings 
include the town-hall, the academy on the links, dating from 
1820, though its predecessor belonged to the i6tii century; the 
museum, Dorward's house of refuge, erected in 1839; the 
infirmary and the royal asylum at Sunnyside on the Outskirts to 
the north-west. Panmure barracks are not far from the vet 
dock. In High Street arc statues to Sir Robert Fed and Joseph 
Hume. Montrose is governed by a provost, bailies and council, 
and unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Inverbervie (the 
Montrose burghs) in returning one member to parliament, a 
district group that was represented for many years by Jcita 
Morley. Montrose received its charter from David I., and was 
made a royal burgh in 1352. It was destroyed by fixe b 1244* 
Here Edward I. accepted John Baliol's surrender of the kingdoa 
on the loth of July 1296. Sir James Douglas sailed from the 
port in 1330 bound for the Holy Land with the heart of Robert 
Bruce; and here, too, the Old Pretender embarked in 1716 for 
France after the failure of his cause. In 1745 the town threv in 
its lot with the Hanoverians, a fact which lent zest to tbedariDg 
capture of the " Hazard " sloop of war off Ferryden, by Captain 
David Ferrier of Brechin, a thorough-going Jacobite. 

MONT ST MICHEL, a rocky islet of western France, off the 
coast of the department of Manche, some 6 m. N. of Pontoisoa. 
Pop. (1906), 238. It forms a towering mass of granite about 
3000 ft. in circumference and 165 ft. in height, rising near the 
mouth of the Couesnon nearly a mile from the shore, to which 
it is united by a causeway. The fortress-abbey to vhick 
Mont St Michel owes its fame stands upon the more predpttovs 
side of the islet towards the north and ^-est, the slopiaf 
portion towards the east and south being occupied by 
houses. A strong machicolated and turreted wall surroundi 
the rock, running along its base on the south, ascending half* 
way up the cliff on the north, on which side it stawb dose 
to the abbey wall, and again descending on the west. Tht 
northern and oldest portion of the ramparu dates from the 
13th century; the single gateway by which they are pkited 
is on the south and is a good example of the military archite^ 
ture of the 15th century. The single street of the tslaad 
curves from the gateway up to the abbey, ending in flights d 
steps leading to the donjon or chitelet. It is bordered by old 
houses, among which is one built by Bertrand da Gncsclis is 
1366, and contains a parish church of the tsth century. The 
abbey itself consists of an assemblage of buil^gs in thice 
storeys upon massive foundations around the church, the most 
important portion, the Merveille, extending to the north. TV 
floor of the church, built partly on the rock, partly upon founds* 
tions, and, at the east end, over a crypt, is on a level with the 
uppermost storey of the monastic buildings. To the north of sod 
below the apse lies the group of buildings known as the Bci!^ 
Chaise. It comprises the chAtelet (15th Century), a scpsue 
entrance structure strengthened by flanking turrets and madiico- 
lation, the adjoining guaid-room (i jth century) with the uSt 



MONTSERRAT 



795 



des offiden above it, and behind all the Tour Pem'ne. The 
Mervetlie (1203-1264) consists of two continuous buildings of 
three storeys, that on the east containing, one above the other, 
the hospitium (aumSnerU), refectory and dormitory, that on the 
west the cellar, knights' hall (salle des chevaliers) and cloister. 
Of the apartments, ail of the finest Gothic architecture, the chief 
are the refectory, divided down the centre by columns and lighted 
by large embrasured windows, and the knights' hall, a superb 
chamber, the vaulting of which is supported on three rows of 
cylindrical pillars. The cloister, one of the purest and most 
graceful works of the 13th century, is surrounded by double 
lines of slender columns carrying pointed arcades, between which 
delicate floral designs are carved. The exterior wall of the 
Merveille is of remarkable boldness; reaching a height of 108 ft., 
it is supported by twenty buttresses and pierced with a variety of 
openinjef. The church, which rises high above the buildings 
clustering round it, consists of transepts and four bays of the 
nave of Romanesque architecture and of afine choir (1450-1521) 
In the Flamboyant Gothic style with a triforium surmounted by 
lofty windows. This choir replaced one which collapsed in 1431- 
In 1776 three of the seven bays of the nave were pulled down, 
and soon after the incongruous western fiont was added. The 
finest part of the exterior is the choir, which is ornamented with 
a profusion of carved pinnacles and balustrading. The central 
tower terminates in a Gothic spire surmounted by a gilded bronze 
statue of St Michael. 

Mont St Michel was a sacred place from the earliest times. In 
the 8th century an oratory was established there by St Aubert, 
bfehop of Avranches, in obedience to the commands of an appari- 
tion of St Michael. The place soon became a noted resort of 
pilgrims, not only from all parts of France, but also from Great 
Britain, Ireland and Italy. In 966 Richard I., duke of Normandy, 
founded in place of the oratory a Benedictine monastery, which 
in the succeeding century received a considerable share of the 
spoils of the conquest of England. In 1 203 the monastery was 
burnt by the troops of Philip Augustus, who afterwards furnished 
large sums for its restoration (La Merveille). St Louis made a 
pilgrimage to Mont St Michel, and afterwards supplied funds 
which were spent on the fortifications. A garrison and military 
governor subordinate to the abbot were also installed. During 
the last thirty years of the Hundred Years' War the abbey offered 
a persistent resistance to the English. In 1469 Louis XL 
instituted the Order of St Michel, which held its meetings in the 
salle des chevaliers. During the Wars of Religion, the Hugue- 
nots repeatedly made unsuccessful attempts to seize the fortress, 
which opened its gates to Henry IV. in 1595 after his abjuration. 
In 1622 the Benedictine monks of Mont St Michel were replaced 
by monks of the Congregation of St Maur. In the i8th and 19th 
centuries the abbey was used as a prison for political offenders, 
serving this purpose until 1863, when an extensive restoration, 
begun in 1838, was resumed. The building is the property of the 
Commission of Historical Monuments, which has carried on the 
work of restoration with great architectural and antiquarian 
ability. 

MONTSERRAT. or Monserrat, a remarkable mountain and 
moTULitery in north-east Spain, 30 m.. N. W. of Barcelona. The 
mountain is of grey conglomerate; its main axis trends from 
W.N.W. to E.S.E., and its circumference is about id m. The 
loftiest point is the Tur6 de San Jeronimo, also called Mirador and 
La Miranda (4070 ft.), which commands a view of the Pyrinics, 
and the Mediterranean Sea as far as the Balearic Islands. On the 
east the base of the Montserrat is washed by the river Llobregat. 
The Montserrat consists of jagged pinnacles and spires (penascos) 
rising abruptly from the base of the mass, which is cloven by 
many ravines, and abounds with steep precipices. It is the 
mons strratus of the Romans, the monte serrado of the Spaniards, 
and is thus named either in allusion to its jagged appearance, 
like the teeth of a saw, or because it is split, as if sawn by the 
vast fissure of the Valle Malo, which extends from north-west 
to east. This occurred, say the Spanish legends, at the time of 
the Crucifixion, when the rocks were rent. In medieval German 
legends, which located here the castle of the Holy Grail, the 



mount:un is called Monsalwaisck, a name analogous to the 
modern Catalan form Montsagrat " sacred mountain." From 
Moni^trol, a village on the north-east, with a station on the 
Barctlona-Lirida railway, the monastery can be reached cither 
by ihe carriage road built in 1857, or by the mounuin railway 
opened in 1892. The ascent is also frequently made by a bridle 
path from the village of Collbatd, on the south-west, where there 
are ^me interesting caverns. 

The monastery stands 2910 ft. above sea-level upon a narrow 
platform on the edge of the Valle Malo. It owes its existence 
La an image of the Virgin, said to have been carved by St Luke, 
and brought to Barcelona by St Peter in a.d. 30. When the 
Moors invaded the province in 717 the image was taken to 
Mont^rrat, where a Benedictine convent appears to have already 
exi$tcd, and hidden in a cave. In 880 Gondemar, bishop of 
Vich, was attracted to the cave by sweet sounds and smells, 
and ttiert found the image, which he determined to take to 
\Linrcia. But at a certain spot on the mountain the image 
refund to proceed farther; there it was consequently deposited, 
and a chapel was erected to contain it. Round the chapel a 
nunnery was built, and in 976 this was enlarged and converted 
into a second Benedictine convent. The old monastery {monas- 
tirie antigtto) is chiefly in ruins. The cloisters, belfry and part 
of the church were Gothic of the 15th century. The church of 
the new monastery {monasterio actual) was built in Renaissance 
style under Philip II. (i 560-1 592) ; in 181 1 it was partially burned, 
and in 1880 a Romanesque apse was added. New buildings for 
the monks were erected under Ferdinand VIL (i 784-1833), but 
left partly unfinished. During the Napoleonic wars (1808-14) 
it w^ despoiled of the vast treasures which had accumulated 
during the middle ages. In 1835, as a result of the Carlist 
insurrection, the convent was deprived of its estates and the 
number of monks reduced to about twenty. The monks are 
largely occupied by the management of a school of sacred music. 
In 1874 the convent, which by a grant of Pope Benedict XIII. 
had been an independent abbey since 1410, was made subject to 
the bishops of Barcelona, 

Nucttffl Senora de' Mont^tn^ti Patrons dc Cdtaluila {*' Our 
Lady ol Mantserr-it. Patron Saint of CatalonU ">t is one ol th* 
mo*t celebrated images in ^paiHi and her chunrh is vLslred anrualljf 
by more than bo,ooD pilg^nrnv. The image h itnatL blact^ and 
carved of wood* but po»sc»K£ rtugnifiocTit rotics and jewels In 
September (SJiJMt was lolcmnty crowntd by Leo XllL, who wnt 
a crown From Rome for that pjrpo^. As the celebrity and sanctity 
of Montscrrai incrtased, to did ilje number of dcvotwa. lenauui 
Loyola {i4gi-i^56} laid hit iword upon the akar of ihd Viil&iii, 
and, placirr^ himKlf under hi-r proieetion, started from Mont* 
«crrat 10 be^in hii new life. Many eminfrit Span tarda, weary of 
the world , have retired to ihii monaitery to end their dayt. Some 
preferred solitary hrrmitaBes perched amon^ the roclu. Of theie 
there were fifteen, eleven of which once formed a via lacrc, ending 
at the ummit of San Jeronimo- They wtre destroyed hy the 
French, bur ilie ruiiis uf '^nmc fffni^in. Thtfj^ atp ^1^ cavc^ m the 

moimt.^li. ■■:' •■■'■■ ■ - ■-. I . ■ • !. ■ ' ' L,., The 

m&$t cfv- ■ „■ - ■ i^'-h the 

sania irfiagen remained hidden until found by Gondemar, and the 
cav« of Fray Juan Garin, a notorious sinner, who ended his days 
in the practice of revolting penances at Montserrat. 

MONTSERRAT, an island in the British West Indies, one of 
the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. 
Pop , mostly negroes (1901), 12,215. It lies 27 m. S.W. of 
Antigua, in i6' 45' N. and 62® 7' W.; is 11 m. long and 7 m. 
broad, and has a total area of 32} sq. m. The bland is a cluster 
of mi^ged volcanic peaks rising from the Caribbean Sea, their 
summits clothed with forests; the still active Soufriere (3000 ft.) 
in the south being the highest point. The average temperature 
LS fit* F., the hottest weather being usually tempered by cool 
sea breezes; the rainfall averages 94 in. per annum. There is a 
plentiful supply of water, and the roads are macadamized and 
well drained. The principal products are sugar and raw and 
concentrated lime-juice. Minerals are also found. Montserrat 
has » local legislature of six members, nominated by the Crown, 
and sends representatives to the genetal legislative council of 
the colony. Education is compulsory, and the majority of the 
schools are managed by the Church of England, to which most 
of the islanders belong; but the Wesleyans and the Roman 



796 



MONTT— MONUMENT 



Catholics also support schools. Plymouth (pop. 1461), the chief 
town, stands on an open roadstead on the south-west coast. 
» The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, who named it 
alter Monserrado, a mountain in Spain. It was colonized by 
the British under Sir Thomas Warner in 1632, and was taken by 
the French in 1664. Restored to the British in 1668, it capitu- 
lated to the French in 1782, but was again restored in 1784. 

MONTT, MANUEL (1809-1880), Chilean sutesman, was bom 
on the 5th of September 1809. He had a distingxiished career 
as a scholar, and was introduced into public life during the 
presidency (1831-1841) of Arieto by Diego Portales. Montt 
distinguished himself by his courage in the crisis that followed 
upon Portales' assassination in 1837, though only holding a sub- 
ordinate post in the government, and afterwards he held several 
ministerial offices, and during the presidency (1841-1851) of 
Bulnes he became minister of justice and public instruction, and 
later of the interior. He was dected president in 1851 and again 
in 1856, and though the Liberals chafed imder his rule, and two 
revolutions, in 1851 and 1859, took place during his administra- 
tion, he governed Chile with an energy and wisdom that laid the 
foundation of her material prosperity. He was ably assisted by 
his minister of the interior Antonio Varas, and it was from the 
union of the two statesmen that the well-known ultra-conserva- 
tive faction, the Montt-Varistas, took their name. His presid- 
ency was marked by the establishment of railways, telegraphs, 
banks, schools and training-colleges. On giving up his post in 
x86i he became president of the Supreme Court of Justice, a 
position which he held up to his death on the zoth of September 
1880. His son Jorje (b. 1846) was president of Chile in 1891- 
1896, and a younger son, Pedro (d. 1910), in 1906-1910. ' 

See P. B. Figucroa, Diccionario biogrqfico de ChUe, 1550-1887 
(Santiago, 1888); and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos biograficos de hombres 
notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886). 

MONTUCLA, JEAN iTIENNE (1735-1799), French mathe- 
matician, was bom at Lyons on the sth of September 1735. In 
17 54 he published an anonymous treatise entitled Histoiredes 
reckerches sur la quadrature du cercle, and in 1758 the first part of 
his great work, Hisloire des mathimatigues, the first history of 
mathematics worthy of the name. He was appointed intendant- 
secretary of Grenoble in 1758, secretary to the expedition for 
colonizing Cayenne in 1 764, and " premier commis des b&timents " 
and censor-royal for mathematical books in 1765. The Revolu- 
tion deprived him of his income and left him in great destitution. 
The offer in 1795 of a mathematical chair in one of the schools of 
Paris was declined on accoimt of his infirm health, and he was 
still in straitened cimmstances in 1798, when he published a 
second edition of the first part of hb Histoire. In 1778 he 
rc-edited Jacques Ozanam's Ricriations mathimatiques, after- 
wards published in English by Charles Hutton (4 vols., London, 
1803). He died on the i8th of December 1799. His Histoire 
was completed by J. J. Le F. de Lalande, and published at Paris 
in 1799-1802 (4 vols.). 

MONTYON, ANTOINE JEAN BAPTISTE ROBERT AUOET, 
Baron de (i 733-1820), French philanthropist, was bom in 
Paris on the 23rd of December 1733. His father was a mailre 
des comptes] he was educated for the law, and became advocate 
at the Chitclet in 1755, master of requests to the council of state 
in 1760, and intendant successively of Auvergne, Provence and 
La Rochelle. He had repeatedly shown great independence of 
character, protesting against the accusation of Caradeuc de La 
Chalotais in 1766, and refusing in 1771 to suppress the local 
courts of justice in obedience to Maupeou. He was made a 
councillor of state in 1775 by the influence of Louis de Bourbon, 
duke of Penthievre, and in 1780 he was attached to the court in 
the honorary office of chancellor to the comte d'Artois (after- 
wards Charles X.). He followed the princes into exile, and lived 
for some years in London. During the emigration period he 
spent large sums on the alleviation of the poverty of his fellow 
immigrants, returning to France only at the second restoration. 
Between 1 780 and 1 787 he had founded a series of prizes, the 
awards to be made by the French academy and the academies 
of science and medicine.^ These prizes fell into abeyance during 



the revolutionary period, but woi" Te-established In'iSip 

Montyoi) died on the ?Qlh of December iSj&t bequcitluDC 
[o.coo francs for the perpetual endowment of each of the 
following prizes: for the discovery of the means of raidcfiDf 
some mechanical process less dangerous to the workman 1 lor 
the perfecting of any technical improvement tn a mechankil 
process, for the book which during the year rendered the 
grcalest service to hiimjuiity; iKc " prix de vertu " for tN 
tnost courageous act on the part of * poor Frenchmait^tbe 
awards being left as before to the teamed academies He tbo 
left 1 0^000 francs to eacb of the Parisian hospitaLi. 

Monryon wrote a lerilei flf vorki, chiefly on polltifatccEnnniy: 
EJote dt Hltikfi di t'Hopiiai {Fari#, 1777) . Rtckxrchts rt (pms^fcUwf 
iuT la p<fpuiQ.HfiR dt ia FraKi:t 077^K a «har? ol whkb is attribute 
to hi* Kcrttary, Mohe^Li ; KcppcriJaU d Loini X Vltl, (Con§taR«^ 
179^}. in which he maintained in apposition to Cilanne'i TaUtaw 
de rEuTGpt that Fmncc had always pD»«e&»d a ootutituTiaa, 
which had, however, been violated by the kingm of France » tim 
itoiisitqui dfu Tunkin (l^ll); and PartUvlartUi . . . tur itM wnmu* 
ires dty finances t» France (lSl3). 

Sw LicretellcK. " Di*coiiri lur M^ Montixm*" in the Mtnml if 

and. flirt her* F. Ljbour» 1/. d* Mintiytm d'ttpfti 4a d^cvaU 
inklilj (Pari*. tftSo); G. DumoulinH ^crniymt (Pari*, liSf): «ad 
cspecbily L. Guimbaud« Autet 4* Mttniy<m (j^o^)^ 



HOHUHENT (Lai. monumentum or rmmimentum; from 
to advise, bring to mind, remind; the Gemuji equivalent il 
Denkmai), literally that which serves to keep alive the maaatf 
of a person, an event, or a period. The word is thtis applied to t 
crolumn, statue, or building erected for that particLil&r pinpotr, 
ai ^* The Monument " (i.e. of the Great Fire) m LoisdoD; to dl 
the various memorials which man thioughout the agei hu 
raised over the buried dead, the barrows tuid calms at pR^ 
historic times, the representation of the living figure of tlieite>4 
brasses, busts, &c., or the varying forms, allegorical or otboirisCt 
taken by the tombstones of the tnodem cemetery. In a rider 
sense " monument " is used of aU survtvaU af a past tfe, is 
which sense it may include all the vestiges of pi^iitQtric uua^ 
dolmen$, menhirs, remains of LakeHdweOtap, stoae-drcles. ud 
the like, buildings large and small, cities, castles, pai&co, a^d 
examples of domestic architecture, which have any jnienitj 
historic or artistic, as well as movable artistic or archiedapcil 
irea^ure^, which exist in private or public coOectiom, or wh\A 
are discovered by excavation, &c. In a tnore reslricied tec^e 
the word ** monument " is also applied to a oomprtbei^fi^^ 
treatise on any particutar subject — such as the Mptnefvis 
lypogrQphita, or an historical collect ion such as the M^frmmem^ 
CirTTtamat kisicrica. In the English law of cot]fvr>'axidnf a 
" znoiTLument ** h an object fixed in the soil, whether naiinaf « 
artificial, and referred to in a document, and lued M evidaict for 
the delineation of boundaria or the situation ol a partkutsi {doC 
ai land. lie. 

Jar a description of various kinds of monuments see ti^ 
afticl» as Akchaeolqcy; Stone &Ionumekts- EmcttSv 
MosimtNTAL; Eil^sses; Sctn^rtrM:; many pariicular mwsth 
menu, such as Stonchenge, are treated under thdr mpecttvi 
names, or in the articles on the towns, Sec, In which theystuwi. 

The present article dcaU with the presentation, by gr^vernnfrE 
action, local or central, of the evidences and remaire cf pti! 
history and civiUzatiorv, and, incidentally, with limiUr lOJoa 
e;i tended to sites and places of natural beauty and Interest, vhid 
the Germans call NaiutdenkmdUr, natural monumcnLL The 
important work of C, Baldwin Bfown, The C^rt ^j/ ,^1 ncifni J/.^ j'- 
mfnif, published in ]^s,[s practically the only book inEngL>i 
on this subject, tl oinlalns a most ample bibliofrapliy for c^^ 
country and ^vcs many references to various paiodicih i^i 
different languages. In tBgj was isued a report £C- Uih 
liiscelL Rep0Ttt, 2) from Briti^ representatives abnu<I *i '^ 
** the statutory provisions eijstinjg in foreign countries fot "^ 
preservation of historical buOdings." Reference ajso 1^^ 
be made to The C«rt ef Natural Afontments (itjog), by H. C»j 
wentz, Prussiaa State Commissioner for the Caie of KiW^ 
Monuments. 

The chief queitioii_at_iaiue^ii>,_lww_{ir_dDC» the na^ 



MONUMENT 



797 



mrtistic or historic interest of a monument, in the widest sense of 
the word, justify the interference of the state with the right of a 
private owner, whether corporate body or individual, to do what 
he likes with his own? Nearly every European country other 
than the United Kingdom has ^ven a decided answer to this 
question. It may be noticed, as showing the extreme reluctance 
to state interference in the United Kingdom, that a clause, 
laying on an owner of a monument, scheduled under the Monu- 
ment Act 18S3, the obligation of offering it for purchase to the 
state if he wished to destroy it, was struck out of that act. 

The main lines followed by legislation or regulation for the 
preservation of monuments may be briefly indicated. Central 
organizations of commissions and conservators, with a staff of 
architects, inspectors, and archaeological or artistic experts for 
consultation, are established. These may have large legal 
powers of enforcing their decisions, or may act chiefly by advice 
or persuasion. The national treasures are catalogued and 
scheduled, and the value estimated in an exhaustive inventory, in 
many cases supplemented by local inventories. In many cases, 
unfortunately, a valuable monument has been destroyed through 
ignorance of its value. A special form of inventory, carrying with 
it legal consequences, is that known as the dassement system; 
of this form the French is the typical example. In this only the 
outstanding monuments find a place, and such either become 
national property altogether, or the protection and preservation 
is undertaken by the state, or may be left in the hands of the 
private owner; but in any case the monument cannot be 
destroyed, restored or repaired without the consent of the 
central authority. The dassemeni system has been criticized 
as tending to depreciate the consideration paid to such monu- 
ments as do not appear in the list — monuments non-dassis. 
The British Monument Acts adopt a narrow kind of dasse- 
ment in the schedule attached to the 1882 act. Most states have 
powers of expropriation or compulsory purchase of private 
property on grounds of public utility, and English law is no 
exception— as in the case of the compulsory purchase of land 
for railways. The majority of states have made the pro- 
tection of monuments such a matter of public utility. Further, 
the exportation of artistic or historic treasures, i.e. movable 
monuments, has been controlled by the state, notably in the case 
of Italy and Greece, Turkey and Egypt. Connected with this 
side of the question is the control by the state of excavations 
undertaken by private persons, even on their own property. In 
Germany considerable protection is effected by the powers given 
to municipalities to make by-laws, respecting not only the 
preservation of the monuments, but also the erection of new 
buildings that may interfere with the monuments or with the 
general characteristic appearance {Stadtbild) of the town. This 
is also the case in Italy, where there are frequent regulations 
as to town-planning {piano rcgolamento). 

The following is a brief account of the measures adopted in 
the principal countries of the world for the preservation and 
protection of their artistic and historic treasures. 

United Kingdom.— There are four acts: the Ancient Monu- 
ments Protection Acts of 1883, 1900 and 1910, and the Ancient 
Monuments Protection (Ireland) Act 1892. The apt of 1882, 
due primarily to Lord Avebury, then Sir John Lubbock, provided 
that a list of monuments* in Great Britain and Ireland should 
be made to which the act was to apply; the number of these 
monuments was sixty-eight, all being of the kind known as 
prehistoric (barrows, stone-circles, dolmens, &c.). An owner 
of one of these scheduled monuments may by deed place 
it in the guardianship of the commissioners of works, who 
are then responsible for its preservation and can protect it 
even against the owner. The commissioners may purchase 
any of the scheduled monuments, but only by agreement, 
the compulsory clauses of the Lands Clauses Consolidation 
Acts being expressly excluded, though any purchase is to 
be made under those acts. An owner of any monument other 

>Thc names of the monuments fto scheduled arc given in an 
appendix to Sir R. Hunter's Lecture on the Preservation oj Places 
of Inter eit and Beauty (1907}. 



than those scheduled may place it In the care, of the com- 
missioners. The funds for the working of the act are to be 
provided by parliament, and an inspector of ancient monu- 
ments was appointed. Genera^ Pitt-Rivers, the first inspector 
appointed, found that without compulsory powers the act was 
useless, and for many years did not draw his official salary. After 
his death in 1900 the oflfice was left unfilled until 1910. The 
act of 1892 applied to Ireland oiUy, and is supplementary to 
that of 1882, which applied to the whole of the United Kingdom. 
The Irish act gave to the commissioners of public works in 
Ireland powers— only to be exercised with the consent of the 
owner — of applying the aa of 1882 to any monument possessing 
such public interest as might render it worthy of preservation. 
It is to be noticed that after the disestablishment of the Irish 
Church certain unused churches of artistic or historic interest 
were. placed in the charge of the commissioners as national 
monuments, with a sum of £50,000 to defray expenses. The 
Irish commissioners have therefore monuments in their care 
other than those scheduled in the acts, and may apply towards 
the expenses of the preservation of the scheduled monuments 
any surplus over from the fund above mentioned. The act of 
1900 applied the Irish act to Great Britain, but the powers have 
not been exercised by the first tx)mmissioner of works. The act 
also gave the powers of the act of 1892 to county councik, allowed 
the authorities, local or central, to make arrangements for the 
preservation of monuments with owners or others, including 
societies, and to receive subscriptions for the same object, and 
also provided for public access to such monuments as are in the 
guardianship of the commissioners under the act. The acts of 
1892 and 1900, though allowing buildings of historic or other 
interest to be placed under the care of the commissioners, exclude 
buildings occupied as a dwelling-place by any person other 
than a caretaker and his family. The act of 19 10 gives to the 
commissioners of works power to acquire by bequest buildings of 
historic or architectural interest. The act of 1900 had given 
power to acquire such by gift or purchase, and the act of 1882 
had given power by bequest also, but only referred to prehistoric 
remains. The London County Council possesses powers of 
purchasing by agreement any building of historic or other interest 
under a General Powers Act of 1898, and exercised these in 1900 
by purchasing a 17th century house in Fleet Street (known as 
Cardinal Wolsey's palace). It will be seen that the United 
Kingdom possesses no official commission, no conservators, no 
consultative ofllicial body, and no compulsory powers of expro- 
priation. The acts dealing with the subject are entirely permis- 
sive. Towards the making of a national inventory the first step 
taken was the appointment in 1908 of three royal commissions, 
for England, Scotland and Wales respectively, " to make an 
inventory of the ancient and historical monuments and construc- 
tions connected with or illustrative of the contemporary culture, 
civilization and conditions of life of the people from the earliest 
times ": to the year 1700 in the case of England; 1707 in that 
of Scotland; for Wales no date is specified; and " to specify those 
which seem worthy of preservation." The Housing, Town Plan- 
ning, &c. Act 1909. §45, and the Development and Road Im- 
provement Funds Act, 1909, excepts the sites of ancient monu- 
ments or of other objects of historical interest from compulsory 
acquisition for the purposes of those acts. The Finance Act 1896, 
§20, granted a qualified exemption from estate duty to piaures, 
prints, books, MSS., works of art, scientific collections and other 
things not yielding income, as appear to the Treasury to be of 
national, scientific or historic interest; this exemption only ex- 
tends where such property is settled to be enjoyed in kind in 
succession by different persons; if the property is sold or is in the 
f>ossession of a person competent to dispose of it, it becomes liable 
to estate duty. The Finance Act 1909 extends the exemption to 
legacy and succession duty, removes the restriction to settled 
property, and adds " artistic " to " national and historic interest." 
The Committee for the Survey of the Memorials of Greater 
London, supported by the London County Council, has begun 
a complete register and survey of the historic buildings of 
London. Apart from the numerous national and archaeologici^. 



798 



MONUMENT 



societies, whose proceedings contain invaluable accounts of 
practically every monument of interest throughout the kingdom, 
there are two societies directly formed with the object of 
monument preservation in its widest sense, the Society fox 
the Protection of Ancient Buildings, founded in 1877, and the 
National Trust for Places of Historic Interest and Natural 
Beauty, constituted in 1894 under the Joint Stock Companies 
Acts for the purchase and preservation, of sites and buildings, 
which it can hold in perpetuity for the benefit of the public. In 
X907 the latter was dissolved and re-incorporated as a statutory 
body by the National Trust Act 1907. It possesses twenty- 
eight properties, amounting to 2000 acres, and twelve interesting 
buildings. 

India. — ^The Archaeological Survey of Upper India was estab- 
lished in 1863, with a director-general at its head, and surveys 
for other parts of India were also begun later. The chief object 
of these was the making of an inventory, and the preservation 
of the monuments was neglected. In 1878 a curator of ancient 
monuments was appointed. A period of activity with regard 
to monument preservation set in during the viceroyalty of Lord 
Curzon; this culminated in the Ancient Monuments Preservation 
Act of 1904. The main provisions are as follows: The local 
government of any province may declare any monument to be a 
*' protected monument within the meaning of the act," and when 
so declared no one may injure, remove or alter it under penalty 
of ^ fine or imprisonment. This, however, does not apply to 
the owner, except when the government has, by purchase or gift, 
or by taking over the guardianship of the monument, assumed 
the duty of preserving it. This assumption of guardianship is by 
agreement with the owner. Power of expropriation under the 
I^nd Acquisition Act 1894 is given if a monument- protected 
under the act is threatened with destruction or injury, or if an 
owner refuse to come to an agreement with the authority for its 
guardianship. The act includes movable antiquities, and the 
governor-general in council can prohibit their exportation. 
Control over excavations is also given. 

^SyPi- — A Comniission of Egyptology ,{Comiti permanent 
dUgyptdogie) has the care of the monuments of early Egyptian 
civilization. The monuments of the Arab occupation are in 
the charge of a separate commission {Comiti de conservation 
des monuments dc Varl arabe). The Commission of Egyptology 
acts under khedival decrees of 1883, 1897 and 1891. By the 
first the state claims control over all antiquities and declares the 
contents of the Giza (Gizeh) Museum, now the National Museum 
of Egyptian Antiquities, and of any future collection, to be the 
property of the state and inalienable. The second decree penal- 
izes any injury to monuments or attempt to appropriate a 
monument belonging to the state. The third deals with excava- 
tions; permission must be granted by the director-general of 
museumii; objects discovered belong to the state and must go to 
the museum, but a part of the objects will be granted to the 
discoverer under special regulations, the government reserving 
the right to special objects with compensation for the expense 
of excavation. 

France. — ^The Commission des monuments hisioriques was 
established in 1837. It is attached to and acts through the 
department of the minister of public instruction and of the fine 
arts, who is the president of the commission. There are thirty 
members, partly nominated by the minister out of names selected 
by the commission, partly ex officio, such as the directors of civil 
buildings and national palaces and of public worship. The 
buildings which these officials control are, however, not directly 
under the commission. The presence of a certain number of 
deputies on the commission secures its representation in the 
legislature. Upon the commission fall the following duties: (a) 
The classemenl or selection of the monuments of national interest, 
artistic, historic, or both, for the schedule of protected monu- 
ments. A particular portion of a building, such as a door, 
window, &c., may be alone protected. (6) The restoration and 
repair of the monuments so classed, (c) A general power of 
giving advice and watching the monuments of the country as a 
whole. The commission has the charge of the Muste Cluny, and 



is also the centre for all inquiries, leporfs, &c. The ofl&dal 
staff of the commission consists of four general inspectors, one of 
whom, since the Monument Act of 1887, has charge of the movable 
monuments, and of forty architects, who have a subordinue staff 
of inspectors of works. Since i8jo a sum has been voted yearly 
for the finances of the commission. The largest sum (£120,000) 
that has appeared in the budget was voted in 1896; there are, 
however, other sources of revenue available. 

The Monument Act of 1887. — This, together with certain 
administrative decrees, gave legal powers to the commissioo, 
which it had hitherto lacked, or had only been able to enforce by 
a difficult process of expropriation if owners, whether private or 
public, of monuments classis objected to the work of the com- 
mission. If a monument dassi belong to the state w b under 
the administration of a minister other than the minister of public 
instruction and fine arts, or if it belong to any public body, such 
as a department or commune in whose hands the churches mainly 
lie, the consent of these controlling bodies must be' given, other- 
wise the decision is left to the conseil d'ilat. If the owner be a 
private person, his consent is also nec^sary to the dassemaU. 
If he refuses, the minister may expropriate the monument by 
compulsory purchase, which must have the consent of the 
conseil dUtat. Once a monument has been dassi ^ it cannot be 
destroyed even partially, and no repairs or other work can be 
effected upon it without the consent of the minister. An action, 
for damages only, lies against a person infringing the law in this 
respect. The act deals also with the classemenl and prolectMo of 
movable objects of national interest, historic or artistic, but only 
if they belong to the state, when they canxK>t be alioiated, or to 
public bodies, when the consent of the minister is required for 
repairs or alienation. The act does not affect movables bdooging 
to private persons. Owing to the numerous thefts from churches, 
museums, and other places, which attracted particular attention 
in 1907, proposals have been made for the better protectkwof 
such objects, as well as of those in private collections, by gather- 
ing together the objects at present scattered in churcho, Ac., 
into provincial and local museums, and also by charging an 
entrance fee for museums, &c. With regard to the discovery 
of monuments by excavation works or accident, the minister 
must receive immediate notice from the mayor of the conmune 
through the prefect of the department, and will decide what is to 
be done. If such discovery is on private property he may 
proceed to expropriation. The act applies to Algeria. HereaU 
objects of archaeological or artistic interest are reserved to the 
state, if on ground belonging to the government or granted by it 
to public bodies or private persons or in military occupation. 
The act is similarly extended to all French, protectorates. Tunis 
has more stringent regulations; for by a decree of the bey, 18S6, 
the consent of the owner to the dassemcnt of a monument b not 
required, and penalties under the French penal code attach to 
infringements. 

. There b a strong feeling in France as to the protection and 
preservation of sites of natural beauty. A SocUU pour la pro- 
tection des paysages was founded in 1901, and in 1904 the minister 
of public works issued a circular to the government engineers 
emphasizing the obligation of preserving and, if possible, oihaoc- 
ing the natural beauties of any locality in which public works were 
being carried out. An act {Loi organisanl la protection des sites d 
monuments naturels de caractire artistique) was adopted in 1906, 
extending a protection to such sites analogous to that under the 
Monument Act (Appendix B in Sir R. Hunter's Lecture^ already 
cited, gives the regulations under this measure). 

A law of 1910 prohibits the affixing of bilb or advertisements 
on monuments and sites ofiidally recognized as hbtorical and io 
sites recognized as picturesque by the law of 1906. The prefect 
also fixes a zone near such sites or monuments within vhid) 
advertisement is prohibited. 

Societies, both national and local, are numerous and active io 
France, but the centralizing policy does not favour any dose 
working with the commission. The most important are the 
Sociili nationale des antiquaircs de France^ founded in 1804, aod 
the Sociiti franqaisc d'arcbiologie pour la comsfftaliou i 



MONUMENT 



799 



description des monumenls kisUfriques, founded io 1834, by the 
archaeolos^t Arcisse de Caumont (1802-1873). Its publication, 
the BulUtin immumental, is extremely valuable. In X887 was 
founded the Comiti des monuments Jran^aist which confines 
itself more particularly to the practical side of monument 
preservation and protection, and publishes an illustrated 
periodical, L'Ami des monuments. Of the numerous local 
societies the semi-official Commission du vieux Paris and the 
private SociitS des amis des monuments parisiens and the 
Commission municipale du vieux Lyon may be mentioned. 

Germany. — Legislation and administration with regard to 
monuments and their protection are not imperial, but are matters 
for the various states. Of t|iese Hesse-Darmstadt alone has 
a Monument Act (1902), but in nearly all the states the system 
adopted for monument preservation and protection has been the 
appointment of conservators (DenkmalpJUger), with commissions 
attached, and a careful system of inventory. There are also in 
many of the states decrees and administrative orders. In 
Prussia provincial conservators and commissions, i^>pointed in 
1891, assist the central conservator. The general absence 
of special legislation leaves private owners of monuments 
amenable only to advice and persuasion and to the pressure of 
public opinion. The official and legal control exercised by the 
conservators and commissions is restricted to those monuments 
which belong to the state. The wide powers, however, given to 
local and municipal authorities in Germany, enable much to be 
done without state legislation. Many towns have powers to 
make by-laws regulating building and street-planning with a 
view not only of the preservation of the actual monuments but 
also of what is known as Stadtbild^ the characteristic appearance 
given to a town by its ancient buildings, walls, gateways, &c. 
The regulations of many of the Bavarian towns aie excellent 
examples of what can be done in this way. 

The final control of the monuments of Hesse-Darmstadt is in 
the hands of the minister of the interior, who presides over a^ 
Denkmalratt or council on monuments, consisting of owners of 
historical monuments, members of societies interested in such 
objects, and represenUtives of the Catholic and Protestant 
Churches. There is also a general conservator. The act protects 
NaturdenkmOler, such as water-courses, rocks, and even trees. 
No excavations can be carried on without permission, and all 
finds must be reported to the local authority. 

The principal German society is the Gesamtverein der deutscken 
CesckicktS' und Aliertumsvereinf founded in 1852. This is a 
general association of all the various societies throughout 
Germany. There are also many societies in the various towns, 
as well as local associations more directly concerned with the 
practical protection and preservation of monuments. The chief 
periodical — perhaps the most important of any dealing with the 
subject in Europe — is Die Denkmalpflege^ published fiist in 1899. 
It is connected with the society luiown as Heimatsckuts, the 
" defence of home." 

[llaly. — There is a long history of monument regulation, 
dating back to a provision against the destruction of monuments 
in the statutes of the city of Rome of the 14th century and to 
the ^pointment of Raphael by Leo X. as controller of the dty's 
monuments. Throughout the various states of Italy during the 
17th, x8th and 19th centuries till the unification of the kingdom, 
stringent regulations by decree or statute were in force to 
preserve the relics of the past in which the country is so peculiarly 
rich.' Mariotti (La Legislasione dcUe belle arti, 1892) gives a 
full account of many of these regulations. It must suffice here to 
mention the Doria Pamphili Edict of i8oa and the Pacca Edict 
of 1820, named after the two Cardinal-Camerienghi subscribing 
the same. It was not until 1902 that an act was passed for the 
whole of Italy. This act, with a supplementary act of 1963, and 
the code of regulations {Regolamento) of 1904, has been superseded 
by the acts of 1907 and 1909 and the Regolamento of 1910, which 
constitute the whole body of the provisions in force for the 
protection of monuments. The minister of public instruction 
is the final authority, and under him the director-general of 
antiquities and fine arts. 



The Superior CouncQ of Antiquities and Fine Arts, created 
by the law of 1907, consists of 21 members; it is divided into 
three sections of 7 members each for antiquities, medieval and 
modem art, and contemporary art respectively. All the members 
of each are nominated by royal decree, and so are three members 
of the third, being elected, one by the architects, one by the 
sculptors, and one by the painters of Italy. This is an advisory 
body. The minister presides, and the director-general can be 
present and has a vote. The administrative organixation under 
the director-general consists of the divisional superintendendes 
(each having a group of provinces under it) divided into three 
categories: (a)x8 superintendendes of monuments (pmervation, 
administration, and surveillance of monuments even in private 
hands); {b) 14 superintendendes of archaeological excavations 
and museums (with control of objects in private hands and of the 
offices for exportation); (c) 15 superintendendes of galleries, 
medieval and modem museums and objects of art. Under each 
superintendent is a staff of directors of monuments, museums and 
galleries, of inspectors, architects, secretaries, custodians,. &c 
The nominations to the superior grades are by competition. 
There are offices for the examination of objects before exporta- 
tion in those towns in which there reside a superintendent of 
monuments or a director of a gallery or a museum in which it is 
necessary. The official orga^iizations are assisted by (a) honorary 
inq>ectors, nominated by royal decree in any commune or 
drcondario where it may seem advisable; (b) provindal commis- 
sions, meeting in the chief town of each province, composed of 
not less than 7 members, nominated by royal decree, and 
induding of right the superintendents, and meeting normaUy 
twice a year. 

The monuments within the purview of the act of 1909 
and its administration comprise all movable (induding MSS., 
incunabula, rare engravings and coins) and immovable objects 
of historical, archaeological, palaeo-ethnological or artistic ^ue 
and interest,so long as they are not less than fifty years old nor the 
work of living persons. Such objects, if they belong to the state, 
a province, a commune, a religious corporation or any recognized 
corporation (ente morale), cannot be parted with at all, except as 
from one such body to another, and this only with the leave of 
the ministry; and the authorities of such bodies must present to 
the ministry an inventory of such objects. Nor may repairs or 
alterations be made to them without the consent of the ministry, 
which has the right to interfere by regulations (such as, e.g., the 
prohibition of the use of Upers, &c, which are liable to damage a 
picture) for the preservation and restoration (and in extreme 
cases even the removal) of such objects, if necessary, the latter 
being at the expense of the body to which they bdong in so far 
as it can afford it. Any private person owning or possessing any 
object falling under the law, the importance and interest of 
wUdi has b<»en notified to him as the regulations provide, cannot 
transfer his property in or abandon his possession of it without 
informing the ministry, which has the right of pre-emption within 
two months (or four in case of finannal pressure owing to many 
simultaneous offers) at the price for which he has contracted to 
sell it; and, if it is subject to damage and the proprietor will not 
provide for its repair, it may be expropriated by the state, by a 
province or commune — or even by bodies which have legal 
personality and aim at the preservation of such objects for the 
public enjoyment. It has not yet been possible, however, to 
secure the right of search nor of public access; so long as an 
object is well kept up by the owner, he may refuse the right of 
access except to the officials. 

The exportation of objects of importance is forbidden, even if 
their importance has not been notified to the owner, who is under 
the ob^gation to advise the government of his intention to 
export, it having the right of pre-emption within two or four 
montH as the case may be; and even if the government does 
not purchase the object, it may still return it to the proprietor, 
forbidding him to export it The objects exported are subject 
to a progressive tax, with a maximun of 20%. Objects tempo- 
rarily imported from foreign countries, and re-exported within 
five years, are not subject to tax. Temporary exportation, if 



8oo 



MONUMENT 



permitted, is allowed on deposit of the tax; and if objects of 
importance are allowed to be sent from one part of Italy to 
another (especially to the islands), this is done by the government 
at the owner's expense. 

As to excavations, in every case application to excavate must 
be made to the minister, who has a general supervision over the 
work and may stop it temporarily or assume the conduct of it. 
The state can excavate on private ground, but pays compensation; 
and can expropriate ground on which it wishes to excavate or on 
which discoveries have been made, the " archaeological value " 
not being reckoned. As to finds, if the state conducts the exca- 
vation, the owner retains one-fourth of the value or of the objects 
discovered at the choice of the state, the rest belongs to the state. 
In other cases, and in the case of chance discoveries (notice of 
which must be given immediately), the state takes one-half, but 
if the excavation is conducted by foreign institutions or persons, 
then the discoveries must be given to a public museum, or if part 
is handed over to the finder, it must be kept in such a way 
as to be accessible to the Italian public. The ministry gives 
periodical reports of all work carried out by the authorities in the 
Nolizie dcgli Scavi and the Bolletlino d'arte, both of which appear 
every month. The funds at the disposal of the ministry for 
purchases include (a) a sum of £40,000 already invested, (b) the 
interest upon £160,000 rentes regularly paid in, (0 olher sums 
from sales of publications, fines, &c.; (d) an annual credit voted 
in the budget (£12,000 in 1909-19x0), forming an account called 
the monte di belle arti. 

The regulations issued in 1910 for the execution of the new 
bw consist of some 200 articles in three divisions— one dealing 
with the artistic and historical patrimony of Italy and its internal 
administration, a second with the question of exportation, and 
the third with financial matters. (T. As.)] 

Greece. — The earliest regulations arc > those contained in the 
law of 1837, promulgated by royal decree. This has been 
replaced by the Monument Act of 1899, but the principles of 
the earlier law remain, and the later act still lays down " the 
most extensive claim that any state has ever put forward in 
the matter of monuments," viz. that " all objects of antiquity 
in Greece, as the productions of the ancestors of the Hellenic 
people, are regarded as the common national possession of 
all Hellenes." The department in charge of the administration 
of the atl is that of the minister of religion and public instruction. 
There is a central commission working with local commissions 
and a body of conservators. The control of this executive is 
in the hands of the ephor-generol of antiquities. The act protects 
medieval monuments as well as those of classical Greece. All 
immovable monuments arc public property, but compensation 
is to be paid to private owners if such monuments are to be 
preserved. Movable antiquities, if worthy of preservation by 
the state, must be placed in public museums. If discovered 
on private property the owner receives half the value, and 
may keep those not removed to a museum; all, however, must 
be registered. Excavations can be made anywhere by the 
state, and permission for private work must be first obtained. 
Expropriation is allowed. The export of antiquities is strictly 
forbidden under severe penalties, and the infringement of the 
various provisions of the act can be punished by heavy fines 
or imprisonment. 

Auitria-Uimgary. — There is no legislation for the empire as 
a whole. In Austria there is a central commission, established 
1850, whose authority is regulated by rescripts of 1873 and 
1899 of the minister of religion and education. It consists of 
twenty members selected from experts in history, art and 
archaeology; there is also a numerous body of conservators 
who have districts covering the country assigned to them. 
They have no executive powers, but report on all new works 
likely to injure monuments, make inventories, influence public 
opinion, and work with archaeological societies for the general 
protection of ancient monuments. Hungary, on the other hand, 
has a Monument Act of 1881. With regard to any existing 
monument, the minister of religion and education decides 
whether it is worth preserving. ..Then the owner, whether 



public or private, must preserve it at Us own cort. If that 
is impossible the minister may expropriate it. Conpulioiy 
purchase may also be resorted to for the purpose of eicavaikHL 

Belgium.— lYittt is no monument Icgiriation, but there ii 
a royal commission, resembling that of Austria, founded in 
183s, and a royal decree of 1824 prevents alienation of objects 
of interest contained in churches or alienation or recomtmaioa 
of churches without state permission. An invcntoiy has ben 
in progress since 1861, and the commission publisbcs a BalUfiM. 
By a communal law of 1836 local administrations have to lubmit 
proposals for the destruction or repair of monuments to the 
committee of the provincial council, and must obtain royal 
approval. Expropriation on the ground of public utility nay 
be resorted to for the protection of a threatened m on uincin 
In the hands of a private owner. 

Holland.— \ state commission {RHkicomwdnU^ was estab- 
lished in 1903, and began an inventory of all monumcBis, 
movable and immovable. Any proposed alteration or denoliUoo 
of buildings of interest in a town must be reported hf the 
burgomaster to the minister of the interior. The annual budget 
of the minister of the Interior contains sums to be allotted for 
the repair of specified monuments. 

5vf/!:«r/antf.— Legislation is in the hands of the canton; 
Vaud, Neuchfttei and Bern have passed Monuments Acts, 
modelled on that of France. The federal go\'ernnKnt may sUot 
an annual grant for the acquisition and upkeep of nationil 
monuments and for excavations. There is a federal rommiaioB, 
established in 1886, whose functions, mainly those of other 
countries, are exercised by the Swiss Society for the Pkciavatioa 
of Monuments of Historical Art. 

The preservation of scenery and of natural m n m i mmts b 
considered a matter of great importance, and In 1905 was 
founded a Swiss society which has n bnndi in the Uaited 
Kingdom, La Ligue pour la conservation de la 5«uar piUtrnqt* 
— Die schweizcrisclte Vereinigung jilr Heiwuluktilx. Ae ipcdil 
object of the society is the prevention of the defacrmcat of 
Alpine scenery by funicular and other railways, mountain-lifts, 
power-stations, &c. It was successful In piotectinf the falb 
of the Rhine at Schaflhausen from n Zuiidi ckctric>pover 
scheme. 

Dcnmari^.— The means adopted are an excellent cauaple of 
what con be done without legislation by appeals made by a 
central authority working with expert knowledge to an enliv- 
ened public opinion and to nationiil sentiment. The authority 
consists of an inspector of ancient monuments and the directonte 
of the Museum of Northern Antiquities at Copenhagen, eaercisicc 
the functions of a royal commission that was established in ito? 
and dissolved in 1849. The successful preservation of anti- 
quities is also due to an old law, modified by royal decrees oi 
1737 and Z752, by which all finds of gold, silver and precious 
objects belong to the state, and to a dccbration of 1848 that lU 
monuments on the Crown domains are national property and ;:Te 
to be specially reserved in case of sale. Many private o^n-.n 
have followed the example of the Crown. G. Baldwin Bro«D 
{op. cU. p. 188 seq.) gives some interesting examples 01 th« 
success of the directorate of the museum in preserving nv^ru- 
ments by appeals to ecclesiastical owners, projectors of rail«3}i 
and other works, and companies engaged in reclaiming UnJ. 

Sweden. — There is a state antiquary {Riksantiktar), app^^iri^d 
first by Gustavus Adolphus; the functions cf a ccmr<ir>i-n 
are exercised by the Royal Academy of Science, Hialoo' :ir.i.' 
Antiquities, founded in 1786. There is an tkboratc atA 
stringent code of regulations protecting monuments, cont::I.~(i 
in royal decrees of 1867, 1873 and 18S6. These arctaJcJcn 
the edict of Charles XI. (1666), declaring all ancient monun^cnis 
under royal protection. Sweden possesses one of the ft'lr^ 
inventories contained in the antiquarian topographical ari-hiwr 

Norway.— UcTc there is also a state antiquary, and a >u(c- 
subsidi2ed society, Foreningen Hi norske Fortidsmindesncmi^i 
Bevaring, founded in 1844, which acts much as a commlfiX^. 
and advises the state official. 

Russia. — The care of ancient monuments is in the chai|t 



MOON 



Plate L 




The Moon (Age i4d. ih.), 1890, October 27. 



By permlssioo of Lick Observatory. 



Maria or Seas. 

A. Mare Crbium. 

B. ** Foecunditatis. 

C. " Nectaris. 

D. " Tranquillitatis. 

E. " Serenitatis. 

F. Lacus Somniorum. 

G. " Mortis. 
II. Mare Frigoris. 
J. Sinus Roris. 
K. Mare Imbrium. 
L. Oceanus Procellarum. 
M. Mare Vaporum. 
N. ** Humorum. 
O. " Nubium. 

Mountains. 

(a) Caucasus. 

(b) Apennines. 

(c) Alps. 

(d) Carpathians. 

This diagram is a key to some 



Volcanoes. 

1, Apollonius. 

2. Firmicus. 
Taruntius. 
Secchi. 
Macrobius. 
Vitruvius. 
Posidonius. 
Plato. 
Aristillus. 

10. Autolycus. 

11. Archimedes. 
Julius Caesar. 
Boscovich. 
Copernicus. 
Herodotus. 

16. Kepler. 

17. Borda. 

18. Bohnenberger. 

19. Tycho. 

of the features reproduced in the photograph. 




3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 
8. 

9. 



12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 



Plate II. 



MOON 




I. Tycho, Thcopliiliis, ipoo, October 12. 




2. Marc Xiibium, &c., looi, Xtn-cmbcr 21. 




^f'\ 




^"j. Marc ScTcnilatis, 1901, August 3. 



4. LuUialdus, Copernicus, 1901. November :o. 



By pennicsioa of Yrrkr< Oittrmron 



MONVEL— MONZONTTE 



80 1 



€f the ministry of the imperial court, of which the Imperial 
Archaeological CommiMion, founded in 1859, is a department. 
The Imp^al Academy of the Fine Arts is joined in this charge 
with the commission, whose duties resemble in the main those 
of the commissions of other countries. By a circular of 1901 
a complete inventory of the monuments of the country was 
ordered to be made by the local authorities. 

5>aM.— A monument commission was established in 1844; 
it works under regulations issued in 1865. It is composed of 
the Royil Academies of Fine Arts and of History, corresponding 
members of which form commissions for the provinces of the 
kingdom. A complete inventory of all monuments is being 
made. The minister in charge is that of public instrnction and 
td the fine arts. 

FortMgai. — A decree of John V. (i7»x) protected the monu- 
iBenta of ancient times; in 1840 this protection was extended 
to medieval monuments. An inventory was begun in 184 1. 
A council of national monuments was established in 1901 by 
a rojral decree, with a code of regulations. The French system 
of dasttwunt b adopted, and the regulations under the French 
act of 1887 are generally followed. The minister responsible 
b that of public works, commerce and industry. 

Turkey. — The regulations, as embodied in an trade of 1884, 
are very stringent, and the principle adopted is that of Greece, 
that all objecu of antiquity belong to the state. The private 
owner of such has no power of disposition, and must not injure 
nor destroy them. All excavations are under the control of the 
government, and permission must be first obtained. The 
exportation of finds is forbidden, and all movables discovered 
belong to the Imperial Museum. If these finds are the result of 
excavations, one-twentieth of the value goes to the discoverer: if 
of accidental diiscovery, the owner of the soil and the state divide. 
• United States. — With regard to the remains of prehistoric 
man, earthworks, barrows, &c., some of those states, such as 
Ohio, which are specially rich in such monuments, have par- 
ticular laws protecting individual remains, e.g. the earthworks 
in Warren county. The state exercises control over other 
remains of interest, e.g. the Eagle earthworks in Linking county. 
There is also an archaeological and historical society, partly 
maintained by the state, with the object of the better preserva- 
tion of the evidences of the prehistoric occupation. In North 
Pakota a state historical commission was created in 1895 "to 
coUect and preserve the records and reUcs pertaining to the 
early history, settlement and development of North Dakota." 
The site* of the battle-fields, and statues, &c., erected in 
commemoration of the War of Independence or the Civil War, 
are preserved by various methods— by state or municipal 
icgnlations, by the action of incorporated bodies or trustees, 
Ac. Moat of the states rely on statutory prohibitions of 
malidous damage to protect their monuments and old 
bnildingi, ftc. (C. We.) 

HOHVIL (1745-181 3), French actor and dramatic H-riter, 
ifhose real name was Jacques Marie Boutet, was bom in Lun£- 
ville on the asth of March 1745. He was a small, thin man 
withoat good looks or voice, and yet he became one of the greatest 
comedians of his time. After some years of apprenticeship in 
the provinces, he made his d^but in 17 70 at theCom£die Francaise 
in Mirope and Zenaide; he was received sociitaire in 1772. For 
some reason unknown Monvel secretly left Paris for Sweden 
about 1 781, and became reader to the king, a post which he 
held for several years. At the Revolution he returned to Paris, 
embraced its principles with ardour, and in 1701 joined the 
theatre In the rue Richelieu(the rival of the Com^dic Francaise), 
which, under Talma, with Dugazon, his sister Mme Vcstris, 
Grandmesnil (1737-18 16) and Mme Desga reins, was soon to 
become the Th^tre dc la R^publique. After the Revolution 
Monvel returned to the reconstituted Com6dic Frangaise with 
an his old companions, but retired in 1807. Monvel was made 
a member of the Institute in 1795. He wrote six plays (four 
of them performed at the ComMie Francaise), two comedies, 
and fifteen comic operas, seven with music by N. Dezcde (1740- 
1792), eight by Nicolas d'Alayrac (175.^-1809. He also 



published an historical novel, FrSdigonde et Bmnekaui (1776). 
He was professor of elocution at the Conservatoire. Monvel's 
two daughters, Miles Mars atnie and cadette, were well-known 
actresses. 

MONZA (locally Afonscia), a city of Lombardy, Italy, in the 
province of Milan, 8 m. by rail N.N.E. of that city, with which 
it is also connected by both steam and electric trams. It lies 
on the Lambro, a tributary of the Po, 532 ft. above sea-level. 
Pop. (1906), 32,000 (town); 53,33o(commune). Of the medieval 
fortifications little remains save the Porta d'Agrate. Near it 
is the nunnery in which the nun of Monza (see Manzoni's PrO' 
messi sposi) was enclosed. The cathedral of St John Baptist 
is the principal object of interest; Theodelinda's basilica of 
590 was enlarged at the close of the 13th century by throwing 
the atrium into the nuin building, and the present fine black- 
and-white marble facade was erected about the middle of the 
X4th by Matteo da Campione, and restored in 1899-1901. On 
the left-hand side of the front rises an incongruous brick-built 
tower, 278 ft. high, erected by Pellegrini in 1 592-1606. Within 
the church are the iron crown of Lombardy, supposed to have 
been beaten out of one of the nails used at the Crucifixion, 
and the treasury containing the relics of Theodelinda, comprising 
her crown, fan and comb of gold, and the golden hen and seven 
chickens, representing Loml>ardy and her seven provinces, and 
crosses, reliquaries, &c., of the Lombard and Gothic periods. 
The interior has been modernized; there is a fine relief by Matteo 
da Campione in the organ-loft, representing the coronation of 
a king, and some 15th-century frescoes with scenes from the 
life of Theodelinda. Next to the cathedral in artistic importance 
come the church of Santa Maria in Istrada, and the broletto 
or old palace of the commune, usually styled the Arengario; 
the former (founded in 1357) has a rich terra-cotta facade of 
1393, and the latter is raised on a system of pointed arches, 
and has a tall square tower terminating in machicolations 
surrounding a sharp central cone. The royal palace of Monza 
(built in 1777 for the archduke Ferdinand) lies not far from the 
town on the banks of the Lambro. Cotton goods and felt hats 
are the staple products of the flourishing Monza industry; 
then dyeing, organ-building, and a publishing trade. 

Monza (anc. Modicia) was not a place of consequence till it 
attracted the eye of Theodoric; and its first important associa- 
tions are with Theodelinda. During the period of the republics 
Monza was sometimes independent, sometimes subject to Milan. 
The Visconti, who ultimately became masters of the city, built 
a castle in 1325 on the site now occupied by the Palazzo DurinL 
In the course of its history Monza stood thirty-two sieges, and 
was repeatedly plundered— notably by the forces of Clurles V. 
The countship (1499-1796) was purchased in 1546 by the 
wealthy banker Duriiii, and remained in his family till the 
Revolution. At Monza King Humbert was assassinated on the 
29th of July 1900. 

MONZONITE, the group-name of a tjrpe of rocks which have 
acquired it from their most celebrated occurrence, that of 
Monzoni in Tirol. The rocks are of granitic appearance, usually 
rather dark grey in colour and fine to moderately coarse grained. 
The special characteristic which distinguishes them from 
granites and ordinary syenites is the presence of plagioclase 
and orthoclase felspars in nearly equal amounts. Labradorite, 
andesine and oligoclase arc present, usually in well-shaped 
crystals, often zoned; orthoclase forms large irregular plates 
in which the other minerals are embedded. There is rirely any 
considerable amount of quartz, though in a few of these rocks 
this mineral occurs (the quartz-monzonites). Other features 
are the abundance of augite, pale green or brownish green, and 
of large bronze-coloured plates of biotite which are of quite 
irregular shapes and full of enclosures. Hypersthenc or bronzite 
is less common, but dark brown and green hornblende are 
sometimes abundant. Olivine also may be present; when the 
rock contains this in notable quantity it may be called an 
olivine monzonite. Numerous large prisms of apatite often 
characterize micro-sections of monzonites, and zircon, iron ores 
and pyrites are frequent accessory minerals. 



8o2 



MOOD— MOON 



The monzonites of Tirol show a great variability in appearance, 
structure, and the rclativie proportions of their minerals. They 
tend to pass into rocks which have been called diabases and 
^abbros, and near the margins of the outcrop fades very rich 
in pyroxene (pyroxenites) occur. Many authors believe that 
this variety of types is associated with the fact that the 
monzonites occupy a middle place as regards their chemical 
composition between the acid and the basic igneous rocks, and 
that such a magma is naturally somewhat unstable, and likely 
to split up or differentiate into partial magmas of more siliceous 
and less siliceous character. Tlie monzonites in fact approach 
rather closely to the calculated mean composition of the outer 
portion of the earth's crust and from a molten magma of this 
nature it is natural to suppose that all kinds of igneous rocks 
have been derived. 

R^xits of monzonitsc farics OKiir also lit Norway, where they 
hiivt^ Inien dt! scribed a% ikcirit?^. They coFitain quarts, orthoclase 
acid ptjgiocljMr augttc and dark bmwd biotite; hornblende and 
hy^x^^r^LticEi? alto may be pneicnt. Some ot them have |X>rphvritic 
rather tlian granitic texture, e«pccial1y near the margins oi the 
kccc^lireft. From a itudy ol thcK and other occurrences Brogger 
propo^^d to dtfine the moniioruLea at DriKocilase'plagioclaae rocks 
in whiirh the two chief clats^eB of felspar occur in nearly equal 
quantitin (aa distinguished from the orthoclase rocks or granites 
and syenites and the plasi^ioclase rocks or die rites and gabbros). 

At Vo£o Peak and Deavtrr Creek in Montana, U3.A., there are 
nisj^ei of granitoid rock whkh bear a clo&c resemblance to the 
monionkefl of Tirol. Tvro main types Dccur:^ (a) yogoite, which 
diHei-B litcle from moEuonlie, and (£) Btionkinite, wnich is a more 
bsitc rock richer in plagiocUsc and auptc; this rock contains 
olivine and in places passe* into dark pymnunites. In shonkinite 
a!M a LitEle ncpheline may be pn?Hnt. In several places in the 
west of Scotland (AnfyJhhirc) mtrusJ^e bosies are fenown^ which 
eoniist of an olivine-h^arin^ rock clo»ly related to monzonite. It 
has been called kentallcnitc becauK it H quarried at Kentallen 
in Argyllshire, Lar^e crystals ol pale [n-cn augite and irregular 
plates of biotkc which enclose idiomorphic plagioclase felspar are 
eon^picuogs Jn mlcro-KctiDni of this mck, and the abundance of 
olHvine i% rather greater th^n h usual in the monzonites; it is 
associated with diorites of kmprophyric character and dark 
pyraxenitea and peridoLkec 

The followinjf analyies bhow the chetnical peculiarities of the 
prtncipal foclu of the tnonionite eraup; — 

siO: jmA F'^ F. n MgO CaO K,0 NaiO 



of notable revival meetings in England (1873-1875, 1881-1884. 
1891-1892) and America they carried on their cospel campaign, 
and became famous for the Moody and Sankey Cofpd Hymns. 
In 1879 Moody opened the Northfield seminary for yooag 
women, at Northfield, Mass., and in x88i the adjacent Moant 
Hermon school for boys; in each a liberal practical education 
centres about Bible training; the boys do farm-work and the 
girls house-work. In 1S89 he opened in Chicago the Bible 
Institute, and there trained Christian workers in BiUe study and 
in practical methods of sodal reform; at Northfieki in 1S90 
he opened a Training School in domestic science in the Northfidd 
Hotel, formerly used oiUy in summer for visitors at the annual 
conferences, of which the best known are the Bible (or Christiaa 
Workers') Conference, first held at Northfield in 1880, and the 
Students' (or College Men's) Conference, first held in 1887. 

Moody died at Northfield on the 22nd of December 1899^ 
His sermons were colloquial, simple, full of conviction andpoioL 
In his theology he laid stress on the Gospel and on no sectarias 
opinions — he was, however, a pre-inillenarianite — and he 
worked with men as much more " advanced " than himsdf as 
Henry Drummond, whom he eagerly defended against orthodox 
attack, and George Adam Smith. Moody's sermoos were sold 
widely in English, and in German, Danish and Swedish ^ 



MOOD, (i) (O. Eng. mdd, a word common to Teutonic lan- 
guages; cf. Ger. Mut; Du. mord, mind, courage), a particular state 
of mind or feeling. (2) (Adapted from Lat. modus, measure), a 
grammatical term for one of the various forms into which the 
conjugation is grouped, showing whether the verb is used as 
a predicate, a wish, a command, &c. In syllogistic logic the 
term b used of the various classes into which the " figures " of 
valid syllogisms are divided. (See Syllogism.) 

MOODKEB, or Mudki, a town in the Ferozcpore district of 
the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901), 2977. It b situated 26 m. S. 
of the Sutlej, on the old road from Ferozepore to Karnal, and is 
notable as the scene of the first battle (Dec. 18, 1845) in the first 
Sikh war. (See Sikh Wars.) 

MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN (RYTHER) (1837-1899), Ameri- 
can evangclbt, was bom in the village of East Northfield 
(Northfield township), Massachusetts, on the 5th of February 
1837. His father died in 1841, and young Dwight, a mis- 
chievous independent boy, got a scanty schooling. In 1854 
he became a salesman ih a shoe-store in Boston; in 1855 he was 
" converted "; and in 1856 he went to Chicago and started 
business there. Beginning with a class gathered from the 
streets, he opened (1858) a Sunday school in North Market 
Hall, which was organized in 1863 as the Illinois Street Church, 
and afterwards became the Chicago Avenue Church, of which 
he was layman pastor. In i860 he gave up business and devoted 
himself to city missionary work. He was prominent in raising 
money for Farwell Hall in Chicago (1867), and in 1865-1869 
was president of the Chicago Young Men's Christian Association. 
Ira David Sankey (1840-1908) joined him in Chicago in 1876 
and helped him greatly by the singing of hymns; and in a series 



See the (oflficial) Life of Dwight L. Moody (New .York, 1900). by hk 
son, W. R. Moody (b. IM9), and the esrimate in Henry Dnimmood's 
Dwight L. Moody: Impressions and Facts (New York, 1900), vitb aa 
introduction by George Adam Smith. 

MOOLVIB (an Urda variant of Arabic masda9%, a derivative 
of muUch, a man learned in the law), the name used in India 
of a man learned in Mahommedan law, and hence used generally 
of a teacher or as a complimentary title of one learned in any 
branch of knowledge. 

MOON. SIR RICHARD, iST Basonet (1814-1899). Englak 
railway adminbtrator, was the son of a Liverpool merchaiit, 
and was born on the 23rd of September 1814. The histoij 
of hb life b practically the hbtory of the London & Koitb- 
Westem railway for the period in which he lived. Hlicn be 
first became a member of the board in 1847, the company bad 
just come into existence by the amalgamation of the Londoa 
& Birmingham, the Manchester & Birmingham, and tbe 
Grand Junction lines, and it was during hb long oonneziH 
with it — first as director and then (from 1862 to 1891) as chair* 
man — that its system was developed substantially into what 
it b now. The Chester & Holyhead, the Lancaster ft 
Carlble, and many smaller lines were gradually added to it. 
either by leasing or by complete absorption, and finally in 1S77 
an act was obtained consolidating all into one homofeneoos 
whole. Throughout hb career. Sir Richard Moon's powers 
of organization and his genius for what may be called railway 
diplomacy were of the greatest advantage to the company, and 
to him it owed in very large measure its commaiKling positica 
An extremely hard worker himself, he expected equal diUgaice 
of his subordinates; but energy and capacity did not go vsst- 
warded, for he made promotions, not by standing or seniority, 
but by merit. Sir Richard Moon, who was created a baronet 
in 1887, died at Coventry on the 17th of November 1899. 

MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Momd, Do. ibsoi, 
Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Gennanic fonns 
as Gr. M^y, Sans, m&s, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses /ima, i.e. iaou. 
the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves tbe 
word in mensis, month; the ultimate root for "mooQ** aod 
" month " b usually taken to be me-, to measure, the noaa 
being a measurer of time), in astronomy, the name gives to tbe 
satellite of any planet, specifically to the only satdlite of tbe 
earth. 

The subject of the moon may be treated as twoMd, ooe 
branch being concerned with the adjects, phases and cossti- 
tution of the moon; the other with the mathematical theory 
of its motion. As the varying phenomena presented by tk 
moon grow out of its orbital motion, the general character 
of the latter will be set forth in advance. 

A luminous idea of the geometrical relatioos ol the boos. 



MOON 



803 




earth and sun will be gained from the figure, by imagining 
the sun to be moved towards the left, and placed at a distance 
of 20 ft. from the position of the earth, as represented at the 
right-hand end of the figure. We have here eight positions of 
the moon, M|, Mt, &c., as it moves round the earth £. The 
general average distance of the sun is somewhat less than four 
hundred times that of the moon. We have next to conceive 
that, as the earth performs its annual revolution round the 
sun in an orbit whose diameter, as represented on the diagram, 
is nearly 40 ft./ it carries the orbit of the moon with it. Con- 
ceiving the plane of the earth's motion, which Is that of the 
ecliptic, to be represented by the surface of the paper, the orbit 
of the moon makes a small angle of a little more than 5^ with 
this pUtne. Conceiving the line NN' to be that of the nodes 
at any time, and the earth and lunar orbit to be moving in 
the direction of the straight arrows, the earth will be on one 
side of the ecliptic from Mi to Mt, and on the other side from 
M« to Ml, intersecting it at the nodes. The absolute direction 
of the line of nodes changes but slowly as the earth and moon 
revolve; consequently, in the case shown in the figure, the line 

/TV -'■ 

I Sim r^ '*""-' """^'^ "^'^ 

fd nodes will pass through the sun after the earth has passed 
through an arc nearly equal to the angle Mi N. Six months 
later the direction of the opposite node will pass through the 
sun. Actually, the line of nodes is in motion in a retrograde 
direction, the opposite of that of the arrows, by 19*3** per year, 
thus making a revolution in 18.6 years, or 6,793*39 days. (See 

ECLIl»SE.) 

The varying phases of the moon, due to the different aspects 
presented by an opaque globe illuminated by the sun, are too 
familiar to require explanation. We shall merely note some 
points which are frequently overlooked: (i) the crescent 
phase of the moon is shown only when the moon is less than 
QO^ from the sun; (3) the bright convex outline of the crescent 
is then on the side toward the sun, and that the moon is seen 
full only when in opposition to the sun, and therefore rising 
about the time of sunset. In consequence of the orbital motion 
the moon rises, crosses the meridian, and sets, about 48 m. later 
every successive day. This excess is, however, subject to wide 
variation, owing to the obliquity of the ecliptic and of the lunar 
orbit to the equator, and therefore to the horizon. The smaller 
the angle which the orbit of the moon, when near the point of 
rising, makes with the horizon the less will be the retardation. 
Near the autumnal equinox this angle is at a minimum; hence 
the phenomenon of the "harvest moon," when for several 
successive days the difference of times of rising on one day 
and the next may be only from 15 to 20 minutes. Near the 
vernal equinox the case is reversed, the interval between two 
risings of the nearly full moon being at its maximum, and between 
two settings at its minimum. Generally, when the rising is 
accelerated the setting is retarded, and vice versa. 

The moon always presents nearly the same face to the earth, 
from which it follows that, when referred to a fixed direction 
in space, it revolves on its axis in the same time In which It 
performs its revolution. Relatively to the direction of the 
earth there is really no rotation. The rate of actual rotation 
is substantially uniform, while the arc through which the moon 
moves from day to day varies. Consequently, the face which 
the moon presents to the earth is subject to a corresponding 
variation, the globe as we see it slightly oscillating In a period 
nearly that of revolution. This apparent oscillation is called 
libralion, and its amount on each side of the mean Is commonly 
between 6° and 7**. There is also a libration in latitude, arising 
from the fact that the axis of rotation of the moon is not 



precisely perpendicular to the plane of her orbit. This libration 
is more regular than that in longitude, its amount being about 
6^ 44' on each side of the mean. The other side of the moon 
is therefore invisible froni the earth, but in consequence of the 
libration about six-tenths of the lunar surface may be seen 
at one time or another, while the remaining four-tenths are for 
ever hidden from our view. "^ 

It is foimd that the direction of the moon's equator remains 
nearly invariable with respect to the plane of the orbit, and 
therefore revolves with that plane In a nodal period of i8*6 
years. This shows that the side of the moon presented to us 
is held in position as it were by the earth, from which it also 
follows that the lunar globe Is more or less elliptical, the longer 
axis being directed toward the earth. The amount of the 
elliptidty is, however, very small. 

Two phenomena presented by the moon are plain to the naked 
eye. One is the existence of dark and bright regions, Irregular 
in form, on its surface; the other Is the complete illumination 
of the lunar disk when seen as a crescent, a faint light revealing 
the dark hemisphere. This is due to the light falling from the 
sun on the earth and being reflected back to the moon. To 
an observer on the moon our earth would present a surface 
more than ten times as large as the moon presents to us, con- 
sequently this earth-light is more than ten times brighter than 
our moonlight, thus enabling the lunar surface to be seen by us. 

The surface of the moon has been a subject of careful tele- 
scopic study from the time of Galileo. The early observers 
seem to have been under the impression that the dark regions 
might be oceans; but this impression must have been corrected 
as soon as the telescope began to be Improved, when the whole 
vbible surface was found to be rough and mountainous. The 
work of drawing up a detailed description of the lunar surface, 
and laying its features down on maps, has from time to time 
occupied telescopic observers. The earliest work of this kind, 
and one of the most elaborate, Is the Sdenographia of Hevelius, a 
magnificent folio volume. This contains the first complete map 
of the moon. Names -borrowed from geography and classical 
mythology are assigned to the regions and features. A system 
was Introduced by Riccioli in his Almagestum novum of desig- 
nating the more conspicuous smaller features by the names of 
eminent astronomers and philosophers, while the great dark 
regions were designated as oceans, with quite fanciful names: 
Mare imbrium, Oceanus ^ocdlarum, &c. More than a century 
elapsed from the time of Hevelius and Ricdoli when J. H. 
SchrSter of Lilienthal produced another profusely illustrated 
description of lunar topography. 

The standard work on this subject during the 19th century was 
long the well-executed description and map of W. Beer and J. H. 
MSidlcr, published in 1836. ^ It wis the result of several yean' 
careful study and micrometric measurement of the features shown 
by the moon. The volume of text gives descriptive details and 
measurement of the spots and heights of the mountains. 

In recent times photography has been so successfully applied 
to the mapping of our satellites as nearly to supersede visual 
observation. The first photograph of the moon was a daguerreo- 
type, made by Dr J. W. Draper of New York In 1840; but it 
was not possible to do much in this direction until the more 
sensitive process of photographing on glass was Introduced 
instead of the daguerreotype. The taking of photographs 
of the moon then excited much Interest among astronomical 
observers of various countries. Bond at the Harvard obser- 
vatory, De la Rue In England, and Rutherford In New York, 
produced lunar photographs of remarkable accuracy and beauty. 
The fine atmosphere of the Lick observatory was well adapted 
to this work, and a complete photographic map of the moon 
on a large scale was prepared which exceeded in precision of 
detail any before produced. The most extended and elaborate 
work of this sort yet undertaken is that of Maurice Loewy 
(i 833-1907) and Pierre Puiseux at the Paris observatory, of 
which the first part Was pubUshed in 1895. 

The broken and irregular character of the surface is most 
evident near the boundary between the dark and illuminated 
portions, about the time of first quarter. The most remarkable 



804 



MOON 



feature of the surface comprises the craters, which are scattered 
everywhere, and generally surrounded by an approximately 
circular elevated ring. Yet another remarkable feature com- 
prises bright streaks, branching out in various directions and 
through long distances from a few central points, especially 
that known as Tycho. 

The height of the lunar mountains is a subject of interest. 
It cannot be stated with the same dcfiniteness that we can 
assign heights to our terrestrial mountains, because there is 
no fixed sca-level on the moon to which elevations can be 
referred. The only determination that can be made on the 
moon is that of the height above some neighbouring hollow, 
crater or plain. The most detailed measures of this sort were 
made by Beer and Mildler, who give a great number of such 
heights. These /generally range between 500 and 3000 toiseSs 
or 3000 and 30,000 English feet. The highest which they 
measured was Newton, 3737 toises, or 34,000 ft. 

The general trend of lunar investigation has been against 
the view that there is any resemblance between the surfaces 
of the moon and of the earth, except in the general features 
already mentioned. No evidence has yet been found that the 
moon has either water or air. The former, if it existed at all, 
could be found only in the more depressed portions; and even 
here it would evaporate under the influence of the sun's rays, 
forming a vapour which, if it existed in considerable quantity, 
would in some way make itself known to our scrutiny. The 
most delicate indication of an atmosphere would be through 
the refraction of the light of a star when seen coincident with 
the limb of the moon. Not the slightest change in the direction 
of such a star when in this position has ever been detected, and 
it is certain that if any occurs it can be but a minute fraction 
of a second of arc. As an atmosphere equal to ours in density 
would produce a deviation of an important fraction of a degree, 
it may be said that the moon can have no atmosphere exceeding 
in density the t^\[ that of the earth. 

Devoid of air and atmosphere, the causes of meteorological 
phenomena on the earth are non-existent on the moon. The 
only active cause of such changes is the varying temperature 
produced by the presence or alienee of the sun's rays. The 
range of temperature must be vastly wider than on the earth, 
owing to the absence of an atmosphere to make it equable. 
Elaborate observations of the heat coming from the moon at 
its various phases were made and discussed in 1871-1873 by 
Lord Rosse. Among his results was that during the progressive 
phases from before the first quarter till the full moon the heat 
received increases in a much greater proportion than the light, 
from which it followed that the former was composed mainly 
of heat radiated from the moon itself in consequence of the 
temperature which it assumed under the sun's rays. So far 
as could be determined, 86% of the heat radiated was by the 
moon itself, and 14% reflected solar heat. But it seems 
probable that this disproportion may be somewhat too great. 
Rosse's determinations, like those of his predecessors, were 
made with the thermopile. After S. P. Langley devised his 
bolometer, which was a much more sensitive instrument than 
the thermopile, he, in conjunction with F. W. Very, applied 
it to determine the moon's radiation at the Allegheny observa- 
tory. His results for the ratio of the total radiation of the full 
moon to that of the sun ranged from i : 70,000 to f : 110,000, 
which were in substantial agreement with those of Rosse, who 
found 1 : 82,000. When Langley published his work the law of 
radiation as a function of the temperature was not yet estab- 
lished. He therefore wrongly concluded that the highest tem- 
perature reached by the moon approximated to the freezing- 
point of water. Stefan's law of radiation, on the other hand, 
shows that the temperature must have been about the boiling- 
point in order that the observed amount of heat might be 
radiated. This is in fair agreement with the computed tempera- 
ture due to the sun's radiation upon a perpendicular absorbing 
surface when no temperature is lost through conduction to the 
interior. The agreement thus brought about between the results 
deduced from the law of radiation and the most delicate observa- 



tions of the quantity of heat radiated is of great interest, as showing 
that the theory of cosmical temperature now rests upon a sound 
basis. There is however, still room for improved determinatioia 
of the moon's heat by the use of the bolometer in its latest form. 
Possibility of Changes on the Moon.— No evidence of life on 
the moon has ever been brought out by the minutest tdescopic 
scrutiny, nor does life seem possible in the absence of air and 
water. Some bright spots are visible by the earth-light when 
the moon is a thin crescent, which were supposed by Hencfad 
to be volcanoes in eruption. But these are now kiM>wn to be 
nothing more than spots of unusual whiteness, and if any active 
volcano exists it is yet to be discovered. Still, the question 
whether everything on the moon's surface is absolutely unchange- 
able is as yet an open one, with the general trend of opioioa 
toward the affirmative, so far as any actual proof from observa- 
tion is concerned. The spot which has most frequently exhibited 
changes in appearance is near the centre of the visible disk, 
marked on Beer and Mftdler's map as Linne, This has been 
found to present an aspect quite different from that dqMCted 
on the map, and one which varies at different times. But the 
question still remains open whether these variations may not 
be due wholly to the different phases of illumination by tbe 
sunlight as the latter strikes the region from various directions. 
Intensity of Moonlight. — An interesting and important quantity 
is the ratio of moonlight to sunlight. This has been measured 
for the full moon by various investigators, but the results are 
not as accordant as could be desired. The most reliable deter- 
minations were made by G. P. Bond at Harvard and F. ZfiUner 
at Leipzig, in i860 and 1864. The mean result of these tiro 
determinations is the ratio x : 570,000. We may therefore 
say that the intensity of sunlight is somewhat more than half 
a million times that of full moonlight. A remarkaUe feature 
of the reflecting power of the moon, which was made known by 
Z6llner's observations, is that the proportion of light reflected 
by a region on the moon is much greater when the tight falb 
perpendicularly, which is the case near the time of foil doob, 
and rapidly becomes less as the light is more oblique. TUi 
result was traced by Z6llner to the general irregularity of tbe 
lunar surface, and the inference was drawn that the avefi|e 
slope of the lunar elevation amounts to 47*. 

Motion 0/ the Moon.— The orbit of the moon around tbe earth, 
though not a fixed curve of any class, is ellip^cal in form, 
and may be represented by an ellipse which is ooostantly 
changing its form and position, and has the earth in one of its 
foci. The eccentricity of the ellipse is in the general avenfe 
about 0-055, whence the moon is commonly more than ?r 
further from the earth at apogee than at perigee. The line of 
apsides is in continual motion, generally direct, and performs 
a revolution in about 13 years. The inclinatioo to tbe ediptk 
is a little more than 5^, and the line of nodes performs a rcvda- 
tion in the retrograde direction in 186 years. The panQ&x 
of the moon is determined by observation from two wideif 
separated points; the most accurate measures are those oide 
at Greenwich and at the Cape of Good Hope. Tbe distioct 
of the moon can also be computed from the law of gravity, i^ 
problem being to determine the distance at which a body 
having the moon's mass would revolve around tbe earth is tbe 
observed period. The measures of parallax agree pedcctif 
with the computed distance in showing a mean paraDix of 
57' 2-8', and a mean distance of 338,800 miles. The period of 
revolution, or the lunar month, depends upon the point to 
which the revolution is referred. Any one of five such direc- 
tions may be chosen, that of the sun, the fixed surs, tbe tqvaso^ 
the perigee, or the node. The terms synodical, sidcrreal, tropiolt 
anomalistic, nodical, are applied respectively to these noetbs, 
of which the lengths are as follow: — 

Deviatioa fioa 
Length. sidereal moetb. 

Synodic month .... 39-53059 days. •fa-3o693 dvgt- 
Sidereal month .... 27«32i66 „ 0-00000 . 

Tropical month .... 27-32156 „ -ooooio « 
Anomalistic month . . . 27-55460 ., •^0-23294 » 
Nodical month .... 27*21132 ^ *0*I0944 • 



MOON 



805 



Other numerical pardculari relating to tBe moon •^e^— 

Mean distance irom the earth (earth's radius as I) . . 6o*36m 

Mean apparent diameter 3i'5i'& 

Diameter in miles 3159-0 

Moon's surface in square miles 14,600,000 

Diameter (earth^s equatorial diameter as 1) ... 0*3725 

Surface (earth's as n 00743 

Volume (earth's as 1) o-oam 

Ratio of mass to earth's mass* l:8i'53*«047 

Density tearth's as i) 0*60736 

Density (water's as I, and earth's asMimed as 5). . . . 3*46 
Ratio of gravity to gravity at the earth's surface . . . 1:6 
Inclination of aads of rotation to ecliptic .... 1*30' ii'3* 

Tke Luftar Theory, 
The mathematical theory of the moon's motion does not yet 
form a well-defined body of reasoning and doctrine, like other 
branches of mathematical sdence, but consists of a series of 
lesearches, extending through twenty centuries or more, and 
not easily welded into a unified whole. Before Newton the 
problem was that of devising empirical curves to formally 
represent the observed inequalities in the motion of the moon 
around the earth. After the establishment of universal gravi- 
tation as the prinuuy law of the celestial motions, the problem 
was reduced to that of integrating the differential equations of 
the moon*s motion, and testing the completeness of the results 
by comparison with observation. Although the predsion of 
the mathematical solution has been placed beyond seiious 
doubt, the problem of completely reconciling this solution with 
the observed motions of the moon b not yet completely solved. 
Under these circumstances the historical treatment is that best 
adopted to give a clear idea of the progress and results of 
lesourch in this field. Modem researches were developed so 
naturally from the results of the andents that we shall begin 
with a brief mention of the work of the latter. 

Ic u in t,hv irtVi: .ligduon of lEic moon's uiotidn that the merits 
□I the ancient astronomy are eccn to thv bcA advantage. In the 
haodj of llippanibuB ihv theory tiriu brtnight to a dLi(ree of precision 
which u n^l}y miirvclIoLJi when wr cocDpaxe ii cither wiih other 
branches of phyucal icirnce in that aj^^Jr wJLh tht views of contem- 
porary non-*c ien! ific wriirrt. The dtKo vcrict of J i ipnarchus were >— 
J. The Ef&mlricity fij Ike Mfum'f (Mbit.— Hit found that the moon 
moved most rapidly nrar a ccTiA-in point of it* !>rbit, And mott ilowly 
iiQir the oppoute point. The law af thit motion wd,» such that the 
phenomena could be rrF«t»aot«(i by »uppo*inf th^f mution to be 
actuary cirtubj" and uniform^ the appaJTcnt, v^ritiUon» being ex- 
plained by the hypoth«4i5 thftt the earth «aji-nat kltu^red in the 
centre cA th« Orbit, but *Q4 di^plajDcd by an AniDunt about equal to 
one-twentieth of the rddiat c4 the orbit. Then, hv an obvious law 
qf Idmrniiitici.^ the angubr rootion round the eanti would be most 
npid at the point nc^n.'^t the earth, thit h at perieee, and alowest 
At the point ino?t divtiint from the earth* tJmt u at aposee. Thus 
the apogee and perigee became two dehnite painta ci the ocbit, indi- 
cated by the ^^naiiuni in the artfular motit^n of the moan. 

These points art at the erni* ol that diameter of the orbit which 
paues through ihe etct^ntrltatly «ituated earthy or, in other words, 
they are on that line which Pajijkh through the centre of the earth 
aod the centre of the orbit- Thij line wm calked the /w of apsides. 
On comparing^ ob$erN'atii>iiii made at different time* it waji found 
that the line of apsidi,^ waa not fixed » but made a complete revolu- 
tion in the heaven^ In the Ofdcf ol the signs of the lodiac, in about 
nine yeara. 

2. TJtt Numrrioit Dekrminaiion of thr El^nmenij af tke M^xm's 
Jffl/tmi.^in order that the two cnpitaj discoveries just mentioned 
thduld have the hi^hr^t icientiAc value, it wai e^dcntial that the 
ngmencal values of the tjcraentf involved tn thtsc campUcatecj 
moiiona ahould be fixed with preciiion* Thl* Hifiparchu* wia 
enabled to do by lunar eclip4C&- E^h eclipse g:ave a moment at 
wbkb the loniptude of the moon wa* 180" different from that of 
the mn. The latter admitted of rtady calcuUtJoo. Assuming the 
itKaq mtrtion of the moon to be known and the perigtw to be fixed, 
three Bclip«3, obicrvrd in different point* of the orbit, would pve 
as many true longitude* of the moon, which lonptudo cc»ulq he 
employed to determine three xinlcnown quantitiev — the mean longi- 
tude at a jfiven epoch, the eccentricity, and the position of the 
firrigee. By taking three eclipHS separated at ahort interval*, 
both the mean motion an4 the motion ol the perigee would be 
known before tumd, imm other data, »rith suifki*?nt accuracy to 
reduce all the observations to the same epoch, and thus to leave 
only the three elements already mentioned unknown. The same 
three elements bdng again determined from a second triplet of 
eclipses at as remote an epoch as possible, the difference in the 

* A. R. Hinks, " Mass of the Moon, from Observations of Erosi 
1900-1901" M.N. Roy. AsLSqc,, 1909, NOV., p. 7y. 



longihide of the peHgte at the two epodia gtm the annual moilon 
of that element, and the dilfeience of mean Jon^itisdct g^vc the 
iDt^n motion. 

The ecdcntricity determined in, thi* way i« niore than a degree in 
error, owing to the effect of the <**cfiW, which Wii* unknovrn to 
Hipparchui. The result of the latter inequality 11 broyght out 
when it 11 sought to determine the ctcentridty of the orbit from the 
olraerV9tkrn« near the time of the first and last quarter^ It vam 
thus fouml by Ptolemy tliat an additional inequality cwEtrd in 
the motion, which is now known sa the evectian. The relations 
of the quantities involved may be shown by timplc tn^QtiamHinc 
formulae, [f we put | for the moon^« anomaty or distance from the 
perigee, and D for its elongation imm the sun, the Inequalitin in 
qtiettioa aa now known uc — 

6»H*9' dn f (equation of centre) 

+Ii7'siaXiD-:|) (evection]. 

During a lunar ecUpte «rc always have D -iAd*» very nearly, and 
jD-j6o*. Hence the evectioti is then — M* sin t* 4™ <mo- 
^eq^uently has the ume jirEument | as the equaiion ofeenim. so that 
it i» confounded with it^ The indue ol the equatkia of <3entje' 
derivisd from eciipses it thufi — 

6-^* tan i—j'ij^ ma |«5-oj' sin f . 
Thcfcfofc the ecixentricity found by Kipparchus wai only 5', and 
wan more than a dcfrev lesa than UK ln*e value. At first quirter 
we have D-go' and jD-iSq\ Substimting this value of iD 
in the |a^ term of the above equation, we set that the combined 
equatioa of the centre and eviction are, at quadrature — 

6-29*' fin ^-1-1 27* sin c=-7'56* isn £. 
Thus, la eonKquenci? of the evectioni, the equuian of the centre 
comes out 3^ 30' Lirger from obacrvatiofu at the moon's quartos 
than during echpflcst 

The next forward Btep_v:is due to Tycho BraTte, He found 
that* 43 though the two inequalities found by Hipparchus and 
Ptolemy correctly ^ represented the moon'd lonigituac near con- 
juncriun and opposition, and al&o at the quadrature}, it left a large 
Outstanding erroc at the octants, that is when the mono wa,^ 45* 
or t55* on either side of the sun. This inequality, which reaches 
the magjiitude of nearly l^ li known as the pAriaiion. Although 
Tycho B^lve was an original diicO'Veief of this inequality, through 
whom it fc«came known, JoKph Bertrund of Paris claimed the 
di»c/jvery ios Abu '[-Wefa, an Arabian a^trufiomer, and made it 
appear that the latter really detected inequalities in the moon's 
motion which we now know to have been the variation, But be 
has not thcwa, on ttie part of the Arabiai^ any tuch exact descrip- 
tion of the inequality as ia neceaary to make <rlear his claim to tbe 
discovery. We may conclude the ancient history of the lunar 
theory by ttyirrg ttukt the onJy real progress itttm Hipplrchus to 
Newton consisted in the more exact detenninaLion of the mean 
motions of the m£»n, hi perigee and its line of ntKle?, af^d in the 
diiccvPfy of three inequalities, the repFetentation nf which re* 
quired geometrical construcrdOQs incri:asing in eompleidty with 
every step. 

Trie modem lunar theory began with Newton^ and consist B m 
determining the motion of the moon deductively from the theory 
of gravitation, fiut the great founder of celestial mechanics em- 
ployed a ceometrical method, iil-adipted to lead to the desired 
rr^ult : and henrt his efforts to eon*tnjct a lunar theory are of more 
interest as illustntions of his wonderiul power and correct rwa* in 
matheinatkalreasooinethan as germs of new meth^i of research. 
The analytic metbod soufht to ea,pnH$ the main's motion by intee- 
ntting tne differential cd nations of tlie dynamical theory. The 
method! may be divided into three cksscs: — 

T* Laplace and hts immediUte fucccsson, espedatly G. A. A. 
Plana (i7St't864), effected the irit«gnition by extHTs«ng the time 
in term* of the moon's true longitude. Then, W inverting the 
seriejt the longitude was Bcpm$ed in term^ of the time. 

j. By the second general method the moon's coordinates arr 
obtain<^ in tcrm^ of the time by the dimet integration of the 
dijTetential equation* of motion, retaining aa algebraic symbols the 
value) of the various clementa. Mo*t of the elements are small 
nunverical fraction*: f, the eccentridPy of the mw-fl*i othh, about 
0055; tf', the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, about vojj* y. the 
siine of half the inclination oi the mocn'* orbit, about 0046^ w, the 
ratio of the mean motions of the moon and earth, about 0075* 
The e)ipfie$4ions for the lon^tude^ latitude and mrmUajc appear as 
an infinite trigonometric lencs, in »hii;h tbe coefncient* of the sine* 
and cosines are theniselves iriHnjre series proceeding accord inn to 
the powert of the ab^vtt small numbtrii Thi? meth«I was applied 
with success by Pont^oulant and Sir John W. Lubbock, and after- 
wards by Dtlaunay. By thcie methods the «etif* converge to 
fJowly, and the final erpressions for the moon's longitude are so 
long and cntnplLcatedt *nat the series has r>ever bucn carried far 
enough to ens^iftr the accuracy of all the tcrmi. This i» espectaHy 
the c^K with the development in powers of irt, the csnvetgence of 
which has ofteti been q motioned - 

3,. The third wet hod B«lfci to avoid the difl^culty by using the 
numerical values of the elements instead of their aJE^braic synibols* 
This method has ttw advancsce of leading to a more rapid and certaiii 



8o6 



MOON 



determination of the numerical quantities required. It has the 
disadvantage of giving the solution of the problem onlv for a 
particular case, and of being inapplicable in researches in which the 
general equations of dynamics have to be applied. It has been 
eniploycd by Damoiseau, Hansen and Airy. 

The methods of the second general class are those most worthy 
of study. Among these we must assign the first rank to the method 
cf C. £. Delaunay, developed in his Thiorie du motcoemerU de la 
lune (2 vols., i860, 1867), because it contains a germ which may 
yet develop into the great desideratum of a general method in 
celestial mechanics. 

A I: I ' .. 11' iCami of the third or nLimcncal niethodi the most 
sa£CL>-aut ytc coiriplctol i* that of P. A. HaFue:i. His first wnrkn, 
Fyndtimeitla nfm, jppcaiviJ io iflj^i and comtHiiactl An ckpo^iuou 
of hia jn^irnioua and jietuUar method* c4 cDrnpuution. During 
the twenty years frjMowin^ he devoted a larg^? pnrt of his citcrEici 
to the nLLmcrical compuiauon of the lunar inoqu^litic?, tlie rcdclcr- 
m [nation of the tltmi^jitf cf motion, and the prrparation of new 
tables for computing the mcion'a petition. In the (alter branch o\ 
the work he received materbl aid from the Gritiiih guvrrnmcnti 
which published hU tablet on their completion in 1857, The com- 
putattoni of H^insen were published some seven yeax^ later by the 
Koyal SaKon Sock-iy of Science*. 

It was found on compariDg the results cf Hansen and Debunay 
that there are «>rnc otit^mnding dl&crcpanciea which are of sullicicnt 
m^igni tilde to diMnand ibc attention of iho^ interested in the mathc-^ 
ouiical theory of the subject, tt «'a& therefore necc-sj.iry thi^t the 
aummcai iiiefiualiE.ic9 diould be agaia determined by an entirely 
different methodi 

Thk* h** been done by Emcit VV. Brown, whose work may be 
legarded aoc only a» the bt* word on the &ab]ect, but ai embody- 
ing a terming] y oompkte and satisfactory uilution of a problem 
wiuch hai abwrlK'd an important part tA the energies of cnathe- 
Uutidl a9trunomt;r« iincc the time of HipfsaTchus. VVV shall try 
10 convey an id^i of thi) wiluiion. We have JuBt mentioned the 
fbuf SfluA quantiucs f^^, y ^nd m, in tenns of tne powers and pro- 
ductJ ol which the mood's cccocdinaica have to be exprtiacd. Euler 
GOfKdved the ide^ ol starting m-ith a prclinrinary solution of the 
problem in which the orbit of the moon should be iuppoted to lie 
in the ediptic, and to have no eccentricity^ while that ol the sun 
wu circuUr* This solution being reachtid,^ the additional terms 
were found, which «-ere multiplied uy the brat power of the several 
eccentridtwa vnd of the I ncli nation. Then tbe terms of the second 
ovder wemc found, and so on to any extent. In a B<^ries ol ri.-mark- 
■ble pificra [published in tE77-t!JHS Hill improved Eutcr'a method, 
And worked it out with much monc rigour and fuUne^ th^n Euler 
had been able to do. HIa mobt important contribution to the 
subject consisted in working out by extremely elegant mathe- 
maticat proces»4 the meth^ of determining the motion of the 
perigee- John Couch Adams afterwards dercr mined the motion 
of the node io a similar way. The numerical computatioru were 
wot Iced out by Hill only for the first approitimation. The subject 
wa« I lien taken up by Drown« who tn a aeries cf researches pub- 
]L»heil in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society and in 
the TransaciioHi of the American Mathematical Society extended 
HiiVi method so as to lorm a practicaUy complele Eoiution of the 
entire pdroblcm. The principal feature of his work wai that the 
quantity m, which is regarded as constant^ appears only in a 
numerical form, so that the uncertainties arising from development 
in a scries accruing to its powers is done away with. 

The solution of the main mathematical problem thus reached is 
that of the motion of three bodies only — the sun, earth and moon. 
The mean motion of the moon round the earth is then invariable, 
the longitude containing no incaualities of longer period than that 
of the moon's node, i8-6 y. But Edmund Halley found, by a 
comparison of ancient eclipses with modern observations, that the 
mean motion had been accelerated. This was confirmed by Richard 
Dunthorne (1711-1775). Corresponding to this observed fact was 
the inference that the action of the planets might in some way 
influence the moon's motion. Thus a new branch of the lunar 
theory was suggested — the determination by theory of the effect of 
planetary action. 

The first step in constructing this theory was taken by Laplace, 
who showed that the secular acceleration was produced by the 
secular diminution of the earth's orbit. He computed the amount 
as almut 10' per century, which agreed with the results derived 
by Dunthorne from ancient eclipses. Laplace's immediate suc- 
cessors, among whom were Hansen, Plana and Pont6coulant, 
found a larger value, Hansen increasing it to I2'5', which he intro- 
duced into his tables. This value was found by himself and Airy 
to represent fairly well several ancient eclipses of the sun, notably 
the supposed one of Thalcs. But Adams in 1853' showed that the 
previous computations of the acceleration were only a rude first 
approximation, and that a more rigorous computation reduced the 
result to about one-half. This diminution was soon fully con- 
firriKd by others, especially Dclaunay, although for some time 
Ponu-coulant stoutly maintained the correctness of the older 
tesult. But the demonstration of Adam's result was soon made 

^Philosophical Tramacltotu, 1853. 



conclusive, and a value which may be i rga r ded at deMtive \m 
been derived by Brown. With the latest acoepced dtnunutioa of 
the eccentricity, the coefficient b S-9>'. 

The Question now arose of the origin of the divctvpatKy bttw«B 
the smaller values by theory, annj t he ikupposed valkiti l4 i j* dc ' 

from ancient ediptses. In 1856 \V illi.^m l^errcl ^ho^^J that iJv a.^ , 

of the moon on the ocean tidal waves would resiijlt in a ft-taidtikw 
of the earth's loution, a result, at fif»t unnotio-d, which wu iadt- 
pcndcntly reached a few years hitcr by Dclaunay. TheamcHBAsf 
retardation does not admit of accur^ite computation, ohing to the 
uncertainty both as to the amou nt of the oceanic friction fmm ikhidl 
it arises and of the exact height and form of the tidal wj^e, tic 
action of the moon on which prodyos the effccL fiiit any woa^ 
estimate that can be made shoit^ that it might weU be uifipeMd 
much larger than is necessary to produce the observed diffcnvo* 
of 6' per century. It was therefore surphijiic wtwA, ^4 lin. 
Simon Newcomb found, by a study of the lunar ediptes hanaai 
down by Ptolemy and those observni by the Anbiaiw— d«t» 
much more reliable than the vnguc accounts of ancient vA&t eclipet 
— that the actual apparent acciLl^ ration was only about S-j* "Iliit 
is only 2-4' larger than the theornical value, and it wct^m^ diflkuJt 
to suppose that the effect of thi ti,l.kl jnr-t.inl uru.n o*n \m' .<%-. ^.iri .n u 
this. This suggests that the retardation may be in mat pan 
compensated by some accelerating cauae, the existence of which is 
not yet well established. The ToUowing is a Mimmary of tbe 
present state of the question: — 

The theoretical value of the acceleration, assuming 

the day to be consunt, is 5-91' 

Hansen's value in his TaUts de la Itau is ... . 12-19 
Hansen's revised, but still theoreticaUy citO u eo u s, 

result is 12-56 

The value which best represents the supposed edipses 

—(0 of Thales, (2) at Larissa, (3) at Stikkelstad 

— is about 11-7 

The result from purely astronomical observation b 8-3 

Intqmlitiii ef i^ng TrnW,— Combined with the question of 
secular accdcrJ^tion \% anrjiher uhieh h still not entirely settled— 
that of initiuJiliti^'i of lung {:icriod in the mean motion ol the moos 
round the earth. Liiplacc Hrtt :^ho«'cd that modem obscrvatiott 
of the moon irnJicitcdi thpit iti im-an moiion was really less duriof 
the second hatf ol the lith century than during the wst half, and 
htncc inCcrred the exuteiscc of an inequality naving a period d 
more than a century. 

The eihiitcnct of one or more tuch inequalities has been fully 
confirmed by all ihe observaiiom, both early and recent, that 
have become available since ihe time ^ Lain! ace. It b abo found 
by compulation from thcory^ that ihe planets do produce several 
appn.HUaUe imi^unEitics of long pcr^ijd^ in well as a great number of 
short period, in the motion of the moon. But the former do 

Ioot coTTT^pond to the observed incquahties, and the explaiutios 
of the outstanding difTerenr:ics may be rci:arded to-day as the most 
fMrrpk^ing CEiLKma in astronomy. The tnost platnible expbna- 
tion it that, like the discrepancy m the secular acceleration, the ob- 
served detiAtion is only dpjr^r^ni, and arises from slow fluctuatiooi 
tn ihc earth's rotation, and therefore in our measure of time pro 
duccd by Iht motion of tncai mas^o* of i>3]ar ice and the variability 
q( the amount of fiicwIaU Ofi iht- ga-at continents. Were this tbe 
case a simtbr jnequilicy should bv found in the observed times d 
xbe tramits of Mcrcui^- Bui the laiitr do not certainly show an) 
dcviatiofi in ihe measuit of lime, and setm to preclude a de^iaiioa 
so lofgc as that dtri^-td from olwfv^iions of the moon. Tbii 
sug^sis that intc|uaUtin in tbe actioci of the planets may ha\t 
been »(iU over^oakfd, the nubject bdng the nKKt intricate mitli 
whifh celestial mocha r^ifv ha* to deal But thb action has h«« 
rtcenrly worked up wiih fruch compktcjiei* of detail by Radiu, 
NcT^i omb and Brown, that the poMtbility of any unknown tern , 
Kc<^ms out of the qubtion. The enigma therefore still de&s 
solution. 

Btai-tQCRAPttV.— Works on selenogtaphy : tlevcliu^. 5^-^ 
grapkia sm Isuta* incrlptio (Daiuig, 1647); Rjecioli, A\fici<<^;** 
naeum fBorogoa, 1651); J. H. Schpfjcter* S^^^niftapvsj^^i^'i^^ 
FraimtaU tMr fff^Hfnt JKfnntnifS der ^f€mdJ^^a.i:kt {LiUtntJiiii- 
tl^t); W, Ektr and J. ff. Midler, Per Mottd imcff ititttn k^sm^fhm 
Urtd individttrikif Vtrkalinhsen^ cdtr AUicmeint verglfii^ktmde 5rfn** 
gTQffhit (Berlin, ibjj] : Richard A. ProctOf, Tkr Moem (London. 
'i^iy. the Hnt edition contains excellent geometricaJ deiHuwId' 
tionjh of \\k inequalities produced by the sun in tbe moon's msMHi 
which were partly oinicted in the second edition); J. Ncimtytli tid 
J. Carpenter, Tkt Moon. Cotuidtrtd sf a Ftamel, « VMi n< i 
Satflfiff (London, t^S: fine illustrations): ^ Ndaon fnanr Jle*3IWi 
Tfii Moon and ikt Cowdiiiona and Cftifjigjiraiioni #f tit St^tt* 
(London, i^jh)-^ M. I.oe*'y and P. PuiseuK, AtLts bkcfiPt*'ii!fMfm ii 
in fune flmprimerie RnvalCn Parii» iSyfr-i^o^h W. H- PickcrifK I* 
Mqqw, from pholafrapks [New Yorrlc, H)04): G. P. Serviv^ Tmmm 
(London, i^o^K a popuTar account illustrated by line tjlM ii iJ* j )sp ** 

On the sub] per of lunar urology, see N. S. Shilcr in Ji^i fl a ip iH 
Ctfiffriltutwni ta A'^mW^rfff. vol xxxW. Ko. i-|j«, and P. Pay? 
" Recbrrrhe* sut TorfKine probable df^s format ion* lunatfdk" *• 
A fijtaitt dt i'olufniat&in de Psfis, Mimtiro, tamt xmu. 



following are amon{( the works reUting to the mockm of the 
which are of histonc importance or present interest to the 
t: Clairaut. Thiorie de la tune (and ed.. Paris. 1765); L. 
Tkeoria moluum lunae nova metkodo pertractata (PetropoUs, 
G. Plana, Thior%edumotnem«nldelalune (a vols.. Turin. i8t2^; 
Hansen, ftflji- ■:■•■■ ; ; - l ■■■,. ■ ,; ,1, , •,■;,■ - r:,r.^ v.r.j, 

din Mhndtjfdit itH£twandien Sl^tunim (Lciprj^, iS6j); 

iiundv^ Thitcfii du mtimfmerti dt U iunt {1 vdIa.h l^iri^, i*6o- 

F- F. Tisscmnd, Tr^iii d* mimnique clUite, lomc iii., 

I dt i'tmemMe des ikt^mts rdixiii^i au mou^gntfHt dt Ui tunr 

1894^ E. W. BroMp'nn " Theory of the Motbci of ih* Maon," 
Fi o| the R'>yal Ajtranomkal S*)ciety, varlout voli,; also 
vtiitui of the Ammcan MatbcFiutical Society, vjjU, Iv. and vi.; 

Bmown. iHlrtfductury TtMttif an the Lttmr Tki&ry (Cam- 

University Pre**, tA^A); Hansen. Tiiblti dc ia iuKw (ILonUon, 
(Admiralty ptiblicationjj W, Frrrel, *" Oft the EtT&zt of iht 
id Mnm on the Rotify Mmidci of the Eenh.' Aiiron. Jcur., 
. (iSS4): S. Newrdftib, " RMcairhes on the Motion of (he 
(AppendiJt to IVmhinct&n ObM^notims for i»75, discuMioti 

moon's mean rnot^nn); S. Newcomb* " Tranitofcnatjon of 
IS Lunar Thcufy." Ait Paptrs of the Amer. Ephemcri*, 

R. RaOaUp " InitoiiHi pianiiawes d% mmarmtnt de la lunt " 
5*i. Pari* Obtcnaiory, vol, jt*i.); 5, Newcomb. " Artitjfl (A 
met A on the MrK^n/ Ai(. Papft^i of ihc Amer. Ephenwris, 
, pt. 3 {iSg6). Also, Publicsiion 7a of the Carnegie Inmtn- 

WaihinpTon (1Q07): E, W. Brovn, tntquaiititi in ikt Moon'^ 
I produced Ify the Adiffn of the Fianetf fthe Adams prjie essay 
7). (S. N.) 

>NSEBD, in botany, a common name for Menispermum, a 
of climbing deciduous shrubs, containing one species in 
America and another in Eastern Asia. The former, 
ladense, is a handsome plant, suited to damp and shady 
with large reniform peltate leaves and yellowish flowers 
in profusion on long pendulous racemes. 
)NSTONB» a variety of felspar, showing in certain direc- 
I bluish opalescence, whence its value as an ornamental 
When cut with a convex surface it displays a soft milky 
on, forming a luminous band, but not sharply defined 
cat's-eye. The ordinary moonstone is a translucent 
r of orthodase known as adularia (sec Oxthoclase), 
whence the peculiar sheen has beoi 
called " adularescence." The effect is 
probably caused by interference from 
twin lamellae, or by numerous enclo- 
sures of microscopic laminae, definitely 
orienuted, and it has been sxiggested 
that these may often be flakes of 
kaolin due to incipient decomposi- 
tion of the felspar. Practically all the 
moonstone of commerce comes from 
Ceylon, principally from the Dumbara 
district of the Central Province. It 
occurs as pebbles and irregular masses 
in the gem-gravels and day-deposit^, 
and is also obuined by quarrying an 
adularia leptynite, as described by Dr. 
A. K. Coomirasw&my. Very similar 
in some respects to moonstone is the 
chatoyant soda-felspar which was 
called by T. Sterry Hunt peristerite, 
from Gr. wtpumpd, a dove, in allusion 
to the resemblance of its lustre to that 
of the bird's neck. The original peri- 
sterite was from Bathurst, near Perth, 
Lanark coimty, Ontario, but it occiirs 
also at Macomb, St Lawrence county, 
New York. 

MOONWORT, or Moon-pern, in 
botany, the popular name of a small 
fern (Botryckium Lunaria), bdonging 
to the order Ophioglossaceae (see 
Ferns). It has a tuberous root-stock 
and a stout fleshy glabrous frond 3 to 
6 in. long, with a sterile and fertile 
portion; the former bears several pairs 
>e-set, semi-drcular or moon-shaped pinnae, the latter 



M<X)NSEED— MOORE, A. J. 



807 



insbuner's £«MmcI 
<t»Hik. by pommioa 
UrFfacbcr. 

ychium Lunaria. 



is pinnatdy branched and covered, on the face opposed to 
the sterile portion, with small globose spore-cases which bunt 
transversely. It is a widely distributed plant in the fibrth and 
south temperate and cold rones, and is found in pastures and 
grassy banks in Britain. 

MOOR, (x) A heath, an unenclosed stretch of waste or 
uncultivated land, covered with heather; also such a heath 
preserved for game-shooting, particularly for the shooting of 
grouse. The O. Eng. mdr, boi, moor, is represented in other 
Teutom'c bnguages; d. Dan. mor, Ger. Moor, O. Du. nwer, &c.; 
from an O. Du. adjectival form moerasch comes Eng. morass, a 
bog. Probably mere, marsh, are not to be connected with these 
words. (2) The verb " to moor," to fasten a ship or boat to 
the shore, to another vessd, or to an anchor or buoy, by cables, 
&c, is probably from the root seen in mod. Du. meren, which 
also gives the English nautical term " marline," small strands of 
rope used for lashings or seizings, and " marline-spike," a small 
iron tool for separating the strands of rope, &c. 

MOORCROFT. WILUAM (c. 1770-1825), English traveller, 
was bom in Lancashire, about 1770. He was educated as a 
surgeon in Liverpool; but on completing his course he resolved 
to devote himself to veterinary surgery, and, after studying the 
subject in France, began practice in London. In 1795 he 
published a pamphlet of directions for the medical treatment 
of horses, with special reference to India, and in 1800 a Cursory 
Account of the Methods of Shoeing Horses. Having been offered 
by the East India Company the inspectorship of their Bengal 
stud, Moorcroft left England for India in x8o8. Under his 
care the stud rapidly improved; in order to perfect the breed 
he resolved to undertake a journey into Central Asia to obtain 
a stock of Turkoman horses. In company with Captain William 
Hearsey, and encumbered with a stock of merchandise for the 
purpose of establishing trade relations between India and 
Central Asia, Moorcroft left Josimath, well within the mountains, 
on the 36th of May x8t2. Proceeding along the valley of the 
Dauli, they reached the summit of the frontier pass of Niti 
on the ist of July. Descending by the towns of Darba and 
Gartok, Moorcroft struck the main upper branch of the Indus 
near its source, and on the 5th of August arrived at the sacred 
lake of Manasarowar. Returning by Bhutan, he was detained 
some time by the Ghurkas, and reached Calcutta in November. 
This journey only served to whet Moorcroft 's appetite for more 
extensive travd, for which he prepared the way by sending out 
a 3roung Hindu, who succeeded in making extensive explora- 
tions. In company with him and George Trebeck, Moorcroft 
set out on his second journey in October 1819. On the 14th of 
August the source of the Beas (Hyphasis) was discovered, and 
subsequently that of the Chenab. Leh, the capital of Ladakh, 
was reached on the a4th of September, and here several months 
were spent in exploring the surrounding country. A com- 
mercial treaty was conduded with the government of ladakh, 
by which the whole of Central Asia was virt'uilly opened to 
British trade. Kashmir was reached on the 3rd of November 
1822, Jalalabad on the 4th of June 1824, Kabul on the aoth <d 
June, and Bokhara on the 35th of February 1825. At Andkhui, 
in Afghan Turkestan, Moorcroft was seized with fever, of which 
he died on the 37th of August 1825, Trebeck surviving him 
only a few days. But according to the Abb6 Hue, Moorcroft 
reached Lhasa in 1826, and lived there twdve years, being 
assassinated on his way back to India in 1838. In 1841 Moor- 
croft's papers were obtained by the Asiatic Sodety, and pub- 
lished, under the editorship of H. H. Wilson, under the title of 
Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Pmydb, 
in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawur, Kabul, Kumdut and 
Bokhara, from 1810 to 1825. 

See Graham Sandberg, The Exploration of Tibet (i904)> 

MOORE. ALBERT JOSEPH (1841-1893), English decorative 
painter, was bom at York on the 4th of September 184%. He was 
the youngest of the fourteen children of the artist, William Moore, 
of York who in the first half of the igth century enjoyed a 
considerable reputation in the North of England as a painter of 
portruu and landscape. In his childhood Albert Moore showed 



8o8 



MOORE, E.— MOORE, H. 



an extraordinary love of art, and as he was encouraged in 
his tastes by his father and brothers, two of whom after- 
wards became famous as artists— John Collingham Moore, and 
Henry Moore, R.A. — he was able to begin the active exercise of 
his profession at an unusually early age. His first exhibited 
works were two drawings which he sent to the Royal Academy in 
1857. A year later he became a student in the Royal Academy 
schools; but after working in them for a few months only 
he decided that he would be more profitably occupied in inde- 
pendent practice. During the period that extended from 1858 
to 1870, though he produced and exhibited many pictures and 
drawings, he gave up much of his time to decorative work of 
various kinds, and painted, in 1863, a series of wall decorations 
at Coombe Abbey, the seat of the earl of Craven; in 1865 
and 1866 some elaborate compositions: " The Last Supper " and 
" The Feeding of the Five Thousand " on the chancel walls of 
the church of St Alban's, Rochdale; and in 1868 "A Greek 
play," an important panel in tempera for the proscenium of 
the Queen's Theatre in Long Acre. His first large canvas, 
" Elijah's Sacrifice," was completed during a stay of some five 
months in Rome at the beginning of 1863, and appeared at the 
Academy in 1865. A still larger picture, *'The Shunamite 
relating the Glories of King Solomon to her Maidens," was 
exhibited in 1866, and with it two smaller works, '* Apricots " 
and " Pomegranates." In these Albert Moore asserted plainly 
the particular technical conviction which for the rest of his 
life governed the whole of his practice, and with them he first 
took his place definitely among the most original of British 
painters. Of his subsequent works the most notable are " The 
Quartette " (i860), *' Sea GuUs " (1871), " FoUow-my-Leader " 
(1873). "Shells" (1874), "Topaz" (1879), "Rose Leaves" 
(1880), "Yellow Marguerites" (1881), "Blossoms" (1881), 
"Dreamers" (1882), "Reading Aloud" (1884), "Silver" 
(1886), "Midsummer" (1887), "A River Side" (1888), "A 
Summer Night " (1890), " Lightning and Light " (1892), " An 
Idyll " (1893), and " The Loves of the Winds and the Seasons," 
a large picture which was finished only a few days before his 
death. He died on the 25th of September 1893, at his studio 
in Spenser Street, Westminster. Several of his pictures are 
now in public collections; among the chief are " Blossoms," 
in the National Gallery of British Art; " A Summer Night " 
in the Liverpool Corporation Gallery; " Dreamers " in the 
Birmingham Corporation Gallery; and a water-colour, " The 
Open Book," in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Ken- 
sington. In all his pictures, save two or three produced in his 
later boyhood, he avoided any approach to story-telling, and 
occupied himself exclusively with decorative arrangements of 
lines and colour masses. The spirit of his art is essentially 
classic, and his work shows plainly that he was deeply influenced 
by study of antique sculpture; but he was not in any sense an 
archaeological painter, nor did he attempt reconstructions of the 
life of past centuries. Artistically he lived in a world of his 
own creation, a place peopled with robust types of humanity of 
Greek mould, and gay with bright-coloured draperies and 
brilliant-hued flowers. As an executant he was careful and 
certain; he drew finely, and his colour-sense was remarkable for 
its refinement and subtle appreciation. Few men have equalled 
him as a painter of draperies, and still fewer have approached 
his ability in the application of decorative principles to pic- 
torial art. 

MOORE, EDWARD (17 12-1757), English dramatist and 
miscellaneous writer, the son of a dissenting minister, was 
born at Abingdon, Berkshire, on the 22nd of March 1712. He 
was the author of the domestic tragedy of The Gamester, originally 
produced in 1753 with Garrick in the leading character of 
Beverley the gambler. As a poet he produced clever imitations 
of Gay and Gray, and with the assistance of George, ist Lord 
Lyttellon, Lord Chesterfield and Horace Walpole, conducted 
The World (1753-1757), a weekly periodical on the model of the 
Rambler. Moore collected his poems under the title of Poems, 
Fables and Plays in 1756. He died in Lambeth on the ist of 
March 1757. His Dramatic Works were published in 1788. 



MOORE, GEORGE (1853- ), Irish novdist and poet, wis 
born in Ireland, son of George Henry Moore, M.P., a wefl- 
known orator and politician. He studied art in London and 
finished his education in Paris. He was a regular contributor 
to various London magaaines when he published his first volume, 
in verse, The Flowers of Passion (1877). A second, Paiou 
Poems, appeared in x88i. As a novelist he foUowed the 
French school of Flaubert and Zoh, and became prominent for 
deliberate realism. His powerful Mummer's Wife (1885) had 
decidedly repulsive elements. But Zolaism meanwhile was a 
thing to which the reading public was gradually becoming 
acclimatized. George Moore's Esther Waters (1894), a stroog 
story with an anti-gambling motive, had a more gen^ success, 
and was followed by Evelyn Innes (1898), a novel of musical 
life, and its sequel. Sister Teresa (1901). He interested himself 
in the Irish Gaelic revival, and was one of the founders of the 
Irish Literary Theatre. His play, The Strike at Arlingftrd 
(three acts, in prose, 1893), was written for the Independeat 
Theatre, and his satirical comedy. The Bending of the Bem^ 
(1900), dealing with Irish local affairs, was played by the Irish 
Literary Theatre in Dublin. His Diarmuid and Crania, writiea 
with Mr. W. B. Yeats, was produced by Mr. F. R. Benson's 
company at the same theatre in 1901. The UntUled Fidd 
(1903) and The Lake (1905) are romantic pictures of Irish life. 
Moore had originally come to the front in London about 188S 
as an art critic, and his published work in that line includes 
Impressions and Opinions (1891) and Modem Painting (1893. 
and ed., 1897). Among his other books are A Drama in MusUn, 
(1886), A Mere Accident (1887). ParneU and His Island (1887). 
Mike Fletcher (1887), Spring Days (1888), Vain Fortune (1890). 
Celibates (iSgs), Confessions of a Young Man iiSSS), and Memoirs 
of My Dead Life {1906). 

MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851- ), American BiMaa\ 
scholar, was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania, on the isth of 
October 1851, the son of William Eves Moore (1823-1899), a 
prominent Presbyterian minister, long the permanent dak of 
the Presbyterian General Assembly. The son graduated at 
Yale in 1872 and at Union Theological Seminary in 1877. was 
ordained in 1878, and from 1878 to 1883 was pastor ol the 
Putnam Presbyterian Church, Zanesville, Ohio. He was 
Hitchcock professor of the Hebrew hnguage and literature ia 
Andover Theological Seminary in 1883-1902, and was pre»dest 
of its faculty in 1899-1901; in 1902 he became professor of 
theology and in 1904 professor of the history of rdigion at 
Harvard University. His chief critical work dealt with the 
Hexateuch, and more particularly the Book of Judges (Com- 
mentary, 1895; text, translation and notes, 1898; text with 
critical notes, 1900). 

MOORE, HENRY (1831-1895), English painter, the ninth soa 
of William Moore, of York, and brother of Albert Joseph Moore, 
was born in that city on the 7th of March 1831. His artistic 
education was chiefly supervised by his father, but he also 
attended the York School of Design, and worked for a short 
time in the Royal Academy Schools. He first exhibited at the 
Academy in 1853, and was a constant contributor to its exhibi- 
tions till his death. At the outset of his career he occupied 
himself mostly with landscapes and paintings of animals, 
executed with extraordinary detail in imitation of the pfevaiiing 
taste of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood; but in 1857, while oa 
a visit to the West of England, he made his first attempts as a 
sea-painter. His success was immediate, and it had the effect 
of diverting him almost entirely from landscapes. Among 
his most important canvases must be reckoned "The Pikrt 
Cutter" in 1866, "The Sahnon Poachers" in 1869, "The 
Lifeboat" in 1876, "Highland Pastures" in 1878, "The 
Beached Margent of the Sea " in 1880, " The Newhaven Packet * 
(bought by the Birmingham Corporation), and " Catspavs off 
the Land " (bought by the Chanirey Fund trustees); in 1S85, 
" Mount's Bay " (bought by the Manchester CorporatJon) ia 
1 836, " Neartng the Needles " in i8g8, " Machrihanish Bay, 
Cantyre," in 1892, " Hove-to for a Pilot ** ia 1893, »nd *' Oka 
Orchy," a landscape, in 1895. Uc wis dected aa aaMciatc 



MOORE, J.— MOORE, SIR JOHN 



809 



of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colours in 1876, and 
a full member in 1880; an associate of the Royal Academy in 
1885, and an academician in 1893; and at Paris, in 1887, where 
he exhibited " The Newhaven Packet " and " The Clearness 
after Rain," he received a grand prix and was made a knight 
of the Legion of Honour. He died at Margate on the a and of 
June 1895. His works are marked by admirable appreciation 
of nature, and by a rare understanding of wave-form and colour 
and of the subtleties of atmospheric effect; and as a sea-painter 
he may fairly be regarded as almost without a rival. 

MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802), Scottish physician and writer, 
was born at Stirling in 1729, the son of a clergyman. After 
taking his medical degree at Glasgow, he served with the army' 
in Flanders, then proceeded to London to continue his studies, 
and eventually to Paris, where he was attached to the household 
of the British ambassador. His novel Zeluco (1789), a close 
analysis of the motives of a selfish profligate, produced a great 
impression at the time, and indirectly, through the poetry of 
Byron, has left an abiding mark on literature. Byron said 
that he intended Childe Harold to be " a poetical Zeluco," and 
the most striking features of the portrait were* undoubtedly 
taken from that character. Moore's other works have a less 
marked individuality, but his sketches of society and manners 
in France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and England furnish 
valuable materials for the social historian. In 1792 he accom- 
panied Lord Lauderdale to Paris, and witnessed some of the 
principal scenes of the Revolution. His Journal during a Rest' 
dcnce in France (1793) is the careful record of an eye-witness, 
and is frequently referred to by Carlyle. He died in London 
on the 2ist of January 1802, leaving five sons, the eldest of 
whom was General Sir John Moore. James Moore (i 763-1834), 
who wrote Sir John's Life, was also the author of some important 
medical works, and Sir Graham Moore (1764-1843), saw much 
active naval service and became an admiral. 

MOORE. SIR JOHN (1761-1809), British general, the son 
of John Moore, was bom at Glasgow on the X3th of November 
1 76 1. From his early years he intended to become a soldier, 
learned the Prussian firing exercise, and was " always operating 
in the field and showing how Geneva could be taken." By the 
duke of Hamilton's influence he obtained an ensigncy in the 51st 
foot (1776), learned his drill at Minorca, and in 1778 was ap- 
pointed captain-lieutenant in a new regiment raised by Hamilton 
for service in the American War. Moore remained in America 
to the peace of 1783, after which the Hamilton regiment was 
disbanded. In 1784 he was returned by the Hamilton interest 
as member of parliament for the united boroughs of Lanark, 
Selkirk, Peebles and Linlithgow. In parliament, though he 
never spoke, he seems to have taken his duties very seriously, 
and to have preserved an independent position, in which he won 
the friendship of Pitt and the respect of Burke, and (more 
important still) the friendship of the duke of York. In 1787 
he became major in the 6oth (now King's Royal Rifles), but 
in the following year he was transferred to his old corps, the 
51st. In 1792 Moore sailed with his corps to the Mediterranean. 
He was too late to assist at Toulon, but was engaged throughout 
the operations in Corsica, and won particular distinction at 
the taking of Calvi, where he was wounded. Soon after this 
he became adjutant-general to Sir Charics Stuart, with whom 
he formed a close friendship. After the expulsion of the French 
Moore became very intimate with many of the leading Corsican 
patriots, which intimacy was so obnoxious to Sir Gilbert Elliot 
(later Lord Minto) that Moore was eventually ordered to leave 
the island in forty-eight hours, though Elliot wrote in warm 
terms of his ability. Pitt and the duke of York thought still 
more highly of Colonel Moore, who was soon sent out to the 
West Indies in the local r&nk of brigadier-general. Here he 
came under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby, whose 
most valued adviser and subordinate Moore soon became. 
In the Santa Lucia expedition he won further distinction by 
his conduct at the capture of the Vigie and Morne FortunI, 
and when Sir Ralph left the island he appointed Moore governor 
and military commander. In 1798 be accompanied Abercromby 



to Ireland as a major-general, and during the rebellion was 
actively engaged in command of a corps in the south, defeating 
a large force of the Irish, and saving Wexford from destruction 
after the battle of Vinegar Hill (June 21). His services were in 
universal request, and Abercromby had him appointed to the 
command of a brigade destined for the expedition to Holland. 
At the action of Egmont-op-Zee, on the 2nd of October 1799, 
his brigade lost very heavily, and he himself was wounded for 
the fourth time, on this occasion severely. On his return from 
Holland he was made colonel of the 52nd regiment, with which 
he was connected for the rest of his career, and which under his 
supervision became one of the finest regiments in Europe. 

Throughout the Egyptian expedition he commanded the 
reserve. The a8th and 42nd regiments in this corps gained 
great distinction at the battle of Alexandria, where Moore 
himself was again wounded. He returned to duty, however, 
before the surrender of the French forces to General Hutchinson, 
and added so much to his reputation by his conduct in this 
brilliant campaign that after the short peace came to an end he 
was appointed to command the force assembled at Shomdiffe 
camp (1803) as a part of the army intended to meet the projected 
invasion of Napoleon. Here were trained some of the best 
regiments of the service, amongst others the 43rd, 52nd and 
95th Rifles, the regiments which afterwards formed the famous 
" Light Division " and won in the Peninsula an unsurpassed 
reputation, not only for the skilful performance of the duties 
of light troops, but also for invincible steadiness in the line of 
battle. These corps (now represented in the army by the ist 
and 2nd battalions of the Oxfordshire Light Infantry and the 
Rifle Brigade) bore the impress of Moore's training for thirty 
years and more, and as early as 1804, on account of the " superior 
state " of the 52nd, the king granted the ofiicers exceptional 
promotion (August 29, 1804). The system of light infantry 
tactics taught at Shomcliflfe was not invented by Moore; but 
he had always advocated the creation of these troops, and he 
supervised the training which produced such great results. 
While at Shomdiffe he renewed his intimacy with Pitt, who 
was then residing at Walmer Castle, and his close friendship 
with Lady Hester Stanhope led to the erroneous belief that 
he was betrothed to her. On his return to office Pitt caused 
Moore to be made a Knight of the Bath, and about the same 
time came his promotion to the rank of lieutenant-general. 
Fox, when he succeeded to office, showed the same appredation 
of Moore, and in 1806 sent him to the Mediterranean as second- 
in-command to his brother. General H. E. Fox« In the various 
minor expeditions of the time Moore had a share, at first as a 
subordinate, but soon, when Fox went home on account of ill- 
health, as commander-in-chief of the British army employed 
in the Mediterranean. About this time he formed an attachment 
for Caroline Fox (afterwards the wife of Sir William Napier), 
to whom, however, he did not offer marriage, fearing to " influence 
her," by his high position and intimacy with her father, '* to an 
irretrievable error for her own future contentment " {Life of 
Sir C. Napier, i. 39). In 1808 Moore was ordered to the Baltic, 
to assist Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, against Russia, France 
and Denmark. The conduct of the king, who went so far as to 
place Sir John Moore under arrest when he refused to acquiesce 
in his plans, ruined any chance of successful co-operation, and 
the English general returned home, making his escape in disguise. 
He was at once ordered to proceed with his division to Portugal, 
where he was to be under the command of Sir Hew Dalrymple 
and Sir Harry Burrard. To Moore, as a general of European 
reputation, who had held a chief command, the appointment of 
two senior officers to be over him appeared as a bitter insult, 
though his resentment did not divert him from his duty. He 
met his reward, for when, in the excitement caused by the con- 
vention of Cintra, Dalrymple and Burrard were ordered home, 
Moore was left in command of the largest British army that 
had been employed since the commencement of the war. 
Wellcsley, who returned home with the other generals, showed 
his appreciation of Moore, and in an interesting \ellCT (Wellington 
Despatches. Oct. 8, x8o8) expressed his desire to use his own 



8io 



MOORE, THOMAS 



great political influence to effect a reconciliation between Moore 
and the ministers. 

It was not long before the Spaniards summoned Sir John 
Moore's army to assist them against the advance of Napoleon, 
and the troops were marched into Spain, Salamanca being 
their rendezvous. There Moore remained for a month, calling 
up Sir David Baird's corps from Corunna to assist him. Soon, 
however, the overwhelming success of the emperor's attack 
threatened to isolate Moore, and it was then that he formed 
the magnificent resolution of marching northwards against the 
French line of retreat. The bold and skilful operations which 
followed this step will be found outlined in the article Peninsular 
War. Moore's advance paralysed the Emperor's victorious 
armies. Napoleon himself turned against the Brit'ish army, 
which was soon in grave danger, but Spain was saved. Under 
these circumstances took place the famous retreat on Corunna. 
The indiscipline of a large proportion of the troops made it painful 
and almost disastrous, but the reserve under Edward Paget, 
in which served Moore's old ShomclifiTe regiments, covered itself 
with glory in the ceaseless reargtiard fighting which marked 
every step of the retreat. The march ended with the glorious 
battle of Corunna (Jan. x6, 1809), where, early in the day, Sir 
John Moore received his death wound. He would not suffer his 
sword to be unbuckled, though the hilt galled his wound, and 
so he was borne from the field. His last hours were cheered by 
the knowledge of victory, and his only ciire was to recommend 
his friends, and those who had distinguished themselves, to 
the notice of the government. He died with the name of Lady 
Hester Stanhope on his h'ps. By his own wbh he was buried, 
before dawn on the 17th, in the ramparts of Corunna. Marshal 
Soult designed that a monument should be erected, with an 
inscription framed by himself, and the Spanish general La 
Romana afterwards carried out Soult's wishes. The temporary 
monument thus erected was made permanent in 181 1 by Sir 
Howard Douglas, acting for the prince regent. The duke of 
York issued to the army on the ist of February a noble order 
in which reference was made to the services of the general, and, 
above all, to the fact that " the life of Sir John Moore was spent 
among the troops." A memorial was erected in St Paul's 
Cathedral by order of parliament early in 1809, and his native 
city of Glasgow erected in George Square a bronze statue by 
Flaxman. The poem by the Rev. Charles Wolfe, " The Burial 
of Sir John Moore," became one of the most popular in the 
language. The best-known portrait of Sir John Moore is that 
by Sir Thomas Lawrence, P.R.A. 

For many years controversy, largely political, raged over 
the events of the Corunna campaign, and only at a later period 
has any examination of Sir John Moore's merits and services 
been made in a dispassionate spirit. Mistakes were doubtless 
made in the retreat, but it is sufficient to accept Napoleon's 
view that they were probably inseparable from the difficulties 
with which Moore was surrounded. His greatest claim to 
renown is, however, independent of his conduct of armies in 
the field. He was the finest trainer of men that the British 
army has ever known. He had the true gift of the great man, 
judgment of character. While Wellington, whose work would 
have been vain but for Moore's achievements, perpetually 
complained of his officers and formed no school, Moore's name is 
associated with the career of all who made their mark. The 
history of the Light Division is sufficient in itself to indicate 
the results of Moore's training on the rank and file.. In opposi- 
tion to the majority, who regarded the lash and the gallows as 
the source of discipline, he sought always and by every means 
to develop the moral qualities no less than the physical. Of 
the senior officers Hope, Graham, Edward Paget, Hill and 
Craufurd all felt and submitted to his ascendancy. The flower 
of the younger generation, Colborne, Hardinge and the Napiers, 
even though ihcy gained their laurels under Wellington and in 
chief command, were ever proud to call themselves " Sir John 
Moore's men." 

See, besides the works mentioned in the article Peninsular 
War, J. C. Moore. Uje 0/ Str John Moore (1833): Sir J. F. Maurice, 



Sir John Moore's Journal (1904): and the Records of the s^ad 
(Oxfordshire Light Infantry). A shorter memoir will be found in 
Tvodve British Soldiers (London, 1899). 

MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852), Irish poet, was bom ia 
Dublin on the 28th of May 1779. His father was John Moore, a 
prosperous grocer and wine merchant, and his mother's maiden 
name was Anastasia Codd. In 1793 Tom Moore's name first 
appeared in print, as a cohtributor of some verses ** To Zelia." 
to a Dubh'n periodical, the Antkologia Hibernica. In the same 
year Roman Catholic students began to be admitted to Trinity 
College, Dublin, and in 1794 Moore's name was entered on the 
books, curiously enough, as a Protestant. At Trinity be made 
friends with Robert Emmet, and was nearly dragged into the 
plots of the United Irishmen. The events of 1798 and the 
execution of Emmet in 1803 made a deep impression on hinu 
The words of Emmet's address to his judges, asking the charity 
of silence — " Let no man write my epitaph " — are enshrined by 
Moore in one of his lyrics, "Oh, breathe not his name!" {Irish 
Mdodics, 1808). The next song in the same collection — ** \^liea 
he who adores thee " — also owes* its inspiration to Emmet's 
fate, and the conscientious Orientalism of Lalla Rookh docs 
not conceal the pre-occupation of the writer with the United 
Irishmen when be writes of " The Fire Worshippers," aitd with 
Emmet and Sarah Curran when he describes the loves of Hafcd 
and Hinda, especially in the well-known song, ** She a far from 
the Land where her young Hero sleeps." In 1798 Moore 
graduated, and in the next year left for England to keep hn 
terms at the Middle Temple. 

He rapidly became a social success in London. Joseph 
Atkinson, secretary in Ireland to the ordnance board, had been 
attracted to Moore in Dublin at first by his gifts as a singer. 
He now gave him an introduction to Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 
2nd earl of Moira, who invited him to his country seat at Doning> 
ton Park, Leicestershire. Here Moore became a frequent guesL 
He had brought with him from Ireland a translation o( the 
Odes of Anacreon, and the prince of Wales consented to ha\-e 
the volume dedicated to him. It was issued in 1800 with notes 
and a list of distinguished subscribers. His social successes 
involved him in expenses far beyond his means. His publisher 
had advanced him money, and he resolved to pay his debt by 
the anonymous publication of his juvenile poems. The Peedcd 
Worhs of the Late Thomas Little, Esq. (1801), a collection of 
love poems which Moore afterwards regretted. Through Lord 
Moira's influence he was, in 1803, appointed registrar <tf the 
admiralty prize-court at Bermuda. He went there to take 
possession of the post, but soon tired of the monotonous life, 
and in 1804, after appointing a deputy, returned to England 
by way of the United States and Canada. In 1806 he published 
Epistles, Odes and other Poems, chiefly dealing with his im- 
pressions of travel. The volume contained the " Canadiu 
Boat Song " (" Faintly as tolls the evening chime "), and 
some love poems of the same kind as those connected with the 
name of " Mr Little." Jeffrey made an unjustifiable on^u^t 
on this collection in the Edinburgh Review for July 1806. Moore 
was in his view " the most Ucentious of modem versifiers, and 
the most poetical of those who, in our time, have devoted their 
talents to the propagation of^ immorality," and the book was 
a " public nuisance." Moore challenged Jeffrey, and a dad 
was arranged at Chalk Farm. The police interrupted tbe 
proceedings. Jeffrey's pistol was found to be unkiaded, and 
the ludicrous affair ended in a fast friendship between them. 

The success of the satirical epistles in the 1806 \x>luae 
encouraged Moore to produce further work of a similar kind. 
Corruption and Intolerance, Two Poems (180S), and The Sceptic: 
a Philosophical Satire (1809), but the heroic couplet and lb* 
manner of Pope did not suit his talents. At the end of i8g6 
he went to Dublin, and, with the exception of about six months 
in 1807 spent at Donington Park, the next three years «tre 
spent in Ireland. Here he met Miss Elizabeth Dyke, anactrtss, 
who became his wife in March 181 x. They lived at first is 
London, but soon removed into the country, to Kcgworik, 
near Lord Moira's seat, and then to Mayfidd Cottage, oetf 



MOORHEAD 



8ii 



Ashbourne, Derbyshire. Moore had to spend much of his time 
in London, for the popularity of his songs led to an agreement 
with his publisher to increase the success of these by singing 
them himself at great houses. The inception of his Irish 
Mdodies dates from 1807, and many of the best were written 
during the three years of his Irish visit. He had already 
published separate songs, some of them set to music of his 
own, when William Power suggested to him in 1807 the task 
of fitting words to a series of Irish airs supplied by Sir John 
Stevenson. He could not have found a task more exactly suited 
to his powers, and for a quarter of a century he enjoyed a regular 
income of £500 a year from Power for writing words to music 
The 6rst number of the Irish Melodies appeared in 1808, and 
contained some of his best and most popular work. The rest 
appeared between 1808 and 1834. In 1816 Stevenson and Moore 
published Sacred Songs^ followed by a second number in 1824. 
In 1818 they began to adapt melodies from other nations. 
The first number of National Airs appeared in 1818, and was 
followed by others in 1820, 182a, 1826, and 1827. 

After 181 2 he broke ground in a new field — political squib- 
writing. His first butt was the prince regent, once his friend 
and patron, whose foibles, fatness, love for cutlets and curagoa, 
for aged mistresses and practical jokes, were ridiculed with the 
lightest of clever hands. His earlier political poems appeared 
in the Morning Chronicle, but in 1813 he published a thin volume 
of Intercepted Letters: The Twopenny Post Bag. Other volumes 
of squibs, most of which passed through several editions, followed: 
The World at Westminster (1816), The Fudge Family in Paris 
(1818), The Journal of a Member of the Pococurante Society (1820), 
Fables for the Holy Alliance (1823), Odes on Cash, Com, Catholics, 
and other Matters (1828), The Fudge Family in England (1835). 
The only failure among his satirical writings was Tom Crib*s 
Memorial to Congress (1819) for which he had made an elaborate 
study of thieves' argot. 

In 1 814 he contracted with the firm of Longmans to supply 
a metrical romance on an Eastern subject, which should contain 
at least as many lines as Scott's Rokcby, the publishers bind- 
ing themselves to pay 3000 guineas on delivery. Moore had 
begun Lalla Rookh two years before. He was a careful and 
laborious writer, and retired to a cottage in the neighbourhood 
of Donington Park, where with the help of Lord Moira's library 
he read himself slowly Into familiarity with Eastern scenery 
and manners. He was already far advanced in his work when 
Byron in The Giaour and again in The Bride of A bydos largely 
forestalled him. The depression following on the peace of 1815 
deferred the publication of Lalla Rookh until 181 7. It was 
an immediate success. The Eastern local colouring which 
dazzled Moore's contemporaries has, however, faded, and the 
interest still existing in the poem is chiefly due to the uoder- 
ctirrent of Irish patriotism which he deveriy worked Into it. 
Immediately after the completion of Lalla Rookh, Moore removed 
with his family to Sloperton Cottage. Wiltshire, where he was 
close to Bowood, Lord Lansdowne's country seat. Moore's 
plans were interrupted by the. embezzlement of some £6000 
by the deputy he had left in Bermuda, for whose default he was 
fully liable. To avoid a debtors' prison Moore retired to the 
Continent. He visited Byron in Italy, and in October 1819 
received from him the first part Of the Memoirs. The con- 
tinuation was sent to Moore in Paris the next year, with Byron's 
suggestion that the reversion of the MS. should be sold. Moore 
did not remain long in Italy, but made his home in Paris, where 
he was joined by his wife and children. He was not able to 
return to England until 1822, when the Bermuda affair was 
compromised by a payment through Longmans of £1000. 
Moore had had many offers of help, but preferred to be indebted 
to his publishers only. During his exile he had written another 
Oriental poem, The Loves of the Angels (1822), which was hardly 
less popular than Lalla Rookh. He now became a contributor 
of satirical verse to The Times, the connexion lasting until 
1827. He now wrote his Memoirs of the Life of Sheridan, first 
contemplated in 1814, which appeared, after some delay, in 1825. 
The Memoirs of Captain Rock {1S24), in which be gives a 



humorous but convincing account of English misgovemment 
in Ireland, was the result of a tour with Lord Lansdowne in 
western Ireland. His prose tale. The Epicurean, appeared in 
1827, and the Legendary Ballads in 183a In 183 1 he completed 
his Life and Death of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, probably his best 
piece of prose work. 

The death of Byron in 1824 raised the question of the publi- 
cation of his Memoirs. Moore had parted with them in 182 1 to 
John Murray for £2000. After they had come into Murray's 
possession, Moore began to have doubts about the propriety 
of publishing them, and an arrangement was therefore made 
that the £2000 should be' regarded as a loan, to be repaid during 
Byron's lifetime, and that the MS. should be retained as a security. 
When Byron died the Memoirs were still unredeemed, and the 
right of publication therefore rested with Murray. Moore now 
borrowed the money from Longmans and induced Murray to 
give up his cUum. ' The money was paid, and, after a heated 
discussion with Byron's executors, the MS. was burnt. It was 
partly the pressure of the debt thus contracted, and partly 
the expressed wi&h of Byron, that induced Moore to undertake 
for Murray The Letters and Journals of Lord Byron, with Notices 
of his Life (1830). The diflicult task was executed with great 
skill and tact, and it remains, with all its defects and omissions, 
a valuable record. 

Moore's countrymen desired him to accept a seat in parlia- 
ment for Limerick. The offer was accompanied by a scheme 
to present Moore with an estate in the county worth £300 a 
year. It was made through the poet Gerald Griffin, who has 
left on record an account of the interview. Moore declined 
the honour. In 1830 he allowed himself to be drawn into a 
project for writing a History of Ireland (4 vols., 1835, 1837, 
1840 and 1846) for Lardner's Cyclopaedia. He hoped that by 
writing the history of Irebnd he might arouse in his own country- 
men an interest in their past, and open the eyes of Englishmen 
to the misgovemment of the country. He had neither the 
historical training nor the despatch in writing which enable<l 
Scott to scribble off the companion volumes on Scotland, and 
the history sat like a nightmare on him, and was left unfinished 
on the mehincholy collapse of his powers in 1845. He had, 
however, the temper of the student, and was always a voracious 
reader. 

Moore's last yelrs were harassed by pecuniary difficulties, 
and by the weakness and misconduct of his soift, the elder of 
whom retired from the English army to enter the foreign legion 
of France. After the death of his last child in 1845, Moore 
became a total wreck, but he lived until the 25th of February 
1852. He left sufficient provision for his wife in the Piary which 
he kept chiefly on her behalf. 

His other wcjrks an?, A LtUtf to the Reman Cuthdtkt af Pvhtin 
(i^tdj; A Mdvliigue t*pfln NatioHoi Mu\k (iSiJj; an opcrcitai 
MP. or Tht Elm Siocki»!^ {i^t\)\A Set oJGirei { 1 827) : The SMmmtr 
F^ie (iMjl); Evrnings in Grwct (rSjG-iSjj); Traveh of an Iriai 
Gc»tle/nan in Seank of a Riiigion; Akiphron, a Poem (tS^^^). 

Sec Mtmcirs, Jeurnat and! Corrripondenee of Thomas Moort 
(a vo)fc., ifisj-rS^fiJt cd. Ijjf Lord John RuAiell, whith confain* an 
immense qudntlly of biinfiftiphic^l iruUcml; 7 he pQ€Jk&i W&rks of 
Thomas Moere^ Cdltitiif by lUmsHf (rO vuli, i84o-r#4i): also 
JVffl/« from the Lrfttri of Thunuis jffewrtf ftj kit Uusi/ FvMifhtr^ 
Jamfs Pmiffr (t^S4) : ana Pr&if and Veri€. tlum&rmn. Satirical and 
StAiim^atol^ by Thomas, Moon, with suppresud passaeos from /4# 
hffmoiri of l^trd Byron . . . (1878)^ which mc1iiclL'» Moonc^s cori- 
iriliiiiuin^ tn iJu' l:;fis\f>ttnfh Rn-i^zi' [1814-1834). Amung mqdrnk 
t'(\.' . i . ] . viv^ht mentioned thot by 

CI i , , '.: ,. iHffthatby W. M. Raiselti 

(1880). Memoirs of Moore are prefixed to these editions.^ There 
are many contemporary references to him, especially in the journals 
and letters of Byron. There is an excellent life, by Stephen Gwynn, 
Thomas Moore (1905). written for the " Enelish Men of Letters Scnes." 
See also monographs on Moore, by G. Vallat (1886 and 1895), an 
essay on him as the poet " of Irish opposition and revolt " in Georg 
Brandes. Main Currents in Nineteenth Century Literature (vol. iv., 
1875; Eng. trans.. 1905). 

MOORHEAD, a dty and the county-seat of Qay county, 
Minnesota, U.S.A., opposite Fargo, North Dakota, on the E. 
bank of the Red River and about 21s m. N.W. of Minne- 
apolis. Pop. (1890), 2088; (1900), 3730; (1905), 4794; (1910), 



8l2 



MOOR-HEN— MOORS 



4840. Moorhead is served by the Great Northern and the 
Northern Pacific railways. The dty is the seat of one of the 
stale normal schools (x888) and of Concordia College (Norwegian 
Lutheran; 1891), which in 1907-1908 had 500 students. 
Moorhead, named in honour of James K. Moorhead (1806- 
1884), a Republican representative in Congress from Pennsyl- 
vania in 1859-1869, was settled in 1871, was incorporated as a 
village in 1875, and was chartered as a city in i88x. 
' MOOR-HEN,* the name by which a bird, often called water- 
hen and sometimes gallinule, is most commonly known in 
England. An earlier name was moat-hen, which was appropriate 
in the days when a moat was the ordinary adjunct of most 
considerable houses in the country. It is the CaUinula ckloropus 
of ornithologists, about the size of a small bantam-hen, but 
with the body much compressed (as is usual with members 
of the family RaUidae^ to which it belongs), its plumage above 
is of a deep olive-brown, so dark as to appear black at a short 
distance, and beneath iron-grey, relieved by some white stripes 
on the flanks, with the lower tail-coverts of pure white — these 
last being very conspicuous as the bird swims. A scarlet frontlet, 
especially bright in the spring of the year, and a red garter on 
the tibia render it very showy. Though often frequenting the 
neighbourhood of man, the moor-hen seems unable to overcome 
the inherent stealthy habits of the Rallidae, and hastens to 
hide itself on the least alarm; but under exceptional circum- 
stances it may be induced to feed, yet always suspiciously, 
with tame ducks and poultry. It appears to take wing with 
difficulty, and may be often caught by an active dog; but, in 
reality, it is capable of sustained flight, its longer excursions 
being chiefly performed by night, when the peculiar call-note 
it utters is frequently heard as the bird, itself invisible in the 
darkness, passes overhead. The nest is a mass of flags, reeds, 
or other aquatic plants, often arranged with much neat- 
ness, almost always near the water's edge, where a clump of 
rushes is generally chosen; but should a mill-dam, sluice-gate, 
or boat-house afford a favourable site, advantage will be taken 
of it, and not unfrequently the bough of a tree at some height 
from the ground will furnish the place for a cradle. The eggs, 
from seven to eleven in number, resemble those of the coot 
but are smaller, lighter, and brighter in colour, with spots or 
blotches of reddish-brown. The common moor-hen is exten- 
sively spread throughout the Old WoHd, being found also at 
the Cape of Good Hope, in India and in Japan. In America it 
is represented by a very closely allied form, G. galcata^ so called 
from its rather larger frontal helm, and in Australia by another, 
G. lenebrosa, which generally wants the while flank-markings. 
Both closely resemble G. ckloropus in general habits, as does 
also the G. pyrrhorrhoa of Madagascar, which has the lower 
tail-coverts buff instead of white. Celebes and Amboyna possess 
a smaller cognate species, G. haematopus, with red legs; tropical 
Africa has the smallest of all, C. angulata. One of the most 
remarkable varieties is the G. nesiotis of Tristan da Cunha,* 
which has wholly lost the power of flight.* Among other forms 
are the common GaUinula (Erylhra) phoenicura, and Galiicrcx 
crislata of India, as well as the South American species classed 
in the genus Porphyriops, and the remarkable Australian genus 
Trihonyx contains three species,* which seem to be more terres- 
.trial than aquatic in their haunts and habits. 

Allied to all these is the genus Porphyrio, including the bird 
80 named by classical writers, and perhaps a dozen other species 
often called sultanas and purple water-hens, for they all have 
a plumage of deep blue— some becoming violet, green, or black 
in parts, but preserving the white lower tail-coverts, so generally 
characteristic of the group; and their beauty is enhanced by 
their scarlet bill and legs. Two, P. alUni of the Ethiopian 
region and the South American P, parvaf are of small size. 

•Not to be confounded with "Moor-cock.'* or " Moor-fowl,'* 
names formerly in general use for the red grouse. 

» Pro€. Zool. Sac. (1861). p. 260. pi. xxx. 

' A somewhat intermediate form seems to be presented by the 
moOr-hen of the island of St Denis, to the nortn of Madagascar 
XProc. Zool. Soc., 1867, p. 1036). 
. *Ann. Nat. History, 3rd scries, xx. I23. 



Of the larger spedes, P. eaemleut is the " Porphyrio " of tlie 
ancients, and inhabits certain localities on both sides of the 
Mediterranean, while the rest are widely dispersed within the 
tropics, and even beyond them, as in Australia and New Zealand. 
But this last country has produced a more exaggerated form, 
Notornis, which has an interesting and perhaps imique history. 
First described from a fossil skull by Sir R. Owcn,^ and then 
thought to be extinct, an example was soon after taken alive,* 
the skin of which (with that of another procured like the fim 
by Walter Mantell) may be seen in the British MuseunL Other 
fossil remains were from time to time noted by Sir R. Owen '; but 
it began to be feared that the bird had ceased to exist/ until a 
third example was taken about the year 1879, the skin and 
most of the bones of which, after undergoing examinatioo 
in New Zealand by Sir W. Buller and T. J. Parker,* found their 
way to the museum of Dresden, where A. B. Meyer discovered 
the recent remains to be spedflcally distinct from the fossil, 
and while keeping for the latter the name N. manleUi gives the 
former that of N. hochsttUeri. What seems to have been a 
third species of Notornis formerly inhabited Lord Howe's Islasd, 
but is now extinct. Whether the genus Aptomis^ of whic^ 
Owen described the remains from New Zealand, was most neariy 
allied to Notornis and Porphyrio cannot here be dedded. T.J. 
Parker considers it a " development by degeneration of aa 
ocydromine type." (See Ocydrome.) (A. N.) \ 

MOORS (Lat. Mauri\ Gr. Mavpof, dark men), the name 
which, as at present used, is loosely applied to any native of 
Morocco, but in its stricter sense only to the townsmeoof 
mixed descent. In this sense it is also used of the Mahoo- 
medan townsmen in the other Barbary states. It has been bjr 
some connected with the Hebrew, and Phoenician muhu, 
western. Wetzstein derives it from mahir^ a comiptioo of 
Amdsir with its plurals ImOxir and Masir, archaic forms of 
the Berber native name Amazigh, the free. From J/oan.tk 
classic name for the north-western African tribes, the north- 
western districts of that continent came to be called by the 
Romans Mauretania. The term *' Moors *' has no real ethoo- 
logical value. The tribes known to the Romans by that Dame 
were undoubtedly of Berber stock (see Bekbeks). Tlvy first 
appear in history at the time of the Jugurthine War (110-106 
B.C.), when Mauretania west of the Mulucha was under the 
government of a king called Bocchus, and a|^>ears to have 
constituted a regular and organized state. It retained its 
independence till the time of Augustus, who in 35 b.c. bestowed 
the sovereignty of the previously existing kingdom upoa 
Juba II., king of Numidia, at the same time uniting it with ihe 
western portion of Numidia, from the Mulucha to the Ampsap, 
which received the name of Mauretania Caesariensis, wh3e the 
province that had previously constituted the kingdooa, or 
Mauretam'a proper, came to be known as Mauretania Tingitaaa 
(see Mauretania). With the rest of North Africa Mauretaoia 
was overrun by the Arabs in the 7th century. The subsequeat 
conquest of Spain was effected chiefly by Berber tribes, bat 
the Moslems in the peninsula— known to the Christian nalioa 
as Moors — always had a strong strain of Arab blood and in most 
respects became Arabized. The race was also influenced coo* 
siderably by intermarriage with the natives of Spain, andvbei 
the Moors were finally expelled from that country they had 
become almost entirely distinct from their Berber kinsfolh. to 
whom they were known as Andalusians. While the mountainooi 
parts of Morocco continued to be occupied by pare Berber 
people, the ShlOh or Shiliuh, the Andalusian Moors flocked to 

*Proc. Zod. Soc., 1848. p. 7: Trans, iii. 336, pi. IvL 

*Proc. 1850, pp. 209-214. pi. xxi.; Trans, iv. 69-74. pL xzv. 

' Thus the leg-bones and what appeared to him the steramn vst 
described and figured (Trans, iv. pp. 12, 17. pis. u. tv.). sod the 
pelvis and another femur (vii. pp. 369. 373, pis. xUL. xliii.): bat the 
supposed sternum afterwards proved not to be that of /M<r*tf> 
and Owen {Proc. 1882, p. 689) rectified the error, to which hit 
attention had been drawn, and which he had already maftdxi 
{Trans, viii. 120). 

'Notwithstanding the evidence, which presented aooe iacoar 
gruities, offered by Mr Mackay (Ibis, 1867. p. 144). 

•Trans, N. ZeaL Inst, xiy. a38-a5& 



MOOSE— MORA, J. 



813 



towns and the plains of Morocco, occupied largely 
The name Moor is however still applied to the 
s speaking Arabic who inhabit the country extending 
xxo to the Senegal, and to the Niger as far east as 
, i,e. the western Sahara. In this vast region and in 
us of Barbary many of the Andalusians settled, 
ors are ethnically a very hybrid race with more Arab 
er blood. A common mistake is to regard them as 
ce, as indicated by the old English phrase " Biack-a- 
!. black as a Moor. They are a white race, though 
)umt and bronzed for generations, and both their 
nd those who have liv«l in the dties might pass 
as Europeans. 

ical Moors of Morocco are a handsome race, with skin 
: of coflec-and-milk, with black eyes and black 

and the features of Europeans. They wear a full 

are characterized by a marked dignity of demeanour. 

general tendency to obesity, which is much admired 
oors in their women, young girls being stuffed like 
vith paste-balls mixed with honey, or with spoonfuls of 
nd sesame, to give them the necessary corpulence, 
rs are an intellectual people, courteous in manner 
Itogether unlettered; but they are cruel, revengeful 
ithlrsty. Among the pirates who infested the 
lean none were worse than the Moors, 
re fanatical Mahommedans, regarding their places 
I as so sacred that the mere approach of a Jew or a 
is forbidden. The Moors are temperate in their 
imple in their dress, though among the richer classes 
ns the women cover themselves with silks, gold and 
ile the men indulge to excess their love of fine horses 
did arms. The national fault is gross sensuality, 
on of women is little better than a pampered slavery. 

uneducated, indolent and vicious. Such education 
iren receive is of a superficial kind. Slavery flourishes, 

auctions, conducted like those of cows and mules, 

on the afternoons of stated days, affording a lounge 
h Moors, who discuss the " goods " offered and seek 
IS. This public sale of slaves was prohibited in the 
OS, c. 1850, under pressure from European powers, 

are found to evade the prohibition. 
s the young Moors play a great number; the principal 
Jnd of football, more like that of Siam and Burma 

of England; wrestling and fencing are popular, but 
imusement of the adult Moors is the " powder-play " 
irad), which consists of a type of military tournament, 
men going through lance and musket exercises or 
1 review fashion, firing volleys as they gallop. Other 
i much in favour throughout Morocco are music, 
igglery, snake-charming and acrobatic performances, 
iional story-tellers many Moors are remarkable, but 
al music is monotonous and not very harmonious. 

Arthur Leared, Morocco and the Moors (i8qi); 
leakin, The Moorish Entire (1899); and The Moors 
ances Macnab, A Ride in Morocco (1902) ; and see under 
, Mauretania; Berbers, &c 

the North American Indian (Algonqulan) name 
orth American representative of the European elk 
le word is said to mean " cropper " or " trimmer," 
inimal's habit of feeding on the branches of trees. 
I meeting or assembly, in O. Eng. mdt, gemdl, a word 
to meet " is a derivative. " Moot " or its alternative 
3te " is the common term for the assemblies of the 
he hundred, burgh, &c., in the history of early English 
IS, and especially for the national assembly or council, 
agcmot. The name survives in " moot hall," the term 
to town-halls and council buildings in some towns in 
as at Aldeburgh. From its meaning of assembly, 
was applied to a debate or discussion, especially of 
sion of a hypothetical case by law students at the 
3urt. These moots arc still carried on at Gray's Inn. 
!ctive. " moot " means doubtful, undecided. 



MOP. a bunch of cloth, rags or coarse yam, fastened to a 
pole and serving as a broom or brush for swabbing up wet 
floors or other surfaces and for cleaning generally. The word 
is usually Uken to be an adaptation of Lat. mappa, cloth, 
napkin, cf. "map." A particular application of the term in 
provincial Engli^ is to an annual hiring or statute-fair, a 
" mop-fair," at which domestic and agricultural servants out 
of places attended, carrying a broom, a mop or other implement 
indicative of their calling. 

MOPLAH (Malayahun mappila), a fanatical Mahommedan 
sect found in Malabar. The Moplahs, who number upwards 
of a million, are believed to be descended from Arab immigrants, 
who knded on the western coast of India in the 3rd century 
after the Hegira. They are remarkable for the fanaticism 
displayed in successive attacks upon the Hindus, and they 
have several times resisted British troops. A regiment of the 
Indian army was recrwted among them, but the experiment 
proved a failure, and the Moplah Rifles were disbanded in 
April 1907, 

II0P8U8, in Greek legend, the name of two seers, (i) Son 
of Ampyx (or Ampycus) and the nymph Chloris, a Lapith ol 
Oechalia in Thessaly. He took part in the Calydonian boat 
hunt and accompanied the Argonauts as their prophet. He died 
from the bite of a serpent which sprang from the blood of the 
Gorgon Medusa. He is represented on the chest of Cypselus 
as boxing with Admetus. He was afterwards worshipped af 
a hero and an oracle was consecrated to him. (3) Sou of Rhadus 
(or Apollo) and Manto, daughter of Teiresias. The rival seei 
Calchas is said to have died of chagrin because the predictions 
of Mopsus were fulfilled, while his own proved incorrect 
Together with another seer, Amphilochus, Mopsus founded 
Mallus in Cilida after the return from Troy; and in a quarrel 
for its possession both lost their lives. According to Pausanias 
(vii. 3, 2) Mopsus expelled the native inhabitants of Caria, and 
built tiie town of Colophon. Mopsus was worshipped as a god 
by the Cilldans, and had two famous oracles at Colophon and 
Mallus. His name survives in the town of Mopsuestia (M6^ 
*E<rrla) and the spring of Mopsucrene. Mopstis appears to 
be the incarnation of Apollo of Oaros. 

MOQUBGUA, a maritime province of southern Peru, boimded 
N. by the departments of Arequipa and Puno, and S. by the 
republic of Chile. Area, 5550 sq. m.; pop. (1906 estimate), 
31,920. The province extends from the Pacific coast eastward 
to the Cord^lera Ocddental, which forms the boundary line 
with Puno and. the republic of Bolivia. Eastern Moquegua ii 
volcanic, and is broken by the high range that forms the western 
rim of the Titicaca basin. Among the volcanoes in the province 
are Tutupacu, the last eruption of which occurred in 1802, 
Huaynaputina and Hachalayhua, which were in violent eruption 
in 1606, Coropuna, Omate, Ubinas and Candarave — the last 
throe still showing sigpB of activity. This region is also subject to 
severe earthquake shocks. On the lower slopes of the Cordillera 
there are fertile irrigated valleys which produce grapes and olives 
for commercial purposes, and a considerable variety of fruits, 
cereals and vegetables for local consumption. The best-known 
grape-producing districts are Moquegua (capital) and Locumba— 
the product being converted into wine and brandy for export. 
The capital is Moquegua (pop. about 5000 in 1906), in the upper 
valley of the Ilo River, 4500 ft. above sea-level, and 65 m. by 
rail from the small port of Ilo on the Padfic coast. 

Moquegua was formerly one of the three provinces forming 
a department of the same name. The other two provinces 
(Tacna and Arica) were held for indemnity by Chile after the 
war of 1879-1883 with the understanding (treaty of Ancon, 
March 8, 1884) that at the expiration of ten years a plibisciU 
should be taken in the two provinces to determine whether 
they should remain with Chile, or return to Peru — the country 
to which they should be annexed to pay the other 10,000,000 
pesos. Chile did not comply with this treaty agreement, and 
in 1910 still held both provinces. 

MORA, JOSk (1638-1725), Spanish sculptor, was a pupil of 
Alonzo Cano. He died in Granada in 1725 and was buried in 



8i4 



MORA— MORADABAD 



the Albaidn church. His work can be usefully studied in the 
eight statues in the Capella del Cardenal in the Cordova Cathedral 
and in the figures of St Bruno and St Joseph in the Cartuja 
near Granada. 

See B. Haendekc, Studien tur CeschkhU der spaniscken Ptastik 
(Strassburg, 1900). 

MORA, or MoRRA (Ital. delay), a game, universally popular 
in Italy, in which one player endeavours to guess instantly the 
number of fingers held up by the other. Ancient Egyptian 
sculptors represent a game of this kind, and it was played by 
the Romans, who called it micare digitis, or finger-flaiishing. It 
is known to the Chinese and to certain tribes of the Pacific 
Islands. There are several methods of playing mora, but in 
the one most common in Italy the two players, placed face 
to face, throw out at the same instant one or more fingers of 
one hand, each crying out simultaneously a number gue^ed to 
be that of his adversary's exposed fingers. A correct guess counts 
one; if both guess correctly or wrongly there is no score. The 
game, which is generally five or nine points, is played for stakes, 
and with extraordinary swiftness. 

MORACBAB, in botany, an order of dicotyledons, betonging 
to the series Urticiflorae, to which belongs also the nettle family 
(Urticaceae, q.v). It contains about 60 genera with about 
1000 species, mostly trees or shrubs, widely distributed in the 




Fig {Ficus carica). Shoot bearing Leaves and Fruit. 



1, Inflorescence cut lengthwise to show the numerous flowers 
crowded on the inner surface. 

2, A female flower, enlarged. 3, Fruit cut lengthwise. 

warmer parts of the earth. The largest genus, Ficus (the fig, q.v.), 
contains 600 species spread through tropical and sub-tropical 
regions, and includes the common fig of the Mediterranean 
region {Ficus carica), the banyan {F. bengalensis), and the india- 
rubber plant {F. elastica); many of the species are epiphytic, 
sometimes clinging so tightly round the host-plant with their 
roots as to strangle it. Morus (mulberry, q.v.) contains ten spedes 
of trees or bushes in north temperate regions and in the mountains 
of the tropics. Artocarpus, including A, incisa (bread-fruit, 
q.v.), and A. integrifolia (jack-tree), has forty species, chiefly 
natives in the Indian Archipelago. The plants are rich in latex 
which may be very poisonous as in Antiaris toxicaria, the Upas- 
tree (q.v.) of Java, or sweet and nutritious as in Brosimum 
iolactodendron, the cow-tree (q.v.) of Venezuela. The latex 



often yields caoutchouc as in species of Ficus (e.g. P. elasHcc), 
Cecropia (q.v.), a tropical American genus with thirty to forty 
species, and othera. 




End of Shoot showing Stipule, s, of India-rubber Ptaat (^aa 
daOica). 

The leaves, which are entire or more or 1e» divided, are sttpolite. 
the stipules being small and lateral as in Morus and allied geaenl 
or intrapetiolar, each pair uniting to form a cap round the yoenpr 
leaves, as in Ficus and allied genera, and very wdl sbowa is 
F. dastica, the common india-rubber plant of greenhovnes. Tbe 
plants are monoecious or dioecious, and the sni^ unisexnal floscn 
are borne in cymose inflorescences which are condensed into ap- 
parent racemes, spikes or heads. In the fig they ooaksce to fora 
a fleshy hollow axis on the inner face of whidi the flowen are 
situatra, while in Dorstenia they form a flat, often lobed. expaniica 
with the flowers sunk on the upper face. The flower itsenUei 




Mi^i^" 



Mulberry (Morus nigra), Shoot bearing Leaves and Fruit. 

I , Catkin of male flowers. 3. Spike of female tkmm. 

9, One male flower. 4, Single femak flown, 

that of Urticaceae: there are generally four free or moic or ks 
united perianth leaves, with, in the maJe flower, a stamen oppoide 
each perianth leaf; the filaments are incurved in the mulbcnyssd 
allied genera and straight in the fig and its allies. Artecerpu ha 
only one stamen. The female flower contains two carpeb is tk 
median plane, the posterior one of which is often more or lessabortoL 
Each developed ovary chamber cont^ns a solitary pendulous ■«t 
or less curved ovule. The fruit is an achcne or drupe, often isr- 
rounded by the fleshy perianth and still further compliaMd \rf 
the union of fruits of different flowers as in mulberry, the &rnifV 
ment of a fleshy receptacle as in fig, or as in Artocarpus (b<tsd> 
fruit), by the union 01 fruits, perianth and axis into a soGd Im^ 
mass. The embryo is generally curved and surrounded by s lessy 
endosperm. 

.From the evidence of leaf-fossils it is fsrobaMe that the p^ 
Ficus existed as far north as Greenland in the Cretaoeoascfs sm 
was generally distributed in North America and Europe is t* 
Tertiary period up to miocene times. 

MORADABAD, a dty and district of British India, in tk 
Baidlly division of the United Provincca. Tlie city ii on t^ 



MORAES— MORAT 



8iS 



right bank of the river Ramganga, 655 ft. above sea-lcvcl, and 
das a station on the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway, 86E miles 
from Calcutta. Pop. (i 901), 75,128. It was founded in 1675 
t>y Rustam Khan, who built the fort which overhangs the river 
bank, and the fine Jama Masjid or great mosque (1631). The 
town forms a large centre of trade in country produce. It has 
I special industry in ornamental brassware, sometimes plaied 
ft'ith lac or tin, which is then engraved. Cotton weaving and 
printing is also carried on. 

The DiSTEiCT OF Moraoabad lies east of the Ganges and west 
}f the native state of Rampur. Area, 2285 sq. m. It lies within 
the great Gangetic plain, and is demarcated into three sub- 
divisions by the rivers Ramganga and Sot. The eastern tract 
ironsists of a submontane country, with an elevation slightty 
greater than the plain below, and is traversed by numerous 
itreams descending from the Himalayas. The central portion 
x>nsists of a level central plain descending at each end into the 
iralleys of the Ramganga and Sot. The western section has 
I gentle slope towards the Ganges, with a rapid dip into the 
owlands a few miles from the bank of the great river. In 
iddition to Moradabad the principal towns are Amroha (q.Vr), 
>ambhal (39,715) and Chaudansi (25,711). 

For the early history of Moradabad see Baseilly. It pEisscd 
nto the possession of the British in 1801. The popul;ition in 
1901 was 1,191,993, showing an increase of i*i% in the dccude. 
liahommedans are more numerous than in any other district 
►f the province, forming more than one-third of the total, 
rhe principal crops are wheat, rice, millet, pulse, sugar-rane 
ind cotton. The main line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway 
raverses the district from south to north, with branches toivarib 
Uigarh and Rampur. A third branch from Moradabad city 
owards Delhi crosses the Ganges at Garhmukhteshwar by ^ 
>ridge of eleven spans of 200 ft. each. 

MORAES, FRANCISCO DE (c. 1 500-1 573), Portuguese romance 
mter, was probably bom at the close of the 15th century . 
Ve know very little of his life, except that he was treasurtr 
>f the household to King John III., and he is first found in 
'aris in the suite of the Portuguese ambassador, D. Francisco 
le Noronha, who had gone there in 1540. He was a commander 
.f the Order of Christ, and was called O Palmeirim on account 
i his authorship of the famous romance of chivalry Paimfirim 
> Inglalcrra; in 1572 he was assassinated at Evora. He appcair^ 
o have written his book in France (perhaps in Paris) in 1544^ 
ledicating it to the Infanta D. Maria, daughter of King Manoclt 
lut the first extant Portuguese edition only came out In 1 567, 
i Spanish version was published as early as 1548, and on the 
irength of this many critics have contended that the book was 
riginally written in that language and that Moraes only trans- 
ited it into Protuguese. Both tradition and a critical exsmi- 
ation of the Portuguese and Spanish texts, however, teU aver- 
/^hclmingly in favour of the first being the original with Moraes 
s its author. The episode of the four French ladies shows 
n intimate acquaintance with the court of Francis I., where 
rf oraes spent some years, and one of these ladies named Torsi is 
he one he loved and to whom he addressed some verses entitled 
Desculpa de huns amores." The Palmeirim de InglaUrra belongs 
another branch of the same cycle as the Amadis de (/tJui^^^ 
he two romances are the best representatives of their dasij and 
>r their merits were spared from the aulo dafi to which Cervantes 
ondemned other romances of chivalry in D. Quixote. It has 
well-marked plot, cleariy drawn characters, and an admirable 
tyle, and has been reckoned a Portuguese classic frora the 
ime of its issue. 

Bibliography. — ^Thc Palmerin of England, by W. E. Purser 
Dublin, 1904), contains an exhaustive study of the romann; ^nd 
le controversy concerning its authorship, with a tJcctch of tht plot, 
he exisring Portuguese editions bear the dates 1567, 1592, T7B6 
nd 1852, while translations exist in Spanisht Italian and French. 
.71 English version from the French by A. Munday was fir^t pub- 
shed in 1609. In 1807 Robert Southey issued in 4 vols. 4to an 
icomplete translation from the Portuguese which is really a rcviiion 
f Munday. In addition Moraes wrote some Dialogues, which wcr? 
ublishcd at Evora in 1624 and are incorporated in the \Mt two 
jitiont of Palmeinm de Inglaterra. (E. Fk J 



MORAINE, a term adopted Uom the French for the rocky 
material carried downwards on the outside of a glacier, and 
deposited at its sides and foot. The position of the moraine 
with regard to the glader is indicated by tJle names applied 
to it. The laUral moraine is the fringe of rock fragments at 
the gfnder side. The glacier is always slowly moving down 
the valley. There are always points in the valley where rock 
falls are more frequent than in other places. The glacier as 
it moves forward catches this material and carries it onward 
In a Jong heaped line distributing it evenly all down the valley 
sides. When two gladal valleys converge into one valley two 
lateral moraines unite at the point of junction and form a median 
moraine in the resultant broader glader, which now has two 
lateral moraines and one median. All this material carried 
by the glacier is deposited where the glacier ends, and forms 
the {rrminal moraine, frequently in the form of a crescentic 
dam across the valley. This material is carried farther down- 
wards by stream acUon and distributed; otherwise the end 
of alt glacier valleys would be blocked with debris against which 
the ice would be piled to a great height, and the glacier would 
fimtlly become stationary. The material pushed forward 
beneath the glader is sometimes called the ground moraine, 
the part left beneath the ice the lodgjt moraine, that carried to 
the edge and dropped the dump moraine, and that carried 
forward the push moraine. (See GLxaER.) 

■ORAN, EDWARD (1829-1901), American artist, was bom 
at Bolton, Lancashire, England, on the 19th of August 1829. 
He emigrated with his family to America at the age of fifteen, 
and subsequently settled in Philadelphia, where after having 
ToUowcd his father's trade of weaver, he became a pupil of James 
Hamilton and Paul Weber. In 1862 he became a pupil of the 
Roy^ Academy in London; he established a studio in New York 
in 1873^ and for many years after 1877 lived in Paris. He was 
a painter of marine subjects and examples of his work are in 
mEtny prominent collections. Among his canvases are thirteen 
historical paintings, intended to illustrate the marine history of 
America from the time of Leif Ericsson to the return of Admiral 
Dewey's fleet from the Philippines in 1899. He died in New 
York City on the 9th of June 1901. His sons (Edward) Percy 
Moran (b. 1862) and Lton Moran (b. 1864), and his brothers 
Petcf Moran (b. 1842) and Thomas Moran (9.V.), also became 
prominent American artists. 

HOEAN, THOMAS (1837- ), American artist, was bom 
at Bolton, Lancashire, England, on the i2th of January 1837, 
and emigrated with his parents to America in^i844, the family 
settling in Philaddphia. After having been apprenticed for 
aome years to a wood-engraver, he studied under his brother 
Edward and under James Hamilton, in Philadelphia, and later 
studied in London, Paris and Italy. In 1871 he accompanied 
Professor F. V. Hayden's exploring expedition to the Yellowstone, 
and in 1873 he went down the Colorado with Major J. W. 
Powell's famous exploring party; and on these two trips he made 
sketches for two large pictures, "The Grand Cafton of the 
Yellow-stone " and " Chasm of the Colorado River," both of 
which were bought by the United States government and are 
now in (he Capitol at Washington. He became a member of the 
National Academy of Design in 1884 and of the American Water 
Cofar Sodety. His wife, Mary Nimmo Moran (1842-1899), 
who was bora in Strathaven, Scotland, and emigrated to America 
in tS^^, was also an artist, and was particularly prominent as an 
etcher, 

llORAR,a town of Central India, in the native state of Gwalior, 
3 m. E. of Gwalior dty. Pop. (1901), I9>i79- It was formerly a 
British military cantonment and residence of a political agent, 
but in 1B86, when the fortress of Gwalior was restored to Sindhia, 
the troops at Morar were withdrawn to Jhansi, and the extensive 
barracks were likewise made over to Sindhia. In the Mutiny 
Qf 1^57 Morar was the scene of the most serious uprising in 
Central India. It is a centre for local trade, and has an 
important tanning industry. 

MORAT (Ger. Murten), a small town on the east shore of 
the Lake of Morat, in the Swiss canton of Fribourg, and by rail 



8i6 



MORATA— MORATORIUM 



X4 m. N. of Fribouig or x8| m. W. of Bern, In 1900 its 
population was 2263, of whom 1840 were German-speaking and 
1969 were Protestants. It is a most picturesque little town, 
overlooked by the ijth-century castle and the quaint tower of 
the Ratkhaus, while it is still surrounded by its xsth century 
walls that are studded at intervals with watch towers. In 1264 
it exchanged its position as a free imperial dty (enjoyed since 
12 18) for the rule of the count of Savoy. In 1475 it was taken 
by the Swiss at the commencement of their war with Charles 
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, whose ally was the duchess of 
Savoy. But in 1476 it was besieged by Charles, though it held 
out tiU the Swiss army arrived in haste and utterly defeated 
{22nd June) the Burgtmdians. An obelisk a little way south- 
west of the town stands on the site of the bone-house (destroyed 
by the French in 1798, wherein the remains of many victims 
had been collected. Morat was ruled in common from 2475 to 
1798 by Bern and Fribourg, being finally annexed to Fribourg 
in 1814. The Lake of Morat has an area of xo| sq. m., and is 
connected with that of NeuchAtel by way of the Broye canaL 
On its shores many lake dwellings have been found. 

See F. L. Eneelhard. Der Stadt Murten Ckrottik (Bern, z8a8); 
G. F. Ochsenbcin. Die Urkunden der Belarerunt u. ScUacki von 
Murten (Freiburg, 1876); H, Wattelct, Dk Scktackt bet Murten 
(Fribourg. 1894). (W. A. B. C.) 

MORATA. OLTKPIA FULVU (1536-X555), Italian classical 
scholar, was bom at Ferrara. Her father, who had been tutor 
to the young princes of the ducal house of Este, was on 
intimate terms with the most learned men of Italy, and the 
daughter grew up in an atmosphere of classical learning. 
At the age of twelve she was able to converse fluently in Greek 
and Latin. About this time she was summoned to the palace 
as companion and instructress of the younger but equally gifted 
Anne, daughter of Ren£e, duchess of Ferrara. Olympiads 
father having died a convert to Protestantism, she met with 
A cold reception at the i>alace, and withdrew to her mother's 
house. Olympia now embraced the doctrines of Luther and 
Calvin. About the end of 1550 she married a young student of 
medicine and philosophy, Andrew Grunthkr of Schweinfurt in 
Bavaria. In 1554 she accompanied Grunthler to his native 
place, where he had been appointed physician to the garrison of 
Spanish troops. In 1553 the margrave Albert of Brandenburg 
on one of his plundering expeditions took possession of Schwein- 
furt, and was in turn besieged by the Protestants. At length 
Albert evacuated the place, and Olympia and her husband made 
their escape. They finally succeeded in reaching Heidelberg 
(i5S4)i where a medical lectureship had been obtained for 
Grunthler through the influence of the Erbach family, by whom 
they had been hospitably entertained during their flight. Here 
she died on the 25th of October in the following year. 

BiBLiOcRAPHV. — The scanty remains of her works — ^letters, dia- 
logues, Greek verses — were collected and published by Celio Seciindo 
Curione (1558). Monographs by Caroline Bowles, wife of Robert 
Southey the poet (1834), J. Boi>"ct (1850; Ene. trans., Edinburgh, 
1854). and K. Tumbull (Boston, 1846); see also Caroline Gearey, 
Daughters of Italy (1886). 

MORATALLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of 
Murcia, 40 m. W.N.W. of the city of Murda. Pop. (1900), 
X 2,689. Moratalla is built on a mountainous peninsula, almost 
surrounded by the Grande and Benamor, small rivers which meet 
and flow eastward to join the Segura. The town is a labyrinth 
of narrow, crooked streets, and some of its houses are Moorish 
in character. Its chi^f buildings are the modem hospital and 
theatre, and the 17th-century church. It has manufactures of 
coarse cloth, spirits and soap. The nearest railway station is 
Calasparra, 6 m. east, on the Murcia-Albaccte railway. 

MORATfN, LEANDRO ANTONIO EULOGIO MELIT6n 
FERNANDEZ DE (1760-1828), Spanish dramatist and poet, the 
son of N. F. de Moratfn, was born at Madrid on the zoth of 
March 1760. Though his poetical tastes were early developed, 
his father apprenticed him to a jeweller. At the age of eighteen 
Moratin won the second prize of the Academy for a heroic poem 
on the conquest of Granada, and two years afterwards he attracted 
more general attention with his LeuHn poitUa, a satire upon 



the popular poeU of the day. He was appointed secretary to 
Cabarriis on a special mission to France in 1 787. On his return 
to Spain, Moratin was tonsured and presented to a sinecure 
benefice in the diocese of Burgos, and in 1786 his first play, B 
Viejo y la nina^ was produced at the Teatro del Prindpe. Owing 
to the opposition of the clerical party, it was speedily withdrawn. 
The prose comedy, El Caji 6 la comedia nueta, given at the same 
theatre six years afterwards, at once became popular. On the 
fall of Florida Blanca, Moratfn found another patron in Godoy, 
who provided him with a pension and the means for foreign 
travel; he accordingly visited England, where he began a prose 
translation of Handel^ printed in X798 but never performed. 
From England he passed to the Low Countries, Germany, 
Switzerland and Italy, and on his xetum to the Peninsula io 
1796 was appointed official translator to the foreign office, b 
1803 he produced El Bar&n in its present form: originally written 
(1791) as a zarxuelat it was shamelessly pUgiariaed by Andr^ de 
Mendoza, but the recast, a far more brilliant work, still keeps 
the stage. It was followed in X804 by La Mcgigata, writteo 
between X797 and X803. This piece was favourably received, 
and an attempt to suppress it on religious grounds failed. 
Moratfn's crowning triumph in original comedy was El Side la 
NiHas (x8o6), which was performed night after night to crowded 
houses, ran through several Spanish editions in a year, and 
was soon translated into a number of foreign languages. In 1808 
Moratfn was involved in the fall of Godoy, but in 1 811 accepted 
the office of royal librarian imder Joseph B<maiMirte — a fake 
step, which alienated from him all sympathy and compdied 
him to spend his last years in exOe. In 1812 his Escuek it 
los maridos, a translation of Molly's £ceU des maris, vas 
produced at Madrid, and in 1813 El Midico d Pahs (a translatioo 
of Le Midecin malgri lui) at Barcelona. From 18x4 to 1828 
Moratfn lived in Italy and France, compiling a work on the 
early Spanish drama (Qrfgenes del teairo aspaUd). He dkd 
at Paris on the 21st of June 1828. 

The most convenient editk>n of his works is that given in voL £ 
of the Bibliotua de autores espaHoles; this is supplemented by tbe 
Obras pdstumas (3 vols., Madrid. 1867-X868). 

MORATfN, NICOllS FERNANDEZ DE (X737-1780), Spuiish 
poet and dramatist, was bom at Madrid in X737. He was 
educated at the Jesuit College in Calatayud and after wi n ds studied 
law at the imiversity of VaUadolid. In X772 he was caUed to 
the bar; four years afterwards he was nominated to the diair 
of poetiy at the imperial college. He died on the xxth of May 
1 780. A partisan of French methods, Moratfn published in 1762 
his DesengaAo al teatro espaHol, a severe criticism of the natiooil 
drama, particiilarly of the aula sacrametUal; and his protests 
were partly responsible for the prohibition of aulas three yean 
afterwards Qune 1 765). In 1 762 he also published a play entiikd 
La Petimetra, Neither the Pelimetra nor the JLaicracia (1763), aa 
origidal tragedy still more strictly in accordance with Fieoch 
conventions, was represented on the stage, and two subseqaest 
tragedies, Hormesinda (1770) and Chamdn d Buemo (1777), wcr 
played with no great success. In X764 Moratin publisbcd a 
collection of pieces, chiefly lyrical, under the title of El FedA, 
and in 1765 a short didactic poem on the chase {Diama ^vkkk 
coxa). His " epic canto " on the destruction of his ships bj 
Cort£s (Las Naves deCortSsdes^uidas) failed to win a [Hise offered 
by the Academy in X777, and was published posthumously 
(i 785). But a better idea of Moratfn's talent b afforded by bis 
anacreontic verses and by his Carta kisidrica sobre el cripM y 
propresos de las fiestas de toros en EspaHa. 

His works are included in the BMi^eca de otdorts esptidn, 
voL ii. 

MORATORIUM (from Lat. morari, to dday), a term used to 
express a legal authorixation postponing for a specified tine tbe 
payment of debts or obligations. The term b also sometimcft 
used to mean the period over which the indulgence or period of 
grace stretches, the authorization itself being called amonloiy 
law. A moratory law b usually passed in tome special period 
of political or commercial stress; for instance, on several ocosioas 
during the Franco-German War tbe French goYenunent ptsM^ 



MORAVIA 



»i7 



moratory laws. Their international validity was discussed at 
length and upheld in Rouquette v. Overman, 1875, L. R. 10 Q. B. 

525- 

MORAVIA (Ger., MOkren; Czech, Morava), a margraviate 
and crownland of Austria, bounded £. by Hungpkry, S. by Lower 
Austria, W. by Bohemia and N. by Prussian and Austrian 
Silesia. Area, 8583 sq. m. Physically Moravia may be described 
as a mountainous plateau sloping from north to south, just 
in the opposite direction of the adjoining Bohemia plateau, 
which descends from south to north, and boi'dered on three sides 
by mountain ranges. On the north are the Sudetes, namely the 
Altvater Gebirge, with the highest peaks the Grosser Schnceberg 
(4664 ft.) and the Altvater (4887 ft.), which sink gradually 
towards the west, where the valley of the Oder forms a break 
between the German mountains and the Carpathians. The 
latter separate Moravia from Hungary. Parallel to the Carpa- 
thians are the Marsgebirge (191 5 ft.) and its continuation, 
the Steinitzer Wald (1450 ft.). On the west are the so-called 
Bohemian- Moravian Mountains, forming the elevated east mar^ 
gin of Bohemia. The principal passes are those at Iglau and 
Zwittau to Bohemia and the Wlara Pass to Hungary. Almost 
the whole of Moravia belongs to the basin of the March or Morava, 
from which it derives its name and which rises within its territorjP 
in the Sudetes. It traverses the whole country in a course' of 
140 m., and enters the Danube near Pressburg. Its principal 
tributaries are the Thaya, the Hanna, the ^lawa with the 
Zwittawa and the Schwarzawa, &c. The Oder also rises among 
the mountains in the north-east of Moravia, but soon turns to 
the north and quits the country. With the exception of a 
stretch of the March, none of the rivers are navigable.' Amongst 
the mineral springs worth mentioning are the sulphur springs at 
Ullersdorf, the saline ones at Luhatschowitz and the alkaline 
springs at Tdplitz. 

Owing to the configuration of the soil, the climate of Moravia 
varies more than might be expected in so small an area, so that, 
while the vine and maize are cultivated successfully in the south- 
em plains, the weather in the mountainous districts is somewhat 
rigorous. The mean annual temperature at Brilnn is 48^ F. 
Of the total area 54*8% is occupied by arable land, 7% hy 
meadows, 5-7% by pasturages, 1-2% by gardens, 0*5% by 
vineyards, while 27-4% are forests. The principal products are 
com, oats, barley, potatoes, rye, beetroot, hemp, flax, hay and 
other fodder. Forestry is greatly developed; the breed of sheep 
in the Carpathians is of an improved quality, and the horses bred 
in the plain of the Hanna are highly esteemed. The mineral 
wealth of Moravia, consisting chiefly of coal and iron, is very 
considerable. Coals are extracted at Neudorf, LeSitz, RatiSko- 
witz and Ciif; lignite at Rossitz, Oslavan and M&hrisch-Ostrau. 
Iron-ore is found at Zdptau, Blansko, Adamsthal, Witkowitz, 
Rossiu and Stefanau. Other minerals found here are graphite, 
alum, potter's clay and rooflng-slate, and, besides, famous silver- 
mines were worked at Iglau during the middle ages. From an 
industrial point of view Moravia belongs to the foremost pro- 
vinces of the Austrian Empire. The principal manufactures are 
woollen, linen, cotton, cast-iron goods, beet-sugar, leather and 
brandy. The cloth industry was introduced in the 14th century 
at Iglau, where it soon obtained a great reputation; it developed 
afterwards at Olmtitz, and since the middle of the i8th century 
it has its prindpal centre at Briinn. The linen industry is con- 
centrated at SchQnberg, Mistek, Wiesenberg and Heidenpiltsch; 
while the cotton industry has its principal seat at Sternberg. 
The chief iron-foundries are to be found at Witkowitz, Stefanau, 
Zdptau and Rossitz; while industrial machines are manufactured 
at Brtinn, Blansko and Adamsthal. Large works of earthenware 
are established at Znaim and Frain. 

Moravia had in 1900 a population of 2,435,081 inhabitants, 
;rhich is equivalent to 284 inhabitants per sq. m. It belongs 
to the group of old Slavonic states which have preserved 
their nationality while losing their political independence. Of 
the total population 71-36% were Slavs, who were scarcely 
distinguishable from their Bohemian neighbours. The name of 
Czech, however, is usually reserved for the Bohemians, while 
XVlii 14 



the Slavs of Moravia and West Hungary are called Moravians and 
Slovacs. The Germans form 27*9% of the population, and are 
found mostly in the towns and in the border districts. Fully 
95% of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, under the ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction of the archbishop of Olmtttz and the bishop 
of Briinn; 2*7% Protestants and 2% Jews. In educational 
matters Moravia compares favourably with most of the Austrian 
provinces. It is well provided with schools of every descript ion , 
and the number of illiterates is steadily decreasing. The local 
diet is composed of 100 members, of which the archbishop of 
OlmUtz and the bishop of Briinn are members ex officio. To the 
Reichsrat at Vienna Moravia sends 36 members. For adminis- 
trative purposes Moravia is divided into 34 districts and 6 towns, 
with autonomous mtincipalities: Briinn (pop., 108,944), the 
capital, Iglau (24,387), Olmtitx (21,933), Znaim (16,261), 
Kremsier (13,991) and Ungarisch-Hradisch (5137). Other prin- 
cipal towns are Kttnigsf eld (11,022), G(kiing (10,231), M&hrisch- 
Ostrau (30,125), Witkowitz (19,128), MMhrisch-SchOnberg 
(11,636), Zwittau (9063), Neutitschein (11,891), Prerau (16,738), 
Prossnitz (24,054), Sternberg (15,195) and Trebitsch (10,597). 

History, — At the earliest period of which we have any record 
Moravia was occupied by the Boii, the Celtic race which has 
perpetuated its name in Bohemia. Afterwards it was inhabited 
by the Germanic (^uadi, who accompanied the Vandals in their 
westward migration; and they were replaced in the 5th century 
by the Rugii and Heruli. The latter tribes were succeeded 
about the year 550 a.d. by the Lombards; and these yi their 
turn were soon forced to retire before an overwhelming invasion 
of Slavs, who on their settlement there took the name of 
Moravians (German, Mchranen or M&hren) from the river 
Morava. These new colonists became the permanent inhabitants 
of this district, and in spite of the hostility of the Avars on 
the east founded the kingdom of Great Moravia, which was 
considerably more extensive than the province now bearing the 
name. Towards the end of the 8th century they aided Charle- 
magne in putting an end to the Avar kingdom, and were re- 
warded by receiving part of it, corresponding to North Hungary, 
as a fief of the German emperor, whose supremacy they also 
acknowledged more or less for their other possessions. After 
the death of Charlemagne the Moravian princes took advantage 
of the dissensions of his successors to enlarge their territories 
and assert their independence, and Rastislaus (c. 850) even 
formed an alliance with the Bulgarians and the Byzantine 
emperor. The chief result of the alliance with the latter was 
the conversion of the Moravians to Christianity by two Greek 
monks, Cyril and Methodius, despatched from Constantinople 
(863). Rastislaus finally fell into the hands of Louis the German, 
who blinded him, and forced him to end his days as a monk; 
but his successor, Svatopluk (d. 894), was equally vigorous, and 
extended the kingdom of Great Moravia to the Oder on the west 
and the Gran on the east. At this period there seemed a strong 
probability of the junction of the north-westera and south- 
eastern Slavs, and the formation of a great Slavonic power to 
east of the German empire. This prospect, however, was dis- 
sipated by the invasions of the Magyar hordes in the xoth century, 
the brunt of which was borne by Moravia. The invaders were 
encouraged by the German monarchs and aided by the dis- 
sensions and mismanagement of the successors of Svatopluk, 
and in a short time completely subdued the eastern part of Great 
Moravia. The name of Moravia was henceforth confined to the 
district to which it now applies. For about a century the 
possession of this marchland was disputed by Hungary, Poland 
and Bohemia, but in 1029 it was finally incorporated with 
Bohemia, and so became an integral part of the German empire. 
Towards the close of the Z2th century Moravia was raised to the 
dignity of a margraviate, but with the proviso that it should be 
held as a fief of the crown of Bohemia. It henceforth shared 
the fortunes of this country, and was usually assigned as an 
apanage to younger members of the Bohemian royal house. 
In 14 10 Jobst, margrave of Moravia, was made emperor of 
Germany, but died a few months after his election. In 1 526, on 
the death of Louis II. of Hungary Moravia came with the rest 



8i8 



MORAVIAN BRETHREN 



of that prince's possessions into the hands of the Austrian house. 
During the Thirty Years' War the depopulation of Moravia was 
so great that after the peace of Westphalia the states-general 
published an edict giving every man permission to take two wives, 
in order to " repeople the country." After the Seven Years* 
War Moravia was united in one province with the remnant of 
Silesia, but in 1849 it was made a separate and independent 
crownland. The most noticeable feature of recent Moravian 
history has been the active sympathy of its inhabitants with 
the anti-Teutonic home-rule agitation of the Bohemian Czechs. 

See Die Ldnder Oesterrekh-Ungams in Wort und Bild, vol. 8 
(Vienna, 1 881-1889. 1$ vols.); Die dsUrreickisck-ungariscke Mon- 
archie in Wort und Btld, vol 17 (\'icnna. 1886-1902, 24 vols.); 
B. Brethok, CeschichU Mdkrens (BrUnn, 1893, &c.). 

MORAVIAN BRETHREN, or Mo&avian Chubch, a Christian 
communion founded in the east of Bohemia. For some years 
after the death of John Huss (141 5), the majority of his followers 
were split into two contending factions: the Hussite Wars began; 
and the net result of the conflict seemed to be that while the 
Utraquists, content with the grant of the cup to the laity, were 
recognized by the pope as the national Church of Bohemia (i433)» 
the more radical Taborites were defeated at the battle of Lipan 
(1434) and ceased to exist. But with this result some of Huss's 
followers, who wished to preserve his spiritual teaching, were not 
content. They laid great stress on purity of morals; and Con- 
vinced that the Utraquist Church was morally corrupt, they 
founded a number of independent societies, first at Kremsir 
and Meseritsch in Moravia, and then at Wilenow, Diwischau 
and Chelcic in Bohemia. At this crisis Peter of Chelcic became 
the leader of the advanced reforming party. In ethics he 
anticipated much of the teaching of Tolstoy; in doctrine he 
often appealed to the authority of Wyclifle; and in some of 
his views it is possible to trace the influence of the Waldenscs. 
He interpreted the Sermon on the Mount literally, denounced 
war and oaths, opposed the union of Church and State, and 
declared that the duty of all true Christians was to break away 
from the national Church and return to the simple teaching of 
Christ and His apostles. His followers were known as the 
Brethren of Chelcic, and wore a distinctive dress. His most 
noted supporter was John Rockycana, archbishop-clect of Prague. 
He was pastor of the Thein Church (1444), preached Peter's 
doctrines, recommended his works to his hearers, and finally, 
when these hearers asked him to lead them, he laid their case 
before King George Podiebrad, and obtained permission for 
them to settle in the deserted village of Kunwald, in the barony 
of Senftenberg. It was here that the new community was 
founded (1457 or 1458). At their head was Gregory, the 
patriarch; a layman, said later to be Rockycana's nephew; in 
Michael Bradacius, the priest of Senftenberg, they found a 
spiritual teacher; and fresh recruits came streaming in, not only 
from the other little societies at Kremsir, Meseritsch, Chelcic, 
Wilenow and Diwischau, but also from the Waldenses, the 
Adamites, the Utraquist Church at Kdniggratz, and the univer- 
sity of Prague They called themselves Jednota Bratrska, i.e. the 
Church or Communion of Brethren; and this is really the correct 
translation of their later term, UnUas fratrum. At the Synod 
of Lhola (1467), they broke away entirely from the papacy, 
elected ministers of their own, and had Michael Bradacius 
consecrated a bishop by Stcphan, a bishop of the Waldenses. At 
the synod of Rcichcnau (1495), they rejected the authority of 
Peter of Chelcic, and accepted the Bible as their only standard 
of faith and practice. In doctrine they were generally broad 
and radical. They taught the Apostles' Creed, rejected Purga- 
tory, the worship of saints and the authority of the Catholic 
Church, practised infant baptism and confirmation, held a view 
on the Sacrament similar to that of Zwingli, and, differing some- 
what from Luther in their doctrine of justification by faith, 
declared that true faith was " to know God, to love Him, to 
do His commandments, and to submit to His will." With the 
Brethren, however, the chief stress was laid, not on doctrine, but 
on conduct. For this purpose they instituted a severe system of 
discipline, divided their members into three classes— the Perfect, 



the Profidcnt, and the Beginnen, and appointed over eack 
congregation a body of lay elders. For the same purpose they 
made great use of the press. In 1501 Bishop Luke of Prague 
edited the first Protestant hynm-book; in 1502 be issued a 
catechism, which circulated in Switzerland and Gerinany and 
fired the catechetical zeal of Luther; in 1565 John Blahoslaw 
translated the New Testament into Bohemian; in 1579-1593 the 
Old Testament was added; and the whole, known as the Kraliu 
Bible, is used in Bohemia still. The constitution was practically 
Presbyterian. At the head of the Church was a body of tea 
elders, elected by the synod; this sjmod consisted o( aU tbe 
ministers, and acted as the supreme legislative authority; and 
the bishops ruled in their respective dioceses, and had a share 
in the general oversight. The growth of tbe Brethren was rapid. 
In 1549 they spread into Great Poland; in the latter half of tbe 
century they opened many voluntary schools, and were joined 
by many of the nobility; and the result was that by 1609, vfaen 
Rudolph II. granted the Letter of Majesty, they were half ik 
Protestants in Bohemia and more than half in Moravia. 

At the very height of their power, however, they were ahnost 
crushed out of existence. The cause was tbe outbreak of the 
Thirty Years' War (1618). At the battle of the White HiD 
(1620) the Bohemian Protestants were routed; the Biethita 
were driven from their homes, the Polish branch was absorbed 
in the Reformed Church of Poland; and then many fled, some to 
England, some to Saxony, and some even to Texas. For a 
hundred years the Brethren were almost extinct. But tbeir 
bishop, John Amos Comenius (1592-1672), held them togetber. 
With an eye to the future, he published their Ratia disdfiiMet, 
collected money for the " Hidden Seed " still worshippiic ia 
secret in Moravia, and had his son-in-law, Peter Jabtoosky, 
consecrated a bishop, and Peter passed on the succession to hii 
son Daniel Ernest Jablonsky. 

The revival of the Moravian Brethren was German in ongiB- 
Of the ** Hidden Seed '* the greater number were Germans; tbey 
were probably descended from a colony of German Wakknscs, 
who had come to Moravia iii 1480 and joined the Church of tbe 
Brethren, and, therefore, when persecution broke out afrcsb 
they naturally fled to the nearest German refuge. With Chris- 
tian David, a carpenter, at their head, tbey croased the border 
into Saxony, settled down near Count ZinzendorTs esute at 
fierthelsdorf, and, with his permisuon, buHt the town of Hens- 
hut (1722-1727). But imder Zinzendorf the history of the 
Moravians took an entirely new turn. He was a fervent Lntberu 
of the Pietist type; he believed in Spener's " ecclesiola '* coacep- 
tion, and now he tried to apply the conception to the Mon^iu 
refugees. For some years he had a measure of success. loitead 
of reviving Moravian orders at once, the settlers attended tbe 
Berthelsdorf parish church, regarded themselves as LutheiaoSi 
agreed to a code of '* statutes '* drawn up by the count, accepted 
the Augsburg Confession as their standard of faith, anid, jobiaf 
with some Lutheran settlers in a ^)ecial Communicm service 
in Berthelsdorf (Aug. 13, 1727)1 had such a powerful uiifjrisc 
experience that modem Moravians regard that day as tbe 
birthday of the renewed Moravian Church. From that peiied 
two conflicting ideals were at work among tbe MofSYiisa 
In form the Moravian Church was soon restored. Before kof 
persecution broke out against Herrnhut; the count sent a baod 
of emigrants to Georgia; and as these emigrants wouk) reqoiic 
their own minbters, he had David NItschinann consecrated a 
bishop by Jablonsky (1735). In this way the Moravian ordes 
were maintained, the " ecclesiola " became an independent body, 
and the British parliament recognized the Brethren as ">■ 
ancient Protestant Episcopal Church " (1749, as Geo. IL cap. 
120). And yet, on the other hand, ZinzendorTs coaceptios 
continued long in force. It hampered the Brethren's peofx* 
in Germany, and explains the smallness of their numbers that 
Instead of aiming at Church extension, they built scttJemeBtsoi 
the estates of friendly noblemen, erected Brethren's and Sistos* 
houses, and cultivated a quiet type of spiritual life. It is tm 
that they evangelized all over Germany; but this part of tbcir 
work was known as the Diaspora (i Pet. L i); and the iiv 



MORAY, EARL OF 



819 



lis word is that the Brethren minister to the 
in other Churches without drawing them into the 
urch. In Germany, therefore, the importance of 
IS must be measured, not by their numbers, but 
.■nee upon other Christian bodies. It was from the 
at Schlciermacher learnt his religion, and they even 
ig impression on Goethe; but both these men were 
heir doctrine of the substitutionary sufferings of 

the very natural question why the Moravians began 
England, the answer given by history is that John 
is voyage to Georgia (1735) met some Moravian 
it on his return he met Peter Boehler, who was on 
rth CaroUna; that through Boehler's influence both 
rlcs Wesley were " converted " (1738). For a few 
k an active share in the Evangelical Revival (1738- 
inzendorf's " ecclesiola " policy prevented their 
lot till 1853 did the English Moravians resolve to 
extension of the Brethren's Church." In foreign 
listinctive feature about the Moravians is, not that 
ariy in the field (1732), but that they were the first 
3 declare that the evangelization of the heathen 
of the Church as such. Hitherto it had been a 
ial policy. It was this that made their missions 

idition. — I. Enterprises: (i) Foreign missions in 
ska, Canada. California, West Indies, Nicaragua, 
inam, Cape Colony, Kaffraria. German East Africa, 
and. West Himalaya. (2) Leper Home near Jerusalem 
iaspora in Germany, Switzerland, France, Denmark, 
>ia. Poland. (4) Church extension in Germany. 
, North America. (5) Boarding Schools* German 
British, 7; American, 5. (6) Church Revival in 
Moravia, begun in 1869, and sanctioned by the 
nmeni (1880). 

nd Constitution. — ^The orders of the ministry are 
yters, deacons. But the bishops have no dioceses, 
notion is to ordain, and to act as "intercessors." 
legislative board is the General Synod. It consists 
ected by each province, certain ex officio members, 
lives from the mission field. At present the Moravian 
ded into four provinces, German, British, American 
erica n South (North Carolina). In provincial matters 
is independent, holds its own synods, makes its own 
ts its own governing board; but the General Synod 
average, every ten years at Herrnhut, and its regula- 
in^ in all the provinces. The foreign missions are 
mis-sion board, elected by the General Synod. There 
iding court of appeal, known as Unity's Elders' 
d con^isLing of the Misiion lioard nnd \out ptovttit\a\ 
the Church 'ii repine ntative In the eyes of th*:! bw. 
tc ofBcial irtte of the Church i» Eaanzfhstke Btudtr*^ 
$rri4, Etiangtlisch£ Brudtr-Kirchei in England and 
nat Ckiirt:h, 

t.—M the tasi General Synod (1909) they rrpeaied 
imentdl principle that " the Holy Scriptures are out 
th and prariicp "; bui at the tame time thi,-^ deirhred 
rpretatton of Scripture agreed tubftantially wiih the 
the Wpstmin&ier and Augsbup; Confct^iont, and the 
1 it les. Si nee 1 8 79 their Icadi ng doct rirtts ha we been 
foUowa: (t) rhe toikl depravity of man ^ (?) the tcaU 
T^l humantty of Christ: \x) justi^rntion and rcdemp- 
hc sacrifice of Chri*i: (4) work of the Holy Spirit; 
1 d)^ fniiEt of the Spirit 1 (6 J fellowship of believers; 
ling dI Christ : (8> ri*iUrjTttion of the dead to life or 

nes. — At morning worship the service consists of a 
re lessons, sermon, singing, extempore prayer. At 
>rvice a litany is rarely used. The Communion is 
e a month. Infant Baptism is practised. There 
es of admission to membership: in the case of the 
ult baptism (not immersion); in other cases con firma> 
ion. Members from other Churches are generally 
•coption. 

Wicy. — It is now held by some Moravians that their 
I via media between Anglicanism and Dissent. At the 
f the Lambeth Conference (1907) some overtures, on 
ons, were made for (a) joint consecration of bishops, 
lation of ministers, {c) interchange of pulpits. In 
loravians, at the General Synod (1009), welcomed the 
declared their wish (a) to preserve their independence 
ant Episcopal Church "; (6) to co-operate freely as 
h other Evangelical Churches. On this question 
e still in progress. 



Prmrince. 
German . 
British . 
American (N.) 
American (S.) 
Bohemia 
Foreign Field 



W, StaHsHa 1909, 

Congregations. 

. . 23 

; ^ 

12 

■ . 245 



Comwntnieaiits. 
6,213 
3.78a 

4.019 
33466 



ToUl 444 62,096 

LiTEaATtr]i£, — Cindely, Cevhiehleda B&hmiscken-Briider (1^50); 
Coll, Qudkn Ur Vrtt<fjvekunitn sur Ceich. d. Bi>hm-BfHdff iiH^i}; 
Mtiltcr, DaJ Bi4ihff[stMm dtr Brnd^fKinhe (laflB); ZittTfMdorf alt 
Ernrurrcr dtr aiten BntdrF-Kirfhe <IQOO); Die deuhihtn Ktitetkismen 
d. BGkm.-Bruder i\hfij]\ KL-ckcr, ZinundmJ mnd Stin Christcntum 
tm VtrkaUnii satm kirckiiihca «, reiiti^sm Leben seiatr Zni (ipoo); 
SchuluK Abriiz nntr Cfithiihie der Brudtr- Mission (i^or)^ SfifTiTth, 
Chuffh CcnsiiliUion of ikr Bohrmian and Afm-avian Brefhren (l86b); 
Dc SchweifiilJ, Hsilory&fifu Llnttas Fraimm {tSSj}; Waucr, Bf^in' 
ninj^i crf ikf Btfihrt^'s CkKrih in Bnilund (igoi) ; IHaTnilcDn, liiiiory 
of ikt Marci-:^ r. J ./; i^ !hf jhtk und igik Centunti (1900): 
Hut ton, /fr,. .rt Ckunh (190(51); Motmnan Canrth 

Book (1902): Moravian Almanac (annual). For other sources see 
articles " Bdhmische-Brildcr " and " Zinzendorf " in Hauck's 
Realencyklopaedie; and for latest results of historical research, 
Zeitschrift far BrudergesckichU (half-ycariy). (J* E. H.) 

MORAY,! THOMAS RANDOLPH, ist Easl of (d. 1332), 
Scottish warrior and statesman, was the only son of Thomas 
Randolph of Nithsdale, who had been chamberiain of Scotland, 
and through his mother Lady Isabel Bruce he was nephew to 
King Robert the Bruce. Randolph joined Bruce after the murder 
of the Red Comyn, and was present at his coronation in 1306. 
In June of that year he was captured by Aymer de Valence in a 
fight at Methven, and saved his life by becoming Edward's man. 
He joined in the hunt for Bruce, but in 1308 he was captured by 
Sir James Douglas and imprisoned. He began by defying his 
uncle, but presently made his submission, becoming the friendly 
rival of the exploits of Sir James Douglas and the confidant of 
Bruce's plans. In 131 2 or 1314 the Scottish king made him eaii 
of Moray and lord of Man and Annandale, while the estates held 
from Edward I. were confiscated. By a brilliant feat of arms he 
captured and destroyed Edinburgh Castle early in 1314, scaling 
the rock by a path pointed out by a certain William Francois 
who had made use of it in a love intrigue. On the eve of Bannock- 
bum Randolph was posted in a wood in charge of the van with 
orders to prevent the English from throwing cavalry into 
Stiriing. On the approach of a body of three hundred English 
horse under Sir Robert ClifTord, Sir Henry de Beaumont and Sir 
Thomas Gray, Randolph came out of cover, and his spearmen, 
drawn up in a square, were vainly attacked on all sides by the 
English, who were driven to retreat on the appearance of Sir 
James Douglas with reinforcements; these, however, took no 
share in the action, the site of which is still known as Randolph*! 
Field. The next day found Randolph in command of the centre 
of the Scottish battle. He shared in Edward Bruce's expedition 
to Ireland in 1315, and returned to Scotland in 13 17 with Robert 
Bruce. With Sir James Douglas Randolph was closely allied 
and the two were associated in a series of brilliant exploits. In 
1 3 18 they seized the town of Berwick by escalade; being aided 
by the treachery of one of the burgesses, Simon of Spalding, and 
reinforced by Bruce they became masters of the castle some 
months later. In the next spring they made a raid on the 
northern English counties, laying waste the country as far as 
York, where they hoped to seize the English queen. They routed 
the militia hastily raised by William de Melton, archbishop of 
York, in a fight known as the " Chapter of Mylon" because of 
the number of clerics who fell in the battle. Edward II., who 
was laying siege to Berwick, sought in vain to intercept them on 
their return journey. Later in the year the two Scottish nobles 
again raided England, and at length Edward II. signed a truce 
for two years. In 1322 Moray shared in Douglas's exploit at 
Byland Abbey. In the next year he was one of the Scottish 
ambassadors charged to conclude a truce with England, and was 
further sent to Avignon to persuade the pope to acknowledge 

* In general, for " Moray " see Mukray. the spelling having been 
constantly interchangeable. The present earls keep the qirlling 
Morav. 



820 



MORBHANJ— IMORDVINIANS 



Bruce*s claims by addressing him as king of Scotland. In the 
q>ring of 1326 he was again in France, wfien be concluded an 
offensive and defensive alliance between France and Scotland. 
The death of Bruce in 1329 made Moray regent of Scotland and 
guardian of the young king David II. in accordance with enact- 
ments made by the Scottish parliaments of 1315 and 1318. He 
died at Musselburgh on the 20th of July 1332, while preparing 
to resist an invasion by the English barons. Allegations of 
poisoning are made both by Barbour and \Yyntoun, but without 
substantial grounds. 

Moray married Isabel, daughter of Sir John Stewart of Bonkyll. 
His son Thomas, the 2nd earl, was killed at the battle of Dupplin 
in 1332; his second son John, the 3rd earl, was killed at Neville's 
Cross in 1346. The earldom then became extinct and the 
estates passed to their sister Agnes (c. 1312-1369), countess of 
Dunbar and March, known as " Black Agnes," and celebrated 
for her gallant defence of Dunbar Castle in 1337 and 1338. 
(See Masch, Earls of.) 

MORBHANJ, or Mavukbranj, a native state of India, in the 
Orissa division of Bengal. Area 4243 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 
610,383, showing an increase of 14*7% in the preceding decade, 
revenue, £64,000. It contains a large proportion of mountain 
and forest, where wild elephants are numerous, and also some of 
the richest iron ores in India. The capital is Baripaoa (pop. 
5613), which is connected by a narrow-gauge line with the 
Bengal-Nagpur railway. 

MORBIHAN. a department of western France on the Atlantic 
seaboard, formed of part of Lower Brittany, and bounded S.E. 
by the department. of Loirc-Inf6rieure, E. by thct of lUe-et- 
Vilaine, N. by Cfites^du-Nord, and W. by Finistdre. Area, 2738 
sq. ttu Pop. (1906), 573,152. From the Montagnes Noires on 
the northern frontier the western portion of Moibihan slopes 
southward towards the Atlantic, being watered by the £116, the 
Blavet with its affluent the Scorff, and the Auray; the eastern 
portion, on the other hand, dips towards the south-east in the 
direction of the course of the Oust and its feeders, which fall into 
the Vilaine. Though the Montagnes Noires contain the highest 
point (974 ft.) in the department, the most striking orographic 
feature of Morbihan is the dreary, treeless,, strcamless tract 
of moorland and marsh known as the Landes of Lanvaux, 
which extends (W.N.W. to E.S.E.) with a width of from 
I to 3 mdes for a distance of 31 miles between the valley of 
the Claie and that of the Arz (affluents of the Oust). A striking 
contrast to this district is afforded by the various inlets of the 
sea, whose shores are clothed with vegetation of exceptional 
richness^ large fig-trees, rose-laurels, and aloes growing as if in 
Algeria. The coast-line is exceedingly irregular, the mouth of 
the Vilaine, the peninsular of Ruis, the great gulf of Morbihan 
(Inner Sea), from which the department lakes its name, and the 
mouth of the Auray, the long Quiberon peninsula attached to the 
mainland by the narrow isthmus Of Fort Penthicvre, the deep- 
branching estuary of Etel, the mouths of the Blavet and the 
Scorff uniting to form the port of Lorient, and, finally, on the 
borders of Finist^re the mouth of the Laita, follow each other in 
rapid succession. Off the coast lie the islands of Gtoix, Belle-lie 
(q.v.), Houat and Hoedik. Vessels drawing 13 ft. can ascend the 
Vilaine as far as Redon; the Blavet is canalized throughout its 
course through the department; and the Oust, as part of the 
canal from Nantes to Brest, forms a great waterway by Redon, 
Josselin, Rohan and Pontivy. The climate of Morbihan is 
characterized by great moisture and mildness. Unproductive 
heath occupies more than a quarter of the department, about 
a third of which is arable land. Rye, buckwheat and wheat, 
potatoes and mangels are the chief crops; hemp and flax are 
also grown. Horned cattle are the chief livestock and bee- 
keeping is extensively practised. The sea-ware gathered along 
the coast helps greatly to improve the soil of the region bordering 
thereon. Outside of Loricni (q.v.), a centre for naval construc- 
tion, there is little industrial activity in Morbihan. The catching 
and curing of sardines and the breeding of oysters (Auray, 
St Armcl, &c.) form the business of many of the inhabitants of 
the coast, who also fish for anchovies, lobsters, &c., for tinning. 



The forges of Hennebont are of some importance for tlie produc- 
tion of sheet-tin. 

The department is served by the Orleans railway. It b 
divided into four arrondissements— Vannes, Lorient, Ploennd 
and Pontivy— with 37 cantons and 256 communes. The capital 
Vannes is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Rennes. Tbe 
department belongs to the region of the Xlth army corps and 
to the academic (educational division) of Rennes, where also b 
its court of appeal. The principal places are Vannes, Lorient, 
Ploermel, Pontivy, Auray, Hennebont, Camac and Locmaria- 
quer, the last two famous for the megalithic monuments in tbdr 
vicinity. Other places of interest are Erdeven and Ptouhamd, 
also well known for their megalithic remains; Elven, with two 
towers of the 1 5th century, remains of an old stronghold, Jossdin 
which has the fine ch&teau of the Rohan family and a church con- 
taining the tomb (1 5th century) of Olivier de CUsson and his wife, 
Guern with a chapel of the 15th and i6th centuries and le 
FaouCt with a chapel of the 15th century; Quiberon, which is 
associated with the disaster of the French imigrfy in 1795, 
Sarzeau, near which is the fortress of Sudnio (i3ih and isih 
centuries); Ste Barbe with a chapel, dating from about the cod 
of the 15th century, finely situated, overiooking the £11^^ 
St Gildas-de-Ruis, with a ruined Romanesque church and other 
remains of a Benedictine abbey of which Abelard was for a tine 
abbot. The principal pardons (religious festivak) of the depart- 
ment are those of Ste Anne-d'Auray and St NicoUs-des-Eauz. 

MORCAR, EARL (/f. 1066), son of £arl iElfgar, brother d 
Edwin, earl of the Mercians. They assisted the Nonhumbruos 
to expel Tostig, of the house 6t Godwin, in 1065 and Morcar vas 
chosen earl by the rebels. Harold, Tostig's brother, consented 
to this extension of the power of the Merdan house. In siMte 
of this concession, and the help which he gave them a^aiost 
Tostig and Harold Hardrada, the two brothers left him to fi^ht 
alone at Hastings. After trying to secure the crown for their 
own house, they submitted to William, but lost their earkkmis. 
They attempted to raise the North In 1068, and failed ignomim* 
ously. They were pardoned, but Morcar afterwards joined 
Hereward in the Isle of Ely (1071), while Edwin perished ia 
attempting to raise a Welsh rebellion. Morcar died ia pcisoo; 
at what date is unknown. 

See E. A. Freeman, Normam Conquest and WiUiam R^us, vol i. 

MORDECAI BEN HILLEL, a German rabbi, who died as a 
martyr at Nuremberg in 1298. His great legal (Haiachic) «ork 
is usually cited as " the Mordeciu," and its value consists io its 
thorough tise of the medieval authorities. It acquired wide 
authority, and was one of the sources of tbe Code of Joseph Can. 
Mordecai was also the author of Responsa. 

See L. Ginzberg in Jew. Ency. ix. 10-13. 

MORDVINIANS, otherwise called Moxdva, Mobdvs, or 
MoRDViNS, a people numbering about one million, bebaging to 
the Ural-Altaic family, who inhabit the middle Volga piovinns 
of Russia and spread in small detached communities to the sooth 
and east of these. Their settlement in the basin of theVoiga 
is of high antiquity. One of the two great branches into vhidt 
they are divided, the Erzya, is perhaps tbe same as tbe Aona 
mentioned by Ptolemy as dwelling between the Baltic Sea add 
the Ural Mountains. Strabo mentions also the Aorses as in- 
habitants of the country between the Don, the Caspian Sea and 
the Caucasus. The Russians made raids on the Mordvins in the 
1 2th century, and after the fall of Kazan rapidly invaded and 
colonized their country. 

The Mordvins are now found in the jgovemments of Simfainh, 
Penza, Samara and Nizhniy-Novgorod, as well as Saratov and 
Tambov. But their \nllages are dispersed among those of the 
Russians, and they constitute only 10 to 12% of the popdatioB 
in the four first-named governments, and from 5 to 6% in the 
last two. They are unequally distributed over this aiet in 
ethnographical islands, and constitute as much as 33 to 44% of 
the population of several districts of the governments of Taotbov, 
Simbirsk, Samara and Saratov, and only a or 3% ia other 
districu of the same provinces. They are divided into two ^ 



MORE, HANNAH 



821 



branches, the Erzya (Erea, or Ersa) and the Moksha, differing 
somewhat in their physical features and language. The southern 
branch, or the Moksha, have a darker skin and darker eyes and 
hair than the northern. A third branch, the Karauys, found in 
Kazan, appears to be mixed with Tatars. The language is a 
branch of the Western Finnish family, and most nearly allied 
to the Chcrcmissian, though presenting many peculiarities 
(see FiNNO-UcRic). The Mordvins have largely abandoned their 
own language for Russian; but they have maintained a good deal 
of their old national dress, especially the women, whose profusely 
embroidered skirts, original hair-dress large ear-rings which 
sometimes are merely hare-tails, and numerous necklaces cover- 
ing all the chest and consisting of all possible ornaments, easily 
distinguish them from Russian women. They have mostly 
dark hair, but blue eyes, generally small and rather narrow. 
Their cephalic index is very near to that of the Finns. They are 
brachycephaloiis or sub-brachycephalous, and a few are mesati- 
cephalous. They are finely built, rather tall and strong, and 
broad-chested. Their chief occupation is agriculture; they work 
harder and (in the basin, of the Moksha) are more prosperous 
than their Russian neighbours. Their capacities as carpenters 
were well known in Old Russia, and Ivan the Terrible uscxl them 
to build bridges and clear forests during his advance on Kazan. 
They now manufacture wooden ware of various sorts. They are 
also masters of apiculture, and the commonwealth of bees often 
appears in their poetry and religious beliefs. They have a con- 
siderable literature of popular songs and legends, some of them 
recounting the doings of a king Tushtyan who lived in the time 
of Ivan the Terrible. Nearly all are Christians; they received 
baptism in the reign of Elizabeth, and the Nonconformists have 
made many proselytes among them. But they still preserve 
much of their own mythology, which they have adapted to the 
Christian religion. According to some authorities, they have 
preserved also, especially the less russified Moksha, the practice 
of kidnapping brides, with the usual battles between the party of 
the bridegroom and that of the family of the bride. The wor^ip 
of trees, water (especially of the water-divinity which favours 
marriage), the sun or Shkay, who is the chief divinity, the moon, 
the thunder and the frost, and of the home-divinity Kardaz- 
scrko still exists among them; and a small stone altar or flat stone 
covering a small pit to receive the blood of slaughtered animals 
can be found in many houses. Their burial customs seem foimded 
on ancestor-worship. On the fortieth day after the death of a 
kinsman the dead is not only supposed to return home but a 
member of his household represents him, and, coming from the 
grave, speaks in his name. 

The lani^atp is Inmted of in Ahlqutst's Venuch einer Mokscha- 
mordu-iniicken Grammatik ntbsi TexUn und WorUr-Veneichniss 
(St Petcnburx* I0(»i)> And ihcir hhtory, customs and relieion by 
Smirrtov (rrans. by Boycr), ^' Lc? l^npulations finnoises de la Volg:a 
(tn PMbikalioHS di Iccck iki tun^ues orientaUs, vioanUs, 1698). 
Much v,i]uable irtformatiofi respecting customs, relieion, language 
3nd folfc-brt will be fouiid in paficrs by Paasoncn, Hcikel, Ahlquist, 
Mai not and dthcfi prinripd in the Journal de la SocUU FtnnO' 
OvzrUnrtc afid ibe Ftnnisch-^ugrijcfte Forschungen. {C El.) 

MORE, HANNAH (i745-i853)» English religious writer, was 
born at Stapleton, near Bristol, on the 2nd of February 1745. 
She may be said to have made three reputations in. the course 
of her long life: first, as a clever verse-writer and witty talker 
in the circle of Johnson, Reynolds and Garrick; next, as a writer 
on moral and religious subjects on the Puritanic side; and lastly, 
as a practical philanthropist. She was the youngest but one 
of the five daughters of Jacob More, who, though a member of a 
Presbyterian family in Norfolk, had become a member of the 
English Church and a strong Tory. He taught a school at 
Stapleton in Gloucestershire. The elder sisters established a 
boarding-school at Bristol, and Hannah became one of their 
pupils when she was twelve years old. Her first literary efforts 
were pastoral plays, suitable for young ladies to act, the first 
being written in 1762 under the title of A Search after Happiness 
(2nd ed. 1773). Metastasio was one of her literary models; on 
his opera of AUitio regulo she based a drama, The InflexiMe 
Captive, published in 1774. She gave up her share in the school 



in view of an engagement of marriage she had contracted with a 
Mr Turner. The wedding never took place, and, after much 
reluctance, Hannah More was induced to accept from Mr Turner 
an annuity which had been settled on her without her knowledge. 
This set her free for literary pursuits, and in 1772 or 1773 she 
went to London. Some verses on Garrick's Lear led to an 
acquaintance with the actor-playwright; Miss More was taken up 
by Elizabeth Montague;and her unaffected enthusiasm,simpUcity, 
vivacity, and wit won the hearts of the whole Johnson set, the 
lexicographer himself included, although he is said to have told 
her that she should ** consider what her flattery was worth before 
she choked him with it." Garrick wrote the prologue and 
epilogue for her tragedy Percy, which was acted with great 
success at Covent Garden in December 1777. Another drama. 
The Fatal Falsehood, produced in 1779 after Garrick's death, was 
less successfuL The Garricks had induced her to live with them; 
and after Garrick's death she remained with his wife, first at 
Hampton Court, and then in the Adelphi. In 178 1 she made the 
acquaintance of Horace Walpole, and corresponded with him 
from that time. At Bristol she discovered a poetess in Mrs 
Anne Yearsley (1756-1806), a milkwoman, and raised a consider- 
able sum of money. for her benefit. *' Lactilla," as Mrs Yearsley 
^as called, wished to receive the capital, and made insinuations 
against Miss More, who desired to hold it in trust. The tr\uit 
was handed over to a Bristol merchant and eventually to the 
poetess. 

Hannah More published Sacred Dramas in 1782, and it rapidly 
ran through nineteen editions. These and the poems Bas-Bleu 
and Florio (1786) mark her gradual transition to more serious 
views of life, which were fully expressed in prose in her Thoughts 
OH the Importance of the Manners of the Great to General Society 
(1788), and An Estimate of the Religion of the Fashionable World 
(1790). She was intimate with Wilberforce and Zachary 
Macaulay, with whose evangelical views she was in entire sym- 
pathy. She published a poem on Slavery in 1788. In 1785 she 
bou^t a house, at Cowslip Green, near Wrington, near Bristol, 
where she settled down to country life with her sister Martha, and 
wrote many ethical books and tracts: Strictures on Female EducO' 
Hon (1799), Hints towards forming the Character of a Young 
Princess (1805), Coelebs in Search of a Wife (only nominally a 
story, 1809), Practical Piety (181 1), Christian Morals (1813), 
Character of St Paul (1815), Moral Sketches (1819). The tone is 
uniformly animated; the writing fresh and vivacious; her favour- 
ite subjects the minor self-indulgences and infirmities. She was a 
rapid writer, and her work is consequently discursive and form- 
less; but there was an originality and force in her way of putting 
commonplace sober sense and piety that fully accounts for her 
extraordinary popularity. The most famous of her books was 
Coelebs in Search of a Wife, which had an enormous circulation 
among pious people. Sydney Smith attacked it with violence in 
the Edinburgh Review for its general priggishness. It is interesting 
to note that the model Stanley children have been said to be 
drawn from T. B. Macaulay and his sister. She also wrote many 
spirited rhymes and prose tales, the earliest of which was Village 
Politics (1792), by " Will Chip," to counteract the doctrines of 
Tom Paine and the influence of the French Revolution. The 
success of Village Politics induced her to begin the series of 
" Cheap Repository Tracts," which were for three years produced 
by Hannah and her sisters at the rate of three a month. Perhaps 
the most famous of these is The Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, 
describing a family of phenomenal frugality and contentment. 
This was translated into several langtiages. Two million copies 
of these rapid and telling sketches were circulated in one year, 
teaching the poor in rhetoric of most ingenious homeliness to 
rely upon the virtues of content, sobriety, humility, industry, 
reverence for the British Constitution, hatred of the French, 
trust in GoA and in the kindness of the gentry. 

Perhaps the best proof of Hannah More's sterling worth was 
her indefatigable pldlanthropic work — her long-continued exer- 
tions to improve the condition of the children in the mining 
districts of the Mendip Hills near her home at Cowslip Green 
and Barley Wood. The More sisters met with a good deal of 



822 



MORE, H.— MORE, SIR THOMAS 



opposition io their good works. The fanners thought thit 
education, even to the limited extent of learning to read, would 
be fatal to agriculture, and the clergy, whose neglect she was ! 
making good, accused her of Methodist tendencies. In her old 
age, philanthropists from all parts made pilgrimages to see the 
bright and amiable old lady, and she retained all her faculties till 
within two years of her death, dying at Clifton, where the last 
five years of her life were spent, on the 7th of September 1833. 

Sed The Life af flanaah Afwf, leith ^oliaei &f iftr Sisttn (18381, by 
ihp Rev* Henry Thonspiiiofi. The articVr in the Dm. JVdJ. 0iof. h 
hy Sir Leslie Sicphcn. Sorat? lFtti?rs of Hannah Mor^, Miih t wry 
ili^Kt conriftciifig narnHiven i*^n? nubEi&hcd Ift 1B71 by William 
Robert* as Tkt Life ef tt^XJIna.h M^ff- See alfo Hannak More 
(tSSAJn by Chirloitc M- Yonge, in the " Emrneat Wamm " vries, 
and Hannuk Mere (N^w Viark and Londan, igoo), by ' Marian 
HjirlAnd/* UUeri nf ftaKnah At are to Zofhary ILataiiiuy wcfv edited 
( 1 860 ) by Anhu r Kobert*. The contemporary opposi t ion to hur may 
be seen m an atiuiive Life of llAnnak Mare, vnih a Criiicfti Rrtiew 
of Her Wfitin^i {tAo3}. by ibc " Rev, Arthib;ild Ma^sarc^im " 
(VVHlliimi Sfjiw. rector of Chclvey, Somerset), 

MORE, HENRY (1614-1687), English philosopher of the 
Cambridge Platonist school, was bom at Grantham in 1614. 
Both his father and his mother, he tells us, were ." earnest 
followers of Calvin," but he himself ** could never swallow that 
hard doctrine." In 1631 he was admitted at Christ's College, 
Cambridge, about the time Milton was leaving it. He immersed 
himself " over head and ears in the study of philosophy," and 
fell for a time into a scepticism, from which he was delivered by a 
study of the " Platonic writers." He was fascinated especially 
by Neoplatonism, and this fascination never left him. The 
Tfuologia germanka also exerted a permanent influence over 
liim. He took his bachelor's degree in 1635, his master's degree 
in 1639, and immediately afterwards was chosen fellow of his 
college. All other preferment he refused, with one exception. 
Fifteen years after the Restoration he accepted a prebend in 
Gloucester Cathedral, but only to resign it in favour of his friend 
Dr Edward Fowler, afterwarcb bishop of Gloucester. He would 
not accept the mastership of his college, to which, it is understood, 
he would have been preferred in 1654, when Cudworth was 
appointed. He drew around him many young men of a refined 
and thoughtful turn of mind, but among all his pupils the most 
interesting was a young lady of noble family. This lady, pro- 
bably a sister of Lord Finch, subsequently earl of Nottingham, 
a well-known statesman of the Restoration, afterwards became 
Lady Conway, and at her country seat at Ragley in Warwick- 
shire More continued at intervals to spend " a considerable part 
of his time." She and her husband both appreciated him, and 
amidst the wpods of this retreat he composed several of his books. 
The spiritual enthusiasm of Lady Conway was a considerable 
factor in some of More's speculations, none the less that she 
at length joined the Quakers. She became the friend not only 
of More and Penn, but of Baron van Helmont and Valentine 
Greatrakes, mystical thaumaturgists of the 17th century. 
Ragley became a centre not only of devotion but of wonder- 
working spiritualism.* From this, his genius suffered, and the 
rationality which distinguishes his earlier is much less conspicu- 
ous in his later works. He was a voluminous writer both in verse 
and in prose, but his works, except the Divine Dialogues (1688), 
are now of little interest. This treatise, animated and sometimes 
brilliant, is valuable for modern readers in that it condenses hia 
general view of philosophy and religion. 

Henry More represents the mystical and theosophic side of the 
Cambridge movement. The Neoplatonic extravagances which 
lay hidden in the school from the first came in his writings to a 
head, and merged in pure phantasy. He can never be spoken 
of, however, save as a spiritual genius and a significant figure in 
British philosophy, less robust and in some respects less learned 
than Cudworth, but more interesting and fertile in thought, and 
more genial in character. From youth to age he describes him- 
self as gifted with a buoyant temper. His own thoughts were 
to him a never-ending source of pleasurable excitement. This 
mystical elevation was the chief feature of his character, a certain 

* The place and its religious marvels are glanced at in the romance 
ol John Ingftsant (ch. xv.}. 



radiancy of tbou^t which carried him beyond the common I9e 
without raising him to any artificial height, for his humility and 
charity were not less conspicuous than his piety. The last ten 
years of his life were uneventful. He died 00 the ist of September 
1687, and was buried in the chapel of the college be loved. 

Before his death More issued complete editions of his works, his 
Opera tkeclogica in 1675, and his Opera pktiosopkKa in 1678. 
Tne chief authorities for his life are Ward's Lt/e (1710): the prefaiio 
generalissima prefixed to his Opera omnia (1679); and also f 
general account of the nanner and scope of his wriiiiws in an 
Apology published in 1664. The collection of hb Pkuose^icd 
Poems (1647), in which he has " compared his chief speculations 
and experiences," should also be consulted. An elaborate anal>-ii« 
of his life and works is given in Tulkx:h's Ratiemal Theology, vol. it. 
(1874); see also R. Zimmermann. Henr^ More und die wierle Diwun* 
sion des Raums (Vienna, 1881 ). (For his ethical theory, as cootaioed 
in the Enchiridion Ethicum, see Ethics.) 

MORE. SIR THOMAS (1478-1 S35). English lord diaaceOor, 
and author of Utopia^ was bom in MUk Street ta the dty of 
London, on the 7 th of February 1478. He received the rudi- 
ments of education at St Anthony's School in Threadneedle 
Street, at that time under Nicolas Holt, held to be the best in the 
city. He was early placed in the housdiold of Cardinal Morton, 
archbishop of Canterbury. Admission to the cardinal's familjr 
was esteemed a high privilege, and was sought as a school of 
manners and as an introduction to the world by the sons of the 
best families in the kingdom. Young Thomas More obtained 
admission throtigh the influence of his father. Sir Thomas, iba 
a rising barrister and afterwards a justice of the court of king's 
bench. The usual prognostication of future distinctk» is 
attributed in the case of More to Cardinal Morton, " who vould 
often tell the nobles sitting at table with him, where yoanf 
Thomas waited on him, whosoever liveth to trie it shall see this 
child prove a notable and rare man."* At the proper age young 
More was sent to Oxford, where he is said vagxiely to have had 
Colet, Grocyn and Linacre for his tutors.* All More himself sa]rs 
is that he had Linacre for his master in Greek. F^faming (irek 
was not the matter of course which it has since become. Greek 
was not as yet part of the arts curriculum,and to learn it voltuh 
tarily was ill looked upon by the authorities. Those who did so 
were suspected of an inclination towards novel and dangcroos 
modes of thinking, then rife on the Continent and slowly finding 
their way to England. More's father, who intended hb sob to 
make a career in his own profession, took the alarm; he mMnred 
him from the university without a degree, and entered bin at 
New Inn to commence at once the study of the law. After oms* 
pleting a two-years' course in New Inn, an inn of chancery. 
More was admitted in February 1496 at Lincoln's Inn, an inn of 
court. ** At that time the Inns of Court and Chancery presented 
the discipline of a well-constituted university, and, thnw^ 
professors under the name of readers and exercises under tk 
name of mootings, law was systematically taught " (Caii?beu). 
In his professional studies More early distinguished himsdf, 
so that he was appointed reader-in-law in Fumival's Inn; bot 
he would not relinquish the studies which had attracted him is 
Oxford. We find him delivering a lecture to audiences of " al 
the chief learned of the dty of London."* The subject he chose 
was a compromise between theology and the humanities, boog 
St Augustine's De dntate. In this lecture More sought less to 
expound the theology of his author than to set forth tbe 
philosophical and historical contents of the treatise. The 
lecture-room was a church, St Lawrence Jewry, placed at bis 
disposal by Grocyn, the rector. 

Somewhere about this period of More's life two things happened 
which gave in opposite directions the determining impulse to his 
future career. More's was one of those highly susceptible natorts 
which take more readily and more eagerly than comnwn minds 
the impress of that which they encounter on their first contact 
with men. Two prindpal forms of thought and feeling were at 
this date in conflict, rather unconscious than declared, on EnglJh 
soiL Under the denomination of the ** old learning," the serti- 
ment of the middle ages and the idea of Church authority «as 



>l4f«byB.R. 



*lbid. 



>Ropcr.I^ 



MORE, SIR THOMAS 



823 



cstablishfd and in full possession of the religious bouses, the 
universitiesi and the learned professions. The foe that was 
advancing in the opposite direction, though without the con- 
science of a hostile purpose, was the new power of human reason 
animated with the revived sentiment of classicism. In More's 
mind both these hostile influences found a congenial home. Each 
had its turn of supremacy, and in his early years it seemed as if 
the humanistic influence would gain the final victory. About the 
age of twenty he was seized with a violent access of devotional 
rapture. He took a disgust to the world and its occupations, 
and experienced a longing to give himself over to an ascetic life. 
He took a lodging near the Charterhouse, and subjected himself 
to the discipline of a Carthusian monk. He wore a sharp shirt 
of hair next his skin, scourged himself every Friday and other 
fasting days, lay upon the bare ground with a log under his head, 
and allowed himself but four or five hours' sleep. This access of 
the ascetic malady lasted but a short time, and More recovered to 
all outward appearance his balance of mind. For the moment the 
balance of his faculties seemed to be restored by a revival of the 
antagonistic sentiment of humanism which he had imbibed from 
the Oxford circle of friends, and specially from Erasmus. The 
dates as regards More's early life are uncertain, and we can only 
say that it is possible that the acquaintance with Erasmus might 
have begun during Erasmus's first visit to England in 1499. 
Tradition has dramatized their first meeting into the story given 
by Cresacre More'— that the two happened to sit opposite each 
other at the lord mayor's table, that they got into an argument 
during dinner, and that, in mutual astonishment at each other's 
wit and readiness, Erasmus exclaimed, " Aut tu es Moms, aut 
nullus," and the other replied, " Aut tu es Erasmus, aut diabolus I " 
Rejecting this legend, which bears the i .amp of fiction upon its 
face, we have certain evidence of acquaintance between the 
two men in a letter of Erasmus, with the date^ " Oxford, 29th 
October 1499." If we must admit the correctness of tl)e date of 
£p. 14 in the collection of Erasmus's Epistdae^ vtt should have to 
assume that their acquaintance had begun as early as 1497. It 
rapidly ripened into warm attachment. This conuct with the 
prince of letters revived in More the spirit of the " new learning," 
and he returned with ardour to the study of Greek, which had 
been begun at Oxford. The humanistic influence was sufficiently 
stronglo save him from wrecking his Ufe in monkish mortifica- 
tion, and even to keep him for a time on the side of the party of 
progress. He acquired no inconsiderable facility in the Greek 
language, from which he made and published some translations. 
His Latin style, though wanting the inimitable ease of Erasmus 
and often offending against idiom, is yet in copiousness and 
propriety much above the ordinary Latin of the English 
scholars of his time. 

More's attention to the new studies was always subordinate 
to his resolution to rise in his profession, in which be was stimu- 
lated by his father's example. As early as 1503 he was appointed 
under-sheriff of the city of London, an office then judicial and of 
considerable dignity. He first attracted public attention by his 
conduct in the parh'ament of 1 504, by his daring opposition to the 
king's demand for money. Henry VII. was entitled, according 
to feudal laws, to a grant on occasion of his daughter's marriage. 
But he came to the House of Commons for a much larger sum 
than he intended to give with his daughter. The members, 
unwilling as they were to vote the money, were afraid to offend 
the king, till the silence was broken by More, whose speech is 
said to have moved the house to reduce the subsidy of three- 
fifteenths which the Government had demanded to £30,000. One 
of the chamberlains went and told his master that he had been 
thwarted by a beardless boy. Henry never forgave the audacity; 
but, for the moment, the only revenge he could take was upon 
More's father, whom upon some pretext he threw into the Tower, 
and he only released him upon payment of a fine of £100. Thomas 
More even found it advisable to withdraw from public life into 
obscurity. During this period of retirement the old dilemma 
recurred. One while he devoted himself to the sciences, 
** perfecting himself in music, arithmetic, geometry and 
» Lije, p. 93. 



astronomy, learning the French tongue, and recreating his tired 
spirits on the viol,"* or translating epigrams from the Greek 
anthology; another while resolving to take priest's orders. 

From dreams of clerical celibacy he was roused by making 
acquaintance with the family of John Colt of New Hall, in 
Essex. The "honest and sweet conversation" of the three 
daughters attracted him, and though his inclination led him 
to prefer the second be married the eldest, Jane, in 1505, not 
liking to put the affront upon her of passing her over in favour of 
her younger sister. The death of the old king in 1509 restored 
him to the pracUce of his profession, and to that public career 
for which his abih'ties specially fitted him. From this time 
there was scarce a cause of importance in which he was not 
engaged. Bis professional income amounted to £400 a year,- 
equal to £4000 in present money, and, *' considering the relative 
profits of the Uw and the value of money, probably indicated 
as high a station as £10,000 at the present day " (Campbell). 
It was not long before he attracted the attention of the young 
king and of Wolsey. The spirit with which he pleaded before 
the Star Chamber in a case of The Crown v. The Pope recom- 
mended him to the royal favour, and marked him out for em- 
ployment. More obtained in this case judgment against the 
Crown. Henry, who was present in person at the trial, had 
the good sense not to resent the defeat, but took the counsel to 
whose advocacy it was due into his service. In 1514 More was 
made master of the requests,. knighted, and sworn a member 
of the privy coundL He was repeatedly employed on embassies 
to the Low Countries, and was for a long time stationed at. 
Calais as agent in the shifty negotiations carried on by Wolsey 
with the court of France. In 1519 he was compelled to resign 
his post of under-sheriff to the dty and his private practice at 
the bar. In 1521 he was appointed treasurer of the exchequer, 
and in the parliament of 1523 he was elected Speaker. The 
choice of this officer rested nominally with the house itself, 
but in practice was always dictated by the court. Sir Thomas. 
More was pitched upon by the court on this occasion in order 
that his popularity with the Commons might be employed to 
carry the money grant for which Wolsey asked. To the great 
disappointment of the court More remained firm to the popular 
cause, and it was greatly owing to his influence that its demands 
were resisted. From this occurrence may be dated the jealousy 
which Che cardinal began to exhibit towards More. Wolsey 
made an attempt to get him out of the way by sending hina as 
ambassador to Spain. More defeated the design by a personal 
appeal to the king, alleging that the climate would be fatal to 
his health. Henry, who saw through the artifice, and was 
already looking round for a more popular successor to Wolsey, 
made the gracious answer that he would employ More otherwise. 
In 1525 More was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 
and no pains were spared to attach him to the court. The 
king frequently sefit for him into his closet, and discoursed 
with him on astronomy, geometry and points of divinity. 
This growing favour, by which many men would have been 
carried away, did not impose upon More. He discouraged 
the king's advances, showed reluctance to go to the palace, 
and seemed constrained when there. Then the king began to 
come himself to More's house at Chelsea, and would dine with 
him without previous notice. William Roper, husband of 
More's eldest daughter, mentions one of these visits, when the 
king after dinner walked in the garden by the space of an hour 
holding his arm round More's neck. Roper afterwards congratu- 
lated his father-in-law on the distinguished honour which had 
been shown him. " I thank our Lord," was the reply, " I find 
his grace my very good lord indeed; and I believe he doth as 
singularly favour me as any subject within this realm. Howbeit,' 
son Roper, I may tell thee I have no cause to be proud thereof, 
for if my head would win him a castle in France it should not 
fail to go." As a last resource More tried the expedient of silence, 
dissembling his wit and affecting to be dull. This had the desired 
effect so far that he was less often sent for. But it did not 
alter the royal policy, and in 1529, when a successor had to be 
* Roper, X*/(r. 



824 



MORE, SIR THOMAS 



found for Wolsey, More was raised to the chancellorship. The 
selection was justified by More's high reputation, but it was 
also significant of the modification which the policy of the court 
was then undergoing. It was a concession to the rising popular 
party, to which it was supposed that More's politics inclined 
him. The public favour with which his appointment had been 
received was justified by his conduct as judge in the court of 
chancery. Having heard causes in the forenoon between 
eight and eleven, after dinner he sat again to receive petitions. 
The meaner the suppliant was the more affably he would speak 
to him and the more speedily he would despatch his case. In 
this respect he formed a great contrast to his predecessor, 
whose arrears he soon cleared off. One morning being told by 
the officer that there was not another cause before the court, 
he ordered the fact to be entered on record, as it had never 
happened before. He not only refused all gdxs — such as had 
been usual — himself, but took measures to prevent any of his 
connexions from interfering with the course of justice. One 
of his sons-in-law. Heron, having a suit in the chancellor's 
court, and refusing to agree to any reasonable accommodation, 
because the judge "was the most affectionate father to his 
children that ever was in the world," More thereupon made a 
decree against him. 

Unfortunately for Sir Thomas More, a lord chancellor is 
not merely a judge, but has high political functions to perform. 
In raising More to that eminent position, the king had not merely 
considered his professional distinction but had counted upon his 
avowed liberal and reforming tendencies. In the Utopia, which, 
though written earlier, More had allowed to be printed as late 
as 1 516, he had spoken against the vices of power, and declared 
for indifference of religious creed with a breadth of philosophical 
view of which there is no other example in any Englishman of 
that age. At the same time, as he could not be suspected of 
any sympathy with Lutheran or Wickliffite heretics, he might 
fairly be regarded as qualified to lead the party which aimed 
at reform in State and Church within the limits of Catholic 
orthodoxy. But in the king's mind the public questions of 
reform were entirely sunk in the personal one of the divorce. 
The divorce was a point upon which Sir Thomas would not 
yield. And, as he saw that the marriage with Anne Boleyn 
was determined upon, he petitioned the king to be allowed to 
resign the Great Seal, alleging failing health. With much 
reluctance the royal permission was given and the resignation 
accepted, on the loth of May 1532, with many gracious expres- 
sions of goodwill on the part of the king. The promise held 
out of future bounty was never fulfilled, and More left office, 
as he had entered it, a poor man. His necessitous condition 
was so notorious that the clergy in convocation voted him a 
present of £5000. This he peremptorily refused, either for 
himself or for his family, declaring that he " had rather see it 
all cast into the Thames." Yet the whole of his income after 
resigning office did not exceed £100 a year. 

Hitherto he had maintained a large establishment, not on 
the princely scale of Wolsey, but in the patriarchal fashion 
of having all his sons-in-law, with their families, imder his roof. 
When he resigned the chancellorship he called his children and 
grandchildren together to explain his reduced circumstances. 
" If we wish to live together," said he, " you must be Content 
to be contributories together. But my counsel is that we fall 
not to the lowest fare first: we will not, therefore, descend to 
Oxford fare, nor to the fare of New Inn, but we will begin with 
Lincoln's Inn diet, where many right worshipful men of great 
account and good yeari do live full well; which if we find ourselves 
the first year not able to maintain, then we will in the next year 
come down to Oxford fare, where many great learned and ancient 
fathers and doctors arc continually conversant; while if our 
purses stretch not to maintain neither, then may we after, 
with bag and wallet, go a-bcgging together, hoping that for 
pity some good folks will give us their charity." 

More was now able, as he writes to Erasmus, to return to the 
life which had always been his ambition, wherf, free from business 
and public affairs, he might give himself up to his favourite 



&tadi« and to the practices of his devotion. Of the Cbdsei 
ioit^tior Erasmus ha^ drawn a charming picture, which may 
vie with Holbein's celebrated convoa, " The Household id Sii 
Tboitus More." 

" More has buik, near Londan, upon the Thames, a modest ytt 
CDmmodinus manaion. Tbere ht J:Kx:» surrounded by his numerou! 
family, irtcl^uding; hb %'tit^ KU son^ ind his son's wife, his three 
dauifhtcTs dnd iheir Kuffa^ndi, ivlth eleven grandchildren. There 
It nc^t any nun Living so alfcciionuile to his children as he, and he 
lovtrTli his old wife &* U the wctv a giri oi fifteen. Such is the 
excrtlcnce of hit di»po»Lion that whatsoever happeneth that oouJd 
iKit be helped^ he is at ch(\^rlul and as well pleased as though the 
best thing pouible had b«rn done. In More's bouse you would 
wx that PLaio'i Academy was revived again, only, whereas in tbe 
Academy the discuKioTis turned upon fcometry and tbe power oi 
numben, the houu at Ch^liea is a ^-vritable school of Christian 
relifiion. Jn It ii none, man or woman, but readeth or studittb 
the liberal arts, yet is their chief cat? of piety. There is never any 
»en idle ; the head o( the house governs it not by a lofty carriage 
and oft rebukes, but by gentltness and anaiable manners. Every 
member is huay in his place, pcdortnin^ his duty with alacrity ; aor 
is sober mirth wanting. '^ 

But Mote was too conspicuous to be long allowed to enjoy the 
happiness of a retJrird IH*.- A special invitation was sent him by 
the king to xiltend the coronation of Anne Boleyn, acoompaoied 
with the gracious oUer of £30 to buy a new suit for tbe occaaoa! 
Mofe refiised to attend, and from that moment was marked 
out for vcngcjjicc. A fint attempt made to being him irithio 
the meshes of the law only recoiled with shazfle upon the hetd 
of the accusers. They were maladroit enough to attack Ua 
on his least vulnerable sidcr summoning him before the privy 
council to answer to a charge of reoeiving bribes in the adminii' 
iration of jusliee. One Paroell was put forward to compUia 
of a d«:ree pronounced agiainsi bim in favour of the conteodiaf 
party Vaughan, who be said had presented a gilt cup to the 
cimncctbr. More ^tuted thAt he had received a cup- as a New 
Year's gift* Lord ^VJItshirc, tli* £|uccn's father, ezultingjy cried 
out, " Sot dM I not liili you, my lord^, that you would find this 
matter true?'* " Btit, my lords," continued More, "haviui 
pledged Mrs Vaughan in the wine wherewith my butler bad 
£.lled Llic cup, I rt^torcd the cup to her." Two other cbaijes 
of B like nature were refuted as triumphantly. But the very 
futility of the accusations must have betrayed to Mote tbe 
bitter determination of his enemies Co compass his destnictioB. 
Foiled in their first ill-dirtcted attempt, they were conpelkd 
to have recourse to thit tfcrriendous engine of regal tynuiny, 
the law of treason* A bill wa* brought into pariiament toattaiat 
Elizabeth Barton, a nun, who *ajj said to have held trcasoa- 
able language. Barton turned out afterwards to -have been aa 
impostor, but she had duped More, who now ^ived in a snper 
stitious almo!iphcrE at convenuand churches, and he had gives 
hi ^ cou nte ounce to her supematu ral pretenaons. His name, vith 
that of Fisher, was. accordingly included in the bill as an accoo- 
plice. When be came before the coundl it was at once appaittf 
that the charge ol treason could Dot be sustained, and tke 
e forts of the court agents were directed to draw from If or 
some appmb;ition of the king's marriage. But to this oeitber 
cajolery nor threats could move him. The preposterous cbai^ 
was urged that it was by his advice that the king had con- 
mitted himself in his book again;^ Luther to an assertioa of 
the popeV authority ^ wherehy the title of " Defender of tk 
Faith '' had been gained, but in reality a sword put into tk 
pope's hand to fight against him. More was able to reply thit 
he bad warned the king that this very thing mi^t happOi 
that upon some breach of atftity between the crown of EngUad 
and the pope Henry's too pronounced assertion of the papal 
authority might be turned against himself ,*' therefore it ««* 
best that place be amended, and his authority more aJenderiy 
touched.'* " Nay," replied the king, " that it shall not; « 
aiv so much bound to the see of Rome that we cannot do too 
much honour unto it, ^Hiatsoever impediment be to tk 
coiiirary, we will set forth that authority to the utmost; for ^ 
have recctvtd ffom that see our crown imperial," "wbjck," j 
added Morej " til bis gra^x with his own m<mth so told nc 



MORE, SIR THOMAS 



825 



I never heard before." Anjrthing more defiant and exasperating 
than this could not well have been said. But it could not be 
laid hold of, and the charge of treason being too ridiculous to 
be proceeded with, Morc's name was struck out of the bill. 
When his daughter brought him the news. More calmly said, 
*' I' faith, Meg, quod differtur, non aufertur: that which is 
postponed is not dropt." At another time, having asked his 
daughter how the court went and how Queen Anne did, he 
received for answer, " Never better; there is nothing else but 
dancing and sporting." To this More answered, " Alas, Meg, it 
pitieth me to remember unto what misery, poor soul, she will 
shortly come; these dances of hers will prove such dances that 
she will spurn our heads ofif like footballs; but it will not be long 
ere her head will dance the like dance." *■ So the speech nms 
in the Life by More's great-grandson; but in the only trust- 
worthy record, the life by his son-in-law Roper, More's reply 
ends with the words, " she will shortly come." In this, as in 
other instances, the later statement has the appearance of 
having been an imaginative extension of the earlier. 

In 1534 the Act of Supremacy was passed and the oath ordered 
to be tendered. More was sent for to Lambeth, where he offered 
to swear to the succession, but steadily refused the oath of supre- 
macy as against his conscience. Thereupon he was given in 
charge to the abbot of Westminster, and, persisting in his refusal, 
was four days afterwards committed to the Tower. After a 
close and even cruel confinement (he was denied the use of pen 
and ink) of more than a year, he was brought to trial before 
a special commission and a packed jury. Even so More would 
have been acquitted, when at the last moment Rich, the solicitor- 
general, quitted the bar and presented himself as a witness 
for the Crown. Being sworn, he detailed a confidential con- 
versation he had had with the prisoner in the Tower. He 
affirmed that, having himself admitted in the course of this 
conversation " that there were things which no parliament 
could do — e.g. no parliament could make a law that God 
should not be God," Sir Thomas had replied, " No more could 
the parliament make the king supreme head of the Church." By 
this act of perjury a verdict of " guilty " was procured from 
the jury. The execution of the sentence followed within the 
week, on the 7th of July 1535. The head was fixed upon 
London Bridge. The vengeance of Henry was not satisfied 
by this judicUl murder of his friend and servant; he enforced 
the confiscation of what small property More had left, expelled 
Lady More from the house at Chelsea, and even set aside assign- 
ments which had been legally executed by More, who foresaw 
what would happen before the commission of the alleged treason. 
More's property was settled on Princess Elizabeth, afterwards 
queen, who kept possession of it till her death. 

Sir Thomas More was twice married, biit had children only 
by his first wife, who died about 1511. His only son, John, 
married an heiress, Ann Cresacre, and was the grandfather 
of Cresacre More, Sir Thomas More's biographer. His eldest 
daughter, Margaret (1505-1544), married to William Roper 
(1496-1578), an official of the court of king's bench and a member 
of parliament under Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Mary, 
is one of the foremost women in the annals of the country for 
her virtues, high intelligence and various accomplishments. 
She read Latin and Greek, was a proficient in music, and in 
the sciences so far as they were then accessible. Her devotion 
to her father is historical; she gave him not only the tender 
affection of a daughter but the hJgh-minded sympathy of a soul 
great as his own. 

More was not only a lawyer, a wit, a scholar, and a man of 
wide general reading; he was also a man of cultivated taste, 
who delighted in music and painting. He was an intimate 
friend of Holbein, whose first introduction to England was as 
a visitor to More in his hous^ at Chelsea, where the painter 
is said to have remained for three years, and where he probably 
first met Henry VIII. Holbein painted portraits of Sir Thomas 
and his family. More was beatified by Leo XIII. in 1886. 

The Epistolc ad Dorpium exhibits More emphatically on the 
* Cresacre More, p. 231. 



side of the new learning. It contains a vindication of the study 
of Greek, and of the desirability of printing the text of the Greek 
Testament — views which at that date required an enlightened 
understanding to enter into, and which were condemned by the 
party to which More afterwards attached himself. On the 
other hand, he can at the most be doubtfully exculpated from 
the charge of having tortured men and children for heresy. 
It is admitted by himself that he inflicted punishment for 
religious opinion. Erasmus only ventures to say in his friend's 
defence " thai while he was chancellor no man was put to death 
for these pestilent opinions, while so many suffered death in 
France and the Low Countries." His views and feelings con- 
tracted under the combined influences of his professional practice 
and of public employment. In the Ulo^, published in Latin 
in 1 516 (ist English translation, 1551), he not only denounced 
the ordinary vices of power, but evinced an enh'ghtenment 
of sentiment which went far beyond the most statesmanlike 
ideas to be found among his contemporaries, pronouncing not 
merely for toleration, but rising even to the philosophical con- 
ception of the indifference of religious creed. It was to this 
superiority of view, and not merely to the satire on the 
administration of Henry VII., that we must ascribe the popu- 
larity of the work in the x6tb century. For as a romance the 
Utopia has h'ttle interest either of incident or of character. It 
does not, as has been said, anticipate the economical doctrines 
of Adam Smith, and much of it is fanciful without being either 
witty or ingenious. The idea of putting forward political aod 
philosophical principles under the fiction of an ideal state was 
doubtless taken from Plato's Republic. The Utopia in turn 
suggested the literary form adopted by Bacon, Hobbes, Filmer, 
and other later writers; and the name of the book has passed into 
the language as signifying optimistic but impracticable ideals of 
reform. 

For a btblionaphy of More's numerous works see the article in 
the Diet. Nat. Biog. and the CaUlogue of the Alfred Cock collection 
of books and portraits of or relating to Sir Thomas More which is 
preserved in the Guildhall Library, London. The more important 
of his works and their editions are here given. Luctani dialogi 

, , . iompluriil 0^:1 Uuid Hi) /■.rajmp Koti^rcnitiit:tt ft J tiOn'Q Aiori> . . ^ 

imdwU tPi-fim, tsa6 and 1514: Vcmcc, Aldui, 151 ti. Hic.} wtM 
aircumpliitiM by Etrasmus and Mere in 1503, Tiw Lyfe of John 
Picuft nflir of Atiranduta . , . pdntej by Wynkj n tie VV'orde In 
t^w, trattb-laEed by Man; fnom the Venice ed^ of MQS, w^^ ctlit^ 
by J. M- KiBR for i^ Tudor Library in 1890. Htitant p/ thfpiuijfd 
L^je nKdT unftiftMnoU Daatk ofEiiifard tJit Pijih and iht tk^n fjvl^ e4 
YorktBitk . . , RichafdiheTkifd was wrutfrn^arcordinii to Rj^teli* 
in 1513, and first printed in a corrupt versitin in GrKftun a rdntifiua- 
lion of Harding in IS43; \\. \% included by KcLsiell in hiA i^^l edition 
of Mor^'i Workef^^ byt it has been bii|gge&Led that the Latin uricinal 
was by C-ardinnil Morton j as the- tltitory of Kint Rifkard ifl. it 
wa* edited by J. R^ Lumby for the Pitt Press in i&lj. The Libeilmi 
vtrc curtm r . , bcttiM* known as Ui&fria^ wat printed at Louvaiii 
in 151^, timjcr the fupennEeikJencc of Kra^mus, and appeared in 
many flub*cquetit editions, many of thum of trtai bibliogfraphical 
vflliien the Tuifit Lting the Qawl tcjition d t5i8. It was traniLatcd 
into the chJeJ l^n^uafe^ of Europe, and into En^li^h by Kalp' 
k^^binAon a^ A Jruitful and PlensauKi Werke of tkr ttt^i ^i^lf 1 
Pubiyiptf Wrale, ana of ike ncw€ Yk eaJied Utopia {Abraham f 
iSjf): m^>dern editions anc by J. Dibdin (j vqI*., tioS)» ProfeMor 
E. Arber (Ensliih Reprints, ifo^), by J. IL Luna by for the Pir( 
Press tlSjfj), by William Morris at the KelniKcolt Press (JS^jX by 
J, Churton Collins lor the Clartndon Press (IQ04). by R. Steele tor 
[he Ktri$;'s Cla*iTcs (i^), &Ch Olbcf transiUtioni ol Utt^pia am 
by Gilbert Burnet (i6Bj) and by A, Cay ley {Memptrt tif More, 
2 vols., 180s). Against Lnthcr and T^ndak Sir T. Morr wrote A 
Dyiiiifef of Syr Tk^mai Mpre, Kni„ written m 1538 and printed by 
John Riatcll in \%3qx Sit Tkctatu Matt*! Anntrt* io ih^ fynte partt 
of the Poynfft'd bttok . . . The Soup^f of iht Lotde (William Bandl, 
iMJ) with a "Second Parte" in 15,^3. The Apoloiyt of Syr 
fhn^n^w }r.->rr, written in 153:}, h a defence of his own polemical atyli 
ument of lierrtic* by ihc clergy, A Dyaltrgt of Cmpfml 
against Trihtdacion, printed by Rastell in 1533, was destined primarily 
for More's family. 

More's Enelish works were collected by William Rastell and 
published as The Worke of Sir Thomas More Knygki by Cawood, 
Waly and Tottel in 1557; his Latin works Thomae Mori . . . 
Lucubrationes were partially collected at Basel 1563 and in 1566 
(omnia opera) at Louvain ; a fuller edition drawn chiefly from these 
two appeared at Frankfort and Leipzig in 1689. Modem selections 
were edited by W. J. Walter (Baltimore. 1841), by T- E. Bridgctt 
(Wisdom and Wit of Blessed Thomas More, London, 1891). Hit 



:»iaica 
Ralph 

Nell, 



840 



MORLEY, G— MORLEY, JOHN 



Lords as Lord Morley in 1533. He was a man of literary attain- 
ments and translated some of the writings of Plutarch, Boccaccio, 
Petrarch, Seneca, Cicero and others into English. Most of these 
are only found in manuscript, but his Tryumphes of Frounces 
Petrarcke was published a second time in 1887. His eldest son 
Henry (d. 1553) died during his father's lifetime, leaving a son 
Henry (d. 1577) who became nth Baron Morley on his grand- 
father's death. His son Edward (d. 1618), one of the judges of 
Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded to the barony; and Edward's 
son and successor was William Parker, 4th Lord Monteagle {q.v.). 
The barony of Morley remained united with that of Monteagle 
until the death of William's grandson Thomas about z686, when 
it fell into abeyance. 

John Parker, xst earl of Morley (1772-1840), only son of John 
Parker (1735-1788), who was created Baron Borin^on in 1784, 
but was no relation of the previous barons Morley, was a promi- 
nent supporter of Pitt and of Canning. In 181 5 he was created 
earl of Morley. He was a public benefactor to Plymouth and its 
neighbourhood. He was succeeded by his son Edmund Henry 
Parker (1810-1864), whose son, Albert Edmund, the 3rd earl 
(1843-1905), was chairman of committees in the House of 
Lords from 1889 to 1905, after having been under-secretary for 
war and first commissioner of works. In 1905 his son, Edmund 
Robert (b. 1877), became 4th earL 

MORLEY, GEORGE (i 597-1684), English bishop, was bom 
in London and educated at Westminster and Oxford. In 1640 
he was presented to the sinecure living of Hartficid, Sussex, and 
in the following year he was made canon of Christ Church and 
exchanged to the rectory of Mildenhall, Wiltshire. He preached 
before the Commons in 1642, but his sermon gave offence, and 
when in 1647 he took a prominent part in resisting the parlia- 
mentary visitation of Oxford University he was deprived of his 
canonry and living. Leaving England he joined the court of 
Charles XL, and became one of the leading clergy at The Hague. 
Shortly before the Restoration he came to England on a highly 
successful mission to gain for Charles the support of the Pre^y- 
terians. In 1660 he regained his canonry, and soon became dean 
of Christ Church. In the same year he was consecrated bishop 
of Worcester. At the Savoy conference of 166 1 he was chief 
representative of the bishops. He was translated to the see of 
Winchester in 1662. His works are few and chiefly polemical, 
e.g. The Bishop oj Worcester's Letter to a friend for Vindication of 
himself from the Calumnies of Mr Richard Baxter (London, 
1662). 

MORLEY, HENRY (1822-1894). British man of letters, was 
bom in London on the 15th of September 1822. After unhappy 
experiences at English schools, he was sent to the Moravian 
school at Neuwicd, whose system strongly influenced his sub- 
sequent theories of education. It was intended that he should 
follow his father's profession of medicine, and in 1844 he bought 
a share in a practice at Madelcy, Shropshire. Plunged into debt 
by his partner's dishonesty, he set up a small school for young 
children at Liscard, near Liverpool. His principle was to 
abolish all punishment, to make his pupils regard their work as 
interesting instead of repellent, and to form their character by 
appealing exclusively to higher motives. This scheme, carried 
out with much ingenuity, proved a complete success. Mean- 
while he had devoted his spare time to writing. His contri- 
butions to magazines attracted the notice of Charles Dickens, on 
whose invitation in 1851 he settled in London as a regular 
contributor to Household Words. He was also on the staff of the 
Examiner, which he edited from 1861 to 1867. Meanwhile he 
had devoted much research to a life of Palissy the Potter (1852), 
which was at the same time a picture of life in medieval France. 
Encouraged by its favourable reception, he followed it up with 
lives of Jerome Cardan (1854) and Cornelius Agrippa (1856), and 
subsequently of Clement Marot (1870). His dramatic criticisms 
were reprinted in 1866 under the title of The Journal of a London 
Playgoer, 1851-1866. In 1857 he was appointed evening lecturer 
in English literature at King's College, and in 1865 became, in 
succession to David Masson, professor of English literature at 
University College, London. His First Sketch of English LiUra- 



ture (1873), a comprehensive and useful najitial, reached its 
34th thousand during the author's lifetime. He published ia 
1864 the first volume of a monumental history of F-nglt<h litera- 
ture entitled English Writers, which he eventually carried in 
eleven volumes down to the death of Shakespeare. He was 
indefatigable as a popularizer of good literattue. After editing 
a standard text of Addison's Spectator, he brought out a vast 
number of classics at low prices in Money's Universal Library, 
Cassell's National Library, and the Carisbrooke Library. His 
ready speech, retentive memory, earnest purpose, and brigltt 
style made him perhaps the most popular lecturer of his day. 
His teaching work at University College was marked by equal^ 
extraordinary success. In 1882 he accepted a post that made 
great calls on his time and energy — the prindpalship of Univer- 
sity HalL This institution was partly a place of residence for 
students of University College, and partly the home of Man- 
chester New College. During this time he rendered further 
services to the cause of education in London not only by his work 
on the council of University College, but by his advocacy ol a 
teaching um'versity for London. In 1889 he resigned the prin- 
cipalship of University Hall and his professorship at University 
College, and retired to Carisbrooke, Isle of Wight, intending to 
devote his lebure to the completion of the great task of his life, 
English Writers. But with his work only hall achieved he died 
on the 14th of May 1894. 

MORLEY [of Blackburn], JOHN MORLEY, Viscockt 
(1838- ), English statesman and author, was bora at Black- 
bum on the a4th of December 1838, being the son of Jonathan 
Morley, surgeon. He matriculated at Lincoln College, Oxford, 
in 1856, and after taking his degree in 1859 came up to Londoo 
with the determination of seeking distinction by literature. He 
almost immediately became editor of tlie moribund Literary 
Catette, which not all his ability could preserve from extinctkxi. 
Gradually, however, he became known as a philosopher and a 
Radical, and as one of the ablest and most incisive contribatca 
to the literary and political press of the day. His sympathies as 
a thinker seem to have been at this time chiefly with Pteitivisai, 
though he never embraced Comte's doctrine in its hierarchtcal 
aspects; but he acquired a reputation as an agnostic, which 
became confirmed in the popular mind when be somewhat 
aggressively spelt God in one of his essays with a small "g.** 
In z868 he was editor for a short time of the daily Momimg &er, 
which came to an end in 1870. In 1867 he succeeded G.H. 
Lewes in the editorship of the Fortnightly Kevs€W,mhkh be coa- 
ducted with brilliant success until 1883, when he was elected to 
parliament; he then assumed in exchange, but not for long, the 
h'ghter duties of the editorship of MacmUUui's Magaune. He 
had been connected with Messrs Macmillan since the commence- 
ment under his editorship, in 2878, of the "EngLsh Men of 
Letters " series, a collection of biographies of various merit, 
in which nothing is better than the editor's own contributioo ia 
his Life of Edmund Burke, itself an extension of his article in the 
9th edition of this encyclopaedia (1876). Since 1880 he had aho 
been editor of the Pail MM Gazette, which had been turned into a 
Liberal paper (see Newspapers). 

In 1883 Mr Morley, who had twice unsuccessfully attempted to 
enter parliament, was returned for Newcastle-upon-Tyne at a 
by-election. The prestige thus acquired led to his pitsidisg 
over a great Liberal congress at Leeds in the same year; and, 
although the platform never seemed his natural element, the 
literary finish of his style and the transparent honesty of lus 
reasoning rapidly gained him a prominent position in the Hoose 
of Commons. When, in February x886, Mr Gladstone returned 
to office as a Home Rulw.Mr Morley. who bad never beioie hdd 
any public appointment, fitted one ot the most important po^ 
in the cabinet as sect^uiY fo^ Ireland. He had always expresed 
his sympathy with \Vv-. \tv^ 'Sa^'^«>^*^\ movement. He^ » 
opinions to recauV >^^ Sses ^^ expU»^ away. He is cted^ 
^th an special ^^t Mr Gladstone m vKe m^- 



Home ] 



RulV a^A'^'^«»«. \« ;\vVV»viu» kept Wm ««* j. 



Irish from tV^^ V^V\sO^^J^^\»x»>^» •" ' 



928 



MOTOR VEHICLES 



gprockets on the ends of the differential shaft. to chain rings 
which are bolted to the rear road wheels. Figs. 27, 28 and 29 
show typical vehicles, ranging in load capacity from 30 cwt. to 
6 tons, on which the side-chain method of final drive is adopted. 
One of the chief advantages of the side-chain drive lies in the 
fact that there is, with it, less weight below the springs than with 
any other form of final drive. The only parts below the springs 
are: the fixed back axle; the chain rings (bolted to the road 
wheeb); the road wheek themselves; the road-wheel brakes and 
part of the weight of the chains. The differential gear and 
chain sprockets are carried in a countershaft casing, which is 
securely bolted to the main frame. 




FiG. 39.— A typical Six-ton Petrol Wagon Chassis, by Commercial 
Cars, Ltd., Luton. 

In a number of very successful vehicles the final drive is 
transmitted by means of spur pinions. These are mounted 
on the ends of bevel-driven differential shaft, and mesh with 
internally toothed or externally-toothed gear rings on the road 
wheels. Milnes-Daimler and De Dion conmiercial vehicles are 
amongst the machines on which the internally-toothed form of 
gear is employed, whilst Ryknield is the most representative 
vehicle embodying the externally-toothed form of final drive. 
I The direct drive, from the ends of the differential shaft, as 
is shown in fig. 30, is another type of final transmission that has 
met with a considerable amount of success, particularly on the 
Leyland machines of five-ton and six-ton capacity. The differen- 
tial gear and the bevel-drive reducing gear are both enclosed 
within a casing that is bolted to a fixed back axle; the ends of the 
driving shaft pass through tunnels in the axle body; and claw 
pieces on the outer ends of the differential shaft engage with 
similar claws on the road-wheel hubs. The two last-named 
forms of gear are highly efficient, provided the pitch and shape 
of the teeth are carefully considered and the designs provide 
for the encasing of all the pinions and gear rings. 




Fic. 30.— The Back Axle of the Leyland Six-ton Petrol Wagon. 
The only other type of final drive which is used to any great 
extent for commercial motors is that which employs a hardened 
and ground steel worm meshing with a machine-cut phosphor- 
bronze worm wheel which is bolted to the differential-gear cage 
of a live back axle. The employment of this type of gear for 
the final transmission on conunodal motors generally leads to 



(HEAVY 

increased efficiency, on account of the ease with which all the 
parts can be enclosed in an oil-tight casing. It also gives sOence 
of running. The strongest advocate of the worm drive for heavy 
vehicles is the Guildford manufacturer, Dennis Bros., Ltd., one 
of which company's machines is illustrated in fig. 31. Although 
there are many difficulties in the matter of the manufacture 
of worm gearing, they are not insurmountable, and, given 
proper attention at the hands of the designer, followed by 




Fig. 31. —A typical Worm-driven Live-axle Chassis, by 
Dennis Bros., Ltd., of Guildford. 

accurate workmanship, probably no other mechanical means 
of transmitting power can approach it for smooth and silent 
operation. Both thrust bearings on the worm shaft should 
be on one side of the worm, to avoid lack of truth in meshing 
if any heating occurs between the worm and the wheeL There 
are many examples of the worm drive to be found in London on 
public-service passenger vehicles, and also on delivery vans. 
One of the great charms of this type of transmission is thai 
a very large gear reduction may be obtained without making 
the worm wheel imduly large in diameter; this is an important 
factor in the design of a back axle, as every inch of road clearance 
te of value for <^)erating on rough country roads. As a large 
gear reduction is thus rendered possible on the back axle, it will 
readily be understood that the change-speed gear-box may be 
made considerably smaller than would be necessary for a bevel- 
driven live axle, where a Urge gear reduction is not permissible, 
both on account of its size and because such a gear would be 
very noisy in its working. 




Fig. 32.— The Hallford-Stevens Petrol-cfcctrjc Chassis. 
Although the use of tooth wheeb is still the only practical 
method of obtaining variable transmission for motor yehic/o, 
the fundamental defects of transmission in this way are inherent 
to the system and must always be present; they are now ka 
apparent, iVianks to the remarkable improvement ^^^ 
taken place Va \iifc ^ <^ l^V^ye materials and unproved design 



938 



MOUNTAINEERING 



able to hold up one of their number (except the top man) if one 
only moves at a time and the others are firmly placed and keep 
the rope tight between them, so that a falling individual may be 
arrested before his velocity has been accelerated. In very 
difficult places help may be obtained by throwing a loose rope 
round a projection above and pulling on it; this method is 
specially valuable in a difhcult descent. The rope usually 
employed is a strong Manila cord called Alpine Club rope, but 
some prefer a thinner rope used double. On rotten rocks the 
rope must be handled with special care, lest it should start 
loose stones on to the heads of those below. Similar care must 
be given to handholds and footholds, for the same reason. 
When a horizontal traverse has to be made across very difficult 
rocks, a dangerous situation may arise unless at both ends of the 
traverse there be firm positions. Even then the end men gain 
little from the rope. Mutual assistance on hard rocks takes all 
manner of forms: two, or even three, men climbing on one 
another's shoulders, or using for foothold an ice-axe propped up 
by others. The great principle is that of co-operation, all the 
members of the party climbing with reference to the others, 
and not as independent units; each when moving must know 
what the man in front and the man behind are doing. After 
bad weather steep rocks are often found covered with a veneer 
of ice {verglas), which may even render them inaccessible. 
Climbing-irons (crampons, steigeisen) are useful on such 
occasions. 

Ice Slopes. — Climbing-irons are also most useful on ice or hard 
snow, as by them step-cutting can sometimes be avoided, and 
the footing at all times rendered more secure. True ice slopes 
are rare in Europe, though common in tropical mountains, 
where newly-fallen snow quickly thaws on the surface and 
becomes sodden below, so that the next night's frost turns the 
whole into a mass of solid ice.. An ice slope can only be sur- 
mounted by step-cutting. For this an ice-axe is needed, the 
common form being a small pick-axe on the end of a pole as long 
as from the elbow of a man to the ground. This pole is used 
also as a walking-stick, and is furnished with a spike at the foot. 

Snow Slopes are very common, ard usually easy to ascend. 
At the foot of a snow or ice slope is generally a big crevasse, 
called a bergschrund, where the final slope of the moimtain rises 
from a snow-field or glacier. Such bergschrunds are generally 
too wide to be strided, and must be crossed by a snow bridge, 
which needs careful testing and a painstaking use of the rope. A 
steep snow slope in bad condition may be dangerous, as the 
whole body of snow may start as an avalanche. Such slopes 
are less dangerous if ascended directly than obliquely, for an 
oblique or horizontal track cuts them across and facilitates 
movement of the mass. New snow lying on ice is specially 
dangerous. Experience is needful for deciding on the advis- 
ability of advancing over snow in doubtful condition. Snow on 
rocks is usually rotten unless it be thick; snow on snow is likely 
to be soirnd. A day or two of fine weather will usually bring 
new snow into sound condition. Snow cannot lie at a very 
steep angle, though it often deceives the eye as to its slope. 
Snow slopes seldom exceed 40*. Ice slopes may be much 
steeper. Snow slopes in early morning are usually hard and 
safe, but the same in the afternoon are quite soft and possibly 
dangerous; hence the advantage of an early start. 

Crevasses. — These are the slits or deep chasms formed in the 
substance of a glacier as it passes over an uneven bed. They 
may be open or hidden. In the lower part of a glacier the 
crevasses are open. Above the snow-line they are frequently 
hidden by arched-over accumulations of winter snow. The 
detection of hidden crevasses requires care and experience. 
After a fresh fall of snow they can only be detected by sounding 
with the pole of the ice-axe, or by looking to right and left 
where the open extension of a partially hidden crevasse may be 
obvious. The safeguard against accident is the rope, and no 
one should ever cross a snow-covered glacier unless roped to one, 
or better to two, companions. 

Weather. — The main group of dangers caused by bad weather 
centre round the change it eilects in the condition of snow and 



rock, making ascents suddenly perilous which before were easy, 
and so altering the aspect of things as to make it hard to find 
the way or retrace a route. In storm the man who is wont to 
rely on a compass has great advantage over a merely empirical 
follower of his eyes. In large snow-fields it is, of course, easier 
to go wrong than on rocks, but a trained intelligence is the best 
companion and the surest guide. 

History. — The first recorded mountain ascent after Old 
Testament times is Trajan's ascent of Etna to see the sun rise. 
The Roche Melon (i 1,600 ft.) was climbed in 1358. Peter IIL of 
Aragon climbed Canigou in the Pyrenees in the last quarter of 
the X3th century. In 1339 Petrarch climbed Mt Ventou 
near Vauduse. In 1492 the ascent of Mt Aiguille was made 
by order of Charles VIII. of France. The Humanists of the i6th 
century adopted a new attitude towards mountains, but 
the disturbed state of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent 
mountaineering of the Zarich school. Leonardo da Vinci 
climbed to a snow-field in the neighbourhood of the Val Sesia 
and made scientific observations. Konrad Gesner and Jostas 
Simler of Zurich visited and described mountains, and made 
regular ascents. The use of axe and rope were locally invented 
at this time. No mountain expeditions of note are recorded 
in the 17th century. In 1744 the Tit^s was climbed — the first 
true snow-mouniain. Pococke and Windham's historic visit 
to Chamonix was made in 1741, and set the fashion of visiting 
the glaciers. The first attempt to ascend Mont Blanc «as 
made in 1 7 7 5 by a party of natives. In x 786 Dr l^lichel Paccard 
and Jacques Balmat gained the summit for the first time. De 
Saussure followed next year. The Jungf rau was climbed ini Si i , 
the Finsteraarhom in i8z3, and the Zermatt Breithom in x8ij. 
Thenceforward tourists showed a tendency to climb, and the 
body of Alpine guides began to come into existence in coa- 
sequence. Systematic moimtaineering, as a sport, is usually 
dated from Sir Alfred Wills's ascent of the Wetterhom in 1854. 
The first ascent of Monte Rosa was made in 1855. The Alpine 
Club was founded in London in 1857, and soon imitated in 
most European countries. Edward Whymper's ascent of the 
Matterhom in 1865 marks the close of the main poiod of 
Alpine conquest, during which the craft of climbing was in- 
vented and perfected, the body of professional guida formed 
and their traditions fixed. Passing to other ranges, the ex« 
ploration of the Pyrenees was concurrent with that of the Alps. 
The Caucasus followed, mainly owing to the initiative of D.W. 
Freshfield; it was first visited by exploring climbers in x86S, 
and most of its great peaks were climbed by 1888. Trained 
climbers turned their attention to the mountains of Nonh 
America in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made an expeditioa 
to the Selkirks. From that time exploration has gone oa 
apace, and many English and American climbing parties have 
surveyed most of the]bighest groups of snow-peaks; Pike's Peak 
(14,147 ft.) having been climbed by Mr E. James and party ia 
1820, and Mt Saint Elias (18,024 ft.) by the duke of the Abnua 
and party in 1897. The exploration of the highest Andes was 
begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Chimborazo and 
explored the mountains of Ecuador. The CordiOera betweea 
Chile and Argentina was attacked by Dr GOssfeldt in xSSj, 
who ascended Maipo (17,752 ft.) and attempted Aconcagua 
(23f393 ft.). That peak was first climbed by the Fitzgerald 
expedition in 1897. The Andes of Bolivia were explored by 
Sir Martin Conway in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions 
revealed the structure of the southern Cordillera in the yean 
1885-1898. Sir Martin Conway visited the mountains of Tierra 
del Fuego in 1898. The Alps of New Zealand were first atucked 
in X882 by the Rev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a 
New Zealand Alpine Qub was founded, and by their acU\-ities 
the exploration of the range was pushed forward. In x8qs 
Mr E. A. Fitzgerald made an important journey m this range. 
Of the high African peaks, KUimar jaro was climbed m 1889 by 
Dr Hans Meyer, Mt Wa in i88g by J. E. S. Mackmder. and a 

Lts^^^Hl^^^^^ 



944 



MOUSE-BIRD— MOUTH 



MOUSE-BIRD (Du. Mvistogdi, the name by which in 
Cape G>lony and Natal the members of the genus Colim of 
M. J. Brisson are known— probably from their singular habit 
of creeping along the boughs of trees with the whole tarsus 
applied to the branch. By the earlier systematists, Colius 
was placed among the FringiUidae; but the investigations of 
J. Murie and A. H. Garrod on its internal structure showed that 
it was not a true Passerine, and it is now placed in a separate 
family, Coliidae, amongst Coradiform birds, near the trogons 
and swifts ig.v.). The Coliidae are small birds, with a rather 




Mouse-Bird, 



finch-like bill, a more or less crested head, a very long tail, and 
generally of a dun or slate-coloured plumage that sometimes 
brightens into, blue or is pleasingly diversiSed with white or 
chestnut. They feed almost wholly on fruits, but occasionally 
take insects, in quest of which they pass in bands of fifteen or 
twenty from tree to tree. Seven species are believed to exist, 
all belonging to the Ethiopian region (of which the Family is 
one of the most characteristic), and ranging from Abyssinia 
southwards. Three species inhabit Cape Colony. (A N.) 

MOUSSORGSKY, MODESTE PETROVICH (1835-1881), 
Russian composer, was bom at Karcvo, government of Pskov, 
in March 1835, and entered the army at an early age. He came 
of a musical family, and was himself a talented amateur, and 
an acquaintance with Balakirev and Dargomijsky led him to 
more serious study of composition, so that in 1857 he left the 
army and devoted himself to music, though thb step entailed 
his earning his living as a government clerk and a prolonged 
period of poverty. His greatest opera, Boris Codounov, based 
on Pushkin's drama, was produced in St Petersburg in 1874, 
and on it his reputation stands as one of the finest creative 
composers in the ranks of the modem Russian school. He also 
wrote a number of songs and orchestral works, of a realistic 
national type. In later life he suffered much from ill-health, 
and died in St Petersburg on the 1 6th (28th) of March 1881. 

MOUSTACHE, or Mustachio, the hair worn unshaven on 
the upper lip (see Beard). The spelling " moustache," now 
the most common in English usage, is the French form of Ital. 
mustachio, an adaptation of a Doric dialectical nvcra^, upper lip, 
also hair on the lip; this is generally taken to be a variant 
of /xdaraf, jaws, mouth, connected with ti&aacBtu. to chew; 
cf. " mastic." chewing-gum, and " masticate," to chew. 

MOUSTERIAN, the name given by the French anthropologist 
C. de Mortillet to the second epoch of the (Quaternary Age, and 
to the earliest in his system of cave-chronology. It is so named 
from a cave (Le Moustier), on the right bank of the Viztrt, an 
a£9uent of the Dordogne. above Les Eyzies and Tayac. which 
has yielded typical palaeolithic implements. The epoch was 
duractemed by cold wet dimaU^ t^y the supposed existence 



of Man of the Olom type, that is, nearly as dolicbocephaloos as 
the Neanderthal type, but with superciliary ridges flat, and . 
frontal bones high, and by the occurrence of the musk-ox, the 
horse, the cave-bear. Rhinoceros Hckorhinus and the mammoth. 
The typical implements are flint points or spear-beads, left 
smooth and flat on one side, as struck from the cave, pointed 
and edged from the other side; a scraper treated in the suae 
way, but with edge rather upon the side than at the end, as in 
the succeeding Solutrian and Madelenian epochs. Relics ol 
the Mousterian age have been also found in Belgium, southern 
Germany, Bohemia and southern England, some of the ** finds " 
including human remains. 

MOUTH AND 8AUVARY GLANDS. The mouth (AS. 
mliO), in anatomy, is an oval cavity at tfafe beginning of the 
alimentary canal in which the food is masticated. The opening 
is situated between the lips, and at rest its width reaches to 
the first premolar tooth on each side. 

The lips (A.S. lippd) are fleshy folds, surrounding the opening 
of the mouth, and are formed, from without inward, by skio, 
superficial fasda, orbicuUris oris muscle, submucous tissue, 
containing numerous labial glands about the size of a small pea, 
and mucous membrane. In the deeper part of each lip lies the 
coronary artery, while in the mid-line is a reflection of the 
mucous membrane on to the gum forming the fraenum labii. 

The cheeks (A.S. Uace) form the sides of the mouth and are 
continuous with the lips, with which their structure is almost 
identical save that the buccinator muscle replaces the orbicularis 
oris and the buccal glands the labiaL In the subcutaneous 
fascia is a distinct mass of. fat, specially lazige in the infant, 
which is known as the sucking pad. On the bottal surface of 
the cheek, opposite the second upper molar tooth, is the papilla 
which marks the opening of the parotid duct, while, just behind, 
are four or five molar glands, krger than tbe buccal, the ducts 
of which open opposite the last molar tooth. The mucous 
menibrane of the cheek, like that of the rest of the mouth, is of 
the stratified squamous variety (see Epitheual Tissues) and 
is reflected on to the gums. 

The gums (A.S. gfinui) consist of mucous membrane connected 
by thick fibrous tissue to the periosteum of the jaws. Rouod 
the base of the. crown of each tooth the membrano rises up into 
a little coUar. 

The vestibule of the mouth b the q>ace between the lips and 
cheeks superficially and the gums and teeth deeply. It commu- 
nicates with the true cavity of the mouth by the dcfu betwteo 
the teeth and by the space behind the last molar teeth. 

The roof of the mouth is concave transversely and antcro- 
posteriorly, and is formed by the hard and soft palate. The hard 
palate consists of mucous membrane continuous with that of 
the gums and bound to the periosteum of the palatine processes 
of the maxillae and palate bones by firm fibrous tissue. In the 
mid-line is a slight ridge, the palatine raphe, which ends ia 
front in a little eminence called the palatine papilla, marking 
the position of the anterior palatine canaL Frmn tl^ anteria 
part of the raphe five or six transverse ridges or rugae of the 
mucous membrane run outward. (For a descripiioo of the soft 
palate see Pbakynx.) 

The floor of the moi-th can only be seen when tbe tongue is 
raised, then the reflection of the mucous membrane from the 
gums to it is exposed. In the mid-line is a prominent fold 
called the fraenum linguae, and gn each side of this a suUiugaa 
papilla, on to the summit of which the duct of the submaxillary 
gland opens. Running outward and backward from this is a 
ridge called the plica sublingualis^ which marks the upper edge 
of the sublingual gland, and on to which most of the duels of 
that gland open. (For a description of the Toncue and ibe 
Teeth see spedal articles on those structures.) 

The saUvary glands are the parotid, submaxillary unA n^ 
lingual, though the small scattered ^nds such as the UbiaL 
buccal, molar. Ungual, &c., probably have a swiilar funcuon. 

.laT^^ ^"jVi i^^ (Cr..^b^^.*S\^'iS^^^ 



95° 



MOZART 



In October 1770 Wolfgang and his father returned to Milan 
for the completion and production of the new opera. The 
libretto, entitled MUridaic, Re di Panto, was furnished by an 
obscure poet from Turin, to the great disappointment of the 
young maestro, who had hoped to set a drama by Metastasio. 
The progress of the work was interrupted from time to time 
by the miserable intrigues which seem inseparable from the lyric 
stage, exacerbated in this particidar case by the jealousy of the 
resident professors, who refused to believe either that an Italian 
opera could be written by a native of Germany, or that a boy of 
fourteen could manage the orchestra of La Scala, at that time 
the largest in Europe. Fortunately the detractors were effec- 
tively silenced at the first full rehearsal; and on the 36th of 
December Wolfgang took his seat at the harpsichord and directed 
his work- amidst a storm of genuine applause. The success of 
the piece was unprecedented. It had a continuous rim of 
twenty nights, and delighted even the most captious critics. 

Wolfgang's triumph was now complete. ' AJfter playing with 
hb usual success in Turin, Verona, Venice, {*adua and other 
Italian cities, he returned with his father to Salzburg in March 
1771, commissioned to compose a grand dramatic serenata for 
the approaching marriage of the archduke Ferdinand, and an 
opera for La Scala, to be performed during the season of 1773. 
The wedding took place at Milan on the 21st of October; and 
the serenata, Ascanio in Alba, was produced with an effect which 
completely eclipsed the new opera of Hasse, Ruggiero, composed 
for the same festivity. Hasse generously* uttered the often- 
quoted prophecy, "This boy will cause us all to be- forgotten."* 

During the absence of Wolfgang and his father the good 
archbishop of Salzburg died; and in the spring of the year 1772 
Hieronymus, count of Colloredo, was elected in his stead, to 
the horror of all who were acquainted with his real character. 
The Mo?art family did their best to propitiate their new lord, 
for whose installation Wolfgang, after his xetum from Milan, 
composed an opera, // Sogno di Scipume; but th^ newly-elected 
prelate had no t^te for art, and was utterly incapable of appre- 
ciating the charm of any intellectual pursuit whatever. For 
a time, however, things went on smoothly. In October 
the father and son once more visited Milan for the preparation 
and production of the new opera, Lucio Silla, which was produced 
at Christmas with a success quite equal to that of if i/r^o/f, and 
ran.between twenty and thirty nights. 

In the meantime Wolfgang continued to produce new works 
with incredible rapidity. In 1775 he composed an opera for 
Munich, La Fitita giardinicra, produced on the 13th of January. 
In the following March he set to music Metastasio's dramatic 
cantata, // Re pastore. Concertos, masses, symphonies, sonatas 
and other important works, both vocal and- instrumental, 
followed each other without a pause. And this fertility of 
invention, instead of exhausting his genius, seemed only to 
stimulate it to still more indefatigable exertions.. But the 
pecuniary return was so inconsiderable that in 17 77. Leopold 
Mozart asked the archbishop for leave of absence for the purpose 
of making a professional tour. This was refused on the ground 
of the prelate's dislike to " that system of begging." Wolfgang 
then requested permission to resign his appointment, which was 
only an honorary one, for the purpose of making the tour with 
his mother. The archbishop was furious; but the plan was 
carried out at last, and on the 23rd of September the mother 
and son started for Munich. The results were not encouraging. 
Leopold hoped that his son, now twenty-one years old, might 
obtain some profitable court appointment; but in this he was 
disappointed. And, worse still, poor Wolfgang fell in love at 
Mannheim with Aloysia Weber, a promising young vocalist, 
whose father, the prompter of the theatre (uncle of the great 
composer Weber), was very nearly penniless. On hearing of this 
Leopold ordered his wife and son to start instantly for Paris, 
where they arrived on the 23rd of March 1778. VVolfgang's 
usual success, however, seemed on this occasion to have deserted 
him. His reception was a cold one; and, to add to his misery, 
his mother fell seriously ill and died on the 3rd of July. Reduced 
« •• Qutsto ragasao cifard dimenlicar tuUL" 



almost to despair by this new trouble, he left Paris in September, 
rested for a while on his way home in Mannheim and Munich, 
was received by Aloysia Weber with coldness almost amounting 
to contempt, and in June 1779 returned to Salzburg, hoping 1 
against hope that he might make some belter terms with the ' 
archbishop, who relented so far as to attach a salary of 500 
florins (about £50) to his " concertmeister's " appointment, 
with leave of absence in case lie should be engaged to write an 
opera elsewhere. 

Two years later the desired opportunity presented itself. 
He was engaged to compose an opera for Mimich for the carnival 
of 'X78X. The libretto was furnished by the abbate Varesco, 
court chaplain at Salzburg. On the 29th of January 1781 the 
work was produced under the title of Idomenec, re di Crete, 
with triumphant success, and thenceforth Mozan*s position as 
an artist was assured; for this was not only the finest work he 
had ever written but incontestably the finest opera that had 
ever yet been placed upon the stage in any age or country. 

And now the archbishop's character ^chibited itself in iu 
true colours. Art for its own sake he utterly disdained; but it 
flattered his vanity to retain a famous artist in his service with 
the power of insulting him at wilL On hearing of the success 
of Idomenco he instantly summoned the composer to Vienna, 
where he was spending the season. Mozart lost not a momeat 
in presenting himself, but he soon found his position intolerable: 
That he should be condemned to dine with his patron's servants 
was the fault of the age, but the open disrespect with which 
the lowest menials treated him was due to the archbisbop's 
example. His salary was reduced from 500 to 400 florins, he 
was left to pay his own travelling expenses, and he was not 
permitted to add to his means by giving a concert on he own 
account or to play anywhere but at the archiepiscopal palac& 
Archbishop Hieronymus was hated at court, and most of all by 
the emperor Joseph, who, on retiring to Laxenburg for the 
sununer, did not place his name on the list of invited quests. 
This offended him so deeply that he left Vienna in disgust. The 
household were sent on to Salzburg, but Moxart was left to 
find lodgings at his own expense. Thereupon he sent in his 
resignation; and for this act of contumacy was insulted by the 
archbishop in terms too vulgar for translation. He persevered, 
however, in his resolution, taking lodgings in a bottse rented by 
his old friends the Webers, and vainly hoping for pu(nls. since 
Vienna at this season was perfectly empty. Happily he had 
a sincere though not a generous well-wisher in the emperor, 
and a firm friend in the ardiduke Maximilian. By the emperor's 
command he wrote a German opera. Die Entfukrung ans dm 
Serail, which on the i6th of July 1782 was received with acdanu- 
tion, and not long afterwards was performed with equal success 
at Prague. This great work raised the national *' Singq)ici " 
to a level conunensurate with that which Idametuo had already 
attained for the Italian "opera seria." 

The next great event in Mozart's life was not what one would 
have wished for him. Though Aloysia Weber had kMig since 
rejected him, his renewed intinmcy with the family led to as 
imprudent marriage with her younger sbtec, Constance, a 
woman neither his equal in intdlect nor his superior in prudence. 
The wedding took place at St Stephen's on the x6th of August 
X782. By the end of the year the thriftless pair were deejay is 
debt. Mozart composed incessantly, played at numbetkss 
concerts, and was in greater favour than ever at court and with 
the nobility; but to the last day of his life his purse was empty. 
He had, however, many kind friends, not the least affectionate 
of whom was the veteran Haydn, who was sincerely attached 
to him. With Cluck he was on terms of courteous intercourse 
only. Salieri detested him, and made no secret of hb «fislike. 

Mozart's next dramatic venture was a German smgspidin one 
act, Der Schauspieldirektcr, produced at Schdnbrunn, onthe -ij 
of February 1786. Not quite three months later. «»»^ *^^ 
May, he produced hi, JyeUous U ^^^^^^'^'^^ih^aK 
for whidi was ad^pt^ from ^^^'J^^^''^^^^ 



952 



MOZART 



known; and only a serious opera on a classical subject could 
furnish occasion for Gluck's phraseology and range of feeling to 
appear at all. How profoundly and independently Mozart seizes 
Gluck's method and style may best be seen by comparing the 
oracle scenes in Idomeneo and AlcesU. In the management of 
the chorus, however, Mozart has, as was to be expected, 
incomparably the advantage. He has all, or rather more than 
all, Gluck's power for portraying panic and managing, by the 
motion of his music, the flight of a crowd; but he also has an 
inexhaustible harmonic and contrapuntal invention which lay 
beyond Gluck's scope. 

The problems of comic opera presented a far more fruitful field. 
In Z>»e£ii//fiArfi»; he speedily showed a dramatic grasp for which 
opera teria^ in spite of all the influence of Gluck, gave him no 
scope. He had a wonderful feeling for character, and did not 
imagine, like many French and other disseminators of musical* 
dramatic ideas (including, in moments of weakness, even Gluck 
himself), that the expression of character in music was a mere 
matter of harping on special types of phrase. His melodic 
invention was dearly and subtly characteristic without man- 
nerism. It is of hardly minor importance that his own literary 
sense was far higher than that of many a writer of ostensibly 
superior general culture; and that Osmin, the most living figure 
in Die EntfUhrung, is Mozart's creation, words and all. 

After Die EnifUkrungt Mozart's record is a series of master- 
fueces, accompanied, but not interrupted, by a running commen- 
tary of piices d' occasion. With rare exceptions, everything he 
writes illustrates the perfect solution of an art-problem, and he 
often achieves an artistic triumph with the most eccentric 
materials. The modem organist can find since Bach no grander 
piece in his repertory than the two fantasias which Mozart wrote 
for the barrel of a musical clock. Shortly before his death he 
wrote a beautiful adagio and rondo for the glass harmonica, to 
which he devised the curious but eminently natural accompani- 
ment of flute, oboe, viola and violoncello. And when at an 
earlier period it occurred to him to write some processional music 
for two flutes, five trumpets and four drums, the result, although 
not artistically important, might well have seemed to indicate 
long experience in handling the combination. His work in the 
larger instrumental forms is further discussed in the articles 
Sonata Forhs and Instsuxentatign. While Mozart's treat- 
ment of form has often been attacked as conventional, and his 
range of thought despised as childish, his instrumentation and 
general sense of euphony are at the present day more un- 
reservedly admired by the most progressive propagandists than 
an3rthing else in classical art. 

Mozart's later operas, from Figaro onwards, represent the 
nearest approach to a perfect art-form attainable in pre- Wagner- 
ian opera. What he might have attained in serious opera had 
he been spared to see the solemn triumphs the French operatic 
stage realized in the austere sincerity of Cherubini and M6hul 
it is impossible to guess. But we cannot doubt that a Mozart 
of yet riper experience than we have known would have given 
tragic opera a history in which Fidelio did not stand in lonely 
splendour. For Mozart, however, serious opera was an Italian 
art form, only temporarily rescued from the tyranny ql bravura 
singers by Gluck. After Idomeneo he handled it only once, at 
the very close of his career, and then, as if to seal its fate, in a 
piiee d'occasion with an impossibly dull and unsympathetic 
libretto {La Clemenza di Tito). For comedy, however, his 
harmonic and rhythmic range was perfectly adapted; and in 
Figaro he had the advantage of a libretto which was already a 
finished literary product of consummate stagecraft before it 
ever became an opera. The perpetual surprises of its absurdly 
complex intrigues impose no real strain, for no one attempts to 
follow them; but they keep every character on the stage in a 
state of excitement which is so heightened an<f differentiated by 
the music that, while Beaumarchais's Manage de Figaro has its 
modest but definite place in literature, Mozart's Figaro is, with 
allitslightnessof touch, one of the most ideal classics in all art. 
The subject is not edifying; but Mozart does not analyse it from 
that point of view. His characters are irrea^ponsible, mischievous 



and fairy-like. Theirs is the world described by Lamb~" the 
Utopia of gallantry, where pleasure is duty and the manners 
perfect freedom." 

In Don Gunanni the matter is less clear. Mozart rose, not 
only in the music of the ghostly statue, but also in the music <rf 
Donna Anna and Donna Elvira, to heights that can only be called 
sublime; yet he never lost sight of the true methods of that 
comedy of gallantry to which Don Giovanni stands in some sense 
as a grotesque tragic finale. It is the business of an artistic 
intellect to grasp the artistic possibility of a world in which the 
" Utopia of gallantry " is at war with a full-blooded and indpi- 
ehtly moral humxmity until the critical moment determines, not 
the breaking up of the artistic unity, but the right conclusion of 
the story. If it is absurd to treat Donna Anna and Donna Elvira 
as Wagnerian heroines, and so to complain of the inadequacy and 
conventionality of much of their utterances and attitudes; so, 
also, is it no less absurd to regard them as *' secretly raihcr 
gratified than otherwise to be on Don Giovanni's list." Donna 
Elvira has suffered more cruelly from stolidly tragic singers and 
no less stolidly flippant critics than she ever suffered from Don 
Giovanni himself. She comes upon the stage expressing herself 
in thoroughly conventional music, and we are told that the 
formulas of Italian opera are inadequate for the exprcssioa of 
her sorrows. Look at the sforxando in the second violins at the 
words Ak se ritrovo Vempio. Mozart is depicu'ng a young girl 
facing a position she does not in the least understand; expressing 
herself in stereotyped phrases as much from inexperience of their 
meaning as from lack of anything that may better say what she 
really feels. What Mozart's music with exquisite humour and 
simplicity expresses is as yet nothing more serious than the iri«h 
to scratch Don Giovanni's eyes out; as soon as his character is 
revealed to her in Leporello's comic aria of the " catak^ue," she 
determines that others at all events shall not suffer as she has 
suffered; and from that moment her character steadily develops 
in seriousness and dignity. She is not all strength, and Don 
Giovanni fools her to the top of her bent ; but nevenhf - is Alzart 
realizes, on hints of which the librettist was hardly aJVisci^is, a 
consistent scheme of development as dramatic as it b in Jcreping 
with the most sublime possibilities of comic opera. Yet it is a 
common practice to insert Elvira's last confession of weakness, 
the aria Mi tradi^ immediately after Leporello's catalogue 
arial Perhaps the first place where an intelligent tradition of 
Mozart as a comic genius of the highest type iias been restored is 
Munich, where the standard set under the conductorship of 
Richard Strauss will not soon be forgotten. 

In Cost fan tuUe Mozart's struggles with an absurd libretto 
show even clearer evidence of the accuracy and power of ha 
genius than when he is working under conditions where success 
is possible. Space forbids our dwelling further on this subject, 
nor can we do more than glance at his last great opera, Dit 
Zauberfldte. Beethoven thought it his greatest work, for ibe 
simple literal-minded sincerity with which Beethoven regarded 
the question of operatic h'bretto made Figaro frivolous and Dim 
Gunanni scandalous in his sight. Mozart's very serious inieret 
in freemasonry, which in its solemn ritual furnished an edjf>->g 
contrast to the frivoUty and uncongeniality of the existing siaie of 
church music, inspired him with the most sutdimc ideas hiiberto 
brought upon the operatic sUgc He was further stimulated ^ 
the feeling that freemasonry was to some extent a persecuted 
institution; and the circumstance that his librettist was a duliul 
stage manager secured for him that variety of action and eflect- 
Iveness of entry and exit, compared with which an intclbgiWe 
plot b of almost negligible importance as a source of insptratwn 
to the classical composer, or even as a means of retaining popular 
favour. Thus Du Zauberflifte is an achievement unique in opera; 
combining as it does the farcical Kf ^K^ousness ofa pan^mm»e 
with the «)lemnity of a ritual and the convcmpoiary mtercsi oC a 

'^ th^I^iemnity ,, ^nic ^^^^^^^^r^^ 
Uiat most ^thetic ol unfa^e^ f ""jS^^e ««»^ *^^^"*' "^ 



perfect chuidi 



956 



MUGGLETON— MUHLENBERG, J. P. G. 



he has no scope for free interpretation; everything is fixed there, 
and he must follow the precedents of the elders. In Turkey 
there is a chief mufti, called the Sheikh al-Isl&m, whose office 
was created by the Ottoman sultan, Mahommed II., in 2453, 
after the capture of Constantinople. He is, in a sense, the head 
of the ecclesiastical side of the State, that controlled by canon 
law; while the grand vizier is at the head of secular matters. 
Although his powers are delegated by the sultan-caliph, and he is 
appointed and can be dismissed by him, yet in his fatwft-issuing 
power he is independent. The sultan may dismiss him before 
heiias a chance to issue a fatwi; but if he once issues it the result 
is legally automatic, even though it means the deposition of the 
sultan himself. Thus it was by a fatwft of the Sheikh al-Isl&m 
that the sultan Abdul Hamid was deposed. 

See Juynboll, De inahammedaaHsckt Wet., 40 iqq.; De Slane's 
Irana. of Ibn KhaldOn's Proliiomhus, I. IxxvuL 447 aeq.; Turkey 
in Europe, by "Odysseus," 131 aeq.; Young, Corps de droit ottoman, 

MUOOLETOH, LODOWICKE (X609-X698), English sectarian, 
was bom in Bishopsgate Street, London. His father was a 
larrier, but he himself was bred to be a tailor. In 1651 he began 
to have revelations, and to proclaim himself and his cousin John 
Reeve, whose journeyman he was, as the two witnesses mentioned 
in Rev. zi. 3. In 165a they put out their " commission book " 
under the title The Transcendent SpirUuaU Treatise. An 
exposition of their doctrines was published in 1656 under the 
title of The Divine Looking-Glass. Among other views G>esides 
the doctrine of the divine mission of the authors} this work taught 
that the distinction of the three persons in the Trinity is merely 
nominal, that God has a real human body, and that He left 
Elijah as His vicegerent in heaven when He Himself descended 
to die on the cross. Muggleton's opinions gained some notable 
adherents, but also called forth much opposition. In 1653 he 
was imprisoned for blasphemy, and twice (<66o and 1670) his 
own followers temporarily repudiated him. His attack on the 
Quakers drew forth William Penn's book, The New Witnesses 
proved old Heretics (167a). In 1677 Muggleton was tried at the 
Old Bailey, convicted of blasphemy, and fined £500. Reeve died 
in 2658, but Muggleton survived till 1698. 

His collected works, including the posthumous i4d!t of the Witnesses, 
were published in 1756; and in 183a some sixty Muesletonians 
subscribed to bring out a new edition of The Works of jTReeve and 
L. Jiiuuleton (in 3 vols. 4to). Even as late as 1846 The Divine 
Loohing-dass was reprinted t^ mcntbers of the then almost extinct 
sect. See A. Jeseopp, The Comini of the Friars (1888}. 

MUOWUMP, in American political slang, a name applied to 
any independent voter, and especially to those independents in 
the Republican party who refused to support James G. Blaine, 
when nominated by that party for the presidency in 1884; as 
since adopted in England it usually means one who stays neutral 
and votes for no party. Originally " mugwump " {mogkiomp) 
was a North American Indian word, in the* Massachtisett dialect 
of the Algonquian, meaning " great man " {mcgki, great; omp, 
man); and in New England it was used of self -conceited 
politidans. 

HUH AMRAH (Mohaiocebah) , a town of Persia, in the province 
of Arabistan, in 30** 26' N., 48^ zi' E., on the Hafar canal, 
which joins the Karun with the Shatt el Arab, and flows into the 
latter 40 m. above its mouth at Fao and about 20 m. below 
Basra. It has post and telegraph offices, and a population of 
about 5000. With the opening of the Karun river, as far as 
Ahvaz, to international navigation in 1889, Muhamraih acquired 
greater importance, and its customs, which until then were leased 
to the governor for £1 500 per annum, rose considerably, and paid 
£8000 until taken over by the central customs department under 
Belgian officials in 1902. It is estimated that the value of the 
imports and exports into and from Muhamrah, excluding specie, 
is about £300,000 per annum, paying customs amounting to 
about £18,000. Until 1847, when it defmitcly became Persian 
territory in accordance with art. ii. of the treaty of Erzerum, 
Muhamrah was alternately claimed and occupied by Persia and 
Turkey, its ruler, an Arab sheikh, helping cither power as he 
found it convenient. Since then the governor of the town and 



adjoim'ng district has been a sheikh of the K'ab or Chaab Araba, 
a powerful tribe of the Shi'ah branch of Islam. At the ckise of 
the Anglo-Persian campaign in 1857 Muhamrah was taken by a 
British force. 

MOHLBBRO, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the 
left bank of the Elbe, 8 m. below Riesa. Pop. (1905), 3380. 
It carries on a considerable trade by water in timber and com. 
MOhlberg is famous for the victory gained here, on the 24th of 
April X 547, by the emperor Oiarles V. over the elector of Saj»ny, 
John Frederick. 

See Lens. Die ScUacht hei inhOerg (Gotha. 1879); and Bcrtxam. 
Chronih der Stadt MOhlberg (Torgau. 1864). 

HUHLBHBERO, HBHRT MBLCHIOR (Z7XX-X787), German- 
American Lutheran clergyman, was bom in Einbedc, Hanover, 
on the 6th of September X7xx. When he was twelve years old 
his father, a member of the dty council, di^ The son entered 
the xmiversity of G<Sttingen in 1735, and his work among the 
poor of G<Sttingen led to the esUblishment of the present orphan 
house there. In X738 he went to Halle to finish his theobgical 
studies; he was a devoted worker in the Franckesche Stiftung, 
which later served as a partial model for his great-graiuiaon's 
commxmity at St Johnland, Long Island. He was deacon at Grosa- 
hennersdorf, in Upper Lusatia, in X739-X74X. In 2743, in reply 
to a call from the Lutheran churches of Pennsylvania, he went 
to Philaxlelphia, and was joined from time to time, especially in 
X745> by students from Halle. Muhlenberg occupied himself more 
partiodariy with the congregation at New Providence (now 
Trappe), though he was practically overseer of all the Lutheran 
churches from New York to Maryland. In x 748 he organized the 
first Lutheran synod in America! Muhlenberg married in 2745 
Aima Maria Weiser, daughter of J. Conrad Weiser, a well-known 
Indian interpreter, and herself said to have had Indian blood in 
her veins; by her he had eleven childreiL Throughout the War 
of Independence he and his sons (see below) were prominent 
patriots. He died at Trappe on the 7th of October 2787. The 
importance of his work in organizing and building up the Ameri- 
can Lutheran Church, of which he hxA been called the Patriarch, 
can hardly be exaggerated; but his example in preaching. in 
English as well as in German was, unfortunately for the growth 
of the Lutheran Church, not followed by his immediate successors. 
He had no sympathy with the Old Lutherans aiul their strict 
orthodoxy— on the contrary he was friendly with the Reformed 
congregations, and with George Whitefield and the Tennenta. 

See Life and Times by William J. Mann (Philadelphia, 1887). 

HUHLBNBERO, JOHN PETER GABRIEL (2746-2807), 
American preacher and soldier, son of H. M. Muhlenberg {q,v'), 
was bom at Trappe, Pennsylvania, on the 2St of October 2746. 
With his two brothers he was educated in Germany. He entered 
the Lutheran ministry, had charge of churches at New German- 
town and Bedminster, New Jersey, and after 277 a of a church in 
Woodstock, Virginia, and there in 2775 raised the 8th Virginia 
(German) regiment, of which he was made colozwl; in February 
2777 he became a brigadier-general in the Continental Army; and 
in September 2783 was breveted major-gexieraL He took part 
in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown and Monxnouth. aiKi 
at Yorktown comnuinded the first brigade of light infantry. 
After the war he removed to Pennsylvam'a. He was a member 
of the Virginia convention of 2776, was vice-president of the 
supreme-executive council of Pennsylvania in 2787-2788, and 
was a representative in Congress in 2789-2791, in 1793-' 795. 
and in 2799-2802. In 2802 he was elected as a Denaocratic- 
Republican to the Umled SUtes Senate, but immediately 
resigned to become supervisor of revenue for the district of 
Pennsylvania. He became collector of theport ot Philadelphia in 
2803. He was a friend of Thomas Jefferson and of James Monroe. 
See Life by Henry A. Muhlenburg (PhiUddphia. 2&49)- 
His brother, Feederick AucusTtJS Coniad ^xmusmo 
(1750-2802), became his father's asasUnt in ^^''^^^f^^ 
2770; was pastor of the CWt (or Swamp) Geiman ^^^^ 
Church of New York Clw ?!Z ,,7X to 1776; •^ »» 'ULiS 
wasasdstanttolusitih^^;^^'^^ 



9S8 



MUIR, SIR W.— MULBERRY 



num. SIR WILLIAM (1819-1905), Scottish Orientalist, 
brother of the preceding, was bom at Glasgow on the 27th of 
^pril 1819. He was educated at Kilmamock Academy, at 
Glasgow and Edinburgh Universities, and at Haileybury College, 
and in 1837 entered the Bengal Civil Service. He served as 
secretary to the governor of the North- West Provinces, and as a 
member of the Agra revenue board, and during the Mutiny he 
was in charge ol the intelligence department there. In 1865 he 
was made foreign secretary to the Indian Government In 1867 
he was knighted (K.C.S.I.), and in 1868 he became lieutenant- 
governor of the North- West Provinces. In 1874 he was appointed 
financial member of the Council, and retired in 1876, when he 
became a member of the Council of India in London. He had 
always taken an interest in educational matters, and it was 
chiefly through his exertions that the central college at Allaha- 
bad, known as Muir's College, was built and endowed. In 1885 
he was elected principal of Edinburgh University in succession 
to Sir Alexander Grant, and held the post till 1903, when he 
retired. Sir William Muir was a profound Arabic scholar, and 
made a careful study of the history of the time of Mahomet and 
the early caliphate. His chief books are a Life oj Mahomet and 
History oJ Islam to the Era of the Hegira; Annals of the Early 
Caliphate; The Caliphate, an abridgment and continuation of the 
Annals, which brings the record down to the fall of the caliphate 
on the onset of the Mongols; The Koran: its Composition and 
Teaching; and The Mohammedan Controversy, a reprint of five 
essays published at intervals between 1885 and 1887. In i88x 
he delivered the Rede lecture at Cambridge on The Early Cali- 
phate and Rise of Islam. He married in 1840 Elizabeth Huntly 
Wemyss (d. 1897), and had five sons and six daughters; four of 
his sons served in India, and one of them, Colonel A. N. Muir 
(d. 1899), was acting resident in NepaL 

MU^PLdDASI > [the appellation of Shams ad Din Abu Abdallah 
Mahommed ibn Abmad] (/?. 967-985), Arabian traveller, author 
of a Description of the Lands of Islam which is the most original 
and among, the most important of Arabic geographies of the 
middle ages. His family name was Al Bashari. His paternal 
grandfather was an architect who constructed many public 
works in Palestine, especially at Acre, and his mother's family 
was opulent. His maternal grandfather, a man of artistic and 
literary tastes, migrated to Jerusalem from Jurjan province in 
Persia, near the frontier of Khorasan. His descriptions rest on 
extensive travels through a long series of years. His first 
pilgrimage was made at the age of twenty (in a.h. 356 — a.d. 967), 
but his book was not published till A.H. 375 (a.d. 985-986), when 
he was forty years old. 

The two MSS. (at Berlin and Constantinople} re pr e s e nt a later 
recension (A.H. 378). The book became known m Europe through 
the copy brought from India by Sprengcr, and was edited by Pro- 
fessor M. J. dc Gocje as the third part of his Bibliotheca Ceograph' 
orum Arabicorum (Leiden, 1877). See also the English translation 

i unfinished) by G. S. A. Ranking and R. F. Azoo, in Bibliotheca 
ndica. New Series, Nos. 899. 952, looi (Bengal Astatic Society, 
1897-1901); Mul^addasi's Syrian chapter has been separately 
translated and edited in English by Guy le Strange (London, Pales- 
tine Pilgrims Text Society, 1886); in German by J.Gildemeister 
in Zeitschrift des deutschen Paldstina-Vereins, vol. viL (1884). 

MUKDEN (Chinese Shingking), the capital of Manchuria, on 
the Hun-ho, no m. N.E. of Niuchwang, in 41* 51' N., 123® 38' 
£., with a population of 250,000. It b a centre for trade and 
also for missionary enterprise. It was formerly the headquarters 
of the Manchu dynasty, and their tombs lie within its confines. 
Mukden is a fine town, with splendid walls, about a mile long 
each way. The suburbs extend a considerable distance from the 
city and are surrounded by mud walls. In the centre of the town 
stands a small palace'surroundcd by an inner wall and roofed with 
ycUow tiles. The boots and pack of Nurhachu, the founder of 
the present Chinese dynasty, who was a pedlar, are preserved 
there. Nurhachu's son, the emperor T'ien-tsung (1627-1636), 
built temples to heaven and earth in the neighbourhood of the 
city in imitation of those at Peking. These are much dilapidated. 
Four or five miles to the east of the town stands the Fu-ling or 
** happy tomb," where the remains of Nurhachu rest, the outer 
> Al MuVaddasi « " the Jerusalemite." 



gates of which are adorned with a green majolica represenutioo 
of an imperial dragon. The Emperor K'ien lung (1726-1796) 
wrote a poem on Mukden, which was translated into French by 
Pdre Amiot and attracted the attention of Voltaire. During the 
Russo-Japanese War in 1905 some of the heaviest fighting took 
place before Mukden, what is known as the '* battle of Mukden " 
covering operations from the 19th of February till the Japanese 
occupied Mukden on the loth of March and the Russians 
retreated northward on the i2lh. 

MUKDISHU {Magodoxo), a seaport of Italian Somaliland, East 
Africa, in 2® i' N., 45^ 24' £. It ii built on the sandy coast 
which separates the Webi Shebeli fron the sea. The harbour 
is open. Mukdishu, formeriy extensive, is largely in ruins; it 
consists of two villages, Hamarhwin to the southland Shingani 
to the north. There are some houses in the Moorish style and a 
mosque among the ruins bears date 636 a.h. (i.e. a.d. 1238). 
Between the two settlements is the governor's palace and north 
of the town is a massive square tower built by the Portuguese in 
the i6th century. The population, about 5000, is mainly com- 
posed of descendants of negro slaves known as A besh. There are 
also Somali, Arab and Hindu settlers. Mukdishu is mentioned 
by Marco Polo and described by Ibn Batuta as an *' immense '* 
city. This was in the eariy part of the 14th century. It was a 
flourishing port and had many fine mosques when captured by 
the Portuguese (about 1510). Under Portugal the place fell into 
decay. It passed in the 17th century into the possession of the 
imams of Muscat, but in the i8th century became practically 
independent. . It was reconquered by Seyyid Said c. 1830, and 
on the division of his dominions fell to Zanzibar. In 1892 it was 
transferred to Italy (see Sou alilano, Italian). The name of the 
town is spelt in a great variety of ways, including Madeigascar, 
whence the nameof the island of Madagascar. Alfred Grandidier 
points out that the Portuguese, misled by Marco Polo's descrip- 
tion of Mukdishu as an island, fancied they had discovered the 
Ixmd of which he wrote when they touched at Madagascar. 

HULA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia; on 
the left bank of the Mula, a small right-hand tributary of the 
Segura, periodically liable to destructive floods. Pop. (igoo), 
12,731. The Sierra Espufia rises on the south to a height of 
nearly 5200 ft. Mula has a small trade in agricultural produce, 
wine and olive oil. About 4 m. east are two groups of houses 
known as the Bafios de Mula, with warm sulphurous springs of 
considerable local repute. 

MULATTO (Span, and Port, mulato, diminutive of Msifo, LaL 
mulus, a mide, used as denoting a hybrid origin), a person one of 
whose parents is of a white race and the other a negro. In Latin 
America such half-breeds are sometimes called mtslhos, 

MULBERRY* (botanically Morms; nat. ord. Moraceae), a 
genus of about ten species growing in the temperate regi<Mtt 
of the northern hemisphere and in the mountains of the tropics. 
They are deciduous trees or shrubs with alternate, toothed, 
often three-lobed leaves and unisexual flowers in cmtkin-Uke 
inflorescences. 

The black mulberry {Morus nigra), a native of western Asia, 
spread westwards in cultivation at an early period; it was 
cultivated by the Greeks and Romans, and in northern Europe 
by the 9th and 10th centuries. Up to the 15th century it 
was extensively gtown in Italy for rearing silkworms, but has 
since been superseded by M. alba. It is now mainly culii%-aied 
for its oblong purplish-black compound fruit— the so-called 
sorosis, formed from the whole female inflorescence in which 
the perianth leaves of the single flowers have become fleshy- 
which is wholesome and palaubte M e»t«n ^^ ^^^ ^ J^ 
fermentation has set in. The mulberry succeeds as a rtandard 

in the warmer paru oC England. fP^J*"^ ,"L^!^S 
situations, but in the notlVi oi ^^^^^""^ ^^ 'm l^IS^c 
parts of Scotland it r.^? ^ tbe js^^^ance o^^-^^, J^^ 
standard tnN» require ^ ^,Y,eT P^^^J*,^ and are generaUy 
occasional Ihmnmg <^x*^^ » \.\\e b^V, " .' ,iamagpd when u 
planted on lawns, to ^^ °\. vbe ^^^^ ^^ITi/ mons s«d 



966 



MULTIPLEPOINDING— MUMMIUS 



which crosses the Sutlej by the Empress Bridge opposite Baha- 
walpur. It is also entered by the branch from Lyallpur to 
Khanewal junction, crossing the Ravi. 

The early Arab geographers mention Multan as forming part 
of the kingdom of Sind, which was conquered for the caliphate 
by Mahommed bin Kasim in the middle of the 8th century. On 
the dismemberment of the Mogul Empire in the middle of the 
iSth century, Multan fell to the Afghans, who held it with 
difficulty against the Sikhs. At length, in 1818, Ran jit Singh 
after a long siege carried the capital by storm; and in 1821 he 
made over the administration of Multan with five neighbouring 
districts to Sawan. Mai, who raised the province to a state of 
prosperity by excavating canab and inducing new inhabitants 
to settle. After the establishment of the council of regency 
of Lahore, difficulties arose between Mulraj, son and successor 
of Sawan Mai, and the British officials, which led to his rebellion, 
and culminated in the second war and the annexation of the 
whole of the Punjab. The dty of Multan, after a stubborn 
defence, was carried by storm in January 1849. The district 
at once passed under direct British rule, and order was not 
disturbed even during the Mutiny. 

The Division op Multan is the south-western division of the 
Punjab. It was abolished in 1884, but reconstituted in 1901. 
Its area is 29,516 sq. m. and its population in 1901 was 3,014,675. 
It includes the six districts of Mianwali, Jhang, Lyallpur, 
Multan, Muzaffargarh, and Dera Ghazi Khan. 
• MULTIPLEPOINDING. in Scots law, the technical term for a 
form of action by which conflicting claims to the same fund 
or property are determined. The action is brought either by 
the holder or by a daimant in his name. All who have any 
claims in the fund or property in question are ordered to appear 
and give in their claims; the court then prefers them according 
to their respective rights, and the holder of the fund or pro- 
perty in dispute on payment or delivery is absolved from any 
further claim in regard to it. It corresponds to the process 
of inter-pleader in English law. 

MULTITUBERCULATA, a group of extinct mammals, 
mostly of small size, whose remains are met with in strata 
ranging from the Trias to the Eocene, both in Europe and in 
North America. They are mostly known by their lower jaws, 
and take their name from the fact that the grinding teeth (fig. a, 
M. I and 3; and fig. 3 a. h. c.) bear two or three longitudinal 
rows of tubercles, or are provided with tubercles round the 
edges. From this feature these otherwise unknown animals 
are believed to be related to the existing egg-laying mammab 
(duck-billed platypus and spiny ant-eater), constituting the order 
Monotremata, and arc therefore provisionally placed near that 
group. The largest representative of the Midtituberculata b 
Polymastodon from the Lower Eocene of New Mexico; the 
same beds also yield the smaller Ptilodus; while from corre- 
sponding strata at Rhcims, in France, has been obtained the 
nearly allied Neoplagiaidax. The latter takes its name from 
its resemblance to Plagiaulax (figs, z and 2) from the Purbeck 




Flo. I. — Lomr Jaw ef Phtiavlas tecdr^, from the Purbeck 
Strata ot Swanage. 
Strata of Swanage, Dorsetshire, which was one of the first- 
known members of the group. These have cutting teeth in 
front and multituberculate molars behind. AUodon and Ctena- 
codon represent the group in the Cretaceous of North America; 
and the English Purbeck genus Bolodon, in which all the cheek- 
teeth are multituberculate, also belongs here. Stereognathus 
(fig. 3) is another English Upper Oolitic type. Single teeth from 
the Rhaetic of England and Wiirttcmbcrg described as Microlestes 
apparently indicate the earliest member of the group. A skulk 



from the Upper Triassic Karoo beds of South Africa described as 
TrityMon hngaenUt which has multituberculate molar teeth, 
was also at first placed in this group, but has been subsequently 
regarded as a reptile, although Dr R. Broom considers that the 




Fig. 2.— Lower Taw of Plagiatdax Fic. 3.— Fragment of Jaw ei 
minor, from Swanage. p. 1-4 StertPgnatkus dclitkutu to 
premolars; m. x and 2 mdars. matrix. a be, modara^ 

original determination is correct. Possibly a fore-limb from the 
same formation described as Tkeriodesmus pkylarckus indicates 
a similar or allied animaL Not improbably TrUylodon indicates 
a direct link between the multituberculate itmmwiaH and the 
anomodont reptiles of the Permian and Trias. (R. L.*) 

MUIIIIERS* bands of men and women in OMdieval and later 
England and dsewhere, who, during periods of public festivity, 
particularly at Christmas, dressed in fantastic dothes and 
wearing masks or disguised as animals, serenaded the peopte 
outside their houses or joined in the revds within. In a more 
restricted sense the term is applied to the actors in the old 
English rural folk-plays of St (George, &c; and *' mumming " 
thus becomes a contemptuous synonym for any form of stage- 
playing. The origin of the word mummer (older spelling 
'* mommer," Fr. mcmew) is not satisfactorily explained; but 
the verb " to mum" means both to mutter and to be silent, 
and '* mummer " apparently comes from one or both of these 
senses. Mumming seems to have been a survival of the Romas 
custom of masquerading during the annual orgies of the Satur- 
nalia. " The disguisyng and mummyng that is used in Christe- 
mase tyme," Langley writes in his synopsis of Polydore Virgil, 
" in the Northe partes came out of the feasts of PaUas, that were 
done with visars and painted visages, named Quinqatria of the 
Romaynes." Aubanus, writing of mumming in Gmiany, says 
that *' in the Saturnalia there were frequent and luxurious feast- 
ings amongst friends, presents were mutually sent, and changes of 
dress made: that Christians have adopted the same customs, 
which continue to be used from the Nativity to the Epiphany: 
that exchanges of dress too, as of old among the Romans, are 
common, and neighbours by mutual invitation visit each other 
in the manner which the Germans call mununery." Christmas 
was the grand season for mumming in England. Some were 
dbguised as bears, others as unicorns, or wore deer's hide and 
antler's or ram's horns. Mumming led to such outrages that 
Henry VIII. issued a proclamation declaring the wearing of 
a mask or disguise a misdemeanour. Stow gives an 
account of an elaborate mununery held in 1377 by the London 
citizens to amuse the son of the Black Prince, then living at 
Kennington {Survey, 1603, p. 97). In Scotland, where mumming 
still exisU at Christmas, Hogmanay, New Year's Day and 
Handsel Monday, mununers are called " guisards." They usuaCy 
present on these four nights a rude drsma called CaJaiiam, which, 
in various veraiona, is common throughout the Lowlands of 
Scotland (see Chambers's Popular Rhymes, p. 170). 

HUmilUS, LUCIUS (and century BX.), somamed Achafaa. 
Roman statesman and general Consul in 146 B.C. Mummrus 
was appofaited to take command of the Achaean War, and hanng 
obtained an easy victory over the hicapable D«aei»> eaterta 
Corinth unopposed. All the men, women, and chiUhen ^J^j^ 
to the sword, the sUtues, paintmgs and works ^J^\V^ 
seixed and shipped to Rome, and thcB the place ^ ^JJ^.i" 
ashes. The apparenUy needier audiyojMummi^feComt^ 

'bv T» xacMA dvaracteristic ot Y^, is explafflW by J**^^til« 

N^-ut \)o\i^t '^t^Uuctions ot tiv^ ^^ve, vwmpted by ^^^a>l