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7'tTTJr
Xtbrars
of tbe
Tttntverstts of TOtaconatn
PRESENTED 1Y
HAROLD R. LAIRD '22
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THE READER'S GUIDE
TO THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
A HANDBOOK CONTAINING SIXTY-SIX COURSES
OF SYSTEMATIC STUDY OR OCCASIONAL READING
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, Limited
London
THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
New York
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Copyright in the United States of America, 1013;
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
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299355
Jflll 14 1926
AE
tN3 INTRODUCTION
A
In your ordinary use of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, you give
your attention to the one article that will answer the one question
you have in your mind. The aim of this Guide is to enable you to
use the Britannica for an altogether different purpose, namely, for
systematic study or occasional reading on any subject.
The volumes of the Encyclopaedia Britannica contain forty-four
million words — as much matter as 440 books of the ordinary octavo size.
And the subjects treated — in other words/the whole sum of human knowl-
edge — may be divided into 289 separate classes, each one completely
covering the field of some one art, science, industry or other depart-
ment of knowledge. By the mere use of scissors and paste the alpha-
betical arrangement of the articles could be done away with, and the
Britannica could be reshaped into 289 different books containing, on
the average, about half as much again as an ordinary octavo volume.
It would misrepresent the Britannica to say that you would then have
289 text-books, because there is an essential difference in tone and pur-
pose. A text-book is really a book intended to be used under the
direction and with the assistance of a teacher, who explains it and
comments upon it. The Britannica, on the other hand, owes the posi-
tion it has enjoyed since the first edition appeared in 1768 to the fact
that it has succeeded, as no other book has succeeded, in teaching
without the interposition of a teacher.
It is not, of course, claimed that the idea of reading certain groups
of Britannica articles in the order in which they will combine them-
selves into complete books is a novel invention. Thousands of men
owe the greater part of their educational equipment to a previous
edition of the Britannica. And not only did they lay out their own
courses of reading without the aid of such a Guide as this, but the
material at their disposal was by no means so complete as is the nth
Edition. Every edition of the Britannica before this one, and every
other book of comparable size previously published, appeared volume
by volume. In the case of the last complete edition before the present,
no less than 14 years elapsed between the publication of the first
volume and the last. It is obvious that when editors have to deal with
one volume at a time, and are unable to deal with the work as a
whole, there cannot be that exact fitting of the edges of one article
to the edges of another which is so conspicuously a merit of the nth
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Edition. All the articles in this edition were completed before a
single volume was printed, and the work stood, at one stage of its
preparation, in precisely the form which, as has already been said,
might be given to it by merely rearranging the articles according to
their subjects.
In this Guide, the principal articles dealing with the subject of
each chapter are named in the order in which you may most profit-
ably study them, and the summaries of the larger articles afford such
a preliminary survey as may assist you in making your choice among
the courses. Besides, where it seems necessary, there is added to the
chapter a fairly complete list of all articles in the Britannica on the
subject, so that the reader may make his study exhaustive.
A brief review of the six parts into which the Guide is divided will
show the general features of its plan, of which a more detailed analysis
is given in the Table of Contents.
Part I contains 30 chapters, each designed for readers engaged in,
or preparing for, some specific occupation. To the beginner, who still
has everything to learn, the advantages derived from such a course of
study may well be so great as to make the difference between success
and failure in life, and to those who have already overcome the first
difficulties, to whom the only question is how marked a success awaits
them, the Britannica can render invaluable service of another kind.
No amount of technical training and of actual experience will lead a
man of sound judgment to believe that he alone knows everything
that all his competitors put together know; or that his knowledge and
theirs is all that ever will be known. The 1500 contributors in 21
different countries who wrote the articles in the Britannica include the
men who have made the latest advances in every department of knowl-
edge, and who can forecast most authoritatively the results to be ex-
pected from the new methods which are now being experimentally
applied in every field of activity. The experienced merchant, manu-
facturer, or engineer, or the man who is already firmly established in
any other profession or business, will naturally find in some of the
articles facts and figures which are not new to him, but he can profit
by the opportunity to review, confirm, reconsider and ' 'brush up" his
previous knowledge.
Part 2 contains 30 chapters, each devoted to a course of systematic
study designed to supplement, or to take the place of, some part of
the usual school and college curriculum. The educational articles in
the Britannica are the work of 704 professors in 146 universities and
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colleges in 21 different countries. No institution of learning in the
world has a faculty so numerous, so authoritative, or so highly special-
ized- Nor has any system of home study ever been devised by which
the student is brought into contact with teachers so trustworthy and
so stimulating. The fascination of first-hand knowledge and the
pleasure of studying pages intended not for reluctant drudges sub-
mitting themselves to a routine, but for students eager to make rapid
progress, are factors in the educational value of the Britannica that
cannot be overestimated, and the elasticity with which any selected
course of study can be enlarged and varied is in full accordance with
the modern theories of higher education.
Part 3 is devoted to the interests of children. The first of its chap-
ters describes Britannica articles of the utmost practical value to
parents, dealing with the care of children's health, with their mental
and bodily training, and with the intelligent direction of their pas-
times. The second chapter indicates varied readings in the Britannica
for children themselves, showing how their work at school can be made
more interesting and profitable to them by entertaining reading on
subjects allied to those included in their studies. The third chapter
in this Part gives a number of specific questions such as children are
prone to ask, as well as questions which may be put to them in order
to guide their natural inquisitiveness to good purpose. The references
to pages in the Britannica show where these questions are clearly and
instructively answered.
Part 4 suggests readings on questions of the day which relate to
American citizenship and to current politics. A study of the articles
indicated in this section of the Guide will aid the reader not only to
form sound opinions for himself, but also to exercise in private or
public life the influence for good which arises from a clear view of the
arguments on both sides of controverted questions. It is no exaggera-
tion to say that the Britannica is the only existing work in which such
subjects as tariffs, trusts, immigration, labour and the relation between
legislative and judiciary powers are treated without partisan bias and
with adequate fulness.
Part 5, especially for women, deals with their legal and political
status in various parts of the world, their achievements in scholarship,
art and science, as well as with home-making, domestic science and
kindred subjects. The important part which women, both among the
contributors and on the editorial staff of the Britannica, took in the
preparation of the work sufficiently indicates that the editor-in-chief
made ample provision for the subjects peculiarly within their sphere.
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Part 6 is an analysis of the many departments of the Britannica
which relate to recreation and vacations, travel at home and abroad,
photography, motoring, outdoor and indoor games and other forms of
relaxation and of exercise. The extent to which the work can be used
in planning motoring tours, and the superiority, in such a connection,
of its articles to the scant information found in ordinary guide books,
are shown in the extracts, included in this Part 6, relating to a trip
from New York through the Berkshire Hills to the White Mountains.
It will be seen from this brief survey of the field covered by the
Guide that provision has been made for every purpose which can dic-
tate the choice of a course of reading. But as you proceed to examine
its contents for yourself, you should remember that the lists it gives
name only a fraction of the articles in the Britannica, and that for a
fuller summary of the work as a whole you should turn to the Table
on pp. 881-947 of Vol. 29.
Finally, the form in which this Guide is printed may call for a
word of justification. It is inevitable that chapters of an analytical
character, bespattered with references to the numbers of volumes and
of pages, and terminating with lists of the titles of articles, should bear
a certain air of formality. There is no danger that the possessor of the
Britannica, familiar with the fascination of its pages and the beauty
of the illustrations which enhance their charm would permit his im-
pression of the work itself to be affected by the bleak appearance of
the Guide. But he may feel that because a list has a forbidding aspect
the pleasure he has derived from browsing at will in the Britannica
would give place to a sense of constraint if he rigidly pursued a course
of reading. It may easily be shown that such a fear would be ground-
less, for the Britannica articles are all the better reading when one
carries forward the interest which one of them has excited to others
of related attraction. But to anyone who is firmly determined that
he shall not be persuaded to read systematically, the Guide will none
the less be useful, for he may flit from one chapter to another, selecting
here and there an article merely because the account which is given
of it pleases him. Or, better yet, he may find, in one portion only of
a selected course, a series of only three or four articles which will, in
combination, make the best of occasional reading.
THE EDITORS.
iv
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Table of Contents
Part I
Courses of Reading Especially Useful to Those
Engaged in Certain Occupations, or
Preparing for Them
Pafte
Chapter 1. For Farmers 3
2. For Stock-Raisers 10
3. For Dairy Farmers 14
4. For Merchants and Manufacturers,
General and Introductory 19
5. Textiles 21
6. Machinery 28
7. Metals, Hardware, Glass and China 33
8. Furniture 39
9. Leather and Leather Goods 44
10. Jewelry, Clocks and Watches 48
11. Electrical Machinery and Supplies 55
12. Chemicals and Drugs 58
13. Food Products 63
14- For Insurance Men 69
15- For Architects 71
16. For Builders and Contractors 79
17. For Decorators and Designers 83
18. For Railroad Men 90
19. For Marine Transportation Men 94
20. For Engineers 100
21. For Printers, Binders, Paper-makers and All who Love
Books 109
22. For Journalists and Authors 117
23. For Teachers 122
24. For Ministers 127
25. For Physicians, Surgeons and Dentists 135
26. For Lawyers 143
27. For Bankers and Financiers 151
28. For Civil Service Men 156
29. For Army Officers 158
30. For Naval Officers. ,.".... 168
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Part II
Courses of Educational Reading to Supplement or
Take the Place of School or University Studies
Chapter 31. Music 175
32. The Fine Arts, Introductory and General 187
33. Painting, Drawing, Etc 189
34. Sculpture 198
35. Language and Writing 207
36. Literature, Introductory and General 214
37. American 218
38. English 224
39. German 230
40. Greek 234
41. Bible Study 237
42. History, Introductory and General 246
43. American 248
44. Canadian 270
45. English, Scotch and Irish 272
46. French 278
47. The Far East: India, China, Japan 281
48. Economics and Social Science 288
49. Health and Disease 294
50. Geography and Exploration 300
51. Anthropology and Ethnology 306
52. Mathematics 316
53. Astronomy 322
54. Physics 329
55. Chemistry 334
56. Geology 338
57. Biology, General and Introductory 344
58. Botany 347
59. Zoology 353
60. Philosophy and Psychology 361
PART III
Devoted to the Interests of Children
Chapter 61. Readings for Parents 371
" 62. Readings for School Children 379
" 63. Questions Children sometimes ask, and Some Ques-
tions to ask Children 387
vt
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Part IV
Readings on Questions of the Day
Chapter 64 393
Education, Training of Defectives, Psychology
Grime, Juvenile Courts, Alcoholism
Heredity and Eugenics
Wages and Labour, Labour Organization
Immigration, The Negro Problem
Trusts, Finance, Tariff, Banking, Insurance
Socialism and its Tendencies
Initiative, Referendum and Recall, Government by Commission
Suffrage and the Suffrage Question
International Relations, Peace Arbitration
The Greater United States
Part V
For Women
Chapter 65 411
The many subjects on which Women contributed to the Bri tannics
Accomplishments of Women in Scholarship, Art and Science
Women's Legal Position in the United States and elsewhere
Their Disabilities in Great Britain
Home-making, Domestic Science, the Table
Food Preservation and Food Values
Costume and Ornament
Women famous in History and Literature, and on the Stage
Part VI
Readings for Recreation and Vacation
Chapter 66
Motoring, a Specimen Trip: New York to the White Mountains
Photography
Out-door Games and Athletic Sports
Hunting, Fishing and Taxidermy
Sailing, Canoeing and Boating
Mountaineering and Winter Sports
Driving, Riding, Polo and Horse-racing
Gardening and Plants
In-door Games and Pastimes, Bridge, Needlework
Dancing, the Stage
Travel at Home and Abroad
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Part I
Courses of Reading Especially
Useful to Those Engaged In
Certain Occupations or
Preparing for Them
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"N
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CHAPTER I
FOR FARMERS
SEE ALSO CHAPTER II, FOR STOCK-RAISERS, CHAPTER III, FOR DAIRY FARMERS
EVERY farmer in the United
States knows that farming is
today an industry which calls for
study of the world's agricultural pro-
ducts, processes, and markets as well as
for scientific knowledge of soils, crops,
and animals. Fifty years ago the farmer
sold for consumption in his immediate
neighborhood the small surplus of his
crops that was not needed for his own
household and live stock. Today he
competes, in all the world's great mar-
kets, with all the world's farmers, and
is the chief among American exporters.
The Russian wheat fields and the Argen-
tine cattle ranches are really nearer to
him than a farm in the next township was
to his grandfather. He lives better, does
more for his children and pays higher
wages than do farmers in other parts of
the world, and yet he can successfully
compete with them, because, as the
article on Agriculture in the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica says, in speaking of the
United States, "there is no other con-
siderable country where as much mental
activity and alertness has been applied
to the cultivation of the soil as to trade
and manufactures." American farmers
"have been the same kind of men, out
of precisely the same houses, generally
with the same training, as those who
filled the learned professions or who
were engaged in manufacturing or com-
mercial pursuits"; and their competitors
abroad have been, for the most part,
ignorant peasants. The course of read-
ing indicated here is designed for wide-
awake farmers who intend to be large
farmers — by whom the latest informa-
tion and the broadest outlook are recog-
nized as essential to their calling. If
you think the articles named here cover a
great deal of ground, remember that the
Massachusetts Agricultural College pro-
vides no less than sixty-four distinct courses
of instruction, and that the subjects included
in all the sixty -four are treated in the Bri-
tannica.
GETTING "GROUNDWORK"
KNOWLEDGE
You may think, as you look at the
titles of articles mentioned in these
pages, that there are some which you
need not read because you have already
read bulletins of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture or of your State
Experiment Station. These official pub-
lications are most valuable, but natu-
rally, they do not attempt to cover the
whole range of agricultural subjects as
the Britannica does — they are not in-
tended for that purpose. Their arrange-
ment and the way in which they are
issued shows that they are designed to
meet only certain special needs, not to
give a general view of all the branches of
farming. One subject may for example
be discussed in three different bulletins,
published in three different years, and the
first may be out of print before the third
appears. In the Britannica you get infor-
mation that forms the very foundation of
a thorough knowledge of farming and
that also extends over the widest field. Of
course it would be absurd to say that
merely reading these articles will make
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
any man a successful farmer as to say
that a medical student who works hard
at his books will always develop the
tact and the sound judgment that a
doctor needs. But unless the medical
student has studied those text books he
will never make a successful doctor; and
similarly the information in the Britan-
nica will give the farmer new advantages,
no matter how much practical experience
and special training he has had.
There are in the Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica 1,186 articles dealing with animal
and vegetable life; and among the 11,341
geographical articles
Scope of the a great many give
Articles important informa-
tion about the pro-
duction, distribution and consumption of
farm products. Those upon continents,
countries, states and provinces describe
the local crops and any local methods of
farming that are of special interest.
There are some 600 articles on individual
plants, of which a list will be found on
pp. 889 and 890 of Vol. 29 (the index
volume). If any one of these thousands
of articles were not in the Britannica,
it would not be quite so valuable as
it is to you, for you may, any day, want
to find out about any plant that grows,
or about farming in any part of the world.
A professor in an agricultural college
would of course be glad to study the
whole series. But in this Course of
Reading only the articles which are
of most immediate use to all practical
farmers are mentioned, and the contents
of each of these is described, so that you
can omit any article that goes into details
which you think you do not want. If
you do skip any of them, it will, how-
ever, be a good plan to mark their titles
in this list, for you may like to come back
to them later when you realize how prac-
tical and understandable all the Britan-
nica articles are — even those with dull-
sounding names.
Of course you will begin by reading
the article Agriculture (Vol. l,p. S38),
by Dr. Fream and Roland Truslove,
which is the key to the whole subject.
And remember that this chapter of the
Readers' Guide mentions only those sub-
jects that are treated more ftdly in other
parts of the Britannica than in that article,
so that the chapter does not attempt to
tell the whole story.
The first thing a farmer has to deal
with is the ground from which his crops
are to come. The whole surface of the
earth was originally hard
Soil and rock. The article on
Subsoil Petrology, the science
of rocks (Vol. 21, p.
323), by J. S. Flett, and the second
part (Vol. 11, p. 659) of the article
Geology, by Sir Archibald Geikie, deal
with the "weathering" of rock, which
has in great part broken it down
into the small particles of stone that,
mixed with decayed roots and plants,
form the soil or subsoil. It may seem
that it is going very far back into the
origin of things for a farmer to read about
the sources from which soil comes, but
the nature of the mineral substances in
it has a great deal to do with its power
to nourish plants, and you cannot know
too much about the material on which
your principal work is done. The article
which should next be read, Soil (Vol. 25,
p. 345), continues the story of these
particles of rock and shows how sand
and clay must be combined with decay-
ing vegetable or animal matter in order
to make the best soil. This mixture is
in turn "weathered" by air, heat, frost,
and moisture; and not only the size of
the grains in which it lies, but also their
shape — which makes them pack more
or less tightly — affect the pores, or
spaces between the grains, through which
the roots of the plants must push their
way, and through which air and water
must reach these roots. The article
Earthworm (Vol. 8, p. 825) describes
the useful part that worms play in
stirring the mixture, while the natural
and artificial fertilizers, which supply
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FOR FARMERS
whatever ingredients the soil lacks, are
discussed in the article Manures and
Manuring (Vol. 17, p. 610). An im-
portant part of this article deals with the
best methods of keeping farm yard man-
ure in such a way that it does not lose its
value 1 before it is spread over the fields,
and with the use, in this connection, of
the liquid-manure tank. The microbes
in the soil render the farmer an enormous
service by changing crude nitrogen,
which plants cannot digest, into the
forms in which it is indispensable to
them, and this process is described in the
article Bacteriology (Vol. 3, p. 164),
by Professor Marshall Ward, Professor
Blackman, and Professor Muir.
The action of light, the supply of
which is just as necessary in causing
growth as the warmth the sun gives, and
the action of water
Sunlight and and of heat and
Shade, Heat and cold, are explained in
Cold, Water the section "Physi-
Enough— and ology" (Vol. 31, p.
Not too Much 745) of the article
on Plants. The
proper method of working each farm,
with a view to using these four in
the right proportions, is influenced by
the latitude in which it lies, its height
above sea level, the protection that
mountains give it, the slope at which
the fields face the sun or turn away
from it, the rain-fall, the relative damp-
ness or dryness of the air when it is
not raining, and the moisture of the
soil. Every one of these subjects is
vital to the farmer, and the Britannica
brings to its readers the latest informa-
tion regarding them in articles written
by the leaders of progress. You will
find the latest scientific guidance, in the
most practical shape, in the articles
Climate (Vol. 6, p. 509), by Professor
R. de C. Ward, of Harvard, Meteorol-
ogy (Vol. 18, p. 264), by Professor
Cleveland Abbe, of the United States
Weather Bureau, and Acclimatization
(Vol. 1, p. 114). The distribution of
heat in the soil is described in the article
Conduction op Heat (Vol. 6, p. 893),
where the diagram showing variations of
temperature at different depths in the
soil should be carefully studied.
The brackish water that troubles
farmers near tidal creeks, the alkali
water that often occurs West of the
Mississippi, and the
Drainage and stagnant water that
Irrigation never does the farm
any good, are all as
bad in their way as the river-floods or
the merely sodden soil in which nothing
will grow but coarse grass that is always
unsafe pasturage. Drains and embank-
ments need very careful planning, and
sound information will be found in the
articles Drainage of Land (Vol. 8,
p. 471), Reclamation of Land (Vol.
22, p. 954), and River Engineering
(Vol. 23, p. 374), the latter by Pro-
fessor L. F. Vernon H. Harcourt, the
leading authority on such subjects the
world over.
The saving of water and the method
of bringing it to the farm and distributing
it over the fields are authoritatively
discussed in the articles Irrigation
(Vol. 14, p. 841), Water Supply (Vol.
28, p. 387), by G. F. Deacon, Windmill
(Vol. 28, p. 710), Pump (Vol. 22, p. 645),
and in the section headed "Utility of
Forests" (Vol. 10, p. 646) of the article
Forests and Forestry, by Gifford
Pinchot, formerly U. S. Chief Forester.
The other parts of this article, deal-
ing with the timber industry, are of
course important to farmers whose land
includes any lumber. Water Rights
(Vol. 28, p. 385) explains the laws which
regulate the taking of water from streams
and lakes, and the article Lake (Vol.
16, p. 86) is also of interest in connection
with irrigation.
When the farmer, who has to be
everything by turns, has been an engi-
neer long enough to get the water off his
farm or on his farm — and perhaps he
lias ti do both in different parts of the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
same farm — he must next take on the
builder's job. He will be reminded of a
good many precautions and economies
that are often over-
Farm Buildings looked, and may
and Fences find, too, some hints
that are quite new
to him, in the excellent series of articles,
all by experts in the building trade: Farm
Buildings (Vol. 10, p. 180), Building
(Vol. 4, p. 762), Foundations (Vol. 10,
p. 738), Brickwork (Vol. 4, p. 521),
Stone (Vol. 25, p. 958), Masonry (Vol.
17, p. 841), Timber (Vol. 26, p. 978),
Carpentry (Vol. 5, p. 386), and Roofs
(Vol. 23, p. 697). The use of concrete
for buildings, tanks, irrigation works,
etc., has proved so successful, and is so
rapidly increasing, that you will be
especially interested by the article Con-
crete (Vol. 6, p. 835). Barbed Wire
(Vol. 3, p. 384), in which the meshed
field fencing, of late increasing in favor,
is also dealt with, is another practical
article.
Advertisers no doubt supply you with
more literature about farm machinery
than you find time to read, but that
makes it all the more
Agricultural essential to get sound
Machines information that has
no trade bias. The
Britannica goes into the principles of con-
struction and helps you to see the good
and bad points in the new models you
are constantly offered. You can learn a
great deal from the articles Plough (Vol.
81, p. 850), Harrow (Vol. 13, p. 27),
Cultivator (Vol. 7, p. 618), Hoe (Vol.
13, p. 559), and the sections on machines
in the articles Hay (Vol. 13, p. 106),
Reaping (Vol. 22, p. 944), Sowing (Vol.
£5, p. 523) and Thrashing (Vol. 26,
p. 887). Oil Engine (Vol. 20, p. 35),
Water Motors (Vol. 28, p. 382) and
Traction (Vol. 27, p. 118) are also of
importance
Farm horses and the other live-stock
required in general farming fall under
Chapter II of this Guide,
You cannot read the articles already
mentioned, and consider all that has to
be done in merely getting a farm ready
to be worked, without
Farm realizing how grossly
Finance unfair it is that the
American farmer should
be hampered, as he is, by the want
of proper banking facilities when he
is making a start. And after he has
bought and prepared his land and
equipped and stocked his farm he needs,
each year, money to finance his crops.
For any loan used in the purchase of land
and in permanent improvements such as
buildings, drainage, irrigation, a mort-
gage is the natural security; but the
short-term farm mortgages — five years
at most — customary in the United States,
do not give the farmer as much time as
he needs for repayment, no matter how
successful he may be. The average
farm offers quite as good a certainty of
continued earning power as does the
average railroad, and farm mortgages
should be — in fairness — regarded not as
opportunities for short loans, but as
sound standing investments, just as
suitable as railroad bonds for conserva-
tive investors. The farmer's position is
even worse when he needs a short loan
that he will be able to repay as soon as
his crops have been sold, for he is then
expected either to give a mortgage as
security or to pay exorbitant interest.
Notwithstanding the prosperous con-
ditions of farming in the United States,
the country as a whole produces only
half as much grain for every acre of farm
land as is produced in Europe, and the
only reason is that most of our farmers
lack the capital needed in order to get
the fullest yield from their land. In the
chief European countries, the system of
banking facilities for farmers, described
in the article Co-operation (Vol. 7,
p. 86), by Aneurin Williams, shows
what can be done, and sooner or later
will be done, in the United States. This
article fully describes the admirable
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Raiffeisen banks in Germany, which are
based upon the idea that a society of
farmers (restricted to the neighborhood,
so that each member's honesty and capa-
bility are known to the other members)
make themselves jointly responsible for
loans to the members. A promissory
note is the only security required. The
French, Italian, Austrian, and other
systems are also discussed in the Britan-
nica, but the German plan is that which
offers the best example to America.
This course of reading has now covered
the conditions and the material required
for farming, and it is time to get down
to something that
Plants and grows. In the old
Crops books everything
about the life of a
plant was treated as a part of the science
of botany, and if you remember the
botany you were taught at school, you
remember a string of long names and
very little else. There is of course an
article on botany in the Britannica, but
it deals chiefly with the history of
botanical science, and the life of the plant
is treated under another heading, and
in a novel, interesting, and practical way.
The article Plants (Vol. 21, p. 728) is
indeed one of the most important and
unusual in the Encyclopaedia, giving the
results of recent investigation which you
could not find in any other book. It is
written by eight contributors, all men
who have done a great deal of original
work. The section on classes of plants
is by Dr. Rendle, that on the anatomy of
plants by A. G. Tansley, that on the
healthy life of plants by Professor J.
Reynolds Green, that on their diseases
by Professor H. Marshall Ward, that on
the relation between plants and their sur-
roundings by Dr. C. £. Moss, that on
plant cells by Harold Wager, that on the
forms and organs of plants by Professor
S. H. Vines, and that on the distribution
of plants in various parts of the world by
Sir. W. Thiselton-Dyer. Special ac-
counts of the chief parts of the plant are
given in the articles Leaf (Vol. 16, p.
322), Stem (Vol. 25, p. 875), and Root
(Vol. 23, p. 712). The success of artifi-
cial fertilization or impregnation is ex-
plained (Vol. 13, p. 744) in the article
Horticulture.
Apart from the diseases described in
the section, already mentioned, of the
article Plants, the greatest danger to
which crops are exposed is that of insect
pests, and the special article Economic
Entomology, dealing with them (Vol. 8,
p. 896), gives a full account of each of
the remedies that have proved useful.
The cotton boll weevil is the subject of
a most interesting section of the article
Cotton (Vol. 7, p. 261). Separate
articles are devoted to individual pests,
such as Locust (Vol. 16, p. 857), and
— turning to a larger enemy — Rabbit
(Vol. 22, p. 767). There is no bird that
troubles the farmer, or helps him by
killing insects, upon which there is not
an article, for more than 200 distinct
bird articles are listed under the heading
"Birds" on p. 891 of Vol. 29 (the index
volume), in addition to the information
in the article Bird (Vol. 3, p. 959), and
the article on families of birds (Vol. 20,
p. 299).
The crops of all climates are treated in
general in the article Agriculture, and
in particular under their individual
names, all of which are so familiar, and
indeed so fully listed on p. 889 of Vol. 29
(the index volume), that they need not
be repeated here. Naturally you will
include in this course of reading the
crops with which you are personally
concerned, and in any case you ought to
read Grass and Grassland (Vol. 12,
p. 867), and Grasses (Vol. 12, p. 869).
The article Wheat (Vol. 28, p. 576)
deals with one of the chief products of
"the greatest cereal producing region of
the world." It begins
Wheat the story of a wheat
crop with the burning of
the old straw of the previous year,
then takes up ploughing, harrowing,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
seeding, thrashing, labor in connection
with all these operations, and trans-
portation and marketing. At this
point, the article Flour and Flour
Manufacture (Vol. 10, p. 548), by
G. F. Zimmer, takes up the later
history of wheat. It may surprise you
to learn from the Britannica that wheat
first found its way to America through a
few grains being accidentally mixed with
some rice. Barley (Vol. 3, p. 405) is an
interesting article on the grain that is the
oldest cereal food of the human race, and
that is also remarkable for its power to
grow over a greater range of latitude
than any other grain. Cotton (Vol. 7,
p. 256), by Professor Chapman, is an
article of which the vast importance
may be judged by the following table
taken from page 261 :
PRODUCTS FROM A TON OF COTTON SEED
Cotto n seed. 2000 pound*
Meats, 1090 pounds
Cake, 800 pounds
Meal
(reeding stuff Fertilizer!
Crude Oil, 390 1
Summer
ae UU. ¥W dpi
Yellow Is
(Winter I Cotton seed
yellow I stearin)
>unds
Soap stock
Soaps
Cattolene (with beef stearin, cooking oil)
Salad oil
Summer white
Miners' oil
Soap
Lin tiers, 83 pounds I
Hulls, 888 pounda
Fibre
(High-grade paper
(Fuel2_
Bran
(Cattle food)
Ashes
Fertilizer
ICattle'fooJ)
with the meal
These .together,
a very valuable
Every one of the other cereal and
general crops produced in any part of the
world is treated in the Britannica with
the same fullness of information and with
the same practical detail which character-
izes these articles on wheat, barley and
cotton.
Some of the principal articles on the
routine of farming such as sowing, reap-
ing, and the like, have already been men-
tioned in connection with agricultural
machinery. The articles on individual
countries contain sections on the crops
of each of them, and you will find
Canada (Vol. 5, p. 152), and Germany
(Vol. 11, p. 810), of special interest.
The special features of tropical farming
are described in the articles on tropical
crops.
The article Fruit and Flower Farm-
ing (Vol. 11, p. 260) covers fruit culture
in general, and, in the section of it which
deals with the United
States (Vol. 11, p.
268), the American
fruit crops. This
the wonderful de-
velopment of the fruit industry since
cold transportation and cold storage
enabled consumers in every part of the
Fruit and
Flower Growing
section describes
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FOR FARMERS
countay, and in Europe as well, to pur-
chase fruit grown in whatever state most
advantageously produces any one va-
riety. You should select, from the
twenty separate articles on individual
fruits, not only those on the varieties
which you are already growing, but
those on any others that are possible in
the part of the country where your land
lies. The section on fruit in the article
on Horticulture (Vol. 13, p. 775) is
devoted to growing on a smaller scale,
in gardens. It contains (Vol. IS, p.
780) a practical calendar to show each
month's work.
Flower culture is the subject of special
sections in both the articles above named
and there is a descriptive list (Vol. 13,
p. 766) of more than three hundred hardy
annuals, biennials, and perennials, full
of practical information. The calendar
already mentioned indicates the dates
for indoor and outdoor operations. From
the many articles on individual flower
plants listed at the end of Part S of this
chapter you can make your own choice.
Poultry and their rearing are dealt
with in the articles Poultry and Poul-
try Farming (Vol. 22, p. 213), Fowl
(Vol. 10, p. 760),
Poultry and Turkey (Vol. 27,
Bees p. 467), Guinea
Fowl (Vol. 12, p.
697), Duck (Vol. 8, p. 630), Goose (Vol.
12, p. 241), and Incubation and Incu-
bators (Vol 14, p. 359). Bee-keeping and
the honey industry are treated in the arti-
cles Bee (Vol. 3, p. 625) and Honey (Vol.
IS, p. 653). Truck farming is treated in
the section dealing with vegetables
(Vol. 13, p. 776), of the article Horti-
culture. Apart from the law as to
water rights already mentioned the legal
doctrine most particularly affecting farm-
ers is that of Emblements (Vol. 9,
p. 308) . Grain Trade (Vol. 12, p. 322) ,
and Granaries (Vol. 12, p. 336), the
latter describing the latest type of grain
elevators, are articles of great interest to
farmers who specialize in cereal crops.
The new system of purchase of grain
by the government, which is working
admirably in Western Canada, protects
the farmer against the speculators who
buy standing crops for less than a fair
price, and it is to be hoped that some
similar plan may be adopted in the
United States.
Economics (Vol. 8, p. 899), by Pro-
fessor Hewins, Co-operation (Vol. 7,
p. 82), and Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 422),
deal with topics related to the marketing
of all agricultural products. The arti-
cles on learned societies have an extensive
section (Vol. 25, p. 317) on the agricul-
tural societies of all countries.
Agricultural history is, naturally, based
upon the history of vegetable life, and
the fossil plants described in the article
Paleobotany (Vol.
The History 20, p. 524), long as
of Farming their a ppear ance pre-
ceded that of man,
greatly affected the nature of the earth's
crust which he was to occupy.
The earliest of all known writings, the
Code of Khammurabi, described in the
article on Babylonian Law, shows (Vol. 3,
p. 117) that agriculture was the subject
of careful legislation under the oldest
government of which a contemporary
record has survived; and the provisions
as to the working of land on the "me-
tayer" system, under which the land-
owner received from the landholder a
share of the crops, and as to irrigation,
are most explicit and practical. Ancient
Egyptian implements of agriculture are
fully described (Vol. 9, p. 69) in the
article Egypt, and pictures of them
appear on page 72 of the same volume.
If the ancient history of farming inter-
ests you, it is only necessary for you to
turn to the heading "Agriculture/* in
the Index (Vol. 29), where you will find
references to a number of other articles
on the early civilizations.
From these articles, as from the his-
torical section of the guiding article
Agriculture, and the passages relating
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
to agriculture in many of the 6,292 arti-
cles on the histories of races and coun-
tries, the reader may learn that agricul-
ture has been the key to all history. The
earliest migrations of the human race, as
definitely as the comparatively recent
development of America, Australasia and
the interior of Africa, were based upon
an agricultural impetus. And his read-
ing upon other subjects in the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica will often remind him
that the wool and cotton and linen and
leather that we wear, the carpets and
blankets and sheets in our houses, all
originated in farming of one kind or an-
other; while every food that nourishes us,
save fish and game, is directly an agri-
cultural product. All the bustle of the
great cities, all the wheels that turn in
the mills, all the intricate mechanism of
industry and commerce, all the world's
work and thought and happiness, de-
pend upon the mysterious and inimitable
processes by which the brown soil yields
green growth. For all the progress
science has made, we are no nearer to
replacing these processes by any short
cut of chemistry than were the first farm-
ers whose husbandry is recorded in his-
tory. If all the little roots ceased for
one year to do their work in the dark, the
human race would hopelessly starve to
death.
The alphabetical list of articles at the
end of Chapter III of this Guide will
make it easy for you to add to this course
of reading, choosing for yourself the line
that will be most attractive to you. In
making your choice, do not forget that
plant-life is a subject you cannot study
too closely. No matter what crop you
make your specialty, you have to educate
the plants that produce it to do their
work, just as carefully as a teacher
trains children. Another fact to keep in
mind is that just as a doctor is dealing
with organs in the human body which he
cannot see, so you are particularly con-
cerned with the roots down in the soil, and
the more you know about the way they
eat and drink, the better for your farm.
The names of many of the writers of
these articles are given in the table of the
1,500 Contributors to the Britannica,
beginning at page 949 of Vol. 29 (the
index volume); a glance will show you
what authoritative positions they occupy
and how thoroughly they command your
confidence.
[See list of articles on subjects connected
with farming, at the end of Chapter III of
this Guide.]
CHAPTER II
FOR STOCK-RAISERS
STOCK-RAISING in the United
States was, until quite recent
years, under the evil influence of
the careless methods which had been
handed down from the old days of the
range-cattle industry. Chicago men still
tell the story of the Chicago banker,
afterwards Secretary of the Treasury,
who declared, in reply to a request for a
loan on the security of range-cattle, that
he "would as soon lend money on a
shoal of mackerel in the Atlantic Ocean."
The vague possession and the vague
methods of breeding and marketing
which suggested this comparison did not
form the habits of close observation and
incessant care which became necessary
when land and food began to cost money.
The lesson has been learned, and the
present conditions of the industry are
infinitely better for the country at large.
It has been proved that fattening as well
as breeding can be successfully under-
taken in almost every part of the United
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FOR STOCK-RAISERS
11
States. Even in the North West, the
tendency today is to turn from exclusive
grain growing to a combination of crop-
ping and feeding. Cattle, and also work
horses of the right type, for which the
demand is always greater than the sup-
ply, are yielding fair profits on many of
the New England farms which had been
neglected for years.
One of the most encouraging features
of the present situation is that the
broader distribution of the livestock
industry encourages
Staying on farm-bred boys to
the Land remain at home. It
has long been a
popular belief that the attraction of the
cities lies largely in the facilities for
amusement which they offer; but the best
class of young men who have left the
farms have done so because they did not
believe that plowing and sowing and
reaping gave enough scope for their in-
telligence and their initiative. When
stock-raising is combined with tillage,
there is not only a greater interest in
farm life and a greater chance to make
general knowledge effective, but there
are also better opportunities for a young
man to make a small venture of his own
while he is still a farm hand. It is cer-
tainly true that stock-raising needs the
young man who is determined to know
something about everything and all there
is to know about one thing. To him the
articles in the Britannica which are indi-
cated in this chapter should be of the
greatest value, for they cover a broad
range, and they are written by specialists
of the highest authority. They do not
profess to teach what can only be learnt
in the course of practical experience, but
they will make each day's work more
interesting and more effective.
You cannot do better than to begin
your reading with the article (Vol. 4,
p. 337) on the family of animals to
which cattle belong, a family so varied
that it includes so small a creature as
the hare, and so large a one as the
rhinoceros. The article
Cattle Cattle (Vol. 5, p. 359),
by Professor Wallace and
Dr. Fream, begins by reminding you
that the idea of cattle owning has always
been so closely associated with the idea
of wealth that the two words "capital"
and V cattle" have the same root, and
that our word "pecuniary" is taken
from the Latin term for cattle. This
article, illustrated with photographs of
the best specimens of bulls and cows of
different breeds, deals with Shorthorns,
Herefords, Devons, Holsteins, Dutch
Belteds, Sussexes, Longhorns, Aberdeen-
Angus, Red Polleds, Galloways, High-
lands, Kerry's, Dexters, Jerseys and
Guernseys, and has a section on the
rearing of calves. Ox (Vol. 20, p. 398)
is chiefly about the origin of domestic
cattle. Agriculture (Vol. 1, p. S88)
contains information of a more general
kind as to practical stock-raising. The
best methods of mating are described
fully in Breeds and Breeding (Vol. 4,
p. 487), Variation and Selection
(Vol. 27, p. 906), and Heredity (Vol.
13, p. 350), by Dr. Chalmers Mitchell.
Mendelism (Vol. 18, p. 115) will tell you
all about the theory which is nowadays
the great subject of discussion among ex-
perts in breeding. Embryology (Vol.
9, p. 314), by Dr. Hans Driesch, and
Reproduction (Vol. 23, p. 116), by Pro-
fessor Vines, contain the results of the
latest investigations, and the article Sex
(Vol. 24, p. 747) describes the recent ex-
periments undertaken with the hope that
breeders may at some future time be
enabled to vary at will the proportion of
males and females. Telegony (Vol.
£6, p. 509) gives you the evidence for and
against the belief that offspring are in-
fluenced by a previous mate of the dam.
Food Preservation (Vol. 10, p. 612)
and Refrigerating (Vol. 23, p. 30)
cover the cold shipping and cold storage
of beef. Leather (Vol. 16, p. 330), by
Dr. J. G. Parker, one of the foremost;
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
technical experts on this subject, follows
hides through the market to their final
distribution and industrial uses.
Notwithstanding the harm that trolley
cars and automobiles and mechanically
propelled agricultural' machines have
done to important
Horses and branches of the horse
Mules business, and not-
withstanding the
competition which American exporters
find in Europe from the Argentine
ranches, there is still an active market
for farm horses and for stock suited to
trucking and light delivery work in cities.
You no doubt find, in -whatever part of
the United States your interests lie, that
you need to watch the market very
closely, and that you must always be
ready to change your plans at short
notice. But it is to the quick-witted
man who is always prepared to vary his
methods that the Britannica offers the
greatest practical services. The article
on the horse family in general (Vol. 9,
p. 720) is very interesting, but you will
give more time to the elaborate article
Horse (Vol. 13, p. 712), by Richard
Lyddeker, E. D. Brickwood, Sir William
Flower, and Professor Wallace. The il-
lustrations are unusually valuable, for
instead of following the usual custom of
making all the photographs the same
size, the Editors of the Britannica showed
good sense and originality by making
each one to scale. The breeds are sepa-
rately described, and the sections on
feeding and breaking are full of useful
hints. The history of the thoroughbred
strain is carefully traced, the pedigree of
one famous type being shown in a table
naming more than one hundred ances-
tors. The article Horse-Racing (Vol.
13, p. 726), by Alfred Watson, shows how
the sport has influenced breeding, and
the description of American trotting goes
back to the day when "Boston Blue,"
in 1818, trotted a mile in three minutes,
"a feat deemed impossible" at that
period! The English race meetings, in
which American owners and jockeys now
play so conspicuous a part, are described
in special sections, as well as the training
at Newmarket. Riding (Vol. 23, p. 317),
and Driving (Vol. 8, p. 585), are by
practical experts, and Traction (Vol.
27, p. 118) contains an interesting table
analyzing the draft power of the horse.
The section on Arab horses in the article
Arabia (Vol. £, p. 261) should be read,
for it adds to the information, in the
articles already named, on the breed that
has influenced every variety of horse.
Mule (Vol. 18, p. 959) will tell you
about the varieties not only in the
United States and Mexico, but also in
France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Asia
Minor, Syria, Egypt, Algeria and North
China. The section on Hybrids (Vol.
13, p. 713) of the article Horse deals
with all the attempts that have been
made to get a perfect type of mule by
introducing various strains of blood.
Sheep (Vol. £4, p. 817) contains
separate descriptions of the 28 best
breeds, discussing their values both for
wool and for the
Sheep and the meat trade. Breed-
Wool Market ing, feeding, dipping
4 and lambing are fully
treated. Sheepdogs and other breeds
useful to the stock-raiser fall under the
article Dog (Vol. 8, p. 374). Wool
(Vol. £8, p. 805), by Professor Aldred
Barker, is -an article in which you will at
once be impressed by the splendid thor-
oughness that is characteristic of the
Britannica. It goes to the very founda-
tion of the subject by giving you micro-
scopic photographs, on a scale of 320 to
1, of each of the six great varieties of
wool, and explaining the structure of the
fibres. The article Fibres (Vol. 10, p.
309) will enable you to compare another
microscopic photograph of wool fibre
with similar pictures of silk, flax, cotton,
jute, and other textile materials. The
article wool deals next with wool-yolk
and wool-fat, and then goes on to
show why greasy wool is better than
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FOR STOCK-RAISERS
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wool washed before shearing. Wool
classing and sorting are next described,
and then scouring. From this point the
treatment of wool hardly comes within
the jurisdiction of the sheep-man, al-
though he cannot know too much about
the qualities of the yarns obtained from
different kinds of wool. It is interesting
to note in this article that the first fulling
mill in America was built at Rowley,
Mass., in 1643, only thirty-four years
after the first sheep was brought to
America, and only twenty-three years
after the Pilgrims landed on Plymouth
Rock.
The article Swine (Vol. 26, p. 236)
deals with the swine family in general,
and the article Pig (Vol. 21, p. 594), con-
taining a fine full-
Pigs and page plate, gives a
Pork detailed account of
the breeds most prof-
itable on the farm, including the Poland-
China, the Berkshire, the Duroc, and
the Chester White. Eleven breeds in
all are particularized. The breeding and
fattening of hogs, although it is now
successfully followed as a distinct branch
of the live-stock industry, must always
remain in great part a mere branch of
general farming; for the pig's power of
thriving on many kinds of food, enables
the farmer to utilize produce that can-
not advantageously be shipped, and to
keep his pigs following his cattle over
the fields. Much information will be
found all through the article Agricul-
ture (Vol. 1, p. 388). Trichinosis
(Vol. 27, p. 266) deals with a disease that
has sometimes seriously affected the pork
market, and been made the excuse, too,
for some very harsh restrictions on
American exportation.
You will find in the Britannica (Vol.
28, p. 6) a very full and clear account of
the diseases of all domestic animals, by
Dr. Fleming and Professor McQueen,
with special sections on the maladies of
the horse, of cattle, of sheep, and of
pigs, and on the parasites that infest
fhem. Tubercu-
Diseases and losis (Vol. 27, p.
Parasites of 354) calls for special
Live-stock study, for it is a
"disease of civili-
zation" almost unknown among wild
animals in their natural state and
among the uncivilized races of man-
kind. The connection between the dis-
ease in cattle and its spread among
human beings is fully explained in this
article. Pleuro Pneumonia (Vol. 21,
p. 838) deals with the lung disease from
which cattle are the only sufferers,
Rinderpest (Vol. 23, p. 348), with the
infectious fever which affects both cattle
and sheep, and Anthrax (Vol. 2, p. 106),
with the terribly infectious carbuncles
communicated from cattle and sheep to
man by the microbes carried in wool and
hides. Glanders (Vol. 12, p. 76) de-
scribes the form in which this disease of
horses and mules afflicts human beings,
the symptoms and course of which, in
the animals themselves, fall under the
subject of horse diseases (Vol. 28, p. 8).
The microbe by which this disease is
carried is shown in the plate facing one
of the pages (Vol. 20, p. 770) of the
article Parasitic Diseases. Foot and
Mouth Disease (Vol. 10, p. 617)
afflicts cattle, sheep, and pigs, and
occasionally human beings.
Among the articles on continents and
countries which contain special informa-
tion on stock-raising, you should not miss
the interesting general review of the
European live-stock industry in the
article Europe (Vol. 9, p. 914), the
section on live-stock in Canada (Vol. 5,
p. 153), that in Argentina (Vol. 2, p.
465), in Australia (Vol. 2, p. 950),
and in New Zealand (Vol. 19, p. 627)
The history of stock-raising is fully
treated at the beginning of the article
Agriculture (Vol. 1, p. 388).
When you have read the articles men-
tioned in the three parts of this chapter
on Farming, do not turn away with the
idea that you have got from the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
'Britannica all that
How to it can give you to
"Even Up" help you in your
business. Remem-
ber that you have to judge men, as
well as live-stock, in order to succeed,
and that general knowledge is of the
greatest use in doing that. The one
sure sign of the kind of man you cannot
rely upon is that he talks confidently
about subjects of which he really knows
little, and the more you yourself know,
the more readily you can detect the pre-
tentious people who might make you
think too well of them.
If you turn over the pages of this
guide, and ask yourself, as you glance at
the chapters, in what departments of
general knowledge you are weakest, you
will see what courses of reading will do
most to make you an "evened up" man,
without any weak threads in your intel-
lectual texture. And, whatever you
read, do not forget that the Britannica
is a book of reference as well as for read-
ing: that you are debasing your mind
every time you leave unanswered any
question that comes up in the course of
the day's work or talk, or while you are
reading your newspaper. A vigorous
mind wants an answer whenever it be-
comes conscious of a question or of a
doubt, and if you fail to feed it with the
information it asks for, it loses health.
Now that you have the Britannica, the
food is in the store-room, do not leave
it there!
[See list of articles on subjects con-
nected with stock-raising and other branches
of farming, at the end of Chapter III of
this Guide.]
CHAPTER III
FOR DAIRY FARMERS
SEE ALSO CHAPTER I, FOR FARMERS, AND CHAPTER II, FOR STOCK-RAISERS
THE admirable set of rules for
dairy farmers issued by the
United States Department of
Agriculture begins by telling you to
"read current literature and keep
posted on new ideas." And you can
easily see that the information on
dairy-farming and the many subjects
connected with it, supplied by the Britan-
nica, must cover a much broader field of
new ideas than can be included in any
periodical or dairying manual. The
branches of science in which the greatest
advance has been made since the begin-
ning of the present century happen to be
those that have most to do with dairy-
ing; and the industry itself has been
completely revolutionized since the days
when cities got their milk from ram-
shackle cow-sheds in their suburbs, and
when butter-making was regarded as
one of the "chores" to be done at odd
times.
The key article in the Britannica,
Dairy and Dairy Farming (Vol. 7,
p. 737), deals with the best milking
breeds, the installation, equipment, and
management of a dairy farm, the values
of various kinds of pasturage and fodder;
with the milk trade, with butter-making
and cheese-making, with condensed milk,
skim milk, and milk powder and with
the organization and operation of cream-
eries, cheeseries, and dairy factories in
general. Such subjects as soil, grass,
hay and other fodder crops fall under
Part I of this chapter, and the articles
dealing with the breeding and rearing
of dairy cattle are mentioned in Part
II, "For Stock-Raisers."
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FOR DAIRY FARMERS
15
Cattle diseases in general are also
covered by the course of reading sug-
gested in Part II; but the dairy farmer
has a special inter-
Dairy-Herd est in contagious
Diseases mammitis, milk
fever, contagious
abortion, and cowpox, all of which are
described (Vol. 28, p. 10) in the article
on Veterinary Science. You cannot
study too carefully the article onTuBER-
cuLOSis (Vol. 87, p. 354), for this terrible
infection is not only a standing danger
to your herd, but also affects the trans-
portation and marketing of milk. Dr.
Hennessy, who wrote the article, is an
expert of the first rank and, like most
other great authorities, is not inclined to
encourage the popular exaggeration of
the dangers for which newspaper "sensa-
tions" are responsible.*
You get to the very foundation of the
supply of milk in Professor Parson's and
Dr. Edmund Owen's article Mammary
Gland (Vol. 17, p.
Milk and the 528), in which the
Milk Market comparative anato-
my of the milk yield-
ing organ is fully treated. The article
Milk (Vol. 18, p. 451) discusses the
chemistry of many kinds of milk and the
diseases carried by milk, and deals with
the gravest problems of the industry : the
difficulty of sterilizing milk, so that
tuberculosis and typhoid cannot be
carried by it, and the difficulty of steriliz-
ing cream, so that butter may be quite
safe, without making the milk less nu-
tritious and the butter less delicate in
flavor. The article Bacteriology (Vol.
3, p. 156), by Professor H. Marshall
Ward and Professor Blackman, goes to
the root of this whole question of in-
fection. Milk is, on the other hand,
used to convey into the human system
the "friendly microbes," and the use of
soured milk and cheese for this purpose
is explained in the articles Therapeutics
(Vol. 86, p. 800) and Longevity (Vol.
16, p. 077), which deal with Metch-
nikofTs system of treatment. Pepsin
(Vol. 81, p. 130) describes the process
by which milk is rendered more digesti-
ble, and Infancy (Vol. 14, p. 513)
deals with the preparation of milk to be
sold for the use of young children. There
is so general a demand for prepared milk
which is from every point of view whole-
some that you will find it worth while to
read, in this connection, Food (Vol. 10,
p. 611), Nutrition (Vol. 10, p. 080) and
Dietetics (Vol. 8, p. 814).
Butter (Vol. 4, p. 880,) and Cheese
(Vol. 6, p; 88) are brief articles which
you should not overlook, although they
refer you to the key
Products and article on dairying
Marketing for details; and Oils
contains (Vol. 80,
p. 47) an interesting analytical table in
which butter is compared with other
animal fats. Food Preservation (Vol.
10, p. 618) deals with the cold storage of
butter, cheese, condensed milk and milk
powder; and Refrigerating (Vol. 83,
p. 30) with the processes and machinery
employed. Koumiss (Vol. 15, p. 080)
describes the milk-wine or milk-brandy
prepared by fermenting mare's milk, and
the similar product " kerif " made from
cow's milk. Although the special de-
velopments of dairying in various parts
of the world are discussed in the article
Dairy and Dairy-Farming, the articles
on individual countries also contain
information of value. The section on
dairying (Vol. 5, p. 154) in the article
Canada, and the account of co-operative
dairying (Vol. 7, p. 87) in Denmark
should not be overlooked.
In reading these articles in Britannica,
and thinking of the present conditions of
this great business, you will be reminded
that dairying is an industry of peculiar
importance to the whole people of the
United States, not only because of the
money made out of it, and not only
because it gives hundreds of thousands of
men employment on the land instead of
in crowded cities, but also because it
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
promises to develop the co-operative
action which harmonizes with the best
ideals of democracy. The co-operative
plants which are beginning to be estab-
lished by dairy farmers are the only
institutions our modern civilization has
created in which you find the neigh-,
borly spirit that the first American
settlers showed in the days when they
joined to defend themselves against the
Indians. At political meetings, in ma-
chine shops and cotton mills and shoe
factories, you hear unhappy talk about
the relations of capital and labor, about
strikes and trusts, about the man on
top and the man underneath. But where
the farmer's wagons clatter up to the
separator platform, there is combination
in the best sense of the word. The
Britannica article on co-operation says
that the word "in its widest usage,
means the creed that life may best be
ordered not by the competition of in-
dividuals, where each seeks the interest of
himself and his family, but by mutual
help, by each individual consciously
striving for the good of the social body
of which he forms part, and the social
body in return caring for each individual;
*each for all, and all for each 9 is its
accepted motto. Thus it proposes to
replace among rational and moral things
the struggle for existence by voluntary
combination for life"
ALPHABETICAL LIST OP ARTICLES IN THE BRITANNICA ON SUBJECTS CON-
NECTED WITH FARMING, STOCK-RAISING AND DAIRYING
(The more important articles have already been mentioned in the preceding pages, but the following list
includes many others in which valuable information will be found.)
Aal
Aaron's Rod
Abaca
Abutilon
Acacia
Acanthus
Acaulescent
Acerose
Achimenes
Acinus
Acorn
Acorus Calamus
Acotyledones
Acrogenae
Adonis
African Lily
Agave
Agrimony
Ail an thus
A lburnum
Alder
A leu rites
Alexanders
Algae
Alburn or Almug
Ahsmaceaea
Allamanda
Alliaria Officinalis
Allium
Almond
Aloe
Amadou
Amanita
Amaranth
Amaryllis
Amentiferss
Ammoniacum
Ampelopsis
Anatto
Anemone
Angelica
Angiosperms
Annulate
Anime
Anise
Antirrhinum
Apiculture
Apple
Apricot
Araucaria
Arbor Day
Arbor Vitae
Arboretum
Arboriculture
Archil
Aristolochia
Aroideae
Arrowroot
Artichoke
Ascus
Ash
Asparagus
Aspen
Ashpodel
Aspidistra
Aster
Aubergine
Aucuba
Auricula
Autogamy
Auxanometer
Averruncator
Avocado Pear
Axiie or Axial
Azalea
Bael Fruit
Balm
Bamboo
Banana
Baneberry
Banksia
Baobab
Barberry
Barley
Bdellium
Bean
Bee
Beech
Beet
Begonia
Benzoin
Betel-nut
Bilberry
Birch
Bird's Eye
Blackberry
Bladder-wor*
Boletus
Boll
Borage
Boraginaceae
Botryis
Bottle-brush plants
Bouvardia
Boxwood
Bracket-fungi
Bramble
Bran
Brazil Nuts
Brazil Wood
Bread-fruit
Breed and Breed-
ing
Bromeliaceae
Brooklime
Broom
Broom-rape
Bryophyta
Buchu
Buck-bean
Buckthorn
Buckwheat
Bulrush
Bur, or Burr
Burnet
Buttercup
Butter-nut
Butterwort
Cabbage
Cactus
Caducous
Caespitose
Calabash
Calabash Tree
Calceolaria
Calf
Camellia
Campanula
Candytuft
Cane
Cannon-ball Tree
Capers
Capri foliacess
Capsule
Caraway
Cardamon
Cardoon
Carnation
Carrageen
Carrot
Caryophyllaceae
Cashew Nut
Cassava
Cassia
Casuarina
Catalpa
Cataphyll
Catha
Cattle
Cayenne Pepper
Ceanothus
Cecropia
Cedar •
Celandine
Celery
Centaurea
Centaury
Chanterelle
Chenopodium
Cherry
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Chestnut
Chicory
Chive
Chlorosis
Chrysanthemum
Churn
Cicely
Cimicifuga
Cinchona
Cineraria
Cinnamon
Citron
Cleavers
Clematis
Climbing Fern
Cloudberry
Clover
Cloves
Cocoa, or Cuca
Cocculus Indicus
Cock's-comb
Cocoa
Coco de Mer
Coco-nut Palm
Codiaeum
Coffee
Colchicum
Coleus
Colleter
Colocynth
Colt's-foot
Columbine
Compass plant
Composite
Convolvulaceae
Copaiba
Copal
Coppice
Coriander
Cork
Corn
Corn - salad or
Lamb's Lettuce
Correa
Cotoneaster
Cotton
Cow-tree
Cranberry
Crassulaceae
Crazy Weed
Cress
Crinum
Crocus
Crowberry
Cruciferae
Cryptomeria
Cucumber
Cucurbitaceae
Cumin or Cummin
Cupulliferae
Cultivator
Currant
Custard Apple
Cyclamen
Cyperaceae
Cypress
Cystolith
Daffodil
Dairy & Dairy
Farming
Dahlia
Daisy
Dame's Violet
Dammar
Dandelion
Daphne
Darlingtonia
Date Palm
Deciduous
Dewberry
Diatomaceae
Dicotyledons
Dictyogens
Dividivi
Dock
Dodder
Dogwood
Dracaena
Dragons Blood
Drainage
Dropwort
Duck
Duckweed
Dulse
Duramen
Durian
Durra
Earth-nut
Earth-star
Ebony
Economic Ento-
mology
Edelweiss
Eglantine
Elder
Elecampine
Elephant's foot
Elm
Endive
Ensilage
Entada
Ericaceae
Espalier
Esparto
Eucharis
Eunonymus
Euphorbia
Euphorbiaceae
Evergreen
Everlasting
Fairy Ring
Fallow
Farm
Farm Buildings
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fern
Fig
Filmy Ferns
Finger-and-toe
Fir
Flail
Flax
Flower
Fool's Parsley
Forage
Forests & For-
estry
Forget-me-not
Fork
Foxglove
Freesia
Fritillary
Frog-bit
Fruit
Fruit & Flower
Farming
Fuchsia
Fumitory
Fungi
Funkia .
Furze
Fustic
Gale
Galls
Gardenia
Garlic
Genista.
Gentian
Gentianaceae
Geoponici
Geraniaceae
Geranium
Geum
Gillyflower
Ginger
Gladiolus
Glasswort
Glaucous
Gloriosa
Gloxinia
Goat
Golden Rod
Goose
Gooseberry
Goose Grass
Gorse
Gourd
Graft
Grains of Paradise
Gram or Chick-pea
Granadilla
Grass and Grass-
land
Grass of Parnassus
Grasses
Greenheart
Ground Nut
Groundsel
Guano
Guava
Guelder Rose
Gulfweed
Gum
Gumbo
Gutta Percha
Gymnos perms
Hacienda
Hackberry
Harebell
Harrow
Hawthorn
Hay
Hotel
Heath
Hedges and Fences
Heifer
Heliotrope
Hellebore
Hemlock
Hemp
Hen
Henbane
Henna
Herb
Herbarium
Hickory
Hippeastrum
Hoe
Holly
Hollyhock
Honey
Honey Locust
Honeysuckle
Hop
Horehound
Hornbeam
Horse
Horseradish
Horsetail
Horticulture
Houseleek
Huckleberry
Humus
Huon Pine
Hyacinth
Hydrangea
Hydrocharideee
Hyssop
Ice-plant
Iceland Moss
Idioblast
Immortelle
Impatiens
India Hemp
Indian Corn
Insectivorous
Plants
Iridaceae
Iris
Irish Moss
Iron-wood
Ivy
Jarrah Wood
Jasmine
Jew's Ears
Job's Tears
Judas Tree
Jujube
Juncaceae
Juniper
Jute
Kaffir Bread
Kauri Pine
Kerguelen's Land
Cabbage
Kumquat
Labiate
Labrador Tea
Laburnum
Lac
Lace-bark Tree
Lancewood
Larch
Larkspur
Lattice Leaf Plant
Laurel
Laurustinue
Lavender
Leaf
Leek
Leguminosae
Lemon
Lentil
'Lettuce
Lichens
Lilac or Pipe Tree
Liliacae
Lily
Lime or Linden
Liquidambar
Litchi
Lobelia
Loco-weeds
Locust
Loosestrife
Loquat
Lotus
Lucerne
Lupine
Lycopodium
Madaer
Magnolia
Mahogany
Maidenhair
Maize
Mallow
Malvaceae
Mammee Apple
Mandrake
Mangel-wursel
Mango
Mangos teen
Mangrove
Manila Hemp
Manna
Manures
Maple
Marcescent
Mare's-tail
Marguerite
Marigold
Marjoram
Mastic
Mate
Mattock
Medlar
Melon
Meristem
Mesquite
Merino
Mignonette
Mildew
Milkwort
Millet
Mimosa
Mimulus
Mint
Mistletoe
Moly
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
Momordica
Moonseed
Moon-wort
Moracess
M o r e t o n Bay
Chestnut ,
Mucuna
Mulberry
Mushroom
Mustard
Myrobalans
Myrrh
Myrtle
Narcissus
Nard
Nasturtium
Nettie
Nettle Tree
New England
Flax
Nightshade
Nut
Nutmeg
Oak
Oat
Okra
Oleander
Oleaster
Olive
Onagracess
Onion
Orach or Mountain
Spinach
Orange
Orchard
Orchids
Orris-Root
Osier
Ox
Oxalis
Paeony
Palm
Palmetto
Pansy or Hearts-
ease
Papyrus
Paraguay Tea
Parsley
Parsnip
Passionflower
Pea
Peach
Pear
Pellitory
Pennyroyal
Pentstemon
Pepper
Peppermint
Pepper Tree
Persimmon
Petunia
Phlox
Phormium
Pig
Pimento
Pine
Pine-apple
Pin-eyed
Pink
Pistachio Nut
Pistil
Pitcher Plants
Plane
Plantain
Plough and
Ploughing
Plum
Poinsettia
Pokeberry
Pollination
Polyanthus
Polygonaceae
Polypodium
Pomegranate
Pondweed
Poplar
Poppy
Potato
Potentilla
Poultry & Poultry
Farming
Primrose
Primulacea?
Privet
Pteridophyta
Puff-ball
Pumpkin
Purslane
Pyrethrum
Quince
Radish
Ram
Ramie
Ramsons
Ranch
Ranunculas
Ranunculacee
Rape
Raspberry
H ng
Rhododendron
Rice
Richardia
Robinia
Rocambole
Roller
Root
Rosacea?
Rose
Rosemary
Rosewood
Rosin or Colophony
Royal Fern
Rubracee
Rubber
Ruderal
Rue
Rush
Rye
Sabicu Wood
Safflower
Saffron
Sago
Sainfoin
St John's Wort
Salsafy or Salsify
Salvia
Sap
Sapan Wood
Sarcocarp
Sarmentose
Sarracenia
Satin Wood
Saxifrage
Saxifragaceae
Scammony
Scion
Scorzonera
Screw-pine
Scrophulariacese
Scythe
Sea-kale
Seawrack
Sedum
Secund
Seed
Sequoia
Service Tree
Sesame
Shaddock
Shallot
Sheep
Sisal Hemp
Skirret
Snake-root
Snapdragon
Snowdrop
Soap-bark
SoU
Solanaceae
Sorghum
Sorrel
Sowing
Spade
Spanish Broom
Spanish Grass
Spikenard
Spinach
Spruce
Stem
Stink-wood
Strawberry
Strophanthus
Sudd
Sumach
Sundew
Sunflower
Sunn
Sweet Gum
Sweet Potato
Sweet-sop
Swine
Switch-plants
Synanthry
Tallow Tree
Tamarind
Tamarisk
Tea
Teak
Teasel
Terebinth
Thistle
Thorn
Thrashing
Thrum-eyed
Thyme
Tiger-flower
Toad-stool
Tobacco
Tomato
Tonqua Bean
Toothwart
Topiary
Traveller's Tree
Tree
Tree-fern
Trowel
Truffle
Tuberose
Tulip
Tulip Tree
Tumble-weed
Turkey
Turmeric
Turnip
Turnsole
Umbellifer*
Urticaceae
Vanilla
Vegetable
Vegetable Marrow
Venus's Fly Trap
Venus's Looking
Glass
Veratrum
Verbena
Vetch
Vine
Violet
Walnut
Water-lily
Water-thyme
Wax-tree
Wheat
Whin
Whortleberry
Willow
Willow-herb
Wintergreen
WinterVbark
Witch Brooms
Witch Hazel
Woad
Wormwood
Yam
Yew
Yucca
Zinnia
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CHAPTER IV
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS:
GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY
THE article on Technical Educa-
tion in the new (Eleventh) Edi-
tion of the Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica (Vol. 26, p.
T^Utt^i 487 )' written by
Technical phili Magnus , ne
Education for of & ^ edu .
MMiufacturer ^^ authorit ; es
and Merchant in ihe world$ says
that:
"The widespread appreciation of
the advantages of the higher educa-
tion among all classes of the Ameri-
can people, and the general recogni-
tion among manufacturers, engineers
and employers of labour, of the value
to them in their own work, of the
services of college-trained men, has
largely helped to increase the number
of students in attendance at the uni-
versities and technical institutions."
A still broader truth is that the men
who have learned to think clearly, by
whatever study or reading they may
have developed that power, possess the
greatest of all advantages. As the
Britannica article on Education indi-
cates, the true value of education (not
simply school education, but all educa-
tion) lies as much in the influence which
intelligently directed study exerts upon
the mind as in the immediate usefulness
of the information acquired, and the
articles in the Britannica not only supply
the most recent and authoritative infor-
mation, but are so logically arranged,
one dove-tailing into another, that they
jive the reader precisely that orderly
view of knowledge which is the founda-
tion of all mental training.
Since all of the series of chapters
which immediately follow and which are
intended for merchants and manufac-
turers, deal with commerce and manu-
factures, it will be for the reader's con-
venience to begin by dealing with those
two subjects in general. But certain
branches of industrial and manufactur-
ing knowledge are dealt with in special
chapters. The articles on banking and
finance are described fully in this
Guide in the chapter For Bankers and
Financiers, those on insurance in the
chapter For Insurance Men, and those
on law in the chapter For Lawyers.
Three of the legal articles should, how-
ever, be mentioned here, as they are
on especially important subjects: Sale
op Goods (Vol. 24, p. 63), Company
(Vol. 6, p. 795), which deals with the
laws in various countries regulating
corporations, and Employers' Liability
(Vol. 9, p. 356), on this topic so im-
portant in modern industrial law and in
the relations between capital and labour.
The broad questions of commercial
and industrial policy are discussed in
Economics (Vol. 8, p. 899), by Prof.
He wins; Commerce (Vol. 6, p. 766);
Trusts (Vol. 27, p.
Practical 334) ; Monopoly
Economics for (Vol. 18, p. 733),
Practical Men and Trade Organi-
zation (Vol. 27, p.
335), which describes commercial asso-
ciations in the United States, the work
of the consular service, and the organi-
zations in Germany, France, Great
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Britain and other countries. Book-
keeping (Vol. 4, p. £25), with its
up-to-date account of modern account-
ing methods, card ledgers and loose
leaf • systems; Advertisement (Vol.
1, p. 235), and Mercantile Agencies
(Vol. 18, p. 148) may be named as
specimens of the many practical articles
on business methods which need not
all be enumerated here.
Much of what you read and hear
about the tariff systems of the United
States and various other countries and
about their influ-
Imports and ence upon trade is so
Exports vague and confusing
that you will be
delighted with the group of clear,
common-sense articles in the Britannica.
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 422) is by one of the
most famous American economists, Prof.
Taussig of Harvard, and is a very full
and fair discussion of the points in con-
troversy. Protection (Vol. 22, p. 464)
is by Prof. James of the University of
Illinois, and Free Trade (Vol. 11, p. 89)
by William Cunningham. You should
read with care Customs Duties (Vol.
7, p. 669); Free Ports (Vol. 11, p. 88),
and Bounty (Vol. 4, p. 324). Balance
of Trade (Vol. 3, p. 235) and Taxation
(Vol. 26, p. 458) are both by Sir Robert
Giffen. Exchange (Vol. 10, p. 50), by
E. M. Harvey, a partner in one of the
largest firms of bullion brokers in the
world, deals with the movement of
gold. Commercial Treaties (Vol.
6, p. 771) is by Sir C M. Kennedy.
Freights are discussed in Affreight-
ment (Vol. 1, p. 302) by Sir Joseph
Walton. Lien (Vol. 16, p. 594), with its
section on "Stoppage in transitu," is by
F. W. Raikes; Salvage (Vol. 24, p. 97),
by T. G. Carver, and Blockade (Vol.
4, p. 72), by Sir Thomas Barclay, the
great international lawyer in Paris.
Marine insurance, indemnity, Lloyds,
and other insurance subjects fall
under the chapter of this Guide
For Insurance Men to which you
should refer. Cargo-carrying and mer-
chant shipping are further covered by
Shipping (Vol. 24, p. 983). This article
is by Douglas Owen, honorary secretary
and treasurer of the Society of National
Research, and author of Ports and
Docks; it contains information about
the great freight carrying lines of the
world that can be found in no other
book. Railroad freighting is covered
by the article Railways (Vol. 22, p.
819), in which there is a special
section (p. 854b) on the new models of
American freight cars.
In the article United States, which
contains more matter than a whole book
of ordinary size and more information
than a dozen ordi-
Manufacturing nary books, the sec-
and Consuming tions (Vol. 27, p.
Nations 639) on manufac-
tures and on foreign
and domestic commerce, are by F. S.
Philbrick, Ph.D. The internal com-
merce of the United States, as this article
states , is in itself greater than the total
international commerce of the world, and
is so far from exhausting the country's
power of production and consumption,
that even when coastwise traffic is dis-
regarded, New York is the most active
port in the world. A section (Vol.
9, p. 916) of the article Europe deals
with European commerce in general.
The articles on the great manufacturing
towns of Europe contain much in-
formation as to industries. Great
Britain's industries are dealt with
in the article United Kingdom (Vol.
27, p. 691). The industries of England
alone are separately treated in a section
(Vol. 9, p. 426) of the article England.
Germany's industries are the subject of
sections (Vol. 11, p. 811) of the article
Germany; and it is interesting to note
that although Germany has outranked
France in cotton manufactures since
Miilhausen, Colmar and other impor-
tant milling centres of Alsace be-
came German, France has retorted by
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS
21
overtaking and passing Germany in the
production of linen. The sections (Vol.
10, p. 785) on foreign commerce in the
article France show her position as in
the main a self-supporting country,
though only a fourth of the cargoes
loaded and discharged in French
ports are carried under the French
flag. It would be a waste of space
to enumerate here the articles on
Belgium, Switzerland, Italy and other
countries, which you will consult in
relation to those of their exports
in which you are especially interested;
but you should not overlook the article
on Japan. The Britannica has done
commerce a great service in giving to the
world at last a good account of this
extraordinary country.
The body of the article Japan (Vol.
15, p. 156) is by Capt. Brinkley, long
editor of the Japan Mail, whose
opportunities of seeing Japanese life
from the inside have been greater
than those of any other foreign ob-
server. Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, Pres-
ident of the Imperial University of
Kyoto, a statesman of great experience
and authority, contributes to the article
a section (Vol. 15, p. 273) dealing with
Japan's international position. His re-
marks upon the commercial morality of
the Japanese are so ingenuous and so
candid that an extract from them cannot
be omitted:
Now when foreign trade was first opened,
it was naturally not firms with long-established
credit and methods that first ventured upon the
new field of business — some few that did failed
owing to their want of experience — it was rather
enterprising and adventurous spirits with little
capital or credit who eagerly flocked to the
newly opened ports to try their fortune. It was
not to be expected that all or most of those
should be very scrupulous in their dealings with
the foreigners; the majority of those adventurers
failed, while a few of the abler men, generally
those who believed in and practised honesty as
the best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an
honourable position as business men. . . . Com-
merce and trade are now regarded as highly
honourable professions, merchants and business
men occupy the highest social positions, several
of them having been lately raised to the peerage,
and are as honourable a set of men as can be met
anywhere. It is, however, to be regretted that
in introducing Western business methods, it has
not been quite possible to exclude some of their
evils, such as promotion of swindling companies,
tampering with members of legislature, and so
forth.
The account (Vol. 15, p. 201) by Capt.
Brinkley of the curious system of cre-
ating branches of Japanese business
houses is another part of this article
which should not be overlooked.
The proportion of labour cost to the
total cost of production is in most
industries so great that you cannot study
too carefully every
Mill aspect of the labour
Labour question. The chief
articles are Labour
Legislation (Vol. 16, p. 7), jointly writ-
ten by the late Dr. Carroll D. Wright,
the great American authority on the
subject, and Miss A. M. Anderson,
Principal Lady Inspector of Factories to
the British government; Trades Union
(Vol. 27, p. 140) ; Strikes and Lockouts
(Vol. 25, p. 1024); Wages (Vol. 28, p.
229), by Prof. J. S. Nicholson; Profit
Sharing (Vol. 22, p. 423), by Aneurin
Williams and Apprenticeship (Vol. 2,
p. 228), by J. S. Ballin. The article
Employers' Liability (Vol. 9, p. 356),
has already been mentioned.
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CHAPTER V
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS
OF TEXTILES
THE Course of Reading outlined
in this chapter will help anyone
who has to do with the making
or with the buying and selling of
textiles, in three ways, at least, each
of the greatest importance to him — and
possibly in many more. Taking up
these three. — In the first place, it will
teach him many facts about manu-
facturing and merchandizing in general,
and about dry goods in particular,
that he could learn nowhere else,
because the scope of the Britannica
is broader than that of any other
book — or, for that matter, than the
scope of any collegiate course can
well be. In the second place, the
number of distinguished men who
have devoted their exclusive attention
to the subjects upon which they write,
find have given to the Britannica the
results of their re-
Practical Men search and of their
Among the experience as practi-
Contributors cal experts — in many
cases, indeed, as suc-
cessful business men — is far greater than
the number of men who form the faculty
of any university in the world. The
fifteen hundred contributors in fact in-
clude no less than 704 connected with the
staffs of 151 different universities, tech-
nological and commercial institutes and
colleges in twenty countries. The reader
thus gets the benefit of contact with
the thought of many, of varied, and al-
ways of authoritative, personalities. In
the third place, the textile trade is
peculiarly an international trade, the
raw materials often traveling from one
end of the world to the other before
manufacture, and making as long a
journey in the finished form, before they
reach the consumer, and the inter-
national character of the Britannica
gives equal weight to the articles which
deal with the textiles and with the
markets of all countries — a statement
which it would certainly not be safe to
make about any other book.
The article Fibers (Vol. 10, p. 309), by
C. F. Cross, whose name has been much
before the public in connection with the
recent scientific in-
Textile vestigation of the
_,.. - subject, compares
Fibres and the fibres yielded by
their Treatment aU the % egetable
and animal sub-
stances used in textiles. The 18
microscopic photographs on the full
page plates (facing pp. 310 and
311) and the table of vegetable
fibres (p. 311) should be carefully
studied. Cellulose (Vol. 5, p. 606)
deals with the "body" of cotton,
flax, hemp and jute fibres. Carding
(Vol. 5, p. 324) deals with the brushing
and combing of fibres. Spinning (Vol.
25, p. 685) covers both cotton and
linen, and it is curious to note from
this article that in preparing yarns for
the exquisite Dacca muslins one pound
of cotton has been spun into a thread
252 miles long; while the article Dacca
says that a piece 15 feet by 8 was once
woven that weighed only 900 grains.
Yarn (Vol. 28, p. 906) deals with cotton,
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF TEXTILES
23
woollen and silk yarns. Weaving (Vol.
28, p. 440), by Prof. T. W. Fox, author
of . Mechanics of Weaving, and Alan
Cole, is the first article you should read
in a group dealing with processes applied
to more than one material. The first
section is on the various combinations of
warp and weft, and contains 23 illus-
trations showing the chief weaving
"schemes." A section on weaving ma-
chinery follows, and then one on weaving
as an art, illustrated with a number of
reproductions of famous specimens of
hand-loom work. The whole article is
full of practical every-day information
of the kind the merchant and manu-
facturer wants to know. Bleaching
(Vol. 4, p. 49) describes the chemical pro-
cesses which have expedited the bleach-
ing of cotton, wool, linen and silk, which
it used to take all summer to complete.
Dyeing (Vol. 8, p. 744), by Prof.
Hummel, author of The Dyeing of
Textile Fabrics, and Prof. Knecht,
author of A Manual of Dyeing, is
another of the thorough articles which
entitle the Britannica to rank as a great
original work on textiles. Every dye is
separately treated, and the latest models
of dyeing machinery are carefully de-
scribed. Finishing (Vol. 10, p. 378)
deals with the processes used for cotton,
woollens, worsteds, pile fabrics, silks and
yarns. Textile-Printing (Vol. 26, p.
694) is by Prof. Knecht and Alan Cole,
author of Ornament in European Silks,
and not only describes all the styles of
printing, but gives sixty recipes for
various shades of colour. The full page
plates reproduce fine specimens of early
printing. The art of textile-printing " is
very ancient, probably originating in the
East. It has been practised in China
and India from time immemorial, and the
Chinese, at least, are known to have
made use of engraved wood-blocks many
centuries before any kind of printing was
known in Europe."
The elaborate article Cotton (Vol.
7, p. 256) begins by discussing the pe-
culiar twist of the hairs on the cotton
seed which by facili-
Cotton and tating spinning gives
Cotton Fabrics cotton its predomi-
nant position as a
textile material. The section on culti-
vation, by W. G. Freeman, deals with
the soils, bedding, planting, hoeing and
picking, then with ginning and baling.
A section on diseases and pests of the
cotton plant follows, then a discussion
of the improvement of yield by seed
selection. The section on marketing and
supply is by Prof. Chapman, and his
practical study of "futures," "options,"
and "straddles" shows how greatly the
movement of prices is affected by specu-
lation and often by artificial manipula-
tion.
Cotton Manufacturing (Vol. 7, p.
281) describes the industry in England,
that of the United States, with a special
section on the recent developments in
the two Carolinas, Georgia and Alabama,
and also the mills in Germany, France,
Russia, Switzerland, Italy and in other
countries, including India, China and
Japan. It is interesting to note (p. 293)
that "Americans were making vast
strides in industrial efficiency even be-
fore the period when American theories
and American enterprise were monopo-
lizing in a wonderful degree the attention
of the business world" abroad. As far
back as 1875 progress in the United
States was so rapid that the production
for each operative had increased during
the ten years 1865-75,by 100%in Massa-
chusetts as against only 23% in England.
One explanation of American success is
that the American employer "tries to
save in labour but not in wages, if a
generalization may be ventured. The
good workman gets high pay, but he is
kept at tasks requiring his powers and
is not suffered to waste his time doing
the work of unskilled or boy labour."
Cotton Spinning Machinery (Vol.
7, p. 301) describes all the machines in
great detail and contains a number of
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24
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
full-page plates and other illustrations.
Mercerizing (Vol. 18, p. 150) is another
important article.
Wool, Worsted and Woollen Manu-
factures (Vol. 28, p. 805) is by Prof.
Aldred F. Barker. The development in
wool production of
Wool, Linen various countries is
and Silk first described and
then the wool fibre
is studied and microscopic photographs
reproduced to show the structure of
different varieties. A diagram of a
fleece shows the qualities obtained from
various parts of the animal, ranging from
the shoulders, where the finest is found,
to the hind quarters. Lamb, hogg and
wether wools are compared and the
article discusses shearing, classing, sort-
ing, scouring, drying, teasing, burring,
mule spinning, combing, drawing and
spinning. The centres of the industry
are then compared, with details as to the
special products of each. The article
contains illustrations of a number of
machines. Articles dealing with certain
sources of wool or of the wool-like hair
used in textiles, and with the finished
products, are: Alpaca (Vol. 1, p. 721),
the history of its manufacture being " one
of the romances of commerce;" Mohair
(Vol. 18, p. 647), which deals with the
hair of the Angora goat, familiar from
discussions of the Underwood Tariff bill,
and dealing with its weaving and the
imitations of the cloth; Llama (Vol.
16, p. 827); and the articles Guanaco
(Vol. 12, p. 649) and Vicugna (Vol. 28,
p. 47), on the two wild animals from
whose hair high priced materials, extra-
ordinarily warm and light, are woven.
Flax (Vol. 10, p. 484) describes the
cultivation of the crops which are har-
vested by being "pulled," roots and all,
instead of being cut, the process of separ-
ating the capsules from the branches, and
the subsequent stages of preparation.
Linen and Linen Manufactures (Vol.
16, p. 724), by Thomas Woodhouse, takes
up the story where the flax fibre is ready
for market and carries it to the point
where the yarn is delivered for weaving.
The winding, warping, dressing and
beaming, and the looms employed, are
virtually the same processes and ma-
chines that are used for cotton. The
article states that the finest linen threads
used for lace are produced by Belgian
hand spinners who can only get the
desired results by working in damp cel-
lars, the spinner being guided by touch
alone, as the filament is too fine for him
to see. This thread is said to have been
sold for as much as $72 an ounce.
Jute (Vol. 15, p. 603) deals with the
vegetable fibre which ranks, in its in-
dustrial importance, next after cotton
and flax and with the processes employed
in its manufacture.
Silk (Vol. 25, p. 96) contains illustra-
tions of cocoons and worms, microsco-
pic photographs of fibre, and pictures
of the moths which produce wild silk.
The section on the fibre and its pro-
duction and preparation is by Frank
Warner, president of the Silk Associa-
tion of Great Britain and Ireland; and
that on the silk trade by Arthur Mellor,
a well known manufacturer of Maccles-
field, the great British center. The de-
gree of fineness to which silk thread can
be spun is stated (Vol. 28, p. 906) to
be such that 450,000 yards of thread
have been produced from one pound of
silk, and this is slightly in excess of
the fineness of the Dacca cotton thread
already mentioned as producing 252
miles for a pound. But at Cambrai the
lace maker's linen thread already des-
cribed has been made as fine as 272
miles to the pound, and the drawing of
platinum wire to the fifty-thousandth
part of an inch in thickness (Vol. 28, p.
738) seems hardly more wonderful than
this. Spider silk is as valuable as the
best qualities of the silk-worm product,
but spiders are such fierce cannibals that
it is necessary to keep each one in a
separate cage, and the cost of doing
this has prevented the fibre from being
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF TEXTILES
25
generally used (Vol. 25, p. 664). Arti-
ficial or "viscose" silk is described in
the article Cellulose (Vol. 5, p. 609),
and is a textile of which the importance
is rapidly increasing.
Felting is an even older textile process
than weaving, just as weaving, which no
doubt originated in basket making (Vol.
3, p. 481) is older than spinning. The
article Felt (Vol. 10, p. 245) deals with
asphalted felts used for roofing as well
as with the hat felts; and the article Hat
(Vol. 13, p. 60) gives further details as to
both woollen and fur felts and describes
the machinery for hatmaking, which
originated in the United States.
Save that gold, silver and other metals
are occasionally used in cloth or gauze,
Asbestos (Vol. 2, p. 714) is the only
mineral employed in textiles, and its
value for jacketing steam pipes and
boilers and for insulating fabrics and fire-
proofing gives it great importance.
Ramie (Vol. 22, p. 875) is not so
largely used in textiles, but experiments
in the production of better fibre are
being made.
Shoddy (Vol. 24, p. 992) is an article
which shows how unfair it is to treat the
re-manufacture of "devilled" fabric as
an illegitimate if not absolutely fraudu-
lent branch of the textile industry, for
really serviceable cloths are woven from
it, and masses of poor people who would
otherwise be in rags are thus comfortably
clad. " Mungo," another re-manu-
factured cloth, is described (Vol. 28, p.
'906) in the article Yarn. Pineapple
fibre is described (Vol. 10, p. 311) as of
exceptional fineness and is used in yarn
cloths of the best quality. The article
Pine-apple (Vol. 21, p. 625) describes
its culture. Sisal Hemp (Vol. 25, p.
158) is used in bagging as well as cord-
age, and the same is true of Phormium
(Vol. 21, p. 471), sometimes called New
Zealand flax. Paper pulp yields a yarn
which is used in some cheap fabrics as
described (Vol. 5, p. 609) in the article
Cellulose already mentioned.
The many varieties of woven cloths
are described in the articles already men-
tioned in the manufacture of cotton,
linen, wool, and silk,
Textile and in articles on
Merchandise special fabrics. Hos-
iery (Vol. 13, p.
788) covers the textiles that are produced
by knitting or looping, and gives an
account, with illustrations, of the ma-
chinery employed. Net (Vol. 19, p.
412) covers the textiles of which the
mesh is knotted.
Lace (Vol. 16, p. 37), by Alan Cole,
contains some of the most beautiful full-
page plates and other illustrations to be
found in the Britannica, and is a very
full treatise on the history and the pres-
ent state of the lace-making art.
Flannel (Vol. 10, p. 480) describes
the true flannels made from wool, and
Flannelette (Vol. 10, p. 481) the cotton
imitations and the new fire-resisting
fabrics of this class. Drill (Vol. 8, p.
580) covers both the cotton and linen
tissues sold under this name. Crepe
(Vol. 7, p. 879) mentions the curious
fact that the Chinese and Japanese
makers of soft crepe guard their secret
processes, which are still unknown to
western manufacturers, so carefully that
the different stages of their production
are carried on in towns far distant from
one another.
Carpet (Vol. 5, p. 392) contains full-
page plates of rare specimens and de-
scribes pile carpets, flat-surfaced carpets
and the printed carpetings.
Tapestry (Vol. 26, p. 403) deals with
another luxurious branch of the textile
industry, and is illustrated with pho-
tographs of the finest specimens and
with pictures showing the methods of
weaving. Brocade (Vol. 4, p. 620)
describes and illustrates this stately class
of fabrics. Embroidery (Vol. 9, p. 309)
with six full-page plates and Shawl (Vol.
24, p. 814) deal with other art textiles.
Tartan (Vol. 26, p. 431) describes
I the colours and patterns of all Scottish
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26
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
clan tartans. Damask (Vol. 7, p. 785)
discusses this fine class of fabrics, the
weaving of which is the subject of a
special section (Vol. 28, p. 454) of the
article Weaving. The enormous con-
sumption of coarse bags for the packing
of raw cotton and of sugar gives im-
portance to the articles Bagging (Vol.
3, p. £00) and Sacking and Sack Manu-
facture (Vol. 23, p. 975) . Canvas (Vol.
5, p. ££3) discusses sail cloth and artists'
canvas, and Tarpaulin (Vol. 26, p. 430)
deals with waterproof covers.
It is unnecessary to describe one by
one the seventy articles on other fabrics
and tissues, ranging through the alpha-
bet from Alpaca to
The Seventy Velveteen; but they
Articles on are all included in
Special Fabrics the list at the end of
this chapter, and all
are fully described in the Britannica.
Costume (Vol. 7, p. 224) is a long and
important article, with a full page plate
and many other illustrations. The sec-
tion on dress in general is by T. A.
Joyce, of the British Museum staff, that
on ancient costumes by H. S. Jones,
director of the British School at Rome,
and that on modern costume by Oswald
Barron, editor of The Ancestor. The
account of underclothing is of especial
interest, as most books on costume alto-
gether neglect this branch of the subject.
Another section of this article is on
national and official costumes by W.
Alison Phillips, principal assistant edi-
tor of the Britannica. The study of
ceremonial robes is carried into further
detail by the article Robe (Vol. 23, p.
408), with its five richly colored plates,
in one of which the judicial robes of the
U. S. Supreme Court Justices are shown.
Liturgical vestments are dealt with in
Vestments (Vol. 28, p. 27) and in a
series of articles such as Dalmatic (Vol.
7, p. 776) and Alb (Vol. 1, p. 497).
Among the biographies which are of
interest in connection with textiles are
those of Arkwright, Richard (Vol. 2,
p. 556), the barber who invented the
spinning frame; Cartwright, Edmund,
(Vol. 5, p. 425), inventor of the power
loom ; Crompton,
Inventors of Samuel (Vol. 7, p.
Textile Machinery 486), inventor of
and Great Textile the spinning mule;
Merchants Salt, Titus (Vol.
23, p. 87), who
created the alpaca industry; Strutt,
Jedediah (Vol. 25, p. 1044), who did much
to perfect the manufacture of cotton; and
of Whitney, Eli (Vol. 28, p. 611), who
went from Yale to Savannah to secure a
position as school teacher and then, be-
ing disappointed, turned his attention to
a device for separating the cotton fibre
from the seeds and refuse, and invented
the gin which has "profoundly influ-
enced American industrial economic and
social history." Another name of a great
American inventor who individually ren-
dered great services to the textile indus-
try is that of Howe, Elias (Vol. 13, p.
835), who invented the sewing machine.
You will also be interested in the lives
of successful merchants such as Ca-
nynges, William (Vol. 5, p. 223), the
great 15th Century cloth manufacturer
who became a clergyman after making
a large fortune; Mackintosh, Charles
(Vol. 17, p. 250), who introduced light-
weight waterproof garments; Wana-
maker, John (Vol.28, p. 302), who began
life as an errand boy in a book store ; Field,
Marshall (Vol. 10, p. 322), who when
Chicago was a comparatively unimpor-
tant city founded there what has become .
the finest dry goods store in the world;
Stewart, A. T. (Vol. 25, p. 912), who
after studying for the ministry in Dub-
lin, immigrated to New York and gradu-
ally built up the largest retail store in
the city; Pease, Edward (Vol. 21, p.
31), founder of a famous Quaker family
of textile manufacturers in England; and
Claflin, H. B. (Vol. 6, p. 418), who came
from Worcester, Mass., to New York
where he for years controlled " the great-
est mercantile business in the world.' '
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF TEXTILES
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If you turn to the Article Worcester
(Vol. 28, p. 823) you will note the
associations of the locality with Elias
Howe, Eli Whitney, Samuel Crompton,
already mentioned, L. J. Knowles,
another inventor who helped to perfect
the power loom, and Erastus Bigelow,
who invented the carpet-weaving ma-
chine (Vol. 6, p. 580) and was one of
the incorporators of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. Other lives of
successful textile makers and dealers are
those of Rylands, John (Vol. 23, p.
950), founder of the largest cotton mills
in Lancashire; Dexter, Timothy (Vol.
Alb
Alpaca
Apprenticeship
Arkwright, Richard
Artel
Asbestos
Bagging
Baize
Bleaching
Bombazine or Bombasine
Book-keeping
Bounty
Brocade
Buckram
Bunting
Calender
Calico
Cambric
Camel
Canvas
Canynges, William
Carding
Carpet
Cartwright, Edmund
Cellulose
Chasuble
Cheese Cloth
Chenille
Chintz
Claflin, H. B.
Cloth
Clouting
Codilla
Coir
Commerce
Corduroy
Costume
Cotton
Cotton Manufacture
Cotton Spinning Ma-
chinery
Crash
Cravat
INCIPAL ARTICLES
IN THE BRITA
RCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS
Crepe
Howe, Elias,
Cretonne
Huckaback
Crompton, Samuel
Jute
Dalmatic
Knitting
Damask
Lace
Denim
Lawn
Dexter, Timothy
Linen
Demurrage
Llama
Diaper
Longcloth
Die
Manila Hemp
Macintosh, Charles
Dimity
Dowlas
Maniple
Mantle
Drill
Duck
Matting
Dyeing
Mercantile System
Embroidery
Mercerizing
Felt
Merchant
Fibres
Mohair
Field, Marshall
Moleskin
Finishing
Mull
Flannel
Muslin
Flannelette
Nankeen
Flax
Net
Flock
Osnaburg
Floorcloth
Padding
Pease, Edward
Frock
Fustian
Petticoat
Gante
Phormium
Gauze
Pine-apple
Gimp
Plaid
Gingham
Girdle
Plush
Poplin or Tabinet
Glass Cloth
Print
Guanaco
Protection
Gunny
Ramie
Haberdasher
Rep
Hat
Ribbons
Hessian
Ring
Holland
Robes
Honeycomb
Rylands, John
Horrocks, John
Sacking
Hosiery
Salt, Titus
Hose-pipe
Salvage
8, p. 141), the eccentric New England
merchant of the 18th Century who beat
his wife for not weeping heartily enough
at the rehearsal of his funeral; Hor-
rocks, John (Vol. 13, p. 712), the great
English cotton manufacturer who was
far ahead of his time and died of brain
fever produced by overwork in 1804;
Worth, C. F. (Vol. 28, p. 834), the
famous Paris dressmaker who began
life as a London draper's apprentice;
Whitely, William (Vol. 28, p. 605),
"the Universal Provider," of London;
and Tata, J. N. (Vol. 26, p. 448), the
great Parsee textile manufacturer.
Scarf
Scrim
Shawl
Sheet
Shoddy
Silk
Sisal Hemp
Sleeve
Spinning
Stewart, A. T.
Stocking
Stole
Strutt, Jedediah
Tare and Tret
Tariff
Tarpaulin
Tartan
Tata, J. N.
Tapestry
Technical Education
Textile-printing
Ticking
Tow
Towel
Trousers
Tulle
Twill
Veil
Velvet
Velveteen
Vestments
Vicugna
Wanamaker, John
Weaving
Whiteley, William
Whitney, Eli
Wool, Worsted and Wool-
len Manufactures
Worth, C. F.
Yarn
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CHAPTER VI
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
MACHINERY
AN appreciation of the science
of mechanical engineering is so
indispensable to the manufac-
ture and sale of machinery that the
reader of this Guide might simply
have been referred to the chapter For
Engineers as covering the industry, if it
were not that the Britannica contains (as
the list at the end of this chapter shows)
a great number of articles dealing with
individual machines. The amount of
space which the new Britannica devotes
to mechanical subjects, and the great
number of expert contributors whose col-
laboration was enlisted in this connec-
tion, are significant from more than one
point of view. All other general ency-
clopaedias, including earlier editions of
the Britannica itself, seem to have been
influenced by the old-fashioned fetish of
"pure" scholarship and "pure" science,
treating theory as a
A Change in subject of study
Public Opinion much more digni-
fied than the ap-
plication of knowledge to the practical
affairs of life. Until recent days the
great universities of such important
manufacturing countries as England,
Germany and France were almost exclu-
sively devoted to the teaching of phi-
losophy, history, Greek and Latin, math-
ematics and pure or natural science.
The older universities of the United
States, too, were for a long time reluctant
to recognize the growing importance of
technical education, and the necessity,
apart from technical education, of giving
the general student some knowledge of
mechanics. And it is a significant fact that
the Britannica, the first encyclopaedia
that has ever been published by a uni-
versity, should be, although it comes
from one of the oldest of all universities,
the first to give full recognition to the
importance of this department of knowl-
edge.
Men in the machinery trade will wel-
come this change of attitude in the Bri-
tannica, not because they crave a public
acknowledgment of the great share of
the world's work that they are doing,
but because public ignorance of mechan-
ical subjects results in the abuse of ma-
chines and in unreasonable complaints
against manufacturers when improperly
used machinery fails to do its work. A
curious illustration of the general disre-
gard of the subject is supplied by the
fact — as true of the United States as of
England, Germany or France — that rep-
resentative government is, in practice,
chiefly government by lawyers, and that
in this age of machinery it is the excep-
tion to find in the cabinet which directs
the affairs of any country, a single mem-
ber who has any knowledge of mechanics.
The same ignorance is conspicuous in
newspaper offices. Even the most digni-
fied dailies seem unable to deal with any
news that has to do with machinery with-
out making ridiculous blunders.
Fortunately, the automobile is begin-
ning to stimulate interest in practical me-
chanics, for no one can attempt to drive
his own car, or even
Influence of to obtain proper
Automobiles service from his
chauffeur and from
garage workmen, without realizing that
he failed, at school, to learn some of the
most useful of lessons. Before long the
28
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29
authorities responsible for our public
schools may realize that it is absolute
barbarism to neglect mechanical teach-
ing as they do; and the new Britannica is
already doing good service in stimulating
public interest in the subject.
An examination of the articles men-
tioned in detail in the following summary,
and a glance at the long list of articles at
the end of the chapter, will show the
comprehensiveness with which the Bri-
tannica treats all types of machinery. The
materials employed are, logically, the
first subjects upon which information
will be desired.
Iron and Steel (Vol. 14, p. 801), by
Professor H. M. Howe of Columbia Uni-
versity, is a mine of information about
the properties and uses of the different
varieties of the indispensable metal of
which 50,000,000 tons per annum are
employed. In the manufacture of elec-
trical apparatus Copper (Vol. 7, p. 102)
is largely employed, and for this reason
alone the article has great value for the
manufacturer. Almost as important is
Alloys (Vol. 1, p. 704). Its chief author,
Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, is
the greatest living authority on alloys,
and it is full of interesting facts about
new admixtures.
The processes of Annealing, Harden-
ing and Tempering are described in J.
G. Horner's article under that title (Vol.
2, p. 70). This authority explains clearly
the difference between hardening and
tempering and gives valuable advice as to
the most efficient methods of hardening.
Founding (Vol. 10, p. 743), also by J. G.
Horner, is fully illustrated, and the ques-
tion of the highest economies of machine
moulding are among the practical mat-
ters considered. Forging (Vol. 10, p.
663), with 19 illustrations, discusses ful-
lering, swaging, upsetting, bending, weld-
ing, pinching, cutting-off, and die-forg-
ing. There is also a separate article,
Welding (Vol. 28), in which the section
on Electric Welding is written by Elihu
Thomson, who invented the process. A
table of energy used in electric welding is
added. See also Brazing and Solder-
ing (Vol. 4, p. 463).
The designer of machinery will find
much practical information in Drawing,
Drawing Office Work (Vol. 8, p. 556), and
Sun-Copying (Vol.
Manufacturing 26, p. 93). It is a
Methods remarkable fact that
prints identical in
scale with the originals are now made up
to a length of 22 feet.
Bearings (Vol. 3, p. 578), illustrated,
is written by Professor Dalby of the
South Kensington Central Technical
College. The article Tool (Vol. 27, p.
14), by J. G. Horner, is 33 pages in
length and has 79 illustrations. The
whole subject is completely covered. In
the section on Machine Tools are dis-
cussed turning lathes, reciprocating ma-
chines, machines with drill and bore
holes, milling machines, machines for
cutting the teeth of gear wheels, grinding
machinery, sawing machines, shearing
and punching machines, hammers and
presses, portable tools, appliances, wood-
working machines, and measurement. In
regard to the last subject great advances
have lately been made. A thousandth of
an inch is now considered a coarse dimen-
sion in the machine shop, where gauges
within one five-thousandth of an inch are
often used. This article is an invaluable
manual for the machine-shop, and sup-
plies many hints which should be given
to workmen, for, to use the author's
words, "a clumsy workman is as much
out of place in a modern machine-shop as
he would be in a watch-factory." An-
other article useful to the mechanic is
Screw (Vol. 24, p. 477), with 10 illustra-
tions, by J. G. Horner, with a section on
the Errors of Screws, by the late Henry
A. Rowland, the American physicist,
whose skill, shown in the construction of
dividing engines of extraordinary preci-
sion and delicacy, made him famous the
world over. See also Graduation (Vol.
12, p. 312).
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30
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The articles on the prime-movers are
an important and noteworthy part of the
new Britannica. Professor Ewing, of
Cambridge University, contributes Air
Engine (Vol. 1, p.
Engines and 443) and Steam Ex-
Motors gine (Vol. 25, p.
818), both fully illus-
trated. The latter has a most interesting
preliminary historical account of engines
from the aeolipile of Hero of Alexandria
(about 130 B.C.) to the steam-turbine,
the most modern type of all. The newest
forms of internal combustion motors, Oil
Engine (Vol. 20, p. 35) and Gas Engine
(Vol. 11, p. 495), are described by Dugald
Clerk, inventor of the Clerk cycle gas
engine, and the articles are fully illus-
trated. Under Hydraulics (Vol. 14, p.
91) will be found complete information
as to the construction of water-pressure
engines, water-wheels, turbines, and also
pumps. The article is written by Profes-
sor W. C. Unwin, and has been univer-
sally declared to be the best treatise on
the subject that has yet appeared. There
is a separate illustrated article Water-
Motors (Vol. 28, p. 382), by Professor
Beare of Edinburgh University. See also
Windmill (Vol. 28, p. 710).
Designers and constructors of elec-
trical machinery will be greatly inter-
ested in C. C. Hawkins' illustrated article
Dynamo (Vol. 8, p. 764), which explains
fully how the dynamo is constructed and
gives its history from Faraday's discovery
of the principle in 1831. Dr. Louis Bell,
of the General Electric Co., writes on
Motors, Electric (Vol. 18, p. 910).
In hundreds of articles on manufactur-
ing and manufactured products there are
excellent descriptions of the machinery
employed. Cotton-Spinning Machin-
ery (Vol. 7, p. 301), by Professor Fox, of
Manchester University, gives details,
with illustrations, of the modern systems
of spinning, all founded on the inventions
of Paul, Arkwright, Hargreaves and
Crompton, while an historical account of
primitive machines as well as much prac-
tical information, will be found under
Spinning (Vol. 25, p. 685). Weaving
has a section Weaving Machinery (Vol.
28, p. 443). An ac-
Machinery count of the special
for Special machinery and ap-
Purposes pliances used in the
manufacture of wool-
lens is included in Professor Barker's
illustrated article Wool, Worsted and
Woollen Manufactures (Vol. 28, p.
805). In Hosiery (Vol. 13, p. 788) we
learn about frame-work knitting and
warp-knitting machines. It is recorded
that up to the middle of the 19th century
only a flat web could be knitted, and that
a circular knitting machine of American
origin is the type of machine on which is
produced the seamless hosiery of to-day.
This was introduced by J. W. Lamb in
1863. Rope and Rope Making (Vol. 23,
p. 713), by Thomas Woodhouse, of the
Dundee Technical College, is richly illus-
trated with pictures of the most modern
type of machinery for the manufacture of
fibre and wire ropes. The various ma-
chines and apparatus for sugar making
are carefully described in Sugar, Sugar
Manufacture (Vol. 26, p. 35). For mill-
ing machinery see Flour and Flour
Manufacture (Vol. 10, p. 548), by
George F. Zimmer, author of Mechanical
Handling of Material. The latest designs
in agricultural machines, with illustra-
tions, as well as a history of their develop-
ment, will be found under Plough and
Ploughing (Vol. 21, p. 850), Sowing
(Vol. 25, p. 523), Harrow (Vol. 13, p.
27), Reaping (Vol. 22, p. 944), Thrash-
ing (Vol. 26, p. 887), etc. It is a matter
of interest that the first successful reap-
ing-machine was invented by a Scotch
clergyman in 1826. For machinery used
in the modern dairy see Dairy and
Dairy Products (Vol. 7, p. 750). The
germ of the sewing machine dates back
to 1755, and the whole story of its de-
velopment is told in Sewing Machines
(Vol. 24, p. 744). The descriptions of
machinery of various kinds are continued
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31
under such headings as Brewing, Brew-
ing Operations (Vol. 4, p. 506), illustrated;
Bellows and Blowing Machines
(Vol. 3, p. 705), illustrated ; Pin (Vol.
21. p. 615); Needle
(Vol. 19, p. 338); Ty-
pography, Modem
Practical Typography
(Vol. 27, p. 542),
illustrated; Printing (Vol. 22, p. 350),
illustrated; Bookbinding, Modern Meth-
ods (Vol. 4, p. 218), illustrated; Textile
Printing (Vol. 26, p. 694); Alkali
Manufacture (Vol. 1, p. 674), illus-
trated; Refrigerating and Ice Mak-
ing (Vol. 23, p. 30); Silk, SUk Manufac-
A Vast
Encyclopaedia
of Machinery
ture (Vol. 25, p. 102); Lace, Machine-
made Lace (Vol. 16, p. 44), illustrated;
Carpet, Modern Machinery (Vol. 5, p.
396); Leather (Vol. 16, p. 330), illus-
trated; Bicycle (Vol. 3, p. 913), illus-
trated; Typewriter (Vol. 27, p. 501), il-
lustrated; Dredge and Dredging (Vol.
8, p. 562), illustrated; and Paper, Paper
Manufacture (Vol. 20, p. 727), illus-
trated.
Biographies of many inventors, de-
signers and builders of machines are in-
cluded in the list of articles at the end of
the chapter For Engineers in this Guide,
and are therefore omitted in the following
alphabetical summary.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL MACHINES AND APPLIANCES
DESCRIBED IN THE BRITANNICA AND GENERAL SUBJECTS
AND ARTICLES ON MACHINERY
Accumulator
Acetylene Generator
Aerating Apparatus
Aeroplane
Air Brake
Alternators
Alloys
Ammunition Hoist
Anemometer
Annealing, Hardening
and Tempering
Archimedes, Screw of
Babbitt's Metal
Back-starching Mangle
Bale-breakers
Band-knife Cutting
Machine
Barbed Wire Machin-
ery
Barker's Mill
Barrel Organ
Bearings
Beating Machine
Beetling Machine
Bellows and Blowing
Machines
Bessemer Convertor
Bevel
Bicycle
Black - ash Revolving
Furnace
Blast Furnace
Blocking Machine
Boiler
Bolt - screwing Ma-
chines
Book-sewing Machine
Boring Tools
Brake, Hydraulic
Brass
Brazing and Soldering
Breaker Card
Brewing Machinery
Bronze
Bundling Press
Burner
Butter Worker
Butyrometer
Calculating Machines
Calender Machine
Calipers
Calorimeter
Carburetter
Carding Engine
Carpet-making Machin-
ery
Case-making Machine
Casing-in Machine
Centrifugal Machines
Chisel
Chronograph
Chucks
Churn, Mechanical
Clepsydra, or Water-
clock
Clock
Coal-cutting Machines
Coal-wedging Machines
Coal-weighing Machine
Coining Press
Comber
Compressed - air Ma-
chines
Continuous Press
Conveyors
Copper
Copying Machines
Core-making
Cotton-gin
Cotton - spinning Ma-
chinery
Cranes
Crushing Machine
Cultivator
Current Meter
Curvometer
Cutting Machines
Cutting Tools
Damping Machines
Dash Wheel
Depth Recorder
Die
Differential Machines
Dividing Engines
Diving Bell
Doublers
Dough Kneaders
Dough Dividers and
Moulders
Dough Mixers
Drawing-box
Drawing-frame
Drawing-office
Dredgers
Dressing Machine
Drill
Drop Hammer
Drying Machine, Hori-
zontal
Dye-jigger
Dynamo
Dynamometer
Eccentric
Elevators, Lifts and
Hoists
Error of Screws
Fans, Rotary
Fire-engines
Flour-sifters
Flying Machines
Fly-shuttle
Forging
Forging Press, Hy-
draulic
Founding
Friction
Furnace
Gas Engine
Gas Plants
Gas Producers
Gill Frame
Glass-blowing Machine
Glass Press
Graduation
Gravity Stamp
Grinding Machinery
Gyroscope and Gyro-
stat
Hackling and Spread-
ing Machine
Half-stuff Machine
Hammer
Hand Drill, Electric
Harrow
Hat-making Machines
Hay Elevator
Hide Mill, or Double-
Acting Stock
Hoe, Horse
Holden Burner
Hydraulic Machines
Hydraulics
Hydro-extractors
Ice-making Machines
Indicator
Injector
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Integrators
Iron and Steel
Ironing Machines
Jigger, Hydraulic
Jigs
Jute-Crusher
Jute-Opener
Jute-softening Machine
Kier
Knitting Machines
Labour Legislation
Lace Machines
Lappet Looms
Lathe, Automatic
Laundry Machines
Lever
Lifts, Hydraulic
Linotype Machine
Liquid-air Machine
Lithographing Ma-
chines
Loaders
Lock
Locomotives
Loom
Lubricants
Luggage-weighing ma-
chine, Automatic
Machine
Machine Gun
Machine Moulding
Mandrel Lathe
Mangling Machines
Manometer
Measuring Machine
Mercerizing Machines
Metal-turning Tools
Meter, Electric
Micrometer
Microtome
Milling Cutters
Milling Machines
Milling Stock
Monotype Machine
Mortising Machine
Motors, Electric
Motor Vehicles
Mowers
Mule, Crompton's
Nail Machines
Needle Machines
Netting Machine
Oil Engine
Oil Muffle Furnace
Opening Machine
Ore-Breaker
Pantograph
Paper - making Ma-
chines
Patent logs
Patents
Perpetual Motion
Phonograph
Phosphor Bronze
Pin Machine
Pig-casting Machine
Planimeters
Planing Tools
Plug and Ring Gauge
Pneumatic Hammer
Potter's Wheel
Power-looms
Power Transmission
Price-c omputing
Weighing Machine
Printing Presses
Pulley
Pumps
Purifiers
Rag Boiler, Revolving
Rag-breaking Engine
Rake, Horse
Reaping Machines
Reciprocating M a -
chines
Rectifiers
Reel Paper-Cutter
Reels
Refrigerating Machines
Remontoire
Reverbatory Furnace
Rifling Machine
Ring-frame
Rock Drill
Rod Gauge
Roller Milling Machine
Roller Washing Ma-
chine
Rolling, Mill
Rope-making Machines
Rotary Washing Ma-
chines
Rounding and Backing
Machines
Rusden and Eeles
Burner
Salt-cake Furnace, Me-
chanical
Sawing Machines
Scalpers
Screw cutting
Screw - Gill Drawing
Frames
Screw-thread gauge
Screw
Screwing Machine
Scutcher
Separators
Sewing Machines
Shaping Machines
Shearing and Punching
Machines
Shuttles
Signal Lever
Silk-reeling Machine
Slide-rule
Slime-tables
Slotter Tools
Sowing Machines
Spinning-jinny
Splitting Machine
Steam Engine
Steam Hammers
Steam Plough
Steam Turbines
Stentering Frame
Still
Stocking Frame
Strength of Materials
Sugar-making Machin-
ery
Sugar Weighing Ma-
chine, Automatic
Sulphuric-Acid Plant
Sun Copying
Swathe Turners
Sweep Rake
Table, Mathematical
Tea-weighing Machine
Teasel
Technical Education
Testing Machines
Thermodynamics
Thrashing Machines
Throstle
Tool
Tractors, Steam and
Oil
Trepans
Turbine
Turning Lathes
Turret Lathe
Type-setting Machines
Typewriter
Units, Physical
Vacuum brake
Valve
Vanners
Vernier
Voting Machines
Vidcanizer
Washing Machines
Wash Mill
Watch
Water Motors
Water - pressure En-
gines
Water Wheels
Weaving Machinery
Weighing Machines
Welder, Automatic
Welding
Welding, Electric
Winding Machines
W'indmill
Wire-winding Machine
Wiring Machine
Wood - working Ma-
chines
Woolen Mule
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CHAPTER VII
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF METALS,
HARDWARE, GLASS AND CHINA
ELISEE RECLUS, the great French
student of the origins of civili-
zation, says, in the Britannica
article Fire (Vol. 10, p. 399), that "hu-
man culture may be said to have be-
gun with fire, of which the uses in-
creased in the same ratio as cul-
ture itself." The industries grouped in
the present chapter all depend upon the
curiously diverse effects of heat; the soft-
ening and tempering of metals, the hard-
ening of clay and the changes by which
sand becomes glass. It is for the reader
himself to decide whether he wishes to
begin his course of reading by a study of
the article Heat (Vol. 13, p. 135), and
the allied articles to which it refers, and
thus to understand how temperature
plays its dominant part in the most use-
ful of manufacturing processes.
It is, indeed, one of the most attractive
features of the Britannica that it presents
knowledge in layers. In text-books, the
theoretical and prac-
Knowledge tical aspects of an
in "Layers" industry are so in-
terwoven that you
cannot separate them. But in the Brit-
annica, if you desire only to examine the
finished products of any branch of indus-
try, as you might see them and hear
them described at an exhibition or in a
manufacturer's sample room, you can
turn 'to articles and sections of articles in
which critical comment and elaborate il-
lustrations put clearly before you the
varieties of, for example, plated ware,
china or glass. Proceeding to the next
"layer," you find technical information
about the manufacture of these and all
other goods; you have been permitted to
pass from the sample room into the fac-
tory, which is not usually so easy of ac-
cess. And in the scientific articles you
arrive at the very substratum and founda-
tion of knowledge; you have what the
experts in the factory could not give you
if they would: the clear teaching that
only the great masters of science can
supply.
The manufacturer, of course, abso-
lutely needs to know all that can be
learned about the origin of his materials
and the principles upon which his pro-
cesses are based. But the dealer, in his
turn, will be a shrewder buyer, a more
convincing salesman and a better man-
ager of the salesmen under him, if he
knows the whole history of his wares, of
the ingredients that enter into their com-
position and of their manufacture. Fac-
tory experience is hardly more universal
among wholesale men, most of whom
begin as clerks, than among retailers, and
it is impossible for a business man who
has got his foot fairly on the ladder to
drop his work and go through an ap-
prenticeship or take a thorough course at
a technical college. If, however, he will
for a few months devote his spare time to
the studies he can pursue, unaided, in
the Britannica, the insight he obtains
33
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34
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
will give a new value to all the knowledge
h«. picks up in the course of his business.
The departments of physics and phy-
sical chemistry are of course those in
which the Britannica's scientific contents
especially interest
Physics and those to whom this
Chemistry chapter is addressed,
and the authority of
the Britannica in those departments of
knowledge is shown by a very striking
fact. You may remember that Alfred
Nobel, the great Swedish chemist, who
made a fortune by the invention and
manufacture of dynamite, devoted $9,-
000,000 to the establishment of the an-
nual Nobel prizes, to be awarded, irre-
spective of nationality, for eminence in
scientific research and in the cause of
peace. In physics and chemistry, Britan-
nica contributors have vxm 9 in eleven years,
seven of these prizes, these winners being:
in 1901, Prof. J. H. van't Hoff, of the
University of Berlin; in 1902, Prof.
Lorentz, of the University of Leiden; in
1904, Lord Rayleigh, Chancellor of the
University of Cambridge; in 1906, Sir J. J.
Thomson, of the University of Cambridge;
in 1909, Prof. Ostwald, of the University
of Leipzig; in 1911, Prof. Van der Waals,
of the University of Amsterdam. In
other words, you find
Some of the that the scientific
Authorities committee who
award the Nobel
prizes select for these unique distinctions
the same men whom the editor of the
Britannica selected as contributors. Now
apply another test, in connection with
the subject matter of this chapter. What
is, by general consent, the most exquis-
itely finished product of any of the in-
dustries under discussion in the present
section? To this question there can be
but one answer: Optical glass. Where is
the best glass made? At the Zeiss Works
in Jena, Germany. Very well, Dr. Otto
Henker and Dr. Eppenstein, both of the
scientific staff of the Zeiss Works, wrote
the optical articles in the Britannica
which deal with the lens and with aberra-
tion in lenses. You should therefore re-
member, in reading the Britannica, that
whether you are only going as far as the
uppermost layer of knowledge, or reach-
ing down to the very foundations of
science, the men whose articles you are
reading command the respect that you
can pay to them by giving your very
closest attention. Do not imagine that
because the book contains forty-four
million words, it is made to be skimmed;
every article in it is condensed; and you
cannot derive the fullest benefit from
your reading unless you feel, as you
would feel if you were fortunate enough
to be brought into personal contact with
any of these great men, that you have a
privilege of which you must make the
most.
Other chapters of this Guide also deal
in detail with the scientific side of the in-
dustries mentioned here; and in examin-
ing the groups of industrial articles, those
dealing with metals claim first considera-
tion. The article Metal
Metals (Vol. 18, p. 198) is devoted
to classification only, and
would not occupy more than ten pages
of this Guide. It contains information
as to the physical properties of the met-
als, including a table in which the specific
gravity of each of 42 metals is stated, a
table of comparative ductility under the
hammer, for rolling and for wire drawing,
a table of elasticities, and other tables
showing the ratio of expansion under
heat, the melting and boiling points, and
the relative thermic and electric conduc-
tivity. A section is devoted to the action
of chemical agents upon the simple
metals.
Metallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203), and
Electrometallurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232), by
W. G. McMillan, lecturer on metallurgy
at Mason College, Birmingham, deal
with all the methods of smelting ores.
Your next reading should be the great
article Iron and Steel (Vol. 14, p. 801),
by Prof. H. M. Howe, of Columbia Uni-
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FOR MANUFACTURERS OF METALS, HARDWARE, CHINA AND GLASS 35
versity, containing as much matter as
would fill 110 pages of this Guide. At
the beginning of this article Prof. Howe
disposes of the much discussed question
as to the true distinction between iron
and- steel, as to which there has been
great confusion. Before 1860, the word
"steel" was never applied to a metal that
could not be hardened by tempering. But
when the invention of the Bessemer and
open-hearth processes introduced a new
class of iron, "which lacked the essential
property of steel, the hardening power,
yet differed from the existing forms of
wrought iron in freedom from slag," the
men interested in the new product did
not like to call it "wrought iron," which
is what it really is, because that name
would confuse it with a lower-priced
grade of metal. They ought to have
coined a new word for it, but they ap-
propriated the name of steel — so that to-
day "steel" means either true steel or the
low-carbon, slagless variety of malleable
iron. The article is divided into 1SS sec-
tions, so that to analyze its contents
would swamp this chapter of the Guide,
but the reader will find in it the clearest
and most authoritative account of the
industry which has yet been published.
Among articles on the commercial
metals are Copper (Vol. 7, p. 102), Lead.
(Vol. 16, p. 314), Tin (Vol. 26, p. 995),
Zinc (Vol. 28, p. 981), Aluminium (Vol.
1, p. 767), Nickel (Vol. 19, p. 658), An-
timony (Vol. 2, p. 127), and, on the
precious metals, Gold (Vol. 12, p. 192),
Silver (Vol. 25, p. 112), and Platinum
(Vol. 21, p. 805).
The article Alloys, of which Sir W. C.
Roberts-Austen, long chemist of the
London Mint, is the chief contributor,
with its photomicrographic illustrations,
contains not only an account of the alloys
already generally used in the metal in-
dustries, but also practical information
as to the experiments which have been
made recently with some of the newly
discovered rare earths. In the article
Metallography (Vol. 18, p. 202), by
the same specialist, the microscopic ex-
amination and photography of metals and
alloys is described.
Among articles on the metallic com-
pounds are Brass (Vol. 4, p. 438), in
which "Dutch metal," "Mannheim gold,"
"similor" and "pinchbeck" are described;
Bronze (Vol. 4, p. 689), which deals with
steel bronze, phosphor bronze, and other
combinations; Fusible Metal (Vol. 11,
p. 369) is an important compound.
Pewter (Vol. 21, p. 888), by Malcolm
Bell, author of Pewter Plate, etc., is of
historical interest, and of value to the
dealer or collector, while he who wishes
to distinguish between the older and the
more modern electroplated ware is re-
ferred to the article Sheffield Plate
(Vol. 24, p. 824), also by Malcolm Bell.
Electroplating (Vol. 9, p. 287) de-
scribes the art that put an end to the
Sheffield plate industry. Other methods
of coating metals are given under Gal-
vanized Iron (Vol. 11, p. 428),Tin Plate
and Terne Plate (Vol. 26, p. 1000), and
Gilding (Vol. 12, p. 18). The art of
making gold-leaf is described in Gold-
beating (Vol. 12, p. 202).
In regard to manufacturing processes
there are the separate articles: Forging
(Vol. 10, p. 668), with 19 illustrations;
Founding (Vol. 10, p. 743), with 11 il-
lustrations; Annealing, Hardening
and Tempering (Vol. 2, p. 70), and
Brazing and Soldering (Vol. 4, p. 468).
These four articles are by J. G. Horner.
And see Welding (Vol. 28, p. 500), also
by Mr. Horner, with a section on Electro-
Welding, by Elihu Thomson, inventor of
the process of electric welding and expert
for the General Electric Co. The article
Tool (Vol. 27, p. 14), another of Mr.
Horner's valuable contributions, has 79
illustrations and possesses special interest
for the manufacturer of metal-ware as well
as the dealer in hardware.
Coming now to the production of metal
wares, the article Metal- Work (Vol. 18,
p. 205), beautifully illustrated, is the
work of three noted experts. The late
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
J. H. Middleton, Slade Professor of Fine
Art, Cambridge University, writes on
Methods of Manijm-
Metal-Ware lotion in Metal Work
and tells of the metal
work of Greece, Italy, Spain, Germany,
France, England, Persia and Damascus.
J. S. Gardner, an expert metal worker,
deals with Modern Art Metal Work, and
J. G. Horner contributes the section on
Industrial Metal Working, in which he
deals with Plater's Work, Coppersmith's
Work, Raised Work, Cast Work, Methods
of Union and Protection of Surfaces. In
connection with the last mentioned sub-
ject, see also Japanning (Vol. 15, p. 275),
Lacquer (Vol. 16, p. 53), and Painter-
Wcrk (Vol. 20, p. 457). Further infor-
mation about lacquering, with valuable
formulas, will be found in the article
Japan (Vol. 15, p. 188). Some of the
ornamental forms of metal work are de-
scribed in RepoussS (Vol. 23, p. 108), by
M. H. Spielmann, formerly editor of The
Magazine of Art; Inlaying (Vol. 14, p.
574), and Damascening (Vol. 7, p. 783).
See also Grille (Vol. 12, p. 596).
Plate (Vol. 21, p. 789), an article by
H. R. Hall, of the British Museum, H.
Stuart Jones, director of the British
School at Rome, and E. A. Jones, author
of Old English Gold Plate, etc., is a con-
cise, complete hand-book on work in sil-
ver and gold of any class other than
those of personal ornaments and coins.
It is profusely illustrated with plates and
text-cuts, showing many exquisite mod-
els; and the reader can master the details
of style in different periods and countries.
The subjects of the assay of gold and sil-
ver plate and hall-marks are discussed,
the former being treated more fully in
Assaying (Vol. 2, p. 776), by A. A. Blair,
chief chemist of the U. S. Geological
Survey. The article Roman Art, by H.
Stuart Jones, has a section devoted to
Work in Precious Metals (Vol. 23, p. 483).
Cutlery (Vol. 7, p. 671) is one of the
articles pertaining specifically to hard-
ware manufacture and trade, in which
general processes of manufacture are de-
scribed; and of allied interest are Knife
(Vol. 15, p. 850), Fork (Vol. 10, p. 666),
Spoon (Vol. 25, p. 733), Scissors (Vol.
24, p. 407), Shears (Vol. 24, p. 815),
Razor (Vol. 22, p. 937), Chafing-Dish
(Vol. 5, p. 800), Nail (Vol. 19, p. 153),
Axe (Vol. 3, p. 67), Hammer (Vol. 12, p.
897), Chisel (Vol. 6, p. 247), Wire (Vol.
28, p. 738), and Barbed Wire (Vol. 3, p.
384). Articles describing all forms of
agricultural implements will be found
under their respective headings.
Glass (Vol. 12, p. 86) is most complete
in its consideration of the entire subject.
The introductory section by H. J. Powell,
of the Whitefriars
Glassware Glass Works, Lon-
don, author of Glass
Making, and W. Rosenhain, of the Na-
tional Physical Laboratory, London,
deals with the manufacture of optical
glass, blown glass and mechanically-
pressed glass. The necessary qualities of
each kind are stated and the newest pro-
cesses of manufacture described, with full
information about materials. The second
part of the article is devoted to the His-
tory of Glass Manufacture, by Mr. Powell
and Alexander Nesbitt, who wrote the
well-known Introduction to the South
Kensington Museum Catalogue of Glass
Vessels. Egyptian, Assyrian, Roman,
Venetian, Bohemian and Oriental glass,
as well as the modern types, are ex-
haustively described. The article is
splendidly illustrated. Drinking Ves-
sels (Vol. 8, p. 580), by Dr. Charles H.
Read, of the British Museum, describes
old forms of glass cups and goblets. It is
most valuable for its information in re-
gard to styles of different countries and
periods, and the illustrations show many
types.
Stained glass is the subject of the sepa-
rate article Glass, Stained (Vol. 12, p.
105), illustrated, by the late I^ewis F.
Day, author of Windows, a Book about
Stained Glass. It is both historical and
descriptive in its nature, deals with
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painted and stained glass, contains a table
of examples of important historical
stained glass, and treats of the latest
progress in the art, including the produc-
tions of La Farge and L. C. Tiffany in
this country. The art of fitting and set-
ting of glass is described in Glazing (Vol.
12, p. 116), illustrated, by James Bart-
lett. Here we learn about the setting of
window glass, the use of glass in decora-
tion, systems of roof glazing and the use
of wire glass.
Full information about glass for op-
tical purposes will be found under Lens
(Vol. 16, p. 421), illustrated, by Dr. Otto
Henker, of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena,
Germany; Lighthouse, Optical Appar-
atus (Vol. 16, p. 633), illustrated, by W.
T. Douglass, who erected the Eddystone
and Bishop Rock lighthouses, and Nich-
olas G. Gedye, chief engineer to the
Tyne Improvement Commission; Tele-
scope, Instruments (Vol. 26, p. 561), il-
lustrated, by H. Dennis Taylor and Sir
David Gill; Photography, Photographic
Objectives or Lenses (Vol. 21, p. 507), il-
lustrated, by James Waterhouse; Spec-
tacles (Vol. 25, p. 617).
To those engaged in the chinaware,
pottery or porcelain manufacture and
trade, the great article Ceramics (Vol.
5, p. 703) will prove
Chinaware, a revelation. It is
Pottery and the joint product of
Porcelain a number of experts,
both practical and
artistic, including William Burton, chair-
man, Joint Committee of Pottery Manu-
facturers of Great Britain, Henry R. H.
Hall and Robert Lockhart Hobson, both
of the British Museum, and A. Van de
Put and Bernard Rackham, both of the
Victoria and Albert Museum. It is 85 ,000
words in length and contains over a hun-
dred beautiful illustrations, including six
plates in colour. It deals fully with the
artistic and economic phases of the sub-
ject, the methods of manufacture, the
different varieties of ceramics, their his-
tory, decoration, etc. Japanese ceramics
are treated separately in Japan, Ceramics
(Vol. 15, p. 183), illustrated, by the late
Capt. Frank Brinkley.
Clay (Vol. 6, p. 472), by Dr. J. S.
Flett, describes the occurrence, composi-
tion and properties of the various clays
used in ceramics.
Terracotta (Vol. 26, p. 653), illus-
trated, by William Burton and H. B.
Walters, of the British Museum, deals
with the artistic use to which baked clay
is put, while Tile (Vol. 26, p. 971), illus-
trated, also by William Burton, has great
practical value for the present-day manu-
facturer.
Kaolin (Vol. 15, p. 672), by F. W.
Rudler, of the Museum of Practical
Geology, London, deals specifically with
china clay and its preparation for the
market. Gilding (Vol. 12, p. 13) con-
tains material on the subject of the gilding
of pottery and porcelain, and Painting
has a section Painting with Coloured Vit-
reous Pastes (Vol. 20, p. 484), by Prof. G.
B. Brown, of Edinburgh University, which
describes the use of these pastes in ce-
ramics. Enamel (Vol. 9, p. 362), illus-
trated, by Alexander Fisher, yields
equally valuable information for those
concerned with the decoration of
china.
In Mural Decoration, by Walter
Crane and William Morris, there is a sec-
tion devoted to Wall-Linings of Glazed
Brick or Tiles (Vol. 19, p. 17). Material
of great archaeological interest relating to
earthenware, etc., will be found in such
articles as Aegean Civilization (Vol. 1,
p. 245), illustrated, by D. G. Hogarth, of
the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; Crete,
Archaeology (Vol. 7, p. 421), illustrated, by
Arthur J. Evans, the famous Cretan ex-
plorer, and Greek Art (Vol. 12, p. 470),
illustrated, by Percy Gardner, the class*
ical archaeologist.
The following is a partial list in al-
phabetical order of articles and subjects
in this field treated in the Britannica.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ALPHABETICAL LIST OP ARTICLES AND SUBJECTS IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE IN METAL, HARD-
WARE, GLASS AND CHINA MANUFACTURE AND TRADE
Adze
Aegean Civilization
Ainmuller, M. E.
Alloy Steels
Alloys
Aluminium
Amphora
Andiron
Annealing, Hardening
and Tempering
Antimony
Anvil
Armour Plate
Arms and Armour
Arretine Ware
Assaying
Auger
Awl
Barbed Wire
Banko Ware
Basin
Beaker
Belleeck Ware
Bidri Work
Binocular Instrument
Biscuit
Bismuth
Bizen Ware
Bohemian Glass
Bottle
Bow Ware
Bradawl
Brass
Brasses, Monumental
Brazier
Brazing and Soldering
Bronze
Byzantine Glass
Caffieri, Jacques
Candlestick
Capo di Monte Ware
Capronnier, J. B.
Cast Work
Cellini, Benvenuto
Ceramics
Chafing Dish
Chalice
Chelsea Ware
China
China, Art
Chinese Porcelain
Chisel
Churn
Clay
Cookworthy, William
Coperta
Copper
Coppersmith's Work
Crete
Crown Glass
Cup
Cutlery
Cultivator
Damascening
Damask Steel, or Da-
mascus Steel
Damascus Ware
Delft Ware
Delia Robbia
Derby Ware
Doulton, Sir Henry
Dresden, or Meissen,
Ware
Drinking Vessels
Dwight, John
Electrolier
Electroplating
Electrum
Enamel Painting
Etruscan Ware
Faience
Fender
File
Finiguerra, Maso
Fireback
Firing
Fire-irons
Flint Glass
Fork
Forging
Founding
Fusible Metal
Galvanized Iron
German (or Nickel)
Silver
Gilding
Gimlet
Girandole
Glass
Glass, Ancient
Glass-blowing Machine
Glass Cutting and En-
graving
Glass, Painted
Glass-press
Glass, Stained
Glazes
Glazing
Goblet
Gold
Gold and Silver Thread
Gold-beating
Gouge
Gombroon Ware
Gouthiere, Pierre
Graffito Ware
Grate
Greek Art
Grille
Hall-marks
Hammer
Harrow
Hatchet
Henri-Deux, Oiron, or
St. Porchaire Ware
Hispano-M o r e s q u e
Ware
Hizen Ware
Hoe
Horseshoes
Ingot
Inlaying
Invar
Iron and Steel
Iron Work
Izumo Ware
Japan, Ceramics
Japanning
Jug
Kaolin
Kashi
Kiln
Kioto Ware
Knife
Kuang-Yao
Kuft Work
Kutani Ware
Lacquer -
La Farge, John
Lang-Yao
Latten
Lead
Lens
Lighthouse Apparatus,
Optical
Lock
Lubricants
Lustred Ware
Majolica
Meissonier, J. A.
Medal
Metal
Metallography
Metallurgy
Metal Work
Mezza Majolica
Minoan, or Kamares,
Ware
Mirror
Monstrance
Morel-Ladeuil, L.
Mural Decoration
Nail
Needle
Nickel
Niello
Ormolu
Owari Ware
Painter-work
Palissy, Bernard
Palissy Ware
Painting
Pen
Persian Pottery
Pewter
Photographic Objec-
tives or I^enses
Pin
Pitcher
Plaque
Plate
Plated Ware
Plate-glass
Plater's Work
Platinum
Plough
Porcelain
Pot-hook
Potteries, The
Potter's Marks
Potter's Wheel
Pottery
Protection of Surfaces
Raised Work
Rake
Razor
Reaper
Repouss6
Roman Art
Rookwood Ware
Royal Copenhagen
Ware
Royal Worcester Ware
Salt Glaze
Salver
Samovar
Saracenic Glass
Satsuma Ware
Saw
Scissors
Sconce
Screen
Screw
Scythe
Sevres Porcelain
Shears
Sheet Glass
Sheffield Plate
Shovel
Shuttle
Sieve
Silver
Smith
Solder
Spade
Spectacles
Spit
Spoon
Spade
Stone Ware
Table-ware
Takatori Ware
Tanagra Figures
Tankard
Tazza
Telescopic Instruments
Terracotta
Thrasher
Tiffany, C. L.
Tiffany Glass
Tiles
Tin
Tinker
Tin and Terne Plate
Tongs
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39
Tool
Torch&re
Tray
Tripod
Trivet
Tube-making, Glass
Turkish Pottery
Tweezers
Trowel
Vacuum Cleaner
Vase
Venetian Glass
Wedgewood, Josiah
Wedgewood Ware
Whitef riars Glass
Wire
Wired Glass
Yatgusftiro Ware
Yi-Hsing-Yao
Zinc
CHAPTER VIII
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
FURNITURE
WHEN you think of your home,
making a picture in your mind
of the familiar surroundings as-
sociated in your memory with your
greatest pleasures, you are really think-
ing of furniture. Tradition makes the
dwelling itself the tangible symbol of
home, because when a primitive tribe
ceased to be wanderers, the walls that
excluded wild beasts and inclement
weather and gave privacy were con-
spicuous evidences of a change for the
better. But in our higher civilization our
way of thinking has changed. Nothing
seems to us more desolate than the bleak
surfaces and harsh angles of an unfur-
nished house. Colour and softness and
the curved lines which we instinctively
love because they suggest softness come
into the dwelling with furniture, and cul-
ture has progressed so far that the chair
or bed must be a delight to the eye as
well a* to the weary
Art and limbs, that the din-
Industry ner table and the
bookcase must be so
designed as to enhance the satisfaction
we find in refreshing body and mind.
You would not get so much pleasure as
you do from your Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica if its paper and print and pictures
and the. colour and texture of the bind-
ings did not make it one of the chief
adornments of your home; the volumes
might be just as useful in a less pleasing
guise, but you would not feel the same
affection for the book.
To satisfy the spirit of home-love and
house-pride in the making of furniture is
an art, and the idea that furniture can
only be artistic when it is made by hand,
from a design that is to be used but once,
is as nonsensical as it would be to say
that a beautiful etching is not true art
because a press produces it and others
like it. "Fine art is everything which
man does or makes in one way rather than
another .... in order to express and
arouse emotion .... with results inde-
pendent of direct utility." These words
from Sir Sidney Colvin's delightful Brit-
annica article Fine Arts (Vol. 10, p.
361), and another passage (p. 370), in
which he speaks of "the artificers who
produce wares primarily for use, in a
form, or with embellishments, that have
the secondary virtue of giving pleasure"
might well be quoted to the supercilious
and superficial critic
Form and who condemns every
Embellishment product which ma-
chinery has brought
within the reach of the less fortunately
situated. Furniture, made in one form
rather than another, oecause that one
form gives greater pleasure, is artistic
furniture whether it is made of machined
pine chemically stained or of hand-
worked and hand-polished rosewood.
The manufacturer and dealer who in-
geniously minimize the cost of produc-
tion and distribution are benefiting the
public just as truly as did Thomas Chip-
pendale, "at once an artist and a pros-
perous man of business/' or Thomas
Sheraton, "the great artistic genius who
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40
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
lived in chronic poverty." The adapta-
tion and variation of their ideas, under
modern conditions of manufacture, have
given pleasure to tens of thousands for
every one whose home was enriched by
the original products.
We have, then, in the furniture busi-
ness, the combination of an art with an
industry of the most practical and useful
kind, and this art is one which does more
than any other to "express and arouse"
the home-cherishing emotions which sol-
idify family life. The principles which
underlie architecture, sculpture, paint-
ing, metal work, embroidery and the
weaving of patterns all affect the design
of furniture, since its
Related contours and surfaces
Subjects are obtained by the ap-
plication of the struc-
tural and decorative laws of all of them,
and it might therefore be said that the
only course of reading in the Britannica
which could fully justify the title of this
chapter would be one which covered all
these diverse fields. The reader can,
however, with the assistance of other
chapters of this Guide, easily find his
way to the Britannica's articles on each
of these allied subjects, and an indication
of the articles dealing specifically with
furniture will at any rate serve his pri-
mary purpose.
The keystone article Furniture (Vol.
11, p. 363) is by James Penderel-Brod-
hurst, one of the greatest of living au-
thorities, to whom many of the sub-
sidiary articles are also due. The 37 il-
lustrations on plate paper include two
large views of the most famous and re-
splendent piece of furniture ever con-
structed, the cylinder desk, now in the
Louvre Museum in Paris, made for Louis
XV by a number of "artist-artificers, "
the chief among them Oeben and Ries-
ener, with bronze mounts by Duplessis,
Winant and Hervieux. The article ex-
plains the scanty attention paid to furni-
ture in ancient Egypt, Rome and Greece,
and throughout the Middle Ages in West-
ern Europe, as due to the routine of life
in centuries during which people spent
their days in the open air, and went to
bed as soon as it was dark, therefore
needing but few household appliances.
The Renaissance was the first era of
sumptuous and elaborately varied furni-
ture; and it was not until the 18th cen-
tury that the art of the cabinet-maker
was fully developed. The English periods
of Queen Anne and early Georgian crafts-
manship and the reigns of Louis XV and
Louis XVI brought the development to
its high-water-mark. Since then, there
has been no really
•'Art Nouveau" new departure ex-
School cept the "art nou-
veau" school, which
professed to be free from all traditions
and to seek inspiration from nature alone.
The revolution which was thus attempted
was not successful, and the permanent in-
fluence of the movement will, in all prob-
ability, be less notable for its effect upon
style than for the very great service it
rendered in reviving the use of oak.
Lightly polished, fumed or waxed, this
wood, which was so long neglected, is the
most effective that can be employed at
moderate cost.
The oldest and most indispensable of
all furnishings is treated in the article
Bed (Vol. 3, p. 612). The Egyptians had
high bedsteads to which
Beds they ascended by steps,
and the Assyrians, Medes
and Persians followed the same custom.
The Greek bed had a wooden frame, with
a board at the head, and bands of hide
laced across, upon which skins were laid.
At a later period, as vase-paintings show,
the Greeks used folding beds. Another
ancient application of an idea commonly
supposed to be of modern origin is found
in the Roman use of bronze beds, and
metal is so much more sanitary than
wood for this purpose that it seems
strange it was afterwards discarded for
many centuries. The bed of the Em-
peror Eliogabalus was of solid silver,
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41
with counterpane and hangings of purple
embroidered in gold. In Pompeii wall-
niches for beds, like those still used in
Holland, are found, and were apparently
closed by sliding partitions as well as by
curtains. To our modern ideas, this ar-
rangement seems to have been disgust-
ingly devoid of ventilation, but the four-
poster, with its "tester" roof and its cur-
tains, which was widely used until the
middle of the 19th century, was not much
better. Mattresses developed very slowly,
for in the 18th century pea-shucks and
straw were the stuffing materials em-
ployed in houses of prosperous people,
and hair had not come into use. The ar-
ticle gives a full and interesting account
of the quaint custom, instituted by Louis
XI of France, and followed by many of
his royal successors, of a sovereign re-
maining in bed while he received the
visits of his ministers and Courtiers.
The chair, to us the commonest of ob-
jects, did not come into general use until,
as the articles Bench (Vol. 3, p. 715) and
Stool (Vol. 25, p.
Chests and 967) indicate, these
Chairs two had long been
the usual seats. The
Chest (Vol. 6, p. 106) was also used as a
seat, and was the original form of ward-
robe before hanging space and drawers
were provided. The ecclesiastical chests,
of great length in order that they might
contain, without folding, church vest-
ments stiff with embroidery, are the most
ornate of all the models of furniture
which have been preserved from the 13th
and 14th centuries. The article Chair
(Vol. 5, p. 801) shows that chairs were
everywhere uncommon until the middle
of the 16th century; and it was not until
the 17th was well advanced that uphol-
stery began to be employed for them.
The typical Louis XVI chair, with its
oval back and ample seat, descending
arms, round-reeded legs and gay tapestry
was the most beautiful and elaborate
model that has ever been devised. But
it was the original Chippendale design
and the still lighter patterns of Hepple-
white, Sheraton and Adam that gave us
the slender, compact and easily moved
chairs which will always be the more
numerous. It is interesting to observe
that the revolving chair, commonly re-
garded as an office convenience of modern
origin, has a pedigree of no less than four
centuries.
It would seem that the old English
makers of furniture went somewhat
astray when they gave themselves the
general designation, still surviving, of
"cabinet-makers"; for we learn from the
article Cabinet (Vol. 4, p. 918) that the
elaborate cabinets which have come
down to us from the 16th, 17th and 18th
centuries are almost invariably of Italian,
Dutch and French origin, and it was in
other branches of work that the English
were most successful. The Cupboard
(Vol. 7, p. 634) was
Bookcases used to contain
and Desks books long before
the Bookcase (Vol.
4, p. £21) had assumed a distinct form,
and in the earlier bookcases the volumes
were either placed on their sides, or, if
upright, were ranged with their backs
to the wall and their edges outwards.
Until printing had cheapened books, it
was not the custom to mark the title on
the back, and the band of leather which
closed the volume, like the strap on an
old-fashioned wallet, bore the inscrip-
tion. Sheraton's satinwood bookcases
were among the most elegant of all his
pieces. The Desk (Vol. 8, p. 95) about
the year 1750 had assumed the form
which is now described as a library table
— a flat top with a set of drawers on- each
side of the writer's knees, when its vogue
was interrupted by the invention of the
cylinder-top desk. At first the cover was
a solid piece of curved wood, but the
"tambour," or series of slats mounted on
canvas proved more serviceable; and the
American roll-top desk is now exported
to all parts of the world. Other articles
dealing with individual pieces of furniture
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
are Wardrobe (Vol. 28, p. 323), Side-
board (Vol. 25, p. 38), Dresser (Vol. 8,
p. 577), Cheffonier (Vol. 6, p. 22),
Cradle (Vol. 7, p. 360), Buffet (Vol. 4,
p. 757), and Mirror (Vol. 18, p. 575).
Of the more technical articles Timber
(Vol. 26, p. 978) shows the comparative
advantages of all the varieties of wood
used for furniture;
Technical and, as the list at
Articles the end of this chap-
ter shows, there is a
separate article on each kind. Tool
(Vol. 27, p. 14), by J. G. Horner, is of
great importance. It would fill 75 pages
of this Guide, and contains 79 illustra-
tions. The furniture maker will find in
it complete information about all the
hand tools and machine tools used in the
industry. Joinery (Vol. 15, p. 476), by
James Bartlett, describes, with practical
diagrams, every variety of joint and dove-
tail. Sound guidance for the workshop
will be found in Glue (Vol. 12, p. 143),
Painter-Work (Vol. 20, p. 457), Lac
(Vol. 16, p. 35), Lacquer (Vol. 16, p. 53),
in regard to which there is also informa-
tion in the article Japan (Vol. 15, p. 188),
French Polish (Vol. 11, p. 154), Weav-
ing, Industrial Technology (Vol. 28, p.
440), Dyeing (Vol. 8, p. 744), by Profs.
J. J. Hummel and Edmund Knecht;
Rep (Vol. 23, p. 105), Tapestry (Vol. 26,
p. 403), with numerous illustrations, by
A. S. Cole; Silk, Manufacture (Vol. 25,
p. 102); Plush (Vol. 21, p. 857), Velvet
(Vol. 27, p. 979), Marble (Vol. 17, p.
676), by J. S. Flett; Onyx (Vol. 20, p.
118); and Alabaster (Vol. 1, p. 466).
Although wood, ivory, precious stones,
bronze, silver and gold have been used
from antiquity for the decorations of
furniture, the mod-
Decoration era maker will be
and Ornament more concerned with
Wood-Carving
(Vol. 28, p. 791), illustrated, by F. A.
Crallan, author of Gothic Wood-carving.
In this article materials and methods are
described, and there is much information
as to the domestic use of wood-carving.
The article will be most valuable to manu-
facturers and dealers who have to do
with church fittings. Gilding (Vol. 12,
p. 13) and Carving and Gilding (Vol. 5,
p. 488) impart knowledge of a practical
nature as to these processes. The art of
inlaying is described in Marquetry (Vol.
17, p. 751) and Bombay Furniture (Vol.
4, p. 185); see also Veneer (Vol. 27, p.
982). Materials other than wood used
for inlaying are described, as, for exam-
ple, Pearl (Vol. 21, p. 25) for pearl and
mother of pearl; Ivory (Vol. 15, p. 92),
Lapis Lazuli (Vol. 16, p. 199), Tortoise-
shell (Vol. 27, p. 71), Brass (Vol. 4, p.
433), etc. The mention of the last two
materials naturally
Biographical suggests the name of
Articles Boulle and the
Britannica's biog-
raphy of that artist. Such biographies,
as anyone interested in the subject knows,
are most difficult to find, and they are in-
cluded in much detail in the new Britan-
nica. Boulle (Vol. 4, p. 321) was the
most distinguished of modern' cabinet-
makers before the middle of the 18th
century; and, beginning with that date,
both France and England produced a
number of men whose renown is scarcely
less than that of the great painters, sculp-
tors, architects or musicians of the
period. The Britannica's accounts of
their lives, ideas and work will be of much
value and interest to those who make or
deal in furniture. For the French
schools we get the essential facts about,
for example, Oeben (Vol. 20, p. 11), to
whom Louis XV's famous desk owes its
general plan; Riesener (Vol. 23, p. 324),
his more celebrated pupil, who completed
the desk; Rontgen, David (Vol. 23, p.
693), the maker of "harlequin furniture,"
several of whose ingenious mechanical de-
vices are described; and Gouthi^re (Vol.
12, p. 291), the metal-worker whose furni-
ture mounts are among the most noted
art products of the Louis XV and XVI
periods. Chippendale (Vol. 6, p. 237),
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF FURNITURE
43
with whom arose the marvellously bril-
liant school of English cabinet-makers,
is the subject of a biography describing
fully the characteristics of his designs;
and the history of this school is continued
under such headings as Hepplewhite
(Vol. 13, p. 805), whose taste at its best
"was so fine and so full of distinction, so
simple, modest and sufficient that it
amounted to genius"; Adam, Robert
(Vol. 1, p. 172), who left so deep and en-
during a mark upon English furniture,
and Sheraton (Vol. 24, p. 841), "the
most remarkable man in the history of
English furniture," whose extravagant
creations marked the end of the great
school. Many other biographies are in-
cluded in the list appended.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES, INCLUDING BIOGRAPHIES, IN THE ENCY-
CLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA WHICH ARE OF SPECIAL INTEREST
TO FURNITURE MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS
Acacia
Adam, Robert
Agate
Ailanthus
Alabaster
Alder
Algum
Arabesque
Arbor Vitae
Armoire
Arts and Crafts
Ash
Bahut
Bamboo
Baroque
Barry, Sir Charles
Basin-stand
Basket
Bed
Beech
Berain, Jean
Birch
Bombay Furniture
Bonheur du Jour
Bookcase
Boulle, Andr6 Charles
Box
Boxwood
Brass
Brocade
Buffet
Carving and Gilding
Casket
Cassone
Casuarina
Cedar
Chair
Cheffonier
Chenille
Cherry
Chest
Chestnut
Chintz
Chippendale, Thomas
Coco-nut Palm
Coffer
Console
Copal
Copeland, Henry
Corduroy
Cradle
Crash
Cressent, Charles
Cretonne
Crunden, John
Cryptomeria
Cupboard
Curtain
Cushion
Cypress
Damask
Dammar
Date Palm
Design
Desk
Divan
Dresser
Dumb-Waiter
Duramen
Dyeing
Fbony
Electroplating
Elm
Embossing
Encoignure
Etagere
Fir
Footman
Frame
French Polish
Furniture
Gilding
Gillow, Robert
Glue
Gouthiere, Pierre
Halfpenny, William
Hazel
Hepplewhite, George
Hickory
Holly
Huon Pine
Ince, William
Ingle-nook
Inlaying
Iron
Ivory
Japan, Art
Japanning
Jarrah Wood
Johnson, Thomas
Juniper
Kauri Pine
Lac
Lacquer
Lampstand
Lapis Lazuli
Larch
Leather
Leather, Artificial
Le Pautre, Jean
Lime, or Linden
Linen-press
Liquidambar
Lock
Lock, Matthias
Lowboy
Mahogany
Mammee Apple
Manwaring, Robert
Maple
Maple, Sir John B.
Marble
Marot, Daniel
Marquetry
Mastic, or Mastich
Mayhew, Thomas
Meissonier, J. A.
Mirror
Moreton Bay Chestnut
Morris, William
Nettle Tree
Oak
Oeben, J. F.
Olive
Onyx
Ormolu
Ornament
Osier
Ottoman
Overmantel
Painter-work
Pearl
Pergolesi, M. A.
Pigments
Pine
Plane
Plush
Prie-dieu
Rep
Resin
Riesener, J. H.
Rococo
Rontgen, David
Rosewood
Rousseau de la Rot-
tiere, J. S.
Sabicu Wood
Satin Wood
Screen
Sequoia
Settee
Settle
Shearer, Thomas
Sheraton, Thomas
Sideboard
Silk
Sofa
Spruce
Stall
Stool
Table
Tallboy
Tapestry
Tea-caddy
Teak
Tea-poy
Textile Printing
Throne
Ticking
Timber
Tortoiseshell
Tray
Triclinium
Tripod
Turpentine
Upholsterer
Varnish
Velvet
Velveteen
Vernis Martin
Walnut
Wardrobe
Washstand
Weaving
What-not
Willow
Window-cornice
Window-seat
Wine Table
Wood-carving
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CHAPTER IX
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF LEATHER
AND LEATHER GOODS
THE purpose of the department
of the Guide in which this chap-
ter appears, addressed to per-
sons engaged in certain important oc-
cupations, is not only to show them
how Britannica-reading will enlarge their
knowledge of some aspects and rela-
tions of their business, but also to show
how Britannica-reading will help them to
realize the importance of educating the
general public in regard to that business.
This education of the public is not neces-
sarily confined to advertising, although
the best form of advertising that can be
used by anyone who sells a good article,
or an article that is good at its price, is
probably to tell the public what it really is
and how it is really made. In the direct
personal intercourse between salesman
and purchaser there is opportunity for
the imparting of information w T hich, if it
possesses genuine interest, will be gladly
received and will stimulate trade. Mere
praise of an article is uninteresting and
unconvincing; while facts that explain
why that article is adapted to a particular
use, and why it is better than another
article sold at a lower price will always
receive attention.
All this is especially true of leather
goods, for the public ignorance on the
subject of leather is abysmal. Nothing
is more universally
About Selling used, yet ninety-
Leather Goods nine out of a hundred
w r ho use it not only
do not know what lies beneath the sur-
face of it, but do not know that there is
any difference in value between a natural
grain surface and a mechanically grained
false surface, and it is quite certain that
nearly all the men and women who walk
out of a store after buying skiver would
be nonplussed if they were asked whether
the upper or lower part of a split skin was
the best.
Both the leather merchant and the
public would be delighted to hear some
of the curious things that the Britannica
tells about leather, which is, from any
point of view, one of the most interesting
of all commodities; although few of those
who use it, and perhaps as few of those
who deal in it, ever stop to think how
curious a relation there is between the
original nature of the material and the
qualities of the finished product. In
cattle and sheep, the hide is a garment
that covers every part of the body but
the feet. Adapted to our own use, its
most important service as a garment is
to cover our feet. It is so far a natural
product that no imitation of it possesses
any of its chief merits, and yet so far an
artificial product that when the hide has
been removed from an animal, it requires
treatment in order that it may not lose
the flexibility which makes it, for a
thousand purposes, more valuable than
wood or metal, and in order that it may
not decay.
Skin is waterproof because its surface
consists of scales, and although in most
quadrupeds, as in man, these scales are
so small as to be in-
What Skin Is visible, they will so
resist the entrance of
any tan liquor or other preservative fluid
that they must be scraped away before
the skin can be treated. Under these
horny scales there is a layer of soft cells,
and under this a membrane which makes
the natural grain surface of leather.
Under this, again, lies the "true" skin, in
44
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF LEATHER AND LEATHER GOODS 45
two layers. In the upper of these two,
the white fibres lie parallel with the grain.
In the lower, the white fibres, which are
here coarser, lie in bundles, bound to-
gether by yellow fibres, so that this layer
is really a woven fabric. The spaces in
the weave are filled with a soft jelly, and
the fibres do not multiply among them-
selves, as cells do, but are developed, as
they are needed, from this jelly. Tan
liquor has the peculiar property of con-
verting this jelly into a "leathery" sub-
stance, which although it does not then
assume the shape of fibres, becomes
nearly as tough as the fibres themselves,
and thus makes leather more solid and
stronger than the original skin; and the
virtue of leather depends largely on the
presence of this jelly. The body of an
old bull will have absorbed it, just as fat
is absorbed in old
Naturally age, so that the
Woven Fibres spaces in the weave
of the fibre are left
vacant, and (as the scaly outer surface of
the skin has been scraped away to admit
the tan liquor) any water with which the
hide comes into contact will be soaked up.
That is why old bull leather is not water-
proof and is lacking in substance. Again,
the weave of this innermost layer of skin,
lying next to the flesh, varies in different
animals. In sheepskin the fibres are very
loosely woven, and for this reason great
care is needed in preparing the leather,
and when the skin is split, the under half
is only fit for the light usage to which
"chamois" leather is restricted. But
however the quality, surface or thickness
of the skin may differ, its true structure
is the same in all animals used for leather,
save the horse, which is exceptional in
possessing, over the loins, a third skin,
very closely woven and very greasy,
which makes horsehide taken from this
part of the body peculiarly waterproof,
pliable and durable.
As you are in the leather business, you
probably knew all these facts already, but
perhaps they were not arranged in your
mind in a form in which you could ex-
plain them to others as clearly as you will
be able to do after reading the articles in
the Britannica from which this general
statement is summarized. And when you
are reading about any other business, or
about any other subject of any kind, you
will find that the Britannica goes to the
root of the subject in the same thorough
way in which it deals with the fibres and
the jelly that make up the substance of
leather. Now for the articles in detail —
or the principal ones; the others are
sufficiently indicated by the list at the
end of this chapter.
Skin (Vol. 25, p. 188), by Dr. F. G.
Parsons, vice-president of the Anat-
omical Society of Great Britain and Ire-
land, with illustrations from microscopic
enlargements, covers the comparative
anatomy of the skin in all groups of ani-
mals, and the process of skin development
in the embryo. The articles mentioned
in the chapter For Stock-Raisers tell you
about the domestic animals whose hides
are chiefly used for leather. The chapter
on Zoology in this Guide gives a list of the
articles on the other animals whose skins
are tanned for fancy leathers. The main
article Leather (Vol. 16, p. 330), equiva-
lent to 50 pages of this Guide, is by Dr.
James G. Parker, principal of the Leather-
sellers' Technical College, London, and
author of Principles of Tanning and other
standard trade text-books. After ex-
plaining the distinctions between tanned,
tawed, and chamoised leathers, it takes
up the subject of sources and qualities of
hides and skins, and describes the struc-
ture of skin in relation to the finished
product. The characteristics and pecu-
liarities of hides and skins from different
parts of the world are thoroughly ex-
plained. We learn why hides from ani-
mals bred in mountainous districts arc
the best, and where the finest sheep- and
goat -skins come from.
Tanning Materials is the subject of the
next section. These are classified into
pyrogallols, catechols, and subsidiary ma-
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46
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
terials; and the article describes their
composition and preparation by grind-
ing, with explicit di-
Processes of rections for their
Tanning testing, including the
latest official meth-
od of the International Association of
Leather Trades Chemists. The processes
of making heavy leathers are next dis-
cussed. We learn the many ways of
cleaning, softening, depilating, and fell-
mongering (or dewooling) by liming,
rounding and scudding, and finally the
process of actual tanning in its three steps
of colouring, handling, and laying away.
In connection with depilation, it is inter-
esting to note that it has been discovered
that it is not the lime but the action of
bacteria in the lime which causes the hair
to fall out. The finishing of sole leather,
harness leather and other grades is ex-
plained, also the theory of the formation
of the "bloom" and its removal, as well
as the process of "scouring." The art of
Currying has a section to itself, and the
preparations for tanning or dressing
hides for trunks and suit cases by bating,
puering, scudding, plumping, drenching
and splitting, receive detailed attention.
The tanning of light leathers, and all the
varieties of basils, skivers, Russia leather,
seal, alligator, snake, frog and kangaroo
leathers, Japan and enamel leathers are
fully treated. Tawing, Wooling, Dressing,
Chrome Tanning, Combination Tannages,
Oil Tanning (Chamoising), PreUer's Hel-
vetia or Crown Leather, Transparent
Leather, Parchment, Tar and Peat Tan-
ning, Dyeing, Staining and Finishing,
Glove Leathers, and Bookbinding Leathers
are some of the other sections of this ex-
cellent treatise. Leather, Artificial
(Vol. 16, p. 345) is a separate article.
Tannin, or Tannic Acid (Vol. 26, p.
399) is a general account of the vegetable
products which have the property of con-
verting raw hide into leather. Specific in-
formation about the materials from which
the pyrogallol tannins are obtained
will be found under Myrobalans (Vol.
19, p. 114), Chestnut (Vol. 6, p. 112),
Dividivi (Vol. 8, p. 332), Sumach (Vol.
26, p. 70), Oak (Vol.
Chemistry 19, p. 931), Galls
of Leather (Vol. 11, p. 422) a
Manufacture full -and interesting
account of the insect
produced vegetable excrescence which
yields a high percentage of tannin, by
Francis H. Butler, of the Royal School of
Mines; and Willow (Vol. 28, p. 688).
For the catechol tannins see Hemlock
(Vol. 13, p. 262), Catechu (Vol. 5, p.
507), Mangrove (Vol. 17, p. 572), Mi-
mosa (Vol. 18, p. 500), LARcn (Vol. 16,
p. 211), Birch (Vol. 3, p. 958), which
yields the empyreumatic oil used in the
preparation of Russia leather, to which
the pleasant odor is due.
There are numerous articles in the
Britannica on the chemicals used in the
process of tawing, chrome tanning, etc.,
such as Alum (Vol. 1, p. 766), Acetic
Acid (Vol. 1, p. 135), Glauber's Salt
(Vol. 12, p. 114), Bichromates and
Chromates (Vol. 3, p. 912).
The chief classes of dyes used for
leather are the acid; basic, or tannic;
direct, or cotton; and mordant dyes, and
these are described at great
Dyeing length in a valuable article
Dyeing (Vol. 8, p. 744),
equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide, by
the late J. J. Hummel, professor of Dye-
ing, University of Leeds, and Dr. Ed-
mund Knecht, professor of Technological
Chemistry, University of Manchester.
The section on the Theory of Dyeing shows
how the dyeing property of a substance
depends upon its chemical composition.
Separate articles go more deeply into the
chemistry of dyeing materials used with
leather, and some of the more important
of these are Sulphonic Acids (Vol. 26, p.
60), Sulphuric Acid (Vol. 26, p. 65),
Formic Acid (Vol. 10, p. 668), Anti-
mony (Vol. 2, p. 127), Titanium (Vol.
26, p. 1017), Iron (Vol. 14, p. 796), Log-
wood (Vol. 16, p. 922), Fustic (Vol. 11,
p. 375), Brazil Wood (Vol. 4, p. 463),
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF LEATHER AND LEATHER GOODS 47
and Tumeric (Vol. 27, p. 474). Com-
paratively few of the coal-tar colours
have as yet been adapted to leather manu-
facture, but their characteristics are dis-
cussed in such articles as Azo-Compounds
(Vol. 3, p. 81), Aniline (Vol. 2, p. 47),
Indulines (Vol. 14, p. 507), Fuchsine
(Vol. 11, p. 273), and Safranine (Vol.
23, p. 1000).
Parchment (Vol. 20, p. 798), by Sir E.
Maunde Thompson, Principal Librarian,
British Museum, is an interesting his-
torical account of the skins and their prep-
aration. Their use as writing material
was widespread at a very early period.
"The Jews made use of them," says the
article "for their sacred books, and it may
be presumed for other literature also; and
the old tradition
Special has been maintained
Leathers down to our own
day, requiring the
Synagogue rolls to be inscribed on this
time-honoured material." The difference
between parchment and vellum is ex-
plained. Shagreen (Vol. 24, p. 769)
tells about a species of untanned leather
used for ornamental purposes. It is a
curious fact that the addition of the word
"chagrin," for anxiety or annoyance, to
the English language was due to the un-
pleasant sensation that came from touch*
ing the rasping surface of this leather.
Stamped leather for wall hangings is de-
scribed in the section Stamped Leather of
the article Mural Decoration (Vol. 19,
p. 19), by William Morris and Walter
Crane. Shoe (Vol. 24, p. 992) contains
an illustrated section on the Manufacture
of Leather Shoes. Saddlery and Har-
ness (Vol. 23, p. 988), by Cecil Weath-
erly, and Glove (Vol. 12, p. 135) are
treated both from an historical and a
practical point of view. Bookbinding
(Vol. 4, p. 216), illustrated, by C. J. H.
Davenport, of the British Museum, has
a great deal of interesting information
about the leathers used in this art. The
flexible binding, which has been applied
for the first time on a large scale in the
new Britannica, originated when vellum
instead of paper was used for books, and
it possesses the great advantage that
a volume sewed in this way can be
opened flat, and lies flat without being
held. .
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES AND OF SUBJECTS IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA
BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE IN THE MANUFACTURE
AND SALE OF LEATHER AND LEATHER GOODS
Acetic Acid
Acid dyes
Aldehyde tanning
Algarobilla
Alligator Leather
Alum
Angola
Aniline
Antimony
Azo Compounds
Barkometer
Basic, or Tannin dyes
Basils
Bates
Bating
Bichromates and Chro-
mates
Birch
Bleaching
Bloom
Bookbinding
Bookbinding leathers
Bottle-tanning
Brazil Wood
Canaigre
Catechols
Catechu
Chamoising
Chestnut
Chestnut Oak
Chrome Box
Chrome Tanning
Colouring Pits, or Sus-
penders
Combination Tannages
Crust Stock
Currying Apparatus
Currying Processes
Dash-wheel
Depilation
Direct, or Cotton, Dyes
Dividivi
Dongola leather
Drenching
Dressing
Drum Dyeing
Dusting Material
Dyeing
Enamel Leather
Erodin
Fatliquoring
Fellmongering, or De-
wooling
Finishing
Formic Acid
Frog Skin
Fuchsine
Fustic
Galls
Gambier
Glauber's Salt
Glazing (Glace leather)
Glove
Glove leathers
Grinding Machinery
and Leaching
Handlers, or Floaters
Heavy Leathers
Hemlock
Hide Mill, or Double-
Acting Stocks
Hide-powders
Hides and Skins
Indulines
Iron
Iron Tannage
Janus Colours
Japan leather
Kangaroo Leather
K as pine Leather
Kips
Larch
Leather
Leather, Artificial
I^evant Morocco
Liming
Ixigwood
Mangrove
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Mimosa, or Golden
Wattle
Mordant dyes
Morocco Leather
Myrobalans
Oak bark
Oak wood
Oil Tanning
Parchment
Payne and Pullman
Process
Peat Tanning
Pigskin
Portmanteau
Power Transmission,
Belts
Preller's Helvetia or
Crown Leather
Puerto*
Pyrogallols
Quebracho
Roans
Russia Leather
Saddlery and Harness
Safranine
Sammying
Scudding
Seal Leathers
Setting
Shagreen
Shoe
Skin
Skivers
Snakeskin
Splitting Machines
Staining
Sulphonic Acids
Sulphuric Acid
Sumach
Sweating
Tan Liquors
Tanner's Beam
Tanner's Hook
Tanner's Knives
Tannin, or Tannic Acid
Tannin Precipitation
Tanning Materials
Tar Tanning
Tawing
Tiffany Bate
Titanium
Transparent Leather
Tray Dyeing
Turmeric
Upper Leather
Valonia
Vellum
Vidal Colours
Waxing
Willow
Willow Calf
Wilson Scouring Ma-
chine
Wool-rug Dressing
CHAPTER X
FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND
MERCHANTS
BY long established custom, watches
and the higher grade of clocks form
part of the jeweller's stock, and he
sells a few other articles of utility, such as
purses and bags, but to all intents and
purposes he shares with the artist and
art-dealer the distinction of making a
living by adding pleasure to the lives of
others. The very word "jewelry" car-
ries, in its root form, the idea of joy; and
when a Senwosri princess, 43 centuries
ago, smiled happily as she raised her
brown arms to fasten the clasp of a new
necklace, the jeweller of Memphis on the
Nile no doubt took his little profit, as the
jeweller of Memphis on the Mississippi
takes his to-day, all the more gladly for
being, in the oriental phrase, a "Distrib-
utor of delights." Sour philosophers
have always sneered at women for loving
jewels, and most of all for piercing their
ears and noses to vary its display, but
the nose-ring that overhangs a thick
Nubian lip is an expression of the same
charming instinct that makes a child
diversify the arrangement of her daisy-
chains. And jewelry plays its part in the
higher emotions as well as in the pretty
vanities; witness the engagement ring,
the marriage ring and all the uses, de-
scribed in the Britannica, of jewels as
religious symbols.
The article Jewelry (Vol. 15, p. 364),
by A. H. Smith, the official in charge of
the great jewel collection in the British
Museum, contains
Specimens nearly a hundred il-
Reproduced lustrations, half of
them on plate paper,
which include examples of every period
and every variety of the jeweller's art,
and these, with the illustrations in other
articles mentioned in this chapter, are so
full of interest to the jeweller's customers
that he ought really to keep his Britan-
nica at his place of business rather than
at his house. It is, at any rate, amusing
to recall that in a speech made by the
Editor-in-chief of the Britannica, on the
occasion of a banquet given to celebrate
the completion of the new edition, he re-
marked that when he had chanced to
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FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND MERCHANTS 49
take home the proof sheets of this article,
to read them at night, he carefully kept
them out of his wife's sight lest they
might suggest too tempting possibilities.
The article divides modern jewelry into
three classes:
(1) objects in which gems and stones
form the principal portions, and in which
the work in silver, platinum or gold is real-
ly only a means for carrying out the design
by fixing the gems or stones in the position
arranged by the designer, the metal em-
ployed being visible only as a setting;
(2) when gold work plays an important
part in the development of the design, being
itself ornamented by engraving (now rarely
used) or enamelling or both, the stones and
gems being arranged in subordination to the
gold work in such positions as to give a dec-
orative effect to the whole;
(3) when gold or other metal is alone
used, the design being wrought out by ham-
mering in repoussi, casting, engraving,
chasing or by the addition of filigree work,
or when the surfaces are left absolutely
plain but polished and highly finished.
The second of these three classes in-
cludes the work which has completely
revolutionized the theory of design, so
far as the best class of trade is concerned,
since the Paris International Exposition
of 1900 first drew general attention to the
exquisite creations of Lalique and his
school. L. C. Tiffany, in the United
States, and Philippe
The * 'Personal Wolfers, in Belgium,
Art" Movement have done more than
any designers other
than the French to extend this new move-
ment; but in England, Germany, Austria,
Russia and Switzerland there has been a
notable increase of individual effort and
purpose, and a recognition of the possi-
bilities of personal art as at any rate an
important factor in the business. Side
by side with this development new stand-
ards have been established in mechanical
work. "Nearly every kind of gold chain
now made is manufactured by machinery,
and nothing like the beauty of design or
perfection of workmanship could be ob-
tained by hand at, probably, any cost."
The article, equivalent in length to about
35 pages of this Guide, contains a full
review, amplified by the results of the
most recent excavations (some of them
undertaken expressly for the archaeolog-
ical purposes of this edition of the Bri-
tannica) of the history of jewelry, Egyp-
tian, Assyrian, Mycenean, Greek, Etrus-
can, Roman, Merovingian, Oriental and
Renaissance.
Ring (Vol. 23, p. 349), of which Prof.
Middleton, long art director of the South
Kensington Museum, is the chief con-
tributor, is another copiously illustrated
article. Among the curious items of in-
formation it contains, there is the un-
romantic origin of the engagement ring
(which may be cited by the jeweller to
prove that it should always be a costly
one), the ancient Romans regarding it as
a pledge to assure the donor's fulfilment
of his promise; the fact that the modern
rheumatism ring had its medieval fore-
runner in the rings, blessed by the sove-
reign, which were worn as a preservative
against cramp; and the description of the
old poison rings, which were of two kinds:
those merely affording, in the bezel, a
secret receptacle so that the poison might
be always at hand
Rings for Love for suicide, and those
and Murder provided with a hol-
low point to which,
on touching a spring, the venom ran as
in a snake's fang, so that the murderer
could give a fatal scratch while shaking
hands with his victim. Brooch (Vol. 4,
p. 641) traces, with many illustrations of
typical specimens, the "fibula" or safety
pin from its origin in Central Europe
during the Bronze Age, through the
modifications which introduced the bow
shape, providing space for thicker folds
of cloth, to the modern ornament. The
long brooch is not a new fashion, for silver
brooches no less than 15 inches in length
have been found in Viking hoards of the
7th, 8th and 9th centuries. Ear-ring
(Vol. 8, p. 798) describes ear "orna-
ments" of the most grotesque size. In
Borneo the hole in the ear lobe is stretched
to a calibre of 3% inches, but the Masai
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tribes in equatorial Africa far outdo this,
stretching the lobes, year after year, until
they can wear stone ear-plugs weighing
2 lbs. 14 ozs. each, with a diameter of 4^
inches; and they thus achieve the su-
preme elegance of making the two long
flaps of flesh meet above their heads. It
is also curious to note the custom of
some oriental tribes of wearing one ear-
ring only. Bracelet (Vol. 4, p. 359) de-
scribes the three distinct models worn by
the Israelites, all of which the Authorized
Version calls "bracelet," although the
original Hebrew has separate names for
them. Armlets have always been con-
spicuous in the regalia of Eastern kings,
and the pair captured at Delhi and taken
to Persia by Nadir Shah in 1739 contain
jewels valued at more than $5,000,000,
including the famous "Sea of Light"
diamond, which, although it weighs only
186 carats as against the 516J^ of the
largest fraction into which the Cullinan
stone was cut, is unique as possessing the
finest lustre of any known specimen. The
24 plate illustrations in the article Scan-
dinavian Civilization (Vol. 24, p. 287),
by Miss B. S. Phillpotts, show some ex-
quisite designs of clasps, collars and pins
exhumed in Denmark, Norway and Swe-
den, and supposed by some authorities to
antedate the oldest Egyptian jewelry.
The article Gold (Vol. 12, p. 192) is a
thorough workshop treatise, as well as a
detailed study of existing mines and of
the influence their
Precious production exerts
Metals upon the "price," if
it can be so called,
of a metal which is its own standard of
value. Silver (Vol. 25, p. 112) and
Platinum (Vol. 21, p. 805) are treated
with similar comprehensiveness. The
articles Alloys (Vol. 1, p. 704), Assay-
ing (Vol. 2, p. 776), Metal (Vol. 18, p.
198), Metallography (Vol. 18, p. 202),
and Metallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203), all by
noted authorities, are full of information
useful to the jeweller. Metal-Work
(Vol. 18, p. 205), fully illustrated, inci-
dentally touches upon the art of the
silver- and gold-smith; and this branch of
the subject is also treated in such ar-
ticles as Plate (Vol. 21, p. 789), with
over 30 typical illustrations — a most in-
teresting historical account, by several
well-known experts, of works in gold and
silver which belong to any class other
than those of personal ornament and
coins; and Drinking Vessels (Vol. 8, p.
580), illustrated, by Dr. Charles H. Read
of the British Museum, which discusses
gold and silver cups. Mention must also
be made of the description of American
work in precious metals before the time
of Christopher Columbus, in the section
Archaeology of the article America (Vol.
1, p. 812), by the late Dr. O. T. Mason,
of the National Museum, Washington;
also of Mexico, Ancient Civilization
(Vol. 18, p. 335), by the famous ethnol-
ogists, Dr. E. B. Tylor of Oxford and Dr.
Walter Lehmann, of the Royal Ethno-
graphical Museum, Munich; Egypt, An-
cient AH (Vol. 9, p. 73), by W. M. Flin-
ders Petrie; Greek Art (Vol. 12, p. 470),
illustrated, by Dr. Percy Gardner, of Ox-
ford; Roman Art, Work in Precious
Metals (Vol. 23, p. 483), illustrated, by
H. Stuart Jones, director of the British
School at Rome; Japan, Art y Sculpture
and Carving (Vol. 15, p. 176), by Capt.
Frank Brinkley , author of A History of the
Japanese People; and China, Bronzes
(Vol. 6, p. 215), by C. J. Holmes, formerly
Slade professor of fine art at Oxford.
Filigree (Vol. 10, p. 343) describes
the delicate jewel work of twisted gold
and silver threads, and also the "granu-
lated" work which consists of minute
globules of gold soldered to form patterns
on a metal surface. In India the filigree
worker has retained the patterns used by
the ancient Greeks and works in the
same way they did. Wandering work-
men are given so much gold, coined or
rough. This is weighed, heated and
beaten into wire, and worked in the
courtyard or on the verandah of the cus-
tomer's house. The worker reweighs the
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FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND MERCHANTS 51
complete work when finished and is paid
at a specified rate for his labor. Re-
pouss6 (Vol. 23, p. 108), by M. H. Spiel-
mann, editor Magazine of Art; Chasing
(Vol. 5, p. 956) and Inlaying (Vol. 14,
p. 574) are other articles dealing with cer-
tain processes in jewel work. The jeweller
also must not overlook two superb ar-
ticles, Medal (Vol. 18, p. 1), illustrated,
by M. H. Spielmann, and Numismatics
(Vol. 19, p. 869), which is by three spe-
cialists, and is most fully illustrated by
designs inviting practical use. Enamel
(Vol. 9, p. 362), illustrated, by Alexander
Fisher, author of The Art of Enamelling on
Metals, goes very fully and practically
into this interesting subject, which is
further discussed in Japan, Cloisonne
Enamel (Vol. 15, p. 189). Mosaic (Vol.
18, p. 883), illustrated, by Professor Mid-
dleton and H. Stuart Jones, deals in part
with the ornamentation of jewelry by
this method. In Brazing and Solder-
ing (Vol. 4, p. 463) the composition of
silver solder used for jewelry is described,
and in Cement there is an account of
Jeweller's or Armenian Cement (Vol. 5,
p. 659).
The article Gem treats the subject in
two sections, of which the first (Vol. 11,
p. 560), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum
of Practical Geology,
Precious London, deals with
Stones Mineralogy and Gen-
eral Properties. Here
are discussed hardness, specific gravity,
crystaline forms and cleavage, colour, re-
fraction, chemical composition, etc., and
there is an interesting section on super-
stitions in regard to gems, the medical
and magical powers with which they
were reputed to be endowed. These be-
liefs are very remarkable, and it has even
been suggested by archaeologists that jew-
elry did not have its origin so much in a
love for personal decoration, as in the
belief that the objects used possessed
magical virtue. The article Mineralogy
(Vol. 18, p. 509), by L. J. Spencer, of the
British Museum, and editor of the Min-
eralogical Magazine, will be found es-
pecially valuable for reference in the
workshop. It gives, among other things,
the scale of hardness, and nomenclature
and classification of minerals. The crys-
tal formation of gems as well as their op-
tical properties — characteristics by which
the genuineness of precious stones may
be tested— are discussed and explained
in the article Crystallography (Vol. 7,
p. 569), with over 100 illustrations, also
by L. J. Spencer. The cutting of gem
stones is treated under Lapidary and
Gem Cutting (Vol. 16, p. 195), by Dr.
George F. Kunz, the famous gem expert
to Tiffany & Co., New York, — an article
of uncommon historical interest and
practical value, in which diamond cutting
is considered at much length.
The second section of the article Gem,
Gems in AH (Vol. 11, p. 562), by Dr. A. S.
Murray, the famous British archaeologist,
and A. H. Smith, gives an account of
precious stones engraved with designs.
The illustrations show more than 90 ex-
amples, including Cretan and Mycenaean
intaglios, Greek, Phoenician and Etruscan
scarabs and scarabeeoids, cameos, seals,
Oriental, Christian, and modern gems.
This subject is further discussed in sepa-
rate articles, such as Scarab (Vol. 24, p.
301), by Dr. F. LI. Griffith, the Egypt-
ologist, an account of the designs which,
originating in Egypt daring the Fourth
Dynasty, have exercised a lasting influ-
ence on the design and shape of gems;
Cameo (Vol. 5, p. 104), Intaglio (Vol.
14, p. 680), Seals (Vol. 24, p. 539), illus-
trated, by Sir E. Maunde Thompson,
formerly principal librarian, British Mu-
seum, as well as in the articles on ancient
and Oriental civilizations, already men-
tioned.
The artificial duplication of certain
gems by chemical processes which yield
products identical in
Synthetic composition and
Stones physical properties
with the natural
stones is a subject of growing import-
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
ance to the jeweller, and the latest de-
velopments are described in Gem, Arti-
ficial (Vol. 11, p. 569), by Sir William
Crookes. This famous chemist and au-
thority on precious stones does not hesi-
tate to declare that although the artificial
diamonds so far produced have been
microscopic in size, scientists have now
found the right method and that "there
is no reason to doubt that, working on a
larger scale, larger diamonds will result."
The artificial production of rubies, sap-
phires, Oriental emeralds, amethysts, to-
pazes and. zircons is also discussed. De-
scriptions of the several gem stones are
found under their respective headings, for
example Diamond (Vol. 8, p. 158), illus-
trated, by H. A. Miers, principal of the
University of London, and former editor
of the Mineralogical Magazine. Here are
given its scientific characters, its uses
(especially for faceting softer precious
stones), distribution, and mining, and the
wonderful history of the most famous
diamonds of the world. Ruby (Vol. 23,
p. 812), the most valued of gem stones,
is often called "Oriental ruby" to dis-
tinguish it from Spinel (Vol. 25, p. 684),
an aluminate stone of inferior hardness,
density and value. It is interesting to
note that many historic stones described
as monster rubies were really spinels.
The great ruby set in the Maltese Cross
in front of the Imperial State Crown of
England is a spinel. Sapphire (Vol. 24,
p. 201) was known to the Greeks as "hya-
cinthus," and the present name was for-
merly applied to lapis lazuli. Asteria or
Star Stone (Vol. 2, p. 792) tells how the
luminous star comes to be seen in sap-
phires, rubies and topazes. The name
Emerald (Vol. 9, p. 332) is used for a
number of stones, of which the most
valued is not a true emerald at all; see
Corundum (Vol. 7, p. 207). The same is
true of the Topaz (Vol. 27, p. 48), the
more prized Oriental topaz being a yellow
corundum, harder and denser than the
stone from which it takes its name.
"Scotch" or "Spanish" topazes are yel-
low or smoke-tinted quartz, or cairn-
gorm. The Amethyst (Vol. 1, p. 852) is
violet or purple quartz, and the sap-
phire of a purple colour is often called an
Oriental amethyst. The many varieties
of the beautiful Zircon (Vol. 28, p. 989),
such as Hyacinth (Vol. 14, p. 25) and
Jargoon (Vol. 15, p. 276) are carefully
described and distinguished. These valu-
able articles on the precious stones have
been contributed by F. W. Rudler, of the
Museum of Practical Geology, London.
Pearl (Vol. 21, p. 24) discusses the re-
sults of the latest researches on the cause
of pearl formation, and gives a graphic
account of pearl-fishing.
The material in the Britannica on the
semi-precious stones is as complete.
There are many articles, specified in the
list at the end of
Semi-Precious this chapter. Alex-
Stones andrite (Vol. 1, p.
576) is remarkable
for its property of appearing dark green
by daylight, and red by candle-light,
which makes it especially popular in
Russia where green and red are the mili-
tary colors; Chrysoberyl (Vol. 6, p.
320), of which alexandrite is a variety;
Chrysolite (Vol. 6, p. 320), often mis-
taken for chrysoberyl; Peridot (Vol. 21,
p. 147), like chrysolite, a variety of oliv-
ine; Beryl (Vol. 3, p. 817), much prized
by the ancients as a gem stone, and of
which the Emerald (see above) and the
Aquamarine (Vol. 2, p. 237) are the
chief "precious" varieties; Tourmaline
(Vol. 27, p 103), the remarkable stone of
as much interest to the physicist as to the
jeweller, on account of its optical and
electrical properties; and Rubellite
(Vol. 23, p. 804), its much prized red
variety Garnet (Vol. 11, p. 470), to-
gether with Almandine (Vol. 1, p. 712),
which, when cut with a convex face is
known as carbuncle; Cinnamon- Stone
(Vol. 6, p. 376), the light red garnet, so
easily mistaken for a variety of zircon
(the article tells how r to distinguish them) ;
Demantoid (Vol. 7, p. 979), the green
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FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND MERCHANTS
53
garnet from the Urals, and Pyrope (Vol.
22, p. 695), usually known as Bohemian
garnet; Jade (Vol. 15, p. 122), which oc-
cupies in China the highest place as a
jewel, and whose many varieties are here
clearly distinguished; Jet (Vol. 15, p.
358) ; Haematite (Vol. 12, p. 804) ; Moon-
stone (Vol. 18, p. 807;; Cat's-Eye (Vol.
5, p. 537), a term applied to several dis-
tinct minerals of which Crocidolite
(Vol. 7, p. 477) has recently become very
popular; Opal (Vol. 20. p. 120), an ar-
ticle in which the brilliant flashes of
colour in this stone are explained; Quartz
(Vol. 22, p. 715), with its many orna-
mental varieties such as Agate (Vol. 1,
p. 368), Amethyst (Vol. 1, p. 852),
AVENTURINE (Vol. 3, p. 54), BLOOD-
STONE (Vol. 4, p. 85), Cairngorm (Vol.
4, p. 952), Carnelian (Vol. 5, p. 365),
Chalcedony (Vol. 5, p. 803), Chryso-
prase (Vol. 6, p. 320), Heliotrope (Vol.
13, p. 232), Mocha Stone (Vol. 18, p.
637), Onyx (Vol. 20, p. 118), Rock-
Crystal (Vol. 23, p. 433), Sard (Vol. 24,
p. 209), and Sardonyx (Vol. 24, p. 218).
The article Watch (Vol. 28, p. 362),
illustrated, by Lord Grimthorpe, the
great authority on watches and clocks,
and Sir H. H. Cun r
Watches ynghame, vice-pres-
and Clocks ident of the British
Institute of Elec-
trical Engineers, is full of interest. There
is a very valuable historical account
beginning with the invention of portable
time pieces in the 15th century. The
parts of a modern watch are described,
with details as to the mainspring, differ-
ent types of escapement, the balance-
wheel and hair-spring, compensation ad-
justments and secondary compensation.
Methods of correcting temperature errors
are discussed, and a simple means for
demagnetizing a watch which has been
near a dynamo is given. The proper ma-
terials used for jewelled bearings are de-
scribed in the articles Diamond, Corun-
dum, etc. Lubricants (Vol. 17, p. 88)
contains a valuable paragraph on the
properties and preparation of the fluid
oils used on the spindles of watches and
clocks.
The article Clock (Vol. 6, p. 536) is by
the same distinguished authorities as
Watch, with an additional section on
Decorative Aspects (p. 552), by James
Penderel-Brodhurst. It is equivalent to
55 pages of this Guide and is fully illus-
trated. Among the topics considered are
the earliest clocks and their gradual im-
provement; the essential components of
a clock; the mechanics of the pendulum;
methods of compensation, including the
use of the new nickel-steel alloy — de-
scribed in the article Invar (Vol. 14, p.
717) — the barometrical error, and meth-
ods of counteraction; suspension of pen-
dulums; balance, anchor, dead, pin-
wheel, detached or free, and gravity es-
capements; the remontoire systems for
abolishing errors in the force driving the
escapement; testing of clocks; clock
wheels; striking mechanism; the watch-
man's clock, church and turret clocks,
electrical clocks, miscellaneous clocks, in-
cluding magical clocks and other curious
designs. The section on Decorative As-
pects tells about styles of cases and
mountings, the origin and development
of the "grandfather" clock, etc. In con-
nection with long-period clocks, attention
should be given to the new and ingenious,
if not commercially practical, device in-
vented by the Hon. R. J. Strutt. Elec-
trified particles emitted by a radioactive
substance separate two strips of gold leaf,
and these, falling together after the
charge has been conducted away upon
contact with metal, are extended again,
the process being constantly repeated.
If some way could be found to utilize this
motion to work an escapement, we
should have a clock that would go on in-
definitely, since 1000 years must elapse
before even half the small amount of
radium used has disappeared. A de-
scription of this so-called "radium" clock
will be found in Perpetual Motion
(Vol. 21, p. 181).
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF
SPECIAL INTEREST TO MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS
IN JEWELRY, CLOCKS, AND WATCHES
Agat«
Aigrette
Aiguillctte
Albite
Alexandrite
Alloys
Almandine
Amason-stone
Amber
America, Archaeology
Amethyst
Andalusite
Anhydrite
Apatite
Apostle Spoons
Aquamarine
Arabesque
Arts and Crafts
Assaying
Astcria, or Star-stone
Aventurine
Axinite
Azurite
Bead
Benitoite
Beryl
Beryllonita
Biddery
Bloodstone
Bort
Bracelet
Bracing and Soldering
Britain, Ornaments
Bronxitc
Brooch
Cairngorm
Cameo
Campani-Alimenis, M.
Carbonado
Carnelian
Cat's-eye
Cellini, Benvcnuto
Cement
Chain
Chalcedony
Chasing
Chessylita
China, Art
Chrysoberyl
Chrysolite
Chrysoprase
Cinnamon-stane
Clock
Collar
Congreve, Sir William
Coral
Corundum
Costume
Cressent, Charles
Crocidolite
Cross
Crown
Crystallography
Cyanite
Demantoid
Diallage
Diamond
Dioptase
Drinking Vessels
Dumortierite
Ear-ring
Egypt, Ancient Art
Electroplating
Emerald
Emery
Enamel
Epidote
Euelase
Felspar
Filigree
Finiguerra, Maso
Fluorescence
Fluor-spar
Franklin, Benjamin
Galileo Galilei
Garnet
Gem
Gem, Artificial
Gold
Gold beating
G5thite
Gouthiere, Pierre
Greek Art
Grimthorpe, 1st Baron
Haematite
Hiddenite
Hyacinth, or Jacinth
Hypersthene
Inlaying
Intaglio
Invar
Iolite
Ivory
Jade
Japan, Art
Jargoon
Jasper
Jet
Jewelry
Knighhood and Chiv-
alry
Kunzite
Labradorite
Lapidary and Gem
Cutting
Lapis Lazuli
Leucite
Line-engraving
Lubricants
Malachite
Marot, Daniel
Meissonier, J. A.
Medal
Metal
Metallography
Metallurgy
Metal-Work
Mexico, Ancient Civil-
ization
Microcline
Mineral Deposits
Mineralogy
Miniature
Mint
Mocha-stone
Monogram
Monteith
Moonstone
Morel-Ladeuil, Leonard
Mosaic
Nepheline
Niello
Numismatics
Oligoclase
Olivine
Onyx
Opal
Orthoclase
Palladium
Paste
Pearl
Peridot
Perpetual Motion
Phenacite
Phosphorescence
Plagioclase
Plate
Plated Ware
Platinum
Pollaiuolo
Prehnite
Pyrope
Pyroxene
Quartz
Regalia
Repousse
Rkig
Rock-crystal
Roman Art
Rubellite
Ruby
Sapphire
Sard
Sardonyx
Scandinavian Civiliza-
tion
Scarab
Seals
Sheffield Plate
Silver
Sphene
Spinel
Spodumene
Stau rolite
Sunstone
Tassie, James
Tiffany, C. L.
Time, Measurement of
Time, Standard
Topaz
Tourmaline
Turquoise
Variscite
Vesuvianite
Watch
Weighing Machines
Weights and Measures
Wyon, Thomas
Zircon
Zoisite
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CHAPTER XI
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF ELECTRICAL
MACHINERY AND SUPPLIES
ELECTRICAL machinery and sup-
plies include three main groups of
appliances : The apparatus by which
electricity is originally generated; the ap-
paratus by which current is transmitted
and, if necessary, modified before it is
used; and the infinitely various appli-
ances for its final employment. In con-
nection with any one of the latter, in-
formation may be needed as to its struc-
ture and its mechanical or electrochem-
ical method of operation, or as to its
uses, and in the treatment of these two
aspects of a vast number of subjects the
advantages of the encyclopaedic plan of
the Britannica are obvious. One article
will explain the method by which the
same principles are applied to a number
of different machines. Another article
will deal with a group of appliances all
used for similar purposes; and a reference
to the Index of 500,-
Construction 000 entries (Vol. 29)
and Operation will at once guide
the reader who turns
to the name of any electrical appliance to
either kind of information he desires at
the moment, whether he wants to know
how the machine is made and operated,
or what kind of work it does and how
efficiently it does it.
The reader to whom this chapter is ad-
dressed is already familiar with the gen-
eral subject of electricity, but he may at
any moment desire to review or to sup-
plement his general knowledge in con-
nection with some new appliance which,
for the first time, applies to commercial
use one of the many and intricate laws
of electrical vibration. The whole sub-
ject of the nature and action of electricity
is outlined in the article Electricity
(Vol. 9, p. 179), by Prof. J. A. Fleming,
of the University of London, one of the
world's foremost authorities. In a space
equivalent to hardly more than 30 pages
of this Guide, the field covered in detail
by many other articles is so concisely and
clearly surveyed that you get a complete
view of the theoretical and practical de-
velopments by which electrical science
and industry have reached their present
position. The same contributor then
considers Electrostatics (Vol. 9, p. 240)
and Electrokinetics (Vol. 9, p. 210);
and, in Conduction, Electric (Vol. 6,
p. 855), deals with metallic, non-metallic,
dielectric and gaseous conductors. One
section of this article is by Sir J. J. Thom-
son, winner, in 1906, of the Nobel Prize
for Physics. The form in which metal is
chiefly employed for the conduction of
electricity is the subject of a separate
article, Wire (Vol. 28, p. 738); and the
articles on the individual metals deal with
their electrical properties.
The whole subject of the chemical pro-
duction of electricity is discussed in
Electrolysis (Vol. 9, p. 217), by W. C.
D. Whetham, of the
Batteries technical staff of
and Dynamos Cambridge Univer-
sity. Battery (Vol.
3, p. 531), fully illustrated, deals with all
the forms of primary battery, and Accu-
mulator (Vol. 1, p. 126), also illustrated,
by Walter Hibbert, of the London Poly-
technic, with all the secondary types.
The alkaline accumulators, of which the
Edison apparatus is a well known type,
55
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56
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
are the subject of a special section. Turn-
ing to mechanically produced electricity,
the first article to read is Electromag-
netism (Vol. 9, p. 226). This brings you
naturally to the article Dynamo (Vol. 8,
p. 764), by C. C. Hawkins, author of one
of the best practical textbooks on the
subject. This copiously illustrated ar-
ticle, in length equivalent to 50 pages of
this Guide, discusses continuous current
dynamos, lap-winding , commutators, field-
magnets, forging* and castings for magnets,
air-gaps, armature cores, carbon brushes,
cooling surfaces and alternators.
Having thus covered the subject of ob-
taining current, the group of articles next
to be considered is that dealing with its
measurement and the examination of re-
sistances. The general article Units,
Physical (Vol. 27, p. 740), contains a
section on electrical units. Then come
Potentiometer (Vol. 22, p. 205); Me-
ter, Electric (Vol. 18, p. 291); Volt-
meter (Vol. 28, p. 206), illustrated;
Amperemeter (Vol. 1, p. 879), illus-
trated; Ohmmeter (Vol. 20, p. 34);
Wattmeter (Vol. 28, p. 419); Galvano-
meter (Vol. 11, p. 428), illustrated;
Electrometer (Vol. 9, p. 234), illus-
trated; Electroscope (Vol. 9, p. 239),
illustrated; Wheatstone's Bridge (Vol.
28, p. 584), illustrated; and Oscillo-
graph (Vol. 20, p. 347), illustrated.
The commercial supply of current is
covered by a series of articles of which
the first to be read is Electricity Sup-
ply (Vol. 9, p. 193), to which Emile
Garcke, the famous electrical engineer,
contributes a section. Power Trans-
mission, Electrical (Vol. 22, p. 233), is by
Louis Bell, chief engineer of the General
Electric Co., Boston; and contains full
details as to the use of both two-phase
and three-phase generators in transmis-
sion. Induction
Lighting Coil (Vol. 14, p.
Appliances 502). and Trans-
formers (Vol. 27, p.
173) are both fully illustrated. Lighting,
Electric (Vol. 16, p. 659) deals with arc, in-
candescent and vapour lamps, and with
wiring. The section on household work
gives excellent practical information
about the b est arrangements of lights. A
special class of electric light supplies is
discussed in Lighthouse (Vol. 16, p.
627), by W. T. Douglass, who erected the
new Eddystone and the Bishop's Rock
lights, and by N. G. Gedye, another
practical expert.
The appliances used to convert cur-
rent back again into the mechanical
energy from which it had been derived are
described in the article Motors, Elec-
tric (Vol. 18, p. 910). This article di-
vides continuous current motors into five
classes: Separately excited; series-wound
constant current; series-wound constant po-
tential; series-wound interdependent cur-
rent and potential; and shunt-wound con-
stant potential. Alternating current mo-
tors are similarly classified as Synchronous
constant potential; induction-polyphase
constant potential; induction monophase
constant potential; repulsion commutating,
and series-commutating.
Machinery for applying electric power
to transportation, both for trolley cars
and heavy railroad traffic, is described
in the article
Trolley Cars Traction (Vol. 27,
and Railroads p. 118), by Prof.
Louis Duncan, who
designed the first electric locomotives
employed with large loads — those intro-
duced in 1895 by the Baltimore & Ohio
R.R. for its track in the. tunnel under
Baltimore. The article gives, with many
mechanical diagrams, accounts of the ap-
pliances by which the current is taken
from trolley wires, conduits and third
rails, and of the types of motors and con-
trollers employed. Crane (Vol. 7, p.
368), by Walter Pitt, describes the pecu-
liar type of "crane-rated" motor, by the
aid of which steam and hydraulic cranes
can be displaced. The electric furnaces
used for the reduction of ores and for
manufacturing processes in which ex-
ceptionally high temperatures are re-
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES 57
quired, are treated in Electrometal-
lurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232), by W. G. M'Mil-
lan, lecturer on metallurgy at Mason
College, Birmingham. Electric machin-
ery for the refining of metals is dealt with
in the article Electrochemistry (Vol. 9,
p. 208). Under Surgical Instruments
(Vol. 26, p. 133) there is a description of
the apparatus used for cautery and for
illuminating parts of the interior of the
body. The appliances used in Electro-
therapeutics are dealt with under that
heading (Vol. 9, p. 249). Information as
to other medical and surgical apparatus
will be found under Rontgen Rays (Vol.
23, p. 694), X-Ray Treatment (Vol. 28,
p. 887), by Dr. H. L. Jones, of St. Bar-
tholomew's Hospital, London; and Flu-
orescence (Vol. 10, p. 575), by Prof. J.
R. Cotter, of Trinity College, Dublin.
Telegraph (Vol. 26, p. 510), equiva-
lent in length to 70 pages of this Guide,
and fully illustrated, is by a number of
contributors, and dis-
cusses both land lines
and submarine ca-
bles. The section on
instruments, by H. R. Kempe, electrician
to the General Post Office, London, in-
cludes a full description of the transmit-
ters and receivers employed in the various
systems of wireless telegraphy. Tele-
phone (Vol. 26, p. 547) deals with the
fixed and portable instruments, the bat-
teries and switchboards, the new auto-
Telegraph
and Telephone
matic exchange "selectors," and with
special applications of the microphone.
A number of other electric appliances
are discussed in separate articles, such as
Bell (Vol. 3, p. 692), by H. M. Ross, in
which burglar alarm devices are de-
scribed; and Ventilation, Fan (Vol. 27,
p. 1011), by James Bartlett; while spark-
ing plugs and other ignition appliances
are treated under Oil Engine (Vol. 20,
p. 35).
There are also a number of appliances
used mostly in experimental and educa-
tional work. Such, for instance, are
Electrical or Electrostatic Machine
(Vol. 9, p. 176), with many illustrations;
Electrophorus (Vol. 9, p. 237), and
Leyden Jar (Vol. 16, p. 528).
The metals, chemicals and other ma-
terials sold by dealers in electrical sup-
plies, and their properties and uses, are
described in Copper (Vol. 7, p. 102),
Zinc (Vol. 28, p. 981), Lead (Vol. 16, p.
314), Sulphuric Acid (Vol. 26, p. 65),
Sodium, Compounds (Vol. 25, p. 341);
Chromium (Vol. 6, p. 296); Nitrogen,
Compounds (Vol. 19, p. 715); Sal Am-
moniac (Vol. 24, p. 59), Bichromates
and Chromates (Vol. 3, p. 912), Carbon
(Vol. 5, p. 305), Rubber (Vol. 23, p.
795), and Gutta Percha (Vol. 12, p.
743).
The following is a partial list, in alpha-
betical order, of articles of peculiar in-
terest to dealers in electrical supplies.
Accumulator
Amperemeter, or Am-
meter
Armature
Battery
Bell
Bichromates and Chro-
mates
Carbon
Chromium
Condenser
Conductor, Electric
Copper
Dielectric
Dynamo
Electricity
Electrical, or Electro-
static, Machine
Electricity Supply
Electrokinetics
Electrolysis
Electromagnetism
Electrometer
Electrophorus
Electroscope
Electrotherapeutics
Fluorescence
Fuze, or Fuse
Galvanometer
Gutta Percha
Induction Coil
Lead
Leyden Jar
Lighting
Meter, Electric
Motors, Electric
Nitrogen, Compounds
Ohmmeter
Oil Engine
Oscillograph
Potentiometer
Power Transmission
Rontgen Rays, Appa-
ratus
Rubber
Sal Ammoniac
Sodium, Compounds
Sulphuric Acid
Surgical Instruments
Telegraph
Telephone
Thermometry, Electrical
Traction, Electric
Tramway
Transformers
Units, Physical
Vacuum Tube
Ventilation
Voltmeter
Wattmeter
Wheatstone's Bridge
Wire
Zinc
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CHAPTER XII
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
CHEMICALS AND DRUGS
THE chemical and drug industry is
not only in itself an enormous
business, but it supplies essential
materials for almost every branch of
manufacturing. Chemical products are
employed in our buildings, our clothing,
our food; we come into the world and go
out of the world with the odour of chem-
icals about us. The manufacturer or
dealer cannot analyze all the influences
that affect his market, and when he tries,
as he must, to consider the future of the
trade, to reckon with
A Factor in the channels of de-
All Industries mand that will arise
in the course of new
applications of chemical products, he is
facing all the problems of all the indus-
tries.
The variety of raw materials from
which chemical products are derived, and
the activity with which new sources are
discovered and developed, are almost
as bewildering. Only a century has
passed since coal-tar was first distilled,
and to-day no chemist would venture to
fix the limits of its industrial possibilities.
Electrolysis has been in use since 1804,
and yet the future of the world's wheat
supply probably depends upon processes,
as yet hardly beyond the experimental
stage, of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen.
In connection with so comprehensive
an industry, the uses of the Britannica
are so manifold that this whole Guide
might be devoted to them. Articles on
every manufacturing process touch upon
the use of chemicals. The articles on
countries, states and cities are full of rele-
vant information; and there is hardly a
scientific article that would not be help-
ful. But the 40 general articles on chem-
istry, the 350 on chemical compounds,
and the 75 on manufactured products call
most immediately for attention; and, with
the aid of other chapters in the Guide, the
reader who desires to go further will easily
find his way.
The article Chemistry (Vol. 0, p. 33),
equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide,
is divided into 6
Articles on sections. The first,
Chemicals History, traces the
general trend of the
science from its infancy to the founda-
tions of the modern theory. The second
section, Principles, treats of nomencla-
ture, formulae, chemical equations and
chemical changes. It provides a brief
but complete introduction to the termin-
ology and methods of the chemist, and
there is not a line in it which will not
prove of value in some way or other to
the chemical manufacturer. Sections 3
and 4 are devoted to Inorganic and Or-
ganic Chemistry, giving a history of the
subjects and the principles underlying the
structure of compounds, with cross refer-
ences to all articles dealing with their
preparation and properties. Sections 5
and 6 deal, respectively, with Analytical
and Physical Chemistry,
Dr. Walter Nernst, professor of phy-
sical chemistry, University of Berlin, is
the author of Chemical Action (Vol. 6,
p. 26), which deals specifically with the
nature of chemical forces and deduces the
laws of chemical statics and kinetics. Of
interest and importance in connection
with the manufacture of chemicals is
Solution (Vol. 25, p. 368), by W. C. D.
Whetham, of Cambridge University, au-
thor of Theory of Solution, etc. Another
theoretical article which will be found
58
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS 59
widely useful is Thermochemistry (Vol.
26, p. 804), by Prof. James Walker, of
Edinburgh University. For further de-
tails see the chapter on Chemistry in
this Guide.
It is possible here to mention only a
small amount of the material dealing with
the manufacture of chemicals. At the
end of this chapter
Manufacture there is a fuller al-
of Chemicals phabetical list. It
may be noted, how-
ever, that the articles on the elements,
metallic and non-metallic, give much con-
sideration to their compounds, how these
are made and how used in the arts and in
medicine. But in addition to this there
are many noteworthy contributions deal-
ing with chemical manufacture. For in-
stance, Alkali Manufacture (Vol. 1,
p. 674), by Dr. Georg Lunge, professor of
technical chemistry, Zurich Polytechnic,
11 pages in length and with 10 illustra-
tions. The chief processes described are
the Leblanc, ammonia-soda; and electro-
lytic, together with others dependent
upon them. The facts about the manu-
facture of the carbonate, hydrate, and
sulphate of soda, chlorine, hydrochloric
acid, etc., are fully given. Potassium
(Vol. 22, p. 197) treats of the commercial
compounds of this metal in the same
manner. Nitrogen (Vol. 19, p. 714) ex-
plains the new process for the commercial
manufacture of nitric acid from atmos-
pheric air — a matter of enormous indus-
trial importance — and also the conversion
of nitrogen into ammonia, which has been
done successfully only within the past
few years.
The manufacture of chemical products
by the use of electricity is the subject of
Electrochemistry (Vol. 9, p. 208), and
a still larger field is covered by Electro-
metallurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232). Both of
these valuable articles are by W. G. M'
Millan, formerly secretary of the Insti-
tute of Electrical Engineers of Great
Britain. Sulphuric Acid (Vol. 26, p. 65),
illustrated, by Dr. Lunge, describes the
properties, reactions and manufacture of
the most important of all chemicals, in-
cluding the more modern contact pro-
cesses.
As a key to the subject of the origin
and manufacture of drugs, the article
Pharmacology (Vol. 21, p. 347), by Dr.
Ralph Stockman,
Drugs, Origin professor of materia
and Manu- medica and thera-
facture peutics in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow,
presents a great amount of interesting
and valuable information on the action of
chemical substances (apart from foods)
on all kinds of animals, from bacteria up
to man. A short history of pharmacology
is given and a large part of the article
concerns the action of drugs. There is
also a classification of drugs according to
the latest and most scientific methods
into twenty-eight groups, describing the
effects of each group. An appendix to
the article, by Dr. H. L. Hennessy, is
entitled Terminology in Therapeutics, and
is a general explanation of the common
names used in the therapeutic classifica-
tion of drugs.
Since therapeutics is concerned with
the remedial power of drugs and the con-
ditions under which they are to be used,
the article Therapeutics (Vol. 26, p.
793), by Dr. Sir Lauder Brunton, of St.
Bartholomew's Hospital, London, and
author of the well-known treatise, Modern
Therapeutics, should not be overlooked,
nor Poison (Vol. 21, p. 893), by Dr. Sir
Thomas Stevenson, lecturer on chemistry
and forensic medicine at Guy's Hospital,
London, wherein all poisons are classified
and their antidotes are indicated.
Pharmacy (Vol. 21, p. 355), by E. M.
Holmes, of the Pharmaceutical Museum,
London, is largely historical in its nature,
and yields much interesting and valuable
information about the pharmacist. We
learn that an Egyptian papyrus of the
date 2300 B.C. gives direction as to the
preparation of prescriptions, and that
diachylon plaster, invented by Mene-
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60
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
crates in A.D.I, is used for the same
purposes to-day. A great deal of curious
knowledge about ancient remedies, such
as the thigh bone of a hanged man, moss
grown on a human skull, the ashes of the
head of a coal-black cat, etc., renders this
article especially entertaining. Phar-
macopceia (Vol. 21, p. 353), also by Mr.
Holmes, tells about the pharmacopoeias
in use in different countries, the standard-
ization of drugs, etc.
In the list at the end of this chapter are
noted the numerous separate articles on
drugs, their preparation and use that ap-
pear in the Britannica. Mention should
be made of the articles on the elements,
such as Iron (Vol. 14, p. 799), Arsenic
(Vol. 2, p. 653), Mercury (Vol. 18, p.
158), Iodine (Vol. 14, p. 725), Bromine
(Vol. 4, p. 633), Sodium (Vol. 25, p. 343),
Potassium (Vol. 22, p. 200), Magnesium
(Vol. 17, p. 321), Bismuth (Vol. 4, p. 11).
Separate sections dealing with pharma-
cology are found in the articles on
very many plants, such as Aloe (Vol.
1, p. 720), Anise (Vol. 2, p. 55),
Arrowroot (Vol. 2, p. 649), Ice-
land Moss (Vol. 14, p. 241), Cinchona
(Vol. 6, p. 869), Coca (Vol. 6, p. 614),
Colchicum (Vol. 6, p. 661), Dandelion
(Vol. 7, p. 801), Hop (Vol. 13, p. 678),
Horehound (Vol. 13, p. 692), Lobelia
(Vol. 16, p. 837), Mint (Vol. 18, p. 557),
Mustard (Vol. 19, p. 97), Peppermint
(Vol. 21, p. 128), etc.
The scientific biographies include not a
few subjects which will be of interest,
owing to familiarity with the names, to
those engaged in the
Biographies chemical and drug
of Eminent business. Among
Scientists these are Lister,
Baron Joseph L.
(Vol. 16, p. 777), to whose work and
teaching the present importance of the
manufacture of antiseptics is largely
due; Pasteur, Louis (Vol. 20, p. 892);
Curie, Pierre, and Mme. Marie Curie
(Vol. 7, p. 644), the physicists who
first announced the existence of ra-
dium; Liebig, Baron J. von (Vol. 16,
p. 590), the great physiological chem-
ist; Lunge, Georg (Vol. 17, p. 126), the
noted expert in technical chemistry, al-
ready mentioned as a contributor to the
Britannica, and Glauber, J. R. (Vol. 12,
p. 114), the German chemist who made
a living chiefly by the sale of se-
cret chemical and medicinal prepara-
tions.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNIGA OF
SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE
AND SALE OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS
Abel, Sir Frederick A.
Acacia
Acenaphthene
Acetic Acid
Aceto-Acetic Ester
Acetone
Acetophenone
Acetylene
Achard, F. C.
Acid
Acid Amides
Aconite
Acorus Calamus
Acridine
Adenine
Adipocere
Affinity, Chemical
Albumin, or Albumen
Alcohol
Alcohols
Aldehydes
Alembic
Algaroth, Powder of
Alizarin
Alkahest
Alkali
Alkali Manufacture
Alkaline Earths
Alkaloid
Alkanet
Allantoin
Alloxan
Alloxantin
Allyl Alcohol
Almond
Aloe
Alum
Aluminium
Amidines
Amines
Ammonia
Ammoniacum
Amygdalin
Amyl Alcohols
Amyl Nitrite
Anaesthesia and
aesthetics
Analysis
Anatto
Andrews, Thomas
Angelica
Aniline
Anirae
Anise
Anthracene
Anthraquinone
Antimony
Antipyrine
Antiseptics
Apothecary
Araroba Powder
Archil
Argol
Aristolochia
Arnica
Arrowroot
An- Arsenic
Asafetida
Asparagine
Aspen
Asphodel
Azo Compounds
Azoximes
Baeyer, Adolf von
Balard, Antoine J.
Balsam
Barium
Base
Bauml, Antoine
Bdellium
Becher, J. J.
Bell, Jacob
Belladonna
Benzaldehyde
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Benzine
Benzidine
Benzoic Acid
Benzoin
Benzophenone
Benzyl Alcohol
Berberine
Bergman, Torbern Olof
Berthelot, M. P. E.
Berthollet, C. L.
Beryllium, or Glucinum
Berzelius, J. J.
Betaine
Betel Nut
Bhang
Bibirine or Bebeerine
Bichromates and Chro-
mates
Bismuth
Bittern
Black, Joseph
Borage
Borax
Boric Acid or Boracic
Acid
Boron
Boussingault, J. B. J. D.
Brande, William
Thomas
Bromine
Brown, S. M.
Brucine
Buchu
Bunsen, P. W. von
Butyl Alcohols
Butyric Acid
Cadmium
Caesium
Caffeine
Caiuput Oil
Calabar Bean
Calcium
Calomel
Calvert, F. Crace
Camphors
Cannizzaro, Stanislao
Cantharides
Capsicum
Capsule
Caraway
Carbazol
Carbide
Carbohydrate
Carbolic Acid
Carbon
Carbonates
Carbon Bisulphide
Carbonic Acia
Cardamon
Carvacrol
Cassia
Castor Oil
Catalysis
Catechu
Caustic
Cavendish, Henry
Cayenne Pepper
Cellulose
Cerium
Chamomile, or Camo-
mile Flowers
Charcoal
Chemical Action
Chemistry
Chevreul, M. F.
Chloral
Chlorates
Chlorine
Chloroform
Chlorpicrin
Chromium
Chrysene
Cimicifuga
Cinchona
Cinnamic Acid
Cinnamon
Cinnolin
Citric Acid
Clark, Thomas
Cloves
Coal-tar
Cobalt
Coca, or Cuca
Cocaine
Coco-nut Palm
Cod-liver Oil
Colchicum
Colcothar
Collodion
Colocynth
Colt's-Foot
Columbium
Combustion
Condenser
Conine
Copaiba
Copal
Copper
Copperas
Coriander
Corrosive Sublimate
Coumarin
Coumarones
Creosote
Cresols
Crookes, Sir William
Crotonic Acid
Croton Oil
Crystallization
Cubebs
Cumin
Curie, Pierre
Cyanamide
Cyanic Acid and Cya-
nates
Cyanide
Cyanogen
Cytisine
Dalton, John
Dammar
Dandelion
Daniell, John F.
Davy, Sir Humphry
Decolourizing
Depilatory
Dessication
Dewar, Sir James
Dextrine
Diazo Compounds
Didymium
Digitalis
Dill
Diphenyl
Disinfectants
Distillation
Dividivi
Ddbereiner, J. W.
Dragon's Blood
Drug
Dulong, Pierre Louis
Dumas, J. B. A.
Durene
Earth
Ecgonine
Elaterium
Elecampine
Electrochemistry
Electrolysis
Electrometallurgy
Element
Elixir
Elm
Epsom Salts
Equivalent
Erbium
Erdmann, Otto Linn6
Ergot, or Spurred Rye
Erythrite
Esters
Ether
Ethers
Ethyl
Ethyl Chloride
Ethylene
Eucalyptus
Eugenol
Euphorbium
Eupion
Europium
Fehling, Hermann von
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fig
Filter
Fir
Fischer, Emil
Fittig, Rudolf
Flamel, Nicolas
Flavin
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Fluorescein
Fluorine
Formalin, or Formalde-
hyde
Formic Acid
Formula
Fourcroy, A. F., Comte
de
Foxglove
Frankland, Sir Edward
Fremy, Edmond
Fresenius, Karl R.
Friedel, Charles
Fructose, or Fruit-
sugar
Fuchs, Johann N. von
Fulminic Acid
Fumaric and Maleic
Acids
Fumitory
Furazanes
Furfurane
Fusel Oil
Gadolinium
Galangal
Galbanum
Gallic Acid
Gallium
Gamboge
Gannal, J. N.
Garlic
Gay-Lussac, J. L.
Geber
Gelatin
Gelsemium
Gentian
Geoffroy, E. F.
Gerhardt, Charles F.
Germanium
Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott
Gilbert, Sir Joseph H.
Ginger
Ginseng
Gladstone, John Hall
Glaser, Christopher
Glauber, Johann R.
Glauber's Salt
Glucinum
Glucose
Glucoside
Glutaric Acid
Glycerin, or Glycerol
Glycols
Gmelin (family)
Gold
Graham, Thomas
Grains of Paradise
Greenheart
Guaco, Huaco, or Guao
Guaiacum
Guanidine
Guarana
Guelder Rose
Guimet, Jean B.
Gum
Guyton de Morveau,
Baron
Harcourt, W. Vernon
Hartshorn, Spirits of
Hashish
Hellebore
Helmont, Jean B. van
Hemp
Henbane
Henna
Henry, William
Herb
Hippuric Acid
Hoftnann, A. W. von
Homberg, Wilhelm
Homoeopathy
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Hop
Horehound
Houseleek
Hydantoin
Hydracrylic Acid
Hydras tine
Hydrate
Hydrazine
Hydrazone
Hydrocarbon
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen
Hydroxylamine
Hyposulphite of Soda
Hyssop
Iatrochemistry
Iceland Moss
Imidazoles, or Glyoxa-
lines
Indazoles
Indene
Indicator
Indigo
Indium
Indole
Indulines
Inulin
Iodine
Iodoform
Ipecacuanha
Iron
I satin
Isomerism
Isoxazoles
J a bo rand i
Jalap
Juniper
Kamala
Kekule\ F. August
Kelp
Kermes
Ketenes
Ketones
Kino
Klaproth, M. H.
Kolbe, A. W. Hermann
Kopp, Hermann F. M.
Kousso
Kunkel, or Kunckel
von Lowenstjern, J.
Lactic Acid
Lactones
Laevulinic Acid
Lanolin
Lanthanum
Laudanum
Lavender
Lavoisier, A. L.
Lead
Le Blanc, Nicolas
Lemery, Nicolas
Lemon
Liebig, Baron J. von
Lime
Linseed
Liquorice
Lister, Baron
Lithium
Litmus
Lobelia
Lunge, Georg
Madder
Magnesium
Magnus, H. G.
Malic Acid
Mallow
Malonic Acid
Malt
Mammee Apple
Mandelic Acid
Mandrake
Manganese
Mangos teen
Manna
Marggraf, Andreas S.
Marignac, Jean C. G.
de
Mastic
Mayow, John
Medical Jurisprudence
Medicine
Mellitic Acid
Mandelleff, Dmitri I.
Mercaptans
Mercury
Mesoxalic Acid
Methyl Alcohol
Meyer, J. Lothar
Meyer, Victor
Microcosmic Salt
Mineral Waters
Mint
Mitscherlich, E.
Mohr, K. Friedrich
Moissan, Henri
Molybdenum
Mond, Ludwig
Morphine
Mucic Acid
Murexide
Murray, John
Musk
Muspratt, J. and J. S.
Mustard
Mustard Oils
Mvrrh
Myrtle
Naphtha
Naphthalene
Naphthols
Naphthylamines
Nepenthes
Newlands, John A. R.
Nickel
Nightshade
Niobium
Nitre
Nitric Acid
Nitrobenzene
Nitro Compounds
Nitrogen
Nitroglycerin
Nobel, Alfred B.
Nux Vomica
Officinal
Oils
Olefine
Oleic Acid
Opium
Orcin
Orpiment
Orris-root
Oxalic Acid
Oxazoles
Oxide
Oximes
Oxygen
Oxy hydrogen Flame
Palladium
Palmitic Acid
Paraffin
Paraldehyde
Pasteur, Louis
Pelouze, T. Jules
Pennyroyal
Peppermint
Pepsin
Perfumery
Perkin, Sir W. H.
Pettenkofer, Max J.
von
Pharmacology
Pharmacopoeia
Pharmacy
Phenacetin
Phenanthrene
Phenazine
Phenol
Phenolphthalein
Phosphates
Phosphorus
Phthalazines
Phthalic Acids
Picene
Picric Acid
Picrotoxin
Pilocarpine
Pimento
Pine
Piperazin
Pipcrine
Piperonal
Platinum
Plattner, K. F.
Podophyllin
Poison
Polymethylenes
Pomade
Potashes
Potassium
Priestley, Joseph
Primuline
Louis
Pumice
Purin
Purslane
Pyrazines
Pyrazoles
Pyrene
Pyrethrum
Pyridine
Pyrimidines
Pyrocatechin
Pyrogallol
Py rones
Pyrophorous
Pyrrol
Pyruvic Acid
Quassia
Quercitron
Quinazolines
Quinine
Quinoline
Quinones
Quinoxalines
Radium
Ramsay, Sir William
Raoult, Frangois M.
Rare Earths
Regnault, H. V.
Resorcin
Retene
Rhamnus Purshiana
Rhatany, or Krameria
Root
Rhodium
Rhubarb
Richter, J. B.
Roebuck, John
Roscoe, Sir H. E.
Rose
Rouelle, G. F.
Rouge
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Saccharic Acid
Saccharin
Safflower
Saffron
Safraninc
Sainte - Claire Deville,
E. H.
Sal Ammoniac
Salep
Saliein, Salicinum
Saliscylic
Salt
Saltpetre
Samarium
Sandalwood
Sandarach
Santonin
Sarsaparilla
Scammony
Scandium
Scheele, K. W.
Schlippe's Salt
Schonbein, C. F.
Schiltzenberger, P.
Senega
Senna
Sesame
Silica
Silicon
Silliman, Benjamin
Silver
Snake-root
Soap
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Soap-bark
Sodium
Solution
Spectroscopy
Spikenard, or Nard
Spirits
Sponges
Squill
Stahi, G. E.
Stas, J. S.
Stearic Acid
Sterochemistry
Stero-isomerism
Stoichometry
Stramonium
Strontium
Strophanthus
Strychnine
Styrolene
Succinic Acid
Sugar
Sulphonal
Sulphonic Acids
Sulphur
Sulphuric Acid
Sumbul, or Sumbal
Supra-renal extract
Talc
Tamarisk
Tannin or Tannic Acid
Tantalum
Tar
Taraxacum
Tartar
Tartaric Acid
Tellurium
Tennant, Charles
Tennant, Snaithson
Terbium
Terpenes
Tetrazines
Tetrazoles
Thenard, L. J.
Therapeutics
Thermochemistry
Thiazines
Thiazoles
Thiophen
Thomsen, Julius
Thomson, Thomas
Thorium
Thymol
Thyroid
Tin
Tincture
Titanium
Toilet Powders
Toluene
Tonqua Bean
Tooth Powders and
Pastes
Triazines
Triazoles
Triphenylmethane
Trophine
Tungsten
Turmeric
Upas
Uranium
Urea, or Carbamide
Urethane
Urotropin
Valency
Valerian
Valeric Acid
Vanadium
Vanilla
Van't Hoff, J. H.
Vaseline
Vauquelin, L. N
Veratrum
Veronal
Viburnum
Vitriol
Weighing Machines
Weights and Measures
Weldon, Walter
Wenzel, K. F.
Williamson, A. W.
Wine
Wintergreen
Winter's Bark
Wislicenus, J.
Witch-hazel
Wohler, Friedrich
Wollaston, W. H.
Wormwood
Wurtz, C. A.
Xanthic Acid
Xanthone
Xylene
Yew
Young, James
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
CHAPTER Xin
FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF
FOOD PRODUCTS
THE manufacturer of or dealer in
food products must of necessity be
interested in questions of trans-
portation by land and sea, of taxation, of
agriculture, stock-raising and fishing, for
example. For all such subjects as these
he is referred to other chapters of this
Guide. Here he will find only the chief
articles on the subjects most closely re-
lated to the study of food products.
But on these he may glean a wealth of
information that will be of greatest value
to him, and from them he can turn
readily and with profit to a survey of the
larger area covered by other chapters.
As a general introduction to the sub-
ject the student should read Dietetics
(Vol. 8, p. 214), by the late Dr. W. O.
Atwater, who was in charge of the Nu-
trition Investigation of the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and R. D. Milner,
also of that Department. This article
deals with the composition and nutritive
values of foods, their fuel value, quan-
tities of nutriments needed, hygienic and
pecuniary economy of foods (with tables
showing the percentage composition of
common food materials), conditions of
digestibility, and other matters of equal
importance. Nutrition (Vol. 19, p.
920), by Prof. D. N. Paton and Dr. E. P.
Cathcart, both of the University of
Glasgow, discusses more particularly di-
gestion and the utilization of the different
food constituents.
After establishing the value and rela-
tive importance of the various substances
used as food, it is of great interest to
everyone in the business to consider the
subject of Food Preservation (Vol.
10, p. 612), an article by Otto Hehner,
formerly president of the Society of Pub-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
lie Analysts, in which there are separate
sections on Preservation by Heat (which
includes all canning
Food processes); by Chem-
Preservatioii icals ; by Drying;
by Refrigeration ; by
Pickling. The sterilization of milk, con-
densed milk and milk powder all fall
within the scope of this article. The
preservation of food by cold is described
in fuller detail in the article Refrigerat-
ing and Ice Making (Vol. £3, p. 30), by
T. B. Lightfoot, author of the standard
technical book on that subject. Among
the separate articles on preservative ma-
terials are Vinegar (Vol. £8, p. 96),
Acetic Acid (Vol. 1, p. 135), Citric
Acid (Vol. 6, p. 397), Oils (Vol. 20, p.
43), Salt (Vol. 24, p. 87), Saltpetre
(Vol. 24, p. 93), Sugar (Vol. 26, p. 32),
Borax (Vol. 4, p. 243), Formalin or
Formaldehyde (Vol. 10, p. 667), Ben-
zoic Acid (Vol. 3, p. 756), Salicylic
Acid (Vol. 24, p. 69), Sulphur, Com-
pounds (Vol. 26, p. 63), Alcohol (Vol.
1, p. 525).
The objections to the use of some of
these chemicals are discussed in Adul-
teration (Vol. 1, p. 218), by Otto Heh-
ner. This article is about as long as 50
pages of this Guide. There is an inter-
esting historical introduction, from which
we learn that the first legal statute in
which the adultera-
Adulteration tion of food is no-
ticed dates from the
reign of King John in England (1203).
There is an elaborate account of all the
subsequent legislation in Great Britain,
the United States, and Germany. The
effects upon digestion of the chemical
preservatives mentioned above are shown
in the light of the very latest investiga-
tions. There is a section on colouring
matter in food, with information about
harmless and harmful dyes; and the last
part of the article considers adulteration
as recently applied to the more important
articles of food, such as milk (with tests
for borax and formaldehyde), cream,
butter, cheese, lard, oils, flour and bread,
sugar, marmalade and jams, tea, coffee,
cocoa and chocolate, wine, beer, spirits,
non-alcoholic drinks, and vinegar.
The properties of adulterants and col-
ouring matters are described in separate
articles, such as Glucose (Vol. 12, p.
141); Saccharin (Vol. 23, p. 970); Pa-
raffin (Vol. 20, p. 752), which is some-
times added to coffee when it is roasted;
Alum (Vol. 1, p. 766), often used with
weak and unstable flours in bread making,
and unwholesome, although not strictly
speaking an adulterant; Sago (Vol. 23, p.
1003) and Arrowroot (Vol. 2, p. 649),
which provide adulterants of cocoa;
Chicory (Vol. 6, p. 131), which many
consumers insist upon using in their
coffee; Copper, Compounds (Vol. 7, p.
109), which describes the copper salts
used for colouring canned vegetables;
Anatto (Vol. 1, p. 943) and Turmeric
(Vol. 27, p. 474), two harmless vegetable
colouring matters, much employed; and
Aniline (Vol. 2, p. 47). A full list of
the various other colouring matters will
be found in the article Dyeing (Vol. 8,
p. 744).
Another group of articles will be found
particularly useful in connection with the
manufacture of certain classes of food
products. Among these are Fermenta-
tion (Vol. 10, p. 275), by J. L. Baker, the
noted English analytical and consulting
chemist; Fungi (Vol. 11, p. 333), illus-
trated, with its information about molds;
Bacteriology (Vol. 3, p. 156), illus-
trated, especially for the material relating
to the nature of toxins (p. 174) — both of
these articles by the late Professor Ward
of Cambridge and Professor Blackman of
the University of Leeds; Medical Juris-
prudence, Food Poisoning (Vol. 18, p.
29), by Prof. H. H. Littlejohn, of the
University of Edinburgh, and T. A. In-
gram; and Poison (Vol. 21, p. 893), by
the late Dr. Sir Thomas Stevenson, of
Guy's Hospital, London.
The diseases of animals which affect
meat are described in the article Veter-
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65
inaby Science (Vol. 28, p. 2), by George
Fleming, author of Animal Plagues, and
Prof. John MacQueen of the London Vet-
erinary College, which contains sections
on diseases of cattle, sheep and pigs as
well as on the principal parasites of dom-
estic animals; and there are separate ar-
ticles on Anthrax (Vol. 2, p. 106); Foot
and Mouth Disease (Vol. 10, p. 617),
Pleuro-Pneumonia, or Ltjng Plague
(Vol. 21, p. 888), and Rinderpest (Vol.
23, p. 848).
The article Flour and Flour Manu-
facture (Vol. 10, p. 548), by George F.
Zimmer, not only describes the processes
of milling and of
Special Foods dressing and bleach-
ing the flour, but
also gives the history of milling from the
earliest times, and deals with the special
customs of different countries. There is
a very full article Bread (Vol. 4, p. 465),
by the same contributor. It is not gen-
erally known that there are in existence
remains of cakes made by the Swiss lake-
dwellers in the Stone Age. The author
says that, in all probability, they were
baked on hot stones. The machine
bakeries of the present day are described;
and there are sections on sanitation of
bakehouses, quality, flavour and colour of
flour, baking powders, methods of dough
making (the ferment-and-dough, the
sponge-and-dough, and other systems),
leavened, unleavened and aerated bread,
and the recently invented Apostolov pro-
cess, which among other advantages, per-
mits the utilization of about 87j^% of
the wheat berry in bread making. A
complete modern bread-making plant is
described, together with the latest types
of machine kneaders, dough dividers and
mixers, and baking ovens. There are
also articles on Biscuit (Vol. 3, p. 992),
Macaroni (Vol. 17, p. 192), Vermicelli
(Vol. 27, p. 1024), and Gluten (Vol. 12,
p. 145).
The article Starch (Vol. 25, p. 794)
treats of the manufacture of this most
important alimentary substance. The
materials from which the chief food
starches are made are described in Maize
(Vol. 7, p. 448), Arrowroot (Vol. 2, p.
649), with illustrations showing the ap-
pearance under the microscope of the
substances which pass commercially un-
der the name of arrowroot or farina;
Sago (Vol. 23, p. 1008), Tapioca (Vol.
26, p. 413), and Cassava (Vol. 5, p. 457).
Oat (Vol. 19, p. 938) has information
about the manufacture of oatmeal.
The article Sugar (Vol. 26, p. 85) is by
two practical experts, Alfred and Valen-
tine W. Chapman. It deals with the
chemistry, manufacture, history and
statistics of this important food product
as well as with the cultivation of the
sugar cane and beet.
Among articles on the products in the
manufacture of which sugar is employed
is Jams and Jellies (Vol. 15, p. 150), by
Otto Hehner. The author points out
many things of interest, for example why
starch-glucose is an ingredient and not an
adulterant of these products, and he shows
the baselessness of the prejudice against
the use of beet sugar in their manufac-
ture. The manufacturer of jellies and
preserves will find separate articles on all
the fruits employed, and other informa-
tion in Gelatin (Vol. 11, p. 554); in
Irish Moss (Vol. 14, p. 795) as to the
properties of vegetable gelatin; and in
Isinglass (Vol. 14, p. 872), which, be-
sides its gelatinous qualities, possesses the
property of clarifying wines, beers, and
other liquids. Confectionery (Vol. 6,
p. 898) describes an important industry
— which until the middle of the 19th cen-
tury was part of the druggist's business.
See also Chocolate (Vol. 6, p. 259) and
Jujube (Vol. 15, p. 546).
Salt (Vol. 24, p. 87) covers the manu-
facture of salt very fully. It is curious
to note that the termination "wich" in
English place-names points to localities
of ancient salt manufacture, for "wich"
is an old English word meaning salt-
spring. This article contains an interest-
ing section on the Ancient History and
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BRITANrilCA READINGS AND STUDIES
Religious Symbolism of salt (p. 90), by the
late Dr. William Robertson Smith. The
preservative qualities of salt were held to
make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of any
enduring compact, and in more than one
part of the world cakes of salt have been
used as money.
Butter and cheese manufacture fall
under the article Dairy and Dairy
Farming (Vol. 7, p. 737), illustrated, by
the late Dr. William
Dairy Fream, of Edin-
Products burgh University.
There are sections
on Milk Production; Cheese and Cheese-
making, including Canadian and Amer-
ican factory practice and the Babcock
and Russell investigations in Wisconsin
which have opened up a new field for
commercial exploitation (the varieties of
English, French, German, and Italian
cheeses being also described); Butter and
Butter -making, Dairy Factories, Adultera-
tion of Dairy Produce; The Milk Trade,
American Dairying, etc. Margarine,
the "perfectly wholesome butter sub-
stitute" is the subject of a separate ar-
ticle (Vol. 17, p. 704).
There is an article on Lard (Vol. 16, p.
214), showing what real leaf lard is, and
how the term is applied in commerce.
Oils (Vol. 20, p. 43), by Dr. Julius Lew-
kowitsch, author of Chemical Technology
and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes,
deals with the fixed oils and fats, and
essential, etheral or volatile oils. Some
of these are among the most important
articles of food, and the oil and fat in-
dustry may be considered as old as the
human race itself. The three processes
of oil extraction are described, also re-
fining and bleaching, methods of testing,
etc. A list of all oils and fats, including
those that are edible, is given. For the
chief oils used as food see Olive (Vol. 20,
p. 85), Cotton, Cotton-seed (Vol. 7, p.
260), Sesame (Vol. 24, p. 701), Sun-
flower (Vol. 26, p. 102), Poppy Oil
(Vol. 22, p. 91).
Other articles on foods deal with the
preparation for the market of such pro-
ducts as Ginger (Vol. 12, p. 27), Must-
ard (Vol. 19, p. 97), Pepper (Vol. 21, p.
127), with the different varieties dis-
tinguished, Cayenne Pepper (Vol. 5, p.
589), Vinegar (Vol. 28, p. 96), Pimento
(Vol. 21, p. 614), Cloves (Vol. 6, p. 562),
Cinnamon (Vol. 6, p. 376), Curry (Vol.
7, p. 649), Caviare (Vol. 5, p. 582), from
which we learn that the finer grades
rarely find their way out of Russia; Ket-
chup (Vol. 15, p. 761), Chutney (Vol. 6,
p. 350), Pickle (Vol. 21, p. 584), Vanil-
la (Vol. 27, p. 894), Raisin (Vol. 22, p.
864), Currant (Vol. 7, p. 648), Prune
(Vol. 22, p. 518), Fig (Vol. 10, p. 332), and
Guava (Vol. 12, p. 665).
The same completeness is displayed in
the Britannica articles on beverages. Tea
(Vol. 26, p. 476), by John McEwan, has
an admirable his-
Beverages, torical introduction.
Tea and Coffee It was not until the
middle of the 17th
century that the English began to use tea.
It is a curious fact that whereas 35 years
ago China practically supplied the world
with tea, to-day Russia alone takes half
of her export. The reason for this is ex-
plained. The characteristics of all vari-
eties of tea are given and the main facts
about the cultivation and manufacture.
Tea Adulteration and Effects on Health are
other sections of this valuable article.
Coffee (Vol. 6, p. 646) is treated in
very similar fashion by A. B. Rendle and
W. G. Freeman. This beverage, in spite
of fierce religious opposition, became the
national beverage of the Arabians, and
finally appeared in Europe in the 17th
century. The physiological action of
coffee has a section all to itself. Coffee
consumption, roasting and adulteration
are also discussed. It is of interest to
note that while one branch of the Anglo-
Saxon race, namely the people of the
United States, is near the head of the
list of coffee consumers, others, especially
Great Britain, Canada and Australia
"are almost at the foot, using only about
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FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF FOOD PRODUCTS
67
1 lb. of coffee per head each year." In the
United States "the average consump-
tion per head is about 11 or 12 lbs. per
annum."
Cocoa (Vol. 6, p. 628) is an interesting
and valuable article on "the food of the
gods" — the great beverage and dietary
substance which America has given the
world. Modern lovers of chocolate as a
beverage (which is the same as cocoa
save that the fat has not been extracted)
will envy the digestive powers of the
Emperor Montezuma of Mexico who had,
each day, 50 jars of chocolate prepared
for his personal consumption.
Beer (Vol. 3, p. 642), by Dr. Philip
Schidrowitz, member of the Institute of
Brewery Council, confines itself to the
history of this important beverage, the
chemical composition of beers of different
types, and information in regard to pro-
duction and consumption. In Brewing
(Vol. 4, p. 506) this same author enters
very fully into the manufacturing opera-
tions. The English and foreign systems
are described and there are many illustra-
tions. It is curious to note that Pliny,
who is the earliest writer to mention
beer, describes it as scorned by the Ro-
mans, who looked upon it as only fit for
barbarians, and he thought it a more sin-
ful drink than wine. "So exquisite," he
says, "is the cunning of mankind in
gratifying their vicious appetites, that
they have invented a method to make
water itself produce intoxication." The
section on Brewing Chemistry is very
valuable. In connection with Brewing
there is an article on Malt (Vol. 17, p.
499), illustrated and very complete in its
treatment, by Arthur R. Ling, editor
Journal of the Institute of Brewing, and
one on Hop (Vol. 18, p. 677), by the late
Dr. Wm. Fream. Dr. Schidrowitz also
contributes the article Wine (Vol. £8, p.
716). The art of wine-making is thor-
oughly described, and there are most in-
teresting sections on the wines of France,
Spain, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Aus-
tria-Hungary, United States, classifying
the different varieties and affording a full
survey of the industry.
Spirits (Vol. 25, p. 694), illustrated,
and also by Dr. Schidrowitz, is a general
article covering the subject of the distilla-
tion of fermented saccharine and starchy
liquids. The account is both historical
and technical, and there are separate and
more specific articles on Brandt (Vol. 4,
p. 428), Rum (Vol. 23, p. 825), Arrack
(Vol. 2, p. 642), Whisky (Vol. 28, p. 591),
in which the difference between three
main types — Scotch, Irish and American
— is carefully explained; Vodka (Vol. 28,
p. 170), Gin (Vol. 12, p. 26). The many
flavoured and sweetened forms of alcohol
are described in the article Liqueurs
(Vol. 16, p. 744), where we also learn the
difference between a "cordial" and a
"liqueur/* There are separate articles on
Absinthe (Vol. 1, p. 75), Benedictine
(Vol. 8, p. 721), Chartreuse (Vol. 5, p.
954), CuRAgoA (Vol. 7, p. 686), Kirsch
(Vol. 15, p. 834), and Vermouth (Vol.
27, p. 1029).
Mineral Waters (Vol. 18, p. 517)
classifies all the great springs according
to their mineral constituents, and dis-
cusses the effects upon digestion of their
use, and their value in medical treatment.
The appended list includes a large
number of articles of interest to the food
producers, including chemical compounds
and flavouring extracts.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF
SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE- ENGAGED IN THE MANUFAC-
TURE OR SALE OF FOOD PRODUCTS
Angelica
Aniline
Anise
Anthrax
Absinthe
Aerated Waters
Almond
Acetic Acid
Alcohol
Alum
Acorus Calamus
Aldehydes
Anatto
Adulteration
Ale
Anchovy
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Apple
Apricot
Arrack
Arrowroot
Artichoke
Asparagus
Aspic
Avocado Pear
Bacon
Bacteriology
Bael Fruit
Banana
Bannock
Barley
Barm
Bean
Bee, Bee-keeping
Beef
Beer
Beet
Benedictine
Benzoic Acid
Bilberry, or Whortle-
berry
Biltong
Birch
Biscuit
Bisque
Bitters
Blackberry
Bohea
Boletus
Borax
Brandy
Brazil Nut
Bread
Bread Fruit
Brewing
Buckwheat
Butter
Butter-nut
Cabbage
Caffeine
Candle
Capers
Caraway
Cardamon
Carrot
Cassava
Cassia
Cattle
Caviare
Cayenne Pepper
Celery
Chanterelle
Chartreuse
Chasse
Cheese
Cherry
Chestnut
Chicory
Chive
Chocolate
Chupatty
Chutney
Cider
Cinnamon
Citric Acid
Iris
Citron
Irish Moss
Claret
Isinglass
Cloves
Jams and Jellies
Cocoa
Jujube
Coco-nut Palm
Juniper
Cod
Junket
Coffee
Kava
Confectionery
Ketchup
Cookery
Kipper
Copper
Kirsch
Cotton
Koumiss
Crab
Kvass, or Kwass
Cranberry
Lactic Acid
Cucumber
Lard
Curagoa
Lemon
Currant
Lentil
Curry
Liqueurs
Date Palm
Loaf
Dietary
Lobster
Dietetics
Macaroni
Dyeing
Mackerel
Eel
Maize
Enzyme
Malmsey
Esters
Malt
Extract
Maple
Fennel
Marchpane
Fenugreek
Margarine
Fermentation
Marmalade
Fig
Mate
Fisheries
Meal
Flour and Flour Manu-
Mealie
facture
Meat
Food
Medical Jurisprudence
Food Preservation
Medlar
Foot and Mouth Dis-
Melon
ease
Milk
Formalin, or Formalde-
Mineral Waters
hyde
Mint
Fructose
Molasses
Fruit
Mulberry
Fruit and Flower
• Mulligatawny
Farming
Mushroom
Fungi
Mustard
Furfurane
Nasturtium
Garlic
Negus
Gelatin
Nut
Gentian
Nutmeg
Ghee
Nutrition
Gin
Oat
Ginger
Oils
Glucose
Okra
Gluten
Oleic Acid
Gooseberry
Olive
Grain Trade
Onion
Ground Nut
Orange
Gumbo
Oyster
Guava
Palmitic Acid
Haddock
Paraffin
Herring
Pea
Hippocras
Peach
Honey
Pear
Hop
Pemmican
Horseradish
Pepper
Huckleberry
Pepsin
Hyssop
Perry
Pickle
Indian Corn
Pig
Pilchard
Pimento
Pine-apple
Pistachio-nut
Plants, Pathology
Pleuro Pneumonia
Plum
Poison
Pomegranate
Poppy Oil
Potato
Poultry and Poultry
Farming
Prune
Pudding
Puff-ball
Pulque
Pumpkin
Punch
Quince
Radish
Raisin
Raspberry
Ratafia
Rice
Rinderpest
Rum
Rye
Saccharin
Sago
Sake
Salicylic Acid
Salmon
Salsify
Salt
Saltpetre
Scone
Sea Kale
Sesame
Shaddock
Sheep
Sherbet
Sherry
Shrimp
Sorghum
Spirits
Sprat
Starch #
Steak
Stearic Acid
Strawberry
Sturgeon
Suet
Sugar
Sulphur
Sunflower
Syrup
Tamarind
Tapioca
Tart
Tea
Terpenes
Thyme
Tomato
Treacle
Trichinosis
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Truffle
Tunny
Turmeric
Vanilla
Venison
Vermicelli Vinegar
Vermouth Vodka
Veterinary Science Walnut
Vine Wheat
CHAPTER XIV
FOR INSURANCE MEN
Whisky-
Wine
Wintergreen
Wormwood
Yeast
FOR the insurance man, whether
veteran or tyro, the new Encyclo-
paedia Britannica has much of
value and importance, and it has it in
quickly available form so that the desired
information may be readily found, whether
the experienced * student wants an au-
thoritative statement on a difficult point,
or the beginner wishes an outline course
of the subject. This availability, whether
for the expert or the novice, is secured by
the Index (the 29th volume), which guides
the reader immediately to desired infor-
mation, if he does not find it in the alpha-
betically arranged articles in the body of
the book upon first turning up the article
in which he expects the subject to be
treated.
To be more concrete — if you want to
know something about insurance, turn
first to the article Insurance in Volume
14, beginning on p. 656. You find an
elaborate article, which would occupy
about 75 pages if printed in type and on
a page like this Guide.
In other encyclopaedias you would have
no clue to the whereabouts of any infor-
mation about insurance except what
would be given in the article Insurance
or in articles to which it might refer you
in that article. For anything else you
would have to guess how the editor's mind
had worked to find where in the book he
had put other information about insur-
ance; and to guess how each contributor's
mental processes have been related to his
interest in insurance so that you might
know whether in some article, on a topic
apparently not related to insurance at all,
the contributor had put in some interest-
ing and important fact about insurance.
But in the Britannica you have one en-
tire volume, the 29th, which was made
for the sole purpose of increasing the
practical efficiency of the other 28 vol-
umes. Under the heading Insurance in
this index, you will find references to
many articles and cross references to
Title Insurance and to Title Guarantee
Companies.
Apart from the fact that he has the in-
itial assurance that what he gets from the
Britannica in the first place is fuller and
better than he would get from another
work of reference, what are the advan-
tages offered by the index in this par-
ticular instance?
First: Instead of having a reference to
volume 14 only he has references to vol-
umes 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18,
19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28,— nine-
teen volumes in all, — say a gain of 1800%
in efficiency.
Second: Instead of having one article
Insurance to refer to, he has reference to
specific information in the following ar-
ticles :
A nnuity,
A ustria,
A verage,
Barratry,
Bonus,
Employers' Liability,
Lloyds,
Mensuration,
Novation,
Old Age Pensions,
Post Office,
Probability,
Fire and Fire Extinc- Shipbuilding,
Hon, Socialism,
Friendly Societies, Switzerland,
Oaming and Wagering, Title Guarantee Corn-
Guarantee, pontes,
Income Tax, Tontine,
Infanticide, Underwriter,
Japan, Unemployment,
Land Registration, Warranty.
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
That is, to 28 new articles,— say 2800%
additional gain.
Observe, too, that this is a gain that
cannot be expressed in figures. The in-
dex references are classified. First there
is a main head Insurance; then subheads,
Fire, Life, Marine, Title, Workmen's; and
under the subheads special topics ar-
ranged alphabetically.
In brief, the Index facilitates and ac-
celerates reference to anything in the
Britannica that bears on any desired
topic.
The article Insurance opens with a
definition of that word and with drawing
a distinction between it and "assurance/'
The general history of insurance traces
marine insurance back to Greek com-
merce in the 4th century B.C., but shows
that modern methods of marine insur-
ance were unknown until the 14th cen-
tury; that fire insurance dates from the
17th century and especially from the
Great Fire of London in 1666; and that,
although there were a few instances of
life insurance in the 16th and 17th cen-
turies, it did not become a regular busi-
ness until the 18th century and was not
widely extended until the 19th century.
Separate sections of the article deal with
Casualty (or accident) and Miscellaneous
Insurance, Fire Insurance, Life Insurance,
British Post Office Insurance, and Marine
Insurance.
The section on British Post-Office In-
surance will give to the American insur-
ance man a knowledge of this innovation
in the post-office to which the American
post-office seems to be tending, if one
may judge by the introduction of
postal savings-banks and the adoption of
the parcels-post system.
In the same way the article Old Age
Pensions will make you acquainted with
another radical measure which has been
adopted in Great Britain, Germany,
France, Denmark, Victoria and notably
New Zealand, with fuller description in
the article New Zealand. The import-
ance of the subject to the American in-
surance man lies in the fact that similar
schemes are under consideration or actual
operation in Massachusetts, New Jersey,
and other states of the United States. In
the same way the article on Employers
Liability and Workmen's Insurance
will give him a wider grasp of the subject
of state insurance, mandatory or elect-
ive, for workmen.
The principal articles on insurance top-
ics have already been mentioned. It is to
be noted, however, that the actuary will
find important information in the mathe-
matical articles Mensuration and Prob-
ability; that the article Friendly Soci-
eties is supplemented by such special
articles as Free Masonry, B'nai Brith,
Building Societies, Burial Societies,
Odd Fellows, etc.
In the Classified List of Articles in the
Index Volume the student of insurance
will find on page 893 a list of articles in
the field of economics and social science,
many of which will bear more or less di-
rectly on the subject. Among these ar-
ticles and sub-articles are:
Abandonment
Accident
Actuary
Annuity
Assets
Austria
Average
Baby-Farming
Barratry
Boarding-out System
Bonus
Bounty
Casualty Insurance
Census
Charity
Co-insurance
Combination
Communism
Conflict of Insurance
Laws
Co-operation
Emigration
Employers' Liability
Eugenics
Fire and Fire Extinc-
tion
Fire Insurance
Foundling Hospitals
F. P. A. Liabilities
Friendly Societies
Gaming and Wagering
General
Guarantee
Halley's Table
Housing
Illegitimacy
Income Tax
Industrial Insurance
Infanticide
Insurance
Interest factor
Japan
Labour Legislation
Land Registration
Liability
Life Insurance
Lloyd's
Maritime Insurance
Mendicancy
Mensuration
Mutual Insurance
Mortality Rates
Negative Values
Net Liability
Net Premium
Non-forfeiture
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Northampton Table
Novation
Old Age Pensions
Pauperism
Pawnbroking
Policy
Poor Law
Population
Post Office
Premium
Probability
Production
Profit Sharing
Rates of Mortality
Reserve
Salvage
Selection
Shipbuilding
Socialism
Social Settlements
Subrogation
Suicide
Sumptuary Laws
Surplus
Surrender Values
Switzerland
Tariff
Taxation of Insurance
Title Guarantee Com-
panies
Tontine
Trade Unions
Tramp
Trusts
Underwriter
Unemployment
Usury
Wages •
Warranty
Wealth
CHAPTER XV
FOR ARCHITECTS
A LTHOUGH architecture is more
A% and more coming to be recog-
-*- ^niized as one of the fine arts, it is
at the same time so largely practical and
utilitarian that its theory and methods
may to a great extent be gathered from
systematic reading. In the article Fine
Arts in the Britannica, by Sir Sidney
Colvin, it is well said that "The original
or rudimentary type of the architect,
considered not as a mere builder but as
an artist, is the savage, who, when his
tribe had taken to live in tents or huts
instead of caves, first arranged the skins
and timbers of his tent or hut in one way
because it pleased his eye, rather than in
some other way which was as good for
shelter." Whether the architect wishes
to learn how the eye may be pleased, to
study critically the history of architec-
ture, or, like the less imaginative savage
who failed of being the first inspired
architect, to consider comfort and shelter
rather than beauty and charm, he will
find much to help him in the Britannica.
If his interest is chiefly practical, he
should consult the chapter For Builders
in this Guide.
The architect should read first — and
he will constantly be referring to it
afterwards — the article Architecture
(Vol. 2, p. 369), equivalent in length to
235 pages of this Guide and illustrated
by 140 figures, about one-third of which
are photogravures. The article is his-
torical in the main and a brief outline
of it is as follows: —
Egyptian
Assyrian
Persian
Greek
Parthian
Sassanian
Etruscan
Roman
Byzantine
Early Christian
Coptic Church in Egypt
Romanesque and Gothic in
Italy
France
Spain
England
Germany
Belgium and Holland
Renaissance : Introduction
Italy
France
Spain
England
Germany
Belgium and Holland
Mahommedan
Modern
Classical Revival in British Ar-
chitecture
Classical Revival in Germany
French Classicism
Barry's " Common-sense " Style
Gothic Revival in England
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Gothic Revival in France
Queen Anne Style
" Free Classic " Style
Arts allied to Architecture
Craftsmanship Ideal
Architecture in United States
(Figures 97, 98, 99, 181, 182,
188, 184, 185, 186, 187, 138)
English Churches
English Public Buildings
English Domestic and Street Ar-
chitecture
Recent French Architecture
Germany
Other Countries
The part of the article dealing with
Modern Architecture is by H. H. Statham
author of a well-known book on the sub-
ject. Earlier sections are by R. Phen6
Spiers, late master of the Royal Acad-
emy's Architectural School, with sections
on the Romanesque and Gothic in France
by W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Cen-
tral (London County) School of Arts and
Crafts.
Before continuing his more systematic
historical readings the student may well
read the article House (Vol. 13, p. 810),
illustrated with 12 figures (3 plates),
including four particularly fine examples
of "half timbered buildings," and one
English house, the Jew's House at Lin-
coln, dating from the 12th century. An
interesting article on Mural Decora-
tion (Vol. 19, p. 16) is by a remarkably
distinguished trio: William Morris, poet,
craftsman and painter, John Henry
Middleton, late Slade professor of fine
art, Cambridge, and Walter Crane, the
well-known illustrator and decorator.
This is illustrated with 16 figures in black
and white and with a reproduction in
colours of a wall-painting from a Roman
villa of the early Empire. The article
deals with: reliefs in marble and stone;
marble veneer; glazed bricks or tiles;
hard stucco; sgraffito; stamped leather;
painted cloth; printed hangings and wall-
papers; and painting.
If the student of architecture would
know about the buildings of prehistoric
times, in which there was little architec-
ture in the sense of a fine art, he should
read the articles Archaeology, (Vol. 2,
p. 344), Lake Dwellings (Vol. 16, p. 91),
Stonehenge (Vol. 25, p. 961) and Stone
Monuments, Primitive (Vol. 25, p. 962),
— the last two of particular interest to
the building engineer because it is so
puzzling a problem how these great
blocks could have been brought such
distances and set in place without mod-
ern appliances.
Engineering problems will be the most
interesting in a large part of the student's
reading about Egyptian architecture.
Supplementing the
Early Oriental 4,000 or 5,000 words
Architecture on this subject un-
der Architecture,
accompanied by seven illustrations, there
is much information in the articles
Egypt (Vol. 9, p. 21); Abydos (Vol. 1,
p. 81) and Karnak (Vol. 15, p. 680);
and in the articles Pyramid (Vol. 22,
p. 683), (by W. M. Flinders Petrie) and
Sphinx (Vol. 25, p. 662) by Francis
Llewellyn Griffith, another well-known
Egyptologist. In the former article the
author points out that the outside and
inside work on all the pyramids was ex-
cellent and that the casings were not a
mere veneer but were "of massive blocks,
usually greater in thickness than in
height, and in some cases (as at South
Dahshur) reminding the observer of
horizontal leaves with sloping edges."
The massive character of the roofing of
the sepulchral chambers is indicated by
Prof. Petrie's estimate that "in Pepi's
pyramid it is of three layers of stone
beams, each deeper than their breadth,
resting one on another, the thirty stones
weighing more than 80 tons each." But
neither Stonehenge nor the pyramid was
really an engineering problem. Here, and
as in all his studies of early architecture,
artist or engineer will find religion and
worship the aim and the reason of the
building even more, if that is possible,
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than in the great European cathedrals of
comparatively recent times.
In the article Babylonia and Assy-
ria there is a brief section (Vol. 3, p. 108)
on Art, supplementing the treatment
under Architecture. It is interesting
to note that even in Assyria architecture
was trammelled, reactionary, governed by
Babylonian styles and using brick and
clay because Babylon did, although there
was stone in Assyria, and none in Baby-
lonia; and keeping the heavy brick
platform foundation which the Baby-
lonian architects had adopted because of
the marshy character of their country,
although there was no need of such con-
struction in Assyria. Here too the func-
tion of architecture was largely as an
aid to religion: as shown in the article
Nippur (Vol. 19, p. 707), with its de-
scription of the "ziggurat" or artificial
mountain in the shrine, built probably
40 or 45 centuries B. C. One temple was
272 ft. square, with seven storeys, each
smaller than the one below and thus
surrounded by a terrace, each dedicated
to a planet, each coloured a separate
tint, the first probably 45 ft. high, and
the total height 160 ft.
In Assyria great palaces of the 9th,
8th and 7th centuries B. C. have been
found, and these are probably the earliest
large buildings of any architectural im-
portance not religious in their purpose;
but this distinction must not be carried
too far, for the king was sacrosanct,
half priest and half god, and his palace
was a shrine.
Although the main treatment of Greek
and Roman architecture is in the article
Architecture, the student should read
the articles Greek
Greece Art (Vol. 12, p. 470;
and Rome equivalent to 70
pages in this Guide;
written by Percy Gardner, author of
Grammar of Greek Art) and Roman Art
(Vol. 23, p. 474; equivalent to 40 pages
of this Guide; written by H. Stuart Jones,
director of the British School at Rome).
The article on Greek Art contains 82
illustrations, many of them half-tones.
It makes clear the dependence of the other
fine arts in Greece on architecture — and
on religion — in showing that the greatest
sculptures were adjuncts to temples,
and (p. 471-472) in a discussion of the
architecture of Greek temples calls atten-
tion to four basal principles of Greek
architecture:
(1) Each member of the building
has one function and only one, and this
function controls even the decoration of
that member. Pillars support archi-
traves ; their perpendicular flutings em-
phasize this. Moulding at a column's
base suggests the support of a great
weight.
(2) Simple and natural relations
prevailed between various members of
a construction.
(8) Rigidity of simple lines is
avoided; scarcely any outline is ac-
tually straight. Columns are not equi-
distant.
(4) Elaborate decoration is reserved
for those parts of the temple which
have, or seem to have, no strain laid
upon them.
The article Temple (Vol. 26, p. 603)
gives plans and general information
about Greek and Roman sacred archi-
tecture, as well as Hebrew, Egyptian and
Assyrian temples; and the reader should
study the article Parthenon (Vol. 20,
p. 869) and the diagram in that article,
and the article Pergamum (Vol. 21, p.
142) and the two plates which accompany
it.
The article Roman Art (Vol. 23, p.474)
is probably the first brief and authorita-
tive treatment of a topic long over-
shadowed in popular interest by the
earlier art of Greece and the later art
of Italy. It begins with a history of
recent research. Architecture, pre-emi-
nently the most Roman of the arts as
combining utility with beauty, is outlined
(pp. 476-477 especially) and the main
point in regard to Roman architecture is
brought out as follows: "the specific
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
achievement of the Roman architect
was the artistic application of a new set
of principles — those which are expressed
in the arch, the vault and the dome,"
as contrasted with the rectilinear build-
ings of the Greeks. The arch, particu-
larly the triumphal arch, is specifically a
Roman product and is specifically Roman
besides in being an expression of reverence
for governmental authority, — which, it
should, however, be remembered, cannot
be separated from religion. Among the
most important of Roman sculptures and
particularly reliefs are those of the arches,
described in the articles Arch (Vol. 2,
p. 342) and Triumphal Arch (Vol. 27,
p. 297), the latter with eight figures.
The part of the article Aqueduct which
deals with Roman aqueducts (Vol. 2,
pp. 241-243, with 2 plates, 6 illustrations)
will interest the architect as well as the
contractor or engineer. And he should
read the article on the Roman architect
and writer on architecture, Vitruvius
(Vol. 28, p. 150), whose book so strongly
affected the Renaissance.
Before taking up modern architecture
as distinguished from ancient, the stu-
dent will do well to examine the archi-
tecture of some more remote peoples —
for instance,
Aztec (Vol. 5, p. 441 and p. 677)
Abyssinian (Vol. 12, p. 232)
Hittite (Vol. 18, p. 587)
Indian (Vol. 14, p. 428, with 4
plates)
Japanese (Vol. 15, pp. 181-182)
Chinese (Vol. 6, p. 214)
Byzantine (Vol. 4, p. 906, with 2
plates), and the article Constan-
tinople (Vol. 7, p. 8)
The last topic will serve as a transition
to the modern architecture of Europe, es-
pecially because the
Modern influence of the By-
Architecture zantine was so strong
in the early church.
The study of the Italian Romanesque
and Gothic in an elaborate section cf
Architecture (Vol. 2, p. 391) may well
be supplemented by reading the articles
on the Italian cities in which this art
is preserved. The following list is rough-
ly chronological, the cities named first
being those in which there are the oldest
churches.
Ravenna, Pisa and Venice,
Byzantine Romanesque.
Milan
Pavia
Brescia
Bergamo
PlACENZA
Parma
MODENA
Bari ) for Southern
Molfetta J Romanesque
Palermo
for
for Lombard Romanesque
for Sicilian Romanesque
for Italian Gothic
Messina
Monreale
Cefalu
Wurzburg, for Romanesque in Ger-
many
Genoa
Assisi
Orvieto
Verona
Perugia
Siena
In the same way, for Gothic in other
countries, the student should read:
Aix-la-Chapelle
Le Puy
Angouleme
Arles
NlMES
St. Denis
Noyon
Senlis
Sens
Reims
Le Man 8
Oviedo
Leon
Avila
Segovia
Lerida
Toledo
Burgos
Seville
Salamanca
for French
Gothic
for Spanish Gothic
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Durham
Lincoln
Salisbury
Gloucester, etc.,
for English Gothic
Aiz
Mainz
Worms
Spires
Cologne
for German Gothic
Tournai, Louvain, etc., for Bel-
gian,
and in general, the articles Cathedral,
Nave, Aisle, Choir, Apse, Chevet,
Lady-Chapel, Vault, Flying But-
tress, Pinnacle, Clerestory and Tri-
forium. The article Cathedral has
plans of Canterbury, Salisbury, Durham,
Ely, Chartres, Sens and Angoul&me and
a perspective of Amiens cathedral.
In the same way the student of the
Renaissance architecture may supple-
ment the section in the article Archi-
tecture (p. 408, etc.) by reference to
the articles on the cities in which the
great Renaissance buildings stand. But
now "the career of the individual has to
be taken into consideration," so true is
it that the Renaissance in architecture
as in scholarship was intensely indi-
vidualistic. The article Architecture
points this out and in this section is
largely biographical in its treatment.
The reader should study the following
separate articles also
For Italian Renaissance
Filippo Brunelleschi
Florence
Leone Battista Alberti
mlchelozzo di bartolommeo
Bramante
Rome (for St. Peters: see Fig. 51
in Architecture)
Borooonone
Baccio d'Agnolo
Sangallo
polhiulo
Michelangelo
Jacopo Sansovino
Michele Sanmichelb
Andrea Palladio
Barocchio da Vignola
Galeazzo Alessi
Lombardo
Domenico Fontana
Baldassare Peruzzi
The French Renaissance
For this period, less individual than in
Italy, the reader will find it best to study
the geographical articles. Let him read
Blois (noting Plate VIII, fig. 84,
in the article Architecture)
Tours
Chambord
Orleans
Chenonceaux
Fontainebleau
Paris
Spanish Renaissance
«~.
Granada
Valladolid
Saragossa
Malaga
Salamanca (Plate V., fig. 78 in
Architecture)
Seville (Plate V., fig. 74 in Archi-
tecture)
Escorial (with plan)
Madrid (Palacio Royal)
English Renaissance
John Thorpe
Inigo Jones
Sir Christopher Wren
St. Paul's Cathedral (see Fig. 58
in Architecture)
Greenwich (for Hospital)
Nicholas Hawksmoor
Sir John Vanbrugh
Dean Henry Aldrich
George and James Dance
William Kent
Robert Adam
Sir William Chambers
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
German Renaissance
Rothenburg (town-hall)
Augsburg (town-hall)
Heidelberg (see Plate VII in Ar-
chitecture)
Renaissance in Belgium and Holland
Antwerp
Amsterdam
Rotterdam
Haarlem
On Mahommedan Architecture the stu-
dent should read not only the section
(Vol. 2, pp. 422-427) in the article Archi-
tecture, with eight illustrations, but
the separate articles
Indian Architecture (with 4
plates, 17 figures)
Mosque (with 8 diagrams)
Minaret
Cairo
Constantinople
Damascus
Jerusalem
Mecca
Kairawan
Cordova
Alhambra
Tabriz
Isfahan
On the more recent period, the 19th
century, roughly, the student should
supplement the last part of the article
Architecture by reading the following
articles
For the Classical Revival in the
British Isles
Dublin (see also Fig. 85 in Archi-
tecture)
Edinburgh
Sir John Soane
English Gothic Revival
A. W. N. Pugin
Sir George Gilbert Scott
George S. Street
William Butterfield
John Loughborough Pearson
Alfred Waterhouse
France (Figs. 122-129 in article Ar-
chitecture)
L. P. Baltard
J. L. C Garnier
The Last 50 Year*
George Frederick Bodley
R. Norman Shaw
William Morris
Harvey L. Elmes
Charles R. Cockerell
Liverpool (and Fig. 86
in Architecture)
England
H. H. Richardson
Richard M. Hunt
Charles F. McKim
Stanford White
William R. Mead
ru88ej.l sturgi8
Steel Construction
United States
(and see
Plates XV
and XVI, and
Figs. 97, 98,
99 in article
Arc hite c-
ture)
Classical Revival in Germany
Karl Friedrich Schinkel
Berlin (and Fig. 87 in Architec-
ture)
Potsdam (and Fig. 88 in Architec-
ture)
Munich (and Fig. 89 in Architec-
ture)
Gottfried Semper
French Classicism
Adolphe Theodore Brongniart
Jacques Ignace Hittorff (Plate
XII in Architecture)
English " Common sense "
Sir Charles Barry
Halifax (Fig. 90 in Architec-
ture)
Westminster (Houses of Parlia-
ment; see Fig. 91 in Archi-
tecture)
Budapest (Fig. 92 in Architec-
ture)
The sections of the article Archi-
tecture dealing with France and Ger-
many in the last two generations may best
be supplemented by a study of the arti-
cles Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Buda-
pest.
The following is a brief alphabetical
list of architectural articles and topics
in the Britannica, including topics for
the builder and contractor.
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FOR ARCHITECTS
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Abacus
Abated
Abbey
Abutment
Acroterium
Adam* Robert
Aedicula
Aisle
Aiwan
Leone Battista Alberti
Alcove
Galeazzo Alessi
Alley
Almery
Almonry
Almshouse
Alure
Am bo
Ambulatory
Amphiprostyle
Amphitheatre
Anaron
Angel-lights
Antae
Ante-chapel -
Ante- choir
Ante-ftxae
Anthemion
Apophyge
Apollodorus of Da-
mascus
Apse
Apteral
Aqueduct
Araeostyle
Araeosystyle
Arcade
Arch
Architrave
Archivolt
Arcosolium
Arena
Arris
Ashlar
Astragal
Astylar
Atrium
Attic
Attic Base
Baccio d'Agnolo
Back-choir
Bailey
Balcony
Ball-flower
L. P. Baltard
Balustrade
Banker-marks
Baptistery
Barbican
Bargeboard
Giacomo Barocchio
Bartizan
Base
Basement
Basilica
Batement-lights
Baths
Patter
Battlement
Bay
Bed-mould
Belfry
Bell-cot
Belvedere
Bema
Bench-table
Bevel
Bezantee
Sir A. W. Blomfield
G. W. Bodley
Bonding
Giuseppi Bonomi
Francesco Borromini
Bowtell
Bracket
Bramante
Brattishing
Sir Reginald Bray
Brick, and Brickwork
Bridges
Broach
Sir I. M. Brunei
Filippo Brunelleschi
Building
Charles Bulflnch
Bungalow
William Butterfield
Buttress
Cable moulding
Luigi Cagnola
Caissons
Camber
Campanile
N. le Camus de M6-
zieres
Canal
Canalis
Cancelli
Candelabrum
Canephorae
Canopy
Cantilever Foundations
Capital
Carpentry
Cartouche
Caryatides
Casement
Castle
Cathedral
Cathetus
Cauliculus
Cavaedium
Cavea
Cavetto
Ceiling
Cella
Cements
Chalcidicum
Sir William Chambers
Chamfer
Chancel
Chapter-house
Charnel-house
Chateau
Chersiphron
Chevet
Chevron
Chimney
Chimneypiece
Choir
Chresmographion
Cinque Cento
Cleithral
Clerestory
Cloaca
Cloister
C. R. Cockerell
Coenaculum
Coffer, and Coffer
Dams
Cogging
Colonnade
Placido Columbani
Column
Compluvium
Composite Order
Compound pier
Conch.
Concrete, Concrete
Piers, etc.
Consisterium
Construction
Corbel
Corbie
Cornice
Counterfort
Coursed Rubble
Cramps
Crenelle
Crest
Crocket
Crossing
Cross springer
Crypt
Crypto-porticus
Cubicle
Cuneus
Cupola
Curvilinear
Cusp
Frangois de Cuvilles
Cyclopean Masonry
Cyclostyle
Cyma
Cyrto-style
Cyzicenus
Daedalus
Dais
Dance (family)
Decastyle
Decorated Period
Dentil
Diaconicon
Diastyle
Diaulos
Diazomata
Dikka
Dinocrates
Dipteral
Philibert De l'Orme
Discharging Arch
Distyle
Docks
Dodecastyle
Dog-tooth
Dome
Donjon
Door
Doorway
Dormer
Dormitory
Dosseret
Dovetail
Dowels
Drafted masonry
Dredging
Dripstone
Dromos
Dungeon
Early English Period
Eaves
Echinus
Eiffel Tower
Elevator
Elizabethan Style
H. L. Elmes
James Elmes
Embrasure
Engaged Column
Entablature
Entasis
Ephebeum
Epi
Epinaos
Epistyle
Estrade
Eupalinus
Eustyle
Exedra
Extrados
Facade
Facing
Fan Vault
Femerell
Fenestration
Feretory
James Fergusson
Festoon
Fillet
Finial
Flamboyant Style
Flechc
Floor
Flue
Flying Buttress
Pierre F. L. Fontaine
Domenico Fontana
Footing
Foot-stall
Formeret
Foundation
Fountain
Charles Fowler
Frater
Free-stone
Fret
Frieze
Frigidarium
Frontispiece
Gable
Gablets
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Galilee
Gallery
Gargoyle
J. L. C. Gamier
Garret
Garretting
Gate
Gatehouse
Gazebo
Girder
Glazing
Glyph
Glyptothek
Godroon
Gothic
Grange
Granite
Griife
Groin
C. G. Guarini
Guilloche
Gutta
Gutter
Joseph Gwilt
Gynaeceum
Hagioscope
Half-timber Work
Hall
Halving
Hammerbeam Roof
J. A. Hansom
Nicholas Hawksmoor
Heating
K. A. von Heidcloff
Helix
Heinicyclc
Herring-bone
Hexastyle
Hip-knob
Hipped roof
Hippodamus
Hippodrome
J. I. Hittorff
Hdtel-de-Ville
H6tel-Dieu
Hot-water Heating and
Supply
House
Hypaethros
Hypocaust
Hypos tyle
Hypotrachelium
Ichnography
Iconostasis
Ictinus
Imbrex
Impluvium
Impost
In-antis
Indian Architecture
Intercolumniation
Interlaced arches
Intrados
Jacobean Style
Jamb
Jesse
Joinery
Joints
Joggles
Inigo Jones
Owen Jones
Jube
Keel-moulding
Keep
Keystone
Label
Labrum
Laconicum
Lacunar
Lady-Chapel
Lancet
Lantern
Lanterns of the Dead
Lectern
Libon
Lighting
Lightning Conductor
Limestone
Lintel
Loft
Louver (Louvre)
Lucarne
Lunette
C. F. McKim
Machicolation
Maksoora
Manor-house
Marble
Mastaba
Mausoleum
Megaron
Merlon
Meshrebiya
Meta
Metope
Mezzanine
Mihrab
Minaret
Minbar
Minster
Modillion
Module
Monotriglyph
Mortar
Mortice
Mosque
Mouldings
Moving Stairs
Mullion
Mural Decoration
Mutule
Narthex
Nave
W. E. Nesneld
Newel
Niche
Notching
Nymphaeum
Obelisk
Octastyle
Odeum
Oecus
Ogee
Ogive
Oillets
Order
Ordinance
Oriel
Orientation
Orthostatae
Orthostyle
Oubliette
Ovolo
Pagoda
Painter-work
Palace
Palaestra
Andrea Palladio
Palladian
Panel
Pantheon
Parament
Parapet
Parascenium
Parclose
Pargetting
John Henry Parker
Parquetry
Parthenon
Parvis
Patera
Patio
Pavement
Pavilion
J. L. Pearson
Paruzzi
Pedestal
Pediment
Pendant
Pendentive
Pergamum
Peripteral
Peristyle
Perpendicular Period
Perpent Stones
Perron
Philon
Piazza
Pier
Pilaster
Pile Foundations
Pillar
Pinacotheca
Pinnacle
Piscina
Plan
Plancecr
Plaster
Plinth
Podium
Poppy Heads
Porch
Porticullis
Portico
Postern
Presbytery
Prick Posts
Propylaea
Proscenium
Prostyle
Prothesis
Pseudo-dipteral
Pseudo-peripteral
Pteron
Philon
A. W. N. Pugin
Pulpit
Purlin
Pycnostyle
Pyramid
Pyramidion
Pythis
Quadriga
Quatrefoil
Quoins
Rag-stone
Random
Rear vault
Refectory
Regula
Reredos
Respond
Rib
George Richardson
H. H. Richardson
Thomas Rickman
River Engineering
Road
Rood
Rough Cast
Rubble
Rustication
Sacristy
Saddle
Sangallo (family)
Sanmichele
Scabbling
Scaffold
Scam ill i impares
K. F. Schinkel
Sir G. G. Scott
Scotia
Sedilia
Gottfried Semper
Sepulchre, Easter
Severy
Sewerage
Sexpartite vault
Shaft
R. Norman Shaw
Shoring
Sill
Skeleton Construction
Slaking
Slip Joints
Slype
Sir John Soane
Soffit
Solar (Soller)
Sommer
Spandril
Sphaeristerium
Spina
Spire
Spire light
Springer
Squinch '
Squint
Stag Bars
Stage
Stained Glass
Staircase
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Stairn
Stall
Stanchion
Steam-Heating
Steel Construction
Steeple
Stele
Stereobate
StUlicidium
Stilted
Stoa
Stone, Stone Wash
Storey
G. E. Street
Russell Sturgis
Style
Stylobate
Bartolommeo Suardi
Sudatorium
Surbase
Surveying
Suspensura
Systyle
Tabernacle
Tablinum
Tabularium
Sir William Tite
Vault
Taenia
Toran
Ventilation
Talar
Torus
Verandah
Talus
Tower
Verge
Tambour
Trabeated
Vesica Piscis
Taper
Tracery
Vestibule
Tas-de-charge
Trachelium
Vignette
Villa
Tegula
Telamones
Transept
Transom
Viollet-le-Duc
Temenos
Transverse Rib
Vitruvius
Temple
Trapezophoron
Trefoil
Volute
Tenon
Voussoir
Tepidarium
Trial Boring
Wall, and Walling, and
Terminal Figures
Tribune
Wall Coverings
Terrace
Triforium
Alfred Waterhouse
Tessellated
. Triglyph
Water Spray Ventila-
Tetrastodn
Triumphal arch
tion
Tetrastyle
Tudor flower
Wattle and dab
Thatch
Tudor period
Wedging
Theatre
Tunnel
Well Foundations
Thesaurus
Tunnel-vault
Wind braces
Tholobate
Turning-piece
Window
Tholos
Turret
Sir Christopher Wren
John Thorpe
Under-croft
James Wyatt
Timber
Vane
Xystus
CHAPTER XVI
FOR BUILDERS AND CONTRACTORS
THE rapid increase in population,
and especially in its density, the
congestion in great cities, with the
consequent building up of suburbs; and
the equally rapid upward tendency in the
scale of comfort, are factors 6f modern
civilization which make the work of the
builder and contractor increasingly com-
plex. The good builder is probably much
commoner than ever
The Builder's before, in spite of the
Problems popular impression
that building mate-
rials are poorer and that construction
work is more often "scamped" than they
used to be. Increased transportation
facilities make the builder much less de-
pendent on local and often inadequate
materials. And there has been a change
in the theory and practice of government :
the old easy-going policy has been aban-
doned, and new laws, strictly enforced,
have resulted in such inspection and
control of building operations as would
have seemed tyranny to the builder of a
generation ago and as make modern
buildings, especially in cities, much safer
than ever before. Insurance companies
have done much to the same end.
There is a general prejudice against the
modern builder on the part of the tem-
peramental "praiser of the past." Occa-
sionally similar complaints are made even
against the builders of the past. Kipling
sings:
Who shall doubt the secret hid
Under Cheops' pyramid
Was that a contractor did
Cheops out of several millions?
Or that Joseph's sudden rise
To Comptroller of Supplies
Was a fraud of monstrous size
On King Pharaoh's swart civilians?
The mere duration of the pyramids, un-
damaged except by the hand of man, is an
answer to such a charge; and in the Bri-
tannica article Pyramid the reader will
find (Vol. 22, p. 683) that even where the
hidden material was rubbly or of mud
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
bricks, "the casings were not a mere
veneer, but were of massive blocks, usu-
ally greater in thickness than in height"
— in other words, that the construction
was of the best character.
But the builder must be a far better-
informed man under present conditions
than ever before. To give him the neces-
sary information there is a large and
growing literature ranging from builders'
and contractors' pocket manuals to
special periodicals. This literature is ex-
pensive, and like all special literature puts
the intending purchaser in a difficult posi-
tion, for if he buys it all, he must pay
much more than the returns from his pur-
chase warrant, and he will then have to
read it all and use his own judgment in
deciding what is best. If he does not buy
all, he must be an expert, not merely in
every branch of his business but in the
bibliography of his business, to make a
wise selection, — and if he is sufficiently
expert for this he will probably need no
such library. But he will find, to a re-
markable degree, the best of all that
there is in such special literature in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, with the
strongest assurance of its being authori-
tative, and with the certainty that for an
outlay, small in comparison with what
he would make for such special informa-
tion elsewhere, he will get the guidance
that he needs for his work and also in-
formation as excellent on any other
subject that he or any member of his fam-
ily may wish to pursue.
The key or foundation article for the
builder or contractor is Building (Vol. 4,
p. 762), by James Bartlett, lecturer on
construction, etc., King's College, Lon-
don, who has contributed other articles
on related topics. The article deals with:
The relation of building to architec-
ture and with building laws and
special types of plans according
to local governmental require-
ments
The conditions necessary for a suc-
cessful building, namely — ease of
access, good light, good service,
pleasing environment and ap-
proaches, minimum cost with true
economy, and, for office build-
ings, ease of arrangement to suit
tenants
Construction, its general principles
Materials of construction, especially
stone and brick
Particular objects of construction
Foundation walls
Footings to walls
General procedure for an intended
building
Builder's sphere
American building acts
Fire-resisting construction.
This general article is supplemented by
the following articles:
Foundation, containing 18 dia-
grams and paragraphs on: load
on foundation; trial boring; con-
struction ; types — concrete piers,
pile foundations, concrete piles,
plank foundations, caissons, well
foundations, coffer dams, dock
foundations, cantilever founda-
tions, building on sand (at Cape
Henlopen, Delaware)
Caisson
Masonry, with 18 diagrams, and
with special treatment of tools,
including hammers, mallets, saws,
chisels, setting tools, hoisting ap-
pliances; of seasoning stone; of
setting stones; of use of mortar;
of bonding; slip joints; footings;
walling; random; coursed rubble,
ashlar, etc.; backing to stone
work; pointing and stonewash.
There is also a brief vocabulary
of technical terms and a discus-
sion of methods of facing; joints;
cramps; dowels; joggles; stone
arches; tracery and carving; and
the articles Ashlar, Rao-stone,
Random
Cement, with 8 figures; description
and analysis of Pozzuolanic and
Portland cement; mixing; load-
ing of kilns; types of kilns; ce-
ment clinker; testing; hydraulic
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lime; Roman cement; natural ce-
ments; Passow cement; uses of
hydraulic cement; calcium sul-
phate cements
Concrete, with 16 illustrations and
paragraphs on constituents; pro-
portions; mixing; moulds; depos-
iting; strength; durability; con-
venience and appearance; resist-
ance to fire ; cost ; artificial
stones; steel concrete, including
columns, piles, beams, floor slabs,
etc.; concrete arches
Mortar, with sections on slaking;
hardening; magnesia in mortar;
strengths; adhesion, decay, ef-
fects of salt and frost; legal re-
strictions; limes 'and cements for
mortar
Lime
Brick, with sections on brick-clays
and brick-making
Brickwork, with 15 diagrams; sec-
tions on hollow walls; materials
and labor; varieties of bricks;
strength of brickwork; mortar;
pointing; footing; binding; pre-
vention of damp; arches and
plates; chimneys and flues; brick
paving
Basement
House, with 17 illustrations
Bungalow
Carpentry, with 36 diagrams show-
ing joints, notching, cogging,
dovetail, housing, halving, mor-
tise, tenons, wedging, dowelling,
turning-piece, lintel, floors, strut-
ting, partition, half timber con-
struction, braced frame; and de-
scriptive text on these and other
topics
Steel Construction, with 4 illus-
trations; sections on skeleton
and steel-cage construction; local
laws; protection from corrosion;
columns; girders; floors; wind-
bracing ; materials ; floor-Ailing ;
partitions; time and cost of con-
struction
Stone, with sections on constitu-
tion, colour, testing, preservatives,
natural bed, seasoning, varieties,
artificial stone
Marble, a descriptive article, about
4000 words long
Granite, with descriptions and an-
alyses of typical granites
Limestone, about 2500 words
Timber, with paragraphs on: fell-
ing timber, conversion of timber
— with diagram of bastard and
quarter sawing; seasoning; de-
fects; decay; preservation of
timber; varieties, with descrip-
tion of the principal coniferous
and hard woods — and separate
articles on Pine, Fir, Larch,
Cedar, Birch, Beech, Chest-
nut, Walnut, Elm, Teak, Ma-
hogany, Maple, etc.
Half-timber Work
Chimney-piece
Scaffold, with 4 figures; sections
on bricklayers' and masons' scaf-
folds, material, erection, gantries,
derrick towers, cradles, chimney
scaffolds, accidents
Shoring, with 8 figures; sections
on raking shores; braces, hori-
zontal or flying shores; needle,
vertical and dead, shoring; rules
and sizes for all shores
Staircase, divided into architecture
and construction, the latter hav-
ing 4 diagrams, description of
dog-legged or newel stair, open
newel stair, geometrical stair,
circular stair, spiral stairs; a de-
fining vocabulary of technical
terms; concrete and stone; mov-
ing inclines; local building laws
Baluster
Balustrade
Elevator, with 8 illustrations;
paragraphs on history; construc-
tion, essentials of design; safety
devices ; traveling staircases ;
freight elevators
Parquetry
Ceiling
Roofs, with 28 figures and two
plates; with sections on forms of
roof, trusses, open timber roofs,
mansards; iron roofs, covering
materials — felt corrugated iron,
zinc, lead, copper, " tin," slate,
tiles, miscellaneous — weight of
roofs, building laws; and sepa-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
rate articles on Slate, Tile, Tin,
Tin Plate, etc.
Plaster Work, with paragraphs on
lathing, metal lathing, limes, hair,
substitutes for hair, sand, exter-
nal work, rough stucco, rough-
cast or pebble-dash, sgraffito, in-
ternal work, three coats, mould-
ing, cracks, slabs, fibrous plaster.
Joinery, with 13 illustrations, and
treating such topics as: tools and
materials; joints, mitre, dovetail,
etc.; warping; moulding; floor-
ing, including wood block and
parquet; skirting, dados; picture
rails; windows, bay windows;
shutters ; shop-fronts ; doors ;
church work; ironmongery, in-
cluding hinges, locks, etc.
Door
Doorway
Casement
Windows
Glazing
Stained Glass
Wall Coverings, with sections on
marble wall-lining, mosaic, tiles,
metal sheeting, tapestry, wall-pa-
pers — and see Mural Decora-
tion.
Painter-Work, dealing with paint
bases, vehicles, thinners, driers,
pigments, enamel, paints, wood-
work paints, varnish, gums,
French polishes, putty, tools,
workmanship, graining, marbling,
painting on plaster and on iron,
repainting on old work, blister-
ing and cracking, distemper,
gilding, etc.
Sewerage
Lighting, with sections on oil, gas
and electric lighting
Lightning Conductor
Heating, with sections on open fires,
closed stoves, gas fires, electrical
heating, oil stoves, low pressure
hot water, high pressure hot wa-
ter, steam heating, hot water sup-
ply, safety valves, geysers, in-
crustation, Lockport central steam
supply
Ventilation, with sections on rate
of air consumption, ventilation of
buildings, with table; chimney
draught; other outlets; inlets;
window and door ventilation; ar-
rangements in barracks, in public
buildings, exhaust cowls; extrac-
tion of vitiated air; fans; water
spray ventilation; extraction by
hot-air shaft; measurement of
air; systems in public buildings
Both the builder and contractor will
find valuable information to govern their
financial relations with their clients in
the article Building Societies, of which
the American part is by Carroll D.
Wright, late United States Commissioner
of Labor.
The contractor will find the following
articles of importance to him, in addition
to those of more particular interest for
the builder:
Surveying
Geodesy
Bridges
Cantilever
Caisson
Cofferdam
River Engineering
Harbour
Divers and Diving Apparatus
Docks
Dredges
Breakwater
Tunnel
Canal
Road
l.ighthou8e
Irrigation
Reclamation of Land
and the article Railway, with the other
articles on railway construction listed in
the chapter For Railroad Men in this
Guide.
For an alphabetical list of the principal
articles and topics of interest to builders
and contractors, see the end of the chap-
ter For Architects in this Guide.
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CHAPTER XVII
FOR DECORATORS AND DESIGNERS
THE decorator and designer is a
specialist in his purposes rather
than in his methods, and his taste
and judgment must be based upon a wide
range of information. His selection and
combination of decorative factors call for
a knowledge of architectural design, of
painting, sculpture, furniture, textiles,
pottery, enamels, embroideries, laces and
all the other arts, crafts and products
that contribute to the perfecting of "the
house beautiful." The variety of the
materials at his command offers him in-
finite possibilities of successful achieve-
ment, and as many temptations to in-
coherence and exuberance. The highest
success in decoration can be attained only
when the designer
All the Arts possesses the re-
in One sources of all these
arts and crafts, and
failure perhaps comes oftenest through
too exclusive a use of one medium of ex-
pression because it is the one with which
the designer feels he can most compe-
tently deal. The ideal should be not only
to employ, but to enlarge, the scope of
every contributory medium of form or
colour, as Wagner found new possibilities
in the use of every musical instrument in
one orchestra. This practical usefulness
of versatility is clearly indicated in one
of the articles, characteristic of the Bri-
tannica, where one great expert writes
about the work of another. William
Morris and Walter Crane have been the
leaders of the modern revival of artistic
interest in the daily accessories of life;
and Crane in the Britannica (Vol. 2, p.
701) says of Morris that his influence is
to be attributed to his having "personally
mastered the working details and handling
of each craft he took up in turn, as well as
to his power of inspiring his helpers and
followers. He was painter, designer,
scribe, illuminator, wood-engraver, dyer,
weaver and, finally, printer and paper-
maker; and, having effectively mastered
these crafts he could effectively direct and
criticize the work of others." Obviously,
few men can afford to devote forty years,
as Morris did, to the close study and ac-
tual practice of all these pursuits, and
still fewer could hope to develop so many
manual dexterities. But any earnest stu-
dent can become a competent critic in all
these varied fields, and can retain an
equal appreciation of all the materials and
methods employed, if he will enlarge and
refresh his knowledge by constant read-
ing of the best authorities. The compre-
hensiveness of the Britannica makes it,
for such purposes, invaluable to the de-
signer and decorator, no matter how
many technical books his working library
may contain.
Since harmony of proportion, the es-
sence of architecture, is also the primary
law of interior decoration, the reader of
the present chapter
The Influence may well begin his
of Architecture reading with a num-
ber of the articles
described in the chapter For Architects, of
which only those dwelling most upon the
use of ornament and colour need be sepa-
rately mentioned in this connection. The
article Architecture (Vol. %, p. 369) is
by R. Phen6 Spiers, formerly master of
the Architectural School of the English
Royal Academy, with sections on special
periods and schools of architecture by
other famous authorities. Oriental archi-
tecture, with its elaboration of detail, is
peculiarly suggestive to the decorator,
who may be surprised to find, in the
Britannica, treatises so highly specialized
as Indian Architecture (Vol. 14, p.
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
428), by Dr. James Burgess, editor of the
standard book on the subject, the History
of Indian Architecture; the architectural
part of China, AH (Vol. 6, p. 214), by
Lawrence Binyon, whose work in the
great British Museum collection has
made his reputation as one of the fore-
most modern critics; and Japan, Art
(Vol 15, p. 181), by Capt. Frank Brink-
ley, whose many years of study in Japan
have given him an exceptional mastery
of the subject. Among other articles
dealing with the decorative aspects of
architecture are Order (Vol. 20, p. 176),
Capital (Vol. 5, p. 275), and House (Vol.
13, p. 810), with its exquisite full page
plates.
The article Design (Vol. 8, p. 95), by
W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Central
School of Arts and Crafts, London, con-
tains a passage which
Design and the decorator may
Mural well bear in mind
Painting when he has to con-
tend against the typ-
ical client's unreasoning demand for the
sensationalism which, for the moment, is
accepted as an evidence of originality,
but is always the cause of subsequent
dissatisfaction and complaint. "Modern
use has tended to associate design with
the word 'original' in the sense of new or
abnormal. The end of design, however,
is properly utility, fitness and delight.
// a discovery, it should be a discovery of
what seems inevitable, an inspiration aris-
ing out of the conditions, and parallel to
invention in the sciences." These fifty
words are but a millionth part of the con-
tents of the Britannica; but alone they
show that the work can practically serve
the designer. Mural Decoration (Vol.
19, p. 16), with its delightful reproduc-
tion in colour of a wall painting preserved
in the National Museum at Borne, and its
other illustrations, is by William Morris
and Walter Crane, with a section on
classical wall paintings by Prof. J. H.
Middleton, Slade professor of fine art at
Cambridge University. The "furnishing"
point of view is considered under other
headings (see below). Here the distin-
guished contributors give an interesting
account of marble and stone reliefs, the
oldest method of wall decoration; marble
Veneer, especially appropriate to 14th
and 15th century Italian style; wall-
linings of glazed brick or tiles; coverings
of hard stucco; the recently revived
sgraffito method; stamped leather, much
used in rooms of the 16th-18th century
period; painted cloth; printed hangings
and wall-papers, of great antiquity among
the Hindus and Chinese but not common
in Europe until the 18th century; wall-
painting, with description of the charac-
teristic schemes of mural art in ancient
and modern times, and methods of exe-
cution.
In further connection with this subject
the reader should turn to Egypt, Art and
Archaeology (Vol. 9, p. 65), by the noted
Egyptologist, W. M. Flinders Petrie;
Greek Art (Vol. 12, p. 470), by Percy
Gardner; Roman Art (Vol. 23, p. 474),
by H. Stuart Jones; Painting (Vol. 20, p.
459), by Prof. G. B. Brown, of Edin-
burgh University, and other authorities;
Sculpture (Vol. 24, p. 488), by Professor
Middleton and other authorities; Mosaic
(Vol. 18, p. 883), by Professor Middleton
and H. Stuart Jones, with a practical sec-
tion on Modern Mosaic (p. 888), by Sir
William Blake Richmond, noted for his
accomplishments in decorative art. All
of these articles are richly illustrated.
See further, the chapters on Fine Arts,
Painting and Sculpture.
Wall-Coverings (Vol. 28, p. 279), by
James Bartlett, of Kings College, Lon-
don, deals with the subject in its prac-
tical relation to
The Wall and house furnishing,
the Floor with reference to the
conditions of the
room, the use to which it is to be put, its
lighting aspect, and its outlook. There
is much information about the employ-
ment of marble, mosaic, tiles, metal
sheeting, tapestry, and wall-papers; and
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separate articles will be found on the fol-
lowing materials: Marble (Vol. 17, p.
676), by J. S. Flett; Tile, Wall and Floor
(Vol. 26, p. 971), illustrated, by William
Burton; Leather (Vol. 16, p. 330), illus-
trated, by Dr. J. G. Parker; Tapestry
(Vol. 26, p. 403), by A. S. Cole, an ad-
mirable historical account, fully illus-
trated, and giving information on varie-
ties of design, indications of date, the
marks of makers, modern tapestry weav-
ing, etc. Bateux Tapestry (Vol. 3, p.
555) is an interesting historical account
by the antiquarian, J. H. Bound, of this
venerable relic executed by order of the
half-brother of William the Conqueror;
it is illustrated with two plates contain-
ing 11 views of the tapestry.
In the matter of Floor-coverings there
are the articles Floor-Cloth (Vol. 10, p.
527), Parquetry (Vol. 20, p. 861), and
Carpet (Vol. 5, p. 392), illustrated, by
A. S. Cole, devoted to descriptions of
carpets and rugs as designed and manu-
factured in Europe and Oriental coun-
tries.
The next group of topics begins with
the article Furniture (Vol. 11, p. 363)
with 36 illustrations by J. G. Penderel-
Brodhurst. The
Furniture classified Table of
Articles in the Bri-
tannica (Vol. 29, p. 888) indicates over
75 articles on separate pieces of furni-
ture, but in this general treatise we have
a concise history, describing periods and
styles, with many interesting facts about
the origin and use of different pieces of
furniture from the earliest time to the
"art nouveau" of very recent date.
Some of the noteworthy separate articles,
which have been written by Mr. Penderel-
Brodhurst, are Chair (Vol. 5, p. 801);
Desk (Vol. 8, p. 95); Table (Vol. 26,
p. 325), and Bed (Vol. 3, p. 612). See
also Marquetry (Vol. 17, p. 751).
For those who wish to preserve unity
of style in furnishing a room, these
articles will prove of the highest value.
A full list is appended to this chapter;
and the reader should consult the chapter
in this Guide For the Manufacturer of
Furniture.
The decorator and designer must be
familiar with all manner of fabrics, and
the Britannica contains an immense
fund of information
Textile in regard to the na-
Fabrics ture, manufacture
and use of textiles.
For purposes of study a beginning would
perhaps here be made with the article
Weaving, which is in two parts. The
first, Industrial Technicology and Ma-
chinery (Vol. 28, p. 440) with 28 illus-
trations, is by T. W. Fox, professor of
textiles in the University of Manchester.
Very useful will be found the classifica-
tion of weaving schemes into groups,
from which we learn the distinctive
weaves of plain cloth, twills, satins,
damasks, compound cloths, repps, piled
fabrics, chenille, velvets and plushes,
gauze, etc. All weaving machinery is
described. The second part, Archae-
ology and Arty is written by A. S. Cole.
It is a most interesting and valuable
account of the origin of various textiles,
and the periods to which they are ap-
propriate. There are many illustrations
of typical designs of silk, brocade and
flax weavings.
The investigation of woven fabrics
reveals the fact that the almost endless
variety of effects obtained is due in part
only to the method of weaving. Con-
sequently, it is necessary for the student,
in order to acquire an expert knowledge
of the character and effect on any tex-
tile product which he wishes to employ,
to have access to the information in the
articles Bleaching (Vol. 4, p. 49) illus-
trated; Mercerizing (Vol. 18, p. 150);
Dyeing (Vol. 8, p. 744) illustrated, and
with an elaborate classification of colour-
ing matters — acid, direct, and developed
colours; Finishing (Vol. 10, p. 378)
illustrated, and Textile Printing (Vol.
26, p. 694), illustrated. The fact that this
fine series of articles has been prepared
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86
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
by Dr. Edmund Knecht, professor of
technological chemistry. University of
Manchester, assisted by noted authori-
ties like the late J. J. Hummel, professor
of dyeing, University of Leeds, and A. S.
Cole, is a guarantee of their great interest
and value.
In the matter of the fabrics themselves,
under Cotton, Cotton Goods and Yarn
(Vol. 7, p. 275) will be found descrip-
tions of many cotton fabrics, and see
also Silk (Vol. 25, p. 96) illustrated, by
Arthur Mellor and other authorities;
Wool, Worsted, and Woolen Manu-
factures (Vol. 28, p. 805) illustrated,
by Prof. A. F. Barker of Bradford Tech-
nical College; Linen and Linen Manu-
factures (Vol. 16, p. 724) by Thomas
Woodhouse, head of the weaving and
textile designing department, Technical
College, Dundee. Those who desire a
closer scientific knowledge of fibres may
obtain it from Fibres (Vol. 10, p. 309),
illustrated, by the well-known English
analytical chemist, C. F. Cross. There
are separate articles on Brocade (Vol. 4,
p. 620); Muslin (Vol. 19, p. 93); Canvas
(Vol. 5, p. 223); Chintz (Vol. 6. p. 235);
Cretonne (Vol. 7, p. 431); Gauze (Vol.
11, p. 357) and other textiles. A full
list of these materials is appended.
The article Lace (Vol. 16, p. 37) is
one of the most notable contributions
to the Britannica. It is written by A.
S. Cole, author of Embroidery and Lace,
Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace,
etc., and has over 60 illustrations. A
full history of lacemaking is given, and
the article is of the highest interest
throughout. There exists no better man-
ual on the subject than this, and the
pictures alone will enable the student
to distinguish the different varieties.
Embroidery (Vol. 9, p. 309) by A. F.
Kendrick, keeper of the Victoria and
Albert Museum, and A. S. Cole, has 18
illustrations and describes the charac-
teristics of the art as practised by differ-
ent nationalities. Gold and Silver
Thread (Vol. 12, p. 200), also by A. S.
Cole, is a general and historical account
of the gold and silver strips, threads and
gimp used in connection with varieties
of weaving, embroidery and twisting and
with plaiting or lace-work.
Before taking up the specific objects
of art used in interior decoration and
furnishing, attention must be called to
the many articles of
Arts and great value to those
Crafts engaged in all arts
and crafts-work,
whose success depends upon a sound
knowledge of methods and the principle
of design. In Arts and Crafts (Vol. 2,
p. 700) Mr. Walter Crane gives an account
of the recent movement in the arts of
decorative design and handicraft that
has for its object the adornment of the
house. Handicraft workers will find
valuable material, discussing designs,
methods and tools, in Needlework
(Vol. 19, p. 339); Woodcarving (Vol. 28,
p. 791) fully illustrated, by F. A. Crallan,
author of Gothic Wood-carving; Carving
and Gilding (Vol. 5, p. 438); Metal-
Work (Vol. 18, p. 205) illustrated, by
Professor Middleton of Cambridge Uni-
versity, with sections on Modern Art
Metal-work by John S. Gardner, and on
Industrial Metal Work by J. G. Horner,
author of Practical Metal Turning;
Medal (Vol. 18, p. 1) illustrated, by M.
H. Spielmann, formerly editor of The
Magazine of Art; Glass, Stained (Vol.
12, p. 105) illustrated, by Lewis Foreman
Day, late vice-president of the Society
of Arts; Spinning (Vol. 25, p. 685) by
Professor Fox; Basket (Vol. 3, p. 481)
with an account of the basket-making
industry and methods employed, by
Thomas Okey, examiner in basket-work
for the City of London Guilds and In-
stitute; Embossing (Vol. 9, p. 308);
Chasing (Vol. 5, p. 956); Repouss6
(Vol. 23, p. 108); Enamel (Vol. 9, p.
362) a very complete historical and
technical article, fully illustrated, by
Alexander Fisher, author of The Art of
Enamelling on Metals; Japan, Cloisonne*
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FOR DECORATORS AND DESIGNERS
87
Enamel (Vol. 15, p. 189); Inlaying (Vol.
14, p. 574). Much knowledge about prim-
itive shapes and designs may be obtained
from Archaeology (Vol. 2, p. 344) by
Dr. Charles H. Read of the British
Museum, Aegean Civilization (Vol. 1,
p. 245) by D. G. Hogarth, the explorer,
Scandinavian Civilization(Vo1. 24, p.
287), and America, Archaeology (Vol. 1,
p. 810) by the late O. T. Mason, of the
National Museum, Washington. These
articles are beautifully illustrated.
Some of the articles on art objects
have already been mentioned; in addi-
tion to them there is Ceramics (Vol. 5,
p. 703), equivalent
Portable to 133 pages of this
Ornaments Guide, with over 100
illustrations includ-
ing 10 full-page plates, six of which are
colour. This magnificent article is the
joint contribution of six special author-
ities and describes the art of pottery and
porcelain manufacture, potter's marks,
etc., in all countries and at all periods,
with the exception of Japanese ceramics,
for which see Japan, Art, Ceramics (Vol.
15, p. 183). Glass (Vol. 12, p. 86) has
a section on the History of Glass Manu-
facture .(p. 97) in which glassware from
the primitive vessels of ancient Egypt
to modern wares is discussed and illus-
trated. The authors of this valuable
account are Alexander Nesbitt, who
wrote the descriptive catalogue of glass
vessels for the S>outh Kensington Muse-
um, and H. J. Powell, of the White-
friars Glass Works, London. Plate
(Vol. 21, p. 789) illustrated, is the joint
product of H. Stuart Jones, formerly
director of the British School at Rome;
H. R. H. Hall, of the British Museum,
and E. Alfred Jones, author of Old Eng-
lish Gold Plate. It contains unusually
full information about hall-marks. There
are also separate articles on Pewter
(Vol. 21, p. 338) and Sheffield Plate
(Vol. 24, p. 824) by Malcolm Bell,
author of Pewter Plate, etc.
Clock has a section Decorative Aspects
(Vol. 6, p. 552), by J. G. Penderel-Brod-
hurst. Fan (Vol. 10, p. 168) by the late
J. H. Pollen, author of Ancient and Mod-
ern Furniture and Woodwork, devotes
special attention to styles of fan painting.
Ivory has a well-illustrated section on
Ivory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts
(Vol. 15, p. 95) by A. O. Maskell, author
of Ivories, etc. Mirror (Vol. 18, p. 575) ;
Frame (Vol. 10, p. 773), and Screen
(Vol. 24, p. 477) are likewise useful
articles for the decorator and furnisher.
Terracotta (Vol. 26, p. 653) illustrated,
by H. B. Walters of the British Museum,
and William Burton, deals with the use
of this material in architecture and sculp-
ture, describes its manufacture, and con-
tains an historical and critical discussion
of subjects and types. Byzantine Art
by W. R. Lethaby contains a section,
Metal Work, Ivories, and Textiles (Vol.
4. p. 910).
The subject of Lacquer (Vol. 16, p.
53) is further treated under Japan,
Lacquer (Vol. 15, p. 188), a part of a very
elaborate discussion of all forms of Jap-
anese art, including especially Painting
and Engraving (Vol. 15, p. 172), which,
as well as China, Art (Vol. 6, p. 213),
will be referred to constantly by all who
are interested in Oriental handiwork
and design.
A great number of the biographies in
the Britannica will possess much interest
for the decorator and designer. Some
of the noteworthy
Biographies names of modern
times are Morris,
William (Vol. 18, p. 871); Crane,
Walter (Vol. 7, p. 366); Tiffany,
Louis C. (Vol. 26, p. 966); La Faroe,
John (Vol. 16, p. 64); Richmond, Sir
William Blake (Vol. 23, p. 307);
Chippendale, Thomas (Vol. 6, p. 237);
Hepplewhite, George (Vol. 13, p. 305);
Sheraton, Thomas (Vol. 24, p.
841); Gibbons, Grinling (Vol. 11 p,
936).
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF
SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN DECORATING, DESIGNING,
INTERIOR FURNISHING AND ALL FORMS OF ART HANDICRAFT
Abbey, E. A.
Acroliths
Adam, Robert
Aegean Civilization
Ainmuller, M. £.
Alb
Alexander, J. W.
Almuce
Alto-Relievo
America, Archaeology
Amice
Amphora
Andiron
Angerstein, J. J.
Antimacassar
Apostle Spoons
Aquarelle
Aquatint
Arabesque
Arch
Archaeology
Architecture
Armoire
Art
Arts and Crafts
Art Teaching
Bagging
Bahut
Baize
Ball-flower
Baroque
Basin-stand
Basket
Basso-relievo
Bead
Beaker
Bed
Berain, Jean
Bezel
Biretta
Bleaching
Blondel, J. F.
Blum, R. F.
Bombay Furniture
Bombazine or Bomba-
sine
Bonelace
Bonheur du Jour
Bookbinding
Bookcase
Book-plates
Boulle, Andrg Charles
Box
Bracelet
Bracket
Brasses, Monumental
Brazier
Brocade
Brooch
Buckram
Buffet
Bunting
Byzantine Art
Cable-moulding
Caffieri, Jacques
Calender
Calico
Cambric
Cameo
Candelabrum
Candle
Candlestick
Canopy
Canvas
Capital
Capronnier, Jean Bap-
tiste
Carding
Carpet
Cartoon
Cartouche
Carving
Carving and Gilding
Caryatides
Casket
Cassock
Cassone
Ceiling
Cellaret
Cellini, Benvenuto
Ceramics
Chair
Chandelier
Chasing
Chasuble
Chatelaine
Cheese-cloth
Cheffonier
Chenille
Chest
Chevron
Chimere
Chimney-piece
China, Art
Chintz
Chippendale, Thomas
Cimabue, Giovanni
Cinque Cento
Cloth
Coffer
Column
Composite Order
Console
Cookworthy, William
Cope
Copeland, Henry
Copper
Corduroy
Corner Copiae
Cornice
Corregio
Cosmati (family)
Costume
Cotton
Cotton Manufacture
Cotton - spinning Ma-
chinery
Cowl
Cox, Kenyon
Cradle
Crane, Walter
Crape
Crash
Cressent, Charles
Crest
Cretonne
Cross
Crozat, Pierre
Crunden, John
Cupboard
Curtain
Cushion
Dais
Dalmatic
Damascening, or Dam-
askeening
Damask
Darly, Matthias
Decorated Period
Delacroix, F. V. E.
Delia Robbia
Denim
Design
Desk
Diaper
Die
Dimity
Diptych
Dog-tooth
Domenichino, Zampieri
Doulton, Sir Henry
Dowlas
Drawing
Dresser
Drill
Drinking Vessels
Duck
Dumbwaiter
Dwight, John
Dyeing
Early English Period
Ear-ring
Egypt, Archaeology
Electrolier
Electroplating
Embossing
Embroidery
Enamel
Encaustic Painting
Encoignure
Engraving
Etagere
Etching
Faience
Fan
Felt
Fender
Festoon
Fibres
Filigree
Fine Arts
Finiguerra, Maso
Finishing
Fireback
Fire-irons
Flag
Flamboyant Style
Flannel
Flannelette
Flock
Floor
Floorcloth
Footman
Frame
French Polish
Fresco
Frieze
Furniture
Fustian
Gante
Gargoyle
Gauze
Gem
Gem, Artificial
Gesso
Ghiberti, Lorenzo
Ghirlandajo
Gibbons, Grinling
Gilding
Gillow, Robert
Gimp
Gingham
Giotto
Girandole
Girdle
Glass
Glass Cloth
Glass, Stained
Glue
Gobelin
Goblet
Gold
Gold and Silver Thread
Goldbeating
Gouache
Gouthiere, Pierre
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FOR DECORATORS AND DESIGNERS
89
Graffito
Grate
Greco, El
Greek Art
Grille
Grisaille
Grotesque
Guendon
Guido Reni
Gunny
Halfpenny, W.
Hallstatt
Hamerton, P. G.
Hepplewhite, George
Heraldry
Hessian
Hiroshige
Hokusai
Holland
Honeycomb
Horn
Hosiery
House
Huckaback
Icon
Illuminated Manu-
scripts
Illustration
Impressionism
Ince, William
India, Costume
Indian Architecture
Ingle-work
Inlaying
Intaglio
Iron-work
Ivory
Jack
Jacobean Style
Japan, Art
Japanning
Jewelry
Johnson, Thomas
Jug
Jute
Kashi
Knitting
Lac
Lace
Lacquer
Lacrymatory
La Farge, John
Lampstand
Lantern
Lawn
Leather
Leather, Artificial
Lectern
Leonardo da Vinci
Le Pautre, Jean
Line Engraving
Linen, and Linen Man-
ufactures
Linen-press
Lithographing
Lock, Matthias
Longcloth
Lowboy
Macabre
Majolica
Man waring, Robert
Marble
Marot, Daniel
Marquetry
Matting <
Mayhew, Thomas
Mazer
Medal
Meissonier, J. A.
Mercerizing
Metal-work
Mezzotint
Michelangelo
Miniature
Mirror
Mohair
Moleskin
Monogram
Monteith
Morel-Ladeuil, L.
Mosaic
Mouldings
Mull
Mural Decoration
Museums of Art
Muslin
Nankeen
Needlework
Net
Niello
Numismatics
Oeben, F. F.
Order
Ormolu
Ornament
Osnaburg
Ottoman
Overdoor
Overmantel
Padding
Pagoda
Painting
Palissy, Bernard
Pantograph
Papier Mache'
Parchment
Parquetry
Pastel .
Pearl
Pedestal
Pediment
Pendant
Pergolesi, M. A.
Perpendicular Period
Perugino, Pietro
Pewter
Photography
Phylactery
Pigments
Plaque
Plate
Plated Ware
Platinum
Plumbago Drawings
Plush
Poplin or Tabinet
Poppy-heads
Porcelain
Portiere
Poster
Pot-hook
Prie-Dieu
Print
Process
Puvis de Chavannes,
P. C.
Raphael Sanzio
Relief
Rep
Repousse
Reredos
Ribbons
Richmond, Sir W. B.
Riesener, J. H.
Ring
Robes
Rococo
Roman Art
Rontgen, David
Rousseau de la Rot-
tiere, J. S.
Rubens, Peter Paul
Rug
Sacking and Sack Man-
ufacture
Salt cellar
Salver
Samovar
Sampler
Sargent, J. S.
Scandinavian Civiliza-
tion
Scarab
Scarf
Sconce
Screen
Scrim
Sculpture
Seals
Servan, J. N.
Settee
Settle
Shagreen
Shawl
Shearer, Thomas
Sheffield Plate
Sheraton, Thomas
Sideboard
Silk
Silver
Sofa
Soutane
Spinning
Spit
Spoon
Stencil
Stole
Stool
Sun Copying or Photo-
Copying
Surplice
Table
Tallboy
Tankard
Tapestry
Tarpaulin
Tartan
Tassie, James
Tazza
Tea-caddy
Tea-poy
Tempera
Terracotta
Textile-printing
Throne
Ticking
Tiepolo, G. B.
Tiffany, C. L.
Tile
Tintoretto
Titian
Tool
Torchere
Torque
Tortoiseshell
Tracery
Tray
Triclinium
Tripod
Triptych
Trivet
Tudor Period
Tulle
Twill
Uniforms
Utamaro
Varnish
Vase
Velvet
Velveteen
Veneer
Vernis Martin
Vestments
Walker, H. O.
Wall-coverings
Wardrobe
Washstand
Wax Figures
Weaving
Wedgwood, Josiah
What-not
Window-cornice
Window-seat
Wine Table
Wood-carving
Wood Engraving
Wyon, Thomas
Yarn
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CHAPTER XVIII
FOR RAILROAD MEN
THERE are no less than six dis-
tinct classes of articles in the new
Encyclopaedia Britannica which
contain information of peculiar interest
to railroad men: —
1. Articles on continents contain au-
thoritative and original accounts of trans-
continental routes and traffic. For ex-
ample the article Europe has a table in
which the 19 chief avenues of trade are
analyzed, showing the direct distance,
the distance by sea and the distance by
rail from point to point; another table
comparing railroad developments in the
various parts of Europe, and also an ac-
count of the contour of Europe from the
railroad man's point of view, discussing
the mountain ranges pierced by tunnels
and the passes over which lines have
been carried wholly or largely in the
open.
2. The articles on separate countries,
on the individual states of the Union, and
on colonies contain detailed accounts of
the railway systems.
Six Classes For example, the ar-
of Articles tide France de-
scribes the six great
French railroads, traces their lines and
explains the financial system by which
they were constructed, the concessions
granted to them by the French govern-
ment, and the extent to which direct state
ownership and management has been
adopted.
2. The articles on cities show the rela-
tion of each centre to the general rail-
road system of the country and describe
the terminals and the methods of urban
communication. For example, in the
article Berlin there is an account of the
Stadtbahn, carried through the heart of
the city, 20 feet above the street, provid-
ing for through traffic as well as for sub-
urban service.
4. The maps as well as the many
plans of cities, all of which were specially
prepared for the Britannica, show much
more clearly than does an ordinary atlas,
the present development of railroads in
all parts of the world.
5. The articles on various branches of
engineering and mechanics, described in
other chapters of this Guide, are com-
plete treatises on the technical subjects
connected with railroad construction and
management.
6. The articles devoted exclusively to
the subject, of which a brief account is
given in the present chapter, are those to
which railroad men will naturally first
turn.
The key article is Railways (Vol. 22,
p. 819), equivalent in length to more than
120 pages of this Guide. It is written by
the foremost authorities on the subject
both in the Old World and in the New,
including:
Arthur Twining Hadley, presi-
dent of Yale University, and author of
Railroad Transportation.
Hugh Munro
Technical Ross, author of
Authorities British Railways
and editor of the
Engineering Supplement of the London
Times.
Ray Morris, formerly managing
editor of the Railway Age Gazette of
New York and author of Railroad
Administration.
Lt. Col. H. A. Yorke, C.B., chief
inspecting officer of railways of the
English Board of Trade.
Prof. Frank Haigh Dixon, of
90
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FOR RAILROAD MEN
91
Dartmouth College, author of State
Railroad Control.
Bbaman Blanchard Adams, asso-
ciate editor of New York Railway Age
Gazette.
William Ernest Dalby, professor
of engineering in the South Kensing-
ton Central Technical College, and au-
thor of The Balancing of Engines, etc.
William Barclay Parsons, for-
merly chief engineer to the. New York
City Rapid Transit Commission and
advisory engineer of the Royal Com-
mission on London Traffic.
Maj. Gen. C. E. Webber, found-
er of the Institute of Electrical
Engineers.
Emile Garcee, managing director
of the British Electric Traction Co.,
Ltd., author of Manual of Electrical
Undertakings.
The article opens with an introductory
historical summary which describes the
use of railways or tramways before the
invention of the steam lo-
The Key comotive in mining dis-
Article tricts in England (just as
in the article Mauch
Chunk, Vol. 17, p. 903, early mine trans-
portation in America is described) and
the way in which their use induced the
development of high speed locomotives
and how the first American trans-con-
tinental railroads were built. The stu-
dent will find next a section of general
statistics of railway mileage for the
world, with a summary of American
railway building, especially in the Far
West since 1896. The following section is
on economics and legislation in general,
followed by separate treatment of British
railway legislation and of American rail-
way legislation. The great problem of
government control and operation of
railways as practised in various European
countries is also discussed and is of in-
terest in connection with contemporary
American tendencies. The safety of
railway transportation is treated in a
section containing in compact form the
most valuable classified statistics. A
section on Financial Organization com-
pares American and British conditions in
a most illuminating way.
Of even greater importance to the tech-
nical student are the remaining sections
of this great article, namely:
(1) Construction, with subsections
on Location, Cuttings and Embankments,
Gradients, Curves, Gauge, Permanent Way
(including ballast, ties, fish-plates and
other rail joints, and rails), Bridges,
Rack (or cog) Railways, Cable Railways,
Mono-Rail Systems, Switches and Cross-
overs, Railway Stations (for passengers
and for freight), Round Houses for Loco-
motives, and Switching Yards. This trea-
tise on construction is equivalent to 22
pages of the type and size of this Guide,
and is in itself an adequate brief manual
for the use of the construction engineer,
with valuable illustrations in the text.
(2) Locomotive Power, including
sub-sections on Fundamental Relations*
Methods of Applying Locomotive Power,
General Locomotive Efficiency, Analysis of
Train Resistance, Vehicle Resistance, En-
gine Resistance, Maximum Boiler Power,
Draught, The Steam Engine, Tractive
Force, Engine Efficiency; Piston Speed,
Compound Locomotives, Balancing of Loco-
motives, Classes of Locomotives, Current
Developments. This section of the article
is a little longer than the preceding, — it
would fill 25 pages of this Guide, — and
has illustrations, tables, and formulae.
It is written by Prof. Dalby, the prin-
cipal British authority on locomotives.
(3) Rolling Stock, dealing with din-
ing, sleeping, passenger and vestibule
cars, wood and metal, their heating and
lighting and their weight and speed; with
freight cars, their weight and speed; and
with car-couplers and brakes.
(4) Intra-Urban, or city street rail-
ways, elevated and underground, by W.
B. Parsons, formerly chief engineer of
the New York Rapid Transit Commis-
sion.
(5) Light Railways for rural and in-
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
terurban service and portable railways.
The next article to be read is Tramway
(Vol. 27, p. 159), dealing with the earliest
railways used in coal mines, American
and English, without locomotive power;
and with modern street railways, — sur-
face lines, steam, cable and electric, the
last being subdivided
Other Major into three classes,
Articles overhead or trolley,
open conduit and
closed conduit. The different types of
street cars are discussed, and there are
summaries of legislation and of commer-
cial results, with general statistics.
The article Traction (Vol. 27, p. 118,
equivalent to more than 20 pages of this
Guide) is by Louis Duncan, formerly
head of the department of electrical en-
gineering in the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. It deals principally with
electric traction and thus supplements
the article Tramway. Steam traction, as
treated in the section on Locomotive
Power in the article Railways, by Prof.
Dalby, may be studied further in the
article Steam-Engine (Vol. 25, p. 818),
and especially that part of the article
which deals with locomotives (§ 104, p.
841).
The civil engineer engaged in railway
work will profit by reading, besides the
articles already mentioned: Professor W.
C. Unwin's article (Vol. 4, p. 533) on
Bridges, especially pp. 545 and 547 seq.,
dealing with railway bridges; and the ar-
ticle Tunnel (Vol. 27, p. 399), by H. A.
Carson, engineer-in-charge of the Boston
Subway and of the East Boston Tunnel,
which would make about 30 pages if
printed in the form of this Guide. This
article classifies tunnels into river, moun-
tain and town (subway) tunnels, and
gives special information about rail cor-
rosion and ventilation in tunnels.
The equipment engineer will add to
the topics already listed (cars, engines,
etc.) the article Signal, § Railway Sig-
nalling (Vol. 25, p. 73; as long as 15 pages
of this Guide), by B. B. Adams, of the
Railway Age Gazette, and H. M. Ross, of
the London Times Engineering Supple-
ment; and Brake (Vol. 4, p. 414).
On the history of railroading and on
statistics there is much information in
the Britannica in local articles. It has
already been re-
Legislation marked that each
article dealing with
a state of the United States, or any of the
commercial countries of the world, has a
section on Communications, giving railway
mileage and describing the principal rail-
way lines in the area; and that articles on
cities and towns give accurate and minute
information about railway service. In
pursuing the study of legislation bearing
on railways, and especially on rate legis-
lation, the student should read the article
Interstate Commerce (Vol. 14, p. 711),
by Prof. Frank A. Fetter of Princeton
University, a part at least of the article
Trusts (Vol. 27, p. 334), by Prof. J. W.
Jenks, of New York University (formerly
of Cornell), parts of the article on the
history of the United States, in the same
volume, especially pp. 315, 316, 353, 367,
394, 395, 396, 406, 407, and, in separate
state articles, the sections on laws and
history, notably North Carolina for
the rate cases of 1907 (Vol. 19, p. 778),
Nebraska for the maximum freight rate
of 1893 (Vol. 19, p. 329), Wisconsin on
radical rate legislation and on physical
valuation for ad valorem tax of railways
(Vol. 28, p. 744).
The biographical articles in the new
Britannica also have much important in-
formation for the student of railways.
Among the names of
Biographies inventors whose
lives are outlined are :
Thomas Newcomen (Vol. 19, p. 475),
James Watt (Vol. 28, p. 414), Matthew
Boulton (Vol. 4, p. 324), George and
Robert Stephenson (Vol. 25, pp. 888
and 889), Richard Trevithick (Vol. 27,
p. 256), Oliver Evans (Vol. 10, p. 2),
John Ericsson (Vol. 9, p. 740), Peter
Cooper (Vol. 7, p. 80), and Sir Marc I.
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Brunbl (Vol. 4, p. 682); among the
names of engineers and railway and
bridge builders George Parker Bidder
(Vol. 3, p. 918), Thomas Brassey (Vol
4, p. 435), John Cockerill (Vol. 6, p
625), Erastus Corning (Vol. 7, p. 174)
James Buchanan Eads (Vol. 8, p. 789)
Sir William Fairbairn (Vol. 19, p. 129)
Sir John Fowler (Vol. 10, p. 761)
James Henry Greathead (Vol. 12, p
398), Sir John Hawkshaw (Vol. 13, p
99), William Kingsford (Vol. 15, p
817), Sir Robert Gillespie Reid (Vol
23, p. 50), John Rennie (Vol. 23, p. 101)
and J. A. Roebling (Vol. 23, p. 450) ; and
among railway financiers, — to take only
a few American names, — the Vander-
bilts (Vol. 27, p. 885), Jay Gould (Vol.
12, p. 284), Asa Packer (Vol. 20, p. 441)
and E. H. Harriman (Vol. 13, p.
18).
In such articles as Strikes and Lock
Outs (Vol. 25, p. 1024) and Trade
Unions (Vol. 27, p. 140), each with Amer-
ican sections by Carroll D. Wright, late
U. S. Commissioner of Labor, the reader
will find valuable assistance in studying
railway economics as affected by the
relations of labour and capital.
For marine transportation see the next
chapter in this Guide.
The following is a brief list of articles,
and of sections of articles, of interest to
all railroad men:
Analysis of Train Re-
• Concrete
Horse Power
Roof
sistance
Conveyors
Hydraulics
Semaphore
Anthracite
Cranes
Iron and Steel
Sewerage
Atmospheric Railway
Cross-overs
Location
Shaft Sinking
Ballast
Curves
Locomotive Power
Shoring
Balancing of Locomo- Current Developments
Maximum Boiler Power Shovel
tives
Cuttings
Masonry
Signalling
Blasting
Dock
Methods of applying Siphon
Bearings
Draught
Locomotive Power
Sleeper
Bogie
Dredge
Monorail Systems
Smoke
Boiler
Elevators
Mortar
Steam Engines
Boring
Embankments
Motors, Electric
Steel Construction
Brake
Engine
Oil Engine
Stone
Brickwork
Engine Efficiency
Permanent Way
Strength of Materials
Bridges
Engine Resistance
Felloe
Pier
Switches (or points)
Cable Railways
Piston Speed
Switching Yards
Caisson
Fire brick
Rack Railways
Ties
Canal
Fish-plates
Rafter
Timber
Cantilever
Foundations
Rail
Traction
Car
Freight
Railways
Tractive Force
Cement
Fuel
Railway Stations
Tramway
Classes of Locomotives Gauge
River Engineering
Tunnels
Coal
General Locomotive Ef-
Roads and Streets
Vehicle Resistance
Cog Railways
ficiency
Roadbeds
Ventilation
Compound Locomotives Gradients
Rolling Stock
Welding
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CHAPTER XIX
FOR MARINE TRANSPORTATION MEN
THE immediate future of marine
commerce cannot fail to be very
greatly affected by changed con-
ditions. No one believes that England,
Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Ja-
pan and China will be able, before the
middle of the century, to establish a
stable adjustment of the international
difficulties which surround them. No
one knows what changes the Panama
Canal may make .in the movement of
freights within the first ten years of its
operation. No one
Problems of knows to what in-
the Near dustry the United
Future States may next ap-
ply the methods by
which the country has created the age
of steel.
Coal and the steam engine may both,
within a few years, be displaced as fac-
tors in marine transportation. Sweeping
tariff changes in the United States, in
Great Britain and in Germany may vi-
tally affect the movement of freights.^
Transatlantic passenger traffic, not only
a huge business in itself, but also im-
portant, so long as it is sea-borne, in its
effects upon transatlantic freights, may
become aerial instead of marine.
Confronted by the approach of a period
so full of changes, the uttermost alertness
of outlook is merely elementary prudence
on the part of everyone engaged in the
business of marine transportation; and
the new Britannica reviews all the many
fields of knowledge which are of impor-
tance in this connection. It supplies
technical information regarding the con-
struction of ships, the management of
shipping lines, marine engines of every
kind, shipboard and waterside appli-
ances for the handling of cargo, the de-
velopment of harbours and the dredging
and embankment of rivers, the building
of docks, warehouses and dry docks,
ship canals and canal locks, navigation,
lighthouses, light-
Technical ships, buoys, lanes
Subjects of traffic, marine in-
surance, cold trans-
port — every conceivable subject with
which shipping men are concerned.
Articles by contributors in twenty differ-
ent countries, deal with all the world's
ports, industries, exports, imports and
shipping. The financial and legal as-
pects of the business are exhaustively
covered. Tariffs, legislation affecting
marine transportation, and such questions
of international policy as the command
of the sea, the right of search, and the
position of neutrals in wartime are dis-
cussed by the highest authorities.
In addition to all this, the Britannica
articles on these and similar subjects
contain historical sections which, in con-
junction with the articles on the history
of all countries, show how past changes,
as sweeping as these which are now antic-
ipatedy have affected commerce. Whether
your present position — or the position
you are endeavouring to make for your-
self — in relation to shipping is such that
this coming period of transition promises
to affect you favourably or unfavour-
ably, you need to be forewarned and fore-
armed, prepared to keep what you have
or get what you want.
A course of reading should always
begin with the study of general principles,
in order that in your subsequent and
more detailed examination of the field,
the relative importance of each fact
that you master may be appreciated.
The Britannica provides, in the article
94
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Commerce (Vol. 6, p. 766), a bird's-eye
view of the whole subject of marine
transportation. The
An Outline article would not fill
of Sea Trade more than 16 pages
of this Guide; you
can read it (and digest it as you read
it, so clear is it) in an hour, and yet
it will give you such a grasp of the whole
science — for it is a science — of inter-
national trade that you will spend another
hour in assorting and classifying, in your
own mind, a mass of impressions you had
received before, at school or in the course
of casual reading, impressions which have
not been so useful to you as they should
have been because they had not been
systematically arranged. There is no
text book in existence which outlines the
subject so fully and clearly as does this
one brief article — about one five-thou-
sandth part of the total contents of the
Brltannica.
This article will arouse your interest
in the direct relation between commercej
past, present and future, and the prog-
ress of civilization. You will realize
that the man who has any part in the
vast shifting of cargoes from one part of
the world to another is distributing
ideas and ideals and ambitions as well
as commodities, and in the article Civil-
ization (Vol. 6, p. 403), by Dr. Henry
Smith Williams, editor of The Historians*
History of the World, you will see how
harbours receive and send on to the in-
lands the influences as well as the manu-
factures of the more advanced com-
munities.
From these articles you should turn
to the three great articles which deal
with the methods by which these wonder-
ful results are accomplished. These
three are Ship, Shipbuilding and Ship-
ping, all in volume 24, and equivalent to
about 420 or 425 pages of this Guide.
These three articles contain hundreds of
illustrations, more than forty being full
page plates. They are by the most
eminent authorities. Sir Philip Watts,
director of naval construction for the
British Navy, designer of the Dread-
noughts and the Super-Dreadnoughts of
the British Navy, as well as of the "Mau-
retania" and the "Lusitania," chairman
of the Federation of Shipbuilders, and
naval architect and director of the war-
shipbuilding department of Armstrong,
Whitworth & Co., Ltd., wrote the arti-
cles Shipbuilding and Ship (except the
history of ships before the invention of
steamships, which is by Edmund Warre,
provost of Eton, well-known as a writer
on nautical history). The article Ship-
ping is by Douglas Owen, lecturer at the
Royal Naval War College and author
of Ports and Docks.
In brief, these three articles in length,
contents, — both text and illustrations, —
and authorship, make up a remarkable
book on the subject, valuable either as a
text-book or a work of reference for the
ship builder, the marine engineer or the
student of shipping.
Taking the articles separately, the
article Ship begins with a section of
nearly 10,000 words on the early develop-
ment of snips. It suggests
Story of that shells floating on the
the Ship water or the nautilus may
first have suggested the use
of a hollowed tree-trunk for transporta-
tion — the first boat or "ship" (the word
comes from the same root as "scoop")
as distinct from a raft. The evolution of
boat building is traced, — from dug-out
to bark- or skin-covered frame, built
like modern racing-shells sometimes ribs
first and then skin laid on and sometimes
sheU first and then ribs inserted. In
spite of the great length of the period
during which such boats were used —
of course they are still used by more
primitive peoples, — it is interesting to
notice that there were local variations
which never became general, such as the
outrigger and weather platform, used in
the South Pacific and not found elsewhere.
Egyptian vessels we may study in the
excellent early tomb-paintings still pre-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
served, and one of these shows a ship,
not a canoe or large boat, such as was in
use from 3000 - 1000 B. C, fitted with
oars and a mast in two pieces which could
be lowered and laid along a high spar-
deck.
The Phoenicians did more than the
Egyptians to develop ship and naviga-
tion, and a Phoenician galley of the 8th
century B. C. is shown in an Assyrian
wall painting. The Phoenicians proba-
bly sailed out of the Mediterranean, to
Britain for tin, or even around Africa.
Greek ships and shipbuilding we know
from a full and varied national literature,
from the figures on coins and vases, and
from the discovery in 1834 at the Peiraeus,
the port of Athens, of records of Athenian
dockyard superintendents for several
years between 373 and 324 B.C. We
have besides descriptions, partly tech-
nical, showing the point of view of the
engineer or architect, written by Roman
authors. The article gives a critical
account of the Greek types of vessels.
The growth of Roman shipping seems
to have been due primarily to political
reasons and to fiave advanced slowly
but surely, — practical devices being in-
troduced to solve special difficulties in a
field and on an element where the Romans
were far from being at home. A five-
tiered Carthaginian galley which had
drifted ashore served the Romans as a
model for their first war-ship, and with
crews taught to row in a framework
set up on dry land they manned a fleet
which was launched in sixty days from
the time that the trees were felled.
Passing quickly over the remainder of
the earlier period, which the reader will
find treated in full in the article Ship,
he should notice that
Mast and Sail the sailing vessel
came into use grad-
ually for merchant use, but that galleys
(propelled by oars) were long the only
type for warships. There were some
galleys even in the Spanish Armada of
1588. In the meantime the invention
of gunpowder and the development of
artillery brought about changes in size
and in form, with a notable tendency
to more masts and a greater spread of
sail. The discoveries of the 15th and
16th centuries and especially the con-
sequent expansion of trade in the 17th
century, all tended to increase the size
and efficiency of sailing ships. The
end of the 18th and the beginning of the
19th century marked the highest point
in the development of American sailing
ships. "The Americans with their fast-
sailing 'clippers 9 taught the English
builders a lesson, showing that increased
length in proportion to beam gave
greater speed, while permitting the use
of lighter rigging in proportion to tonnage,
and the employment of smaller crews. The
English shipyards were for a long time
unequal to the task of producing vessels
capable of competing with those of their
American rivals, and their trade suffered
accordingly. But after the repeal of the
Navigation Laws in 1850, things improved
and we find clippers from Aberdeen and
the Clyde beginning to hold their own
on the long voyages to China and else-
where."
The revolution in marine transporta-
tion by the introduction of steam is
summed up by Sir Philip Watts as
follows:
Before steam was applied to the propul-
sion of ships, the voyage from Great Bri-
tain to America lasted for some weeks; at
the beginning of the 20th century the
time had been reduced to about six days,
and in 1910 the fastest vessels could do it
in four and a half days. Similarly, the voy-
age to Australia, which took about thirteen
weeks, had been reduced to thirty days or
less. The fastest of the sailing tea-clippers
required about three months to bring the
early teas from China to Great Britain; in
1910 they were brought to London by the
ordinary P. & O. service in five weeks. At-
lantic liners now run between England and
America which maintain speeds of 25 and
26 knots over the whole course, as compared
with about 12 knots before the introduction
of steam.
The introduction of iron for wood
began about the same time as the sub-
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stitution of steam for sails, and there was
even more prejudice
Iron Hulls against it. This was
due not merely to
the sentiment attaching to the oaken
timbers that typified "hearts of oak,"
or to the "Wooden Walls of England."
In all seriousness it was objected that
iron would not float! It was feared
that iron bottoms would be more easily
perforated when ships grounded; but
this was found not to be the case when
construction was careful. It was proved
that fouling of iron bottoms from weeds
and barnacles might be remedied by
frequent cleaning and repainting. The
most serious objection against iron was
that it affected the compass; but in 1839
Sir G. B. Airy laid down rules for the
correction of compass errors due to iron
in construction. But even to-day wood is
preferred for the construction of ships
for scientific expeditions to the Polar
regions where the slightest disturbance
of the compass is to be avoided. Iron
and steel (first used in ship-building to
any extent in 1870-75) have three advan-
tages over wooden ships: less weight;
greater durability; greater ease in secur-
ing the necessary general and local
strengths. But while iron was coming
into use largely because it is more dura-
ble, there was a great increase in the
durability of wooden ships, due to the
improved knowledge of wood-preserva-
tion. At the end of the 18th century
15 or 20 years was the average life of
a wooden ship; but there are several
instances of ships built in the first decade
of the 19th century — or even earlier —
which were still in commission at the be-
ginning of the 20th century.
Full details are given in regard to the
first ships used for canal and river navi-
gation in Great Britain and the United
States; the comparatively rapid adop-
tion of steam vessels on the Irish and
English channels; and the first steam-
ships to make long trips — the American-
built "Savannah" which crossed the At-
lantic in 1819 in 25 days using steam only
a part of the time,
Early the "Enterprise"
Steamships which went from
London to Calcutta
in 1825 in 103 days (64 under steam), the
"Sirius," the "Great Western," etc.
AD these were propelled by paddle-wheels.
Jet propulsion had been suggested by
Benjamin Franklin in 1775 and was tried
several times with some success. But
the greater success of the screw-propeller,
perfected by Colonel John Stevens and
Captain John Ericsson, soon caused jet-
propulsion to be abandoned. The screw-
propeller made possible — and was quickly
followed by — great improvements in
engines; the gearing used with paddles
was soon given up for direct-acting en-
gines — compound about 1854, triple-
expansion in 1874.
Statistics of shipping for all countries
are given in tables and diagrams equiva-
lent to 18 or 20 pages of this Guide.
A brief summary outline of the re-
mainder of this article Ship is all that
can be given here.
Merchant Vessels
Sailing Ships
Barges, Smacks or Cutters,
Schooners, Brigs and Brigan tines
Steamships
Types: Turtle-back, etc. Cargo
Ships : Modern Developments,
Great Lake Freighters, Oil Tank
Steamers, Motor Tank Vessels.
Passenger Steamers : Ferries,
River and Sound, Cross-Channel,
Ocean Liners (Atlantic: Cana-
dian, Emigrant Vessels, Liners on
other Routes; Pacific Liners).
Special Vessels (Dredge, Train
Ferries, Ice Breakers, Surveying
Vessels, Lightships, Coastguard
and Fishery Cruisers, Salvage and
Fire Vessels, Lifeboats, Yachts).
Propulsion by Electricity, by
Naphtha Engines, by Internal
Combustion Engines
War Vessels
Battleships and Armour Protec-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tion ; Sir E. J. Reed and the Brit-
ish Navy Turret Ships ; American
Monitor; Sir Nathaniel Barnaby
in England; the work of Sir W.
H. White; Development from
1885 to 1902; The "Dread-
nought " type — in England,
United States, Germany, France,
Japan, Russia, Italy, Austria,
Brazil, Argentina, etc., with
Table, " Development of Some of
the Leading Features of Notable
Armored Battleships from 1860
to 1910."
Cruisers, Second-Class Cruisers,
Third-Class, Armored Cruisers,
Dreadnought Cruisers, Cruisers in
Different Navies
Gunboats and Torpedo Craft and
Torpedo-boat Destroyers
Submarines: American experi-
ments in the 1 8th Century ; inven-
tions of Holland and Nordenf eldt ;
the Goubet System in France;
Submarines in different navies.
The article Shipping (Vol. 24, p. 98S)
is devoted to the history and practice
of maritime transportation. It outlines
the early period of
History of trade, and the con-
Shipping test for trade among
Spain, Portugal, the
Netherlands and England, especially in
the period after the discovery of America,
when the prizes of commerce became
suddenly so much richer. The Naviga-
tion Act of 1651, confining the trade
between England and her colonies and
the British coasting trade to English
ships, was followed by a rapid growth
of English shipping. The tonnage
doubled between 1606 and 1688. In the
18th century and into the 19th, the
history of shipping was primarily a
contest for trade between France and
England, finally won by the latter. The
19th century, as has already been seen
in the article Ship, was marked by the
adoption of steam as a motive power.
The struggle for supremacy in the At-
lantic trade and in commerce with China
and the Far East between the United
States and Great Britain was won by the
latter largely for this reason — the Ameri-
can ship-builders clung to the sailing
clipper too long — and they were too
slow in adopting iron instead of wooden
hulls. The American Civil War was an
additional set-back to American com-
merce. Other great factors during the
last 50 years in the development of ship-
ping, treated in the article, may be cat-
alogued here: •
. The opening of the Suez Canal in
1869.
Improved apparatus for fire preven-
tion.
Refrigerating machinery, making
possible the shipment of meats
and other foods.
Germany's merchant marine.
Japanese merchant vessels.
French efforts to get trade.
The shipping combine of 1902.
" Liners " and " Tramps."
The freight rate question and in-
creased tonnage.
Special passenger transport: tour-
ists, emigrants, etc.
The third of the main articles is
Shipbuilding (Vol.
Instructions 24, p. 922) by Sir
for the Philip Watts. The
Ship-Builder articte is equivalent
to 200- pages of this
Guide, and the illustrations include
more than 120 working drawings. A
brief outline of the article is all that can
be given here.
Stability: Equilibrium, Stability
of Equilibrium, Transverse Stabil-
ity, Small Inclinations, Metacentric
Heights, Inclining Experiment,
Large Inclinations, Curves of Sta-
bility, Effect of Freeboard, Effect of
Beam, Effect of Position on Centre
of Gravity, Geometrical Properties,
Dynamical Stability, Sailing Ships,
Longitudinal Stability, Stability
when Damaged, Stability in any Di-
rection.
Rolling of Ships : Unresisted Roll-
ing — Froude's Theory, Resisted
Rolling, Methods of Reducing Roll-
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ing (Bilge-Keels, Water Chambers,
Gyroscope),
Resistance: Components of Force,
Wake, Frictional Resistance, Law of
Comparison, Model Experiments,
Experimental Results.
Propulsion : Experimental Re-
sults, Cavitation.
Strength: Longitudinal Bending,
Transverse Bending.
Steering: Nature of Forces when
Turning, Heel when Turning, Types
of Rudders, Experimental Results.
Process of Design
Registration Societies
Board of Trade Supervision
Load line and Freeboard
Loading of Grain and Timber
Ship-yard Work
Structural Parts
Materials
Cranes and Gantries
Course of Construction
Models
Laying-off
Sheer Drawing
Fairing the Body
Contracted Method of Fairing
Fairing the End
Stern Mould
Displacement Calculation
Frame Lines
Cant Frames
Double Canted Frame
Swell for Propeller Shaft
Mould for Boss Frame Casting
Shaft Struts
Anchor
Ballast
Barge
Belay
Berth
Bilge
Binnacle
Boat
Bowline
Bumboat
Buoy
Burgee
Cable
Cabotage
Caique
Canoe
Capstan
Catamaran
Cleat'
Coble
Commerce
Coracle
C. H. Cramp
Sir Samuel Cunard
Dahabeah
Dhow
Dinghy
John Ericsson
Felucca •
John Fitch
Robert Fulton
Gimbal
Hawser
Holystone
T. H. Ismay
Junk
Kayak
Keel
Lateen
Life-saving Service
Sight Edges in Body Plan
Inner Bottom
Inner Surface of Frames
Outside Double Bottom
Deck Lines
Framing and Plating behind
Armour
Laying off Armour of a Warship
Order of Work
Keel
Transverse Frames
Scrive-Board
Shoring Ribbands
Deck Beams
Longitudinals
Bilge Keel
Drawings
Laying Keel Blocks
Keels and Frames
Shell or Outside Plating
Structural Arrangements
Longitudinal System as used in
New London, Conn.; Great Lake
steamer; British cargo steamer; At-
lantic liner; Differences between
war and merchant ships; Auxiliary
Machinery.
The student should read the article
Navy and Navies
A Dictionary (Vol. 19, p. 299) and
of Ships and refer to the chapter
Shipping For Naval Officers.
The following is a partial list of the
articles in the Britannica of particular
value to the marine transportation man.
Lighthouse
Log
Mast
Navigation
Navigation Laws
Oars
Pilot
Pinnace
Pirogue
Polacca
Poop
Pram
Proa
Punt
Quarterdeck
Quay
Random
Rigging
Rowlock
Rudder
Sail, and Sailcloth
Sampan
Schooner
Seamanship
Seamen, Laws of
Semaphore
Ship
Shipbuilding
Ship Money
Shipping
Sloop
Smack
Starboard
Steamship Lines
Tonnage
Trinity House
Turbine
Wharf
Sir William H. White
Yawl
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CHAPTER XX
FOR ENGINEERS
THE history of a word wffl some-
times supply the key to the
gradual development of an art.
"Engineering" was originally used to
describe a mere branch of military
science, the construction of fortifica-
tions and the trenching and sap-
ping needed for their capture. Then
about a century and a half ago the use
of the phrase "civil engineering" came
into use to indicate the broadening of
the engineer's functions to civil pursuits,
but even then it served for a long time
chiefly to describe surveying, road-mak-
ing and bridge building. To-day, the
specialized knowledge of engineers of one
kind or another directs or facilitates
every branch of industry. Consider for
a moment the handling of iron, which,
as the Britannica article Iron and Steel
shows, has become the most indispensa-
ble of all substances save air and water,
because we can find
What no substitute for it
"Engineering" that possesses its
Includes strength, the hard-
ness and the pliabil-.
ity we can give to it, and its mag-
netic properties, upon which all our
electrical work depends. The mining
engineer is concerned with the ore, the
mechanical engineer with the machinery
employed in its treatment; the trans-
portation of the finished iron or steel
depends upon the skill of the engineers
who construct railroads and ships; the
structural engineer shapes our buildings
from the girders and erects them on the
sites indicated by the surveying engin-
eer; the sanitary engineer makes them
wholesome, and the electrical engineer
provides them with the many convenient
appliances we need. Various primitive
races have believed that the earth is
supported upon the back of a tortoise,
an elephant, or a fish; but when we
begin to look into the origin of the sur-
roundings we have made for ourselves,
we cannot carry our examination very
far before we find that almost every-
thing we possess begins with a blue-
print.
It seems a paradox, and yet it is true,
that the more a man's profession tends
to specialization, the more help he can
get from the comprehensiveness of the
Britannica. He finds it necessary to dig
so deep that the shaft he sinks must
perforce be of narrow diameter, limiting
his daily vision to but a small circle of
the broad sky above him. The engineer
of each class has his own text books, but
at any moment his work may bring him
into temporary relation with allied sub-
jects which they do not cover, and in
connection with which he may need
trustworthy information. There is cer-
tainly no other book which surveys so
authoritatively and minutely as does the
Britannica the whole field of applied sci-
ence. The services rendered by the 73
engineering experts — German, Ameri-
can, English, French and Italian — who
collaborated in the production of the
work are not to be measured only by the
articles they wrote; for the advice and
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FOR ENGINEERS
101
assistance many of them gave the edi-
tors in planning the book as a whole, en-
sured such treatment as an engineer
would desire of many subjects indirectly
connected with his work.
The engineer will naturally turn first
to the mathematical articles, which may
be described as text-books of the most
concise and useful
Mathematical nature, written by
Articles leading mathemati-
cians of the age.
Algebra (Vol. 1, p. 599) is by Dr. Shep-
pard, and G. B. Mathews, formerly pro-
fessor of mathematics, University Col-
lege of North Wales; Algebraic Forms
(Vol. 1, p. 620) by Major P. A. Macma-
hon, formerly president of the London
Mathematical Society; Geometry (Vol.
11, p. 675), Euclidean, Projective, De-
scriptive, by Dr. Henrici, professor of
mathematics, Central Technical College
of the City and Guilds of London Insti-
tute; Analytical, by E. B. Elliott, Wayn-
flete professor of pure mathematics,
Oxford; Line, by B. A. W. Russell,
author of Foundations of Geometry, etc.,
and Dr. A. N. Whitehead of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge; Axioms, by Dr. White-
head; Trigonometry (Vol. 27, p. 271)
by Dr. E. W. Hobson of Cambridge
University; Surveying (Vol. 26, p. 142),
Geodetic Triangulation, Levelling, Topo-
graphical Surveys, and Geographical Sur-
veying, by Sir Thomas Holdich, formerly
superintendent of Frontier Surveys, In-
dia; Nautical, by Vice-Admiral A. M.
Field, R.N., author of Hydrographical
Surveying, etc.; Geodesy (Vol. 11, p.
607) by Col. A. R. Clarke of the
British ordinance survey, and Prof.
F. R. Helmert of the University of
Berlin; Logarithm (Vol. 16, p. 868) by
Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, editor of the Quar-
terly Journal of Pure and Applied Math-
ematics; Mechanics (Vol. 17, p. 955),
Statics, Kinetics, by Dr. Horace Lamb,
professor of mathematics, University of
Manchester; Theory of Structures, The-
ory of Machines, Applied Dynamics, by
Dr. W. J. M. Rankine, late professor of
civil engineering, Glasgow University,
and W. E. Dalby, professor of civil and
mechanical engineering, City and Guilds
of London Institute; Dynamics (Vol. 8,
p. 756) by Professor Lamb; Differ-
ences, Calculus of (Vol. 8, p. 223), by
Dr. W. F. Sheppard; Infinitesimal
Calculus (Vol. 14, p. 535) by Dr. A. E.
H. Love, secretary of the London Math-
ematical Society; Variations, Calcu-
lus of (Vol. 27, p. 915), by Dr. Love;
Quaternions (Vol. 22, p\ 718) by
Alexander McAulay, professor of math-
ematics and physics, University of Tas-
mania; Diagram (Vol. 8, p. 146), by
Dr. James Clerk Maxwell, the noted
physicist; Mensuration (Vol. 18, p.
135) by Dr. Sheppard; Table, Math-
ematical (Vol 26, p. 325), by Dr. J.
W. L. Glaisher; Units, Physical (Vol.
27, p. 738), by Dr. J. A Fleming, profes-
sor of electrical engineering, University
of London; Units, Dimensions of (Vol.
27, p. 736), by Sir Joseph Larmor, secre-
tary of the Royal Society, England; and
Calculating Machines (Vol. 4, p. 972),
with 24 illustrations, is by Professor
Henrici.
These admirable treatises as well as
the article Drawing, Drawing-Office
work (Vol. 8, p. 556), by Joseph G.
Horner, will be useful to all engineers,
and in the special field of civil engin-
eering the following partial list of ar-
ticles will convey some idea of the scope
of the material to which the professional
man has immediate access.
Bridges (Vol. 4, p. 533), with 72 illus-
trations, diagrams, etc., is a thorough
discussion of the subject by Dr. William
C. Unwin, emeritus
Articles for professor of en-
Civil Engineers gineering, Central
Technical College,
City and Guilds of London Institute,
author of Wrought Iron Bridges and
Roofs, etc. This article covers the whole
theory of bridge design, and describes
all the typical structures from the timber
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102
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Pons Sublicius of ancient Rome, the
bridge Horatius defended, to the Man-
hattan Bridge over the East River at
New York. Roads and Streets (Vol.
28, p. 388); River Engineering (Vol.
23, p. 374), with 26 illustrations, by the
late L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, professor
of civil engineering, University College,
London, and author of Rivers and Canals ,
etc.; Jetty (Vol. 15, p. 359), with 6
illustrations, and Pier (Vol. 21, p. 588),
illustrated, also by Prof. Vernon-
Harcourt; Dredge and Dredging
(Vol. 8, p. 562), with 13 illustrations, by
William Hunter, consulting engineer for
Waterworks to Crown agents for the
Colonies.
Hydraulics (Vol. 14, p. 35), with 213
illustrations, is by Prof. W. C. Unwin —
an article in which the whole theory and
practice of water-power, including dis-
cussions of water-motors and turbines,
are brought fully up to date by the
designer of the first water-motors at
Niagara, the section dealing with hy-
draulic machines occupying 25 pages;
Hydromechanics (Vol. 14, p. 115) by
Sir Alfred George Greenhill, formerly
professor of mathematics in the Ord-
nance College, Woolwich; Ventilation
(Vol. 27, p. 1008), illustrated, by James
Bartlett; Water Supply (Vol. 28, p.
387), with 20 illustrations, diagrams, and
maps, by Dr. G. F. Deacon, former-
ly engineer-in-chief for the Liverpool
Water Supply; Aqueduct, Modern Con-
struction (Vol. 2, p. 244), by E. P. Hill;
Sewerage (Vol. 24, p. 735), with 29 illus-
trations, by James Bartlett; Irrigation
(Vol. 14, p. 841).
Canal (Vol. 5, p. 168), by Sir E.
Leader Williams, chief engineer of Man-
chester Ship Canal during construction,
is an interesting article. There are also
separate articles on great engineering
undertakings, such as Panama Canal
(Vol. 20, p. 667); Manchester. Ship
Canal (Vol. 17, p. 550) by Sir E. Leader
Williams; Suez Canal (Vol. 26, p. 22).
It will surprise many readers to learn
that the project of a ship canal across
Central America was considered as early
as 1550, when a book demonstrating its
feasibility was published in Portugal.
Only a year later the King of Spain was
strongly urged, in a memorial presented
by De Gomara, the Spanish historian,
to undertake the work.
Tunnel (Vol. 27, p. 899),with many
plans and illustrations, by H. A. Carson,
in charge of designing and constructing
the Boston Subway; Dock (Vol. 8, p.
353), with illustrations and plans; Cais-
son (Vol. 4, p. 957) ; Breakwater (Vol.
4, p. 475), with 16 illustrations; Har-
bour (Vol. 12, p. 935), illustrated;
Reclamation of Land (Vol. 22, p.
954), with 13 illustrations. The last
five articles are by Professor Vernon-
Harcourt; Lighthouse (Vol. 16, p. 627),
with 59 illustrations, by W. T. Douglass,
who erected the Eddystone and Bishop
Rock Lighthouses, and Nicholas G . Gedy e,
chief engineer to the Tyne Improve-
ment Commission; Shipbuilding (Vol.
24, p. 922), with 125 illustrations — a com-
plete treatise on the subject by Sir Philip
Watts, director of naval construction
for the British Navy; Traction (Vol.
27, p. 119), illus-
Railways and trated, by Prof. Louis
Transportation Duncan, of the Mas-
sachusetts Institute
of Technology; Tramway (Vol. 27, p.
159), illustrated, by Emile Garcke, man-
aging director of the British Electric
Traction Co., Ltd.; Railways (Vol. 22,
p. 819), a magnificent composite article,
fully illustrated, in which the Introduc-
tion and the sections on Construction and
Rolling Stock are by H. M. Ross, editor
of The Times Engineering Supplement;
General Statistics and Financial Organi-
zation, by Ray Morris, formerly of the
Railway Age Gazette, New York, and
author of Railroad Administration; Eco-
nomics and Legislation, by Arthur T.
Hadley, president of Yale University;
American Railway Legislation, by Prof.
Frank H. Dixon, of Dartmouth College,
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FOR ENGINEERS
103
author of State Railroad Control; Acci-
dent Statistics ', by B. B. Adams, associ-
ate editor, Railway Age Gazette; Intra
Urban Railways, by W. B. Parsons,
formerly chief engineer, Rapid Transit
Commission, New York, and Light Rail-
ways, by C. E. Webber of the Royal
Engineers, and Emile Garcke. No
book on the subject has ever before
contained so great a collection of expert
knowledge as this article presents.
In regard to construction, engineers
will find most valuable for reference and
study the elaborate treatises Strength
of Materials (Vol.
Structural 25, p. 1007), with 42
Engineering diagrams and illus-
trations, by Prof.
J. A. Ewing, and Elasticity (Vol.
9, p. 141), with 82 diagrams, by
Prof. A. E. H. Love. Notable arti-
cles in this connection are Iron and
Steel (Vol. 14, p. 801), illustrated, by
Dr. H. M. Howe, professor of metal-
lurgy, Columbia University; and Steel
Construction (Vol. 25, p. 861), illus-
trated. It is interesting to note that
early in the 19th century a tall shot-
tower was built in New York city by
erecting a braced cage of iron and filling
in the panels with masonry. Stone
(Vol. 25, p. 958); Masonry (Vol. 17, p.
841), with 18 illustrations; Brickwork
(Vol. 4, p. 521), with 15 illustrations —
these four articles by James Bartlett,
lecturer on construction at King's Col-
lege, London; Cement (Vol. 5, p. 653),
illustrated, by Bertram Blount, hon.
president, Cement Section of Interna-
tional Association for Testing Materials,
Budapest; Concrete (Vol. 6, p. 835),
with 16 illustrations, by F. E. Went-
worth-Shields, dock engineer of the
London and South- Western Railway;
Mortar (Vol. 18, p. 875); Foundations
(Vol. 10, p. 733), with 13 illustrations;
Timber (Vol. 26, p. 978); Roofs (Vol.
23, p. 697), with 23 illustrations; Scaf-
fold (Vol. 24, p. 279) illustrated; Shor-
ing (Vol. 24, p. 1004), illustrated— the
last six by James Bartlett.
The Engineering Section of the new
Britannica provides an equal wealth
of authentic material for members of
other branches of the
For the profession. It is im-
Mechanical possible to indi-
Engineer cate the exact lines
of demarcation be-
tween these branches, and many articles
are of use to all engineers alike; but in
the special field of mechanical engineer-
ing there are Thermodynamics (Vol. 26,
p. 808) by Dr. H. L. Callendar, professor
of physics, Royal College of Science,
London; Steam Engine (Vol. 25, p. 818)
by Prof. Ewing, more than 30 pages long,
with 68 illustrations. This article, with
its up-to-date section on turbines, is one
of the many in the engineering depart-
ment of the Britannica which have been
said by technical critics to merit sep-
arate publication as text-books. But
such articles are all the more useful be-
cause they form part of one great library
of universal knowledge. Other mechan-
ical articles are Air Engine (Vol. 1,
p. 443), illustrated, also by Professor
Ewing; Gas Engine (Vol. 11, p. 495),
illustrated, by Dugald Clerk, inventor of
the Clerk Cycle Gas Engine; Oil En-
gine (Vol. 20, p. 35), illustrated, also by
Dugald Clerk; Boiler (Vol. 4, p. 141),
with 20 illustrations, by James T. Mil-
ton, chief engineer surveyor to Lloyd's
Registry of Shipping, and Joseph G.
Horner, author of Plating and Boiler
Making; Injector (Vol. 14, p. 570);
Water Motors (Vol. 28, p. 382), illus-
trated, by T. H. Beare, Regius professor
of engineering in the University of Edin-
burgh; Windmill (Vol. 28, p. 710), illus-
trated, by Professor Unwin; Fuel (Vol.
11, p. 274), illustrated, Solid Fuels by
Hilary Bauermann, of the Ordnance Col-
lege, Woolwich; Liquid Fuel, by Sir
James Fortescue-Flannery, formerly pres-
ident of the Institute of Marine Engin-
eers; Gaseous Fuel, by Dr. Georg Lunge,
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104
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
professor of technical- chemistry at the
Zurich Polytechnic; Gas, Gas for Fuel
and Power (Gas producers) (Vol. 11, p.
490), illustrated, also by Professor Lunge.
Power Transmission (Vol. 22, p. 224),
illustrated, Mechanical, by Professor
Dalby ; Hydraulic, by Edward B. Elling-
ton, chief engineer of the General Hy-
draulic Power Co., Ltd.; Pneumatic, by
A. de W. Foote, superintendent of the
North Star Mining Co., California; Pul-
let (Vol.22, p. 641), illustrated, by Dr.
Ernest G. Coker, professor of mechan-
ical Engineering in the City and Guilds
of London Technical College; Pump
(Vol. 22, p. 645), illustrated; Brake
(Vol. 4, p. 413), illustrated; Tool (Vol.
27, p. 14), with 79 illustrations, by Joseph
G. Horner; Cranes (Vol. 7, p. 368), with
21 illustrations, by Walter Pitt; Eleva-
tors (Vol. 9, p. 263), illustrated, by G. F.
Zimmer, author of Mechanical Handling
of Material; Lubricants (Vol. 17, p. 89)
by R. M. Deeley, joint author of Lubri-
cation and Lubricants; Pneumatic De-
spatch (Vol. 21, p. 865) by H. R. Kempe,
electrician to the General Post Office,
London; Gyroscope and Gyrostat
(Vol. 12, p. 769), illustrated, by Sir Al-
fred Greenhill; Motor Vehicles (Vol.
18, p. 914), with 37 illustrations — Light,
by the Hon. C. S. Rolls, late managing
director of the Rolls Royce Co., Ltd.;
Heavy Commercial Vehicles, by Edward
S. Smith, editor of The Commercial Mo-
tor; Railways, Locomotive Power (Vol.
22, p. 842) by Professor W. E. Dalby.
The key article describing the general
principles of electrical engineering is
Electricity Supply (Vol. 9, p. 192),
illustrated, by
For the Emile Garcke, but
Electrical at the immediate
Engineer service of the elec-
trical engineer
there also stand Dynamo (Vol. 8, p.
764), with 42 illustrations, by C. C.
Hawkins, author of The Dynamo; Power
Transmission, Electrical (Vol. 22, p.
233) by Dr. Louis Bell, chief engineer,
Electric Power Transmission Dept., Gen-
eral Electric Co.; Conduction, Elec-
tric (Vol. 6, p. 855), Conduction in Solids
by Professor Fleming; in Liquids, by
W. C. D. Whetham; in Gases, by Sir J.
J. Thomson, a Nobel prize-winner and
professor of experimental physics at
Cambridge; Electrolysis (Vol. 9, p.
217) by W. C. D. Whetham; Electro-
kinetics (Vol. 9, p. 210), illustrated;
Electrostatics (Vol. 9, p. 240); Elec-
tromagnetism (Vol. 9, p. 226), illus-
trated; Units, Physical, Electrical Units
(Vol*. 27, p. 740); Galvanometer (Vol.
li, p. 428), illustrated; Electrometer
(Vol. 9, p. 234), illustrated; Ampere-
meter (Vol. 1, p. 879), illustrated; Volt-
meter (Vol. 28, p. 206), illustrated; Ohm-
meter (Vol. 20, p. 34), illustrated; Watt-
meter (Vol. 28, p. 4 19)— all of these by
Professor Fleming; Potentiometer (Vol.
22, p. 205); Accumulator (Vol. 1, p.
126), with 24 illustrations and diagrams,
by Walter Hibbert, of the London Poly-
technic; Transformers (Vol. 27, p. 173),
with 15 illustrations and diagrams, and
Wheatstone's Bridge (Vol. 28, p. 584),
illustrated, by Professor Fleming;
Motors, Electric (Vol. 18, p. 910), by
Dr. Louis Bell; Meter, Electric (Vol.
18, p. 291), by Professor Fleming; Light-
ing, Electric (Vol. 16, p. 659), with 16
illustrations, by Professor Fleming, and
a chapter on its commercial aspects,
methods of charging, wiring of houses,
testing meters, etc., by Emile Garcke;
Telegraph (Vol. 26, p. 510), fully illus-
trated, Land and Submarine Telegraphy,
by H. R. Kempe; Wireless Telegraphy,
by Professor Fleming, and Commercial
Aspects, by Emile Garcke; 'Telephone
(Vol. 26, p. 547), illustrated, by H. R.
Kempe and Emile Garcke; Traction,
Electric (Vol. 27, p. 120), illustrated, by
Professor Duncan. An admirable histor-
ical sketch of electricity will be found in
Electricity (Vol. 9, p. 179), by Profes-
sor Fleming, which contains also an ac-
count of the development of electric
theory.
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FOR ENGINEERS
105
It is typical of the policy pursued in
making the new Britannica that the Edi-
tor placed the mining section in the
hands of American
American experts, since they
Practice in are universally re-
Mining garded as the best in
the world. This en-
tire section is a worthy monument to
American learning and practice.
The key-article Mining (Vol. 18, p.
528), fully illustrated, is by Dr. Henry
Smith Munroe, professor of mining in
Columbia University. This covers
every branch of the subject, but further
discussion of its special phases is con-
tinued in Mineral Deposits (Vol. 18,
p. 504) by Dr. James F. Kemp, professor
of geology, Columbia University; Quar-
rying (Vol. 22, p. 712) by Dr. F. J. H.
Merrill, formerly state geologist of New
York; Ore-Dressing (Vol. 20, p. 238),
illustrated, by Dr. R. H. Richards, pro-
fessor of mining and metallurgy, Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology; Shaft-
Sinking (Vol. 24, p. 766), illustrated;
Boring (Vol. 4, p. 251), illustrated;
Blasting (Vol. 4, p. 44), illustrated —
the last three by Robert Peele, professor
of mining in Columbia University.
Metallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203) de-
scribes in outline the general sequence
of operations. Assaying (Vol. 18, p.
776) is by Andrew
The A. Blair, formerly
Metallurgical chief chemist U. S.
Section Geological Survey.
See also Metal
(Vol. 18, p. 198). Metalography (Vol.
18, p. 202), illustrated, is an account of
the new and important method of micro-
scopical examination of alloys and metals
by Sir William Chandler Roberts-Aus-
ten, and Francis H. Neville. Alloys
(Vol. 1, p. 704), with unique photo-
micrographs of alloys and metals, is also
by the authors of the article Metall-
ography. Annealing, Hardening and
Tempering (Vol. 2, p. 70), illustrated, is
by Joseph G. Horner, who also writes
Forging (Vol. 10, p. 663), which has 19
illustrations, Founding (Vol. 10, p. 743),
with 11 illustrations, and Rolling-Mill
(Vol. 23, p. 468), with 8 illustrations. The
material on Fuel has already been men-
tioned. Furnace (Vol. 11, p. 358) de-
scribes and illustrates all the latest de-
signs. Welding (Vol. 28, p. 501) is by
J. G. Horner and Elihu Thomson, who
writes on his own invention, Electric
Welding.
The mining engineer or metallurgist
will have in the new Britannica con-
stantly at his elbow a complete series of
articles dealing with the mining and
metallurgy of all minerals and metals. .
Professor Howe's exhaustive article Iron
and Steel has already been noted in
another part of this chapter. A few of
the other important articles are Copper
(Vol. 7, p. 103); Gold (Vol. 12, p. 192);
Silver (Vol. 25, p. 112); Lead (Vol. 16,
p. 314); Tin (Vol. 26, p. 995); Zinc
(Vol. 28, p. 981); Manganese (Vol. 17,
p. 569); Aluminum (Vol. 1, p. 767) by
£. J. Ristori, member of Council, Insti-
tute of Metals. Safety-Lamp j (Vol. 23,
p. 998) is written by Hilary Bauermann.
The latest mining statistics of all coun-
tries are to be found under their re-
spective headings.
Military men are familiar with the
lives and deeds of great soldiers; lovers of
art and literature know something of the
careers of their fa-
Biographies of vorites; but as a rule
Engineers the engineer knows
little or nothing
about the lives of the great ornaments of
his profession, the splendid heroes of
peace who have done much more than
the soldier and the artist to create the
world of to-day. The reason for this is
that engineering biographies are very
scarce, and in this connection the new
Britannica fills a positive gap in the engin-
eer's library. There are considerably
more than 100 biographies of great en-
gineers, living and dead, written in the
most interesting fashion by authorita-
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106
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tive contributors. Among these articles
are Watt, James (Vol. 28, p. 414) by Pro-
fessor Ewing; Arkwright, Sir Richard
(Vol. % p. 556); Stephenson, George
(Vol. 25, p. 888); Bessemer, Sir Henry
(Vol. 8, p. 823); Whitworth, Sir Jos-
eph (Vol. 28, p. 616); Rennie, John
(Vol. 23, p. 101); Lesseps, Ferdinand
de (Vol. 16, p. 494) by Henri G. S. A. de
Blowitz; Eads, James B. (Vol. 8, p?789) ;
Edison, Thomas A. (Vol. 8, p. 946);
Ericsson, John (Vol. 9, p. 740); Maxim,
Sir Hiram (Vol. 17, p. 918); Roebling,
John A. (Vol. 23, p. 450); Siemens, Sir
William (Vol. 25, p. 47) by Professor
Ewing; Telford, Thomas (Vol. 26, p.
573) ; McAdam, John L. (Vol. 17, p. 190),
and Trevithick, Richard (Vol. 27, p.
256).
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO ENGINEERS
Aberration
Abrasion
Abscissa
Absorption of light
Acceleration
Accumulator
Achromatism
Acoustics
Actinometer
Adhesion
Adjutage
Adze
Aeronautics
Aether, or Ether
Aggregation
Adonic lines
Air Engine
Algebra
Algebraic Forms
Aliquot
Alloys
Aluminium
Amicable Numbers
Amperemeter, or Ammeter
Anchor
Angle
Annealing, Hardening and
Tempering
Anthracite
Anvil
Aperture
Aqueduct
Archimedes, Screw of
Architecture
Arkwright, Sir Richard
Armature
Armour Plates
Armstrong, 1st Baron
Artesian Wells
Assaying
Atmospheric Electricity
Atmospheric Railway
Auger
Autoclave
Awl
Axe
Axis
Axle
Baird, James
Baker, Sir Benjamin
Ballast
Ballistics
Balloon
Banket
Barker's Mill
Barometer
Barometric Light
Battery
Bazalgette, Sir Joseph
William
Bearings
Bell, Henry
Bellows and Blowing Ma-
chines
Bench-mark
Berlin
Berthon, Edward Lyon
Berthoud, Ferdinand
Bessel Function
Bessemer, Sir Henry
Bicycle
Bidder, George Parker
Biddery
Binocular Instrument
Binomial
Biquadratic
Bisectrix
Blasting
Bloom
Bogie
Boiler
Boring
Boulton, Matthew
Brachistochrone
Bradawl
Brake
Bramah, Joseph
Brass
Brassey, Thomas
Brazing and Soldering
Breakwater
Brick
Brickwork
Bridges
Bridgewater, 3rd Duke of
Bright, Sir Charles
Brindley, James
Bronze
Bronzing
Brown, Sir John
Brunei, I. K.
Brunei, Sir Marc
Buoy
Building
Burns, Sir George
Bush
Cab
Cable
Caisson
Caisson Disease
Calculating Machines
Caledonian Canal
Calorescence
Calorimetry
Camera Lucida
Camera Obscura
Camus, F. J. des
Canal
Cantilever
Capillary Action
Car
Cardioid
Carnegie, Andrew
Carpentry,
Cart
Cartwright, Edmund
Cash Register
Catenary
Causeway
Caustic
Cautley, Sir Proby
Thomas
Cement
Chain
Chappe, Claude
Chart
Chisel
Chronograph
Chubb, Charles
Cinematograph
Circle
Cissoid
Clark, Josiah Latimer
Clock
Coal
Cockerill, W. (and J.)
Cofferdam
Cold
Colour
Combinational Analysis
Conchoid
Concrete
Condensation of Gases
Conduction, Electric
Conduction of Heat
Cone
Congreve, Sir William
Conic Section
Conoid
Continued Fractions
Contour, Contour-line
Conveyors
Coode, Sir John
Copper
Copying Machines
Cordite
Corning, Erastus
Coxwell, Henry Tracey
Cramp, Charles Henry
Cranes
Crank
Crompton, Samuel
Cube
Cubitt, Thomas
Cubitt, Sir William
Cunard, Sir Samuel
Curricle
Curve
Cycloid
Cyclometer
Cylinder
Damascening or Damas-
keening
Damask Steel or Damas-
cus Steel
Density
Destructors
Determinant
Diagonal
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Diagram
Fire and Fire Extinction Heating
Lindley, William
Diamagnetism
Firebrick
Heliostat
Line
Diameter
Firth, Mark
Hodgkinson, Eaton
Liquid Gases
Dielectric
Fitch, John
Hodograph
Lock
Differences, Calculus of
Flight and Flying
Holden, Sir Isaac
Locus
Differential Equation
Diffraction of Light
Flume
Horse-Power
Logarithm
Flux
Hose-pipe
Hydraulics
Logocyclic Curve, Stro-
Diffusion
Focus
phoid, or Foliate
Dimension
Folium
Hydrodynamics
Longitude
Dispersion
Forging
Hydrography
Loxodrome
Divers and Diving Appa- Fortification and Siege- Hydromechanics
Lubricants
ratus
craft
Hydrometer
Lubrication
Dock
Fossick
Hydrostatics
Dodecahedron
Foundations
Hyperbola
Magic Square
Drawing
Founding
Hypsometer
Magnetism
Dredge and Dredging
Fourier's Series
Hysteresis
Magnetism, Terrestrial
Drill
Fowler, John
Magnetograph
Drummond, Thomas
Fowler, Sir John
Icosahedron
Magnetometer
Dry Rot
Friction
Illumination
Magneto-Optics
Dupuy de Lome, S.C.H.L. Frustum
Inclinometer
Manchester Ship Canal
Dynamics
Fuel
Induction Coil
Manganese
Dynamite
Fulton, Robert
Infinitesimal Calculus
Manometer
Dynamo
Function
Ingot
Map
Dynamometer
Furnace
. Injector
Masham, Baron
Fusible Metal
Interference of light
Masonry
Eads, James Buchanan
Fusion
Interpolation
Mathematics
Earth Currents
Fuze, or Fuse
Invar
Matter
Earth, Figure of the
Edison, Thomas Alva
Inversion
Maxima and Minima
Galvanized Iron
Involution
Maxim, Sir Hiram
Elasticity
Galvanometer
Iron and Steel
McAdam, John Loudon
Electrical, or Electrostatic Gas Engine
Irrigation
McCormick, Cyrus Hall
Machine
Gatling, Richard Jordan Ismay, Thomas Henry
Mechanics
Electricity
Gauge, or Gage
Geodesy
Mensuration
Electricity Supply
Electric Waves
Jacquard, Joseph Marie
Meridian
Geoid
Jenkin, H. C. F.
Metal
Electrochemistry
Geometrical Continuity
Jetty
Metallography
Electrokinetics
Electrolysis
Geometry
Gimlet
Joinery
Joints
Metallurgy
Meter, Electric
Electromagnetism
Girard, Philippe Henri de Joist
Metric System
Electrometallurgy
Glazing
•
Microscope
Electrometer
Gnomon
Kaleidoscope
Mill
Electron
Gold
Kiln
Mineral Deposits
Electroplating
Gooch, Sir Daniel
Kinematics
Mining
Electroscope
Goodyear, Charles
Kinetics
Mirror
Electrostatics
Gouge
Graduation
Kingsford, W.
Model
Electrotyping
Knife
Molecule
Electrum
Gramophone
Knot
Mortar
Elevators, Lifts or Hoists Graphical Methods
Krupp, Alfred
Mortise, or Mortice
Ellipse
Gravitation
Motion, Laws of
Ellipsoid
Greathead, James Henry
Labour Legislation
Motors, Electric
Embankment
Grimthorpe, 1st Baron
Ladder
Motor Vehicles
Employers' Liability
Groups, Theory of
Lamp
Murdock, William
Energetics
Guncotton
Lantern
Myddelton, Sir Hugh
Energy
Gyroscope and Gyrostat Lath
Engine
Gunpowder
Lathe
Nasmyth, James
Engineering
Latitude
Navigation
Epicycloid
Hachure
Latten
Newcomen, Thomas
Equation
Hammer
Lead
Nitroglycerine
Ericsson, John
Harbour
Lemniscate
Nixon, John
Evans, Oliver
Harmonic
Lens
Noble, Sir Andrew
Explosives
Harmonic Analysis
Lessens, Ferdinand de
Number
Harrison, John
Lever
Numbers, Partition of
Fairbairn, Sir William
Hartley, Sir Charles Au
■ Leyden Jar, or Condenser Numeral
Felloe
gustus
Life-boat
Ferguson, James
Hawkshaw, Sir John
Light
Objective, or Object Glass
Figurate Number*
Hawksley, Thomas
Lighthouse
Octahedron
File
Hawser
Lighting
Ohmmeter
Filter
Heat
Lightning Conductoi
Oil Engine
Finlay, Sir George
Henthcoat. John
Lima^on
Optics
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Ordinate
Ore Dressing
Oscillograph
Oval
Painter-work
Palanquin
Palmer, Sir Charles Mark
Panama Canal
Pantograph
Parabola
Parachute
Parallel Motion
Pedometer
Perkins, Jacob
Permeability, Magnetic
Permeameter
Perpetual Motion, or Per-
petuum Mobile
Perspective
Phonograph
Photography
Photometry
Physics
Pier
Piston
Plaster-work
Pneumatic Despatch
Pneumatics
Polarity
Polarization of Light
Pole, William
Polygon
Polygonal Numbers
Polyhedral Numbers
Polyhedron
Porism
Potentiometer
Power Transmission
Prism
Probability
Projection
Prony, G. C. F. M. R. de
Pulley
Pump
Pyrometer
Quadra trix
Quarrying
Quaternions
Radiation, Theory of
Radiometer
Rafter
Railways
Random
Rankine, W. J, M.
Rawlinson, Sir Robert
Reclamation of Land
Reflection of Light
Refraction
Refrigerating and Ice
Making
Reid, Sir Robert G.
Rennie, John
River Engineering
Rivet
Roads and Streets
Roebling, J. A.
Rolling-mill
Roofs
Roulette
Safes, Strong-rooms and
Vaults
Safety-lamp
Saw
Scaffold, Scaffolding
Scantling
Schichau, Ferdinand
Science
Scissors
Screw
Semaphore
Seppings, Sir Robert
Series
Serpentine
Sewerage
Sewing Machines
Sextant
Shadoof
Shadow
Shaft-sinking
Shears
Ship
Shipbuilding
Shoring
Shovel
Shuttle
Siemens, Sir William
(Karl Wilhelm)
Sieve
Signal
Silver
Siphon, or Syphon
Sleeper
Sleigh, Sled, or Sledge
Smeaton, John
Smoke
Solder
Sound
Sounding
Spade
Spectroscopy
Speculum
Sphere
Spherical Harmonics
Spheroid
Sphereometer
Spiral
Starley, James
Statics
Steel Construction
Steam Engine
Stephenson, George
Stephenson, Robert
Stereoscope
Stevenson, Robert
Stone
Strength of Materials
Strutt, Jedediah
Stucco
Suez Canal
Sun Copying, or Photo
Copying
Surface
Surveying
Table, Mathematical
Tacheometry
Tangye, Sir Richard
Technical Education
Telegraph
Telephone
Telford, Thomas
Tetrahedron
Theodolite
Therm odynamics
Thermoelectricity
Thermometry
Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist
Tide
Timber
Time, Measurement of
Time, Standard
Tin
Tin-plate and Terne-plate
Tire
Tongs
Tool
Topography
Traction
Tramway
Transformers
Tredgold, Thomas
Trevithick, Richard
Triangle
Tricycle
Trigonometry
Trisectrix
Trumpet, Speaking and
Hearing
Tube
Tunnel
Turbine
Tweezers
Typewriter
Units, Dimensions of
Units, Physical
Vacuum Tube
Valve
Vaporization
Variations, of Calculus
Vector Analysis
Ventilation
Vernier
Vision
Voltmeter
Wagon or Waggon
Water Motors
Water Supply
Watt, James
Wattmeter
Wave
Wedge
Weighing Machines
Weights and Measures
Weir
Welding
Well
Wheatstone's Bridge
White, Sir William H.
Whitney, Eli
WTutworth, Sir Joseph
Wilkinson, John
Windmill
Witch of Agnesi
Zero
Zinc
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CHAPTER XXI
FOR PRINTERS, BINDERS AND PAPER-MAKERS AND
.ALL WHO LOVE BOOKS
"Al
N author, even 'an immortal
genius, is, from the economic
»point of view, a producer of
raw material," says. the Britannica article
Publishing, and from the educational
point of view, his product, until it has
undergone the industrial and commercial
processes of reduplication and distribu-
tion, is as undeveloped as the seed lying
hidden in the winter soil. The history
of civilization might, indeed, be divided
into four stages : the period before writing ;
the period before printing, when libraries
of manuscripts were almost exclusively
the property of kings and priests; the
period of costly, hand-printed books;
and the period of the power-press, which
began less than a hundred years ago.
Of these four periods, the first is almost
unimaginable. You are sometimes
brought into contact with absolutely
illiterate people. But they live in shadow,
not in total darkness; they get the dif-
fused light of our age of culture. The
second period, the
From Manu- era of books in man-
script to Book uscript, we can, how-
ever, to some extent
reconstruct; and by one fantastic sup-
position we can even bring it into the
focus of our 20th century. Let it be
assumed that for some reason the print-
ing of the new Britannica had been en-
joined by the law courts, but that the
original typoscript was available for
consultation — say in a public library at
New York or Chicago. Instead of your
29 volumes, weighing only 80 lbs. and
occupying only about two cubic feet of
space, the walls of a large room would be
lined with partitioned shelves on which
the 300,000 typed sheets and the 7,000
illustrations, on cardboard, would be
ranged. What a mob of students there
would be, waiting their turns to read the
40,000 articles, what a mass of note-
books would be filled each day! The
impossibility of accomplishing, without
the use of printing, all that the Britannica
does, will present itself very forcibly to
your mind, in another aspect, if you try
to imagine 1,500 separate audiences,
assembled each day to listen to lectures
by the 1,500 contributors to the book.
Any attempt to imagine the Britannica
doing its work in any way but the way
in which it does makes you realize, too,
that if it were not for modern methods
of spreading knowl-
Supply and edge, there would
Demand be no such system
Interacting of assembling and
co-ordinating knowl-
edge as finds its fullest development in
the Britannica. It is not only for
commercial reasons that the demand
must be sufficient to justify the sup-
ply; the 1,500 specialists who laid
aside their usual work in order to
write these articles would never have
combined their efforts if this vast public
of all educated English speaking people
109
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110
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
were not to have been enabled to avail
themselves of the result.
The industrial arts which make it
possible to produce books swiftly and to
sell them at low prices are obviously
subjects of interest not only to those
who do the producing and selling, but
to all who profit by the use of books.
And, as the articles mentioned in this
chapter show, these arts are in them-
selves among the most ingenious and
curious of all processes; so that in a
double sense they merit the attention
of everyone to whom the chapters on
Literature in this Guide would appeal.
As the warp of cloth carries the weft, so
the raw material of printers' paper and
printers' ink carries the "raw material"
of the writer's thoughts.
The article on Paper (Vol. 20, p. 725)
is equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide
and is illustrated with 15 diagrams.
The article is divided into three parts:
History, by Sir Edward Maunde Thomp-
son, director of the British Museum;
Manufacture, by J. W. Wyatt, author
of The Art of Making Paper; and India
Paper, by W. E. Garrett Fisher.
The history of paper, like that of so
many other great inventions, dates back
to an early period in China; and, as is
the case with almost
History of every great contri-
Paper bution to civiliza-
tion which came
from China, paper came to the Western
world only after many years and only
by chance. In the 8th century of the
Christian era, when paper had been made
in China for 1000 years, some Chinese
paper-makers were taken captives in
Samarkand by Arabs, who thus learned
the methods of its manufacture. The
Arabs and the Persians used linen as a
base for the paper instead of the cotton
the Chinese used; and the name "paper"
was transferred from the Egyptian rush
and the writing material made from its
fibres to the new product. Paper was
manufactured in Europe first by the
Moors in Spain at Xativa, Valencia and
Toledo in the 12th century; and into
Italy also it seems to have been brought
by the Arab occupation of Sicily.
Among other interesting points in regard
to the history of paper are: water-marks
as a sign of age; old papers; variation in
prices of paper; blotting-paper, wrap-
ping paper, etc. The articles Papyrus
(Vol. 20, p. 743) and Parchment (Vol.
20, p. 798), both by Maunde Thompson,
deal with these earlier writing materials.
Palimpsest (Vol. 20, p. 633) describes
the processes by which writings which
have been scraped or washed from sheets
of vellum, so that the material might be
used again, can sometimes be chemically
restored and deciphered.
In taking up the study of paper manu-
facture, the first article to be read is
Fibres by C. F. Cross, the well-known
analytical and con-
Paper suiting chemist, and
Manufacture especially the section
in it on Paper-making
(Vol. 10, p. 312). This describes the
treatment of cotton and flax for writing
and drawing papers, wood pulp, esparto,
cellulose and cereal straws for printing-
paper, etc. See also the article Cellu-
lose (Vol. 5, p. 606) by C. F. Cross.
The section on Manufacture in the article
Paper, already mentioned, should next
be read. Here it is stated that rags,
linen or cotton, were the principal mate-
rials used for paper in Europe until
the middle of the 19th century; and then
when prices rose, because the necessarily
inelastic supply was no longer sufficient,
esparto-grass, wood and straw began
to be used as substitutes. The change
from hand-making to machinery began
in France in 1798 and was accomplished
in England in 1803, with the result that
hand-made paper is now used only where
great durability is the chief requisite,
as for bank-notes and drawing paper.
Actual paper manufacture may be
divided into two processes: the prelimin-
ary cleaning and reduction to pulp; and
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FOR PRINTERS, BINDERS, PAPER-MAKERS AND BOOK-LOVERS
111
the methods of converting pulp to paper
— including beating, sizing, colouring,
making the sheet or web, surfacing,
cutting, etc. Iteduction to pulp is de-
scribed in the treatment of esparto,
straw and wood, and there are cuts
showing rag-boiler, rag-breaking engine,
esparto boiler, press-p&te or half-stuff
machine, esparto bleaching and beating
plant, and the Porion evaporator and
the Yaryan multiple-effect evaporator
for soda recovery.
Paper-making proper, after the pulp #
has been prepared, is next described.
The first process is beating; and besides
the esparto bleaching and beating plant,
described under bleaching, there are
drawings of the Taylor and Jordan
beaters and a description of them and of
the Kingsland beater. Sizing, loading
and colouring are then explained. The
other main topics of the section on man-
ufacture are: hand manufacture (with
two illustrations), paper machine, with
pictures of the paper machine, of the
dandy roll, of super-calender and of
reel paper cutters, and paragraphs on
straining, forming the sheet, shake,
water marking and couching, pressing
and drying, surfacing, machine power,
tub-sizing, glazing or surfacing for better
grades, cutting, sheeting, sizes (with
table), standards of quality, the paper
trade, and a list of the best books on
paper.
The article Paper closes with a brief
history and description of India paper,
which is of particular interest because
of the adoption and
India Paper successful use of this
paper in the new
Encyclopaedia Britannica. In this true
India paper, "the material used is
chiefly rag," but "the extraordinary
properties of this paper are due to the
peculiar care necessary in the treatment
of the fibres, which are specially beaten
in the beating engine." The first India
paper was brought to England from
the Far East in 1841 by an Oxford gradu-
ate, and the name India was used merely
to express this Oriental origin, as in
"Indian ink" or in the name "Indians"
as applied to the American aborigines
when their home was thought to be a
part of the East. Just where the paper
came from is not known. It was given
to the Oxford University Press and was
used in printing a very small English
Bible in 1842. This book was only one-
third the usual thickness, and attracted
much attention by its lightness and by
the opacity of the thin tough paper.
In 1874 a copy of this Bible fell into the
hands of Henry Frowde, and experiments were
instituted at the Oxford University paper
mills at Wolvercote with the object of produc-
ing similar paper. On the 24th of August
1875 an impression of the Bible, similar in all
respects to that of 1842, was placed on sale
by the Oxford University Press. The feat of
compression was regarded as astounding, the
demand was enormous, and in a very short
time 350,000 copies of this "Oxford India
naper Bible" had been sold. Many other edi-
tions of the Bible, besides other books, were
printed on the Oxford India paper, and the
marvels of compression accomplished by its
use created great interest at the Paris Exhi-
bition of 1900. Its strength was as remark-
able as its lightness; volumes of 1500 pages
were suspended for several months by a single
leaf, as thin as tissue; and, when they were
examined at the close of the exhibition, it was
found that the leaf had not started, the paper
had not stretched, and the volume closed as
well as ever. The paper, when subjected to
severe rubbing, instead of breaking into holes
like ordinary printing paper, assumed a tex-
ture resembling chamois leather, and a strip
8 in. wide was found able to support a weight
of 28 lb. without yielding. The success of
the Oxford India paper led to similar experi-
ments by other manufacturers, and there were,
in 1910, nine mills (two each in England, Ger-
many and Italy, one each in France, Holland
and Belgium) in which India paper was being
produced. India paper is mostly made upon
a Fourdrinier machine in continuous lengths,
in contradistinction to a hand-made paper,
which cannot be made of a greater size than
the frame employed in Us production.
In addition to technical information
in regard to paper the student of the
manufacture of books must know some*
thing about ink.
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112
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The necessary information he will find
in the article Ink (Vol. 14, p. 571) with
special descriptions of writing inks,
tannin inks, China or Indian
Ink ink, logwood ink, aniline ink,
copying ink, red and blue ink,
marking ink, gold and silver inks, in-
delible or incorrodible ink, sympathetic
ink, and, of the most importance for our
present purpose, printing inks.
The process of putting ink on paper
is a subject which in the Britannica
takes much more ink and paper than the
subject of ink or of paper.
This topic is treated in two main
articles: one dealing with type and the
other with presses. The former, Typog-
raphy (Vol. 27, p.
Printing 509), is a good sized
treatise in itself, be-
ing "equivalent to more than 135 pages
of this Guide. It is divided into two
parts: The History of Typography, by
John Henry Hessels, author of Gutenberg:
an Historical Investigation; and Modern
Practical Typography, by John South-
ward, author of A Dictionary of Typog-
raphy and its Accessory Arts, and Hugh
Munro Ross, editor of The (London)
Times Engineering Supplement.
The former part of the article, and the
longer, is a very important and elaborate
contribution to the knowledge of early
printing. On these first developments
the student should read the same writer's
article Gutenberg (Vol. 12, p. 739) and
should notice the great difficulty sur-
rounding the whole question of the
"invention," obscured by the fact that
so many of the documents on Gutenberg
exist only in copies, while others seem
to be forgeries by two librarians of the
city of Mainz who were eager to prove
the claims of their fellow citizen Guten-
berg to be the inventor of printing with
movable metal types. See also Mr.
Hessel's article on Johann Fust (Vol. 11,
p. 373). The honour of the invention of
typography, Mr. Hessels decides, be-
longs to Lorens Janszoon Coster of
Haarlem and its date was somewhere
between 1440 and 1446. In Mexico
printing was established in 1544, in Ma-
nila in 1590, and in Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, in 1638 or 1639. The early
printers had only a few types of each
character in a fount, and they printed
books, even small quartos, page by page.
This whole treatment of the history
of typography is too elaborate to be
summarized here, but it is interesting
to note that the article gives information
about the history of the earliest types —
Gothic, Bastard Italian, Roman, Bur-
gundian, etc., with fac-similes of 13
different and characteristic faces between
1445 and 1479; and of different styles
and alphabets — Italic, Greek, Hebrew,
Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, Ethiopic, Cop-
tic, Samaritan, Slavonic, Russian, Etrus-
can, Runic, Gothic, Scandinavian, Anglo-
Saxon, Irish, Music, Characters for the
Blind, Initials, Ornaments and Flowers.
The second part of the article Typog-
raphy, on Modern Practical Typography,
will be of more value,
Practical probably, to most
Typography students of printing
and book-making.
It deals with the following topics: —
Material characteristics of Type. Fount
may consist of 275 " sorts " or charac-
ters. Numbers of sorts vary with differ-
ent languages — and with different styles
and writers; Dickens draws heavily on
vowels, Maeaulay on consonants. Bill of
type or scheme — how computed.
Logotypes or word character as distinct
from letters.
Parts of a type — face, stem, serif,
beard, shoulder, shank, belly, back, coun-
ter, nick, kern, feet, burr and batter.
Species of letter — short, ascending, de-
scending, long, superior, inferior, fat-
faced, lean- faced, bastard.
Sizes: classification by names and by
point-system.
Varieties of face: Roman, sanserifs or
grotesques; black; script; old style; Cas-
lon ; influence of William Morris and the
Kelmscott Press; Vale Press.
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FOR PRINTERS, BINDERS, PAPER-MAKERS AND BOOK-LOVERS
113
Manufacture of type: type metal;
punch, drive and matrix (with illustra-
tions) ; type-casting — by hand and ma-
chine; inventions of Bruce, Barth, Wicks,
with description and picture of the Wicks
rotary type-casting machine.
Type-setting by hand. Type case, with
illustration. Composition, justifying. Im-
position. Signatures. Forme, quoin, side-
stick, foot-stick, shooting-stick. Distrib-
uting.
Type-setting by machine. Linotype
and Monotype. Earlier machines — the
Paige (in which Mark Twain lost a for-
tune). Distributing machines — Delcara-
bre, Fraser, Empire, Dow, Thorne, Sim-
plex (with cut). Linotype — with dia-
grams and description. Monotype (the
machine used for the Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica) with illustrations of perforated
strip.
Electrotyping and Stereotyping. Shells.
Turtle. Flong. Wood's Autoplate proc-
ess. See also the articles Electrotyping
(Vol. 9, p. 252) and Electroplating
(Vol. 9, p. 287).
The reader should next turn to the
articles Engraving (Vol. 9, p. 645),
Line-Engraving (Vol. 16, p. 721),
Wood-Engraving (Vol. 28, p. 798)—
special reference to America where this
method is still used for some book and
magazine illustration — to Lithography
(Vol. 16, p. 785) including offset printing;
and Process (Vol. 22, p. 408), for fur-
ther information in regard to "printing"
apart from (and before) actual press
work. The last-named of these articles
is by Edwin Bale, art director of Cassell
& Company, Ltd.; it would occupy about
20 pages of this Guide; and it is illustrated
by a plate showing the three-colour
process. The article describes:
(1) — relief processes, line blocks,
swelled gelatin process, typo-
graphic etching, half-tone proc-
esses, three colour blocks, colour
filters ;
(2) — intaglio processes, monotype,
electrotype, steel-facing, blanket-
ing, changes in machinery;
(3) — planographic processes, includ-
ing woodburytype, stannotype,
collotype or phototype, heliotype
and photolithography. In rela-
tion to lithography there is fur-
ther information in the biograph-
ical sketch of Senefelder, its
inventor.
The article Printing (Vol. 22, p. 350)
deals entirely with the subject of press-
work, thus using printing in the narrower
and more correct
Press-Work sense of the word.
In length this article
is equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide;
and it contains 9 illustrations of presses.
The article is by C. T. Jacobi, author of
Printing, and The Printer's Handbook of
Trade Recipes. The article gives a
history of the printing press, which was
practically unchanged for a century and
a half, until the Dutch map-maker
Blaeu greatly simplified it. The first
important metal press — earlier ones were
of wood — was invented by Lord Stanhope
nearly two hundred years later. It had
greater power with smaller expenditure
of labour, and its workings, as well as
that of the Blaeu press, and of the Albion,
which was used by William Morris at
Kelmscott, may be readily understood
from the illustrations in the article.
Another hand press is the Columbian,
invented in 1816 by a Philadelphian,
George Clymer, and still in use for heavy
hand work. Power presses began to be
made at the end of the 18th century,
but the presses invented by William
Nicholson (1790) and Friedrich Konig
(adopted by the London Times in 1814)
printed only on one side at a time, as
did the "double platen" machine of a little
later date. The cylindrical eight feeder
built by Augustus Applegath in 1848 for
the London Times and the Hoe Type Re-
volving Machine are described in the
section on the history of power presses,
which closes with the story of Bullock's
machine (1865) for printing from a con-
tinuous web of paper.
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114
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The closing section of the article on
printing is devoted to a de-
Modern scription of modern presses.
Presses It opens with a list of the
principal types of presses still
in use, which are classified under the fol-
lowing seven heads: —
(1) — iron hand-presses like the Alhion
or Columbian, for proof-pulling
or limited editions;
(2) — small platen machines for job or
commercial work;
(8) — single cylinder machines
(" Wharfedales ") printing one
side only;
(4) — perfecting machines, usually two
cylinder, printing both sides, but
with two distinct operations;
(5) — two-revolution machines with one
cylinder ;
(6) — two-colour machines, with one
cylinder usually, but two print-
ing surfaces and two sets of ink-
ing apparatus;
(7) — rotary machines for printing
from curved plates upon an end-
less web of paper — principally
for newspapers or periodical
work.
These seven classes are next described
in detail and the article illustrates them
all. A cut of an Albion press is given in
an early part of the article, and the
other six presses shown in the cuts are:
The Golding jobber platen machine
Payne & Sons' Wharfedale stop-cylin-
der machine
Dryden & Foord's perfecting machine
The Miehle two-revolution cylinder
machine
Payne & Sons' two-colour single cylin-
der machine
Hoe's double-octuple rotary machine
The article closes with a discussion
of the following very practical topics:
the preparation or "make ready" for
printing; recent development in printing
with cross references to the article
Process; and a paragraph on the man-
agement of a printing house.
From this closing paragraph and the
article on Printing, the student is re-
ferred to the article Proof-Reading
(Vol. 22, p. 4S8)
Proof-Reading which is by John A.
Black, head press
reader of the 10th edition of the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica, and John Randall,
sub-editor of the Athenaeum and of
Notes and Queries and former secretary
of the London Association of Correctors
of the Press, so that this article, like all
the other articles on the subject of book-
making, is written by eminent practical
authorities on the subject.
The same is true of the article Book-
Binding (Vol. 4, p. 216), which natu-
rally follows in a systematic course of
study. This is by
Book-Binding Cyril J. H. Daven-
port, assistant keep-
er of books in the British Museum and
author of History of the Book, etc. This
article is illustrated with 14 figures,
including 8 in halftone, showing typical
fine bindings. The other illustrations
show machines and processes used in
binding. Besides a historical sketch
of book-binding the article treats of the
following- topics:
Modern methods and modern binding
designers; machine binding, machine
sewing, rounding and backing, casing,
wiring, and blocking. A case-making
machine, a casing-in machine and a
blocking machine are shown in the illus-
trations.
A bookbinder or a student of the sub-
ject will find a great deal of very valuable
information elsewhere in the book, par-
ticularly in the article Leather (Vol. 16,
p. 330) by Dr. J. Gordon Parker, princi-
pal of the Leathersellers Technical Col-
lege, London, and author of Leather for
Libraries, etc. The article occupies the
equivalent of 55 pages of this Guide;
and the possessor of the Britannica will
be interested to know that the leather
bindings used for its volumes were all
made according to specifications drawn
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115
up by Dr. Parker, the greatest authority
in the world on tanning, curing and
dyeing leather for book-bindings.
The last stages in getting the author's
raw material "from him to the ultimate
consumer" are those in which the pub-
lisher and bookseller
Publishing and play their part; and
Book-Selling for a description of
their functions the
student should refer to the articles on
publishing and book-selling in the Bri-
tannica. The article Publishing (Vol.
22, p. 628) explains that publishing and
book-selling were for a long time car-
ried on together since "booksellers were
the first publishers of printed books, as
they had previously been the agents for
the production and exchange of authen-
tic manuscript copies." The separation
of publishing from book-selling is due to
"the tendency of every composite busi-
ness to break up, as it expands, into
specialized departments." As publishers
became a separate class the work of their
literary assistants also broke up into
specialized departments — proof-reading
and the reading of manuscripts sub-
mitted by authors — or the work of prin-
ters* readers and publishers 9 readers.
The importance of the work of the
publisher's reader is dwelt upon in this
article which sketches besides the growth
of the Society of Authors in England and
of the formation there of the Publishers'
Association and the Booksellers' Asso-
ciation. The article also outlines the
methods of publishing in the United States
and gives particular prominence to the
effect on the British market of the in-
troduction of American books and of
American book-selling methods.
Among other articles of interest to the
manufacturer of books are the following:
Book (Vol. 4, p. 214)
Historical and by Alfred William
Miscellaneous Pollard, assistant
Articles keeper of books in
the British Museum,
gives a general historical description of
books and in particular calls attention
to the great change in book-prices in the
last thirty years. "About 1894 the num-
ber of medium-priced books was greatly
increased in England by the substitution
of single-volume novels at 6s. each
(subject to discount) for the three-
volume editions at Sis. 6d. . . The pre-
posterous price of 10s. 6d. a volume had
been adopted during the first popularity
of the Waverley Novels and had contin-
ued in force for the greater part of the
century." To-day, well printed copies
of these novels sell for Is. in England
and for 35 cents in the United
States.
It may be added that one of the most
striking lessons to be learned from the
Britannica, in relation to the improve-
ments and economies effected by the
application of the most modern processes
to the manufacture of books, is supplied
by the consideration of the Britannica
itself. The extent of the composition
and machinery involved, the accuracy
of the proof-reading, the novel employ-
ment — upon a large scale — of India pa-
per and flexible bindings, the beauty of
the illustrations, and, above all, the low
price at which the product is sold, form
a combination of the very latest perfec-
tions of every department of the in-
dustry.
Read too Book-collecting (Vol. 4,
p. 221) also by A. W. Pollard; the article
Book Plates (Vol. 4, p. 230) by Egerton
Castle, illustrated with ten cuts of book
plates (which are so well chosen that
book plate collectors have not infre-
quently asked the publishers of the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica for extra copies so
that they might include them in their
collections); the article Bookcase (Vol. 4,
p. 221) from which the reader may be
surprised to learn that "the whole con-
struction and arrangement of bookcases
was learnedly discussed in the light of
experience by W. E. Gladstone in the
Nineteenth Century for March 1890;"
and the article Bibliography and Bibli-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
oloot (Vol. S, p. 908) by A. W. Pollard,
supplemented by the article Incunabula
(Vol. 14, p. 369).
The following alphabetical list of
articles and sections of articles, although
it does not profess to be complete, will
give the student some idea of the large
number of topics connected with the
general subject of the manufacture of
books:
Albion Press
Aniline Ink
Applegath, Augustus
Autoplate Process
Backing
Barth, Henry
Bastard Letter
Batter
Bibliography and Bib-
liology
Bill of Type
Binding
Black Type
Blaeu Press
Blanketing
Bleaching
Blocking
Blue Ink
Boiling
Book
Book-Binding
Book-case
Book-collecting
Book-Plates
Book-selling
Bourgeois
Breaking
Brevier
Bruce, David
Burr
Case-making Machine
Casing
Casing-in machine
Caslon Type
Casting
Cellulose
China Ink
Chinese Paper-makers
Chiswick Press
Clymer, George
Collotype
Colour Filters
Colour Process
Columbian Press
Composition
Copying Ink
Coster
Couching
Cutter
Dandy Roll
Delcambre Machine
Distributing
Distributing Machines
Dow Machine
Drive
Drying
Electroplating
Electrotyping
Empire Machine
English Type
Engraving
Esparto
Evaporator
Face
Flong
Forme
Fount
Fraser Machine
Fust
Glazing
Golding Machine
Gold Ink
Goodson
Gutenberg
Half Stuff
Half-tone
Heliotype
Hoe, Robert
Imposition
Incunabula
Indelible Ink
Indian Ink
India Paper
Ink
Intaglio Process
Italic Type
Jordan Beaters
Justifying
Kelmscott Press
Kern
Kingsland Beater
Kdnig, Friedrich
Lanston Monotype
Leather
Line-Engraving
Linotype
Lithography
Logwood Ink
Machine Presses
Marking Ink
Matrices
Miehle Press
Minion
Monoline
Monotype
Morris, William
Nicholson, William
Nick
Nonpareil
Octuple Rotary Ma-
chine
Off-set Printing
Old-style Type
Paige Composing Ma-
chine
Paper
Papyrus
Parchment
Pearl (type)
Perfecting Machine
Photolithography
Phototype
Pica
Planographic Process
Platen
Point System
Porion Evaporator
Power Presses
Pressing
Press Plate
Press-work
Primer
Price of Paper
Printing
Printing Ink
Process
Proof-reading
Publishing
Pulp
Punch
Quality, Standards of
Paper
Rag
Red Ink
Reel Paper Cutter
Relief Process
Roman Type
Rotary Presses
Rounding
Ruby
Scheme of Type
Senefelder
Serif
Sewing
Shake
Sheeting
Shells
Signature
Silver Ink
Simplex Machine
Sizes of Paper
Sizing
Soda Recovery
Stanhope Press
Stannotype
Steel-facing
Stem
Stereotyping
Straining
Super Calender
Surfacing
Swelled Gelatin Process
Sympathetic Ink
Tachytype
Tannin Ink
Thorne Machine
Three Colour Process
Tub-sizing
Turtle
Type-case
Typograph
Typography
Vale Press
Water mark
Wharfedale Presses
Wicks, Frederick
Wiring
Woodbury Process
Wood Engraving
Wood's Autoplate
Writing Ink
Yaryan Evaporator
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CHAPTER XXII
FOR JOURNALISTS AND AUTHORS
NO writer can consider the use he
will make of the tools of his trade
— and the Britannica is certainly
the chief among them — unless he has
very definite views as to the particular
kind of work he is trying to do. Where
writing is regarded as a business, the art
of writing is the art of being read, and the
art of being read lies, nowadays, in con-
vincing the reader that you have some-
thing fresh to say, rather than in arous-
ing his admiration of your way of saying
it. Writing is none the less one of the
fine arts: the modern writer must form
his style with the utmost care, and al-
ways guard himself against the tempta-
tion to relax his standards. But the
juggling with words, the "rhythmical se-
quences of recurring consonants," the
musical prose in which sounds are ad-
justed as artfully as in verse, presuppose
readers to whom these elaborations are
delightful. Such readers are rare, to-
day. Thirty or forty years ago it was a
matter of course, in thousands of homes,
for some one member of the household to
read aloud to the others. The custom
has almost disappeared, and there has
been a change in public taste, due, per-
haps, in great measure to a change in the
pace at which people read. A book does
not "last" as it did.
The Develop- Newspaper reading
ment of Style has trained the eye
and the mind to
swifter consumption. The modern pro-
fessional writer adapts himself to the
existing conditions. He knows that those
who ride in automobiles do not peer under
tufts of leaves to look for roadside violets.
But he also knows that they want a
straight, smooth road. He endeavors to
write as concisely as possible, yet to
write so clearly that every point he makes
is made once for all; and he can work
fully as hard, and apply talents fully as
great, in forming a style that pleases by
its simple directness — or, better, that
pleases because the reader does not think
of it as "style," — as if he were aiming at
the most elaborate ornament.
In developing the power of clear and
concise statement, the first essential is to
form the habit of getting your "some-
thing to say" absolutely plain to your
own mind before you attempt to say it.
A writer deliberately strives to be wordy
and vague when he is trying to misrepre-
sent facts, and it is impossible, when he
is groping for his facts, that he should
avoid wordiness and vagueness. The
Britannica article on Rudyard Kipling
speaks of his "pow-
" Vitalized ers of observation
Observation 9 9 vitalized by imagina-
tion." It would be
difficult to find a phrase more tersely de-
scribing the ideal equipment of a writer,
and Kipling's observation is rapid obser-
vation amplified by deliberate investiga-
tion. He gets a swift impression of the
complex framework of a ship or of the in-
tricate machinery of a locomotive, and
then, before he writes "The Ship that
Found Herself" or ".007," he makes as
elaborate a technical study as if he were
writing an engineering article instead of
a story. His imagination so vitalizes the
result that when you read the story, al-
though it describes beams and valves you
never saw, you recognize the accuracy of
his technical description as you recog-
nize, in an art gallery, the fidelity of a
portrait, although you never saw the per-
son portrayed. In using the Britannica,
the investigation by which you amplify
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118
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
your personal observation helps you in
four ways. First, you correct your facts
if they need correction. Whatever your
subject may be, you find information so
authoritative that you cannot question
it. Second, you amplify your own obser-
vations; you discover the underlying
causes and relations of the events or
opinions you are about to discuss. Third,
the reading by* which you have, con-
sciously or unconsciously, been influenced
in forming your style, is rendered more
profitable and stimulating by your study
of the Britannica articles in which the
work of all the world's great writers, past
and present, is analyzed by the most
brilliant critics. Fourth,
Models of you have in the Britannica
Style itself such examples of
scholarly, forcible, com-
pacted English as cannot often be found
in contemporary books. It is not within
the province of this Guide to institute
detailed comparisons between these ar-
ticles by the leading literary men of the
day and other writings from the same
pens. But the reader will discover for
himself that the editorial policy which
demanded rigorous concision has stimu-
lated, not hampered, the distinguished
writers whose Britannica articles are, in
case after case, the best of their produc-
tions.
The foregoing summary of the uses of
the Britannica to writers is based upon
reviews of the work which have appeared
in the daily and weekly press; and it may
be supplemented by brief extracts from
one or two letters to the publishers,
written by men whose reputations give
their opinions great weight. In one of
these Horace White, formerly editor of
the Evening Post of New York, spoke
highly of the practical utility of the Bri-
tannica. Joseph Pulitzer, of the New
York World, shortly before his death
wrote: "I want to thank you for the in-
tellectual pleasure I enjoyed this winter
in examining this extraordinary produc-
tion. I have already distributed a dozen
sets in America as presents among editors
and my children. [He afterwards ordered
six more sets.] The work is a liberal edu-
cation." John Habberton wrote: "The
new edition of the Bri-
Practical tannica has already cost me
Tests hundreds of hours that I
should have given to my
work, but I do not regret the outlay, for
I have been richly repaid. There never
was a handier book for a desk or a more
readable one.*'
It is not only true that no ordinary
library would supply the information to
be found in the Britannica, but it is as
true, and as relevant, that no ordinary
library presents information in a form as
stimulating to the writer who uses books
as the tools of his trade. 'The editor-
in-chief of the Britannica had all the
world's greatest experts in all fields of
human knowledge and endeavour to
choose from. He chose in each instance
the expert whose knowledge was so
thorough, and whose correlation of his
special knowledge with related branches
was so complete, that his articles are not
merely "last word" information but in-
teresting and alive. You may remember
the new interest you felt in natural science
when you first read an essay by Huxley,
because he had the power of creating en-
thusiasm. It is a justifiable figure of
speech to say that, in this sense, the Bri-
tannica has been written by Huxleys.
Perhaps you have ransacked a public li-
brary for some out-of-the-way fact and
finally found it, in skeleton form, and in
crabbed German, in Meyer or Brockhaus
or some other German encyclopaedia. Or
did your search end by finding the fact in
Larousse or La Grande EncyclopSdie, in
some clever phrase, so brilliantly written,
so strikingly put, that it was the phrase
and not the fact that you had got — and
you felt that the Frenchman had hidden
the fact, if he ever had had it, in his epi-
gram? You may have wished, then, for
a third type of encyclopaedia which
should be "German-thorough" and
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FOR JOURNALISTS AND AUTHORS
119
"French-interesting." Such a combina-
tion is the Britannica, — more authorita-
tive, more up-to-date, more interesting,
than any other book.
A newspaper man, reporter or editor,
must be informed at a moment's notice
on any one of so large a number and so
wide a range of top-
The Jour- ics that the best li-
nalist's Needs brary of reference
obtainable can be
none too good for him. This is especially
true of the man on the smaller newspaper
which does not have the luxury of special-
ists on its editorial staff, or of many re-
porters dividing among them the work
of gathering news on such lines that each
may work in a field with which he is inti-
mately acquainted and in which he is
particularly versed. And the rural news-
paper is, besides, further from good pub-
lic libraries and financially less able to
have a large office library. The authority,
the scope, the interest and the conve-
nience of the Britannica make it just the
book to fill these varied needs of the news-
paper man. If he has to write a "murder
story" in which some unusual poison has
been used, he can find a full description of
the origin, the use, the action and the tests
of the drug by turning to the Britannica —
instead of hunting for (and then through)
a text book on medicine. And if, on the
same day, or the next, he must write an
editorial on the tariff, he will find in the
article Tariff, in the articles Free
Trade and Protection, and in that part
of the article United States which deals
with the country's economic history, the
information that he wants; and he can get
it quickly, and can be sure of its being
authoritative.
If the Britannica is evidently the work
of reference for the writer, how is he to
use it?
It has already been suggested that he
will find authoritative and recent informa-
tion on any topic connected with the sub-
ject on which he is writing. . It would be
interesting to see — or at least to imagine
— how largely the Britannica might be
used as a source for fiction. A novelist
with an appetite for human documents
like Balzac's or like that of Charles Reade
— with his many albums full of newspaper
clippings, — could satisfy himself with the
Britannica, taking his characters "from
life" in its biographical and historical ar-
ticles and his setting from its geographical
articles.
It has already been suggested that the
writer will find in the Britannica the
clearness and conciseness of style which
he cannot but wish to attain in his own
work. Here he has the writings of great
masters of English. He may remember
Robert Louis Stevenson's story of how he
played "the sedulous ape" to the great
stylists; and in the Britannica he can
read not only an excellent sketch of Ste-
venson by Edmund Gosse, his friend and
a well-known essayist, but Stevenson's
own article on Beranger. He may read
Matthew Arnold on Sainte-Beuve; Walter
Besant on Froissart and on Richard
Jefferies; John Burroughs on Walt Whit-
man; G. W. Cable on William Cullen
Bryant; Edmund
Literary Kerchever Cham-
Criticism bers on Shakespeare :
Ernest Hartley Cole-
ridge on Byron; Sidney Colvin on Giotto,
Leonardo, etc.; Austin Dobson on Field-
ing, Hogarth, Richardson, etc.; Henry
van Dyke on Emerson; John Fiske on
Francis Parkman; Richard Garnett on T.
L. Peacock and on Satire; Israel Gollancz
on "The Pearl"; Edmund Gosse on many
literary genres, on Ibsen, etc.; Edward
Everett Hale on James Freeman Clarke
and on Edward Everett; Frederic Harri-
son on Ruskin; W. E. Henley on James
Fenimore Cooper; William Price James
on Barrie, Henley and Kipling; Prince
Karageorgevitch on Marie Bashkirtseff
Stanley Lane-Poole on Richard Burton;
Andrew Lang on Ballads, Moliere, etc.
Henry Cabot Lodge on Albert Gallatin
E. V. Lucas on Jane Austen and Charles
Lamb; Lord Macaulay on Bunyan, Gold-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
smith, Johnson and Pitt; David Masson
on Milton; Brander Matthews on Mark
Twain; Alice Meynell on Mrs. Browning;
William Minto on Dryden, Pope, Spenser
and Wordsworth; John Nichol on Robert
Burns; Charles Eliot Norton on George
William Curtis; Mark Pattison on Casau-
bon, Erasmus, Macaulay and Thomas
More; W. H. Pollock on Thackeray and
de Musset; Quiller-Couch on Thomas
Edward Brown; Whitelaw Reid on Gree-
ley; C. F. Richardson on Bronson Alcott
and John Fiske; W. M. Rossetti on
Shelley; Viscount St. Cyres on F6nelon
and Madame Guy on; Saintsbury on
French literature, Balzac, Montaigne,
Rabelais, etc.; Carl Schurz on Henry
Clay; H. E. Scudder on Lowell and Har-
riet Beecher Stowe; Thomas Seccombe
on Boswell, Dickens, Charles Lever, etc.;
William Sharp ("Fiona McLeod") on
Thoreau ; Clement Shorter on the Brontes,
Crabbe, Cowper and Mrs. Gaskell; W. W.
Skeat on Layamon: E. C. Stedman on
Whittier; Sir Leslie Stephen on Browning
and Carlyle; Richard Henry Stoddard on
Hawthorne; Swinburne on Beaumont and
Fletcher, Congreve, Hugo, Landor, Mar-
lowe, Mary, Queen of Scots; John Add-
ington Symonds on the Renaissance,
Machiavelli, Tasso, etc.; Arthur Symons
on Hardy, Mallarm6, Verlaine; W. P.
Trent on Sidney Lanier; A. W. Ward on
Drama; Mrs. Humphry Ward on Lyly;
Theodore Watts-Dunton on Poetry, Son-
net, Borrow, Wycherley, Matthew Arnold;
Arthur Waugh on William Morris, Walter
Pater; and G. E. Woodberry on Ameri-
can Literature.
The more you know of the subjects or
authors in this list the more likely you
will be to say what a Western professor
of theology said, in reviewing the articles
in the Britannica dealing with the Bible:
"They are the very authorities that I
would have chosen to write these ar-
ticles!"
But the Britannica will serve the pro-
fessional author in other ways than by
giving him information in special fields
and by keeping before him admirable
models of style. He might well follow any
of the courses suggested in the chapter on
Literature in this Guide; and if he will
read the articles on great authors written
by great authors, already mentioned, he
will have a doubly valuable course in
biographical criticism by the ablest of
literary critics.
Any newspaper writer or contributor
to the periodical press should read such
articles as:
Newspapers (Vol. 19, p. 544; equiva-
lent to 125 pages of this Guide), by Hugh
Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Britan-
nica, with sections
Newspapers and on the price of
Magazines newspapers by Lord
Northcliffe, on illus-
trated papers by Clement Shorter, general
information on American newspapers, and
an elaborate historical account of British,
American and foreign newspapers.
Periodicals (Vol. 21, p. 151; equiva-
lent to 40 pages in this Guide), by Henry
Richard Tedder, librarian of the Athen-
aeum Club of London, treats the subject
under the heads: British, United States,
Canada, South Africa, Australia and New
Zealand, West Indies and British Crown
Colonies, India and Ceylon, France, Ger-
many, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Holland,
Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Por-
tugal, Greece, Russia, and other Countries.
Societies, Learned (Vol. 25, p. 309),
also by H. R. Tedder, deals with the pub-
lications of such societies and classifies
them (with geographical sub-classifica-
tion for each head) under Science Gener-
ally, Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics,
Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy and Pal-
aeontology, Meteorology, Microscopy, Bot-
any and Horticulture, Zoology, Anthro-
pology, Sociology, Medicine and Surgery,
Engineering and Architecture, Naval and
Military Science, Agriculture and Trades,
Literature, History and Archaeology, and
Geography.
Local information in regard to news-
papers and journalism will be found in
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FOR JOURNALISTS AND AUTHORS
121
separate local articles. Thus under Bos-
ton, Philadelphia, New York City, New
Orleans, San Francisco, etc., there is
valuable information in regard to these
cities as literary centers and about their
principal periodical publications, includ-
ing newspapers; and in the articles on
smaller cities, such as Albany and Spring-
field, Mass., there are valuable historical
sketches of the local press of each.
The newspaper man should read the
biographies of great American printers
and editors: William Bradford (Vol. 4,
p. 370); Benjamin
Literary Franklin (Vol. 11,
Biographies p. 24; equivalent to
20 pages of this
Guide); Isaiah Thomas (Vol. 26, p.
867); Noah Webster (Vol. 28, p. 463);
William Cullen Bryant (Vol. 4, p.
698); James G. Birney (Vol. 3, p. 988);
Gamaliel Bailey (Vol. 3, p. 217); W.
L. Garrison (Vol. 11, p. 477); James
Gordon Bennett (Vol. 3, p. 740);
Thurlow Weed (Vol. 28, p. 466); Gid-
eon Welles (Vol. 28, p. 506); John
Bigelow (Vol. 3, p. 922); Horace
Greeley (Vol. 12, p. 531); Henry J.
Raymond (Vol. 22, p. 933); George
Ripley (Vol. 23, p. 363); C. A. Dana
(Vol. 7, p. 791); George William Cur-
tis (Vol. 7, p. 652); Carl Schurz (Vol.
24, p. 886); Samuel Bowles (Vol. 4, p.
Alliteration
Encyclopaedia
Ana
Epic Poetry
Anecdote
Epigram
Anthology
Epilogue
Anticlimax
Epistle
Antithesis
Essay
Aphorism
Euphemism
Apologue
Fable
Apophthegm
Feuilleton
Archaism
Gazette
Assonance
Humour
Bathos
Hyperbole
Belles-Lettres
Idyll
Biography
Impromptu
Book
Index
Book-Collecting
Irony
Bookselling
Lampoon
Burlesque
Laureate
Comedy
Legend
Criticism
Libraries
Dialogue
Limerick
Drama
I Jtotes
Elegy
Lyrical Poetry
344); Joseph R. Hawley (Vol. 13, p.
101); Whitelaw Reid (Vol. 23, p. 52);
George W. Childs (Vol. 6, p. 141); E.
L. Godkin (Vol. 12, p. 174); and Henry
Watterson (Vol. 28, p. 418).
The reading of these biographies will
give the student many interesting start-
ing-points for studies in American poli-
tics, economics, literature, reform move-
ments as widely separated as abolition
and the introduction of the merit system
into the civil service. The author should
also read the article American Litera-
ture (Vol. 1, p. 831; equivalent to 35
pages of this Guide), by Professor G. E.
Woodberry, and, if his field is that of the
publicist, he should read the article on
the history of the United States (Vol.
27, p. 663), equivalent to 225 pages of
this Guide; and the allied articles to
which he is referred from that.
The advertising writer will find a valu-
able and stimulating article on Adver-
tisement (Vol. 1, p. 235, equivalent to
20 pages in this Guide), which gives a
history of the subject, deals with posters
and signs, circulars, periodical advertis-
ing, and legal regulation and taxation.
For a full list of articles of particular
usefulness for the author, see the chapter
Literature in this Guide. The following
brief list may serve as the basis for a pre-
liminary course of reading;
Manuscript
Prosody
Melodrama
Proverb
Metaphor
Psalm
Metonymy
Pseudonym
Metre
Pun
Monologue
Quatrain
National Anthems
Quotation
Newspapers
Novel
Reporting
Rhetoric
Ode
Rhyme
Pamphlets
Parable
Rhythm
Romance
Paradox
Saga
Paraphrase
Parody
Satire
Song
Pasquinade
Sonnet
Periodicals
Squib
Philippics
Stanza
Plagiarism
Stvle
Pleonasm
Tale
Poetry
Tract
Proof-Heading
Treatise
Prose
Verse
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CHAPTER XXIII
FOR TEACHERS
EVERY teacher has one pupil who
tries harder than any of the
others to absorb knowledge, and
yet is never content with the prog-
ress made, who knows how hard the
teacher works, and yet is never sat-
isfied with the teacher — and that pupil
is the teacher's self. For every other
learner there is a limit to the amount
of knowledge to be acquired, but in
the case of the teacher a "standard" is
supposed to indicate no more than an
indispensable minimum. When you are
trying to make your pupils master a
text-book, the volume seems to contain a
most stupendous mass of learning, and
when one of them asks you a question
about the subject with which the text-
book deals, that particular point is sure
to be one that the text-book does
not cover. What engineers call the
"factor of safety," the margin by which
the strength of materials must exceed
the stress it is expected to encounter, is,
for the teacher, incalculable. It is, of
course, a favorite
The Teacher's pastime of parents
"Factor of to send a child to
Safety" school primed with
some question "to
ask Teacher," selecting an enigma that
has been for centuries a battle-ground
for scholars or scientists. And, apart
from these malicious pitfalls, children
themselves seem, quite innocently, to
hit upon questions of extraordinary
difficulty. A rebuff, a careless response,
or, worst of all, an ingenious evasion of
the issue, is fatal to the teacher's author-
ity and influence. "Ask me that again,
to-morrow morning," is the phrase with
which a conscientious teacher often
meets such a contingency. And then
how a fagged brain is tormented that
evening, how the few books available
(and they are likely to be a very few if
there is no public library at hand) are
searched in vain! That is not all. If
it be true that the teacher is the most
diligent, yet always the least satisfied,
of all the teacher's pupils, it is equally
true that many of the most puzzling
questions with which the teacher is con-
fronted arise in the teacher's own mind.
The question-answering power of the
Britannica is therefore of cardinal im-
portance to the teacher, and is to be con-
sidered not only in connection with the
use of the work for reference, but also in
the selection of such courses of reading
as may be expected to supply informa-
tion of the kind that
Answers to questions most
All Questions often demand. And
this question-answer-
ing power lies in three characteristics of
the work, and may be measured by the
extent to which the three are found in
it: broad scope, unimpeachable authority
and convenient arrangement. Its scope
covers the whole range of human knowl-
edge, everything that mankind has
achieved, attempted, believed or studied.
Its authority is doubly vouchsafed. The
fact that the Britannica is published by
the University of Cambridge (England),
one of the world's oldest and most famous
seats of learning, in itself gives such a
122
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FOR TEACHERS
123
guarantee as no other Encyclopaedia
has ever offered, and the assurance thus
given may be regarded as showing,
chiefly, that there are no errors of omis-
sion, for against the existence of the errors
of commission there is a further guarantee.
The articles are signed by 1,500 con-
tributors, including the foremost special-
ists in every department of knowledge.
Among this army of collaborators, chosen
from twenty countries, there are no less
than 704 members of the staffs of 146
universities and colleges. This means
that by means of the Britannica the
youngest teacher in the most isolated
village is brought into stimulating con-
tact with the great leaders of the teaching
profession. Its arrangement gives it
the advantages of a universal library,
providing the varied courses of reading
outlined in this Guide, and those also
of a work of reference which yields an
immediate answer to every conceivable
question. The index of 500,000 entries
instantly leads the enquirer to any item
of information in the 40,000 articles.
No teacher could hope to form, in the
course of a lifetime, a collection of separ-
ate books which would contain any-
where near as much information.
In another relation, the Britannica is
of daily service to anyone engaged in
educational work. It has already been
remarked that the
A Library of teacher needs a "fac-
Text-Books tor of safety," a re-
serve of knowledge
beyond that which is directly called for
in the ordinary routine of the class room.
But in the very course of that routine,
there is also a need for co-ordinated
knowledge, presented in a form available
for use in teaching, of a more advanced
kind than that in the text-books with
which pupils are provided. And the
Britannica is, in itself, a vast collection
of text-books.
Professor Shotwell, of Columbia Uni-
versity, recently wrote to the publishers
a letter in which he said: "I shall use
the articles in the Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica which deal with industrial processes
as a substitute for a text-book in one
of my courses in Social and Industrial
History and have especially in mind
the splendid treatment of the cotton
industry by Professor S. J. Chapman
and others." A large number of Bri-
tannica articles have, by permission,
been reprinted, word for word, for use
as text-books; and it is impossible to say
how many have been paraphrased, and,
in a form less clear and vivid than the
originals, similarly employed. The writ-
ers of the Britannica have, among them,
done so large a share of the world's
recent work in research and criticism,
that no one who is engaged in writing
a text-book or in preparing a course of
lectures should fail to use the work as a
check to test the completeness and the
accuracy of independent investigation.
Fortunately, the system of monthly
payments has enabled teachers to pur-
chase the Britannica to an extent which,
in view of their limited resources, is a
striking evidence of their earnest desire
to perfect their professional equipment.
In some cases two and even three
teachers have combined their efforts in
order that they might jointly possess
the work. But whatever may be the
difficulties to be overcome, it is certain
that the Britannica is, for the teacher,
an instrument as directly productive
as a technical library is for a doctor or
a lawyer.
A professor in an eastern college
wrote to the publishers: "It has become
4 the collection of books' which Carlyle
might term 'the true university ' " ; and
the practical head of a business school in
Pennsylvania says: "By its purchase, I
have secured access to a university
education." A well known professor of
German calls it "a Hausschatz of amazing
richness and variety." and adds: "I hope
you will not be sued at law for an attempt
to monopolize the market for profitable
and entertaining literature." The presi-
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124
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
dent of a southern university wrote: "It
is the first book to consult, the one book
to own, if you can own but one." And
a Harvard professor says: "I have been
particularly interested in some of the
recent phases of European history. Con-
cerning some movements, about which
it is as yet extremely difficult to find
material in books, I'have found the Ency-
clopaedia most useful." A teacher in
a theological seminary exclaims: "What
a university of solid training it would
be for a young student, if he would spend
an hour each day reading the work,
volume by volume, and including all
the articles except those of a technical
nature belonging to other departments
than his own!"
This is what teachers have said of the
value to them of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. Specialists in school-hygiene
and school librarians have also noted
the advantage of the light, handy vol-
umes printed on India paper — one weighs
no more than two monthly magazines — ,
which may be easily held at the proper
angle for eye-focus on a large page.
The teacher will find in this Guide
valuable suggestions about particular
subjects which he may wish to teach or
study, — such as history, literature, lan-
guage and biology. In this chapter we
suggest a general course.
Let him begin with the article Educa-
tion (Vol. 8, p. 951), which is the equiva-
lent in length of 120 pages of the size
and type of this Guide, and of which
the first part is by James Welton, pro-
fessor of education in the University of
Leeds and author of Logical Bases of
Education, etc., the sections on national
systems by G. B. M. Coore, assistant
secretary of the London Board of Edu-
cation, and that on the United States
by Nicholas Murray Butler, president of
Columbia Univers-
The Theory ity. This valuable
of Education article begins with a
discussion of the
meaning of the term "Education," ex-
cludes John Stuart Mill's extension to
everything which "helps to shape the
human being," and narrows the meaning
to definitely personal work, — the true
"working" definition for the practical
teacher.
The section on educational theory
might equally well be styled a sketch
of the history of education and will
prove valuable to the teacher preparing
for a licence-examination in this subject
or for a normal training course. It
discusses old Greek education with
special attention to Spartan practice,
Plato's theory and Aristotle's, and the
gradual change from the point of view
of the city-state to Hellenistic cosmo-
politanism. The older Roman education,
practical and given by father to son, is
contrasted with the later Heflenized
training, largely by Greek slaves, largely
rhetorical and ^largely summed up in
Quintilian's Institutio. The contest be-
tween the pagan system and Christianity
is shown to have culminated in monas-
ticism; and barbarian inroads stifled
classical culture until the Carolingian
revival under Alcuin in the 8th century
and the scholastic revival (11th to 18th
centuries) of Abelard, Aquinas and
Arabic workings over of Aristotle. Scho-
lastic education is considered especially
in relation to the first great European
universities and the schools of the Do-
minicans, Franciscans and Brethren of
the Common Life, and in contrast to
chivalry, the education of feudalism.
The Renaissance is treated at greater
length, and this is followed by sections
on the influence of the Reformation on
education, and the consequent growth
of Jesuit schools. The key-note of the
story thereafter is reform, — the move-
ment away from the classics, toward
natural science, and, especially after the
French Revolution, by means of new
methods and theories, notably those of
Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel and Her-
bart.
The remainder of the article Educa-
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FOR TEACHERS
125
tion deals with national systems of
education: French, German, Swiss, Bel-
gian, Dutch, Scotch, Irish, English,
Welsh and American, with an excellent
bibliography. These, and other, na-
tional systems are also treated from
another point of view in the articles on
the separate countries.
The article Education should natur-
ally be followed by a study of the article
Universities (Vol. 27, p. 748 — about
100 pages, if printed in the style of this
Guide) by James Bass Mullinger (author
of the History of Cambridge, The Schools
of Charles the Great, etc.) and, for
American universities, by Daniel Coit
Gilman, late presi-
Articles on dent of Johns Hop-
Great Schools kins University; and
by a reading of arti-
cles on the great universities, as for
instance, Oxford, Cambridge, Aberdeen,
Glasgow, St. Andrews, Dublin, Harvard,
Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Princeton,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Cali-
fornia, Leland Stanford, Jr., etc. The
student should then turn to the article
Schools (Vol. 24, p. 859; equivalent to
about 40 pages of this Guide) by Arthur
Francis Leach, author of English Schools
at the Reformation, who gives a summary
of what is known of Greek, Roman and
English schools.
Then, — to supplement these general
articles, — he should read —
On Greek education:
Plato (Vol. 21, p. 808), espe-
cially p. 812 (on Meno) and 818
(on the Republic).
Aristotle (Vol. 2, p. 501).
Sparta (Vol. 25, p. 609, partic-
ularly p. 611).
On Roman education:
_ Cato (Vol. 5, p. 535).
Quintilian (Vol. 22, p. 761).
On early Christian education:
Clement of Alexandria (Vol.
6, p. 487, particularly p. 488, on the
Paedagogus).
Augustine (Vol. 2, p. 907) and
Jerome (Vol. 15, p. 826), with es-
pecial attention to their early pagan
education and their attitude toward
it as Christians.
Ambrose (Vol. 1, p. 798).
Martianus Capella (Vol. 5, p.
249).
Boetius (Vol. 4, p. 116).
Cassiodorus (Vol. 5, p. 459).
Isidore (Vol. 14, p. 871).
St. Gregory (Vol. 12, p. 566).
Bede (Vol. 8, p. 615).
Monasticism (Vol. 18, p. 687).
On the Carolingian revival:
Alcuin (Vol. 1, p. 529).
Angilbert (Vol. 2, p. 9).
Charlemagne (Vol. 5, p. 891,
especially p. 894).
France (Vol. 10, p. 810).
On the Scholastic revival:
Scholasticism (Vol. 24, p. 846).
Abelard (Vol. 1, p. 40).
John of Salisbury (Vol. 15, p.
449).
Albertus Magnus (Vol 1, p.
504).
Grosseteste (Vol. 12, p. 617).
Thomas Aquinas (Vol. 2, p. 250).
Roger Bacon (Vol. 8, p. 158).
On the Renaissance :
Renaissance (Vol. 28, p. 88).
Dante (Vol. 7, p. 810).
Petrarch (Vol. 21, p. 810).
Boccacio (Vol. 4, p. 102).
Manuel Chrysolaras (Vol. 6,
p. 820).
Manutius (Vol. 17, p. 624).
Thomas More (Vol. 18, p. 822).
Erasmus (Vol. 9, p. 727).
John Colet (Vol. 6, p. 681).
Thomas Lin acre (Vol. 16, p.
701).
On the Reformation period and
Counter-Reformation :
Reformation (Vol. 28, p. 4).
Melancthon (Vol. 18, p. 88).
Luther (Vol. 17, p. 188).
Trotzendorff (Vol. 27, p. 808).
Reuchlin (Vol. 28, p. 204).
Ascham (Vol. 2, p. 720).
Rabelais (Vol. 22, p. 769).
Jesuits (Vol. 15, p. 887), espe-
cially p. 842.
La Salle (Vol. 16, p. 281).
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126
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
On the Moaern period:
Comeniu8 (Vol. 6, p. 759).
Rousseau (Vol. 28, p. 775).
Voltaire (Vol. 28, p. 199).
Pkstalozzi (Vol. 21, p. 284).
Fboebel (Vol. 11, p. 288).
Herb art (Vol. 18, p. 885).
Wilhelm Von Humboldt (Vol.
18, p. 875).
Andrew Bell (Vol. 8, p. 684).
Joseph Lancaster (Vol. 16, p.
147).
Sir John Fitch (Vol. 10, p.
488).
James Blair (Vol. 4, p. 84).
T. H. Gallaudet (Vol. 11, p.
416).
F. A. P. Barnard (Vol. 8, p.
409).
Henry Barnard (Vol. 8, p. 410).
Horace Mann (Vol. 17, p. 587).
Mark Hopkins (Vol. 18, p. 684).
William T. Harris (Vol. 18, p.
21).
Justin S. Morrill (Vol. 18, p.
Alexander Melville Bell (Vol.
8, p. 684).
S. C. Armstrong (Vol. 2, p. 591).
Booker T. Washington (Vol. 28,
p. 844).
Co-Education (Vol. 6, p. 687).
Blindness (Vol. 4, p. 66).
Deaf and Dumb (Vol. 7, p. 887).
Infant Schools (Vol. 14, p.
588).
Kindergarten (Vol. 15, p. 802).
Museums of Art (Vol. 19, p. 60).
Museums of Science (Vol. 19, p.
64).
Polytechnic (Vol. 22, p. 88).
Technical Education (Vol. 26,
p. 487), an elaborate article, about
40 pages in the form of this Guide,
by Sir Philip Magnus, author of In-
dustrial Education, member of the
Royal Commission on technical in-
struction (1881-1884) and, in 1907,
president of the education section of
the British Association.
Of equal importance with this course
on the history of education, for the stu-
dent taking the licence-examination or
for a teacher taking an examination
for a higher grade licence or a principal-
ship, is a course in Psychology in the
Britannica. This will be found largely
in the great article on Psychology (Vol.
82, p. 547; equivalent in length to 200
pages of this Guide) by James Ward.
The systematic
The Study treatment of the
of Psychology subject in this arti-
cle is particularly
valuable to the teacher, whether the
object desired is to review the entire
subject, sharpening one's impressions
from a longer course of reading; to get a
general grounding in the subject — for
which a careful study of this one article
will suffice; or to make one's self more
certain of his comprehension of any part
of the subject. It is not practicable
to give an outline of this article here,
but a few of its special topics are listed
below:
General analysis of the subject
Attention
Theory of presentations
Sensation
Perception
Imagination or Ideation
Mental Association
Reminiscence and Expectation
Experimental Investigations on
Memory and Association
Feeling
Emotion and Emotional Action
Intellection
Self-Consciousness
Relation of Body and Mind
Comparative Psychology
Besides the general article with its
systematic summary of the subject, the
Britannica contains many briefer articles
on special topics, so that the teacher will
find not only an excellent text-book of
the subject in Prof. Ward's article, but
also an elaborate dictionary or encyclo-
paedia of psychological terms or topics.
Among the topics treated in this " Dic-
tionary of Psychology" are:
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FOR MINISTERS
127
Affection
Apperception
Association of
Ideas
Attention
Category
Cognition
Concept
Connotation
Deduction
Definition
Denotation
Dream
Extension
Hearing
Idea
Imagination
Imitation
Immortality
Individualism
Induction
Instinct
Intellect
Introspection
Intuition
Mnemonics
Motive
Noumenon
Object, Subject
Parallelism
Perception
Personality
Phenomenon
Pleasure
p8ychophysic8
Recept
Relativity
Reminiscence
Retro-Cognition
Self
Sensationalism
Smell
Suggestion
Taste
Touch
Vision
Weber's Law
Will
Furthermore, the teacher will find the
Britannica a valuable biographical dic-
tionary. This he will already have re-
alized, if he has looked up the biograph-
ical articles mentioned in connection with
the history of education. The following
is a brief outline course in psychological
biography:
Adamson, Robert
Aristotle
Bain, Alexander
Baldwin, James Mark
Beneke, F. E.
Berkeley, George
Clifford, Wm. K.
Democritus
Epicurus
Fechner, G. F.
Geulincx, Arnold
Hamilton, William
Hartley, David
Helmholtz,
von
Herbart, Johann F.
Hobbes, Thomas
HSffding, Harold
Hume, David
Hucheson, Francis
James, William
Kant, Immanuel
I^dd, G. T.
Lange, F. A.
Leibnitz, G. W.
Lewes, George Henry
Locke, John
Lotze, R. H.
Mill, James
Mill, J. S.
Muller, Johannes Peter
Mttnsterberg, Hugo
Hermann Reid, Thomas
Ribot, T. A.
Spencer, Herbert
Sully, James
Ward, James
Wundt,* W. M.
CHAPTER XXIV
FOR MINISTERS
THE minister or candidate for the
ministry will find a valuable course
of reading laid out for him in this
Guide under the heading Bible Study, and
it might be said with little exaggeration
that any systematic course of reading in
the Encyclopaedia Britannica should add
to the efficiency and power of one who
would be an ideal pastor. If the schools
of the Middle Ages could truly call all the
arts and sciences hand-maids and helpers
to Theology, much more truly, in the
present age, should the minister, in order
that he may minister truly, know not
merely the history of the Bible and of the
Church, the results of modern criticism,
and of comparative religion and folk-lore,
but, almost as fully, general history, lit-
erature, philosophy, psychology, educa-
tion, something of the fine arts, much of
law and political science, and still more of
social science and economics. In a period
of specialization he cannot afford to be a
specialist — or, it might be nearer the
truth to say that, like every other true
specialist, he must make all knowledge,
all the circle of the sciences, tributary to
his specialty, which
The Great is the knowledge and
Preachers the improvement of
the human soul. The
suggestions that follow must necessarily
be fragmentary, and should be considered
as including merely a few topics not
covered in the chapter on Bible Study nor
in the other courses which, as has just
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
been suggested, a minister might profit-
ably pursue.
The article Sermon (Vol. 24, p. 673) is
by Edmund Gosse, librarian of the House
of Lords, biographer of John Donne,
Jeremy Taylor and Dr. Thomas Browne.
The writer is especially conversant with
the English literature of the 17th cen-
tury, in the middle of which, to quote his
article, "the sermon became one of the
most highly-cultivated forms of intellec-
tual entertainment in Great Britain, and
when the theatres were closed at the
Commonwealth it grew to be the only
public form of eloquence."
Each name on the following list of great
preachers is accompanied by volume and
page reference to the biographical sketch
in the Britannica, containing criticism of
the preacher and a bibliography of his
works and of works about him, so that the
articles supply the basis for a study of
the world's great preachers.
British.
John Wycliffe (Vol. 28, p. 868)
John Fisher (Vol. 10, p. 427)
Hugh Latimer (Vol. 16, p. 242)
John Knox (Vol. 15, p. 878)
Richard Hooker (Vol. 13, p. 672)
John Donne (Vol. 8, p. 417)
Joseph Hall (Vol. 12, p. 847)
John Hales (Vol. 12, p. 834)
Edmund Calamy (Vol. 4, p. 967)
Benjamin Whichcote (Vol. 28, p. 587)
Thomas Adams (Vol. 1, p. 180)
Richard Baxter (Vol. 8, p. 551)
Thomas Manton (Vol. 17, p. 607)
John Owen (Vol. 20, p. 892)
Ralph Cudworth (Vol. 7, p. 612)
Robert Leighton (Vol. 16, p. 898)
Jeremy Taylor (Vol. 26, p. 469)
Isaac Barrow (Vol. 8, p. 440)
Robert South (Vol. 25, p. 463)
John Tillotson (Vol. 26, p. 976)
Edward Stillingfleet (Vol. 25, p. 921)
Benjamin Hoadly (Vol. 18, p. 542)
Joseph Butler (Vol. 4, p. 882)
Thomas Boston (Vol. 4, p. 289)
John Wesley (Vol. 28, p. 527)
George Whitefield (Vol. 28, p. 603)
Thomas Chalmers (Vol. 5, p. 809)
Edward Irving (Vol. 14, p. 854)
Charles Haddon Spurgeon (Vol. 25, p.
742)
Edward Bouverie Pusey (Vol. 22, p.
667)
John Keble (Vol. 15, p. 710)
John Henry Newman (Vol. 19, p. 517)
Henry Edward Manning (Vol. 17, p.
589)
John Clifford (Vol. 6, p. 507)
George Muller (Vol. 18, p. 961)
Frederick Temple (Vol. 26, p. 600)
Archibald Campbell Tait (Vol. 26, p.
368)
Benjamin Jowett (Vol. 15, p. 527)
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley (Vol. 25, p.
777)
J. F. D. Maurice (Vol. 17, p. 910)
Hugh Price Hughes (Vol. 18, p. 860)
Andrew M. Fairbairn (Vol. 10, p. 129)
Norman Macleod (Vol. 17, p. 262)
American.
Cotton Mather (Vol. 17, p. 883)
Increase Mather (Vol. 17, p. 884)
Richard Mather (Vol. 17, p. 885)
Jonathan Edwards (Vol. 9, p. 2)
John Carroll (Vol. 5, p. 409)
J. L. A. M. L. de Cheyerus (Vol. 6, p.
114)
S. W. G. Brute (Vol. 4, p. 695)
John Witherspoon (Vol. 28, p. 759)
John Woolman (Vol. 28, p. 817)
Samuel Seabury (Vol. 24, p. 531)
Francis Asbury (Vol. 2, p. 715)
Peter Cartwright (Vol. 5, p. 485)
Matthew Simpson (Vol. 25, p. 185)
Demetrius A. Gallitzin (Vol. 11, p.
421)
Alexander Campbell (Vol. 5, p. 127)
John Winebrenner (Vol. 28, p. 729)
William A. Muhlenberg (Vol. 18, p.
957)
William Ellery Channing (Vol. 5, p.
843)
G. W. Doane (Vol. 8, p. 849)
Edward Payson (Vol. 21, p. 2)
Adoniram Judson (Vol. 15, p. 543)
John Hughes (Vol. 13, p. 860)
Archibald Alexander (Vol. 1, p. 564)
Moses Stuart (Vol. 25, p. 1048)
Nathaniel W. Taylor (Vol. 26, p. 472)
Leonard Bacon (Vol. 3, p. 152)
James Freeman Clarke (Vol. 6, p. 444)
Henry Ward Beecher (Vol. 3, p. 689)
Hosea Ballou (Vol. 3, p. 282)
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FOR MINISTERS
12Q
Horace Bushnell (Vol. 4, p. 873)
Phillips Brooks (Vol. 4, p. 649)
Edward Everett Hale (Vol. 12, p. 882)
R. S. Storrs (Vol. 25, p. 969)
Charles Force Deems (Vol. 7, p. 921)
Edwards Amasa Park (Vol. 20, p. 825)
David Swing (Vol. 26, p. 287)
Michael Augustine Corrigan (Vol. 7,
p. 197)
James Gibbons (Vol. 11, p. 986)
T. DeWitt Talmage (Vol. 26, p. 880)
Isaac T. Hecker (Vol. 18, p. 194)
Robert Collyer (Vol. 6, p. 694)
Henry C. McCook (Vol. 17, p. 205)
John Fletcher Hurst (Vol. 18, p. 960)
Dwight L. Moody (Vol. 18, p. 802)
Washington Gladden (Vol. 12, p. 68)
John Ireland (Vol. 14, p. 742)
John Joseph Keane (Vol. 15, p. 706)
Minot J. Savage (Vol. 24, p. 289)
Reuben Archer Torrey (Vol. 27, p. 61)
French.
John Gerson (Vol. 11, p. 904)
John Calvin (Vol. 5, p. 71)
Theodore Beza .(Vol. 8, p. 889)
St. Francis of Sales (Vol. 10, p. 940)
J. B. Bossuet (Vol. 4, p. 287)
Louis Bourdalous (Vol. 4, p. 829)
Esprit Flechier (Vol. 10, p. 491)
Jules Mascaron (Vol. 17, p. 886)
Jean Baptiste Massillon (Vol. 17, p.
867)
Jean Siffrein Maury (Vol. 17, p. 915)
These lists could easily be made longer
and fuller, but the articles mentioned give
such a view of the great preachers of the
world as cannot fail to stimulate any
minister. Supplementing what has been
said above about the necessity of the
minister's being a well-rounded man, it
may be worth while to notice that Donne
and Keble and, in a less degree, Doane
and Muhlenberg, were poets as well as
preachers; that Cudworth was known as
the founder of the Cambridge Platonists,
and Jowett as the translator of Plato,
Barrow as a mathematician, second, in
his day, only to Isaac Newton, Edward
Everett Hale as an essayist and writer of
short stories, and McCook as a great
naturalist.
The minister will find the Britannica an
excellent encyclopaedia of comparative
religion and of church history, with the
newest and most authoritative informa-
tion on any subject in this field. For a
brief outline course in these topics let him
read:
The article Religion (Vol. 23, p. 61;
equivalent to 50 pages of this Guide), by
Dr. Joseph Estlin Carpenter, principal
of Manchester College, Oxford, and Rob-
ert R. Marett, fellow and tutor of Exeter
College, Oxford, author of the Threshold
of Religion and contributor to the Bri-
tannica of articles on Prayer, Ritual, etc.
This article is made up of: a general in-
troduction sketching the history of the
study of religions, especially in the last
century, and concluding that "the origin
of religion can never be determined arch-
aeologically or historically; it must be
sought conjecturally through psychol-
ogy" > & section on primitive religion,
which is a remarkable summary of all
that is known of this subject; and a
section on the higher religions which
discusses developments of animism, transi-
tion to polytheism, polytheism, the order
of nature (a half-way stage to mono-
theism), monotheism, classification of re-
ligions, revelation, ethics and eschatology
and bibliography.
Another class of articles comprises An-
cestor Worship, Animal Worship,
Animism, Fetishism, Folklore, Magic,
Mythology, Prayer, Ritual, Sacri-
fice, Serpent- Worship, Totemism and
Tree- Worship, written by such author-
ities as N. W. Thomas, author of Kinship
and Marriage in Australia, etc., Andrew
Lang, Stanley Arthur Cooke and R. R.
Marett.
Certain primitive religions are sepa-
rately treated, as in the article Indians,
North American (Vol. 14, especially
pages 471-473), by A. F. Chamberlain,
assistant professor of anthropology,
Clark University, Worcester; in the ar-
ticle Australia (Vol. 2, especially p.
957); in the article Hawaii (Vol. 13,
pages 87, 88).
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130
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
On higher religions there are the fol-
lowing separate articles (among many):
Babylonian and Assyrian Religion,
by Morris Jastrow of the University of
Pennsylvania; and the articles Anai,
Ishtar, Ea, Marduk, Assur and Gil-
gamesh, — all by the same author and all
of particular value as throwing side-
lights on Hebrew Religion.
Egypt (Vol. 9, pp. 48-56), by Allan H.
Gardiner, editor of the New (Berlin)
Hieroglyphic Dictionary.
Hebrew Religion (Vol. 13, p. 176;
equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by
Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse, pro-
fessor of Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cam-
bridge; and the articles Hebrew Litera-
ture, Jews, etc.
Brahmanism (Vol. 4, p. 881) and Hin-
duism (Vol. 13, p. 501), by Julius Eggel-
ing, Professor of Sanskrit, Edinburgh.
Buddhism, Buddha and Lamaism, by
T. W. Rhys Davids, author of Buddhist
India, etc.
Confucius, by James Legge, author of
The Religions of China.
Sikhism, by Max Macauliffe, whose
book The Sikh Religion is accepted by the
Sikhs as authoritative.
Zoroaster, by Karl Geldner, profes-
sor at Marburg, and the article Parsees.
Mahommedan Religion (Vol. 17, p.
417; equivalent to 45 pages in this Guide^,
by G. W. Thatcher, warden of Camden
College, Sydney.
Mahomet, by D. S. Margoliouth,
Laudian professor of Arabic, Oxford;
Mahommedan Institutions and Ma-
hommedan Laws, by D. S. Macdonald,
professor of Semitic languages, Hartford
Theological Seminary.
Babiism, by E. G. Browne, professor of
Arabic, Cambridge, and author of His-
tory of the Bab.
Greek Religion (Vol. 12, p. 527), by
L. R. Farnell, fellow of Exeter College,
Oxford, author of Cults of the Greek
States; and such articles as Demeter,
Hecate, Hera, Hermes, Hestia, Nike,
Phoebus, Themis and Zeus.
Roman Religion (Vol. 23, p. 577), by
Cyril Bailey, fellow of Balliol College,
Oxford, and author of The Religion of
Ancient Rome; and such articles as Anna
Perenna, Arval Brothers, Bona Dea,
Concordia, Fama, Faunus, Juno and
Jupiter; and the valuable articles on
Eastern cults in Rome, Great Mother
of the Gods, Attis, Mithras, etc., by
Professor Grant Showerman of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin.
Christianity (Vol. 6, p. 280; equiva-
lent to 35 pages of this Guide), by G. W.
Knox, professor of philosophy and his-
tory of religion, Union Theological
Seminary, New York; Jesus Christ
(Vol. 15, p. 348; equivalent to 35 pages
of this Guide), by the Very Rev. Joseph
Armitage Robinson, Dean of Westmin-
ster; Gospel (Vol. 12, p. 265), by Rev.
V. H. Stanton, Ely professor of divinity,
Cambridge; articles on the separate
gospels; Paul the Apostle (Vol. 20,
p. 938), by the Rev. James Vernon
Bartlett, professor of church history,
Mansfield College, Oxford.
On Church History there is an ex-
cellent key article in volume 6 (p. 331;
equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide).
It begins with an outline of the work of
the great church historians and divides
the subject into three parts: first, up to
590 B.C., — this part and the general
introduction are by A. C. McGiffert,
professor of church history in Union
Theological Seminary, New York City;
second; the Church in the Middle Ages,
by Albert Hauck, professor of church
history at Leipzig; and The Modern
Church, by W. Alison Phillips, author
of Modern Europe. This sketch may be
filled in by reference to the following
articles (among many) :
Abyssinian Church
Armenian Church
Roman Catholic Church
Papacy
Orthodox Eastern Church
Reformation
England, Church of
Ireland, Church of
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FOR MINISTERS
131
Scotland, Church of
Scotland, Episcopal Church in
Lutherans
Baptists
Presbyterianism
Cameronians
Congregationalism
Methodism
Friends, Society of
Calvini8tic Methodists
Disciples of Christ
German Baptist Brethren
Mennonites
Moravian Brethren
Doukhobors
German Catholics
Old Catholics
United Brethren
United Presbyterian Church
A brief course in theology and dogma
is contained in the following articles:
Theology (Vol. 26, p. 772; equivalent
to 45 pages in this Guide), by the Rev.
Dr. Robert Mackintosh of Lancashire
Independent College, Manchester.
Atonement
Baptism
Confession
Confirmation
Conversion
Dogmatic Theology
eschatology
Eucharist
Excommunication
Grace
Immaculate Conception
Infallibility
Inspiration
Penance
Predestination
Purgatory
Sin
tran8ub8tantiation
Worship
On Religious Orders:
Abbey
Friars
Monasticism
Monk
Nun
Sisterhoods
and see also the names of different orders
and hundreds of biographical articles on
saints and heretics, preachers and theolo-
gians.
The following alphabetical list in-
cludes only a part of the articles in the
Britannica on religious topics; but it
will serve to show the value of the book
to a clergyman in his own field:
Abbess
Abbey
Abbot
Abbreviators
Abecedarians
Abgar
Ablution
Abrahami tes
Absolution
Abstemii
Abyssinian Church
Acephali
Acerra
Acoemeti
Acolyte
Adamites
Adiaphorists
Adoptianism
Advent
Adventiste, Second
Advocatus Diaboli
Agape
Agapemonites
Agapetae
Agapetus
Agnoetae
Agnosticism
Agnus Dei
Agrapha
Alb
Albigenscs
Allah
AU Saints
All Souls Day
Allocution
Almoner
Almuce
Altar
Ambrosians
Ambrosiaster
Amen
Amice
Amora
Ampulla
Anabaptists
Anathema
Angel
Angelus
Anglican Communion
Anglo-Israelite Theory
Annates
Annunciation
Anthropomorphism
Antichrist
Antinomians
Antitype
Apocalypse, Knights of
Apologetics
Apostasy
Apostle
Apostolic Canons
Apostolic Fathers
Apostolical Constitu-
tions
Apostolic!
Apotactites
Apotheosis
Aquarii
Arabic!
Archbishop
Archdeacon
Arches, Court of
Archimandrite
Archpriest
Aristides, Apology of
Arras
Ark
Armenian Church •
Artemon
Asaph
Ascension, Feast of
Asceticism
Ascitans
Ash-Wednesday
Asperges
Assassins
Assumption, Feast of
Asterius of Cappadocia
Atheism
Athos, Mount
Atonement
Attrition
Augsburg, Confession
of
Augustinians
Augustinians Canons
Augustinian Hermits
Autocephalous
Auto da F6
Auxentius of Cappa-
docia
Acan
Acymites
Babiism
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Babylonian Captivity
Bagimond's Roll
Bairam
Bambino, II
Bangorian Controversy
Baphomet
Baptism
Baptists
Basel, Confession of
Basel, Council of
Basilian Monks
Beatification
Beguines
Benedictines
Benediction
Benedictus
Bethlehemites
Bible Christians
Bidding-Prayer
Biretta
Bishop
Black Veil
Bogomils
Bollandists
Boy's Brigade
Breviary
Bridgebuilding Broth-
erhood
Bridgittines
Brothers of Common
Life
Cadi
Calf, The Golden
Calvary
Calvinistic Ministers
Camaldulians
Cameronians
Candlemas
Canon
Canoness
Canon Law
Canonization
Capuchins
Cardinal
Carmathians
Carmelites
Carnival
Carthage, Synods of
Carthusians
Cassock
Catechism
Catechumen
Cathars
Catholic
Catholic Apostolic
Church
Celestines
Celibacy
Cenobites
Cerdonians
Chalcedon, Council of
Chaldee
Chalice
Chambre Ardente
Chant
Chantry
Chapel
Chapter
Chaplain
Chasuble
Chiliasm
Chimere
Chrism
Christ
Christadelphians
Christian Catholic
Church
Christian Connection
Christian Endeavour
Societies
Christianity
Christian Science
Christmas
Church
Church Army
Church Congress
Church History
Churching of Women
Churchwarden
Ciborium
Cistercians
Clares, Poor
Clergy
Clerk
Clementine Literature
Cluny
Cohen
Commendation
Common Order, Book
of
Conclave
Concord, Book of
Concordat
Confession
Confessional
Confessor
Confirmation
Confirmation of Bish-
ops
Congregation
Congregationalism
Consistory
Consistory Courts
Constance, Council of
Constantinople, Coun-
cils of
Consuetudinary
Convent
Conversion
Convocation
Cope
Copts
Corban
Corporal
Corpus Christi, Feast
Council
Cowl
Cowley Fathers
Creatianism and Tra-
ducianism
Credence
Creeds
Cross and Crucifixion
Crozier
Culdees
Curia Romana
Curate
Cyprus, Church of
Dalmatic
Davidists
Deacon
Deaconess
Dean
Decretals
Dedication
Deism
Dervish
Devil
Didache, The
Diocese
Diognetus, Epistle to
Dionysius Areopagi-
ticus
Diptych
Dirge
Disciples of Christ
Dispensation
Dissenter
Docetae
Dogma
Dogmatic Theology
Dominicans
Donation of Constan-
tine
Donatists
Dort, Synod of
Dossal
Doukhobors
Doxology
Easter
Ebionites
Ecclesiastical Jurisdic-
tion
Ecclesiastical Commis-
sioners
Elder
Elvira, Synod of
Ember Days
Encyclical
Energia
England, Church of
Enthusiasm
Ephesus, Council of
Ephod
Epiphany, Feast of
Episcopacy
Eschatology
Essenes
Establishment
Eucharist
Evangelical Alliance
Evangelical Association
Evangelical Church
Conference
Evangelical Union
Exarch
Excommunication
Exorcist
Extreme Unction
Fakir
Faldstool
Familists
Fasting
Fathers of the Church
Feasts and Festivals
Febronianism
Ferrara-F 1 o r e n c e ,
Council of
Flagellants
Font
Franciscans
Frankincense
Fraticelli
Free Baptists, or Free-
will Baptists
Free Church of Eng-
land
Free Church of Scot-
land
Free Church Federa-
tion
Friars
Friends, Society of
Gallicanism
Gaon
German Baptist Breth-
ren, or German
Brethren (U. S. A.)
German Catholics
German Evangelical
Synod of North
America
Ghazi
Giaour
Glasites
Glory
Gnosticism
Golden Rose
Good Friday
Grace
Gradual
Grandmontines
Great Awakening
Gustavus Adolphus
Union
Habdala
Haggada
Hagiology
Haij
Halakha
Halfway Covenant
Halisah
Hallel
Hanukkah
Haptara
Harem
Hebrew Religion
Heidelberg Catechism
Helvetic Confessions
Hemerobaptists
Heresy
Hermas, Shepherd of
Hermeneutics
Hermit
Hesychasts
Hierarchy
Hieronymites
High Place
Hippolytus, The Can-
ons of
Holy
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Holy Water
Holy Week
Homiletics
Homily
Hospice
Houri
Hours, Canonical
House!
Humanitarians
Humiliati
Hussites
Hymns
Hypostasis
Iblis
Icon
Iconoclasts
Ignorantines
ifiuminati
Image
Imam
Imitation of Christ, The
Immaculate Conception
Immortality
In Coena Domini
Incumbent
Independents
Index Librorum Pro-
hibitorum
Indulgence
Indult
Infallibility
Innocents' Day
Inquisition, The
Inspiration
Installation
Institutional Church
Interim
Interdict
Investiture
Ireland, Church of
Islam
Jacobite Church
Jansenism
Jehovah
Jerahmeel
Jerusalem, Synod of
Jesuati
Jesuits
Jesus Christ
Jews
Jihad
Jubilee, Year
Jubilee, Year of
Ka'ba
Kabbalah
Kermesse
Keswick Convention
Kismet
Koran
Koreshan Ecclesia, The
Kosher or Kasher
Kyrie
Labour Church, The
Lamb
Lambeth Conferences
Laodicea, Synod of
Lateran Councils
Laud
Lavabo
Lay
Laymen, Houses of
Lazarites
Lazarus, St., Order of
Lection, Lectionary
Lector
Legate
Lent
Libellatici
Liber Diurnus
Liber Pontificalis
Libertines
Lights, Ceremonial use
of
Limbus
Limina Apostolorum
Lincoln Judgment, The
Litany
Liturgy
Logia
Low Churchman
Low Sunday
Lutheran
Luther League
Lyons, Councils of
Mahdi
Mahommedan Institu-
tions
Mahommedan Law
Mahommedan Religion
Mandaeans
Manichaeism
Maniple
Manse
Marabout
Marburg, Colloquy of
Marcion and the Mar-
cionite Church
Maronites
Marprelate Controversy
Martyr
Marty rology
Matins
Maundy Thursday
Mauris ts
Mechitharists
Melchites
Mendicant Movement
and Orders
Mennonites
Messiah
Methodism
Methodist New Con-
nexion
Metropolitan
Midrash
Millennium
Minister
Miracle
Miserere
Missal
Missions
Mitre
Moderator
Monarchianism
Monasticism
Monk
Monophysites
Monothelites
Monsignor
Monstrance
Montanism
Moravian Brethren
Mormons
Morse
Mortuary
Mozarab
Muckers
Mufti
Mysticism
Mythology
Nazarenes
Necrology
Neo-Caesarea, Synod of
Neophyte
Nestorians
New Jerusalem Church
New Year's Day
Nicaea, Councils of
Nfmes, Councils of
Nonconformist
Nosairis
Novice
Nun
Nuncio
Oblation
Oecumenical
Offertory
Official
Old Catholics
Olivetans
Ophites
Oratory
Oratory of St Philip
Neri, Congregation
of the
Order, Holy
Orphrey
Orthodox Eastern
Church
Pallium or Pall
Palm Sunday
Pantheism
Party Royal
Passion Week
Pastoral Letter
Pastoral Staff
Patarenes
Paten
Patriarch
Patron
Paulicians
Pax
Pectoral
Peculiar
Peculiar People
Pelagius
Penance
Penitential
Penitentiary
Pentecost
Peter's Pence
Pew
Philadelphians
Phylactery
Piarists
Pietism
Pilgrim
Pilgrimage
Pirke Aboth
Pisa, Council of
Pistoia, Synod of
Plymouth Brethren
Poissy, Colloquy of
Pope
Prayer, Book of Com-
mon
Prayers for the Dead
Preaching
Prebendary
Precentor
Preconization
Predestination
Prelate
Premonstratensians
Presbyter
Presbyterianism
Primate
Primitive Methodist
Church
Prior
Procession
Procession Path
Prolocutor
Proselyte
Protestant
Protestant Episcopal
Church
Protestantenverein
Provision
Purgatory
Purim
Puritanism
Qaraites
Quakers
Quietism
Rabbi
Ramadan
Ranters
Rawendis
Rector
Recusant
Reformed Churches
Reformed Church \u
America (Dutch)
Reformed Church in
U. S. A. (German)
Reformed Episcopal
Church
Regium Donum
Regular
Relics
Religion
Remonstrants
Requiem
Reredos
Retable
Reverend
Ritual
River Brethren
Robber, Synod
Rochet
Rogation Days
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Roman Catholic Church
Rood
Rosary
Rota, Court of
Rubric
Rum
Sabbation
Sabians
Sacerdotalism
Sacrament
Sacramentals
Sacramentarians
Sacrarium
Sacred Heart
Saint John of Jeru-
salem
Salvation Army
Saragossa, Councils of
Sardica, Council of
Schism
Scillitan Martyrs
Scotland, Church of
Scotland, Episcopal
Church in
Sect
Secular
See
Sepulchre, Canons Reg-
ular of the Holy
Servites
Sexton
Shakers
Shiites
Shrine
Shrove Tuesday
Silvestrines
Sin
Sion College
Sisterhoods
Skoptsi
Soutane
Spanish Reformed
Church
Sponsor
Stations of the Cross
Stigmatization
Stole
Suffragan
Sufiism
Sunnites
Supererogation
Superintendent
Surplice
Syllabus
Symbol
Synagogue
Synagogue, United
Synazarium
Syncellus
Synedrium
Synod
Talmud
Tanna
Targum
Templars
Tenebrae
Tertiaries
Testamentum Domini
Tetragrammaton
Teutonic Order
Theism
Theocracy
Theology
Theosophy
Therapeutae
Thurible
Tiara
Tithes
Toledo, Councils of
Tonsure
Transubstantiation
Trappists
Trent, Council of
Trinitarians
Trinity Sunday
Tunicle
Ulema
Ultramontanism
Unction
Unitarianism
United Brethren ii
Christ
United Free Church of
Scotland
United Methodist
Church
United Methodist Free
Churches
United Presbvterian
Church
Universalist Church
Ursulines
Vallombrosians
Vatican, Council of
Venerable
Verger
Vespers
Vestments
Viaticum
Vicar
Vienne, Council of
Vigil
Wahhabis
Waldenses
Wesleyan Methodist
Church
Westminister Synods
Whitsunday, or Pente-
cost
Worship
Yezidis
Young Men's Christian
Association
Zenana
CHAPTER XXV
FOR PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS AND DENTISTS
THE Britannica adds so largely
to medical literature that, in out-
lining the services which the work
can render to those engaged in the pre-
vention and treatment of disease, it is
desirable to define the limits, rather than
to insist upon the extent, of the plan
adopted by the technical assistant editors
to whom the Editor-in-chief entrusted
the control of this important part of
the undertaking. It is true that the 644
medical articles, many of which might
be described as books in themselves,
cover the whole field of anatomy, phy-
siology, pathology, therapeutics, surgery,
pharmacology, medical education, medi-
cal jurisprudence and medical biography.
It is also true that the writers who sign
these articles are specialists of world-
wide authority, and that the total
number of words and illustrations in these
articles is as great as would be required
for a complete encyclopaedic handbook
of medical science. But, notwithstand-
ing all this wealth of matter and of inter-
national collaboration, the Britannica
does not profess to take the place of the
elementary working library in daily use
by every professional man. "Working
library" is, however, an elastic term,
and it is used here to mean only the hand-
books which constitute an irreducible
minimum, the few without which no
beginner would venture to establish
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FOR PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS AND DENTISTS
135
himself in practice. Certain manuals
are, to the practitioner, what mathe-
matical tables are to the engineer; and
it is not the function of the Britannica
to duplicate what the practitioner al-
ready posseses, nor yet, for example, to
include a pharmacopoeia in a book used
by the general public.
On the other hand, no professional
man restricts himself a day longer than
he must to the bare modicum of medical
literature with which
The he may have been
Encyclopaedic forced, at first, to do
Method his best; and when
he can add anything
to it, there is nothing he will use so
often, or find so helpful, as the Britannica.
It may be well to define in general, its
professional uses, before dealing in de-
tail with the articles included in this
course of reading.
(1) The system of technical collabora-
tion is, in the Britannica, organized and
coordinated with a completeness which
gives the medical articles an authority
and impartiality often lacking in isolated
treatises. The contributors were selected
with a view to their recognized ability
only, whereas the publication of medical
works is too often an outcome of the
writer's ambitions, which, however legiti-
mate they may be, are no proof of his
capacity.
(2) The Britannica articles were writ-
ten for the sole purpose of being used in
their present form. A great part of
current medical literature originates in
lectures to students, and retains too
much of its first form to be satisfactory
to the professional man.
(S) The articles are all based upon
an original and recent survey of knowl-
edge, and thus contain information which
cannot be found in reprints of standard
medical works insufficiently brought up
to date by additions to earlier editions.
(4) In relation to statistics, to admin-
istrative and legislative provisions re-
garding public health, to hospitals and
other public institutions, the broadly
international character of the Britannica,
with its contributions from twenty
different countries, gives a scope which
the private writer cannot attain.
(5) The great number of biographies
of physicians, surgeons and men who
devote themselves exclusively to re-
search, gives professional men access to
information which they cannot else-
where obtain.
(6) Chemistry, bacteriology, general
biology, botany, psychology and other
sciences allied to the more immediate
field of medicine are fully treated by
specialists of the highest authority.
(7) Apart from the definite occupa-
tional diseases (fully discussed in the
Britannica), there is often a relation be-
tween the pathological results of overwork
and the routine of the patient's business
life. Every branch of industry and com-
merce is treated in detail in the Bri-
tannica, and the insight which the phy-
sician may thus gain will often be of ser-
vice to him.
(8) The Britannica not only enlarges
the medical library of the practitioner,
but gives him, and the members of his
family, the use of the only complete K-
brary of general information.
Specifically, the medical and surgi-
cal section of the Britannica com-
prises 3 general articles, constituting
broad systematic surveys of the various
provinces of the subject: 103 articles on
anatomy and physiology, which are
partly surgical; £65
Scope of the articles on pathol-
Medical Section ogy; 75 on pharma-
cology; 21 on public
health, in addition to the articles on
dentistry and on veterinary science,
and 170 biographies. But this compre-
hensive scheme does not by any means
include all the material of value to the
medical man. The sister sciences of
chemistry, physics, biology, botany, zool-
ogy and psychology, have much to offer
him. A consultation of the list appended
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
to this section will show how the needs
of the physician and surgeon are served
by the Encyclopaedia. It must suffice
here to call attention briefly to some of
the more important contributions.
Taking up, first, the more general
articles, there is Medicine (Vol. 18, p.41)
containing about 35,000 words. This deals
with the history and development of the
science. Dr. J. F. Payne of the Royal
College of Physicians, London, traces
its history from the earliest known
times to the middle of the 19th century;
and Sir T. C. Allbutt, professor of phy-
sic in Cambridge University, completes
this review with a section on Modern
Progress (p. 55). Of high practical value
is Medical Jurisprudence or Forensic
Medicine (Vol. 16, p. 25), by H. H.
Littlejohn, professor of forensic medicine,
University of Edinburgh, and T. A.
Ingram. This deals solely with that
branch of the science which has to do
with the application of medical knowledge
to certain questions of civil and criminal
law. There are discussions of questions
affecting the civil or social rights of in-
dividuals, and injuries to the person,
the function of the physician in questions
of mutilation, homicide, infanticide, poi-
soning, etc. Medical Education (Vol.
18, p. 23) is a useful reference article by
Sir John Batty Tuke, Dr. W. H. Howell,
dean of the medical faculty, Johns Hop-
kins University, and Dr. H. L. Hennessy,
furnishing data on the educational quali-
fications necessary to the practice of
medicine in Europe and America.
Dr. Frederick G. Parsons,vice-president
of the Anatomical Society of Great
Britain and Ireland,
Anatomy, lecturer on Anat-
Embryology, omy at St. Thom-
and Physiology as's Hospital, Lon-
don, contributes the
general article Anatomy (Vol. 1, p.
920) which goes deeply into its history,
and has further sections on Modern
Human Anatomy (Anthropotomy) and
Anatomy, Superficial and Artistic This
noted authority also writes detailed and
fully illustrated articles on the anat-
omy and embryology of the Brain
(Vol. 4, p. 392); Heart (Vol. 13, p.
129); Eye (Vol. 10, p. 91); Ear (Vol. 8,
791) ; Olfactory System (Vol. 20, p. 77) ;
Lymphatic System (Vol. 17, p. 166);
Vascular System (Vol. 27, p. 926);
Nervous System (Vol. 19, p. 400);
MuscuLAif System (Vol. 19, p. 51);
Reproductive System (Vol. 23, p. 129) ;
and Respiratory System (Vol. 23, p.
184) and on the Skeleton (Vol. 25, p.
169); Skin and Exoskeleton (Vol. 25,
p. 188); Skull (Vol. 25, p. 196); Joints
(Vol. 15, p. 483); and Nerve (Vol. 19,
p. 394). Another valuable anatomical
article is Connective Tissues (Vol. 6,
p. 958), by Dr. T. G. Brodie of the Uni-
versity of Toronto. Prof. Adam Sedg-
wick writes a most excellent general
and historical account of Embryology
(Vol. 9, p. 314); and Dr. Hans A. E.
Driesch of Heidelberg University adds to
it a section Physiology of Development
(p. 329), treating of the laws that govern
the development of the organism. The
general article Physiology (Vol. 21,
p. 554) is from the pen of the celebrated
Prof. Max Verworn of the University
of Bonn, and to this there are closely
linked, according to the new plan of
the Britannica, extensive and detailed
accounts of the physiology of the Brain
(Vol. 4, p. 403); Sympathetic System
(Vol. 26, p. 287); Spinal Cord (Vol. 25,
p. 672); Muscle and Nerve (Vol. 19,
p. 44); Respiratory System (Vol. 23,
p. 187); Vascular System (Vol. 27, p.
929) ; Alimentary Canal (Vol. 1, p. 663) ;
Blood (Vol. 4, p. 77), etc., by noted
specialists, including Dr. Charles S.
Sherrington, professor of physiology in
the University of Liverpool, Dr. J. S.
Haldane of Oxford University, Dr. L.
E. Hill, lecturer on physiology at the
London Hospital, Dr. P. Chalmers Mit-
chell, and Dr. T. G. Brodie of the Uni-
versity of Toronto.
Drs, D.J.Hamilton and Richard Muir
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137
are the authors of a brilliant summary of
the whole subject of Pathology (Vol. 20,
p. 913) with over 50
Articles on illustrations, includ-
Pathology ing coloured plates.
The whole story of
the elevation of the science dealing with
the theory and causation of disease from a
mere philosophical abstraction to one of
the natural sciences is admirably told.
For the pathological details of various dis-
eases and groups of diseases the reader is
referred to Parasitic Diseases (Vol. 20,
p. 770), fully illustrated, by Dr. G. Sims
Woodhead, professor of pathology, Cam-
bridge University, one of the notable
contributions to the Britannica; Meta-
bolic Diseases (Vol. 18, p. 195), by
Prof. D. N. Paton of Edinburgh Univer-
sity; Digestive Organs, Pathology (Vol.
8, p. 262) by Dr. A. L. Gillespie of Edin-
burgh and M. Fisher; Kidney Diseases
(Vol. 15, p. 784), by Dr. J. R. Bradford
of University College Hospital, London,
and Dr. Edmund Owen, the famous
English surgeon; Bladder and Pros-
tate Diseases (Vol. 4, p. 27) ; Venereal
Diseases (Vol. 27, p. 983)— these two
also by Dr. Owen; Skin Diseases (Vol.
25, p. 190); Insanity (Vol. 14, p. 597),
by Sir John Batty Tuke, president of
the Neurological Society of the United
Kingdom, and medical director of the
New Staughton Hall Asylum, Edin-
burgh, Dr. J. Macpherson, and Dr. L.
C. Bruce, author of Studies in Clinical
Psychiatry, — for this article the noted
American specialist Dr. Frederick Peter-
son has written a section on Hospital
Treatment of the insane; Neuropathol-
ogy (Vol. 19, p. 429), fully illustrated,
by Dr. F. W. Mott, the distinguished
pathologist to the London County Asy-
lums, and editor of the Archives of
Neurology; Respiratory System, Path-
ology (Vol. 23, p. 195), by Dr. Thomas
Harris, author of numerous articles on
this subject, and Dr. H. L. Hennessy;
Blood, Pathology (Vol. 4, p. 82), by Dr.
G. L. Gulland of Edinburgh; Heart,
Disease (Vol. 13, p. 132), by Sir J. F.
H. Broadbent, author of Heart Disease
and Aneurysm, etc.; Eye, Diseases (Vol.
10, p. 94), by Dr. George A. Berry, hon.
surgeon oculist to his Majesty George V;
Vision, Errors of Refraction and Accommo-
dation (Vol. 28, p. 142), by Dr. Ernest
Clark of the Central London Ophthalmic
Hospital; Ear, Diseases of (Vol. 8, p.
794), by Dr. E. C. Baber, late senior
surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat
and Ear Hospital.
Dr. Harriet L. Hennessy is the author
of Gynaecology (Vol. 12, p. 764).
For more specific details there is the
complete list of articles on different dis-
eases and ailments under their common
names. This includes veterinary dis-
eases, to which branch of medicine an
admirable introduction is furnished by
Veterinary Science (Vol. 28, p. 2), by
Drs. George Fleming and James Mac-
Queen. In the articles on diseases there
will be found accounts of the latest
methods of diagnosis and treatment, as,
for example, the Calmette eye-test in
tubercular diseases, serum treatment
and its latest developments, vaccine
therapy, etc.
The general article Therapeutics
(Vol. 26, p. 793), by Dr. Sir Lauder
Brunton, consulting physician to St.
Bartholomew's Hos-
Therapeutics pital, London, au-
thor of Modern The-
rapeutics, etc., not only discusses both
rational and empirical therapeutics, but,
taking up the different parts of the body
considers in detail the therapeutic meas-
ures most commonly employed in the
treatment of disease. The subjects of
Electrotherapeutics (Vol. 9, p. 249);
Baths (Vol. 3, p. 514); Balneothera-
peutics (Vol. 3, p. 284); Hydropathy
(Vol. 14, p. 165); Aerotherapeutics
(Vol. 1, p. 270); Massage (Vol. 17, p.
863) and X-Ray Treatment (Vol. 28,
p. 887) have separate articles devoted
to them. The last is by Dr. H. L.
Jones, clinical lecturer on medical elec-
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138
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tricity at St. Bartholomew's Hospital,
London.
In connection with the subject of
therapeutics, mention must be made of
Phabmacology (Vol. 21, p. 347), by
Professor Stockman of the University of
Glasgow, in which will be found an in-
teresting history of drugs, and a classi-
fication into 28 groups with a descrip-
tion of the effect of each remedy. To
this valuable material Dr. H. L. Hennes-
sy has added a section, Terminology
in Therapeutics (p. 352) — a general ex-
planation of the common names used in
the classification of drugs. The list at
the end of this chapter indicates the
separate articles on drugs and on materi-
als from which the principal drugs are
obtained.
Dr. Charles Creighton of King's Col-
lege, Cambridge, writes on the history
of Surgery (Vol. 26, p. 125) and the
famous English Surgeon,
Surgery Dr. Edmund Owen the
section Modern Practice of
Surgery (p. 129) in which are discussed
antiseptic and aseptic surgery, drainage
tubes, bloodless operations, Rontgen
rays, use of radium, etc. The article
Surgical Instruments and Appli-
ances (Vol. 26, p. 132) is fully illustrated.
Dr. Owen also contributes articles on
the surgery of the different organs, the
article Bone, Diseases and Injuries
(Vol. 4, p. 200) and many accounts of
diseases and disorders that come within
the province of the surgeon, such as
Appendicitis (Vol. 2, p. 217); Perito-
nitis (Vol. 21, p. 171); Hernia (Vol.
13, p. 372); Fistula (Vol. 10. p.
438); Varicose Veins (Vol. 27, p. 920),
and Haemorrhoids (Vol. 12, p. 805).
Sir Alexander R. Simpson, emeritus
professor of midwifery and the diseases
of women and children, University of
Edinburgh, writes on Obstetrics (Vol.
19, p. 962); Dr. Louis Courtauld, for-
merly research scholar, Middlesex Hos-
pital Cancer Laboratories, on Tumour
(Vol. 27, p. 370); Dr. Arthur Shadwell,
of the Epidemiological Society, on Can-
cer, with a special account of cancer
research; and H. C. Crouch, teacher of
anaesthetics at St. Thomas's Hospital,
London, on Anaesthesia and An-
aesthetics (Vol. 1, p. 907).
A most interesting, unusual and in-
structive course of reading on the his-
tory and development of medicine may
be based on the
Medical biographical articles
Biographies alone. In Aescu-
lapius (Vol. 1, p.
276) we learn how the gods of Greece
effected cures. The life story of Hip-
pocrates (Vol. 13, p. 518) is worthy of
note, for the "medical art as we now
practice it, the character of the physi-
cian as we now understand it," both
date from him. For information about
the theory that disease originated from
an irregular or inharmonius motion of the
body corpuscles we turn to Asclepiades
(Vol. 2, p. 722). An account of the man
"out of whom the greater part of medi-
cine has flowed" is found in Galen (Vol.
11, p. 398). The biography of the
great Arab physician and philosopher
Avicenna (Vol. 3, p. 62) should not be
overlooked, nor the story of the revolt of
Paracelsus (Vol. 20, p. 749). Impor-
tant and interesting, too, are the biog-
raphies of Harvey, William (Vol. 13,
p. 42); Sydenham, Thomas (Vol. 26,
p. 277), the father of English medicine,
and Haller, A. von (Vol. 12, p. 855),
whose work marks the beginning of mod-
ern physiology. The work of Morgagni
(Vol. 18, p. 831) in pathological anatomy
marks an epoch in medicine, and the
description in Cullen, William (Vol.
7, p. 616) of his new doctrine of "irri-
tability" possesses a distinct interest.
The accounts of Jenner, Edward (Vol.
15, p. 319), Hunter, John (Vol. 13, p.
939) and Hahnemann, S.C.F. (Vol. 12,
p. 819) describe momentous events in
the history of medicine at the close of
the 18th century, while among the great
names of the 19th will be found the
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FOR PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS AND DENTISTS
139
chemist Pasteur (Vol. 20, p. 892),
Koch, Robert (Vol. 15, p. 885), Lister
(Vol. 16, p. 777) and Virchow, Rudolf
(Vol. 28, p. 110).
It has already been noted that the
Britannica will prove an invaluable help
to medical specialists in fields of knowl-
edge other than their
The Allied own. The regret is
Sciences often expressed by
physicians that it is
not easy for them to study subjects
outside their profession, even when
these are closely connected with their
work. It is, unfortunately, only too
true, that material for such study is not
readily available. But with so complete
a work of reference at his disposal, and
with its highly authentic information
skillfully compressed into reasonable
space, the medical man now enjoys a
magnificent opportunity to obtain a
full acquaintance with many subjects
that he knows will assist him in the
work.
It would be impossible to name all the
articles here, but the alphabetical list at the
end of this chapter includes them, and
the attention of the physician and sur-
geon is directed to Bacteriology (Vol.
3, p. 156), by the late Prof. H. M. Ward
of Cambridge and Prof. V. H. Blackman
of the University of Leeds, and especially
the section Pathological Importance (p.
171), which Prof. Robert Muir of Glas-
gow University has written; Biology
(Vol. 3, p. 954), a classic article by the
late Professor Huxley, revised and
brought up-to-date by Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell; Heredity (Vol. 13, p. 350),
also by Dr. Mitchell; Mendelism (Vol.
18, p. 115), a brilliant study of the
foundations of an exact knowledge of the
physiological process of heredity, by
Prof. R. C. Punnett of Cambridge; Evo-
lution (Vol. 10, p. 22) and Longevity
(Vol. 16, p. 974), both by Dr. Mitchell;
Nutrition (Vol. 19, p. 921), by Prof. D.
N. Paton and Dr. E. P. Cathcart of
Glasgow University; Dietetics (Vol. 8,
p. 214), by the world-famous authority
on this subject, the late Prof. W. O. At-
water, and R. D. Milner, formerly of the
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; Vegetarian-
ism (Vol. 27, p. 967), by Dr. Josiah Old-
field, senior physician to the Lady Mar-
garet Fruitarian Hospital, Bromley; Cli-
mate in the Treatment of Disease (Vol. 6,
p. 526); Acclimatization (Vol. 1, p. 114),
by the renowned scientist, Dr. A. Russel
Wallace; a very complete and up-to-date
article on Vivisection (Vol. 28, p. 153),
by Dr. Stephen Paget; Psychology (Vol.
22, p. 547), by Prof. James Ward of
Cambridge; Psychical Research (Vol.
22, p. 544), by Andrew Lang, which is the
key to a series of 25 remarkably interest-
ing articles covering the entire subject;
Hypnotism (Vol. 14, p. 201); Faith
Healing (Vol. 10, p. 135); Suggestion
(Vol. 26, p. 48); Phrenology (Vol. 21, p.
534), by Professor Macalister of Cam-
bridge; Temperance (Vol. 26, p. 578), by
Dr. Arthur Shadwell; Microscope (Vol.
18, p. 392) ; Blindness, Causes and Pre-
vention (Vol. 4, p. 60), by Sir Francis J.
Cambell, principal Royal Normal College
for the Blind, London; Deaf and Dumb
(Vol. 7, p. 880), by Rev. A. H. Payne,
formerly of the National Deaf Mute Col-
lege, Washington.
The subject of Dentistry (Vol. 8, p.
50) is covered by the highest American
authority, Dr. Edward C. Kirk, of the
University of Pennsylvania, and a full
account of the anatomy of the teeth will
be found under Teeth (Vol. 26, p. 499),
by Dr. F. G. Parsons. It is, however, in
connection with bacteriology, chemistry,
metallurgy, mechanics and other subjects
with which the dentist is concerned, rathe*
than in connection with the technics of
his profession, that he will desire to
make use of the Britannica.
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140
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF
SPECIAL INTEREST AND IMPORTANCE TO MEMBERS OF THE
MEDICAL PROFESSION
Abano, Pietro d\
Abattoir
Abdomen
Abercrombie, J.
Abercromby, D.
Abercromby, P.
Abernethy, J.
Abortion
Abscess
Abscission
Abu-1-qasim
Acclimatization
Acetic Acid
Ackennann, J. C. G.
Acland, Sir H. W.
Acne
Aconite
Acromegaly
Acron
Actinomycosis
Acupressure
Acupuncture
Adam's Apple
Addison's Disease
Adenoids
Adolescence
Adulteration
Aegineta, Paulus
Aerotherapeutics
Aesculapius
Aetius
Agnew, David Hayes
Ague
Ala
Albumin, or Albumen
Albuminuria
Alcohol
Aldehydes
Alexander of Tralles
Alienist
Alimentary Canal
Aloe
Alum
Amaurosis
Ambulance
Amman, J. C.
Amman, Paul
Ammonia
Amuck, Running
Amyl Nitrite
Anabolism
Anaemia
Anaesthesia and An-
aesthetics
Anatomy
Anderson, Elizabeth G.
Anel, Dominique
Aneurysm, or Aneur-
ism
Angina Pectoris
Animal Heat
Anise
Ankle
Ankylosis
Ankylostomiasis
Anodyne
Anthrax
Antipyrine
Antiseptics
Aphasia
Aphemia
Apnoea
Aponeurosis
Apophysis
Apoplexy
Apothecary
Appendicitis
Apyrexia
Araroba Powder
Aretaeus
Arm
Arnica
Arnott, Neil
Arrowroot
Arsenic
Arteries
Arthritis
Articulation .
Arytenoid
Asafetida
Ascites
Asclepiades
Aselli, or Asselio, Gas-
paro
Asphyxia
Asthma
Astruc, Jean
Athetosis
Athletic Sports
Atrophy
Aureiianus Caelius
Auscultation
Autopsy
Avenzoar
Baby-farming
Bacteriology
Baldinger, E. G.
Baldness
Balneotherapeutics
Balsam
Barthez, P. J.
Bartholinus, Gaspard
Baths
Beddoes, Thomas
Bedlam, or Bethelem
Hospital
Bedsore
Bell, Sir Charles
Bell, John
Belladonna
Bellini, Lorenzo
Bence-Jones, Henry
Bennett, John Hughes
Benzoic Acid
Benzoin
Beri-Beri
Bernard, Claude
Bert, P.
Bhang
Bibirine
Bichat, M. F. X.
Bilharziosis
Billroth, A. C. T.
Biology
Bismuth
Blackwater Fever
Bladder
Bladder and Prostrate
Diseases
Blane, Sir Gilbert
Blindness
Blister
Blood
Blood-letting
Boerhaave, Hermann
Boil
Bone
Borax
Borelli, G. A.
Boric, or Boracic Acid
Bow-leg
Boyer, Alexis
Brain
Brasdor, Pierre
Breast
Bright's Disease
Brocklesby, Richard
Brodie, Sir B. C.
Bromine
Bronchiectasis
Bronchitis
Bronchotomy
Broussais, F. J. V.
Brown, John
Brown-Sequard, C. E.
Bunion
Burdon-Sanderson, Sir
John S.
Burns and Scalds
Busk, George
Cabanis, P. J. G
Caesarean Section
Caffeine
Caisson Disease
Cajuput Oil
Calabar Bean
Caldani, L. M. A.
Calomel
Camphors
Cancer, or Carcinoma
Cantharides
Capsicum
Carbolic Acid, or
Phenol
Carbonic Acid
Carbuncle
Cartilage
Carus, K. G.
Castor Oil
Catabolism
Catalepsy
Catarrh
Catechu
Caul
Caustic
Cephalic Index
Chadwick, Sir Edwin
Chamomile
Charcot, Jean Martin
Charity and Charities
Chemistry
Cheselden, William
Chicken-pox
Chilblains
Chirurgeon
Chloral
Chlorates
Chloroform
Cholera
Christison, Sir Robert
Cinchona
Clark, Sir Andrew
Clark, Sir James
Clay, Charles
Cleft Palate and Hare-
Lip
Climacteric
Climate
Clinic
Clot, A. B.
Club-foot
Coal-tar
Coca, or Cuca
Cocaine
Cock, Edward
Cod-Liver Oil
Coelom and Serous
Membranes
Colchicum
Colic
Collodion
Colon
Colt's Foot
Coma
Combe, Andrew
Connective Tissues
Connor, Bernard
Conolly, John
Constipation
Convulsions
Cooper, Sir Astley P.
Copaiba
Corn
Cornaro, Luigi
Coroner
Corpulence
Corrosive Sublimate
Craniometry
Cramp
Creche
Cremation
Creosote
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Cretinism
Croton Oil
Croup
Cruveilhier, Jean
Cubebs
Cullen, William
Cupping
Curling, T. B.
Dandelion
Death
Delirium
Dengue
Dentistry
Desault, P. J.
Dextrine
Diabetes
Diaphoretics
Diaphragm
Diarrhoea
Dietary
Dietetics
Digestive Organs
Digitalis
Dilatation
Dill
Diphtheria
Dipsomania
Disinfectants
Diuretics
Dropsy
Drowning and Life
Saving
Drug
Drunkenness
DuBois-Reymond, Emil
Duchenne, G. B. A.
Ductless Glands
Dupuytren, G., baron
Dwarf
Dysentery
Dyspepsia
Ear
Eczema
Elaterium
Elbow
Electrocution
Electrotherapeutics
Elephantiasis
Elixir
Elliotson, John
Embalming
Embryology
Emetics
Emphysema
Empyema
Enteritis
Epilepsy
Epistaxis
Epithelial, Endothelial
and Glandular
Tissues
Epsom Salts
Equilibrium
Ergot, or Spurred Rye
Erichsen, Sir John E.
Erysipelas
Esmarch, J. F. A. von
Esquirol, J. E. D.
Ether
Ethyl Chloride
Ettmtiller, Michael
Eucalyptus
Eugenics
Eugenol
Euphorbium
Evolution
Excretion
Extract
Eye
Fabricius, Hieronymus
Face
Faith Healing
Fallopius, or Fallopio,
Gabriello
Fusel Oil
Fauces
Favus
Fayrer, Sir Joseph
Fergusson, Sir William
Fermentation
Fernel, Jean Frangois
Feuchtersleben, E. von
Fever
Fibrin
Filariasis
Finger
Fistula
Flint, Austin
Floyer, Sir John
Food
Foot
Foot-and-mouth D i s -
ease
Forbes, Sir John
Formalin, or Formalde-
hyde
Formic Acid
Forster, John C.
Foster, Sir Michael
Fothergill, John
Foundling Hospitals
Fracastorc. Girolamo
Freind, John
Friendly Societies
Frostbite
Fructose, or Fruit
Sugar
Fumigation
Galangal
Galbanum
Galen
Gall
Gallic Acid
Galvani, Luigi
Gamboge
Gangrene
Gastric Ulcer
Gastritis
Gelsemium
Giant
Ginseng
Glanders, or Farcv
Glauber's Salt
Glycerin, or Glvcerol
Goitre
Good, John Mason
Goodsir, John
Gout
Grafe, Albrecht von
Grafe, K. F. von
Graham, Sylvester
Guaco, Huaco, or Guao
Guaiacum
Guarana
Guinea-worm
Gull, Sir William W.
Gymnastics
Gynaecology
Haematocele
Haemophilia
Haemorrhage
Haemorrhoids
Hahnemann, S. C. F.
Hall, Marshall
Haller, Albrecht von
Hallucination
Hammer-toe
Hand
Hart, Ernest Abraham
Hartshorn, Spirits of
Harvey, William
Hashish
Hawkins, Caesar Henry
Hay Fever
Head
Health
Heart
Heberden, William
Heel
Henle, F. G. J.
Hernia
Herpes
Hewett, Sir Prescott G.
Hilton, John
Hinton, James
Hip
Hippocrates
Hippuric Acid
Hoffmann, Fried rich
Holland, Sir Henry
Homoeopathy
Hop
Horehound
Hospital
Hufeland, C. W.
Humane Society, Royal
Hunger and Thirst
Hunter, John
Hunter, William
Hutchinson, Sir J.
Hydras tine
Hydrocele
Hydrocephalus
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydropathy
Hydrophobia, or Rabies
Hygiene
Hypertrophy
Hypnotism
Hypochondriasis
Hysteria
Iatrochemistry
Ibn Usaibi'a
Icthyosis
Illegitimacy
Imbecile
Incubation and Incu-
bators
Infancy
Influenza
Insanity
Insomnia
Intestinal Obstruction
Intestine
Intoxication
Iodine
Iodoform
Ipecacuanha
Iron
Israeli, Isaac ben Solo-
mon
Jaborandi
Jalap
Jaundice
Jaw
Jenner, Edward
Jenner, Sir William
Joints
Kala-Azar
Kamala
Kidney Diseases
Kino
Kitazato, Shibasaburo
Knee
Koch, Robert
Kousso
Lactic Acid
Lan gen beck, B. R. K.
von
Lanolin
Largus, Scribonius
Laryngitis
Laudanum
Lead Poisoning
Leg
Leontiasis Ossea
Leprosy
Lethargy
Lichen
Life
Ligament
Linacre, or Lynaker,
Thomas
Ling, Per Henrik
Linseed
Lip
Liquorice
Lister, Joseph Lister,
Baron
Liston, Robert
Lithium
Litmus
Liver
Lobe
Lobelia
Locomotor Ataxia
longevity
Lumbago
Lung
Lupus
Lycanthropy
Lymphatic System
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
Lymph and Lymph
Formation
MacCormac, Sir Wil-
liam
Mackenzie, Sir Morell
Magnesium
Malaria
Malta, or Mediterra-
nean, Fever
Mammary Gland
Marshall, John
Massage
Matrix
Mead, Richard
Measles
Medical Education
Medical Jurisprudence
Medicine
Mendelism
Meniere's Disease
Meningitis
Mercury
Mesmer, F. A.
Metabolic Diseases
Metabolism
Microscope
Midwife
Milk
Mineral Waters
Mitchell, Silas Weir
Monster
Morphine
Mortification
Mott, Valentine
Mouth and Salivary
Glands
Mumps
Murrain
Muscle and Nerve
Muscular System
Mushroom
Mustard
Mutilation
Myelitis
Myxoedema
Naevus
Narcotics
Navel
Necrosis
Nepenthes
Nerve
Nervous System
Nettlerash, or Urti-
caria
Neuralgia
Neurasthenia
Neuritis
Neuropathology
Nicotine
Nightingale, Florence
Nitroglycerin
Nose
Nosology
Nostalgia
Nursing
Nutrition
Nux Vomica
Obstetrics
Oesophagus
Officinal
Oils
Old-age Pensions
Olfactory System
Ophthalmology
Opium
Orffla, M. J. B.
Osteology
Ovariotomy
Oxalic Acid
Oxygen
Ozone
Paget, Sir James
Pain
Palate
Pancreas
Paracelsus
Paraldehyde
Paralysis, or Palsy
Paranoia
Parasitic Diseases
Parasitism
Pare", Ambroise
Pasteur, Louis
Pathology
Pediculosis, or Phthiri-
asis
Pellagra
Pelvis
Pemphigus
Pennyroyal
Pepper, William
Peppermint
Pepsin
Peritonitis
Perspiration
Phagocytosis
Pharmacology
Pharmacopoeia
Pharmacy
Pharyngitis
Pharynx
Phenacetin
Phlebitis
Phosphorus
Phrenology
Phthisis
Physiology
Picrotoxin
Pinel, Philippe
Pinto
Piperazin
Pitcairne, Archibald
Pityriasis Versicolor
Placenta
Plague
Pleurisy, or Pleuritis
Pleuro-pneumonia, or
Lung-plague
Pneumonia
Podophyllin
Poison
Polypus
Possession
Potassium
Pott, Percivall
Poultice
Pringle, Sir John
Prognosis
Protoplasm
Pruritus
Prussic Acid
Psoriasis
Psorospermiasis
Psychical Research
Psychology
Ptomaine Poisoning
Puberty
Public Health, Law of
Puerperal Fever
Pulse
Purpura
Pyrocatechin
Qualn, Sir Richard
Quarantine
Quassia
Quinine
Quinsy
Radcliffe, John
Radioactivity
Radium
Raynaud's Disease
Relapsing Fever
Reproductive System
Resorcin
Respiratory System
Rhamnus Purshiana
Rhatany, or Krameria
Root
Rheumatism
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rhubarb
Rickets
Rinderpest
Ringworm
RokHansky, C. von
Rdntgen Rays
Rush, Benjamin
Saccharin
St. Vitus Dance, or
Chorea
Sal-ammoniac
Salep
Salicin, Salicinum
Salicylic Acid
Salt
Sanatorium
Sandalwood
Sandarach
Santonin
Sarsaparilla
Savory, Sir William S.
Scabies, or Itch
Scalp
Scarlet Fever, or Scar-
latina
Sciatica
Scrofula, or Struma
Scurvy, or Scorbutus
Sea-sickness
Seborrhoea
Semmelweiss, I. P.
Senega
Senna
Sepsis
Serenus, Sammonicus
Sewerage
Shock, or Collapse
Shoulder
Sibbald, Sir Robert
Simon, Sir John
Simpson, Sir James Y.
Sinew
Skeleton
Skin and Exoskeleton
Skin Diseases
Skull
Slaughter-house
Sleep
Sleeping-sickness
Sioane, Sir Hans
Smallpox
Smith, T. S.
Sneezing
Sodium
Somnambulism
Soranus
Spikenard, or Nard
Spinal Cord
Spirits
Spleen
Sprue
Squill
Stammering, or Stut-
tering
Starvation
Stethoscope
Stomach
Stramonium
Strophanthus
Strychnine
Sugar
Suggestion
Suicide
Sulphonal
Sulphur
Sumbul, or Sumbal
Sunstroke
Supra-renal Extract
Surgery
Surgical Instruments
and Appliances
Sweating-sickness
Sweetbread
Sydenham, Thomas
Syme, James
Sympathetic System
Syncope
Tagliacozzi, Gasparo
Tannic Acid
Tapeworms
Tar
Taraxacum
Tartar
Tartaric Acid
Teeth
Temperance
Terpenes
Tetanus
Therapeutics
Thompson, Sir Henry
Thorax
Throat
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Thymol
Thyroid
Tincture
Tongue
Tonsillitis
Toxicology
Tracheotomy
Trachoma
Trance
Trichinosis
Tuberculosis
Tumour
Typhoid Fever
Typhus Fever
Ulcer
Upas
Urea
Urethane
Uric Acid
Urinary System
Urotropin
Vaccination
Valerian
Variation and Selec-
tion
Varicose Veins
Vascular System
Vaseline
Vegetarianism
Veins
Venereal Diseases
Verdigris
Veronal
Veterinary Science
Viburnum
Vivisection
Voice
Wakley, Thomas
Wart
Water-supply
Weights and Measures
Wells, Sir Thomas S.
Whitlow
Whooping-cough
Willis, Thomas
Wilson, Sir W. J. ]
Windpipe
Wine
Wintergreen
Witch-hazel
Wound
Wrist
Wry-neck
X-Ray Treatment
Yaws
Yellow Fever
Zinc
Zymotic Diseases
CHAPTER XXVI
FOR LAWYERS
IN the days when Marshall and Story,
on the bench of the Supreme Court at
Washington, were listening to Web-
ster's thunder; when Chancellor Kent was
scrutinizing precedents in New York, and
Rufus Choate quoting Justinian at Salem,
success at the bar depended upon elabor-
ate rhetoric and a close study of the Re-
ports. To-day, sound advice is in greater
demand than brilliant oratory, and ques-
tions of fact are, as a rule, more important
and more perplexing than questions of
law.
The Britannica is the one great Digest
of Facts. Its articles cover all scientific,
industrial, commercial and financial sub-
jects. Fifteen hundred of the world's
foremost specialists, chosen from twenty
different countries* deal not only with all
knowledge, but with the practical applica-
tion of knowledge in the laboratory, the
machine shop, in the mine, on the ship's
deck and in the ship's engine-room, in the
railroad office and on the railroad line.
Bankers and engineers, builders and con-
tractors, physicians and surgeons and
manufacturers of every kind describe the
work which they have themselves suc-
cessfully done. They explain to the law-
yer the details of his client's own business,
which the client is almost always incapa-
ble of explaining. They enable the lawyer
to test his client's knowledge and his
client's good faith. They show the law-
yer what he has to hope or to dread from
expert evidence.
In a mining town in Alaska, where the
workmen were mostly Servians, a lawyer
recently had an unusual case. The Ser-
vians had a church,
The Volumes which in the absence
as Used by of the Servian priest,
Lawyers was in the charge of
a father or "papa" of
the Russian orthodox church, and he
tried to exclude from their church the en-
tire congregation because they disobeyed
him. The lawyer brought into court the
Encyclopaedia Britannica to prove the
independence of the Servian Church from
the authority of the Russian Church. The
Britannica was recognized as ah authority
by the court, and the Servian congrega-
tion won its suit for the use of its church
building.
A Buffalo lawyer in a recent letter to
the publishers of the Britannica told of
his being retained in a case involving the
qualities of materials used in the con-
struction of automatic car couplers. He
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144
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
read many technical works to get infor-
mation on this subject, but "the article
that to me was most instructive was that
on Iron and Steel in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica." He adds, "In my opinion
the work is invaluable to any person who
desires the means of handy reference to,
and accurate information on, any topic."
Similar testimony from lawyers all over
the world to the usefulness of the Brit-
annica could be adduced in great volume.
A brief reference to the different parts
of this Guide will show in a general way
the contents and value of the Britannica
in the many fields in which an attorney
may need, in connection with the prep-
aration of a case, immediate and authori-
tative information on subjects not purely
legal.
But on legal topics, also, the lawyer or
the law student will find much valuable
information.
He should read the stimulating and
suggestive article on American Law (Vol.
1, p. 828), by Simeon E. Baldwin, gover-
nor of Connecticut,
American Law professor of constitu-
tional and private
international law at Yale, and formerly
chief justice of the Supreme Court of
Errors, Connecticut. Governor Bald-
win's article points out the general iden-
tity of origin of American and English
law, with the important exception of ter-
ritory formerly French or Spanish, — par-
ticularly Louisiana, — a point on which
the reader will find fuller information in
the articles Louisiana (Vol. 17, p. 57)
and Edward Livingston (Vol. 16, p.
811). Besides he calls attention to the fact
that the state and not the nation is for
the most part the legislative unit and the
legislative authority. And this leads to
a consideration of the great part played
in American jurisprudence by the Civil
War and the consequent changes in the
Federal Constitution, especially the Four-
teenth Amendment, which has been the
basis of so many recent cases in the Su-
preme Court and has "readjusted and re-
set the whole system of the American
law of personal rights" by transferring
final jurisdiction from state to Federal
courts.
Within the Southern states the Recon-
struction period affected local law in
various ways: by putting political power
into the hands of outsiders ("carpet bag-
gers," etc.), by the social revolution con-
sequent on the abolition of slavery, and
by the commercial assimilation of the
South to the North.
Governor Baldwin points out that the
judicial department has been made part-
ly administrative by the artificial distri-
bution under most state constitutions
of governmental powers into executive,
legislative and judicial, overlooking the
administrative, and making the courts
the interpreters of statutes and giving to
them the power of deciding whether or
not statutes are constitutional.
That the police powers of the states are
more and more liberally interpreted by
the Federal Supreme Court is an interest-
ing tendency, especially when the student
remembers that in the last year or so cer-
tain states (notably Washington, c. 74,
Laws 1911, Compensation of Injured
Workmen) have definitely stated the
police power as the basis of acts which the
state supreme court might otherwise have
declared unconstitutional as depriving of
property without due process of law.
The article on American law is supple-
mented:
(a) in a general way by the valuable
contribution of James Bryce (author of
The American Commonwealth, and late
British ambassador to the United States)
on the Constitution and Government of
the United States and of the states (Vol.
27, p. 646 — an article which would fill
about 50 pages of this Guide).
(b) more particularly, under the ar-
ticles on the separate states (as well as on
Alaska, Hawaii, Philippines and Porto
Rico), by the description of the state or
local constitution with an outline of char-
acteristic and peculiar statutes. For
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FOR LAWYERS
145
instance, in the article Alabama (Vol.
1, p. 459), the first in the Britannica
on a separate state
State Statutes of the Union, there
is a general sketch of
the constitution and government with
particular attention to these points : term
of judiciary, 6 years; legislative sessions,
quadrennial; law against lobbying; execu-
tive may not succeed himself; sheriffs
whose prisoners are lynched may be im-
peached; grandfather clause, practically
disfranchising the negro — with a sum-
mary of Giles v. Harris, 189 U. S. 474;
Jim Crow law; disfranchisement for vote-
buying or selling; Australian ballot law;
anti-pass law; freight rebate law; home-
stead exemptions; wife's earnings sepa-
rate property; women and child labour
laws; peonage; liquor laws.
(c) by special articles, such as Home-
stead and Exemption Laws (Vol. 13, p.
639), Original Package (Vol. 20, p. 273)
and Interstate Commerce (Vol. 14, p.
711; equal to about 10 pages of this
Guide), by Prof. Frank A. Fetter of
Princeton (formerly Cornell), which deal
with purely American legal topics.
(d) by legal sections in general econ-
omic articles, for instance: in Railways,
the section on American Legislation, by
Prof. F. H. Dixon of Dartmouth, author
of State Railroad Control; in Trusts, by
Prof. J. W. Jenks, the great American au-
thority on the subject; in Employers'
Liability ; in Trade Unions and in
Strikes and Lockouts, both by Carroll
D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of
Labor; Bankruptcy, by Edward Man-
son, author of Law of Bankruptcy; and in
Insurance (Vol. 14, especially p. 662 c).
(e) by general legal articles like: Com-
mon Law; Criminal Law, by W. F.
Craies, editor of Archbold On Criminal
Pleading; Liquor Laws, by Arthur Shad-
well, author of Drink, Temperance and
Legislation; Medical Jurisprudence, by
H. H. Littlejohn, professor of forensic
medicine in the University of Edinburgh;
Military Law, by Sir John Scott, former
deputy judge-advocate-general, British
Army; Navigation Laws, by James
Williams, of Lincoln College, Oxford;
Press Laws; Seamen, Laws, relating
to, etc.
and (f) by sections and paragraphs on
American law in hundreds of articles on
legal topics — for list see below.
The following list of American jurists
does not include all American lawyers
about whom there are separate articles
in the Britannica, but
Biographies will serve to suggest a
of Lawyers brief course of bio-
graphical readings
which the lawyer could not duplicate
even in a special and expensive work on
the American bar:
Samuel Sewall (Vol. 24, p. 783)
John Rutledoe (Vol. 23, p. 945)
Samuel Chase (Vol. 5, p. 956)
Francis Dana (Vol. 7, p. 792)
John Lowell (Vol. 17, p. 76)
Oliver Ellsworth (Vol. 9, p. 294)
John Jay (Vol. 15, p. 294)
Robert R. Livingston (Vol. 16, p. 812)
Luther Martin (Vol. 17, p. 794)
Theophilus Parsons (Vol. 20, p. 868)
John Marshall (Vol. 17, p. 770)
Edmund Randolph (Vol. 22, p. 886)
James Kent (Vol. 15, p. 735)
Edward Livingston (Vol. 16, p. 811)
Bushrod Washington (Vol. 28, p. 844)
Roger Brooke Taney (Vol. 26, p. 396)
Samuel Hoar (Vol. 13, p. 542)
Horace Binney (Vol. 3, p. 949)
James Wilson (Vol. 28, p. 698)
William Pinkney (Vol. 21, p. 627)
Lemuel Shaw (Vol. 24, p. 813)
Daniel Webster (Vol. 28, p. 459)
Simon Greenleaf (Vol. 12, p. 548)
Henry Wheaton (Vol. 28, p. 583)
Richard Rush (Vol. 23, p. 857)
John Bouvier (Vol. 4, p. 836)
Joseph Story (Vol. 25, p. 969)
Levi Woodbury (Vol. 28, p. 790)
James Hall (Vol. 12, p. 847)
Reverdy Johnson (Vol. 15, p. 462)
Hugh S. Legare (Vol. 16, p. 373)
Rufus Choate (Vol. 6, p. 258)
Benjamin F. Butler (Vol. 4, p. 881)
David Dudley Field (Vol. 10, p. 821)
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
S. P. Chase (Vol. 5, p. 955)
John J. Crittenden (Vol. 7, p. 471)
Hamilton Fish (Vol. 10, p. 427)
Benjamin R. Curtis (Vol. 7, p. 652)
J. S. Black (Vol. 4, p. 18)
Judah P. Benjamin (Vol. 8, p. 789)
John Y. Mason (Vol. 17, p. 840)
George Ticknor Curtis (Vol. 7, p. 651)
R. H. Dana (Vol. 7, p. 792)
Samuel J. Tilden (Vol. 26, p. 970)
Samuel F. Miller (Vol. 18, p. 464).
Stephen J. Field (Vol. 10, p. 822)
W. M. Evarts (Vol. 10, p. 4)
Francis Wharton (Vol. 28, p. 575)
Morrison R. Waite (Vol. 28, p. 246)
T. W. Dwight (Vol. 8, p. 741)
E. J. Phelps (Vol. 21, p. 868)
Stanley Matthews (Vol. 17, p. 899)
L. Q. C. Lamar (Vol. 16, p. 100)
C. C. Langdell (Vol. 16, p. 172)
D. W. Voorhees (Vol. 28, p. 211)
T. F. Bayard (Vol. 8, p. 554)
Horace Gray (Vol. 12, p. 891)
Joseph Hodges Choate (Vol. 6, p. 258)
Melville W. Fuller (Vol. 11, p. 296)
Wayne MacVeagh (Vol. 17, p. 269)
John Marshall Harlan (Vol. 12, p.
954)
Richard Olney (Vol. 20, p. 91)
Cushman K. Davis (Vol. 7, p. 866)
Oliver Wendell Holmes (Vol. 18, p.
616)
David Bennett Hill (Vol. 18, p. 464)
Elihu Root (Vol. 28, p. 711)
Philander C. Knox (Vol. 15, p. 882)
Of great value to the student of law, as
widening his scope, would be a course of
more general reading. This should in-
clude:
(a) the articles Law, Jurisprudence
and Comparative Jurisprudence, by
Paul Vinogradoff, Corpus professor of
jurisprudence at Oxford.
(b) articles on national and other legal
systems, such as
English Law, History, by the late
Frederick W. Maitland, Downing pro-
fessor of English law at Cambridge.
Anglo-Saxon Law, by Paul Vino-
gradoff.
Germanic Laws, Early, by Professor
Christian Pfister, of the Sorbonne.
Code Napoleon, by Jean Paul Esmein,
professor of law in the University of
Paris,
and Roman Law, probably one of the
most remarkable articles in the new edi-
tion and of the utmost importance (as in
a less degree are the articles Code and
Code Napoleon) to the student of civil
law. It is based on the well-known ar-
ticle contributed to the Ninth Edition of
the Britannica by James Muirhead, pro-
fessor of civil law, Edinburgh; but the
article is actually the work of the reviser,
Henry Goudy, regius professor of civil
law, Oxford, and it may well be called the
best present treatment of the subject.
The article is a brief text-book in itself,
containing matter equivalent in length
to nearly 200 pages of this Guide. The
treatment is historical, beginning with
the almost mythical regal period and
throwing light on the laws before the
XII Tables, but this does not mean that
the later period, legally more important,
is not treated with proper fullness so that
the practical as well as the theoretical is
considered.
Slightly remoter systems are the sub-
jects of separate articles: Salic Law, by
Professor Pfister of the Sorbonne; Bre-
hon Laws, by Law-
Some Legal rence Ginnell, M. P.,
Systems author of a mono-
graph on the subject;
Welsh Laws; an elaborate article on
the little-known subject Greek Law,
by John Edwin Sandys of Cambridge,
author of History of Classical Scholarship;
Indian Law, by Sir William Markby,
reader in Indian Law at Oxford, formerly
judge of the High Court of Calcutta;
Mahommedan Law (a subject no longer
alien to the American because of the large
number of Mahommedans in the Philip-
pines), by D. B. Macdonald, professor in
Hartford Theological Seminary, and au-
thor of Development of Muslim Theology;
and Babylonian Law (by C. H.W. Johns,
Master of St. Catharine's, Cambridge, au-
thor of The Oldest Code of Laws, etc.),
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FOR LAWYERS
147
containing a summary of the famous
code of King Khammurabi.
The following list does not include the
biographies of lawyers and is not a com-
plete list of all topics pertaining to law
in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, but it
will give some idea of the scope of the
legal department of the work.
Abandonment
Abatement
Abdication
Abduction
Abettor
Abeyance
Abjuration
Abode
Abrogation
Abscond
Abstract of Title
Acceptance
Acceptation
Access
Accession
Accessory
Accommodation Bill
Accomplice
Accord
Accountant-General
Accretion
Accumulation
Accusation
A cknowledgment
Act
Action
Act of Parliament
Act of Petition
Address, The
Ademption
Adjournment
Adjudication
Adjustment
Administration
Administrator •
Admiralty, High Court
Admiralty Jurisdiction
Admission
Adoption
Adscript
Adultery
Advancement
Adventure
Advocate
Advocates, Faculty of
Advowson
Affidavit
Affiliation
Affinity
Affray
Affreightment
Age
Agent
Agistment
Agnates
Alabama Arbitration
Alderman
Alias
Alibi
Alien
Alienation
Aliment
Alimony
Allegiance
Alliance
Allocatur
Allodium
Allonge
Allotment
Allowance
Alluvion
Ambiguity
Amendment
Amercement
American Law
Amicus Curiae
Amnesty
Amortization
Analyst
Ancient Lights
Angary
Anglo-Saxon Law
Annates
Annexation
Annoy
Answer
Apology
Appanage
Apparitor
Appeal
Appearance
Appointment, Power of
Apportionment
Apportionment Bill
Appraiser
Appropriation
Appurtenances
Aram, Eugene
Arbitration
Arbitration, Interna-
tional
Arches, Court of
Aristocracy
Arraignment
Array
Arrest
Arrestment
Arrondissment
Arson
Art and Part
Articles of Association
Assault
Assembly, Unlawful
Assessment
Assessor
Assets
Assignment, Assigna-
tion, Assignee
Assize
Associate
Assumpsit
Asylum, Right of
Attachment
Attainder
Attaint, Writ of
Attempt
Attestation
Attorney
Attorney-General
Attornment
Auctions
Audience
Autocracy
Autonomy
Average
Avizandum
Award
Babylonian Law
Back-bond
Bail
Bailiff and Bailie
Bailment
Ballot
Bank Holidays
Bankruptcy
Banns of Marriage
Bar, The
Bargain and Sale
Barmote Court
Barratry
Barrington, George
Base fee
Basilica
Basoche
Bastard
Bastinado
Baylo
Beadle
Beheading
Belligerency
Bench
Benefice
Beneficiary
Bequest
Bering Sea Arbitra-
tion
Bet and Betting
Betterment
Bigamy
Bill
Bill of Exchange
Bill of Sale
Birth
Blackmail
Black Rod
Blanch Pee, or Blanch
Holding
Blasphemy
Blinding
Blockade
Blue-book
Boarding-house
Bocland
Body-snatching
Boiling to Death
Bona Fide
Bond
Boot
Borough
Borough English
Bottomry
Bound, or Boundary
Brachylogus .
Branding
Branks
Brawling
Breach
Brehon Laws
Breviary of Alaric
Bribery
Brief
Britton
Burgage
Burgess
Burglary
Burial and Burial Acts
Burke, William
Burning to Death
By-law
Cabinet
Cadastre
Camera
Cangue
Canon Law
Canton
Capital Punishment
Capitulary
Capitulation
Caption
Captive
Capture
Cargo
Carrier
Case
Casus Belli
Caucus
Caveat
Cemetery
Cessio Bonorum
Cestui, Cestuy
Challenge
Chamberlain
Chambers
Champerty, or Cham-
party
Chance-medlev
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
Chancery
Chantage
Charge^ d'affaires
Charging Order
Charter
Chartered Companies
Charter-Party
Chattel
Cheating
Children, Law relating
to
Children's Courts
Chiltern Hundreds
Chose
Church Rate
Churchwarden
Churchyard
Cinque Ports
Circuit
Citation
Citizen
City
Civil Law
Civil List
Civil Service
Clergy, Benefit of
Clerk
Closure
Code
Code Napoleon
Codicil
Coercion
Cognizance
Coif
Coinage Offences
Collateral
Collusion
Colony
Comity
Commercial Court
Commercial Law
Commisson
Commissioner
Commitment
Common Law
Common Lodging-
House
Common Pleas, Court
of
Commons
Commonwealth
Company
Compensation
Compromise
Comptroller
Compurgation
Conacre
Concert
Conditional Fee
Conditional Limitation
Confarreatio
Confession and Avoid-
ance
Confiscation
Conge* d'Elire
Congress
Conjugal Rights
Conquest
Consanguinity, or Kin-
dred
Conseil de famille
Conservator
Consideration
Consignment
Consistory Courts
Consolidation Acts
Consort
Conspiracy
Constable
Constituency
Constitution and Con-
stitutional Law
Consul
Consulate of the Sea
Contempt of Court
Contraband
Contract
Contumacy
Conversion
Conveyancing
Convoy
Coparcenary
Copyhold
Copyright
Co-respondent
Coroner
Corporal Punishment
Corporation
Corpse
Corrupt Practices
Costs
Counsel and Counsellor
Counterfeiting
County
County Court
Court
Court Baron
Court Leet
Court-martial
Covenant
Coverture
Covin
Credentials
Crime
Criminal Law
Criminology
Crimp
Crown Debt
Crown Land
Cruelty
Culprit
Curator
Curtesy
Curtilage
Custom
Customary Freehold
Custos Rotulorum
Cy-pres
Damages
Day
Death
Debentures
Debt
Declaration
Declaration of Paris
Declarator
Decree
De Donis Conditionali-
bus
Deed
Defamation
Default
Defeasance
Defence
Defendant
Del Credere
Demesne
Demise
Democracy
Demurrage
Demurrer
Denizen
Deodand
Department
Deportation or Trans-
portation
Deposit
Deputy
Derelict
Desertion
Detainer
Detinue
Digest
Dilapidation
Diligence
Diplomacy
Directors
Disability
Discharge
Disclaimer
Discovery
Disorderly House
Dissolution
Distress
District
Divorce
Doctors' Commons
Document
Domestic Relations
Domicile
Donatio Mortis Causa
Dower
Dowry
Dragoman
Drawing and Quater-
ing
Droit
Duke of Exeter's
Daughter
Durbar
Duress
Earl Marshal
Earnest
Easement
Eavesdrip
Ecclesiastical Commis-
sioners
Ecclesiastical Jurisdic-
tion
Ecclesiastical Law
Edict
Ejectment
Election
Elections
Electrocution
Elegit
Embargo
Embassy
Embezzlement
Emblements
Embracery
Eminent Domain
Emperor
Enclave
English Law
Englishry
Entail
Envoy
Equity
Error
Escheat
Estate
Estate and House
Agents
Estate Duty
Estoppel
Estovers
Estreat
Evidence
Execution
Executors and Admin-
istrators
Exequatur
Exhumation
Exile
Expatriation
Expert
Express
Expropriation
Expulsion
Extenuating Circum-
stances
Exterritoriality
Extortion
Extradition
Factor
Faculty
False Pretences
Faubourg
Federal Government
Fee
Felo De Se
Felony
Feoffment
Ferry
Fetters and Handcuffs
Feu
Fictions
Fiduciary
Fieri Facias
Fine
Finger Prints
Fishery, Law of
Fixtures
Flat
Fleet Prison
Fleta
Flotsam, Jetsam and
Ligan
Foreclosure
Foreign Office
Foreshore
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Forest Laws
Forfeiture
Forgery
Franchise
Frank-almoign
Frank-marriage
Fraud
Freebench
Freehold
Freeman
Freight
Fuero
Gallows, or Gibbet
Game Laws
Gaming and Wagering
Garnish
Garrote
Gavelkind
Geneva Convention
Germanic Laws, Early
Gift
Glebe
Goodwill
Government
Grant
Gravamen
Greek Law
Gross
Ground Rent
Guarantee .
Guardian
Guerrilla
Guillotine
Habeas Corpus
Hanging
Hanaper
Handwriting
Haro, Clameur de
Hegemony
Heir
Heirloom
Hereditament
Heriot
Heritable Jurisdictions
High Seas
Highway
Hinterland
Hire-Purchase Agree-
ment
Hiring
Holiday
Homage
Home Office
Homicide
Horning, Letters of
Hotch-pot
Household, Royal
Hue and Cry
Hundred
Husband and Wife
Hypothec
Identification
Ignoramus
Ignorance
Immunity
Impeachment
Impotence
Impressment
Incendiarism
Incest
Inclosure
Incorporation
Indemnity
Indenture
Indian Law
Indictment
Indorsement
Inebriety, Law of
Infamy
Infant
Infanticide
In Forma Pauperis
Information
Informer
Inheritance
Inhibition
Initials
Injunction
Inn and Innkeeper
Inns of Court
Innuendo
Inquest
Insanity
Instalment
Instrument
Intent
Interdiction
Interesse Termini
Interest
International Law
Interpellation
Interpleader
Interpretation
Interstate Commerce
Intestacy
Intransigent
Inventory
I. O. U.
Jactitation
Joinder
Joint
Jointure
Jougs, Juggs, or Joggs
Judge
Judge - Advocate- Gen-
eral
Judgment
Judgment Debtor
Judgment Summons
Judicature Acts
Jurat
Jurisdiction
Jurisprudence
Jurisprudence, Com-
parative
Jury
Jus primae noctis
Jus Relictae
Justice
Justice of the Peace
Justiciary, High Court
Justification
Juvenile Offenders
Ketch, John
Kidnapping
King's Bench, Court of
Knight-Service
Knout
Kurbash
Laches
Lading, Bill of
Landlord and Tenant
Land Registration
Lapse
Larceny
Law
Law Merchant
Lease
Legacy
Legation
Legitim
Legitimacy and Legiti-
mation
Lesion
Letters Patent
Libel and Slander
Liberty
Licence
Lien
Limitation, Statutes of
Liquidation
Liquor Laws
Local Governuient
Local Government
Board
Lodger and Lodgings
Lord Advocate
Lord Chamberlain
Lord Chief Justice
Lord Great Chamber-
lain
Lord High Chancellor
Lord Hjgh Constable
Lord High Steward
Lord High Treasurer
Lord Justice Clerk
Lord Justice-General
Lord Keeper of the
Great Seal
Ix>rd President of the
Council
Ivords Justices of Ap-
peal
Lords of Appeal
Lord Steward
Lost Property
lotteries
Lynch Law
Magistrate
Mahommedan Law
Maiden
Maiming
Maintenance
Majority
Mandamus, Writ of
Mandarin
Mandate
Manifest
Manor
Mansion
Manslaughter
Man-traps
Mnre Clausum and
Mare Li be rum
Maritime Territory
Marriage
Marshalsea
Martial Law
Master and Servant
Master of the Horse
Master of the Rolls
Maxims, Legal
Mayhem
Mayor
Mediation
Medical Jurisprudence
Meeting
Memorandum of Asso-
ciation
Merger
Mesne
Messuage
Military Law
Ministry
Miscarriage
Misdemeanour
Misprision
Mistake
Monarchy
Monition
Mortgage
Mortmain
Motion
Multiplepoinding
Municipality
Muniment
Murder
Mutiny
Nationality
Naturalization
Navigation Laws
Negligence
Negotiable Instrument
Neutrality
Next Friend
Nisi Prius
Noise
Nolle Prosequi
Nonconformity, Law
relating to
Nonfeasance, Misfeas-
ance, Malfeasance
Nonsuit
North Sea Fisheries
Convention
Notary or Notary Pub-
lic
Notice
Novation
Nuisance
Nullification
Oath
Obiter Dictum
Obligation
Obscenity
Office
Oligarchy
Ordeal
Order in Council
Ordinance
Ordinary
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Ouster
Outlawry
Overt Act
Oyer and Terminer
Pacific Blockade
Pandects
Paraphernalia
Pardon
Parish
Parlement
Parliament
Parricide
Parson
Partition
Partnership
Party Wall
Passport
Patents
Patents of Precedence
Patron and Client
Paymaster-General
Payment
Payment of Members
Peace
Peace, Breach of
Peace Conferences
Peine forte et dure
Peerage
Penalty
Penology
Pension
Perjury
Perpetuity
Person, Offences
against the
Personal Property
Personation
Petition
Picketing
Pillory
Pirate and Piracy
Plaintiff
Pleading
Plebiscite
Pledge
Plurality
Plutocracy
Police *
Police Courts
Posse Comitatus
Possession
Post & Postal Service
Potwalloper
Power of Attorney
Praemunire
Preamble
Prerogative
Prerogative Courts
Prescription
Press Laws
Prime Minister
Primogeniture
Principal and Agent
Prison
Privateer
Privilege
Privy Council
Privy Purse
Privy Seal
Prize or Prize of War
Probate
Probation
Procedure
Process
Proces-verbal
Proclamation
Proctor
Procuration
Procurator
Profanity
Prohibition
Promoter
Property
Prorogation
Prosecution
Prospectus
Protectorate
Provisional Order
Provost
Proxy
Public House
Puisne
Purchase
Quantum Meruit
Quarantine
Quare Impedit
Quarter Sessions
Queen Anne's Bounty
Quorum
Quo Warranto
Rack
Ragman Rolls
Raid
Rape
Rate
Real Property
Rebellion
Receipt
Receiver
Recess
Recidivism
Recognisance
Record
Recorder
Reeve
Referee
Referendum and Initi-
ative
Refresher
Regent
Register
Registration
Release
Remainder, Reversion
Remand
Remembrancer
Rent
Repairs
Repeal
Replevin
Representation
Reprieve
Reprisals
Request, Letters of
Requests, Court of
Rescue
Reservation
Residence
Resident
Residue
Respite
Respondent
Restraint
Retainer
Reward
Ridings
Riot
Robbery
Roman Law
Rundale
Sacrilege
Salary
Sale of Goods
Salic Law and other
Prankish Laws
Salvage
Sanction
Satisfaction
Scandal
Scavenger's Daughter
Schedule
Scire Facias
Scot and Lot
Scrip
Scrutiny
Sea Laws
Seamen, Laws relating
to
Search or Visit and
Search
Secession
Secret
Secretary of State
Security
Sederunt, Act of
Sedition
Seduction
Seignory or Seigniory
Seisin
Senate
Sentence
Sequestration
Sergeant-at-Law
Serjeanty
Servitude
Session
Set-off
Settlement
Sexton
Share
Shelley's Case, Rule in
Sheppard, John (Jack)
Sheriff
Shire
Sign Manual, Royal
Simony
Slander
Socage
Soke
Solicitor
Solicitor-General
Sovereignty
Speaker
Specification
Specific Performance
Spheres of Influence
Spring-gun
Spy
State
State, Great Officers of
State Rights
State Trials
Statute
Stipend
Stocks
Stocks and Shares
Stolen Goods
Subinfeudation
Succession
Succession Duty
Suffrage
Summary Jurisdiction
Summons
Sunday
Superannuation
Supercargo
Supply
Supreme Court of Ju-
dicature
Surety
Surrender
Surrogate
Suzerainty
Swearing*
Syndic
Syndicate
Taille
Tally
Tanistry
Tenant
Tenant-right
Tenement
Tenure
Term
Theatre
Theft
Thegn
Threat
Tichborne Claimant
Ticket-of-leave
Time
Tipstaff
Tithes
Tithing
Toleration
Toll
Tort
Torture
Town
Trade, Board of
Transfer
Tread-mill
Treason
Treasure Trove
Treasury
Treaties
Trespass
Trial
Tribute
Trover
Truck
Trust and Trustees
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Turpin, Richard
Twelve Tables
Udal
Ukaz or Ukase
Ultimatum
Underwriter
University Courts
Uses
Valuation and Valuers
Venue
Verdict
Vestry
Veto
Vicar
Vice-Chancellor
Viceroy
Vidocq, F. E.
Vigilance Committee
Vizier
Vote and Voting
Voucher
Wager
Wainewright, T. G.
War, Laws of
Warden
Warrant
Warrant of Attorney
Warranty
Warren
Waste
Water Rights
Waters, Territorial
Welsh Laws
Wergild
Westminster Statutes
Wheel, Breaking on the
Whig and Tory
Whip
Whipping or Flogging
Wild, Jonathan
Will or Testament
Witness
Woolsack
Works and Public
Buildings, Board of
Wreck
Writ
Writers to the Signet
CHAPTER XXVII
FOR BANKERS AND FINANCIERS
OF all classes of business men,
bankers and financiers study most
closely the general tendencies of
public opinion and the general course of
industrial and commercial development.
Each day's financial news reports a posi-
tion which has been reached in the path
of a movement of which the origin and
earlier course — and therefore the direc-
tion — must be sought in the record of
past months and years, and
Social sometimes in the record of
History a past century. But the
banker who turns to the
standard histories in his library with the
desire to trace the course of any gradual
and long-continued development is gen-
erally disappointed.
It is only of late that historical in-
vestigation has been directed to social
and commercial activities rather than to
politics and wars. Yet the history of
civilization may be said to lie in the
course of finance and commerce much
more than in party strife and in civil and
international wars. For the latter al-
ways arrest for the moment, even if they
ultimately further, the progress of civi-
lization.
The new Britannica has been called
"the most comprehensive of all surveys
of past and present civilization," and its
treatment of finance and commerce pos-
sesses a breadth and sweep directly due
to the international character of the
book. The American financier knows
that under existing conditions he must
take into account the laws and usages of
foreign countries in regard to banking,
currency, taxation, stock exchange trans-
actions, corporations and all the other
methods and appliances used in dealing
with money and credit. The Britannica
could not have covered this broad field
authoritatively if its articles had all been
written by Americans instead of being
contributed, as they are, by specialists of
twenty countries. And the very first
step, in examining any question of Amer-
ican finance, may be to consider what has
been done abroad.
International For example, there
Finance has been adopted in
Louisiana a system
of rural credit such as was strongly urged,
for more general use, during President
Taft's administration. That would seem
to be purely a matter of internal policy.
But for a description of the actual work-
ing of such a system, the sources of in-
formation are in the Britannica article
Raiffeisen (Vol. 22, p. 817), the German
banker who perfected the system of ag-
rarian credits, in the article Schtjlze-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Delitzsch (Vol. 24, p. 383), the Saxon
economist who founded the German cen-
tral bureau of co-operative societies, and
in the article Co-Operation (Vol. 7, p.
82), where the Danish system of financing
farmers is described and compared with
the German and French methods.
Systematic reading in the Britannica
on financial subjects should begin with
the article Finance (Vol. 10, p. 347,
equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by
C. F. Bastable, professor of political
economy in the University of Dublin,
whose books on economics have been
largely read in the United States. This
article deals with state revenue and ex-
penditure, or public finance, after point-
ing out the prevailing looseness in the
use of the word finance. It is interesting
to know that "in 'the later middle ages,
especially in Germany, the word finance
acquired the sense of usurious or oppres-
sive dealing with money and capital."
So long ago did an unpopular meaning
attach to a term connected with "big
business." The same is true of the word
usury, which originally meant use, or in-
terest; and the Britannica in an article on
Usury (Vol. 27, p. 811) says "usury, if
used in the old sense of the term could
embrace a multitude of modes of receiv-
ing interest upon capital to which not the
slightest moral taint is attached." In
each case there may have been some
reason besides chance for the develop-
ment of the unpleasant meaning, and it
has always been the custom of the spend-
thrift and the gambler to make the wrong
use of words as well as of business meth-
ods. But what we call public finance was
a century ago called political economy,
"political" being used strictly to apply to
the state, and "economy" in its original
sense of housekeeping or house-rule. The
word "economy" has thus become broad-
er, as the word "usury" has become nar-
rower, in significance.
It is curious to see how one page after
another of the historical section of this
article describes theories of finance which
are to-day propounded by popular
agitators as if they were absolutely new
and not only de-
Early scribes them but
Economics * shows how they were
tried and how they
failed. The eastern empires taxed land
produce, usually to the extent of one fourth
or one fifth (two tithes) . In Athens, under
a more elaborate system, the state owned
and administered agricultural land and
silver mines, and yet this state ownership,
instead of making for democratic equal-
ity, resulted in too rigid a separation of
classes; and the Athenian attempt to
surtax the rich citizens in order to defray
the cost of public games and theatrical
performances and to equip ships (in this
case a close parallel to certain recent Ger-
man legislation) led, as class taxation al-
ways does, to ingenious evasions and, in
the end, increased the power it sought to
restrict.
In Rome, home taxes were suspended
as soon as conquests brought tribute from
Spain and Africa. But taxes were always
the curse of the provinces, and the vexa-
tious method of the tax "may be regarded
as an additional tax." "The defects of
the financial organization were a serious
influence in the complex of causes that
brought about the fall of the Republic."
The early Empire took its revenues from
public lands, from monopolies, from the
land tax, from customs, and from taxes
on inheritances (5%), sales (10%) and
the purchase of slaves (40%). There was
no just distribution of taxation among
the territorial divisions, and the burden
fell too much upon the actual workers and
their employers. In the kingdoms which
succeeded the Empire after its fall, Ro-
man customs survived in finance, as in
all departments of government; and there
was a want of coherent policy until the
time of Charlemagne, when centraliza-
tion produced a better system. But sci-
entific taxation did not really exist until,
in the 15th century, under Charles VII,
the first French standing army was
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FOR BANKERS AND FINANCIERS
153
created, and its needs led to a new and
more intelligent system. In England,
the co-ordination and control of public
revenue and expenditure was similarly
due to the growth of the navy. Since
then the tendency has been to include
taxes in general categories; the need for
national credit has developed a system
of national debts; and expenditures and
receipts are now governed by legislative
sanction. Local finance has been revolu-
tionized by modern business methods, too
slowly adopted it is true, and by the grad-
ual change from private to public control
of water supply, lighting and transporta-
tion.
The articles Taxation, National
Debt and Tariff should be read after
this article on public finance. Taxation
(Vol. 26, p. 458;
Taxation and equivalent to 25
Tariff pages of this Guide),
by Sir Robert Giffen,
formerly Controller-General of the Brit-
ish Board of Trade, classifies taxes, points
out that direct and indirect taxes are not
intrinsically different and that such a
classification is merely a matter of con-
venience, and the article proceeds to de-
scribe the principal taxes. It should be
supplemented by reading the sections on
finance in the articles on various coun-
tries and especially by the article Eng-
lish Finance (Vol. 9, p. 458; equiva-
lent to 25 pages in this Guide), the section
on Finance in the article United States
(Vol. 27, p. 660) and similar sections in
the articles on each of the states of the
Union. These articles give definite in-
formation about public debts, national or
state, but the student should read care-
fully the main treatment in the article
National Debt (Vol. 19, p. 266). The
articles Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 422), by Prof.
F. W. Taussig of Harvard, author of The
Tariff History of the United States; Pro-
tection (Vol. 22, p. 464), by Edmund
Janes James, president of the University
of Illinois and author of the well-known
History of American Tarif Legislation;
and Free Trade (Vol. 11, p. 88), by
William Cunningham, author of Growth
of English Industry and Commerce, will be
of great interest. The student should
read besides the sketches in the Britan-
nica of Henry Clay (Vol. 6, p. 470), by
Carl Schurz, of William McKinley
(Vol. 17, p. 256), Roger Q. Mills (Vol.
18, p. 475), and of other American tariff-
leaders, and, for the tariff reform move-
ment in England, the articles on Joseph
Chamberlain (Vol. 5, p. 813) and Ar-
thur J. Balfour (Vol. 3, p. 250) . Before
turning from public to private finance the
reader should study the articles Ex-
chequer (Vol. 10, p. 54) and Treasury
(Vol. 27, p. 228).
For what may be called 'private finance,
the student should turn first to the article
Banks and Banking (Vol. 3, p. 334;
equivalent to nearly 60
Private pages in this Guide), by
Finance Sir R. H. I. Palgrave, di-
rector of Barclay & Co.,
Ltd., Bankers; Charles A. Conant, author
of The Principles of Money and Banking;
and Sir J. R. Paget, author of the Law
of Banking. Further information on the
early history of banking in the United
States will be found in the historical
section of the article United States
(Vol. 27, especially p. 697), and in the
article Andrew Jackson (Vol. 15, p. 107)
by Prof. W. G. Sumner of Yale.
Next in his course of reading, he should
study the article Money (Vol. 18, p.
694; equivalent to 45 pages in this Guide),
by C. F. Bastable.
Currency This deals with: the
functions and vari-
eties of money, including coined money
and all else that can take its place in
facilitating exchange, in estimating com-
parative values, as a standard of value or
of deferred payments, as a store of value;
the determining causes of the value of
money and of the quantity of money
required by a country, the credit theory,
early forms of currency — greenstones,
ochre, shells, furs, oxen, grain; metals
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
as money; coinage and state control;
representative money, and credit as
money; economic aspects of the pro-
duction and consumption of precious
metals; review of the history of some
important currencies — Greek, Roman,
medieval, English and French coinages
are treated in the article Numismatics
(Vol. 19, pp. 869-911, equivalent to 135
pages of this Guide, with 6 plates and
11 other text illustrations); which dis-
cusses such questions as the constitution
of money; typical currency systems;
statistics of production of gold and silver
since the discovery of America, and
coinage systems. Other relevant articles
are Bimetallism, and Monetary Con-
ferences for the relation of the metals;
and the articles Gold, Silver, Seignior-
age, Demonetization, Gresham's Law,
Token Money and Greenbacks. In
the article on the George Junior Re-
public (Vol. 11, p. 749), the "children's
state" at Freeville, N. Y., the student
will find an interesting proof of the rela-
tion of "token" to "real" money. "The
government issued its own currency in
tin and later in aluminium and 'American'
money could not be passed within the
48 acres of the Republic until 1906,
when depreciation forced the Republic's
coinage out of use and 'American* coin
was made legal tender."
For information as to the methods of
financial business the reader should study
the articles Savings Banks (Vol. 24, p.
248) by Sir G. C. T. Bart-
Banking ley, founder of the National
Penny Bank, and Bradford
Rhodes, founder of the 84th St. National
Bank, N. Y. Friendly Societies (Vol.
11, p. 217); Trust Company (Vol. 27, p.
829), by Charles A. Conant, author of
The Principles of Money and Banking;
Clearing House (Vol. 6, p. 476) ; Let-
ter of Credit (Vol. 16, p. 501); Stock
Exchange (Vol. 25, p. 980) ; Bill of Ex-
change (Vol. 8, p. 940) ; Exchange
(Vol. 10, p. 50); Futures (Vol. 11, p.
875) ; Time Bargains (Vol. 26, p. 988) ;
Market (Vol. 17, p. 781), by Wynnard
Hooper, financial editor of The Times,
London, with sections on Movements of
Prices, Cycles, Tendency to Equilibrium,
Disturbance of Equilibrium, Future Deliv-
ery, Corners, Money Market, The Great
Banks, Foreign Loans, and Discount
Houses; Consols (Vol. 6, p. 979); Cou-
pon (Vol. 7, p. 818); Dividend (Vol. 8,
p. 381); and Premium (Vol. 22, p. 279).
Information on distinctive banking
and business laws in the separate states
will be found in the section on finance
of the article on each state. For in-
stance in the article Oklahoma (Vol. 20,
p. 60) there is a summary of the bank
deposit guaranty fund.
For insurance see the chapter in this
Guide For Insurance Men.
In financial biography, as in history,
theory and practice, the Britannica is
valuable because of its full, clear and
authoritative
Lives of treatment. Thestu-
Financiers dent will find arti-
cles on great finan-
ciers, such as the Astors, the Vander-
bilts, the Barings, the Rothschilds, James
Law, George Peabody, James Fisk, Jay
Gould, £. H. Harriman, James J. Hill,
J. P. Morgan; and on great authors on
the subjects of economics and finance, —
for instance, Malthus, Adam Smith, Wal-
ter Bagehot, Ricardo, Roscher, Boehm
von Bawerk, Thorold Rogers, H. C.
Carey, E. R. A. Seligman, F. A. Walker,
J. W. Jenks, F. W. Taussig, Richmond
Mayo-Smith and A. T. Hadley.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF
INTEREST TO BANKERS
Account
Accountants
Achenwall, Gottfried
Adams, Henry Carter
Agio
Aguado, A. M.
Alcavala
Aldrich, N. W,
Allport, Sir J. J.
Alstromer, Jonas
Amortization
Angel
Anna
Annuity
Arbitrage
Armour, P. L.
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Ashley, W. J.
Assignats
As tor, John Jacob
(and family)
Atkinson, Edward
Attwood, Thomas
Audit and Auditor
Backwardation
Bagehot, Walter
Balance of Trade
Bank Notes
Bank Rate
Banks and Banking
Barbon, Nicholas
Baring (family)
Barter
Bastiat, Frexteric
Bates, Joshua
Baudrillart, H. J. L.
Bawbee
Baxter, Robert Dudley
Bemis, E. W.
Bezant
Biddle, Nicholas
Bill of Exchange
Bimetallism
Blanqui, J. A.
Bliss, C. N.
Block, Maurice
Bodin, Jean
Bodle
Boehm von Bawerk
Boisguilbert, Sieur de
Book-keeping
Bourse
Breaking Bulk
Brentano, L. J.
Broker
Bucketshop
Budget
Bullion "
Buying in
Cairnes, John Elliott
Call
Capital
Carey, Henry Charles
Carli-Rubbi
Carrying-over
Cash
Chase, S. P.
Cheque, or Check
Chevalier, Michel
Child, Sir Josiah
Circular Note
Claflin, H. B.
Clark, John Bates
Clearing House
Cohn, Gustav
Coin
Coeur, Jacques
Colston, Edward
Combination
Commerce
Commercial Treaties
Consols
Contango
Cooke, Jay
Co-operation
Cooper, Peter
Cossa, Luigi
Coulisse
Coupon
Courcelle-Seneuil, J. G.
Cournot, A.
Coutts, Thomas
Cover
Credit
Credit Foncier
Crockford, William
Crore
Crown (coin)
Cunningham, William
Custom Duties
Custom House
Davenant, Charles
Decker, Sir Matthew
Decimal Coinage
Delessert, J. P. B.
Delftco, Melchiorre
Demonetization
Dewey, Davis Rich
Dime
Discount
Distribution
Dividend
Dock Warrant
Dollar
Drawback
Drexel, A. J.
Ducat
Ely, Richard Theodore
Engel, Ernst
English Finance
Exchange
Exchequer
Excise
Farr, William
Farrer, Baron
Farthing
Florin
Field, Cyrus West
Fisk, James
Fix, Theodore
Fouquet, Nicolas
Franc
Free Trade
Friendly Societies
Futures
Gabellc
Gallatin, Albert
Ganilh, Charles
Gamier, C. J.
Gamier, Marquis
Genovesi, Antonio
George, Henry
Giffen, Sir Robert
Gilds
Gilbart, James William
Gioja, Melchiorre
Girard, Stephen
Goldsmid (family)
Gould, Jay (and fam-
ily)
Grain Trade
Greenbacks
Gresham, Sir Thomas
Gresham's Law
Groat
Guinea
Gurney (family)
Hadley, A. T.
Hamilton, Alexander
Hamilton, Robert
Hanna, M. A.
Harriman, Edward H.
Haxthausen, L. von
Hermann, F. B. W. von
Hill, James J.
Horner, Francis
Horton, Samuel Dana
Hudson, George
Hufeland, Gottlieb
Income Tax
Ingram, J. K.
Insurance
Invoice
Jakob, L. H. von
Jenks, J. W.
Jesup, M. K.
Jevons, William S.
Jones, Richard
Kay, Joseph
Laing, Samuel
Lakh
Laveleye, E. L. V. de
Law, John
Lawrence, Amos
Le Play, P. G. Fr6de>ic
Leroy-Beaulieu, P. P.
Leslie, Thomas E. C.
Letter of Credit
Levasseur, Pierre Emile
Levi, Leone
Lingen, Baron
Lipton, Sir T. J.
Lira
List, Friedrich
Lloyd's
M*Culloch, John R.
Mackay, John William
Macleod, Henry Dun-
ning
Making-up Price
Malthus, Thomas Rob-
ert
Mark
Market
Marshall, Alfred
Marx, Heinrich Karl
Mayo-Smith, Richmond
Mint
Mohur
Moidore
Monopoly
Monetary Conferences
(International)
Money
Money-lending
Moon, Sir Richard
Moratorium
Morgan, John Pierpont
Morris, Robert
Morton, L. P.
Mun, Thomas
National Debt
Newmarch, William
North, Sir Dudley
Octroi
Overstone, 1st baron
Par
Paterson, William
Pauperism
Pawnbroking
Peabody, George
Pender, Sir John
Penny
Penrhyn, 2nd baron
Peseta
Petty, Sir William
Picayune
Pistole
Poll-tax
Pound
Premium
Price, Bonamy
Production
Profit-sharing
Protection
Proudhon, P. J.
Pyx
Quesnay, Francois
Raiffeisen, F. W.
Rau, Karl Heinrich
Rebate
Reciprocity
Revenue
Ricardo, David
Rockefeller, J. D.
Rodbertus, K. J.
Rogers, James Edwin
Roscher, W. G. F.
Rothschild (family)
Royalty
Rupee
Sadler, Michael Thomas
Sage, Russell
Saint-Simon, Comte de
Savings Banks
Say, Jean Baptiste
Say, Leon
Schaffle, A. E. F.
Schmoller, Gustav
Schulze-Delitzsch, F. H.
Seigniorage
Seligman, E. R. A.
Senior, Nassau William
Sequin
Shekel
Shell-monev
Sherman, John
Shilling
Slater, John Fox
Smith, Adam
Sou
Sovereign (coin)
Spreckels, Claus
Stag
Stamp
Standards Department
Sterling
Steuart, Sir J. D.
Stewart, A. T.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Stock Exchange
Sumner, W. G.
Tael
Tariff
Taxation
Taussig, Frank William
Thornton, Henry
Thornton, W. T.
Time Bargains
Title Guarantee Com-
panies
Token Money
Tonnage and Poundage
Tontine
Tooke, Thomas
Torrens, Robert
Torrens, William Tor-
rens M'Cullagh
Trusts
Trust Company
Tucker, Josiah
Vanderbilt, Cornelius
(and family)
Wagner, Adolf
Wages
Walker, Francis Amasa
Walras, M. E. L.
Wanamaker, John
Watkin, Sir E. W.
Wealth
Wells, David Ames
Window Tax
Wolowski, L. F. M. R.
Wright, Carroll D.
Zollverein
CHAPTER XXVIII
FOR CIVIL SERVICE MEN AND WOMEN AND STUDENTS
PREPARING FOR SERVICE EXAMINATIONS
FEDERAL, state and municipal
civil service includes so many spec-
ialized branches that a number of
the chapters in Part 1 of this Guide,
devoted to courses of reading adapted
to various occupations (such as For
Teachers, For Engineers, For Builders
and Contractors) will supply useful in-
dications. Part 2 of the Guide, contain-
ing classified courses of educational
reading, will point to articles especially
serviceable to those who are preparing
for examinations and, for that reason,
desire to review the ground they covered
at school or college.
Part 4 of the Guide, with its special
references to the subjects to which ad-
ministration and legislation are chiefly
directed, should be carefully examined.
There the reader will find lists of articles
dealing with schools and institutions;
the defective classes; crime and alcohol;
revenue and finance; ballot representa-
tion and suffrage; trusts, competition,
co-operation and socialism; labour and
immigration; legislation and the admin-
istration of justice; foreign relations
and the expansion of the United States.
The present chapter, in order that
repetition may be avoided, deals only
with the aspects of federal, state and
municipal government which are most
closely related to civil service organi-
zation. The article Civil Service (Vol.
6, p. 412) devotes
International nearly as much space
Comparisons to the British as to the
American service,
and its information as to British organi-
zation, examinations, salaries and pen-
sions will greatly interest those to whom
the details needed for an international
comparison have not been elsewhere
accessible. Until 1855 all British ap-
pointments were by nomination; and
although the service was quite free from
the abominable system of secretly taxing
salaries in order to support party funds,
that was about all that can be said for it.
There was hardly a pretense of selection
for merit. Influential families and the
relatives and personal friends of minis-
ters of state and of ladies whom kings
delighted to honor monopolized the ap-
pointments. Many posts were pure
sinecures, and in many ethers the work
was done by a substitute to whom the
nominee paid less than half the salary or
fees he received. Under George III the
system was at its worst, and the discon-
tent that was aroused in the American
colonies by the maladministration of
colonial affairs was "one of the efficient
causes of the American revolution."
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FOR <3IVIL SERVICE MEN AND WOMEN
157
The reforms begun in 1855 had by 1870
been so successful that since then open
competition has been the general rule;
and where nomination is still required,
as in the Foreign Office and the Educa-
tion Department, searching examina-
tions must be passed. Women are em-
ployed in the post-office, board of agri-
culture, customs, India office, depart-
ment of agriculture, local government
board and home office (factory inspec-
tors, etc.). The age for compulsory
retirement is 65, but the commissioners
may prolong this five years in excep-
tional cases. Subjects of examinations,
salaries and pensions are described in
the article. Since 1859 there has been
a superannuation pension of 10/60 of
the annual salary and emoluments to
any one serving 10 years and less than
11, and an additional sixtieth for each
year's service more than ten.
In the same article there is an historical
treatment of civil service in the United
States and of its gradual reform and ex-
tension since 1883.
Civil Service This may well be
in the supplemented by a
United States study of the Ameri-
can party system of
goverment and of the "spoils system"
under which party loyalty and personal
service to a party machine became the
test of a candidate's fitness for office.
For this the student should refer to the
section (Vol. 27, p. 646) on Constitution
and Government, of the article United
States, written by James Bryce, author
of The American Commonwealth and
formerly British ambassadorto the United
States; see p. 658-659, especially. There
is also much information in the section
History of the same article, especially
paragraphs 168, 169 (p. 697) on the be-
ginnings of the spoils system in Jackson's
time, paragraph 333 (p. 722) on the be-
ginnings of reform under Hayes, and para-
graph 343 (p. 724) on Cleveland and
civil service reform, etc.; and biographies
of Andrew Jackson, W. L. Marcy and
Martin Van Buren (for the spoils system)
and of George William Curtis, E. L.
Godkin, Carl Schurz, R. B. Hayes,
Grover Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison,
William McKinley and Theodore Roose-
velt.
Information in regard to the civil
service systems of states and cities may
be found in separate state and city
articles, — in addition to the material
on state and city systems in the articles
already mentioned.
The wide-awake student who has
read this far in this chapter and has
referred to the articles mentioned in
the Britannica, will
"General now be saying to
Information" himself: "There is
Papers evidently much val-
able information in
the encyclopaedia about the history and
status of civil service reform, and this
seems as full and complete for the United
States as for Great Britain. If other
topics are as fully treated in the Britan-
nica, it will be invaluable to me in prep-
aration for general information papers
for civil service examinations." And
he will be right. For instance, the
government employe must know more
about the government and its machinery
and history than does the average "man
in the street", — and he can learn this
from the Britannica.
As has already been pointed out,
the main treatment of the government
of the United States in the Britannica
is by James Bryce. This means that it
is authoritative and that it is inter-
esting and that in both these qualities
it is far superior to the usual text book
of "civics" or "civil government." It
occupies pp. 646-661 of volume 27, and
is equivalent to about 50 pages of this
Guide— so that it is more than a bare
outline. And it is followed by a valu-
able bibliography of the subject to guide
the student to the best books on any
special topic which he may wish to
pursue further.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
But this is far from being all the in-
formation in the Britannica on the sub-
ject. The contribution of Mr. Bryoe
is only a part of the article United
States. The entire article would take up
nearly 400 pages if printed in the style
of this Guide. It treats the physical
geography, geology, climate, fauna and
flora, population, industries and com-
merce, government, finance, army and
history of the country — the equivalent
of 225 pages of this Guide is devoted to
History alone. All parts of this article
contain valuable information about the
country; and this article is supplemented
by hundreds of others: —
(a) Articles on each of the states,
arranged much as in the article United
States with sections on history and gov-
ernment serving as an authoritative
summary of the salient facts, and making
up a complete course on state "civics,"
government and history;
(b) Articles on cities and towns with
similar treatment of the distinctive
elements in the government of each, and
of the main points in their history;
(c) Separate articles on the important
rivers, lakes, mountains and other topics
in physical geography;
(d) Separate articles on topics in
American history and government: such
as Nullification, State Rights, Fugi-
tive Slave Laws, Electoral Com-
mission; and
(e) Biographies of great Americans,
famous in war, politics, administration,
business, science, art, religion, — in short
all fields of activity.
In brief, whether for an examination
on general information, on civics, on
history, or on the special branch of the
civil service to which the student wishes
to be appointed, no book will give as
valuable and complete information as
the Britannica.
CHAPTER XXIX
FOR ARMY OFFICERS
IT is often said of an article in the
Britannica that it is "the last word on
the subject," so thoroughly has the
authority of the book been recognized.
This is quite as true of military articles
as of those in any other field; but of the
military articles it may also be said that
they are the first word. Of course, there
have been, in pre-
A New vious editions of the
Departure Britannica and, to a
less degree in minor
works of general reference, articles on
military history and biography. But in
the new Britannica, for the first time, all
branches of military knowledge are in-
cluded, and the spirit of the entire treat-
ment is comparative and critical. The
military student will find a discussion not
merely of Napoleon's influence on army
organization or Frederick's influence on
cavalry (in the articles on these two
leaders), but also of the influence of army
organization on Napoleon (in the articles
on the French Revolutionary Wars and
the Napoleonic Campaigns), and of cav-
alry drill on the peculiar generalship of
Frederick (in such articles as Seven
Years' War, on Hohenfriedberg, and on
Rossbach). Put more concretely, the
novelty consists in the inclusion of ar-
ticles on wars, campaigns and battles,
chosen because of their importance in
military as well as in political history,
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159
and treated from the point of view of the
military critic and with particular atten-
tion to the lessons they contain for the
modern army officer. The care with
which the battles and campaigns of the
American Civil War are analyzed and
criticized will be of singularly great in-
terest to the American soldier, who will
immediately notice among the contribu-
tors to the military department of the
Britannica such names as those of Capt.
C. F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness
and Cold Harbour, Major G. W. Redway,
author of Fredericksburg: A Study in War,
Col. G. F. R. Henderson, author of Stone-
wall Jackson and the American Civil War,
and Col. F. N. Maude, lecturer in mili-
tary history, University of Manchester.
The best starting point for a study of
military affairs in the Bri-
Army tannica is the article Army
(Vol. 2, p. 592; equivalent
to more than 100 pages of this Guide).
This "key" article may be outlined as
follows:
General History
Early Armies — Egypt (chariots, in-
fantry, archers). Babylon and As-
syria (horsemen, charioteers, etc.).
Persian, largely cavalry ; the first " or-
ganized " army. Greece, — compulsory
service; citizen militia; heavy infantry
the strong arm; phalanx, the Greek
formation. Sparta, — a nation in arms.
Greek mercenaries. Epaminondas and
Thebes — new phalanx tactics, " oblique
order"; development of cavalry. Al-
exander and Mace don — a modified The-
ban system. Carthage — mercenary
troops led by great generals, with mod-
ification of phalanx for greater elastic-
ity. Rome — army under the Repub-
lic; its characteristics; under the Em-
pire; see also separate article Roman
Army (Vol. 28, p. 471), by Professor
F. J. Haverfield of Oxford. The Bark
Ages, the Byzantines, and the develop-
ment of Feudalism. Medieval Mer-
cenaries. Infantry in Feudal Times.
The Crusades. The Period of Transi-
tion (1290-1490), development of Eng-
lish archers and of professional sol-
diery, — condottieri, Swiss, Lands-
knechts. The Spanish army : " at the
disposal of its sovereign, trained to the
due professional standard and organ-
ized in the best way found by experi-
ence." The Sixteenth Century — rise of
the heavy cavalry armed with pistols,
and fall of the pikemen. Dutch Sys-
tem — attention to minute detail; Wil-
liam the Silent and Maurice of Nassau.
Thirty Years 9 War— the Werbe-sys-
tem, small standing army to be in-
creased by levy at time of need. The
Swedish Army — conscription and feu-
dal indelta; Gustavus. The English
Civil War — real national armies;
Cromwell and the " New Model " only
an incident without influence on army
organization. Standing Armies. French
pre-eminence after Rocroi. Small field
armies, well-fed and sheltered for econ-
omy's sake. 18th Century organiza-
tion: "linear" formation and its nega-
tive results. Frederick the Great: the
art of war a formal science. The
French Revolution: a " nation in arms,"
a war-machine more powerful than
Frederick's. The conscription in
France. Napoleon — his attempt to
make a dynastic army out of the " na-
tion in arms." The Grande Armee of
1805-1806; development of artillery;
the army corps. The Wars of Libera-
tion: new Prussian army; excellent
Austrian organization. Armies of
1815-1870. American Civil War,— its
alow decision. Contrast between French
and Prussian staff systems in 1870.
Modern Developments: German model
followed slavishly except in Great Brit-
ain and the United States.
Present Day Armies: The general
accounts of existing armies, and of the
past organizations of each country, are
supplemented by detailed information
in the articles on different countries.
Especial attention should be given to
the military information in the article
on Japan. Army Systems: Compulsory
Service; Conscription; Voluntary Serv-
ice; Militia.
Army Organization
The three chief arms — their relative
importance: proportion on peace foot-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ing — 5 or 6 guns per 1000 men, 16
cavalry soldiers to 1000 men of other
arms ; proportion in war — Russian
(1905) % l /2 guns per 1000 men of other
arms, 60 cavalry to 1000 infantry;
Japanese (1905), 2 l / 2 field guns per
1000 men, 87 cavalry to 1000 infantry.
Command: Brigade; Division; Army
Corp*, its constitution; Army; Chief
Command of group of armies; chief of
general staff and his relations to com-
mander-in-chief — for example, von
Moltke and King William. Branches
of Administration — war office and gen-
eral staff.
Table: Comparative strength of Va-
rious Armies.
British Army, Indian Army, Cana-
dian Forces.
Austrian Army.
French Army.
German Army.
Italian Army.
Russian Army.
Spanish Army.
Turkish Army.
United States Army.
Armies of minor countries.
Bibliography (2000 words)
Next in order the student should turn
to the article War (Vol. 28, p. 305;
equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by
Col. G. F. R. Hen-
Theory and derson, well known
Practice for his books on the
American Civil War
(Fredericksburg, Stonewall Jackson, etc.),
with a section on Laws of War, by Sir
Thomas Barclay. Col. Henderson's ar-
ticle lays down important general prin-
ciples. An analysis of modern conditions
shows that improved methods of com-
municationhavemadewaramuch speedier
process, in which the victorious general
cannot make mistakes at the outset.
That intellect and education count for
more than stamina and courage was the
lesson of the Franco-Prussian War— a
lesson learned by the Prussians before
that war. Modern war is a science and
the amateur has little chance; in this
respect things have changed. "It is im-
possible to doubt that had the Boers of
1899 possessed a staff of trained strate-
gists, they would have shaken the British
Empire to its foundations." There must
be a concert between diplomacy and
strategy. Civilian war ministers cannot
solve strategic problems. The greater
deadliness of modern warfare, and the
greater moral effect of being under fire
call for better foresight, strategy and
morale. The relation of army and navy
is discussed and the new doctrine of "sea-
power" explained. (See the chapter For
Naval Officers in this Guide). The re-
maining topics in the article are: weak-
ness of allied armies; railways and sea as
lines of operation; amphibious power;
value of unprofessional troops and the
need of professional leaders.
In the articles Infantry (Vol. 14, p.
517; 2 plates; equivalent to 35 pages of
this Guide) and Artillery (Vol. 2, p.
685; St plates; equiv-
Arms of alent to SO pages of
Service this Guide), both by
Capt. Atkinson, and
in the article Cavalry (Vol. 5, p. 563;
illustrated with % plates and 1 cut; in
length equivalent to 30 pages of this
Guide), by Col. F. N. Maude, the
student will find an elaborate treatment
of the history, organization and tactics
(especially since 1870) of each of these
arms. For details of their organiza-
tion and equipment he should read the
articles Engineers, Staff, Mounted
Infantry, Supply and Transport (Mil-
itary), Officers, Ambulance, Forti-
fication, Machine Guns, Coast De-
fence, Ordnance, Ballistics, Sights,
Rifle, Gun, Pistol, Explosive, Gun-
powder, Guncotton, Cordite and
Nitro-glycerine. In many geograph-
ical articles there are descriptions of the
world's great fortifications, e. g., Paris,
Antwerp, and Verdun. Other topics
of a more miscellaneous character are
covered by the articles Army Signal-
ling, Pigeon Post, Signals, War Game,
Manoeuvres, Kite, etc.
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The military use of aeroplanes and
balloons is very fully shown in the arti-
cles Flight and Aeronautics..
Before taking up a systematic course
in military history, there are two general
articles that the military student should
read: Tactics (Vol.
Strategy and 26, p. 347; equiva-
Tactics lent in length to 20
pages of this Guide),
by Maj. Neill Malcolm, editor of the
Science of War; and Strategy (Vol. 25,
p. 986; equivalent to 35 pages of this
Guide), by Col. F. N. Maude. The
former article should be compared with
the sections on tactics in the articles
Infantry, Cavalry and Artillery.
Major Malcolm makes much of the con-
tinuity of military history, comparing
Metaurus and Ramillies with the fighting
in Manchuria, and Wellington at Maya
with Oyama in his contest with Kuro-
patkin. The mistakes that have been
made once should not be made again;
at least the careful student of tactical
history may see to it that if they are
repeated, it is done by his opponent and
not by himself. Modern tactics are
different from ancient because of greater
fire-power and improved methods of
transportation. Cavalry tactics are in
an uncertain condition; there is no recent
practice to serve as a guide, since neither
in South Africa in the Boer war nor in
Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese
conflict was cavalry much used. In-
fantry must co-operate to make artillery
bombardment effective. An interesting
discussion of offensive and defensive
fighting is summed up in the words
'To the true general the purely defen-
sive battle is unknown" and as evidence
are adduced Wellington at Salamanca
and Oyama at Sha-ho. Oyama's victory
in the latter battle, it is pointed out,
shows the increased ease of the process
of envelopment, which has resulted in
discarding corps artillery in favour of
divisional artillery. The importance —
and the possibility — of the counter stroke;
the danger of using for the relief of one's
own troops forces which might better
be launched at the enemy's weakest
spot; and the similar unwisdom of any
negative tactics, adopted to avoid loss,
as in "holding attacks" — are the other
principal points made in the article.
The article Strategy should be read
in conjunction with the articles Army
and War. It is impossible to summarize
or outline it here, but it is worth noting
that the article closes with a definition
and discussion of the following terms:
Base; Line of Communication; Line of
Operations; Exterior Lines; Obstacles.
For a reasoned history of warfare
in more detail than has been given in
the general articles
Military His- already alluded to,
tory and the reader will find
Criticism some outline like the
following valuable,
the arrangement being roughly chrono-
logical and all words in Italics being titles
of articles in the Britannica.
Marathon; Darius; MUtiades; He-
rodotus.
Thermopylae; Leonidas; Salami*.
Peloponnesian War; Pericles; Cleon;
Pylos; Brasidas; Alcibiades; Critias;
Thucydides; Xenophon.
Epaminondas; Mantineia.
Philip II of Macedon; Olynthus;
Chaeroneia; Alexander the Great; Ar-
rian.
Pyrrhus.
Roman Army; Caudine Forks; Punic
Wars; Cartilage; Hanno; Hannibal;
Hasdrubal; Mago; Trasimene; Fabius
(Cunctator) ; Cannae; Scipio Afri-
canus; Scipio Aemilianus; Aemilius
Paulus; Perseus; Marius; Jugurtha;
Sulla; Sertorius; Pompey; Caesar; An-
tonius (Mark Antony).
Charles Mart el.
Charlemagne.
William I (of England) ; Hastings;
Standard, Battle of.
Crusades (equivalent to 90 pages of
this Guide); Godfrey of Bouillon;
Raymund of Toulouse; Richard I (of
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
England) ; Philip II (of France) ;
Saladin; Henry VI (Roman Emperor) ;
Baldwin I; Frederick II; Louis IX (of
France).
Bouvines.
Bannock burn; Robert Bruce.
Hundred Years' War; Philip VI;
Edward III; Crecy; John of Bohemia;
Edward (the Black Prince); Calais;
Poitiers; John II (of France) ; Lan-
caster, House of (for John of Gaunt) ;
Bertrand Du Guesclin; Henry V (of
England) ; Agincourt; Joan of Arc; 1st
Duke of Bedford (John Plantagenet) ;
Count of Dunois.
• Wars of the Roses; St. Albans;
Towton; Earl of Warwick (Richard
Neville) ; Edward IV.
Ravenna, battle of; Bayard (the
"chevalier) ; Gaston de Foix; Pescara;
Navarro; Marignan; Francis I (of
France).
Flodden; James IV (of Scotland) ;
Norfolk, 3rd Duke.
St Quentin (1557) ; Coligny; Mont-
morency (constable) ; Emmanuel Phili-
bert.
Alva; William the Silent (Vol. 28,
p. 672) ; Maurice of Nassau; Farnese
(duke of Parma).
Thirty Years' War; Maximilian I
(of Bavaria) ; Frederick V (elector
palatinate; Vol. 11, p. 59); Mans f eld;
Tilly; Wallenstein; Gustavus Adol-
phus; Breitenfeld; Lutzen; Bernhard
of Saxe-W eimar ; due de Rohan; Fred-
erick Henry; Gallas; Baner; Piccolo-
mini; Turenne; Torstensson; Conde;
Freiburg; Mercy; Nbrdlingen; Wran-
gel (1618-1676); Fronde.
Great Rebellion (English Civil Wars
of 1642-52) ; Charles I (of England) ;
Prince Rupert; Essex (2nd Earl, Vol.
9, p. 782); Edgehill; John Hotham;
Baron Hopton; Sir William Waller;
Duke of Newcastle (1592-1676) ; Fair-
fax of Cameron (2nd and 8rd Barons) ;
Sir Bevil Grenville; Oliver Cromwell;
Manchester, 2nd Earl of (Vol. 17, p.
548) ; Marston Moor; Leven; Skippon;
Argyll, 8th Earl; Montrose; Lord New-
ark; Goring; Naseby; John Lambert;
Charles Fleetwood; Dunbar; Thomas
Harrison.
Dutch Wars; Louis XIV; Conde;
Frederick William of Brandenburg;
Turenne; Montecucculi; William III
(of England) ; Duke of Luxembourg;
Charles of Lorraine (Vol. 17, p. 11).
Vauban.
Grand Alliance, War of; Catinat;
Luxembourg; Vauban; Fleurus; Lou-
vois; Due de Boufflers; Coehoorn; Wil-
liam III of England; Steenkirk; Neer-
winden; Villeroi.
Spanish Succession; Marlborough;
Eugene of Savoy; Villars; Peterbor-
ough; Ruvigny; Catinat; Vendome;
Blenheim; Ramillies; Oudenarde; Mal-
plaquet; Berwick.
Polish Succession War.
Austrian Succession; Frederick the
Great; Count von Schwerin; L. A.
Khevenhuller; Due de Broglie; Traun;
Charles (of Lorraine; Vol. 5, p. 936);
Seckendorf ; George II (of England) ;
Noailles; Conti (Vol. 7, p. 28); Ho-
henfriedberg ; Fontenoy; comte de Saxe
(marshal) ; Duke of Cumberland; Li-
gonier; Belle-Isle.
Seven Years' War (with 5 dia-
grams) : Frederick the Great; Clive;
Amherst; Wolfe; comte de Lolly;
Montcalm; Count von Browne; Ferdi-
nand (of Brunswick) ; Daun; Zieten;
F. E. J. Keith; Seydlitz; Rossbach;
Soubise (1715-1787); Leuthen; Lou-
don; Kunersdorf; Finck; Minden;
Sackville, 1st Viscount; Granby.
American War of Independence;
Lexington; Concord; Bunker Hill; Jo-
seph Warren; Israel Putnam; Thomas
Gage; William Howe; Ethan Allen;
Ticonderoga; George Washington;
Benedict Arnold; Richard Montgom-
ery; Long Island; Rufus Putnam; Wil-
liam Alexander; Trenton and Prince-
ton; Henry Knox; Brandywine ; Ger-
mantown; Burgoyne; Bennington; John
Stark; Saratoga; George Rogers
Clark; Sir Henry Clinton; Monmouth ;
John Sullivan; Anthony Wayne; Wil-
liam Moultrie; Charleston (S. C.) ;
Francis. Marion; Thomas Sumter; An-
drew Pickens; Horatio Gates; Nathan-
ael Greene; Cornwallis; Kalb; Cam-
den; King's Mountain; Daniel Mor-
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FOR ARMY OFFICERS
163
gan; Henry Lee; Tarleton; Eutaw-
ville; Lafayette; Yorktown.
French Revolutionary Wars (with 6
diagrams) ; Dumouriez; Keller man
(1785-1820); Custine; Jemappes; Gri-
beauval; Neerwinden (1798); Cler-
fayt; Vendee; L. N. M. Carnot; Jour-
dan; Wattignies; Joubert; Frederick
Augustus, Duke of 'York; Souham; Mo-
reau; Kray von Krajova; Vandamme;
Pichegru; Marceau; Charles, archduke
of Austria (Vol. 5, p. 985) ; Massena;
Napoleon; Auger eau; Serurier; Jou-
bert; Sir W. Sidney Smith; Kleber;
Alexandria; Oudinot; Suvarov; Boro-
dino; Macdonald; Marengo; Murat;
Lannes; Berthier; Bautzen,
Napoleonic Campaigns (9 diagrams;
and see, on p. 288 of Vol. 19, " The
Military Character of Napoleon ") ;
Napoleon; Wrede; Murat; Charles
XIV (Bernadotte) ; Marmont; Davout;
Ney; Lannes; Soult; Berthier; Ange-
reau; Dupont de I'Etang; Austerlitz;
Kutusov; Hohenlohe (Vol. 18, p. 572):
Bliicher; Lasalle; Massenbach; Kalck-
reuth; Scharnhorst; Lefebvre-Desno-
ettes; Count von Bennigsen; Eylau;
Friedland; Grouchy; Mortier; Senar-
mont; Oudinot; Massena; Aspern-Ess-
ling; Charles, archduke of Austria;
Bellegarde; Wagram; Beauharnais;
Macdonald; Jerome Bonaparte (Vol.
4, p. 195) ; Barclay de Tolly; Bagra-
tion; Victor-Perrin; Yorck von Warten-
burg; Lauriston; Wittgenstein; Baut-
zen; Schwarzenberg; Gouvion St. Cyr;
Dresden (battle).
Peninsular War; Junot; Murat; Du-
pont de I'Etang; Moncey; Palafox y
Melzi; Wellington; Sir John Moore;
Sir David Baird; Talavera; Suchet;
Sebastiani; Foy; Lord Hill; Lord
Lynedoch; W. C. Beresford; Sala-
manca; Clausel; O'Donnell; Vitoria;
Sir William Napier.
American War of 1812; Isaac
Brock; Dearborn; Baltimore; Wash-
ington; New Orleans; Andrew Jack-
son; Jacob Brown; James Wilkinson;
and for sea-fighting the titles in the
chapter of this Guide: For Naval
Officers.
Waterloo Campaign (with 8 maps) ;
Napoleon; Murat; Schwarzenberg;
Barclay de Tolly; Wellington; Blii-
cher; Lord Hill; Anglesey; D'Erlon;
Gneisenau; Gerard; Grouchy; Van-
damme; Thielmann; Billow (1755-
1816) ; Ney; Exelmans; Pajol; Picton.
Greek Independence; Ypsilanti;
Mavrocordato; Cora'es; Dundonald;
Sir Richard Church.
Russo-Turkish Wars ( 1 828-29) ;
Paskevich; Diebitsch (1877-78); Os-
man; Skobelev; Plevna (with dia-
gram) ; Todleben; Shipka Pass.
Crimean War (with 2 diagrams):
Gorchakov; Hess; Raglan; Saint Ar-
naud; Canrobert; Pelissier; Meushi-
kov (1787-1869); Bosquet; Todleben;
Alma; Balaklava; Scarlett; Cardigan;
Inkerman; Sir George Brown; Sir
George Cathcart; Kinglake.
Italian Wars (1848-1870); Ra-
detzky; Charles Albert of Sardinia
(Vol. 5, p. 988) ; Durando; Pepe; Vic-
tor Emmanuel; Pelissier; Canrobert;
La Marmora; Napoleon III; Forey;
MacMahon; Bazaine; Wimpffen; Bene-
dek; Niel; Custozza; Cialdini.
American Civil War; Bull Run; Mc-
Dowell; Beauregard; J. E. Johnston;
R. E. Lee; Rosecrans; Lexington, Mo.;
Fremont; Nathaniel Lyon; F. P. Blair,
Jr.; Pope; Burnside; B. F. Butler; Mc-
Clellan; A. S. Johnston; G. H.
Thomas; U. S. Grant; C. F. Smith;
Lew Wallace; McClernand; Halleck;
0. M. Mitchel; Shiloh; N. P. Banks;
T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson; Shenan-
doah; Fair Oaks; Seven Days; A. P.
Hill; D. H. Hill; J. E. B. Stuart;
Braxton Bragg; Longstreet; Bull Run
(second battle); Ewell; Sigel; Hooker;
Kearny; Fitz-John Porter; Antietam;
E. V. Sumner; Hood; Burnside; Van
Dorn; Fredericksburg; W. B. Frank-
lin; John F. Reynolds; D. N. Couch;
Stone River; Hardee; A. McD. Mc-
Cook; T. L. Crittenden; G. H. Thomas;
J. C. Breckinridge; McPherson; Chan-
cellorsville; T. F. Meagher; Meade;
Gettysburg; O. O. Howard; Double-
day; Early; Hancock; Sickles; Vicks-
burg; J. H. Morgan; Chickamauga; N.
B. Forrest; Chattanooga; Sheridan;
Wilderness (4 diagrams); Fitz-Hugh
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Lee; J. H. Wilson; G. K. Warren;
John Sedgwick; Merritt; R. H. Ander-
son; Spottsylvania; Cold Harbor;
Petersburg; Shenandoah Valley; Cedar
Creek; W. T. Sherman; Marietta; At-
lanta; Slocum; Sc ho field; Joseph
Wheeler; J. A. Logan; Nashville; Rich-
mond; Appomatox Court-House; Dur-
ham, N. C.
Seven Weeks' War (with 2 dia-
grams) : William I (of Germany) ;
Moltke; Benedek; Frederick III (of
Germany) ; Frederick Charles (of
Prussia; Vol. 11, p. 61); Steinmetz;
Blumenthal; Hohenlohe - Ingelfingen
(Yol. 18, p. 578b); Goeben; and see
Italian Wars above.
Franco-German War; Napoleon III;
Niel; Moltke; William I (of Ger-
many) ; Steinmetz; Frossard; Mac-
Mahon; Worth (with plan) ; Basaine;
Metz (2 plans) ; Alvensleben; Canro-
bert; Bourbaki; Leboeuf; Manteuffel;
Caprivi; Prince Frederick Charles; Se-
dan (with plan) ; Vinoy; Wimpffen;
Gallifet; Werder; Gambetta; Frey-
cinet; Aurelle de Paladines; Orleans;
Bourbaki; Le Mans; Chanzy; Faid-
herbe; Belfort; Clinchant; Paris.
Servo-Bulgarian War; Alexander of
Bulgaria (Vol. 1, p. 544); Milan of
Servia.
Greco-Turkish War; Edhem Pasha.
Spanish- American War; Joseph
Wheeler; F. V. Greene; Roosevelt;
Miles.
Transvaal (Vol. 27, pp. 208 sqq. for
Boer War of 1899-1902); Kruger;
Cronje; P. J. Joubert; Sir George
White; Buller; Lord Roberts; Lord
Kitchener; J. H. De la Rey; Christian
DeWet; Louis Botha.
Russo-Japanese War (with 4 dia-
grams) ; Kuroki; Kuropatkin; Inouye;
Oku; Nozu; Oyama.
The military student will see from
what has already been said that the Bri-
tannica is not merely a general work of
reference but a valu-
A Military able aid in the study
Encyclopaedia of military history,
biography, theory,
practice and phraseology. The following
alphabetical list names only the chief
of the articles in the Britannica which
make it a military cyclopaedia. As has
been noticed above, many articles are
special treatises in themselves dealing
with many related topics, and — for in-
stance — articles on wars or campaigns
contain elaborate descriptions of separate
battles. Many topics are treated in the
Britannica, even if they are not in the
following list, and their whereabouts
may be readily learned by turning to
the Index volume.
Abatis
Accoutrement
Acinaces
Adjutant
Ad j utant-general
Adye, Sir John Miller
Aelian (Aelianus Tacti-
cus)
Aemilius, Paulus
Aeneas Tacticus
Aeronautics
Agincourt, Battle of
Aide-de-camp
Albert, Charles, of Sar-
dinia
Alcibiades
Alexander
Alexander the Great
Alexander, William
Alexander of Bulgaria
Alexandria
Alignment
Allan, Ethan
Alma
Alva
Alvensleben
Ambush
Ammunition
American Civil War
American War of 1812
American War of In-
dependence
Amherst
Anderson, R. H.
Anglesey
Antietam
Antonius (Mark An-
tony)
Antwerp
Archery
Argyll, 8th Earl
Arniet
Arms and Armour
Army
Army Corps
Army Signalling
Arnold, Benedict
Arquebus
Arrian
Arsenal
Artillery
Asclepiodotus
Aspern-Essling
Assegai
Atlanta
Augereau
Augsburg, War of the
League of
Augustus, Frederick,
Duke of York
Aurelle de Paladines
Austerlitz
Austrian Succession,
War of the
Aventail or Avantaille
Bagration
Bailey
Baird, Sir David
Balaklava
Baldwin I
Ballistics
Bandolier
Baner
Banks, N. P.
Bannockburn
Barbette
Barclay de Tolly
Barracks
Barricade
Basinet
Bastion
Batta
Battalion
Battering Rajr
Battle
Bautzen
Bayonet
Bazaine
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165
Bayard (the Chevalier)
Beauharnais
Beauregard
Bedford, 1st Duke of
Belfort
Bellegarde
Belle-Isle
Benedek
Bennigsen, Coilnt von
Bennington
Beresford, W. C.
Bernhard of Saxe- Wei-
mar
Berthier
Berwick
Bivouac
Blair, F. P., Jr.
Blenheim
Blockhouse
Blticher
Blumenthal
Blunderbuss
Bomb
Bombardier
Bombardment
Bonaparte, Jerome
Borodino
Bosquet
Botha
Boufflers, Due de
Boulevard
Bourbaki
Bouvines
Bragg, Braxton
Brandywine
Brasidas
Breckinridge, J. C.
Breitenfeld
Brevet
Brialmont, H. A.
Brigade
Brigand ine
Benedetto Brin
Bronsart von Schellen-
dorf, Paul
Brown, Sir George
Brown, Jacob
Brown Bess
Browne, Count von
Bruce, Robert
Bullet
Buller
Bull Run
Bull Run (second bat-
tle)
Billow, Dietrich Heln-
rich
Bunker Hill
Burgonet, or Burganet
Burgoyne
Burnside
Busby
Butler, B. F.
Cadet
Cadre
Caesar
Calais
Caliver
Caltrop
Camden
Camp
Campaign
Canadian Forces
Cannae
Cannon
Canrobert
Canteen
Cantonment
Capitulation
Caponier
Caprivi
Captain
Carabiniers
Carbine
Cardigan
Carnot, L. N. M.
Carronade
Carthage
Cartridge
Carrington, H. B.
Casemate
Case-Shot
Cashier
Castle
Catapult
Cathcart, Sir George
Catinat
Caudine Forks
Cavalry
Cedar Creek, Va.
Chaeroneia
Chancellors ville
Chanzy
Chaplain
Charlemagne
Charles, Archduke of
Austria
Charles I (of England)
Charles XIV (Berna-
dotte)
Charles Martel
Charleston, S. C.
Chassepot
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Chesney, C. C.
Chesney, Sir G. T.
Chevaux-de-frise
Church, Sir Richard
Chickamauga Creek
Cialdini
Circumvallation, Lines
of
Clark, George Rogers
Clausel
Clausewitz, Karl von
Claymore
Cleon
Clerfayt
Clinchant
Clinton, Sir Henry
Clive
Coast Defence
Coastguard
Coehoorn
Cold Harbor
Coligny
Colonel
Colours, Military
Colour-sergeant
Commander
Commandeer
Commando
Commissariat
Concord
Condg
Condottiere
Conscription
Conti
Coraes
Cordite
Cormontaingne, Louis
de
Cornwallis
Corporal
Corps
Couch, D. N.
Counterscarp
Countersign
Court Marshal
Cox, J. D.
Creey
Crimean War
Crilias
Crittenden, T. L.
Cromwell, Oliver
Cronje
Crusades
Cuirass
Cuirassiers
Cumberland, Duke of
Custine
Custozza
Cutlass
Dagger
Dannewerk
Darius
Daun
Davout
Dearborn
Defile
Depot
D'Erlon
De la Rey
Devolution, War of
De Wet
Diebitsch
Dirk
Division
Dodge, Theodore A.
Donelson, Fort
Doubleday
Dragoon
Dresden
Du Guesclin, Bertrand
Dumouriez
Dunbar
Dundonald
Dunes
Dunois, Count of
Dupont de PEtang
Dttppel
Durando
Dutch Wars
Early
Echelon
Edgehill
Edhem Pasha
Edward (the Black
Prince)
Edward III
Edward IV
Emmanuel Philibert
Emmanuel, Victor
Enceinte
Enfilade
Engineers, Military
Ensign
Epaminondas
Epaulette
Essex
Eugene of Savoy
Eutawville
Ewell
Exelmans
Explosives
Eylau
Fabius (Cunctator)
Faidherbe
Fairfax of Cameron
Fair Oaks, Va.
Farnese (Duke of
Parma)
Fascine
Ferdinand (of Bruns-
wick)
Filibuster
Finck
Fleetwood, Charles
Fleurus
Flodden
Flying
Flying Column
Foix, Gaston de
Folard, Jean Charles
Fontenoy
Forey
Forlorn Hope
Forrest, X. B.
Fortification and Siege-
craft
Foy
Francis I (of France)
Franco-German War
Franklin, W. B.
Frederick II
Frederick III (of Ger-
many)
Frederick V
Frederick Charles (of
Prussia)
Frederick Henry
Frederick the Great
Frederick William of
Brandenburg
Fredericksburg, Va.
Freiburg im Breisgau
Fremont, J. C.
French Revolutionary
Wars
Freycinet
Friedland
Frigate
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166
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
Fronde
Frossard
Fugleman
Fusilier
Gabion
Gage, Thomas
Gafias
Galliffet
Gambetta
Garrison
Gates, Horatio
Gauntlet
General
George II of England
Gerard
Germantown
Gettysburg
Gingall or Jingal
Glacis
Gneisenau
Godfrey of Bouillon
Goeben
Gorchakov
Gorget
Goring
Gouvion St. Cyr
Granby
Grand Alliance, War
of the
Grant, U. S.
Grape
Great Rebellion
Greco-Turkish War
Greek Fire
Greek Independence,
War of
Greene, F. V.
Greene, Nathanael
Grenade
Grenadier
Grenville, Sir Bevil
Gribeauval
Grouchy
Guards and Household
Troops
Guardship
Guibert, Comte de
Guichard, Karl Gottlieb
Gun
Gun-cotton
Gunner
Gunpowder
Gun-Room
Gustavus Adolphus
Halbert
Halleck, H. W.
Haniley, Sir Edward
Hancock
Hannibal
Hanno
Hardee
Harper's Ferry, W. Va.
Harrison, Thomas
Hasdrubal
Hastings
Haversack
Heliograph
Helmet
Henderson, G, F. R.
Henry V (of England)
Henry VI (Roman
Emperor)
Herodotus
Herrings, Battle of the
Hess
Hill, A. P.
Hill, D. H.
Hill, Lord Rowland
Hohenfriedberg
Hohenlohe-Ingelflnjfen
Holster
Hood
Hooker
Hopton, Baron
Hostage
Hotham, John
Howard, O. O.
Howe, William
Howitzer
Hull, William
Hundred Years* War
Hussar
Infantry
Inkerman
Inouye
Isly
Italian Wars
Jackson, Andrew
Jackson, T. J. ( M Stone-
wall")
James IV (of Scot-
land)
Japan, Army
Jemappes
Joan of Arc
John of Bohemia
John II of France
Johnston, A. S.
Johnston, J. E.
Jomini, Baron A. H.
Joubert, P. J.
Jourdan
Jugurtha
Junot
Kalb
Kalckreuth
Kearny
Keith, F. E. J.
Kellermann.
Khaki
Khevenhiiller, L. A.
Kinglake
King's Mountain
Kitchener, Lord
Kite
Kteber
Knobkerrie
Knox, Henry
Kray von Krajova
Kriegspiel
Kruger
Kunersdorf
Kuroki
Kuropatkin
Kutusov
Laager
Lafayette
Lally, Comte de
Lambert, John
La Marmora
Lancaster, House of
Lance
Landsknecht
Landsturm
Landwehr
Langlois, H.
Lannes
Lasalle
Lauriston
Leboeuf
Lee, Fitz-Hugh
Lee, Henry
Lee, R. E.
Lefebvre-Desnoettes
Legion
Leipzig
Le Mans
Leonidas
Leuthen
Leven
Lexington
Ligonier
Linstock
Logan, J. A.
Long Island, N. Y.
Longstreet
Lorraine, Charles of
Loudon
Louis IX (of France)
Louis XI V
Louvois
Ltttzen
Luxembourg
Luxembourg, Duke of
Lord Lynedoch
Lyon, Nathaniel
McClellan
McClernand
McCook, A. McD.
Macdonald
McDowell
McPherson
Macedon
Machine Gun
MacMahon
Mago
Major
Malleson, George Bruce
Malplaquet
Mameluke
Manchester, 2d Earl of
Military Manoeuvres
Mans f eld
Manteuffel
Mantineia
Marathon
Marceau
March
Marengo
Marietta, Ga.
Marignan
Marion, Francis
Marius
Marlborough
Marmont
Marston Moor
Martello Tower
Martial Law
Martinet
Massena
Massenbach
Massinissa
Matross
Maurice of Nassau
Mavrocordato
Maximilian I (of Ba-
varia)
Meade
Meagher, T. P.
Menshikov
Mercenary
Mercy
Merritt
Met*
Meuse Line
Milan of Servia
Miles
Military Law
Militia
Miltiades
Minden
Minute Men
Mitchel, O. M.
Moat
Moltke
Moncey
Monmouth
Montalembert
Montcalm
Montecucculi
Montgomery, Richard
Montmorency (con-
stable)
Montrose
Moore, Sir John
Moreau
Morgan, Daniel
Morgan, J. H.
Morion
Mortier
Moselle Line
Moultrie, William
Mounted Infantry
Murat
Musket
Muster
Mutiny
Napier, Sir William
Napoleon
Napoleonic Campaigns
Napoleon HI
Naseby
Nashville
Navarro
Needle-gun
Neerwinden
Newark, Lord
Newcastle, Duke of
New Orleans
Ney
Niel
Nitro-glycerlne
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167
Noailles
Ndrdlingen
Norfolk, 3rd Duke
Nozu
O'Donnell, H. J.
Officers
Oku
Olynthus
Onosander
Ordnance
Orleans
Osman
Oudenarde
Oudinot
Oyama
Paiol
Palafox y Melsi
Panoply
Parade
Parados
Parallels
Paris
Parole
Partisan
Paskevich
Pasley, Sir C. W.
Patrol
Pavis, or Pavise
Pelissier
Peloponnesian War
Peninsular War
Pericles
Perseus
Pescara
Petard
Peterborough
Petersburg Campaign
Petronel
Petty-Officer
Phalanx
Philip II (of Macedon)
Philip II (of France)
Philip VI
Piccolomini
Pichegru
Pickens, Andrew
Picket
Picton
Pigeon Post
Pike
Pistol
Platoon
Pneumatic Gun
Poitiers
Polish Succession, War
of the
Polyaenus
Pompey
Poniard
Pontoon
Pope
Porter, Fits-John
Press Gang
Propellants
Punic Wars
Purser
Putnam, Israel
Putnam, Rufus
Pylos
Pyrrhus
Quadrilateral
Quiver
Radetzky
Raglan
Ramillies
Range-finder, Teleme-
ter or Position-finder
Rapier
Rapparee
Ravenna
Raymund of Toulouse
Razzia
Reconnaissance
Redan
Redoubt
Regiment
Retrenchment
Rlveilte
Reynolds, John F.
Richard I of England)
Ricochet
Riciimond
Rifle
Roberts, Lord
Rocket
Rohan, due de
Roosevelt
Ropes, J. C.
Rosecrans
Roses, Wars of the
Rossbach
Rupert, Prince
Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Turkish Wars
Rttstow, Friedrich W.
Ruvigny
Sackville, 1st Viscount
Saint Arnaud
St. Quenlin
Salade, Sallet or Salet
Saladin
Salamanca
Salamis
Saratoga, Battles of
Saxe, Comte de (mar-
shal)
Scabbard
Scarlett
Scharnhorst
Schiavone
Schofteld
Schwarsenberg
Schwerin, Count von
Scimitar
Scipio Aemilianus
Scipio Africanus
Scout
Sebastian!
Seckendorf
Sedan
Sedgwick, John
Senarmont
Sentinel or Sentry
Sepoy
Serjeant
Sertorius
Servo-Bulgarian War
Serurier
Seven Days' Battle
Seven Weeks* War
Seven Years* War
Seydlitz
Shenandoah Valley
Campaign
Sheridan
Sherman, W. T.
Shield
Shiloh
Shipka Pass
Sickles
Siege
Sigel
Sights
Signal
Sile8ian Wars
Sirdar
Skippon
Skobelev
Sling
Slocum
Smith, C. F.
Smith, Sir W. Sidney
Soubise
Souham
Soult
Sowar
Spahis
Spanish-American War
Spanish Succession,
War of The
Spear
S pontoon
Spottsylvania
Spur
Squadron
Staff, military
Standard, Battle of
Stark, John
Steenkirk
Steinmets
Stiletto
Stone River
Stony Point
Strategy
Strelits
Stuart, J. E. B.
Suchet
Sulla
Sullivan, John
Sumner, E. V.
Sumter, Thomas
Supply and Transport
(Military)
Sutler
Suvarov
Swold
Sword
Tactics
Talavera de la Rein a
Target
Tarleton
Tattoo
Thermopylae
Thielmann
Thirty Years' War
Thomas, G. H.
Thucydides
Ticonderoga, N. Y.
Tilly
Todleben
Torstensson
Towton
Transvaal
Trasimene
Traun
Traverse
Tr6buchet
Trenton and Princeton
Troop
Turenne
Ulan
Uniforms
Vandamme
Van Dorn
Vauban
Vedette
Vegetius
Vendee
Venddme
Verdun
Verdy du Vernois
Veteran
Vexillum
Vicksburg
Victor-Perrin
Villars
Villeroi
Vinoy
Visor
Vitoria
Volunteers
Wagram
Wallace, Lewis
Waller, Sir William
Wallenstein
Ward Room
War Game
Warrant Officer
Warren, G. K.
Warren, Joseph
Warwick, Earl of
Washington, George
Waterloo Campaign
Wattignies
Wayne, Anthony
Weapon
Wellington
Werder
Wheeler, Joseph
White, Sir George
Wilderness, Va.
Wilkinson, James
William the Silent
William I (of Eng-
land)
William III (of Eng-
land)
William I (of Ger-
many)
Wilson, J. H.
Wimpffen
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Wittgenstein
Wolfe
Wood, Sir H. E.
Worth
Wrangel Yeomanry
Wrede Yorck von Warten-
Xenophon burg
Yataghan Yorktown, Va.
Ypsilanti
Zieten
Zouave
CHAPTER XXX
FOR NAVAL OFFICERS
THE scope of a naval officer's pro-
fessional interests is so broad that
the present chapter of this Guide
could not, without duplicating other
chapters, indicate all the aspects of the
Britannica with which he is directly con-
cerned. And he will find that his use of
the Britannica is simplified by the sub-
divisions about to be specified, which vir-
tually present his subjects under four dif-
ferent heads. Of course he may be called
upon, in the exercise of his duties, simul-
taneously to think and to act in all his
capacities, to concentrate upon the swift
solution of one problem his knowledge of
warfare, of shipbuilding, of navigation
and of mechanical, engineering; but his
reading upon these topics naturally di-
vides itself into these four parts.
Inasmuch as army officers, even when
they are at sea, are passengers, and, save
in relation to the discipline of their troops,
have nothing to do
Three Other with the ship's man-
Relevant agement, it could not
Chapters be assumed that the
present chapter
would appeal to them. But naval officers,
when co-operating in a land expedition,
need to employ every kind of knowledge
that is of use to army officers, and as the
chapter For Army Officers in this Guide
would therefore in any case be read by
them, it has seemed convenient to include
in it the description of those articles in
the Britannica which deal with war in
general.
The chapter For Marine Transporta-
tion Men in this Guide is also one to
which the naval officer should refer, as it
deals with ships and navigation in gen-
eral. The articles Ship and Shipbuild-
ing mentioned in that chapter are (ex-
cept for the historical section of the form-
er) by Sir Philip Watts, designer of the
British "Dreadnoughts" and "Super-
Dreadnoughts;" and the article Shipping
is by Douglas Owen, of the Royal Naval
War College at Portsmouth. Obviously
these and many other articles described
in that chapter are of the greatest im-
portance to naval officers.
The chapter For Engineers in this
Guide describes the articles dealing with
steam engines, internal combustion en-
gines, electrical machinery and fuels of
all' kinds; and it would be a waste of space
to repeat in this chapter a summary of
the Britannica treatment of these sub-
jects.
All three of the chapters mentioned
should therefore be treated as forming
constituent parts of the general plan of
this present chapter, in which the naval
officer will find no repetition of their
contents.
The article to which he will naturally
first turn is Navy and Navies (Vol. 19,
p. 299), by David Hannay,
The Key author of A Short History
Article of the Royal Navy. This
article is equivalent to 60
pages of this Guide in length. It con-
tains:
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FOR NAVAL OFFICERS
iC9
Naval Personnel.
Sketches of the Administrative His-
tory of navies: Athenian; Roman; By-
zantine; Medieval; British, with spe-
cial attention to the period since the
Restoration, and the reforms under
James II when Samuel Pepys was sec-
retary ;
French — modern navy dating from
the time of Richelieu;
Spanish — a great navy without an
organization before the 18th century;
Dutch — good seamen and well-fed,
led by able admirals, but unorganized,
and unimportant after the 17th cen-
tury;
United States — the first great extra-
European power on the sea ;
Russian — dating from the reign of
Peter the Great, when it was organized
and led by foreigners.
The Balance of Navies in History:
influence of sea-power — " when Napo-
leon fell, the navy of Great Britain was
not merely the first in the world ; it was
the only powerful navy in existence."
Modern Rivalry between Italy and
Germany (1871), United States
(1890), Japan; England and the Dual
Alliance — "naval scares" since 1874;
British Naval Defence Act of 1889;
Russia's navy crushed (1904) ; new na-
vies rivalling Great Britain and
France, — Italy, Germany, United
States, Japan.
Latest developments : " Dread-
noughts " ; Building Programmes.
Bibliography (about 1800 words).
Naval Strategy and Tactics.
Historical evolution: inter-relation of
the ship's capacity and armament.
Early history: ramming demanded
oars for propulsion; small warships,
large fighting crews, — no blockade,
short cruises;
Greek and Roman methods: board-
ing introduced by Romans ; " beard-
ing," that is, fortifying with iron bands
across the bows, an early form of armor
plate.
Sailing ships: ramming discarded;
" line ahead " formation displaces " line
abreast " ; principles of fighting tac-
tics — order at beginning to be kept
throughout, thus no advantage taken of
enemy's disorder; Clerk's theories
(1790-97) — not maximum safety but
immediate melee the desideratum; Suf-
fren, Rodney and Howe and their dis-
regard of accepted tactics.
Improved ship-building and modern
times: New problems — steam propul-
sion, its gain in speed, but its depend-
ence on fuel; fleet in being; risk of
transporting troops while enemy is un-
beaten; ramming and pell-mell battles
forbidden by torpedoes; searchlight as
check to torpedoes; failure of attempts
to " bottle up " harbours ; gun-fire still
the great factor; position; speed; sub-
marines still an unknown factor.
Bibliography.
The first part of this article Navy and
Navies should be supplemented by the
article Admiralty Administration (Vol.
1 , p. 195) , by Admiral
Naval Admin- Sir R. Vesey Hamil-
i8tration ton, and, for the
United States, the
late Admiral W. T. Sampson. The Amer-
ican part of this article describes the divi-
sions and the working of the Navy De-
partment, its bureaus, judge advocate-
general, office of naval intelligence, boards
etc.; and there is additional information
on the subject in such articles as Dock-
yards, and United States Naval Acad-
emy.
For the legal side of naval administra-
tion the reader should study the article
Admiralty Jurisdiction (Vol. 1, p. 205),
by Sir Walter Phillimore, former presi-
dent of the International Law Associa-
tion (and author of the Britannica article
Admiralty, High Court of, and, for the
United States, by J. Arthur Barrett; and
also the general articles International
Law (Vol. 14, p. 694), by Sir Thomas
Barclay, author of Problems of Interna-
tional Practice and Diplomacy, and Inter-
national Law, Private (Vol. 14, p. 701),
by Dr. John Westlake, formerly professor
of international law, Cambridge Uni-
versity , and member for the United King-
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170
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
dom of the International (Hague) Court
of Arbitration; as well as such special
articles as Search (Vol. 24, p. 560), by
Sir Thomas Barclay, and Sea Laws (Vol.
24, p. 535), by Sir Travers Twiss.
It has already been noticed that the
closing part of the article Navy and
Navies dealt with strategy and tactics in
a general way. This sub-
Policy, ject is treated in fuller de-
Strategy, tall by Admiral Sir Cyprian
Tactics Bridge, G.C.B. (former Di-
rector of Naval Intelligence,
British Navy, author of Sea-Power and
other Studies) in two articles Sea-Power
(Vol. 24, p. 548) and Sea, Command of
the (Vol. 24, p. 529). Each of these ar-
ticles will be of great value and interest
to the naval officer as a summary and
criticism of the theories of Captain A. T.
Mahan and Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb;
and this will be made evident by the brief
outline of the two articles which follows.
Article, Sea-Power — Use of the
term to mean (1) a state pre-eminent-
ly strong at sea; and (2) — as in this
article — the various factors in a state's
naval strength. Thucydides as a fore-
runner of Mahan ; he makes Pericles in
comparing Athenian resources with
those of her enemies comment on the
importance of " sea-power."
The meaning of sea-power can only
be learned historically. Although there
have been more land- wars, " the course
of history has been profoundly changed
more often by contests on the water/'
Salamis saved Greece and held back
Oriental invasion. The loss of the
Peloponnesian War by Athens was due
to her weakening sea-power. The
First Punic War, Roman rather than
Carthaginian control of the Mediterra-
nean, was won by Roman naval pre-
dominance. Mahommedan conquest
spread west in Africa only with the
creation of a navy. The crusades could
not have continued had not Mahomme-
dan naval power sunk as the Venetian,
Pisan, and Genoese grew. The defeat
of Genoa by Venice gave the latter a
right to perform the ceremony of
" wedding the sea " with a ring as
token of " perpetual sway." Lepanto
(1571) the end of Turkish sea-power.
Spanish and Portuguese sea-power
crushed by English growth and the
loss of the Armada. Early English
naval history: the importance of the
battle of Dover in 1217. Appearance
of standing navies. The New World
and its influence on sea-power. The
sea-power of the Dutch; its sudden
rise; its basis in foreign trade; the
Dutch wars with England resulted in
England's becoming the first great
naval power, but did not crush the
United Provinces because of their sea-
power. Torrington and the " Fleet in
Being" in 1690. Change in naval op-
erations in 17th century — the scene
thereafter in the enemy's waters, not
near the coast of England.
The 18th century. Rise of Russia's
sea-power — an artificial creation.
Seven Years' War and its gains to
Great Britain. War of American In-
dependence: British mistakes — the
enemy's coast not considered the fron-
tier. Wars of the French Revolution
and Empire: Great Britain's advantage
not in organization, discipline or " sci-
ence," but in sea-experience.
The War of 1812. "The British
had now to meet the elite of one of the
finest communities of seamen ever
known. ... In any future war British
sea-power, great as it may be, should
not receive shocks like those that it un-
questionably did suffer in 1812."
Later Manifestations of Sea-Power.
American Civil War — " By dominat-
ing the rivers the Federals cut the Con-
federacy asunder; and, by the power
they possessed of moving troops by sea
at will, perplexed and harassed the de-
fence, and facilitated the occupation of
important points." Russo-Turkish War
of 1877-78— Turkish control of Black
Sea forced Russians to invade by land
through the difficult Balkans. Chilean
Civil War of 1891 — an army defeated
by a navy. Chino-Japanese War of
1894-95 — Japanese navy in transport
work and in crushing last resistance.
Spanish- American War: "Spaniards
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FOR NAVAL OFFICERS
171
were defeated by the superiority of the
American sea-power."
Article, Sea, Command of the —
Sketch of Sovereignty of the Sea;
Command different from Sovereignty
or Dominion.
Attempts to gain Command: Dutch
Wars.
Strategic Command or Control —
largely the power of carrying out con-
siderable over-sea expeditions at will.
Seeking the enemy's fleet. Temporary
command in smaller operations.
As for the army officer, so the Britan-
nica has for the naval officer many sepa-
rate articles on wars, campaigns, battles,
generals, command-
Special ers. The following
Historical * list of articles will
Articles serve as a guide to a
course of reading
constituting a history of naval warfare,
furnishing the concrete separate facts on
which are based the articles already de-
scribed.
Ancient History.
Greece: articles Salami* , Themisto-
cles, Xerxes I, Peloponnesian War,
Pericles.
Rome: articles Punic Wars, Car-
thage, Pompey, Ac Hum.
Medieval History.
Crusades; Swold; Dover, -Battle of;
Sluys, Battle of; Espagnols sur Mer
(and article Edward III), Chioggia
(and articles Venice and Genoa).
16th Century.
Lepanto (and article Don John of
Austria).
Armada (and articles on Howard,
Hawkins, Drake, Frobisher, Ra-
leigh, Richard Grenville, and the
other heroes of this first bright
glow of England's naval glory).
The Era of Sailing Vessels.
Dutch Wars (and articles Tromp,
Robert Blake, Ayscue, De Ruy-
ter, Cornelius De Witt, William
Penn, George Monk, Sir John
Lawson, James II, Prince Ru-
pert, First Earl of Sandwich,
Abraham Duquesne).
Grand Alliance, Naval Operations
(and articles Earl of Torrington,
and Beachy Head, Battle of; La
Hogue, Earl of Oxford [Edward
Russell] and Tourville).
Spanish Succession, Naval Opera-
tions (and Chateau-Renault, Ben-
bow, Rooke, Cloudesley Shovel,
Duguay-Trouin, Forbin).
Austrian Succession, Naval Opera-
tions (and the articles Edward
Vernon, Lord Anson, Toulon,
Battle of, and Thomas Mathews,
marking the official sanction in
England of an absurd formal sys-
tem of tactics).
Seven Years' War, Naval Opera-
tions (and Boscawen, B y n g ,
Hawke, Pocock, Quiberon).
American War of Independence,
Naval Operations (and E s e k
Hopkins, John Paul Jones, Comte
d'Estaing, Suffren St. Tropes,
Thomas Truxtun, Lord Howe,
John Byron, Hotham, Hyde
Parker, Rodney, Guichen, Comte
de Grasse).
French Revolutionary Wars, Naval
Operations (and First of June,
Battle of, Howe, Villaret de Joy-
euse, Lord Bridport, Lord Hood,
Earl of St. Vincent [John
Jervis], St. Vincent, Battle of,
Lord Keith, Lord Duncan, Nile.
Nelson, Sir Thomas Troubridge)
Napoleonic Campaigns, Naval Op-
erations (and Baron de Sauma-
rez, Copenhagen, Battle of, Sir
Hyde Parker, Sir Rpbert C alder,
Villeneuve, Trafalgar, Lord Col-
lingwood).
American War of 1812 (and John
Rodger s, Isaac Hull, William
Bainbridge, Stephen Decatur,
David Porter, Oliver Hazard
Perry, Sir Philip Broke, Thomas
Macdonough).
And Lissa (1811), closely resembling
Trafalgar, and Navarino, decisive for
Greek Independence.
The Era of Steam.
American Civil War (and Hampton
Roads, Andrew Hull Foote, New
Madrid, D. G. Farragut, D. D.
Porter, W. B. Cushin'g),
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
Chile-Peruvian War.
Chilean Civil War.
Chino- Japanese War (and see I to).
Spanish-American War (and see the
articles W. T. Sampson, W. S.
Schley, George Dewey, Pascual
Cervera y Topete Cervera).
Russo-Japanese War (and Togo,
Dogger Bank, Tsushima).
The subject of armaments. is treated in
the articles Ship and Shipbuilding (see
chapter For Marine Transportation Men),
Armour Plates,
Armaments with illustrations, by
Major William Eger-
ton Edwards, late lecturer at the Royal
Naval War College, Greenwich, Ord-
nance, Ammunition; Torpedo, etc.
The following is an alphabetical list of
articles in the Britannica of especial in-
terest to naval officers or other students
of naval warfare.
Actium
Admiral
Admiralty Administra-
tion
Admiralty Jurisdiction
American Civil War
American War of In-
dependence
American War of 1812
Ammunition
Anson, Lord
Armada
Armour Plates
Arms and Armour
Ayscue
Bainbridge, William
Beachy Head
Benbow
Beresford
Blake, Robert
Boscawen
Bridport, Lord
Broke, Sir Philip
Byng
Byron, John
Calder, Sir Robert
Camperdown
Carthage
Casemate
Case-shot
Cervera
Chateau-Renault
Chile-Peruvian War
Chilean Civil War
Chino-Japanese War
Chioggia
Coaling Stations
Coast Defence
Coast Guard
Codrington
Coligny
Collingwood, Lord
Colomb
Commodore
Copenhagen, Battle of
Crusades
Cushing, W. B.
Decatur, Stephen
d'Estaing
De Ruyter
De Saumarez, Baron
Dewey, George
DeWitt, Cornelius
Dockyards
Dogger Bank
Dover, Battle of (1217)
Drake
Duguay-Trouin
Duilius
Duncan, Lord
Duquesne, Abraham
Dutch Wars
Edward III
Espagnols sur Mer
Farragut, D. G.
Fireship
First of June
Flagship
Fleet
Flying Column
Foote, Andrew Hull
Forbin
French Revolutionary
Wars
Frigate
Frobisher
Genoa
Grand Alliance
Grasse, Comte de
Grenville, Richard
Greek Independence
Guardship
Guichen
Hampton Roads
Hawke
Hawkins
Hood, Lord
Hopkins, Esek
Hotham
Howard
Howe, Lord
Hull, Isaac
International Law
James II
Jones, John Paul
Keith, Lord
La Hogue
Lawson, Sir John
I^epanto
Liner
Lissa (1811, 1866)
Macdonough, Thomas
Madrid, New
Mahan
Marines
Mathews, Thomas
Meloria
Miaoulis
Midshipman
Monk, George
Napoleonic Campaigns
Nauarchia
Naucrary
Naval Operations
Navarino
Navy and Navies
Nelson
Nile, Battle of the
Ordnance
Oxford, Earl of
Parker, Hyde
Parker, Sir Hyde
Peloponnesiun War
Penn, William
Pepvs
Pericles
Perry, Oliver Hazard
Piracy
Pocock
Pompey
Porter, David
Porter, D. D.
Privateer
Punic Wars
Quiberon, Battle of
Raleigh
Range-finder
Rodgers, John
Rodney
Rooke
Rupert, Prince
Russo-Japanese War
Saint-Bon
Saint Vincent
Saints, Battle of the
Salamis
Sampson, W\ T.
Sandwich, 1st Earl of
Schley, W. S.
Sea, Command of the
Sea Laws
Seamanship
Sea-Power
Search
Seven Years' War
Ship, Shipbuilding
Shovel, Cloudesley
Sluys
Spanish- American War
Spanish Succession
Squadron
Submarine Mines
Suffren, St. Trope*
Swold
Themistocles '
Togo
Torpedo
Torrington
Toulon, Battle of
Tourviile
Trafalgar
Tromp
Troubridge, Sir Thomas
Truxtun, Thomas
Tsu-shima
U. S. Naval Academy
Venice
Vernon, Edward
Villaret de Joyeuse
Villeneuve
Xerxes I
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Part II
Courses of Educational Reading
to Supplement Or Take the
Place of School or
University Studies
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CHAPTER XXXI
MUSIC
THE general articles on music in
the Encyclopaedia Britannica pro-
vide an illuminative discussion
of broad artistic principles which can-
not fail to stimulate the musical sense
and perception of the professional or
the amateur. The technical and criti-
cal treatment of the subject was di-
rected by Donald F. Tovey, composer,
pianist, and author of Essays in Mu-
sical Analysis; and no one could be
better fitted for the work of organizing
this department of the Britannica. He
was assisted by W. H. Hadow, the well-
known musical writer and composer,
J. A. Fuller Maitland, musical critic of
The Times (London), E. J. Dent, author
of Alessandro Scarlatti and His Works,
R. H. Legge, principal musical critic on
the Daily Telegraph (London), and others;
and the section treating of musical in-
struments was organized and contributed
by Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, the great-
est living authority on the subject.
In mapping out courses of reading
the subject is divided into sections as
follows: (1) Evolution, (2) Theory,
(3) Musical Forms, (4) Musical Instru-
ments.
The article Music (Vol. 19, p. 72),
by Donald Tovey, which contains a mas-
terly account of the development of the
art from the earliest time down to the
present day, provides the reader with
just that general survey which enables
him to see the whole picture in perspec-
tive. This he will naturally turn to first,
but to fill out the picture there are a
number of other articles which he will
wish to read. In the following scheme
the evolution of the art has been sketched
in skeleton, so that the student may
have before him a guide to the study of
any period in which he is specially
interested. This outline serves to show
how very thoroughly the ground is cov-
ered in the new Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica.
(1) EVOLUTION OF MUSIC
Subject for Reading Article
PRE-HARMONIC STAGE
Primitive Music. Music (Vol. 19, p. 72).
Song (Vol. 25, p. 406).
Musical sense first awakened by the Dance (Vol. 7, p. 795); see also Rhythm
rhythm of the dance. (Vol. 23, p. 278).
Legendary account of the invention of David (Vol. 7, p. 859).
music by a Judean.
Hebrew music: setting of the Psalms. Psalms, Book of (Vol. 22, p. 589 and p.
586).
Suggested Jewish origin of some Gre- Plain Song (Vol. 21, p. 706),
gorian Tunes.
175
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176
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Dawn of modern music in Greece.
Connection of music with lyric
poetry. Terpander of Lesbos (660
B.C.) adds 8 strings to the 4-
stringed lyre, giving compass of oc-
tave.
Characteristics of Greek music. Py-
thagoras (6th century, B.C.) fixes
the intervals of the harmonic series
and of the diatonic scale.
The Greek scale shows a latent har-
monic sense, though octaves only al-
lowed.
Pitch in Greek music.
Other primitive systems without influ-
ence on modern music.
Chinese adopted Pythagorean sys-
tem; a lost art recovered in 8rd
century, A.D.
Indian music- — Scale of 22 intervals.
Greek Literature (Vol. 12, p. 509).
Music (Vol. 19, p. 78); see also Pythag-
oras (Vol. 22, p. 699).
Lyre (Vol. 17, p. 178); see also Orches-
tra (Vol. 20, p. 168); Aulos (Vol. 2,
p. 917); Cithara (Vol. 6, p. 395).
Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 1).
Pitch, Musical (Vol. 21, p. 661).
China, Literature (Vol. 6, p. 228 and
p. 215).
Sanskrit (Vol. 24, p. 181).
Siamese music: 7 tone scale; orches- Siam (Vol. 25, p. 5).
tras perform in unison.
The music of the North American Indians, North American (Vol. 14, p.
Indian. 470).
Biographies of musicians of the primitive, non-harmonic, period in the Britan-
nica are: Terpander, 7th century B.C.; Pythagoras, 6th century B.C.; Aristo-
xenu8, 4th century; Alypius, 3rd century B.C.; Aristides, Quintilianus, 3rd
century.
HARMONIC ORIGINS
The Greeks found that by doubling the melody at the octave a greater sonority
resulted. It was a great step from this to the discovery that two separate tunes
could be combined which should be satisfying to the ear. With this discovery
modern harmony may be said to have begun.
Subject
Awakening of the harmonic sense.
The Grecian modes modified into the
ecclesiastical by Ambrose in the 4th
century.
Following Hucbald, " beatus Guido in-
ventor musicae " in the 11th cen-
tury, invents names for the notes and
improves system of notation.
Article
Music (Vol. 19, p. 74); Harmony (Vol.
13, p. 1).
Plain Song (Vol. 21, p. 705); see also
Ambrose (Vol. 1, p. 798), and Greg-
ory (Vol. 12, p. 567).
Guido of Arezzo (Vol. 12, p. 687); see
also Hucbald (Vol. 13, p. 847).
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MUSIC
177
The Troubadour becomes a learned mu-
sician in the 13th century.
After Dunstable of England and Dufay
of the Netherlands had invented
counterpoint comes the first great
composer, heralding the advent of
the " Golden Age."
Adam de la Hale, 13th century (Vol. 1,
p. 171); Machaut (Vol. 17, p. 233).
Des Pres, Josquin (Vol. 8, p. 108); see
also Binchois, Egidius (Vol. 8, p.
948).
THE GOLDEN AGE
Composers were not long content with the simple combination of two tunes.
They soon found that three tunes so treated afforded a yet richer texture, and the
extension to the elaborate polyphony of 16th century choral music was an inevitable
step. An elaborate system of prohibitions, based on the limi-
The First tations of the human voice, and the difficulty of attacking certain
Great Climax intervals, shackled the composer at every turn and formed the
basis of theories of counterpoint which endured almost to our
time. Despite the restrictions imposed by their rules, the structure raised by the
great composers of the first half of the 16th century was of amazing richness and
complexity.
Subject of Reading
The Riot of Choral Polyphony in the
16th century.
Musical forms brought to great perfec-
tion in this period those in which
texture holds first place.
Leaders of musical thought in the
" Golden Age."
Article
Music, The Golden Age (Vol. 19, p. 75) ;
see also Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 2) ; In-
strumentation, Vocal Styles of 16th
Century (Vol. 14, p. 651).
Contrapuntal Forms, Canonic Forms
and Devices, Counterpoint on a Canto
Fermo (Vol. 7, p. 42) ; see also Mass,
Polyphonic Masses (Vol. 17, p. 849) ;
Madrigal (Vol. 17, p. 295) ; Motet
(Vol. 18, p. 905).
Lasso, Orlando (Vol. 16, p. 287) ; Tallis,
T. (Vol. 26, p. 877) ; Palestrina (Vol.
20, p. 627).
Composers of the " Golden Age," following the polyphonic tradition of the
early 16th century, biographies of whom appear in the Britanaica, are: Netherland-
ish: Arcadelt, Jacob, 1514-1556; Lasso, Orlando, c. 1530-1594;' German: Finck,
Hermann, 1527-1558; Eccard, Johann, 1553-1611; Aichinger, Greoor, leader
of Reformation church music, c. 1565-1628; French: Goudi-
Composer mel, C, c. 1510-1572; English: Wilbye, John, 16th century,
of the famous for his madrigals; Merbeck, John, d. 1585; Bennett,
Golden Age John, d.c. 1614; Bateson, T., d. 1630, a composer of madri-
gals; Tallis, T., c. 1515-1585, "father of English cathedral
music"; Farrant, R., c. 1530-1581; Byrd, Wm., 1543-1623; Morley, T., 1557-
1608; Gibbons, Orlando, 1583-1625; Italian: Animuccia, Giovanni, c. 1490-1571;
Zarlino, Gioseffo, 1517-1590, fixed the diatonic scale as now accepted; Palestrina,
Giovanni Pierluigi da, 1526-1594; Banchiere, Adriano, c. 1557-1634, fought
against monodist revolt — see below; Anerio (brothers), c. 1560-1620; Artusi,
G. M., 16th century, opposed Monteverdi's innovations — see below; Spanish: Vic-
toria, ToMMASso L. da, c. 1540-1613.
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178 BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
THE FIRST ROMANTIC MOVEMENT
The last word in polyphony seemed to have been said by such masters as
Orlando Lasso, and Palestrina, and a change into new paths was inevitable. More-
over, men's minds were craving something more directly stimulating than the pas-
sionless web of ecclesiastical polyphony, which was the glory of the 16th century.
Freedom was sought from the conventions of modal counterpoint. The monodist
revolt was the result.
Subject Article
Revolt against the overelaboration of Music, The Monodic Revolution (Vol. 19,
texture. p. 76) ; Harmony, Modern Harmony
(Vol. 18, p. 4).
Prominence given to solo part rather Song (Voh 25, p. 406) ; Aria (Vol. 2, p.
than to choral effect leads to devel- 489).
opment of the aria.
The leader in the new paths, the pio- Monte verde, Cl audio (Vol. 18, p. 778).
neer of modern harmony.
The first oratorio (1600). Oratorio (Vol. 20, p. 161); see also
Cavaliere, Emilio del (Vol. 5, p.
568).
The first opera (1600). Opera (Vol. 20, p. 121); see also Peri,
Jacopo (Vo. 21, p. 144).
The monodic impulse synchronizes with Violin (Vol. 28, p. 108) ; see also Amati
the startling development of the vio- (Vol. 1, p. 788); Guarnieri (Vol. 12,
lin family by the Cremona makers. p. 660); Stradivari (Vol. 25, p. 977).
Among distinguished composers of this period and school are: English: Bull,
John, c. 1562-1628; Ford, Thomas, b. 1580; Lawes, Henry, 1595-1662; Italian:
Cavaliere, £. del, c. 1550-1602; Peri, Jacopo, b. 1561 ;Gabriele, Giovanni, 1557-0.
1612, early experimenter in chromatic harmony; Caccini,
Famous Giulio, 1558-1615; Monteverde, Claudio, 1567-1648; Al-
Monodi8tS leori, Gregorio, c. 1570-1652; Frescobaldi, Girolamo, 1588-
1644, famous also as a teacher; Agostino, P., 1598-1689;
Cavalli, F., 1596-1676, popularized opera; Carissimi, G., c. 1604-1674, popularized
oratorio; Rossi, Luigi de. All the above have separate articles assigned to them in
the Britannica.
THE 17th CENTURY AND AFTER
Those who revolted from the traditions of the polyphonic school went, as was
inevitable, too far. A reaction was equally inevitable, for the language of the new
music was uniformed and was in danger of being stereotyped into the emptiest of
formulas. The welding of the old and new ideas was all that
The Second was needed to prepare the way for the colossal achievement of
Great Climax a Bach or a Beethoven. It was a busy period when the rules
of counterpoint were reviewed and revised, when theories of
harmony as a distinct science took shape. But, save for the work of such men as
Purcell, the Englishman (Vol. 22, p. 658), born 100 years before his time, the 17th
century was mainly one of preparation. The next great climax came in the first
half of the 18th century.
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MUSIC 179
Subject Article
The renascence of texture, the weld- Music (Vol. 19, p. 77) ; Harmony (Vol.
ing of polyphony and monody. 13, p. 4).
Publication in 1715 of the famous Fux, Johann Joseph (Vol. 11, p. 375).
Gradus ad Parnassum, the first com-
plete theory of counterpoint.
The first systematic theory of harmony Rameau, J. P. (Vol. 22, p. 874).
published in 1722.
The second great climax in music. Music, Bach and Handel (Vol. 19, p. 78).
The achievement of Johann Sebastian Bach, J. S. (Vol. 8, p. 124); see also
Bach. Contrapuntal Forms (Vol. 7, p. 41);
Concerto (Vol. 6, p. 825) ; Overture
(Vol. 20, p. 384) ; Suite (Vol. 26, p.
51) ; Oratorio (Vol. 20, p. 161) ; Can-
tata (Vol. 5, p. 209) ; Mass, Lutheran
Masses (Vol. 17, p. 850); Variations
(Vol. 27, p. 912); Instrumentation,
Decoration and Orchestral Schemes
(Vol. 14, p. 651 and p. 655).
Composers of the period who have separate notices in the Britannica are: Ital-
ian: Cesti, M. A., c. 1620-1669; Colonna, Giovanni P., c. 1637-1695; Pasquini,
B., 1637-1710; Stradella, Alessandro, 1645-1682; Corelli, Arcanoelo, 1658-
1713, first classic of the violin; Steffani, A., 1653-1728; Scar-
17th and 18th latti, Alessandro, 1659-1725, largely created language of
Century modern music; Pitoni, G. O., 1657-1743; Lotti, Antonio, c.
Composers 1667-1740; Clari, G. C. M., c. 1669-1745; Bononcini, G. B.,
c. 1672-1750; Albinoni, T., c. 1674-1745; Astorga, Eman-
uele d', 1681-1736; Durante, Francesco, 1684-1755; Marcello, B., 1686-1789;
Vinci, Leonardo, 1690-1730; Leo, Leonardo, 1694-1744; Looroscino, Nicola, c.
1700-1763; Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, 1710-1786; Alberti, Domenico, c.
1710-1740; French: Cambert, R., 1628-1677; Lully, Jean-Baptiste, c. 1623-1687,
inventor of the classical French opera style; English: Locke, Matthew, c. 1630-
1677; Blow, John, 1648-1708; Purcell, Henry, 1658-1695; Croft, William,
1678-1727; Handel, George Frederick, 1685-1759; Greene, Maurice, 1695-1755;
German: Bach, Johann Sebastian, 1685-1750; Hasse, Johann A., 1699-1788;
Eberlin, J. E., 1702-1762.
THE RISE OF THE SONATA
Bach, like Palestrina, seemed to have closed a period; and for nearly a hundred
years after his death his influence on the course of musical development was aston-
ishingly small. Again men sought new channels of expression and found them in in-
strumental music. But a structure less loosely knit than the
The Third suite form was needed if the new ideas were to be adequately
Great Climax stated, and the sonata grew into being, a form which has sufficed
to this day as a medium for the noblest thoughts of the great
composers. The 18th century saw, too, the reform of the opera by Gluck, a great
development of orchestral resources, and the rise bf the string quartette in chamber
music.
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180 BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Subject Article
The new language: evolution of the Music (Vol. 19, p. 79); Sonata, Sonata
sonata from the suite. Style (Vol. 25, p. 894) ; see also Scar-
lktti, Dominico (Vol. 24, p. 802) ;
and Bach, K. P. E. (Vol. 8, p. 180).
Reform of the opera. Opera (Vol. 20, p. 128) ; see also Gluck
(Vol. 12, p. 188); Piccinni (Vol. 21,
p. 579); Mozart (Vol. 18, p. 951).
The rise of the symphony and the Music, The Symphonic Classes (Vol. 19,
string quartette, development of the p. 78) ; Sonata Forms (Vol. 25, p.
sonata. 895); Symphony (Vol. 26, p. 290);
see also Haydn (Vol. 18, p. 110).
The growth of the orchestra. Instrumentation, Symphonic (Vol. 14,
p. 652) ; see also Haydn (Vol. 18, p.
110).
The third great climax. The perfec- Beethoven, L. von (Vol. 8, p. 644) ; sec
tion of the sonata form. also Sonata Forms (Vol. 25, p. 897) ;
Instrumentation (Vol. 14, p. 658) ;
Variations (Vol. 27, p. 918); Mass
(Vol. 17, p. 850).
Biographies of the following composers of the period appear in the Britannica :
German and Austrian: Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, 1714-1788; Gluck, C. W.,
1714-1787; Hiller, J. A., 1728-1804; Haydn, Franz Joseph, 1782-1809; Ditters-
dorp, Karl Ditters von, 1789-1799; Winter, P., c. 1755-1825; Mozart, Wolf-
gang Amadeus, 1756-1791; Himmel, F. H., 1765-1814; Beethoven, Ludwig van,
1770-1827; French: Gossec, F. J., 1784-1829; Gretry, A. E. M., 1741-1818;
Mehul, Etienne H., 1768-1817; Lesueur, Jean Francois, c. 1768-1887; Boiel-
dieu, F. A., 1775-1884; English: Arne, T. A., 1710-1778, preserved English tradi-
tion in face of Handelian obsession; Boyce, William, 1710-1779; Jackson, W.,
1780-1808; Battishill, J., 1788-1801; Arnold, S., 1740-1802; Dibdin, C, 1745-
1814; Shield, W., 1748-1829; Storace, S., 1768-1796; Attwood, T., 1765-1888;
Wesley, Samuel, 1766-1887, father of modern organ playing; Italian: Scarlatti,
Domenico, 1685-1757; Martini, G. B., 1706-1784; Galuppi, Baldassare, 1706-
1785; Jommelli, N., 1714-1774; Guglielmi, P., 1727-1804; Piccinni, N., 1728-
1800; Sarti, Giuseppe, 1729-1802; Sacchini, A. M. G., 1784-1786; Paisiello, G.,
1741-1816; Boccherini, Luigi, 1748-1805, last real master of suite form; Cima-
rosa, D., 1749-1801; Salieri, A., 1750-1825; Cherubini, 1760-1842; Paer, F..
1771-1889.
NEW PATHS
Early in the 19th century the wave of romanticism broke over Europe. The
effect on music was not nearly so violent as was the monodic revolt of the 16th-17th
centuries, since the resources and technique of the art had now been developed;
but it was nevertheless striking and showed itself in several directions, but mainly
in two: lyrical and dramatic. The short compositions of Field, Schumann, and
Chopin, and the development of the art song are instances of the former; the whole
range of programme music, of which the symphonic poem is the prototype, is evi-
dence of the latter; while in opera the reforms started by Gluck were carried to their
logical conclusion by Wagner. Two other movements are also significant; the re-
turn to Bach and a recognition of his amazing modernity, and the pronounced revival
of national characteristics in music, as shown particularly in the new English, Russian,
and Bohemian Schools.
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MUSIC
181
Subject
The Romantic Period.
The Romantic in opera.
The first great lyrical song writer.
The Romantic in the symphony.
The rediscovery of Bach.
Development of song forms.
Discontent with the sonata form.
Gluck's idea realised; union of music
with drama.
The last of the royal line of German
composers shows vitality of the so-
nata form.
Modern Tendencies.
Article
Music, From Beethoven to Wagner (Vol.
19, p. 79).
Weber, Carl Maria F. E. von (Vol. 28,
p. 455); Song (Vol. 25, p. 409).
Schubert, Franz Peter (Vol. 24, p.
879) ; Song (Vol. 25, p. 409).
Programme Music (Vol. 22, p. 424) ; see
also Berlioz, Hector (Vol. 8, p. 791).
Bach, J. S. (Vol. 2, p. 124); Mendels-
sohn (Vol. 18, pp. 121-124).
Song (Vol. 25, p. 410); see also Schu-
mann, Robert (Vol. 24, p. 884) ;
Wolf, Hugo (Vol. 28, p. 771);
Brahms, J. (Vol. 4, p. 890).
Symphonic Poem (Vol. 26, p. 289) ;
Liszt, F. (Vol. 16, p. 780).
Music (Vol. 19, p. 80) ; Operas, Lett-
Motif (Vol. 20, p. 125); Wagner, W.
Richard (Vol. 28, p. 286).
Brahms, Johannes (Vol. 4, p. 889) ; So-
nata Forms, Sonata since Beethoven
(Vol. 25, p. 898).
Music (Vol. 19, p. 82); see also Strauss,
Richard (Vol. 25, p. 1008); Debussy,
Achille (Vol. 7, p. 906).
Composers of this period, who have had separate articles assigned to them in
the Britannica, follow: the growth of national schools will be noted.
German and Austrian: Gansbacher, J. B., 1778-1844; Kreutzer, K., 1780-
1849; Spohr, Ludwig, 1784-1859; Weber, Carl Maria F. E. von, 1786-1886;
Meyerbeer, G., 1791-1868; Hauptmann, M., 1792-1868; Lowe, J. K. G., 1796-
1869; Schubert, Franz Peter, 1797-1828; Lortzing, G. A.,
19th Century 1801-1851; Strauss, Johann, 1804-1849, king of valse com-
Composers posers; Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, J. L. F., 1809-1847; Nico-
lai, Otto, 1810-1849; Schumann, Robert Alexander, 1810-
1856; Hiller, F., 1811-1885; Wagner, Richard, 1818-1883; Heller, Stephen,
1815-1888; Franz, Robert, 1815-1892, song composer; Abt, Franz, 1819-1885, art
folk-song; Suppe, F. von, 1820-1895; Raff, J. J., 1822-1882; Cornelius, Carl
August Peter, 1824-1874, song writer; Bruckner, Anton, 1824-1896, Wagnerian
symphonist; Reinecke, C. H. C, 1824-1910; Lassen, Eduard, 1830-1904; Joachim,
Joseph, 1831-1907; Brahms, Johannes, 1833-1897; Bruch, Max, b. 1838; Rhein-
berger, J. G., 1839-1901; Goetz, Hermann, 1840-1876; Neszler, V., 1841-1890:
Humperdinck, E., b. 1854; Wolf, Hugo, 1860-1903; Strauss, Richard, b. 1864.
French; Auber, D. F. E., 1782-1871; Herold, L. J. F., 1791-1833; Halevy,
J. F. F. E., 1799-1862; Berlioz, Hector, 1803-1869; David, F., 1810-1876;
Thomas, C. L. Ambroise, 1811-1896; Gounod, C. F., 1818-1893; Offenbach, J.,
1819-1880; Franck, Cesar, 1822-1890, founder of Modern French School; Lalo,
E., 1823-1892; Reyer, E., b. 1823; Lecocq, A. C, b. 1882; Benoit, P. L. L., 1884-
1901; Saint-Saens, Charles Camille, b. 1835; Dubois, F. C. T., b. 1837; Bizet,
Georges, 1888-1875; Joncieres, V., 1839-1903; Chabrier, A. E., 1841-1894;
Audran, E., 1842-1901 ; Massenet, J. E. F.,« 1842-1912; Faure, Gabriel, b., 1845;
Widor, Charles Marie, b. 1845; Godard. Penjamin L. P., 1849-1895; Plan-
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182 BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ouette, R., b. 1850; DIndy, P. M. T. V., b. 1851; Messager, A. C. P., b. 1858;
Bruneau, Alfred, b. 1857; Chaminade, Cecile, b. 1861; Bemberg, Herman, b.
1S61 ; Debussy, Claude Achilles, b. 1862.
Belgian: The violinist Ysaye, b. 1858.
Italian: Spontani, G. L. P., 1774-1851; Rossini, G. A., 1792-1868;
Donizetti, G., 1798-1848; Bellini, V., 1801-1885; Verdi, Giuseppe, 1818-1901;
Ponchielli, Amilcare, 1834-1886, on whom have modelled themselves, Mas-
cagni, Leoncavallo, etc.; Bono, Arrigo, b. 1842; Sgambati, G., b. 1848; Leonca-
vallo, R., b. 1858; Puccini, G., b. 1858; Mascagni, P., b. 1868.
British: Horsley, Wm., 1774-1858; Smart, Sir George T., 1776-1867; Bishop,
Sir H. R., 1786-1855; Pearsall, R. L. de, 1795-1856; Field, John, 1782-1887,
inventor of the nocturne; Goss, Sir John, 1800-1880; Hatton, J. L., 1800-1886;
Barnett, J., 1802-1890; Benedict, Sir Julius, 1804-1885; Balfe, M. W., 1808-
1870; Wesley, S. S., 1810-1876; Hullah, John P., 1812-1884; Macfarren, Sir
G. A., 1818-1887; Wallace, Wm. V., 1814-1865; Pierson, H. H., 1815-1878; Ben-
nett, Sir Wm. Sterndale, 1816-1875; Ouseley, Sir F. A. G., 1825-1889; Bache,
F. E., 1888-1858; Clay, F., 1838-1889; Barnby, Sir J., 1888-1896; Stainer, Sir
John, 1840-1901; Sullivan, Sir Arthur S., 1842-1900; Cellier, Alfred, 1844-
1891 ; Mackenzie, Sir A. C, b. 1847; Parry, Sir C. Hubert H., b. 1848, on whom
fell the mantle of Purcell; Thomas, Arthur Goring, 1850-1892; Cowen, F. J., b.
1852; Stanford, Sir Charles Villiers, b. 1852; Elgar, Sir Edward, b. 1857;
MacCunn, Hamish, b. 1868.
Bohemian: Smetana, F., 1824-1884, founder of modern Bohemian School;
Dvorak, Anton, 1841-1904.
Hungarian: Gung'l, Josef, 1810-1889; Liszt, Fraz, 1811-1886; Goldmark,
Karl, b. 1882; Paderewski, I. J., b. 1860.
Polish: Chopin, Frederic Francois, 1810-1849; Moszkowski, Moritz, b.
1854.
Russian: Glinka, M. Ivanovich, 1808-1857, founder of national school; Dar-
gomusky, A. Sergeivich, 1818-1869; Rubinstein, Anton, 1829-1894; Borodin,
A. Porfyrievich, 1834-1887; Moussorgsky, M. Petrovich, 1835-1881; Balakirev,
M. Alexeivich, b. 1886; Tschaikovsky, Peter Ilich, 1840-1893; Rimsky-Kor-
8akov, N. Andreievich, 1844-1908; Glazunov, A. Constantinovich, b. 1865.
Norwegian: The violinist Bull, Ole, 1810-1880; Kjerulf, Halfdan, 1815-
1868; Svendsen, J. S., b. 1840; Grieg, Edvard Hagerup, 1843-1907.
Danish: Gade, Niels W., 1817-1890.
Sweden: Wennerbert, G., 1817-1901, song writer.
American: Emmett, D. D., started "negro minstrels," 1815-1904; Foster,
Stephen C, 1826-1864, song writer; Eichberg, Julius, 1824-1893, founded Boston
Conservatory of Music; Buck, Dudley, 1839-1909; MacDowell, Edward Alex-
ander, 1861-1908. For notices of other modern composers and their tendencies —
see Music, Recent Music (Vol. 19, p. 82).
Famous musical historians and writers on music, whose biographies are in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, are: Aristoxenus, 4th century B.C.; Praetorius, M.,
1571-1621; Perusch, J. C, 1667-1752; Barnard, John, 17th
Musical century; Hawkins, Sir John, 1710-1789; Gerbert, M., 1720-
Historians 1798; Burney, Ch., 1726-1814; Gerber, 1746-1819; Forkel,
J. N., 1749-1818; Baini, G., 1775-1844; Novello, V., 1781-
1861 ; Callcott, J. W., 1766-1821 ; Fetis, F. J., 1784-1871 ; Chorley, H. F., 1808-
1872; Chappell, Wm., 1809-1888; Dwight, John S., 1818-1893; Ambros, A. W.,
1816-1876; Grove, Sir George, 1820-1900.
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MUSIC
183
(2) THEORETICAL ARTICLES
"In the beginning/' said Hans von
Billow, "was rhythm," and as Rhythm
(Vol. 23, p. 277) is the skeleton of every
musical phrase and formula, the inter-
esting article by Donald Tovey on
rhythm in music may well serve as an
introduction to the other subjects in
this section. Passing to the elements,
the articles Sound, Diatonic Scale (Vol.
25, p. 448) and Plain Song (Vol. 21,
p. 705) should be read. In the former
article the physical basis of the modern
scale is determined, while in the latter
an account is given of the modes which
for centuries were the vehicles of musical
expression. In the article Musical No-
tation (Vol. 19, p. 86) the steps by which
the present system of recording music
was reached are noted, and in Pitch,
Musical (Vol. 21, p. 660), the whole of
this interesting and vexed subject is
reviewed by Alfred J. Hipkins, a high
authority, formerly hon. curator of the
Royal College of Music. The article
Melody (Vol. 18, p. 96) contains in
addition to a discussion of the terms
a series of useful definitions (e.g., con-
junct and disjunct motion) and several
musical examples. This brings us to
the main articles of this section — Coun-
terpoint (Vol. 7, p. 315), Harmony (Vol.
IS, p. 1) and Instrumentation (Vol. 14,
p. 651). All are by Donald Tovey and
all are brilliant. In particular the arti-
cle Harmony deserves the most careful
study, especially interesting being the
sections Tonality and Key-relationship.
The article on counterpoint is mainly
a definition of the principles involved
and is introductory both to Harmony
and to Contrapuntal Forms. In In-
strumentation the question of colour
is discussed from the historical and
aesthetic aspects, accompanied by valu-
able analysis of the colour schemes of
various composers from the choral writers
of the "Golden Age" down to Wagner
and Richard Strauss.
Famous theorists who have helped to
establish the grammar of music are the
following: Terpander, 7th century B.C.,
founder of Greek music
Theorl8t8 (Vol. 26, p. 647) ; Pythag-
oras, 6th century, B.C., said
to have discovered numerical relation gov-
erning the harmonic series (Vol. 22, p.
699); AlypiIjs, 8rd century B.C. (Vol. 1,
p. 776) ; Aristides, Quintilianus, 8rd
century A.D.; Hucbald, c. 840-980, in-
ventor of new notation (Vol. 18, p. 847) ;
Guido of Arezzo, c. 995-1050, " Beatus
Guido, inventor musicae," (Vol. 12, p.
687); Aoricola, Martin, c. 1500-1556;
Zarlino, G., 1517-1590, fixed the diatonic
scale; Artusi, G. M., 16th century, op-
posed monodist revolt; Fux, J. J., wrote
the famous Gradus ad Parnassum, Ra-
meau, J. P., 1688-1764, to whom the first
systematic theory of harmony is due; Al-
BRECHT8BEROER, J. G., 1786-1809, the
teacher of Beethoven; Reicha, A. J.,
1770-1886; Richter, E. F. E., 1808-
1879; Curwen, J., 1817-1880, inventor of
tonic sol-fa system; Berlioz Hector,
whose text book on instrumentation is
classic. On all these separate articles will
be found in the Britannica.
(3) MUSICAL FORMS
In making a detailed study of any
particular form, reference should be made
to t he critical sections
Contrapuntal of the biographies
Forms of those masters
who have done most
towards its development. As has been
seen in the historical section of this
chapter, the Contrapuntal Forms
(Vol. 7, p. 41) were the first to attain to
a high standard of organization in the
hands of such 'masters as Orlando
Lasso (Vol. 16, p. £37) and Palestrina
(Vol. 20, p. 627). The articles Mass
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
(Vol. 17, p. 849), Motet (Vol. 18, p. 905),
Madrigal (Vol. 17, p. 295), Canon
(Vol. 5, p. 190), Chorale (Vol. 6, p. 269),
cover the ground of early choral music.
In tracing their development reference
should be made to the articles on Bach,
J. S. (Vol. 3, p. 127), Beethoven (Vol. 3,
p. 649), Brahms (Vol. 4, p. 390). Ora-
torio (Vol. 20, p. 161) and Cantata
(Vol. 5, p. 209) had their beginning in
the work of the followers of Monteverde
in the early 17th century, and their
development may be traced in the work
of Cavaliere (Vol. 5, p. 563), Carissimi
(Vol. 5, p. 338), Purcell (Vol. 22, p. 658),
Bach (Vol. 3, p. 127), Handel (Vol. 2,
p. 912), Brahms (Vol. 4 p. 390), CSsar
Franck (Vol. 11, p. 3), and Sir C
Hubert Parry (Vol. 20, p. 865).
In instrumental music, the Suite
(Vol. 26, p. 51), of which Boccherini
(Vol. 4, p. 105) was the last master, most
nearly foreshadowed
Suite and the Sonata (Sonata
Sonata Forms, Vol. 25, p.
394), and together
they tell the tale of the development of
absolute music up to modern experi-
ments in the more elastic Symphonic
Poem (Vol. 26, p. 289) of which Liszt
(Vol. 16, p. 780) was the first to see the
possibilities. In addition to the articles
Sonata and Sonata Forms the reader
should carefully study that part of the
article Beethoven beginning on page
647 of Vol. 3; also the article Harmony,
Key Relationships (Vol. 13, p. 5) which
contains analyses of several striking key
systems, and further reference should
also be made to the articles Variations
(Vol. 27, p. 912), Symphony (Vol. 26,
p. 290).
To the Romantic movement of the
early part of the 19th century may be
traced the attempt to escape from the
apparent restrictions
Programme of the Sonata Form,
Music and Schumann's
(Vol. 24, p. 384) many
Fantasie-Stucke and Chopin's lyrical
compositions ( Vol. 6, p. 268) are proto-
types in little of the tendencies of the
time. On a larger canvas are the Ton-
dramen of Liszt and the symphonic
poems and the elaborate programme
music of modern composers such as
Richard Strauss (Vol. 25, p. 1003);
and though Brahms (Vol. 4, p. 389)
showed clearly enough that the classical
sonata form was a framework sufficiently
elastic to hold the most elaborate and
modern ideas, the direction in which
music has tended is towards the Sym-
phonic Poem in which, by such devices
as the transformation of themes and
the Leitmotif (Opera, Vol. 20, p. 125)
a still greater elasticity is sought in form
with a greater continuity of idea in
substance. See Programme Music
(Vol. 22, p. 424).
Supplementing the article Opera (Vol.
20, p. 121) are several which should be
consulted. Aria (Vol. 2, p. 489), Over-
ture (Vol. 20, p. 384), and
Opera especially Gluck (Vol. 12, p.
139), Mozart (Vol. 18, p.
951), Weber (Vol. 28, 457), and
Wagner (Vol. 28, p. 237). These, with
the biographical notices of operatic com-
posers, which include almost every Italian
composer from the days of Peri (Vol. 21,
p. 144), and French composers from
Lully (Vol. 17, p. 121), give a mass of
information bearing on the development
of this popular form.
Song (Vol. 25, p. 400), the oldest of
art forms, and almost the last to be
rescued from the too narrow formalism
of which the classical Aria
Song (Vol. 2, p. 489) is the beauti-
ful example, is so much the
most generally popular that the arti-
cle on it in the Britannica will probably
be more widely read than any other on
musical subjects. Written by W. A. J.
Ford, a scholarly musician and teacher
of singing at the Royal College of Music
(London), it provides a brilliant survey
of the evolution of the song from its
earliest beginnings. In connection with
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MUSIC
185
it the reader will find much to interest
him in the biographical notices of two
famous troubadours of the 13th and 14th
centuries, Adam de la Hale (Vol. 1,
p. 171) and Machaut, G. De (Vol. 17,
p. 233) ; of Monteverde (Vol. 18, p. 778),
the pioneer of the monodist revolt at
the end of the 16th century, of Scarlatti,
Alessandro (Vol. 24, p. 302), 17th cen-
tury, who perfected the aria form, of
Purcell, Henry (Vol. 22, p. 658), the
great English composer of the 17th
century, of Johann Sebastian Bach
(Vol. 3, p. 126) 18th century, of Schu-
bert (Vol. 24, p. 380), the creator of the
modern song, of Schumann (Vol. 24,
p. 384) who brought a yet greater in-
timacy into the form, of Hugo Wolf
(Vol. 28, p. 771), the most clairvoyant
of song writers, of Sir Hubert Parry
(Vol. 20, p. 865), and Sir Charles
Villiers Stanford (Vol. 25, p. 773),
who have respectively done the best
modern work in the English and Irish
tradition, and of the American Mac-
Dowell (Vol. 17, p. 214). Reference
should also be made to the articles
Melody (Vol. 18, p. 96), Accompani-
ment (Vol. 1, p. 122), Rhythm (Vol. 23,
p. 277). Suggestive also are the articles
Ballads (Vol. 3, p. 264), Poetry (Vol.
21, p. 889). On the technique of singing
the article Voice (Vol. 28, p. 172) by
Dr. J. G. McKendrick, will be found
very helpful, especially the section on
the Physiology of Voice Production.
(4) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
One branch of the subject yet remains,
that of musical instruments. Here the
editor of the Britannica had the advan-
tage of the assistance of Miss Kathleen
Schlesinger (author of The Instruments
of the Orchestra, and the greatest author-
ity on the subject), who contributed
practically all of the articles in the book
on musical instruments. A list of them
is given below, classified under their
most convenient groupings. From these
articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica
the reader will get a full account of
every known musical instrument whether
modern or ancient, with its compass, and
scale, and of its connection with other
instruments of the same class; so that
the evolution of every type is clearly
brought out. As a preliminary to a
general study of the subject, the articles
Orchestra (Vol. 20, p. 168), and In-
strumentation (Vol. 14, p. 651) may
conveniently be read. In the former
Miss Schlesinger gives a summary of
the development of the various classes
of instruments and of their concerted
use. In the article Instrumentation,
on the other hand, Donald Tovey illus-
trates the principles which govern their
use. This article closes with an inter-
esting survey of the orchestral schemes
at different periods in the history of the
art. The following classified list of
separate articles on musical instruments
in the Britannica, shows how very com-
pletely this work covers the field:
Stringed Instruments (Vol. 25, p. 1088).
Strings Plucked by Fingers or Plec-
trum: A80R; Balalaika; Banjo; Bar-
biton; Chelys; Cithara; Citolk; Cit-
tern; Epioonion; Guitar; Harp; Harp-
Lute; Kin nor; Kissar; Lute; Lyre;
Mandoline; Nanoa; Pandura; Psalt-
ery; Rebab; Rotta; Sambuca; Theorbo;
Trioonon; Zither. Strings Set in Vi-
bration by Friction of the Bow: Crowd;
Double Bass; Fiddle; Geige; Guitar-
Fiddle; Gusla; Nail Violin; Philo-
mel; Ravanastron; Rebab; Rebec;
Tromba Marina; Vielle; Viol; Viola;
Violin; Violoncello. Strings Struck
by Hammers or Tangents: Clavecin;
Clavicembalo; Clavichord; Clavicy-
therium; Dulcimer; Harmonichord;
Harpsichord; Pianoforte; Spinet; Vir-
ginal. Strings Set in Vibration by Fric-
tion of a Wheel: Hurdy-Gurdy; Organ-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
I8TRUM. Strings Set in Vibration by the
Wind: Aeolian Harp. Appliances: Bow;
Monochord; Mute; Mouthpiece; Key-
board; Sordino.
Wind Instruments (mouth blown) (Vol.
28, p. 709.
Wood Wind.
The Pipe Class: Eunuch Flute; Fife;
Flageolet; Flute; Nay; Piccolo; Pipe
and Tabor; Recorder; Syrinx. Single
Reed Class (cylindrical bore) : Reed In-
struments; Arghoul; Aulos; Bass Clar-
inet; Basset Horn; Batyphone; Clar-
inet; Pedal Clarinet. Double Reed
Class (conical bore): Reed Instruments;
Aulos; Bassoon; Bombard; Contra fa-
gotto; Cor Anglais; Oboe; Pommer;
Shawm; Clarina; Holztrompete ; Cro-
morne; Rackett; Saxophone; Sordino;
Tibia. To reed instruments also be-
long the Bagpipe Class: Askaules; Bag-
pipe; Biniou; Chorus; Drone; Plater-
spiel; Symphonia.
Brass Wind.
Bombardon; Buccina; Bugle; Cor-
net; Euphonium; Helicon; Horn; Li-
tuus; Ophicleide; Sackbut; Saxhorn;
Serpent; Trombone; Trumpet; Tuba;
to which may be added, though not of
brass or metal: Alpenhorn; Oliphant;
Shofar; see also Mouthpiece; Mute;
Valves.
Wind Instruments (mechanically blown).
Accordion ; Barrel-Organ ; Concer-
tina; Harmonium; Orchestrion; Or-
gan; Physharmonica; Portative Or-
gan; Positive Organ; Regal; to which,
though mouth blown, may be added
Cheng. See also Free Reed Vibration;
Keyboard.
Instruments of Percussion.
Sounding a Sensible Note: Bell; Bum-
bulum; Carillon; Glockenspiel; Gong;
Harmonica; Jews' Harp; Musical Box;
Parsifal Bell-Instrument ; Xylo-
phone. Not Sounding a Sensible Note:
Castanets; Cymbals; Chinese Pavil-
lon; Drum; Kettle Drum; Nacaire;
Sistrum; Tambourine; Timbrel; Tom-
Tom; Triangle; Tympanon.
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CHAPTER XXXII
THE FINE ARTS: GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY
THE art-student and every other
reader interested in the fine arts
will find in the Britannica the
material for courses of reading of very
great range and of the utmost interest
and value — whether he wishes to study
theory, practice or history.
Of course no adequate treatment of
the arts, or of any one of them, could
logically, much less advantageously, sep-
arate theory, practice and
Theory of history. But the theory
Art of art, though it may be
inferred or deduced from
many other articles in the book, including
those the most devoted to the practical
or historical, may best and most directly
be studied in three articles, Aesthetics,
Art, and Fine Arts. Of these, the first,
Aesthetics (Vol. 1, p. 277), equivalent
to nearly 40 pages of this Guide, is writ-
ten by Professor James Sully, late of
University College, London, and author
of The Human Mind and other psycho-
logical studies. It discusses the meaning
of beauty and the problem of the nature
of pleasure, especially "higher" pleasure,
its relation to play, etc. And the article
closes with a history of Aesthetic Theo-
ries, including those of the following
philosophers, on all of whom the student
will find separate and elaborate critical
biographies in the Britannica: Plato,
who ' set beauty high, but thought art
a mere trick of imitation and wished it
be censored rather than encouraged in
his model republic; Aristotle, who sets
beauty above the useful and necessary,
but whose aesthetic seems to be applied
to poetry rather than to any other art;
the German philosophers, Kant, Schell-
ing, Hegel, Schopenhauer, who so
deeply impressed their theories on the
literature of their times, etc. The arti-
cles Art (Vol. 2, p. 657) and Fine Arts
are both by Sir Sidney Colvin, formerly
keeper of prints and drawings, British
Museum. The former begins with a
contrast between art and nature — the
contrast made famous by Pope, by
Chaucer, repeatedly by Shakespeare and
by Dr. Johnson in his definition of Art
as "the power of doing something which
is not taught by Nature or by instinct."
This definition is in itself an excellent
text for a discourse on the importance
in the study of the fine arts of the best
literature on the subject. But Sir Sid-
ney Colvin points out that the definition
is incomplete, since Art
is a name not only for the power of doing
something, but for the exercise of the pow-
er; and not only for the exercise of the
power, but for the rules according to which
it is exercised; and not only for the rules,
but for the result. Painting, for instance,
is an art, and the word connotes not only
the power to paint, but the act of paint-
ing; and not only the act, but the laws for
performing the act rightly; and not only
all these, but the material consequences of
the act or the thing painted.
Art is then "Every regulated operation
or dexterity by which organized beings
pursue ends which they know before-
hand, together with the rules and the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
result of every such operation or dex-
terity."
And a consideration of the etymology
of the words "Art" and "Kunst" is the
basis of a discussion of the relation of
Science and Art, which is summed up in
these words:
Science consists in knowing, Art consists
in doing. What I must do in order to-
know, is Art subservient to Science: what
1 must know in order to do, is Science sub-
servient to Art.
After speaking of dancing, music, draw-
ing, painting, sculpture, architecture,
poetry, the author says:
Of all these arts, the end is not use, but
pleasure, or pleasure before use, or at least
pleasure ana use conjointly. In modern
language, there has grown up a usage
which has put them into a class by them-
selves under the name of the Fine Arts, as
distinguished from the Useful or Mechan-
ical Arts. (See Aesthetics and Fine
Arts.) Nay, more, to them alone is often
appropriated the use of the generic word
Art. . . . And further yet, custom has
reduced the number which the class-word is
meant to include. When Art and the works
of Art are now currently spoken of in this
sense, not even music or poetry is fre-
quently denoted, but only architecture,
sculpture and painting by themselves, or
with their subordinate and decorative
branches.
The article Fixe Arts (Vol. 10, p. 355;
equivalent to 70 pages of this Guide)
is divided into the following parts:
General Definition, with
Fine Arts particular attention to
the theory that makes the
arts a form of play and to the definitions
of Plato and Schiller; Classification —
architecture, sculpture, painting, music
and poetry classified as "shaping" and
"speaking" or as imitative and "non-
imitative," with definitions from the
aesthetic or philosophic point of view of
sculpture and of painting; and Historical
Development, with a criticism of Spen-
cer's theory of the evolution and gradual
separation of the arts and of Taine's
natural Jiistory, as well as a critical and
illuminating outline history of the arts.
Whether we include under the fine
arts music and poetry, or with the more
popular usage make the fine arts not five
but three, architecture, painting and
sculpture, the arts may be studied in the
Britannica and there is the basis for this
study in this Guide.
Music is the subject of a separate
chapter.
Poetry is treated in the chapters on
Literature, but it will be well to remind
the student of the philosophy of art of
the remarkable article Poetry (Vol. 21,
p. 877; equivalent to 45 pages in this
Guide) by Theodore Watts-Dunton,
and of the articles on the different poetic
forms, mostly by Edmund Gosse.
Architecture in the Britannica is out-
lined in this Guide in the chapter For
Architects.
The two chapters immediately follow-
ing this are devoted respectively to
Painting, Engraving and Drawing and
to Sculpture and the Subsidiary Arts.
Of practical value to the art student
as an introduction to these two chapters
are the articles Art Societies, by A. C.
Robinson Carter, editor of The Year's
Art, and Art Teaching, by Walter
Crane, the English illustrator, who also
contributed the article Arts and Crafts.
For an alphabetical list of articles on
the fine arts see the end of the chapter
on Sculpture.
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CHAPTER XXXIII
PAINTING, DRAWING, ETC.
THE article Painting (Vol. 20, p.
459; equivalent to 190 pages of
this Guide) is an elaborate "key"
article which may well be the starting
point for more definite study. The art
student who actually wishes to paint or
draw — as distinct from the student of
the history of art — will do well to read
first in this great article its third section,
The Technique of Painting (pp. 482-497),
by Gerard Baldwin Brown, professor of
fine art, Edinburgh, and author of The
Fine Arts. The main topics in this part of
the article are:
The Materials of Painting; The Sur-
faces Covered by the Painter; Binding
Materials or Media; The Processes of
Painting, and their Historical Uses;
Painting with Coloured Vitreous Pastes
(with bibliography) — on this method
and on similar processes see the sepa-
rate articles Ceramics, with remarkably
valuable and beautiful coloured illus-
trations; Mosaic; Enamel; Glass,
Stained. The following sections are
Fresco Painting (with bibliography) —
see Fig. 34, Plate X (facing p. 477) ;
Fresco-Secco (with bibliography) ;
Stereochromy or Water-Glass Paint-
ing (with bibliography) ; Spirit Fresco
or the " Gambier Parry " Process, as
improved by Professor Church (with
bibliography) ; Oil Processes of Wall
Painting; Tempera Painting on Walls;
Encaustic Painting on Walls (with bib-
liography) ; Encaustic Painting in Gen-
eral (with bibliography) ; Tempera
Painting (with bibliography) ; Water
Colour Painting (with bibliography).
In connection with this part of the ar-
t i c 1 e — theoretically
Drawing and before it, perhaps, —
Engraving the student should
read the articles
Drawing and Engraving.
Drawing (Vol. 8, p. 559), by John R.
Fothergill, editor of The Slade, is a pe-
culiarly interesting article in its denial of
the possibility of conveying colour by
drawing or monochrome, in its tracing the
development of drawing from the "pa-
pery" and flat first attempts on early
Greek vases to the depth, length and
breadth of the later Greeks or of a
Michelangelo, for its criticism of the
definition of artistic drawing as a process
of selection and elimination from the
forms of nature, and for its discussion of
style or personality in drawing. See also
the articles Caricature, Cartoon, Il-
lustration, Poster, Plumbago Draw-
ings.
Engraving (Vol. 9, p. 645) is a short
outline article to be supplemented by:
Line-Engraving (Vol. 16, p. 721), by
Philip Gilbert Hamerton, author of
Drawing and Engraving, and more popu-
larly known as the author of The Intel-
lectual Life, Human Intercourse and other
essays, and by M. H. Spielmahn, for-
merly editor of the Magazine of Art; Wood
Engraving, by the same authors; Mez-
zotint, by Gerald Philip Robinson, presi-
dent of the Society of Mezzotint Engrav-
ers; and Etching.
Supplementing the section in the ar-
ticle Painting on The Technique of
Painting are the separate articles :
Crayon, Pastel, Palette; Aquatint,
Aquarelle, Encaustic Painting, Fres-
co, Gouache, Illuminated Manu-
scripts (with 5 plates), by Sir E. Maunde
Thompson, late director British Museum
and author of English Illuminated Manu-
scripts; Miniature (with 19 illustrations
in halftone), by the same author, and by
G. C. Williamson, author of History of
Portrait Miniatures, whose articles on the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
miniature painters the Clouets, Cos-
way, the Hilliabd8, George Morland,
Peter Oliver, the Petitots, Pierre
Priettr, John Smart, etc., should also be
read; Panorama, Pastel, by M. H.
Spielmann, Portraiture, by Sir George
Reid, the Scotch artist and late president
of the Royal Scottish Academy, Pre-
della, Tempera and Triptych.
Although the articles enumerated in
the last paragraph have primarily to do
with technique, there is in them — es-
pecially in such ar-
History of tides as Miniature
Painting and Portraiture —
much historical and
critical information. And from them the
student may well turn back to the article
Painting to pursue there those topics
which he has not yet covered. These are :
Part I. — A Sketch of the Development of
the AH (pp. 460-478); Part II— Schools
of Painting, a tabular scheme (pp. 479-
481), and Recent Schools of Painting (pp.
497-518), by M. H. Spielmann, for
British; L£once B£n£dite, keeper of
the Luxembourg Museum, for French;
Fernand Khnopff , painter and etcher, for
Belgian; Prof. J. C. Van Dyck, Rutgers
College, author of History of American
Art, for the United States; and Prof.
Richard Muther, Breslau University,
author of The History of Modern Paint-
ing, on Dutch, German, Austrian, Italian,
Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian,
Russian and Balkan States.
These parts of the article are illustrated
with ten plates containing 36 figures, in-
cluding four prehistoric incised drawings
of animals found in French caves and
remarkable for their technical accuracy
and life; two paintings, a boar and a bi-
son, reproduced in colours, from the
palaeolithic cave of Altamira — see also
Plates II and III in the article Archae-
ology (between pp. 348 and 349, Vol. 2),
Figs. 6, 7 and 8 in Plate accompanying
Anthropology (opposite p. 118, Vol. 2),
and the plates of American antiques in
the article America (Vol. 1, pp. 808-
816); an excellent Egyptian drawing of
birds; the Francois vase (Greek); a Pom-
peian wall painting — see also the repro-
duction in colours of a wall-painting from
a Roman villa in the article Mural
Decoration (Vol. 20, p. 22); a wall
painting from Brunswick cathedral; and
typical examples of the work of Hubert
van Eyck, Giotto, Lorenzetti, Masaccio,
Uccello, Pollaiuolo, Piero della Francesca,
Ghirlandajo, Mantegna, Bellini, Gior-
gione, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Titian,
Holbein, Watteau, Gainsborough, Rem-
brandt, Quintin Matsys, Brouwer, Ruys-
dael, Turner, Chardin.
"A rough division of the whole history
of art into four main periods" gives
"first . . . the efforts of the older
Oriental peoples, best represented by the
painting of the Egyptians; the second in-
cludes the classical and medieval epochs
up to the beginning of the 15th century;
the third the 15th and 16th centuries, and
the fourth the time from the beginning of
the 17th century onward. In the first
period the endeavour is after truth of
contour, in the second and third after
truth of form, in the fourth after truth of
space."
The Egyptian artist was satisfied if he
could render with accuracy, and with prop-
er emphasis on what is characteristic, the
silhouettes of things in nature regarded as
little more than flat objects cut out against
a light background. The Greek and the
medieval artist realized that objects had
three dimensions, and that it was possible
on a flat surface to give an indication of
the thickness of anything, that is, of its
depth away from the spectator, as well as
its length and breadth, but they cannot be
said to have fully succeeded in the difficult
task they set themselves. For this there
was needful an efficient knowledge of per-
spective, and this the 15th century brought
with it. During the 15th century the
painter fully succeeds in mastering the
representation of the third dimension, and
during the next he exercises the power thus
acquired in perfect freedom, producing
some of the most convincing and masterly
presentments of solid forms upon a flat
surface that the art has to show. During
this period, however, and to a more partial
extent even in the earlier classical epoch,
efforts were being made to widen the hori-
1 son of the art and to embrace within the
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PAINTING, DRAWING, ETC.
191
scope of its representations not only solid
objects in themselves, but such objects as
a whole in space, in due relation to each
other and to the universe at large. It was
reserved, however, for the masters of the
17th century perfectly to realize this ideal
of the art, and in their hands painting as
an art of representation is widened out to
its fullest possible limits, and the whole of
nature in all its aspects becomes for the
first time the subject of the picture.
Following this classification, the article
Painting, after commenting on primitive
art among bushmen, Eskimo and Aus-
tralians and on the re-
Early Painting markable cave draw-
ings and paintings of
Altamira, Gourdan and Lortet, — even the
paintings are thought to be 50,000 years
old, — discusses the painting of contour in
Egypt and Babylonia, in prehistoric
Greece, in ancient Greece and Italy, and in
the early Christian and early medieval pe-
riods. Of particular interest is the crit-
icism of Greek drawing.
It may be admitted that in many artistic
qualities it was beyond praise., In beauty,
in grace of line, in composition, we can
imagine works of Apelles, of Zeuxis, of
Protogenes, excelling even the efforts of
the Italian painters, or only matched by
the finest designs of a Raphael or a Le-
onardo. . . . The facts, however, re-
main, first, that the Greek pictures about
which we chiefly read were of single fig-
ures, or subjects of a very limited and
compact order, with little variety of planes;
and second, that the existing remains of
ancient painting are so full of mistakes in
perspective that the representation of dis-
tance cannot have been a matter to which
the artists had really set themselves. . . .
The problem of representing correctly the
third dimension of space . . . had cer-
tainly not been solved. . . . It is an ad-
ditional confirmation of this view to find
early Christian and early medieval painting
confined to the representation of the few
near objects which the older Oriental artists
had all along envisaged.
For more detailed treatment of this
period see the articles: Egypt, Art and
Archaeology (Vol. 9, pp. 65-77), with
many illustrations both of painting and
sculpture, by Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
the eminent Egyptologist; Babylonia
and Assyria, particularly the two plates
of illustrations (opposite pp. 104 and 105,
Vol. 8); Aegean Civilization, especially
the illustrations (Vol. 1, pp. 246-251);
Greek Art (Vol. 12, pp. 470-492), by
Percy Gardner, author of Grammar of
Greek Art, — and, mostly by the same au-
thor, the articles Agathabchtjs, Panae-
nus, Micon, Polygnotus, Protogenes,
Apelles, Aristides of Thebes, Pausi-
as, Theon, Zeuxis; Roman Art (Vol. 23,
pp. 474-486), especially Plates V (p. 481)
and VI (p. 484); and for the early Chris-
tian and early medieval periods such ar-
ticles as Illuminated Manuscripts,
with illustrations, by Sir E. Maunde
Thompson, late director British Museum,
and Miniature. The reader should also
consult the articles China and Japan for
the section on the art of each of these
countries (Vol. 6, pp. 213-216, with two
plates, 17 figures; and Vol. 15, pp. 172-
190, with eight plates, 30 figures — see
especially Plates I-IV, pp. 172-177), as
Oriental art in general may be said to
belong to this phase of effort after truth
of contour and of form. See also the
separate articles on Japanese artists,
mostly by E. F. Strange, author of Japan-
ese Illustration, Hokusai, etc., — particu-
larly Korin, Utamaro, Hokusai, Hiro-
shige, and Yosai.
The first important individual names
after those of the Greek painters men-
tioned above are those of the Proto-
Renaissance of the 13th and 14th cen-
tury.
For Italy see Pietro Cavallini; in
Florence, Cimabue, by W. M. Rossetti,
author of Fine Art, Chiefly Contemporary;
Giotto, by Sir Sidney Colvin, late keeper
prints and drawings, British Museum;
Gaddi, by W. M. Rossetti; Orcagna, by
the late John Henry Middleton, Slade
professor of fine arts, Cambridge, art
director South Kensington Museum;
Spinello Aretino (Vol. 25, p. 685), and
Angelico, by W. M. Rossetti; in Siena,
Simone Martini; and for Flanders, the
van Eycks (Vol. 10, p. 90), by Sir Joseph
Archer Crowe, author with G. B. Caval-
easelle, of Early Flemish Painters, etc.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
With the 15th century, and particularly
at Florence, begins the third of the four
periods in the evolution of painting.
"The father of mod-
15th Century: era painting is the
Florence Florentine Masac-
cio": see the article
on him (Vol. 17, p. 833), by W. M. Ros-
setti, who says "he led the way in repre-
senting the objects of nature correctly,
with action, liveliness and relief
All the greatest artists of Italy, through
studying the Brancacci chapel, became
his champions and disciples.'* For the
other great Florentine names of the cen-
tury see the articles: Masouno da Pani-
cale, by Rossetti; Brunelleschi, archi-
tect, student of perspective, and, with
Masolino, master of Masaccio; the two
earlier Lippi, by Rossetti; Botticelli, by
Sir Sidney Colvin; Gozzoli, by Rossetti;
Rosselli; Piero di Cosimo (Vol. 21, p.
950); Castagno; Baldovinetti, by Sir
Sidney Colvin ; Pollaiuolo ; Ghirlan-
dajo, father and son, by W. M. Rossetti;
and, marking the perfection of art on the
formal side, Bartolommeo, and Rossetti's
article, Andrea del Sarto (Vol. 1, p.
969).
As for the remainder of Italy, Sienese
art declines in this century, but there is
an advance in Northern Italy and in Um-
bria. See the arti-
15th Century: cles:FRANCEscm,by
Other Parts Rossetti, Melozzo,
of Italy "the first who prac-
tised foreshortening
with much success," and Signorelli;
Raphael's master, Perugino, by Ros-
setti; Mantegna, by the same author;
Lorenzo Costa; Francia, by Rossetti;
and at Venice, Gentile, the Vivarini,
Antonello da Messina, Carpaccio,
the Bellini (Vol. 3, p. 700), by Sir Sidney
Colvin.
In Germany and the Low Countries
the art of the 15th and 16th centuries
may be traced in the articles: for Ger-
many — Schongauer; Durer, by Sir
Sidney Colvin; GRttN; the Holbeins and
Cranach, by Sir Joseph Archer Crowe;
Burgkmair; GrEnewald; and for the
Low Countries —
15th and 16th Roger van der
Cen turie8 : Weyden ; his greater
Northern Europe pupil Memlinc, by
Sir J. A. Crowe and
P. G. Konody, art critic of the Observer
and Daily Mail; Goes; Gerard David,
by P. G. Konody; Lucas van Leyden
(Vol. 17, p. 93); Heemskerk; Matsys;
Breughel; Mabuse, by Sir J. A. Crowe;
Floris; Moro; and Bril.
Roughly contemporary with Durer and
Holbein the younger were the even
greater masters of Italian painting. See
the articles : for Flor-
16th Century: ence — Leonardo da
Italian Vinci (Vol. 16, p.
Masters 444, equivalent to
35 pages of this
Guide), and Michelangelo (Vol. 18, p.
362), both by Sir Sidney Colvin, and
Vasari, painter and biographer of paint-
ers; for Rome — Raphael Sanzio (Vol. £2,
p. 900, with 7 cuts), by the late Prof.
John Henry Middleton, and Giulio
Romano, by W. M. Rossetti; for North
Italy — Luini, Correggio, Parmigiano,
and Moroni, all by Rossetti, and Mo-
retto; and for Venice — Giorgione, by
Sir Sidney Colvin; Lotto and Palma,
Titian, Tintoretto, and Paul Veron-
ese (Vol. 20, p. 965), all by W. M. Ros-
setti.
We have now come to modern times so
far as painting is concerned. The article
Painting says:
By the 17th century the development of
painting had passed through aU its stages,
and the picture was
The Fourth no i° n g er a mere sil ~
jy^-i^A . i n*u n A ++ houette or a tran-
Period: 17th Cen- script of ob jects
tury and After against a flat back-
ground, but rather an
enchanted mirror of the world, in which
might be reflected space beyond space in in-
finite recession. With this transformation
of the picture there was connected a com-
plete change in the relation of the artist to
nature. Throughout all the earlier epochs of
the art the painter had concerned himself
not with nature as a whole, but with certain
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selected aspects of nature that furnished
him with his recognized subjects. These
subjects were selected on account of their
intrinsic beauty or importance, and as rep-
resenting intrinsic worth they claimed to be
delineated in the clearest and most substan-
tial fashion. In the 17th century, not only
was the world as a whole brought within
the artist's view, but it presented itself as
worthy in every part of his most reverent
attention. In other words, the art of the
17th century, and of the modern epoch in
general, is democratic, and refuses to ac-
knowledge that difference in artistic value
among the aspects of nature which was at
the basis of the essentially aristocratic art
of the Greeks and Italians. . . . The
artist who was the first to demonstrate con-
vincingly this principle of modern painting
was Rembrandt. . . . Rembrandt in
his later work attended to the pictorial ef-
fect alone, and practically annulled the ob-
jects by reducing them to pure tone and
color. Things are not there at all, but only
the semblance or effect, or u impression n of
things. Breadth is in this way combined
with the most delicate variety, and a new
form of painting, now called "impression-
ism," has come into being.
See: Rubens, by Henri Hymans, au-
thor of Rubens: sa vie et son ceuvre, and P.
G. Konody ; Rembrandt, by John Forbes
White and P. G. Konody; and Frans
Hals, by P. G. Konody. These were the
leaders of the great 17th century school —
the Dutch. For the more immediate fol-
lowers of Rembrandt see the articles:
Douw, Eeckhout, Flinck, Maes,
Hooch, Meer. For Rubens' great pu-
pil and rival p,nd his successors, the arti-
cles Van Dyck and Teniers, both by
Henri Hymans and P. G. Konody, Sny-
ders and the great animal painter Ftt.
See Brouwer for Hals' pupil and assist-
ant. For the genre painters, the articles :
Ter Borch, Metstj, Steen, Wotjwer-
mann, and the Ostade family, by Sir J.
A. Crowe and P. G. Konody. On the
landscapists see the articles: Koninck,
Goyen, Neer, by Sir J. A. Crowe and
P. G. Konody; Rtjysdael, Hobbema, by
Sir J. A. Crowe, and Berchem; and, for
animal and landscape, A. Vandevelde,
Cuyp, by Sir J. A. Crowe, and Potter,
by P. G. Konody. The other important
articles for the Dutch school of the 17th
'•entury are: Heem, Heda, Honde-
coeter, Weenix and HuySum, painters
of still hfe, etc.; W. Vandevelde and
Backhuysen, marine painters; and at
the close of the period, or marking its de-
cline, Mieris and Netscher.
In the article on Painting this summary
follows the outline of the general develop-
ment of painting through the 17th cen-
tury:
The fact that the Dutch painters have
left us masterpieces in so many different
walks of painting,
Kind8 of makes it convenient
PalnHnd that we should add
rainiuifc . hepe gomc brief notcg
on characteristic modern phases of the
art on which they stamped the impress of
their genius. The normal subject for the
artist, as we have seen, up to the 17th
century, was the figure-subject, generally
in some connexion with religion. The Egyp-
tian portrayed the men and women of his
time, but tie pictures, through their con-
nexion with the sepulchre, had a quasi-re-
ligious significance.
Portraiture is differentiated from this
kind of subject-picture through stages
which it would be interesting to trace, but
the portrait, though secular, is always
treated in such a way as to exalt or dignify
the sitter. Another kind of figure-piece,
also differentiated by degrees from the
subject-picture of the loftier kind, is the
so-called Genre Painting, in which the hu-
man actors and their goings-on are in
themselves indifferent, trivial, or mean, and
even repellent; and in which, accordingly,
intrinsic interest of subject has disap-
peared to be replaced by an artistic in-
terest of a different kind. Landscape, in
modern times so important a branch of
painting, is also an outcome of the tradi-
tional figure-piece, for at first it is nothing
but a background to a scene in which
human figures are prominent. "Marine
Painting is a branch of landscape art dif-
ferentiated from this, but supplied at first
in the same way with figure-interest. The
origin of Animal Painting is to be sought
partly in figure-pieces, where, as in Egypt
and Assyria, animals play a part in scenes
of human life, and partly in landscapes, in
which cattle, &c, are introduced to enliven
the foreground. The Hunting Picture, com-
bining a treatment of figures and animals
in action with landscape of a picturesque
character, gives an artist like Rubens a
welcome opportunity, and the picture of
Dead Game may be regarded as its off-
shoot. This brings us to the important
class of Still-life Painting, the relation of
which to the figure-piece can be traced
through the genre picture and the portrait
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The article then proceeds to sketch the
history and development of different
kinds of painting:
Portraiture:
It is Gentile and Giovanni Bellini . . .
who may be regarded as the fathers of
modern portrait painting. Venetian art
was always more secular in spirit than that
of the rest of Italy, and Venetian portraits
were abundant. . . . Some of the finest
portraits in the world are the work of the
great Venetians of the 16th century, for
they combine pictorial quality with an air
of easy greatness which later painters find
it hard to impart to their creations.
Though greatly damaged, Titian's eques-
trian portrait of Charles V. at Madrid
ffig. £6, Plate VIII.) is one of the very
finest of existing works of the kind. It is
somewhat remarkable that of the other
Italian painters who executed portraits the
most successful was the idealist Raphael,
whose papal portraits of Julius II. and Leo
X. are masterpieces of firm and accurate
delineation. Leonardo's "Monna Lisa" is
a study rather than a portrait proper.
The realistic vein, which, as we have
seen, runs through northern painting, ex-
plains to some extent the extraordinary
merit in portraiture of Holbein, who rep-
resents the culmination of the efforts in
this direction of masters like Jan van
Eyck and Dilrer. . . . Frans Hals of
Haarlem, one of the most brilliant paint-
ers of the impressionist school that he did
much to found, achieved remarkable suc-
cess in the artistic grouping of a number
of portraits. ... As portraitists the
other great 17th-century masters fall into
two sets, Rembrandt and Velazquez con-
trasting with Rubens and his pupil Van
Dyck. ... In the 18th century, though
France produced some good limners and
Spain Goya, yet on the whole England was
the home of the best portraiture. Van
Dyck had been in the service of Charles I.,
and foreign representatives of his style
carried on afterwards the tradition of his
essentially courtly art, but there existed at
the same time a line of native British por-
traitists of whom the latest and best was
Hogarth. One special form of portraiture,
the miniature (q.v.) f has been characteris-
tically English throughout . . .
Genre:
Probably the most excellent painters of
genre are Ter Borch, Metsu and Brouwer,
the two first painters of the life of the up-
per classes, the last of peasant existence in
some of its most unlovely aspects. The
pictures of Brouwer are among the most
instructive documents of modern painting.
... He is best represented in the
Munich Pinacotek, from which has been
selected fig. 30, Plate IX. Hardly less ad-
mirable are Teniers in Flanders; De
Hooch, Ver Meer of Delft, Jan Steen, A.
van Ostade, in Holland, while in more mod-
ern times Hogarth, Chardin, Sir David
Wilkie, Meissonier, and a host of others
carry the tradition of the work down to
our own day (see Table VIII.). . . .
Landscape and Marine Painting:
Several of the Dutch masters, even be-
fore the time of Rembrandt, excelled in the
truthful rendering of the scenes and ob-
jects of their own simple but eminently
paintable country; but it was Rembrandt,
with his pupil, de Koningk, and his rival in
this department Jacob Ruysdael, who
were the first to show how a perfectly natu-
ral and unconventional rendering of a
stretch of country under a broad expanse
of sky might be raised by poetry and ideal
feeling to the rank of one of the world's
masterpieces of painting. Great as was
Rembrandt in what Bode has called "the
landscape of feeling," the " Haarlem from
the Dunes" of Ruysdael (fig. 31, Plate
IX.) with some others of this artist's ac-
knowledged successes, surpass even his
achievement. . . . Among Turner's chief
titles to honour is the fact that he por-
trayed the sea in all its moods with a
knowledge and sympathy that give him a
place alone among painters of marine. . . .
Animal Painting:
In Holland, in the 17th century, the ani-
mal nature presented itself under the more
contemplative aspect of the ruminants in
the lush water-meadows. True to their
principle of doing everything they attempt
in the best possible way, the Dutch paint
horses (Cuyp, Wouwerman) and cattle
(Cuyp, Adrian Vandevelde, Paul Potter)
with canonical perfection, while Honde-
koeter delineates live cocks and hens, and
Weenix dead hares and moor-fowl, in a
way that makes us feel that the last word
on such themes has been spoken. There is
a large white turkey by Hondekoeter in
which the truth of mass and of texture in
the full soft plumage is combined with a
delicacy in the detail of the airy filaments,
that is the despair of the most accom-
plished modern executant.
But animals have been treated more
nobly than when shown in Flemish agita-
tion or in Dutch phlegmatic calm. Le-
onardo da Vinci was specially famed for
his horses, which he may have treated with
something of the majesty of Pheidias. . . .
SMI-Life Painting:
There is no finer Rembrandt for pic-
torial quality than the picture in the Louvre
representing the carcase of a flayed ox in
a flesher's booth. As illustrating the prin-
ciple of modern painting this form of the
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graphic art has a value and importance
which in itself it could hardly claim. . . .
The way was prepared for it as has been
noticed, by the minute and forcible render-
ing of accessory objects in the figure-pieces
and portraits of the early Flemish masters,
of Dtirer, and above all of Holbein. The
painting of flower and fruit pieces with-
out figure interest by Jan Breughel the
younger, who was born in 1601, represents
a stage onward, and contemporary with
him were several other Dutch and Flemish
specialists in this department, among whom
Jan David de Heem, born 1608, and the
rather older Willem Klaasz Heda may be
mentioned. Their subjects sometimes took
the form of a luncheon table with vessels,
plate, fruit and other eatables; at other
times of groups of costly vessels of gold, sil-
ver and glass, or of articles used in art or
science, such as musical instruments and
the like; and it is especially to be noted
that the handling stops always short of
any illusive reproduction of the actual tex-
tures of the objects, while at the same time
the differing surfaces of stuffs and metal
and glass, of smooth-rinded apples and
gnarled lemons, are all most justly ren-
dered. ... In this form of painting
the French 18th-century artist Chardin,
whose impasto was fuller, whose colouring
more juicy than those of the Dutch, has
achieved imperishable fame (see fig. 38,
Plate X.); and the modern French, who
understand better than others the technical
business of painting, have carried on the
fine tradition which has culminated in the
work of Vollon. The Germans have also
painted still-life to good result, but the
comparative weakness in technique of Brit-
ish painters has kept them in this depart-
ment rather in the background.
The history of painting since the 17th
century may best be studied in the Bri-
tannica in the order in which "recent
schools" are treated
National Schools (Vol. 20, pp. 497-
of Painting 518), and this plan
will be followed here
in a brief outline, giving only a few out
of many articles for each country.
British art in the 17th and 18th cen-
turies is dependent largely on foreign and
particularly Flemish influences — Van
Dyck in especial. See Ros-
Britiah setti's articles on Lely and
Kneller, who, like Hol-
bein and Van Dyck, were importations,
but, unlike them, were pretty thoroughly
Anglicized. For the first purely English
painter see Austin Dobson's article Ho-
garth (Vol. 13, p. 560). For "the most
prominent figure in the English school of
painting" whose Discourses largely af-
fected English notions of aesthetics, see
Sir Joshua Reynolds; also the article on
his rival George Romney. And read
Rossetti's article Gainsborough; and
those on the portrait painters Raeburn
and Sir Thoma s Lawrence. On the Nor-
wich school of landscapists see the articles
Crome, Cotman and George Vincent.
For foreign influences on landscape paint-
ing see Richard Wilson (Vol. 28, p. 695)
for French influence, and John Con-
stable (Vol. 0, p. 982), by C. J. Holmes,
author of Constable and His Influence on
Landscape Painting, for German. With
the article on the greatest of English
landscapists J. M. W. Turner (Vol. 27,
p. 474), by Sir George Reid, the student
should read Frederic Harrison's article on
John Ruskin, himself an exquisite
draughtsman, although unable to com-
pose a picture, whose championship of
Turner and general theories of art so
strongly influenced British painting. See
also the articles on the subject painter
Thomas Stothard and the landscapist
Girtin; and on the genre painters, Sir
David Wilkie, by J. Miller Gray, late
curator of the Scottish National Portrait
Gallery, Mulready, William Collins,
and Frith. See the article William
Blake, by J. W. Comyns-Carr, author of
Essays on Art, for an appreciation of that
remarkable genius, who in his combina-
tion of painting and poetry may be reck-
oned a forerunner of the Pre-Raphaelites.
On the F. R. Brotherhood see the articles :
D. G. Ros8ETTi, by F. G. Stephens,
former art-critic to the Athenaeum and,
for Rossetti's literary work, Theodore
Watts-Dunton; Sir J. E. Millais and
W. Holman Hunt, by Cosmo Monk-
house, the poet and critic; and Ford
Madox Brown, by W. M. Rossetti, him-
self a member of the Brotherhood — see
the article on Rossetti. Of much the
same school were several later men. See,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
for instance, the articles: Lord Leigh-
ton, by Cosmo Monkhouse; .William
Morris, by Arthur Waugh; Burne-
Jones, by Lawrence Binyon, poet and
author of monographs on Blake, Crome,
etc.; George Frederick Watts, by
Malcolm Bell, biographer of Burne-
Jones; Walter Crane. On the "New-
lyn" school, see the article Newlyn; on
the etchers, Whistler, by Frederick
Wedmore, author of Whistler's Etchings,
and William Strang and Sir F. S. Ha-
den, by Sir Charles Holroyd, artist and
critic; on figure painters, Sir John Gil-
bert, Albert Moore, John Pettie, G.
H. Boughton, Alma-Tadema, Sir E. J.
Poynter and Sir W. B. Richmond; for
painters of sentiment, Marcus Stone,
Sir Luke Fildes and Sir Hubert von
Herkomer; among portrait painters, J.
J. Shannon, and C. W. Furse; the deco-
rator Frank Brangwyn; the realistic
landscapists, H. W. B. Davis, David
Murray, Sir E. A. Waterlow, Vicat
Cole; the more imaginative and roman-
tic painters of landscape, Alfred W.
Hunt, Cecil Gordon Lawson, John
Linnell, G. H. Mason, Frederick
Walker, Sir Alfred East, J. Buxton
Knight, George Clausen; the "subjec-
tive landscapist" B. W. Leader; the
marine painters Henry Moore, C. Na-
pier Hemy, James Clarke Hook ; the
animal-painters Breton, Riviere, J. M.
Swan, and, for the earlier period, Land-
seer; the Scottish artists Orchardson,
by Sir Walter Armstrong, director of
National Gallery of Ireland; John Pet-
tie, Thomas Faed, David Murray,
Arthur Melville, John La very, Rob-
ert Brough, Sir James Guthrie, and
Sir George Reid, of whom we have al-
ready spoken as a contributor to the
Britannica; and the water colorists Sir
John Gilbert, by F. G. Stephens,
former art critic of the Atlienaeum,
Henry Moore, Albert Moore, George
Clausen, E. J. Gregory, Birket Fos-
ter, Haag, Kate Greenaway, by M. H.
Spielmann, biographer of Kate Green-
away. On English illustrators, besides
those already named, Hogarth and Blake
notably, see the articles Thomas Be-
wick, Bartolozzi, Flaxman, by Sir Sid-
ney Colvin, Cattermole, Samuel Prout,
James Ward, Gillray, Bunbury, Row-
landson, cruik8hank, john leech,
Richard Doyle, Tenniel, Sir John
Gilbert, Aubrey Beardsley, by E. F.
Strange, Thomas Creswick, Du Maur-
ier, C. S. Keene, Frederick Walker,
G. J. Pinwell, R. Caldecott, Harry
Furniss, Sir F. C Gould, E. Linley
Sambourne, Phil May, Leonard Ra-
ven-Hill.
On French painting of the 17th century
read : on landscape, Poussin, and Claude
of Lorraine (Vol. 6, p. 463), by W. M.
Rossetti; the historical and
French religious painters Le Brun
and Le Sueur; and the por-
traitist Philippe de Champaigne. For
the 18th century: the articles Watteau
and Fragonard, by P. G. Konody;
Francois Boucher, Lancret, Vernet
the eldest, Rigaud, Chardin, and
Greuze, by Lady Dilke, author of
French Painters of the 18th Century.
In the 19th century came a classical
reaction: see the article on its leader
Jacques Louis David and his pupils and
imitators J. B. Regnault, Girodet,
Baron Gu£rin, Prud'hon; then a medi-
ate movement, on which see Ingres, by
Lady Dilke, and Gros; and then a Ro-
mantic revolt — see Delacroix, G£ri-
cault, Isabey. Other important names
are Ziem, Meissonier and Rose Bon-
heur, both by Henri Frantz of the
Gazette des Beaux Arts, Cabanel, Bau-
dry, G£r6me, Bouguereau, Benjamin
Constant, Cormon, Bonnat and Hen-
ner. On the Barbizon school, see the
articles Barbizon, Theodore Rousseau,
Daubigny, Corot, and Diaz, by D.
Croal Thomson, author of The Barbizon
School, J. F. Millet, by ! ady Dilke;
Dupr£, Francais and Harpignies.
Ranking with Corot and Millet in influ-
ence is Courbet; see the article on Cour-
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197
bet, by Henri Frantz of the Paris Gazette
dee Beaux Arts, and on Courbet's follow-
ers, Legros, Fantin-Latour, Ribot, by
Frederick Wedmore, Carolus-Duran.
Contrasted with these nature-lovers are
the more mystic Moreau, Ricard, De-
launay, Fromentin and Cazin.
The later names we may classify: the
decorative painter — Puvis de Chavan-
nes, by Henri Frantz; the impressionists
— see the article Impressionism (Vol. 14,
pp. 348-346), by D. S. MacColl, keeper of
the Tate Gallery, and author of Nine-
teenth Century Art, and in the article
Painting the discussion on pp. 473-474
of Vol. 20 — Manet, by Henri Frantz,
Monet, Degas, Renoir; the plein-airists
Jules Breton, Bastien-Lepage, by
Henri Frantz; Roll, Gervex; the sym-
bolist Gustave Moreau; the military
painters Alphonse de Neuville and
Detaille; and the "neo-evangelist" Ca-
zin.
The art of Belgium and Holland in the
19th century is to be studied in Prof.
Muther's sections on these two coun-
tries (pp. 506-509) in
Belgium and the article Painting,
Holland and in such sepa-
rate articles as Leys,
Alfred Stevens (to be distinguished
from the English sculptor), Braekeleer,
Willems, Clays, Portaels, Wauters,
CONSTANTIN MeUNIER, VeRLAT, the DE
Vriendts, Khnopff, already mentioned
as a critic and a contributor to the Bri-
tannica, — all these are Belgians; and, in
Holland, Israels, Maris, Mauve.
Going back to the close of the 18th
century for German painters influenced
by Winckelmann, the important articles
are Mengs and Carstens.
Germany See Overbeck, by J. Beav-
ington Atkinson for the
German "pre-Raphaelite" movement —
and the articles, Peter von Cornelius,
by W. Cave Thomas, author of Mural or
Monumental Education; the Schadows,
by J. B. Atkinson; Veit, and Schnorr.
The other more important names before
1870 are: Bethel, Schwind, Achen-
bach and Preller. The glorification of
the Empire and of Prussia is the theme of
the new historical school : see particularly
Menzel. The study of the old masters
is to be seen in Kaulbach and Lenbach.
Among the members of a more modern
school are: Liebermann, Kalckreuth,
Keller, Uhde; of another reaction,
Feuerbach, Thoma, and Bocklin, by
Henri Frantz; and of a sculptural order
Klinger and Stuck.
As for Austria-Hungary, we may here
mention only three
Austria-Hungary articles: Makart,
Pettekofen, and
Munkacsy, by E. F. Strange.
In Italy since the great days of the
17th century, we may mention Tiepolo,
Canale and Guardi be-
Italy fore the 19th century, and
in that era Segantini, Gio-
vanni Costa, and Muzzioli.
The art of Spain has not been touched
heretofore in this summary. For the
16th century see the articles Coello,
Becerra, Vincente Joanes,
Spain Navarrete, El Greco; and
for the 17th, the Spanish
century, Herrera, his great pupil Velaz-
quez, by J. Forbes White and P. G.
Konody; Cano, and Zurbaran and
Murillo, both by W. M. Rossetti. In
the 18th century the only great Spanish
artist was Goya y Lucientes, painter
and etcher. On the 19th century see:
Fortuny, by Alfred Lys Baldry, art critic
of the London Globe; Pradilla; Benlli-
ure y Gil; Sorolla y Bastida; Ma-
drazo y Kunt; Zuloaga.
To the other countries of Europe, fully
as their painting is treated in the Britan-
nica, we can devote
Other European little space here. It
Countries may suffice to men-
tion the Norwegian
Hans Dahl and the Russians Repin and
Vereschagin.
On painting in the United States, see
the section in the article Painting, by
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198
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Prof. J. C. Van Dyke of Rutgers College
(Vol. 20, pp. 518-
The United 519); and the articles
States J. S. Copley, Ben-
jamin West, John
Trumbull, Gilbert Stuart, John Van-
derlyn, Washington Allston, Rem-
brandt Peale, J. W. Jarvis, Thomas
Sully, Thomas Cole, Asher B. Du-
rand, J. F. Kensett, F. E. Church,
Chester Harding, Henry Inman, Wil-
liam Page, G. P. A. Healy, Daniel
Huntington, W. S. Mount, W. M.
Hunt, John La Farge, George Fuller,
Eastman Johnson, Elihu Vedder,
Leonard Ochtman, Winslow Homer,
A. H. Wyant, George Inness, Homer
D. Martin, Swain Gifford, the Mor-
ans, Jervis McEntee, D. W. Tryon,
Albert Bierstadt, W. H. Beard, Blash-
field, J. W. Alexander, W. M. Chase,
Duveneck, Cecilia Beaux, W. H. Low,
H. S. Mowbray, H. O. Tanner, E. C.
Tarbell, R. W. Vonnoh, — and the
Americans who have made their home
and their fame in Europe, like Whistler,
Sargent, E. A. Abbey and J. J. Shan-
non, and those whose work is Continen-
tal, or even purely Parisian in tone, like
W. T. Dannat, George Hitchcock, Gari
Melchers, C. S. Pearce, E. L. Weeks
and Walter Gay. On illustrators, see
the articles: Howard Pyle, Frederick
Remington, C. S. Reinhart, W. T.
Smedley, Robert Blum, Charles Dana
Gibson, W. Hamilton Gibson, the wood-
engraver Timothy Cole, the etcher
Joseph Pennell; and for caricature the
article Thomas Nast and the section on
the United States in M. H. Spielmann's
article Caricature (Vol. 5, pp. 334-
335).
For a fuller list of articles on painting,
drawing, engraving, etc., with articles on
sculpture, see the end of the next chapter
Sculpture.
CHAPTER XXXIV
SCULPTURE
THE Britannica article Sculpture
(Vol.* 24, p. 488; equivalent to
90 pages of this Guide) is a com-
plete treatise on the technique and
history of this branch of art by J. H.
Middleton, late professor of Fine Art,
Cambridge, M. H. Spielmann, former
editor of the Magazine of Art, P. G.
Konody, art critic of the Observer and
Daily Mail, and, for French sculpture,
L6once BSnedite, keeper of the Luxem-
bourg Museum and author of Histoire
des Beaux Arts. It is illustrated with
10 full page plates as follows: I and II.
Medieval, etc., with examples of the
work of Jacopo della Quercia, Donatello
(i), Andrea Pisano, Michelangelo, Verroc-
chio and Leopardo, Luca della Robbia,
Benvenuto Cellini,
The Main " Peter Vischer, Ber-
Article nini, Goujon, Ca-
nova, Houdon, Coy-
sevox; III. IV. V. Modern British —
Alfred Stevens, Sir George Frampton,
Lord Leighton, Harry Bates, H. H.
Armstead, G. F. W'atts (2), A. Gilbert,
F. W. Pomeroy, E. Onslow Ford, W.
Hamo Thorny croft (2), Alfred Drury,
F. Derwent Wood, Bertram Mackennal,
Albert Toft, Havard Thomas, W. Gos-
combe John, W. R. Colton (2), Sir
Charles Lawes-Wittewronge, Sir J. Ed-
gar Boehm, Thomas Brock; VI. American
—J. Q. A. Ward, D. C. French and E.
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SCULPTURE
199
C. Potter, Augustus St. Gaudens, Frede-
erick MacMonnies; VII. VIII. and IX.
Modern French — Falguiere, Barrias, De-
laplanche, Idrac, Becquer, L. Ge>dme,
Marqueste, Longepied, Fremiet, Guill-
aume, Puech, Saint-Marceaux, Mercie\
Rodin, Michel, Dalou, Aube\ Chapu,
Bloche, Gardet, Bartholomew and X.
Other Foreign Countries — Sinding, Begas,
Ximenes, Querol, Antokolski, Lambeaux,
Meunier.
This article opens with an account
of technical methods of sculpture which
should be supplemented by other articles,
which deal also with
Other General history and criti-
Articles cism: Wood-Carv-
ing(Vo1. 28, p. 791),
by Franklyn Arden Crallan, author of
Gothic Woodcarving, with four plates and
with descriptions not merely of Gothic
and Renaissance work in . Europe, but
of Coptic, Mahommedan, Persian, In-
dian and Burmese, Chinese and Japanese,
and the carving done by savage races;
Ivory (Vol. 15, especially pp. 95-98,
with 5 illustrations), by A. Maskell,
author of Ivories; Chryselephantine;
Metal-Work (Vol. 18, p. 205), with 9
text cuts and 2 full page plates), by
Prof. J. H. Middleton, Cambridge, and
John Starkie Gardner, author of Armour
in England and Iron Work; Gem (Vol.
11, p. 560; with 2 full page plates con-
taining 76 illustrations, mostly of an-
tique gems, besides 10 cuts in the text)
by Alexander Stuart Murray, author of
History of Greek Sculpture, Terra Cotta
Sarcophagi, etc., and Arthur Hamilton
Smith, keeper of Greek and Roman
Antiquities, British Museum; Cameo;
Intaglio; Seals (Vol. 24, p. 539; with
9 illustrations), by Sir E. Maunde Thomp-
son, late director British Museum;
Numismatics (Vol. 19, p. 869; equivalent
to 120 pages of this Guide; with 6 plates —
20 Greek coins, 27 Greek and Roman
coins, 23 Roman and Medieval coins,
22 Oriental coins, 8 modern coins and
medals, and 4 Italian medals — and 11
cuts illustrating modern coins) by Regi-
nald Stuart Poole, formerly keeper de-
partment coins and medals, British
Museum, Herbert Appold Grueber, keep-
er of the same department in 1906-1912,
and George Francis Hill, assistant keeper
of this department; Medal (Vol. 18,
especially pp. 1 and 2, with 2 plates,
showing 32 medals), by M. H. Spielmann;
Terra Cotta (Vol. 26, p. 652, with 2
plates, 12 illustrations), by William
Burton, author of English Stoneware and
Earthenware and H. Beauchamp Walters,
assistant keeper Greek and Roman an-
tiquities, British Museum ; Plate (Vol. 21,
p. 789; with 31 illustrations), by H. R. H.
Hall, author of The Oldest Civilization of
Greece, H. Stuart Jones, author of The
Roman Empire, and E. Alfred Jones,
author of Old English Gold Plate, etc.;
Alto-relievo; Basso-Relievo; Relief
and Repouss6, by M. H. Spielmann;
Wax Figures; Effigies, Monumental,
by the late Charles Boutell, author of A
Manual of British Archaeology, and M.
H. Spielmann.
Early sculpture is separately treated.
For "Classical" sculpture see the articles
Greek Art by Percy Gardner and
Roman Art by H.
History of Stuart Jones, both
Sculpture elaborately illus-
trated and devoting
particular attention to statuary, plate,
etc. See also the illustrations in the
articles mentioned in the last paragraph,
— especially Gem, Numismatics, Terra
Cotta; and those in the article Archi-
tecture and subsidiary articles men-
tioned in the chapter of this Guide For
the Architect. And on Greek art see the
article Pergamum and the sketches of
the great sculptors of Greece:
Agasias
Agesander
Agoracritus
Alcamenes
Antenor
Apollonius of Tralles
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200
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Archermus
Bathycles
BOETHUS
Bryaxis
bljpalus and athenis
BUTADES
Calamis
Callimachus
Canachus
Cephisodottjb
Chares
Cresilas
Critius and Nesiotes
Damophon
Demetrius
dlpoenus and scyllis
Endoeus
eutychides
Leochares
Lysippus
Lysistratus
Myron
Onatas
Paeonius
Pasiteles
Pheidias
polyclitus
Praxias and Androsthenes
Praxiteles
Rhoecus
Scopas
SlLANION
Strongylion
Thrasymedes
TlMOTHETJS
See also the article Byzantine Art;
and for sculpture elsewhere the sections
Art in the articles Egypt, China, Japan.
For medieval sculpture, almost en-
tirely an adjunct to architecture and
particularly ecclesiastical architecture,
see, besides the treatment
Medieval in the historical part of
the article Sculpture (pp.
'490-496), the articles Architecture and
Effigies, Monumental, comparing with
the latter the article Brasses, Monu-
mental (with 13 illustrations).
The close of the medieval period and
the beginning of the more individualistic
Renaissance are marked by the occur-
rence of the names
Renaissance of great individual
artists, whose biog-
raphies are the best summary of the
sculpture of the period.
See on Italy: the articles Niccola
Pisano (Vol. 20, p. 048); Vittore Pisano
(Vol. 20, p. 649); Andrea Pisano (Vol.
20, p. 647) and the article immediately
following on his son, Giovanni Pisano;
each of these four with an illustration;
Vittore Pisano or Pisanello; Agostino
and Agnolo da Siena (Vol. 1, p. 381);
Orcagna, "the last great master of the
Gothic period," by J. H. Middleton;
Della Quercia, who "heralds ....
the boldest and most original achieve-
ments of two generations hence," by E.
T. Strange, assistant keeper, South
Kensington; Ghiberti, "the first of the
great sculptors of the Renaissance' 9 ;
Donatello, by P. G Konody; Miche-
lozzo; Della Robbia family (with 3
illustrations), by J. H. Middleton and
William Burton, author of English
Stoneware and Earthenware; Leonardo,
by Sir Sidney Colvin; Verrocchio, by
J. H. Middleton; Leopardo; Pollaiuolo;
Michelangelo, by Sir Sidney Colvin;
Bandinelli; Ammanati; and in the 16th
century period of decline Giovanni
da Bologna, Lombardo family, Cellini,
by W. M. Rossetti and E. Alfred Jones,
author of Old English Gold Plate, etc.
On the Renaissance in France: Jean
Goujon, Sarrazin.
— In Germany: Veit Stoss, Adam
Krafft, the Vischers.
— In England: the Italian Torrigiano.
— In Spain: Alonzo Cano, MontaRes,
Pedro de Mena, Zarcillo.
Some of the names just mentioned
are those of 17th century artists. But
the rococo character
17th and 18th of the period is
Century best seen in Italy:
see the articles Ber-
nini, Algardi, and, for France, Girar-
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SCULPTURE
201
don and Puget. With the 18th century
came a classical revival for which the
great names are Canova and Thor-
waldsen : see the articles on these sculp-
tors, that on Canova being by W. M.
Bossetti. See also the articles on Thor-
waldsen's followers, Sergel, Bystrom
and Fogelberg. The more important
articles on French sculpture in this period
are Pigalle and Houdon, the latter
known to Americans by his portraits of
our Revolutionary worthies. For Eng-
lish sculpture in the 17th and 18th cen-
turies see: Nicholas Stone, Roubiliac,
by M. H. Spielmann, Scheemakers,
Nollekens, John Bacon, and, possibly
most important, John Flaxman, by Sir
Sidney Colvin. For Germany: Andreas
ScHLtJTER.
On the 19th century in Germany see
the articles: Schadow, Rauch, Riets-
chel, Dannecker, Schwanthaler, and
marking a sharp re-
19th Century action, Reinhold
and Modern Begas, and the
Schools younger men, known
also as painters,
Franz Stuck and Max Klinger.
On modern British sculpture see the
articles: John Gibson, E. H. Baily,
Thomas Banks, Sir Richard West-
macott, and Alfred Stevens; and, for
the last thirty years, Jules Dalou,
Lord Leighton, better known as a
painter, E. Onslow Ford and Alfred
Gilbert, the most influential and im-
portant factors in the awakening, and
Thomas Woolner, Marochetti, Sir
Edwin Landseer, Sir J. E. Boehm, J.
H. Foley, H. H. Armstead, Thomas
Brock, W. Hamo Thornycroft, John
M. Swan, Harry Bates, G. F. Watts.
Scores of others are criticized and their
work summarized on pp. 501-508 in the
article Sculpture.
The 19th century in France opened with
a pseudo-Roman school,
France and among the names of this
period are Pradier, Rude,
P. J. David, Etex, and Carpeaux and
Barye, by Henri Frantz, who mark
a transition. For the more modern
period see Guillaume, Dubois, Fal-
GUlfcRE, Merci£, Fr£miet, Gustave
Crauck, Dalou, Rodin.
In addition to the discussion of mod-
ern Belgian sculptors in the section
on Belgium of the article Sculpture
there are separate
Other European articles on Paul de
Countries Vigne, Van der
Stappen, Jef Lam-
beaux, Julien Dillens, and Constan-
ts Meunier. For Italian sculpture
in the 19th century see Bartolini, and
the summary in the article Sculpture
(Vol. 24, p. 513). Separate articles on
Spanish sculptors are Jose Alvarez and
Manuel Alvarez.
In the United States there was little
sculpture of native origin, and virtually
none of the slightest merit, before the
19th century. The
American following list of
Sculpture articles in rough
chronological order
will supplement the outline in the article
Sculpture (Vol. 24, p. 516): Horatio
Greenough, Hiram Powers, Thomas
Crawford, Henry Kirke Brown,
William Rimmer, E. D. Palmer,
Thomas Ball, L. W. Volk, Harriet G.
Hosmer, J. Q. A. Ward, Launt Thomp-
son, Larkin G. Mead, G. E. Bissell,
Oun L. Warner, W. R. O'Donovan,
Jonathan S. Hartley, Augustus
Saint-Gaudens, D. C. French, J. J.
Boyle, C. H. Niehaus, Lorado Taft,
W. O. Partridge, Cyrus E. Dallin,
A. P. Proctor, Charles Grafly, F.
W. MacMonnies, George Gray Bar-
nard, P. W. Bartlett, Hermon A.
MacNeil, Karl Bitter, Borglum.
This chapter, and the one before, outline
courses on these arts in the Britannica,
but there are many articles
Summary on these topics to which no
reference has been made in
these pages. It may, therefore, be in-
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202
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
teresting to the student of these forms of
art to have before him a list, fairly com-
plete, of articles in the Britannica dealing
with painting and sculpture. The fol-
lowing is such a list in alphabetical
arrangement. The student should re-
member that the absence from the list
— or from any similar list in the Guide —
of a topic on which he wishes informa-
tion does not mean that there is no in-
formation on the subject in the Britannica,
but merely that there may be no separate
article on the subject. In such cases let
him turn to the general index (Vol. 29).
LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES DEALING WITH THE FINE ARTS
Abati, N.
Abbey, E. A.
Abildgaard, N. A.
Achenbach, Andreas
Acroliths
Adam/ L. S.
Adams, Herbert
Aertszen, Pieter
Aetion
Agasias
Agatharchus
Ageladas
Agesander
Agoracritus
Agostino and Agnolo
da Siena
Agricola, C. L.
Aikman, William
Albani, Francesco
Albertinelli Mariotto
Alcamenes
Aldegrever, Heinrich
Alexander, Francis
Alexander, John White
Alfani, Domenico
Algardi, Alessandro
Allan, David
Allan, Sir William
Allori, Alessandro
A lis ton, Washington
Alma-Tadema, Sir L.
Altdorfer, Albrecht
Alto-Relievo
Alvarez, Don Jose"
Alvarez, Don Manuel
Amalteo, Pomponio
Amman, Jost
Ammanati, Bartolomeo
Amsler, Samuel
Andrea del Sarto
Andreani, Andrea
Andrieu, Bertrand
Angelico, Fra
Anguier, Francois and
Michel
Angussola, Sophonisba
Anichini, Luigi
Anna, Baldasarre
Ansdell, Richard
An tenor
Antiphilus
Antonello da Messina
Apelles
Apollodorus
Apollonius of Tralles
Appiani, Andrea
AquareUe
Aquatint
Archermus
Aristides of Thebes
Armstead, H. H.
Asper, Hans
Asselyn, Hans
Audran (family)
Bacon, John
Backhuysen, Ludolf
Badalocchio, Sisto
Baer, William Jacob
Bagnacavallo, B.
Baily, E. H.
Baldinucci, Filippo
Baldovinetti, Alessio
Ball, Thomas
Bandinelli, B.
Banks, Thomas
Barbieri, G. F.
Barbizon
Barnard, G. G.
Barocci, Federigo
Barry, James
Bartels, Hans von
Bartlett, P. W.
Bartolini, Lorenzo
Bartolommeo di Pag-
holo, Fra
Bartolozzi, Francesco
Barye, A. L.
Bassano, Jacopo da
Ponte
Basso-Relievo
Bastien-Lepage, Jules
Bates, Harry
Bathycles
Batoni, P. G.
Baudry, P. J. A.
Beard, William H.
Beardsley, Aubrey V.
Beaux, Cecilia
Beccafumi, Domenico di
Pace
Becerra, Gaspar
Beck, Dayid
Beckwith, J. C.
Beechey, Sir William
Begas, Karl
Begas, Reinhold
Bellini (family)
Bellows, Albert F.
Benlliure y Gil, Jos6
Benson, F. W.
Berchem, Nicolaas
Bernini, G. L.
Besnard, P. A.
Beverley, W. R.
Bewick, Thomas
Bierstadt, Albert
Bissell, G. E.
Bitter, K. T. F.
Blackburn, Jonathan
Blake, William
Blakelock, R. A.
Blanche, J. E.
Blashfield, E. H.
Bloemaert, Abraham
Bloemen, J. F. van
Blum, R. F.
Bocklin, Arnold
Boehm, Sir J. E.
Boethus
Bologna, Giovanni
Bone, Henry
Bonftgli, Benedetto
Bonheur, Rosa
Bonnat, L. J. F.
Bordone, Paris
Borglum, S. H.
Borgognone, Ambrogio
Bosch, Jerom
Bossi, Giuseppe
Botticelli, Sandro
Bouchardon, Ednie
Boudin, Francois
Boudin, Eujjene
Boughton, G. H.
Bouguercau, A. W.
Boulanger (family)
Boulogne
Boursse, Esaias
Boyle, John J.
Bracquemond, Felix
Bradford, William
Braekeleer, H. J. A. de
Brangwyn, Frank
Brascassat, J. R.
Bredael, J. F. van
Breton, Jules A. A. L.
Breughel, Pieter
Bridgman, F. A.
Brierly, Sir O. W.
Bril, Paul
Briosco, Andrea
Brock, Thomas
Bronzino, II
B rough, Robert
Brouwer, Adrian
Brown, Ford Madox
Brown, Henry Kirke
Brown, John George
Browne, Hablot Knight
Brush, G. de Forest
Bry, T. (Dirk) de
Bryaxis
Bunbury, H. W.
Bupalus and Athenis
Burckhardt, Jakob
Burgkmair, Hans
Burne-Jones, Sir E. B.
Burton, Sir F. W.
Busch, Wilhelm
Butadeo
Bystrom, Johan Niklas
Cabanel, Alexandre
Calamis
Calcar (Kalcker^, de
Caldecott, Randolph
Callcott, Sir A. W.
Callimachus
Callot, Jacques
Calvart, Denis
Calvert (3 artists)
Cambiasi, Luca
Camphausen, Wilhelm
Camphuysen, D. R.
Campi, Guilio
Camuccini, Vineenzo
Canachus
Canale, A. (Canaletto)
Canini, G. A.
Cano, Alonzo
Canova, Antonio
Cantarini, Simone
Caracci, L o d o v i c o ,
Agostino and Anni-
bale
Caran d'Ache
Caravaggio, M. A. da
Caravaggio, P. C. da
Carducci, Bartholom-
meo
Caricature
Carolus-Duran
Carpaccio, Vittorio
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SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
203
Carpeaux, J. B.
Carpi, Girolamo da
Carpi, Ugo da
Carstens, A. J.
Cartoon
Carving
Cassana, Niccolo
Castagno, Andrea del
Castello, Bernardo
Castello, G. B.
Castello, Valerio
Castiglione, G. B.
Catterraole, George
Cavallini, Pietro
Cavedone, Jacopo
Cazin, J. C.
Cephisodotus
Cesari, Giuseppe
Cespedes, Pablo de
Chalmers, G. P.
Chambers, George
Champaigne, Philippe
de
Chantrey, Sir F. L.
Chardin, J. S.
Chares
Charlet, N. T.
Chase, W. M.
Chasseriau, Theodore
Chiaroscuro
Chodowiecki, D. N.
Chryselephantine
Church, F. E.
Cibber, C. G.
Cicognara, Count Leo-
poldo
Cignani, Carlo
Cigoli, L. C. da
Cimabue, Giovanni
Cimon of Cleonae
Cipriani, G. B.
Civerchio, Vincenzo
Clarke, T. S.
Claude of Lorraine
Clausen, George
Clays, Paul Jean
Cloiiet, Frangois
Clouet, Jean
Clovio, G. G.
Cockx, Hieronymus
Coello, A. S.
Cole, Thomas
Cole, Timothy
Cole, Vicat
Colin, Alexandre
Collaert, Hans
Collins, William
Colman, Samuel
Colman, Sidney
Conca, Sebastiano
Conder, Charles
Constable, John
Constant, Benjamin
Conway, Sir W. Martin
Cooper, Abraham
Cooper, Alexander
Cooper, Samuel
Cooper, Thomas Sidney
Copley, John Singleton
Coques (Cocx), Gon-
zales
Corenzio, Belisario
Cormon, Fernand
Cornelius, P. von
Corot, J. B. C.
Correggio
Cort, Cornelius
Costa, Giovanni
Costa, Lorenzo
Cosway, Richard
Cotman, J. S.
Cottet, Charles
Courbet, Gustavc
Courtois, Jacques and
Guillaume
Cousin, Jean
Cousins, Samuel
Coustou (family)
Couture, Thomas
Cox, David
Cox, Kenyon
Coxcie, Michael
Coypel
Coysevox, C. A.
Cranach, Lucas
Crane, Walter
Crauck, Gustave
Crawford, Thomas
Crayer, Gaspard de
Crayon
Credi, Ix>renzo di
Cresilas
Crespi, Daniele
Crespi, Giovanni B.
Crespi, Giuseppe M.
Creswick, Thomas
Critius and Nesiotes
Crivelli, Carlo
Crome, John
Cropsey, J. F.
Crowe, Sir J. A.
Cruikshank, George
Cuyp
Dahl, Hans
Dahl, J. C.
Dahl, Michael
Dallin, Cyrus E.
Dalou, Jules
Damophon
Dan by, Francis
Daniell, Thomas
Dannat, William T.
Dannecker, J. H. von
Daubigny, C. F.
Daumier, Honored
David, Gerard
David, J. L.
David, Pierre Jean
Davis, C. H.
Davis, H. W. B.
De Camp, Joseph
Decamps, A. G.
Degas, H. G. E.
De Haas, M. F. H.
De Kevser, Thomas
Delacroix, F. V. E.
Delaroche, H. (Paul)
tefano
affaellino
Jacopo
De Loutherbourg, P. J.
Demetrius
Desiderio da Settig-
nano
Detaille, J. B. E.
Dewing, T. W.
De Wint, Peter
Diamante, Fra
Diaz, N. V.
Dielmann, Frederick
Diepenbeck, A. van
Dies, C. A.
Dietrich, C. W. E.
Dillens, Julien
Dipoenus and Scyllis
Dobson, William
Dolci, Carlo
Domenichino, Zampieri
Donatello
Dor6, L. A. Gustave
Douw, Gerhard
Downman, John
Doyen, G. F.
Doyle, Richard
Drawing
Drouais, J. G.
Dubois, Paul
Du Maurier, G. L. P. B.
Dumont (family)
Dumont, Francois
Duncan, Thomas
Dupr£, Jules
Durand, Asher Brown
Diirer, Albrecht
Duveneck, Frank
Dyce, William
Eakins, Thomas
Earle, Ralph
Earlom, Richard
East, Alfred
Eastlake, Sir C. L.
Eaton, Wyatt
Eckersberg, Kristoffer
Edelinck, Gerard
Eeckhout, G. van den
Effigies, Monumental
Egg, A. L.
Encaustic Painting
Endoeus
Engleheart, George
Engraving
Enncking, J. J.
Etching
Etex, Antoine
Etty, William
Euphranor
Euphronius
Eupompus
Eutychides
Everdinoren, Allart van
Eyck, Van
Faed, Thomas
Faithorne, William
Falcone, Aniello
Falconet, E. M.
Falguiere, J. A. J.
Fantin-Latour, I. H. T.
Farinato, Paolo
Feltre, Morto da
Fernow, K. L.
Ferrari, Gaudenzio
Ferri, Ciro
Feuerbach, Anselm
Fielding, A. V. Copley
Fildes, Sir Luke
Finden, William
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo
Fiorillo, J. D.
Fisher, A Ivan
Flandrin, J. Hippolyte
Flaxman, John .
Flinck, Go vert
Floris, Frans
Fon tana, Lavinia
Fontana, Prospero
Fogelberg, B. E.
Foley, J. H.
Foppa, Vincenzo
Forain, J. L.
Ford, E. Onslow
Forster, Francois
Fortuny, M. J. M. B.
Foster/ M. Birket
Foucquet, Jean
Fragonard, J. II.
Fran^ais, F. L.
FrancescM, Piero d •■*
Franceschini, Baldas-
sare
Francia
Franciabigio
Franck
Francken (family)
Fremiet, Emmanuel
French, Daniel C.
Frere, P. E.
Fresco
Fresnov, C. A. du
Frith, W. P.
Fromentin, Eugene
Frost, W. E.
Fruytiers, Philip
Fiihrich, Joseph von
Fuller, George
Furniss, Harry
Furse, C. W.
Fuseli, Henry
Fyt, Johannes
Gaddi (family)
Gainsborough, Thomas
Gallait, Louis
Gauermann, Friedrich
Gaul, G. W.
Gavarni
Gay, Walter
Geddes, Andrew
Geikie, Walter
Genelli, G. B.
Genea, Girolamo
Gentile da Fabriano
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Gentileschi, Artemisia
and Orazio de'
Gerard, Baron F.
Gerard, J. I. I.
Gericault, J. L. A. T.
Gerdme, Jean Leon
Gervex, Henri
Ghiberti, Lorenzo
Cliirlandajo, Domenico
Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo
Gibson, C. Dana
Gibson, John
Gibson, W. H.
Gifford, R. S.
Gifford, S. R.
Gilbert, Alfred
Gilbert, Sir John
Gillot, Claude
Gillray, James
Giordano, Luca
Giorgione
Giottino
Giotto
Girardon, Francois
Girodet de R o u s s y ,
A. L.
Girtin, Thomas
Giulio Romano
Giunta Pisano
Giusto da Guanto
Gleyre, M. C. G.
Goes, Hugo van der
Goldschmidt, Hermann
Goltzius, Hendrik
Gordon, Sir J. W.
Gouache
Goujon, Jean
Gould, Sir F. C.
Goya y Lucientes, F.
Goyen, J. J. Van
Gozzoli, Benozzo
Grafly, Charles
Granet, F. M.
Grant, Sir Francis
Gray, Henry Peters
Greco, El
Green, Valentine
Greenaway, Kate
Greenough, Horatio
Gregory, Edward John
Greuze, J. B.
Grimaldi, G. F.
Grisaille
Gros, Antoine Jean
Griin, Hans Baldung
GrUnewald, Mathias
Guardi, Francesco
Guariento (Guerriero)
Guli-in, J. B. P.
Guerin, P. N.
Guido of Siena
Guido Reni
Guillaume, J. B. C. E.
Guthrie, Sir James
Haag, Carl
Haden, Sir F. Seymour
Hals, Frans
Hamerton, P. G.
Hamon, Jean Louis
Harding, Chester
Harding, J. D.
Harpignies, Henri
Harrison, T. A.
Hart, William
Hartley, Jonathan S.
Harvey, Sir George
Hassam, Childe
Haydon, B. R.
Hayter, Sir George
Head, Sir E. W.
Healy, G. P. A.
Heda, Willem Claasz
Heem, Jan Davidsz van
Heemskerk, M. J.
Heim, F. J.
Heist, B. van der
Hemy, C. Napier
Hennequin, P. A.
Henner, J. J.
Henry, E. L.
Herkomer, Sir H. von
Herlen, Fritz
Herrera, Francisco
Hersent, Louis
Hess (family)
Heusch, Willem
Heyden, Jan van der
Hildebrandt, Eduard
Hildebrandt, Theodor
Hilliard, Lawrence
Hilliard, Nicholas
Hilton, William
Hiroshige
Hitchcock, George
Hobbema, Meyndert
Hoefnagel, JoVis
Hogarth, William
Hokusai
Holbein, Hans (elder)
Holbein, Hans (young-
er)
Holl, Frank
Hollar, Wenzel
Holroyd, Sir Charles
Homer, Winslow
Hondecoeter, M. d*
Hone, Nathaniel
Honthorst, Gerard van
Hooch, Pieter de
Hoogstraten, S. D. van
Hook, James Clarke
Hoppner, John
Horsley. J. C.
Hoskins, John
Hosmer. Harriet G.
Hotho, Heinrich G.
Houbraken, Jacobus
Houdon, J. A.
Hovenden, Thomas
Huchtenburg (family)
Humphry, Ozias
Hunt, Alfred William
Hunt, William Henry
Hunt, William Holman
Hunt, William Morris
Huntington, Daniel
Hurlstone, F. Y.
Huysmans (family)
Huysum, Jan van
Illuminated MSS.
Illustration
Impressionism
Ingham, C. C.
Ingres, J. A. D.
Inman, Henry
Inness, George
Isabey, Jean Baptiste
Israels, Josef
Ivory
Jackson, Mason
Jameson, George
Janssen, Cornelius
Janssens, V. H.
Janssens van Nuyssen,
Abraham
Jarvis, J. W.
Joanes, Vicente
Johnson, Eastman
Jordaens, Jacob
Jouvenet, Jean
Kalckreuth, Leopold
von
Kauffmann, Angelica
Kaulbach, Wilhelm von
Kay, John
Keene, C. S.
Keller, Albert
Kensett, J. F.
Khnopff, F. E. J. M.
Klinger, Max
Kneller, Sir Godfrey
Knight, D. R.
Knight, John Buxton
Koninck, Philip de
Korin, Ogata
Krafft, Adam
Kyosai, Sho-fu
Laer, Pieter van
La Farge, John
Lafosse, Charles de
Lagrene>, L. J. F.
Lahire, Laurent de
Lambeaux, Jet
Lancret, Nicolas
Landon, C. P.
Landseer, Sir E. H.
Lantara, S. M.
Lanzi, Luigi
Largilliere, Nicolas
Lathrop, Francis
La Tour, Ouentin de
Lavery, John
Lawrence, Sir Thomas
Lawson, Cecil Gordon
Leader, B. W.
I^andre, C. L.
I,ear, Edward
LeBrun, Charles
Leech, John
Learns, Alphonse
Leighton, Baron Fred-
erick
I^ejeune, Baron L. F.
Lely, Sir Peter
Lemoyne, J. B.
LeNain
Lenbach, Franz von
Leochares
Leonardo da Vinci
Leopardo, Alessandro
Leslie, C. R.
Le Sueur, Eustache
Leutze, Emanuel
I^ewis, J. F.
I^eys, Hendrik
Liebermann, Max
Limousin, Leonard
Line Engraving
Linnell, John
Linton, W. J.
Liotard, J. E.
Lippi
I^ockwood, Wilton
Lombardo (family)
Longhi, Pietro
I^otto, Lorenzo
Low, Will Hicok
Lucas, J. Seymour
Leyden, Lucas van
Luini, Bernardino
Lysippus
Lysistratus
Mabuse, Jan
MacCulloch, Horatio
Macdonald, Lawrence
McEntee, Jervis
Maclise, Daniel
MacMonnies, F. W.
Macnee, Sir Daniel
MacNeil, Hermon A.
Madou, J. B.
Madrazo y Kunt, Don
F. de
Maes, Nicolas
Makart, Hans
Mander, Carel van
Manet, Edouard
Manson, George
Mantegna, Andrea
Marcantonio
Maris, Jacob
Marochetti, Baron
Carlo
Marr, Carl
Martin, Homer Dodge
Martin, John
Martini, Simone
Masaccio
Masoliono da Panicale
Mason, G. H.
Matsys, Quintin
Mauve, Anton
May, Phil
Mead, Larkin G.
Meer, Jan van der
Meissonier, J. L. E.
Melanthius
Melchers, Gari
Melozzo da Forli
Melville, Arthur
Memlinc, Hans
Mena, Pedro de
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SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
205
Mengs, Anthony
Raphael
Menzel, A. F. E. von
Mercie, M. J. A.
Merian, Matthew
Meryon, Charles
Metcalf, W. L.
Metsu, Gabriel
Meulen, A. F. van der
Meunier, Constantin
Mezzotint
Michel, Claude
Michelangelo
Michelozzo di B a r -
tolommeo
Micon
Mierevelt, M. J. van
Mieris (family)
Mignard, Pierre
Mignon, Abraham
Milanesi, Gaetano
Millais, Sir J. E.
Miller, William
Millet, Francis Davis
Millet (Mil£), Jean
Frangois
Millet, Jean Francois
Miniature
Mino di Giovanni (da
Fiesole)
Minor, Robert C.
Models, Artists'
Monet, Claude
Montafies, J. M.
Moore, Albert J.
Moore, Henry
Mora, Jos6
Moran, Edward
Moran, Thomas
Moreau, Gustave
Morelli, Giovanni
Moretto, II
Morghen, R. S.
Morland, George
Moro, Antonio
Moroni, Giambattista
Mosler, Henry
Mount, W. S.
Mowbray, H. S.
MUller, W. J.
Mulready, William
Munkacsy, Michael von
Mnrillo, B. E.
Murphy, John Francis
Murray, David
Muziano, Girolamo
Muzzioli, Giovanni
Myron
Nanteuil, Robert
Nasrnyth, Alexander
Nast, Thomas
Nattier, J. M.
Navarrete, J. F.
Neal, D. D.
Neer, van der
Netscher, Gaspar
Neuville, Alphonse M.
de
Newlyn
Niehaus, C. H.
Nicholson, William
Nicias
Nicomachus
Nollekens, Joseph
Northcote, James
Oberlandcr, A. A.
Ochtman, Leonard
O'Donovan, W. R.
Oliver, Isaac
Oliver, Peter
Onatas
Opie, John
Orcagna
Orchardson, Sir W. Q.
Orley, Bernard von
Ostade
Oudine\ E. A.
Overbeck, J. F.
Pacchia, Girolamo del,
and Pacchiarotto,
Jacopo
Pacheco, Francisco
Paeonius
Page, William
Painting
Paiou, August in
Palette
Palma, Jacopo
Palmer, E. D.
Palmer, Samuel
Palomino, de Castro y
Velasco
Pamphilus
Panaenus
Panorama
Pareja, Juan de
Parmigiano
Parrhasius
Partridge, J. Bernard
Partridge, W. O.
Pasi teles
Pastel
Paton, Sir J. Noel
Paul Veronese
Pausias
Peale, C. W.
Peale, Rembrandt
Pearce, C. S.
Pennell, Joseph
Penni, Gianfrancesco
Perino del Vaga
Perkins, C. C.
Perugino, Pietro
Peruzzi, Baldassare
Petitot, Jean
Petitot, Jean Ixuiis
Pettenkofen, A. von
Pettie, John
Phcidias
Phillip, John
Phillips, Thomas
Picknell, W. L.
Piero di Cosimo
Pigalle, J. B.
Piloty, Karl von
Pinturicchio
Pinwell, G. J.
Piranesi, G. B.
Pisano, Andrea
Pisano, Giovanni
Pisano, Niccola
Pisano, Vittore
Pissarro, Camille
Plimer, Andrew
Plimer, Nathaniel
Plumbago Drawings
Pollaiuolo (family)
Polyclitus
Polygnotus
Pontormo, Jacopo da
Poole, Paul Falconer
Pordenone, II
Portaels, J. F.
Porter, B. C.
Portraiture
Poster
Potter, Paul
Poussin, Nicolas
Powers, Hiram
Poynter, Sir E. J.
Pradier, James
Pradilla, Francisco
Praxias and Andros-
thenes
Praxiteles
Predella
Preller, Friedrich
Prieur, Pierre
Prinsep, V. C.
Proctor, A. P.
Protogenes
Prout, Samuel
Prud'hon, Pierre
Puget, Pierre
Puvis de Chavannes
Pythagoras
Pyle, Howard
Raeburn, Sir Henry
Haffaellino del Garbo
Raffet, D. A. M.
Raimbach, Abraham
Ramsay, Allan
Ranger, H. W.
Raoux, Jean
Raphael Sanzio
Raven-Hill, Leonard
Rauch, C. D.
Redgrave, Richard
Regnault, Henri
Regnault, J. B.
Reid, Sir George
Reid, Robert
Reinhart, C. S.
Reinhart, J. C.
Relief
Rembrandt
Remington, Frederick
Renoir, F. A.
Repin, I. J.
Res tout, Jean
Rethel Alfred
Reynolds, Sir Joshua
Rhoecus
Ribera, Giuseppe
Ribot, Theodule
Ricard, L. G.
RicciareUi, Daniele
Richards, W. T.
Richmond, Sir W. B.
Richter, A. L.
Rietschel, E. F. A.
Rigaud, Hyacinthe
Rimmer, William
Riviere, Briton
Robert, Hubert
Robert, L. L.
Robert-Fleury, J. N.
Roberts, David
Robinson, Theodore
Rodin, Auguste
Rogers, John
Roll, A. P.
Romney, George
Rops, F61icien
Rosa, Salvator
Rosenthal, T. E.
Rosselli, Cosimo
Rossellino, Antonio
Rossetti, D. G.
Roubiliac, L. F.
Rousseau, Jacques
Rousseau, P. E. T.
Rowlandson, Thomas
Rubens, Peter Paul
Rude, Frangois
Runciman, Alexander
Russell, John
Ruvsdael, Jacob van
Rvder, A. P.
Ryland, W. W.
Sacchi, Andrea
Saint-Gaudens, A u -
gustus
Sambourne, E. Lin ley
Sandby, Paul
Sand r art, Joachim von
Sandys, Frederick
Sansovino, Andrea C.
del Monte
Sansovino, Jacopo
Santerre, J. B.
Sargent, J. S.
Sarrazin, Jacques
Sartain, John
Satterlee, Walter
Sayer, James
Schadow
Schadow, J. G. and R.
Schalcken, God fried
Scharf, Sir George
Scheemakers, Peter
Scheffer, Ary
Schetky, J. C.
Schiavonetti, Luigi
Schirmer, Friedrich W.
Schirmer, Johann W.
Schlliter, Andreas
Schnorr von KarolsMd
Schongauer, Martin
Schreyer, Adolf
Schwanthaler, L. M.
Schwartze, Teresa
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Schwind, Moritz von
Scopas
Scott, David
Scott, William Bell
Sculpture
Sebastiano del Piombo
Seddon, Thomas
Segantini, Giovanni
Sequeira, D. A. de
Sergei, Johan Tobias
Severn, Joseph
Shannon, C. H.
Shannon, J. J.
Sharp, William
Shee, Sir M. A.
Sherwin, J. K.
Short, F. J.
Sigalon, Xavier
Signorelli, Luca
Silanion
Simon, Abraham
Simon, Thomas
Simmons, E. E.
Simson, William
Sisley, Alfred
Slodtz, Rene Michel
Smart, John
Smedley, W. T.
Smillie, J. D.
Smirke, Robert
Smith, Colvin
Smith, John Raphael
Smybert, John
Snyders, Franz
Sodom a, II
Solario, Antonio
Sorolla y Bastida, J.
Spagna, Lo
Spinello, Aretino
Stanfield, W. C.
Stannard, Joseph
Stark, James
Steen, Jan Havicksz
Steer, P. Wilson
Stevens, Alfred
Stevens, Alfred
Stewart, Julius L.
Stillman, W. J.
Stone, Frank
Stone, Marcus
Stone, Nicholas
Stoss, Veit
Stothard, C. A.
Stothard, Thomas
Strang, William
Strange, Sir Robert
Strongylion
Stuart, Gilbert
Stuck, Franz
Subleyras, Pierre
Sully, Thomas
Swan, J. M.
Taft, Lorado
Tait, A. F.
Tanner, H. O.
Tarbell, Edmund C.
Tempera
Teniers (family)
Tenniel, Sir John
Ter Borch, Gerard
Terra Cotta
Thayer, Abbott H.
Theon of Samos
Thoma, Hans
Thompson, Launt
Thomson, John
Thornhill, Sir James
Thornycroft, W. Hnmo
Thorwaldsen, Bertel
Thrasymedes
Tiepolo, G. B.
Tiffany, I.. C.
Timanthes
Timomachus
Timotheus
Tintoretto
Tisio, Benvenuto
Tissot, J. J. J.
Titian
Torrigiano, Pietre
Triptych
Troy, J. F. de
Troyon, Constant
Trumbull, John
Tryon, D. W.
Turner, Charles
Turner, J. M. W.
Uhde, F. K. H. Von
Utamaro
Vanderlyn, John
Van der Stappen, C.
Van der Weyden, R.
Vandevelde, Adrian
Vandevelde, William
Van Dyck, Sir An-
thony
Vanloo, C. A.
Vanloo, J. B.
Varley, Cornelius
Varley, John
Vasari, Giorgio
Vedder, Elihu
Veit, Philipp
Velazquez, D. R. de
Silva y
Verboeckhoven, E. J.
Vereshchagin, V. V.
Verlat, M. M. C.
Vcrnct (family)
Verrocchio, Andrea del
Vertue, George
Vien, J. M.
Vierge, Daniel
Vigee-I^brun, M. A. E.
Vigne, Paul de
Vincent, George
Vinton, F. P.
Vischer (family)
Vischer, F. T.
Vivarini (family)
Volk, L. W.
Vonnoh, R. W.
Vouet, Simon
Vrancx, Sebastian
Vriendt, J. J. de and
A. F. L. de
Waagen, G. F.
Waldo, S. L.
Walker, Frederick
Walker, H. O.
Walker, Horatio
Walker, Robert
Wappers, E. C. G.
Ward, James
Ward, E. M.
Ward, J. Q. A.
Ward, William
Warner, Olin Levi
Waterhouse, J. W.
W T aterlow, Sir E. A.
Watteau, Antoine
Watts, G. F.
Wauters, Emile
Wax Figures
Webster, Thomas
Weeks, E. L.
Weenix, J. B.
Weir, R. W.
Werner, A. A. von
West, Benjamin
Westall, Richard
Westmaeott, Sir R.
Wheatlev, Francis
Whistler, J. A. McN.
White, Robert
W r iles, I. R.
Wilkie, Sir David
Willems, F. J. M.
Willette, I.. A.
Willmore, J. T.
Wilson, Richard
Wohlgemuth, Michael
Wolf, Joseph
W r oodbury, C. H.
Wood Carving
Wood Engraving
W r oollett, William
Woolner, Thomas
Wouwerman, Philip
Wright, Joseph
Wyant, A. H.
Wylie, Robert
Yosai
Zarcillo y Alcaraz, F.
Zeuxis
Ziem, F. F. G. P.
Zoffany, Johann
Zuccarelli, Francesco
Zuccaro, Taddeo
Zuccaro, Federigo
Zuloaga, Ignacio
Zurbaran, Francisco
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CHAPTER XXXV
LANGUAGE AND WRITING
ONE of the most interesting sub-
jects of scientific study developed
during the last century is that of
primitive culture and the gradual ad-
vancement of primitive man from a
state of savagery to comparative civiliza-
tion. For this study there are no histor-
ical documents in the ordinary use of the
words "historical" and "document." The
story must be arrived at by analysis, de-
duction, even by guess-work, supple-
menting the studies of travelers among
tribes which now are in the lowest stages
of development and farthest from civi-
lization, and therefore most resemble our
remotest human ancestors. Almost the
very earliest of writers on
Evolution evolution, the Roman poet
Lucretius (Vol. 17, p. 107),
who died in 55 B.C., sketched general out-
lines of the development of this primi-
tive civilization in much the same way as
do modern ethnologists. But his de-
scription was imaginary and was fash-
ioned to fit his and Epicurus's evolution-
ary theories.
The article Civilization (Vol. 6, p.
403) in the Britannica makes the develop-
ment of speech the mark of the first
period when mankind was in the lower
stages of savagery. "Our ancestors of
this epoch inhabited a necessarily re-
stricted tropical territory and subsisted
upon raw nuts and fruit." The next
higher period in the progress of civiliza-
tion began with the knowledge of the use
of fire (p. 404).
This wonderful discovery enabled the de-
veloping race to extend its habitat almost
indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in
particular fish, in its regular dietary. Man
could now leave the forests and wander
along the shores and rivers, migrating to
climates less enervating than those to which
he had previously been confined. Doubtless
he became an expert fisher, but he was as
yet poorly equipped for hunting. . . .
Primitive races of Australia and Polynesia
had not advanced beyond this middle status
of savagery when they were discovered a
few generations ago.
The next great ethnical discovery was
that of the bow and arrow, a truly won-
derful instrument.
The possessor of this device could bring
down the fleetest animal and could defend
himself against the most predatory. He
could provide himself not only with food,
but with materials for clothing and for
tent-making, and thus could migrate at will
back from the seas and large rivers. . .
The meat diet, now for the first time freely
available, probably contributed, along with
the stimulating climate, to increase the
physical vigour and courage of this highest
savage, thus urging him along the paths of
progress. Nevertheless, many tribes came
thus far, and no further, as witness the
Athapascans of the Hudson's Bay Terri-
tory and the Indians of the valley of the
Columbia.
After the use of fire and the discovery of
the bow and arrow came the invention
of pottery, the domestication of animals,
and the smelting of iron, all successive
stages in man's history which "in their
relation to the sum of human progress,
transcend in relative importance all his
subsequent works," — and this is even
truer if there is included in this period the
development of a system of writing,
which may be reckoned either the end of
the primitive period or the beginning of
the period of civilization proper. These
207
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208
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
two great steps in the story of civiliza-
tion, language and writing, are closely
connected in our minds, though so far
separated in time of origin; and their
story as told in the Britannica by the
world's greatest authorities, English,
American, German, French, Italian, Dan-
ish, etc., is an interesting one for the gen-
eral reader, while the articles are in-
valuable to the specialist in linguistic
study.
The starting point for a course of read-
ing is the article Philology (Vol. 21, p.
414; equivalent to 80 pages in this Guide),
of which the first
Philology part, a general treat-,
ment, is by the
greatest of American philologists, William
Dwight Whitney, editor-in-chief of The
Century Dictionary, and author of Life
and Growth of Language, one of the
most important scientific contributions to
the subject. The second part, on the
comparative philology of the Indo-Euro-
pean languages, is by Prof. Eduard
Sievers of Leipzig and Prof. Peter Giles
of Cambridge. Both these names are
well known to students of the subject,
the former as that of the author of nu-
merous valuable works on Germanic pho-
netics and metric, and the latter as a
writer on Greek language and as the
author of A Short Manual of Compara-
tive Philology.
The article begins with a definition of
"philology," the science of language, and
of "comparative philology," the com-
parison of one language with another, in
order to bring out their relationships,
their structures, and their histories.
Prof. Whitney shows how much the re-
cent development of linguistic science
owes to the general scientific movement
of the age. "No one," he says, "however
ingenious and entertaining his specula-
tions, will cast any real light on the
earliest history of speech." But he notes
the obvious analogy between speech and
writing, and he puts stress on the "social-
ity" of man as the prime factor in his
development of speech. Other topics in
this part of the article are:
Instrumentalities of expression —
gesture, grimace, and voice; "lan-
guage " means " tonguiness " — a mute
would call it " handiness "; advantages
of voice over gesture.
Imitation as a factor in development
of language and of writing; onomato-
poetic origin of words.
Development of sign-making:
" Among the animals of highest intelli-
gence that associate with man and learn
something of his ways, a certain amount
of sign-making expressly for communi-
cation is not to be denied; the dog that
barks at a door because he knows that
somebody will come and let him in is an
instance of it; perhaps, in wild life, the
throwing out of sentinel birds from a
flock, whose warning cry shall adver-
tise their fellows of the threat of dan-
ger, is as near an approach to it as is
anywhere made."
Brute speech and human speech:
" Those who put forward language as
the distinction between man and the
lower animals, and those who look
upon our language as the same in kind
with the means of communication of
the lower animals, only much more
complete and perfect, fail alike to com-
prehend the true nature of language,
and are alike wrong in their arguments
and conclusions. No addition to or
multiplication of brute speech would
make anything like human speech; the
two are separated by a step which no
animal below man has ever taken; and,
on the other hand, language is only the
most conspicuous among those institu-
tions the development of which has
constituted human progress."
Language and culture : " Differ-
ences of language, down to the posses-
sion of language at all, are differences
only in respect to education and cul-
ture."
Development of language signs: the
beginning slow, acceleration cumula-
tive.
The root-stage: first signs must have
been " integral, significant in their en-
tirety, not divisible into parts."
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LANGUAGE AND WRITING
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Earliest phonetic forms: the sim-
plest syllabic combination a single con-
sonant with a following vowel. See
the article Hawaii (Vol. 18, p. 88) for
a similar langnage even now in exist-
ence: "Every syllable is open, ending
in a vowel sound, and short sentences
may be constructed wholly of vocalic
sounds."
Character of early speech : " first
language-signs must have denoted
those physical acts and qualities which
are directly apprehensible by the senses.
. . . We are still all the time draw-
ing figurative comparisons between ma-
terial and moral things and processes,
and calling the latter by the names of
the former."
Development of language as illus-
trated in Indo-European speech.
Laws of growth and change: inter-
nal growth by multiplication of mean-
ings; phonetic change — the principle
of economy (euphony) ; borrowing and
mixing of vocabularies.
Classification of languages by struc-
tural types : isolating (Chinese) ; ag-
glutinative (Turkish, etc.); inflective
(Indo-European); or — a more elabo-
rate classification:
Indo-European: on which see part II
of the article Philology and the article
Indo-Eubopean Languages (Vol. 14, p.
495; equivalent to
Indo-European 20 pages of this
Languages Guide), by Prof.
Peter Giles, — espe-
cially interesting for the attempt on a lin-
guistic basis to reconstruct the original
civilization and to discover the home of
the ancestors of this language-stock
which now occupies nearly all of Europe
and is so intimately connected with the
civilization of the last 2500 years. See:
Greek Language (Vol. 12, p. 496), by
Professor Giles, and articles Homer
(Vol. 13, p. 626); Dorians (Vol. 8, p.
423), etc.; but the main treatment of
different Greek dialects is in the article
Greek Language (Vol. 12, p. 496), to
which the student should refer for Ar-
cadian and Cyprian, Aeolic, Ionic-Attic,
and Doric dialects.
Latin Language (Vol. 16, p. 244), by
Dr. A. S. Wilkins, late professor of Latin,
Owens College, Manchester, and Dr.
Robert S. Conway, professor of Latin,
University of Manchester, with a pe-
culiarly valuable summary of The Lan-
guage as Recorded, which is a linguistic
critique of the style and vocabulary of the
great Roman authors and a comparison
(p. 253) of Latin and Greek prose. And
see the articles on the dialects of ancient
Italy: Italy, Ancient Languages and
People; Etruria, Language; Liguria,
Philology; Siculi; Pompeii, Oscan In-
scriptions; Sabini; Falibci; Volsci; Osca
Lingua; Iguvium; Brutii; Umbria; Pi-
cenum; Samnites, etc., by Prof. Conway,
which will serve the student as a founda-
tion for this subject, with more recent
revision of all that is known than there
is in Prof. Conway's books, in the works
of C. D. Buck, or in other authorities.
For the descendants of Latin, the ar- ,
tide Romance Languages (Vol. 23, p.
504), by Dr. Wilhelm Meyer-Liibke, Pro-
fessor of romance
Romance philology in the Uni-
Languages versity of Vienna;
and the following
separate articles:
Italian Language (Vol. 14, p. 888),
by Graziadio I. Ascoli, professor of com-
parative grammar at the University of
Milan, and Carlo Salvioni, professor of
Romance languages in the same univer-
sity, with a valuable summary of the
dialects of modern Italy.
French Language (Vol. 11, p. 103),
by Henry Nicol and Paul Meyer, pro-
fessor at the College de France; particu-
larly interesting because treated com-
paratively with constant reference to
English and French influence on English.
Proven§al Languages (Vol. 22, p.
491), by Prof. Paul Meyer.
Spain: Language (Vol. 25, p. 573), by
Alfred Morel-Fatio, professor of Romance
languages at the College de France, and
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of
Spanish, Liverpool University; describ-
ing the Catalan as well as the Castilian
and the Portuguese.
Rumania: Language (Vol. 23, p. 843).
The general articles Scandinavian
Languages (Vol. 24, p. 291), by Dr.
Adolf Noreen, professor in the Univer-
sity of Upsala, with
Teutonic sections on Iceland-
Languages ic, Norwegian or
Norse, Swedish, and
Danish, and the Scandinavian dialects;
and Teutonic Languages (Vol. 26, p.
673), by Hector Munro Chadwick, Li-
brarian of Clare College, Cambridge.
More in detail on the Teutonic lan-
guages are the articles:
English Language (Vol. 9, pp. 587-
600; equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide),
by Sir James A. H. Murray, editor-in-
chief of the (Oxford) New English Dic-
tionary, and Miss Hilda Mary R. Murray,
lecturer on English at the Royal Hollo-
.way College.
Dutch Language (Vol. 8, p. 717), by
Prof. Johann Hendrik Gall6e of the Uni-
versity of Utrecht.
German Language (Vol. 11, p. 777),
Dr. Robert Priebsch, professor of German
philology, University of London, which
deals with modern and ancient, new, mid-
dle, and old, high and low German.
For Indo-Iranian languages, see:
Persia: Language and Literature (Vol.
21, p. 246), by Dr. Hermann Ethe\ pro-
fessor of Oriental languages, University
College, Wales, deal-
Persia and ing with Zend, and
India Old, Middle and
New Persian and
modern dialects of Persian.
Indo* Aryan Languages (Vol. 14, p.
487), by George Abraham Grierson, for-
merly in charge of the Linguistic survey
of India, who treats in this article the
relations of Pisaca, Prakrit and Sanskrit,
and contributes the separate articles
Pisaca Languages, Prakrit, Bengali,
BlHARI, GUJARATI AND RaJASTHANI, HlN-
dostani, Kashmiri, and Marathi. More
important than these minor dialects are
Sanskrit Language (Vol. 24, p. 156), by
Dr. Julius Eggeling, professor of Sanskrit,
Edinburgh University, — an article equi-
valent in length to 90 pages of this Guide;
and Pali (Vol. 20, p. 630), by Prof. T.
W. Rhys Davids of Manchester Univer-
sity, president of the Pali Text Society.
Armenian Language and Litera-
ture (Vol. 2, p. 571), by Dr. F. C. Cony-
beare, author of The Ancient Armenian
Texts of Aristotle 9 etc.
Lithuanians and Letts, Language
and Literature (Vol. 16, p. 790); Slavs:
Language (Vol. 25, p. 233), by Ellis
Hovell Minns, Lecturer in palaeography,
Cambridge, with a table of alphabets;
and supplementary information in the
articles Russia, Bulgaria, Servia,
Poland, Bohemia, Croatia-Slavonia,
Slovaks, Slovenes, Sorbs, Kashubes,
POLABS.
Albania, Language (Vol. 1, p. 485),
by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of
The Times (London) in South-eastern
Europe.
The material on the Semitic group is
principally in the article
Semitic Semitic Languages (Vol.
24, p. 617), by Theodor
Noldeke, late professor of Oriental lan-
guages at Strassburg. This article deals
with:
Assyrian — see also Cuneiform (Vol.
7, p. 629);
Hebrew — see also Hebrew Language
(Vol. 13, p. 167), by Arthur Ernest
Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian,
Oxford;
Phoenician — see also Phoenicia (Vol.
21, p. 449), by the Rev. Dr. George
Albert Cook, author of Text Book of North-
Semitic Inscriptions, etc.;
Aramaic — and see the separate article
Aramaic Languages (Vol. 2, p. 317);
Arabic, Sabaean, Mahri and Socotri,
Ethiopic, Tigre and Tigrina, Amharic,
Harari and Gurague.
And see the article Syriac Language
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LANGUAGE AND WRITING
211
(Vol. 26, p. 309), by Norman McLean,
lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge.
The article Hamitic Languages (Vol.
12, p. 893) is by Dr. W. Max Muller,
professor in the Reformed Episcopal
Seminary, Philadelphia. See
Hamitic also the article Egypt,
Language and Writing (Vol.
9, p. 57), by Dr. Francis Llewelyn
Griffith, reader in Egyptology, Oxford;
and the articles: Ethiopia (Vol. 9,
p. 845), by Dr. D. S. Margoliouth, pro-
fessor of Arabic, Oxford; Berber, Lan-
guage (Vol. 3, p. 766) and Kabyles
(Vol. 15, p. 625) for the Libyan group
of the Hamitic languages.
On the mono-syllabic languages see
China, Language (Vol. 6, p. 216),
by Dr. H. A. Giles, pro-
Other fessor of Chinese, Cam-
Tongues bridge, and Lionel Giles,
assistant Oriental Depart-
ment, British Museum;
Japan, Language (Vol. 15, p. 167),
by Captain Frank Brinkley, late editor
of the Japan Mail; and
TlBETO-BuRMAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 26,
p. 928), by Dr. Sten Konow, professor
in the University of Christiania.
The article Ural-Altaic (Vol. 27,
p. 784), by Dr. Augustus Henry Keane,
late professor of Hindustani, University
College, London, gives a general account
of the relationship of Turkish, Finno-
Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu; and is
supplemented by the articles Turks,
Language (Vol. 27, p. 472), by Sir Charles
Eliot, vice-chancellor of Sheffield Uni-
versity; Finno-Ugrian (Vol. 10, p. 388),
on language of Finns, Lapps and Samoy-
edes, Hungary Language (Vol. 13, p.
924), on Magyar, both by Sir Charles
Eliot; and Mongols, Language (Vol. 18,
p. 719), by Dr. Bernhard Julg, late
professor at Innsbruck.
On the non-Aryan languages of South-
ern Africa see the article Tamils (Vol.
26, p. 388), by Dr. Reinhold Rost, late
secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society.
For languages of Malay-Polynesia and
other Oceanic peoples see Malays,
Language (Vol. 17, p. 477), by Sir Hugh
Charles Clifford, colonial secretary of
Ceylon, and joint-author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language; and the articles
Polynesia, Samoa, Java, Hawaii, etc.
On the Caucasian language see Geor-
gia (Vol. 11, p. 758) and Caucasia
(Vol. 5, p. 546).
On other European languages see
Basques (Vol. 3, p. 485), by the late
Rev. Wentworth Webster, author of
Basque Legends, and Julien Vinson,
author of Le Basque et les langues Mexi-
caines; and for the Etruscan language
Etruria (Vol. 9, p. 854), by Professor
R. S. Conway.
On African languages see Bantu
Languages (Vol. 3, p. 356), by Sir H.
H. Johnston; Bushmen (Vol. 41, p. 871)
and Hottentots (Vol. 13, p. 805); and,
for the intermediate group, the article
Hausa (Vol. 13, p. 69).
On the languages of the North Ameri-
can Indians see the article Indians,
North American (especially p. 457 of
Vol. 14), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain,
professor of anthropology, Clark Uni-
versity, Worcester, Massachusetts.
This list of articles will serve the stu-
dent as a guide for the purely linguistic
articles. Besides the general treatment
in the article Philology from which
we started, he should read articles on
such general subjects as Phonetics (Vol.
21, p. 458), by Dr. Henry Sweet, author
of A Primer of Phonetics, A History of
English Sound* since the Earliest Period,
etc. . This leads to a study of the article
Alphabet (Vol. 1, p. 723), equivalent
to 80 pages of this Guide,
Alphabet written by Professor Peter
Giles of Cambridge and
illustrated with a plate and various
fac-similes of early alphabets. This arti-
cle is supplemented by Professor Giles's
articles on all the letters of the alphabet,
which deal with the history and form of
the symbol, the character of the sound
it stands for and, particularly, the develop-
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212
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ment and change of the sound in English
and its dialects. For instance the arti-
cle on the letter N describes four different
sounds, of which {here are two in Eng-
lish — usually distinguished as n and ng;
explains that in the early Indo-European
language some n's and m's could some-
times be pronounced as vowels; describes
the opposite process, the nasalization of
vowels, especially in French; and closes
by saying: "It is possible to nasalize
some consonants as well as vowels;
nasalized spirants play an important
part in the so-called Yankee pronuncia-
tion of Americans."
From alphabets the student may well
turn to ideal languages in the article
Universal Languages (Vol. 27, p. 746),
by Professor Henry
Artificial Sweet, which criti-
Languages cizes VolapUk and
Esperanto and the
Idiom Neutral as being unscientific, not
really international — even from a Euro-
pean point of view, and still less when one
considers the growing importance of
Japan and China in world-trade and
world-history. Their being based on
national languages Dr. Sweet thinks is a
disadvantage. But in their comparative
success he sees proof that a universal
language is possible. See also Prof.
Sweet's separate articles VolapIjk (Vol.
28, p. 178) and Esperanto (Vol. 9, p. 773).
The article Writing (Vol. 28, p. 852)
deals, chiefly from the anthropological
standpoint, with primitive attempts to
record ideas in an intelligi-
Writing ble form, -for example with
"knot-signs," "message-
sticks," picture-writing and the like.
The needs, which led to the invention
of these primitive forms of writing,
were: mnemonic, recalling that some-
thing is to be done at a certain time —
the primitive "tickler" was a knotted
string or thong, like our knotted handker-
chief as a reminder, and these knot-
strings were finally used for elementary
accountings, commercial or chronological,
like the use of the abacus in little shops,
or of the similar system in scoring games
of pool; to communicate with some one
at a distance, for which marked or
notched sticks, engraved or coloured
pebbles, wampum belts, etc., were used;
and, third, to distinguish one's own
property or handicraft whence cattle-
brands, trade-marks, etc. In Assyria,
Egypt and China picture-writing devel-
oped into conventional signs: on these
see Egypt (Vol. 9, p. 60), and China
(Vol. 6, p. 218). All of these are of
great interest to the general reader, but
the article Cuneiform (Vol. 7, p. 629)
by Dr. R. W. Rogers, professor of Hebrew
and Old Testament exegesis, Drew Theo-
logical Seminary, Madison, New Jersey,
has the sort of entertainment in it that
there is in a good detective story, since
it tells how the meaning of the mysteri-
ous wedge-shaped inscriptions on the
rocks at Mount Rachmet in Persia was
discovered.
The subject of writing is treated, also,
in the articles:
Inscriptions (Vol. 14, p. 618); Sem-
itic, aside from the Cuneiform, by Ar-
thur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the
Bodleian, Oxford; Indian inscriptions,
by John Faithfull Fleet, author of In-
scriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, etc.;
Greek, by Edward Lee Hicks, Bishop of
Lincoln, author of Manual of Greek
Historical Inscriptions, etc., and George
Francis Hill, author of Sources for
Greek History, etc.; and Latin, by Emil
Hiibner, late professor of classical phil-
ology at Berlin, author of Romische
Epigraphik, etc., and Dr. W. M. Lindsay,
of the University of St. Andrews, author
of The Latin Language, etc.
Palaeography (Vol. 20, p. 556),
equivalent to 75 pages of this Guide,
by Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, late
librarian of the British Museum and
author of Handbook of Greek and Latin
Palaeography, etc. The article is illus-
trated with 50 fac-similes of typical
handwritings.
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LANGUAGE AND WRITING
213
Manuscript (Vol. 17, p. 618), equiva-
lent to 20 pages of this Guide, by the
same author, with a description of the
various forms of manuscripts, of the
mechanical arrangement of writing in
MSS., and of writing implements and
inks. See, also, Illuminated Manu-
scripts, Papyrus, Paper and other
articles mentioned in the chapter in this
Guide For Printers.
The student of language and literature
and of writing will also find much valu-
able information in the article Textual
Criticism (Vol. 26, p. 708),
Text equivalent to 25 pages of
Criticism this Guide, by Professor
J. P. Post gate of the Uni-
versity of Liverpool, well-known to
Latinists as the brilliant editor of Ti-
bullus and Propertius. The article gives
examples of the classes of errors occur-
ring in texts and the methods of restoring
true readings — largely of course by con-
jecture — and illustrates such errors and
their correction by the very poorly
printed first editions of the English
poet Shelley.
In the study of language and writing
as in courses on other sciences and arts,
the reader will find an additional interest
in supplementing general and abstract
articles by biographical sketches of the
great men in the science.
The following is a partial list of the
articles in the Britannica on great
philologists :
Aasen, Ivar
Adelung, J. C.
Ahrens, F. H. L.
Ascoli, G. I.
Baehr, J. C. F.
Baiter, J. G.
Bake, Jan
Barth, Kaspar von
Benfey, Theodor
Bennett, Charles E.
Bentley, Richard
Bernhardy, Gottfried
Bhau Daji
Blass, Friedrich
Bleek, W. H. I.
Bloomfleld, Maurice
Bbhtlingk, Otto von
Bopp, Franz
Bosworth, Joseph
Breal, M. J. A.
Brown, Francis
Bucheler, Franz
Buck, C. D.
Bugge, Sophus
Burmann
Burnell, A. C.
Burnouf, Eugene
Buttmann, P h i 1 i p p
Karl
Carey, William
Casaubon
Caspari, K. P.
Castell, Edmund
Castiglione, Count
CastnSn, M. A.
Childers, R. C.
Cleynaerts, Nicolas
Cobet, C. G.
Conington, John
Cook, A. S.
Corssen, W. P.
Cotgrave, Handle
Creuzer, G. F.
Csoma de K5ros, A.
Darmesteter, J.
Delius, N.
Diez, F. C.
Dobrowsky, J.
Doderlein, J. C. W. L.
Donaldson, J. W.
Drisler, Henry
Dunash
Ebel, H. W.
Egger, Emile
Elias, Levita
Ellis, A. J.
Ellis, Robinson
Erasmus
Erpenius, Thomas
EttmUller, E. M. I,.
Facciolati, J.
Fairuzabadi
Fleckeisen, C. F. W. A.
Fleischer, Heinrich L.
Fliigel, G. L.
Flugel, J. G.
Forcellini, Egidio
Freund, Wilhelm
Freytag, G. W. F.
Furnivall, F. J.
Ftirst, Julius
Gabelentz, H. C. von
der
Gaisford, Thomas
Gayangos y Arce, P. de
Gildersleeve, B. L.
Goeje, M. J. de
GoldstUcker, T.
Goldziher, Ignaz
Golius, Jacobus
Goodwin, W. W.
Greenough, J. B.
Grimm, J. L. C.
Grimm, W. C.
Gudeman, Alfred
Gutschmid, Baron von
Hadley, James
Hagen, F. H. von der
Haldeman, S. S.
Hale, W. G.
Halhed, N. B.
Hall, Fitzedward
Hall, Isaac Hollister
Hasden, B. P.
Haug, Martin
Haupt, Moritz
Henry, Victor
Herbelot de Molain-
ville, B. d'
Hervas y Panduro, I,.
Hoffmann, J. J.
Hopkins, E. W.
Hottinger, J. H.
Hiibner, Emil
Humboldt, K. W. von
Ingram, James
Jauhari
Jawaliqi
Jirecek, Josef
Jonah, Rabbi
Jones, Sir William
Karajich, V. S.
Kern, J. H.
Khalil ibn Amhad,
Kimbi (familv)
Klaproth, H. "j.
Kuhn, F. F. A.
Lachmann, Karl
Lanman, C. R.
Lassen, Christian
Legge, James
Leitner, G. W.
Liddell, H. G.
Littre, M. P. E.
Ludolf, Hiob
Madvig, J. N.
Malan, S. C.
March, F. A.
Max Miiller, F.
Mayor, J. E. B.
Menant, Joachim
Meyer, P. H.
Mezzofanti, Giuseppe C.
Miklosich, Franz von
Mohl, Julius von
Monier-Williams, Sir M.
Morris, Richard
Munro, D. B.
Murray^ Sir James
Nettleship, Henry
Noldeke, Theodor
Oppert, Julius
Paley, F. A.
Paris, B. P. G.
Peerlkamp, P. H.
Peile, John
Petrarch
Poggio
PoBtian
Porson, Richard
Pott, A. F.
Quatremere, E. M.
Rask, R. C.
Reiske, J. J.
Reland, Adrian
Remusat, J. P. A.
Ribbeck, Otto
Rieu, C. P. H.
Ritsche, F. W.
Rutherford, W. G.
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
Sale, George
Salesbuiy, William
Sanders, Daniel
Sayce, A. H.
Schafarik, P. J.
Scheler, J. A. W.
Schiefner, F. A.
Schleicher, August
Schultens (family)
Scott, Robert
Sellar, W. Y.
Skeat, W. W.
Taylor, Isaac
Ten Brink, B. E. K.
Teuffel, W. S.
Thorpe, Benjamin
WaUly, N. P. de
Walker, John
Warren, Minton
Webster, Noah
Whitney, W. D.
Wilkins, Sir Charles
Wordsworth, Christo-
pher
Zarncke, P. K. T.
CHAPTER XXXVI
LITERATURE, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL
THE student of literature, like the
student of painting, finds it as
necessary to examine the great
examples of the art as to study the laws
which guide the artist, for the history of
their development, and he will find that
the articles which discuss literature in
the Britannica are themselves literature,
models of the form of artistic expression
which they describe. A list of these con-
tributors who deal with literary topics
might, indeed, easily be mistaken for a
list of such articles on the great contem-
porary writers as the student would most
desire to read. Among these contribut-
ors are, for example: Edmund Gosse,
Theodore Watts-
Contributore Dunton, Swinburne,
A. C. Benson, John
Morley, Austin Dobson, Arthur Symons,
J. Addington Symonds, Frederic Harri-
son, Walter Besant, William Sharp
("Fiona Macleod")* Professor George
Saintsbury, Sir Arthur T. Quiller-Couch
("Q"), William Archer, Israel Gollancz,
Robert Louis Stevenson, Andrew Lang,
Sir Leslie Stephen, E. V. Lucas, Arthur
Waugh, Mrs. Craigie ("John Oliver
Hobbes"), Alice Meynell, Mrs. Hum-
phry Ward, and — among American
names, — George E. Woodberry, Henry
Van Dyke, Edward Everett Hale, T. W.
Higginson, Brander Matthews, W. P.
Trent, Charles Eliot Norton, Charles
William Eliot, George W. Cable, Lyman
Abbott, Edmund Clarence Stedman,
John Burroughs, Thomas Davidson, Hor-
ace E. Scudder, and Charles F. Richard-
son.
Before discussing the articles in which
these and many other distinguished con-
tributors deal with various aspects of
literature, attention may be directed to
the treatment of religious literature in
the Britannica. The Bible is the subject
of a separate chapter in this Guide on
Bible Study, to which the reader is also
referred for the whole literature of Bib-
lical criticism. Religious literature based
upon the Bible is discussed in the articles
Liturgy (Vol. 16, p. 795), by the Rev.
F. E. Warren; Sermon (Vol. 24, p. 673),
by Edmund Gosse, and Hymns (Vol. 14,
p. 181), by Lord Selborne, equivalent to
35 pages of this Guide. The medieval
miracle plays and mysteries, presenting
incidents from Scripture, are described
in the section on the Medieval Drama
(Vol, 8, p. 497) of the article Drama. On
the literature of other religions, see the
chapter For Ministers.
The student of literature in general
may begin his course of reading with the
article Literature (Vol. 16, p. 783), a
concise critical summary by
General Dr. James Fitzmaurice-Kel-
Articles ly, professor of Spanish
language and literature,
Liverpool University, best known as the
editor of Cervantes. Read, after the ar-
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LITERATURE, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL
215
tide Literature, the same contributor's
article Translation (Vol. 27, p. 183).
The student who does not wish to ap-
proach literature from the philosophic
side need not read the articles Aesthetics
and Fine Arts; but even such a one
should read the article Style (Vol. 25,
p. 1055), by Edmund Gosse, essayist,
poet, biographer and librarian of the
House of Lords, and the article Prose
(Vol. 22, p. 450), by the same contributor.
There is a well-known and perfectly
authentic anecdote of Edmund Gosse's
predecessor as librarian of the House of
Lords, who was once asked in the course
of a newspaper symposium on education,
"What were the principal factors in your
education?" He replied by putting sec-
ond only to his university training "the
articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica
and in the Athenaeum by Theodore Watts-
Dunton."" Certainly the student will be
well repaid by repeated study and analy-
sis of Watts-Dunton's article Poetry
(Vol. 21, p. 877; equivalent to 45 pages of
this Guide). The same author's articles
Sonnet (Vol. 25, p. 414), Matthew Ar-
nold (Vol. 2. p. 685), and Wycherley
(Vol. 28, p. 863) should be studied with
the article Poetry as supplementing his
literary philosophy.
The greatest of literary forms is apiply
represented by the space and the author-
ity given to it in the Britannica. The ar-
ticle Drama (Vol. 8, p. 475; equivalent to
225 pages of this Guide) is mainly the
work of Prof. A. W. Ward, master of
Peterhouse, Cambridge, editor of the
Cambridge History of English Literature
and of the Cambridge Modem History;
but some parts of the article are by Wil-
liam Archer, the dramatic critic, and by
Auguste Filon ("Pierre Sandrte"). This
elaborate article should be supplemented
by the short article Comedy (Vol. 6, p.
759) and by the biographical and critical
sketches of the great dramatists.
Among the many other articles in the
Britannica on the forms of literature are:
Satire (Vol. 24, p. 228), by Richard
Garnett, late librarian British Museum,
with which the student may well combine
the articles Humour and Irony, the ar-
ticles Ballade, Ballads (Lang), Bu-
colics, Pastoral, Cento, Chant Royal
(with Gosse's first English chant royal,
"The Praise of Dionysus," transcribed in
full), Descriptive Poetry, Elegy, Epic
Poetry, Epithalamium, Heroic Verse,
Idyl, Limerick, Lyrical Poetry, Mac-
aronics, National Anthems, Ode, Ot-
tava Rima, Pantun, Rime Royal, Rond-
eau, Rondel, Sestett, Sestina, Song,
Triolet, Vers De Soci^Tfi, Vilanelle,
Virelay, and — a few of the prose forms,
Biography, Conte, Criticism, Epistle,
Essay, Euphuism, Novel, Pamphlet,
Picaresque Novel, Romance, Tale,
Tract, — nearly all these being by Ed-
mund Gosse. Two articles of the utmost
importance are Dictionary and Ency-
clopaedia. Read the general article
Rhetoric
Periodical publications, especially those
in the English and French languages, have
contained a great part of the best literary
criticism of miscel-
Periodical laneous essays pub-
Publications lished since the first
French review ap-
peared in 1665 and since the first English
review, consisting wholly of original mat-
ter, was established in London in 1710.
The latter was indebted to France not
only for its model, but for its editor, who
was a French Protestant refugee. Ben-
jamin Franklin founded the first Amer-
ican monthly, the Philadelphian General
Magazine in 1741. The article Period-
icals (Vol. 81, p. 151), by H. R. Tedder,
librarian of the Athenaeum Club, Lon-
don, contains separate sections on the re-
views and magazines of England, the
United States, Canada, South Africa, West
India and the British Crown Colonies, In-
dia and Ceylon, France, Germany, Austria,
Suritzerland, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Den-
mark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal,
Greece, Russia, Bohemia, Hungary and
Japan.
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216
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Newspapers (Vol. 19, p. 544), equiva-
lent to 140 pages of this Guide, is an ar-
ticle in which the student will find a full
account of the most fertile, if not the
most studied, form of modern literature
in all parts of the world. See also the
chapter in this Guide For Journalists and
Authors.
The reader should note that of the
many articles on literary forms and rhet-
orical figures, only a few are given above,
but they are listed more fully in the Index
Volume, p. 929, where there are more
than 350 such titles. He must remember
also that there are more than 8,000 bio-
graphical and critical articles on authors
in different languages and different peri-
ods. The following are "key" articles on
national literatures:
English Literature, by Henry Brad-
ley, joint-editor of the New English Dic-
tionary; Prof. J. M. Manly, University
of Chicago; Prof.
National Oliver Elton, Uni-
Literatures versity of Liverpool;
Thomas Seccombe,
author of The Age of Johnson.
American Literature, by G. E.
Woodberry, formerly professor in Colum-
bia University.
German Literature, by Prof. J. G.
Robertson, University of London, author
of History of German Literature.
Dutch Literature
Flemish Literature
Walloons, Literature by
Belgium, Literature > Edmund
Denmark, Literature Gosse.
Sweden, Literature
Norway, Literature
Iceland, Literature, Classic, by Prof.
Frederick York Powell of Oxford; Recent,
by Sigfus Blondal, librarian of Copen-
hagen University.
French Literature, by George Saints-
bury.
Provencal Literature, by Paul
Meyer, Director of the ficole des Chartes,
Paris, and Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Ox-
ford, author of a History of Provengal
Literature.
Anglo-Norman Literature, by Prof.
Louis Brandin of the University of Lon-
don.
Spain, Literature, by Prof. J. Fitz-
maurice-Kelly of the University of Liver-
pool, and A. Morel-Fatio, author of
L'Espagne au XV I e et au XV lie siecles.
Portugal, Literature, by Edgar Pres-
tage, editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun,
etc.
Italian Literature, by Prof. Her-
mann Oelsner, Oxford, and Prof. Adolf o
Bartoli of the University of Florence, au-
thor of Storia delta letteratura Italiana.
Switzerland, Literature, by Prof. W.
A. B. Coolidge.
Hungary, Literature, by Emil Reich,
author of Hungarian Literature, and E.
Dundas Butler, author of Hungarian
Poems and Fables for English Readers, etc.
Poland, Literature, by W. R. Morfill,
late professor of Slavonic Languages, Ox-
ford, author of Slavonic Literature, etc.
Russia, Literature, also by Prof. Mor-
fill.
Arabia, Literature, by the late Prof. M.
J. de Goeje, University of Leiden, and the
Rev. G. W. Thatcher, warden of Camden
College, Sydney, N. S. W.
Persia, Literature, by Prof. Karl Geld-
ner, Marburg Univeraity, and Prof. Her-
mann Eth6, University College, Wales.
China, Literature, by H. A. Giles, pro-
fessor of Chinese, Oxford.
Japan, Literature, by Capt. Brinkley.
Hebrew Literature, by Arthur Cow-
ley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford.
Armenian Literature, by F. C.
Conybeare, author of The Ancient Ar-
menian Texts of Aristotle.
Syriac Literature, by Norman
McLean, lecturer in Aramaic, Cam-
bridge.
Hindostani Literature, by Sir
Charles James Lyall.
Sanskrit, Literature, by Prof. Julius
Eggeling, Edinburgh.
Classics, by Dr. J. E. Sandys, Cam-
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LITERATURE, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL
217
bridge, author of History of Classical
Scholarship.
Greek Literature: Ancient, by Sir
R. C. Jebb, author of Companion to Greek
Studies; Byzantine, by Prof. Karl Krum-
bacher, editor of Byzantinische Zeitschrift
smdByzantinischesArchiv&nd Modern, by
J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of The
Times (London) in South-Eastern Eu-
rope.
Latin Literature, by Prof. A. S.
Wilkins, of Owens College, Manchester,
and Prof. R. S. Conway, of the Univer-
sity of Manchester.
Celt, Literature, to which W. J.
Gruflfydd, lecturer in Celtic, University
College, Cardiff, contributes the section
on Welsh literature; and E. C. Quiggin,
lecturer in Celtic, Cambridge, contributes
the sections on Irish, Manx, Breton and
Cornish literatures.
This list of the literatures of many
tongues, from each of which translations
have added to the common stock access-
ible even to those who can read with ease
only one-language, indicates the existence
of a bewildering mass of printed matter,
and just as each language has its litera-
ture — using the word to signify output,
so each subject upon which men write has
its literature — using the word to signify
material for any one branch of study.
Bibliographies are
Bibliography the charts by which
students are enabled
to navigate these vast seas of knowledge.
The articles Bibliography (Vol. 3, p.
908), by A. W. Pollard, assistant librarian
of the British Museum, and Index (Vol.
14, p. 378) describe the technicalities of
cataloguing and classifying books and
their contents.
The Britannica is itself the most com-
plete index to the subjects treated by
books and the most complete biblio-
graphical manual for the student that
could be imagined. The Index of 500,000
entries (Vol. 29) shows to what class any
one of half a million facts belongs, by re-
ferring to the article in which that fact is
treated. At the end of the article a list of
the best books on the subject shows the
student who desires to specialize just
where to go for further details. No less
than 203,000 books are included in these
lists appended to Britannica articles and
many of them are, in themselves, sub-
stantial contributions to literature. The
Shakespeare bibliography would, for ex-
ample, fill 30 pages of the size and type
of this Guide; the bibliography of Eng-
lish history, by A. F. Pollard, of the Uni-
versity of London, 13 pages, and the bib-
liography of French history, by Prof.
B6mont of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes,
Paris, 8 pages.
A group of articles of great interest to
every student of literature deals with the
methods and appliances by which writ-
ings are preserved and circulated. Manu-
script (Vol. 17, p. 618) is by SirE.
Maunde Thompson, of the British Mu-
seum Library; Book (Vol. 4, p. 214);
Book-Collecting (Vol. 4, p. 221) and
Incunabula (Vol. 14, p. 369) are by A.
W. Pollard, also of the British Museum
Library. Libraries (Vol. 16, p. 545),
equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide, is
by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athen-
aeum Club, London. The articles on
printing, binding, publishing and similar
subjects are described in the chapter of
this Guide For Printers.
With this chapter to help him the stu-
dent will have little difficulty in devising
his own course of reading in any one lit-
erature — starting with the general treat-
ment, going from this to the separate
biographies of the great authors men-
tioned in the general article, and, when
there is in the national literature that he
is studying some special development of
a literary genre, as of the sermon in the
17th or the satire in the 18th century,
turning to the article in the Britannica
dealing with this form of literature, Sat-
ire, Sermon, or whatever it may be. For
example, what could be more illuminating
to the student of 19th century literature
than the following passages — discon-
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218
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
nected here — from the article Satire?
Goethe and Schiller, Scott and Wads-
worth, are now at hand, and as imagination
gains ground satire declines. Byron, who
in the 18th century would have been the
greatest of satirists, is hurried by the spirit
of his age into passion and description, be-
queathing, however, a splendid proof of the
possibility of allying satire with sublimity
in his Virion of Judgment. . . . Miss
Edgeworth skirts the confines of satire, and
Miss Austen seasons her novels with the
most exquisite satiric traits. Washington
Irving revives the manner of The Spectator,
and Tieck brings irony and persiflage to
the discussion of critical problems. . . .
In all the characteristics of his genius
Thackerav is thoroughly English, and the
faults and follies he chastises are those espe-
cially characteristic of British society. Good
sense and the perception of the ridiculous
are amalgamated in him; his satire is a
thoroughly British article, a little over-solid,
a little wanting in finish, but honest, weighty
and durable. Posterity must go to him for
the humours of the age of Victoria, as they
go to Addison for those of Anne's. . . .
In Heine the satiric spirit, long confined to
established literary forms, seems to obtain
unrestrained freedom to wander where it
will, nor have the ancient models been fol-
lowed since by any considerable satirist ex-
cept the Italian Giusti. The machinery em-
ployed by Moore was indeed transplanted to
America by James Russell Lowell, whose
Big low Papers represent perhaps the highest
moral level yet attained by satire.
In no age was the spirit of satire so gen-
erally diffused as in the 19th century, but
many of its eminent writers, while bordering
on the domains of satire, escape the defini-
tion of satirist. The term cannot be prop-
erly applied to Dickens, the keen observer
of the oddities of human life; or to George
Eliot, the critic of its emptiness when not
inspired by a worthy purpose; or to Balzac,
the painter of French society; or to Trol-
lope, the mirror of the middle classes of
England. If Sartor Reeartus could be re-
garded as a satire, Carlyle would rank
among the first of satirists; but the satire,
though very obvious, rather accompanies
than inspires the composition.
CHAPTER XXXVII
AMERICAN LITERATURE
TIE list in the preceding chapter of the key articles dealing with national
literatures shows that the Britannica separately treats the literary products
of some 30 countries. To outline 80 courses of reading, mentioning the 3,000
critical and biographical articles, would make this Guide unwieldy. On pp. 920-
937 of Vol. 29 the reader will find classified lists of these articles, and only four groups
are selected here for detailed treatment: those on American, English, German and
Greek literature. The main article in the literature of each of the other countries
indicates the characteristic forms, the typical works of the leading writers discussed
in special articles, so that courses of reading as systematic as these four can easily
be planned for other countries by the reader.
Topic of Study
General Summary of the subject, with
critical appreciation of main ten-
dencies and great authors.
Colonial Period.
English writers, especially histori-
cal.
Article and Contributor
American Literature (Vol. 1, p. 831),
by George E. Woodberry, formerly pro-
fessor in Columbia University, biogra-
pher of Poe and Hawthorne, author of
America in Literature, etc.
John Smith (Vol. 25, p. 26i), by Prof.
Edward Arber, editor of English Garn-
er, etc.
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AMERICAN LITERATURE
219
Colonial writers, especially of Puri-
tan New England.
Massachusetts governors and his-
torical writing.
The Clergy as writers of History,
and of Theology of the Puritan
School.
The Mathers.
Apostle to the Indians.
Revolt against Puritanism.
Ethical.
Theological.
New England Verse.
The New England Diarist.
The great New England Philosopher
and Theologian; the first American
author with a lasting and European
reputation.
Edwards's contemporaries.
Edwards's followers, — the New
England theology.
The first newspaper in New York.
A Virginia educator.
The American Quaker preacher.
A royal governor and historian.
A New York statesman and philos-
opher.
The first great American figure in sec-
ular literature, — essayist, pamphlet-
eer, politician, autobiographer.
Revolutionary Period.
The patriotic orators and Pamph-
leteers.
" Common Sense."
James Otis's Sister.
The Declaration of Independence
and its author.
Prominent Patriots in New Jersey.
A Connecticut Educator and Pa-
triot.
Massachusetts, History (Vol. 17, p.
858) ; Connecticut, History (Vol. 6, .
p. 954).
William Bradford (Vol. 4, p. 370) ;
John Winthrop (Vol. 28, p. 736).
John Cotton (Vol. 7, p. 255), by Prof.
Williston Walker, Yale, author of His-
tory of the Congregational Churches in
the United States; Thomas Hooker
(Vol. 18, p. 674).
Cotton, Increase, and Richard Mather
(Vol. 17, p. 883).
John Eliot (Vol. 9, p. 278), by Prof.
Walker.
Thomas Morton (Vol. 18, p. 882).
Roger Williams (Vol. 28, p. 682).
Michael Wigglesworth (Vol. 28, p.
626).
Samuel Sewall (Vol. 24, p. 738).
Jonathan Edwards (Vol. 9, pp. 3-6), by
Prof. Harry Norman Gardiner, editor
of Jonathan Edwards — a Retrospect,
and Richard Webster.
Charles Chauncy (Vol. 6, p. 18).
Jonathan Mayhew (Vol. 17, p. 985).
Joseph Bellamy (Vol. 8, p. 694).
Samuel Hopkins (Vol. 18, p. 685).
William Bradford (Vol. 4, p. 370).
James Blair (Vol. 4, p. 84).
John Woolman (Vol. 28, p. 817).
Thomas Hutchinson (Vol. 14, p. 13).
Cadwallader Colden (Vol. 6, p. 663).
Benjamin Franklin (Vol. 11, p. 24),
by Richard Webster, late fellow
Princeton University, editorial staff,
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
James Otis (Vol. 20, p. 366).
Patrick Henry (Vol. 13, p. 300).
John Adams (Vol. 1, p. 176).
Josiah Quincy (Vol. 22, p. 753).
James Wilson (Vol. 28, p. 693).
Thomas Paine (Vol. 20, p. 456).
Mercy Warren (Vol. 28, p. 830).
Independence, Declaration of (Vol.
14, p. 372), and Thomas Jefferson
(Vol. 15, p. 801), both by Dr. F. S.
Philbrick.
William Livingston (Vol. 16, p. 813).
John Witherspoon (Vol. 28, p. 759).
Ezra Stiles (Vol. 25, p. 919).
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220
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Opponents of Independence.
" A Westchester Farmer."
In Massachusetts.
In Maryland.
Patriotic Poetry.
The " Hartford Wits."
Satire and Epic.
" Battle of the Kegs."
A Western Traveler.
The National Period.
The Constitution and its Pamphlet-
eers — " The Federalist," the
greatest application of elemen-
tary principles of government to
practical administration.
Importance of the early national
period on the development of
American literature.
The first professional " man of
letters."
First foreign vogue.
Essay and History: "The Ameri-
can Goldsmith."
Fiction: " The American Scott"
Poetry,
The Knickerbocker School.
New York as a literary centre.
A Southern novelist and poet.
Cooper's successor as novelist of the
sea.
Poetesses of the early 19th century.
The " Literati."
The short story.
Traveler, Translator, Poet.
New England in the 19th century.
Boston and Cambridge.
Joseph Galloway (Vol. 11, p. 421).
Samuel Seabury (Vol. 24, p. 581).
Mather Byles (Vol. 4, p. 896).
Jonathan Boucher (Vol. 4, p. 312).
John Trumbull (Vol. 27, p. 324).
Timothy Dwight (Vol. 8, p. 741).
Joel Barlow (Vol. 3, p. 406).
Francis Hopkinson (Vol. 13, p. 685).
Jonathan Carver (Vol. 5, p. 487).
James Madison (Vol. 17, p. 284).
Alexander Hamilton (Vol. 12, p. 880),
by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chis-
holm.
John Jay (Vol. 15, pp. 294-296).
United States, History, §106 (Vol. 27,
p. 688), by the late Prof. Alexander
Johnson, Princeton, and C. C. Whin-
ery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Charles Brockden Brown (Vol. 4, p.
657).
Washington Irving (Vol. 14, p. 856),
by Richard Garnett, late librarian Brit-
ish Museum.
James Fenimore Cooper (Vol. 7, p. 79),
by W. E. Henley, poet, critic and es-
sayist.
William Cullen Bryant (Vol. 4, p.
698), by G. W. Cable.
New York City, Literature (Vol. 19, p.
615).
James Kirke Paulding (Vol. 20, p. 958).
Fitz-Greene Halleck (Vol. 12, p. 854).
W. G. Simms (Vol. 25, p. 123).
Herman Melville (Vol. 18, p. 102).
Lydia Huntley Sigourney (Vol. 25, p.
82).
Alice and Phoebe Cary (Vol. 5, p. 438).
N. P. Willis (Vol. 28, p. 686).
Rufus Wilmot Griswold (Vol. 12, p.
610).
Edgar Allan Poe (Vol. 21, p. 875), by
David Hannay.
Bayard Taylor (Vol. 26, p. 467).
Boston (Vol. 4, p. 298).
Harvard University (Vol. 13, p. 38).
George Ticknor (Vol. 26. p. 936).
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AMERICAN LITERATURE
221
History and Scholarship as affected
by European contacts.
Unitarianism and its Literary Lead-
ers, Influencing and Influenced
by Transcendentalism.
Transcendentalism and the Concord
School — its central figures.
The Dial.
Brook Farm.
The author of " Margaret."
The great New England Novelist.
The great New England Poet.
Earlier Romanticism.
Oratory.
In the North.
In the South.
George Bancroft (Vol. 3, p. 307), by
Prof. W. M. Sloane, Columbia.
Edward Everett (Vol. 10, p. 8), by Ed-
ward Everett Hale.
Jared Sparks (Vol. 25, p. 608), by Prof.
W. L. Corbin, Wells College.
J. G. Palfrey (Vol. 20, p. 629).
W. H. Prescott (Vol. 22, p. 294).
J. L. Motley (Vol. 18, p. 909).
Hosea Ballou (Vol. 3, p. 282).
William Ellery Channing (Vol. 5, p.
843), by Richard Webster.
James Freeman Clarke (Vol. 6, p. 444),
by E. E. Hale.
Theodore Parker (Vol. 20, p. 829).
Amos Bronson Alcott (Vol. 1, p. 528),
by Prof. C. F. Richardson, Dartmouth
College.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (Vol. 9, p. 882),
by Prof. Henry Van Dyke, Princeton.
Henry David Thoreau (Vol. 26, p.
877), by William Sharp (" Fiona Mac-
leod").
Margaret Fuller (Vol. 11, p. 295).
George Ripley (Vol. 28, p. 863), by Ed-
ward Livermore Burlingame, editor of
Scribner's.
Brook Farm (Vol. 4, p. 645, by E. L.
Burlingame.
Sylvester Judd (Vol. 15, p. 586).
Nathaniel Hawthorne (Vol. 18, p.
102), by Richard Henry Stoddard,
poet and essayist.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (Vol.
16, p. 977), by Thomas Davidson, au-
thor of The Philosophical System of
Rosmini.
Washington Allston (Vol. 1, p. 709).
Richard Henry Dana (Vol. 7, p. 792).
Daniel Webster (Vol. 28, p. 459), by
Everett P. Wheeler, author of Daniel
Webster, etc.
Rufus Choate (Vol. 6, p. 258).
Wendell Phillips (Vol. 21, p. 407), by
Col. T. W. Higginson.
Charles Sumner (Vol. 26, p. 81).
Robert Charles Winthrop (Vol. 28, p.
736).
Henry Clay (Vol. 6, p. 470), by Carl
Schurz, biographer of Clay.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Other Southern Orators.
The Pulpit Orator of the North.
The Abolition Novelist, author of
Uncle Tom's Cabin.
Another anti-slavery authoress.
The New England Poets prominent in
the Anti-Slavery Movement.
Their Contemporary, the " Autocrat."
The American Poet — by the criterion
of foreign standards.
Scholarship and criticism in this Pe-
riod and the Next: the particularly
Important Work done by Americans
in Grammar, Language, Text Criti-
cism, etc.
The later Poet*.
New England.
New York.
Pennsylvania.
John C. Calhoun (Vol. 5, p. 1), by
Judge H. A. M. Smith, South Caro-
lina.
Robert Young Hayne (Vol. 13, p. 114).
Henry Ward Beecher (Vol. 3, p. 639),
by Dr. Lyman Abbott, editor The Out-
look.
Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe
(Vol. 25, p. 972), by Horace E. Scud-
der, late editor of the Atlantic
Monthly.
Lydia Maria Child (Vol. 6, p. 135).
John Greenleaf Whittier (Vol. 28, p.
613), by Edmund Clarence Stedman,
poet and critic.
James Russell Lowell (Vol. 17, p. 74),
by Horace E. Scudder, biographer of
Lowell.
Oliver Wendell Holmes (Vol. 13, p.
616), by J. T. Morse, biographer of
Holmes.
Walt W f hitman (Vol. 28, p. 610), by
John Burroughs, author of Whitman,
A Study.
Francis James Child (Vol. 6, p. 135).
Cornelius C. Felton (Vol. 10, p. 246).
George Perkins Marsh (Vol. 17, p.
768).
William D wight Whitney (Vol. 28, p.
611), by Benjamin E. Smith, editor
Century Dictionary.
Richard Grant White (Vol. 28, p. .
601).
Horace Howard Furness (Vol. 11, p.
862).
Francis Andrew March (Vol. 17, p.
688).
Basil Lanneau Gildersleeve (Vol. 12,
p. 12).
Charles Eliot Norton (Vol. 19, p. 797).
Thomas Bailey Aldrich (Vol. 1, p. 536).
Julia Ward Howe (Vol. 13, p. 836).
William Wetmore Story (Vol. 25, p.
970).
Edmund Clarence Stedman (Vol. 25, p.
861).
Richard Henry Stoddard (Vol. 25, p.
939).
Richard Watson Gilder (Vol. 12, p.
12).
Charles Godfrey Leland (Vol. 16. p.
405).
Silas Weir Mitchell (Vol. 18, p. 618).
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AMERICAN LITERATURE
223
The South.
The Middle West (especially hu-
morous, light and character
verse).
The Far West.
Later Fiction.
The American Realist.
The American Cosmopolite.
Stories of Italy.
Historical Romance.
Humorous Short Story.
Pietistic Novel.
The Provincial Types —
Maine.
New England.
West.
South: Tennessee.
Kentucky.
Virginia.
New Orleans.
Essayists.
Humor.
The American " Hood."
" Bill Nye."
America's Great Humorist.
" Uncle Remus."
Puck.
" Mr. Dooley."
History.
Sidney Lanier (Vol. 16, p. 181), by
Prof. W. P. Trent, Columbia.
John Hay (Vol. 13, p. 105).
Eugene Field (Vol. 10, p. 821).
James Whitcomb Riley (Vol. 23, p.
343).
Francis Bret Harte (Vol. 13, p. 31).
Joaquin Miller (Vol. 18, p. 464).
Edward Rowland Sill (Vol. 25, p. 107).
W. D. Howells (Vol. 18, p. 839).
Henry James (Vol. 15, p. 143).
F. Marion Crawford (Vol. 7, p. 386).
Lewis Wallace (Vol. 28, p. 276).
Francis R. Stockton (Vol. 25, p. 938).
E. P. Roe (Vol. 28, p. 449).
J. G. Holland (Vol. 13, p. 587).
Sarah Orne Jewett (Vol. 15, p. 371).
Mary E. Wilkins (Vol. 28, p. 646).
Edward Eggleston (Vol. 9, p. 17).
Mary Hallock Foote (Vol. 10, p. 625).
Francis Bret Harte (Vol. 13, p. 81).
*' Charles Egbert Craddock " (Vol. 7,
p. 860).
James Lane Allen (Vol. 1, p. 691).
Thomas Nelson Page (Vol. 20, p. 450).
George W. Cable (Vol. 4, p. 920).
Thomas Wentworth Higginson (Vol.
13, p. 455).
Edward Everett Hale (Vol. 12, p.
832).
Charles Dudley Warner (Vol. 28, p.
326).
George William Curtis (Vol. 7, p.
652), by Charles Eliot Norton.
Henry Wheeler Shaw, " Josh Billings "
(Vol. 24, p. 818).
John Godfrey Saxe (Vol. 24, p. 258).
Edgar Wilson Nye (Vol. 19, p. 929).
Mark Twain (Vol. 27, p. 490), by Prof.
Brander Matthews, Columbia.
Joel Chandler Harris (Vol. 13, p. 20).
H. C. Bunner (Vol. 4, p. 799).
Finley Peter Dunne (Vol. 8, p. 682).
Francis Parkman (Vol. 20, p. 832), by
John Fiske.
Hermann Eduard Von Holst (Vol. 28,
p. 210).
Francis Lieber (Vol. 16, p. 590).
C. E. A. Gayarre (Vol. 11, p. 542).
Henry Charles Lea (Vol. 16, p. 814).
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Historians.
Newspaper Men.
New York Tribune.
New York Herald.
Springfield Republican.
New York Times.
New York Sunt
New York Evening Post.
Louisville Courier- Journal.
Henry Martyn Baird (Vol. 3, p. 224).
John Fiske (Vol. 10, p. 437), by Prof.
C. F. Richardson, Dartmouth.
James Ford Rhodes (Vol. 23, p. 257).
Henry Cabot Lodge (Vol. 16, p. 860).
James B. McMaster (Vol. 17, p. 264).
James Schouler (Vol. 24, p. 377).
Theodore A. Dodge (Vol. 8, p. 369).
John Codman Ropes (Vol. 23, p. 718).
Alfred T. Mahan (Vol. 17, p. 394).
Albert Bushnell Hart (Vol. 13, p. 30).
Hubert H. Bancroft (Vol. 3, p. 309).
Theodore Roosevelt (Vol. 23, p. 711),
by Lawrence F. Abbott, New York
Outlook.
Newspapers, American (Vol. 19, pp. 566-
572).
Periodicals, United States (Vol. 21, pp.
154-155).
Horace Greeley (Vol. 12, p. 531), bv
Whitelaw Reid.
Whitelaw Reid (Vol. 28, p. 52).
James Gordon Bennett (Vol. 3, p. 740).
Samuel Bowles (Vol. 4, p. 344).
H. J. Raymond (Vol. 22, p. 933).
C. A. Dana (Vol. 7, p. 791).
Edwin Lawrence Godkin (Vol. 12, p.
174).
Henry Watterson (Vol. 28, p. 418).
CHAPTER XXXVIII
ENGLISH LITERATURE
ON English literature, with its
vastly longer history and greater
volume, there is much more mat-
ter in the Britannica than on American
literature — or of course any other na-
tional literature. The key article is
English Literature (Vol. 9, p. 607;
equivalent to 120 pages of this Guide),
and an excellent outline for the study
of this subject may be based on this
article which should be supplemented
by the sections on Literature in the
articles Scotland, Canada, etc. A
combination of these with special articles
may be arranged as follows:
On the period before Chaucer — the
first part of the article English Litera-
ture (Vol. 9, p. 607), by Henry Bradley,
joint-editor of The
Anglo-Saxon New English Dic-
tionary , etc.; the
same author's Beowulf (Vol. 8, p.
758), Cedmon (Vol. 4, p. 934) and
Cynewulf (Vol. 7, p. 690), Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle (Vol. 2, p. 34), and
Alfred the Great (Vol. 1, p. 582),
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ENGLISH LITERATURE
225
both by the Rev. Charles Plummer,
author of Life and Times of Alfred the
Great, etc.; Dan Michel of Northgate
(Vol. 18, p. 371); Anglo-Norman Lit-
erature (Vol. 2, p. 31), by Prof. L. M.
Brandin, University of London; Ancren
Riwle (Vol. 1, p. 952); Orm (Vol. 20,
p. .293), by Henry Bradley; Layamon
(Vol. 16, p. 311), by the late Prof. W.
W. Skeat of Cambridge; Havelok the
Dane (Vol. 13, p. 80); Romance, Ar-
thurian Romance, etc.
On the period from Chaucer to the
Renaissance, see the second part of the
article English Literature (Vol. 9,
p. 611), by Prof. J. M.
Chaucer Manly, University of Chi-
cago, author of The Lan-
guage of Chaucer' s Legend of Good Women;
The Pearl (Vol. 21, p. 27), by Prof.
Israel Gollancz, King's College, London,
editor of the Temple Shakespeare, etc.;
Langland (Vol. 16, p. 174); John
Gower (Vol. 12, p. 298), by G. C.
Macaulay, editor of Gower 's works;
Geoffrey Chaucer (Vol. 6, p. 13), by
A. W. Pollard, chief-editor of the "Globe"
Chaucer; John Lydgate, (Vol. 17, p.
156), by Frederick J. Snell, author of
The Age of Chaucer; Thomas Occleve
(Vol. 19, p. 966), by W. S. McCormick,
formerly professor of English, Univer-
sity College, Dundee; Stephen Hawes
(Vol. 13, p. 93); John Skelton (Vol. 25,
p. 184); Juliana Berners (Vol. 3, p.
801); Thomas of Erceldoune (Vol. 26,
p. 865); John Barbour (Vol. 3, p. 389),
by Professor George Gregory Smith,
Queen's University, Belfast; Andrew of
Wyntoun (Vol. 28, p. 873); Harry the
Minstrel (Vol. 13, p. 29); John Wyc-
uffe (Vol. 28, p. 866), by Reginald
Lane Poole, author of Wyclifft and
Movements for Reform, and W. Alison
Phillips; Reginald Pecock (Vol. 21,
p. 33); Sir John Fortescue (Vol. 10,
p. 678), by P. C. Yorke; William Cax-
ton (Vol. 5, p. 587).
The English versions of the Bible are
dealt with in the chapter of this Guide
on Bible Study; but the article Bible,
English (Vol. 3, p. 894), by Canon
Henson of Westminster Abbey and
Anna C. Paues, lecturer in Germanic
philology at Newnham College, should
be read in connection with the study of
this and earlier periods of English litera-
ture.
On English literature in the Eliza-
bethan age read part 3 of the article
English Literature (Vol. 9, p. 616),
by Prof. Oliver El-
Elizabethan ton, University of
Literature Liverpool; also Sir
Thomas More (Vol.
18, p. 822), by Mark Pattison, the essay-
ist and student of the Renaissance;
William Tyndale (Vol. 27, p. 498);
Roger Ascham (Vol. 2, p. 720), by A.
F. Leach, author of English Schools at
the Reformation, etc.; William Dunbar
(Vol. 8, p. 668), by Prof. G. Gregory
Smith; Sir Thomas Hoby (Vol. 13, p.
553); Raphael Holinshed (Vol. 13,
p. 584); John Foxe (Vol. 10, p. 770);
Sir Thomas North (Vol. 19, p. 759);
Sir Thomas Wyat (Vol. 28, p. 861);
Earl of Surrey (Vol. 26, p. 138);
George Gascoigne (Vol. 11, p. 493);
Nicholas Udal (Vol. 27, p. 554), by
A. F. Leach; Edmund
Spenser Spenser (Vol. 25, p. 639,)
by the late Professor Will-
iam Minto of Aberdeen, and F. J. Snell,
author of The Age of Chaucer, etc.; Sir
Philip Sidney (Vol. 25, p. 43); John
Lyly (Vol. 17, p. 159), by Mrs. Humphry
Ward; Euphuism (Vol. 9, p. 898);
Michael Drayton (Vol. 8, p. 557), and
Samuel Daniel (Vol. 7, p. 808), all by
Edmund Gosse; William Warner (Vol.
28, p. 327); Edward Fairfax (Vol. 10.
p. 130); Sir John Harington (Vol. 12.
p. 952); Giles and Phineas Fletcher
(Vol. 10, p. 498); Thomas Watson (Vol.
28, p. 413), by E. Gosse; Thomas Lodge
(Vol. 16, p. 860), by Prof. A. W. Ward,
Cambridge; Thomas Campion (Vol. 5, p.
137), by P. Vivian, editor of Campion;
Nicholas Breton (Vol.4, p. 501); Rob-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ert Southwell (Vol. 25, p. 517); the
metaphysical poets, John Donne (Vol.
8, p. 417), George Herbert (Vol. 13,
p. 889), Richard Crashaw (Vol. 7,
p. 379), Abraham Cowley (Vol. 7, p.
347), Thomas Traherne (Vol. 27, p.
155), and Henry Vaughan (Vol. 27,
p. 955); William Browne (Vol. 4, p.
667); George Wither (Vol. 28, p. 758);
William Drxjmmond of Hawthornden
(Vol. 8, p. 600); Robert Herrick (Vol.
13, p. 389), by E. Gosse; Richard Love-
lace (Vol. 17, p. 71); Sir John Suck-
ling (Vol. 26, p. 7); Andrew Marvell
(Vol. 17, p. 805); Edmund Waller (Vol.
28, p. 282), by E. Gosse; and John
Milton (Vol. 18, p. 480), in great part
by David Masson, late professor at
Edinburgh University.
Elizabethan drama — particularly
Shakespeare — deserves a separate para-
graph, .especially as its treatment in
the Britannica is so
The Drama full. Read in the
article English Lit-
erature, pp. 622-626; in the article
Drama, by Prof. A. W. Ward, Cam-
bridge, pp. 520-524 of Volume 8; and the
articles: John Lyly (Vol. 17, p. 159),
by Mrs. Humphry Ward; Thomas Kyd
(Vol. 15, p. 958), by E. Gosse; George
Peele (Vol. 21, p. 44); Robert Greene
(Vol. 12, p. 539), by A. W. Ward;
Christopher Marlowe (Vol. 17, p.
741), by A. C. Swinburne and Thomas
Seccombe, author of The Age of Johnson,
etc.; and above all Shakespeare (Vol. 24,
p. 772; equivalent to
Shakespeare 80 pages of this
Guide), containing
a biography and sketches of the different
works by E. K. Chambers, editor of the
"Red Letter Shakespeare" and author
of The Medieval Stage, with a discussion
of the portraits of Shakespeare (20 of
which are reproduced), by M. H. Spiel-
mann, formerly editor of the Magazine of
Art, and of the Shakespeare-Bacon con-
troversy by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in
chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
and an elaborate, classified bibliography
by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athen-
aeum Club, London. In his discussion
of the Baconian theory of the authorship
of the plays Mr. Chisholm says:
"No such idea seems to have occurred
to anybody till the middle of the 19th
century. . . The most competent special
students of Shakespeare, however they
may differ as to details, and also the most
authoritative special students of Bacon,
are unanimous in upholding the tradi-
tional view." And he adds that as re-
gards the effort to account for the posi-
tive contemporary evidence in favour of
the identification of the man Shakespeare
with the author of Shakespeare's works,
"it is highly significant that it was not
attempted or thought of for centuries."
See also: Hamlet (Vol. 12, p. 894) for
earlier treatment of the legend, and
Macbeth (Vol. 17, p. 197) for the his-
torical basis of the play.
For the other dramatists of the time
see the articles Ben Jonson (Vol. 15,
p. 502), by A. W. Ward; George Chap-
man (Vol. 5, p. 852), John Webster
(Vol. 28, p. 462), Cyril Tourneur
(Vol. 27, p. 106), and Beaumont and
Fletcher (Vol. 3, p. 592), all by A. C.
Swinburne; Thomas Dekker (Vol. 7,
p. 939), by William Minto and R. B.
McKerrow; Thomas Heywood (Vol. 13,
p. 439); Thomas Middleton (Vol. 18,
p. 416); John Marston (Vol. 17, p. 776);
Philip Massinger (Vol. 17, p. 868);
John Ford (Vol. 10, p. 641), by A. W.
Ward; James Shirley (Vol. 24, p. 990).
For Elizabethan prose writers not al-
ready mentioned, see: the translators,
John Bourchier, Lord Baron Ber-
NERs(Vol.3,p.800),
16th and 17th Philemon Holland
Century Prose (Vol. 13, p. 587) and
Giovanni Florio
(Vol. 10, p. 546); and the philosophers
and essayists, Richard Hooker (Vol. 13,
p. 672), by T. F. Henderson, Francis
Bacon, (Vol. 3, p. 135; equivalent to 55
pages of this Guide), by Robert Adamson
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ENGLISH LITERATURE
227
and J. M. Mitchell, Thomas Hobbes
(Vol. 13, p. 545), by G. Croom Robert-
son, biographer of Hobbes, Sir Thomas
Browne (Vol. 4. p. 666), Izaak Walton
(Vol. 28, p. 300), Robert Burton (Vol.
4, p. 865), Jeremy Taylor (Vol. 26, p.
469), Thomas Fuller (Vol. 11, p. 296),
William Chillingworth (Vol. 6, p.
162), John Hales (Vol. 12, p. 834),
Ralph Cudworth (Vol. 7, p. 612), by
Henry Sturt, author of Personal Idealism,
etc.; the historian Clarendon (Vol. 6,
p. 428), by P. C. Yorke; and the letter-
writer James Howell (Vol. 13, p.
838).
On the Restoration period — from 1660
to 1700 — see Professor Elton's chapter
(Vol. 9, pp. 628-631) in the article Eng-
lish Literature; and the
Dryden articles: John Dryden
(Vol. 8, p. 609), by William
Minto and Margaret Bryant; Samuel
Butler (Vol. 4, p. 885), Sir Isaac New-
ton (Vol. 19, p. 583), by H. M. Taylor,
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge;
Isaac Barrow (Vol. 3, p. 440), John
Ray (Vol. 22, p. 931), by Prof. D. Went-
worth Thompson, University College,
Dundee; Joseph Glanvill (Vol. 12, p.
77), Thomas Burnet (Vol. 4, p. 853),
John Tillotson (Vol. 26, p. 976), Sir
William Temple (Vol. 26, p. 602), by
G. W. Prothero, editor The Quarterly
Review and joint-editor Cambridge Mod-
ern History; Marquess Halifax (Vol.
12, p. 839), by P. C. Yorke; Robert
South (Vol. 25, p. 463), William Sher-
lock (Vol. 24, p.850), Richard Baxter
(Vol. 3, p. 551), John Howe (Vol. 13,
p. 835), George Fox (Vol. 10, p. 765),
John Bunyan (Vol. 4, p. 803), by Lord
Macaulay; 2nd Earl op Rochester
(Vol. 23, p. 427), Sir William Davenant
(Vol. 7, p. 851), Nahum Tate (Vol. 26,
p. 449), Thomas Otway
Pepys (Vol. 20, p. 376) , Nathaniel
Lee (Vol. 16, p. 361),
Watts-Dunton's article William Wy-
cherley (Vol. 28, p. 863), and the two
great diarists John Evelyn (Vol. 10,
p. 5) and Samuel Pepys (Vol. 21, p.
130), by D. Hannay.
On the 18th century literature see thfc
chapter in the article English Litera-
ture (Vol. 9, pp. 631-636), by Thomas
Seccombe, author of
Addison, Steele The Age of Johnson,
and Swift etc.; and the articles:
John Locke (Vol.
16, p. 844), by Prof. Alexander Campbell
Fraser, Edinburgh; Joseph Addison
(Vol. 1, p. 184), by William Spalding and
Austin Dobson; Sir Richard Steele
(Vol. 25, p. 865), by William Minto and
Austin Dobson; Jonathan Swift (Vol.
26, p. 224), by Richard Garnett and
Thomas Seccombe; John Arbuthnot
(Vol. 2, p. 339), Bernard de Mande-
ville (Vol. 17, p. 559), by J. M. Mitchell;
Bolingbroke (Vol. 4, p. 161), by P. C.
Yorke; Alexander Pope
Pope (Vol. 22, p. 82), by William
Minto and Margaret Bry-
ant; Matthew Prior (Vol. 22, p. 359),
by Austin Dobson; John Gay (Vol. 11,
p. 540), Thomas Parnell (Vol. 20, p.
859), Mark Akenside (Vol. 1, p. 454),
James Thomson (Vol. 26, p. 871) and
Thomas Gray (Vol. 12, p. 392), both
by D. C. Tovey, editor of Gray's Letters;
William Collins (Vol. 6, p. 692), by
Edmund Gosse; Christopher Smart
(Vol. 25, p. 249), William Cowper
(Vol. 7, p. 849) and George Crabbe
(Vol. 7, p. 358), by Clement K. Shorter,
editor of The Sphere; William Blake
(Vol. 4, p. 36), by J. W. Comyns-Carr,
author of Essays on Art; William Shen-
stone (Vol. 24, p. 839), Thomas Chat-
terton (Vol. 6, p. 10), Thomas Percy
(Vol. 21, p. 136), Thomas Warton (Vol.
28, p. 337), Robert Burns
Burns (Vol. 4, p. 856), by John
Nichol, the biographer of
Burns, Byron and Carlyle; among the
prose writers, fore-runners of the novel,
Daniel Defoe (Vol.
The Novel 7, p. 927), Samuel
Richardson (Vol.
23, p. 800) and Henry Fielding (Vol.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
10, p. 324), both by Austin Dobson,
Tobias Smollett (Vol. 25, p. 278), by
Thomas Seccombe, and Laurence
Sterne (Vol. 25, p. 901), by William
Minto and Austin Dobson; the other
great prose writers of the age, Samuel
Johnson (Vol. 15, p. 463),
Johnson by Lord Macaulay and
Thomas Seccombe, Oliver
Goldsmith (Vol. 12, p. 214), by Lord
Macaulay and Austin Dobson, Lord
Chesterfield (Vol. 6, p.
Goldsmith 109), by Austin Dobson,
and Horatio Walpole
(Vol. 28, p. 288), by W. P. Courtney;
in a lesser group, James Boswell (Vol.
4, p. 297), by Thomas Seccombe,
Frances D'Arblay, "Fanny Burney"
(Vol. 7, p. 826), Hester Lynch Piozzi
(Vol. 21, p. 632), Gilbert White (Vol.
28, p. 599); the historians David Hume
(Vol. 13, p. 876), by Robert
History Adamson and J. M. Mit-
chell, William Robertson
(Vol. 23, p. 406) and Edward Gibbon
(Vol. 11, p. 927), by Prof. J. B. Bury,
editor of The Decline and Fall; and the
philosophers, Joseph Butler (Vol. 4,
p. 882), by Robert Adamson and A. J.
Grieve, Yorkshire United Independent
College, William
Philosophy Paley (Vol. 20, p.
628), Berkeley (Vol.
3, p. 779), by Robert Adamson and J. M.
Mitchell, Thomas Reid (Vol. 23, p. 51),
by Prof. A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, Edin-
burgh, David Hartley (Vol. 13, p. 35),
Abraham Tucker (Vol. 27, p. 361),
Thomas Paine (Vol. 20, p. 456), Joseph
Priestly (Vol. 22, p. 322), Richard
Price (Vol. 22, p. 314), by J. M. Mit-
chell; William Godwin (Vol. 12, p. 177),
Sir James Mackintosh
Politics (Vol. 17, p. 259), Edmund
Burke (Vol. 4, p. 824), by
John Morley, and "Junius" (Vol. 15,
p. 557), — see also Sir Philip Francis
(Vol. 10, p. 941).
For the 19th century see the last sec-
tion of the article English Literature
(Vol. 9, pp. 636-645), by Thomas Sec-
combe; and the arti-
Lake Poets cles: William
Wordsworth (Vol.
28, p. 826), by William Minto and Hugh
Chisholm; S. T. Coleridge (Vol. 6, p.
678), by J. Mackinnon Robertson, author
of Modern Humanists, etc., Hugh Chis-
holm, and the Very Rev. George David
Boyle; Charles Lamb (Vol. 16, p. 104),
by E. V. Lucas, editor of Lamb; Will-
iam Hazlitt (Vol. 13, p. 119), Leigh
Hunt (Vol. 13, p. 934); De Quincey
(Vol. 8, p. 61), by J. Ritchie Findlay,
author of Personal Recollections of De
Quincey; Keats (Vol. 15, p. 708), by
A. C. Swinburne and Margaret Bryant;
Thomas Lovell Beddoes (Vol. 3, p.
614), Thomas Hood (Vol. 13, p. 666),
Landor (Vol. 16, p. 161), by A. C.
Swinburne; Shelley (Vol. 24, p. 827),
by W. M. Rossetti; Southey (Vol. 25,
p. 511), Campbell (Vol. 5, p. 130),
Thomas Moore (Vol. 18,
Byron p. 810), Lord Byron (Vol.
4, p. 897), by E. Hartley
Coleridge, editor of Byron's Poems;
Francis Jeffrey (Vol. 15, p. 307),
Sydney Smith (Vol. 25, p. 268), J. G.
Lockhart (Vol. 16, p. 853),
Criticism William Gifford (Vol. 12,
p. 5), Bentham (Vol. 3,
p. 747), by Dr. T. E. Holland, formerly
professor of international law, Oxford,
Malthus (Vol. 17, p. 515), Henry
Hallam (Vol. 12, p. 851), by Lord
Lochee of Gowrie; William Roscoe
(Vol. 23, p. 726), by W. E. A. Axon,
Manchester Libraries; Lingard (Vol. 16,
p. 728), Henry Hart Milman (Vol. 18,
p. 476), Macaulay (Vol. 17, p. 193),
• by Mark Pattison; Thirl -
History wall (Vol. 26, p. 851),
William Mitford (Vol.
18, p. 620), Grote (Vol. 12, p. 619), by
J. M. Mitchell, edition of Grote's Greece;
James Mill (Vol. 18, p. 453), Sir
William Napier (Vol. 19, p. 175),
William Cobbett (Vol. 6, p. 606),
Sir Walter Scott (Vol. 24, p. 469),
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ENGLISH LITERATURE
229
by William Minto; Lever (Vol. 16,
pp. 508-510), Marryat
Fiction (Vol. 17, p. 759), Bulwer
Lytton (Vol. 17, p. 185),
by Arthur Waugh; Beaconsfield (Vol. 3,
p. 563), by Frederick Greenwood; Jane
Austen (Vol. 2, p. 936), by E. V. Lucas;
Maria Edgeworth (Vol. 8, p. 934),
Harriet Martineau (Vol. 17, p. 796),
Mary Russell Mitford (Vol. 18, p.
619), Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell
(Vol. 11, p. 50i) and the Brontes (Vol.
4, p. 637), by C. K. Shorter; Thomas
Love Peacock (Vol. 21, p. 21), by
Richard Garnett; George Meredith
(Vol. 18, p. 160), by Hugh Chisholm;
Tennyson (Vol. 26,
Tennyson, p. 630), by E. Gosse;
Browning Elizabeth Bar-
and Carlyle rett Browning
(Vol. 4, p. 668), by
Alice Meynell; Robert Browning
(Vol. 4, p. 670) and Carlyle (Vol. 5, p.
349), both by Sir Leslie Stephen;
Charles -Read (Vol. 22, p. 938),
Dickens (Vol. 8, p. 178), by Thomas
Seccombe; Thack-
Victorian • eray (Vol. 26, p.
Novelists 716), by W. H. Pol-
lock; George Eliot
(Vol. 9, p. 275), by Mrs. Craigie ("John
Oliver Hobbes"); Anthony Trollope
(Vol. 27, p. 301), Wilkie Collins (Vol.
6, p. 693), Charles and Henry Kings-
ley (Vol. 15, p. 817); Herbert Spencer
(Vol. 25, p. 634), by F. C. S. Schiller,
author of Studies in Hu-
Natural manism, etc. ; John Stuart
Science Mill (Vol. 18, p. 454), by
William Minto and J. M.
Mitchell; Charles Darwin (Vol. 7,"
p. 840), by Prof. E. B. Poulton, Ox-
ford; Huxley (Vol. 14, p. 17), by Sir
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer; J. R. Green (Vol.
12, p. 534), William Stubbs
History (Vol. 25, p. 1048), E. A.
Freeman (Vol. 11, p. 79)
and J. A. Froude (Vol. 11, p. 252), all
by William Hunt, formerly president
Royal Historical Society; Lecky (Vol. 16,
p. 354), Buckle (Vol. 4, p. 732), Maine
(Vol. 17, p. 432), by Sir Frederick Pol-
lock; George Borrow (Vol. 4, p. 275),
by Theodore Watts-Dunton; Edward
Fitzgerald (Vol. 10, p.
Arnold 443), by E. Gosse; Mat-
thew Arnold (Vol. 2, p.
635), by Theodore Watts-Dunton and
Sir Joshua Girling Fitch;
Ruskin John Ruskin (Vol. 23,
p. 858), by Frederic Har-
rison; Dante Gabriel Rossetti (Vol.
23, p. 747), by Theodore Watts-Dunton
and F. G. Stephens, formerly art-critic
of the Athenaeum; Swinburne (Vol. 26,
p. 234), by E. Gosse; William Morris
(Vol. 18, p. 871), John Addington
Symonds (Vol. 26, p. 286) and Walter
Pater (Vol. 20, p. 910) all by Arthur
Waugh; Newman (Vol. 19, p. 517), by
Arthur Wollaston
Oxford Hutton, biographer
Movement of Manning; John
Keble (Vol. 15, p.
710), Edward Bouverie Pusey (Vol. 22,
p. 667), Richard Jefferies (Vol. 15, p.
300), by Sir Walter Besant, biographer
of Jeffries; Thomas Hardy (Vol. 12,
p. 946), by Arthur Symons; Robert
Stevenson (Vol. 25, p. 907), by E. Gosse;
and among later names — the historians
Lord Acton (Vol. 1, p. 159), by Hugh
Chisholm, M a n d e l l
History Creighton (Vol. 7, p. 401),
Morley (Vol. 18, p. 841),
Bryce (Vol. 4, p. 699) and Bury (Vol. 4,
p. 867); the novelists William Black
(Vol. 4, p. 19), Blackmore (Vol. 4, p.
24), M. E. Braddon (Vol. 4, p. 369),
Mrs Humphry Ward (Vol. 28, p. 320),
Marie Corelli (Vol. 7, p. 143), Hall
Caine (Vol. 4, p. 949), George Gissing
(Vol. 12, p. 52), George Moore (Vol.
18, p. 808), H. G. Wells (Vol. 28, p.
514), William De Morgan (Vol. 8, p.
10), Rudyard Kipling (Vol. 15, p. 825),
by W. Price James, author
Fiction of Romantic Professions,
etc.; the critics and essay-
its Walter Bagehot (Vol. 3, p. 198),
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
by Richard Garnett, Stopford A. Brook
(Vol. 4, p. 645), Mark Pattison (Vol.
20, p. 937), Leslie
Essays and Stephen (Vol. 25,
Criticism p. 885), by Thomas
Seccombe, H. D.
Traill (Vol. 27, p. 155), George
Saint8bury (Vol. 24, p. 45), Sidney
Colvin (Vol. 6, p. 748), Watts-Dunton
(Vol. 28, p. 422), R. C. Jebb (Vol. 15,
p. 299), F. W. H. Myers (Vol. 19, p. Ill),
Edward Dowden (Vol. 8, p. 456), Will-
iam Archer (Vol. 2, p. 862), Richard
Garnett (Vol. 11, p. 471), Edmund
Gosse (Vol. 12, p. 268), Andrew Lang
(Vol. 16, p. 171), G. K. Chesterton
(Vol. 6, p. Ill), Arthur Symons (Vol.
26, p. 287), — a list in which it is interest-
ing to note how many are contributors to
the Encyclopaedia
Recent Poetry Britannica; of
poets, Robert
Bridges (VoL 4, p. 532), so recently
named poet-laureate, his predecessor Al-
fred Austin (Vol. 2, p. 938), William
Watson (Vol. 28, p. 414), by W. Price
James, W. B.Yeats (Vol. 28, p. 909), Wil-
liam Sharp, "Fiona Macleod" (Vol. 24,
p. 811), Francis Thompson (Vol. 26, p.
869), John Davidson (Vol. 7, p. 863),
Sir W. S. Gilbert (Vol. 12, p. 9), by
Thomas Seccombe; Owen Seaman (Vol.
24, p. 543), Laurence Binyon (Vol. 3,
p. 952), H. J. Newbolt (Vol. 19, p. 463),
Stephen Phillips (Vol. 21, p. 407),
Alice Meynell (Vol. 18, p. 350);
and of the younger
Modern Drama dramatists, Oscar*
Wilde (Vol. 28, p.
632), by Hugh Chisholm, Sir A. W.
Pinero (Vol. 21, p. 625), A. H. Jones
(Vol. 15, p. 498), J. M. Barrie (Vol. 3,
p. 485), by W. Price James; G. Ber-
nard Shaw (Vol. 24, p. 812), — and see
also under Drama (Vol. 8, especially
pp. 534-538).
CHAPTER XXXIX
GERMAN LITERATURE
THE article in the Britannica on
German Literature (Vol. 11, p.
788; equivalent to 55 pages of this
Guide) is by Professor John George Rob-
ertson, University of London, author of
History of German Literature. This ar-
ticle is divided into six sections, and fol-
lowing this scheme the course of reading
below is divided into six parts, in con-
nection with each of which the reader
should first peruse the correspondingly
numbered section in the article German
Literature.
I. The Old High
Old High German Period, 750-
German 1050: — the articles
Ulfilas (Vol. 27, p.
565), by Charles Anderson Scott, author
of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; Heliand
(Vol. 13, p. 221), by Henry Bradley,
author of The Story of the Goths; Ein-
hard (Vol. 9, p. 184), by A. W. Hol-
land; Notker (Vol. 19, p. 824) and
Hrosvitha (Vol. 13, p. 842), by A.
W. Ward — and see Prof. Ward on the
medieval drama in the article Drama
(Vol. 8, especially p. 497).
II. The Middle High German Period,
1050-1350:— the articles Romance (Vol.
23, p. 500), by George Saintsbury; Wal-
tharius (Vol. 28, p. 298),
Middle Nibelungenlied (Vol. 19,
Period pp. 637-640), Gudrun (Vol.
12, p. 668), Dietrich of Bern
(Vol. 8, p. 221), Ortnit (Vol. 20, p. 341),
Wolfdietrich (Vol. 28, p. 772), Hel-
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GERMAN LITERATURE
231
denbuch (Vol. 13, p. 218), Lay of Hil-
debrand (Vol. 13, p. 460), by J. G. Rob-
ertson; Ruodlieb (Vol. 23, p. 854), Ar-
thurian Legend (Vol. 2, p. 684), Per-
ceval (Vol. 21, p. 132), and Tristan
(Vol. 27, pp. 292-294), by J. L. Weston,
author of Legends of the Wagner Drama;
Hartmann Von Aue (Vol. 13, p. 37),
GoTTFRIB* VON STRASSBURG (Vol. 12, p.
277), Wolfram von Eschenbach (Vol.
28, p. 775), by J. L. Weston; Walther
VON DER VoGELWEIDE (Vol. 28, p. 299),
Minnesingers (Vol. 18, p. 547), Frei-
dank (Vol. 11, p. 94), Conrad of Wurz-
burg (Vol. 6, p. 968).
III. The Transition Period, 1350-1600:
— the articles Frauenlob (Vol. 11, p.
42), Reynard the
14th and 15th Fox (Vol. 23, p. 226),
Centuries Sebastian Brant
(Vol. 4, p. 431),
Maximilian I. (Vol. 17, p. 922), by A.
W. Holland; Meistersinger (Vol. 18,
p. 86) and Eulenspiegel (Vol. 9, p.
887), by J. G. Robertson; Hans Sachs
(Vol. 23, p. 972), Tauler (Vol. 26, p.
452), Geiler von Kaiserberg (Vol. 11,
p. 553), Erasmus (Vol. 9, p. 727), by
Mark Pattison and P. S. Allen, editor of
the Oxford Erasmus; Reuchlin (Vol. 23,
p. 204), by W. Robertson Smith; Ul-
rich von Hutten (Vol. 14, p. 14), by
the Very Rev. G. W. Kitchin, Dean of
Durham; Martin Luther (Vol. 17, p.
133), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay, author of A
History of the Reformation; Erasmus Al-
berus (Vol. 1, p. 504), Thomas Murner
Vol. 19, p. 37), Johann Fischart (Vol.
10, p. 425), Philipp Nikodemus Frisch-
LIN (Vol. 11, p. 232), JORG WlCKRAM
(Vol. 28, p. 619), Ayrer (Vol. 3, p. 74),
Faust (Vol. 10, p. 210).
IV. The Renaissance, 1600-171*0:— the
articles Paul Gerhardt (Vol. 11, p. 768),
Jakob Boehme (Vol. 4, p. 113), Georg
Rudolf Weckherlin
Renaissance (Vol. 28, p. 464), Mar-
tin Opitz (Vol. 20, p.
129), Georg Philipp Harsdorffer
(Vol. 13, p. 29), Simon Dach (Vol.
7, p. 726), Paul Fleming (Vol. 10,
p. 494), von Logau (Vol. 16, p.
877), Abraham a Sancta Clara
(Vol. 1, p. 72), Johann von Rist
(Vol. 23, p. 366), Andreas Gryphius
(Vol. 12, p. 642), Moscherosch (Vol. 18,
p. 890), Grimmelshausen (Vol. 12, p.
603), Pufendorf (Vol. 22, p. 634),
Thomasius (Vol. 26, p. 868), Christian
Wolff (Vol. 28, p. 774), by Andrew Seth
Pringle-Pattison; Leibnitz (Vol. 16, p.
385), by Prof. W. R. Sorley, Cambridge;
Spener (Vol. 25, p. 638), von Canitz
(Vol. 5, p. 183), Johann Christian
GtfNTHER (Vol. 12, p. 730), B. H.
Brockes (Vol. 4, p. 624), and, the dic-
tator of the pseudo-classic age, Gott-
sched (Vol. 12, p. 279).
V. The Classical Period of Modern Ger-
man Literature, 171*0-1832: — the articles
J. J. Bodmer (Vol. 4, p.
Classical ill), Gellert (Vol. 11,
Period p. 558), Rabener (Vol.
22, p. 773), J. Elias
Schlegel (Vol. 24, p. 329), K lop-
stock (Vol. 15, p. 848), Lavater
(Vol. 16, p. 291), Gerstenberg (Vol. 11,
p. 907), Gleim (Vol. 12, p. 118), Gotz
(Vol. 12, p. 289), Uz (Vol. 27, p. 828),
Ramler (Vol. 22, p. 876), Hagedorn
(Vol. 12, p. 813), Albrecht von Haller
(Vol. 12, p. 855), E. C. von Kleist (Vol.
15, p. 846), Lessing (Vol. 16, pp. 496-
499), by James Sime, author of A His-
tory of Germany, and J. G. Robertson, and
Lessing's associates — Winckelmann
(Vol. 28, p. 707), by James Sime and J.
M. Mitchell, Moses Mendelssohn (Vol.
18, p. 120), by Israel Abrahams, author of
A Short History of Jewish Literature, and
C. F. Nicolai (Vol. 19, p. 662)—; Wie-
land (Vol. 28, p. 621), by J. G. Robert-
son; M. A. von Thummel (Vol. 26, p.
898), A. von Knigge (Vol. 15, p. 850),
Musaus (Vol. 19, p. 43), Basedow (Vol.
3, p. 461), Pestalozzi (Vol. 21, p. 284),
Hamann (Vol. 12, p. 869).
On the Sturm und Drang period, the ar-
ticles Herder (Vol. 13, p. 347), the Stol-
bergs (Vol. 25, p. 953), J. H. Voss
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
(Vol. 28, p. 215), Holty (Vol. 13,
p. 620), Burger (Vol.
Sturm und 4, p. 812), M. Claud-
Drang ius (Vol. 6, p. 466),—
all of the Gottingen
school; Goethe (Vol. 12, p. 182), by J.
G. Robertson; his imitators and followers,
J. M. R. Lenz (Vol. 16, p. 431), Klinger
(Vol. 15, p. 846), Friedrich ("Maler")
MtiLLER (Vol. 18, p. 961), Heinse (Vol.
13, p. 216), K. P. Moritz (Vol. 18, p.
838); the great dramatist of the late
Sturm und Drang, Schiller (Vol. 24, p.
324), by J. G. Robertson; A. W. Iffland
(Vol. 14, p. 291), F. Jacobi (Vol. 15, p.
115).
On the classical period proper, the lat-
ter part of the article on Goethe and
Schiller, Immanuel Kant (Vol. 15, p.
662), and J. G. Fichte (Vol. 10, p. 313),
both by Robert Adamson; the historians
Schlosser (Vol. 24, p. 342), Moser
(Vol. 18, p. 895), and Johannes von
Muller (Vol. 18, p. 962), by W. A. B.
Coolidge; the scientists J. G. A. Forster
(Vol. 10, p. 674), Alexander von Hum-
boldt (Vol. 13, p. 873), by Agnes Mary
Clerke, and Karl Wilhelm von Hum-
boldt (Vol. 13, p. 875), by Archibald
Henry Sayce; the dramatist Kotzebue
(Vol. 15, p. 919); the novelist Richter,
"Jean Paul" (Vol. 23, p. 313); and the
poet Matthisson (Vol. 17, p. 901).
On the romantic school: the articles
on the founders, August Wilhelm
Schlegel and Friedrich Schlegel
(Vol. 24, p. 328 and
Romanticism 329), Tieck (Vol. 26,
p. 962), Holderlin
(Vol. 13, p. 583), and Novalis (Vol.
19, p. 829); in the second Romantic
school, the more realistic Heidelbergers
Klemens Brentano (Vol. 4, p. 496), L.
A. von Arnim (Vol. 2, p. 630), J. J. von
Gorres (Vol. 12, p. 260), and, owing
much to the interest in folk-literature of
the Heidelbergers, the brothers Grimm
(Vol. 12, pp. 600-602), by Dr. Henry
Sweet of the University of Oxford,
Chamisso (Vol. 5, p. 825); the patriot
poets Korner (Vol. 15, p. 913) and
Arndt (Vol. 2, p. 627); the North Ger-
mans Kleist (Vol. 15, p. 846), Zacharias
Werner (Vol. 28, p. 523), Fouqu6 (Vol.
10, p. 749), E. T. W. Hoffman (Vol. 13,
p. 561), ElCHENDORFF (Vol. 9, p. 131),
and RtfcKERT (Vol. 23, p. 813) and Wil-
helm Muller (Vol. 18, p. 963), who,
like Byron, found romance, YJne in the
Orient and the other in Greek struggles
for liberty; and, of the Swabian school,
Uhland (Vol. 27, p. 563), Kerner (Vol.
15, p. 757), Hauff (Vol. 13, p. 65), and
Morike (Vol. 18, p. 837); and the phi-
losopher Schelling (Vol. 24, p. 316).
VI. Literature since Goethe, 1882 on-
wards:— Read G. W. F. Hegel (Vol. 13,
p. 200, by the late Prof. William Wallace
of Oxford and Prof. J. II.
1832-1870 Muirhead, University of
Birmingham) , Schelling's
successor as a philosophic force in Ger-
many; the articles on the "Young Ger-
mans'' Heine (Vol. 13, p. 213), by J.
Walter Ferrier and J. G. Robertson;
Borne (Vol. 4, p. 255), Gutzkow (Vol.
12, p. 744) and Laube (Vol. 16, p. 276);
and the historians and philosophers D. F.
Strauss (Vol. 25, p. 1002), Gervinus
(Vol. 11, p. 908), W. Menzel (Vol. 18, p.
147) and Feuerbach (Vol. 10, p. 303);
the dramatists — some more closely con-
nected with the preceding period, —
Grabbe (Vol. 12, p. 306) and Grill-
parzer (Vol. 12, p. 596), Immermann
(Vol. 14, p. 335) and Platen-Haller-
mund (Vol. 21, p. 804), Holtei (Vol. 13,
p. 619), Raupach (Vol. 22, p. 921) and
Mullner (Vol. 18, p. 965), and, in Aus-
tria, besides Grillparzer, Collin (Vol.
6, p. 690), Munch-Bellinghausen,
"Friedrich Halm" (Vol. 19, p. 2), Bauern-
feld (Vol. 3, p. 538) and Raimund (Vol.
22, p. 861); the novelists Willibald
Alexis (Vol. 1, p. 576), Hauff (Vol. 13,
p. 65) and Zschokke (Vol. 28, p. 1046);
and such poets of the '30 and the '48 as
Herwegh (Vol. 13, p. 405), Freiligrath
(Vol. 11, p. 94), Dingelstedt (Vol. 8, p.
275), Hoffmann von Fallersleben (Vol.
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GERMAN LITERATURE
233
13, p. 561), and, in Austria, a little earlier,
Auersperg, "Anastasius Grtin" (Vol. 2,
p. 900); and the possibly greater poets
who were less interested in politics,
Geibel (Vol. 11, p. 550), Lenau (Vol. 16,
p. 417), Strachwitz (Vol. 25, p. 976),
and Droste-Hulshoff (Vol. 8, p. 591).
On the mid-century period: — the arti-
cles on Schopenhauer (Vol. 24, p. 372,
by Prof. Wallace), — the philosopher of
the new age; the natural scientists Vogt
(Vol. 28, p. 172), and Buchner (Vol. 4,
p. 719); the fiction writers Spielhagen
(Vol. 25, p. 667), Gustav Freytag (Vol.
11, p. 212), Ebers (Vol. 8, p. 841), Dahn
(Vol. 7, p. 734), "Charles Sealsfield"
(Vol. 24, p. 543), Gerstacker (Vol. 11,
p. 906), Storm (Vol. 25, p. 968), Gott-
fried Keller (Vol. 15, p. 718); and,
among those who portrayed peasant and
provincial life, Bitzius, "Jeremias Gott-
helf" (Vol. 4, p. 15), Auerbach (Vol. 2,
p. 899), Softer (Vol. 25, p. 915), Fritz
Reuter (Vol. 23, p. 210); the dramatists
Hebbel (Vol. 18, p. 165) and Otto Lud-
wig (Vol. 17, p. 114); in the Munich
School, Bodenstedt (Vol. 4, p. 109),
Scheffel (Vol. 24, p. 315), Baumbach
(Vol. 3, p. 539), Hamerling (Vol. 12, p.
876), Hexse (Vol. 13, p. 438); and the
Platt-Deutsch poet Klaus Groth (Vol.
12, p. 621).
On the period since 1870, see the articles
Lassalle (Vol. 16, p. 235, by Thomas
Kirkup, author of An In-
Since 1870 quiry into Socialism) and
Marx (Vol. 17, p. 807, by
Eduard Bernstein, Socialist deputy on the
Reichstag) for new economic views; and
Lotze (Vol. 17, p. 23), by J. T. Merz,
author of European Thought in the XlXth
Century, and Henry Sturt, author of
Personal Idealism, and Eduard von
Hartmann (Vol. 13, p. 36) for philo-
sophical compromises between science
and metaphysics and between pessimism
and idealism; the dramatists Anzengru-
ber (Vol. 2, p. 158), Paul Lindau (Vol.
16, p. 717, and, composer and dramatist,
Richard Wagner (Vol. 28, p. 236), by W.
S. RocLstro, author of A Great History of
Music, and D. F. Tovey, author of Essays
in Musical Analysis; the historians Sybel
(Vol. 26, p. 275), Treitschke (Vol. 27, p.
238), Ranke (Vol. 22, p. 893), Mommsen
(Vol. 18, p. 683) and Burckhardt (Vol.
4, p. 809); and Burckhardt's friend, the
early friend of Wagner and the type of a
new spirit in German letters, Nietzsche
(Vol. 19, p. 6*2), by F. C. S. Schiller,
Oxford, author of Studies in Human-
ism.
The most important names of the last
few years are Sudermann (Vol. 26, p. 20)
and Hauptmann (Vol. 13, p. 68). See,
besides, the articles on Wilhelm Jensen
(Vol. 15, p. 321), Wilhelm Raabe (Vol.
22, p. 765), W. Busch (Vol. 4, p. 869),
Peter Rosegger (Vol. 23, p. 734), Fon-
tane (Vol. 10, p. 608), Ebner-Eschen-
bach (Vol. 8, p. 843), Franzos (Vol. 11,
p. 38), K. F. Meyer (Vol. 18, p. 349),
Richard Voss (Vol. 28, p. 215), Ernst
von Wildenbruch (Vol. 28, p. 633), and
for modern German drama, in the article
Drama (Vol. 8, especially, pp. 535-536).
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CHAPTER XL
GREEK LITERATURE
IN the article Literature in the Bri-
tannica, by Professor James Fitzmaur-
ice-Kelly, himself a specialist in Span-
ish literature, are these sentences:
The evolution of literature is completed
in Greece, and there its subdivisions may
best be studied. Epic poetry is represented
by the Homeric cycle, lyric poetry by Tyr-
taeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus, his-
tory by Herodotus, oratory by Pericles,
philosophy by Plato, and criticism by Zoilus,
the earliest of slashing reviewers; and in
each department there is a long succession
of illustrative names. Roughly speaking, all
subsequent literature is imitative.
This testimony to the importance of
Greek literature is all the more weighty
as coming from one whose own field of
criticism is in Romantic literature. The
authority with which such an important
subject as Greek literature is treated in
the Britannica will be apparent to any
classical student who notes the names of
the contributors of the articles men-
tioned in the following course of reading.
The key article
The Main Greek Literature
Article (Vol. 12, p. 507;
equivalent to 65
pages of this Guide) is divided into three
sections: Ancient (p. 507), Byzantine (p.
516) and Modern (p. 524). The second
section, by Pnof. Karl Krumbacher of
Munich, author of Geschichie der byzantin-
ischen Literatur, and the third, by J. D.
Bourchier, correspondent of The Times
(London) in South-Eastern Europe, need
not be dwelt upon here. To the ordinary
student, in spite of the increasing interest
shown in Byzantine and modern Hellenic
literature, "Greek literature" must mean
the literature of ancient Greece, and for
him the first part of the article will be the
foundation of his study of the subject.
This section of the article is by the late
Sir Richard C. Jebb, professor of Greek at
Glasgow and then at Cambridge, known
as the biographer of Bentley, as the
author of an excellent brief history of
Greek literature, and as an authority on
subdivisions of that subject so diverse as
rhetoric and oratory on the one side
and lyric and dramatic poetry on the
other.
Jebb's article divides ancient Greek
literature into three periods: Early, in-
cluding epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric
poetry and coming -down to 475 B.C.;
Attic, 475-300 B.C., including tragic and
comic drama and historical, oratorical
and philosophical prose; and Decadence —
Alexandrian, 300-146 B.C., and Greco-
Roman, 146 B.C.-529 A.D.
In the first of these periods the student
should supplement Professor Jebb's treat-
ment in the article Greek Literature
by the following articles:
Epic Epic Poetry (Vol. 9, p.
681), a general sketch of
the form by Edmund Gosse; Homer (Vol.
13, p. 626; equivalent to 40 pages of this
Guide), by the late Prof. David Binning
Monro of Oriel College, Oxford, editor of
Homer and author of Grammar of the
Homeric Dialect, — and on the "Homeric
question" see also the articles Aris-
tarchus and F. A. Wolf; Hesiod (Vol.
13, p. 407), by James Davies, formerly
head master Ludlow Grammar School,
and John Henry Freese, formerly fellow
St. John's, Cambridge; Cycle (Vol. 7, p.
682; last part of the article); and the
cyclic poets, Stasinus, Arctinl t s, Les-
ches, and Creophylus.
For the elegy see Edmund Gosse's ar-
ticle Elegy; and on the Greek elegists,
the articles Callinus and TrRTiEus for
martial poetry, Mimnermus for melan-
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GREEK LITERATURE
235
choly verse, Solon for political and
ethical poetry, Theqgnis
Elegy and Phocylides for the
gnomic elegy, and Xeno-
phanes for the use of the measure in di-
dactic philosophical verse. On iambic
verse and its Greek writers before the
time of the drama see: Iambic, Archi-
lochus, Simonides of Amorgos, and
HlPPONAX.
The third poetic form of the period,
one which unfortunately has come down
to us only in tantalizingly brief fragments
— comparable to the
Lyric Poetry quotations illustrat-
ing word-usage * in
our dictionaries — is the lyric. On this
see the general article Lyrical Poetry,
by Edmund Gosse, on this form in dif-
ferent literatures, and the sketches of the
Greek lyrists the Aeolians Alcaeus (see
also the article Alcaics) and Sappho, by
Prof. John Arthur Piatt, University Col-
lege, London; Praxilla and Erinna,
Sappho's rivals as lyric poetesses; (the
Ionian Anacreon (see also the article
Anacreontics, by Edmund Gosse); the
Dorian Alcman; Stesichorus, Arion
and Ibycus; Simonides, who may be
called Panhellenic; Pindar (Vol. 21, p.
617; equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide,
by Sir R. C. Jebb), the only Greek lyrist
whose work has come down to us in any
considerable quantity, and whose poems
are such remarkable examples of metrical
structure; Bacchylides (Vol. 3, p. 121;
equivalent to 9 pages of this Guide; also
by Sir R. C. Jebb, who was one of the
first editors), Pindar's rival, whose poems
until a few years ago were known to us
only by brief quotations by grammarians,
but who had the good luck to survive in
papyrus lately found in Egypt; and
Timotheus of Miletus, of whose "Per-
sians" a valuable fragment was found in
1903 in what seems to be the oldest papy-
rus in existence.
The Attic period has two important de-
velopments — the drama, tragic and com-
ic, and the beginnings of a Greek prose.
For the drama read the part of Prof.
A. W. Ward's arti-
Attic cle Drama dealing
Literature with the Greek period
(Vol. 8, pp. 488-493),
and the article Comedy; and the articles
on the great dramatists: — the tragedians
Thespis, Choerilus, Phrynichus and
Pratinas in the earlier period; Aeschy-
lus (Vol. 1, p. 272; equivalent to 12 pages
of this Guide), by Arthur Sidgwick, fel-
low of Corpus Christi, Oxford, and editor
of the Oxford text of Aeschylus; Soph-
ocles (Vol. 25, p. 424; equivalent to 12
pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell,
editor and translator of this poet; and
Euripides (Vol. 9, p. 901; equivalent to
15 pages of this Guide), in the main by
Sir R. C. Jebb; and the comic poets, — the
Sicilian Epicharmus; the
Comedy representatives of the Attic
Old Comedy, Cratinus,
Crates, Pherecrates, Eupolis, Phry-
nichus (not to be confused with the
tragic poet of that name), Magnes,
Plato (to be distinguished from the phi-
losopher), — all these known to us only by
allusions and chance quotations — and
Aristophanes (Vol. 2, p. 499; equivalent
to 7 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C.
Jebb), the only Greek poet of whom we
have complete plays and probably the
greatest of the writers of Greek comedy;
the names — they are little more — of
Eubulus, Antiphanes, Alexis in the
Middle Comedy; and in the New Comedy
or third period, Philemon, Menander
(by J. H. Freese), who was so highly
esteemed and so constantly pilfered from
by the Roman comic writers, and of whose
plays large fragments have been found in
the last few years; Diphilus, Apollo-
dorus of Carystus, Posidippus, Rhin-
thon and Sotades.
The prose of the Attic period we may
divide roughly into history, oratory and
philosophy. On the his*
History torians read Logographi,
Greece, Ancient History,
"Authorities" (Vol. 1«, p. 454), with
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236
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
criticism of the historical accuracy of
Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus, Plu-
tarch, Xenophon, etc., Hecataeus of
Miletus, Herodotus (Vol. 13, p. 381;
equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide), by
the historian George Rawlinson and E. M.
Walker, librarian of Queen's College, Ox-
ford; Thucydides (Vol. 26, p. 893; equi-
valent to 10 pages of the Guide), by Sir
R. C. Jebb, and Malcolm Mitchell, editor
of Grote's Greece; Xenophon (Vol. 28, p.
885; equivalent to 7 pages in this Guide),
by E. M. Walker and J. H. Freese;
Ctesia8, Philistus, Theopompus, and
TlMAEUS.
On Attic orators read Andocides,
Lysias, Isocrates, Isaeus, Antiphon,
Demosthenes, Aeschines, Hypereides,
— most of these articles
Oratory being by Sir R. C. Jebb,
who was particularly versed
in this branch of Greek literature. The
special student of the orators should read
also the articles Greek Law (Vol. 12, p.
501 ; equivalent to 15 pages in this Guide),
by Prof. J. E. Sandys of Cambridge, au-
thor of A History of Classical Scholarship,
etc.; Sophists (Vol. 25, p. 418, equivalent
to 20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Henry
Jackson of Cambridge, a well-known
writer on Greek philosophy, and Rhet-
oric (Vol. 23, p. 233), by Sir R. C. Jebb.
On Greek philosophical writing see the
articles Pherecydes of Syros, Anaxi-
menes of Miletus, Anaximander, and
the names great not only in Greek
thought and literature but in the world's
— Plato (Vol. 21, p. 808; equivalent to
about 50 pages of this Guide), by Lewis
Campbell, editor and critic of many of
the Platonic dialogues, and Aristotle
(Vol. 2, p. 501; equivalent to 70 pages of
this Guide), by Prof. Thomas Case, Ox-
ford, author of Physical Realism, etc.
For a fuller guide to Greek philosophy
see the chapter in this Guide on Philoso-
phy.
The third period of classical Greek lit-
erature was one of Greek thought in un-
Greek surroundings — see the article Hel-
lenism, by E. R. Bevan, author of
The House of Seleucus, etc., — and this
came to its first and
Decadence finest flower in Al-
exandria, in Egypt,
under the Ptolemies — see the article
Alexandrian School, especially that
part of it dealing with Literature (Vol. 1,
p. 573). On the writers of the Alex-
andrian period see : for poetry, Philetas,
Hermesianax, Asclepiades of Samos,
and the comic poets Sotades and Rhin-
thon, already mentioned; Herod as, by
W. G. Headlam, editor of Herodas; the
idyllist Theocritus (Vol. 26, p. 760),
by A. C. Clark, fellow of Queen's, Oxford;
Theocritus's followers Bion and Mos-
chus; the mythologist Callimachus,
who influenced Catullus as much as
Theocritus did the young Virgil; the
didactic poet Aratus, whom Cicero
translated into Latin and whom Virgil
imitated in his Georgics; the epic Apol-
lonius of Rhodes, and the late tragedian
Lycophron; and for prose the critic
Aristarchus.
In the Greco-Roman period, following
the Alexandrian the principal articles for
the student are: the historians Polybius
and Diodorus Siculus, the satirist
Lucian, the later historians Dionysius
Halicarnassensis, Dio Cassius, Ar-
rian, Appian, Herodian, Eusebius,
Zosimus, the biographers Plutarch,
Diogenes Laertius, Philostratus, the
rhetoricians Longinus and Dio Chry-
sostom, and the emperor philosopher
Marcus Aurelius and his forerunner
the "slave philosopher" Epictetus.
Possibly the most typical output of the
later Greek age is the matchless collec-
tion of short poems known to us as "the
Greek Anthology"; on this see the ar-
ticles Epigram and Anthology.
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CHAPTER XLI
BIBLE STUDY
IT is impossible for the student to
consider the subject of Bible Study
without being impressed by the im-
mense labour and the profound scholar-
ship which have been devoted to the
interpretation and discussion of Scripture.
Continued investigation has solved many
difficulties, but has also vastly increased
the mass of evidences and conjectures
which must be weighed in connection
with any doubtful passages. The Bri-
tannica tells us, for example, (Vol. 8,
pp. 908, 904) that the translators of the
King James's version spent only two
years and nine months over their task,
while the work on the Revised Version
took eleven years for the New Testament
and fourteen for the Old Testament.
It is equally true that all the time
which learned men have given to trans-
lating and elucidating the text seems
nothing when it is
The Bible as compared with the
a Focus of time that mankind
Thought at large have spent
in reading it. But
the Britannica mentions a report of the
great English Bible Society, the "British
and Foreign," in which the copies cir-
culated by it are totalled at more than
198 million, and, for the American Bible
Society and its federated associations,
it gives a total of more than 84 million
copies (Vol. 8, p. 907). It has often
been said that the English Bible is the
only example of a translation that be-
came more famous than the original,
and it is as true that no other transla-
tion has been the source of so many
secondary translations, for versions in
no less than 530 distinct languages and
dialects have been derived from the Eng-
lish text. It is interesting to note, al-
though in this case the English version
has certainly nothing to do with the
matter, that "in Italy, by a departure
from the traditional policy of the Roman
Church, the newly formed, 'Pious Society
of St. Jerome for the Dissemination of
the Holy Gospels' issued in 1901, from
the Vatican press, a new Italian version
of the Four Gospels and Acts" and sold
400,000 copies at 4 cents each.
As a sort of threshold-study, it will
be well to consider three topics: Hebrew
Literature, Hebrew Religion and Biblical
History.
Hebrew Literature (Vol. 13, p.
169), by Dr. Arthur Cowley, of the
Bodleian Library, Oxford, points out
that the term "He-
Preliminaries brew Literature" is
loosely used of "all
works written in Hebrew characters,
whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic,
or even some vernacular not related to
Hebrew ;" and that "this literature be-
gins with, as it is almost entirely based
upon, the Old Testament." This article
on Hebrew Literature may be supple-
mented by the following articles :
Targum, by John Frederick Stenning,
lecturer in Aramaic at Oxford.
(by Israel Abrahams, read-
er in Talmudic and
Rabbinic Literature,
Cambridge.
Talmud
Midrash
( by Stanley Arthur Cook,
\ lecturer in Hebrew and
Syriac, Cambridge.
237
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238
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Seadiah, by Dr. Arthur Cowley.
Maimonides, by Herbert Loewe, cur-
ator of Oriental Lit-
erature, Cambridge.
Quite as important is the article He-
brew Religion (Vol. 13, p. 176), by
the Rev. Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse
of Christ's and Ches-
Hebrew . hunt Colleges, Cam-
Religion bridge. His treat-
ment of the subject
is comparative and historical. There
is an interesting summary of what is
known and may be inferred about pre-
Mosaic religion; and it is important to
notice that the author does not consider
that the plural Elohim used in certain
Old Testament passages to mean "God"
is to be understood as "a comprehensive
expression for the multitude of gods
embraced in the One God of Old Testa-
ment religion," but explains the plural
as one "of majesty" like the "we" of
royalty. Blood-offerings and magic
charms against demons and jinns may
be assumed as belonging to the early
Hebrew religion as to the later Arabian
period before Mahomet. Dr. White-
house thinks that there is little or no
trace of totemism but possibly some of
ancestor-worship in the Jews' religion.
Among the many articles supplement-
ing this general treatment of Hebrew
religion the following are possibly the
most important:
Circumcision, by Israel Abrahams.
Teraphim, by W. Robertson Smith
and G. H. Box, formerly lecturer in
theology, Oxford.
Baal, by W. Robertson Smith and
Stanley Arthur Cook, editor for Palestine
Exploration Fund.
Calf, The Golden, by S. A. Cook.
High Places.
Feasts and Festivals.
Passover, by Dr. Joseph Jacobs of
the Jewish Theological Seminary of
New York City.
Pentecost, by Dr. O. C. Whitehouse.
Ark, by Stanley Arthur Cook.
Tabernacle and Temple, by Dr.
Archibald R. S. Kennedy, professor of
Hebrew and Semitic languages, Edin-
burgh.
Ephod, by S. A. Cook.
Urim and Thummim, by G. H. Box.
Prophet, by W. Robertson Smith,
Owen Charles Whitehouse, Adolf Har-
nack of Berlin, and Professor A. C. Mc-
Giffert of Union Theological Seminary,
New York.
Jehovah, by George Foot Moore, pro-
fessor of history of religion, Harvard.
Messiah, by W. Robertson Smith and
O. C. Whitehouse.
Eschatology, by Dr. A. E. Garvie,
principal of New College, Hampstead.
Angel, by William Henry Bennett,
professor of Old Testament Exegesis in
New and Hackney Colleges, London.
The third topic is history and for
this the student should read the article
Jews (Vol. 15, p. 371), especially the
part on Old Testament His-
Biblical tory, by S. A. Cook; the
History article Palestine, Physical
Features, by R. A. S. Mac-
alister, director of excavations for the
Palestine Exploration Fund, Old Testa-
ment History, by S. A. Cook, especially
the treatment of Biblical Religion (pp.
610-611 of Vol. 20); Canaan, by Dr.
Thomas Kelly Cheyne, formerly Oriel
professor of interpretation of Scripture,
Oxford; Hittites, by D. G. Hogarth,
keeper of the Ashmolean Museum,
Oxford.
But of course the central article for the
Bible student is the article Bible (Vol.
3, p. 849), which is divided into two
main parts — Old
The Article Testament and New
Bible Testament, each of
these being divided
in turn into five parts: Canon, Texts and
Versions, Textual Criticism, Higher Crit-
icism, and Chronology. This logical
arrangement greatly enhances the value
of the article, which is in itself an ex-
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BIBLE STUDY
239
cellent summary of the subject written
by the following authorities: Dr. Samuel
Rolles Driver, professor of Hebrew,
Oxford, on Old Testament canon and
chronology; John Frederick Stenning,
dean of Wadham College, Oxford, and
lecturer in Aramaic, on Old Testament
texts and versions; Dr. George Buchanan
Gray, professor of Hebrew and Old
Testament exegesis, Mansfield College,
Oxford, on Old Testament textual and
higher criticism ; Dr. William Sanday,
professor of Divinity and canon of
Christ Church, Oxford, on New Testa-
ment canon; the Rev. Kirsopp Lake,
author of The Text of the New Testament,
etc., and professor of New Testament
exegesis at Leiden, on New Testament
texts and versions and textual criticism;
Dr. Francis Crawford Burkitt, professor
of divinity, Cambridge, and author of
The Gospel History and its Transmission,
etc., on New Testament higher criticism;
and Cuthbert Hamilton Turner, of
Magdalen College, Oxford, on New Test-
ament chronology.
The article Bible, English (Vol. 3,
p. 894), by Anna C. Paues, author of
A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version,
and Canon Henson of Westminster
Abbey (on the Revised Version) is ac-
companied by a plate with fac-similes of
several early English Bibles and is
besides of special value as giving quo-
tations from different versions in Anglo-
Saxon and later English. The article
Bible Societies (Vol. 3, p. 905), by the
Rev. Thomas Herbert Darlow, literary
superintendent of the British and For-
eign Bible Society, will also be of value
to the student.
One other general article should be
studied before the articles on different
books of the Bible are taken up. This is —
Inspiration (Vol. 14, p. 645), by Dr.
Alfred Ernest Gar-
Inspiration vie, author of Studies
in the Inner Life of
Jesus; it outlines the principal theories of
inspiration —
(1) Mechanical dictation or verbal in-
spiration;
(2) Dynamic influence or degrees of
inspiration;
(3) Essential inspiration, distinguish-
ing matters of doctrine and conduct from
the remaining contents of Scripture;
(4) Vital inspiration, emphasizing re-
ligious and moral life.
A course of study in the books of the
Bible may well start with the outline
in the article Bible,
The especially pages 851-
Hexateuch 854 for the Old Tes-
tament. For the
Hexateuch the student should read first
the brief article Hexateuch; then what
there is under Bible on pp. 851-852 of
Vol. 3; then under Jews for the early
period; and then the articles:
Genesis, by S. A. Cook; and the
subsidiary articles: Cosmogony, Eden,
Paradise, Adam, Eve, Abel, Cain,
Enoch, Lamech, Noah, Deluge, Ara-
rat, Ark, Babel, Canaan, Genealogy,
Nimrod, Ham, Shem, Japheth, Abra-
ham, Beersheba, Melchizedek, Isaac,
Midian, Abimelech, Ishmael, Esau,
Jacob, Jacob's Well, Bethel, Israel,
Simeon, Shechem, Reuben, Issachar,
Zebulun, Dan, Naphtali, Asher, Gad,
Manasseh, Joseph, Benjamin, Lot,
Moab, Ammonites, Goshen, etc.
Exodus, Book of, by John Frederick
Stenning, and Exodus by S. A. Cook;
and the articles Moses, Aaron, Rameses,
Pithom, Amalekites, Jethro, Passover,
Sinai, Horeb, Decalogue, Sabbath,
Calf (Golden), Tabernacle, Ark,
Urim and Thummim.
Leviticus, by J. F. Stenning and
Levites, by S. A. Cook; and Sacrific e.
Atonement and Day of Atonement,
Moloch, Pentecost.
Numbers, by Dr. James Alexander
Paterson, professor of Hebrew, New
College, Edinburgh; and the article?
Balaam, Hebron.
Deuteronomy, by Dr. Paterson, and
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
the articles Ezra, Nehemiah, and
Josiah.
Joshua, by S. A. Cook, and the articles
Amalekites, Gibeonites, Hivites,
Philistines, Gezer, Judah, Caleb,
Shechem.
Judges, Book of, by S. A. Cook, and
the articles, Othniel, Ehud, Deborah,
Gibeon, Abimelech, Jephthah, Shib-
boleth, Samson, Ephod, Teraphim,
Micah (of Ephraim).
Samuel, Books of, and Samuel, by
S. A. Cook; and the articles Eli, Shiloh,
Ar£, Saul, Jonathan, David, Goliath,
"Ahithophel, Jashar, Absalom, Jerah-
meel, ken1tes.
Kings, Books of, by S. A. Cook; and
the articles David, Adonijah, Solomon,
Temple, Jerusalem, Abiathar, Joab,
Ephraim, Jeroboam, Rehoboam, Asa,
Omri, Ahab, Jehoshaphat, Jehoram,
Athaliah, Ahaziah, Elijah, Carmel,
Jordan, Elisha, Jehu, Rechabites,
joash, azariah, hosea, uzziah, ahaz,
Isaiah, Hezekiah, Manasseh, Josiah,
Jehoiachin, Samaria.
Chronicles, by W. Robertson Smith
and S. A. Cook; and the articles Absalom,
David, Uzziah, Jubilees, Midrash,
Levites and many mentioned above un-
der Samuel and Kings.
Ezra and Nehemiah, Books of, by
S. A. Cook; the article Ezra; and, as the
books are to be grouped with Chronicles,
that article and Deuteronomy, and the
article Samaritans and those on the
two "apocryphal" books, Ezra, Third
Book of, and Ezra, Fourth Book of,
by Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer
in Biblical studies, Oxford. See also
Synagogue.
For the prophetical books the article
Prophet as an
The Prophets introduction, and
then :
Isaiah, by T. K. Cheyne; and, for
outline, under Bible, Vol. 3, p. 853; and
Emmanuel (on chap. 7) and Messiah
and Atonement (on chap. 53).
Jeremiah, by T. K. Cheyne; and the
articles Baruch, Zedekiah, Nebu-
chadrezzar, Edom, Ammonites, Moab.
Lamentations, by the Rev. Charles
James Ball, lecturer in Assyriology,
Oxford, with peculiarly valuable infor-
mation about poetical structure and
acrostic verse, some suggested emenda-
tions of the text, and a summary of the
arguments in regard to the authorship.
Ezekiel, by Professor C. H. Toy of
Harvard University; and the articles
Zedekiah, and, for certain literary
forms, Allegory and Parable.
The Minor Prophets: see Vol. 3, p.
853; Vol. 22, p.
Minor Prophets 443; Vol. 13, p.
183.
Hosea, by W. Robertson Smith and the
Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, professor
of church history, Rawdon College,
Leeds; articles Baal, Calf (Golden),
etc.
Joel, by W. Robertson Smith and
T. K. Cheyne; and Eschatology, etc.
Amos, by T. K. Cheyne; Jeroboam,
etc.
Obadiah, by W. Robertson Smith and
H. W. Robinson; and Edom, Eschatol-
ogy, etc.
Jonah, by T. K. Cheyne; and the arti-
cle Nineveh, and, for an explanation of
the "great fish," Cosmogony.
Micah, by W. Robertson Smith and
H. W. Robinson; and Samaria, High
Place, Messiah, Eschatology.
Nahum, by G. H. Box; Nineveh, etc.
Habakkuk, by H. W. Robinson;
Chaldaean, etc.
Zephaniah, by S. A. Cook; and^BAAL,
Moloch, Costume, Oriental (Vol. 7,
p. 226 sq., for chap. 1, v. 8), etc.
Haggai, by W. Robertson Smith and
Dr. A. J. Grieve, professor at the United
Independent College, Bradford; and the
article Temple.
Zechariah, by Julius Wellhausen,
professor at Gottingen, and H. W.
Robinson; and the articles Angel, Tem-
ple, Messiah, Zion, Japheth and Io-
nians (for "Javan" of chap. 9, v. 13).
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BIBLE STUDY
241
Malachi, by W. Robertson Smith and
H. W. Robinson.
Psalms is by W. Robertson Smith and
Dr. Robert Hatch Kennett, Canon of
Ely and professor of Hebrew,
Psalms Cambridge; read the arti-
cles Hallel, David, Solo-
mon, Temple, Levites (for Levitical
Psalms), Asaph, Chronicles, Ezra,
Psaltery, Liturgy, the section of He-
brew Hymnody in, and the whole article
Hymns; Bible, English, for the version
of the Psalms in the English Prayer
Book from the Great Bible; and, for
Psalms 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119
and 145, and the article Acrostic. See
also R. H. Charles's article on the apo-
cryphal book, Solomon, Psalms of.
The student should read the article
Wisdom Literature, by Prof. C. H.
Toy of Harvard as an
Wisdom introduction to Prov-
Literature erbs, Job and Eccle-
siastes (and to the
apocryphal Wisdom, Book of — see
article by Professor Toy; Ecclesias-
ticus, — see article by William Emery
Barnes, Hulsean professor of Divinity,
Cambridge; Tobit, — see article by St.
George Stock, lecturer University of Bir-
mingham; and 4th Maccabees — see the
article Maccabees, by Dr. William Fair-
weather, editor of Maccabees in the
"Cambridge Bible for Schools.")
Proverbs, Book of, by C. H. Toy;
and the articles Solomon, Proverb and,
for other famous collections, Publilius,
Erasmus, etc.
Job, by Dr. Andrew B. Davidson, late
professor of Oriental languages, New Col-
lege, Edinburgh, and author of a Com-
mentary on Job, and Prof. C. H. Toy;
and the articles Devil (for the meaning of
"Satan" in chap. 1, v. 6); Sabaeans, Uz,
Behemoth, etc.
Ecclesiastes, by Professor Toy; the
articles Pessimism, Eschatology, Sad-
ducees.
Canticles, by W. Robertson Smith
and H. W. Robinson.
Esther, by T. K. Cheyne and, on the
•'additions," Dr.
Other Robert Henry
Old Testament Charles, Grinfield
Books lecturer, Oxford;
and the articles
Ahasuerus, Susa, Cosmogony, Purim.
Ruth, by W. Robertson Smith and S.
A. Cook; and the articles Bethlehem,
Caleb, and, for the marriage custom
underlying the story, the article on
Levirate.
Daniel, by John Dyneley Prince, pro-
fessor of Semitic languages, Columbia
University, and, for the "additions,' * Su-
sannah, Bel and the Dragon, and The
Song of the Three Children, the Rev. Dr.
Robert Henry Charles; the article Sem-
itic Languages for the Aramaic of chap-
ters 2 (from verse 4) to 7; Angels, Ga-
briel, Michael; Chaldaean and Chal-
dee; Belshazzar; Apocalyptic Litera-
ture (for chapters 7-12).
Before passing to the New Testament
the student should read the article Apoc-
ryphal Literature, by Robert Henry
Charles; and the ar-
Apocrypha tides on the separate
books: Ezra, Third
Book of (1 Esdras) and Ezra, Fourth
Book (or Apocalypse), both by Robert
Henry Charles; Judith, by the same
scholar; Ecclesiasticus, by Dr. W. E.
Barnes; Baruch, by R. H. Charles;
Tobit, by St. George Stock; Jeremy,
Epistle of, by R. H. Charles; Macca-
bees, Books of, and Maccabees, by the
Rev. Dr. William Fairweather; Manas-
ses, Prayer of, by R. H. Charles, and
Manasseh; and Wisdom, Book of, by
C. H. Toy.
The general articles preliminary to a
study of the New Testament are: — be-
sides the part of the article Bible dealing
with New Testa-
New Testament ment, Canon, Criti-
cism, Text, Chron-
ology, etc. — the following:
Messiah, by W. Robertson Smith and
Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse, lecturer
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242
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cam-
bridge.
Jesus Christ, by the Very Rev. Dr.
Joseph Armitage Robinson, dean of
Westminster, constituting a critical out-
line of the gospel story.
Christianity, by Dr. George William
Knox, late professor of philosophy and
history of religion, Union Theological
Seminary, New York City.
In outlining a course of study on the
New Testament, the order of the books as
printed in English Bibles will not be fol-
lowed absolutely. Here, as in studying
the Old Testament, a rearrangement
may be worth while for topical study.
But first the student should read the
article Gospel, by the Rev. Dr. Vincent
Henry Stanton, professor of divinity,
Cambridge, and au-
The Gospels thor of The Gospels
as Historical Docu-
ments, etc.; and the article by Dr. Kirsopp
Lake on Tatian the compiler of the
Diatessaron or "Gospel of the Four
Gospels."
For the gospel story the student should
read the following separate articles:
John the Baptist, Herod Antipas,
Salome, Joseph (Vol. 15, p. 513, col. 2),
Mary, Immaculate Conception, Beth-
lehem, Nazareth, Nazarenes, Ebion-
ites, Galilee, Capernaum, Cana, Jor-
dan, Peter, Andrew, James, John,
Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Mat-
thew, Judas, Demonology, Possession,
Exorcism, Miracle, Mary Magdalene,
Nathanael, Pharisees, Sadducees,
Sabbath, Passover, Eucharist, Para-
ble, Caesarea Philippi, Judaea, Jeru-
salem, Bethany, Olives, Mount of;
Gethsemane, Pilate, Calvary, Joseph
of Arimathaea.
In studying the separate Gospels, let
the reader follow the order suggested in
the articles Gospel and Jesus Christ.
First he should study the article Mark,
Gospel of, by Dr. Stanton; the article
on St. Mark, by Dr. James Vernon
Bartlett, professor of Church History,
Mansfield College, Oxford, and, for a
summary of the points in the Marcan or
Galilean narrative as contrasted with
the Jerusalem narrative in regard to the
betrayal of Jesus and the period imme-
diately following, the article on St. Peter
by Dr. Kirsopp Lake.
Matthew, Gospel of St., by Dr.
Vincent H. Stanton, and Matthew, by
Dr. J. V. Bartlett; with particular atten-
tion to the paragraph on additions to
Mark's narrative in Vol. 15, p. 355, and
to the stress on the Messianic character,
the mention of the church and of St. Peter
as the Rock in chapter 16.
Luke, Gospel of St., by Dr. Stanton,
and the biographical sketch of Luke, by
Dr. Bartlett; and the paragraph • on
Luke's additions to Mark's narrative in
Vol. 15, p. 356. This is the universal
gospel, just as Mark's was for extra-
Palestinian use and Matthew's particu-
larly for the Jew, as is shown by the inci-
dents of Zaccheus and of the Samaritan
leper; and Renan's characterization of
the gospel of the one evangelist who was
not a Jew, "the most beautiful book in
the world," is quoted twice in the Bri-
tannica.
John, Gospel of St., and John (the
Apostle), both by Baron Friedrich von
Hiigel, author of The Mystical Element of
Religion: the paragraph on the distinctive
elements of John's gospel (in Vol. 15, p.
357), such as the story of John the Bap-
tist (see the article on this "forerunner,"
by G. H. Box, late lecturer in theology,
Oxford); the philosophical prologue (see
the article Logos, by the late Rev. Dr.
Stewart Dingwall Fordyce Salmon, pro-
fessor of systematic theology, United
Free Church College,' Aberdeen, and the
Rev. A. J. Grieve, professor of New Testa-
ment and church history, Yorkshire
United Independent College, Bradford);
the Judean scene as contrasted with the
predominance of Galilee and Samaria in
the other three (synoptic) gospels, and
the prominence given to great abstract
ideas and symbols — the Light of the
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World, the Living Bread, the Only-Be-
gotten, the Re-Birth, Eternal Life, the
Way, the Truth, and the Life, Water and
Wine, the Paraclete, and the refrain and
variations on the theme of Love.
Before studying the articles dealing
with the book of Acts, let the reader
consult Dr. Garvie's article Miracle, for
a study of the supernatural and par-
ticularly for a development of the argu-
ment for miracles from "the congruity of
the miracle with divine truth and grace";
the miracles of Jesus, and of the apostles,
consist in "the relief of need, the removal
of suffering, the recovery of health and
strength."
The article Acts of the Apostles, by
Dr. J. Vernon Bartlett, should be sup-
plemented by referring again to the ar-
ticle Luke, and the student
Acts should call to mind that
the probable author was not
a Jew, was a personal friend and traveling
companion of both Paul and Peter, and
was a physician, a trained scientific ob-
server, as can be seen not only from his
descriptions of disease, but from his ac-
curacy in geographical, meteorological
and other matters. The importance of
the testimony of the physician to the
miracles of the apostles is brought out
(p. 164, top of column 2) in the article on
the book. For the study of Acts, be-
sides the article on the book, read the
following separate articles:
Luke, Peter, John, Judas, Acel-
dama, Matthias, Pentecost, Tongues,
Gift of; Ananias, Gamaliel, Stephen,
Simon Magus, Philip, Paul, Joppa, An-
tioch, Herod, Barnabas, Iconium, Ly-
caonia, Mark, Timothy, Silas, Phil-
ippi, Thessalonica, Athens, Areo-
pagus, Corinth, Aquila, Apollos, Eph-
esus, Felix, Ananias, Agrippa.
For a study of the book of Acts, which
was probably written before any one of
the Gospels, one will
St. Paul need constantly to
refer in the Britan-
nica to the article on Paul, the Apostle
(Vol. 20, p. 938), by Dr. J. Vernon
Bartlett. This article, equivalent to
55 pages in this Guide, is so important
that it will be well to outline it
here. After an introduction, in which
Paul's attitude toward Jewish legalism is
made an explanation of the superficially
obvious contrast between Jesus and Paul,
there is a biographical sketch: Paul of
Tarsus, a Roman citizen with Roman
name, talking Latin and not a narrow,
one-sided Jew; his Jewish training; in
Jerusalem, under Gamaliel (see the ar-
ticle Gamaliel); first impressions as to
Jesus, and Saul as persecutor; the vision
at Damascus and its spiritual content;
his new theory of the law and its universal
value; Christology of Paul, — his deep in-
sight into Jesus's character; Paul's the-
ology rooted in experience; his early apos-
tolate; his first missionary journey; the
issue of Gentile Christianity raised;
Paul's conciliatory spirit; Peter's visit to
Antioch; Paul's protest; the second mis-
sion tour; Paul in Europe — Athens, Cor-
inth, etc.; first missionary letters; as an
ethical teacher; Paul, the Law, the Spirit;
later travels; later letters; Paulinism — its
Christocentric character; apparent con-
trasts and contradictions between Paul's
gospel and Jesus's gospel — one seen
through the eyes of a conscious sinner,
the other the sinless consciousness of the
Saviour; Paul's position between Judaeo-
Christianity and Gnosticism — see also
the article Gnosticism, by Wilhelm
Bousset, professor of New Testament
exegesis, Gottingen.
In general on the Pauline epistles the
student should not only read this article
Paul, but should turn again to the treat-
ment of New Testa-
The Pauline ment canon in the ar-
Epistles tide Bible (Vol. 3,
pp. 872-873), and
should look over the first part of the ar-
ticle Jesus Christ which finds in 1st
Thessalonians the earliest extant docu-
ment of Christianity. Then let him read
the articles:
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Thessalonians, Epistles to the, by
the Rev. James Everett Frame, professor
of Biblical theology, Union Theological
Seminary, New York City. See also in
the article Paul (Vol. 20, pp. 945-946)
for Paul at Thessalonica, and the articles
Eschatology and Apocalyptic Litera-
ture for the doctrine of the "second
coming" or "Parousia," especially in 2
Thess., chap. 2.
Corinthians, Epistles to the, by the
Rev. Dr. James Hardy Ropes, professor
of New Testament criticism and inter-
pretation, Harvard; and the articles
Corinth, Apollos, Peter, Asceticism,
Fasting, Eucharist (1 Cor., chap. 11,
vs. 23 sqq. is the oldest extant account of
the Lord's Supper), Titus.
Galatians, Epistle to the, by the
Rev. Dr. James Moffatt, author of The
Historical New Testament: and the ar-
ticles Galatia (for the "South Galatian"
theory), Antinomianism (for Christian-
ity vs. legalism).
Romans, Epistle to the, by Dr.
Moffatt; and the article Hebrew Reli-
gion for the covenant which Paul here
presents as one of faith and not of
the law.
Ephesians, Epistle to the, by Prof.
J. H. Ropes, pointing out that the theme
is "the unity of mankind in Christ and
hence the unity and divinity of the
Church of Christ"; the article Ephesus;
the articles on Colossi ans and on 1st
Peter for textual criticism; the article
Marriage for Paul's influence (Eph. ch.
5, v. 23-32) on the Church's attitude
toward marriage; and the article Gnos-
ticism for the tendency in the church
which Paul attacked in this epistle and
in Colossians.
Colossians, by Prof. J. E. Frame; the
article Colossae; Angel (on chap. 2, v.
18); Asceticism (on chap. 2, v. 16).
Philemon, Epistle to, by Dr. Mof-
fatt; the article Slavery, Rome (Vol. 25,
p. 218) for the status of a runaway like
Onesimus.
Philippians, Epistle to the, by Dr.
Moffatt; the article Philippi; Antino-
mianism (on the beginning of chap. 3);
and on the Kenosis or emptying of self of
Christ in Phil. 2, 7, see the article on
Charles Gore (Vol. 2, p. 255), and in
the article Theology the discussion in
column 1 of p. 781 (Vol. 26).
Timothy, First Epistle to; and
Timothy, Second Epistle to, by Dr.
Moffatt; the article Timothy; the articles
Marriage and Celibacy (on 1 Tim. 4,
3); Fasting, the article Gnosticism (for
the "knowledge falsely so-called" of 1
Tim. 6, 20), and the article Pastoral
Epistles on these letters and on that to
Titus. The article Titus has much im-
portant criticism on Timothy.
Titus, The Epistle to, by Dr. Mof-
fatt; the articles Bishop and Presbyter,
etc.
Hebrews, Epistle to the, by Dr. J.
Vernon Bartlett; and, on authorship, the
articles Paul, Barnabas, Apollos,
Luke, Clement, Stephen; and the ar-
ticles Clementine Literature, Hebrew
Religion, Temple, Atonement and
Day of Atonement, Angel, Moses,
Priest, Aaron, Melchizedek, Sacri-
fice, Messiah.
Before turning to the articles on the
other books of the New Testament, let
the student read a part of the article
Theology, by the
The Other Rev. Dr. Robert
Epistles Mackintosh of the
Lancashire Indepen-
dent College, Manchester, with special
attention to the paragraphs (end of p.
773 and p. 774, Vol. 26) on Jewish the-
ology, St. Paul and contents of the New
Testament Here "Paulinism" is shown
not merely in the Pauline writings but in
the Acts, in 1st Peter ("good independent
Paulinism"), and even in the Apoc-
alypse, at least as regards the atonement
and Christology. "The Johannine Gos-
pel and Epistles are later than Paulinism,
and presuppose its leading or less start-
ling positions." And the same article
(p. 783) after pointing out that Luther
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BIBLE STUDY
245
and the evangelical revival "went back
to St. Paul" asks "can Christianity not
dig deeper by going back to Jesus?" The
writer also suggests that the German
school of Ritschl in "not idolizing Paul-
inism" have "idolized Luther."
The other principal topics to be studied
are:
James, Epistle of, by the Rev. Dr.
Benjamin Wisner Bacon, professor of
New Testament criticism and exegesis,
Yale; the article on James by the Rev.
Dr. George Milligan, Professor of divin-
ity and Biblical criticism, Glasgow; and
the articles Revelation, Clement, Her-
mas, etc., for the question of date and
relation with other writings; Wisdom
Literature, for earlier writings on- the
"Wisdom" and proverbial expressions of
chapter 8; Matthew, for a similar view
cf the gospel and the Church; and on
"Justification," vol. 20, p. 954, in article
Paul.
Peter, Epistles of, by Dr. Kirsopp
Lake; the article on St. Peter, by the
same scholar. For a date earlier than
that of the Epistle of James, see the ar-
ticle on that book. See also Romans and
Polycarp to supplement what is here
said of the relations of 1st Peter to these
writings; and Eschatology on the ex-
pected "second coming" of 2nd Peter,
chapter S, vs. 1-13, and Jude, Epistle
of, on its relation to this book.
Jude, Epistle of, by Prof. B. W.
Bacon of Yale; the article on Hegesip-
pus, the authority for the little we know
of Jude; the articles Eschatology (for
"the last time" of verse 18), Angel
(for vs. 6, 9), Michael, and espec-
ially the articles Apocryphal Litera-
ture; Moses, Assumption of; and
Enoch, Book of, for the allusions in
verses 9 and 14.
Under the head of Johannine are
grouped, besides the fourth gospel, the
three epistles of John and the Revelation.
On these see:
John, The Epistles of, by Dr.
Moffatt, and the article on St. John in
regard to authorship,
Johannine which may more
Writings probably be assigned
to John the presby-
ter; and the articles Antichrist (on 1
John, 2, 22), Gnosticism (for chap. 3,
vs. 4-7), etc.
Revelation, Book of, by the Rev.
Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer in
Biblical studies, Oxford. This book, and
this article, should be studied in connec-
tion with the article, also by Dr. Charles,
on Apocalyptic Literature, and the
canonical apocalyptic passages in Mark
13, Mathew 24, Luke 21 and 2nd Thes-
salonians 2, as well as the extra-canonical
apocalypses described in Apocalyptic
Literature and in the separate articles
Isaiah, Ascension of, and Hermas,
Shepherd of. Besides see the articles
Eschatology, Millenium. The student
should read the article Nero, even if
"666" does not certainly refer to him, and
the articles Domitian and Vespasian on
the possibility that one of them may have
been "the beast that was and is not, . . .
himself also an eighth" (see footnote on
p. 220, Vol. 23).
As an epilogue the student should read
the articles Apocryphal Literature,
both of the Old and New Testament pe-
riods, by Dr. Charles
Apochryphal and at least the first
Literature part, by Dr. A. C.
McGiffert of Union
Theological Seminary, New York City,
of the article Church History.
The study outline sketched in this
chapter will give the student some idea
of the possibilities of the Britannica in
helping him. The
A Biblical list of articles deal-
Encyclopaedia ing with the Bible
on pp. 944-945 of the
Index (Vol. 29) will show that in the
Britannica there is an adequate and
excellent encyclopaedia of the Bible or
text-book of Bible Study.
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CHAPTER XLII
HISTORY, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL
WHEN you turn to the new
Britannica to study history, you
naturally expect to learn a great
deal that will be new to you. But you
can anticipate something more and better
than that. You will find a great deal that
is new to everyone, even to those who
have been reading history for years. For
the contributors to the work, in making a
completely fresh survey of the whole field
of human knowledge, were helping one
another to obtain new light upon the
history of even the earliest periods. As
all the articles were completed before a
single volume was printed, there was
such an opportunity for comparison and
revision as has never before existed.
When research upon one subject had dis-
closed new evidence that was of value in
relation to another subject, the contri-
butors and editors could co-operate as
fully as if they had all been assembled in
a great international congress. And the
result of this collaboration is that the
publication of the new Britannica does
more, at one stroke, to advance historical
knowledge, to solve historical doubts, and
to correct historical mistakes than is done
by isolated historians in the course of a
generation.
With this idea of combined effort
clearly before you, consider for a mo-
ment the accumulated individual au-
thority of such individual
Authority specialists as those who
deal with history in the
Britannica. There are,to name only a few,
the Germans Eduard Meyer and Schie-
mann of Berlin, Hashagen of Bonn, von
Pastor of Innsbruck, Pauli of Gottingen,
Keutgen of Hamburg, and Count Liit-
zow; Frenchmen like Mgr. Duchesne,
Luchaire, Valois, Anchel, Halphen, Ba-
belon and Bemont; the Italians Villari,
Barnabei and Balzani; the Canadians
Doughty, Grant, Dionne and Wrong;
among Americans, J. H. Robinson, W. A.
Dunning, H. L. Osgood, C. H. Hayes, G.
W. Botsford, and J. T. Shotwell of Col-
umbia; President Emeritus Charles W.
Eliot, and Drs. Edward Channing, F. J.
Turner and Charles Gross of Harvard;
Drs. A. D. Morse, R. B. Richardson and
Preserved Smith of Amherst; Dr. T. F.
Collier of Williams; Professors William
Graham Sumner, G. Burton Adams and J.
C. Schwab of Yale; Prof. Grant Shower-
man of Wisconsin; Prof. William Mac-
Donald of Brown; Profs. Fleming and
Scroggs of Louisiana; Dr. McMaster of
Pennsylvania; Prof. I. J. Cox of Cincin-
nati; the late Alexander Johnston of
Princeton; Prof. W. Roy Smith of Bryn
Mawr; Henry Cabot Lodge, Carl Schurz
and James Ford Rhodes; and — to men-
tion only a few English names — S. R.
Gardiner, Edward Freeman, Thomas
Hodgkin, James Bryce, James Gairdner,
J. D. Bury, C. W. C. Oman, A. F. Pol-
lard, J. H. Round, H. W. C. Davis, Os-
mund Airy, G. W. Prothero, John Mor-
ley, Reginald Lane Poole, J. Holland
Rose, F. J. Haverfield, W. Alison Phil-
lips, Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, R.
Nisbet Bain, W. Warde Fowler, J. L.
Myres, J. S. Reid, W. J. Brodribb and
H. F. Pelham.
So much for the quality of the his-
246
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HISTORY, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL
247
torical matter in the Britannica. The
quantity is equally remarkable.
// the history in the Britannica
was printed in the usual vol-
umes on heavy paper, contain-
ing 100,000 words to a volume,
it would fill about 70 such vol-
umes, or, say, four good-sized
shelves in an ordinary "unit"
book-case.
Every country and every event from
the earliest syllable of recorded time re-
ceives its proper treatment. Under such
circumstances it is ob-
Method of vious that in the limits
Treatment of this Guide it would
not be possible to give
outlines of courses of historical read-
ings for all nations and periods. Such
readings in history alone would more
than fill this whole Guide. But the
information is all in the Britannica, and
what has been said above will give the
reader some notion of the authority of
the articles written by natives of nearly
every civilized country in the world, and
some idea of the scope of treatment. The
character of the subject matter of history
and the method of treatment in the Bri-
tannica combine to make minute outlines
less necessary for historical study than
for the pursuit of a course in almost any
other subject. The Britannica, the stu-
dent will quickly see, contains in each
instance a "key" article on the history of
each nation — either as a separate article,
like English History or Roman His-
tory or as a historical section of the ar-
ticle on the country — f or instance, in the
article Greece there is a "sub-article,"
so to say, on history (Vol. 12, pp. 440-
470), and in the article United States
a sub-article on American history (Vol.
27, pp. 663-735). The student of any
country's history should read first such
an article or sub-article, so that he will
get a big outline view of the subject, and
then use it as a basis or starting point for
further reading, looking up in the Index
volume the important topics mentioned
in the main article. These will be:
(1) Articles on the history of parts of
the country he is studying — states, prov-
inces, counties, kingdoms, duchies, cities
and towns.
(2) Biographies of rulers, statesmen,
soldiers, reformers, etc.
(3) Articles on wars and battles, each
under its proper heading.
(4) Articles on movements and changes,
sometimes of national, sometimes of in-
ternational importance, the Renaissance,
political parties, economic, political and
religious revolutions, the Crusades, etc.
(5) Articles on churches, sects and
denominations of historical importance
in the country under consideration.
But although it is impossible to give in
this Guide complete courses of reading
for the history of all countries, it is pos-
sible and desirable to give it in cases
where it would be most useful to the
greatest number of readers.
The following chapter is an outline
course of study in the History of the United
States, which is given in some detail, be-
cause it has a peculiar interest to Amer-
icans.
Next is given an outline of a course of
reading in Canadian and then in English
History, then in French History, and
then in the History of the countries of
the Far East, India, China and Japan.
These will show the reader how fully and
authoritatively the history of countries,
whether near or distant, is given in the
Britannica; and if he wishes to pursue his
studies into the record of other coun-
tries, it is certain that with these for
an example, and with the aid of the
Index, he will have no trouble in so
doing.
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CHAPTER XLIII
AMERICAN HISTORY
THE plan adopted in most of the
chapters of this Guide is to give
a separate account of each of the
more important articles on the subject to
which the chapter is devoted. But in the
case of American history, the articles are
so numerous, and are so accurately dove-
tailed to make a continuous story, that
the reader's convenience has been better
served by reversing this process, and
grouping the articles under the periods
with which they deal. The reader is thus
enabled to turn at once to any one of the
outstanding episodes of the story, and to
find explicit references to those parts of
the Britannica in which the narrative is
continued from one article to another.
The summary has been put in the form
of a table, in order that its contents may
more easily be surveyed. There is a
much fuller summary, in narrative form,
in the Britannica itself in the historical
portion of the article United States
(Vol. 27, pp. 66S-785). This is the most
complete condensed history of the country
that has ever been written. It is not
quite so long as this entire Guide; but
from each of its 412 sections the reader
can turn to articles describing in detail
the events consecutively outlined.
It has been taken for granted that the
reader will recognize the natural connec-
tion between this and other chapters of
the Guide. For example, no attempt has
been made in this chapter to indicate the
articles, elsewhere described, which dis-
cuss the history of American industries
and commerce, railroads and shipping,
finance and economics, art and litera-
ture. Again, the particular history of a
city, town, or river may be of the greatest
interest in itself, although the events
with which its name is associated were
not so typical of any period as to give the
article a place in the present chapter.
Similarly, the numerous and elaborate
American biographies are represented, in
this chapter, only by the names of the
foremost statesmen and soldiers of the
periods included in the table. In short,
the articles named are so few, in propor-
tion to all those which directly relate to
American history, that the general effect
is to make the space which the Britan-
nica devotes to the subject seem less than
it really is. But it is not the purpose of
this Guide to impress upon the reader the
magnitude of the volumes he is using.
In that respect the Britannica speaks for
itself. The table instances a few of the
main topics of American history, in order
to show the reader how he may plan
fuller courses of reading by combining
other articles on the principle indicated
by these illustrations.
The left hand columns present a brief
outline of the main periods and aspects
of American history. The right hand
columns give the titles of the articles to
be read, the page numbers as well as the
volume numbers (so that when the refer-
ence is to only one section of a long ar-
ticle the reader can find it at once) and
the names of the contributors.
248
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AMERICAN HISTORY
249
Topics for Reading
The Aborigines.
Where did they come from, and when?
Their food, tools, clothing and cus-
toms. How they carried on their
wars. Their practical knowledge
and religion. What the white man
has learned from the Indians. Over
1000 languages and dialects in
America*
Evidence of Asiatic origin. A state of
culture in Mexico and Peru, " which
in some respects must have put the
Spaniards to shame."
The fascinating story of the Aztecs.
Did the Asiatic peoples- make voy-
ages to America long before Colum-
bus?
The splendid past of Central America.
What was accomplished during the
500 years of Mayan culture. An in-
teresting calendar.
First Voyages of Discovery.
The Northmen first Europeans to
reach American continent, about
1000 A.D. The story of the Ice-
landic sagas. Was Vinland Nova
Scotia?
The accident of Leif's discovery of the
American continent
The first coloniser (A.D. 1002). Fate
of the colony. The hostile Skrael-
ings.
Columbus and His Successors.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494).
Columbus thinks he
His voyages and
1504).
Discovery of the Mainland (1497)
discovers Asia,
colonies (1492-
How the New World received its name.
The beginning of free-lance expedi-
tions. The mystery of the vovagc
of 1497.
Articles
America, Ethnology and Archaeology
(Vol. 1, p. 810, fully illustrated), by
Otis Tufton Mason, late curator, De-
partment of Anthropology, National
Museum, Washington; author of Primi-
tive Travel and Transportation, etc.
Indian 8, North American (Vol. 14, p.
452), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, pro-
fessor of anthropology, Clark Univer-
sity.
Archaeology (Vol. 2, p. 849), by Dr.
Charles H. Read, keeper of British and
Medieval Antiquities and Ethnography,
British Museum.
Mexico, Ancient History and Civilization
(Vol. 18, p. 829), by Dr. E. B. Tylor,
professor of anthropology at Oxford;
author of Methods and Results in Mexi-
can Research.
Central America, Archaeology of (Vol.
5, p. 677), by Dr. Walter Lehmann,
Royal Ethnographical Museum, Mun-
ich.
Vinland (Vol. 28, p. 98), by Julius E.
Olson, professor of Scandinavian lan-
guages, University of Wisconsin, editor
of Voyages of the Northmen, etc.
Leif Ericsson (Vol. 16, p. 896), by Dr.
C. R. Beazley, professor of modern his-
tory in the University of Birmingham,
author of The Dawn of Modern Geog-
raphy.
Thorfinn Karlsefni (Vol. 26, p. 878),
by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The
Dawn of Modern Geography, etc,
America, General Historical Sketch (Vol.
1, p. 806), by David Hannay, author
of A Short History of the Royal Navy.
Columbus, Christopher (Vol. 6, p. 741),
by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The
Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Cabot, John (Vol. 4, p. 921), by Henry
P. Biggar, author of The Voyage of the
Cabots to Greenland.
Vespucci, Amerigo (Vol. 27, p. 1058), by
Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The Dawn
of Modern Geography, etc.
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250
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The Discovery of the Pacific (1513).
The existence of a new continent dis-
tinct from Asia revealed to the
world. First circumnavigation of
the globe. The Pacific Ocean named
(1520).
The Conquest of Mexico (1519-1521).
" The Descendant of the Sun." Dis-
covery of Lower California. In-
gratitude of Charles V.
Exploration of Guatemala and Yucatan
(1528), and the Mississippi (1541).
France attacks Spain in the New
World.
Discovery of the St. LawTence (1534).
How Canada got its name. Early
Canadian History.
Foundation of Quebec (1608). Dis-
covery of Lake Champlain (1609).
Champlain assists Algonquins and
Hurons against the Iroquois. The
beginning of the murderous conflicts
between the French and the Iroquois.
The Fortunes of New France. Colo-
nial Expansion. Horrors of Indian
Warfare.
Louisiana in possession of France
(1682). Discovery of the Ohio
River.
The first English colony (1583) unsuc-
cessful.
The persistent efforts of Raleigh
(1584-1587). First English child
born in America (Aug. 15, 1587).
The first permanent English settlement
(1607).
Colonial Expansion and Development
of Imperial Control.
The Thirteen Original Colonies, their
Founders and Leaders, and their
early Struggles.
Balboa, Vasco Nunez dk (Vol. 3, p.
241).
Magellan, Ferdinand (Vol. 17, p. 802),
by Dr. C. R. Beazley, author of The
Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Pacific Ocean, History (Vol. 20, p. 488).
Cortes, Hernan (Vol. 7, p. 205).
California, Lower (Vol. 5, p. 21).
Soto, Ferdinando de (Vol. 25, p. 485).
Las Casas, Bartolome de (Vol. 16, p.
232).
Cartier, Jacques (Vol. 5, p. 483), by H.
P. Biggar, author of The Voyage of the
Cabots to Greenland.
Canada, History (Vol. 5, p. 156), by
Dr. George McKinnon Wrong, Univer-
sity of Toronto.
Champlain, Samuel de (Vol. 5, p. 830),
by Prof. Narcisse E. Dionne, Libra-
rian of the Legislature of the Province
of Quebec, author of Life of Samuel de
Champlain, Founder of Quebec, etc.
Frontenac (Vol. 11, p. 249), by Dr.
Arthur G. Doughty, Dominion archivist
of Canada, author of The Cradle of
New France, etc.
La Salle, Rene Robert, Sieur de
(Vol. 16, p. 230), by Charles C. Whin-
ery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Newfoundland, History (Vol. 19, p.
482), by Beckles Willson, author of
The Romance of Canada, etc.
North Carolina, History (Vol. 19, p.
775).
Raleigh, Sir Walter (Vol. 22, p. 869),
by David Hannay, author of Short His-
tory of the Royal Navy.
Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 122).
Jamestown (Vol. 15, p. 148).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 668),
by Dr. Herbert L. Osgood, professor
of history, Columbia University, au-
thor of The American Colonies in the
17th Century, etc.
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AMERICAN HISTORY
251
Virginia.
North Carolina.
South Carolina.
New England.
Massachusetts.
Maine (a part of Massachusetts).
Rhode Island.
New Hampshire.
Connecticut.
Vermont.
Indian Wars in New England.
New York.
Virginia (Vol. 28, p. 122).
Jamestown (Vol. 15, p. 148).
Smith, John (Vol. 25, p. 264).
Gosnold, Bartholomew (Vol. 12, p.
265).
Berkeley, Sir William (Vol. 8, p. 781).
Blair, James (Vol. 4, p. 84).
Spotswood, Alexander (Vol. 25, p. 785).
North Carolina (Vol. 19, p. 775).
South Carolina (Vol. 25, p. 508).
New England (Vol. 19, p. 476).
Massachusetts (Vol. 17, p. 858).
Plymouth, Mass. (Vol. 21, p. 868).
Bradford, William (Vol. 4, p. 870).
Standish, Miles (Vol. 25, p. 772).
Alden, John (Vol. 1, p. 588).
Winslow, Edward (Vol. 28, p. 788).
Endecott, John (Vol. 9, p. 882).
Salem (Vol. 24, p. 62).
Winthrop, John (Vol. 28, p. 786).
Boston, Mass. (Vol. 4, p. 290).
Ipswich, Mass. (Vol. 14, p. 789).
Vane, Sir Henry (Vol. 27, p. 892).
Hutchinson, Anne (Vol. 14, p. 12).
Maine (Vol. 17, p. 489).
Popham, Sir John (Vol. 22, p. 88).
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando (Vol. 12, p.
256).
Portland, Me. (Vol. 22, p. 120).
Rhode Island (Vol. 28, p. 251).
Williams, Roger (Vol. 28, p. 682).
Providence (Vol. 22, p. 512).
New Hampshire (Vol. 19, p. 496).
Portsmouth, N. H. (Vol. 22, p. 182).
Connecticut (Vol. 6, p. 954).
Hooker, Thomas (Vol. 18, p. 674).
New Haven (Vol. 19, p. 499).
Eaton, Theophilus (Vol. 8, p. 838).
Hartford (Vol. 18, p. 38).
Vermont (Vol. 27, p. 1028).
Pequot (Vol. 21, p. 132).
Philip, King (Vol. 21, p. 889).
New York (Vol. 19, p. 608).
Hudson, Henry (Vol. 18, p. 849).
Iroquois (Vol. 14, p. 839).
New York (City) (Vol. 19, p. 620).
Albany (Vol. 1, p. 490).
Staten Island (Vol. 25, p. 802).
Long Island (Vol. 16, p. 982).
Stuyvesant, Peter (Vol. 25, p. 1055).
Digitized by
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252
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
New Jersey.
Delaware.
Pennsylvania.
Maryland.
Georgia.
The French and Indian Wan.
Struggle of the British and the French
in America. Pressure of British on
the French " paper barriers."
Old-World quarrel carried into the
New World.
Capture of Louisburg, 1745.
Albany Congress of 1754.
The Continental Contest of which the
French and Indian Wars were a
part.
Western Campaigns,
and Virginia.
In Pennsylvania
The New York Frontier and Fighting
there.
The Campaign against Quebec and
its Capture by the British.
New Jersey (Vol. 19, p. 508).
Carteret, Sir George (Vol. 5, p. 418).
Andros, Sir Edmund (Vol. 2, p. 1).
Elizabeth, N. J. (Vol. 9, p. 287).
Delaware (Vol. 7, p. 949).
Lewes (Vol. 16, p. 522).
New Castle (Vol. 19, p. 472).
Wilmington (Vol. 28, p. 690).
Pennsylvania (Vol. 21, p. 111).
Penn, William (Vol. 21, p. 99), by Os-
mund Airy, author of Charles II, editor
of the Lauderdale Papers, etc.
Friends, Society of (Vol. 11, p. 227).
Philadelphia (Vol. 21, p. 872).
Maryland (Vol. 17, p. 881), by N. D.
Mereness, Ph.D., author of Maryland
as a Proprietary Province,
Baltimore, George Calvert, 1st Baron
(Vol. 8, p. 288).
Baltimore (Vol. 8, p. 290).
Mason and Dixon Line (Vol. 17, p. 841).
Georgia (Vol. 11, p. 755).
Oglethorpe, James Edward (Vol. 20,
p. 24).
Savannah (Vol. 24, p. 240).
United States, History, The Struggle
with the French (1690-1760) (Vol. 27,
p. 670), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Colum-
bia University.
Canada, History (Vol. 5, p. 156), by
Prof. G. M. Wrong, author of A Cana-
dian Manor and Its Seigneurs, etc.
Louisburg (Vol. 17, p. 52).
Albany, N. Y. (Vol. 1, p. 490).
Seven Years* War (Vol. 24, p. 715), by
Col. F. N. Maude, author of War and
the World's Policy, and David Han-
nay, author of Short History of the
Royal Navy.
Pittsburg (Vol. 21, p. 680).
Braddock, Edward (Vol. 4, p. 869).
Pontiac (Vol. 22, p. 65).
Dinwiddie, Robert (Vol. 8, p. 278).
Shirley, William (Vol. 24, p. 991).
Ticonderoga (Vol. 26, p. 987).
George, Lake (Vol. 11, p. 748).
Niagara, Fort (Vol. 19, p. 634).
Johnson, Sir William (Vol. 15, p. 472).
Quebec (Vol. 22, p. 728).
Wolfe, James (Vol. 28, p. 773).
Montcalm (Vol. 18, p. 761).
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AMERICAN HISTORY
253
Colonization on the Pacific Coast.
Spanish Government in California.
Rule of the Missions. " A complete
failure save in the acquisition of ma-
terial wealth."
The Spaniards neglect northwestern
America.
British Traders seize the opportu-
nity.
The Colonial Revolt and Events Lead-
ing up to It.
(1768-1788).
Immediate Causes:
The Stamp Act (1765).
Boston Massacre and Boston Tea
Party.
Suffolk Resolves.
Mecklenburg Resolutions and " Dec-
laration/' May, 1775.
Virginia leaders decide on independ-
ence to secure foreign assistance.
The Leaders of Public Opinion:
Virginia.
Massachusetts.
New Hampshire.
Pennsylvania.
New York.
Conservative Leaders.
Why did not the Canadians revolt?
California, History (Vol. 5, p. 17).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 247).
Hudson's Bay Company (Vol. 18, p.
852).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p.
672), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia
University.
Stamp (Vol. 25, p. 772).
Boston (Vol. 4, p. 296); Hutchinson,
Thomas (Vol. 14, p. 18).
Milton, Mass. (Vol. 18, p. 492).
North Carolina (Vol. 19, p. 776).
Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 128).
Henry, Patrick (Vol. 18, p. 800), by N.
D. Mereness, author of Maryland, a
Proprietary Province.
Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 844),
by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown
University.
Lee, Richard Henry (Vol. 16, p. 862).
Otis, James (Vol. 20, p. 866).
Adams, Samuel (Vol. 1, p. 180), by Prof.
Edward Channing, Harvard.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176).
Langdon, John (Vol. 16, p. 172).
Dickinson, John (Vol. 8, p. 184).
Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 24),
by Richard Webster.
Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 881).
by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chis-
holm, editor-in-chief Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Loyalists, or Tories (Vol. 17, p. 79).
Galloway, Joseph (Vol. 11, p. 421).
Seabury, Samuel (Vol. 24, p. 531).
Tryon, William (Vol. 27, p. 340).
Johnson, Sir William and Sir John
(Vol. 15, p. 472).
Quebec Act (Vol. 22, p. 729).
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254
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Declaration of Independence.
Resolution of Independence adopted
July 2.
Jefferson's Declaration adopted July
4. Most of the signatures affixed
Aug. 2. One not until 1781.
Independence, Declaration of (Vol.
14, p. 872), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Some of the " Signers "
Virginia.
Massachusetts.
New York.
Pennsylvania.
New Jersey.
Connecticut.
Rhode Island.
Maryland.
South Carolina.
English Opinion and Policy.
' Conciliation."
American Foreign Agents and their
work, especially in France, during
the war.
Jefferson, Thomas (Vol. 15, p. 801), by
Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Lee, Richard Henry (Vol. 16, p. 862).
Lee, Francis Liohtfoot (Vol. 16, p.
862).
Hancock, John (Vol. 12, p. 908).
Adams, Samuel (Vol. 1, p. 180), by Prof.
Edward Channing.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Prof.
Edward Channing.
Paine, Robert Treat (Vol. 20, p. 456).
Gerry, Elbridoe (Vol. 11, p. 908).
Livingston, Philip (Vol. 16, p. 813).
Morris, Robert (Vol. 18, p. 871).
Rush, Benjamin (Vol. 23, p. 857).
Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 24).
Wilson, James (Vol. 28, p. 693).
Witherspoon, John (Vol. 28, p. 759).
Hopkinson, Francis (Vol. 13, p. 685).
Sherman, Roger (Vol. 24, p. 851).
Wolcott, Oliver (Vol. 28, p. 770).
Ellery, William (Vol. 9, p. 290).
Carroll, Charles (Vol. 5, p. 409).
Middleton, Arthur (Vol. 18, p. 415).
Rutledge, Edward (Vol. 23, p. 945).
George III (Vol. 11, p. 740), by Dr. S.
R. Gardiner, author of History of Eng-
land.
Guilford, Frederick North, 2nd Earl
(Lord North) (Vol. 12, p. 691).
Burke, Edmund (Vol. 4, p. 824), by
John Morley (Viscount Morley of
Blackburn).
Chatham, Earl op (Pitt) (Vol. 6, p. 1).
Fox, Charles James (Vol. 10, p. 761), by
David Hannay.
Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 24).
Deane, Silas. (Vol. 7, p. 898).
Lee, Arthur (Vol. 16, p. 860).
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
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AMERICAN HISTORY
255
The War for Independence.
General outline.
American Leaders
• In early fighting in Massachusetts
On the border and in Canada
In the Middle States
In the South
In the Northwest
On Sea
Foreign Officers in the War
French
Polish
German
American War op Independence (Vol.
I, p. 842), by Prof. Harry Phelps
Johnston, New York University, author
of Loyalist History of the Revolution,
and, for naval affairs, by David Han-
nay, author of A Short History of the
Royal Navy.
Revere, Paul (Vol. 23, p. 228).
Warren, Joseph (Vol. 28, p. 880).
Putnam, Israel (Vol. 22, p. 670).
Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 844),
by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown
University.
Allen, Ethan (Vol. 1, p. 691).
Montgomery, Richard (Vol. 18, p. 784).
Arnold, Benedict (Vol. 2, p. 688).
Schuyler, Philip John (Vol. 24, p.
887).
Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 844),
by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown
University.
Stirling, William Alexander, Earl of
(Vol. 25, p. 925).
Knox, Henry (Vol. 15, p. 878).
Stark, John (Vol. 25, p. 798).
Wayne, Anthony (Vol. 28, p. 482).
Gates, Horatio (Vol. 11, p. 529).
Benedict, Arnold (Vol. 2, p. 688).
Sullivan, John (Vol. 26, p. 57).
Moultrie, William (Vol. 18, p. 985).
Morgan, Daniel (Vol. 18, p. 888).
Marion, Francis (Vol. 17, p. 722).
Pickens, Andrew (Vol. 21, p. 582).
Sumter, Thomas (Vol. 26, p. 85).
Shelby, Isaac (Vol. 24, p. 826).
Gates, Horatio (Vol. 11, p. 529).
Lee, Henry (Vol. 16, p. 861).
Greene, Nathaniel (Vol. 12, p. 588).
Clark, George Rogers (Vol. 6, p. 442).
Jones, John Paul (Vol. 15, p. 499).
Hopkins, Esek (Vol. 18, p. 684).
Lafayette (Vol. 16, p. 65).
Rochambeau (Vol. 28, p. 425).
Grasse, Comte de (Vol. 12, p. 869).
Estaing, C. H. d' (Vol. 9, p. 789).
Kosciuszko (Vol. 15, p. 914).
Pulaski (Vol. 22, p. 640).
Steuben (Vol. 25, p. 904).
Kalb, Johann (Vol. 15, p. 689).
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256
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
English Leaders
On land
On sea
Howe, William (Vol. 18, p. 889).
Clinton, Sir Henry (Vol. 6, p. 529).
Burooyne, John (Vol. 4, p. 819).
Andre, John (Vol. 1, p. 968).
Cornwallis, Charles (Vol. 7, p. 188).
Tarleton, Sir Banastre (Vol. 26, p.
428).
Hastings, Marquess of (Lord Rawdon)
(Vol. 18, p. 58).
Howe, Richard (Vol. 18, p. 886).
Rodney, George Brydges (Vol. 28, p.
447).
Byron, John (Vol. 4, p. 906).
The Principal Engagements of the
War, Separately Treated
Around Boston
Canada and the Border
Middle States
South
Governmental History.
First attempts at Confederation
(1776-1789). Article of Con-
federation (1777-1781).
Difficulties of ratification.
Lexington (Vol. 16, p. 527).
Concord (Vol. 6, p. 880).
Bunker Hill (Vol. 4, p. 798).
Boston (Vol. 4, p. 296).
Ticonderoga (Vol. 26, p. 988).
Crown Point (Vol. 7, p. 519).
Quebec (Vol. 22, p. 728).
Long Island (Vol. 16, p. 984), by C. F.
Atkinson, author of The Wilderness
and Cold Harbour.
New York City (Vol. 19, p. 622).
Trenton and Princeton (Vol. 27, p.
252).
Brandywine (Vol. 4, p. 480).
Germantown (Vol. 11, p. 804).
Saratoga (Vol. 24, p. 205).
Bennington (Vol. 8, p. 748).
Valley Forge (Vol. 27, p. 864).
Monmouth (Vol. 18, p. 727).
Stony Point (Vol. 25, p. 966).
West Point (Vol. 28, p. 559).
Charleston (Vol. 5, p. 944).
Camden (Vol. 5, p. 102).
King's Mountain (Vol. 15, p. 819).
Eutawville (Vol. 9, p. 957).
Yorktown (Vol. 28, p. 986).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 681),
by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia Uni-
versity.
Maryland (Vol. 17, p. 882), by Dr. N.
D. Mereness, author of Maryland, a
Proprietary Province.
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AMERICAN HISTORY
257
Necessity for centralization seen
(1779-1780).
Recognition of the United States.
Treaty of Versailles (Sept.
1788).
Struggle for National Government.
The Critical Period.
Government found impossible under
the articles (1788-1789).
Territorial cessions and government.
Ordinance of 1787.
Roundabout origin of the Constitu-
tional Conventions:
Alexandria (1785).
Annapolis (1786).
Philadelphia (1787).
The three plans :
Virginia
Pinckney
New Jersey (Paterson)
Struggle over State Representation.
Origin of the Senate, Connecticut
compromise.
Opposition and Ratification.
Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
Government Under the Constitution.
The form of Government estab-
lished by the Constitution.
Washington as President (1789-
1797).
Development of Democracy (1789-
1801).
Constitution finally ratified by all
the States.
Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 880),
by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chis-
holm, editor 11th Edition Encyclopae-
dia Britannica.
Franklin, Benjamin (Vol. 11, p. 27),
by Richard Webster.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Dr.
Edward Charining, Harvard Univer-
sity.
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
Laurens, Henry (Vol. 16, p. 284).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 684),
by Dr. Alexander Johnston, late pro-
fessor of history, Princeton Univer-
sity, and C. C. Whinery, assistant edi-
tor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Jefferson, Thomas (Vol. 15, p. 808), by
Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 285).
Alexandria, Va. (Vol. 1, p. 572).
Annapolis, Va. (Vol. 2, p. 6S).
Philadelphia, History (Vol. 21, p. 872).
Randolph, Edmund J. (Vol. 22, p. 886).
Pinckney, Charles C. (Vol. 21, p. 616).
New Jersey (Vol. 19, p. 512).
Morris, Gouverneur (Vol. 18, p. 869).
Connecticut, History (Vol. 6, p. 956).
Henry, Patrick (Vol. 18, p. 800).
Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 880),
by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chis-
holm.
Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 286).
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p. 294).
Federalist Party (Vol. 10, p. 285).
Anti-Federalists (Vol. 2, p. 124).
United States, Constitution and Govern-
ment (Vol. 27, p. 646), by Hon. James
Bryce, British Ambassador at Wash-
ington, and author of The American
Commonwealth.
Washington, George (Vol. 28, p. 847),
by Dr. William MacDonald, professor
of American History, Brown Univer-
sity.
United States, History (Vol. 27, p.
688), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and
C. C. Whinery.
North Carolina (Vol. 19, p. 777).
Rhode Island (Vol. 28, p. 252).
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258
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The first Tariff act, 1789, a mod-
erate protective measure.
Admission of new States, Vermont
and Kentucky.
Hamilton's efforts for strength and
stability. His tendency towards
Aristocracy. Opposition of Jef-
ferson.
Excise troubles (1794). First em-
ployment by the Federal Execu-
tive of power to enforce Federal
laws within the States.
Jay's treaty with England (1794).
Its defects.
Presidency of John Adams. Alien
and Sedition Laws.
Organization of Navy Department
(1798).
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.
Part in them taken by Jefferson and
Madison.
Idea of Secession present from the
beginning. Early threats.
Invention of cotton gin (1798) and
its far-reaching consequences, in-
troducing a commercial element
into slavery.
Democracy and Nationality (1801-
1829).
Election of Jefferson (1800). The
Democratic Party called by Jef-
ferson the Republican Party,
later and officially the Demo-
cratic-Republican, and later still
simply the Democratic Party.
The acquisition of Louisiana (1808).
The Lewis-Clark expedition (1804;
a basis for future acquisition of
territory in the far west.
War with the Barbary pirates
(1805). These robbers first
checked by the little American
navy.
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Dr. F. W.
Taussig, professor Harvard University,
author of Principles of Economics, ietc.
Vermont (Vol. 27, p. 1028).
Kentucky (Vol. 15, p. 746).
Hamilton, Alexander (Vol. 12, p. 881).,
by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chis-
hqlm, editor-in-chief Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
Jefferson, Thomas (Vol. 15, p. 808), by
Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Whisky Insurrection (Vol. 28, p. 592).
Gallatin, Albert (Vol. 11, p. 414), by
Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S. Senator
from Massachusetts, biographer of
Washington, Webster, etc.
Jay, John (Vol. 15, p.
Adams, John (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Prof.
Edward Channing of Harvard.
Navy and Navies, The United States
(Vol. 19, p. 808), by David Hannay.
Admiralty Administration (Vol. 1, p.
201), by the late Rear- Admiral Wil-
liam T. Sampson, U. S. Navy.
Virginia (Vol. 28, p. 124).
Kentucky (Vol. 15, p. 746).
Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 286).
Secession (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Dr. Wal-
ter L. Fleming, professor Louisiana
State University.
Whitney, Eli (Vol. 28, p. 611).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p.
692), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and
C. C. Whinery.
Democratic Party (Vol. 8, p. 2).
State Rights (Vol. 25, p. 802).
Louisiana Purchase (Vol. 17, p. 62).
Lewis, Meriwether (Vol. 16, p. 528).
Clark, William (Vol. 6, p. 442).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 248).
Pirate and Piracy, History (Vol. 21, p.
688), by D. Hannay, author of Short
History of the Royal Navy.
Eaton, William (Vol. 8, p. 889).
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AMERICAN HISTORY
259
War with Barbary Pirates.
Expedition of Aaron Burr (1806-
1807).
Election of Madison (1808).
Difficulties with Great Britain. Re-
strictions of Commerce and right
of search.
The War of 1812.
Military and naval events.
Principal engagements and Strategic
Points
In the Northwest
In the East
In the Southwest
Principal Leaders in the War on
Land and on Sea
American
On the other side
Weakness of Madison's Administra-
tion.
Opposition to the war in New Eng-
land: The Hartford Convention.
After the War.
Reaction against Federalist party
Acquisition of Florida (1819)
Derna (Vol. 8, p. 74), by D. G. Ho-
garth.
Hull, Isaac (Vol. 18, p. 869).
Burr, Aaron (Vol. 4, p. 862).
Wilkinson, James (Vol. 28, p. 647), by
Dr. Isaac Joslin Cox, professor of his-
tory, University of Cincinnati.
Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 284).
Search, or Visit and Search (Vol. 24,
p. 560), by Sir Thomas Barclay, au-
thor of Problems of International Prac-
tice and Diplomacy.
American War op 1812 (Vol. 1, p. 847),
by David Hannay, author of Short His-
tory of the Royal Navy.
Mackinac Island (Vol. 17, p. 255).
Detroit (Vol. 8, p. 116).
Michigan (Vol. 18, p. 876).
Toronto (Vol. 27, p. 58).
Sackett's Harbor (Vol. 28, p. 974).
Plattsburo (Vol. 21, p. 825).
Champlain (Vol. 5, p. 881).
Niagara, Fort (Vol. 19, p. 685).
Washington (Vol. 28, p. 852).
Baltimore (Vol. 8, p. 290).
New Orleans (Vol. 19, p. 581).
Rodgers, John (Vol. 28, p. 447).
Decatur, Stephen (Vol. 7, p. 910).
Hull, Isaac (Vol. 18, p. 869).
Bainbridge, William (Vol. 8, p. 228).
Porter, David (Vol. 22, p. 118).
Chauncey, Isaac (Vol. 6, p. 18).
Perry, Oliver Hazard (Vol. 21, p. 185).
Brown, Jacob (Vol. 4, p. 659).
Scott, Winfield (Vol. 24, p. 475).
Jackson, Andrew (Vol. 15, p. 107).
Brock, Sir Isaac (Vol. 4, p. 628).
Ross, Robert (Vol. 28, p. 740).
Broke, Sir P. B. V. (Vol. 4, p. 628).
Tecumseh (Vol. 26, p. 499).
Madison, James (Vol. 17, p. 286).
Hartford (Vol. 18, p. 88).
Federalist Party (Vol. 10, p. 285).
Florida, History (Vol. 10, p. 545).
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260
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Bank of the United States (1816).
Tariff revision (1816-1828).
"The American System "—Clay's
name for the combination of pro-
tective tariff and internal im-
provements begun by Dallas and
carried on by himself and the
Whig and Republican parties.
The Monroe Doctrine (1828).
The first weighty international ac-
tion of the Government — warning
to European states at instance of
England.
Admission of new States:
Indiana (1816)
Mississippi (1817)
Illinois (1818)
Alabama (1819)
Maine (1820)
Missouri (1821)
Fixing the Northwest Boundary:
Agreements with Great Britain
(1818 and 1827) and with Rus-
sia (1825).
A nationalizing element in the Re-
publican Party fostered by com-
mercial and manufacturing ele-
ments in the East fuses with
broad constructionists to form
new party (National Republican,
later the Whig) under J. Q.
Adams and Clay (1824).
Jackson and the Democratic Party.
The " power of the people M estab-
lished.
Free vs. Slave States.
Beginning of a sectional struggle,
which Clay and others tried to
compromise (1820).
Industrial Development and Sectional
Divergence.
Banks and Banking, United States (Vol.
8, p. 845), by Charles A. Conant, au-
thor of The History of Modern Banks.
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W.
Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff
History of the United States, etc.
Protection (Vol. 22, p. 465), by Dr.
Edmund J. James, president of Univer-
sity of Illinois, author of History of
American Tariff Legislation.
Dallas, A. J. (Vol. 7, p. 768).
Clay, Henry (Vol. 6, p. 471), by Carl
Schurz, biographer of Clay.
Monroe, James (Vol. 18, p. 786).
Monroe Doctrine (Vol. 18, p. 788), by
Dr. Theodore S. Woolsey, professor of
International Law, Yale University.
Indiana, History (Vol. 14, p. 425).
Mississippi, History (Vol. 18, p. 602).
Illinois, History (Vol. 14, p. 809).
Alabama, History (Vol. 1, p. 462).
Maine, History (Vol. 17, p. 489).
Missouri, History (Vol. 18, p. 618).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 248).
Whig Party (Vol. 28, p. 589), by Dr.
Anson D. Morse, professor of history,
Amherst College.
Adams, John Quincy (Vol. 1, p. 178), by
Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard Uni-
versity.
Clay, Henry (Vol. 6, p. 470), by Carl
Schurz, author of Life, of Henry Clay.
Anti-Masonic Party (Vol. 2, p. 127).
Democratic Party (Vol. 8, p. 2).
Crawford, W. H. (Vol. 6, p. 886).
Missouri Compromise (Vol. 18, p. 614),
by Prof. William Roy Smith, Bryn
Mawr College.
Missouri, History (Vol. 18, p. 618).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p.
697), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and
C. C. Whinery.
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AMERICAN HISTORY
261
Tendencies to Disunion
(1829-1851).
" The reign of Andrew Jackson "
(1829-1887).
The Kitchen Cabinet and the Cab-
inet Crisis.
Jackson and the Bank.
The new school of leaders.
Jackson's lieutenant and
cessor.
sue-
Van Buren's lieutenant in New
York.
The Jacksonian leader in the
Senate.
Jackson's War Secretary, 1881-
86.
Jackson's Attorney-General,
Treasurer, and (1885) Chief
Justice.
Jackson's Secretary of State
(1881-88), who drafted the
anti-nullification proclamation.
Georgia and the Cherokees. Oppo-
sition in the South to the Protec-
tive System. Tariff of 1882.
Rise and fall of doctrine of Nulli-
fication (1880).
Nullification not original with Cal-
houn.
The debate in the U. S. Senate
on nullification — Webster and
Hayne.
Compromise Tariff of 1888.
Beginning of abolitionist movement
(1831). The " Liberator."
Foundation of American Anti-Slav-
ery Society (1881). Its leaders.
Jackson, Andrew (Vol. 15, p. 107), by
the late Prof. William G. Sumner, Yale
University, author of Life of Andrew
Jackson, etc.
Green, Duff (Vol. 12, p. 584).
Eaton, Margaret O'Neill (" Peggy
O'Neill ") (Vol. 8, p. 888).
Banks and Banking, United States
(Vol. 8, p. 846), by C. A. Conant, au-
thor of History of Modern Banks of
Issue.
Van Buren, Martin (VoL 27, p. 881),
by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown
University.
Marcy, W. L. (Vol. 17, p. 696).
Benton, T. H. (Vol. 8, p. 758).
Cass, Lewis (Vol. 5, p. 455).
Taney, R. B. (Vol. 26, p. 896).
Livingston, Edward (Vol. 16, p. 811).
Georgia, History (Vol. 11, p. 756).
Tariff, United States (Vol. 26, p. 425),
by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard Uni-
versity, author of Tariff History of the
United States.
Calhoun, John C. (Vol. 5, p. 1), by
Hon. Henry A. M. Smith, U. S. Dis-
trict Judge, South Carolina.
South Carolina, History (Vol. 25, p.
504).
Nullification (Vol. 19, p. 846). by Prof.
Walter L. Fleming, Louisiana State
University.
Webster, Daniel (Vol. 28, p. 461), by
Everett P. Wheeler, author of Daniel
Webster, etc.
Hayne, Robert Young (Vol. 13, p. 114).
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W.
Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff
History of the United States.
Slavery, United States (Vol. 25, p. 225),
by Dr. J. K. Ingram.
Lundy, Benjamin (Vol. 17, p. 124).
Garrison, W. L. (Vol. 11, p. 477).
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262
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Dissent from this view and forma-
tion of anti-slavery political party
(1840).
"Dorr's Rebellion."
Seminole War (1885-1842).
Texas independent of Mexico
(1836).
Admission of Texas (1845).
Polk's Administration.
War with Mexico (1846-1848).
The Generals and the Fighting.
Wilmot Proviso and similar meas-
ures.
Cession of California (1848), and
Discovery of Gold there.
The Gadsden Purchase (1858).
Compromise Measures of 1850.
Opposition in Georgia.
Fugitive Slave Laws.
Various political elements join to
oppose introduction of slavery
into territories (1847-1848).
Tariff Reduction, Walker Bill of
1846.
Independent Treasury System
(1846).
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850).
The northern boundary " Fifty-four
forty or fight."
New Leaders in the '50's.
Northern anti-slavery men.
Phillips, Wendell (Vol. 21, p. 407), by
Thomas Wentworth Higginson, author
of History of the United States.
Liberty Party (Vol. 16, p. 548).
Birney, James G. (Vol. 8, p. 988).
Smith, Gerrit (Vol. 25, p. 261).
Rhode Island (Vol. 28, p. 252).
Osceola (Vol. 20, p. 846).
Texas, History (Vol. 26, p.
Houston, Sam (Vol. 18, p. 828).
San Antonio, Texas (Vol. 24, p. 126).
Austin, S. F. (Vol. 2, p. 940).
Crockett, David (Vol. 7, p. 477.
Polk, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 988), by Prof.
W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
Taylor, Zachary (Vol. 26, p. 478), by
Prof. Isaac J. Cox, University of Cin-
cinnati.
Scott, Winfield (Vol. 24, p. 475).
Santa- Ana (Vol. 24, p. 184).
Mexico, History (Vol. 18, p. 840).
Mexico City (Vol. 18, p. 847).
Wilmot, David (Vol. 28, p. 691).
California, History (Vol. 5, p. 17).
Gadsden, James (Vol. 11, p. 888).
Compromise Measures of 1850 (Vol. 6,
p. 818), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn
Mawr College.
Georgia (Vol. 11, p. 756).
Fugitive Slave Laws (Vol. 11, p. 288).
Free Soil Party (Vol. 11, p. 87).
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W.
Taussig, Harvard University.
Walker, Robert James (Vol. 28, p.
278).
Polk, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 988), by Prof.
W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (Vol. 6, p.
475).
Clayton, John M. (Vol. 6, p. 474).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 249).
Washington, History (Vol. 28, p. 857).
Sumner, Charles (Vol. 26, p. 81).
Seward, William H. (Vol. 24, p. 788).
Chase, Salmon P. (Vol. 5, p. 955).
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AMERICAN HISTORY
263
Southern leaders, protecting sla-
very in the Territories.
Northern " popular sovereignty
leader."
Attempt to uphold Fugitive Slave
Law of 1850 — a death blow to the
Whig Party.
The American or " Know Nothing "
Party.
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, repealing
Missouri Compromise.
Origin of the Republican Party
(1854.).
Opening of Japan (1854).
Efforts to obtain Cuba in the inter-
ests of Slavery. The Ostend
Manifesto (1854).
The election of 1856.
The Dred Scott decision and its
effects (1857).
Lincoln and Douglas debates in Illi-
nois Senatorial contest (1858).
John Brown's Raid (1859).
Admission of Minnesota and Oregon.
The Presidential Campaign of 1860.
Lincoln elected with Hannibal Ham-
lin of Maine as Vice-President.
Secession (1860-1861).
Davis, Jefferson (Vol. 7, p. 867), by
Hon. W. W. Henry, late president of
the American Historical Association,
and Dr. N. D. Mereness.
Stephens, A. H. (Vol. 26, p. 887).
Douglas, Stephen A. (Vol. 8, p. 446).
Whig Party (Vol. 28, p. 590), by Prof.
A. D. Morse, Amherst College.
Know Nothing Party (Vol. 15, p. 877).
Kansas, History (Vol. 15, p. 658).
Nebraska, History (Vol. 19, p. 880).
Republican Party (Vol. 28, p. 177), by
Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst College.
Japan, History (Vol. 15, p. 287), by
Capt. Frank Brinkley, late editor of
" The Japan Mail "; author of Japan;
Perry, M. C. (Vol. 21, p. 184).
Buchanan, James (Vol. 4, p. 716).
Fillmore, Millard (Vol. 10, p. 844).
Fremont, John C. (Vol. 11, p. 97).
Taney, Roger B. (Vol. 26, p. 896).
Lincoln, Abraham (Vol. 16, p. 705), by
J. G. Nicolay and C. C. Whinery.
Douglas, S. A. (Vol. 8, p. 446).
Free port, III. (Vol. 11, p. 85).
Brown, John (Vol. 4, p. 660).
Minnesota, History (Vol. 17, p. 558).
Oregon, History (Vol. 20, p. 249).
Bell, John (Vol. 8, p. 686).
Everett, Edward (Vol. 10, p. 8), by Dr.
Edward Everett Hale, author of The
Man Without a Country, etc.
Lincoln, Abraham (Vol. 16, p. 708), by
John G. Nicolay, author (with John
Hay) of Abraham Lincoln — a History,
and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor,
11th edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Hamlin, Hannibal (Vol. 12, p. 896).
United States, History (Vol. 27, p.
707), by the late Prof. Alexander John-
ston of Princeton and C. C: Whinery.
Secession (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Prof. W.
L. Fleming, Louisiana State University.
State Rights (Vol. 25, p. 802).
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264
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Organization and administration of
the Confederacy.
President
Vice-President
Other leaders and administrators
Commissioners to Europe
Secession by popular vote, May
(1861).
The people of Virginia divide the
State (May, 1861).
The main article American Civil War
(Vol. 1, p. 818), by Capt. Charles F.
Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and
Cold Harbour, is richly supplemented with
detailed accounts of the principal cam-
paigns and battles, and biographies of
military leaders on both the Federal and
Confederate sides. For battles and cam-
paigns see: Charleston (Vol. 5, p. 944);
Bull Run (Vol. 4, p.
Battles and 791), with map and de-
Campaigns scription of both fa-
mous battles; Lexing-
ton, Mo. (Vol. 16, p. 527); Shenan-
doah Valley Campaigns (Vol. 24, p.
834) ; Yorktown (Vol. 28, p. 936) ; Seven
Days' Battle (Vol. 24, p. 707), both
with fine maps, and written by Major
George W. Redway, author of The War
of Secession: Fair Oaks (Vol. 10, p. 133);
Hampton Roads (Vol. 12, p. 906); Don-
elson, Fort (Vol. 8, p. 414); Shiloh,
Battle of (Vol. 24, p. 859); Corinth
(Vol. 7, p. 150); New Madrid (Vol. 19,
p. 516); Perryville (Vol. 21, p. 185);
Iuka (Vol. 15, p. 87); Memphis (Vol. 18,
p. 107); New Orleans (Vol. 19, p. 531);
Harper's Ferry (Vol. 13, p. 14); An-
CONFEDERATK STATES OF AMERICA (Vol.
6, p. 899), by Dr. J. C. Schwab, Yale,
author of The Confederate States of
America.
Davis, Jefferson (Vol. 7, p. 867), by
Hon. William Wirt Henry and
N. D. Mereness.
Stephens, Alexander H. (Vol. 25, p.
887).
Benjamin, Judah P. (Vol. 8, p. 789).
Reagan, John H. (Vol. 22, p. 940).
Cobb, Howell (Vol. 6, p. 606).
Toombs, Robert (Vol. 27, p. 47).
Vance, Z. B. (Vol. 27, p. 882).
Yancey, William Lowndes (Vol. 28, p.
902).
Mason, James Murray (Vol. 17, p. 889).
Slidell, John (Vol. 25, p. 241).
Tennessee, History (Vol. 26, p. 624).
Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 124).
West Virginia, History (Vol. 28, p. 563).
tietam (Vol. 2, p. 124); Fredericks-
burg (Vol. 11, p. 68); Stone River,
Battle of (Vol. 25, p. 966); Chancel-
lorsville (Vol. 5, p. 835), see also Wil-
derness (Vol. 28, p. 633); Gettysburg
(Vol. 11, p. 911), with map; Vicksburg
(Vol. 28, p. 21), with maps; Port Hud-
son (Vol. 22, p. 117); Baton Rouge
(Vol. 3, p. 521); Helena, Ark. (Vol. 13,
p. 219); Chickamauga Creek (Vol. 6, p.
130), with map; Chattanooga (Vol. 6,
p. 7); Knoxville (Vol. 15, p. 883); Red
River (Vol. 22, p. 969); Wilderness
(Vol. 28, p. 633), with 4 maps, by C. F.
Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and
Cold Harbour: Washington (Vol. 28, p.
352); Marietta, Ga. (Vol. 17, p. 715);
Atlanta (Vol. 2, p. 854) ; Savannah (Vol.
24, p. 241); Mobile (Vol. 18, p. 636);
Galveston (Vol. 11, p. 431); Franklin,
Tenn. (Vol. 11, p. 34); Nashville (Vol.
19, p. 247); Petersburg (Vol. 21, p. 301),
with two maps, by Major G. W. Redway;
Columbia, S. C. (Vol. 6, p. 738); Appo-
mattox Court House (Vol. 2, p. 226);
Richmond, Va. (Vol. 23, p. 311).
On the leaders on both sides see the
biographical articles: McClellan,
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AMERICAN HISTORY
265
George Brinton (Vol. 17, p. 201);
Halleck, Henry Wager
Union (Vol. 12, p. 854); Grant,
Generals Ulysses Simpson (Vol. 12,
p. 355), by John Fiske
and Capt. C. F. Atkinson; Dix, John
Adams (Vol. 8, p. 346); McDowell,
Irvin (Vol. 17, p. 214); Burnside,
Ambrose Everett (Vol. 4, p. 861);
Hooker, Joseph (Vol. 13, p. 671);
Meade, George Gordon (Vol. 17, p.
945) ; Pope, John (Vol. 22, p. 87) ; Buell,
Don Carlos (Vol. 4, p. 751) ; Rosecrans,
William Starke (Vol. 23, p. 734); Sher-
man, William Tecumseh (Vol. 24, p.
851); Thomas, George Henry (Vol. 26,
p. 866); MacPherson, James Birdseye
(Vol. 17, p. 268); Sheridan, Philip
Henry (Vol. 24, p. 847); Slocum, Henry
Warner (Vol. 25, p. 243); Butler, Ben-
jamin Franklin (Vol. 4, p. 881); Han-
cock, Winfield Scott (Vol. 12, p. 909);
Humphreys, Andrew Atkinson (Vol.
13, i . 891); Sedgwick, John (Vol. 24, p.
578); Reynolds, John Fulton (Vol. 23,
p. 226) ; Warren, Gouverneur Kemble
(Vol. 28, p. 329); Howard, Oliver Otis
(Vol. 13, p. 833); Doubleday, Abner
(Vol. 8, p. 441); Sickles, Daniel Edgar
(Vol. 25, p. 36) ; Schurz, Carl (Vol. 24, p.
386); Devens, Charles (Vol. 8, p. 120);
Butterfield, Daniel (Vol. 4, p. 890);
Porter, Horace (Vol. 22, p. 116);
Franklin, William Buel (Vol. 11, p.
33); Porter, Fitz-John (Vol. 22, p. 115);
Shields, James (Vol. 24, p. 856); Hunt,
Henry Jackson (Vol. 13, p. 934) ; Couch,
Darius Nash (Vol. 7, p. 307); Cox,
Jacob Dolson (Vol. 7, p. 352) ; Meagher
Thomas Francis (Vol. 17, p. 946); Sum-
ner, Edwin Vose (Vol. 26, p. 83) ; Sigel,
Franz (Vol. 25, p. 60); Kearny, Philip
(Vol. 15, p. 707); Smith, Charles Fer-
guson (Vol. 25, p. 259); Smith, William
Farrar (Vol. 25, p. 271); Crittenden,
Thomas Leonidas (Vol. 7, p. 471); Mc-
Clernand, John Alexander (Vol. 17,
p. 202); Smith, Andrew Jackson (Vol.
25, 259); Garfield, James Abram (Vol.
11, p. 464); Wallace, Lewis (Vol. 28,
p. 276); Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss
(Vol. 3, p. 333); Washburn, Cadwal-
ader Colden (Vol. 28, p. 344); Logan,
John Alexander (Vol. 16, p. 866);
Palmer, John McAuley (Vol. 20, p.
645) ; McCook, Alexander McDowell,
McCook, Daniel, and McCook, John
James (Vol. 17, p. 205); Smith, Morgan
Lewis, and] Smith, Giles Alexander
(Vol. 25, p. 267); Blair, Francis Pres-
ton (Vol. 4, p. 34); Schofield, John
McAllister (Vol. 24, p. 345); Newton,
John (Vol. 19, p. 592); Miles, Nelson
A. (Vol. 18, p. 442); Merritt, Wesley
(Vol. 18, p. 173); Custer, George Arm-
strong (Vol. 7, p. 668); Stoneman,
George (Vol. 25, p. 962); Wilson, James
Harrison (Vol. 28, p. 695); Tracy, Ben-
jamin Franklin (Vol. 27, p. 127); Lyon,
Nathaniel (Vol. 17, p. 173); Farragut,
David Glasgow (Vol. 10, p. 187); Por-
ter, David Dixon (Vol. 22, p. 113);
Foote, Andrew Hull (Vol. 10, p. 625);
Cushing. William Barker (Vol. 7, p.
667).
And, for Confederate leaders: Lee,
Robert Edward (Vol. 16, p. 362); Jack-
son, Thomas Jonathan, "Stonewall"
(Vol. 15, p . 110);
Confederate Longstreet, James
Generals (Vol. 16, p. 985);
Johnston, Albert
Sidney (Vol. 15, p. 472); Johnston, Jo-
seph Eggleston (Vol. 15, p.474); Beau-
regard, Pierre G. T. (Vol. 3, p. 599);
Bragg, Braxton (Vol. 4, p. 376) ; Hood,
John Bell (Vol. 13, p. 665); Polk,
Leonidas (Vol. 21, p. 984); Hardee,
William Joseph (Vol. 12, p. 941); Hill,
Ambrose Powell (Vol. 13, p. 463); Hill,
Daniel Harvey (Vol. 13, p. 464) ; Ewell
Richard Stoddert (Vol. 10, p. 40);
Early, Jubal Anderson (Vol. 8, p.
797); Anderson, Richard Henry (Vol-
1, p. 960); Floyd, John Buchanan (Vol.
10, p. 573); Buckner, Simon Bolivar
(Vol. 4, p. 732); Crittenden, George
Bibb (Vol. 7, p. 471); Breckinridge,
John Cabell (Vol. 4, p. 483); Smith,
Edmund Kirby (Vol. 25, p. 260); Lee,
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266
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Stephen Dill (Vol. 16, p. 364); Van
Dorn, Earl (Vol. 27, p. 887); Ashby,
Turner (Vol. 2, p. 730) ; Stuart, James
Ewell Brown (Vol. 25, p. 1047); Hamp-
ton, Wade (Vol. 12, p. 905); Lee, Fitz-
hugh (Vol. 16, p. 360); Wheeler, Jo-
Topics for Reading
Political History During the Civil War.
Paper money (1862).
Public lands given to settlers at re-
duced rates (1862), and granted
to agricultural colleges (1862).
War Tariffs (1862-1864).
Establishment of National Banking
System (1862-1865).
Emancipation (1868).
Second election of Lincoln (1864).
Opposition to the War in the North.
The War Governors of the North-
ern States.
Assassination of Lincoln (1865).
The Reconstruction Period.
Organizing the negroes into a .polit-
ical party.
Opposition to Reconstruction Meas-
ures (1865-1876).
Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fif-
teenth Amendments.
seph (Vol. 28, p. 586); Forrest, Nathan
Bedford (Vol. 10, p. 673); Morgan,
John Hunt (Vol. 18, p. 834); Mosby,
John Singleton (Vol. 18, p. 890);
Wise, Henry Alexander (Vol. 28, p.
751).
Articles
Greenbacks (Vol. 12, p. 587).
Homestead and Exemption Laws (Vol.
18, p. 639), by Dr. N. D. Mereness.
Morrill, J. S. (Vol. 18, p. 869).
Tariff, United States (Vol. 26, p. 425),
by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard, au-
thor of Tariff History of the United
States.
Banks and Banking, United States (Vol.
8, p. 347), by Charles A. Conant, au-
thor of Banks of Issue.
Lincoln, Abraham (Vol. 16, p. 707), by
J. G. Nicolay, biographer of Lincoln,
and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor,
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
McClellan, G. B. (Vol. 17, p. 201).
Knights of the Golden Circle (Vol.
15, p. 868), by Prof. W. L. Fleming,
Louisiana State University.
Vallandigham; C. L. (Vol. 27, p. 862).
Copperheads (Vol. 7, p. 110).
Andrew, John A. (Vol. 1, p. 978).
Curtin, A. G. (Vol. 7, p. 651).
Morgan, E. D. (Vol. 18, p. 888).
Seymour, Horatio (Vol. 24, p. 755).
Morton, Oliver P. (Vol. 18, p. 882).
Yates, Richard (Vol. 28, p. 908).
Lincoln, Abraham (Vol. 16, p. 709), by
J. G. Nicolay and C. C. Whinery.
United States, History (Vol. 27, p. 711),
by Dr. Frederick J. Turner, professor
of history, Harvard University.
Freedmen's Bureau (Vol. 11, p. 75), by
Prof. W. L. Fleming.
Howard, O. O. (Vol. 13, p. 838).
Ku Klux Klan (Vol. 15, p. 942), by
Prof. W. L. Fleming.
United States, Constitution and Gov-
ernment (Vol. 27, pp. 647, 658, etc.),
by James Bryce, author of The Amer-
ican Commonwealth.
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AMERICAN HISTORY
267
Character of Reconstruction Gov-
ernment
" Scalawags " and " Carpet Bag-
gers."
Johnson's Policy: his impeachment.
The Legal Tenders.
Grant's two administrations (1869-
1877).
Beginning of Woman's Suffrage
(1869).
Black Friday (1869).
The Alabama Claims, Treaty of
Washington (1871).
The "Virginius" Affair (1878).
The Panic of 1878 and the Inflation
Bill (1874).
Political unrest in the West (1878-
1874).
Railway abuses. The greatest
American political scandal.
War with the Sioux. Custer mas-
sacre (1876).
The Hayes-Tilden Contest (1876).
Withdrawal of Federal troops from
the South.
Civil Service Reform.
Monetary Question — Bland- Allison
Act (1878).
Republicans regain control of Con-
gress.
Factions in Republican Party.
Assassination of Garfield.
Succession of the Vice-President.
Anti-Polygamy Act (1882).
Triumph of Civil Service Reform
(1888).
Tariff revision (1888).
See under History in articles on Southern
States.
Carpet Bagger (Vol. 5, p. 897).
Johnson, Andrew (Vol. 15, p. 461).
Impeachment (Vol. 14, p. 840).
McCulloch, Hugh (Vol. 17, p. 207).
Grant, U. S. (Vol. 12, p. 857), by Dr.
John Fiske, author of American Politi-
cal Ideas, etc., and C. F. Atkinson, au-
thor of Wilderness and Cold Harbour,
etc.
Woman (Vol. 28, p. 788).
Gould, Jay (Vol. 12, p. 284).
Fisk, James (Vol. 10, p. 437).
" Alabama " Arbitration (Vol. 1, p.
464)/ by Montague H. Crackanthorpe.
Santiago de Cuba (Vol. 24, p. 198).
Greenbacks (Vol. 12, p. 536).
Farmers' Movement (Vol. 10, p. 181).
Credit Mobilier of America (Vol. 7, p.
391).
Custer, George A. (Vol. 7, p. 668).
Electoral Commission (Vol. 9, p. 172).
Tilden, S. J. (Vol. 26, p. 970).
Hayes, R. B. (Vol. 18, p. 112), by Carl
Schurz.
Schurz, Carl (Vol. 24, p. 386) ; Godkin,
E. L. (Vol. 12, p. 174).
Allison, W. B. (Vol. 1, p. 696).
Conkling, Roscoe (Vol. 6, p. 950).
Platt, T. C. (Vol. 21, p. 825).
Garfield, James A. (Vol. 11, p. 465), by
Prof. John B. McMaster, University of
Pennsylvania, author of A History of
the People of the United States.
Arthur, C. A. (Vol. 2, p. 683).
Mormons (Vol. 18, p. 846).
Utah (Vol. 27, p. 818).
Civil Service, United States (Vol. 6, p.
414).
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 426), by Prof. F. W.
Taussig, Harvard University, author of
Tariff History of the United States.
Digitized by
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268
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The Presidential campaign of 1884.
First election of Grover Cleve-
land.
Party Breaks.
Increasing problems of Interstate
Commerce. Federal legislation
(1887) on interstate commerce.
Labor combinations, social unrest.
Republican success in 1888. Benja-
min Harrison, president.
Republican policy in Congress.
American control in Samoa (1889).
Republican and Democratic Tariffs:
Mills Bill (1888), McKinley Act
(1890).
States powerless to arrest the prog-
ress of Industrial Combinations.
Federal legislation. Sherman
Anti-Trust Law (1890).
Party disruption over free coinage
of silver. Sherman Silver Pur-
chase Act (1890).
Opening of Indian Lands (1889-
1 898) . Formation of Oklahoma.
Beginning of restriction of Negro
suffrage (1890), and adoption of
grandfather clauses in constitu-
tions of Southern states.
The campaign of 1892.
The candidates.
Blaine, James G. (Vol. 4, p. 82), by
Charles Emory Smith, late editor Al-
bany Journal and Philadelphia Press,
and Postmaster-General of the United
States.
Cleveland, Grover (Vol. 6, p. 501), by
Horace White, formerly editor The
Evening Post, New York; author of
The Tariff Question.
Mugwump (Vol. 18, p. 956).
Interstate Commerce (Vol. 14, p. 711),
by Prof. Frank A. Fetter, Princeton
University, author of The Principles of
Economics.
Trade Unions, United States (Vol. 27 p
150), by Carroll D. Wright, late L\ S.
Commissioner of Labor.
Strikes and Lockouts, United States
(Vol. 25, p. 1088), by Carroll D.
Wright.
Harrison, Benjamin (Vol. 18, p. 22), by
Hon. J. W. Foster, formerly U. S. Sec-
retary of State.
Reed, Thomas B. (Vol. 22, p. 978).
Samoa, History (Vol. 24, p. 116).
Tariff, United States (Vol. 26, p. 426}.
by Prof. F. W. Taussig. '*
Mills, R. Q. (Vol. 18, p. 475).
McKinley, William (Vol. 17, p. 256).
Trusts (Vol. 27, p. 884), by Prof. J. W.
Jenks, professor of Economy and Gov-
ernment, New York University, special
investigator of Trusts for U. S. Gov-
ernment.
Sherman, John (Vol. 24, p. 850), by
Prof. W. A. Dunning, Columbia Uni-
versity, author of Essays on Civil War
and Reconstruction, etc.
Bimetallism (Vol. 8, p. 946), by C. F.
Bastable, Dublin University, author of
Public Finance.
Oklahoma, History (Vol. 20, p. 60).
United States, Constitution and Govern-
ment (Vol. 27, p. 647), by Hon. James
Uryce. Sections on Government of ar-
ticles Mississippi, Virginia, North
Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louis-
iana and Oklahoma.
Harrison, Benjamin (Vol. 18, p. 22) bv
Sia^' F ° Ster ' ^ U * S ' Secreta ^ of
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269
Second election of Cleveland.
Panic of 1898.
Wilson Tariff (1894).
Venezuela Boundary Question
(1895).
New phase of Monroe Doctrine.
The issues of 1896. McKinley 's
election.
Republicans and Gold Standard.
Democrats and Silver.
Gold Democrats.
The Dingley Tariff (1897).
Annexation of Hawaii and events
leading to it (1898).
War with Spain (1898).
Treaty of Paris (1898). The United
States finds itself "in a position
of increased importance and pres-
tige among the nations of the
world."
Regeneration of Cuba (1898-1909).
Initiative and Referendum
adopted (1898).
first
Discovery of gold in Alaska.
Conservation of National Resources,
a new policy.
Assassination of McKinley. The
Roosevelt Administration (1901-
1909).
Isthmian Canal.
Panic of 1907.
Elkins Law.
Eastern Policy.
Weaver, James B. (Vol. 28, p. 439).
Cleveland, Grover (Vol. 6, p. 502), by
Horace White, late editor of The New
York Evenirig Post
Tariff, United States (Vol. 26, p. 426),
by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
Cleveland, Grover (Vol. 6, p. 503), by
Horace White.
Olney, Richard (Vol. 20, p. 91).
McKinley, William (Vol. 17, p. 257).
Hanna, M. A. (Vol. 12, p. 919).
Bryan, William J. (Vol. 9, p. 697).
Palmer, J. M. (Vol. 20, p. 645).
Buckner, S. B. (Vol. 4, p. 732).
Tariff, United States (Vol. 26, p. 427),
by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
Hawaii, History (Vol. 18, p. 91).
Spanish-American War of 1898 (Vol.
25, p. 594).
Philippine Islands, History (Vol. 21, p.
399), by Prof. Hiram Bingham, Yale
University.
Porto Rico, History (Vol. 22, p. 126).
Cuba, History (Vol. 7, p. 604), by F. S.
Philbrick.
South Dakota, History (Vol. 25, p. 508).
United States, Constitution and Govern-
ment (Vol. 27, p. 651), by Hon. James
Bryce, author of The American Com-
monwealth.
Alaska (Vol. 1, p. 475).
Forest and Forestry, United States
(Vol. 10, p. 651), by Gifford Pinchot,
formerly chief of the Forestry Service,
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Roosevelt, Theodore (Vol. 28, p. 707),
by Lawrence F. Abbott, president of
" The Outlook Company."
Panama (Vol. 20, p. 666).
Panama Canal (Vol. 20, p. 666).
Banks and Banking (Vol. 3, p. 348), by
Charles A. Conant, author of A History
of Modern Banks of Issue.
Railways, American Legislation (Vol. 22,
p. 829).
Hay, John (Vol. 13, p. 105).
Root, Elihu (Vol. 28, p. 711).
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
This sketch of American History closes
with the inauguration of President Roose-
velt, for the questions that have arisen
since that date are questions into which
current politics enter, and these are
treated in the chapter of this Guide on
Questions of the Day. Here we need only
say that throughout his study of Amer-
ican history the reader will constantly —
and easily — find many more articles bear-
ing on the subject than are mentioned in
the outline given above. In particular
let him note:
— that there are many biographies of
figures prominent in nation and state not
mentioned above;
— that in each article devoted to a
state there is a section on history, which
has a double value, as giving the outline
of the state's history and as showing its
part in the history of the nation;
— and that there is in articles on cities
and towns a great deal of important in-
formation of historical value, sometimes
merely local, but oftener bearing on the
history of state or nation, or both.
CHAPTER XLIV
CANADIAN HISTORY
ALL the world thinks of Canada as
the youngest of countries, for the
extraordinary rapidity with which
her western territory has been developed
within recent years surpasses every other
record of agricultural expansion. But in
order to realize how young Canada is, in
another sense, one must examine the less
familiar facts of her geological history.
"The innumerable lakes and waterfalls,"
says the Britannica (Vol. 5, p. 143), prove
"that the rivers have not been long at
work," and that the country owes its
contours to comparatively recent geo-
logical action. "In many cases the lakes
of Canada simply
"Young" Rivers spill over, at the
and Lakes lowest point, from
one basin into the
next below, since in so young a country
there has not yet been time for the rivers
to have carved wide valleys . . . Thou-
sands of these lakes have been mapped;
and every new survey brings to light
small lakes hitherto unknown to the
white man . . . For the great extent of
lake-filled country there is no comparison"
in any part of the world. And because
the rivers have not yet worn their beds
to an even slope, there are waterfalls
enough to provide unlimited horse power;
so that the natural advantages of Canada
invite manufacturing just as the fertility
of her soil invites agriculture.
The geographical and geological por-
tions of the article Canada (Vol. 5, p.
142) must be carefully read in order that
the significance of the historical account
of the country may be fully grasped; and
the same is true of those parts of the ar-
ticle which deal with agriculture and with
the commerce of which the first develop-
ments were associated with early explora-
tion. There is ample and authoritative
information on all these subjects in the
article, which is equivalent in length to
85 pages of this Guide. The sections and
their contributors are: Geography, by
Prof. A. P. Coleman, Toronto University;
Population, Commerce, etc., by Prof. W.
L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston;
Agriculture, by E. H. Godfrey, editor of
Census and Statistics Office, Department
of Agriculture, 'Ottawa; History — to the
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CANADIAN HISTORY
271
Federation by G. M. Wrong, University
of Toronto, and after the Federation by
G. R. Parkin, author of Imperial Federa-
tion and Life of Sir John Macdonald, etc.,
and Literature — English-Canadian, by L.
J. Burpee, author of The Search for the
Western Sea, and French-Canadian by
William Wood, author of The Fight for
Canada.
On the early history of Canada the stu-
dent should compare what is given in
this Guide on the early history of America
in general and es-
Exploration and pecially the follow-
Settlement ing articles: Leif
Ericsson (Vol. 16,
p. 896) ; Vinland (Vol. 28, p. 98), by Prof.
Julius Emil Olson, University of Wis-
consin; John Cabot (Vol. 4, p. 921); and
Jacques Cartier (Vol. 5, p. 433), both
by H. P. Biggar, author of The Voyages of
the Cabots to Greenland; Samuel de
Champlain (Vol. 5, p. 830), by N. E.
Dionne, librarian of the Legislature of
the Province of Quebec and biographer of
Champlain; Jacques Marquette (Vol.
17, p. 752) ; Sieur de la Salle (Vol. 16, p.
230), by Charles C. Whinery, assistant-
editor Encyclopaedia Britannica; Fron^
tenac (Vol. 11, p. 249), by A. G. Doughty,
Dominion archivist of Canada; Louis-
burg; Detroit; Sault Ste. Marie;
Mackinac Island; Pittsburg; Nova
Scotia, History; Seven Years' War
(Vol. 24, especially page 722); Quebec;
Montcalm and Wolfe.
The close of the Seven Years' War saw
New France ceded to Great Britain. On
English rule down to Canadian Federa-
tion, the student should consult the fol-
lowing articles: Quebec Act; James
Murray; American War op Inde-
pendence — and particularly the articles
on Montgomery and Arnold, leaders in
the nearly successful attempt of the
Americans to capture Canada, and that
on the 1st Baron Dorchester, the Brit-
ish defender of Quebec; John Graves
Simcoe; Loyalists — and the articles
New Brunswick and Ontario, both
regions largely influenced by the settle-
ment there of these Loyal-
The War ists; American War of
Periods 1812— and especially the
articles Isaac Brock, by
Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University,
Kingston; Erie, Oliver H. Perry,
Sackett's Harbor, Tecumseh, Lake
Champlain (Vol. 5, p. 830); Fort Niag-
ara (Vol. 19, p. 634); John Strachan;
Papineau and W. L. Mackenzie for the
two revolts of 1837; Lord Durham;
Lord Sydenham; Robert Baldwin and
Sir Louis Lafontaine, heads of the first
Liberal administrations; Earl Elgin
(Vol. 9, p. 268); Sir A. A. Dorion; John
Sandfield Macdonald, "the Ishmael of
Parliament"; Sir John Beverley Rob-
inson, head of the Tory "Family Com-
pact"; and, for Irish-American outrages
on the Canadian border, the article
Fenians.
On the period since federation (1867),
see the article Federal Government
(Vol. 10, p. 233) for a general description
of this form of ad-
Federation ministration; the ar-
and Since tides Nova Scotia,
Alfred Gilpin
Jones and Joseph Howe, for local oppo-
sition to federation ; Sir Charles Ttjpper,
who alone in the delegation from Nova
Scotia favoured federation; Thomas
D'Arcy McGee (by A. G. Doughty), a
prominent opponent of Fenianism who
was assassinated by a Fenian; the ar-
ticles Hudson's Bay Company and Sir
G. E. Cartier, by Prof. W. L. Grant,
Queens University, Kingston, for the
extinction of the Hudson's Bay Company
claims and the transfer of its territories
to the government; Louis Riel for the
Red River Rebellion; Prince Edward
Island for its entrance into the Domin-
ion; George Brown, a prominent ad-
vocate of federation, by Prof. Grant;
George Monro Grant, author of Ocean
to Ocean; Sir John Macdonald, by G.
R. Parkin, author of Imperial Federation,
and biographer of Macdonald; Sir Fran-
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272
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
cis Hincks and Sib Alexander Galt,
financiers; Sib Hugh Allan and Sib
David Macfhebson, for the Canadian
Pacific Railway question; Lord Duf-
febin; Alexandeb Mackenzie, head of
a Liberal government from 1873 to 1878
when Sib John Macdonald returned to
power on a platform calling for protec-
tion of Canadian industries; George
Tatlob Denison, founder of the "Can-
ada "First" party; Sib Samuel Leonard
Tilley, MacdonakTs minister of finance,
who was principally responsible for the
tariff of 1879; Sib Louis Henry Da vies,
Liberal politician and jurist; Lord
Stbathcona, by Prof. W. L. Grant,
Baron Mountstephen, Sib William
C. Van Horne and Sib Sandfobd Flem-
ing for the completion of the Canadian
Pacific Railway; Louis Riel for the
Second Riel Rebellion; Sib John Thomp-
son; George Eulas Foster; Sib H. G.
Joly de Lotbiniebe; Honore Mebcieb,
the French leader of Quebec; S. N. Pab-
ent; Sib Mackenzie Bowell, premier in
1894-1896; his successor, Sib Charles
Tuppeb; Edward Blake, a Liberal
leader who in 1892 left Canadian politics
to take a seat in the British House of
Commons; Sir Oliver Mowat, Blake's
successor as premier of Ontario; George
William Ross; Sib Daniel Wilson, edu-
cational reformer, by Professor Grant;
Sib Wilfrid Laurier (by J. S. Willison,
author of Sir W. Laurier and the Liberal
Party: A Political History), the great
Liberal leader of the last decade, and
Laurier's ministers of finance, Sir Rich-
ard John Cartwbight and W. S. Field-
ing, and his minister of militia Sir Fred-
erick William Borden; Sib William
Mulock; and Robert L. Borden, long
leader of the Conservative opposition and
premier in 1911.
CHAPTER XLV
ENGLISH, SCOTCH AND IRISH HISTORY
THE student of English history in
the Britannica may well begin
with the summary view in the
article British Empire (Vol. 4, p. 606),
equivalent to SO pages of this Guide, by
Lady Lugard, wife of the British explorer
and colonial administrator, Sir Frederick
Lugard, herself an authority on colonial
subjects and well-known as colonial
editor of the Times of London. On pp.
. 608-610 there is a chronological list of
the acquisitions of the Empire, and noth-
ing will surprise the reader more than
the comparative recentness of the move-
ment by which two
The British small islands have
Empire expanded into an
empire covering near-
ly one-fourth of the earth's land surface.
Except for the Channel Islands, the
Isle of Man, and "the nominal possession
of Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey
Gilbert in 1583, all the territorial acqui-
sitions of the Empire have been made
in the 17th and subsequent centuries."
On each of the localities mentioned in
this imposing list the reader will find
a separate article in its proper alpha-
betical place in the Encyclopaedia Bri-
tannica dealing with geography, govern-
ment and history. Here it will be
possible only to call attention to articles
on the more important branches of the
subject.
On the early inhabitants of the islands
and on British archaeology, read the
elaborate article Celt (Vol. 5, p. 611;
equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide),
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ENGLISH, SCOTCH AND IRISH HISTORY
273
by Prof. William Ridgeway, Cambridge,
author of The Oldest Irish
Early Epic, and E. C. Quiggin,
Britain lecturer in Celtic, Cam-
bridge, — with particularly
full treatment of Celtic languages and
literatures, — Gaulish, Irish, Scottish,
Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Breton and Corn-
ish; and the article Britain (Vol. 4, p.
583; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide),
which is illustrated by a map of Roman
Britain and plans of Roman remains.
The treatment of pre-Roman and Roman
Britain is by Professor F. J. Haverfield
of Oxford; and later Britain is described
by Hector Munro Chadwick, librarian
of Clare College, Cambridge, and author
of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
Then read:
Wales, History (Vol. 28, pp. 261-268),
}>y Herbert Murray Vaughan, Keble
College, Oxford.
Scotland, Political History (Vol. 24,
pp. 429-457), by Andrew Lang, author
of History of Scotland from the Roman
Occupation; and, among
Scottish many other articles, Scot-
History land, Church of, (Vol. 24,
460), by the Rev. Dr. Allan
Menzies, St. Mary's College, St. An-
drews, and such biographies as: Mal-
colm III. (Canmore); Alexander I, II
and HI (Vol. 1, p. 563); William The
Lion (Vol. 28, p. 665); Wallace, Sir
William (Vol. 28 , p. 277), by A. F.
Hutchinson, late rector of the High
School, Stirling; Robert I, the Bruce
(Vol. 23, p. 395); David I and II (Vol.
8, p. 859); James I, II, III, IV and V
(Vol. 15, p. 139); Mary, Queen of
Scots (Vol. 17, p. 817), a striking bio-
graphy by the poet and essayist Algernon
Charles Swinburne, author of the trage-
dies Chastelard, BoihweU and Mary
Stuart; Bothwell (Vol. 4, p. 303), by
P. C. Yorke; Rizzio (Vol. 23, p. 388);
Darnley (Vol. 7, p. 836), and see also
the article Casket Letters (Vol. 5, p.
449), an examination of the evidence in
this mystery by Andrew Lang; Mar
(Vol. 17, p. 666); Knox, John (Vol. 15,
p. 878), by Dr. Alexander Taylor Innes,
author of John Knox and Studies in
Scottish History; Gowrie (Vol. 12, p.
301), by R. J. McNeill, late editor St
James' 8 Gazette; and James I of England —
VI of Scotland (Vol. 15, p. 136); and for
the later period see English History
to supplement Andrew Lang's account
of the period since the Union under
Scotland, History.
Ireland, History (Vol. 14, p. 756),
by Prof. E. C. Quiggin, of Cambridge,
on the early period, and Richard Bagwell,
commissioner of national
Irish education for Ireland and
History author of Ireland under the
Tudors, Ireland under the
Stuarts, etc.; and to supplement this
general treatment such separate articles
as St. Patrick (Vol. 20, p. 933) and St.
Columba (Vol. 6, p. 737), both by Dr.
E. C. Quiggin; St. Brendan (Vol. 4, p.
495); Brian (Vol. 4, p. 515); Brehon
Laws (Vol. 4, p. 488), by Laurence
Ginnell, M.P. for North Westmeath and
author of Land and Liberty, etc.; O'Neill
family (Vol. 20, p. 107) and O'Donnell
family (Vol. 20, p. 6), by R. J. McNeill;
Fitzgerald family (Vol. 10, p. 441),
by J. H. Round, author of Feudal
England, etc.; Tyrone, earls of (Vol. 27,
p. 549); Tyrconnell (Vol. 27, p. 548);
St. Leqer, Sir Anthony (Vol. 24, p. 23),
by R. J. McNeill; Desmond (Vol. 8,
p. 98); Butler family (Vol. 4, p. 879),
by Oswald Barron, editor of The Ancestor:
Drooheda (Vol. 8, p. 587) f Peep-of-day
Boys (Vol. 21, p. 45); Orangemen
(Vol. 20, p. 160); Flood, Henry (Vol.
10, p. 525); Grattan, Henry (Vol. 12,
p. 379); Tone, T. Wolfe (Vol. 27, p. 2)
and Emmet, Robert and Thomas A.
(Vol. 9, pp. 342-343), all by R. J. Mc-
Neill; O'Connell, Daniel (Vol. 19,
p. 990), by the late William O'Connor
Morris, author of Irish History, etc.;
Fenians (Vol. 10, p. 254), by R. J.
McNeill; Butt, Isaac (Vol. 4, p. 889);
Parnell, C. S. (Vol. 20, p. 854), by
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
James R. Thursfield, author of Peel, etc.;
Davitt, Michael (Vol. 7, p. 870);
Boycott (Vol. 4, p. 353); Dillon, John
(Vol. 8, p. 273); Plunkett, Sir Horace
Curzon (Vol. 81, p. 857); Redmond,
John E. (Vol. 22, p. 968); and many
articles on Irish towns and counties,
and, on Home Rule and recent political
questions, the biographies of English
viceroys, premiers and chief secretaries,
and the latter part of the article English
History.
ENGLISH HISTORY
On English history the student will
find the Britannica particularly valuable.
The article English History (Vol. 9,
pp. 466-587), is itself equivalent to
about 380 pages of this Guide, and
carries the story through 13 centuries.
This great article — a text-book of the
subject in scope and power — is written
by: Prof. C. W. C. Oman, Oxford,
author of England before the Norman
Conquest, etc., dealing with the period
down to the time of Elizabeth; Prof.
A. F. Pollard, University of London,
assistant editor Dictionary of National
Biography, for the Reformation and the
reign of Elizabeth, 1528-1603; Samuel
Rawson Gardiner, best known as the
historian of the Puritan Revolution,
who deals with the period from 1603 to
1793; W. Alison Phillips, author of
Modern Europe, on the years 1793 to
1837; and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-
chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, for
the period since the accession of Queen
Victoria. And the article closes with a
critical estimate of Sources and Writers of
English History, by Prof. Albert Frederick
Pollard, University of London.
For the period from 600 to 1066 read:
Part 1 of English History (Vol. 8, pp.
466-474); and the separate articles:
For the introduction of Christianity
and the "Kingdoms'' — Augustine (Vol.
2, p. 910); Aethelberht (Vol. 1, p. 289);
Edwin (Vol. 9, p. 7), by F. G. M. Beck,
of Clare College, Cambridge; Anglo-
Saxons (Vol. 2, p. 38), by H. M. Chad-
wick; Britain, Anglo-Saxon (Vol. 4,
pp. 589-595) and Angli (Vol. 2, p. 18)
and Jutes (Vol. 15,
Anglo-Saxon p. 609), by the same
Period author; Saxons (Vol
24, p. 264); North-
umbria (Vol. 19, p. 793); Bernicia
(Vol. 3, p. 802); Deira (Vol. 7, p. 933);
East Anglia (Vol. 8, p. 827); Wessex
(Vol. 28, p. 534) ; Mercia (Vol. 18, p. 151) ;
Sussex, Kingdom of (Vol. 26, p. 168),
and Kent (Vol. 15, p. 735), Ecgbert
(Vol. 8, p. 869); Aethelwulf (Vol. 1,
p. 292).
On the Danish invasions and the Anglo-
Saxon period, Viking (Vol. 28, pp. 62-66),
by C. F. Keary, author of Tlie Vikings in
Western Europe; ^Ethelbald (Vol. 1,
p. 289), jEthelberht (Vol. 1, p. 289)
and jEthelred I (Vol. 1, p. 290);
Alfred the Great (Vol. 1, p. 582), by
Charles Plummer, biographer of Alfred;
Danelagh (Vol. 7, p. 803), by Prof,
Allen Mawer of Armstrong College,
Newcastle- on -Tyne; Edward "the
Elder" (Vol. 8, p. 989), jEthelstan
(Vol. 1, p. 291), Edmund I (Vol. 8, p.
948), Edgar (Vol. 8, p. 933), all by
Prof. Mawer; St. Dunstan (Vol. 8, p.
684), jEthelred II "the Unready "
(Vol. 1, p. 290), by Eev. C. Stanley
Phillips, King's College, Cambridge;
Sweyn I (Vol. 26, p. 224), by R. Nisbet
Bain of the British Museum; Danegeld
(Vol. 7, p. 803); Canute (Vol. 5, p. 221),
by R. Nisbet Bain; Edmund "Ironside"
(Vol. 8, p. 948), by Rev. C. Stanley
Phillips; Harold I (Vol. 13, p. 11);
Hardicanute (Vol. 12, p. 942); Edward
"the Confessor" (Vol. 8, p. 990), by
Rev. C. Stanley Phillips; Harold II
(Vol. 13, p. 11).
For the Norman Conquest and the
Norman and Angevin kings the student
should read the second section of the
article English History (Vol. 9, pp.
474-486) and, at least, the following
important articles:
William I, "The Conqueror" (Vol.
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ENGLISH, SCOTCH AND IRISH HISTORY
275
28, p. 659), by H. W. Carless Davis of
Oxford, author of England under the
Normans and Ange-
William the tins; Hereward
Conqueror (Vol. 13, p. 363),
William Rufus by J. H. Round,
Henry I author of Feudal
Stephen and England, etc.; Feud-
Matilda alism (Vol.' 10, p.
Henry II 297), by Prof.
George Burton
Adams, Yale University, author of Polit-
ical History of England, 1066-1216, etc.;
Domesday Book (Vol. 8, p. 398), by
J. H. Round; William II, "Rufus"
(Vol. 28, p. 661) and Lanfranc (Vol. 16,
p. 169), both by H. W. Carless Davis;
Anselm (Vol. 2, p. 81); Henry I (Vol.
13, p. 279), Stephen (Vol. 25, p. 881),
Matilda (Vol. 17, p. 888), Henry H
(Vol. 13, p. 281), Becket, Thomas (Vol.
3, p. 608), Richard I, "Coeur de Lion"
(Vol. 23, p. 294), all by H. W. Carless
Davis.
In connection with the third section
of the article English History dealing
with the struggle for constitutional
liberty from 1199 to
John 1337 (Vol. 9, pp.
Henry III 486-501) the follow-
Edward I to HI ing supplementary
articles are among
the many to which the student should
turn: John (Vol. 15, p. 489), and Lang-
ton, Stephen (Vol. 16, p. 178), both by
H. W. Carless Davis; Magna Carta
(Vol. 16, p. 314), by A. W. Holland,
late scholar of St. John's, Oxford;
Henry III (Vol. 13, p. 282), Pembroke
(Vol. 21, p. 78), Montfort, Simon de
(Vol. 18, p. 781), Evesham (Vol. 10, p.
10); Edward I (Vol. 8, p. 991-993), by
Prof. T. F. Tout, University of Man-
chester, author of Edward I; Mortmain
(Vol. 18, p. 880); Westminster, Sta-
tutes of (Vol. 28, p. 551); Edward II
(Vol. 8, p. 993); Lancaster, Henry and
Thomas, Earls of (Vol. 16, pp. 144
and 148); Despenser, Hugh Le (Vol.
8, p. 101); Mortimer family (Vol. 18,
p. 879); and Edward III (Vol. 8, p.
994).
On the Hundred Years' War (1337-
1453) and contemporary history, see the
section in English History (Vol. 8,
pp. 501-516); the
Richard II article Hundred
Henry IV to VI Years' War (Vol.
13, p. 893), by Jules
Viard, archivist of the National Archives,
Paris; Sluys, Battle of (Vol. 25, p.
246), by D. Hannay, author of Short
History of the Royal Navy; Crecy (Vol. 7,
p. 389); Poitiers, Battle of (Vol. 21,
p. 898; Edward, The Black Prince
(Vol. 8, p. 999), by Prof. Tout; Wycliffe
(Vol. 28, p. 866), by R. Lane Poole,
author of Wycliffe and Movements for
Reform, and W. Alison Phillips, author
of Modern Europe, etc.; Lancaster,
John of Gaunt, Duke of (Vol. 16, p.
146), by C. Lethbridge Kingsford, bio-
grapher of Henry V; Richard II (Vol.
23, p. 295), also by C. L. Kingsford;
Tyler, Wat (Vol. 27, p. 495); Ball,
John (Vol. 3, p. 263); Lollards (Vol.
16, p. 929), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay,
author of History of the Reformation;
Gloucester, Thomas, Duke of (Vol.
12, p. 130); Norfolk, Thomas Mowbray,
Duke of (Vol. 19, p. 742); Henry IV
(Vol. 13, p. 283), by C. L. Kingsford;
Glendower, Owen (Vol. 12, p. 120);
Northumberland (Vol. 19, p. 787);
Henry V (Vol. 13, p. 284) and Oldcastle,
Sir John (Vol. 20, p. 66), by C. L.
Kingsford; Agincourt (Vol. 1, p. 375);
Henry VI (Vol. 13, p. 285) and Glou-
cester, Humphrey, Duke of (Vol. 12,
p. 129) , both by C. L. Kingsford ; Bedford
John, Duke of (Vol. 3, p. 616); Joan of
Arc (Vol. 15, p. 520),by Prof. J. T. Shot-
well of Columbia University and Hugh
Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica; Beaufort family
(Vol. 3, p. 585); Cade, John (Vol. 4,
p. 927).
On the fifth period of English history,
read section 5, The Wars of the Roses
I (1453-1497) in the article English
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
History (Vol. 9, pp. 516-525); the separ-
ate article, Roses,
Edward IV and V Wars of the (Vol.
Richard III 23,p.735);andthear-
Henry VII tides: York, House
of (Vol. 28, p. 924),
and Lancaster, House of (Vol. 16,
p. 143), both by James Gairdner,
author of The Houses of Lancaster and
York, etc.; York, Richard, Duke of
(Vol. 28, p. 926), Warwick, Richard
Neville, Earl of (Vol. 28, p. 339),
Edward IV (Vol. 8, p. 996), Margaret
of Anjou (Vol. 17, p. 702), Clarence,
George, Duke of (Vol. 6, p. 428),
Edward V (Vol. 8, p. 996), Richard III
(Vol. 23, p. 296), and Buckingham,
Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of (Vol.
4, p. 726), all by C. L. Kingsford; Henry
VII (Vol. 13, p. 286), by James Gairdner,
author of The Houses of Lancaster and
York, and biographer of Henry VII;
Warbeck, Perkin (Vol. 28, p. 316).
The sixth section of the article Eng-
lish History, dealing with the years
1497-1528 (Vol. 9, pp. 525-530), should
be supplemented by
Henry VIII the latter part of
Edward VI James Gairdner's
Mary article on Henry
Elizabeth VII and by the arti-
cles: Reformation
(Vol. 23, p. 4), by Prof. James Harvey
Robinson, Columbia University, author
of History of Western Europe, etc; Henry
VIII (Vol. 13, p. 287) and Fox, Richard
(Vol. 10, p. 766), both by Prof. A. F.
Pollard; Wolsey, Thomas (Vol. 28, p.
779); Catherine of Aragon (Vol. 5,
p. 529) and Boleyn, Anne (Vol. 4, p.
159), by P. C. Yorke, Oxford; Cromwell,
Thomas (Vol. 7, p. 499); Cranmer,
Thomas (Vol 7, p. 375); Fisher, John
(Vol. 10, p. 427), by Rev. E. L. Taunton,
author of The English Black Monks of
St. Benedict, etc.; More, Sir Thomas
(Vol. 18, p. 822), by Mark Pattison,
late rector of Lincoln College, Oxford;
Howard, Catherine (Vol. 13, p. 832);
Parr, Catherine (Vol. 20, p. 861);
Norfolk, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke
of (Vol. 19, p.743); Askew, Anne (Vol.
2, p. 762), by A. F. Pollard; Edward VI
(Vol. 8, p. 996); Somerset, Edward
Seymour, Duke of (Vol. 25, p. 386);
Northumberland, John Dudley, Earl
of Warwick, and Duke of (Vol. 19,
p. 788); Grey, Lady Jane (Vol. 12, p.
590); Mary I (Vol. 17, p. 814) and Gar-
diner, Stephen (Vol. 11, p. 460), both
by James Gairdner; Wyat, Sir Thomas
(Vol. 28, p. 862); Pole, Cardinal (Vol.
21, p. 974), by E. L. Taunton; Ridley,
Nicholas (Vol. 23, p. 320); Latimer,
Hugh (Vol. 16, p. 242), by T. F. Hender-
son, author of Mary Queen of Scots and
the Casket Letters; Elizabeth (Vol. 9,
p. 282); Mary Queen of Scots (Vol.
17, p. 817), by A.C. Swinburne; Norfolk,
Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of (Vol.
19, p. 744); Armada (Vol. 2, p. 560);
Hawkins, Sir Richard (Vol. 13, p. 99);
Drake, Sir Francis (Vol. 8, p. 473);
Raleigh, Sir Walter (Vol. 22, p. 869);
Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of
(Vol. 16, p. 390); Essex, Robert
Devereux, Earl of (Vol. 9, p. 782);
Bacon, Francis (Vol. 3, p. 135), by Prof.
Robert Adamson of Glasgow, and J.
Malcolm Mitchell, University of London;
Burghley, William Cecil, Baron (Vol.
4, p. 816); and — for this whole period
the article England, Church of (Vol.
9, especially pp. 447-448), by William
Hunt, author of History of the English
Church.
The seventh part of the article Eng-
lish History (Vol. 9, pp. 535-542)
deals with the Stuart Monarchy, the
Great Rebellion and
James I the Restoration(1603'
Charles I 1689). From the
The Common- great wealth of sup-
wealth plementary material
Charles II in the Britannica on
James II this interesting
period, at least the
following articles should be selected:
Stewart or Stuart family(Vol. 12, p.
911); James I (Vol. 15, p. 136); Gun-
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ENGLISH, SCOTCH AND IRISH HISTORY
277
powder Plot (Vol. 12, p. 727); Bible,
English (Vol. 3, p. 894); Salisbury,
Robert Cecil, 1st. Earl of (Vol. 24,
p. 76); Buckingham, George Villiers,
1st Duke of (Vol. 4, p. 722); Thirty
Years* War (Vol. 26, p.- 852); Charles
I (Vol. 5, p. 906) and Laud, William
(Vol. 16, p. 276), both by P. Chesney
York; Ship-Money (Vol. 24, p. 982);
Hampden, John (Vol. 12, p. 900); Pym,
John (Vol. 22, p. 680) and Strafford,
Thomas Wentworth, Earl of (Vol.
25, p. 978), both by P. C. Yorke; Great
Rebellion (Vol. 12, p. 403) ; Cromwell,
Oliver (Vol. 7, p. 487), by P. C. Yorke,
C. F. Atkinson and R. J. McNeill;
Cromwell, Richard (Vol. 7, p. 498);
for the military operations of the Great
Rebellion, the articles listed under that
heading in the chapter of this Guide
entitled For Army Officers; Monk,
George (Vol. 18, p. 723); Charles II,
(Vol. 5, p. 912); Clarendon, Edward
Hyde, 1st Earl of (Vol. 6, p. 428);
Buckingham, George Villiers, 2nd
Duke of (Vol. 4, p. 724); Cleveland,
Duchess of (Vol. 6, p. 500); Ports-
mouth, Duchess of (Vol. 22, p. 131);
Gwyn, Nell (Vol. 12, p. 750); Lauder-
dale, Duke of (Vol. 16, p. 279);
Shaftesbury, 1st Earl (Vol. 24, p. 760)
by Osmund Airy, biographer of Charles
II; Dutch Wars (Vol. 9, p. 729); Test
Acts (Vol. 26, p. 665); James II (Vol. 15,
p. 138); Argyll, 9th Earl of (Vol. 2,
p. 484); Monmouth, Duke of (Vol. 18,
p. 725); Tyrconnell (Vol. 27, p. 548).
On the Revolution and the age of
Anne (1689-1714) see the article Eng-
lish History (Vol. 9, pp. 542-544),
and William III.
William and (Vol. 28, p. 662);
Mary; Mary II. (Vol. 17,
Anne p. 816); Burnet,
Gilbert (Vol. 4, p.
851); Grand Alliance (Vol. 12, p. 342),
and for additional military articles
the chapter For Army Officers in this
Guide; Anne (Vol. 2, p. 65); Marlbor-
ough, 1st Duke of (Vol. 17, p. 737), by
W. Prideaux Courtney; Masham, Lady
(Vol. 17, p. 836); Godolphin (Vol. 12,
p. 174); Somers (Vol. 25, p. 384);
Halifax, 1st Marquess of (Vol. 12,
p. 839); Oxford, 1st Earl (Vol. 20,
p. 403); Bolingbroke, Viscount (Vol.
4, p. 161); Shrewsbury, Duke of (Vol.
24, p. 1016).
The part of the article English His-
tory dealing with the Hanoverian Kings,
1714-1793 (Vol. 9, pp. 544-551) and
that on the Rev-
George I to IV olutionary epoch,
William IV the reaction and
the triumph of re-
form, 1793-1837 (pp. 551-558) are respec-
tively by S. R. Gardiner and W. Alison
Phillips. They should be supplemented
by S. R. Gardiner's articles on the four
Georges (Vol. 11, pp. 737-745) ; South Sea
Bubble (Vol. 25, p. 515); Stanhope,
1st Earl (Vol. 25, p. 773); Walpole,
Horatio (Vol. 28, p. 288); Whig and
Tory (Vol. 28, p. 588); Townshend,
Charles (Vol. 27, p. Ill); Caroline
(Vol. 5, p. 380); Pelham, Henry (Vol. 21,
p. 67); Charles Edward, "the Young
Pretender" (Vol. 5, p. 940), by H. M.
Vaughan, author of The Last of the Royal
Stuarts; Methodism (Vol. 18, p. 293);
Wesley, John (Vol. 28, p. 527); New-
castle, Thomas Pelham Holles, Duke
op (Vol. 19, p. 471); Chatham, William
Pitt, 1st Earl of (Vol. 6, p. 1); Seven
Years* War (Vol. 24, p. 715) and, for
engagements and commanders in the
war, see the chapter in this Guide For
Army Officers; India, History (Vol. 14,
especially pp. 407-409); Canada, His-
tory (Vol. 5, especially p. 158); Bute,
3rd Earl of (Vol. 4, p. 877) ; Grenville,
George (Vol. 12, p. 580); Rockingham,
Marquess of (Vol. 23, p. 434); Guil-
ford, 2nd Earl, Lord North (Vol. 12,
p. 691); Wilkes, John (Vol. 28, p. 642);
Burke, Edmund (Vol. 4, p. 824), by
John Morley; Fox, Charles James
(Vol. 10, p. 761); Gordon, Lord George
(Vol. 12, p. 253); Lansdowne, Mar-
quess of, Lord Shelburne (Vol. 16, p.
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278
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
184); Portland, 3rd Duke (Vol. 22,
p. 119); Pitt, William (Vol. 21, p. 667);
French Revolutionary Wars (Vol. 11,
p. 171), Napoleonic Campaigns (Vol.
19, p. 216) and, for leaders and engage-
ments in these wars, in the Peninsular
War, and in the American War for In-
dependence, see the chapter in this
Guide For Army Officers; Caroline
Amelia Augusta (Vol. 5, p. 380);
Wellesley, Marquess (Vol. 28, p.
506); Londonderry, Marquess of,
Castlereagh (Vol. 16, p. 969); Canning,
George (Vol. 5, p. 186); Corn Laws
(Vol. 7, p. 174); Cobbett, William
(Vol. 6, p. 606); Wellington, Duke of
(Vol. 28, p. 507); William IV. (Vol. 28,
p. 664); Grey, 2nd Earl (Vol. 12, p.
586); Brougham, Lord (Vol. 4, p. 652);
Parliament (Vol. 20, especially p. 843);
Melbourne, 2nd Viscount (Vol. 18,
p. 90); Peel, Sir Robert (Vol. 21, p. 40).
On the reign of Victoria the section
of the article English History (Vol. 9,
pp. 558-582) gives a very full treatment,
which should be
Victoria supplemented by the
study of such
articles as: Victoria (Vol. 28, p. 28), by
Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica; Albert (Vol.
1, p. 495), by the same author; Palmer-
ston (Vol. 20, p. 645); Russell, 1st
Earl (Vol. 23, p. 863); O'Brien, Will-
iam Smith (Vol. 19, p. 953); Chartism
(Vol. 5, p. 953); Derby, 14th Earl
(Vol. 8, p. 66); Crimean War (Vol. 7,
p. 450); "Alabama" Arbitration (Vol.
1, p. 464); Bright, John (Vol. 4, p. 567);
Cobden, Richard (Vol. 6, p. 607);
Beaconsfield (Vol. 3, p. 563); Glad-
stone, W. E. (Vol. 12, p. 66), by G. W.
E. Russell, biographer of Gladstone;
Salisbury (Vol. 24, p. 72); Transvaal,
History (Vol. 27, p. 193); Parnell, C. S.
(Vol. 20, p. 854); Gordon, C. G. (Vol. 11,
p. 249); Rosebery (Vol. 23, p. 731);
Rhodes, C. J. (Vol. 23, p. 254).
For the years since Victoria's death
see the articles: Edward VII. (Vol. 8,
p. 997) and George V. (Vol. 11, p. 745),
and the articles on re-
Edward VII cent political leaders:
George V Balfour (Vol. 3, p.
250); Chamberlain
(Vol. 5, p. 813); Campbell-Bannerman
(Vol. 5, p. 131); Asquith (Vol. 2, p. 769);
and Lloyd George (Vol. 16, p. 832); and
on the reform of the House of Lords
Parliament (Vol. 20, especially pp. 845-
847) and Representation (Vol. 23, es-
pecially pp. 111-113).
CHAPTER XLVI
FRENCH HISTORY
THE article France in the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica includes a
section on History (Vol. 10, pp.
801-906) equivalent to 320 pages of this
Guide, of which the first part, down to
1870, is by Paul Wiriath, director of the
ficole Superieure Pratique de Commerce
et dTndustrie, Paris, and the part since
1870 is by J. E. C. Bodley, author of
France, etc. Opposite page 802 are four
coloured historical maps showing France
at the end of the 10th, 13th and 14th
centuries, and the changes in the eastern
frontier from 1598 to 1789. The his-
torical part of the article closes with a
historiographic section, or critical sum-
mary of French historical writing, by
Charles B&nont of the University of
Paris.
Supplementing this main treatment, see :
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FRENCH HISTORY
279
On prehistoric and Roman France,
Gaul (Vol. 11, p. 533), by Prof. F. J.
Haverfield, Oxford, the well-known au-
thority on Roman
Early History occupation of Brit-
of France ain and Gaul; Bi-
BRACTE, ALESIA, It-
ius Portus, Druidism, and, on Caesar's
campaigns, Caesar, Julius; and, on
Roman remains, Arles, NImes, Orange,
Architecture, Aqueduct, and Amphi-
theatre.
On the Franks, the articles Franks
(Vol. 11, p. 35) and Salic Law (Vol. 24,
p. 68), by Prof. Christian Pfister of the
Sorbonne; and the articles, Austrasia,
Merovingians, Childeric, Clovis,
Childebert, Clotaire, Sigebert, Cha-
ribert, Guntram, Fredegond, Brun-
hilda, Clotaire II, Dagobert, Pippin
I, II and III, Ebroin, Carolingians,
Charles Martel (Vol. 5, p. 942), Car-
loman, Childeric; Charlemagne, Ro-
land, Einhard, Alcuin; Louis I "the
Pious," Lothair (Vol. 17, p. 17); Char-
les n "the Bald" (Vol. 5, p. 897);
Feudalism; Louis II and III; Charles
III "the Fat" (Vol. 5, p. 898); Odo;
Louis IV (Vol. 17, p. 35), by Dr. Ren6
Poupardin, secretary of the Ecole des
Charles; Lothair (Vol. 17, p.18); Bruno;
Louis V.
For the Capetian period,the articles Ca-
pet (Vol. 5, p. 251) ; Robert "the Strong"
(Vol. 23, p. 402); Hugh "the Great"
(Vol. 13, p. 857);
Medieval Hugh Capet (Vol.
France 13, p. 858); Robert
"the Pious" (Vol. 23,
p. 399); Henry I (Vol. 13, p. 290);
Philip I (Vol. 21, p. 378); Louis VI
(Vol. 17, p. 35), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell,
Columbia University; Prof. ShotwelPs
article on Louis VII; Suger; Eleanor
of Aquitaine (Vol. 9, p. 168); Philip
Augustus (Vol. 21, p. 378); Ingeborg;
Albigenses; and for French and English
relations, Richard I and John of Eng-
land; Louis VIII; Blanche of Castile
(Vol. 4, p. 40) ; Prof. Shotwell's article on
Louis IX "St. Louis"; and the article
Crusades; Philip III "the Bold" (Vol.
21, p. 381); Philip iy; Boniface VIII;
Saisset; Nogaret; Templars; Louis
X; Philip V and Charles IV.
For the Valois line and the history of
the period (1328-1498), the article Hun-
dred Years' War; Sluys; Cr£cy; and
for detail of the war the articles under
that head in the chapter For the Army
Officer in this Guide; and Philip VI (Vol.
21, p. 383); Flanders; Artevelde (Ja-
cob and Philip van); Dauphin£; Dau-
phin; Gabelle; John II (Vol. 15, p.
441) ; Poitiers; Marcel; Le Coq; States
General; Charles II of Navarre (Vol.
5, p. 924); Charles V (Vol. 5, p. 917);
Jacquerie; du Guesclin; Charles VI;
Armagnac; Isabella of Bavaria (Vol.
14, p. 860); Benedict XIII (Vol. 3, p.
718); John "the Fearless" (Vol. 15, p.
445); Agincourt; Charles VII; Ar-
thur III of Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 682);
Joan of Arc; Coeur; Agnes Sorel (Vol.
25, p. 432); Br£z£; Praguerie; Louis
XI; Balue; Le Daim; Li£ge, History;
Charles "the Bold" of Burgundy (Vol.
5, p. 932); Charles VIII; Anne of
France (Vol. 2, p. 70); Anne of Brittany
(Vol. 2, p. 69).
For the years, 1498-1589, and the Or-
leans dynasty, Louis XII and Amboise,
by Prof. Jules Isaac of the Lyons Lycee;
Mary (Vol. 17, p.
16th Century 824); Francis I
(Vol. 10, p. 934), by
Prof. Isaac; Louise of Savoy; Marig-
nano; Pavia; Marguerite D'Angou-
l&me (Vol. 17, p. 706); Etampes (Vol. 9,
p. 803); Du Prat, Anne de Mont-
morency (Vol. 18, p. 787); Henry II
(Vol. 13, p. 291); Diane de Poitiers;
Catherine de' Medici; Francis II;
Guise (Vol. 12, p. 699); L'H6pital;
CondA; Amboise; Romorantin; Hugue-
nots; Charles IX; Coligny; Saint
Andr£; St. Bartholomew; Henry
III.
For the Bourbon kings, beginning
1 589 — Bourbon (with genealogical chart) ;
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280
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Henry IV; Duke of Mayenne; Edict
of Nantes (Vol. 19,
The Bourbons p. 165); Sully;
• Louis XIII; Marie
de* Medici; Richelieu, by Prof. J. T.
Shotwell, Columbia University; Con-
cini ; Luynes ; Cinque-Mars ; Rohan ;
Soubise; Jansenism; Thirty Years'
War; and for leaders and engagements
in that conflict the titles listed in the
chapter in this Guide entitled For
Army Officers; Louis XIV, by Prof. A. J.
Grant of Leeds University; Mazarin, by
Prof. H. Morse Stephens, University of
California; Marie Ther^se; La Val-
li&re; Montespan; Maintenon; Due
de Beaufort; Fronde; Turenne; Retz
and La Rochefoucauld, by Prof. George
Saintsbury of Edinburgh University;
Fouquet; Colbert, by Prof. J. T. Shot-
well, Columbia; Champlain; La Salle;
Louvois; Camisards, by M. Frank
Puaux, president of the Socfete* de V His-
toire du Protestantisme Frangais; Jan-
senism, by Viscount St. Cyres; Port
Royal; Bossuet; Fenelon; Le Tel-
lier; Grand Alliance; and for details
of military operations and sketches of
commanders the articles enumerated in
the chapter in this Guide For Army
Officers; Louis XV ; Philip II, Duke of
Orleans (Vol. 20, p. 286); Fleury;
Austrian Succession and Seven Years'
War and articles under these heads in
the chapter in this Guide For Army
Officers; Chateauroux; Pompadour; Du
Barry; Comte d* Argenson (Vol. 2, p.
459), Choiseul; Maupeou; Aiguillon.
On the Revolution and the period im-
mediately before it, the articles Louis
XVI, by Robert Anchel, archivist to the
Department de 1*
The Revolution Eure; Marie An-
toinette; Beau-
marchais; Maurepas; Turgot; Neck-
er; Vergennes; Calonne; Diamond
Necklace; Lom£nie de Brienne;
French Revolution (Vol. 10, p. 154,
equivalent to 58 pages of this Guide), by
Prof. F. C. Montague, University Col-
lege, London; Des Moulins; Mirabeau;
SiEYfcs; D anton; Robespierre; Moun-
nier; La Fayette; Montmorin de Saint-
H£rem; Marat; Corday; Talleyrand;
Assignats; Narbonne-Lara; Jacobins;
Girondists; Roland; Brissot; Moun-
tain; Directory; Babeuf; French Rev-
olutionary Wars; and for battles and
leaders in these wars the articles men-
tioned under this head in the chapter in
this Guide For Army Officers.
On the Napoleonic period, the articles
by J. Holland Rose, author of Napoleonic
Studies, etc., on Napoleon (Vol. 19, p.
190) — equivalent to
The First 65 pages of this
Empire Guide, and on the
principal figures of
the Napoleonic period, — for example,
Bonaparte family, Fouch6, Gardane,
Junot; the articles Napoleonic Cam-
paigns, Peninsular War and Water-
loo and the articles listed under these
two heads in the chapter in this Guide
For Army Officers.
On the Bourbon restoration, Louis
XVIII; Decazes ; Due de Richelieu
(Vol. 23, p. 302);
The Kingdom Due de Berry; Vil-
Again l£le ; Charles X
(Vol. 5, p. 921);
Martignac; Polignac; Marmont.
On the revolution of 1830 and the rule
of Louis Philippe, the articles Louis
Philippe (Vol. 17, p. 51); Cavaignac;
Thiers; Guizot; Constant; Casimir
P£rier; Lafitte; Barrot; Dupont de
L'Eure ; Berryer; Saint-Simon ; Fou-
rier; Lamennais; Louis Blanc; Mol£.
On the revolution of 1848 and the
second Empire, besides most of the ar-
ticles in the preceding paragraph, Na-
poleon III, by Al-
The Second bert Thomas, author
Empire of The Second Em-
pire; Cr£mieux;
Ledru-Rollin; Carnot; Garnier-Pa-
g£s; Montalembert; Ollivier; Rou-
her; Favre; Picard; Crimean War;
Italian Wars; Franco-Prussian War;
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THE FAR EAST
281
and articles listed under those heads in
the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers;
Eugenie ; Maximilian of Mexico (Vol.
17, p. 924).
On the Third Republic, 1870 and the
following years, the story in Vol. 10, pp.
873-904 (equivalent
Modern Times to 100 pages of this
Guide) is to be sup-
plemented by the articles Thiers; R£-
musat; Simon; Barth£lemy; Broglie;
MacMahon; Dufaure; GrIjvy; Ferry;
Gambetta; Freycinet; Chambord; Cl£-
menceau; Brisson; Boulanger; Car-
not; Loubet; Lesseps; Casimir-P£rier;
Faure; Ribot; M^line; Waldeck-
Rousseau; Dreyfus; Dupuy; Ribot;
Galliffet; JaurJ:s; Millerand; Com-
bes; Delcass£; Rouvier; Pelletan;
Briand; Lemire; Falu&res; Poincar£.
CHAPTER XLVII
THE FAR EAST
AN account, in this chapter, of the
principal articles dealing with the
history of India, China and Japan,
will sufficiently indicate to the student
the plan adopted in the Britannica's
treatment of all the countries in the far
East. But before turning to these three
groups of articles, he should read Asia
(Vol. 2, p. 734), which defines the social
and economic position of the Orient in
general, and gives a survey of the field
covered by articles on Eastern countries
other than the three dealt with in this
chapter. This article, equivalent in
length to 65 pages of this Guide, is by Sir
Richard Strachey, the famous Indian
administrator; Sir Charles Eliot, of the
British diplomatic service ; Sir T. H.
Holdich, of the Indian Frontier Survey;
and Philip Lake, the Oriental geologist.
The general survey
Asiatic of Asiatic character-
Characteristics istics, as revealed by
history, with which
the historical section (p. 749) of the ar-
ticle begins, is noteworthy in connection
with current political questions:
The words " Asiatic " and " oriental M are
often used as if they denoted a definite and
homogeneous type, but Russians resemble
Asiatics in manv wavs, and Turks, Hindus,
Chinese, etc., differ in so many important
points that the common substratum is small.
It amounts to this, that Asiatics have not
the same sentiment of independence and
freedom as Europeans. Individuals are
thought of as members of a family, state or
religion, rather than as entities with a des-
tiny and rights of their own. This leads to
autocracy in politics, fatalism in religion,
and conservatism in both.
All three of these are certainly conspicu-
ous in the history of the first Eastern
country dealt with in this chapter.
INDIA
In the article India (Vol. 14, p. 375),
equivalent to 140 pages of this Guide)
there is much of value to the historical
student besides the chapter on History
(p. 395), which is written by Sir William
Wilson Hunter, administrative head of
the statistical survey of India and one of
the editors of The Imperial Gazetteer of
India, and by James Sutherland Cotton,
editor of this same Gazetteer. Par-
ticularly important are the sections, The
People (p. 382), Administration (p. 385),
and Indian Costume (p. 417), illustrated
from pen-and-ink drawings by J. Lock-
wood Kipling, known to many as the
illustrator of his son's book Kim. And
the student of Oriental history will find
it possible to gain a little comprehension
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282
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
— at least — of Oriental ways of thought,
Eastern setting and colour, by reading in
the Britannica such articles as Caste
(Vol. 5, p. 464), Hinduism (Vol. 13, p.
501), Brahmanism, Brahman and Brah-
mana (Vol. 4, p. 378), all by Prof. Julius
Eggeling, Edinburgh; Buddha and Bud-
dhism (Vol. 4, p. 737), both by Prof. T.
W. Rhys Davids of Manchester, author
of Sacred Books of the Buddhas, etc.;
Mahomet (Vol. 17, p. 399), by Prof. D.
G. Margoliouth, Oxford; Mahommedan
Institutions and Mahommedan Law
(Vol. 17, p. 411), by Prof. D. S. Mac-
donald, Hartford Theological Seminary,
and Mahommedan Religion (Vol. 17, p.
417), by Rev. G. W. Thatcher, Camden
College, Sydney, N. S. W.; Indian Law
(Vol. 14, p. 434), by Sir William Markby,
author of Lectures on English Law, etc.;
and Zoroaster (Vol. 28, p. 1039), by
Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg, and Par-
sees (Vol. 20, p. 866). This list of ar-
ticles subsidiary to the history of India
could be prolonged almost indefinitely,
but enough has been given to put the
student on the track of valuable articles
which might otherwise escape his notice.
Before we come to the authentic his-
tory of India there is a legendary period,
the only historic test for which is the rock
inscriptions, — see «the article Inscrip-
tions, Indian (Vol. 14, p. 621), by J. F.
Fleet, author of Inscriptions of the Early
Gupta Kings. On the earliest literary de-
scription of the Aryans in India and their
contests with the Dravidians see the ar-
ticle Sanskrit, Vedic Period (especially
p. 161 of Vol. 24, on the Rig Veda)— and
in general the articles Aryan and Dra-
vidian. An interesting reconstruction of
the civilization of the primitive Aryans
on the basis of languages will be found in
the article Indo-European Languages
(Vol. 14, especially pp. 498-500), by Dr.
Peter Giles, Cambridge, author of Manual
of Comparative Philology; and this picture
of Aryan life before the conquest of India
will hold in the main for the earlier period
of the Aryans in India.
With the 6th century we come to the
beginning of the Buddhist period. See
the article Jains, the articles on Bud-
dhism already men-
Early tioned, and the ar-
Buddhism tides: Asoka, the
great Buddhist em-
peror and organizer of the faith, whose
rock inscriptions throughout India are so
valuable as historical records; Kanishka,
the Buddhist king of Kabul and Kashmir;
Fa-Hien and HstJAN Tsang, the Chinese
pilgrims of India, who left important
records of early Buddhism and of Brah-
manism, which was steadily growing in
power and strength.
The' Hindu period, overlapping the
Buddhist, is marked by the beginning of
Western influences on India. For the
Persians in India see the articles Persia
(Vol. 21, especially pp. 209-210), Darius
(Vol. 7, p. 832), and Scylax, the Greek
who under Darius's orders explored the
course of the Indus. Far more important
was the conquest by Alexander the Great
and the establishment of the Hellenistic
empire of the Seleucids in Syria, Bactria
and India: see Alexander the Great
(Vol. 1, especially p. 548), Nearchus,
Alexander's admiral and navigator, and
Seleucid Dynasty. The first para-
mount ruler of India was Chandragupta
(Vol. 5, p. 839), whom the Greeks called
Sandracottus and who crushed the Seleu-
cid power and founded the Maurya dy-
nasty. Of his grandson Asoka we have
already spoken in outlining the growth
and decline of Buddhism. In this period
Greek thought and art influenced India,
greatly, and in the period immediately
following — the 2nd century B.C. — north-
western India was invaded again by west-
ern troops: see Demetrius, Eucratides,
Menander. The records of the next four
centuries are confused and vague; on the
invasions from the North, see Saka and
Yue-Chi, by Sir Charles Norton Edg-
cumbe Eliot.
The Yue-Chi founded the Kushan dy-
nasty, in which the greatest king was
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THE FAR EAST
283
Kanishka (Vol. 15, p. 653), already men-
tioned as a Buddhist ruler whose policy
marked the beginning of the end of Bud-
dhism in India. On the succeeding dy-
nasty see the article Gupta; and refer
again to the article Fa-Hien for the Chi-
nese account of the rule of the second
Gupta king, Chandragupta, — on whom in
legend see Vikramaditya. On the White
Huns and their invasion consult the ar-
ticles Ephthalites and Huns. On the
only other great king of this period, who
was paramount monarch of northern In-
dia in the first half of the 7th century and
whose administration was described by
Hslian-Tsang, see Harsha. On the prin-
cipal Deccan dynasties of the Hindu pe-
riod, see Chalukya and Rashtrakuta,
and the article Deccan.
For a general notion of the Mahom-
medan period in India the student should
read the articles on Mahommedanism al-
ready mentioned,
Mahommedans and for more definite
and Moslems information about
India, the articles
on the 11th century invader Mahmud of
Ghazni (Vol. 17, p.397), and on Somnath,
the temple city which he captured and
sacked in 1025. See Deccan and Gu-
jarat for the Moslem conquest of these
states by Ala-ud-din. For the destruc-
tion of the Tughlak dynasty, which fol-
lowed Ala-ud-din's successors, see Af-
ghanistan (Vol. 1, especially p. 315) and
Timur (Vol. 26, p. 994), by Major-Gen-
eral Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. The
"last stand made by the national faith in
India against conquering Islam" was in
Vijayanagar (Vol. 28, p. 62). With the
16th century and the Mogul dynasty, In-
dia is quite definitely Moslem: see Baber,
Humayun, Akbar, Abul Fazl the his-
torian of Akbar's reign, Jahangir, Shah
Jahan, and Agra and Indian Architec-
ture (especially Fig. 17, opposite p. 433,
Vol. 14) for the Taj Mahal, the Mau-
soleum built by Shah Jahan for his wife
Mumtaz Mai, and — for the culmination
of the Mogul power, the beginning of its
decay, and the first sign of Moslem big-
otry and intolerance on the part of the
Mogul emperors, — Aurangzeb. His at-
tempt to conquer the Mahommedan
kings of the Deccan gave the natives an
opportunity to regain power: see the ar-
ticle Maiirattas, and for the earlier ris-
ings of the Mahrattas, Sivaji. And for
the rise of Afghan power under the
Durani dynasty and the battle of Panipat
in 1761, a crushing defeat for the Mah-
rattas, see Afghanistan, History (Vol. 1,
especially p. 316), and Ahmad Shah.
On earlier European settlements in
India see the article India, History (Vol.
14, p. 404), and more particularly for
Portuguese explorations and settlements
the articles Vasco da Gama (Vol. 11, p.
433), Albuquerque (Vol. 1, p. 516), and
Goa the capitol of Portuguese India, the
last article being by K. G. Jayne, author
of Vasco da Gama and His Successors: for
Dutch rule the article Dutch East India
Company (Vol. 8, p. 716); and for the
beginning of British influence in India
the articles East India Company; Surat;
Madras, where the first English fort was
built in 1640 and the first grant, except
for factory use, was made by the English;
Bombay, acquired from Portugal in 1661-
65; Sir John and Sir Josiah Child; Job
Charnock, founder of Calcutta, and the
article on Calcutta.
On British political history in India in
the 18th century, see the articles on
Pondicherry, Dupleix, French Gover-
nor-General in Pon-
The British dicherry, his rival
Conquest Clive the founder
of the British Em-
pire and of the power of the East India
Company in India, Eyre Coote who
took Pondicherry from the French in
1761, Suraj-ud-Dowlah and Calcutta
for the siege of the city and story of the
Black Hole, Plassey, Shah Alam for the
massacre of Patna; and for the period
after Clive the articles Wakren Hast-
ings, Mahrattas for the first Mahratta
war, Hyder Ali and Mysore for the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
first Mysore war; Tippoo Sahib and
Cornwallis for the second Mysore war;
Teignmouth and Bengal, for the per-
manent settlement of Bengal under Corn-
wallis; Wellesley and Tippoo Sahib
and Seringapatam, Wellington and
Lake (Vol. 16, p. 85) for the campaigns
against the French and natives during
Wellesley's governor-generalship ; Lord
Minto for the years from 1807 to 1813;
Marquess op Hastings, Ochterlony
and Nepal for the war in Nepal; for the
wars of 1817 the articles Pindaris, Mah-
RATTAS, ELPHINSTONE, SlR JOHN MaL-
colm; for the administration (1823-28) of
Lord Amherst, the articles Amherst, Bur-
mese Wars, Bharatpur and Comber-
mere ; for Bentinck's rule, the articles Ben-
tinck, Suttee, Thugs by Reinhold Host,
late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Socie-
ty, and Mysore; Metcalfe, for a view
of his short tenure of office; for the
stormy period of the '40's, Auckland,
Ellenborough, Afghanistan, Sir W.
H. Macnaghten, Sir R. H. Sale and
Sind; and for the Sikh wars, Hardinge,
Punjab, Sikh Wars, Ranjit Singh, Sir
Hugh Gough, Dalhousie, Sir Henry
Lawrence, Edwardes, Burmese Wars
for the second war of 1852, and Oudh for
its annexation; and for the close of the
Company's rule, the articles Lord Can-
ning, Indian Mutiny, Delhi, Lord
Lawrence, Richard Baird Smith, John
Nicholson, Sir Neville Chamberlain,
Cawnpore, Nana Sahib, Lucknow, Sir
Henry Lawrence, Sir J.*E. W. Inglis,
Havelock, J. G. S. Neill, Outram, Sir
Colin Campbell.
On India under the Crown, since 1858,
see particularly the articles on the vice-
roys, Canning, Elgin, Lawrence, Mayo,
Northbrook, Lytton (see also Shere
Ali and Yakub Khan), — Ripon (see also
Ayub Khan, Earl Roberts, ahd Abdur
Rahman Khan), Dufferin (see also
Panjdeh for the Russian scare of 1885
and Burma and Burmese Wars for the
dispute with Thebaw), Curzon and
Kitchener, and Minto.
CHINA
As with India, so with China, the whole
of the article in the Britannica is of value
to the historical student. The article
China (Vol. 6, pp. 166-231) is equivalent
to 200 pages of this Guide. The most
important part for the student of history
is section V. (pp. 188-212) on History:
but such parts of the article as Geography,
with a coloured map, the People (pp. 171-
174), Religion (174-177), Economics (177-
181), Government and Administration
(181-188), AH (213-216) with illustra-
tions, and Language and Literature (216-
231) are all of importance to help get the
background that is so baffling to an occi-
dental studying the Far East. As was the
case with India, the study of religions is
particularly important and besides the
section Religion in the article China, the
student should turn to the articles Lao-
Tsze, the founder of a philosophy debased
into Taoism, Mencius, and Confucius,
all by the Rev. James Legge, author of
The Religions of China, and the editor of
The Chinese Classics, and Buddhism and
Lamaism, the latter the form of Bud-
dhism in vogue in China, — and he should
remember that there are some Mahom-
medans in China. In connection with the
latest developments in Chinese history
he should read with great care in the ar-
ticle China, Section IV, Government and
Administration, especially p. 184 on the
Civil Service, an elaborate merit system.
Section V. of the article China opens
with a treatment by Sir Henry Yule, the
famous Orientalist, of the European
knowledge of China before 1615, par-
ticularly "Cathay" and the early explor-
ers of Mongolia, Carpini (see Vol. 5, p.
397) and Rubbuquis (see Vol. 23, pp.
810-812), and of Cathay itself Marco
Polo (see Vol. 22, pp. 7-10). The in-
ternal history of China begins (Vol. 6, p.
191) with a discussion of Chinese origins:
"anthropological arguments seem to con-
tradict the idea of any connection with
Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, or
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THE FAR EAST
285
Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics of
the Chinese, ascribed by them to the
Shang dynasty (second millenium B.C.)
betray the Mongol character of the nation
that invented them by the decided obli-
quity of the human eye whenever it ap-
pears in an ideograph. . . . Our stand-
point as regards the origin of the Chinese
race is, therefore, that of the agnostic. . . .
Their civilization was already old at a
time when Britain and Germany were
peopled by half-naked barbarians, and
the philosophical and ethical principles
on which it is based remain, to all appear-
ances, as firmly rooted as ever." Chinese
legendary history goes back to Fu-hi as
the "first historical emperor; and they
place his life-time in the years 2852-2738
B.C." There is much that is purely le-
gendary and mythical in these early rec-
ords, but with the
The First year 776 B.C. we
Definite Date find a veritable rec-
ord: in an ode refer-
ring to a wicked emperor there is mention
of "certain signs showing that Heaven it-
self is indignant at Yu-wang's crimes.
One of these signs was an eclipse of the
sun . . . the date and month being
clearly stated. This date corresponds
exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and
astronomers have calculated that on that
precise date an eclipse of the sun was
visible in North China." It is an inter-
esting coincidence that this earliest sure
date in Chinese history is the date of the
first Greek Olympiad, from which time
was reckoned in the Greek calendar —
though there are no certain dates in
Greek history until much later. The first
outstanding event in the history of China
was nearly 20 centuries later — the Mon-
gol invasion; see the articles Mongols
(Vol. 18, pp. 712-719) and Jenghiz Khan
(Vol. 15, p. 316), both by Sir Robert K.
Douglas, author of The Life of Jenghiz
Khan. On the period immediately fol-
lowing see Kublai Khan, for the founda-
tion of the Mongol dynasty, and the sec-
tion Medieval Cathay (Vol. 6, p. 189) of
the article China for early exploration
and missionary effort. Mongol rule was
broken in the 14th century by the founder
of the Ming dynasty. The Portuguese
arrival at Canton in 1517 marked the
beginning of modern intercourse with
Europe; and see the article Matteo Ricci
by Sir Henry Yule, for the first important
work of a Christian
Foreign missionary in China
Relations early in the 17th cen-
tury. Immediately
thereafter came the Manchu invasion, on
which see the article Manchuria, by Sir
R. K. Douglas. Trade with Europe on
a large scale began in the second half of
the 18th century; see the article Canton.
British diplomatic missions for the im-
provement of the condition of traders in
Canton were unsuccessful, but in 1840
the opium war made China feel the weight
of Great Britain's power when Hong
Kong was ceded to the English and other
ports were opened to trade: see Lord
Napier, Sir Hugh Gough, and Hong-
Kong. On the T'ai-p'ing rebellion, the
"Arrow" affair, and the second interfer-
ence of Great Britain with China, see Sir
H. S. Parkes, Charles George Gor-
don ("Chinese Gordon"), Earl of Elgin
(Vol. 9, p. 268), Tseng Kuo-fan, Li
Hung Chang. On the Russian boundary
disputes of 1858 and 1860 see Amur and
Vladivostok.
The history of China since 1875 is told
pretty completely in the article China,
in two sections, the first on 1875-1901
being by Sir Valentine Chirol, au-
thor of The Far Eastern Question. But
in connection with the general treatment
the student should read the articles on
Korea, Annam andToNGKiNG for the ear-
lier efforts to detach from the Chinese
empire these quasi- vassals; Chino-Japa-
nese War for the military details of the
struggle by which Japan got command of
the Korean coast-line; Mekong for the
dispute of 1895 with Great Britain;
Kiaochow Bay, Port Arthur and Wei-
Hai-Wei for the seizures of 1897 and
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
1898 by Germany, Russia and Great
Britain respectively; John Hay for
America's part in the Open Door policy;
Peking and Tientsin for details added
to the general account in the article
China, of the "Boxer" rising; Manchu-
ria for Russian encroachments before,
and Japan for Manchuria after the Russo-
Japanese War.
JAPAN
The article Japan (Vol. 15, p. 156) is
equivalent to 370 pages of this Guide, —
and is almost entirely the work of Cap-
tain Frank Brinkley, editor of the Japan
Mail, author of Japan, A History of
Japan, An Unabridged Japanese-English
Dictionary, etc. The article is divided
into 10 parts — Geography, People, Lan-
guage and Literature, Art, Economic Con-
ditions, Government and Administration,
Religion, Foreign Intercourse, Domestic
History, and The Claim of Japan; A Japa-
nese View, by Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, in
which the president of the Imperial Uni-
versity of Kyoto and of the Imperial
Academy of Japan discusses "the ambi-
tion of the Japanese people ... to be
recognized as an equal by the Great
Powers," their resenting "any discrimina-
tion against them as an Asiatic people,"
the "misrepresentation, arising from want
of proper knowledge of Japanese char-
acter and feelings,"
Japanese that the Japanese
in America immediately after
the war with Russia
were "ready and eager to fight with the
United States" — whereas the Japanese
have always regarded the Americans
with a special good will, due no doubt to
the steady liberal attitude of the Amer-
ican government and people towards
Japan and Japanese, and they look- upon
the idea of war between Japan and the
United States as ridiculous."
Any justifiable discrimination against
the Japanese as Asiatics must of course be
based upon such characteristics of cus-
tom and thought as render Japanese im-
migration undesirable, and not upon the
colour of the Japanese skin or any other
peculiarity of appearance. But it is none
the less interesting to turn from Baron
Dairoku Kikuchi's argument to Capt.
Brinkley's careful study (p. 164) of the
physical characteristics of the Japanese.
"The best authorities are agreed that the
Japanese do not differ, physically, from
their Korean and Chinese neighbors as
much as the inhabitants of Northern
Europe differ from those of Southern
Europe." Some of the bodily traits
which distinguish the Japanese from
races of European origin are to be ob-
served "in the eyes, the eyelashes, the
cheekbones and the beard."
Marks of The eyeball does not differ
the Race from that of an occidental,
but the eye is less deeply
set. The conspicuous peculiarity is that
the upper eyelids are much heavier at the
inner corners than at the outer, making
the eyes apparently oblique; and a fold
of the upper lids hangs over the roots of
the upper lashes. The lashes, too, are
short and scanty, and converge, instead
of diverging as they do in occidentals, so
that the tips are nearer together than the
roots. There is but little hair on the
face (except among the Ainus), and it is
nearly always straight. The cheekbones
are prominent among the lower, rather
than the upper classes. The article pro-
ceeds to discuss the moral characteristics
of the Japanese; attributing to them a
degree of frugality and endurance such
as to make it virtually impossible for any
occidental race, living in reasonable com-
fort, to compete with Japanese labour.
As in the study of India and China, it
will be well for the student of Japanese
history to make himself familiar with the
Britannica's full material on native re-
ligion: see Vol. 15, p. 222, noting espe-
cially that in the section on Shinto it is
said: "The grandson of the sun goddess
was the first sovereign of Japan, and his
descendants have ruled the land in un-
broken succession ever since."
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THE FAR EAST
287
In Japanese history two main topics of
study present themselves — foreign inter-
course and domestic or internal history —
the former naturally the more attractive
to the foreign student,
Foreign and of additional inter-
Intercourse est both because of its
picturesque and roman-
tic early detail and by reason of its ex-
plaining the sudden emergence of Japan
as a power in world politics. Portu-
guese shipwrecked in Japan in 1542 or
1543 opened the country to Portuguese
trade and in 1549 landed the great Jesuit
missionary, Francisco de Xavier: see
the article by K. G. Jayne, author of
Vasco da Gama and his Successors. The
contest between Spain and Portugal for
Eastern trade and between Jesuits and
Franciscans for Japanese converts to
Christianity and the other factors that
resulted in the suppression of Christianity
in 1614 and the consequent persecutions
of converts and missionaries are told in
the article Japan — and so also is the
story of the foothold that Dutch and
English traders got before the Japanese
practically excluded them also, as Chris-
tians rather than as foreigners or traders.
From the middle of the 17th to the begin-
ning of the 19th century Japan was prac-
tically untouched by Western civiliza-
tion. The part of the United States navy,
in opening the country to trade in 1853
is described in the article Japan (pp. 237-
238) and in the article Matthew Cal-
braith Perky. The article Japan also
devotes much space (p. 238) to the work
done by another American, Townsend
Harris, who was less known than Perry,
but who carried through the immensely
important first commercial treaty.
The remainder of the story of Japan's
foreign relations is given in the main ar-
ticle Japan, but the
Recent Wars student should read
besides the articles
Chino - Japanese War, Manchuria,
and Russo-Japanese War. The last of
these would be equivalent to 40 pages of
this Guide; it is accompanied by the fol-
lowing plans: General Dispositions after
Nanshan, Liao-Yang, Port Arthur, and
Mukden: and it is a remarkable critical
summary of the military operations of
the war. Read also the biographies of
Katsura, Kodama, Kuroki, Nogi,
Nozu, Okuma, Oyama, Togo, Yama-
GATA.
As for domestic history, it is important
to note that early Japanese history is
more purely mythical and legendary, and
is chronologically untrust-
Domestic worthy for a longer pe-
History riod than is Chinese his-
tory. The convention-
ally accepted date of the establishment
of the Empire is 660 B. C; and from
this year all dates are reckoned; but
Japanese annals are self-contradictory
and are proved faulty by Chinese and
Korean records. Even the famed Jap-
anese invasion of Korea in 200 is pos-
sibly apocryphal, and there are few trust-
worthy recorded facts before 400 A.D. or
dates before 500 A.D. In the middle of
the 6th century Chinese influence, through
Korea, became strong, and in 552 Bud-
dhism was introduced from Korea. A
century later legislative government and
administrative reform began.
On the Japanese feudal system begin-
ning in the 12th century see: the article
Bushido; in the article Japan the ac-
count of the earlier army; and the articles
Shogun and Mikado. The more im-
portant separate articles for the later
period are: Tokugawa and Arisugawa
for the rival families of the 17th-19th
centuries; Mutsu Hito; San jo; Okubo
Toshimitsu; Saigo; Mutsu; Iwakura
Matsukata, the financier; Kato; Ko-
mura; Ito; Enomoto; Itagaki, "the first
to organize and lead a political party in
Japan 9 '; Inouye; Okuma; Yamagata;
Hayashi.
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CHAPTER XLVIII
ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
MANY topics in the field of eco-
nomics and social science are
treated with some detail in other
parts of this Guide. For public finance,
for instance, see the chapter For Bank-
ers and Financiers. Tariffs, trusts, la-
bour questions and the problems of
population (such as immigration, eugen-
ics, aliens and race-conflict, the liquor
traffic, penal and charitable institutions)
are among the topics presented* in the
course on Questions of the Day. In this
chapter is a brief outline of the entire
subject, including these special topics.
The key article, equivalent to 35
pages in this Guide, is Economics, (Vol. 8,
p. 899), by W. A. S. Hewins, formerly
director of the London School of Eco-
nomics, secretary of the tariff commission.
For the history of economic theory in
biographies of great economists, see
Jean Bodin; Thomas Mun; Hobbes;
Sir William Petty;
Great Sir William Tem-
Economists ple; Sir Josiah
Child; Vauban;Sir
Dudley North; F£nelon; Charles
Davenant; Pierre Boisguilbert;
Montesquieu; Francis Quesnay;*
Benjamin Franklin; Antonio Geno-
vesi; Sir James Steuart; Josiah
Tucker; Victor Mirabeau; Count
of C arli-Rubbi ; J u s t u s Moser ;
Pedro Rodriguez; Adam Smith; Anne
Robert Jacques Turgot; Ferdinando
Galiani; Beccaria-Bonesana; Du pont
de Nemours; Gaspar Melchor de
Jovellanos; Gaetano Filangieri;
Alexander Hamilton; Henry Thorn-
ton; Thomas Robert Malthus; Mel-
chiorre Gioja; Jean Baptiste Say;
David Ricardo; Jean C. L. de
Sismondi; James Mill; Thomas Tooke;
Richard Jones; Robert Torrens;
Friedrich List; J. R. M'Culloch;
Nassau W. Senior; Karl Heinrich
Rau; Henry Charles Carey; Auguste
Comte; Frederic Bastiat; Harriet
Martineau; John Stuart Mill;
Bonamy Price; W. T. Thornton;
Emile de Laveleye; J. E. Cairnes; J.
E. Thorold Rogers; J. K. Ingram;
Walter Bagehot; T. E. Cliffe Leslie;
David Ames Wells;. W. Stanley
Jevons; Henry George; Francis Amasa
Walker; W. G. Sumner; L. J. Bren-
tano; William Cunningham; Eugen
Boeiim von Bawerk; Arnold Toynbee;
R. T. Ely; A. T. Hadley; D. R. Dewey;
F. W. Taussig; W. J. Ashley; E. W.
Bemis; and E. R. A. Seligman.
For the chief branches of economic
theory read :
Value (Vol. 27, p. 867) by Dr. J. S.
Nicholson, professor of political economy,
Edinburgh University, author of Prin-
ciples of Political
Economic Economy, etc. This
Theory article, equivalent to
2 5 pages of this
Guide, distinguishes between utility and
value — to be valuable a "thing must
have some utility ; and there must be some
difficulty in its attainment." There are
three laws of value — supply and demand,
in the discussion of which monopoly- values
and competition- values are considered;
that of cost of production, in which
288
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ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
289
cost of raw material and wages are
obvious factors; and that of increasing
cost with increased quantity of produc-
tion, — upon which depends the theory of
rent.
Wealth (Vol. 28, p. 437) is by the
same author, who adopts the definition
of wealth connected with the name of
Adolf von Held, based on a study of
consumption, production and distribution
of wealth, — "consumable utilities which
require labour for their production
and can be appropriated and ex-
changed."
Consumption (Vol. 7, p. 23) is the
"destruction of utilities."
Production (Vol. 22, p. 423) is the
creation of utilities.
Capital (Vol. 5, p. 278) is accumu-
lated wealth available for earning in-
terest and producing fresh wealth. It
is not antithetical to labour, but . . . the
accumulated savings of labour and of
the profits accruing from the savings of
labour." The "importance of ability
or brain-work, as against much of mod-
ern theorizing against capitalism," must
not be overlooked.
Wages (Vol. 28, p. 229), also by Dr.
Nicholson, is equivalent to 17 pages in
this Guide. It distinguishes between
nominal and real wages, describes the
economic wages fund theory, and deals
with such topics as state regulation of
wages, factory legislation, trades unions
and wages, effects of machinery on
wages.
Further information, more particularly
in the field of finance, will be found in:
Banks and Banking (Vol. 3, p. 334),
with a special treatment of American
banking by Charles A. Conant, formerly
treasurer of the Morton Trust Co., New
York City, and author of History of
Modern Banks of Issue, and with the
general description by Sir Robert Pal-
grave, director of Barclay & Co., Ltd.,
and editor of the Dictionary of Political
Economy.
Trust Company (Vol. 27, p. 329) is
by C. A. Conant, late treasurer of the
Morton Trust Co., New York.
Money (Vol. 18, p. 694) and Finance
(Vol. 10, p. 347) are by Prof. Charles
Francis Bastable, University of Dublin,
author of Public Finance, etc.
See also the articles on Gold, Silver,
Bimetallism, and Monetary Con-
ferences.
On "Ideal" social systems, see these
four groups of articles:
Anarchism (Vol. 1, p. 914), by Prince
Kropotkin, author of Modern Science
and Anarchism, and a contributor to the
Britannica on Rus-
Anarchi8m, sian geography; and
Socialism, etc. Nihilism (Vol. 19,
p. 686), by Sir Don-
ald Mackenzie Wallace, author of Russia,
and The Web of Empire; and biographies
of William Godwin, Proudhon, Baku-
nin, Cl£mence Louise Michel, Kro-
potkin, Most, Reclus (Uke Kropotkin,
well known as a geographer), Tolstoy,
and on "anarchist" outrages see Chicago
(Vol. 6, p. 125), McKinley, Alexander
II of Russia, M. F. S. Carnot, Elizabeth
of Austria (Vol. 9, p. 285), and Humbert.
Communism (Vol. 6, p. 791), and see
also Robert Owen, New Harmony,
Amana, Shakers, Fourier, Brook Farm,
Considerant, Cabet, Saint-Simon and
Oneida Community; and on Plato's
"Republic," Plato (especially pp. 818-
819, Vol. 21); on More's "Utopia," the
article Sir Thomas More (especially p.
825, Vol. 18) ; on Bacon's "New Atlantis,"
the article Francis Bacon (especially
p. 144, Vol. 3); on Hobbe's "Leviathan,"
the article Hobbes (especially p. 547,
Vol. 13); on Campanula's "Civitas Solis"
or "City of the Sun," the article Cam-
panella (Vol. 5, p. 121); Samuel Butler
(Vol. 4, p. 887) for "Erewhon" and
"Erewhon Revisited"; and Edward
Bellamy (Vol. 3, p. 694) for "Looking
Backward," the latest of the well-known
literary pictures of an ideal common-
wealth.
Co-Operation (Vol. 7, p. 82), by
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Aneurin Williams, chairman of executive,
International Co-Operative Alliance, and
author of Twenty-eight Years of Co-
operation at Guise; and Building So-
cieties (Vol. 4, p. 766) and Friendly
Societies (Vol. 11, p. 217), both collab-
orative articles by Sir Edward William
Brabrook, late chief registrar of friendly
societies, and Dr. Carroll D. Wright,
late United States Commissioner of
Labor; and for the different co-operative
experiments, see, in addition to the
articles mentioned under Communism
above: Rochdale, Guise, Jean Bap-
tiste, Andr£ Godin, E. V. Neale,
Raiffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch for
German co-operative banks and rural
credit, Ireland (especially p. 749, Vol.
14), France (especially p. 782, Vol. 10),
Italy (especially p. 14, Vol. 15), Russia
(especially p. 887, Vol. 23, on the Artel);
and for American approaches to co-oper-
ation the articles Hopedale, Pullman
and Mormons (especially p. 846, Vol. 18).
Socialism (Vol. 25, p. 301), by James
Bonar, author of Philosophy and Political
Economy; and supplement this by the
articles Robert Owen; Karl Marx, by
Edward Bernstein, author of Theorie and
Geschichte des Socialismus and formerly
a Socialist member of the Reichstag
and a leader of the German Socialist
movement away from Marx; Rodbertus;
Lassalle; Kettler; Bebel; Lieb-
knecht; Schmoller; Jaures; Mille-
rand ; Henry George ; William MpRRis ;
H. G. Wells; Bernard Shaw; John
Burns; and local articles, especially
New Zealand and Finland.
Among the more interesting general
economic topics are tariffs and trusts,
matters of constant and great importance
both in politics and
Tariffs, business. See the
Trusts, etc. articles: Tariff
(Vol. 26, p. 422), by
Dr. F. W. Taussig, professor at Harvard,
and author of The Tariff History of the
United States; Free Trade (Vol. 11, p.
88), by Dr. William Cunningham, arch-
deacon of Ely, author of Growth of Eng-
lish Industry and Commerce.
Protection (Vol. 22, p. 464), by E.
J. James, president of the University of
Illinois, author of History of American
Tariff Legislation, etc.
For the history of tariff legislation in
the United States,, the articles Alexan-
der Hamilton, Henry Clay, Federal-
ist Party, Anti-Federalist Party,
Democratic Party, Whig Party, Re-
publican Party, J. S. Morrill, Mc-
Kinley, etc., and United States His-
tory (Vol. 27) especially §113 (p. 689),
§151 (p. 694), §195 (p. 701), §241 (p.
708), §297 (p. 716), §314 (p. 718), §354
(p. 728), § 370 (p. 728), § 373 (p. 729), etc.
And for the English tariff legislation
in the last hundred years, the articles
Corn Laws, John Bright, Cobden,
Joseph Chamberlain, etc.
The article Trusts (Vol. 27, p. 334), by
Prof. J. W. Jenks of New York Univer-
sity should be supplemented by the arti-
cle Gilds (Vol. 12, p. 14), contributed
by the late Professor Charles Gross of
Harvard University, and for American
Trust Legislation, by the articles Inter-
state Commerce (Vol. 14, p. 711) and
United States, History (Vol. 27), espe-
cially pages 725-726, 729, 734. See also
under separate state headings.
The article on Gilds just referred to
will serve as an introduction to the
subject of labour and labour organiza-
tions. The most im-
Labour and portant articles on
Wages modern conditions
are Trade Unions
(Vol. 27, p. 140); Strikes and Lock-
outs (Vol. 25, p. 1024); and Labour
Legislation (Vol. 16, p. 7), all with
American sections by Carroll D. Wright,
late U. S. Commissioner of Labor. On
labour legislation see the special article
Employers' Liability (Vol. 9, p. 356)
and the sections on legislation and mis-
cellaneous laws in separate state articles.
One of the great branches of economics
is the study of statistics. Advisedly
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ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
291
we say "study of statistics" and in the
Britannica the stu-
Statistics, dent will find corn-
Population, etc. paratively few sta-
tistical tables, but
much analysis both of statistics
and of their meaning. For statistics of
population see, for instance, the section
on population in the article United
States or in any one of the state or city
articles. Under Population and Social
Conditions in the article United States
(Vol. 27, pp. 634-638) are treated:
growth of the nation geographically and
in population, with special consideration
of immigration; changes in localities;
urban and rural population; interstate
migration; sexes; vital statistics — death
rate, marriage, families, birth-rate, illit-
eracy; religious statistics; occupations;
national wealth. And the state articles
give: total population at each census;
foreign-born and of foreign parentage, —
often with analysis and historical out-
lines of immigration and its variation
and character and amount; religious sta-
tistics; negroes and whites, Indians, Asiat-
ics, etc.; urban population, with list of
larger cities and population of each. In
articles on American cities and towns
population figures are given from the
last census; comparisons are made be-
tween native and foreign-born and the
foreign-born are classified, and, where
there is a predominant element, like
the Germans in Cincinnati and St. Louis,
an estimate of the influence of this
element.
One of the problems of population
peculiar to the United States, particu-
larly the Southern states, is the negro.
See the article Negro (Vol. 19, p. 344),
especially the part dealing with the
United States, which is by Walter F.
Willcox, professor of social science and
statistics in Cornell University and chief
statistician of the U. S. Census Bureau.
This article and that on Divorce (Vol. 8,
p. 334) — another urgent American prob-
lem — are remarkable examples of the
treatment of a social question from the
point of view of a statistician in a most
interesting and illuminating manner,
although based on dry statistics, and
in a manner all the more satisfying and
accurate because it has carefully
analyzed figures at the back of it.
The status of the negro in different
states is described in the separate state
articles, and there, too, the reader will
find a summary of local divorce laws.
Other articles coming under the head
of population are Infanticide, Illegit-
imacy, Legitimacy and Legitimation.
In the chapter in this Guide on Ques-
tions of the Day attention is called to the
increasing tendency of the state to
control and regulate
Social matters which a gen-
Legislation eration or so ago
were considered out-
side the sphere of government. Two
particular economic questions — "social
evils" we sometimes call them — are fore-
most in this category and on these the
student of economics should read in
the Britannica:
The article Prostitution (Vol. 22, p.
457), by Dr. Arthur Shadwell, member
of the Council of the Epidemiological
Society and author of Industrial Effici-
ency and Drink, Temperance and Legisla-
tion, and the articles Liquor Laws (Vol.
16, p. 759) and Temperance (Vol. 26,
p. 578), also by Dr. Shadwell. These
should be supplemented by accounts of
local legislation against liquor, as for
example in the articles Maine, Kansas,
South Carolina, etc. On the Gothen-
burg system of Sweden and Norway see
Vol. 16, pp. 769 and 780, and Vol. 26,
p. 587, where we learn that the essence
of this method of conducting the retail
traffic is that the element of private
gain is eliminated. See besides bio-
graphies of temperance reformers — e.g.,
Theobald Mathew, Neal Dow, John
B. Gough, etc.
Another great problem which the state
and the municipality are attempting to
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
solve, or to help solve, by means of
legislation is that of housing. See the
article Housing (Vol. 13, p. 814), which
comprises not only the topic of city hous-
ing and its faults due to overcrowding,
excessive value of land in great cities,
etc., but the subject of rural housing,
and the experiments in garden cities,
model towns, etc. See also the article
Octavia Hill (Vol. 13, p. 465), and for
American model towns, Hopedale, Pull-
man, etc.
Many movements for social welfare
are of a very different character and are
based on an entirely different principle
from that of repres-
Social Welfare sive or controlling
legislation. Chari-
ties, education, care of insane, training
of defectives, prison reform — such are a
few of these topics, and the student will
quickly learn that these burdens have
been borne quite as much by the indi-
vidual as by the State, and that in many
instances individual initiative has by
long and laborious effort succeeded in
reforming in this field abuses which had
flourished under government care.
Of prime importance to the student
is the elaborate article on Charity and
Charities (Vol. 5, p. 860), by Dr.
Charles Stewart Loch, sec-
Charity retary to the council of
the London Charity Organ-
ization Society and author of Charity
Organization, Methods of Social Advance,
etc. This article, equivalent in contents
to 100 pages of this Guide, is made up
of an introduction and six parts, as
follows:
Introduction : " Charity," as used in
New Testament, means love and mercy —
an ideal social state.
Part I. — Primitive Charity — highly de-
veloped idea of duty to guest or stranger,
whether beggar or vagrant.
Part II. — Charity among the Greeks.
" In Crete and Sparta the citizens were
wholly supported out of the public re-
sources." In Athens, charity by: legal
enactment for release of debts; assisted
emigration; gifts of grain; poor relief for
infirm and for orphans of soldiers; pay
for public service; private charity; loan
societies.
Part III. — Charity in Roman Times.
" The system obliged the hard-working to
maintain the idlers, while it continually
increased their number." " The effect on
agriculture, and proportionally on com-
merce generally, was ruinous."
Part IV. — Jewish and Christian Char-
ity. In Christianity a fusion of Jewish
and Greco-Roman practice. Summary of
Hebrew Charity. " To mark the line of
development, we compare: 1. The family
among Jews and in the early Christian
church. 2. The sources of relief and the
tithe, the treatment of the poor and their
aid, and the assistance of special classes
of poor. 3. The care of strangers; and,
lastly, we would consider the theory of
alms giving, friendship or love, and char-
ity."
Part V. — Medieval Charity and its De-
velopment. St. Francis and his influence.
St. Thomas Aquinas. Medieval endowed
charities.
Part VI. — After the Reformation.
" The religious life was to be democratic
— not in religious bodies, but in the whole
people; and in a new sense — in relation
to family and social life — it was to be
moral. That was the significance of the
Reformation." Organization of municipal
relief. Poor relief acts and statutory serf-
dom. Progress of thought in 18th and
19th century: influence of Rousseau, of
Law, of Howard, of Bentham, of Non-
conformists, particularly Friends in Eng-
land; Society for Bettering the Condition
of the Poor (1796). The Poor Law.
Movement for Old Age Pensions. Char-
ity Organization. Hospitals.
American charities and their peculiar
problems.
Other articles bearing on the subject
are:
Poor Law (Vol. 22, p. 74), for the
British system, and Dr. T. A. Ingram's
articles Unemployment (Vol. 27, p. 578)
and Vagrancy (Vol. 27, p. 837).
One of the earliest and most important
definite charitable movements was prison
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ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
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reform. On this subject see in the
Britannica the articles, —
Prisons all by Major Arthur Grif-
fiths, British inspector of
prisons, — Prison, Crime, Criminology,
Children's Courts, Police, Juvenile
Offenders, Deportation, Finger
Prints, Identification. This series of
articles shows both the improvements
in methods of treating criminals, in itself
a means of protecting society, and
the better methods of defense and of
police.
On the treatment of the insane and
feeble-minded, on the gradual assump-
tion of responsibility for them by govern-
ments, and on the transi-
Iiisane tion from the prison-like
asylum to the modern hos-
pital, see the article Insanity, particu-
larly part III (Vol. 14, p. 616), on Hos-
pital Treatment, by Dr. Frederick Peter-
son, professor of psychiatry, Columbia
University, author of Mental Diseases,
etc.
As great as the change in treatment
of the insane has been that in the treat-
ment of the deaf and blind. On this
subject read the
Deaf and Blind articles: Blindness
(Vol. 4, p. 59), by
Sir Francis J. Campbell, principal of the
Royal Normal College for the Blind;
and Deaf and Dumb (Vol. 7, p. 880), by
the Rev. Arnold Hill Payne, chaplain of
the Oxford Diocesan Mission to the
Deaf and Dumb. Both these authors
have had experience in teaching in the
United States as well as in Great Britain,
— one of the many striking instances of
the wisdom displayed in the choice of
contributors to the Britannica. And see
the articles on Gallaudet (Vol. 11, p.
416), the great teacher of the deaf, and
S. G. Howe (Vol. 13, p. 837), the edu-
cator of the blind.
The following list, arranged for the
most part in chronological order, gives
some of the names of reformers and
philanthropists
Biographies about whom there
are separate articles.
These biographical sketches will be of
great value for the study of the history
and development of charitable work for
the public welfare.
John Kyrle
Thomas Guy
Thomas Coram
Adam Anderson
Gen. Booth
John Howard
Tuke (family)
Baron de Montyon
Granville Sharp
Johann Beckmann
Sir Thomas Bernard
Robert Owen
J. B. A. Godin
John B. Gough
George Jacob Holyoake
Madhowdas Vurjeevan-
das
Clara Barton
I^ouis Adolphe Bertillon
Henri Cernuschi
Mary Ashton Livermore
Sir Francis Galton
Geo. Thorndike Angell
Sir D. M. Petit
Frangois Charles Marie George Smith of Coal-
Fourier ville
George Birkbeck M. E. L. Walras
Elizabeth Fry Emily Faithfull
Sir M. H. Monteftore Lyman Judson Gage
Sir Thomas F. Buxton Octavia and Miranda
Theobald Mathew
Lucretia Mott
Joseph St urge
Sir Rowland Hill
B. N. M. Appert
Gerrit Smith
Hill
A. Carnegie
Baron Rowton
J. D. Rockefeller
Benjamin Waugh
Frances E. Willard
Framjee NasarwanjeeF. A. Bebel
Patel Charles Booth
Victor P. Considerant Gabriel Tarde
E. Vansittart Neale Laurence Gronlund
Baroness B u r d e 1 1 -Samuel Gompers
Coutts Sidney Webb
Grace Horshey DarlingJane Addams
Helen Gould
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CHAPTER XLIX
HEALTH AND DISEASE
YOU may have happened to glance
at one of the text-books written
for the use of medical students
and of doctors, and found that you could
hardly understand a word of it. And yet
you have found, when you consulted a
specialist, and he wanted to explain to
you just what was wrong with some part
of your body, that he could make it all
quite clear to you. The six hundred ar-
ticles on health and disease in the Bri-
tannica are written by specialists, most
of them, indeed, by professors in the
leading medical schools; and these con-
tributors to the Britannica are also the
authors of many of the best text-books
that practising physicians and surgeons
habitually use. But in the Britannica
the specialists were writing for the gen-
eral public; and for that reason they have
taken care not to be too technical either
in their point of view or in the language
they use.
In this present chapter of the Reader's
Guide, the subject of health and disease
is treated just as the Guide treats any
other department of
Right and knowledge. You may
Wrong Way want to learn some-
to Read thing about it be-
cause it is one of the
most wonderful branches of science, just
as you would take up the course of read-
ing on astronomy. Or you may feel that
you ought to know more than you do
about your own body, about the way you
should live in order to preserve your
health, and about the causes of the dis-
eases to which you are exposed. Some
people will tell you that it is unwise to
read about the subject at all. That is
absurd. There are no doubt exceptional
people, with unsound nerves, who will
imagine they must take every patent
medicine they see advertised, and who
long to try every newly discovered serum
that the newspapers tell them about.
Again, you may be told that if you try
to learn something about health and dis-
ease, you will be tempted to think you
know as much as the
The Danger of doctor; and so neg-
"Doctoring" lect to go to him
Yourself when you need his
advice. But this ob-
jection, again, applies only to people who
lack good sense. For example, if you read
the article on Dentistry, by Dr. E. C.
Kirk, dean of the Dental Faculty of the
University of Pennsylvania, it will help
you to understand whatever your dentist
may be doing for you. But it will cer-
tainly not give you the idea that you
could fill your own teeth.
When you find your watch has stopped,
you wind it. Then, if it does not start,
you take it to the watchmaker. If, in-
stead of doing that, you tried to tinker
with it yourself, you would soon be in
trouble. On the other hand, it would be
ridiculous to go to the watchmaker with-
out first finding out whether the watch
merely wanted winding, and a man ought
to know enough about his watch to con-
nect the fact that it has stopped with the
probability that he has forgotten to wind
it. The daily winding is his work, not the
watchmaker's. The chemical and me-
294
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HEALTH AND DISEASE
295
chanical work that is going on with-
in you is as complicated as anything
in a watch or anything that you
could see in a laboratory or factory.
It is your business (and your most im-
portant business, for if you neglect it, you
unll not be able to do anything properly,
for yourself or for anybody else) to keep
this machinery running, and to do that
is not so simple as to wind a watch. Your
body needs food and warmth. It very
probably gets too much of both. Fur-
thermore, the food is often unwholesome,
and the warmed air is often bad air. But
unless you are a millionaire invalid, you
do not have a private doctor with you at
all hours to watch the food put on your
plate and to ventilate your room.
The average watch is better treated
than the average human body, and when
the average body goes wrong, through the
average man's
The Kind of thoughtlessness, he
Knowledge proceeds, without in
You Need the least knowing
what is wrong, to
take violent medicines, or to experiment
with some fad about diet or underclothing
or gymnastics, and to make matters very
much worse. The knowledge he can gain
from the Britannica will tend to keep him
from being careless, and also from trying
to doctor himself when he needs profes-
sional care. Whether you undertake a
complete course of medical reading or
not, it is certainly worth your while to
read the first group of articles mentioned
in this chapter — those which have to do
with the healthy routine of life.
You will find the best introduction to
the subject of diet in general in a section
(Vol. 26, p. 799) of the article Thera-
peutics, by Sir Lau-
Eating and der Brunton. He is
Drinking one of the most fa-
mous consulting phy-
sicians in the world, and he gives you ad-
vice which your own doctor will certainly
confirm when he tells you that the way
to avoid indigestion is to masticate your
food well and sip half a pint of hot water
four times a day — when you go to bed,
when you get up, and again about an
hour before luncheon and dinner, instead
of drinking anything with any meal ex-
cept your breakfast. If you try that
treatment for a week, you will be glad
that you looked at this chapter of the
Guide. Nutrition (Vol. 19, p. 920), by
Prof. Noel Paton and Dr. Cathcart, de-
scribes the process of nourishment and
shows how important it is to chew the
food thoroughly, not only in order to
break it up, but also in order to combine
with it a sufficient supply of the chemical
juices which come from the glands in the
mouth. Dietetics (Vol. 8, p. 214) shows
what use your body makes of each kind
of food that you eat. This article, by the
late Dr. Atwater of the United States
Department of Agriculture, who con-
ducted the famous government inves-
tigation of diet, and R. D. Milner,
also of the Department, contains tables
showing the amount of nourishment re-
quired by persons who are doing light or
heavy muscular work, as well as by those
who lead a sedentary life. It will interest
you to see (p. 218) how the food of an
American business man compares with
that of an American working in a lumber
camp. The article Dietary (Vol. 8, p.
212), describing the food given to pris-
oners, soldiers and sailors in various parts
of the world, contains some striking in-
formation as to the possibilities of the
simple life. In Sweden prisoners get only
two meals a day, and those consisting
chiefly of porridge or gruel; and the "pun-
ishment diet" in English prisons is one
pound of bread a day, and nothing else
but water. The article Water Supply
(Vol. 28, p. 387), by G. F. Deacon, deals
with the storage and distribution of water,
and shows how it should be filtered for
drinking. Sewerage (Vol. 24, p. 735)
describes the sanitary systems which pre-
vent the pollution of streams and wells.
Mineral Waters (Vol. 18, p. 517) de-
scribes the great variety of springs from
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
which the table-waters in general use are
obtained. Their medicinal values are
also indicated, and in the table which
classifies thirty of the most important
American springs it is curious to see that
nearly all of them lie in the Appalachian
Mountain chain.
Vegetarianism (Vol. 27, p. 967), by
Dr. Josiah Oldfield, describes the various
systems of diet which reject flesh, the
most extreme of which exclude every-
thing but nuts, fruit and cereals, all to be
eaten raw. Cookery (Vol. 7, p. 74)
shows how the digestibility of food is in-
fluenced by methods of cooking, and un-
hesitatingly condemns the general prac-
tice of baking meat. Adulteration
(Vol. 1, p. 218), by Dr. Otto Hehner, de-
scribes the dangers to health which arise
from the use of preservatives as well as
substitutes. For the use of boracic acid,
which has been proved to be slightly un-
wholesome, but not really dangerous,
there is at any rate the excuse that it
keeps food from spoiling, but the article
has nothing but
Hurtful Foods blame for the "cop-
pering" of vegeta-
bles. "Many years ago some artful, if
stupid, cook found that green vegetables
like peas or spinach, when cooked in a
copper pan, by preference a dirty one,
showed a far more brilliant colour than
the same vegetable cooked in earthenware
or iron. The manufacturer who puts up
substances like peas in pots or tins for
sale produces the same effect which the
cook obtained by the wilful addition of a
substance known to be injurious to
health, namely, sulphate of copper."
Food Preservation (Vol. 10, p. 612)
also shows the risks of using carelessly
canned goods. Temperance (Vol. 26, p.
578), by Dr. Arthur Shadwell, tells the
story of the reforms that have been
effected since the 18th century days when
London bars used to put up signs inviting
customers to get "drunk for one penny"
or "dead drunk for twopence;" and
Liquor Laws (Vol. 16, p. 759) describes
temperance legislation in all parts of the
world, with a most interesting section on
prohibition in the United States. Drunk-
enness (Vol. 8, p. 601) deals specifically
with the effects of excess on the health.
Alimentary Canal (Vol. 1, p. 663), by
Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, describes all the
organs of the body that deal with food.
Digestive Organs (Vol. 8, p. 262), by
Dr. Andrew Gillespie, shows how indi-
gestion arises, and Dyspepsia (Vol. 8, p.
786) describes the symptoms caused by
habitual indigestion. Metabolic Dis-
eases (Vol. 18, p. 195), by Dr. Noel
Paton, covers all the maladies arising
frjgni defective nutrition. Corpulence
(Vol. 7, p. 192) tells about the reduction
of superfluous fat, while Fasting (Vol.
10, p. 193) and Hunger and Thirst (Vol.
13, p. 931) discuss the intentional or acci-
dental cutting down of the usual food
supply. Famine (Vol. 10, p. 166) gives a
most interesting account of the disasters
with which crop failures still threaten
Asiatic countries. The feeding of young
children is, of course, a distinct subject,
and is treated in great detail in the article
Infancy (Vol. 14, p. 513), by Dr. Harriet
Hennessy.
Sleep (Vol. 25, p. 238), by Prof. Mc-
Kendrick, is an elaborate study of the
curious changes in the action of the brain
and other organs
Sleep and the which take place
Want of it during slumber.
Insomnia (Vol. 14,
p. 644) is a practical article on the causes
and treatment of sleeplessness. Between
absolutely lying awake and obtaining a
really good night's rest there are many
intermediate stages, and the article
Dream (Vol. 8, p. 558) contains a great
deal of curious information about dis-
turbed sleep. Somnambulism (Vol. 25,
p. 393) shows that when dreams are vivid
enough to produce sleepwalking there
must be nervous trouble calling for im-
mediate treatment. Narcotics (Vol.
19, p. 239) describes the dangers of the
drugs to produce sleep; and in Hypno-
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tism (Vol. 14, p. 201) and Suggestion
(Vol. 26, p. 48) there is a full account of
the treatment frequently used for sleep-
lessness and other nervous disorders.
The effect of climates upon health is
the subject of a special section (Vol. 6, p.
526) of the article Climate. Ventila-
tion (Vol. 27, p.
The Right 1008) shows how to
Kind of Air secure fresh air in
the house without
draughts. Dust (Vol. 8, p. 713), by Dr.
Aitken, the inventor of the ingenious
machine for counting the particles of
dust floating in the atmosphere, gives a
very full account of the impurities in the
air. Heating (Vol. 13, p. 160) contains
descriptions and diagrams of the best
methods of warming houses, and there is
at the end of the article an account of the
system of steam heating employed at
Lockport, N. Y., where buildings any-
where within three miles of the central
plant are heated at a very moderate cost.
Baths (Vol. 3, p. 514), and Hydro-
pathy (Vol. 14, p. 165), and Balneo-
therapeutics (Vol. 3, p. 284) describe
all the bathing treat-
General ments in which w T a-
Hygiene ter, steam and hot
air are employed.
Electric baths are described in Electro-
therapeutics (Vol. 9, p. 249), and
Aerotherapeutics deals with com-
pressed air baths. Massage (Vol. 17, p.
863), by Dr. Arthur Shadwell, describes
all the systems of rubbing. Gymnastics
(Vol. 12, p. 752) gives an account of the
Swedish and other systems of hygienic
exercise; and outdoor exercises of every
kind are described in the articles men-
tioned in the chapter of Readings in Con-
nection with Recreations and Vacations,
Two other articles which relate to general
hygiene are Disinfectants (Vol. 8, p.
312) and Antiseptics (Vol. 2, p. 146).
The proper care of the hair is indicated in
the article Baldness (Vol. 3, p. 243),
where prescriptions for lotions are given.
The articles already named cover very
fully the application of medical science
to the ordinary routine of life, and will
help you to regulate
Various wisely your habits in
Diseases regard to eating,
sleeping and to the
general care of your body. It may be
the case that you wish, for your own sake,
or for the sake of some member of your
family, to carry your reading further in
respect to some one disease or some one
part of the body. In the list of articles
at the end of this chapter you will find
more than two hundred, each of which
deals with one disease, such as rheumat-
ism, catarrh, malaria or neuralgia. In
the case of a very simple trouble you will
find directions for treatment, as for ex-
ample in the article Corn, where you are
advised to use a solution of salicylic acid
in collodion, or, for a soft Corn, to paint
it with spirits of camphor. Where the
trouble is anything more serious, you
should of course consult a doctor, but you
will understand what he tells you all the
better, and worry less, if you have read
an article which describes the usual
course of the disease.
Again, you may have a special reason
for wishing to learn all you can about
some one part of the body : the eye, the
ear, or the heart. There
Parts of are fifty articles, in the list
the Body below, each dealing with
some one organ or part of
the body. The illustrations in these ar-
ticles will help you to understand the
exact position of any trouble which you
have read about in the article on a disease
affecting that particular part. Another
set of articles divides the body into groups
of organs, one dealing with the Nervous
System, another with the Muscular
System, another with the Respiratory
System, and so on. Then you have the
five general articles: Anatomy, Phys-
iology, Pathology, Therapeutics and
Surgery, which outline all medical sci-
ence. The article Medicine gives a com-
plete history of medical science, and its
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section on Modern Progress reviews all
that has been accomplished within recent
years.
Beginning with the six articles just
mentioned, and then taking the more de-
tailed articles in the groups into which
their subjects divide
More Advanced them, it is quite pos-
Study sible to follow in the
Britannica a com-
plete course of reading on medicine and
surgery, and you may desire to do that,
just as someone else likes to read about
geology or astronomy. But do not forget
that no amount of reading can give you
more than a theoretical knowledge. When
your doctor discovers what is the nature
of your illness (which is much the most
difficult part of his work), and when he
gives you the treatment you need, his eye
is comparing what it sees in your case,
and his hand is comparing what it
touches in your case, with the thousands
of observations that he has made in the
wards and in the operating theatre of the
hospital. Without going through the
course that he has gone through in the
dissecting room, and studying the living
body as he has studied it, you can never
know what he knows. But you will be a
more understanding patient, and a better
nurse, if occasion brings nursing for you
to do, if you have learned something of
medical science from the Britannica.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
RELATING TO MEDICAL SCIENCE
Abattoir
Abdomen
Abortion
Abscess
Abscission
Acne
Aconite
Acromegaly
Actinomycosis (Strep-
totrichosis)
Acupressure
Acupuncture
Adam's Apple
Addison's Disease
Adenoids
Adulteration
A erotherapeutics
Ague
Ala
Albuminuria
Alienist
Alimentary Canal
Amaurosis
Ambulance
Anaemia
Anaesthesia and Anaes-
thetics
Anatomy
Aneurysm, or Aneurism
Angina Pectoris
Animal Heat
Ankle
Ankylosis, or Anchy-
losis
Ankylostomiasis
Anodyne
Antiseptics
Aphasia
Bladder and Prostate Cleft Palate and Hare-
Aphemia
Diseases
Lip
Apnoea
Blindness
Clinic
Aponeurosis
Blister
Club-foot
Apophysis
Blood
Cod-Liver Oil
Apoplexy
Blood-letting
Coelom and Serous
Apothecary
Boil
Membranes
Appendicitis
Bone
Colic
Apyrexia
Bow-leg
Colon
Araroba Powder
Brain
Coma
Arm
Breast
Connective Tissues
Arnica
B right's Disease
Constipation
Convulsions
Arteries
Bronchiectasis
Arthritis
Bronchitis
Corn
Articulation
Bronchotomy
Corpulence or Obesity
Arytenoid
Bunion
Cramp
Asafetida
Burns and Scalds
Cremation
Ascites
Cacsarean Section
Cretinism
Asphyxia
Caisson Disease
Croton Oil
Asthma
Caiaput Oil
Calabar Bean
Croup
Athetosis
Cubebs
Atrophy
Cancer, or Carcinoma
Cupping
Auscultation
Cantharidcs
Delirium
Autopsy
Capsicum
Dengue
Bacteriology
Carbuncle
Dentistry
Baldness
Cartilage
Diabetes
Balneotherapeutics
Castor Oil
Diaphoretics
Balsam
Catalepsy
Catarrh
Diaphragm
Baths
Diarrhoea
Bedsore
Caul
Dietary
Belladonna
Chicken-pox
Dietetics
Beri-beri
Chilblains
Digestive Organs
Bhang
Chirurgeon
Digitalis
Bibirine
Cholera
Dilatation
Bilharziosis
Chamomile, or Camo-
Dill
Blackwater Fever
mile Flowers
Diphtheria
Bladder
Climacteric
Dipsomania
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Disinfectants
Diuretics
Dropsy
Drowning and Life
Saving
Drug
Drunkenness
Ductless Glands
Dysentery
Dyspepsia
Ear
Eczema
Elate rium
Elbow
Electrotherapeutics
Elephantiasis
Emetics
Emphysema
Enteritis
Epilepsy
Epistaxis
Epithelial, Endothelial
and Glandular Tissues
Equilibrium
Ergot, or Spurred Rye
Erysipelas
Eucalyptus
Euphorbium
Excretion
Eye
Face
Fauces
Favus
Fever
Fibrin
Filariasis
Finger
Fistula
Food
Foot
Frostbite
Fumigation
Galangal
Gulbanum
Gall
Gamboge
Gangrene
Gastric Ulcer
Gastritis
Gelsemium
Ginseng
Goitre
Gout
Guaco, Huaco, or Guao
Guaiacum
Guarana
Guinea-Worm
Gynaecology
1 1 Hematocele
Haemophilia
Haemorrhage
Haemorrhoids
Hammer-toe
Hand
Hashish
Hay Fever, or Summer
Catarrh
Head
Hear*
Heel
Hernia
Herpes
Hip
Homoeopathy
Hospital
Humane Society, Royal
Plunger and Thirst
Hydrocele
Hydrocephalus
Hydropathy
Hydrophobia, or Rabies
Hygiene
Hypertrophy
Hypnotism
Hypochondriasis
Hysteria
Icthyosis or Xeroderma
Imbecile
Infancy
Influenza
Insanity
Insomnia
Intestinal Obstruction
Intestine
Intoxication
Ipecacuanha
Jaborandi
Jalap
Jaundice
Jaw
Joints
Kamala
Kala-Azar
Kidney Diseases
Kino
Knee
Kousso
Laryngitis
Laudanum
Lead Poisoning
Leg
Leontiasis Ossea
Leprosy
Lethargy
Lichen
Ligament
Lip
Liver
Lobe
Locomotor Ataxia
Lumbago
Lung
Lupus
Lymph
Lymphatic System
Malaria
Malta Fever
Mammary Gland
Massage
Matrix
Measles
Medicine
Medical Education
Medical J u rispr udence
Meniere's Disease
Meningitis
Metabolic Diseases
Midwife
Mineral Waters
Morphine
Mortification
Mouth and Salivary
Glands
Mumps
Muscle and Nerve
Muscular System
Myelitis
Myxoedema
Naevus
Narcotics
Navel
Necrosis
Nepenthes
Nerve
Nervous System
Nettlerash, or Urticaria
Neuralgia
Neurasthenia
Neuritis
Neuropathology
Nose
Nosology
Nostalgia
Nursing
Nutrition
Nux Vomica
Obstetrics
Oesophagus
Officinal
Olfactory System
Ophthalmology
Opium
Ovariotomy
Pain
Palate
Pancreas
Paralysis or Palsy
Paranoia
Parasitic Diseases
Pathology
Pediculosis
Pellagra
Pelvis
Pemphigus
Pepsin
Peritonitis
Perspiration
Phagocytosis
Pharmacology
Pharmacopoeia
Pharmacy
Pharyngitis
Pharynx
Phlebitis
Phrenology
Phthisis
Physiology
Picrotoxin
Pinto
Pityriasis Versicolor
Placenta
Plague
Pleurisy or Pleuritis
Pneumonia
Podophyllin
Poison *
Polypus
Poultice
Prognosis
Pruritus
Psoriasis
Psorospermiasis
Ptomaine Poisoning
Puberty
Public Health, Law of
Puerperal Fever
Purpura
Pulse
Quarantine
Quassia
Quinine
Quinsy
Raynaud's Disease
Relapsing Fever
Reproductive System
Respiratory System
Rhamnus Purshiana
Rhatany, or Krameria
Root
Rheumatism
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Rhubarb
Rickets
Ringworm
St. Vitus 1 Dance, or
Chorea
Salep
Salicin, Salicinum
Sanatorium
Sandalwood
Sandarach
Santonin
Sarsaparilla
Scabies, or Itch
Scalp
Scarlet Fever
Sciatica
Scrofula, or Struma
Scurvy
Sea-Sickness
Seborrhoea
Senega
Senna
Sepsis
Sewerage
Shock or Collapse
Shoulder
Sinew
Skeleton
Skin and Exoskeleton
Skin Diseases
Skull
Slaughter-house
Sleep
Sleeping-sickness
Smallpox
Sneezing
Somnambulism
Spinal Cord
Spleen
Sprue
Squill
Stammering or Stutt:r-
ing
Starvation
Stethoscope
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Stomach
Stramonium
Strychnine
Sumbul, or Sumbal
Sunstroke
Supra-renal Extract
Surgery
Surgical Instruments
Sweating-si ckness
Sweetbread
Sympathetic System
Syncope
Taraxacum
Teeth
Temperance
Tetanus
Therapeutics
Thorax
Throat
Thyroid
Tongue
Tonsillitis
Toxicology
Tracheotomy
Trachoma
Trichinosis
Tuberculosis
Tumour
Typhoid Fever
Typhus Fever
Ulcer
Upas
Urinary System
Vaccination
Valerian
Varicose Veins
Vascular System
Vegetarianism
Veins
Venereal Diseases
Viburnum
Vivisection
Voice
Wart
Water-supply
Whitlow
Whooping-Cough
Windpipe
Wound
Wrist
Wry-neck
X-Ray Treatment
Yaws
Yellow Fever
Zymotic Diseases
CHAPTER L
GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION
THE Britannica devotes nearly one
fourth of all its space to geographi-
cal subjects. You may miss the
full significance of this statement; there-
fore let us put it differently. The matter
in the Britannica on geography is equiva-
lent to more than 100 ordinary volumes
each containing 100,000 words, which,
put on shelves about 5 feet long, would
fill a section in your
A Library of library 5 shelves
Geography high. But by the
use of new India
paper, this same material on geography,
combined with three times as much on
other subjects of importance, occupies
in the Britannica less than 3 feet of
shelf space. The unity of plan and treat-
ment and the high authority of the
Britannica in these articles are far be-
yond comparison with that you could get
in the most wisely and carefully selected
hundred volumes on Geography that
would give an equivalent number of
words.
Geographical information is so useful
A Science as
well as a
Body of Facts
that the student is likely to overlook
the scientific importance of geography
in itself. The arti-
cles in the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica
described in this
chapter, besides giv-
ing the fullest information on countries,
cities, towns, rivers, mountains, etc.,
trace the development of the science
from its beginning; and the gradual in-
crease of geographical knowledge, as
told in the Britannica, is a story of fine
out-of-door adventure, of just the kind
of spirited action that has supplied the
theme of the most popular works of
fiction.
This chapter will suggest an outline
course of reading in geography, system-
atically grouping the more important
articles in the Britannica.
The starting point for this course of
study is the article Geography (Vol. 11,
p. 619), equivalent in length to 70 pages
of this Guide, written by Hugh R. Mill,
author of Hints on the Choice of Geo-
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GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION
3*1
graphical Books, etc. The story that it
tells us is a most interesting one.
The early Greeks thought of the
earth as a flat disk,
What Early circular or elliptical
Writers Taught in outline; and even
about the Earth in Homeric times
this supposition had
"acquired a special definiteness by the
introduction of the idea of the ocean
river bounding the whole." Hecataeus
recognized two continents on the circu-
lar disk. Herodotus, traveler and his-
torian both (see the article Herodotus
Vol. 13, p. 381, by George Rawlinson
and Edward M. Walker), who knew
only the lands around the roughly ellip-
tical Mediterranean Sea, was certain
that the earth was not a circle because
it was longer from east to west than
from north to south, and he distin-
guished three continents, adding Africa
to Europe and Asia. "The effect of
Herodotus's hypothesis that the Nile
must flow from west to east before
turning north in order to balance the
Danube running from west to east before
turning south lingered in the maps of
Africa down to the time of Mungo Park."
Aristotle (see also the article Aristotle,
Vol. 2, p. 501, by Thomas Case, presi-
dent of Corpus Christi College, Oxford,
and author of Physical Realism, etc.,)
was the real founder of scientific geo-
graphy. "He demonstrated the spheri-
city of the earth by three arguments,
two of which are important . . . only
a sphere could always throw a circular
shadow on the moon during an eclipse;
and that the shifting of the horizon and
the appearance of new constellations . .
as one travelled from north to south,
could only be explained on the hypothe-
sis that the earth was a sphere ....
He formed a comprehensive theory of
the variations of climate with latitude
and season . . . speculated on the dif-
ferences in the character of races of
mankind living in different climates,
and correlated the political forms of
communities with their situation on a
seashore, or in the neighborhood of
natural strongholds." The article Ptol-
emy (Vol. 22, p. 618), equivalent to 27
pages of this Guide, by the late Sir
Edward Herbert Bunbury, the historian
of ancient geography, and Dr. C. R.
Beazley, author of The Dawn of Modern
Geography, etc., should be studied in
conjunction with the summary, in the
article Geography, of Ptolemy's achieve-
ments. "He concentrated in his writings
the final outcome of all Greek geographi-
cal learning," but his great aim was to
collect and compare all existing deter-
minations of latitude and estimates of
longitude, and to solve the problem of
representing the curved surface of the
earth on the flat surface of a map.
The science of geography was at a
low ebb in Christendom during the
Middle Ages, when verbal interpretation
of the Scriptures led
Geography in the Church to op-
the Middle Ages pose the spherical
theory and also the
theory of the motion of the earth. But
among the Arabs, geography was kept
alive — especially by Al-Mamun (see the
article Mamun (Vol. 17, p. 533), who
had Ptolemy translated into Arabic.
The story of the great discoveries of
the 15th and 16th
New World: centuries is outlined
New Geography later in the article
Geography. The
effect on geographical theory was enor-
mous.
The old arguments of Aristotle and the old
measurements of Ptolemy were used by
Toscanelli and Columbus in urging a west-
ward voyage to India; and mainly on this
account did the crossing of the Atlantic
rank higher in the history of scientific ge-
ography than the laborious feeling out of
the coast-line of Africa. But not until the
voyage of Magellan shook the scales from
the eyes of Europe did modern geography
begin to advance. Discovery had outrun
theory; the rush of new facts made Ptol-
emy practically obsolete in a generation,
after having been the fount and origin of
all geography for a millennium.
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In the century and a half after the
discovery of America important theo-
retical work was done by Peter Apian,
Sebastian Miinster, Philip Cluwer, Na-
thanael Carpenter and Bernhard Va-
renius, for which see the biographical
articles. The next century (1650-1760)
saw little worth mentioning in geograph-
ical theory or method. Then, with the
sudden burst of activity that so often
follows scientific hibernation, came the
important work of Torbern Bergman,
a Swedish chemist and a pupil of the great
botanist Linnaeus, and the lectures
delivered at Konigsberg after 1765 by
the German philosopher Kant. They
both put new stress on physical geog-
raphy — see the articles on Bergman
(Vol. 3, p. 774) and Kant (Vol. 15, p.
662). Alexander von Humboldt and
Karl Ritter (see the articles on both)
in the first half of the 19th century
supported, the one the unity of nature,
and the other the comparative method,
thus preparing the way for Darwin's
evolutionary theory, which "has become
the unifying principle in geography."
Since the adoption of this theory, some
of the more important names in geograph-
ical theory — each the subject of an article
in the Britannica which the student
should read — are : Baron von Richthof en,
Hermann Wagner, Elisee Reclus and A.
de Lapparent.
Early travel and exploration is a story
of varied interest even when we approach
it from the only side on which we have
-, -. - material — that is
Geographical "geograph-
Discovery . / i *•
* l c a 1 exploration
from the Mediterranean centre."
Early conquest of outlying peoples by
the warlike kings of Egypt and Assyria
may have momentarily increased geo-
graphical knowledge, but it is unim-
portant in the large story. The first
great explorers were the earliest traders,
the Phoenicians and their African colo-
nists, the Carthaginians, who traded
throughout the Mediterranean, possibly
on the east coast of Africa and in the
northern seas, and almost certainly on
the west coast of Africa. For details
supplementing the outline in the article
Geography (p. 623, Vol. 11), see the
articles Phoenicia (Vol. 21, pp. 454-
455), Sidon, Tyre, Ophir, Carthage,
and Hanno, the African explorer. On
the only Greek explorer of eminence see
the article on Pytheas of Marseilles
(Vol. 22, p. 703), who, about 330 B.C.,
explored the British coast and the Baltic,
and may have gone as far north as Ice-
land. Alexander the Great (see the bio-
graphical article) and his successors ex-
plored the East, "thus opening direct
intercourse between Grecian and Hindu
civilization."
The Romans were poor seamen and
accomplished little as explorers. It has
often been pointed out that the Greeks
spoke of the "watery ways" of the sea,
considering it a highway, but that the
Romans, centuries later too, called the
sea "dissociable," that is "preventing
and hindering intercourse."
The Arabs were the leading geogra-
phers of the Middle Ages, and a*mong their
great travelers on whom there are sep-
arate articles in the
The Arabs Britannica are Ma-
and Northmen sudi, Ibn Haukal,
Idrisi, and in the
14th century Ibn Batuta. In the 9th
and 10th centuries, the Norseman Ohth-
ere rounded the North Cape and saw the
midnight sun; Iceland was colonized
from Norway; Eric the Red discovered
Greenland; and his son Leif Ericsson
sailed along a part of the North American
coast: see the articles Iceland, Green-
land, Vinland, Leif Ericsson and
Thorfinn Karlsefni.
The crusades made Europe a little
more familiar with the East and opened
the way for travel and pilgrimage. In
general see the summary Results of the
Crusades (p. 546, Vol. 7) at the close
of the article Crusades; and particu-
larly see Benjamin of Tudela (Vol. 3,
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p. 739) for a Jewish traveler of the 12th
century who went as far east as the
% frontiers of China.
Before the new age of real exploration
began, in the 15th century, there was an
age of travel, especially
13th Century in Asia during the 13th
century, which did much
to rouse popular curiosity about the
ends of the earth. Though these trav-
elers were not scientifically trained,
modern research shows a remarkable
proportion of fact in their stories. The
great names of this era: Joannes de
Piano Carpini, a friend of St. Francis of
Assisi and head of a Catholic mission to
Mongolia; William of Rubruquis, a
Fleming who went to Tartary under
orders from Louis IX of France; Hayton,
King of Armenia, who traveled in
Mongolia about the middle of the century ;
Odoric, a Catholic friar of the 14th
century; and Marco Polo,
the first to trace a route across the whole
longitude of Asia, naming and describing
kingdom after kingdom which he had seen;
the first to speak of the new and brilliant
court which had been established at Peking;
the first to reveal China in all its wealth and
vastness, and to tell of the nations on its
borders; the first to tell more of Tibet than
its name, to speak of Burma, of Laos, of
Siam, of Coehin-China, of Japan, of Java,
of Sumatra and of other islands of the
archipelago, of the Nicobar and Andaman
Islands, of Ceylon and its sacred peak, of
India but as a country seen und partially
explored; the first in medieval times to give
any distinct account of the secluded Chris-
tian Empire of Abyssinia, and of the semi-
Christian island of Sokotra, and to speak,
however dimly, of Zanzibar, and of the vast
and distant Madagascar; whilst he carries
us also to the remotely opposite region of
Siberia and the Arctic shores, to speak of
dog-sledges, white bears and reindeer-riding
Tunguses.
See the articles Carpini, Rubruquis,
Hayton, Odoric, and Polo, by C. R.
Beazley, author of The Dawn of Modern
Geography y and Sir Henry Yule, author
• of Cathay and the Way Thither and The
Book of Ser Marco Polo,
A little later were the Spaniard Ruy
Gonzalez de Clavijo who traveled to
Samarkand; the Italians Nicola de'Conti
whose travels in India were written by
Poggio Bracciolini, secretary to Pope
Eugene IV, and Ludovico di Varthema,
who made the pilgrimage to Mecca in
1503. See the articles Clavijo, Conti,
Poggio, himself a traveler, and Varthe-
ma.
The construction of the mariner's
compass gave a new impulse to navi-
gation and discovery. "Portugal took
the lead along this
Portuguese new path, and fore-
Explorers most among her pi-
oneers stands Prince
Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) . . .
The great westward projection of the
coast of Africa and the islands to the
north-west of that continent, were the
principal scene of the work of manners
sent out at his expense; but his object
was to push onward and reach India
from the Atlantic." The account of
Portuguese discoveries in the article
Geography (p. 625) should be supple-
mented by the articles Henry of Portu-
gal (Vol. 13, p. 296), by C. R. Beazley,
author of Prince Henry the Navigator and
The Dawn of Modern Geography: Diogo
Gomez and Bartolomeu Diaz de No-
vaes (Vol. 8, p. 172), also by C. R. Beaz-
ley, Pero de Covilham, Vasco da
Gama, Prester John, by Sir Henry
Yule, and Fernao Mendes Pinto, by
Edgar Prestage, lecturer in Portuguese,
University of Manchester.
We have now come to a point in the
story where it begins to be more familiar
to us all. "The Portuguese, following
the lead of Prince
Columbus and Henry, continued t j
America look for the road to
India by the Cape
of Good Hope. The same end was
sought by Christopher Columbus, fol-
lowing the suggestion of Toscanelli, and
under-estimating the diameter of the
globe, by sailing due west." The dis-
covery and early exploration of America
are told in the following articles, selected
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
from a long list — see also the chapter in
this Guide on American History: —
Columbus and Vespucci, both by
C. R. Beazley; Pinzon, dealing with the
three members of the family; Cabot,
by H. P. Biggar, author of The Voyages
of the Cabots to Greenland; Pizarro;
Balboa; Cortez; Soto; Aviles; Car-
tier, by H. P. Biggar; Ribault; Hak-
luyt, by C. R. Beazley and C. H. Coote,
formerly of the map department, British
Museum; and for exploration in the
Pacific, Magellan, by C. R. Beazley,
Drake, Thomas Cavendish, John
Davis, Sir Richard Hawkins, etc.
Exploration in the United States,
particularly as connected with westward
expansion may be studied to advantage
in the Britannica.
Recent Ameri- See especially the
can Exploration articles Daniel
Boone, Rufus Put-
nam, George Rogers Clark, William
Clark, Meriwether Lewis, Zebulon
M. Pike, Stephen Austin, Marcus
Whitman, John C. Fremont, F. V.
Hayden, J. W. Powell, and B. L. E.
Bonneville; and also the earlier part
of the historical section in each article
on a state of the Union.
In the Orient the principal explorers
mentioned in the article Geography and
treated each in a separate article are:
the Englishmen,
The Far East Sir James Lancas-
ter, Thomas Cory-
ate, Sir Anthony Shirley, Sir Thomas
Herbert and Sir Thomas Roe; the
German Engelbrecht Kaempfer; and,
among many great Dutch navigators,
Abel Janszoon Tasman. On this period
see also India (especially pp. 404-406,
Vol. 14); Japan, Foreign Intercourse
(p. 224, et seqq., Vol. 15); Francisco
de Xavier; Malay Archipelago (p.
469, Vol. 17); Tasmania; New Guinea,
etc.
The geographical work of missionaries
has been remarkable — perhaps none of it
more so than the survey of China by
Jesuit missionaries. "They first prepared
a map of the country
Missionaries round Peking, which
was submitted to*
the emperor Kang-hi, and, being satis-
fied with the accuracy of the European
method of surveying, he resolved to have
a survey made of the whole empire on
the same principles. This great work
was begun in July, 1708, and the com-
pleted maps were presented to the
emperor in 1718. The records preserved
in each city were examined, topographi-
cal information was diligently collected,
and the Jesuit fathers checked their
triangulation by meridian altitudes of
the sun and pole star and by a system
of remeasurements. The result was a
more accurate map of China than existed,
at that time, of any country in Europe.' 9
There was some 18th century explora-
tion of importance in Arabia: see the
article Karsten Niebuhr; in Africa:
see the articles James Bruce", John
Led yard, an American; and Mungo
Park; and in South America: see C. M.
DE LA CONDAMINE, PlERRE BoUGUER,
etc. But the Pacific was the great field
of exploration in this century and "the
three voyages of Captain James Cook
form an era in the history of geographi-
cal discovery/' See the articles James
Cook, Comte de La Perouse, Joseph-
Antoine Bruni d'Entrecasteux, Will-
iam Bligh, George Vancouver, and
local articles like Hawaii, Tahiti, etc.
The story of Polar exploration is told
in brief in the article Geography (p. 629)
but there are more detailed accounts
in the article
Arctic Polar Regions, by
Exploration H. R. Mill and Fridt-
jof Nansen, the polar
explorer, which is illustrated with maps
of the N«>rth Polar and South Polar
regions. This should be further sup-
plemented by the following biographical
sketches: Pytheas, Cabot, Corte-Real,
Willoughby, Steven Borough, Fro-
bisher, John Davis, Barents, Hudson,
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GEOGRAPHY AND EXPLORATION
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Baffin, Scoresby, Bering, James Cook,
John Franklin, Sir W. E. Parry,
Sir John Ross, John Rae, Sir R. J. L.
M. McClure, Sir F. L. McClintock,
Sir E. A. Inglefield, E. K. Kane,
Charles Hall, Nordenskiold, Nares,
Sir C. R. Markham, DeLong, A. W.
Greely, Nansen, Peary, etc., and on
antartic exploration the articles Dumont
D'Urville, Charles Wilkes, Sir
James C. Ross, etc. The article Polar
Regions includes an elaborate account
of the physiography of the Arctic region
(p. 954, Vol. 21) and of the Antarctic
(p. 969 of same Vol.) , dealing with geology,
climate, pressure, flora, fauna, people,
ocean depths, temperature and salinity,
and marine biological conditions, etc.
The student of geography should read
with great care the article Map (Vol. 17,
p. 629), equivalent to 110 pages of this
Guide, written by Lieut.
Maps Col. Charles Frederick
Close, author of Text-Book
of Topographical Surveying, Alexander
Ross Clark, lately in charge of the trigo-
nometrical operations of the British
Ordnance Survey, and Dr. Ernest George
Ravenstein, author of A Systematic Atlas,
etc. The article has 59 illustrations and
it deals with: classification, scale, de-
lineation of ground, contours, selection
of names and orthography; measure-
ment on maps; relief maps; globe; map
printing; history of cartography (equiva-
lent to 55 pages of this Guide), with
reproductions of many early maps;
topographical surveys, summarizing the
work done in different parts of the world;
and map projections.
The maps in the Britannica are of
the utmost value. They include nearly
150 full-page maps, many of them in
colours, all prepared especially for this
edition, and in accordance with the prin-
ciples laid down in the article Map.
Of articles on physiographic topics
possibly the most important are those
on the several continents, each accom-
panied by a map in colours from the
great German cartographic establishment
of Justus Perthes,
Physiographic Gotha. Of partic-
Articles ular importance to
the American reader
are the contributions of Prof. W. M.
Davis of Harvard on physiography
in the articles America and North
America, and of J. C. Branner, now
president of Leland Stanford University,
on South America. Then read the
article Ocean and Oceanography, by
Dr. Otto Kriimmel, professor of geog-
raphy at Kiel and author of Handbuch
der Ozeanographie, and H. R. Mill,
editor of The International Geography.
This single article is equivalent to 65
pages of this Guide. Then study the
articles on the different seas — for in-
stance, Atlantic Ocean, by H. N.
Dickson, author of Papers on Ocean-
ography, etc.; Pacific Ocean, by the
same author, with a section on its islands,
and with a map in colours; Dr. Dickson's
article on the Mediterranean Sea;
the article Great Lakes, the separate
article on each of these lakes, Great
Salt Lake, etc., and the article Lake,
by Sir John Murray, the famous British
geographer, which contains statistical
tables of the important lakes.
Two important general articles are:
Climate and Climatology, with 2
plates, 13 figures and several tables, by
R. DeCourcy Ward, professor of climat-
ology, Harvard; and Meteorology, by
Dr. Cleveland Abbe, professor of meteor-
ology, U. S. Weather Bureau. These
articles, both by Americans, deal with
these subjects with particular attention
to American conditions. They should
be supplemented by a study of the
articles: Sky; Atmospheric Electricity;
Clouds, illustrated with remarkably fine
pictures of the different cloud-types;
and the separate articles on meteorolog-
ical instruments.
What has already been said, although
it suggests rather than exhausts the
subject of geography in the Britannica,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The Britannica
Gazetteer
will show that the student will find in it
a text-book of geog-
raphy which is un-
paralleled elsewhere
in size, scope, au-
thority and interest. Besides, the
Britannica contains the equivalent of a
great gazetteer and atlas. Place-names
are so entered in the Index (Vol. 29)
that their location on maps may be dis-
covered immediately and the articles on
towns, villages, cities, states, etc., are full
and authoritative. The reader who turns
to an article in the Britannica on some
small town or city with a population
of 5,000 or less finds there within the
limits of a few lines of print the results
of elaborate research and laborious
correspondence with local authorities.
Such articles give not merely location,
population, railway service, commercial
and manufacturing information, descrip-
tion of buildings, etc., but a historical
sketch of the place, in which every date
and detail has been verified with no spar-
ing of expense or pains.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica is not
merely a geograph-
The Britannica ical text-book and
as a Guide Book gazetteer, however.
It is an excellent
guide book. The same care in details
that makes it valuable as a gazetteer
makes it a wonderful companion for
the traveler, full of literary charm and
readableness. Such articles as New
York, Philadelphia, Boston, San
Francisco and St. Louis contain valu-
able sketches of the culture, literary and
artistic, of these cities. The world's
"show" and vacation spots have elaborate
treatment — f or instance the English Lake
District, Riviera, Catskills, Lake
George, Yosemite, Grand Canyon, etc.
Besides the student can turn immedi-
ately in the Britannica, as he could in
no book purely geographical, from the
description of a locality, say Mount Ver-
non, Stockbridge, Cooperstown, Tarry-
town or Salem, to the biographies that
these articles make him need, — Wash-
ington, Jonathan Edwards, Cooper, Irv-
ing and Hawthorne. See the last chapter
in this Guide for an illustration of this
use of the Britannica.
The following list of general articles on
geography will give the reader an idea of
the great scope of the Britannica in geo-
graphical literature. If this list included
all the geographical articles in the Bri-
tannica it would be nearly 60 times as
long. For a complete list classified by
different continents and countries see the
Index Volume, beginning on p. 895.
Afterglow
Aiguille
Beach
Beaufort Scale
Alp
Bench-mark
Anemometer
Bergschrund
Antarctic
Berm
Anthelion
Bight
Anticyclone
Blizzard
Antilia
Bog
Antipodes
Bora
Antonini Itinerarium
Bore
Aquae
Brazil
Archipelago
Breeze
Arctic
Brickfielder
Arete
British Empire
Arroyo
Brocken, Spectre of
Atlantis
Butte
Atmosphere
Buys Ballot's Law
Atoll
Canyon
Aurora Polaris
" Challenger " Expedi
Avalanche
tion
Bahr
Chart
Bar
Chinook
Bayou
Cirque
Climate and Climatol
- Dip
°gy
Divide
Cloud
Doldrums
Cloudburst
Donga
Coast
Down
Col
Dust
Combe
Eagre
Continent
Earth, Figure of the
Continental Shelf
Earth Pillar
Contour, Contour-line
El Dorado
Coral-reefs
Esker
Cordillera
Estuary
Corrie
Etesian Wind
Crag
Euroclydon
Creek
FeU
Crevasse
FerrePs Law
Cuesta
Fjord
Cyclone
Floe
Dalle
Flood Plain
Dawn
Fog
Delta
Fohn
Desert
Frost
Dew
Geodesy
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GEOGRAPHY
AND EXPLORATION
307
Geography
Kame
Nunatak
Sounding
Geoid
Khamsin
Nyanza
Squall
Giant's Kettle
Kuro Siwo
Oasis
Steppe
Glacier
Lagoon
Ocean and Oceanog-
■ Storm
Great Circle
Lake
raphy
Sudd
Gromatici
Latitude
Ophir
Sunshine
Ground Ice
Leste
Orography
Surge
Gulf Stream
Levee
Pampero
Surveying
Hachure
Leveche
Peninsula
Swallow-hole
Hail
Lightning
Plain
Tacheometry
Halo
Lithosphere
Plateau
Tarn
Harmattan
Ixmgitude
Lowland
Playa
Thalweg
Helm Wind
Polder
Theodolite
Hill
Loxodrome
Pond
Thule
Horse Latitudes
Maelstrom
Prairie
Thunder
Horst
Maestro
Quagmire
Timber-line
Hummock
Maidan
Rain
Topography
Hurricane
Map
Rainbow
Tornado
Hydrography
Marsh
Rand
Trade Winds
Hygrometer
Massif
Ras
Tundra
Iceberg
Meridian
Reef
Twilight
Isabnormal (or Is-
anomalous) Lines
■ Mesa
River
Typhoon
\ -shaped Depression
Meteorology
Roaring Forties
Island
Mirage
Sahel
Volcano
Isles of the Blest
Mistral
St. Elmo's Fire
Wadi
Isobar
Monadnock
Sargasso Sea
Waterfall
Isoclinic Lines
Monsoon
Savanna
Watershed
Isodynamic Lines
Moor
Sea
Waterspout
Isogonic Lines
Moraine
Seiche
Weather
Isotherm
Moulin
Simoom
Wedge
Isthmus
Mountain
Sirocco
Wind
Itinerarium
Neve"
Sleet
World
Jebel
Norther
Snow
Zone
Jungle
Nullah
Snow-Line
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CHAPTER LI
ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
TIHESE two sciences are devoted to
the study of mankind before writ-
ten history began; and they have
an interest for every reader who has
asked, when he was a child and had a
story told him: "What happened before
that?" In the chapter in this Guide on
Language and Writing, we have told the
story of those two great inventions which
made civilization possible. The present
chapter is devoted to the story of man
before writing was commonly used —
that is, before historical documents could
exist.
Just as the study of children and their
habits is something new and peculiarly
characteristic of the last generation, so
these sciences of anthropology and eth-
nology which deal with the childhood of
the human race are of recent origin. But
in comparison with child-psychology
these two sciences are at a disadvantage
in a very important respect: there are al-
ways children to be studied, but the
childhood of the race is long past and
remote from the student of it, save for
the primitive tribes which can still be
observed, and even these tribes are now
scattered and few, and by contact with
civilization they are rapidly losing the
characteristics which invite scientific
study. A hundred years ago, the oppor-
tunities for experiment and observation
were far greater, but at that time savages
were not seriously studied. There could,
indeed, be no "science of man" before the
evolutionary theory of Darwin, Wallace
and Huxley had been generally accepted.
Throughout this Guide we see how
this theory has affected all our modern
thought, modified our sciences, and even
created new sciences. The Eleventh Edi-
tion of the Encyclopaedia Britannica
may, indeed, be described as the authori-
tative and interesting story of the human
activities, critically studied from the
point of view of evolution. The trust-
worthy material is chiefly derived from
observations in Australia, in the South
Seas, among the North American In-
dians and among the still savage tribes of
Africa, and from studies of the tools and
other remains of early peoples. All broad
conclusions must be based upon the sim-
ilarity of customs among races widely
separated by time and place, and upon
the fact that some traces of such customs
are still found among more highly civi-
lized peoples.
The first article in a course of reading
on the "science of man" in the Britan-
nica is Anthropology (Vol. 2, p. 108),
equivalent to 40 pages in this Guide, il-
lustrated, by Prof. Tylor, of Oxford Uni-
versity, one of the founders of the science,
and author of Researches into the Early
History of Mankind, Primitive Culture,
etc.
This great article deals first with
"man's place in Nature," the most inter-
esting branch of the theory of evolution.
Prof. Tylor traces
Man's Origin back the recognition
of man's structural
similarity to the higher apes to Linnaeus
(1735) and to the less scientific Lord
Monboddo (1774 and 1778), whose sim-
ple literary style as well as his theory of
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ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
309
the descent of man aroused the amuse-
ment and scorn of Dr. Samuel Johnson,
who said that Monboddo was "as jealous
of his tail as a squirrel."
Dn Tylor remarks that:
There aire few ideas more ingrained in an-
cient and low civilization than that of rela-
tionship by descent between the lower ani-
mals and man. Savage and barbaric reli-
gions recognize it, and the mythology of the
world has hardly a more universal theme.
But in educated Europe such ideas had long
been superseded by the influence of theology
and philosophy, with which they seemed too
incompatible.
But in 1843 Dr. J. C. Prichard, to whom
Tylor gives the title that many would
give to Tylor himself, "founder of mod-
ern anthropology," insisted that
man is but an animal .... composed
of the same materials, and framed on the
same principles, as the creatures which he
has tamed to be the servile instruments of
his will, or slays for his daily food.
Dr. Tylor shows how Wallace and Dar-
win established a theory of human de-
scent, and sums up the similarities and
dissimilarities in anatomical construc-
tion between man and the man-like apes.
Even more interesting is what the article
says (p. 110) about "assigning to man
his place in nature on psychological
grounds."
Huxley acknowledged an immeasurable
and practically infinite divergence, ending
in the present enormous psychological gulf
between ape and man. It is difficult to ac-
count for this intellectual chasm as due to
some minor structural difference. . . .
Beyond a doubt, man possesses, and in some
way possesses by virtue of his superior brain,
a power of co-ordinating the impressions of
his senses, which enables him to understand
the world he lives in, and by understanding
to use, resist, and even in a measure rule it.
No human art shows the nature of this hu-
man attribute more clearly than does lan-
guage
— although other animals have a sort of
language. The article quotes Dr. A.
Russel Wallace's conclusion that man
stands "apart, as not only the head and
culminating point of the grand series of
organic nature, but as in some degree a
new and distinct order of being." And
another great anatomist, Prof. St. George
Mivart, says "Man's animal body must
have had a different source from that of
the spiritual soul which informs it, owing
to the distinctness of the two orders to
which these existences severally belong."
Dr. Tylor, in citing these authorities, adds
that "man embodies an immaterial and
immortal spiritual principle which no
lower creature possesses, and which
makes the resemblance of the apes to
him but a mocking simulance."
The answer to the question "How did
man originate?" depends on the answer
to the question "How did species origin-
ate?" The main points are summed up
in the article Anthropology (on p. 112),
which also deals with the fossil remains of
man, especially skulls, and their bearing
on the question. A more detailed discus-
sion will be found in the articles Evolu-
tion (Vol. 10, p. 22) and Species (Vol. 25,
p. 616).
The classification of man into different
races is the topic next taken up by Dr.
Tylor in the article Anthropology, and
he deals particularly
Races of Man with classification by
the "facial angle"
(on which see also the article Cranio-
metry, Vol. 7, p. 372). Different classi-
fications are criticized and the article de-
cides that "Huxley's division probably
approaches more nearly than any other
to such a tentative classification as may
be accepted. . • . He distinguishes four
principal types of mankind, the Australi-
oid, Negroid, Mongoloid and Xantho-
chroic (fair whites), adding a fifth vari-
ety, the Melanchroic (dark whites)."
That races are not species, zoologically, is
made plain by the fact that the offspring
of parents of different races are fertile —
those of different species being infertile.
One of the questions connected with
the origin of man is his antiquity. The
Biblical chronology,
Antiquity as commonly reck-
of Man oned and interpreted,
allowed a time since
the appearance of the original stock
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
which seemed far too short for the appar-
ent variation from the original species
(see Chronology, Vol. 6, p. 305). The
natural sciences, notably geology, have
"made it manifest that our earth must
have been the seat of vegetable and ani-
mal life for an immense period of time;
while the first appearance of man, though
comparatively recent, is positively so re-
mote, that an estimate between twenty
and a hundred thousand years may fairly
be taken as a minimum." This geological
claim is supported by the evidence of pre-
historic archaeology (see the article
Archaeology, Vol. 2, p. 344). In the
caves of France and Belgium human
bones have been found with the remains
of fossil species of elephant, rhinoceros,
hyena, bear, etc., and "the co-existence
of man with a fauna now extinct or con-
fined to other districts was brought to yet
clearer demonstration by the discovery in
these caves of certain drawings and carv-
ings of the animals done by the ancient
inhabitants themselves, such as a group
of reindeer on a piece of reindeer horn,
and a sketch of a mammoth, showing the
elephant's long hair, on a piece of a
mammoth's tusk from La Madeleine."
See Fig. 7, Plate facing p. 118, Vol. 2; the
figures of the reindeer and mammoth,
hairy and with upturned tusks, in Plate
II, article Archaeology (following p.
348, Vol. St) ; and of the reindeer in Plate
I (Vol. 19, p. 462), and the old cave
paintings of wild boars and bison from
Altamira, reproduced in colour on Plate
II, the next page. These paintings,
marking by their technical excellence a
high stage of art if not of civilization, are
said by geologists to date back 50,000
years. The student will be repaid for
turning a moment from the article An-
thropology and the question of the an-
tiquity of man to the article Cave (Vol.
5, p. 573), by the em-
Cave- inent archaeologist,
Dwellers W. Boyd Dawkins,
and the author of
Cave-hunting and Early Man in Britain.
He reconstructs the civilization of the in-
habitants of the pleistocene caves of the
European continent (p. 576), describes
the carvings and drawings of which we
have just spoken, and says of the cave-
dwellers:
If these remains be compared with those
of existing races, it will be found that the
cave-men were in the same hunter stage of
civilization as the Eskimos, and that they
are unlike any other races of hunters. If
they were not allied to the Eskimos by blood,
there can be no doubt that they handed down
to the latter their art and their manner
of life. The bone needles, and many of
the harpoons, as well as the flint spearheads,
arrowheads and scrapers, are of precisely
the same form as those now in use amongst
the Eskimos. The artistic designs from the
caves of France, Belgium and Switzerland,
are identical in plan and workmanship with
those of the Eskimos. . . . The reindeer,
which they both knew, is represented in the
same way by both. The practice of accumu-
lating large quantities of the bones of ani-
mals round their dwelling-places, and the
habit of splitting the bones for the sake of
the marrow, are the same in both. The hides
were prepared with the same sort of instru-
ments, and the needles with which they were
sewn together are of the same pattern. The
stone lamps were used by both. In both
there was the same disregard for sepulture.
All these facts can hardly be mere coinci-
dences caused by both peoples leading a sav-
age life under similar conditions. The con-
clusion, therefore, seems inevitable that, so
far as we have any evidence of the race to
which the cave-dwellers belong, that evidence
points only in the direction of the Eskimos.
It is to a considerable extent confirmed by a
consideration of the animals found in the
caves. The reindeer and musk sheep afford
food to the Eskimos now in the Arctic Circle,
just as they afforded it to the cave-men in
Europe; and both these animals have been
traced by their remains from the Pyrenees
to the north-east through Europe and Asia
as far as the very regions in which they now
live. The mammoth and bison also have been
tracked by their remains in the frozen river
gravels and morasses through Siberia ns far
as the American side of Bering Strait.
Palaeolithic man appeared in Europe with
the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe with
them, and in all human probability retreated
to the north-east along with them.
The antiquity of man may be esti-
mated also by the time it must have taken
to deposit the soil that overlies traces of
civilization, — for instance in Egypt where
pottery is found 60 feet deep, while -in-
undations from the Nile probably have
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ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
311
not averaged more than a few inches in a
century. "The most recent work of
Egyptologists proves a systematic civili-
zation to have existed in the valley of the
Nile at least 6000 to 7000 years ago."
Similar testimony is given by examining
the lake-dwellings of Switzerland and the
kitchen middens of Denmark. On these
see the articles Lake Dwellings (Vol.
16, p. 91), by Joseph Anderson, keeper of
the National Museum of Antiquities,
Edinburgh, and Shell-heaps (Vol. 24, p.
832). The latter article, in a description
of the middens of Denmark, says:
Among the bones were those ot the wild
bull or aurochs, beaver, seal and great auk,
all now extinct or rare in this region. More-
over, a striking proof of the antiquity of
these shell-heaps is that they contain full-
sized shells of the common oyster, which can-
not live at present in the brackish waters
of the Baltic except near its entrance, the
inference being that the shores where the
oyster at that time flourished were open to
the salt sea.
The article on Lake Dwellings brings
out very clearly the fact that this, Kke
other early stages of development, is to
be found at widely different periods of
time: in Switzerland, thousands of years
ago; in Scotland and Ireland (see also the
article Crannog, Vol. 7, p. 377) during
the Christian era; and in New Guinea and
Central Africa within the last few years.
This is in accordance with the fact that
the human race has not "matured" with
equal rapidity all over the earth — that
even now one race is in infancy, another
in childhood, another in a transition
stage like adolescence, and another in the
prime of civilization.
Returning to the article Anthro-
pology, the next topic treated is Lan-
guage. The more important points on
this subject are
Language stated in another
chapter of this part
of the Guide, on Language and Writing.
Dr. Tylor says:
For all that known dialects prove to the
contrary, on the one hand, there may have
been one primitive language, from which the
descendant languages have varied so widely,
that neither their words nor their formation
now indicate their unity in long past ages,
while, on the other hand, the primitive
tongues of mankind may have been numer-
ous, and the extreme unlikeness of such lan-
guages as Basque, Chinese, Peruvian, Hot-
tentot and Sanskrit may arise from absolute
independence of origin. The language
spoken by any tribe or nation is not of it-
self absolute evidence as to its race-affinities.
This is clearly shown in extreme cases. Thus
the Jews in Europe have almost lost the use
of Hebrew, but speak as their vernacular
the language of their adopted nation, what-
ever it may be. . . . In most or all nations of
mankind, crossing or intermarriage of races
has taken place between the conquering in-
vader and the conquered native, so that the
language spoken by the nation may repre-
sent the results of conquest as much or
more than of ancestry. ... On the other
hand, the language of the warlike invader or
peaceful immigrant may yield, in a few
generations, to the tongue of the mass of the
population, as the Northman's was replaced
by the French, and modern German gives
way to English in the United States.
The last general topic in the article
Anthropology is Development of Civi-
lization. In connection with it the stu-
dent should read the
Development article Civilization
of Civilization (Vol. 6, p. 403), by
Dr. H. S. Williams,
editor-in-chief of The Historian's History
of the World, and particularly the first
part of it dealing with early times.
The comparatively brief article Eth-
nology and Ethnography (Vol. 9, p.
849) takes up the story of man's progress
at the point where
Ethnology Anthropology
stops, and deals par-
ticularly with the division of mankind
into separate races. Was pleistocene man
specifically one? The evidence to supply
an answer to this question is of three
kinds: anatomical, physiological and cul-
tural and psychical. Human bones from
this early period "show differences so
slight as to admit of pathological or other
explanation," and do not prove that there
were separate species. The physiological
answer, that there was only one species,
is given and explained in the article An-
thropology: species cannot breed with
species, and hybrids are infertile. The
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
third answer is also in the negative.
'The works of early man everywhere pre-
sent the most startling resemblance."
Dr. J. C. Prichard is quoted in the article
as saying that
the same inward and mental nature is to be
recognised in all races of men. When we
compare this fact with the observations* fully
established, as to the specific instincts and
separate psychical endowments of all the dis-
tinct tribes of sentient beings in the universe
we are entitled to draw confidently the con-
clusion that all human races are of one
species and one family.
If man was specifically one, where did
he originate and how did he spread over
the world? "As to man's cradle-land
there have been many theories, but the
weight of evidence is in favour of Indo-
Malaysia." The problem of distribution
"has been met by geology, which proves
that the earth's surface has undergone
great changes since man's appearance,
and that continents, long since submerged,
once existed, making a complete land
communication from Indo-Malaysia . . .
Proofs no less cogent are available of the
former existence of an Eurafrican con-
tinent, while the extension of Australia
in the direction of New Guinea is more
than probable. . • • The western hemi-
sphere was probably connected with Eu-
rope and Asia, in Tertiary times." The
article Ethnology closes with a descrip-
tion of the four divisions of the human
race proposed by Huxley, which have
already been enumerated.
Separate articles supplementing these
two main articles, Anthropology and
Ethnology, especially in the field of
comparative anatomy, are: Anthropom-
etry (Vol. 2, p. 119) for physical meas-
urements, including the Bertillon system
used to identify criminals; Brachyceph-
alic (Vol. 4, p. 366), or short-headed, a
term applied to Indo-Chinese, Savoyards,
Croatians, Lapps, etc.; Dolichoceph-
alic (Vol. 8, p. 888), or long-headed, like
Eskimos, negroes, etc.; Mesocephalic
(Vol. 18, p. 179), for the type between the
two; Prognathism (Vol. 22, p. 424), for
jaw protrusion; Craniometry (Vol. 7, p.
372) and Cephalic Index (Vol. 5, p.
684), for the measurement of skulls and
heads; Steatopygia (Vol. 25, p. 860),
for a peculiar heaviness of hips found in
some negro and other savage peoples;
Monogenists (Vol. 18, p. 730), on the
theory that all men are descended from a
common original stock; and Polygen-
ists (Vol. 22, p. 24) on the opposite
theory.
One of the most elaborate ethnological
articles in the Britannica is of particular
interest to Americans, that on Indians,
North American
North Aiherican (Vol. 14, p. 452), by
Indians Dr. A. F. Chamber-
lain, professor of an-
thropology, Clark University, Worcester,
Mass. It is equivalent to more than 100
pages of this Guide, and there are also
scores of brief articles on different North
American Indian tribes. A few, only, of
the many interesting topics treated in it
may be mentioned:
The name " American Indians " —
due to the mistaken early belief that
the New World was a part of Asia.
" Amerind " a suggested substitute.
Various uses of " Indian." French
" sauvage " the original of " Siwash."
Popular fallacies of the origin of the
Indians — Welsh, "lost Ten Tribes,"
etc.
Linguistic stocks. Table of lan-
guages. General description; varied
character; enormous compound words,
like deyeknonhsedehrihadasterasterahe-
tahwa for " stove-polish." Indian lit-
erature.
Migrations of Indian stocks. Tabu-
lar conspectus of 180 tribes — situation
and population, degree of intermixture,
condition and progress, and authorities
on each.
Population, physical characteristics,
race mixture.
Culture, arts, industries, religion,
mythology and games.
Social organization, contact of In-
dians and whites, Indian wars, mis-
sions, Indian talent and capacity, syl-
labaries invented by Indians.
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ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
313
In addition to the articles on Indian
tribes there are many on Indian notables
— for example, Pontiac, Tecumseh,
Xing Philip, Black Hawk, Brant, and
Sitting Bull.
Interest in the Indians of Central
America, popularly called Aztecs, is
rather archaeological than ethnological.
See in the Britannica the
Central article Central America
America (Vol. 5, p. 677), by Dr.
Walter Lehmann, director-
ial assistant of the Royal Ethnological
Museum, Munich; and the article Amer-
ica, Ethnology and Archaeology (Vol. 1,
p. 810), by O. T. Mason, late curator,
Department of Anthropology, National
Museum, Washington, dealing with the
Indians of North, Central and South
America in general. The other prin-
cipal articles on races or tribes of
unusual ethnographic importance are:
Negro (Vol. 14, p. 344), by Thomas
Athol Joyce, assistant in the Department
of Ethnography, British Museum, — with
a section on the negro in the United
States, by Walter F. Willcox, late chief
statistician, United States Census Bu-
reau; supplemented by Africa, Eth-
nology (Vol. 1, p. 325), by Mr. T. A.
Joyce, with a particularly valuable classi-
fied list (p. 329) of African tribal distribu-
tion, which may be made the basis for
further study by reference to articles on
the separate tribes, such as Berbers,
KaBYLES, MZAB1TES, TUAREG, etc.
Polynesia (Vol. 22, p. 33) for the
Polynesian race; and also Samoa (Vol.
24, p. 115) and Hawaii (Vol. 13, p. 83)
Australia, Aborigines (Vol. 2, p. 954)
and Maori. The following is a list in alpha-
betical order of articles on races or tribes :
Ababda
Abipones
Abnaki
Aborigines
Acholi
A fare (Danakil)
Agaiambo
Ahom
Aht
Ahtena
Aimak, or Eimak
Ainu
Akka
Alfuros
Algonquin
Alur
Amarar
Anti, or Campa
Apache
Apalachee
Arabs
Arapaho
Araucanians
Arawak
Areoi
Arikara, or Aricara
Artega
Ashraf (Shurefa)
Assiniboin
Athapascan
Attacapa
Awadia and Fadnia
Aymara
Aztecs
Babu
Boer
Choctaws
Badagas
Bogos (Bilens)
Cholones
Baggara
Bois Brulea
Chude
Bakalai
Bongo
Chukchi
Bakhtiari
Botocudos
Chuncho
Ba-Kwiri
Bozdar
Chuvashes
Ba-Luba
Brahui
Circassia
Bambute
Bugis
Cocoma, or Cucamas
Banate
Bugti
Coeur d'Alene
Bangash
Buriats
Comanches
Barabra
Bushmen
Conestoga
Ban
Caddo
Conibos
Bashkirs
Cagots
Copts
Basques
Cahita
Cree
Battakhln
Cahokia
Creek Indians
Battanni
Cakchiquel
Crow Indians
Battas
Calchaqui
Cunas
Batwa
Caribs
Curetus
Bazigars
Cashibo, or Carapache
Czech
Bechuana
Catauxi
Dawari, or Dauri
Bedouins
Catawbas
Delaware Indians
Beja, or Bija
Bellabella
Celt
Dinka
Chamkanni
Dogra
Bellacoola, or Bilqula
Changos
Dravidian
Beni-Amer
Charrua
Dualla
Beni- Israel
Chechenzes
Duk-Duk
Beothuk
Chellian
Durani
Berbers
Cheremisses
Dyaks
Bertat
Cherokee
Engis
Bhattiana
Cheyenne
Eskimo
Bhils, or Bheels
Chickasaws
Ewe
Bimana
Chimesyan
Falashas
Bisharln
Chinook
Fang
Blackfoot
Chiquitos
Fanti
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Fellah
Fiji
Fingo, or Fcngu
Finno-Ugrian
Flatheads
Fox Indians
Fula
Funi
Furfoos
Galenas
Gallas
Gararish
Ghilzai
Gilyaks
Gipsies
Golds
Gonaguas
Gros Ventres
Guanches
Guaranis
Guatos
Guatusos
Guaycurus
Gumus
Hababs
Hadendoa
Haida
Hakkas
Hamitic Races
Harratin
Hassania
Hausa
Hawawir
Hazara
Heroro, or Ovaherero
Hindki
Hipurnias
Hiung-nu
Hopi
Hottentots
Hova
Huambisas
Huastecs
Huichol
Huron
Indians, North Ameri-
can
Iquitos
Iroquois
Irulas
Itza
Ja'alin
Jakuns
Jats
Jeveros
Jibitos
Jicarilla
Juangs
Jur (Diur)
Juris
Kabbabish
Kabyles
Kaffirs
Kakar
Kalapuya
Kalispel
Kalkas
Kanaka
Kanuri (Beriberi)
Kara-Kalpaks
Karen
Kashubes
Kavirondo
Kaw (Kansa)
Kayasth
Khaintis
Khattak
Khazars
Khevsurs
Khonds
Kickapoo
Kiowas
Kirghiz
Klamath
Koch
Kolis
Kols
Korkus
Koryaks
Kotas
K rumen
Kubus
Kumyks
Kunbis
Ku rumbas
Kusan
Kutenai
Kwakiutl
Laos
Lascar
Latuka
I^egas
Lepcha
Lipan
Lolos
Madi
Mahar
Mahrattas
Makalaka
Makaraka
Malays
M and an
Mandingo
Maneteneris
Mangbettu
Manyema
Maori
Marianas
Mariposan
Maroons
Marri
Masai
Mashona
Metabele
Maya
Mayoruna
Menangkabos
Mensa and Marea
Meshcheryaks
Meyrifab
Miami
Miaotsze
Micmac
Mikirs
Mishmi (tribe)
Modoc
Mohave
Mohawk
Mohican
Mohmand
Monassir
Montagnais
Moors
Moplah
Mordvinians
Moxos
Mpongwe (Pongos )
Mundas
Mundrucus
Muras
Musa Khel
Muskhogean Stock
Mzabites, or Beni
Mzab
Nahuatlan Stock
Namasudra
Nandi
Navaho, or Navajo
Nayar, or Nair
Negritos
Negro
Nez Perces
Niam-Niam
Nuer
Oerlams
Ojibway
Omaguas
Omahas
Oneida
Onondaga
Opata
Orakzai
Oraons
Ostiaks
Ottawa
Papuans
Pariah (caste)
Parsees
Pathan (people)
Pawnee
Penobscot
Pequot
Petchenegs
Pima
Polabs
Ponca
Pondo
Potawatami
Povindah
Prabhu (caste)
Pueblo Indians
Puelche
Pygmy
Quiche 1 , or Kiches
Quichua
Rajput
Riffians
Ruthenians
Sahos
Sakai
Salishan
Samoyedes
Santals
Semang
Seminole
Seneca
Serers
Shagia
Shangalla
Shans
Shawnee
Sherani, or Shirani
Shilluh
Shilluk
Shinwari
Shukria
Sienetjo
Sikh
Sioux
Slavs
Slovaks
Slovenes
Songhoi
Sorbs
Swahili
Syryenians
Tajik
Talaing
Tamils
Tarkani
Tatars
Tehuelche
Tembu
Tibbu, or Tebu
Todas
Toltecs
Troglodytes
Tshi *
Tuareg
Tukulor (Tuculers)
Tunguses
Tupis
Turi
Turki
Turkoman
Turks
Tuscarora
Uighur
Unyamwezi
Ustarana
TTte (Utah)
Utman Khel
Vaalpens
Veddahs
Wa
Wichita
Wochua
Wolof (Woloff, Jolof)
Wvandot (Huron)
Yaos
Yusafzai
Zaimukht
Zaparos
Zenaga
Zenata
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ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY
315
The technical terms of nearly every
science are words coined from Latin and
Greek roots, so that the student of these
languages is at an
Terminology advantage in learn-
ing any science — its
terms have some meaning to him no mat-
ter how strange the science itself. But in
anthropology and ethnology we come
across such terms as taboo, totem, shaman
and manitou. For their comprehension
Latin and Greek give no aid. Each of
these terms comes into English from the
language of a primitive people to convey
an idea at once too primitive and too
complex to be expressed by any English
word or by a Greek or Latin compound.
"Taboo" is a Malay word meaning both
"unclean" (as that word is used in the
Old Testament) and "sacred"; and the
idea it conveys is characteristic of the
religious and social system found among
the Polynesians and nearly all other
peoples in a comparatively low stage of
civilization, which sets persons or things
apart as sacred or accursed. "Totem"
is a Chippewa (North American Indian)
word denoting an animal, plant, or other
object chosen as the name of a whole fam-
ily or tribal division. The word "shaman"
comes from the Ural-Altaic (Tungus),
and means "medicine-man," a combina-
tion of priest, magician and exorcist.
"Manitou" is another North American
word meaning "spirit" or "genius."
The practice of taboo and totemism,
although one word comes to us from the
South Seas and the other from the Amer-
ican Indians, is found
Taboo all over the less civ-
and Totem ilized world, and —
even more important
— it explains many things in the social
and religious life of more civilized com-
munities. For instance, the account by
modern students of Greek and Roman
religion has had to be largely rewritten
in the light of what we have learned in
the last two generations about taboo and
totemism.
The articles Taboo (Vol. 26, p. 337)
and Totemism (Vol. 27, p^ 79) are both
by Andrew Lang, author of Custom and
Myth and other standard works on folk-
lore. It is unnecessary to outline these
two articles here, as the two words have
been defined, and the importance of the
subject suggested. The reader should
refer to the article on Andrew Lang (Vol.
16, p. 171), in which it is said that "he
explained the irrational elements of myth-
ology as survivals from earlier savagery
. . . ." idealized "savage animism . . .
maintained the existence of high spirit-
ual ideas among savage races, and in-
stituted comparisons between savage
practices and the occult phenomena
among civilized races." His apprecia-
tion of the culture of the savage and his
remarkably interesting style should in-
duce the student to read Lang's other and
related articles in the Britannica. es-
pecially:
Family (Vol. 10, p. 158), (equivalent
to 27 pages of this Guide), dealing par-
ticularly with the question of marriage
as related to totemism, and th6 prac-
tices of marrying only out of the tribe or
totem, and of marrying only within the
totem (see the articles Endogamy and
Exogamy, Matriarchate, Polyandry,
Polygamy, Levirate and Couvade).
Name (Vol. 19, p. 157), which discusses
the relation of the name to the totem, the
strange primitive custom of the indivi-
dual's having many names and conceal-
ing his true name, etc.; and also the ar-
ticles Fairy (Vol. 10, p. 134) and Myth-
ology (Vol. 19, p. 128).
For special forms of superstition, read
the articles Magic, Shamanism, Witch-
craft, Demonology and Lycanthropy,
and in the field of relig-
Religion ion, Religion, Primitive
(Vol. 23, p. 63), by R. R.
Marett, of Oxford University, author of
The Threshold of Religion, etc. This arti-
cle puts particular stress on the import-
ance of ritual in early religion. Compare
also the matter, already mentioned, on
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
religion in the article on North American
Indians with the short articles Manitou
(Vol. 17, p. 568) and Ghost Dance
(Vol. 11, p. 925). Besides, the student
should road Ordeal (Vol. 20, p. 173),
Prayer (Vol. 22, p. 256), Ritual (Vol.
23, p. 370), Sacrifice (Vol. 23, p. 980),
Animism (Vol. 2, p. 53), on the attempt
to explain religion as due to the fear and
worship of ghosts — and Fetishism (Vol.
10, p. 295), by N. W. Thomas, govern-
ment anthropologist to Southern Nigeria;
Ancestor-Worship (Vol. 1, p. 945),
Funeral Rites (Vol. 11, p. 329) and
Purification (Vol. 22, p. 660), all by
Dr. F. C. Conybeare, author of Myth,
Magic and Morals, etc.; Tree-Worship
(Vol. 27, p. 235) and Serpent-Worship
(Vol. 24, p. 676), both bearing on totem-
ism, by S. A. Cook, author of Religion of
Ancient Palestine, etc.
A course of reading on anthropology
may well close with the study in the
Britannica of the lives of some leaders in
this science. The
Biographical student will thus be
Study familiarized with the
theories of each great
anthropologist — and will notice the mani-
fold appeal of the science by seeing from
what point each approached it — one from
his interest in geology .another from travel,
a third because of his studies in surgery
or biology, another as a psychologist.
Avebury, 1st Baron
Bandelfer, Adolph F. A.
Bastian, Adolf
Brasseur de Bour-
bourg, C. E.
Brinton, D. G.
Broca, Paul
Catlin, George
Christy, Henry
Dawkins, William Boyd
Deniker, Joseph
Fletcher, Alice C.
Hale, Horatio
Hodgson, B. H.
Lartet, Edouard
M'Lennan, John F.
Mantegazza, Paolo
Morgan, Lewis Henry
Mortillet, L. L. G. de
Prichard, James Cowles
Schoolcraft, H. R.
Tylor, Edward B.
Wagner, Rudolf
Waite, Theodor
CHAPTER LII
MATHEMATICS
THERE is no single book in the
English language, save the Bri-
tannica, in which the whole body
of mathematical knowledge is examined
and classified with special reference to
the inter-relation of its various parts
and to the results obtained in the neigh-
boring domains of physics, chemistry,
and engineering. Text-books necessarily
have a somewhat narrow purpose, namely
to teach the student how to solve prob-
lems in a single given field; wide views
over the surrounding country can, there-
fore, seldom be afforded. The Bri-
tannica, however, does for English read-
ers, what the Encyclopadie der Mathe-
matischen Wissenchaften does for German,
and more, in that in the Britannica the
shadowy borderlands are illuminated
and the roads cleared which connect
the mathematical and the experimental
sciences. In fact if anyone possessed
every mathematical text-book that had
ever been published, he would still find
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MATHEMATICS
317
the articles full of suggestion to him,
for in them the whole subject has been
presented, in all its complex bearings,
logically and as a whole.
It is nearly 4,000 years since a mathe-
matician was last deified in the person
of Amenophis, and as far as can be ascer-
tained only one other of
History his calling ever received
this honour, and he also
was an Egyptian who had entered into
his godship a full thousand years earlier
(Vol. 9, p. 46). To the ancient Egyp-
tians mathematics owes the first frag-
mentary ideas of arithmetic and mensu-
ration, but little else, for despite their
amazing mechanical achievements very
little record of purely mathematical
knowledge has come down from them.
It was the Greeks, starting with Thales
(600 B.C.), who really created the sci-
ences of geometry and numbers. To
them we owe the great abstract ideas
which dominate the science. The Greek
period lasted till the capture of Alexan-
dria by the Mohammedans, A.D. 640,
at which time the Arabian school took
shape, and to it we owe the development
of algebra (al~jebr<va 9 l-mttqubala 9 which
means the transposition and removal
[of terms of an equation]). With the
Renaissance the centre of scientific re-
search shifted to Western Europe and
from then on the boundaries of mathe-
matical knowledge were rapidly extended,
till to-day the subject is the common
ground on which all the physical sciences
meet. The student is referred to the
article Mathematics (Vol. 17, p. 878),
by A. N. Whitehead, fellow and senior
lecturer in mathematics, Trinity College,
Cambridge, for a brilliant exposition
of the foundations of the subject.
The professed mathematician will, of
course, not need any set guide to his read-
ing, but it may be well to point out one or
two articles which he will find especially
worthy of his attention.
The article Probability, (Vol. 22,
p. 376), by Professor Edgeworth, author
of Mathematical Psychics, and numerous
papers on the cal-
Leading cuius of probabili-
Articles ties, gives, to the
best of our belief,
the only statement of the whole problem
in the English language. That on Al-
gebraic Forms (Vol. 1. p. 620), by
Major Macmahon, former president of
the London Mathematical Society, in-
cludes a number of results not previously
published. The article Elasticity (Vol.
9, p. 141), by A. E. H. Love, professor
of natural philosophy in the University
of Oxford, embodies the experience of
a distinguished mathematician who has
made this subject the object of his special
study for years. Sir George Darwin
(son of Charles Darwin) in the article
Tide (Vol. 26, p. 938) summed up the
results of his life's work. The new
electrical theory of the properties of
Matter (Vol. 17, p. 891) is discussed
by Sir J. J. Thomson, professor of phy-
sics, Cambridge, who has done more
than anyone else to develop it. There
are many other valuable articles, e.g.,
Geometry, Axioms (Vol. 11, p. 730),
and Geometry, Non-Euclidean (Vol.
11, p. 724), by A. N. Whitehead; Units,
Dimensions op (Vol. 27, p. 736), by
Professor J. A. Fleming; Energy and
Energetics (Vol. 9, p. 398 and p. 390),
by Sir Joseph Larmor; Groups, by Prof,
Burnside, author of Theory of Groups of
Finite Order. Articles which will be
found highly useful to the engineer are
Mensuration (Vol. 18, p. 134); Earth,
Figure op (Vol. 8, p. 801); Geodesy
(Vol. 11, p. 607); Strength op Materi-
als (Vol. 25, p. 1007).
The mathematician will at once recog-
nize the peculiar fitness of the con-
tributors to deal with the subjects allotted
to them, and this
Leading fitness is the more
Contributors noticeable in the
following list, ar-
ranged in alphabetical order, which
names and briefly describes the dis-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tinguished mathematicians who have
collaborated in the Britannica, and in-
dicates the principal articles written by
each.
H. F. Baker, Fellow and Lecturer of St.
John's College, Cambridge. Cayley
Lecturer in Mathematics in the Uni-
versity. Author of Abel's Theory and
the Allied Theory, etc.:
Differential Equation; Func-
tion, Functions of Complex Vari-
ables.
Ludwig Boltzmann, formerly Professor
of Theoretical Physics in the Univer-
sities of Munich, Vienna, and Leipzig.
Author of Lectures on the Theory of
Gas; Lectures on Maxwell's Theory of
Electricity and Light:
Model.
W. Burnside, Professor of Mathematics,
Royal Naval College, Greenwich.
Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College,
Cambridge. Author of the Theory of
Groups of Finite Order, etc. :
Groups, Theory of
Arthur Cayley, formerly Professor of
Pure Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. See the biographical
article (Vol. 5, p. 589):
Curve (in part); Determinant;
Equation; Numbers, Partition
of; Surface (in part); Gauss, K. F.;
Monge, G.
George Chrystal, Professor of Mathe-
matics and Dean of the Faculty of
Arts, Edinburgh University, Hon.
Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lec-
turer, Corpus Christi College, Cam-
bridge:
Perpetual Motion; Pascal (in
part); Riemann, Georg.
Col. A. R. Clarke, Royal Medal of Royal
Society 1887; in charge of trigono-
metrical operations of the Ordnance
Survey 1854-1881:
Earth, Figure of the (in part);
Geodesy (in part); Map, Projec-
tions (in part).
Agnes Mary Clerke, Author of History
of Astronomy in the 19th Century; The
System of the Stars; Problems in Astro-
physics; and many other astronomical
books. See the biographical article
(Vol. 6, p. 497):
Astronomy, History: Zodiac; Brahe,
Tycho; Copernicus; Flamsteed;
Halle y; Huygens; Kepler, etc.
Lt. Col. C. F. Close, head of the Geo-
graphical Section, British General Staff,
formerly British Representative on
the Nyasa-Tanganyika Boundary Com-
mission. Author of Text-Book of Topo-
graphical Surveying, etc.:
Maps, Projections (in part).
W. E. Dalby, Professor of Civil and Me-
chanical Engineering at the City and
Guilds of London Institute, Central
Technical College, South Kensington.
Author of The Balancing of Engines,
etc.:
Mechanics, Applied (in part); and
several engineering subjects.
Sir George H. Darwin, late Fellow of
Trinity College, Cambridge, and Plu-
mian Professor of Astronomy and
Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity. President of the British Asso-
ciation, 1905. Author of The Tides
and Kindred Plienomena in the Solar
System, etc.:
Tide.
F. Y. Edgeworth, Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford,
etc. Author of Mathematical Psychics,
and numerous papers on the Calculus
of Probabilities in the Philosophical
Magazine, etc.:
Probability.
E. B. Elliott, Waynflete Professor of
Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of
Magdalen College, Oxford. Formerly
Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford.
President of the London Mathematical
Society, 1896-1898. Author of Alge-
bra of Quantics, etc. :
Curve, (in part); Geometry, IV
Analytical Geometry.
C Everitt, Magdalen College, Oxford:
Algebra, History: Density; Light,
Introduction, History, etc.:
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MATHEMATICS
319
J. A. Ewing, Director of (British) Naval
Education. Hon. Fellow of King's
College, Cambridge. Formerly Pro-
fessor of Mechanism and Applied
Mechanics in the University of Cam-
bridge. Author of the Strength of Mate-
rials, etc:
Strength of Materials, and sev-
eral engineering subjects.
J. A. Fleming, Pender Professor of Elec-
trical Engineering in the University
of London. Fellow of University Col-
lege, London. Formerly Fellow of
St. John's College, Cambridge, and
Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the
University. Author of Magnets and
Electric Currents, etc.:
Units, Physical; and many articles
on Electrical Science.
Rev. A. H. Frost:
Magic Square.
W. Garnett, Educational Adviser to the
London County Council; formerly
Fellow and Lecturer of St. John's Col-
lege, Cambridge. Principal and Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, Durham Col-
lege of Science. Author of Elementary
Dynamics, etc.:
Energy (in part); Hydrometer;
Kelvin, Lord.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Fellow of Trinity Col-
lege, Cambridge. Formerly President
of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
and the Royal Astronomical Society,
Editor of Messenger of Mathematics
and the Quarterly Journal of Pure and
Applied Mathematics:
Logarithm; Table, Mathematical;
Legendre, A. M.; Napier, John.
J. H. Grace, Lecturer in Mathematics
at Peterhouse and Pembroke College,
Cambridge. Fellow of Peterhouse:
Geometry, Line Geometry.
Sir A. G. Greenhill, formerly Professor
of Mathematics in the Ordnance Col-
lege, Woolwich. Author of Differen-
tial and Integral Calculus with Appli-
cations; Hydrostatics; Notes on Dyna-
mics, etc.:
Ballistics; Gyroscope and Gyro-
stat; Hydromechanics.
Sir Thomas Little Heath, Assistant-
Secretary to the Treasury, London.
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Author of Apollonius of Perga; Treatise
on Conic Sections; The Thirteen Books
of Euclid's Elements, etc.:
Anthemius; Apollonius of Perga;
Archimedes; Hero of Alexandria;
Pappus of Alexandria; Porism,
etc.
F. R. Helmert, Professor of Geodesy in
the University of Berlin:
Earth, Figure of the (in part);
Geodesy (in part).
0. M . F. Henrici, Professor of Mechan-
ics and Mathematics in the Central
Technical College of the City and
Guilds of London Institute. Author
of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent Fig-
ures, etc.:
Calculating Machines; Geome-
try, I. Euclidean; II. Projective; III.
Descriptive; Perspective; Projec-
tion.
E. W. Hobson, Fellow and Tutor in
Mathematics, Christ's College, Cam-
bridge. Stokes Lecturer in Mathe-
matics in the University:
Fourier's Series; Spherical Har-
monics; Trigonometry.
A. E. Jolliffe, Fellow, Tutor and Mathe-
matical Lecturer, Corpus Christi Col-
lege, Oxford. Senior Mathematical
Scholar, 1892:
Continued Fractions; Maxima
and Minima; Series.
H. Lamb, Professor of Mathematics,
University of Manchester, formerly
Fellow and Assistant Tutor of Trinity
College, Cambridge; Member of Coun-
cil of Royal Society, 1894-1896. Royal
Medallist, 1902. President of London
Mathematical Society 1902-1904.
Author of Hydrodynamics, etc. :
Dynamics; Harmonic Analysis;
Mechanics, I. Theoretical; Vector
Analysis; Wave.
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320
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
A. E. H. Love, Sedleian Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University
of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of Queen's
College; formerly Fellow of St. John's
College, Cambridge; Secretary to the
London Mathematical Society:
Elasticity; Variations, Calcu-
lus of; Function, Functions of
Real Variables; Infinitesimal Cal-
culus.
W. H. Macaulay, Fellow and Tutor of
King's College, Cambridge:
Motion, Laws of.
Major P. A. Macmahon, Deputy Warden
of the Standards, Board of Trade.
Joint General Secretary, British Asso-
ciation. Formerly Professor of Phys-
ics, Ordnance College. President of
London Mathematical Society, 1894-
1896:
Algebraic Forms; Combinatorial
Analysis; Cayley, Arthur.
G. B. Mathews, formerly Professor of
Mathematics, University College of
N. Wales, sometime Fellow of St.
John's College, Cambridge:
Algebra, Special Kinds of Algebra;
Number.
J. Clerk Maxwell, former Professor of
Experimental Physics in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge. See biographical
article (Vol. 17, p. 929):
Capillary Action (in part); Dia-
gram.
Simon Newcomb, former Professor of
Mathematics and Astronomy, Johns
Hopkins University, etc. See the bio-
graphical article (Vol. 19, p. 474) :
Astronomy, Descriptive; and many
other astronomical subjects.
J. H. Poynting, Professor of Physics and
Dean of the Faculty of Science in the
University of Birmingham. Formerly
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Joint-author of Text-Book of Physics:
Acoustics; Gravitation (in part);
Sound.
F. Purser, formerly Fellow of Trinity
College, Dublin; Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Dub-
lin; Member of the Royal Irish
Academy:
Surface (in part).
J. Purser, formerly Professor of Mathe-
matics in Queen's College, Belfast.
Member of the Royal Irish Academy :
Surface (in part).
W. J. M. Rankine, former Professor of
Civil Engineering at Glasgow Univer-
sity. See the biographical article (Vol.
22, p. 894):
Mechanics, Applied (in part).
Hon. B. A. W. Russell, formerly Fellow
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Au-
thor of Foundations of Geometry; Prin-
ciples of Mathematics, etc.:
Geometry, VI. Non-Euclidean (in
part).
W. F. Sheppard, Senior Examiner in the
Board of Education; formerly Fellow
of Trinity College, Cambridge; Senior
Wrangler; 1884:
Algebra, Principles of Ordinary
Algebra; Arithmetic; Differences,
Calculus of; Interpolation;
Mensuration.
P. G. Tait, late professor of Natural
Philosophy, Edinburgh University.
Author of Elementary Treatise on Qua-
ternions. Joint author with Lord Kel-
vin of Treatise on Natural Philosophy:
Knot; Quaternions (in part);
Hamilton, Sir William; Maxwell,
James Clerk.
Rev. Charles Taylor, formerly Master
of St. John's College, Cambridge.
Vice-Chancellor,Cambridge University,
1887-1888. Author of Geometrical
Conies, etc.:
Geometrical Continuity.
H. M. Taylor, Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge; formerly Tutor and Lec-
turer. Smith's Prizeman, 1865. Editor
of the Pitt Press Euclid:
Newton, Sir Isaac
Sir J. J. Thomson, Cavendish Professor
of Experimental Physics and Fellow
of Trinity College, Cambridge. Presi-
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MATHEMATICS
321
dent of the British Association, 1909-
1910. Author of A Treatise on the
Motion of Vortex Rings; Application
of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry:
Matter; and several articles on
Electrical Science.
, Walker, Christ Church, Oxford. Dem-
onstrator in the Clarendon labora-
tory. Formerly Vice-President of the
Physical Society. Author of The Ana-
lytical Theory of Light, etc.:
Polarization of Light; Refrac-
tion, Double Refraction.
A. N. Whitehead, Fellow and Lecturer
in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cam-
bridge. Author of A Treatise on Uni-
versal Algebra, etc. :
Geometry VI. Non-Euclidean Ge-
ometry (in part); Geometry VII.
Axioms on Geometry; Mathemat-
ics.
These are the men who are responsible
for the mathematical sections of the
Britannica. A fuller list of articles
on mathematical subjects is given
below.
Abel, Niels Henrik
Abscissa
Acceleration
Agnesi, Maria Gaetana
Aguillon, F. D.
Algebra
Algebraic Forms
Aliquot
Allen, or Alleyn T.
Amicable Numbers
Anderson, Alexander
Angle
Anthemius
Apollonius of Perga
Archimedes
Argument
Arithmetic
Autolycus of Pitane
Axis
Babbage, Charles
Baldi, Bernardino
Ballistics
Barlow, Peter
Barrow, Isaac
Bernoulli (family)
Bessel Function
Binomial
Biquadratic
Bisectrix
Boole, George
Borda, Jean Charles
Boscovich, Roger J.
Bouguer, Pierre
Bowditch, Nathaniel
Brachistochrone
Briggs, Henry
Buxton, Jedediah
Calculating Machines
Camus, Charles £. L.
Cardan, Girolamo
Cardioid
Castel, Louis Bert rand
Catenary
Cauchy, A. L., baron
Cayley, Arthur
Charles, J. A. C.
Chebichev, P. L.
Circle
Cissoid
Clairault, A. C.
Clifford, William K.
Cocker, Edward
Colburn, Z.
Combinatorial Analysis
Conchoid
Cone
Conic Section
Conoid
Continued Fractions
Cotes, Roger
Cremona, Luigi
Cube
Curve
Cycloid
Cylinder
Demoivre, Abraham
De Morgan, Augustus
Determinant
Diagonal
Diagram
Diameter
Differences, Calculus of
Differential Equation
Dimension
Diophantus of Alex-
andria
Ditton, Humphry
Dodecahedron
Dynamics
Earth, Figure of the
Elasticity
Ellipse
Ellipsoid
Emerson, William
Energetics
Energy
Epicycloid
Equation
Euclid
Euler, Leonhard
Fermat, Pierre de
Figurate Numbers
Focus
Folium
Fourier, J. B. J.
Fourier's Series
Frisi, Paolo
Frustum
Function
Galloway, Thomas
Galois, Evariste
Gauss, Karl Friedrich
Geodesy
Geometrical Continuity
Geometry
Gnomon
Graphical Methods
Gravitation
Greaves, John
Gregory (family)
Gregory, Olinthus G.
Groups, Theory of
Gunter, Edmund
Gyroscope and Gyro-
stat
Hachette, J. N. P.
Hamilton, Sir W. R.
Harmonic
Harmonic Analysis
Harriot, T.
Hero of Alexandria
Hodograph
Hutton, Charles
Huygens, Christiaan
Hydrodynamics
Hydromechanics
Hydrostatics
Hyperbola
Icosahedron
Inaudi, Jacques
Infinite
Infinitesimal Calculus
Interpolation
Inversion
Involution
Ivory, Sir James
Jacobi, Karl G. J.
Kelvin, William Thom-
son, 1st baron
Kinematics
Kinetics
Kircher, Athanasius
Knot
Kovalevsky, Sophie
Lagrange, Joseph L.
Landen, John
Laplace, P. S., de
Lardner, Dionysius
Legendre, A d r i e n
Marie
Lemniscate
Leonardo of Pisa
Leslie, Sir John
Lever
Lie, Marius Sophus
Limacon
Line
Lobachevskiy, N. I.
Locus
Logarithm
Logocyclic Curve, Stro-
phoid or Foliate
MacCullagh, James
Maclaurin, Colin
Magic Square
Map
Mascheroni, Lorenzo
Mathematics
Matter
Maupertuis, Pierre de
Maxima and Minima
Maxwell, J. Clerk
Mechanics
Mensuration
Mersenne, Marin
Monge, Gaspard
Montucia, Jean-fitienne
Motion, Laws of
Murphy, Robert
Napier, John
Newton, Sir Isaac
Nicomachus of Ge-
rasa
Number
Numbers, Partition of
Numeral
Octahedron
Ordinate
Oughtred, William
Oval
Pantograph
Pappus of Alex ndria
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Parabola
Peacock, George
Peirce, Benjamin
Pell, John
Perpetual Motion
Perspective
Pfaff, J. F.
Playfair, John
PlUcker, Julius
Poinsot, Louis
Poisson, Simeon Denis
Polygon
Polygonal Numbers
Polyhedral Numbers
Polyhedron
Poncelet, Jean Victor
Porism
Price, Bartholomew
Prism
Probability
Projection
Quadratrix
Quaternions
Recorde, Robert
Riccati, J. F., count
Riemwin, G. F. B.
Roberral, G. P. de
Robins, Benjamin
Roulette
Routh, Edward John
Russell, John Scott
Salmon, George
Saunderson, N.
Serenus of Antissa
Series
Serpentine
Simpson, Thomas
Simson, Robert
Smith, H. J. S.
Smith, Robert
Snell WUlebrord
Sphere
Spherical Harmonics
Spheroid
Spiral
Spottiswoode, W.
Statics
Steiner, Jakob
Stevinus, Simon
Stirling, James
Stokes, Sir George G.
Strength of Materials
Sturm, J. C. F.
Surface
Sylvester, J. J.
Table, Mathematical
Tait, Peter G.
Tartaglia, Niccolo
Taylor, Brook
Tetrahedron
Theodosius of Tripolis
Thompson, T. P.
Tide
Todhunter, Isaac
Triangle
Trigonometry
Trisectrix
Units, Dimensions of
Units, Physical
Variations, Calculus of
Vector Analysis
Vernier, Pierre
Vieta (or Viete), F.
Wallace, WiDiam
Wallis, John
Wave
Witch of Agnesi
Zero
CHAPTER LHI
ASTRONOMY
NO greater homage has ever been
paid to the progress of American
science than when the planning
and supervision of the astronomical sec-
tion of the new Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica was entrusted to the late Prof. Simon
Newcomb, who was also the only Amer-
ican save Benjamin Franklin ever elected
an associate of the French Institute. His
death occurred some time before the
Britannica was completed, but he had
already finished the articles which he had
undertaken personally to contribute, and
read a great number of the other articles
which had, at his suggestion, been as-
signed to eminent astronomers in various
parts of the world. His famous hand-
book, Popular Astronomy, has been trans-
lated into all the European languages,
and into Japanese as well; but the un-
limited resources in the way of collabora-
tion which the editorial organization of
the Britannica put at his disposal, en-
abled him to assemble in these volumes a
complete body of astronomical knowl-
edge which is the greatest of his educa-
tional achievements.
The making of a lens for a great tele-
scope is the most difficult undertaking in
all craftsmanship, and the mounting of
the telescope itself a triumph of mechan-
ical ingenuity. Yet the stars and planets
have been guide-posts for the shepherd
and the sailor throughout the ages, and
have told the farmer when to sow and
when to reap, and, even in our day, ob-
servations made by an amateur, through
a common field-glass, have in more than
one instance yielded results of serious
value.
Progress is from one point of view so
slow that astronomers are now compiling
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ASTRONOMY
323
data regarding fixed stars of which the
motion cannot be
A Few Facts deduced for centu-
ries to come; yet
some of the changes to be observed are
so swift that solar prominences often rise
at the rate of 350,000 miles an hour, and
have been seen to rise to that height. The
temperature of the sun's envelope, 6000°
C, greatly exceeds any that we can arti-
ficially create, and would convert into
gas any substance we know; and for every
unit of heat it sends to the earth, a hun-
dred million other units, poured into
space, are absolutely lost for any pur-
poses of mechanical effect.
Astronomy deals with objects so mi-
nute that even a shooting star evolving,
as it passes through our atmosphere, so
much light that we can trace its course
with the naked eye, may be no larger
than a grain of sand; deals, too, with ob-
jects of so shadowy a nature that the
white clouds in our sky are, in compar-
ison, solid blocks; and deals, again, with
distances and surfaces so vast that nu-
merical description fails to convey any
impression but one of confusion.
It is not easy to conceive, when we see
a balloon in the air, the remainder that
would exist if the bag, the car, and the
cordage were all subtracted. There
would be, until the gas mixed with the
atmosphere, a sphere of gas. The stars,
our sun included, seem to be masses of
incandescent gas, possessing fairly defi-
nite boundaries, and not far from spheric-
al in shape; the nebulae seem also to be
masses of incandescent gas, irregular in
form and having no clearly marked lim-
its; even the nucleus of a comet is appar-
ently not solid enough to be opaque;
and as the four great planets also seem to
be gaseous, it is probable that only the
smaller bodies, like our earth, the moon,
and Mars, are solid.
To the rule that we can handle none of
the matter that originates beyond the
limits of our atmosphere, the meteorites
supply an exception. Seventy years ago,
a mass of stone, cold and invisible, flying
through the aether of space at the rate of
some hundred thousand miles an hour,
entered our atmosphere, became so hot,
as the air's friction checked its speed,
that bits of its surface, fused to crust,
flicked off and floated in the air, leaving a
shining trail; then as its speed was re-
duced to some three hundred miles an
hour, cooled until it was no hotter than
a laundress likes her iron to be. At Mhow,
in India, as it made a dent in the earth,
it killed a man — the only man known to
history who has died so uncanny a death.
But near Wold Cottage, in Yorkshire,
England, thirty years before, another
meteorite had fallen only ten yards from
a labourer; and only thirty years ago an-
other arrived on a Yorkshire railway lincu
forty yards from a gang of platelayers.
The largest meteoric mass known weighs
about fifty tons, but most of them seem to
have split in the course of their journey;
and at Hessle, a hundred thousand frag-
ments spread, like grapeshot from a giant
gun, over an area of some thirty square
miles. See Meteorite (Vol. 18, p. 262).
Although the closest scrutiny has not
discovered in any meteorite a shred of
life, even the lowest, we obtain, from an-
other source, and by
Life on Mars a different method of
observation, evi-
dence — as yet inconclusive, — that not
only life, but intelligent life exists beyond
our planet. As in respect of other astro-
nomical problems, the Britannica is sin-
gularly clear, impartial and authoritative
in its treatment of this question. The
article Mars (Vol. 17, p. 761) was written
by Professor Newcomb, but Professor
Percival Lowell contributes a summary
of the recent investigations and deduc-
tions relating to Mars with which his
name is associated. In 1877, Schiaparelli,
adopting the old belief now abandoned
by all astronomers, that oceans occupied
the darker-coloured regions of Mars, ob-
served dark streaks connecting these
dark patches, and, believing them to be
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
strips of water, described them by the
Italian word "canale," by which he
meant channels, or natural bodies of
water. An absurd misconception of his
meaning gave wide currency to the idea
that these strips were artificial canals, a
manifest impossibility, as they are many
miles in width. No canal, properly so
called, could be so wide, and no reservoir
could conceivably be so extensive. There
is, in the existence of such patches,
even if they were bodies of water, as no
one now believes them to be, not the
slightest indication of excavation. In
1894, Professor Lowell, an American as-
tronomer of great authority, established,
for the special purpose of observing Mars,
the Lowell Observatory at Flagstaff, in
Arizona, 7,250 feet above sea level, in
singularly clear, dry air, equipped with a
twenty-four-inch telescope. This observa-
tory unquestionably commands greater
penetration than any other, and Professor
Newcomb says that the work there upon
Mars "has been continued with such care
and assiduity that its results must take
precedence of all others." Professor
Lowell's first announcement that he had
detected evidences of the existence of ex-
tensive artificial canals, which would of
course absolutely prove Mars to be in-
habited by intelligent creatures, was re-
ceived with derision by many critics who
jumped to the conclusion that he meant
artificial canals many miles in width.
Fuller statements from Professor Lowell
showed that he believed Schiaparelli's
wide strips to be not water, bid areas of
vegetation lying on each side of artificial
irrigating canals of no extraordinary
width, by a network of which water is
brought to, and distributed throughout,
the temperate and equatorial zones of
Mars from the extreme North and South,
as the polar snow caps melt; and that
this irrigation gives the rainless area a
seasonal fertility, just as the melting of
Abyssinian snows fecundates the distant
valley of the lower Nile. These strips,
according to Professor Lowell and other
observers, are at one season of a bluish-
green colour suggesting prosperous vege-
tation, then fade to a paler shade or in
some places to a tawny brown. The
strips are thousands of miles in length,
perfectly straight. No one claims to
have seen the artificial canals, but if there
are areas of vegetation, they must be due
to irrigation performed by waterways. If
continued observations confirm the exist-
ence of these strips, it will become certain
that they are not telescopic illusions, but
the results of engineering operations on
a scale unknown to our planet. The
readings indicated in this chapter will
yield a survey of this special field, as of
all other fields of current research in
astronomy, and give new interest to cur-
rent investigations.
A brief account of some of the principal
astronomical articles is printed here in
tabular form, and a fuller list, alpha-
betically arranged, follows this topical
outline.
Topics for Reading
Early Interest in the Sky.
Astral theology — the ' assumption
of a close link between the move-
ments going on in the heavens and
occurrences on the earth." The
history of astrology traced to an-
cient Babvlonia (about 3000
B.C.).
Story of the Constellations. A Map
of the Heavens.
Article and Contributor
Astrology (Vol. 2, p. 795), and Babylo-
nian and Assyrian Religion (Vol. 8,
p. 114), by Dr. Morris Jastrow, author
of Religion of the Babylonians and
Assyrians.
Constellation — with star-maps and
tables (Vol. 7, p. 1 1), by Charles Ever-
itt, fellow Royal Astronomical Society.
See also separate articles on the prin-
cipal constellations and stars.
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ASTRONOMY
325
Development of Astronomy.
Scientific knowledge of the ancient
Chinese, Egyptians and Babylo-
nians. Revolutionary cycle of
the planets.
First conception of the earth as a
globe. " The harmony of the
spheres." Identification of morn-
ing and evening stars (about 520
B.C.).
The Greeks measure the earth by
astronomical means (about 200
B.C.).
The first observatory.
The first systematic astronomer,
Ptolemy and his System (A.D.
150).
Revival of heliocentric theory (A.D.
1506-1512).
Plan of Solar System realized. The
founder of descriptive astronomy
(1564-1642).
Newton's contributions to astron-
omy and astronomical physics
(1585-1586).
Continuation of Newton's work.
Nebular hypothesis of Laplace
(1796).
The New Astronomy.
Work of Wollaston, Fraunhofer,
Kirchoff, and Rowland in spec-
trum analysis.
Discoveries during recent eclipses.
Photographing the Heavens,
Star-charts, etc.
Measuring light and heat from the
stars, — radio-micrometer.
New method of photographing the
sun and the results of this mode
of study.
Principles of Astronomy.
How the positions and motions of
the heavenly bodies are defined.
System of co-ordinates.
Distance of sun from earth the fun-
damental celestial measurement.
Astronomy, History (Vol. 2, p. 808), by
.Agnes M. Clerke, author of A Popular
History of Astronomy.
Pythagoras (Vol. 22, p. 699), by Dr. A.
S. Pringle-Pattison, author of Man's
Place in the Cosmos, etc.
Eratosthenes of Alexandria (Vol. 9, p.
733), by Sir Thomas Little Heath, au-
thor of Treatise on Conic Sections.
Observatory (Vol. 19, p. 954), by J. L.
E. Dreyer, Director of Armagh Ob-
servatory.
Ptolemy, Mathematics (Vol. 22, p. 620),
by Prof. George J. Allman, Queen's,
Galway; Copernicus (Vol. 7, p. 100),
by Agnes M. Clerke.
Kepler, Johann (Vol. 15, p. 749), by
Agnes M. Clerke.
Galileo Galilei (Vol. 11, p. 406), by
Agnes M. Clerke.
Newton, Sir Isaac (Vol. 19, p. 586), by
Henry M. Taylor, Fellow of Trinity
College, Cambridge.
Euler, Leonhard (Vol. 9, p. 887).
Nebular Theory (Vol. 19, p. 333), by
Sir Robert S. Ball, author of The Story
of the Heavens, etc.
Astrophysics (Vol. 2, p. 819), by Dr.
Simon Newcomb, late director National
Observatory, Washington.
Photography, Celestial (Vol. 21, p.
528), by Prof. H. H. Turner, Oxford,
author of Modern Astronomy, etc.
Photometry, Celestial, or Stellar Photo-
metry (Vol. 21, p. 530), by Dr. H. H.
Turner, Oxford.
Spectroheliograph, illustrated (Vol. 25,
p. 618), by Dr. George E. Hale, in-
ventor of the spectroheliograph.
Astronomy, Spherical or Geometrical As-
tronomy (Vol. 2, p. 801), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
Parallax (Vol. 20, p. 760), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Methods of determining distances
of stars.
Apparent motion of the heavenly
bodies.
Eclipses and their recurrence. List
of solar eclipses. Methods of
computing eclipses.
Diameter of earth as an astronomi-
cal unit. Determination of diam-
eter and figure of earth.
The Stars. The two Star-Streams.
Milky Way. Distribution of
stars.
True nebulae. Constitution. How
they differ from star-clusters.
Comets — origins and orbits. Phys-
ical constitution. List of peri-
odic comets.
Shooting Stars. History of mete-
oric showers.
Constitution of Shooting Stars.
General description of the Solar
System.
The photosphere, chromosphere and
corona, dimensions, temperature,
and age of the sun, sun-spots.
The vast envelope which surrounds
the sun.
Are Northern Lights due to emana-
tions from the sun?
Opaque Bodies, members of the Solar
System. Their relation to each
other. Their spectra, atmosphere,
temperatures. First planetoid dis-
covered (Jan. 1, 1801). Group-
ings of the planetoids.
The smallest major planet. How it
presents the same face always to
the sun.
Venus: Its peculiar rotation and
cloudy atmosphere. Has Venus
a satellite?
The earth as a member of the solar
system.
Star, Distances and Parallaxes of the
Stars (Vol. 25, p. 789), by Arthur S.
Eddington, Royal Observatory, Green-
wich.
Aberration, Aberration of Light (Vol. 1,
p. 54), by Dr. S. Otto Eppenstein,
Zeiss Optical Works, Jena, Germany.
Eclipse (Vol. 8, p. 887), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
Earth, Figure of the (Vol. 8, p. 801),
by Alexander R. Clarke, Ordnance Sur-
vey, and Prof. F. R. Helmert, Univer-
sity of Berlin.
Star (Vol. 25, p. 785), by Arthur S. Ed-
dington, Royal Observatory, Green-
wich.
Nebula, illustrated (Vol. 19, p. 882), by
Arthur S. Eddington.
Comet, illustrated (Vol. 6, p. 759), by
Dr. Simon Newcomb.
Meteor (Vol. 18, p. 260), by W. F. Den-
ning, formerly president, Liverpool As-
tronomical Society.
Meteorite (Vol. 18, p. 262), by Lazarus
Fletcher, author of Introduction to the
Study of Meteorites.
Solar System (Vol. 25, p. 857), by Dr.
Simon Newcomb.
Sun, illustrated (Vol. 26, p. 85), by Dr.
Ralph A. Sampson, Astronomer Royal
for Scotland.
Zodiacal Light (Vol. 28, p. 998), by Dr.
Simon Newcomb.
Aurora Polaris, illustrated (Vol. 2, p.
934), by Dr. Charles Chree, president
Physical Society of London.
Planet, illustrated (Vol. 21, p. 714), and
Planets, Minor (Vol. 21, p. 717),
both by Dr. Simon Newcomb.
Mercury (Vol. 18, p. 154), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
Venus (Vol. 27, p. 1013), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
Earth (Vol. 8, p. 799).
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Our nearest neighbour. Is it inhab-
ited? Similarity of physical con-
ditions to those of the earth.
The largest planet. Its belts, spots,
markings and surface. Is the
great red spot a floating island?
The ringed planet. Physical con-
stitution of rings.
Uranus: Its discovery, physical char-
acteristics and satellites.
The outermost known planet. Dimen •
sions. Resemblance to Uranus.
Wonderful story of its discovery
(1845).
The moon. Its aspects, phases and
constitution. Its mountains and
atmosphere.
Development of Practical and Obser-
vational Astronomy.
Current mode of star nomenclature
adopted (1603). First planetary
transit observed by Gassendi
(1631).
Astronomical Instruments.
How co-ordinates used in astronom-
ical research are determined.
Telescope: Discovery and history.
Parts and mounting. Great tele-
scopes of the world.
The Transit Circle due to Tycho
Brahe. Description and use.
Measuring machines. Importance
and use in astronomy.
Measuring the sun's diameter.
Old-time instruments. "Nearly
every one of the modern instru-
ments used for the observatories
of practical astronomy is part of
the perfected astrolabe."
Complete list of observatories
throughout the world, date of
foundation, their equipment and
their specialized work.
Mars, illustrated (Vol. 17, p. 761), by Dr.
Simon Newcomb, with a summary by
Professor Lowell, of the observations
at Flagstaff.
Jupiter, illustrated (Vol. 15, p. 562), by
W. F. Denning, formerly president,
Liverpool Astronomical Society.
Saturn (Vol. 24, p. 232), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
Uranus (Vol. 27, p. 788), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb.
Neptune (Vol. 19,- p. 885), by Dr. Simon
Newcomb. •
Adams, John Couch (Vol. 1, p. 177).
Leverrier, U. J. J. (Vol. 16, p. 510), by
Agnes M. Clerke, author of A Popular
History of Astronomy.
Moon, illustrated (Vol. 18, p. 802), by
Dr. Simon Newcomb.
Astronomy, History of Astronomy (Vol.
2, p. 818), by Agnes M. Clerke, author
of A Popular History of Astronomy.
Astronomy, Practical Astronomy (Vol. 2,
p. 807), by Dr. Simon Newcomb.
Telescope, illustrated (Vol. 26, p. 557),
by Sir David Gill, formerly Astrono-
mer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope,
and H. Dennis Taylor, inventor of the
Cooke Photographic Lens.
Transit Circle, illustrated (Vol. 27, p.
181), by J. L. E. Dreyer, Armagh Ob-
servatory, author of Planetary Systems
from Tholes to Kepler, etc.
Micrometer, illustrated (Vol. 18, p. 381) ;
by Sir David Gill.
Heliometer, illustrated (Vol. 13, p. 224) ,
by Sir David Gill.
Astrolabe, illustrated (Vol. 2, p. 795),
by Lady Huggins, author of Life and
Work of G. P. Mazzini.
Observatory (Vol. 19, p. 958), by J. L.
E. Dreyer, director Armagh Observa-
tory, author of Planetary Systems from
Thales to Kepler.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ON ASTRONOMY
Aberration
Ablatitious
Adams, John Couch
Airy, Sir George B.
Albategnius
Albedo
Albumazar (Abu-
Maaschar)
Algol
Alidade
Almacantar
Altitude
Amici, Giovanni B.
Amplitude
Andromeda
Andronicus of Cyrrhus
Anomaly
Ansa
Aphelion
Apse and Apsides
Aquarius
Aquila
A returns
Argelander, F. W. A.
Aries
Aristarchus, of Samos
Armilla
Astrolabe
Astrology
Astronomy
Astrophysics
Auriga
Azimuth
Bailly, Jean S.
Baily, Francis
Bainbridge, John
Bessel, Friedrich W.
Bianchini, Francesco
Binary System
Biquintile
Black Drop
Bode, Johann Elert
Bootes
Bradley, James
Brahe, Tycho
Brisbane, Sir Thomas
M.
Briinnow, F. F. E.
Calvisius, Sethus
Campani-Alimenis, M.
Cancer
Canes Venatici
Canis Major
Capricornus
Carrington, R. C.
Cassini (family)
Cassiopeia
Celsius, Anders
Centaurus
Cepheus
Cetus
Chromosphere
Clerke, Agnes Mary
Colure
Coma Berenices
Comet
Comet-Seeker
Compression
Conjunction
Conon
Constellation
Copernicus, Nicolaus
Corona
Coronium
Cosmic
Culmination
Cunitz, Maria
Cycle
Cygnus
Cynosure
Declination
Dee, John
Deferent
Delambre, J. B. J.
De la Rue, Warren
Delisle, Joseph N.
Delphinus
Dial and Dialling
Dick, Thomas
Direct Motion
Diurnal Motion
Donati, Giovanni B.
Draco
Dupuis, Charles F.
Earth
Eccentric
Eclipse
Ecliptic
Egress
Ellipticity
Elongation
Encke, Johann Franz
Ephemeris
Epicycle
Epoch
Equation of the
Centre
Equation of Time
Equator
Equinox
Eratosthenes of Alex-
andria
Eridanus
Eros
Establishment of a
Port
Evection
Facula
Firmament
Flamsteed, John
Galileo, Galilei
Gegenschein
Gemini
Geocentric
Gould, B. A.
Grant, Robert
Halley, Edmund
Hansen, Peter Andreas
Hansteen, Christopher
Heliacal
Heliocentric
Heliometer
Hercules
Herschel, Caroline L.
Herschel, Sir F. W.
Herschel, Sir J. F. W.
Hevelius, Johann
Hipparchus
Horizon
Horrocks, Jeremiah
Hour Angle
Huggins, Sir William
Hydra
Ideler, C. L.
Immersion
Inghirami, G.
Ingress
Invariable Plane
Janssen, Pierre Jules C.
Jupiter
Kepler, Johann
Lacaille, N. L. de
Lalande, J. J. L. de
Lamont, Johann von
Latitude
Lemonnier, Pierre C.
Leo
Leverrier, U. J. J.
Libra
Libration
Lilly, William
Lockyer, Sir J. Norman
Longitude
Longomontanus, C. S.
Lunation
Lyra
Magellanic Clouds
Mars
Mayer, Johann Tobias
Mercury
Meridian
Meteor
Metonic Cycle •
Micrometer
Mitchel, Ormsby M.
Matchell, Maria
Mobius, August F.
Moon
Mouchez, A. E. B.
Nadir
Nebula
Nebular Theory
Neptune
Newcomb, Simon
Node
Nostradamus
Nutation
Observatory
Occultation
Olbers, Heinrich W. M.
Orbit
Orion
Parallax
Penumbra
Perigee
Perihelion
Perseus
Phoebe
Photography, Celestial
Photometry, Celestial
Piazzi, Giuseppe
Pickering, E. C.
Pisces
Planet
Planets, Minor
Pleiades
Pond, John
Pons, Jean Louis
Precession of the Equi-
noxes
Prime Vertical
Pritchard, Charles
Proctor, Richard A.
Ptolemy (Claudius)
Quadrature
Quetelet, L. A. Jacques
Ramsden, Jesse
Regiomontanus
Reichenbach, G. von,
Repsold, Johann G.
Retrograde
Rheticus, or Rhaeticus
Right Ascension
Rittenhouse, David
Robinson, J. T. R.
Roemer, Ole
Rosse, William Parsons,
3rd earl of
Rumker, C. L. C.
Sabine, Sir Edward
Sacro Bosco, Johannes
de (John Holy wood)
Sagitta
Sagittarius
Santini, Giovanni
Satellite
Saturn
Schiaparelli, G. V.
Schonfeld, Eduard
Schroter, Johann H.
Schumacher, H. C.
Schwabe, Samuel H. *•*
Scorpio
Secchi, Angelo
Serpentarius or Ophiu-
chus
Sextant
Smyth, Charles Piazzi
Solar System
Solstice
Somerville, Mary
Sosi genes
Spectroheliograph
Star
Stationary
Stone, Edward James
Struve, E. G. W.
Sun
Synodic Period
Syzygy
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Taurus Tisserand, F. F.
Telescope Transit Circle, or Mer-
Terminator idian Circle
Three Bodies, Problem Trepidation
Tide Troughton, Edward
Time, Measurement of Ulugh Beg
Time, Standard Umbra
Uranus
Ursa Major
Ursa Minor
Venus
Vertical
Virgo
Vulpecula et Anser
Walker, Sears Cook
Walther, Bernhard
Zach, Baron von
Zenith
Zodiac
Zodiacal Light
Zollner, J. K. F.
CHAPTER LIV
PHYSICS
MORE than two thousand years
ago the poet Lucretius, reviewing
the physical knowledge and the-
ories of the Greeks, described, as the
Britannica tells us, how "the world was
formed by the conjunctions of streams of
atoms, which condensed into the earth,
with its attendant
Early Ideas water, air, and ae-
of the World ther, to form a self-
contained . whole,"
and went on to tell how in the changes of
infinite time all possible forms of life ap-
peared, but only those fittest to survive
persisted. Here we have an unconscious
anticipation of the nebular hypothesis
and the theory of natural selection, two
of the most tremendous of modern specu-
lations. Four hundred years earlier
Democritus, the greatest of the Greek
natural philosophers, had said: "Accord-
ing to convention there is a sweet and a
bitter, and according to convention there
is colour. In truth there are atoms and
a void." Democritus came near an-
nouncing the doctrines of the indestruc-
tibility of matter and the conservation
of energy, yet the conventions which he
assailed persisted for generations: colour,
taste and ojther qualities of a substance
being regarded as of its essence and as
much realities as the substance itself.
The theories of the Greeks in fact held
the field for centuries, until, during the
Renaissance, men's minds attacked the
secrets of nature in a more modern
spirit. Yet, long as has been its history,
physical science, as we know it to-day, is
but a few years old, the result of the
feverish activity which has been the ob-
session- of the generation now passing
(Vol. 24, p. 396).
There are many entertaining touches
in the historical account of the develop-
ment of the physical sciences with which
this section of the Britannica is enriched,
for every branch of the subject has been
treated from the historical point of view.
The articles, too, have been written by
masters who can describe clearly because
they see clearly, and no reader, desiring a
sound knowledge of the general principles
on which science rests, and of the con-
clusions to which the latest investigations
have directed scientific thought, will go
away empty handed.
The section of the Physical Sciences in
the Britannica covers, of course, an enor-
mous field which for general purposes
may be conveniently divided into:--
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
(i) Matter and Motion (Hi) Light
(ii) Sound (iv) Heat
(v) Electricity and Magnetism
As a preliminary to any one of these
and to the whole subject the reader will
be well advised to read the article Sci-
ence (Vol. 24, p. 396), by W. C. D.
Whetham of Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, author of Recent Development of
Physical Science; those on Units, Phys-
ical (Vol. 27, p. 738), and Units, Di-
mensions op (Vol. 27, p. 736), are also of
fundamental importance; and those on
Space and Time (Vol. 25, p. 525), and
Time, Measurement of (Vol. 26, p. 983),
may profitably be consulted.
(/) Matter and Motion
Since all physical phenomena are mani-
festations, in one form or other, of mat-
ter in motion, this first division of the
subject, is introductory to
Matter all the rest, and should
preferably be studied first.
The latest theories in connection with the
properties of Matter (Vol. 17, p. 891)
are discussed by Sir J. J. Thomson, pro-
fessor of experimental physics, Cam-
bridge University, who has led the way
in the investigation of the electrical the-
ory of matter. The article is directed to
the establishment of the electronic the-
ory, and in view of the vast amount of
original work which the author has car-
ried out in this field, his treatment in the
Britannica should be welcome to all stu-
dents of physical science. Supplement-
ing this are the following: Element, by
Wilhelm Ostwald (Nobel Prizeman in
Chemistry, 1909), especially the con-
cluding remarks (Vol. 9, p. 253); Atom
(Vol. 2, p. 870); Electricity, Electronic
Theory (Vol. 9, p. 192). Early hypotheses
are described under Science (Vol. 24, p.
397); Molecules (Vol. 18, p. 654); Al-
chemy (Vol. 1, p. 521); and modern con-
ceptions are discussed under Liquid
Gases, Cohesion (Vol. 16, p. 756); and
Spectroscopy (Vol. 25, p. 625). Refer-
ence should also be made to the articles
Density (Vol. 8, p. 46); Diffusion (Vol.
8, p. 255); and especially Gravitation
(Vol. 12, p. 384), by Professor Poynting
of the University of Birmingham, and
Aether (Vol. 1, p. 292), by Sir Joseph
Larmor, secretary of the Royal Society.
The principal articles dealing with mo-
tion are: Motion, Laws of (Vol. 18, p.
906), which deals mainly with Newton's
Laws; and Energy (Vo
Motion 9, p. 398), and Energetics
(Vol. 9, p. 390), both by
Sir Joseph Larmor. Of as great impor-
tance from the physical point of view are
Wave (Vol. 28, p. 424), the part of the
article Mechanics dealing with simple
harmonic motion (Vol. 17, p. 975) and
elliptic, harmonic motion (p. 978), and
Harmonic Analysis (Vol. 12, p. 956),
all by Professor Lamb of the University
of Manchester. Other articles which
should be consulted are Capillary Ac-
tion (Vol. 5, p. 256), and Perpetual
Motion (Vol. 21, p. 180).
(II) Sound
The main article Sound (Vol. 25, p.
437) is by Prof. J. H. Poynting of the
University of Birmingham, and very
completely covers the subject; the reader
will, however, wish to refer to several
other articles for supplementary informa-
tion. Thus in the article Hearing (Vol.
13, p. 124), the range of audibility is
discussed (see also Tartini, Vol. 26, p.
436, for an account of Tartini's tones),
while with regard to quality of tone the
reader will find suggestive matter under
Violin (Vol. 28, p. 104). An account of
experiments in balloons on the propa-
gation of sound, will be found (Vol. 1, p.
267) under Aeronautics. Reference
should also be made to the articles Wave
(Vol. 28, p. 425), Elasticity, Vibrations
and Waves (Vol. 9, p. 158), and Har-
monic Analysis (Vol. 12, p. 956) for a
discussion of the form of sound waves.
For applications of the principles of sound
production, see also the articles Phono-
graph (Vol. 21, p. 467), Gramophone
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PHYSICS
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(Vol. 12, p. 333), and especially Stringed
Instruments (Vol. 25, p. 1038), Wind
Instruments (Vol. 28, p. 709), and other
articles on musical instruments (see the
chapter on Music in this Guide). For
accounts of the researches of Kundt (Vol.
15, p. 946), Lagrange (Vol. 16, p. 75)
and Stokes (Vol. 25, p. 951), see those
articles.
(///) Light
The main article Light (Vol. 16, p.
608) is in four parts. The Introductory
and Historical sections are by C. Everitt;
that on the Nature of Light by Professor
Lorentz of the University of Leiden; that
on its Velocity by the late Simon New-
comb, the eminent American astronomer.
The different phenomena connected with
the subject may conveniently be grouped
and studied as follows: —
(a) Colour (Vol. 6, p. 728); Intensity,
see Photometry (Vol. 21, p. 525), a bril-
liant article by Prof. H. H. Turner, of
Oxford University; Illumination (Vol.
14, p. 320).
(b) Reflection of Light (Vol. 23, p.
2); Absorption (Vol. 1, p. 76); Refrac-
tion (Vol. 23, p. 25); Dispersion (Vol.
8, p. 315); Interference (Vol. 14, p.
685); Polarization of Light (Vol. 21,
p. 932).
(c) Shadow (Vol. 24, p. 738); Dif-
fraction (Vol. 8, p. 238); Calorescence
(Vol. 5, p. 60); Fluorescence (Vol. 10,
p. 375); Phosphorescence (Vol. 21, p.
476).
(d) Mirror (Vol. 18, p. 575); Lens
(Vol. 16, p. 421); Caustic (Vol. 5, p. 558) ;
Aberration (Vol. 1, p. 54).
(e) Corona (Vol. 7, p. 184); Halo
(Vol. 12, p. 864); Mirage (Vol. 18, p.
573); Rainbow (Vol. 22, p. 861); Sky
(Vol. 25, p. 202); Twilight (Vol. 26, p.
492)— see also Dust (Vol. 8, p. 713).
(f) Telescope (Vol. 26, p. 557); Mi-
croscope (Vol. 18, p. 392); Objective
(Vol. 19, p. 948); Camera Lucida (Vol.
5, p. 104); Camera Obscura (Vol. 5, p.
104); Binocular Instrument (Vol. 3,
p. 949); Stereoscope (Vol. 25, p. 895),
(g) Vision (Vol. 28, p. 130).
Far reaching developments are de-
scribed in Photography (Vol. 21, p. 485)
and Spectroscopy (Vol. 25, p. 619). In
the former article Sir W. de W. Abney
describes in great detail photographic
Processes; Major-General Waterhouse,
Apparatus and Lenses, while A. H. Hin-
ton discusses the Pictorial aspect of the
subject. There are also valuable articles
on Celestial Photography (Vol. 21, p.
523), by Professor Turner, and on the
Spectro-Heliograph (Vol. 25, p. 618), by
the inventor, G. E. Hale, director of the
Solar Observatory of the Carnegie Insti-
tution at Mount Wilson, Cal. The rela-
tion between magnetism and light is
discussed in an article Magneto-Optics
(Vol. 17, p. 388), by Sir J. J. Thomson.
(IV) Heat
The treatment of this subject in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica has been gen-
erally organized by Prof. H. L. Callendar,
of the Royal College of Science, London,
who was designated by Lord Kelvin as
his successor in this department of the
work. In pursuing the subject the follow-
ing order may conveniently be followed:
(a) Heat (Vol. 13, p. 135), Thermom-
etry (Vol. 26, p. 821), Calorimetry
(Vol. 5, p. 60), and Thermodynamics
(Vol. 26, p. 808), all by Professor Cal-
lendar; Cold (Vol. 6, p. 663).
(b) Conduction op Heat (Vol. 6, p.
890); Radiation, Theory of (Vol. 22,
p. 785); Radiometer (Vol. 22, p. 806).
(c) Fusion (Vol. 11, p. 369); Vapor-
ization (Vol. 27, p. 897) ; Condensation
of Gases (Vol. 6, p. 844) ; Liquid Gases
(Vol. 16, p. 744); Thermoelectricity
(Vol. 26, p. 814).
(V) Electricity and Magnetism
We are so accustomed to think of elec-
tricity as the peculiar possession of our
own age (the first crude attempts at an
electric light were only two score years ago)
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
that we are apt to forget that the first
experiments in the
Historical science were made at
least 2500 years ago.
The first effort to place it on a true
experimental and inductive basis dates
back more than three centuries ta
the publication of the researches
of William Gilbert (see Vol. 12,
p. 9), the most distinguished man of
science of his time, whom Queen Eliza-
beth appointed her private physician at
the "usual" salary of £100. A hundred
years later, Volta (Vol. 28, p. 198), who
might be called the patron saint of elec-
tricity, produced the first electric cur-
rent with the pile which bears his name.
Meanwhile Benjamin Franklin (Vol. 11,
p. 30) had been experimenting with his
famous kite, and Cavendish (Vol. 5, p.
580) and Coulomb (Vol. 7, p. 508) had
been paving the way for the startling de-
velopments which resulted from Volta's
invention. In the 19th century Fara-
day (Vol. 10, p. 173), Ampere (Vol. 1, p.
878), Ohm (Vol. 20, p. 34), Lord Kelvin
(Vol. 15, p. 721), James Clerk Max-
well (Vol. 17, p. 929) and other brilliant
investigators in rapid succession devel-
oped the field, until the science and ap-
plication of electricity have attained a
position absolutely dominating our daily
life.
The section of the Britannica treating
this great subject is therefore one of the
most important in the whole work, and
it was in the fullest
Analysis of recognition of the
the Subject fact that the editor
asked Prof. J. A.
Fleming, of the University of London,
famous for his original work in both the
mathematical and the experimental
branches of the science, to organize the
sections for the new edition. The ground
is generally covered in the four articles, on
electricity, electrostatics, electrokinetics,
and electromagnetism, all contributed by
Prof. Fleming himself. The article
Electricity (Vol. 9, p. 179) is the key
article to the subject, and should be read
first. The two great branches of elec-
trical theory then follow: (a) Electro-
statics (Vol. 9, p. 240), in connection
with which the article Electrical Ma-
chine (Vol. 9, p. 176) should also be
studied, with reference to Electro-
scope (Vol. 9, p. 239) and Electro-
phorus (Vol. 9, p. 237). (b) Electro-
kinetics (Vol. 9, p. 210) and, supple-
menting it, Conduction, Electric (Vol.
6, p. 855). The latter is divided into
three parts: (i.) Conduction in Solids, by
Prof. Fleming; (ii.) Conduction in Liquids
by W. C. D. Whetham; (iii.) Conduction
in Gases, by Sir J. J. Thomson. In con-
nection with (ii.) should be read Elec-
trolysis (Vol. 9, p. 217), by W. C.
D. Whetham, and with (iii.) R5ntgen
Rays (Vol. 23, p. 694) and Vacuum
Tube (Vol. 27, p. 834), both by Sir J. J.
Thomson, whose article Electric Waves
(Vol. 9, p. 203) is of fundamental im-
portance. The general principles of elec-
trical engineering are set out in the ar-
ticle Electric Supply (Vol. 9, p. 193)
with reference to Dynamo (Vol. 8, p. 764) ;
Motors, Electric (Vol. 18, p. 910);
Transformers (Vol. 27, p. 173); Accu-
mulator (Vol. 1, p. 126); Power Trans-
mission, Electric (Vol. 22, p. 233); Trac-
tion, Electric Traction (Vol. 27, p. 120);
Lighting, Electric (Vol. 16, p. 659); see
also Electrochemistry (Vol. 9, p. 208)
and Electrometallurgy (Vol. 9, p.
232); Telegraph (Vol. 26, p. 510); Tele-
phone (Vol. 26, p. 547).
A bridge to Magnetism (Vol. 17, p.
321), an article by Shelf ord Bidwell,
former president of the Physical Society,
is the article Electromagnetism (Vol.
9, p. 226), by Prof. Fleming. This ar-
ticle leads also to the study of mani-
festations in nature of electricity and
magnetism: see the articles Atmos-
pheric Electricity (Vol. 2, p. 860);
Aurora Pqlaris (Vol. 2, p. 927);
Earth Currents (Vol. 8, p. 813); and
Magnetism, Terrestrial (Vol. 17, p.
353); and to the applications of its prin-
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PHYSICS
333
ciples in the Compass (Vol. 6, p. 804).
An alphabetical list of the articles in
the Britannica on the subjects treated in
this chapter is given below. The biog-
raphies of distinguished physicists, in-
cluded in the list, are valuable as con-
taining accounts of their contributions
to science, and are full of human interest.
ARTICLES ON THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN THE BRITANNICA, INCLUDING THOSE
ON FAMOUS PHYSICISTS
Aberration
Absorption of Light
Accumulator
Achromatism
Acoustics
Acre
Actinometer
Adhesion
Aepinus, F. U. T.
Aether, or Ether
Aggregation
Agonic Lines
Aldini, Giovanni
Alhazen
Amontons, Guiliaume
Ampere, A. M.
Amperemeter or Am-
meter
Anderson, John
Angstrom, A. J. and
K. J.
Aperture
Arago, D. F. J.
Armature
Arnaldus de Villa Nova
Arrhenius, S. A.
As
Atmospheric Electricity
Atwood, George
Auncel
Avogadro, Amedeo
Avoirdupois
Ayrton, W. E.
Bache, Alexander D.
Baker, Henry
Balance
Barleycorn
Barometer
Barometric Light
Barrel
Battery
Beccaria, G. B.
Becquerel (family)
Bell, A. Graham
Binocular Instrument
Biot, Jean Baptiste
Boyle, Robert
Brewster, Sir David
Bushel
Cagniard de la Tour, C.
Calibration
Calorescence
Calorimetry
Camera Lucida
Camera Obscura
Canton, John
Capillary Action
Carat
Carnot, Sadi N. L.
Carucate
Caustic
Cavallo, Tiberius
Cinematograph
Claudet, A. F. J.
Clausius, Rudolf J. E.
Cold
Colour
Compass
Condensation of Gases
Conduction, Electric
Conduction of Heat
Cornu, Marie Alfred
Coulomb, C. A.
Curie, Pierre
Cyclometer
Daguerre, L. J. M.
Dallmeyer, John Henry
De la Rive, A. A.
Delia Porta, G. Battista
Demijohn
Density
Diamagnetism
Dielectric
Diffraction of Light
Diffusion
Dimension
Dispersion
Dolland, John
Duhamel, J. B.
Dynamo
Earth Currents
Edison, T. A.
Electrical or Electro-
static Machine
Electricity
Electricity Supply
Electric Waves
Electrochemistry
Electrokinetics
Electrolysis
Elect romagnetism
Electrometallurgy
Electrometer
Electron
Elect rophorus
Electroplating
Electroscope
Electrostatics
Electrotyping
Energetics
Energy
Erman, Paul
Fahrenheit, G. D.
Fathom
Fizeau, A. H. L.
Fluorescence
Forbes, James David
Forman, Simon
Foucault, J. B. L.
Fraunhofer, J. von
Fresnel, Augustin J.
Furlong
Fusion
Fuze, or Fuse
Gallon
Galvanometer
Geissler, Heinrich
Gibbs, J. W.
Gilbert, or Gylberde,W.
Graduation
Glaisher, James
Gramophone
Gravitation
Gray, Elisha
Grove, Sir William R.
Guericke, Otto von
Harris, Sir W. S.
Hearing
Heat
Heliostat
Helmholtz, H. L. F. von
Henry, Joseph
Hertz, Heinrich R.
Hogshead
Hooke, Robert
Hopkinson, John
Hour-glass
Hughes, D. E.
Hydrometer
Hypsometer
Hysteresis
Illumination
Inch
Inclinometer
Induction Coil
Interference of Light
Jablochkov, Paul
Joule, J. P.
Kaleidoscope
Kater, Henry
Kelvin, 1st baron
Kirchhoff, G. R.
Konig, K. R.
Kundt, A. A. E. E.
Lambert, J. H.
Langley, S. P.
Lantern
Lens
Leyden Jar, or Con-
denser
Lichtenberg, G. C.
Light
Lighting
Lightning Conductor
Liquid Gases
Lodge, Sir Oliver J.
Magnetism
Magnetism, Terrestrial
Magnetograph
Magnetometer
Magneto-Optics
Malus, E. L.
Manometer
Mariotte, Edme
Marum, Martin van
Matter
Matteucci, Carlo
Maxwell, J. Clerk
Mayer, Julius R.
Melloni, Macedonio
Meter, Electric
Metric System
Michell, John
Microscope
Mirror
Model
Molecule
Morgen
Morse, S. F. B.
Motion, Laws of
Motors, Electric
Musschenbroek, P. van
Neckam, A.
Nicholson, W.
Nicol, William
Niepce, J. Nic6phore
Nobili, Leopoldo
Nollet, Jean Antoine
Objective, or Object
Glass
Ohm, Georg Simon
Ohmmeter
Olmsted, Denison
Optics
Oscillograph
Ounce
Papin, Denis
Peck
Peltier, J. C. A.
Permeability, Magnetic
Permeameter
Perpetual Motion
Phonograph
Phosphorescence
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BRI1ANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Photography
Photometry
Pint
Plateau, J. A. F.
Pneumatics
Poggendorff, J. C.
Polarity
Polarization of Light
Pood
Potentiometer
Pound
Power Transmission
Prevost, Pierre
Pyrometer
Radiation, Theory of
Radiometer
Rayleigh, Lord
Reflection of Light
Refraction
Rod
Rontgen Rays
Rtfntgen, W. K.
Rowland, Henry A.
Rumford, Count
Saussure, H. B. de
Science
Shadow
Siemens, E. Werner von
Sky
Sound
Space and Time
Spectacles
Spectroscopy
Speculum
Spherometer
Standard
Stereoscope
Stewart, Balfour
Sun or Photo Copying
Swan, Sir Joseph W.
Tart, Peter G.
Talbot, W. H. Fox
Talent
Tartini, G.
Telegraph
Telephone
Thermodynamics
Thermoelectricity
Thermometry
Thomson, James
Torricelli, E.
Transformers
Trumpet, Speaking and
Hearing
Tyndall, John
Units, Dimensions of
Units, Physical
Vacuum Tube
Vaporization
Vision
Volta, Alessandro
Voltmeter
Wattmeter
Wave
Weber, W. E.
Weighing Machines
Weights and Measures
Wheatstone's Bridge
Wheatstone, Sir Chas.
Wiedemann, G. H.
Young, Thomas
CHAPTER LV
CHEMISTRY
WE have traveled far since Chem-
istry had as its simple basis four
elements: fire, air, water, and
earth 9 regarded as perfect and complete
since they embody every essence of which
a tody was supposedly capable: for fire
was hot and dry; air, hot and wet; water,
cold and wet; earth, cold and dry. We
have outlived the belief in the philoso-
pher's stone which animated the Middle
Ages. Yet these fallacies are but mani-
festations of the effort — old as thought —
to reduce the manifoldness of matter to
primordial elements, from which, in one
form or other, every substance should
be capable of being built up. The ulti-
mate problem of chemistry is, therefore,
the constitution of matter, and the fight
around this is waged on the marches of the
physical and chemical sciences.
The great commercial triumphs of
chemistry are, of course, those due to the
conquest of waste, to the utilization of
by-product? which
Triumphs of for thousands of
Chemistry years had been le-
garded as useless.
We are all familiar with the uses to which
the by-products of coal-tar are put; we
swallow one derivative to relieve head-
ache, we may sugar our tea and flavour
our ice-cream with others; with one deri-
vative we clean our clothes which have
been dyed with others; and we disinfect
them with yet another. Phenacetin,
saccharin, synthetic vanilla, benzine,
naphthaline, analine dyes, carbolic acid,
are only a few of the many substances
won to the consumer by the chemist in
his laboratory; and this is only one field
of research. The chemist is always busy
(as now with rubber, camphor, etc.),
working at the synthesis of natural pro-
ducts in the hope that he will be able to
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CHEMISTRY
335
find a means of manufacturing them in
quantities at a cost which will make
them commercially possible, and thus
lessen the drain on the world's natural
supply. In almost every detail of our
lives this science enters so familiarly that
we forget that the many things made
possible by the chemist do not simply
"happen," but are the result of laborious
research in the laboratory.
It is not possible to attain proficiency
in any experimental science without lab-
oratory work; but to the student of
chemistry the lucid and original articles
in the Britannica will provide a most
useful commentary on his work with test-
tube and burner. The general reader will
find in these articles an admirable survey
of the subject, and of its bearings on
problems of daily life. The main article
Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 33) generally
covers the ground, and serves as an in-
troduction to separate articles on im-
portant divisions of the subject. Follow-
ing its arrangement the scheme outlined
below suggests a useful course of read-
ing.
(i.) Chemistry, History (Vol. 6, p. 33).
Supplementary to this section are the ar-
ticles Alchemy (Vol. 1, p. 519), Ele-
ment (Vol. 9, p. 253), Molecule (Vol.
18, p. 654), Atom (Vol. 2, p. 870); and
reference may also be made to Medicine,
latro-chemical School (Vol. 18, p. 50).
(ii.) Chemistry, General Principles
(Vol. 6, p. 39), with reference to Valency
(Vol. 27, p. 847), Chemical Action (Vol.
6, p. 26), Catalysis (Vol. 5, p. 501),
Isomerism (Vol. 14, p. 881), Stereo-
isomerism (Vol. 25, p. 890), Radio-
activity (Vol. 22, p. 793).
(iii.) Inorganic Chemistry (Vol. 6, p.
44). See also Acid (Vol. 1, p. 145), Al-
kali (Vol. 1, p. 674), and the list of 138
elements and compounds under this
heading below.
(iv.) Organic Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 47),
with all the 240 articles enumerated under
this heading below, especially that on
Polymethylenes (Vol. 22, p. 29); see
also Explosives (Vol. 10, p. 81).
(v.) Analytical Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 60),
with which may be consulted, Blow Pipe
(Vol. 4, p. 89), Distillation (Vol. 8,
p. 318), Electrolysis (Vol. 9, p. 217),
Indicator (Vol. 14, p. 482), Solution
(Vol. 25, p. 368), Stoichiometry (Vol.
25, p. 939).
(vi.) Physical Chemistry (Vol. 6, p. 65)
supplemented by Energetics (Vol. 9,
p. 390), Chemical Action (Vol. 6, p. 26),
Thermochemistry (Vol. 26, p. 804),
Solution (Vol. 25, p. 368), Distillation
(Vol. 8, p. 318), Condensation of
Gases (Vol. 6, p. 844), with the important
articles Photochemistry (Vol. 21, p.
484), Electrochemistry (Vol. 9, p.
208), Metallurgy (Vol. 18, p. 203),
Electrometallurgy (Vol. 9, p. 232),
Assaying (Vol. 2, p. 776).
Among the contributors to the chemi-
cal department of the Britannica are:
Professor Ernest Rutherford, of the
University of Manchester; Walter Nernst,
professor of physical chemistry in the
University of Berlin; W. C. D. Whetham,
author of Theory of Solution, etc.; Prof.
James Walker of the University of Edin-
burgh; Johannes Diderik van der Waals,
professor of physics, University of Am-
sterdam; W. R. E. Hodgkinson, professor
of chemistry and physics, Ordnance
College, Woolwich, perhaps the greatest
living authority on explosives.
The following is a classified list of
the articles on Chemistry which are con-
tained in the Britannica. For discus-
sions of the application of chemistry to
photography, the reader should consult
the article Photography (Vol. 21, p.
485), of which the chemical section is
by Sir W. de W. Abney, adviser in
Science to the English Board of Educa-
tion.
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336
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
CHEMISTRY— GENERAL
Affinity, Chemical
Chemistry
Elixir
Molecule
Alchemy
Combustion
Equivalent
Photochemistry
Alembic
Condenser
Explosives
Pigments
Allotropy
Crystallization
Flame
Pyrophorus
Amorphism
Decolourizing
Formula
Radioactivity
Analysis
Desiccation
Gas
Solution
Assaying
Dialysis
HydrolyMs
Stereochemistry •
Atmolysis
Dissociation
Iatrochemistry
Stereoisomerism
Atom
Distillation
Indicator
Stoichiometry
Blowpipe
Catalysis
Electrochemistry
Isomerism
Thermochemistry
Electrolysis
Matrass
Valency
Chemical Action
Element
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Acid
Carborundum
Iodine
Rust
Algaroth, Powder of
Caustic
Iron
Ruthenium
Alkali
Cerium
Kelp
Sal Ammoniac
Alkali Manufacture
Charcoal
Kermes
Salt
Alkaline Earths
Chlorates
Lamp-black
Saltpetre
Alum
Chlorine
Lanthanum
Samarium
Aluminium
Chromium
Lead
Scandium
Amalgam
Cobalt
Lime
Schlippe's Salt
Ammonia
Colcothar
Lithium
Selenium
Antimony
Columbium, or N i o «
- Magnesium
Silica
Argon
bium
Manganese
Silicon
Arsenic
Copper
Mercury
Silver
Azoimide, or Hydrazoic Copperas
Microcosmic Salt
Sodium
Acid
Corrosive Sublimate
Molybdenum
Steam
Azoth
Didymium
Nickel,
Strontium
Barium
Earth
Niobium
Sulphur
Base
Epsom Salts
Nitre
Sulphuric Acid
Beryllium, or Gluci-
Erbium
Nitric Acid
Tantalum
num
Europium
Nitrogen
Tellurium
Bichromates and Chro-
Fluorine
Ochres
Terbium
mates
Gadolinium
Orpiment
Thallium
Bismuth
Gallium
Osmium
Thorium
Bittern
Germanium
Oxide
Tin
Borax
Glauber's Salt
Oxygen
Titanium
Boric Acid, or Boracic
Glucinum
Oxyhydrogen Flame
Tungsten
Acid
Gold
Ozone
Ultramarine
Boron
Gunpowder
Palladium
Umber
Brimstone
Halogens
Phosphates
Uranium
Bromine
Hartshorn, Spirits of
Phosphorus
Vanadium
Cadmium
Helium
Plaster of Paris
Vermilion
Caesium
Hydrate
Platinum
Vitriol
Calcium
Hydrazine
Potashes
Water
Calomel
Hydrochloric Acid
Potassium
Ytterbium (Neo-ytter-
Carbide
Hydrogen
Radium
bium)
Carbon
Hydroxylamine
Rare Earths
Yttrium
Carbonates
Hyposulphite of Soda
Rhodium
Zinc
Carbon Bisulphide
Carbonic Acid
Ice
Rouge
Zirconium
Indium
Rubidium
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Acenaphthene
Adipocere
Allantoin
Aniline
Acetic Acid
Albumin, or Albumen
Alloxan
Anthracene
Aceto-acetic Ester
Alcohol
Alloxan tin
Anthraquinone
Acetone
Alcohols
Allyl Alcohol
Antipyrine
Acetophenone
Acetylene
Aldehydes
Alizarin
Amidines
Argol
Amines
Asparagine
Acid Amides
Alkahest
Amygdalin
Azo Compounds
Acridine
Alkaloid
Amyl Alcohols
Azoximes
Adenine
Alkanet
Amyl Nitrite
Benzaldehvde
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CHEMISTRY
337
Benzene
Benzidine
Benzoic -Add
Benzoin
Benzophenone
Benzyl Alcohol
Berberine
Betalne
Brucine
Butyl Alcohols
Butyric Acid
Caffeine
Camphors
Carbazol
Carbohydrate
Carbolic Acid, or
Phenol
Carvacrol
Cellulose
Chloral
Chloroform
Chlorophyll
Chlorpicrin
Chrysene
Cinnamic Acid
Cinnolin
Citric Acid
Coal-tar
Cocaine
Collodion
Conine
Coumarin
Coumarones
Creosote
Cresols
Crotonic Acid
Cyanamide
Cyanic Acid and Cyan-
ates
Cyanide
Cyanogen
Cytisine
Dextrine
Diazo Compounds
Diphenyl
Durene
Dynamite
Ecgonine
Erythrite
Esters
Ether
Ethers
Ethyl
Ethyl chloride
Ethylene
Eugenol
Eupion
Flavin
Fluoranthene
Fluorene
Fluorescein
Formalin, or Formalde-
hyde
Formic Acid
Fructose, or Fruit-
sugar
Fuchsine
Fulminic Acid
Fumaric and Maleic
Acids
Furazanes
Furfurane, or Furane
Fusel Oil
Gallic Acid
Gelatin or Gelatine
Glucose
Glucoside
Glutaric Acid
Glycerin
Glycols
Guanidine.
Gun-cotton
Hippuric Acid
Hydantoin
Hydracrylic Acid
Hydrastine
Hydrazone
Hydrocarbon
Imidazoles or Glyoxa-
lines
Indazoles, or Glyoxa-
lines
Indazoles
Indene
Indigo
Indole
Indulines
Inulin
Iodoform
Isatin
Isoxazoles
Ketenes
Ketones
Lactic Acid
Lactones
Laevulinic Acid
Litmus
Malic Acid
Malonic Acid
Mandelic Acid
Marsh Gas
Mellitic Acid
Mercaptans
Mesoxalic Acid
Methyl Alcohol
Mucic Acid
Murexide
Mustard Oils
Naphtha
Naphthalene
Naphthols
Naphthylamines
Nicotine
Nitrobenzene
Nitro Compounds
Nitroglycerin
Olefine
Oleic Acid
Orcin
Oxalic Acid
Oxazoles
Oximes
Palmitic Acid
Paraffin
Paraldehyde
Phenacetin
Phenanthrene
Phenazine
Phenolphthalein
Phthalazines
Phthalic Acids
Picene
Picric Acid
Pilocarpine
Piperazin
Piperine
Piperonal
Polymethylenes
Primuline
Propiolic Acid
Propyl Alcohols
Prussic Acid
Purin
Pyrazines
Pyrazoles
Pyrene
Pyridine
Pyrimidines
Pyrocatechin
Pyrogallol
Pyrones
Pyrrol
Pyruvic Acid
Quercitron
Quinazolines
Quinoline
Quinones
Quinoxalines
Resorcin
Retene
Saccharic Acid
Saccharin
Safranine
Salicylic Acid
Stearic Acid
Styrolene
Succinic Acid
Sugar
Sulphonal
Sulphonic Acids
Tannin or Tannic Acid
Tar
Tartar
Tartaric Acid
Terpenes
Tetrazines
Tetrazoles
Thiazines
Thiazoles
Thiophen
Thvmol
Toluene
Triazines
Triazoles
Triphenylmethane
Tropine
Urea, or Carbamide
Urethane
Uric Acid"
Urotropin
Valeric Acid
Verdigris
Veronal
Xanthic Acid
Xanthone
Xylene
BIOGRAPHIES
Abel, Sir Frederick A.
Achard, F. C.
Andrews, Thomas
Baeyer, Adolf von
Balard, Antoine J.
Bauml, Antoine
Becher, J. J.
Bell, Jacob
Bergman, Torbern Olof
Berthelot, M. P. E.
Berthollet, C. L.
Berzelius, J. J.
Black, Joseph
Boussingault.
Brande, Williai
Thomas
Brown, S. M.
Bunsen, R. W. von
Calvert, F. Crace
Cannizzaro, Stanislao
Cavendish, Henry
Chevreul, M. E. *
Clark, Thomas
Crookes, Sir William
Dalton, John
Daniell, John F.
Davy, Sir Humphry
Dewar, Sir James
Ddbereiner, J. W.
Dulong, Pierre Louis
Dumas, J. B. A.
Erdmann, Otto Linnl
Fehling, Hermann von
Fischer, Emil
Fittig, Rudolf
FlameL, Nicolas
Fourcroy, A. F., de
Frankland, Sir Edward
Fremy, Edmond
Presenilis, Karl R.
Friedel, Charles
Fuchs, Johann N. von
Gannal, J. N.
Gay-Lussac, J. L.
Geber
Geoffroy, E. F.
Gerhardt, Charles F.
Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott
Gilbert, Sir Joseph H.
Gladstone, John Hall
Glaser, Christopher
Glauber, Johann R.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Gmelin (family)
Graham, Thomas
Guimet, Jean B.
Guyton de Morveau
Harcourt, W. Vernon
Helmont, Jean B. van
Henry, William
Hofmann, A. W. von
Homberg, William
Kekute, F. August
Klaproth, M. H.
Kolbe, A. W. Hermann
Kopp, Hermann F. M.
K unkel von Lowenst jern
Lavoisier, A. L.
LeBlanc, Nicolas
Lemery, Nicolas
Liebig, J. von, baron
Lunge, Georg
Magnus, H. G.
Marggraf, Andreas S.
Marignac, J. C. G. dc
Mayow, John
Mendeleeff, Dmitri I.
Meyer, J. Lothar
Meyer, Victor
Mitscherlich, E.
Mohr, K. Friedrich
Moissan, Henri
Mond, Ludwig
Murray, John
Muspratt, J. and J. S.
Newlands, John A. R.
Nobel, Alfred B.
Pasteur, I/Ouis
Pelouze, T. Jules
Perkin, Sir W. H.
Pettenkofer, M. J. von
Plattner, K. F.
Priestley, Joseph
Proust, Joseph Louis
Prout, William
Ramsay, Sir W T illiam
Raoult, Francois M.
Regnault, H. V.
Richter, J. B.
Roebuck, John
Roscoe, Sir H. E.
Rose (familv)
Rouelle, G. F.
Sainte-Claire Deville
Scheele, K. W.
Schonbein, C. F.
Schuteenberger, P.
Silliman, Benjamin
Stahl, G. E.
Stas, J. S.
Tennant, Charles
Tennant, Smithson
Thenard, L. J.
Thomsen, Julius
Thomson, Thomas
Van't Hoff, J. H.
Vauquelin, L. N.
Weldon, Walter
Wenzel, K. F.
Williamson, A. W.
Wislicenus, J.
Wdhler, Friedrich
Wollaston, W. H.
Wurtz, C. A.
Young, James
CHAPTER LVI
GEOLOGY
SHAKESPEARE tells us that "there
are sermons in stones." No science,
except possibly astronomy, appeals
more to the imagination or carries one
further away from our present workaday
world than geology. While geology
"claims as its peculiar territory the rocky
framework of the globe," its object is,
says the Encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol.
11, p. 638) "to trace
The Province the structural pro-
of Geology gress of our planet
or Sermons from the earliest be-
in Stones ginnings of its sep-
arate existence
through its various stages of growth
down to the present condition of things."
It goes back millions and hundreds of
millions of years to the first beginnings
of things and unravels complicated pro-
cesses by w r hich the earth and each of
the continents on it has been built up.
"It follows, even into detail, the varied
sculpture of mountain and valley, crag
and ravine." It shows "that the present
races of plants and animals are the
descendants of other and very different
races which once peopled the earth. It
teaches that there has been a progressive
development of the inhabitants." Dead
and cold though the rocks seem, they are
filled, to one who can read their secret,
with the tragedy of past life. Parts of
Florida are but the graves where mil-
lions of corals, now crushed into massive
limestone, once lived and died; the coal
of Pennsylvania tells of ferns and other
terrestrial plants matted together into
a bed whence they originally grew; "the
snails and lizards which lived and died
within a hollow tree, the insects which
have been imprisoned within the exuding
resin of old forests, the footprints of
birds and quadrupeds, the trails of worms
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GEOLOGY
339
left upon former shores — these and innu-
merable other pieces of evidence" tell
of the tragedies of former times and
"enable the geologist to realize in some
measure what the faunas and floras of
successive periods have been."
The foundation for the study of the
whole subject in the Britannica is the
article Geology (Vol. 11, p. 638), equiva-
lent to 125 pages of this Guide. It is
by the highest authority in the world,
Sir* Archibald Geikie, long director
general of the Geological Survey of
the United Kingdom, and director of the
Museum of Practical Geology, London. It
deals with the general principles and gives
an outline of the subject matter of the
science. In particular it treats of,
The historical development of geological
science;
The cosmical aspects of geology;
Geognosy;
Dynamical Geology;
Geotectonic or Structural Geology;
Palaeontological Geology;
Stratigraphical Geology;
Physiographical Geology.
While the student will doubtless be
interested equally in each of these de-
partments, the general reader will be
especially interested in the
Age of historical development
the Earth which — it is worthy of note
— is almost the only con-
cise account of geological history hitherto
published in English. Especially inter-
esting is the question, fully discussed,
of the age of the earth. Lord Kelvin
(Vol. 11, p. 653) declared some few years*
ago that the time "was more than
twenty and less than forty millions of
years and probably much nearer twenty
than forty." But the trend of later
investigations, and especially the study
of radio-activity, has led to the belief
that the period must have been much
longer. Sir Archibald Geikie sums up
the evidence as follows (Vol. 11, p. 653):
"In the present state of science it is out
of our power to state positively what
must be the lowest limit of the age of
the earth, but we cannot assume it to
be less, and it may possibly have been
much more than one hundred millions
of years."
The general reader will find of interest,
too, the table (Vol. 11, p. 670) repre-
senting the geological record or order
of succession of the
Geological formations of the
Formations earth's crusts from
the earliest Archean,
through Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian
and Carboniferous to the Post-glacial or
Human of to-day. A separate article is
to be found on each of these different
formations, namely: Archean (Vol. 2,
p. 360); Cambrian (Vol. 5, p. 86); Silu-
rian (Vol. 25, p. 109); Devonian (Vol.
8, p. 124); Carboniferous (Vol. 5, p.
309); Permian (Vol. 21, p. 176) ; Triassic
(Vol. 27, p. 258); Jurassic (Vol. 15,
p. 567); Cretaceous (Vol. 7, p. 414);
Eocene (Vol. 9, p. 661); Oligocene
(Vol. 20, p. 81); Miocene (Vol. 18, p.
565); Pliocene (Vol. 21, p. 846); Pleis-
tocene (Vol. 21, p. 835); Recent, Post-
glacial or Human under article Quater-
nary (Vol. 22, p. 718).
Full local geological information is
found in geographical articles. See, for
instance, in the article United States,
the section on Geology (Vol. 27, pp. 624-
632), by Professors R. D. Salisbury and
T. C. Chamberlin of the University
of Chicago; the section Geology in the
article England (Vol. 9, pp. 415-416),
by H. R. Mill, editor of The International
Geography; the section Geology in the
article Africa (Vol. 1, pp. 323-325), by
Walcot Gibson, author of Mineral Wealth
of Africa, etc. These special treatments
are accompanied by sketch maps. Sim-
ilarly, the articles on each of the different
states of the Union has a section giving
information on the geology, the flora
and fauna, the climate, and the geog-
raphy of the state. And in such articles
on geographic topics as Great Salt
Lake, Niagara, by G. Karl Gilbert,
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
and Grand Canyon, by R. S. Tarr,
there is valuable geological information.
Other important articles which the
reader should consult are Petrology
(Vol. 81, p 328), equivalent to 40 pages
of this Guide, largely illustrated, by Dr.
J.' S. Fleet, petrographer to the Geo-
logical Survey of Great Britain; Miner-
alogy (Vol. 18, p. 509), equivalent to
£5 pages of this Guide, by L. J. Spencer,
editor of the Mineralogical Magazine;
Mineral Deposits (Vol. 18, p. 504),
equivalent to 15 pages of this Guide,
by James F. Kemp, professor of geology
of Columbia University, and geologist
to the United States and New York
Geological Surveys; Crystallography
(Vol. 7, p. 569), equivalent to 60 pages
of this Guide, also by L. J. Spencer;
Mining (Vol. 18, p. 528), equivalent to
40 pages of this Guide, by Henry Smith
Munroe, professor of mining, Columbia
University, New York; Palaeontology
(Vol. £0, p. 579), profusely illustrated,
equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide, by
Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn of Colum-
bia University, and president of the
American Museum of Natural History
of New York; Palaeobotany (Vol. 20,
p. 524), profusely illustrated, equivalent
to 100 pages of this Guide, written by
three of the leading geological writers
of the day: Dr. D. H. Scott, presi-
dent of the Linnean Society, author of
Studies in Fossil Botany; A. E. Steward,
professor of botany of the University
of Cambridge; and Clement Beid, author
of Fossil Flora of Tegelen.
Of more popular interest are the three
articles, Earthquake, Seismometer and
Volcano. The article Earthquake is in
two parts. The first (Vol. 8, p. 817)
is an historical account telling of the
extent and damage done by many earth-
quakes, including the terrible San Fran-
cisco earthquake of April 18, 1906, and
that of Calabria and Sicily, December 28,
1908, by F. W. Rudler, president of the
Geologists' Association; the other part
(Vol. 8, p. 820), by Dr. J. Milne, late
professor of geology in the Imperial
University of Tokio, deals with the phy-
sical theory of earthquakes. The article
Volcano (Vol. 28, p. 178), equivalent
to 45 pages of this Guide, is by F. W.
Rudler, and gives us the reasons for and
the history of volcanic disturbances.
It is of interest both to the scholar and
to the casual reader. Thus we learn
that "while Herculaneum was buried
beneath a flood of mud swept down
from Vesuvius" in 79 A.D., Pompeii
"was overwhelmed in great measure by
loose ashes, capable of removal with
comparative ease." Nearly everyone of
middle age remembers the famous erup-
tion of Krakatoa in 1883 and the famous
sunsets of that year. Concerning this
the Britannica article tells us (p. 180):
Enormous quantities of dust ejected from
Krakatoa in 1883 were carried to prodigious
distances, samples having been collected at
more than a thousand miles from the vol-
cano; whilst the very fine material in ultra-
microscopic grains which remained suspend-
ed for months in the higher regions of the
atmosphere seems to have enjoyed an almost
world-wide distribution, and to have been
responsible for the remarkable sunsets at
that period.
The article Dust (Vol. 8, p. 718), by
John Aitken, inventor of the machine
for counting particles of dust, explains
the mechanical causes of this suspension.
Besides there is much concrete informa-
tion about volcanoes in articles on vol-
canic regions: for instance, on volcanoes
in the possessions of the United States,
see articles Hawaii, Alaska, Philip-
pines.
The student should read also the arti-
cles on the different minerals, many of
them long and important and all by
well-known authorities. Thus the arti-
cle Diamond (Vol. 8, p. 158), illustrated,
equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide,
is by Henry Alexander Miers, editor of
the Mineralogical Magazine. Besides
dealing with the general character of
this stone, the article pays particular
attention to diamond mining in South
Africa, the text being illustrated by
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GEOLOGY
341
plates showing the Kimberley and De-
Beers workings. The article Gem (Vol.
11, p. 560), is equivalent to 25 pages of
this Guide. The article Gem, Artifi-
cial (Vol. 11, p. 569) is by the well-
known chemist and physicist, Sir Will-
iam Crookes. It tells of the changes
induced by radio-active emanations and
of the artificial production of the dia-
mond, ruby, sapphire, Oriental emerald,
amethyst and topaz. The reader will
be interested, too, in the article Lapi-
dary and Gem Cutting (Vol. 16, p.195),
by Dr. George F. Kunz, gem expert for
Messrs. Tiffany & Co., New York.
There are special biographical articles
in the Britannica on all the well-known
geologists, and in these articles special
stress has been laid on the part played
by the subject of the memoirs in pro-
moting the science. This is well shown,
for instance, in the articles Agassiz
(Vol. 1, p. 867); Hutton (Vol. 14, p. 16).
and Lyell (Vol. 17, p. 158).
Geology, by its study of earth deposits,
age of rocks, etc., and by its estimate
of the date of certain extinct animals
like the mammoth and hairy elephant,
or of the time when certain animals,
e.g., the elephant and reindeer, were
found in parts of the world where they
no longer occur, is an important adjunct
to the science of anthropology, especially
in the question of the antiquity of man.
On this see the section of antiquity of
man in the article Anthropology (Vol.
2, p. 114), and, in general, the chapter
in this Guide on Anthropology and
Ethnology.
From one point of view geology is
only a branch of geography and the
student of geology should consult the
elaborate article on Geography in the
Britannica, especially all parts dealing
with physical geography or physiography.
For a clue to this part of the book see
the chapter in this Guide on Geography.
The following is a list of the more
important articles on Geology in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica:
LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST
TO STUDENTS OF GEOLOGY
Abich, O. W. H. von
Abratim salts
Acadian
Acmite, or Aegirite
Agalmatolite
Agate
Agglomerate
Agricola, Georg
Aikin, Arthur
Alabaster
Albertite
Albian
Albite
Alexandrite
Allophane
A 11 port, Samuel
Alluvium
Almandine
Alquifou
Alunite, or Alumstone
Amazon Stone, or Ama-
zonite
Amber
Amblygonite
Amethyst
Amianthus
Amphibole
Amphibolite
Amygdaloid
Analcite
Anatase
Andalusite
Andesine
Andesite
Anglesite
Anhydrite
Ankerite
Annabergite
Anning, Mary
Anortnite
Ansted, David Thomas
Anthracite
Apatite
Aphanite
Aplite
Apophyllite
Aptian
Aquamarine
Aragonite
Archean System
Archiac, vicomte d'
Arenig Group
Argentite
Argyrodite
Asbestos
Assise
Asteria, or Star-stone
Atacamite
Atherstone, W. G.
Augite
Autunite
Aventurine, or Avan-
turine
Avonian
Axinite
Aymestry Limestone
Azurite, or Chessylite
Bagshot Beds
Baily, William Hellier
Bain, Andrew Geddes
Bajocian
Bakewell, Robert
Bala Series
Barrande, Joachim
Barrett, Lucas
Barrois, Charles
Barton Beds
Barytes
Barytocalcite
Basalt
Basin
Batholite
Bathonian Series
Bathvillite
Bauxite
Bed
Beecher, C. E.
Belt, Thomas
Bembridge Beds
Benett, Etheldred
Benitoite
Bernician Series
Beryl
Beryllonite
Beudant, Francois S.
Bevrich, H. E. von
Bigsby, J. J.
Binney, E. W.
Biotite
Bismuthite
Bitumen
Blanford, W. T.
Blende, or Sphalerite
Bloodstone
Boase, Henry Samuel
Bole
Bomb
Bone Bed
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Bonney, Thomas George Cinnamon Stone
Boracite Clarke, William B.
Born, I. von Clay
Borolanite Clay-with-Flints
Bort, or Boart Clinoclastite
Bostonite Clintonile
Boucher de CreVecoeur Close, Maxwell H.
de Perthes, J.
Boue, Ami
Boulder
Boulder Clay
Bournonite
Bovey Beds
Bowerbank, J. S.
Bracklesham Beds
Bradford Clay
Brander, Gustavus
Breccia
Breislak, Scipione
Bristow, H. W.
Brocchi, G. B.
Brochant de
A. J. F. M.
Brochantite
Brodie, P. B.
Brogger, W. C.
Bromlite
Cobaltite
Colemanite
Columbite
Concretion
Conglomerate
Conneilite
Conybeare, W. D.
Copalite, or Copaline
Cope, Edward D.
Copper-glance
Copper-pyrites, or Chal-
copyrite
Coprolites
Corallian
Villiers, Cornbrash
Corundum
Cotta, Bernard von
CoveUite
Crater
Credner, C. F. H.
Brongniart, Alexandre Cretaceous System
Bronn, Heinrich Georg Crocidolite
Bronzite Crocoite
Brookite Croll, James
Brucite Crosskey, Henry W.
Briickmann, Franz Cryolite
Ernst
Buch, Baron von
Buckland, William
Bunter
Bytownite
Cainozoic
Cairngorm
Crystallite
Crystallography
Culm
Cumming, Joseph G.
Cuprite
Cyanite
Dacite
Dioptase
Diorite
Dolerite
Dolomieu
Dolomite
Dopplerite
Drift
Dufrenoy, O. P. A. P.
Dumont, Andr£ Hubert
Dumortierite
Duncan, Peter Martin
Durocher, J. M. E.
Earth pillar
Earthquake
Eclogite
Egerton, Sir P. de M.
Ehrenberg, C. G.
Eichwald, K. E. von
Elaterite
Elie De Beaumont
Emerald
Emery
Emmons, Ebenezer
Enniskillen, 3rd earl of
Enstatite
Eocene
Epidiorite
Epidosite
Epidote
Erubescite
Erythrite
Escher von der IJnth
Esker
Etheridge, Robert
Ettingshausen, Baron
Euclase
Calamine (Smithsonite) Dalradian
Caldte
Callovian
Cambrian System
Cancrin, F. L. von
Caradoc Series
Carbonado
Carboniferous System
Carnelian
Cassiterite
Cat's-eye
Cave
Celestine
Cerargyrite
Ceruse ite
Chabazite
Chalcedony
Chalk
Chalybite
Charnockite
Child renite
Chlorite
Chromite
Chrysoberyl
Chrysocolla
Chrysolite
Chrysopfase
Cinnabar
Dana, James D.
Dan bu rite
Datolite
Daubeny, Charles G. B
Daubree, G. A.
Davidson, Thomas
Dawson, Sir John W.
Dechen, E. H. K. von
De la Beche, Sir H. T.
Delesse, A. E. O. J.
Deluc, Jean Andre
Demantoid
Des Cloizeaux, Alfred
Descloizite
Deshayes, G. P.
Deslongchamps, J. A. E.
Desmafest, Nicolas
fiesnoyers, J. P. F.
Desor, P. J. E.
Devonian System
Diabase
Diallage
Diamond
Diaspore
Dick, Robert
Diluvium
Diopside
S.
Fall-line
Farey, John
Faujas de Saint-Fond
Fault
Favre, Jean Alphonse
Felsite
Felspar
Fitton, William Henry
Flint
Fluor-spar
Flysch
Fold
Forbes, David
Forchhammer, J. G.
Foster, Sir C. le Neve
Fouque, F. A.
Fournet, J. J. B. X.
Fox, Robert Were
Franklinite
Freestone
Freieslebenite
Fulgurite
Fuller's Earth
Fumarole
Gabbro
Galena
Garnet
Gaudrv, Jean Albert
Gault
Geikie, Sir Archibald
Geikie, James
Geinitz, H. B.
Gem
Geology
Gesner, Abraham
Geyser
Giebel, C. G. A.
Gilbert, Grove K.
Gilsonite
Glacial Period
Glauconite
Gneiss
God win- Austen, R.A.C.
Gold fuss, G. A.
Goniometer
Gothite, or Goethite
Granite
Granulite
Graphite
Gravel, or Pebble Beds
Green, A. H.
Greenockite
Greenough, G. B.
Greensand
Greisen
Greywacke
Griffith, Sir Richard J.
Groth, P. H. von
Guettard, J. E.
Gumbel, K. W. von
Guyot, A. H.
Gypsum
Haast, Sir J. F. J. von
Haematite
Haidinger, W. K. von
Hall, James
Hall, Sir James
Halleflinta
Harkness, Robert
Harmotome
Hatchettite
Hauer, F. von
Haughton, Samuel
Hausmann, J. F. L.
Hayden, F. V.
Hebert, Edmond
Heddle, M. F.
Heer, Oswald
Heim, A. von St. Gallen
Helmersen, Gregor von
Hemimorphite
Henslow, John Stevens
Henwood, William Jory
Heulandite
Hicks, Henry
Hiddenite
Hitchcock, Edward
Hochstetter, F. C. von
Holocene
Hone
Hopkins, William
Hornblende
Horner, Leonard
Homes, Moritz
Horn f els
Hulke, J. W.
Humite
Hunt, Robert
Hunt, T. Sterry
Hutton, James
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343
Hyacinth
Hypersthene
ldrialin
Iiolite
Ilmenite
Iolite
Itacolumite
Jade
Jameson, Robert
Jargoon
Jarosite
Jasper
Jet
Joints
Jones, T. Rupert
Jukes, J. B.
Jurassic System
Kaolin
Karrer, Felix
Karsten, K. J. B.
Kayser, F. H. E.
Kenngott, G. A.
Keuper
Kidd, John
Kimeridgian
King, Clarence
Kirwan, Richard
Kjerulf, Theodor*
Kobell, W. X. F. von
Koenig, K. D. E.
Koksharov, N. I. von
Koninck, L. G. de
Kunzite
Labradorite
I^accolite
Lacroix, A. F. A.
Lamprophyres
Lapiili
Lapis Lazuli
Lapparent, A. A. C. de
Lap worth, Charles
Lasaulx, A. C. P. F.
von
Laterite
Laumont, F. P. N. G.
de
Lava
Leadhillite
Ije Conte, Joseph
I^ehmann, J. G.
I^epidolite, or Lithia-
Mica
Lesley, J. Peter
Leucite
Levy, A. M.
Lewis, Henry Corvill
Lias
Lignite
Limburgite
Limestone
Limonite
Lindstrdm, Gustaf
Liroconite
Lister, Martin
Llandeilo Group
Llandovery Group
Llwyd, Edward
Loess
Logan, Sir William E.
London Clay
Lonsdale, William
Lory, Charles
Ludlow Group
Lyell, Sir Charles
McCoy, Sir Frederick
M ace ul loch, John
Maclure, William
Magnesite
Magnetite
Malachite
Mallet, Robert
Manganite
MantelL G. A.
Marble
Marcasite
Marcou, J. B.
Marl
Martin, William
Meek, F. B.
Meerschaum
Melaconite
Mesozoic
Metamorphism
Metasomatism
Meteorite
Meyer, C. E. H. von
Mica
Mica-schist
Microcline
Micropegmatite
Miller, Hugh
Miller, W. H.
Miller ite
Millstone Grit
Mimetite
Mineral deposits
Mineralogy
Miocene System
Mispickel
Mocha Stone
Mofetta
Mohs, Fried rich
Mojsisovics von Mojs-
var, J. A. G. E.
Moldavite
Molybdenite
Monazite
Monzonite
Moonstone
Morris, John
Munster, Georg, count
zu
Murchison, Sir R. I.
Muschelkalk
Muscovite
Mylonite
Napoleonite
Natrolite
Naumann, G. A. C. F.
Neck
Neocomian
Nepheline
Nepheline-syenite
Nephelinites
Neumayr, Melchior
Newberry, J. S.
Niccolite
Nicholson, H. A.
Nicol, James
Nitre
Noeggerath, J. J.
Obsidian
Oldham, Thomas
Oligocene System
Oligoclase
Olivenite
Olivine
Omalius d'Halloy, J. d'
Onyx
Oolite
Opal
Oppel, C. A.
Orbigny, A. D. d'
Ordovician System
Orthoclase
Osborn, H. F.
Oxfordian
Ozokerite, or Ozocerite
Palaeozoic
Parisite
Parkinson, James
Peach, C. W.
Pegmatite
Pendleside Series
Pengelly, William
Peperino
Peridot
Peridotite
Perlite
Permian System
Perovskite
Petalite
Petrology
Pharmacosiderite
Phenacite
Phillips, John
PhiUips, William
Phillipsite
Phlogopite
Phonolite *
Phosgenite
Phosphates
Phosphorite
Phylfite
Picrite
Pictet, de la Rive, F. J.
Pitchblende, or Urani-
nite
Pitchstone
Plagioclase
Pleistocene System
Pliocene System
Plot, Robert
Plumbago
Pneumatolysis
Pollux, or Pollucite
Portlandian
Portlock, J. E.
Powell, J. W.
Pre-Cambrian
Prehnite
Prestwick, Sir Joseph
Prcvost, Constant
Proustite
Psilomelane
Pumice
Purbeckian
Puy
Pyrargyrite
Pyrites
Pyrolusite
Pyromorphite
Pyrope
Pyrophyllite
Pyroxene
Pyroxenite
Pyrrhotite
Quartz
Quartzite
Quartz-porphyry
Quaternary
Quenstedt, F. A. von
Rammelsberg, K. F. A.
Ramsay, Sir Andrew C.
Rath, Gerhard von
Reading Beds
Realgar
Renard, A. F.
Renevier, Eugene
Retinite
Reusch, Hans Henrik
Reuss, A. E. von
Rhaetic
Rhodochrosite
Rhodonite
Rhyolite
Rock
Rock-crystal
Roemer, F. A.
Rogers, H. D.
Rome de PIsle, J. B. L.
Roth, J. L. A.
Rubellite
Ruby
Russell, Israel Cook
Rutile
Rutley, Frank
Salt
Salter, John William
Sand
Sandberger, K. L. F.
von
Sandstone
Sapphire
Sard
Sardonyx
Satin-spar
Savi, Paolo
Scapolite
Scheelite
Schists
Schlotheim, Baron von
Schorl
Scolecite
Scoria
Scrope, G. J. Poulett
Sedgwick, Adam
Seismometer
Selwyn, A. R. C.
Senarmont, H. H. de
Serpentine
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Sharpe, Daniel
Sill
Sillimanite
Silurian System
Sinter
Slate
Smaltite
Smith, William
Smithson, James
Smyth, Sir W. W.
Sodalite
Soffioni
Solfatara
Sorby, Henry C.
Speeton Beds
Sphene
Spherulites
Spinel
Spodumene
Spratt, Thomas A. B.
Stalactites
Stannite
Staurolite
Steno, Nicolaus
Stephanite
Stibnite
Stilbite
Stoiiczka, Ferdinand
Stone
Stoppani, Antonio
Stratigraphy
Strickland, Hugh E.
Strontianite
Studer, Bernhard
Suess, Edward
Sun-stone
Syenite
Sylvanite
Sylvite
Symonds, William S.
Szab6 von Szentmiklos
Tachylytes
Talc
Tate, Ralph
Tchihatcheff, P. A. de
Tertiary
Tetradymite
Tetrahedrite
Theralite
Thorianite
Thorite
Tonalite
Topaz
Torbernite
Torell, Otto Martin
Torridonian
Tourmaline
Trachyte
Trass
Tremolite
Triassic System
Tridymite
Trimmer, Joshua
Tuff
Turquoise
Vanadinite
Variolite
Variscite
Veins
Verneuil, P. E. P. de
Vesuvianite
Vivianite
Vort, Karl C.
Volcano
Waagen, W. H.
Wachsmuth, Charles
Wad
Walcott, Charles D.
Waltershausen
Wavellite
Wealden
Webster, Thomas
Wenlock Group
Werner, A. G.
Whiteaves, J. F.
Whitney, J. D.
Willemite
Witherite
Wolframite
Wollastonite
Wood, S. V.
Woodward, John
Woodward, Samuel
Woolwich-and-Reading
Beds
Wright, Thomas
Wulfenite
Yoredale Series
Zeolites
Zincite
Zircon
Zirkel, Ferdinand
Zittel, Karl A. Ton
Zoisite
CHAPTER LVII
BIOLOGY
GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY
THE Britannica tells us that Sir
Thomas Browne, the famous 17th
century physician and author,
once ventured to doubt "whether mice
may be bred by putrefaction," and Alex-
ander Ross, the poet scientist of 200 years
ago, commenting on his scepticism wrote,
"So may he doubt whether in cheese and
timber worms are generated; or if beetles
and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies,
locusts, grasshoppers, shell-fish, snails,
eels, and such like, be procreated of pu-
trefied matter, which is apt to receive the
form of that creature to which it is by
formative power disposed. To question
this is to question reason, sense and ex-
perience. If he doubts of this let him go
to Egypt, and there he will find the fields
swarming with mice, begot of the mud of
Nylus, to the great calamity of the in-
habitants" (Vol. 1, p. 64). To-day science
gives no off-hand answer to the question
of the origin of life. Abiogenesis, or
"spontaneous generation," so-called, finds
a far less simple definition and research
still in vain bends its best energies to solv-
ing this problem of problems.
The subject is so vast, dealing as it
does with all the phenomena manifested
by living matter, that in this Guide that
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BIOLOGY
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branch of the subject which studies the
human organism is separately dealt with
in the chapter Health and Disease. This
chapter, therefore, is confined to the still
enormous subject of biology considered
as dealing with the general problem of
life; botany and zoology are treated in
the following chapters. The student of
either of the two last subjects should pre-
face, or at least supplement, his studies,
by reading the main general articles in-
cluded below.
The guiding article Biology (Vol. S, p.
954), which should be read first, serves
as a key to the discussion of the biological
sciences. It is not
The Study long, for the main
of Life divisions of the sub-
ject are treated more
conveniently and logically under their
own appropriate headings. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, secretary of the Zoological So-
ciety of London, who organized the whole
subject for the new Britannica, is the
contributor. Supplementing this, the
article Life (Vol. 16, p. 600), also by
Chalmers Mitchell, should be read, with
those on Protoplasm (Vol.. 22, p. 476),
Species (Vol. 25, p. 616), Abiogenesis
(Vol. 1, p. 64), Biogenesis (Vol. 3, p.
952). In the two articles last named the
theory of spontaneous generation is ex-
amined and found wanting, or at best
unproved.
Living matter may be regarded under
four aspects : structure, distribution, phys-
iology, evolution. For the first, the ar-
ticle Morphology
Structure (Vol. 18, p. 863)
leads the discussion,
followed by Cytology (Vol. 7, p. 710),
and Embryology (Vol. 9, p. 314), in
which the growth of cell structures is dis-
cussed. These articles are introductory to
the whole subject. Supplementing them
reference may be made to the Morphol-
ogy sections of the articles Plant (Vol.
21, p. 728) and Zoology (Vol. 28, p.
1022).
A most fascinating branch is that
which is concerned with the where and
when of the existence of organisms. The
articles in the Bri-
Di8tribution tannica are worthy
of the interest of the
subject. Under Palaeontology (Vol.
20, p. 579) H. F. Osborn, Columbia Uni-
versity, New York, president of the
American Museum of Natural History,
New York, treats of the archaeology of
the biological sciences, of the extinct spe-
cies which once inhabited the earth;
while Clement Reid, of the Geological
Survey of Great Britain, A. C. Seward,
professor of botany, Cambridge Univer-
sity, and Dr. D. H. Scott, president of
the Linnean Society, perform the same
service for plant life in the article Pa-
laeobotany (Vol. 20, p. 524). The dis-
tributipn of present types is discussed
under Zoological Distribution (Vol.
28, p. 1002), Plants, Distribution (Vol.
21, p. 777), and Plankton (Vol. 21, p.
720), in which Prof. G. H. Fowler of
University College, London, describes a
science which is still young — that of
tracing the 'drift and distribution of deep
sea life. See also Acclimatization (Vol.
1, p. 114), by Alfred Russel Wallace and
Frank Finn, of the Indian Museum of
Calcutta.
The properties, processes, and func-
tions of living things fall in the province
of Physiology (Vol. 21, p. 554), and kin-
dred articles; among
Physiology the latter the follow-
ing may profitably
be consulted: Animal Heat (Vol. 2, p.
48), and Plants, Physiology (Vol. 21, p.
744).
The gradual development of species is
considered in a number of valuable ar-
ticles such as Evolution (Vol. 10, p. 22),
Heredity (Vol. 13,
Evolution p. 350), Reproduc-
tion (Vol. 23, p.
116), Mendelism (Vol. 18, p. 115), Tele-
gony (Vol. 25, p. 509), Variation and
Selection (Vol. 27, p. 906).
Following is an alphabetical list of the
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346
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
general biological articles (those not dealing directly with either Botany or Zoology),
which are to be found in the Britannica:
A biogenesis
Acclimatization
Acephalous
Acuminate
Adaptation
Aestivation
Albino
Alveolate
Anabolism
Anastomosis
Aporose
Auricle
Autogeny
Bathybius
Biogenesis
Biology
Bipartite
Catabolism
Chemotaxis
Cilia
Cytology
Embryology
Enzyme
Evolution
Fermentation
Habitat
Heredity
Hibernaculum
Histology
Hybridism
Life
longevity
Mendelism
Metabolism
Microtomy
Monotypic
Morphology
Oecology, or Ecology
Osteology
Parasitism
Protoplasm
Reproduction
Rhacis, or Rachis
Species
Telegony
Variation and Selec-
tion
BIOGRAPHIES OF BIOLOGISTS
The life and work of the world's great biologists may be studied in the Britan-
nica, and an alphabetical list of the principal articles follows.
Acharius, Erik
Adams, A. L.
Adanson, Michel
Afzelius, Adam
Agassiz, A. E.
Agassiz, J. L. R.
Aiton, William
Albinus (Weiss), B. S.
Aldrovandi, Ulissi
Allman, George James
Alpini, Prospero
Alston, Charles
Ambrosini, Bartolomeo
Anderson, James
Arrenotokous, A.
Artedi, Peter
Audebert, J. B.
Audouin, Jean Victor
Audubon, John James
Avebury, J. Lubbock,
Baron
Baer, Karl Ernst von
Baird, S. F.
Balfour, F. M.
Banks, Sir Joseph
Barton, B. S.
Bates, Henry Walter
Bauhin, Gaspard
Beion, Pierre
Bentham, George
Berkeley, M. J.
Blainville, H. M. Duc-
rotay de
Bloch, Mark Eliezer
Blumenbach, J. F.
• Bonpland, A. J. A.
Borv de Saint- Vincent,
J.* B. G. M.
Rose, L. A. G.
Brisson, M. J.
Brotlerip, W. J.
Brongniart, A. T.
Broussonet, P. M # . A.
Brown, Robert
Buckland, F. T.
Buffon, G. L L. de
Caesalpinus, Andreas
Camerarius, Joachim
Camerarius, R. J.
Camper, Peter
Candolle, A. P. de
Carpenter, W. B.
Cavanilles, A. J.
Claparede, J. L. R.
A. E.
Cobbold, T. S.
Cohn, Ferdinand Julius
Combe, George
Coues, E.
Cuvier, Baron
Darwin, Charles R.
Darwin, Erasmus
Daubenton, L. J. M.
De Bary, H. A.
Desfontaines, R. L.
Dillen (Dilienius), J. J.
Donovan, Edward
Dryander, Jonas
Duhamel du Monceau
Dutrochet, R. J. H.
Edwards, George
Eschschoitz, J. F.
Fabricius, J. C.
Falconer, Hugh
Fiourens, M. J. P.
Flower, Sir William H.
Forbes, Edward
Forskal, Peter
Fortune, Robert
Fraas, Karl Nikolas
Fries, Elias Magnus
Fuchs, Leon hard
Gall, Franz Joseph
Gaudichaud-Beauprd
Gegenbaur, Carl
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
E.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
I.
Gerard, John
Gervais, Paul
Gesner, K. von
Gosse, Philip Henry
Gould, A. A.
Gray, Asa
Gray, John Edward
Grew, Nehemiah
Haeckel, E. H.
Hagenbeck, Carl
Hales, Stephen
Hasselquist, Frederik
Hofmeister, W. F. B.
Hooker, Sir Joseph D.
Hooker, Sir William J.
Huber, Francois
Huxley, T. H.
Hyatt, Alpheus
Jager, Gustav
Jesse, Edward
Jussieu, De (family)
Kaup, Johann Jakob
Kirby, William
Kolliker, R. A. von
Kiihne, Willy
Lacepfrde, B. G. E. de
La Ville, comte de
Lamarck
Latreiile, P. A.
Lawes, Sir John B.
Leeuwenhoek, A. van
I^eidy, Joseph
Lindley, John
Linnaeus
Lomhroso, Cesare
Ludwig, K. F. W.
MacgiHivray, W. an;l !
Malpighi, Marcello
Marsh, O. C.
Martius, C. F. P. von
Martyn, John
Michaux, Andr£
Milne-Edwards, Henry
Mivart, St. George J.
Mohl, Hugo von
Morgagni, G. B.
Miiller, F. von, baron
Miiller, J. P.
Naegeli, K. W. van
Nees von Esenbeck
Newton, Alfred
North, Marianne
Nuttall, Thomas
Oken, Lorenz
Ormerod, Eleanor A.
Owen, Sir Richard
Pennant, Thomas
Pringsheim, Nathanael
Quatrefages de Br&iu
Ray (or Wray), John
Reaumur, R. A. F. de
Richardson, Sir John
Romanes, G. J.
Royle, John Forbes
Sachs, Julius von
Saint-Hilaire, A. de
Saussure, N. T. de
Schleiden, M. J.
Schultze, M. J. S.
Schwann, Theodor
Senebier, Jean
Sibthorp, John
Siebold, C. T. E. von
Sowerby, James
Spallanzani, Lazaro
Sprengel, Kurt
Spurzheiin, J. C.
Swamtnerdatn, Jan
Swurtz. Oiof
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Thomson, Sir C. W.
Thunberg, K. P.
Thuret, G. A.
Tiedemann, Friedrich
Torrey, John
Tournefort, J. P. dc
Treviranus, G. R.
Tylor, E. B.
Virchow, Rudolf
Wagner, Rudolph
Wallace, A. Russel
Waterton, Charles
Weismann, August
White, Gilbert
Williamson, W. C.
Willughby, Francis
Wilson, Alexander,
Wolff, C. F.
Wood, John George
Yarrell, William
CHAPTER LVIII
BOTANY
THERE are many gardeners and
lovers of gardens, but compara-
tively few have even the most
elementary knowledge of botany. How
many, for instance, know or remember
that in the leaves of plants are situated
the kitchens in which they prepare their
food, or more than vaguely recognize the
presence of a nervous system in plant
organisms (Vol. 21, p. 747)? The major-
ity, indeed, ignore the fact that a little
study will add a hundred-fold to their
enjoyment, and that, unlike most scien-
tific subjects, botany can be studied with
a minimum of trouble or toil, and with
the simplest apparatus. His own garden,
the woods and fields, will give the in-
quirer ample subjects for his investiga-
tions, and, as in every other undertaking,
the longer he pursues it the more he will
see, and the more intense will be his
pleasure in the contemplation of the
garden of his cultivation.
Botany is, of course, one branch of an
enormous subject. The student will,
therefore, do well to familiarize himself
with the general articles which cover the
science of living matter, as outlined in
the chapter on Biology. In that chapter
references have in fact already been
given to certain sections of the strictly
botanical articles. The general arrange-
ment of the subject in the Britannica is
as follows: — (i.) articles dealing with the
broad aspects of the science; (ii.) articles
on "systematic" botany treating of the
various families of plants; (iii.) articles
describing members of their families.
Following the most convenient and at
the same time the most logical course,
the article Botany (Vol. 4, p. 299) gives
a key to the treaty
General ment of the whole
Principles subject in the Bri-
tannica. This is by
A. B. Rendle, keeper of the Department
of Botany, British Museum, who acted
as general adviser to the editor in the ar-
rangement of this branch of biology in
the Britannica. The main article on the
subject is under the heading Plants
(Vol. 21, p. 728), by a number of eminent
authorities. The article is divided as
follows: Classification, by A. B. Rendle;
Anatomy and History and Bibliography,
by A. G. Tansley, lecturer in botany in
the University of Cambridge; Physiology,
by J. R. Green, formerly lecturer on plant
physiology, University of Liverpool;
Pathology, by H. M. Ward, formerly pro-
fessor of botany, University of Cam-
bridge; Ecology, which comprises the
study of the relations of the individual
plant, or species, or the plant community,
with its habitat, by C. E. Moss, curator
of the Cambridge University Herbarium;
Cytology, which treats of the cell struc-
ture of plant organisms, by H. W. T.
Wager, president of the Botanical section
of the British Association, 1905; Mor-
pkology % by S. H. Vines, professor of
botany, University of Oxford, and presi-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
dent of the Linnean Society, 1900-1904;
Distribution, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer,
director of the Kew Botanical Gardens.
Supplementary to the article Plants are
the following, which should all be read
carefully: Root (Vol. 23, p. 712), Stem
(Vol. 25, p. 875), Leaf (Vol. 16, p. 322),
Flower (Vol. 10, p. 553), Fruit (Vol. 11,
p. 254). A very important article is that
on Palaeobotany (Vol. 20, p. 524),
which treats of the distribution, etc., of
plant life in prehistoric periods. The
contributor is Clement Reid of the
Geological Survey of England and Wales,
an original investigator in this important
field. The advances in the study of
minute plant organisms in the past few
years have been very great and they
receive treatment in the brilliant article
Bacteriology (Vol. 3, p. 156), by Prof.
H. M. Ward of Cambridge University,
and V. H. Blackmann, professor of botany
in the University of Leeds.
Other articles in the Britannica which
refer to the general principles of the sci-
ence will be found enumerated at the
end of this chapter.
The student must, of course, make
himself familiar with the primary divi-
sions of the vegetable kingdom. These
are considered in or-
Divisions and der below. By far
Classification the biggest and the
most important is
that of the Angiosperms. They will be
treated first.
The division Angiosperms (Vol. 2, p.
9) includes all those flowering plants
whose seeds are enclosed in capsules.
This division is again
Angiosperms: divided into two
Dicotyledons classes: the Dicoty-
ledons (Vol. 8, p.
185), which are distinguished by the
presence of a pair of seed-leaves or coty-
ledons in the embryo contained in the
seed; and the Monocotyledons (see Vol.
2, p. 13), which contain only one. The
former embraces most of the flower-
bearing plants, and includes the following
families: — Boraginaceae (Vol. 4, p. 242)
to which order belongs such plants as
forget-me-nots, borage, heliotrope, etc.
Caprifoliaceae (Vol. 5, p. 290), which
include elder, honeysuckle, etc. Cary-
ophyllaceae (Vol. 5, p. 489), with the
pinks, carnations, etc. Compositae (Vol.
6, p. 811), which is the largest order in
this division and includes one-tenth of
the whole number of flowering plants,
with such varieties as lettuce, dandelion,
artichoke, sunflower, chrysanthemum,
etc. Convolvulaceae (Vol. 7, p. 67),
among which are the convolvulus, sweet
potato, bindweed. Crassulaceae (Vol.
7, p. 380), which include a quantity of
African plants. Cruciferae (Vol. 7, p.
521), with the wallflower, stock, mustard,
cabbage, radish, nasturtium, etc. Cu-
curbitaceae (Vol. 7, p. 611), among
which are the cucumber, melon, etc.
Cupuliferae (Vol. 7, p. 635), with the
hazel, oak, beech, alder. Ericaceae
(Vol. 9, p. 739), with the rhododendron,
arbutus, whortleberry, heather. Euphor-
biaceae (Vol. 9, p. 892), which include
the castor-oil plant, box, euphorbia, etc.
Gentianaceae (Vol. 11, p. 601), with the
gentian, yellow-wort, bog-bean, etc. Ger-
aniaceae (Vol. 11, p. 762), whose name
is derived from the geranium. Labiatae
(Vol. 16, p. 3), with peppermint, mar-
joram, thyme, sage, ground-ivy. Le-
guminosae (Vol. 16, p. 381), which em-
brace gorse, furze, scarlet runner, mimosa,
acacia, rest-harrow, etc. Malvaceae
(Vol. 17, p. 517), with the mallow, hibis-
cus, hollyhock. The Moraceae (Vol. 18,
p. 814), with the fig, mulberry, banyan,
etc. Onagraceae (Vol. 20, p. 104), in-
cluding the evening primrose, fuschia,
etc. Polygonaceae (Vol. 22, p. 26),
with dock, rhubarb, buckwheat, etc.
Primulaceae (Vol. 22, p. 341), including
primrose, cowslip, pimpernel. Rantjn-
culaceae (Vol. 22, p. 895), with the va-
rieties buttercup, clematis, aconite, lark-
spur, columbine, marsh marigold, anem-
one. Rosaceae (Vol. 23, p. 722), to
which the rose gives the name, ancj which
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include strawberry, raspberry, apple,
pear, plum, spiraea, blackthorn, etc.
Rubiaceae (Vol. 23, p. 808), with gar-
denias, chincona, coffee, madder. Saxi-
fragaceae (Vol. 24, p. 263), saxifrage,
japonica, gooseberry, hydrangea. Scro-
phulariaceae (Vol. 24, p. 485), with
veronica, foxglove, snapdragon, etc. So-
lanaceae (Vol. 25, p. 356), which em-
brace henbane, tobacco, deadly night-
shade, cape gooseberry, capsicum. Um-
belliferae (Vol. 27, p. 575), to which
belong ivy, carrot, hemlock, celery, cara-
way, parsley. Urticaceae (Vol. 27, p.
805), which include the nettle tribes.
The Monocotyledons include the Alis-
maceae (Vol. 1, p. 671), to which belong
the arrow-head, the water plantain, the
butomus (so called
Angiosperms : because the leaves
Monocotyledons cut the tongues of
oxen feeding on
them), and other water plants. Aroideae
(Vol. 2, p. 640), so called from the Arum
family. The Bromeliaceae (Vol. 4, p.
632), including pineapple, Spanish-moss.
Cyperaceae (Vol. 7, p. 692), with bul-
rush, cotton grass,' etc. Grasses (Vol.
12, p. 369), a most valuable article.
Hydrocharideae (Vol. 14, p. 112), which
include a number of water plants. Irida-
ceae (Vol. 14, p. 793), which include be-
sides the iris, the crocus, gladiolus, etc.
The Juncaceae (Vol. 15, p. 555) , or Rush
family; and the Liliaceae (Vol. 16, p.
683), which include asparagus, hyacinth,
star of Bethlehem, fritillary, bluebell, etc.
Another big division is that of the
Gymnosperms (Vol. 12, p. 754). These
have naked seed pods; that is to say, the
seeds are not en-
Other closed in capsules.
Divisions The best known and
largest division of
this class contains the conifers: pines,
firs, cedars, larches, etc.
Pteridophyta (Vol. 22, p. 605), or
spore-producing plants, including the
fern families as the largest and most im-
portant of its members.
Bryophyta (Vol. 4, p. 700), the second
great sub-division of the vegetable king-
dom, comprises the mosses and liver-
worts.
Algae (Vol. 1, p. 585), plants usually
devoid of differentiation into roots, stem,
and leaf, coming under the general class of
Bryophyta, and including sea-weeds as
the main group.
Lichens (Vol. 16, p. 578), compound
dual organisms, part algae and part fun-
gus, interesting because the dual organ-
ism enables the plant to live where neither
of its compounds could live alone. Ice-
land moss, valuable both for its nutritive
and medicinal qualities, comes under
this division.
Fungi (Vol. 11, p. 333), an enormous
class, comprising, according to Saccardo,
32,000 different species.
Bacteria (see Bacteriology, Vol. 3, p.
156), minute organisms, also known as
microbes, bacilli, etc., technically called
Schizomycetes.
Insectivorous Plants (Vol. 14, p.
644), more correctly termed Carnivorous,
belong to a number of distinct natural
orders, but agree in the extraordinary
habit of adding to the supplies of nitro-
genous material offered them by the soil
and atmosphere by the capture and con-
sumption of insects and other small ani-
mals.
These are the main divisions, and from
the articles describing them the student
will acquire a sound knowledge of the
characteristics which distinguish each.
As a matter of fact, interest in botany as
a subject is first inspired by the particular
rather than the general— that is to say,
the love of individual flowers leads to the
study of their habits and life history,
thence to a comparison which leads to
the recognition of similar characteristics
in plants having apparently widely dif-
ferent functions, so that the following
section of the subject, touching the
natural history of plants, though really
placed last in a logical course of reading
in botany, wiil contain much that is al-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
ready known to the student who wishes
to pursue the subject systematically.
In the Britannica from the various
articles concerning the natural history of
individual plants it is easy to trace back
to what family and
Natural main division each
History plant belongs. To
the student begin-
ning the subject it will be most suggestive
to look up the accounts of the plants
which are cultivated in his garden, or
which he can find near his home, and
find out the family relationship between
subjects which appear to differ very
widely both in habits and characteristics.
From the outline given above in the para-
graph devoted to systematic botany an
indication will be given him of the sur-
prises which are in store for him as he
pursues his investigation. He would not
at first suspect, for example, that aspara-
gus and hyacinths were cousins, that
roses, apples, and blackthorn are closely
related, or that chrysanthemums and
artichokes have any connection with one
another, let alone cabbage and wall-
flowers. An excellent scheme to arouse .
the interest of the young student would
therefore be to encourage him to pick out
from the list below the names of plants
with which he is familiar and of which
he can get specimens, and thence work
backward until the meanings of the main
divisions of the vegetable kingdom are
clear to him.
In the natural history section of the
following list will be found in alphabetical
order the plants which have separate ar-
ticles in the Britannica. Many plants
besides these are of course described.
They will be found in the Index, where
the volume and page on which a descrip-
tion will be found are given.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE BRITANNICA ON BOTANY
(For biographies of botanists, see the end of the chapter on Biology)
Botany: General
Acaulescent
Caespitose
Herb
Ruderal
Acerose
Cane
Herbarium
Sap
Acinus
Capsule
Humus
Sarcocarp
Acorn
Cataphyll
Idioblast
Sarmentose
Alburnum
Chlorosis
Leaf
Scion
Angulate
Colleter
Marcescent
Secund
Ascus
Corn
Meristem
Seed
Autogamy
Cystolith
Nut
Stem
Auxanometer
Deciduous
Paleobotany
Synanthy
Axile, or Axial
Fairy Ring
Pin-eved
Thorn
Bacteriology
Flower
Pistif
Thrum-eyed
Botany
Fruit
Plants
Tree
Boll
Galls
Pollination
Vegetable
Bur, or Burr
Glaucous
Root
Witch brooms
Caducous
Graft
Botany: Systematic
Acotyledones
Compositae
Gentianaceae
Moraceae
Acrogenac
Convolvulaceae
Geraniaceae
On agr aceae
Algae
Crassulaceae
Grasses
Polygonaceae
Alismaceae
Cruciferae
Gymnosperms
Primulaceae
Amentiferae, or Amen-
Cucurbit aceae
Hydrocharideae
Pteridophyta
taceae
Cupuliferae
Insectivorous Plants
Ranunculaceae
Angiosperms
Cyperaceae
I ridaceae
Ros aceae
Aroideae (Arum family)
Diatomaceae
Juncaceae
Rubiaceae
Boraginaceae
Dicotyledons
Labiatae
Saxifragaceae
Bromeliaceae
Dictybgens
Leguminosae
Scrophulariaceae
Bryophyta
Ericaceae
I .ichens
Solanaceae
Caprifoliaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Liliaceae
Umbel li ferae
Caryophyllaceae
Fungi
Malvaceae
Urticaceae
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BOTANY
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Botany: Natural History
Aal
Aaron's Rod
Abaca
Abutilon
Acacia
Acanthus
Achimenes
Acorus Calamus
Adonis
African Lily
Agave
Agrimony
A i Ian thus
Alder
Aleurites
Alexanders
Algum, or Almug Tree
A lift man da
AUiaria officinalis
Allium
Almond
Aloe
Amadou
Amanita
Amaranth
Amaryllis
Ammoniacum, or Gum
Ammoniac
Ampelopsis
Anatto
Anemone
Angelica
Anime*
Anise
Apple
Apricot
Araucaria
Arbor Vitae
Archil
Aristolochia
Arrowroot
Artichoke
Ash
Asparagus
Aspen
Asphodel
Aspidistra
Aster
Aubergine
Aucuba
Auricula
Avocado Pear
Azalea
Bael Fruit
Balm
Bamboo
Banana
Baneberry
Banksia
Baobab
Barberry
Barley
Bdellium
Bean
Beech
Beet
Begonia
Benzoin, or Gum Ben-
jamin
Betel Nut
Bilberry
Birch
Bird's Eye
Blackberry
Bladder-wort
Boletus
Borage
Botrytis
Bottle-brush Plants
Bouvardia
Boxwood
Bracket-fungi
Brazil Nuts
Brazil Wood
Bread-fruit
Brooklime
Broom
Broom-rape
Buchu, or Buka Leaves
Buck-bean, or Bog-
bean
Buckthorn
Buckwheat
Bulrush
Burnet
Buttercup
Butter-nut
Butterwort
Cabbage
Cactus
Calabash
Calabash Tree
Calceolaria
Camellia
Campanula
Candytuft
Cannon-ball Tree
Capers
Caraway
Cardamom
Cardoon
Carnation
Carrot
Cashew Nut
Cassava
Cassia
Casuarina
Catalpa
Catha
Cayenne Pepper
Ceanothus
Cecropia
Cedar
Celandine
Celery
Centaurea
Centaury
Chantarelle
Chenopodium
Cherry
Chestnut
Chicory
Chive
Chrysanthemum
Cicely
Cimicifuga
Cinchona
Cineraria
Cinnamon
Citron
Cleavers
Clematis
Climbing Fern
Cloudberry
Clover
Cloves
Coca, or Cuca
Cocculus Indicus
Cock's-comb
Cocoa
Coco de Mer
Coco-nut Palm
Codiaeum
Coffee
Colchicum
Coleus
Colocynth
Colt's-foot
Columbine
Compass Plant
Cotton
Copaiba, or Copaiva
Copal
Coriander
Cork
Corn-salad
Correa
Cotoneaster
Cow-tree
Cranberry
Cress
Crinum
Crocus
Crowberry
Cryptomeria
Cucumber
Cumin, or Cummin
Currant
Custard Apple
Cyclamen
Cypress
Daffodil
Dahlia
Daisy
Dame's Violet
Dammar, or Damrner
Dandelion
Daphne
Darlingtonia
Date Palm
Dewberry
Dividivi
Dock
Dodder
Dogwood
Dracaena
Dragon's Blood
Dropwort
Duckweed
Dulse
Duramen
Durian
Durra
Earth-nut
Earth-star
Ebony
Edelweiss
Eglantine
Elder
Elecampane
Elephant's Foot *
Elm
Endive
Entada
Esparto, or Spanish
Grass
Eucharis
Euonymus
Euphorbia
Evergreen
Everlasting, or Immor-
telle
Fennel
Fenugreek
Fern
Fig
Filmy Ferns
Finger-and-toe
Fir
Flax
Fool's Parsley
Forget-me-not
Foxglove
Freesia
Fritillary
Frog-bit
Fuchsia
Fumitory
Funkia
Furze, Gorse, or Whin
Fustic
Gale
Gardenia
Garlic
Genista
Gentian
Geranium
Geum
Gillyflower
Ginger
Gladiolus
Glass wort
Gloriosa
Gloxinia
Golden Rod
Gooseberry
Gourd
Grains of Paradise
Gram, or Chick-pea
Granadilla
Grass of Parnassus
Greenheart
Ground Nut
Groundsel
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Guava
Guelder Rose
Gulfweed
Gam
Gumbo, or Okra
Gutta Percha
Hackberry
HarebeU
Hawthorn
Hazel
Heath
Heliotrope, or Turnsole
Hellebore
Hemlock
Hemp
Henbane
Henna
Hickory
Hippeastrum
Holly
Hollyhock
Honey Locust
Honeysuckle
Hop
Horehound
Hornbeam
Horseradish
Horsetail
Houseleek
Huckleberry
Huon Pine
Hyacinth
Hydrangea
Hyssop
Iceland Moss
Ice-plant
Impatiens
Iris
Irish Moss, or Carra-
geen
Iron-wood
Ivy
Jarrah Wood
Jasmine, or Jessamine
Jew's Ears
Job's Tears
Judas Tree
Jujube
Juniper
Jute
Kaffir Bread
Kauri Pine
Kerguelen's Land Cab-
bage
Kumquat
Labrador Tea
Laburnum
Lac
Lace-bark Tree
Lancewood
Larch
Larkspur
Lattice Leaf Plant
Laurel
Laurustinus
Lavender
Leek
Lemon
Lentil
Lettuce
Lilac, or Pipe Tree
lily
Lime, or Linden
Liquidambar, or Sweet
Gum
Litchi, or Lee-Chee
Lobelia
Loco-weeds, or Crazy
Weeds
Locust-tree
Loosestrife
Loquat
Lotus
Lucerne
Lupine
Lycopodium
Madder, or Dyer's
Madder
Magnolia
Mahogany
Maidenhair
Maize, or Indian Corn
Mallow
Mammee Apple
Mandrake
Mangel-Wurzel
Mango
Mangosteen
Mangrove
Manila Hemp
Manna
Maple
Mare's-tail
Marguerite
Marigold
Marjoram
Mastic, or Mastich
Mate, or Paraguay Tea
Medlar
Melon
Mesquite, or Honey
Locust
Mignonette
Mildew
Milkwort
Millet
Mimosa
Mimulus
Mint
Mistletoe
Moly
Momordica
Moonseed
Moonwort, or Moonfern
Moreton Bay Chestnut
Mucuna
Mulberry
Mushroom
Mustard
Myrobalans
Myrrh
Myrtle
Narcissus
Nasturtium
Nettle
Nettle Tree
Nightshade
Rape
Nutmeg
Oak
Raspberry
Oat
Rhododendron
Oleander
Rice
Oleaster
Richardia
Olive
Robinia, or Locust-tree
Onion
Rocambole
Orach, or Mountain Rose
Spinach
Rosemary
Orange
Rosewood
Orchids
Rosin, or Colophony
Orris-Root
Royal Fern
Osier
Rubber
Oxalis
Rue
Paeony
Rush
Palm
Rye
Palmetto
Sabicu Wood
Pansy, or Heartsease Safflower
Papyrus
Saffron
Parsley
Sago
Parsnip
Sainfoin
Passionflower
St. John's Wort
Pea
Salsafy, or Salsify
Peach
Salvia
Pear
Sapan Wood
Pellitory
Sarracenia
Pennyroyal
Satin Wood
Pentstemon
Saxifrage
Pepper
Scammony
Peppermint
Scorzonera
Pepper Tree
Screw-pine
Sea-kale
Persimmon
Petunia
Seawrack
Phlox
Sedum
Phormium, or
New Sequoia
Zealand Flax
Service Tree
Pimento
Sesame
Pine
Shaddock
Pine-apple
Shallot
Pink
Sisal Hemp
Pistachio Nut
Skirret
Pitcher-plants
Snake-root
Plane
Snapdragon
Plantain
Snowdrop
Plum
Soap-bark
Poinsettia
Sorghum
Pokeberry, or
Poke- Sorrel
weed
Spanish Broom
Polyanthus
Spikenard, or Nard
Polypodium
Spinach
Pomegranate
Spruce
Pondweed
Stink-wood
Poplar
Strawberry
Poppy
Strophanti us
Sudd
Potato
Potentilla
Sumach
Primrose
Sundew
Privet
Sunflower
Puff-ball
Sunn, or India Hemp
Pumpkin
Purslane
Sweet Potato
Sweet-sop
Pyrethrum
Switch Plants
Quince
Tallow Tree
Radish
Tamarind
Ramie
Tamarisk
Ramsons
Tea
Ranunculus
Teak
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Teasel
Terebinth
Thistle
Thyme
Tiger-flower
Toadstool
Tobacco
Tomato
Tonqua Bean
Toothwort
Traveller's Tree
Tree-fern
Venus's Looking-glass
Willow
Truffle
Veratrum
Willow-herb
Tuberose
Verbena
Wintergreen
Tulip
Vetch
Winter's-bark
Tulip Tree
Tumble-weed
Vine
Witch-hazel
Violet
Woad
Turmeric
Walnut
Wormwood
Turnip
Vanilla
Water-lily
Yam
Water-thyme
Yew
Vegetable Marrow
Wax-tree
Yucca
Venus's Fly-trap
Wheat
Zinnia
CHAPTER LIX
ZOOLOGY
AT the very outset of his zoological
studies the reader will find that
the doctors still differ as to the
best and most scientifically logical sys-
tem to be employed in classification. So
important is it that the connotation and
denotation of every zoological designa-
tion should be definite, that Sir Edwin
Ray Lankester devotes the title article
Zoology (Vol. 28, p. 1022) mainly to a
discussion of systems of classification,
and besides there is a separate article
Zoological Nomenclature (Vol. 28, p.
1021) by P. Chalmers Mitchell, Secretary
of the Zoological Society of London, uni-
versity demonstrator in comparative
anatomy and assistant to the Linacre
Professor at Oxford, and adviser to the
editor in the organization of the whole
subject of zoology in the Britannica.
The Britannica articles may be classi-
fied in three divisions: dealing with
(i) General Principles, (ii) Systematic,
(iii) Natural History.
The student should read at any rate
some of the general articles mentioned in
the chapter on Biology; and these will
prepare him for the difficult questions
involved in the arti-
General cles Zoology and
Principles Zoological Nom-
enclature. Supple-
mentary to these are the following:
Animal (Vol. 2, p. 48), in connec-
tion with which should be read the
article Protista (Vol. 22, p. 476)
where the borderland between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms is further dis-
cussed, and the very valuable article
Protozoa (Vol. 22, p. 479) in which
£. A. Minchin, professor of protozoology
in the University of London, discusses
the minute animal organisms, which in
the last decade have proved immensely
important in the study of parasitic dis-
eases. In Larval Forms (Vol. 16, p.
224), and Metamorphosis (Vol. 18,
p. 221) Prof. Adam Sedgwick, of the
Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology in London, discusses the early
history of larvae and their change from
larval to adult growth. The articles
Metamerism (Vol. 18, p. 215), by Sir
Edwin Ray Lankester, and Regenera-
tion op Lost Parts (Vol. 23, p. 36),
by P. Chalmers Mitchell, discuss the
capacity for repeating parts (as in the
case of the common earth worm) and for
the formation of new parts to take the^
place of those lost by accident or injury.
The article Monster (Vol. 18, p. 740)
by Dr. Charles Creighton will be found
very suggestive.
The eyes of most of us are shut to
the wonders of the animal kingdom.
We know by hearsay that the colouring
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
of an animal or insect, brilliant and
startling though it
Protective often be, is designed
Modifications by nature for pro-
tection by enabling
it to assimilate itself to that of its sur-
roundings. But how many of us have
taken the trouble to verify this? The
articles Colours of Animals, Bionomics
(Vol. 6, p. 731), by Prof. Poulton of
Oxford, and Mimicry (Vol. 18, p. 495),
by R. I. Pocock, superintendent of the
Zoological Gardens in London, will sug-
gest to the reader many objects for
observation. Especially interesting in
the former article is the section on the
use of colour for warning and signaling.
In connection with these articles, those
on Egg (Vol. 9, p. 13) and Feather
(Vol. 10, p. 224), by W. P. Pycraft, of
the British Museum, may be read, and
Nidification (Vol. 19, p. 666), by Prof.
Alfred Newton of Cambridge Univer-
sity, and Hans Gadow, Strickland cura-
tor and lecturer on zoology in the Univer-
sity of Cambridge; especially those sec-
tions concerned with the precautions
taken by the birds for protection and
concealment. A very fascinating sub-
ject is discussed in the articles dealing
with the distribution and movements of
animal life. These are Zoological Dis-
tribution (Vol. 28, p. 1002), by the
well-known zoologist Richard Lydekker;
Migration (Vol. 18, p. 433), by Hans
Gadow; and Plankton (Vol. 21, p. 720),
by G. H. Fowler of University College,
London. Reference to these articles
has already been made in the chapter
on Biology. Closely connected with
them is the article on Palaeontology
(Vol. 20, p. 579), by Prof. H. F. Osborn,
Columbia University and American Mu-
seum of Natural History, in which the
distribution of prehistoric life is discussed;
and, as will be seen from the list below,
all the principal species now only found
in fossil remains are described in separate
articles.
The editor succeeded in getting the
psychologist, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan,
of the University of Bristol, who has
made a specialty of
Intelligence this particular sub-
of Animals ject, to write ex-
tremely illuminating
articles on Instinct and on Intelli-
gence in Animals (Vol. 14, pp. 648 and
680). Interesting as throwing a side
light on either the instinct or intelligence
of birds, is the section on their song in
the article Song (Vol. 25, p. 413). It is
hardly possible to look through any of
these articles, or those on mimicry and
colour, above alluded to, without coming
across some striking and interesting fact,
as for instance, the sudden change from
a divine melody to an anxious croak in
the utterance of the male nightingale as
soon as the brood is hatched. These arti-
cles will be read for their great interest by
many who do not intend systematically
to pursue the subject of Zoology.
The housing of animals in captivity is
discussed in the articles Aquarium (Vol.
2, p. 237), by Professor G. H. Fowler,
University College,
Animals in London; Aviary
Captivity (Vol. 3, p. 60), by
D. Seth-Smith, cu-
rator of birds to the Zoological Society
of London; and Zoological Gardens
(Vol. 28, p. 1018), by P. Chalmers Mit-
chell. The first two contain some very
useful hints for the care of small aquaria
and aviaries; and young people who like
to have aquaria at home, and are often
disappointed by their failure to keep
alive some of their specimens, especially
larval and other surface-swimming ani-
mals, will find one of their difficulties
solved. These surface-swimming ani-
mals die of exhaustion from their unaided
efforts to keep off the bottom, lacking
the support given in their surroundings
by the natural flow of the water, native
tides, and surface currents. The article
describes a very simple arrangement by
which this motion of the water can be
simulated.
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355
Other articles which will be found
very interesting are those on Hiberna-
tion (Vol. 13, p. 441) and on Incuba-
tion and Incubators (Vol. 14, p. 359).
In the latter many will be surprised to
note that incubators have been in use
in Egypt from time immemorial under
the name MamaL In one district of
Egypt alone 90,000,000 eggs are annually
hatched out in these old time incubators,
of which the secret has been handed
down, jealously guarded, from father
to son. In the article Taxidermy (Vol.
26, p. 464), Montagu Browne, a prac-
tical taxidermist, deals with the artistic
as well as the technical aspects of the craft.
Turning to the articles of the chief
divisions of the animal kingdom, the most
useful arrangement will be to enumerate
them in their order.
Classification As has been already
and Divisions said, zoologists do
not yet agree as to
the best system of classification; the one
which is given in the Britannica is that
upon which the very eminent zoologists
who have contributed the special articles,
agree as being the most suitable. There
are two main grades. The Protozoa
(Vol. 22, p. 479) contain the ani-
malcules, mainly microscopic. These are
the most elementary forms of life and
consist of single cells. The other and
more important grade is that of the
METAZOA,which are built up of many cells.
The main sub-divisions (called phyla)
of the Protozoa are: phylum i. Sarcodina
(Vol. 24, p. 208); phylum ii. Mastigo-
phora (Vol. 17, p.
Protozoa 873); phylum iii.
Sporozoa (Vol. 25,
p. 734); phylum iv. Infusoria (Vol. 14,
557).
Coming next, the Metazoa in their
order are, as follows: phylum i. Porifera
(see Sponges, Vol. 25, p. 715); phylum ii.
Hydromedusae or
Metazoa Hydrozoa (Vol. 14,
pp. 135 and 171)
which include aquatic animals of the
coral kind; phylum iii. Scyphomedusa
(Vol. 24, p. 519) which include groups of
shell fish; phylum iv. Anthozoa (Vol. 2,
p. 97) with the corals; phylum v. Cteno-
phora (Vol. 7, p. 592) including the
jelly fish; phylum vi. Platyelmia (Vol.
21, p. 826) a group of animals in which
creeping first became habitual; phylum
vii. Nematoidea (see Nematoda, Vol.
19, p. 359) which include certain kinds
of worms; phylum viii. Chaetognatha
(Vol. 5, p. 789) an isolated class of
transparent pelagic organisms; phy-
lum ix. Nemertina (Vol. 19, p.
363) worm families; phylum x. Mol-
lusca (Vol. 2, p. 669) shell-bearing
animals.
Phylum xi. Appendiculata (Vol. 2,
p. 220) which include the sub-phyla
Rotifera (Vol. 23, p. 759), Chaetopoda
(Vol. 5, p. 789), and Arthropoda (Vol.
2, p. 673), the sub-phylum which com-
prises practically the whole insect family.
Important articles on animals in this
class are: Hexapoda (Vol. 13, p. 418)
which include the wasp, beetle, and other
families; the Crustacea (Vol. 7, p. 552)
which cover a field wide enough to
embrace species as different outwardly
as lobsters, wood-lice, and minute water
fleas; and Arachnida (Vol. 2, p. 287)
the spider family. Phylum xii. Echino-
derma (Vol. 8, p. 871) with all the sea-
urchins and star fish.
Phylum xiii. Vertebrata (Vol. 27,
p. 1047) to which man belongs as an
order of a sub-class of a class of a sub-
phylum. The most important sub-phy-
lum of the Vertebrata is the Craniata
(see Vol. 27, p. 1048). The sub-phyla
Hemichorda (Vol. 13, p. 257), Urochorda
(see Tunicata, Vol. 27, p. 379), and
Cephalochorda (see Amphioxus, Vol.
1, p. 886) deal with the lower orders of
Vertebrata. The sub-phylum Craniata
comprises the following classes: class i.
Pisces, see Ichthyology (Vol. 14, p.
243) with the fishes; class ii. Batrachia
(Vol. 3, p. 521), with the frog tribe;
class iii. Reptilia (see Reptiles, Vol. 23,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
p. 136); and in close connection with
this — class iv. Aves (see Bikd, Vol. 3,
p. 959, and Ornithology, Vol. 20, p.
299); class v. Mammalia (Vol. 17, p. 520)
to which man belongs.
Phylum xiv. Mesozoa (Vol. 18, p. 187)
minute parasitic animals intermediate
between the Protozoa and the Metazoa.
Phylum xv. Polyzoa (Vol. 22, p. 42)
aquatic animals forming colonies by
budding. Phylum xvi. Acanthoceph-
ala (Vol. 1, p. 109) including the para-
sitic worms. Phylum xvii. Podaxonia
(Vol. 28, p. 1023), and phylum xviii.
Gastrotricha (Vol. 11, p. 526) minute
animals living at the bottom of ponds
and marshes.
This is an outline of the main division
of the animal kingdom in their order as
now classified. The subject of zoology
is so vast that the student will proba-
bly confine himself to one branch of the
subject, perhaps to one small fraction
of a division, of
Natural which he proposes to
History investigate the com-
plete natural history.
As will be seen from the list below,
which is classified, the Britannica offers
an immense amount of material bearing
on the subject. But of course the study
of any one sub-class needs a general
knowledge of the foundations of zoolo-
gical science, so that some acquaintance
with the principles on which the animal
world is classified is indispensable. As
in Botany, it will be easy to see from
the article on any individual animal to
which family it belongs so that the young
student can work back from the particu-
lar to the general and find out the whole
relationship of the subject in which he
is interested by reference to the "sys-
tematic" article.
LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ON ZOOLOGY
(For biographies of Zoologists, see the end of the chapter on Biology)
Pylome
Quill
Regeneration of Lost
Parts
Sex
Song (of Birds)
Taxidermy
Vermin
Zoology
Zoological Distribution
Zoological Gardens
Zoological Nomencla-
ture
Gephyrea
Globigerina
Gnathopoda
Gregannes
Gymnostomaceae
Haemosporidia
Haplodrili
Heliozoa
Hemiptera
Heterokaryota
Hexapoda
Hydromedusae
Hydrozoa
Hymenoptera
Zoology: General
Aboraasum
Dewlap
Megan ucleus
Acetabulum
Dorsiventral
Membranelle
Animal
Dredge
Metamerism
Aquarium
Egg
Metamorphosis
Micronucleus
Aviary
Feather
Beak .
Grub
Migration
Breeds and Breeding
Herd
Mimicry
Carapace
Hibernation
Mongrel
Colours of Animals
Incubation and Incuba-
• Monster
Comparative Anatomy
tors
Moult
Conch
Instinct
Nest
Contractile Vacuole
Intelligence in Animals
i Nidification
Crepuscular
Karyogamy
Plankton
Dew-claw
Larval Forms
Proboscis
Zoology, Systematic:
Invertebrata
Acanthocephala
Brachiopoda
Difflugia
Acineta
Campodea
Dinoflagellata
Actinozoa
Cephalopoda
Diptera
Ecninoderma
Algae
Chaetognatha
Amoeba
Chaetopoda
Echiuroidea
Annelida
Ciliata
Ectospora
Anthozoa
Coccidia
Endospora
Appendiculata
Coelentera
Entomostraca
Aptera
Coleoptera
Epistylis
Arachnida
Crustacea
Filosa
Arcella
Ctenophora
Flagellata
Arthropoda
Articulata
Cystoflagellata
Foraminifera
Dendrocometes
Gastropoda
Aspirotrochaceae
Desmoscolecida
Gastrotricha
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ZOOLOGY 357
Infusoria
Nematoda
Platyelmia
Rotifera
Kinorhyncha
Nematomorpha
Polyp
Sarcodina
Labyrinthulidea
Nemertina
Polyzoa
Scaphopoda
Lamellibranchia
Neuroptera
Priapuloidea
Scyphomedusae
Lepidoptera
Nummulite
Proteomyxa
Sipunculoidea
Malacostraca
Opalina
Protista
Sponges
Mastigophora
Orthoptera
Protogenes
Sporozoa
Medusa
Paramecium
Protomyxa
Stentor
Mesozoa
Pedipalpi
Protozoa
Thyrostraca
Mollusca
Pelomyxa
Pseudopod
Thysanoptera
Molluscoida
Pentastomida
Pycnogonida, or Panto- Thysanura
Mycetozoa
Peripatus
poda
Trematodes
Myonemes
Perissodactyla
Radiata
Trypanosomes
Myriapoda
Phoronidea
Radiolaria
Vampyrella
VorUcella
Myzostomida
Planarians
Rhizopoda
Zoology, Systematic:
: Vertebrata
Amphibia
Artiodactyla
Chiroptera
Monodelphia
Selachians, or Elasmo-
Cyclostomata, or Marsi
- Monotremata
branchii
Amphioxus
pobranchii
Pecora
Suina
Balanoglossus
Batrachia
Cyprinodonts
Proboscidea
Tardigrada
Edentata
Pterobranchia
Teleostomes
Bovidae
Equidae
Ratitae
Tunicata
Caecilia
Hemichorda
Rodentia
Ty lopoda
Carnivora
Hyracoidea
Ruminantia
Ungulata
Cetacea
Insectivora
Salmon and Salmonidae Vertebrata
Chaetosomatida
Marsupialia
Sauropsida
Zoology, Natural History: Mammals
Aard-vark
Buck
Duiker
Guanaco
Aard-wolf
Buffalo
Echidna
Guenon
Addax
Bushbuck
Eland
Guereza
Agouti
Ca'ing Whale
Elephant
Hamster
Alpaca
Calf
Elk
Hare
Ant-eater
Camel
Ermine
Hartebeest
Antelope
Capuchin Monkey
Eyra
Hedgehog
Anthropoid Apes
Capybara
Fallow-deer
Heifer
Aona
Caracal
Ferret
Heron
Ape
Cat
Field-mouse
Hind
Argali
Catarrhine Ape
Filander
Hippopotamus
Armadillo
Cattle
Flying^fox
Horse
Ass
Cavy
Flying Squirrel
Hound
Aurochs
Chacma
Foussa
Howler
Avahi
Chamois
Fox
Humpback-whale
Hunting Dog
Aye-aye
Cheeta
Galago
Babirusa
Chevrotain
Galeopithecus
Hyena
Baboon
Chimpanzee
Chinchilla
Gaur
Ibex
Badger
Bandicoot
Gaval
Gelada
Ichneumon
Chiru
Indri
Bandicoot-rat
Civet
Genet
Jackal
Bantin
Clouded Leopard
Gerbil
Jaguar
Barbary Ape
Coati
Gerenuk
Jaguarondi
Bat
Colugo
Gibbon
Jennet
Bear
Coyote
Giraffe
Jerboa
Beaver
Coypu
Glutton, or Wolverine
Jumping-hare
Beluga
Dasyure
Gnu
J umping-mouse
Bharal
Deer
Goat
Jumping-shrew
Binturong
Diana Monkey
Gopher
Kangaroo
Bison
Dingo
Goral
Kangaroo-rat
Black Ape
Dog
Dolphin
Gorilla
Kinkajou
Black Buck
Green Monkey
Kit-fox
Boar
Dormouse
Grison
Klipspringer
Bongo
Bottlenose Whale
Douroucouli
Grivet
Koala
Dromedary
Groove-toothed Squirrel Kudu
Bronco
Dugong
Ground-squirrel
Langur
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Lemming
Mustang
Lemur
Leopard
Nilgai
Ocelot
Linsang
Octodon
Lion
Okapi
Llama
Opossum
Lorifl
Orang-utan
Lynx
Oribi
Macaque
Oryx
Macrauchenia
Otter
Mammalia
Ox
Manati
Paca
Mandrill
Palla
Mangabey
Palm-civet
Manul
Panda
Mare
Pangolin
Markhor
Panther
Marmoset
Pariah Doe
Patas Monkey
Marmot
Marshbuck
Peccary
Marsupial Mole
Pere David's Deer
Marten
Phalanger
Merino
Pica
Mink
Pig
Mole
Pithecanthropus E rec-
Mole-rat
tus
Mole-shrew
Platypus
Monp. Monkey
Pluto Monkey
Monkey
Pocket-gopher
Moose
Pocket-mouse
Mouflon
Polecat
Mouse
Pony
Mule
Porcupine
Muntjac
Porpoise
Musk-deer
Potoroo
Musk-ox
Potto
Musk-rat
Pouched-mouse
Musk-shrew
Prairie-marmot
Zoology, Natural History: Birds
Albatross
Diver
Auk
Dodo
Beccafico
Dove
Bird
Duck
Birds of Paradise
Eagle
Bittern
Eider
Blackbird
Emeu
Blackcock
Falcon
Bullfinch
Fieldfare
Bun tine
Bustard
Finch
Flamingo
Flycatcher
Buzzard
Canary
Fowl
Capercally
Frigate-bird
Cassowary
Fulmar
Chaffinch
Gadwall
Cockatoo
Gannet
Cock-of-the-Rock
Gare-fowl
Condor
Garganey
Coot
Goatsucker
Cormorant
Godwit
Crane
Golden-eye
Crossbill
Goldfinch
Crow
Goose
Cuckoo
Gos-hawk
Curassow
Grackle
Curlew
Grebe
Primates
Proboscis-monkey
Prongbuck
Puma
Quagga
Rabbit
Raccoon
Raccoon-dog
Ram
Rat
Ratel
Reedbuck
Reindeer
Rhinoceros
Rhytina
River-hog
Rocky-Mountain Goat
Roe-buck
Rorqual
Sable Antelope
Saiga
Saki
Seal
Serow
Serval
Sheep
Shrew
Sifaka
Sirenia
Skunk
Sloth
Snow-leopard
Souslik
Sperm-whale
Spider-monkey
Spiny Squirrel
Springbuck
Squirrel
Greenfinch
Greenshank
Grosbeak
Grouse
Guacharo
Guan
Guillemot
Guinea Fowl
Gull
Harpy
Harrier or Hen Harrier
Hawfinch
Hawk
Hen
Heron
Hoactzin, or Hoatzin
Honey-eater
Honey-guide
Hoopoe
Hornbill
Humming-bird
Ibis
Icterus
Jabirn
Jacamar
Jacand
Jackdaw
Squirrel Monkey
Star-nosed Mole
Suricate
Swine
Tahr
Takin
Tapir
Tarsier
Tenrec
Thylacine
Tiger
Tiger-cat
Timber-Wolf
Tree Kangaroo
Tree-shrew
Udad, Aoudad, or Au-
dad
Uakari
Vampire
Vervet
Vicugna
Viscacha
Vole
Wallaby
Walrus
Waltzing Mouse
Wanderu
Wart-hog
Waterbuck
Water-deer
Water-opossum
Weasel
Whale
Wolf
Wombat
Yak
Zebra
Jay
Kakapo
Kestrel
Kilkleer
King-bird
Kingfisher
Kinglet
Kite
Kiwi, or Kiwi-Kiwi
Knot
Lammergeyer
Lapwing
Lark
Linnet
Loom, or Loon
Lory
Love-bird
Lyre-bird
Macaw
Magpie
Mallemuck
Manakin
Manucode
Martin
Megapode
Merganser
Mew
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Moa
Pica
Screamer
Teal
Mocking-bird
Pigeon
Scrub-bird
Tern
Moor-ben
Pipit
Secretary-bird
Thrush
Morillon
Pitta
Seriema, or Cariama
Tinamou
Motmot
Plover
Shearwater
Titmouse
Mouse-bird
Pochard, Pockard, or Sheathbill
Tody
Nestor
Poker
Sheld-drake
Toucan
Nightingale
Pratincole
Shoe-bill
Touracou
Noddy
Ptarmigan
Shoveler
Tree-creeper
Nonpareil
Puff-bird
Shrike
Trogon
Nutcracker
Puffin
Siskin
Tropic-bird
Nuthatch
Quail
Skimmer
Trumpeter
Ocydrome
Quezal, or Qucsal
Skua
Turkey
Oriole
Rail
Snake-bird
Turnstone
Ornithology
Raven
Snipe
Vulture
Orthonyx
Razorbill
Sparrow
Wagtail
Ortolan
Redbreast, or Robin
Spoonbill
Warbler
Osprey
Ostrich
Redshank
Redstart
Starling Waxwing
Stilt, or Long-legged Weaver-bird
Ousel, or Ousel
Redwing
Plover
Wheatear
Owl
Rhea
Stork
Whitethroat
Oyster-catcher
Rifleman-bird
Sugar-bird
Wigeon, or Widgeon
Parrot
Roller
Sun-bird
Woodchuck
Partridge
Rook
Sun-bittern
Woodcock
Peacock
Ruff
Swallow
Woodpecker
Pelican
Sand-grouse
Swan
Wren
Penguin
Sandpiper
Swift
Wryneck
Petrel
Scaup
Tanager-bird
Zosterops
Pheasant
Scoter
Tapaculo
Zoology, Natural History: Reptiles
Adder
Boa
Gecko
Reptiles
Alligator
Chameleon
Iguana
Sea-serpent
Alytes
Cobra
Lizard
Snakes
Amphisbaena
Cockatrice
Proteus
Sphenodon
Tortoise
Anaconda
Crocodile
Python
Asp
Cryptobranchus
Rattlesnake
Viper
Basilisk
Dragon
Zoology, Natural History: Fishes
Anchovy
Flying-fish
Mackerel
Rudd, or Red-eye
Angler
Gar-fish
Mahseer, or Mahaseer
Salmon
Barbel
Globe-fish
Menhaden
Sand-Eel
Beluga
Goby
Miller's Thumb
Sea-horse
Bitterling
Goldfish
Minnow
Sea-wolf
Bleak
Goramy, or Gouramy
Mormyr
Shad
Bream
Grampus
Grayling
Gudgeon
Mullet
Shark
Brill
Muraena
Sheepshead
Burbot
Murray Cod
Silverfish
Carp
Gurnard
Narwhal
Smelt
1Cat-fish
Gwyniad
Opah
Sole
Char
Haddock
Parr
Sprat
Chub
Hag-fish
Parrot-fishes
Stickleback
Cichlid
Hair-tail
Perch
Sturgeon
Sun-fish
Coal-fish
Hake
Pike
Cod
Halibut
Pike-perch
Sword-fish
Dace, Dare, or Dart
Hammer-Kop, or Ham
- Pilchard
Tench
Dog-fish
merhead
Pilot-fish
Trout
Dory, or John Dory
Herring
Horse Mackerel
Pipe-fishes
Tunny
Eel
Plaice
Turbot
Electric Eel
Ichthyology
Pollack
Vendace
File-fish and Trigger Kipper
Pollan
Weever
Fish
Lamprey
Pout
Whitebait
Flat-fish
Ling
Ray
Whitefish
Flounder
Loach
Ribbon-fishes
Whiting
Fluke
Lump-sucker
Roach
Wrasse
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Zoology, Natural History: Batrachians
Axolotl
Newt
Surinam Toad
Toad
Batrachia
Salamander
Tadpole
Tree Frog
Frog
Siren
Zoology, Natural History: Insects
Acarus
Cricket
Ichneumon-fly
Saw-fly
Scale-insect
Alder-fly
Cuckoo-spit
Insect
Ant
Death-watch
Katydid
Scorpion-fly
Ant Lion
Dragon-fly
Lacewing-fly
Snake-fly
Aphides
Earwig
Lantern-fly
Springtail
Bee
Entomology
Leaf-insect
Stick-insect
Beetle
Fire Brat
Locust
Stone-fly
Bird-louse
Fire-fly
Louse
Tarantula
Bug
Flea
Mantis
Termite
Butterfly and Moth
Caddis-fly and Caddis
Fly
Mantis-fly
Ticks
- Glow-worm
May-fly, or Ephemer-
idae
- Tsetse-fly
worm
Gnat
Wasp
Caterpillar
Grasshopper
Mosquito
Water-boatman
Chafer
Ground-pearl
Harvest-bug
Moth
Water-scorpion
Cicada
Palmer
Weevil
Cochineal
Harvester
Phylloxera
Wireworm
Cockroach
Hemimerus
Zoology, Natural History: Other Invertebrata
Abalone
Cowry
Mite
Snail
Asterid
Crab
Mussel
Spider
Barnacle
Crayfish
Nautilus
Starfish
Beche-de-Mer, or Tre-
- Cuttle Fish
Octopus
Tapeworms
pang
Earthworm
Oyster
Teredo
Book-scorpion
King-crab
Prawn
Water-flea
Centipede
Leech
Scorpion
Wood-louse
Chiton
Lobster
Sea-urchin
Worm
Cockle
Millipede
Shrimp
Zoology, Palaeontology
Amblypoda
Glyptodon
Multituberculata
Phenacodus
Anclyopoda
Graptolites
Ichthyosaurus
Mylodon
Odontornithes
Phororhacos
Anthracotherium
Plesiosaurus
Archaeopteryx
Arsinoltherium
Iguanodon
Oreodon
Pterodactyles
Litopterna
Machaerodus
Ostracoderms, or Ostra-
Sparassodonta
Tillodontia
Creodonta
cophores
Dinotherium
Mammoth
Palaeontology
Palaeospondylus
Palaeotherium
Titanotheriidae
Diplodocus
Mastodon
Toxodontia
Dryopithecus
Ganoaonta
Megatherium
Trilobites
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CHAPTER LX
PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
PHILOSOPHERS, says Plato, are
"those who are able to grasp the
eternal and immutable"; their pur-
suit is wisdom. The history of philosophy
is, therefore, the history of the ideas
.which have animated successive genera-
tions of man; so that in the wide sense the
investigation includes all knowledge; the
natural as well as
Definitions the moral sciences;
and the Greeks, to
whom the western world owes the direc-
tion of its thought, so understood it. The
several divisions of Philosophy (Vol. 21,
p. 440), as we reckon them, were all fused
by Plato in a semi-religious synthesis,
with resulting confusion. Aristotle, the
encyclopaedist of the ancient world, saw
that the several issues should be regarded
as separate disciplines, and became the
founder of the sciences of logic, psychol-
ogy, ethics, and aesthetics. His "first
philosophy," or, as we should say, "first
principles," which stood as introductions
to his separate special inquiries, gradually
acquired the name metaphysics. In
more recent times the natural sciences:
biology, physics, chemistry, medicine,
etc., have been regarded as outside the
strict boundaries of the philosophic
schools; and theology, is excluded on the
ground that its subject matter is so exten-
sive that it may be looked upon as a
separate science. The main divisions of
philosophy are: Epistemology (Vol. 9,
p. 701), which is concerned with the nature
and origin of knowledge, i. e., the possibil-
ity of knowledge in the abstract; Meta-
physics (Vol. 18, p. 224), the science of
being, often called Ontology (Vol. 20,
p. 118), dealing, that is to say, with being
as being; and Psychology (Vol. 22, p.
547), the science of mind, an analysis of
what "mind" means.
It will be of interest to the reader if/
at this point, we enumerate some of the
more important articles in the Britan-
nica covering this
Some Important field with the names
Articles and of their authors. An-
Their Writers drew Seth Pringle-
Pattison, professor of
logic and metaphysics in the University
of Edinburgh, wrote the general article
Philosophy, which is a key to the whole
subject, as well as the articles Mysti- .
cism (Vol. 19, p. 123), Scepticism (Vol.
24, p. 306), Scholasticism (Vol. 24, p.
3467, Spinoza (Vol. 25, p. 687), and
others. Of fundamental importance is
the article Logic (Vol. 16, p. 879), which
would occupy 124 pages of this Guide. It
is divided into two parts: the first, by
Thomas Case, president of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, formerly professor of
moral and metaphysical philosophy in
that university, treats of the science gen-
erally, and examines in detail the pro-
cesses of inference. The second, by H.
W. Blunt, of Christ
Metaphysics Church, Oxford, and
and Logic formerly fellow of All
Soul's, gives a bril-
liant account of the history of logic, that
is, the history of the ideas which have
been the basis of all attempts to regulate
these processes of inference. This ac-
count is unique in that it is the first
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
critical review of the types of logical
theory that has been attempted. A lucid
discussion of a most difficult subject
is that given under Metaphysics (Vol.
18, p. 224); equivalent to 100 pages in
this Guide by Professor Case, to whom,
as one of the most distinguished of
modern Aristotelians, the article Aris-
totle (Vol. 2, p. 501) was also assigned.
The life and work of Plato are examined
in a valuable article (Vol. 21, p. 808), the
equivalent in length to 54 pages of
this Guide, by the late Professor
Lewis Campbell, of St. Andrews, one
of the best known Platonists of the
time.
Henry Sturt, author of Personal Ideal-
ism and many other books, is responsible
for brilliant discussions of Utilitarian-
ism (Vol. 27, p. 820), Nominalism (Vol.
19, p. 7S5), Metempsychosis (Vol. 18,
p. 259), Space and Time (Vol. 25, p.
525), etc. And F. C. S. Schiller, of
Corpus Christi College, Oxford, who,
under the wider, and historically more
significant title "Humanism," has further
developed the pragmatic philosophy of
William James, contributed the articles
on Pragmatism, Herbert Spencer, and
Nietzsche.
The very important article on Psy-
chology (Vol. 22, p. 54), equal to nearly
200 pages of this Guide was contrib-
uted by James Ward,
Psychology professor of men-
tal philosophy, Cam-
bridge, who has devoted his whole
life to psychological research. In ad-
dition to Psychology he also con-
tributed the articles Herbart (Vol. 13,
p. 835), andNATURALisM (Vol. 19, p. 274).
James Sully, the well-known psycholo-
gist, former professor of the philosophy
of the mind and logic, at University Col-
lege, London, contributes the article
Aesthetics (Vol. 1, p. 277). The article
Ethics (Vol. 8, p. 808), equivalent to
about 100 pages of this Guide, and Will
(Vol. 28, p. 648), both of primary im-
portance, were the work of the Rev. IJ.
H. Williams, lecturer in philosophy, Hert-
ford College, Oxford.
Very interesting articles are Associa-
tion op Ideas (Vol. 2, p. 784), Dream
(Vol. 8, p. 588), Instinct (Vol. 14, p. 648)
and, veiy important, Weber's Law (Vol.
28, p. 458), which expresses the relation
between sensation and the stimulus which
induces it.
Of recent years the psychology of
crowds has received a good deal of atten-
tion; in fact, the need of an understand-
ing of the phenomena attending it is of
increasing importance in this age of uni-
versal suffrage. Interesting light is
thrown upon the subject in the articles
Suggestion (Vol. 26, p. 48), by W. M.
McDougall, Wilde reader in mental phi-
losophy at Oxford; Imitation (Vol. 14,
p. 332); and Religion (Vol. 23, p. 66).
A line of inquiry of vital importance to
the social body is examined in the ar-
ticles Criminology (Vol. 7, p. 464), by
Major Griffith, for many years H. M. In-
spector of Prisons, in which Lombroso's
theory of the possession by criminals of
special anatomical and physiological
characteristics is criticized, and the prob-
lem is shown to be one of abnormal psy-
chology; see also Cesare Lombroso (Vol.
16, p. 936). For discussions of other
forms of abnormal psychology, see the
chapter For Physicians and Surgeons in
this Guide, and in particular the article
Insanity (Vol. 14, p. 597).
Perhaps more popular, certainly more
sensational, than the more legitimate
branches of psychology, is that classed
under Psychical
Psychical Research (Vol. 22,
Research p. 544). The title
article was written
by Andrew Lang, who wrote Polter-
geist (Vol. 22, p. 14), as well as articles
on Second Sight (Vol. 24, p. 570), Ap-
paritions (Vol. 2, p. 209), etc. The ar-
ticle Divination (Vol. 8, p. 332) was
written by Northcote Thomas, govern-
ment anthropologist to Southern Nigeria,
and author of Thought Transference and
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PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
363
other books; and Mrs. Henry Sidgwick,
formerly principal of Newnham College,
Cambridge, and secretary to the Society
for Psychical Research, was responsible
for the article Spiritualism (Vol. 25, p.
705). Among the biographical articles in
this section, interest will be felt in the
biography of Daniel Dunglas Home, the
original of Robert Browning's poem,
"Sludge the Medium."
We now may classify the principal sub-
jects belonging to the main divisions
of philosophy, the sciences of epistemol-
ogy, metaphysics, and
Classification psychology. The wider
phases of thought
roughly belonging to the division of met-
aphysics are, in their historical order:
Platonism (see Plato, Vol. 21, p. 808),
and Aristotelianism (see Aristotle, Vol.
2, p. 501), the two great Greek systems
of the classical period; Neoplatonism
(Vol. 19, p. 872), the last school of pagan
philosophy, which grew up mainly among
the Greeks of Alexandria from the 3rd
century A.D. onwards; Scholasticism
(Vol. 24, p. 346), which gave expression
to the most typical products of medieval
bought; Idealism (Vol. 14, p. 281), thte
philosophy of the "absolute," which,
though it has given a tinge to philosophic
thought from the days of Socrates to the
present time, is in its self-conscious form
a modern doctrine; Materialism (Vol.
17, p. 878), which regards all the facts of
the universe as explainable in terms of
matter and motion; Realism (Vol. 22, p.
941), which is a sort of half-way house
between Idealism and Materialism; Prag-
matism (Vol. 22, p. 246), the philosophy
of the "real," which expresses the reaction
against the intellectualistic speculation
that has characterized most of modern
metaphysics. Logic (Vol. 16, p. 879),
the art of reasoning, or, as Ueberweg ex-
presses it, "the science of the regulative
laws of thought," clearly belongs to the
division of epistemology . Aspects of psy-
chology, since they depend essentially
upon perceptions of the human mind in
relation to itself or its environment, are
Ethics (Vol. 9, p. 808), or moral philoso-
phy, the investigation of theories of good
and evil; and Aesthetics (Vol. 1, p.
277), the philosophy or science of the
beautiful, of taste, or of the fine arts.
The articles enumerated will give the
reader a clear idea of the drift of thought
currents throughout the course of his-
tory, and they will
History of introduce him to the
Thought detailed discussions
Personal of the various sys-
tems which have
been propounded by the little band of men
who have contributed something vital to
the treasury of thought. Each has been
in and out of fashion at different times.
In the Britannica the contributions to
philosophic thought by the great philos-
ophers are discussed in biographical ar-
ticles, to which we now turn.
The father of Greek philosophy and
indeed of European thought was Thales
of Miletus (Vol. 26, p. 720), who founded
the Ionian School
Breaking the (Vol. 14, p. 731) at
Ground the end of the 7th
century B.C. He
first, as far as we know, sought to go be-
hind the infinite multiplicity of phenom-
ena in the hope of finding an all embrac-
ing infinite unity. This unity he decided
was water. Heraclitus (Vol. 18, p.
309), the "dark philosopher," nicknamed
from his aristocratic prejudices "he who
rails at the people," later selected fire.
The never ending fight between advo-
cates of the "One" and the "Many" had
therefore begun. Sophistry (see Soph-
ists, Vol. 25, p. 418) has now ail un-
pleasant connotation, inherited from the
undisciplined reasonings of the schools of
which Protagoras (Vol. 22, p. 464),
Gorgias (Vol. 12, p. 257), Parmenides
of Elea (Vol. 20, p. 851), and Zeno, also
of Elea (Vol. 28, p. 970), were leaders.
The "science of the regulative laws of
thought" had not yet been developed and
fallacies were the rule rather than the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
exception. Protagoras, the first of the
Sophists, in his celebrated essay on
Truth, said that "Man is the measure of
all things, of what is, that it is, and what is
not, that it is not." In other words, there is
no such thing as objective truth. After
nineteen-hundred years we are still seek-
ing the answer to Pilate's question, "What
is truth?" Gorgias, in his equally famous
work on Nature or on the Nonent (not-
being) maintained that " (a) nothing is,
(b) that, if anything is, it cannot be
known, (c) that, if anything is and can
be known, it cannot be expressed in
speech." The paradoxes with which
Zeno, the pupil and friend of Parmenides,
adorned his arguments are proverbial.
Who has not heard of Achilles and the
tortoise? And it is a little curious that
in quite modern times his sophisms have,
after centuries of scornful neglect, been
reinstated and made the basis of a mathe-
matical renaissance by the German pro-
fessor Weierstrass, who shows that we
live in an unchanging world, and that
the arrow, as Zeno paradoxically con-
tended, is truly at rest at every moment
of its flight (Vol. 28, p. 971).
The teaching of Socrates (Vol. 25, p.
331) was oral, and his philosophy is
handed down to us in the refined and
elaborated system
The Socratic which Plato (Vol.
Schools 21, p. 808) developed
in his dialogues. The
"One" and the "Many" were united
in the philosophy of Plato. To him
we owe a debt which is simply in-
calculable, for, as is shown in the Bri-
tannica, "to whatever system of modern
thought the student is inclined he will
find his account in returning to this well-
spring of European thought, in which all
previous movements are absorbed, and
from which all subsequent lines of reflec-
tion may be said to diverge." The germs
of all ideas, even of most Christian ones,
are, as Jowett remarked, to be found in
Plato. The teaching of Socrates bore
fruit in strangely divers forms. Plato,
his legitimate successor, and the ex-
pounder of his philosophy, has been re-
ferred to, but there were other very dif-
ferent developments. The Cynics (Vol.
7, p. 691), of whom Diogenes (Vol. 8, p.
281) is the notorious prototype, un-
couthly preached the asceticism which
was to become so fashionable in a later
era; but, their central doctrine, "let man
gain wisdom — or buy a rope," contains
more than a germ of truth. The Cyre-
naics (Vol. 7, p. 703), under Aristippus
(Vol. 2, p. 497), starting from the two
Socratic principles of virtue and happi-
ness, differed from the Cynics in em-
phazing the second The Megarians
(Vol. 18, p. 77), the "friends of ideas,"
as Plato called them, united the Soc-
ratic principles of virtue (as the source
of knowledge) with the Eleatic doctrine
(Vol. 9, p. 168) of the "One" as op-
posed to the "Many." Their strength
lay in the intellectual pre-eminence of
their members, not so much in the doc-
trine, or combination of doctrines, which
they inculcated.
Plato had done much, he had laid the
foundation of modern thought; it re-
iriained to classify it and to systematize
it. This task was
Aristotle reserved for Aris-
totle (Vol. 2, p. 501),
one of the greatest geniuses of any age.
He invented the sciences of logic, ethics,
aesthetics, and psychology, as separate
sciences. He was at once a student, a
reader, a lecturer, a writer, and a book
collector. He was the first man whom
we know to have collected books, and he
was employed at one time by the kings of
Egypt as consulting librarian. His sys-
tem of aesthetics still remains the best
foundation of the critic's training. The
fundamental difference between Aris-
totle and Plato is that Platonism is a
philosophy of universal forms, and Aris-
totelianism one of individual substan-
ces. As Professor Case puts it in the
Britannica: "Plato makes us think
first of the supernatural and the kingdom
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PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
US
of heaven, Aristotle of the natural and the
whole world." His inquiries, therefore,
preeminently implied that "trans valua-
tion of all values," of which Nietzsche
was to boast more than two thousand
years later. A contemporary of Aris-
totle, whose philosophy occupies a
somewhat independent position, is Epi-
curus (Vol. 9, p. 683). His advice to a
young disciple was to "steer clear of cul-
ture. ,, His system, in fact, led him to
go back from words to realities in order
to find in nature a more enduring and a
wider foundation for ethical doctrine;
"to give up reasonings, and get at feel-
ings, to test conceptions and arguments
by a final reference to the only touch-
stone of truth — the senses." A famous
Roman who subscribed to the doctrines
of Epicurus was the poet-philosopher-
scientist, Lucretius (Vol. 17, p. 107),
whose theories in his poem De Rerum
Natura so curiously anticipated much of
modern physics and psychology.
Two schools remain to be considered
before the Greek philosophy can be dis-
missed: the Stoic^ (Vol. 25, p. 942) and
the Neoplatonists
The Last . (see Neoplatonism,
Greek Schools Vol. 19, p. 372).
The Stoics caught
the practical spirit of the age which had
been evoked by Aristotle and provided a
popular philosophy to meet individual
needs. They showed kinship with the
Cynics, but under the inspiration of
their founder, Zeno of Citium, they
avoided the excesses of that school, and
formulated a system which fired the
imagination of the time and finally be-
queathed to Rome the guiding principles
which were to raise her to greatness.
Zeno is regarded as the best exponent of
anarchistic philosophy in ancient Greece,
and he and his philosophers opposed the
conception of a free community without
government to the state-Utopia of Plato;
see Anarchism (Vol. 1, p. 915). Of Neo-
platonism Adolph Harnack says in the
Britannica (Vol. 19, p. 372):
Judged from the standpoint of empirical
science, philosophy passed its meridian in
Plato and Aristotle, declined in the post-
Aristotelian systems, and set in the dark-
ness of Neoplatonism. But, from the re-
ligious and moral point of view, it must tbe
admitted that the ethical "mood" which
Neoplatonism endeavored to create and
maintain is the highest and purest ever
reached by antiquity.
The most famous exponents of this sys-
tem were Plotinus (Vol. 21, p. 849), an
introspective mystic, and Porphyry (Vol.
22, p. 103), who edited Plotinus's works
and wrote his biography. • Neoplatonism,
coming as it did early in our era, formed
a link between the pagan philosophy of
ancient Greece and Christianity.
With the death of Boetius (Vol. 4, p.
116), in 524 A.D.,
Medieval and with the closing
Ecclesiasticism of the philosophical
schools in Athens
five years later, intellectual darkness set-
tled over Europe and hung there for cen-
turies. When in the Middle Ages, the
speculative sciences once again attracted
men's minds, Christianity had already
impressed its mark. Scholasticism
(Vol. 24, p. 346) as a system began with
the teaching of Scotus Erigena (Vol. 9,
p. 742) at the end of the 9th century, and
culminated three centuries later with
Albertus Magnus (Vol. 1, p. 504), with
his greater disciple Thomas Aquinas
(Vol. 2, p. 250), whose ideas have ani-
mated orthodox philosophic thought in
the Catholic Church to this day, and with
Meister Eckhart (Vol. 8, p. 886), the
first of the great speculative mystics (see
Mysticism, Vol. 19, p. 123).
With the Reformation an assertion of
independence made itself heard. Man's
relation to man assumed an importance
comparable to that
Modern Ideas of his relation to
God; and the first
steps on the path which was to lead to the
rationalism ~of the French Encyclopae-
dists and of the English Utilitarians were
taken by Albericus Gentilis (Vol. 11, p.
603), and Hugo Grotius (Vol. 12, p. 621).
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In England, Francis Bacon (Vol. 3,
p. 135) was independently working out
the same problems. In philosophy his
position was that of a humanist. The
remarkable success of Grotius's treatise
De Jure Belli el Pads brought his views
of natural right into great prominence,
and suggested such questions as: "What
is man's ultimate reason for obeying laws?
Wherein exactly does their agreement
with his rational and social nature exist?
How far and in what sense is his na-
ture really social?" The answers which
Hobbes (Vol. 18, p. 545), who was
considerably influenced by Bacon, gave
to these fundamental questions in his
Leviathan marked the starting point of
independent ethical inquiry in England.
From this time on
The Utilitarians the drift of thought
in England, though
of course often profoundly affected by
the speculations of continental philoso-
phers, mainly ran in utilitarian channels;
and the succession of ideas may be traced
through Locke (Vol. 16, p. 844), whose
influence on the French Encyclopaedists
was far reaching, Hume (Vol. 13, p. 876),
Jeremy Bentham (Vol. 3, p. 747) with
his famous principle of the "greatest hap-
piness for the greatest number," J. S.
Mill (Vol. 18, p. 454), and Herbert
Spencer (Vol. 24, p. 634), with his phi-
losophy of the "unknowable."
Meanwhile, on the continent of Eu-
rope, Descartes (Vol. 7, p. 79), in the
Discourse of Method, had stated his famous
proposition " Cogito,
Back to Dreams ergo sum ,"and had laid
.down those funda-
mental dogmas of logic, metaphysics, and
physics, from which started the subse-
quent inquiries of Locke, Leibnitz (Vol.
16, p. 385), and Newton (Vol. 19, p. 583).
But Cartesianism (Vol. 5, p. 414), as
Dr. Caird points out in the Britannica,
includes not only the work of Descartes,
but also that of Malebranche (Vol.17, p.
486) and of Spinoza (Vol. 25, p. 687), who,
from very different points of view, de-
veloped the Cartesian theories, the former
saturated with the study of Augustine,
the latter with that of Jewish philosophy.
There follows a group of men whose
speculations left a deep mark on the
course of events in Europe and America:
Voltaire (Vol. 28,
The Rights p. 199), Montes-
of Man quieu (Vol. 18, p.
775), Jean Jacques
Rousseau (Vol. 23, p. 775), and Denis
Diderot (Vol. 8, p. 204). The anti.
ecclesiastical animus which informed the
writings of the first, the Esprit des Lois
of the second, the Contrat Social of the
third, and the famous encyclopaedia of
the last, had political results, but their
influence on metaphysical inquiry was
practically nil.
Outstanding, of course, in the 18th'
century was the influence of Immanuel
Kant (Vol. 15, p. 662), who summed up
the teachings of
Transcendent- Leibnitz and Hume,
alism • carried them to their
logical issues, and
immensely extended them. In fact,
Kant and his disciple Fichte (Vol. 10, p.
313), as Prof. Case shows jn the article
Metaphysics (Vol. 18, p. 231), "became
the most potent philosophic influences on
European thought in the 19th century,
because their emphasis was on man.
They made man believe in himself and
in his mission. They fostered liberty and
reform, and even radicalism. They al-
most avenged man on the astronomers,
who had shown that the world is not
made for earth, and therefore not for
man. Kant half asserted, and Fichte
wholly, that Nature is man's own con-
struction. The Kritik and the Wissen-
schqftslehre belonged to the revolutionary
epoch of the "Rights of Man," and pro-
duced as great a revolution in thought as
the French Revolution did in fact. In-
stead of the old belief that God made the
world for man, philosophers began to
fall into the pleasing dream "I am every-
thing, and everything is I" — and even
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PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY
367
"I am God." The term Transcendent-
alism (Vol. 27, p. 172) has been specially
applied to the philosophy of Kant and
his successors, which is based on the view
that true knowledge is intuitive, or super-
natural. The famous Transcendental
Club founded, 1836, by Emerson (Vol.
9, p. 832) and others in New England,
was not "transcendental" in the Kantian
sense; its main theme was regeneration,
a revolt from theological -formalism, and
a wider literary outlook; see also Brook
Farm (Vol. 4, p. 645), Thoreau (Vol. 26,
p. 877), A. Bronson Alcott (Vol. 1, p.
528), and Margaret Fuller (Vol. 11,
p. 295).
Schelling's position (Vol. 24, p. 316),
like that of his disciple Hegel (Vol. 13,
p. 200), differed from the transcendent-
alism of Kant and
Idealism Fichte in regarding
all noumena, or
things comprehended (Vol. 19, p. 828),
as knowable products of universal reason
— the Absolute Ego, and, the absolute
being God, nature as a product of uni-
versal reason, "a direct manifestation
not of man but of God." This was the
starting point of noumenal idealism in
Germany, and showed a reversion to the
wider opinions of Aristotle. Hegelianism
in which this idealism is carried to its
limit is professedly one of the most
difficult of philosophies. Hegel said
"One man has understood me and even
he has not." His obscurity lies in
the manner in which, as William Wal-
lace shows in his article on the philosopher
(Vol. IS, p. 204), he "abruptly hurls us
into worlds where old habits of thought
fail us." The influence of Hegel on
English thought has been wide and
lasting.
Schopenhauer (Vol. 24, p. 872) was
essentially a realist. He led the inevit-
able reaction against the absorption of
everything in reason which
Realism is the keynote of the Kant-
ian system. In the very
title of his chief work, The World as
Will and Idea, he emphasizes his position
in giving "will" equal weight with "mind"
or "idea" (VorsteUung). His "Will to Live"
embodies a wholesome practical idea.
Eduard von Hartmann (Vol. 13, p. 36) in
his sensational Philosophy of the Uncon-
scious established the thesis: "When the
greater part of the Will in existence is
so far enlightened by reason as to per-
ceive the inevitable misery of existence,
a collective effort to will non-existence
will be made, and the world will relapse
into nothingness, the Unconscious into
quiescence." He thus goes a step fur-
ther in pessimism than did Schopenhauer,
and the essence of his doctrine is the will
to non-existence — not to live, instead of
a will to live. German realism is,
however, so strongly coloured by the
idealistic cast of the national thought
that we have to go to France and Eng-
land for the most thorough-going state-
ment of the realist position. In France
the eclecticism of V. Cousin (Vol. 7, p.
330) marked a doctrine of comprehen-
sion and toleration, opposed to the
arrogance of absolutism and to the dog-
matism of sensationalism which were the
tendencies of his day. In England a
reversion to Baconian ideas produced
the natural or intuitive realism of Reid
(Vol. 23, p. 51), Dugald Stewart
(Vol. 25, p. 013), Sir William Ham-
ilton (Vol. 12, p. 888) and their fol-
lowers, and led to the synthetic philos-
ophy of Herbert Spencer (Vol. 25, p.
634).
The materialists go a step further than
the realists. In its modern sense mate-
rialism is the view that all we know is
body (or matter), of
Materialism which the mind is
an attribute or
function. This attitude was induced
by the rapid advances of the natural
sciences, and by the unifying doctrine of
gradual evolution in nature. It was
also heralded by a remarkable growth
in commerce, manufactures, and indus-
trialism. The leaders of the movement
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
The 19th Cen-
tury and
Beyond
were BttcHNER (Vol. 4, p. 719) whose
Kraft und Stoff became a text book of
materialism, and Haeckel(Vo1. 12,p.808)
who in his Riddle of the Universe asserts
that, sensations being an inherent prop-
erty of all substance, neither mind nor
soul can have an origin.
In the inquiries of Lotze (Vol. 17, p. 23),
and Fechner (Vol. 10, p. 231), the latter
an experimental psychologist, lies the
germ of much of the
speculative thought
of the present day.
Lotze, as the well-
known psychologist
Henry Sturt says in his article in the
Britannica (Vol. 17, p. 25), "brought
philosophy out of the lecture room into
the market place of life." He saw that
metaphysics must be the foundation
of psychology, and that the current
idealist theories of the origin of knowledge
were unsound; and he concluded that
the union of the regions of facts, of laws,
and of standards of values, can only
become intelligible through the idea of
a personal deity. Like a brilliant meteor
Nietzsche (Vol. 19, p. 672) flashed
across the philosophic sky. His theories
of the super-man are known to everyone.
His brilliant essays are all in the nature
of prolegomena to a philosophy which,
embodied in a master work, the "Will
to Power," was to contain a transvalua-
tion of all existing ethical values. Un-
fortunately he did not live to complete
the work, which remains a fragment;
but the drift of his thought is clearly
indicated. One other system should
be mentioned, that of Positivism (Vol.
22, p. 172), which its founder, Auguste
Comte (Vol. 6, p. 814) hoped would
supersede every other system. Comte's
philosophy confines itself to the data
of experience and declines to recognise
a priori or metaphysical speculations.
The system of morality which he built
up on it, and in which God is replaced
by Humanity, has largely failed, in spite
of the brilliant ideas which animate it,
because it is in many of its aspects
retrograde. A most interesting review
of present day tendencies in the regions
of Metaphysics will be found at the end
of that article, with special reference to
the brilliant work of Wundt (see also
Vol. 28, p. 855), who constructing his
system on the Kantian order — sense,
understanding, reason, exhibits most
clearly the necessary consequence from
psychological to . metaphysical idealism.
His philosophy is the best exposition
of modern idealism — that we perceive
the mental and, therefore, all we know
and conceive is mental.
This sketch of the course of events in
philosophical speculation will at least
enable the reader to follow the historical
clue to the evolution
The Historical of ideas. Every stu-
Clue dent must, in order
to attain a true per-
spective, know the genealogy of the ideas
he is studying. It will therefore be best
that he first read the general articles
referred to in the beginning of this
chapter, supplementing them by the
accounts given of the separate systems
under the headings of their authors.
A list of the philosophical and psycho-
logical articles (more than 500 in num-
ber) in the Britannica will be found in
the Index (Vol. 29, p. 939) and it is not
repeated here.
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Part III
Devoted to the Interests of
Children
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CHAPTER LXI
FOR PARENTS
THE new Encyclopaedia Britan-
nica is full of encouragement for
parents who are tempted to feel
that the proper care and training of a
child require almost superhuman skill
and energy. Many of the fears and
doubts by which they are beset rest
upon vague traditions, handed down
from a day when a child's health was
threatened by more dangers and greater
dangers than now,
The Science of and when much less
Rearing Children was known than is
known to-day about
the training of a child. Statistics are
dull things, as a rule, but it would be
difficult to find pleasanter reading than
the statistical tables which show how
much the modern progress of science has
done for children. And these figures,
in many Britannica articles on various
diseases and localities, by showing how
much safer children's lives are than they
used to be, also indicate a decrease of
children's suffering and an increase of
children's happiness which cannot be
expressed in numbers. Sheer ignorance
caused much of the pain that children
used to suffer and also much of the neg-
lect that led to bodily and mental de-
ficiency in later life. There is still room
for improvement; but it is no exaggera-
tion to say that the child of the average
American mechanic is more intelligently
cared for than was, a hundred years ago,
the heir to a European kingdom.
Eveiy branch of science has contributed
to these improved conditions. Medical
and surgical research have no doubt
been the great factors, as disease and
deformity were the worst evils; but the
child's mind has been as carefully studied
as its body. Here, again, figures cannot
tell the whole story. They can show the
universal benefits of our public school
system, but they cannot show how greatly
the children of well-read and thoughtful
parents benefit by home influences in-
telligently exerted. That element . of
education begins as soon as a child is
born, and it is based upon such observa-
tion of its individual needs as tfnly a
parent's affection and sympathy can
achieve. And in this part of the parent's
task, as in the case of the child's health,
it is essential to be guided by specialists
of the highest authority, such as those
who wrote for the Britannica the articles
of which a brief account is given in this
chapter.
The child's individuality, physical and
mental, is largely inherited.
The vast subject of heredity has in-
deed not yet been reduced to an exact
science, but the newest theories advanced
by Weismann, Hert-
What is Known wig, and others, with
about Heredity such confirmation as
has already been ob-
tained, are clearly set forth in Dr. P.
Chalmers Mitchell's article Heredity
(Vol. 13, p. 350). As for our knowl-
edge of the physiological process of
heredity, the foundation may be said to
have been laid by the labours of the Aus-
trian monk Mendel, and biologists are
rapidly extending his work in various
directions. What has been done in the
past thirteen years since scientists r -
discovered Mendel's work is described in
Mendelism (Vol. 18, p. 115), by R. C.
Punnett, professor of biology, Cam-
bridge University. There is no subject
of greater interest or fascination before
the world to-day, and there is no better
or simpler introduction to it than Pro-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
fessor Punnett's able article. As he says,
"Increased knowledge of our heredity
means increased power of control over
the living thing." We know very little
as yet, but that little "offers the hope
of a great extension at no very distant
time. If this hope is borne out, if it
is shown that the qualities of man, his
body and his intellect, his immunities
and his diseases, even his very virtues
and vices, are dependent upon the ascer-
tainable presence or absence of definite
unit-characters whose mode of trans-
mission follows fixed laws, and if also
man decides that his life shall be ordered
in the light of this knowledge, it is ob-
vious 'that the social system will have to
undergo considerable changes."
The relations between parent and off-
spring are also dealt with in Reproduc-
tion (Vol. 2S, p. 116), by Dr. Mitchell;
and those who wish to study the devel-
opment of the organism will find such
information in Embryology (Vol. 9,
p. 814), by Adam Sedgwick, who is
professor of zoology at the Imperial Col-
lege of Science and Technology, London.
This masterly account is supplemented
by a section (p. 329) on the Physiology
of Development by Dr. Hans A. E.
Driesch, of Heidelberg University.
The article Infancy (Vol. 14, p. 513),
by Dr. Harriet Hennessy, is devoted to
the care of the child during its first
year. The first bath,
The New-Born care of the eyes,
Child clothing, increase of
weight, etc., are
thoroughly discussed, and the directions
for artificial feeding contain tables of
milk-dilution and of the amounts to be
given. In Child (Vol. 6, p. 136) will be
found a valuable table of average heights
and weights of children from the ages of
one to fifteen, and a full bibliography of
works relating to child-study.
The main points to be considered for
each sex in the difficult period between
childhood and maturity are concisely
set forth in Adolescence (Vol. 1, p. 210).
An ideal system of child raising is out-
lined, dealing with hygiene, clothing,
and moral and physical training. See
also Gymnastics and Gymnasium (Vol.
12, p. 752), by R. J. McNeill.
Parents must have a thorough and
clear understanding of the question of
bodily nourishment. This is most im-
perative. It means
The Vital Ques- sound bodies for the
tion of Food children, their good
health in after years,
their efficiency and success in life. On
this point the new Britannica provides
information of a character that for
authoritativeness and completeness can
nowhere else be matched.
The important matter of feeding a
family is treated at great length in
Dietetics (Vol. 8, p. 214), by the late
Prof. W. O. Atwater of Wesleyan Uni-
versity, known the world over as an
authority on this subject, and R. D. Mil-
ner, formerly assistant in the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture. The article
gives information as to the composition
and nutritive values of foods and their
adaptation to the use of people in health.
There are tables of food composition, of
the digestibility of nutrients, of the
quantities of available nutrients, etc.
The hygienic and pecuniary economy of
food are discussed in such a way as to
be of real service. For those who desire
further information on the subject of
food assimilation reference may be made
to Nutrition (Vol. 19, p. 920), by Dr.
D. Noel Paton, professor of physiology,
University of Glasgow, and Dr. E. P.
Cathcart, lecturer in chemical physiol-
ogy in the same institution.
In regard to the maintenance of gen-
eral health of children without reference
to specific ailments there is a vast fund
of information to be
Maintenance of extracted by con-
Health suiting the new Bri-
tannica. The titles
of a few of the articles will sufficiently in-
dicate information to which every parent
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FOR PARENTS
373
should have constant access: Antisep-
tics (Vol. 2, p. 146); Disinfectants
(Vol. 8, p. 312); Carbolic Acid,
Pharmacology and Therapeutics, (Vol. 5,
p. 305); Salicylic Acid, Medicine and
Therapeutics (Vol. 24, p. 70); Emetics
(Vol. 9, p. 336); Aconite, Therapeutics
(Vol. 1, p. 152); Colchicum, Pharma-
cology (Vol. 6, p. 662) ; Phenacetin (Vol.
21, p. 363); Pepsin (Vol. 21. p. 130);
Rhubarb (Vol. 23, p. 273); Senna (Vol.
24, p. 646); Poison, with list of poisons
and antidotes (Vol. 21, p. 893); Haem-
orrhage, how to tell the different
kinds (Vol. 12, p. 805); Wound, nature
of bruises and treatment (Vol. 28, p.
837); Burns and Scalds (Vol. 4, p. 860);
Sunstroke, nature of heat prostration
(Vol. 26, p. 110); nature and treatment
of frost-bite, Mortification (Vol.. 18,
p. 878); Ulcer (Vol. 27, p. 565); Chil-
blains (Vol. 6, p. 134); Eczema (Vol. 8
p. 920); relief from choking, Oesopha-
gus (Vol. 20, p. 14); Bone, Fractures,
special fractures in the young (Vol. 4,
p. 201); Drowning and Life Saving
(Vol. 8, p. 592); Sleep, amount of sleep
necessary at different ages (Vol. 25,
p. 238); Diseases op Vision (Vol. 28,
p. 142); with its special section (p. 144)
on the care of the eyesight of children;
Blindness, Causes and Prevention
(Vol. 4, p. 60), by Sir F. J. Campbell,
principal, Royal Normal College for the
Blind, London; Shock, injuries and ac-
cidents (Vol. 24, p. 991). There is a sec-
tion on Action of Baths on the Human Sys-
tem, in Baths and Bathing (Vol. 3, p.
518), telling of the effects of cold, tepid,
warm, hot, and very hot baths.
Parents will be most grateful to the
Britannica for the complete descriptions
of infantile diseases, dealing with symp-
toms and principles of cure and treat-
ment.
The British Medical Journal com-
menting on the nature of the medical
section of the new Britannica has said
that it is "an admirable example of the
kind of exposition which will enable the
head of a family, without embarrass-
ing him with tech-
Treatment of nical details, to deal
Infantile with a situation
Diseases with which he may
be confronted at any
moment." Realizing the great necessity
for a popular yet authentic discussion
of diseases, the editors have produced a
work which has received the highest
approval of the medical world for its
quality of practical usefulness.
In the first place, parents should de-
vote much study to Sir T. Lauder Brun-
ton's most clear and able discussion of
Therapeutics (Vol. 26, p. 793), dealing in
a general manner with the means employed
to treat disease. Here we learn about
the action of microbes, the nature of in-
flammation and fever (which are protective
processes calculated to defend the organ-
ism against the attacks of microbes but
which often become injurious), about de-
fensive measures and principles of cure,
proper nutrition and elimination, flatu-
lence, constipation, etc. It is also im-
portant to know something about the
action of drugs, and this is fully explained
in Pharmacology (Vol. 21, p. 350), by
Dr. Ralph Stockman, of Glasgow Uni-
versity, while Dr. H. L. Hennessy in the
same article (p. 352) explains the terms
used in the classification of drugs.
Before describing the material de-
voted to the special diseases of children,
it is well to remind parents of a val-
uable illustrated article on Parasitic
Diseases (Vol. 20, p. 770), by Dr. G.
Sims Woodhead, professor of pathology
in Cambridge University. * It is about the
length of 52 pages in this Guide. The
information as to the origin of various
diseases, of those which are due to veget-
able and those due to animal parasites,
of the infective diseases in which no
organism yet discovered has surely been
connected with the malady (as is the case
with scarlet fever), and of infective dis-
eases, such as measles, mumps, and
whooping-cough, not yet traced to micro-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
organisms, will prove of the highest
interest because the facts related have
a most important influence upon present
methods of treatment.
Croup (Vol. 7, p. 511) is a concise
account of spasmodic croup — so terrifying
to all parents. The treatment is carefully
described. The same
Diseases most is true of Tonsilli-
Common to tis (Vol. 27, p. 11).
Childhood For other common
throat diseases see
Bronchitis (Vol. 4, p. 634) ; Respiratory
System, Pathology of (Vol. 23, p. 195)
by Dr. Thomas Harris, a noted author-
ity, and Dr. Harriet Hennessy, and Lar-
yngitis (Vol. 16, p. 228), which fully de-
scribes the paroxysmal laryngitis so pe-
culiarly fatal to infants. In all these
articles reference is made to adenoids as
a contributing cause of the maladies de-
scribed. There is a separate account of
these recently discovered troublesome
growths, Adenoids (Vol. 1, p. 191), and
of the comparatively simple operation
for their removal, by Dr. Edmund Owen,
consulting surgeon to the Children's
Hospital, London.
The great attention which, in recent
years, has been paid to Diphtheria
(Vol. 8, p. 290) has produced most strik-
ing results. We know its cause and
nature, we understand the conditions
which influence its prevalence; and a
"specific" cure in an antitoxin has been
found. Specialists now trace to diph-
theria many of the serious cases which
would formerly have been thought due
to other diseases, and especially to croup.
Whooping Cough (Vol. 28, p. 616) is
one of the most common diseases of
infancy, but, except in the most extreme
cases, does not require the regular at-
tendance of a physician. The malady
has three recognized stages, in the second
of which complications are apt to arise
which may become a source of danger
greater than the malady itself. Parents
should also understand the curious struc-
tural changes in the lungs which some-
times remain after the disease has run
its course.
Of all the diseases of earlier childhood,
Measles (Vol. 17, p. 947) is the most
prevalent, and its spread is largely due
to the fact that its initial symptoms
are slight and not easily recognizable.
The proper understanding of these is,
therefore, most necessary, as well as a
thorough appreciation of possible com-
plications and their consequences. The
best mode of treatment is also indicated
in this article. There are several well-
marked varieties of Scarlet Fever (Vol.
24, p. 303) of which the chief are simple
scarlatina, septic scarlatina, and malig-
nant scarlatina; and the complications
and effects of the disease are among the
most important features which should be
understood. The list of infantile dis-
eases is too long for specific description,
but parents can appreciate the value and
significance of this valuable department
of the work by referring to such articles
as Mumps (Vol. 18, p. 968) ; Dysentery
(Vol. 8, p. 785); Cholera (Vol. 6, p. 262),
with a special section on children's simple
cholera; see also Digestive Organs,
General and Local Diseases (Vol. 8, p. 262)
by Dr. A. L. Gillespie, lecturer on mod-
ern gastric methods, Edinburgh Post-
Graduate School, and Meningitis, Cere-
bro-Spinal (Vol. 18, p. 130), with an ac-
count of the new and successful serum
treatment.
In planning the groundwork of edu-
cation, parents should have a clear
idea of the principles of modern in-
struction. Here the
Mental Britannica again
Training comes to their as-
sistance. The bi-
ographies of Pestalozzi (Vol. 21, p.
284) and of Froebel (Vol. 11, p. 238) de.
scribe the insistence of these leaders on
the need of educating a child through
his own activity, and the results they
obtained by this method. Further elab-
oration of the subject is given in Educa-
tion, Theory (Vol. 8, p. 951), by James
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Welton, professor of education in the
University of Leeds, to which article
there are added detailed accounts of
national systems of education. An inter-
esting supplementary article is Schools
(Vol. 24, p. 359), by A. F. Leach, describ-
ing the stages of experiment by which our
modern idea of a school has been devel-
oped. There is an admirably instructive
article, Technical Education (Vol. 26,
p. 487), by Sir Philip Magnus, formerly
member of the Royal Commission of
Technical Instruction.
The new Britannica performs a service
of the greatest importance in responding
to the opening mind of the child. Chil-
dren are the greatest
Assistance at of question askers,
Home in School and the Britannica
Education is the best question
answerer ever de-
vised. They want to know about the
races of men, the different animals and
plants they see; in fact, almost every
object that comes under their observa-
tion. The inestimable advantage of an-
swering an inquiry fully and correctly
and not in an offhand manner is too ob-
vious to need mention. Let your young
children see you go to your Britannica for
information and as soon as they are
old enough they will naturally do the
same, and then the volumes will be per-
forming their most efficient work in the
household.
For helping children with their school
"themes" and "compositions," for elu-
cidation or amplification of any topic
that comes up in the course of their
studies, there is no medium so useful as
the new Britannica — the most exhaust-
ive compendium of knowledge which
has ever been devised, with its elaborate
index of 500,000 alphabetical references,
giving instant access to every fact in
the whole work. Of equal assistance will
be its employment in connection with
Sunday School lessons; for the accounts
of the Bible and its separate books,
giving the latest results of Biblical crit-
icism, are the product of the highest
learning of the age.
For the instruction of children about
the history of mankind, the nature of
the universe, the animal, plant, and min-
eral world, the new
The World of Britarinica offers a
Nature complete fund of
necessary knowledge.
There are 277 astronomical articles, in-
cluding biographies; 889 zoological arti-
cles; 675 on plants; 380 on minerals
and rocks. The classified subject-list
in the Index Volume places the whole of
this material immediately before the eye.
The articles Anthropology (Vol. 2,
p. 108), by Dr. Edward B. Tylor of Ox-
ford University, dean of living anthro-
pologists, and Ethnology and Ethnog-
raphy (Vol. 9, p. 849) describe the races
of mankind, man's place in nature, the
origin of man, and his antiquity. The
main article Zoology (Vol. 28, p. 1022),
by Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, of London
University, is an introduction to knowl-
ledgq of the whole of the animal world,
which is amplified, with minute details,
in separate accounts of all members of
the animal kingdom. Zoological Dis-
tribution (Vol. 28, p. 1002), by the noted
naturalist, Richard Lydekker, is a mine of
information about the distribution of
living animals and their forerunners on
the surface of the globe. Articles of
great importance are Botany (Vol. 4,
p. 299), by Dr. A. B. Rendle of the Brit-
ish Museum, and the great article Plants
(Vol. 21, p. 728), in the various sections
of which the whole story of the vegetable
world is told by eight famous specialists.
There are, of course, separate articles on
all plants. We also recommend to par-
ents a careful study of the section (Vol.
23, p. 120) of Reproduction, Reproduc-
tion of Plants, by Dr. S. H. Vines, and
Pollination (Vol. 22, p. 2), from which
they can give their children much neces-
sary instruction. Such a course is now
strongly advised by educators and au-
thorities in child-study as the best
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
method of preparing the mind for a
healthy, sane knowledge of sex matters
in later years.
All the facts about the earth's surface
will be found in Geography, in the sec-
tion Principles of Geography (Vol. 11, p.
630), by Dr. H. R.
What Happens Mill, formerly presi-
on the Earth dent of the Royal
and in the Air Meteorological So-
ciety; and see also
Ocean and Oceanography (Vol. 19, p.
967), by Dr. Otto Kriimmel, professor of
geography, University of Kiel, and Dr. H.
R. Mill. Everything about the weather,
storms, etc., may be learned from Mete-
orology (Vol. 18, p. 264), by Dr. Cleve-
land Abbe, professor of meteorology in
the U. S. Weather Bureau; and from
Atmospheric Electricity (Vol. 2, p.
860), by Dr. Charles Chree of the Na-
tional Physical Laboratory, England.
Clouds always appeal strongly to a
child's imagination. The article Cloud
(Vol. 6, p. 557), by A. W. Clkyden, au-
thor of Cloud Studies, has beautiful illus-
trations of cloud forms, with explana-
tions.
Lord Rayleigh, a winner of the Nobel
prize and one of the most distinguished
of living scientists, in the article Sky
(Vol. 25, p. 202) explains why the blue of
the sky varies as it does.
Parents will find a great deal to tell
their children about phenomena of na-
ture in such articles as Earthquake
(Vol. 8, p. 817), by F. W. Rudler, for-
merly president of the Geologists' Asso-
ciation, England, and Dr. John Milne,
author of Earthquakes; and Volcano
(Vol. 28, p. 178), by F. W. Rudler. Gla-
ciers and their effects are described in
Glacier (Vol. 12, p. 60), by E. C Spicer.
In teaching rudimentary things about
the heavens, it is well to note that Con-
stellation (Vol. 7, p. 11), by Charles
Everitt, contains star-maps by which the
positions may easily be recognized. After
reading Star (Vol. 25, p. 784), by A. S.
Eddington, of the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, many wonders of the heavens
about the number of the stars, their dis-
tances, the variable and double stars,
etc., may be told the child. The same
is true of the articles Planet (Vol. 21, p.
714), by Dr. Simon Newcomb, director
of the American Nautical Almanac and
professor of mathematics in the Navy,
and of the separate accounts of all the
different planets; Comet (Vol. 6, p. 759),
by Dr. Newcomb; and Nebula (Vol. 19,
p. 832), by A. S. Eddington, etc. These
are all very fully illustrated. Ideas as to
the structure of the universe, the origin
of the solar system, etc., will be found in
Nebular Theory (Vol. 19, p. 383), by
Sir Robert S. Ball, professor of as-
tronomy, Cambridge University.
A great many children show a liking
for the mechanical arts and are curious
about processes of manufacture. Parents
will find in the new
The Training Britannica complete
of the Hand information about
the marvelous things
ingenious machines do and how they do
them; for example, Spinning (Vol. 25,
p. 685, by T. W. Fox, professor .of tex-
tiles in the University of Manchester;
Cotton-Spinning Machinery (Vol. 7,
p. 301), also by Professor Fox; Weaving
(Vol. 28, p. 440), by Professor Fox, with
illustrations; Hosiery (Vol. 13, p. 788),
by Thomas Brown, of the Incorporated
Weaving, Dyeing and Printing College,
Glasgow; Carpet (Vol. 5, p. 392), by A.
S. Cole, assistant secretary for art, Board
of Education, England; Silk (Vol. 25, p.
96), by Frark Warner, president of the
Silk Association of Great Britain and
Ireland; Richard Snow, examiner in silk
throwing and spinning for the City and
Guilds of London Institute, and Arthur
Mellor; Flour and Flour Manufac-
ture (Vol. 10, p. 548), by G. F. Zimmer,
author of Mechanical Handling of Ma-
terial; Rope and Rope Making (Vol. 23,
p. 713), by Thomas Woodhouse, head of
the weaving and textile department,
Technical College, Dundee; Sugar,
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Sugar Manufacture (Vol. 26, p. 35), by A.
Chapman, designer and constructor of
sugar machinery, and Valentine W.
Chapman.
An important service to education is
rendered by the Britannica in the way
that it supplements and extends educa-
tion received in
The Foundation the school. There,
of Good Taste far too often chil-
dren learn little or
nothing of the world of art, of the
beautiful creations of the human intel-
lect by means of which, even before the
dawn of history, men attempted to ex-
press in concrete form their sense of
beauty. It is surely most desirable for
children to have an idea, at least, of
principles and styles of architecture; of
ancient and modern painting and sculp-
ture — to know the chief characteristics of
schools of art; to have a little knowledge
of musical forms, of what a symphony,
a concerto, a sonata, an opera, are; to
be able to recognize a piece of Dresden,
Sevres, Italian faience, Copenhagen, or
Wedgwood ware when they see it; to
know the different periods and styles
of furniture; to tell Bohemian from
Venetian glass; to be familiar with
lovely textiles and fabrics and to appre-
ciate their true value. Such knowledge
is the foundation of good taste. It serves
to arouse appreciation of, and respect for,
the objects with which a child is sur-
rounded, and leads to delightful interests,
recreations and occupations in later years.
There are few better and more constant
uses to which the Britannica can be put
than the systematic education of children
in matters of general culture and refined
taste.
A list of articles to serve this purpose
would be too long to give here. They are
easily found by means of other chapters
in this Guide. But
Knowledge of special mention may
the Fine Arts be made of Archi-
tecture (Vol. 2, p.
), by R. Phene Spiers, master of the
architectural school, Royal Academy,
London, by John Bilson, of the University
of Manchester, and others; Painting
(Vol. 20, p. 459), by Prof. G. B. Brown of
Edinburgh University; L. Benedite, keep-
er of the Luxembourg Gallery, Paris;
Richard Muther, professor of modern art,
Breslau University; and John C. Van
Dyke, professor of history of art, Rutgers
College; Sculpture (Vol. 24 p. 488), by
Marion H. Spielmann, formerly editor,
Magazine of Art, P. G. Konody, art critic
of the Observer 9 L. Benedite, and Dr. J. H.
Middleton, Slade professor of fine art,
Cambridge University; Ceramics (Vol.
5, p. 703), by Hon. William Burton, chair-
man, Joint Committee of Potteiy Manu-
facturers of Great Britain, R. L. Hobson
of the British Museum, and other au-
thorities; Glass (Vol. 12, p. 86), by
Alexander Nesbitt, H. J. Powell, author of
Glass Making, and Dr. W. Rosenhain of
the National Physical Laboratory, Eng-
land; Lace (Vol. 16, p. 37), by A. S.
Cole, author of Embroidery and Lace;
Furniture (Vol. 11, p. 363), by J. Pen-
derel-Brodhurst. All of these articles are
superbly illustrated, and this feature
alone would give them a direct educa-
tional value for young people.
In fact, the new Britannica may be
said to be the greatest and most varied
picture book in existence. There are
7,000 text illustra-
The Best tions and 450 full-
Picture-Book page plates. This
in the World suggests at once a
special use for the
work in making children familiar, by
purely pictorial means, with objects they
should learn to recognize. When a child
asks for a description of some object
whose name has aroused his curiosity, it
is safe to say that an accurate picture of
it will be found in the new Britannica.
Suppose that he has heard of a dirigible
balloon and wants to know how it differs
from the ordinary balloon which he has
seen. The index will guide his instructor
to the article Aeronautics (Vol. 1, p.
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
260), with two full-page plates of dirigible
balloons. A child can learn to distin-
guish the breeds of domestic animals
from the illustrations alone. Thirst for
mechanical knowledge may be satisfied
by such articles as Steam Engine (Vol.
25, p. 818), with about 70 illustrations,
by Prof. J. A. Ewing, of Cambridge Uni-
versity; Watch (Vol. 28, p. 362), by
Lord Grimthorpe and Sir H. H. Cunyng-
hame; Lighthouse (Vol. 16, p. 627), by
W. T. Douglass and N. G. Gedye; Tele-
phone (V61. 26, p. 547), by Emile
Garcke; and Lock (Vol. 16, p. 841), by
A. B. Chatwood — all fully illustrated.
The new Britannica is an exhaustive
and practical compendium of sports,
games, and recreations of all kinds. Part
6 of this Guide con-
Sport and tains a survey of
Recreation this department in
the book. There are
over 260 articles on sports and games
alone, and they describe clearly how each
is played, and also give expert advice.
There is also much that is extremely
interesting in the historical development
of pastimes, a knowledge of which height-
ens the interest and pleasure of those
who participate in them; and parents
can be of real assistance to their children
in instructing them about their sports,
and by acquiring this information them-
selves can give sympathetic appreciation
to the children's amusements. Among
the noteworthy contributions on sports
and games there are Children's Games
(Vol. 6, p. 141), an article for parents by
Alice B. Gomme, an expert on this sub-
ject; Games, Classical (Vol. 11, p. 443),
an account which every boy will read
with pleasure, by Francis Storr, editor
of the Journal of Education, London;
Athletic Sports (Vol. 2, p. 846) ; Base-
Ball (Vol. 3, p. 458), by Edward Breck;
Basket-Ball (Vol. 3, p. 483), Foot-
ball (Vol. 10, p. 617), of which the Amer-
ican section is written by Walter Camp,
the football expert; Kite-flying (Vol.
15, p. 839), by Major-Gen. Baden Powell;
Marbles (Vol. 17, p. 679), by W. E.
Garrett Fisher; Lawn Tennis (Vol. 16,
p. 300), by R. J. McNeill; Swimming
(Vol. 26, p. 231), by William Henry,
founder and chief secretary of the Royal
Life Saving Society; Skating (Vol. 25,
p. 166), and Coasting (Vol. 6, p. 603).
Recreation in the form of diverting
occupations is sometimes more attractive
to children, especially to those of a prac-
tical turn of mind,
Diverting than sports and
Occupations games. It is often
difficult for parents
to encourage these inclinations, since they
themselves may not be familiar with the
subjects for which their children show a
special aptitude, and a real talent may
thus fail to be cultivated. As soon as any
particular bent in the child is discovered,
a parent ought to consider it a duty to
learn to help the boy or girl.
The new Encyclopaedia Britannica will,
on all subjects of diverting occupations,
prove of immense practical assistance
to parents. They will find all that they
need to know to help their children under
such headings as Photography (Vol. 21,
p. 485), by Sir William de Wiveleslie
Abney, formerly president of the Royal
Photographic Society, James Waterhouse
also a former president of the same soci-
ety, who writes on photographic appa-
ratus, and A. H.Hinton, author of Prac-
tical Pictorial Photography, etc.; Bee,
Bee Keeping (Vol. 3, p. 628), by W. B.
Carr, formerly editor of the Bee-Keeper's
Record; the article Aviary, on the keeping
of birds (Vol. 3, p. 60), by David Seth-
Smith, formerly president of the Avicul-
tural Society; Poultry and Poultry
Farming (Vol. 22, p. 213), by Lewis
Wright, author of The Practical Poultry-
Keeper; Basket, Basket Making (Vol.
3, p. 481); Horticulture (Vol. 13, p.
741), by M. T. Masters, late editor of
The Gardeners Chronicle, W. R. W. Will-
iams, superintendent of London County
Council Botany Centre, John Weathers,
author of Practical Guide to Garden Plants,
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Prof. Liberty Hyde Bailey, director
of the College of Agriculture, Cornell
University, and Peter Henderson; Car-
pentry (Vol. 5, p. 386), by James Bart-
lett, lecturer on construction, at Kings
College, London; Conjuring (Vol. 6, p.
943), by John Algernon Clarke, G. Faur,
and John Nevil Maskelyne.
CHAPTER LXII
FOR SCHOOL-CHILDREN
Importance of
Correct First
Impressions
WHEN a stick of hot glass is drawn
out, no matter how far it is
stretched, the slender stick re-
tains the original shape of the piece —
square, round or oval. In the same way,
a child's mind retains in after life the
shaping originally given to it. Everyone
knows from personal
experience how diffi-
cult it is to rid the
mind of a wrong
impression received
in childhood. The editors of the new Bri-
tannica feel that they have solved a
great problem in making a work of the
most accurate and authoritative character
interesting to children, for they have re-
ceived much valuable testimony that this
end has been attained. Dr Charles W.
Eliot, president-emeritus of Harvard
University, was an early subscriber for
two sets for the use of his grandchildren.
He said that he found the work "alto-
gether admirable; and my grandchildren,
who are at the most inquisitive ages,
are of the same opinion." Professor
W. G. Hale, of the University of Chicago,
wrote, "My children feel the same fas-
cination in it that I do." Judge J. P.
Gorter, of the Baltimore Supreme Court,
has expressed his opinion that "every
family with growing children seeking
information should have this invaluable
work in the library." The owner of
the new Britannica should constantly
encourage his children to go to the
volumes for further information on topics
included in the course of the day's studies
at school. It will not take long to make
them realize that the volumes open an
inexhaustible mine of knowledge, and
answer any question as to which curi-
osity has been aroused. With a little
help from you, at the beginning, they
will soon learn to use the Britannica
for themselves.
The love of reading is quickly devel-
oped in children. Some are attracted to
history, to the lives of great men, to
exploration and to
adventure; others
become more inter-
ested in the world
of nature; still others
have a natural bent toward science and
the mechanical arts. Whatever the in-
clination may be, the Britannica stands
at the child's service, giving to him the
true facts in such a way that he can
easily understand them.
The following suggestions will help
children to pursue their favourite lines of
reading. They may like to begin with
the heroes of myth and history. Andrew
Lang contributes a most comprehensive
article on Mythology (Vol. 19, p. 128).
The classified subject-list in Vol. 29
(Index) indicates nearly 500 separate
articles on the gods and mythological
beings of ancient Greece and Rome, Asia,
The Britannica
Interesting to
Children
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Egypt, Europe and America. The cen-
tral hero of medieval romance, Arthur
(Vol. 2, p. 681), is described by Miss
Jessie L. Weston, author of Arthurian
Romances. The famous deeds of the Cid
(Vol. 6, p. 361), the foremost man of
Spain's heroic period, are related by H.
E. Watts, the well-known translator of
Don Quixote. Roland, Legend of (Vol.
23, p. 464), tells another stirring story.
Of peculiar interest to children are
such articles as Cyrus (The Great),
(Vol. 7, p. 706), by Dr. Eduard Meyer,
professor of ancient
Heroes and history, University
Heroines of His- of Berlin, author of
tory, Romance the world-famous
and Adventure History of Antiquity;
Alexander III
(The Great), (Vol. 1, p. 545), by the
noted Hellenist, Edwyn R. Bevan;
Caesar, Julius (Vol. 4, p. 938), by
Henry Stuart Jones, of Oxford University;
Hannibal (Vol. 12, p. 920), by M. O. B.
Caspari, of London University; Theo-
doric (Vol. 26, p. 768), the great ruler of
the Gothic nation, by Theodore Hodgkin,
author of Italy and her Invaders; Charle-
magne, founder of the Holy Roman
Empire (Vol. 5, p. 891), by Arthur W.
Holland; Charles Martel (Vol. 5, p.
942), a great type
The Romance of courage and ac-
of the Middle tivity, by Christian
Ages Pfister, professor
at the Sorbonne,
Paris; Alfred the Great (Vol. 1, p.
582), by Rev. Charles Plummer, author
of The Life and Times of Alfred the Great;
Crusades (Vol. 7, p. 524), by Ernest
Barker, of Oxford University, a narra-
tive with all the action and interest
of the best tales for children; Templars
(Vol. 26, p. 591), by W. Alison Phillips,
author of Modern Europe, etc.; Louis IX
(Saint) (Vol. 17, p. 37), by Prof. James
T. Shotwell, of Columbia University;
Conradin (Vol. 6, p. 968), the pathetic
life of this marvelous boy who perished
at the age of seventeen; Hundred Years'
War (Vol. 13, p. 893), by Jules Viard,
archivist of the National Archives, Paris;
Froissart, Jean (Vol. 11, p. 242), a
notable biography, by Sir Walter Besant;
Charles V (Vol. 5, p. 899), by Edward
Armstrong, author of The Emperor
Charles V, etc.; Cromwell, Oliver (Vol.
7, p. 487), by Philip Chesney Yorke,
of Oxford, Capt. C.
Heroes of F. Atkinson, and R.
Later Times J. McNeill; Gus-
TAVUS ADOLPHUS
(Vol. 12, p. 735), by R. Nisbet Bain,
author of Scandinavia, etc.; Marlbor-
ough (Vol. 17, p. 737), by Dr. W. P.
Courtney; Frederick II (The Great)
(Vol. 11, p. 52), by James Sime, author
of History of Germany, and W. Alison
Phillips; Napoleon I (Vol. 19, p. 190),
by J. Holland Rose; Nelson (Vol. 19, p.
352), by David Hannay, author of Short
History of the Royal Navy; Wellington
(Vol. 28, p. 507); Washington, George
(Vol. 28, p. 344), by Dr. William Mac-
Donald, professor of American History in
Brown University; Lincoln, Abraham
(Vol. 16, p. 703), by John G. Nicolay,
private secretary to President Lincoln,
and Charles C. Whinery, assistant editor
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Grant,
Ulysses S. (Vol. 12, p. 355), by Capt. C.
F. Atkinson, and John Fiske, author
of The American Revolution; Lee,
Robert E. (Vol. 16, p. 362); Boadicea
(Vol. 4, p. 94), by Dr. F. J. Haverfield,
professor of ancient history, Oxford Uni-
versity; Matilda
Famous Women (The Great Count-
of History ess) (Vol. 17, p. 888),
by Prof. Carlton H.
Hayes, of Columbia University; Joan of
Arc (Vol. 15. p. 420), by Prof. J. T. Shot-
well, of Columbia University; Isabella
(Vol. 14, p. 859); Elizabeth, Queen of
England (Vol. 9, p. 282), by A. F. Pollard,
professor of English history, London Uni-
versity; Mary, Queen of Scots (Vol. 17,
p. 817), by Algernon C. Swinburne, the
great poet, author of Mary Stuart, etc.;
Catherine de' Medici (Vol. 5, p. 528);
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FOR SCHOOL-CHILDREN
381
Victoria,. Queen (Vol. 28, p. 28), by
Hugh Chisholm, editor, Encyclopaedia
Britannica.
The biographies are not dry outlines
of the subjects' lives, but narratives of a
thoroughly interesting and often most
entertaining- nature. There has been a
generous amount of space alloted the
biographical articles in the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. The article on Napoleon I
is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide;
that of George Washington to 13 pages;
of Abraham Lincoln to 23 pages; of Queen
Victoria 23 pages. Such length provides
space for the picturesque details which
make the articles especially appropriate
for children, and will establish a taste
for this kind of reading in later years.
Many children show a bent for knowl-
edge of the world of nature, and to
them the new Britannica will prove a
faithful, constant
Readings in companion. Their
Natural pleasure in going to
History the encyclopaedia
will be heightened by
the many beautiful pictures they will find
in it. The articles on the domestic ani-
mals not only relate in simple, read-
able fashion the very interesting facts
about their history and development,
but are splendidly illustrated with pic-
tures of the different breeds so that by
this means alone anyone may learn to
distinguish them. Cat (Vol. 5, p. 487),
is by Richard Lydekker, the noted
naturalist; Cattle (Vol. 5, p. 539) is
by Dr. William Fream, author of Hand-
book of Agriculture, and Robert Wallace,
professor of agriculture, Edinburgh Uni-
versity; Dog (Vol. 8, p. 374) is by Walter
Baxendale, kennel editor of The Field,
and Dr. F. Chalmers Mitchell; Horse
(Vol. 13, p. 712) is by Sir William Henry
Flower, the noted biologist, author of
The Horse, a Study in Natural History,
Richard Lydekker, E. D. Brickwood, Dr.
William Fream and Robert Wallace;
Pig (Vol. 21, p. 594) is by Robert
Wallace, and Sheep (Vol. 24, p. 817)
is by Dr. Fream and Professor Wallace.
In too many books for children
about the habits of wild animals, the
facts of nature are grossly distorted with
the idea of impressing the imagination.
We are all familiar with the recent
spirited controversy over "nature fakers"
and the reaction to more sober statement
which it brought about. It is the truth
about the animal world that is wanted;
for it is quite wonderful and fascinating
enough as it is. And the new Britannica
supplies this need in a most satisfactory
and thorough manner. Children never
tire of natural history, and parents may
be assured that the information in the
entertaining articles by noted naturalists,
in the pages of the Britannica, is of the
most reliable and accurate character.
Nothing, for instance, could be more
absorbing to the average school-child
than the article Ant (Vol. 2, p. 85), by
Prof. George H. Car-
The Habits and penter of the Royal
Doings of Clever College of Science,
Animals Dublin, who wrote
the well-known book
Insects; their Structure and Life. Here
he tells how colonies of ants are founded,
and how they live, and how they receive
other insects as guests in order to obtain
the food they desire, and how some
species make slaves of other species.
Numerous examples of their sense and
intelligence are given, and the question
as to whether their actions are rational
or instinctive is discussed in the light
of the most recent knowledge. The
story of the Bee (Vol. 3, p. 625), also
by Professor Carpenter, is equally won-
derful, for we learn all about the solitary
and social bees, the social organization
of the hive, and how the worker bees
are victimized. Both of these articles
are fully illustrated. Spiders (Vol. 25,
p. 663), by R. I. Pocock, superintendent
of the Zoological Gardens, London, is
another example of the adaptibility ot
the Britannica to children's reading.
The accounts of their webs, nests and*
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
modes of catching prey hold the atten-
tion throughout.
A great deal of the most curious and
recent knowledge of the animal kingdom
is related in supplementary articles such
as Colours of Animals (Vol. 6, p. 731),
by Dr. E. B. Poulton, Hope professor of
zoology at Oxford, author of The Col-
ours of Animals, and Mimicry (Vol.
18, p. 495), by R. I. Pocock. The latter
tells how animals protect themselves
from their enemies by resemblance to
other animals or objects.
Space will not permit further specific
mention. The life-story of the entire
animal kingdom, detailed information
about plants and
Knowledge flowers are to be
about Plants found in the pages
and Animals of the new Britan-
nica. The accurate
and beautiful illustrations and the text,
written in every case by naturalists of
acknowledged reputation, and written
always in the clearest language, help
to give the work its unique position as
the greatest source of authoritative and
easily comprehended knowledge.
Children delight in machinery and
what it accomplishes, and the Britannica
tells about this with great thoroughness
in its complete sec-
Marvelous tion dealing with
Machines processes of manu-
facture. A number of
the articles on this subject have been
suggested in the last chapter as suitable
for parents who wish to interest their
children in the industrial world, and the
list may be further extended for the bene-
fit of older children by including such
articles as Textile Printing (Vol. 26,
p. 694), by Dr. Edmund Knecht, of Man-
chester University; Finishing (Vol. 10,
p. 378) also by Professor Knecht; Wool,
Worsted and Woollen Manufactures
(Vol. 28, p. 805), by Aldred F. Barker,
professor of textile industries, Bradford
Technical College; Typography, Mod-
ern Practical Typography (Vol. 27, p.
542), by John Southward, author of
Practical Printing, and H. M. Ross;
Printing (Vol. 22, p. 350), by C. T.
Jacobi, managing director of the Chis-
wick Press, London; Dredge and Dredg-
ing (Vol. 8, p. 562), by Walter Hunter,
a noted consulting engineer; Reaping
(Vol. 22, p. 944), by Primrose McConnell,
author of Diary of a Working Farmer, etc.
Boys with a practical, mechanical turn
of mind will delight in such articles as
Bridges (Vol. 4, p. 533), by Prof. W. C.
Unwin, with many illustrations; Motor
Vehicles (Vol. 18, p. 914), by the late
C. S. Rolls, a pioneer of motoring, and
Edward S. Smith; Flight and Flying,
Artificial Flight (Vol. 10, p. 510), which
describes, with many pictures, flying ma-
chines from the earliest types to the
latest, and Cycling (Vol. 7, p. 682), an
historical and pictorial account of the
velocipede and bicycle. Nothing could
be more interesting and instructive than
Ship (Vol. 24, p. 860), of which the his-
torical part is by Rev, Edmond Warre,
formerly head master of Eton College,
and the account of modern ships by Sir
Philip Watts, who designed the "Dread-
nought" and the "Mauretania." It is a
real story, equivalent in length to 190
pages of this Guide, with nearly 130
illustrations of all sorts of craft including
modern warships, ocean liners and ves-
sels for inland navigation. Under Rail-
ways (Vol. 22, p. 819) there is an equally
good history of the railway by H. M.
Ross, editor of The Times Engineering
Supplement, and others.
The remarkable attraction possessed
by electrical apparatus for many boys
will doubtless send them to such articles
as Dynamo (Vol. 8,
Electrical p. 764), by C. C.
Apparatus Hawkins, author of
The Dynamo; Tele-
phone (Vol. 26, p. 547), by Harry R.
Kempe, electrician to the General Post
Office, London; Telegraph (Vol. ?G, p.
510), also by H. R. Kempe, and the
chapter on Wireless Telegraphy (p. 529),
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by J. A. Fleming, professor of electrical
engineering in the University of London.
These accounts are full of the most
practical information, and will be of in-
estimable help to any boy who wishes to
experiment for himself.
Many industrial processes, while not
employing complicated machinery, nev-
ertheless possess much interest, both
from an historical
Industrial and a technical point
Processes of view, and on these
the new Britannica is
as complete and authentic as in all other
departments. Especially useful and en-
tertaining to children will be found the
material relating to the manufacture of
the common objects by which they are
surrounded. Such, for instance, are
Ceramics (Vol. 5, p. 703), by William
Burton and several other experts, with
beautiful illustrations; Glass (Vol. 12,
p. 86), by Harry James Powell, author
of Glass Making, etc., Alexander Nesbitt,
and William Rosenhain of the National
Physical Laboratory, England; and Pro-
cess (Vol. 22, p. 408), an illustrated
account, by Edwin Bale, of the photo-
mechanical processes by which illustra-
tions are reproduced in printing.
These and hundreds of similar articles
will prove most helpful and suggestive
to school-children who are constantly
called on to prepare "themes" and write
compositions. As soon as a child makes
acquaintance with the new Britannica
he will quickly realize its inexhaustible
resources, and the aid it lends him in his
studies will be continued throughout the
course of his life, in his business and in
his general reading.
Children love to read adventures of
explorers in forcing their way to unknown
lands. The impression they make is
much clearer when
Explorers* the child has learned
Voyages and to distinguish the
Journeys different motives
which have led to
discovery and to exploration — commer-
cial expansion, fresh conquests, religious
zeal, flight from persecution, or the ad-
vancement of knowledge for its own
sake. With such information he will read
in a new light the stirring history of ad-
venture, the great story of hardship and
endurance.
The Britannica presents all this on a
definite, scientific plan. The inquirer
starts on his trip through any field of
learning with guide-posts clearly marked,
and successive ones in sight one from the
other; so that there is no going astray, no
uncertain wandering. A reader — young
or old — with taste for exploration and
adventure may turn first to Geography,
Progress of Geographical Discovery (Vol.
11, p. 623), by Dr. H. R. Mill, editor of
The International Geography. This ar-
ticle outlines geographical discovery in
chronological order from the days of the
Phoenicians. The reader will doubtless
make excursions into other parts of the
books for more detailed accounts, but he
has always this main article to guide him.
He will go to the article on Herodotus
(Vol. 13, p. 381), the traveler, by Canon
George Rawlinson, the great Oriental
archaeologist, and the Rev. E. M. Walker
of Oxford University; and to the story of
Pytheas (Vol. 22, p. 703), the Greek
navigator who brought the first definite
news of northwestern Europe to the
Mediterranean world, by Sir Edward H.
Bunbury, author of A History of Ancient
Geography, and Dr. C. R. Beazley of the
University of Birmingham. Other stories
of exploration and adventure are: Viking
(Vol. 28, p. 62), by Charles F. Keary,
author of The Vikings in Western Chris-
tendom; Leif Ericsson (Vol. 16, p. 396),
the first European to set foot on the
American continent, by Prof. C. R.
Beazley; Vinland (Vol. 28, p. 98), with
all the latest known facts of Leif s dis-
covery, by Prof. J. E. Olson of the Uni-
versity of Wisconsin ; the marvelous career
of the great Venetian discoverer, Polo,
Marco (Vol. 22, p. 7), boldest of medi-
eval travelers, by Sir Henry Yule, author
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
of The Book of Ser Marco Polo, and Prof.
C. R. Beazley; Henry of Portugal (the
Navigator) (Vol. 13, p. 296); Diaz db
Novaes (Vol. 8, p. 172); Columbus,
Christopher (Vol. 6, p. 741) — all of
these by Professor Beazley; Gama, Vasco
Da (Vol. 11, p. 433),
America — Its who discovered the
Discoverers and Cape route to India;
Conquerors Pinzon (Vol. 21, p.
631); Vespucci, Am-
erigo (Vol. 27, p. 1053), by Professor
Beazley; Balboa, Vasco NuffEz de (Vol.
3, p. 241), discoverer of the Pacific Ocean;
Cabot (Vol. 4, p. 921), by H. P. Biggar,
author of The Voyages of the Cabots to
Greenland; Magellan, Ferdinand (Vol.
17, p. 302), the first circumnavigator of
the globe, by Professor Beazley; Soto,
Ferdinando de (Vol. 25, p. 435),
wrongly called the discoverer of the
Mississippi; Peru, History (Vol. 21, p.
274), by Sir Clements R. Markham, au-
thor of Travels in Peru and India, a full
account of Pizarro's conquest; Cortes,
Hernan (Vol. 7, p. 205), a concise and
able description of the conquest of Mex-
ico; Cartier, Jacques (Vol. 5, p. 433),
which tells of the discovery of the St.
Lawrence; Hudson, Henry (Vol. 13, p.
849); Baffin, William (Vol. 3, p. 192);
La Salle (Vol. 16, p. 230), by C. C.
Whinery, assistant editor of the Ency-
clopaedia Britannica; Champlain, Sam-
uel de (Vol. 5, p. 830), by Dr. N. E.
Dionne, author of
Great Voyages Life of Samuel
Champlain, etc.;
Drake, Sir Francis (Vol. 8, p. 473);
Buccaneers (Vol. 4, p. 709), by David
Hannay, a stirring account of the pirat-
ical adventurers of different nationalities
who united against Spain in the 17th
century, and Cook, James (Vol. 7, p.
71), by Professor Beazley.
The story of geographical discovery
and exploration is continued in such art-
icles as America, General Historical
Sketch (Vol. 1, p. 806), by David Hannay;
Africa, History: Exploration and Survey
since 1875 (Vol. 1, pp. 331 and 352), by F.
R. Cana, author of South Africa from the
Great Trek to the Union; Asia, Explora-
tion (Vol. 2, p. .738), by Col. Sir Thomas
H. Holdich, formerly superintendent of
the Frontier Surveys of India; Australia,
Discovery and Exploration (Vol. 2, p. 958) ;
and Polar Regions (Vol. 21, p. 938), by
Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the Arctic explorer,
and Dr. H. R. Mill, which gives a bril-
liant survey of all the attempts to con-
quer the frozen world. In connection
with these articles should be read the full
and interesting biographies of the great
modern explorers such as Baker, Sir
Samuel White (Vol. 3, p. 227) ; Burton,
Sir Richard F. (Vol. 4, p. 864), by Dr.
Stanley Lane-Poole; Livingstone, Da-
vid (Vol. 16, p. 813), by John Scott Kel-
tie, secretary of the Royal Geographical
Society; Stanley, Sir Henry Morton
(Vol. 25, p. 779), by
Modern F. R. Cana; Emin
Exploration Pasha (Vol. 9, p.
840); Speke, John
H. (Vol. 25, p. 633); Parry, Sir William
Edward (Vol. 20, p. 865); Franklin,
Sir John (Vol. 11, p. 30); Kane, Elisha
Kent (Vol. 15, p. 650); Nordenskiold,
Nils Adolf Erik (Vol. 19, p. 740) ; Nan-
sen, Fridtjof (Vol. 19, p. 162); Peary,
Robert Edwin (Vol. 21, p. 30). Seethe
chapter on Geography in this Guide.
A strong taste for history is often found
in children, and the new Britannica is,
among other things, a complete history
of the world, by the
A Complete greatest historians of
History of the the present day. In
World respect to the treat-
ment and arrange-
ment of the historical section there are
many things that make it especially
adapted for young people's reading. In
the first place the great episodes of his-
tory, such as French Revolution,
Renaissance, Reformation, Middle
Ages, and Crusades, are discussed in
separate articles. Also every battle,
siege, campaign, or war of importance
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has its article, apart from its treatment
in the histories of countries. The his-
torical articles in the new Britannica will
send those a little older to other articles
dealing with government, and thus help
them to cope intelligently with the social
and civic problems of the age — in other
words, enable them to become the best
kind of citizens. The chapter in this
Guide headed Questions of the Day covers
this ground; and see the chapters on
History.
A child is naturally curious to know
about mountains, rivers, caverns, the
causes of rain, dew and wind. Just as
this encyclopaedia shows itself the best
of instructors in regard to the plant and
animal world, so with natural phenomena
it serves to bring the child into close,
sympathetic touch with the truths of
science.
The principles of physical geography
are clearly explained in Geography,
Principles of (Vol. 11, p. 630), by Dr. H.
R. Mill; and when
Physical these are learned
Geography young people will
made Interesting turn with eager in-
terest to such arti-
cles as Alps (Vol. 1, p. 737), partly by
W. A. B. Coolidge, author of The Alps in
Nature and in History; Andes (Vol.
1, p. 960); Appalachian Mountains
(Vol. 2, p. 207), by Dr. Arthur C. Spencer,
geologist to the Geological Survey of the
United States; Himalaya (Vol. 13, p.
470); Volcano (Vol. 28, p. 178), by F.
W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical
Geology, London; Vesuvius (Vol. 27, p.
1063), by Sir Archibald Geikie and Dr.
Thomas Ashby; Earthquake (Vol. 8, p.
817), by F. W. Rudler and Dr. John
Milne, author of Earthquakes, etc.; Gey-
ser (Vol. 11, p. 913); Cave (Vol. 5, p.
573), by Dr. William Boyd Dawkins, au-
thor of Cave Hunting, etc.; Mammoth
Cave (Vol. 17, p. 531), by Rev. Horace
C. Hovey, author of Celebrated American
Caverns, etc.; Luray Cavern (Vol. 17,
p. 127), also by Dr. Hovey; Grand Can-
yon (Vol. 12, p. 347), by R. S. Tarr, late
professor of physical geography, Cornell
University; Great Salt Lake (Vol. 12,
p. 421); Yosemite (Vol. 28, p. 937),
by Dr. John Muir, president of the Amer-
ican Alpine Club, and author of The
Mountains of California; Yellowstone
National Park (Vol. 28, p. 912); Gla-
cier (Vol. 12, p. 60), by Rev. E. C.
Spicer, of Oxford University; Niagara
(Vol. 19, p. 634), by Dr. G. K. Gilbert,
author of Niagara Falls and their His-
tory; Mississippi River (Vol. 18, p. 604);
Amazon (Vol. 1, p. 783), by Col. George
E. Church, the famous American ex-
plorer of the Amazon; Orinoco (Vol. 20,
p. 275), also by Colonel Church; Rhine
(Vol. 23, p. 240), by Dr. J. F. Muirhead,
editor of many of Baedeker's Guide
Books, and Philip A. Ashworth; Nile
(Vol. 19, p. 692), by F. R. Cana and Sir
W. E. Garstin, governing director, Suez
Canal Co.; Niger (Vol. 19, p. 674)
and Congo (Vol. 6, p. 914), by F. R.
Cana; Yangtsze-Kiang (Vol. 28, p. 903),
by George Jamieson, formerly British
consul-general at Shanghai; Desert
(Vol. 8, p. 92), by Dr. H. N. Dickson,
professor of geography, University Col-
lege, Reading; Sahara (Vol. 23, p. 1004),
by Edward Heawood, librarian of the
Royal Geographical Society, London, and
F. R. Cana. There are also separate
articles on the oceans and large lakes.
Astronomy is a science which is
peculiarly attractive to children, since it
arouses the imagination and makes a
strong appeal to their delight in all that
is marvelous. There are 277 astronomi-
cal articles in the new Encyclopaedia
Britannica to which the classified list in
the Index Volume (Vol. 29, p. 888) is the
key.
In the preceding chapter are men-
tioned a few articles which will serve
for t he-beginning
Readings in of an acquaintance
Astronomy with astronomy.
When a child has
learned to know the zodiacal constella-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tions he will certainly want to read
Zodiac (Vol. 28, p. 993), by Agnes M.
Clerke, author of A History of Astronomy
in the 19th Century, for the story of the
signs and what they meant to the nations
of past ages. There are separate articles
on the principal constellations and stars.
Astrology (Vol. 2, p. 795), by Prof.
Morris Jastrow of the University of
Pennsylvania, will prove both entertain-
ing and instructive.
Those who wish to know about meth-
ods of observation will find the complete
story in Telescope (Vol. 26, p. 557), a
beautifully illustrated article by H.
Dennis Taylor, author of A System of
Applied Optics, and Sir David Gill, for-
merly astronomer royal at the Cape of
Good Hope.
In the preceding chapter a few articles
on games were mentioned as be-
ing useful to parents helping very
young children to
Games and amuse themselves. A
Pastimes little later, the child
will be delighted to
choose for himself among the 260 articles
on sports and pastimes; and the analysis
of this department of the Britannica, in
Part 6 of this Guide, will then be of serv-
ice. We may mention here the articles
Golf (Vol. 12, p. 219), by H. G.
Hutchinson, golf champion and author of
Hints on Golf; Lacrosse (Vol. 16, p. 54);
Bowling (Vol. 4, p. 344); Rowing (Vol.
23, p. 783), by C. M. Pitman, formerly
stroke of the Oxford University Eight;
Model- Yachting (Vol. 18, p. 640);
Angling, Methods and Practice (Vol. 2,
p. 24); Cricket (Vol. 7, p. 435); Arch-
ery, Pastime of (Vol. 2, p. 364), by the
late W. J. Ford. A long list of indoor and
outdoor games will be found in the
classified subject-list (Vol. 29, p. 946).
The aptitude of children for diverting
and often profitable occupations is ad-
mirably fostered by the new Britannica
through many of its very practical arti-
cles. This matter has been discussed
in the last chapter.
Diverting and In addition it is wor-
Profitable thy of note that an
Occupations ingenious boy could
learn to make and
set up a sun-dial with the help of Dial
and Dialling (Vol. 8, p. 149), by Hugh
Godfray; and could experiment and
amuse himself with a Camera Lucida or
a Camera Obscura (Vol. 5, p. 104), from
the articles written by Charles J. Joly,
late Astronomer Royal of Ireland; while
even a younger child could quickly learn
to tie any kind of a knot from Knot
(Vol. 15, p. 871), with 54 illustrations, by
P. G. Tait, the famous British physicist.
All the crafts that produce objects of
household utility are practically taught
in articles by experts, so that the Brit-
annica is a complete guide to the use of
every kind of tool.
In the field of girls' occupations there
is in the Britannica
Reading for much material that
Girls serves to give knowl-
edge of the best
methods of home making.
A great number of articles for girls 9
reading will be found among those named
in the chapter For Women.
In these days parents, and especially
mothers, are devoting more and more
time to the study of child development.
The importance and value of intelligent
sympathetic guidance in everything a
child does — and every active child strives
to do something — has been fully realized.
The chief problem before the parent is,
therefore, to have at hand some ready
means of meeting every expression of a
child's interests, every indication of bud-
ding talents. A short experience with
the new Britannica will show this to be
one of its many valuable functions.
Children do not need to be driven to the
volumes. They need only to be made
acquainted with them.
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CHAPTER LXIII
SOME QUESTIONS CHILDREN SOMETIMES ASK, AND
SOME QUESTIONS TO ASK CHILDREN
A CHILD gains a great part of its
knowledge by asking questions,
and he should be encouraged to
ask them. But parents often find the
child's questions, even those about the
objects he sees every day, so difficult to
answer, that he is told "not to bother."
With the new Encyclopaedia Britannica
at hand, there is hardly any intelligent
question that cannot be answered after a
glance at the Index and at the page to
which it refers the reader. Again, there
is no better way at once of amusing and
instructing the child than to ask him ques-
tions and help him find his way to the
answers. Here are a few questions: some
of the kind that a child might ask, and
some that may be put to a child. The
Britannica supplies interesting answers
to all of them, and some of these answers
are given here.
What makes people snore?
The answer, found at once by referring
to "snoring" in the Index, is that the
cause is breathing through the mouth,
which makes the soft palate vibrate.
When the child is told this,, it should also
be told what the Britannica says about
mouth-breathing being a dangerous habit
for children to form, as it often leads to
sore throats.
How does one ant tell another to go to
work?
By patting it with its feelers. The
article Ant, by Professor Carpenter, will
supply you with stories to tell children
as fascinating as any fairy tale.
What makes the colours of sunset?
Dust. If it were not for the dust
floating in the air, we should lose not
only the brilliant sunsets but the glori-
ous cloud scenery as well, and there
would be no twilight. Furthermore, all
the moisture in the air, which now con-
denses on the particles of floating dust,
would settle on our clothes and on the
walls of our rooms. You will find many
other curious facts in the article Dust,
by John Aitken, who invented the
machine for counting the particles of
dust in the atmosphere.
How does the brightness of moonlight
compare with that of sunlight?
Most people would guess that sun-
light is twenty, or, at most, fifty times
as strong; yet it is really half a million
times stronger. The article Moon, by
Dr. Simon Newcomb, is full of such
curious information and of delightful
pictures.
Why did the Israelites in bondage need
straw to put in their bricks, although we
do not use it in ours?
The article Brick tells you that their
bricks were made of Nile mud, which
would not bind without something to
hold it together.
When sea-water freezes, does the salt go
into the ice?
Only one-fifth of it, the article Ice
says.
Are you sure you like the taste of vanilla?
This is an excellent puzzle to put to a
bright child. The curious answer, found
in the article Taste, is that vanilla, like
onions and some other substances which
we think have strong flavors, really has
no taste at all. We smell them as we eat
them, and therefore we imagine we taste
them. This you can prove to a child
by blindfolding it, while its nose is
firmly closed, holding a slice of onion
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
and a slice of apple near its open mouth,
and touching its tongue first with one
and then with the other.
What is a beaver's favourite food?
Of all unlikely things — water-lilies!
This, and other things that will delight
children, you will find in the article
Beaver, by Richard Lydekker, the
famous naturalist.
Why is it harder to guess the width of
a river than to guess the width of a field
as wide?
The article Vision will tell you.
Why are new-born babies' eyes often
slate-blue, for a time?
The article Eye will tell you.
Why is not spiders 9 silk manufactured?
Unfortunately, although the silk is of
the finest quality, quite equal to the
silkworm's, the spiders are such fierce
cannibals that each one would have to
be kept in a separate box, and this would
make the silk too costly. The article
Spiders, by R. I. Pocock, superintend-
ent of the London Zoological Gardens,
also tells you how spiders make their
way through the air to islands in the
sea; how the wolf-spider builds a nest
with a hinged door, and how the common
pond-spider builds his thimble-shaped
house under water and fills it with air
by swimming down to it, time after
time, on each trip taking down a tiny
bubble of air.
Why do not animals that sleep all
through the winter starve to death?
Because they live on the fat they have
put on during the summer, as the article
Hibernation explains.
Why could not the Norsemen who visited
America in the 11th century found per-
manent settlements?
The natives were hostile and the
Norsemen had no firearms. The won-
derful story of the first voyages to
America is told in the article Vinland.
How can you tell how far away a flash
of lightning is?
Sound travels so much more slowly
than light does, that if the flash is a mile
away you see it five seconds before you
hear the report; so by counting the
seconds you can measure the distance.
The Index, under "Lightning: distance"
refers you to the article Sound, by Pro-
fessor Poynting.
Why does your hair stand on end when
you are frightened?
The article Skin, by Professor Par-
sons, will tell you about this curious
action of the muscles.
Why do we count by tens?
Because people began by counting on
their fingers and thumbs, and when they
got to ten they had to begin again.
Some tribes used to make twenty their
basis for counting, adding in their toes.
The article Arithmetic tells you this;
and a newspaper critic said of this article
that he was amazed to find it one of the
most readable things in the Britannica.
The truth is that there are no subjects
that are dull in themselves. There is a
dull way of treating them, and there is
also the Britannica way, which is to show
you how things came to be ox they are.
That is why children are delighted when
"Britannica time" comes, the hour when
the parent sits down by the bookcase
and tells them true stories out of the
volumes and shows them the exquisite
pictures.
Are men or women oftener stammerers?
The article Stammering, which tells
you that men are much oftener afflicted
than women, is one that all parents
should read. If a child's speech is care-
fully watched, the first trouble of this
kind may sometimes be checked before
it becomes a habit.
Why does a room look smaller with red
than with violet wall-paper?
Read the article Vision and you will
understand this and many other curious
facts about the way our eyes do tlieir
work. Furthermore, you will be re-
minded that slight defects in a child's
sight should be noticed and treated by
an oculist before permanent harm has
been done.
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QUESTIONS CHILDREN ASK AND QUESTIONS TO ASK CHILDREN 389
Why is winter colder than summer?
Simply because the sun's rays, coming
aslant instead of from overhead, travel
through more miles of air and are thus
robbed of much of their heat before they
reach us. The polar regions actually
get more hours of sunlight in a year than
we get in the United States, more even
than there are at the equator, but the
sun is never high above the horizon at
the poles.
Can a snake cro33 a frozen pond?
No, nor move on any other smooth
surface, as the article Snakes shows.
How long was Abraham Lincoln at
school?
Less than a year in all, as shown by
the article Lincoln, Abraham, by J. G.
Nicolay (Lincoln's private secretary) and
C. C. Whinery. But although he could
not get much teaching, he read over and
over again every book he could get
hold of.
Here are a few questions without the
answers; but the numbers after each
question show the volume and page
of the Britannica where each answer
can be found:
What makes blood clot? (Vol. 4, p. 81.)
Are there any red-haired human races?
(Vol. 12, p. 823.)
Why does a cut apple turn brown?
(Vol. 21, p. 756.)
What makes negroes black? (Vol. 25,
p. 190.)
Are men or women oftener colour-blind?
(Vol. 28, p. 139.)
Why do stars twinkle? (Vol. 23, p. 29.)
What happens in your throat when you
sob? (Vol. 23, p. 195.)
What change in water, as it freezes,
makes ice float? (Vol. 14, p. 227).
Why is the shadow cast by an electric
light sharper-edged than the shadow cast by
the sun? (Vol. 24, p. 758).
Why does fright make people faint?
(Vol. 27, p. 942).
What makes the beautiful "ice-flowers"
on a frosted window-pane? (Vol. 14, p.
226).
How do trappers prepare valuable fur-
skins so as to preserve them until they get
to market?
The skins are simply dried in the air,
as stated in the article Fur, which was
written by the head of a great wholesale
fur business.
How does the amount of air in a room
spoiled by an ordinary gas-burner, or a
small reading-lamp, compare with the
amount spoiled by a man y s breathing?
The gas burner or the lamp spoils four
times as much air, as shown in the article
Ventilation.
What part of your weight is blood?
One-twentieth. (Vol. 27, p. 939).
What domestic animal is oftenest born
with only one eye?
The pig. (Vol. 18, p. 743).
Which covers the more space, the United
States (unthout Alaska) or Europe?
Europe. (Vol. 27, p. 612, and Vol. 9,
p. 907.)
// you looked at the moon all night every
night, how soon would you have seen all
its surface?
Never. Four-tenths of it can never be
seen from the earth. (Vol. 18, p. 803.)
What was the great difference between
the destruction of Pompeii and that of
Herculaneum?
Pompeii was covered by ashes and
Herculaneum by mud. (Vol. 22, p. 50,
and Vol. 13, p. 342.)
Why do not high mountains, where
more snow falls than melts, keep growing
higher?
Because pressure forces the snow,
changed into ice, to descend in the form
of glaciers, as explained in the article
Glacier.
Who wrote to George Washington, on
behalf of a number of officers in the United
States army, asking him to make himself
king of the United States?
Col. Lewis Nicola. The article Wash-
ington, George, by Professor Mac-
Donald of Brown University, gives you
the words of Washington's indignant
reply.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
How deep has anyone ever dived in
diver's dress?
The article Divers tells you: 210 feet.
In baseball, how is a fielding-record
calculated?
To get the fielder's average, you divide
the number of chances he has made the
most of by the total number of chances
he has had. (Vol. S, p. 461.)
How tall must a giant be?
Seven feet, to be properly called a
giant. (Vol. 18, p. 741).
Where were the first lighthouses built?
In lower Egypt, as stated in the arti-
cle Lighthouse, which describes all the
great lighthouses and gives pictures of
the towers and of the wonderful lamps.
When ships are going through the
Panama Canal, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, will they be heading to the east-
ward or to the westward?
Oddly enough, to the eastward; for
the Isthmus curves so, just where the
canal line lies, that the Pacific end is
much to the eastward of the Atlantic end.
You can see this plainly on the detailed
map in the article Panama Canal.
Why does a tame rabbit die if it is held
erect for half an hour?
Because the muscles of its abdomen
are so weak that they cannot act as a
belt, as our muscles do, and all the rab-
bit's blood settles below the heart. (Vol.
27, p. 942.)
For what price was Manhattan Island
bought from the Indians in 1626?
For $24 worth of goods, as shown in
the article New York.
Why do people, when they are in the
polar regions, seldom catch cold?
Because colds are caused by microbes
and there are very few microbes in places
so far from any masses of people, as you
can see from the article Climate.
If North America were spread out on
the surface of the moon, what share of the
moon's surface would it cover?
About four-sevenths. (Vol. 18, p. 805,
and Vol. 19, p. 764.)
Which is the greater: the highest moun-
tain's height or the deepest sea's depth?
The sea's depth, which is 31,614 feet;
while Mt. Everest is 29,002 feet high.
(Vol. 19, p. 973, and Vol. 10, p. 7.)
Of what use are the hairs on a caterpillar?
Like the bristles on a dog-collar, they
keep an enemy from biting him. (Vol. 6,
p. 733.)
Why do you twist yourself into an un-
comfortable position when you have a pain?
Because instinct teaches you that dis-
comfort will help you by partially taking
your attention away from the pain. (Vol.
22, p. 587.)
What warm-blooded creature has the
longest average life?
Man, except possibly the whale; but
not the elephant, as is generally believed.
The article Longevity tells how long all
kinds of animals live.
What mistake about American history
is caused in our minds by the celebration
of the Fourth of July?
The belief that the Declaration of
Independence was signed on the 4th of
July. Congress did not order it to be
engrossed for signature until July 19th.
The article Independence, Declara-
tion of, also shows that the most impor-
tant day was July 2nd, when Congress
adopted the Resolution of Independence.
If you look up the answers to these
questions, in the Britannica, you will
incidentally learn, from the articles to
which you turn, a great many things that
will be of practical use to you in every-
day life. For whether you turn to the
volumes because you want only a single
fact, or because you want to learn all
about some important subject — or even
because you merely want to pass a
pleasant hour — you always get from
them far more than you had hoped to
find.
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Part IV
Readings on Questions of the Da\
Which Relate to the Duties
of American Citizenship
and to Current
Politics
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CHAPTER LXIV
QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
THE old idea of an encyclopaedia as
a remote book, distant from every-
day needs and the real public
questions of the day, and to be consulted
only for information
An Intimate about ancient history
Book and medieval philoso-
phy, was a wrong one.
It was wrong in theory , if an encyclopaedia
is to be a live and valuable book. And it
was wrong in "practice. It is not the
case with the new Britannica. For the
Britannica is full of information about
current public questions; and even its
treatment of the past, remote or near, is
from a fresh and modern view-point, and
is of the utmost value as throwing the
light of history on the problems of mod-
ern politics and every-day life. The
spirit of today is an intensely wide-awake
and inquisitive one, and people are no
longer willing to believe that "whatevei
is, is right" — much less that a thing is
right because it has been, no matter how
long. Indeed the very phrase "has been"
as now used in the vernacular implies the
outworn, the discarded. The Britannica,
a book for intimate use on the questions
of the day, is a record of what is, as well
as of what has been, and of the great
changes, the constant flux, of the past and
of the present.
One of our symptoms of health is the
development of a social sense, or, better,
a social conscience. This is due in no
small degree to the work
Sociology of Herbert Spencer in
founding a new science,
called by him Sociology. For an inspiring
and stimulating starting-point for the
study in the Britannica of the great social
and political questions of the day let the
reader study the article Sociology (Vol.
25, p. 322), by Benjamin Kidd, who
wrote Social Evolution, and Principles of
Western Civilization.
Evolution, sociology, Spencerian psy-
chology and the closer relation of the
state to the individual are all important
factors in the educa-
Education tional changes of the last
few years; and their
study is indispensable to a clear under-
standing of the great questions of educa-
tion. A more concrete study may be
based on the article Education (Vol. 8,
p. 951) and particularly the part on edu-
cation in the United States by Nicholas
Murray Butler, president of Columbia
University. An elaborate course of read-
ing on education is given in another chap-
ter of this Guide For Teachers. But it
may be well to call attention here to the
fact that there are in the articles on indi-
vidual states sections on the educational
system of each state; and in the separate
articles on each city similar descriptions
of schools in those cities; and also that
either in the article on the city or town in
which it is situated, or in a separate ar-
ticle there is an estimate, a description,
and a historical sketch of each of the
great universities and colleges of the
country. This information is not merely
of value if one wishes to understand in a
general way the trend of education, but
of particular interest to one who is choos-
ing the school best adapted to a special
need. In the same way there are articles
on other great educational institutions —
for example a general article on Mu-
seums of Science (Vol. 19, p. 64) and one
on Libraries (Vol. 16, p. 545), as well as
articles on such special institutions as the
Smithsonian, or treatment of them in the "
article on the places where the institu-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tion is — as in the article on Washington
for the Library of Congress, the article on
New York City for the Metropolitan Mu-
seum, etc.
But government, particularly in Amer-
ica, besides taking a direct interest and
responsibility in the education of its
youth, has begun
Defectives and within the last few
Their Training years to assume the
task of uplifting
those of its citizens who are below the
normal. Modern methods of dealing with
criminals and of caring for defectives and
the insane are based on a principle en-
tirely different from that which obtained
50, or even 20, years ago. The whole
article Insanity (Vol. 14, p. 597) might
well be read as a preliminary to a study of
this topic, since it treats of idiocy and im-
becility as well as of the more violent
forms of mental disorder, and since it
treats them all as forms of disease — the
basis of the modern method of treatment
which has substituted the hospital and
the school for the mere place of detention.
In particular, however, the last part of
this article dealing with Hospital Treat-
ment should be studied. It is by Dr.
Frederick Peterson, the American special-
ist, and it describes the improved condi-
tions of modern asylums. "Physical re-
straint is no longer practised. . . . The
general progress of medical science in all
directions has been manifested in the de-
partment of psychiatry by improved
methods of treatment, in the way of
sleep-producing and alleviating drugs,
dietetics, physical culture, hydrotherapy
and the like. There are few ayslums now
without pathological and clinical labora-
tories. . . The colony scheme has been
successfully adopted by the state of New
York at the Craig Colony for Epileptics
at Sonyea and elsewhere. . . . Many
asylums have, as it were, thrown off de-
tached cottages for the better care of cer-
tain patients. . . . But the ideal system
is that of the psychopathic hospital and
the colony for the insane." It is with the
"colony" plan that Dr. Peterson's name
is intimately connected, especially in New
York state. In the Britannica article on
New York state there is a full treatment
(Vol. 19, p. 601) of the state's charitable
institutions, including its hospitals for
the insane, the Craig Colony already
mentioned, the Letchworth Village cus-
todial asylum for epileptics and feeble-
minded, and other institutions of the
same kind. And in the same way the
system in each state is described in the
separate article on that state with special
attention to the peculiar features in its
administration of its hospitals and schools
for insane and imbeciles.
There has been a similar change in the
education of the blind and the deaf — or
rather education is now provided for these
classes, whereas they
The Blind formerly received none
at all. And this educa-
tion is coming under state control and,
once under governmental supervision, is
being transferred from departments in
charge of penal or charitable institutions
to the department of public schools. For
the most striking instances of what has
been accomplished by improved systems
of training under private supervision see
the articles on Samuel Gridley Howe
(Vol. 13, p. 837), the great teacher of the
blind at the Perkins Institution for the
Blind in Boston; on his blind and deaf
pupil, Laura Bridgman (Vol. 4, p. 559),
and on Helen Adams Keller (Vol. 15, p.
718), another and even more remarkable
blind and deaf student, whose education,
coming as a product of a new sociology,
has made her a most efficient social helper
and social worker.
From these articles the student should
go to Blindness (Vol. 4, p. 59), by Sir
Francis J. Campbell, principal of the
Royal Normal College for the Blind, Nor-
wood, London; an article equivalent in
length to 40 pages of this Guide. Its au-
thor, the founder of the college, is him-
self a blind man, who, born in Tennessee,
in 1832, and educated at the Nashville
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
395
school, and afterwards in music at Leip-
zig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869
been associated with Dr. Howe at the
Perkins Institution, Boston, and was
knighted in 1909 for his services to the
education of the blind. The part of his
article dealing with the education of the
blind is, therefore, doubly valuable and
interesting. The main topics with which
it deals are: early training — other senses
of the blind not naturally sharper than
those of the seeing, but developed by
cultivation of hearing and touch from
early childhood; physical training to in-
crease the average of vitality; mental
training; early manual training; choice of
occupation; piano-forte tuning; musical
training; deaf-mutes should not be edu-
cated with the blind as their needs are so
different; blind boys and blind girls
should not be taught together, as co-
education promotes intermarriage, which
is a calamity. The remainder of the ar-
ticle deals with types and books for the
blind, appliances for educational work,
employment, and biographical matter,
with a list of prominent blind people. See
also, for literary men who were blind, the
articles on John Milton, William H.
Prescott, and Philip Bourke Marston.
Deaf and Dumb (Vol. 7, p. 880) is by
the Rev. Arnold Hill Payne, chaplain to
the Oxford Diocesan Mission to the deaf
and dumb, late normal
The Deaf fellow of the National
Deaf Mute College,
Washington, D. C, and author of many
books on the subject. He points out the
mistaken use of the word "dumb" — "In
the case of the deaf and dumb, as these
words are generally understood, dumbness
is merely the result of ignorance in the use
of the voice, this ignorance being due to
deafness." After discussing causes of deaf-
ness, the condition of the deaf in childhood,
their natural language, which the contrib-
utor thinks is "sign" rather than purely
oral, and their social status, he deals with
education of the deaf, giving an elaborate
historical account including the "oral"
revival in Germany and the work in the
United States of Dr. Thomas Hopkins
Gallaudet — see also the separate article on
him and his two sons (Vol. 11, p. 416) —
and of the National Deaf -Mute College
at Washington, D. C. (on which see also
the article Washington, D. C). This
interesting article closes with a section on
the blind-deaf, telling the story of several
remarkable cases in England less well-
known and more recent than Laura
Bridgman or Helen Keller.
This chapter began with a reference to
the article on Sociology with the recom-
mendation that it be used as a basis for
the study of present-
Psychology day problems. The
reader will often have
heard vague allusions to sociology, and
his reading 'this article in the Britan-
nica will certainly sharpen and define
his own idea of the meaning and the
value of the science. Has he not heard
much oftener of psychology, and heard it
mentioned as if it were some sort of magic
spell to charm away many of the difficul-
ties of our modern complex world? But
has he a full comprehension of the mean-
ing of psychology and of the knowledge
newly gained in regard to the "psychology
of the senses"? The corrective for any
vagueness of ideas about psychology is
best found in the article Psychology
(Vol. 22, p. 547) by Professor James
Ward, whose articles for the Britannica
have been reprinted and used as text-
books in schools and colleges all over the
country. Put in a few words, the lesson
of psychology is that the senses, sensa-
tions, thoughts and feelings, which, even
when they are our own, we too often
speak of as if they were things apart and
independent, are subject to certain nat-
ural laws in much the same way as are
the forces treated by the science of phys-
The reader who would study the
1CS
subject of psychology in the Britannica
should make use of the analysis of many
articles in the chapter in this Guide For
Teachers.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
As with general education, special edu-
cation of defectives, state training of
feeble-minded, and restraint of the in-
sane, so with the state's
Grime attitude toward the crim-
inal there has been in re-
cent years a great change which is still
working toward full fruition, so that
prison administration, children's courts,
delinquency, probation, etc., are live top-
ics of interest.
Just as the whole new science of sociol-
ogy was based by Spencer on biology and
on the Darwinian theory of evolution, so
in this field of delinquency a "science"
has been devised called criminology by
its "inventor" Cesare Lombroso. The
article Lombroso (Vol. 16, p. 936) in the
Britannica criticizes his theories as show-
ing "an exaggerated tendency to refer all
mental facts to biological causes." His
theory of a criminal type points to a
"practical reform ... a classification of
offenders, so that the born criminal may
receive a different kind of punishment
from the offender who is tempted into
crime." The article Criminology (Vol.
7, p. 464), by Major Arthur Griffiths, In-
spector of Prisons, should be read care-
fully. It lists the supposed criminal
traits as follows:
Various brain and cerebral anomalies; re-
ceding foreheads; massive jaws, prog-
nathous chins; skulls without symmetry;
ears long, large and projecting; noses rec-
tilinear, wrinkles strongly marked, even in
the young and in both sexes, hair abundant
on the head, scanty on the cheeks and chin;
eyes feline, fixed, cold, jrlassy, ferocious;
bad repellent faces. . . . Other peculiarities
are: — great width of the extended arms,
extraordinary ape-like agility; left-hand-
edness as well as ambi-dexterism ; obtuse
sense of smell, taste and sometimes of
hearing, although the eyesight is superior to
that of normal people. ... So much for the
anatomical and physiological peculiarities
of the criminal. There remain the psycho-
logical or mental characteristics, so far as
they have been observed. Moral insensi-
bility is attributed to him, a dull conscience
that never pricks and a general freedom
from remorse. He is said to be generally
lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity,
the want of proper precautions, both be-
fore and after an offence, which leads so
often to his detection and capture. His
vanity is strongly marked and shown in
the pride taken in infamous achievements
rather than personal appearance.
Although Major Griffiths thinks that
criminality is oftener due to environment
than to congenital defects, he closes his -
article with this estimate of what has
been accomplished by Lombroso and his
followers:
The criminologists have strengthened the
hands of administrators, have emphasized
the paramount importance of child-rescue
and judicious direction of adults, have
held the balance between penal methods,
advocating the moralizing effect of open-
air labour as opposed to prolonged isola-
tion, and have insisted upon the desirabil-
ity of indefinite detention for all who have
obstinately determined to wage perpetual
war against society by the persistent per-
petration of crime.
The article Crime (Vol. 7, p. 447) is
full of interesting statistics and facts. It
tells us that "the growth of criminals is
greatly stimulated where people are badly
fed, morally and physically unhealthy,
infected with any forms of disease and
vice," and after proving by the records
of various countries that men every-
where are more addicted to crime than
are women, ends with this statement:
"It has been well said that women are
less criminal according to the figures, be-
cause when a woman wants a crime com-
mitted she can generally find a man to do
it for her."
Other important articles on the subject
are Deportation (Vol. 8, p. 56) and
Prison (Vol. 22, p. 361). For English
prison reforms, see also the article on
John Howard and that on Elizabeth
Fry, with an outline of the growth in
Pennsylvania and New York (Auburn
and Sing Sing), of the method of solitary
confinement and of its adoption in Eng-
land, and of the development in New
York (see also the article on Elmira for
the work of Zebulon R. Brockway), and
in Massachusetts (Concord), of distinct
and different treatment for first offenders.
Juvenile Offenders (Vol. 15, p. 613)
describes the work of Charles Dickens
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
397
and others in England, the reform in
Europe and in the
Children's United States; the
Courts philanthropic crim-
inal code proposed
by Edward Livingston (see the biograph-
ical article, Vol, 16, p. 811) ; the Randall's
Island House of Refuge, the Elmira (N.
Y.) Reformatory, the reformatory for
women at Sherborn, Massachusetts, and
the George Junior Republic at Freeville,
New York, and its offshoots — see also the
separate article George Junior Repub-
lic (Vol. 11, p. 749); and the Borstal
scheme, a modification of the American
state reformatory system adopted in
England in 1902.
Children's Courts (Vol. 6, p. 140)
calls attention to the origin of these tri-
bunals in the United States, in Massachu-
setts and Illinois, and their success in
Chicago, Indianapolis, Denver and Wash-
ington, leading to their adoption in Eng-
land; see also the article Probation (Vol.
22, p. 404) in general and, for particular
and local methods, the articles on Bir-
mingham (Vol. S, p. 985), Boston (Vol. 4,
p. 294), Chicago (Vol. 6, p. 124), Colo-
rado (Vol. 6, p. 722), Egypt (Vol. 9, p.
29), Illinois (Vol. 14, p. 308), and Utah
(Vol. 27, p. 818). The articles on individ-
ual states also contain detailed informa-
tion about local penal institutions of all
kinds.
The reader should also study the ar-
ticles Police (Vol. 21, p. 978), Finger
Prints (Vol. 10, p. 376), Identifica-
tion (Vol. 14, p. 287), Punishment (Vol.
22, p. 653), Capital Punishment (Vol.
5, p. 279), Guillotine (Vol. 12, p. 694),
Hanging (Vol. 12, p. 917), and Electro-
cution (Vol. 9, p. 210), the last by Pro-
fessor Edward Anthony Spitzka, the
American authority on the subject. In
the article on Utah, already mentioned,
the reader will find that "a person sen-
tenced to death may choose one of two
methods of execution — hanging or shoot-
ing."
If a respectable citizen of a century ago
could return to earth he could not fail to
be greatly surprised at dinner, whether
in a private home or in a
Alcohol hotel, to see how much less
alcoholic beverages are used,
how much lighter they are, and how
much more common are other drinks. If
he "returned" to certain parts of the
United States he would find that he
could get no alcohol except on a doctor's
prescription stating the reason why the
patient needed it, and he would learn that
such a prescription could be filled only
once, and then only by a registered phar-
macist of good character. No matter to
what place he came back, he would find a
constant interference with or supervision
of the manufacture, sale and consump-
tion of alcoholic liquors on the part of the
government. He would probably wonder
why the state should interfere with pri-
vate and personal liberty in such matters.
We have already pointed out that the
state now does interfere, and that this is
one of the distinguishing marks of the
government of the day. For information
on this particular form of interference,
its prevalence, its necessity, and its ad-
visability, the student may confidently
turn to the Britannica. The hygienic side
of the question is outlined in the chapter
of this Guide on Health and Disease. The
social or sociological side claims our at-
tention here. Bead the article Drunk-
enness (Vol. 8, p. 601), and for the rela-
tion between alcohol and mental disease,
the section Toxic Insanity (Vol. 14, p.
609) in the article on Insanity already
mentioned, and also Neuropathology
(Vol. 19, p. 429); then the article Ine-
briety, Law of (Vol. 14, p. 409); that on
Liquor Laws (Vol. 16, p. 759), with a
special section referring to the United
States, which deals with local prohibi-
tion, state prohibition, public dispen-
saries, and taxation; and for a general and
elaborate summary of the whole question
the article Temperance (Vol. 26, p. 578)
equivalent to about 50 pages of this
Guide, by Dr. Arthur Shadwell, author of
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Drink, Temperance and Legislation. In
the section on the Use and Abuse of Al-
cohol Dr. Shadwell summarizes the re-
sults of modern scientific investigation of
the abuse in its bearings upon crime,
poverty, insanity, mortality, longevity,
and heredity.
In such articles as those on Theobald
Mathew ("Father Mathew") (Vol. 17,
p. 886), Neal Dow (Vol. 8, p. 456), John
B. Gough (Vol. 12, p. 282), and Frances
E. Willard (Vol. 28, p. 658) the reader
will find biographies relating to the tem-
perance movement; and in the separate
articles on states there is information
about state prohibition, local option, and
the state dispensary system.
Dr. Shadwell's remarks on the relation
of alcoholism to heredity may remind us
that the very word "heredity" would
seem strange to the typical man of a cen-
tury ago, whose return to life we have
imagined. We should be no more shocked
by the occasional crudeness of his inti-
mate and excited phraseology than he
would be at our frankness in discussing
even in mixed company such subjects as
birth, reproduction, sexual morality, the
social evil and the white slave trade.
The growth of interest in these topics
may be traced in part to Darwin, Huxley
and Mendel, to what they did to make
biology a science. Read in the Britannica
the interesting story, in the article Men-
delism (Vol. 18, p. 115), of the investi-
gations of Gregor Mendel, Abbot of
Briinn, in his cloister garden, in crossing
peas and classifying the inheritance of
peculiarities. Then read the articles
Heredity (Vol. 13,
Heredity p. 530), by Prof.
and Chalmers Mitchell,
Eugenics and Hybridism (Vol.
14, p. 26), by the
same contributor, and turn to the articles
Eugenics (Vol. 9, p. 855) and Sir Fran-
cis G alton (Vol. 11, p. 427), for an ac-
count of the attempt to found a practical
science to improve the breed of men.
Especially within the last few years '
has the public conscience been aroused
on the white slave traffic and prostitu-
tion, both in Great Britain and the United
States, and particularly in the great
cities, where this form of vice, if left un-
der the jurisdiction of the police, gives
rise to a singularly dangerous form of
corruption and to the general disrepute
of the defenders of public safety. The
many important aspects of the subject,
which need not be rehearsed here, are to
be found in Dr. Shadwell's article Pros-
titution (Vol. 22, p. 457) and Dr. Ed-
mund Owen's article Venereal Diseases
(Vol. 27, p. 983).
One of the remedies most commonly
suggested for the evils of prostitution in
general and of the white slave trade in
particular is a minimum wage. Dr. Shad-
well's article on prostitution gives "ex-
cessively laborious and ill-paid work" as
only one of many secondary causes for
women's taking to a life of evil repute.
Indolence, love of excitement, dislike of
restraint, and abnormal sexual appetite,
he counts as primary causes; and among
secondary causes he names the difficulty
of finding employment; harsh treatment
at home, promiscuous living among the
overcrowded poor; overcrowding in fac-
tories; the example of luxury, self-indul-
gence and loose manners set by the
wealthy; demoralizing literature and
amusements; and the arts of profligate
men. But the subject of wages is an im-
portant one in itself, and as an introduc-
tion to the study of the labour question,
it may well be taken up here, even if
the efficacy of minimum-wage laws, or of
any legislation, in producing a higher
sexual morality has been exaggerated.
Read the article Wages (Vol. 28, p.
229, equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide),
by Joseph Shield Nicholson, professor of
political economy at
Wages and Edinburgh Univer-
Labour sity. The difficulty
of an exact defini-
tion, and, specifically, of one that distin-
guishes between "wages" and "profits,"
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
399
leads the author to adopt as the best the
definition of Gen. Francis A. Walker, the
American economist, "the reward of
those who are employed in production
with a view to the profit of their employ-
ers and are paid at stipulated rates."
The distinction between a nominal and
real wage is based on the difference be-
tween the money value and the purchas-
ing value of the wage as affected by varia-
tion in the cost of living. Irregularity of
employment and other elements of uncer-
tainty, such as liability to accident or to
occupational diseases, are factors to be
considered in estimating real wages.
Professor Nicholson discusses the wage-
fund theory, corrects it by Adam Smith's
observation that wages are paid from the
product of labour; and treats "relative"
wages, the state-regulation of wages
(which he does not consider feasible) ; poor
relief in aid of wages; factory legislation;
trade unions; the effects of machinery on
wages; and the progress of the working-
classes.
The subject of factory legislation brings
us back to the general topic of "state in-
terference with private matters" as the
old school of political scientists would
have called it. Two treatises in the Bri-
tannica are important for the study of this
subject — the general
Labour article Labour
Legislation Legislation (Vol.
" 16, p. 7), equivalent
to 70 pages of this Guide, by Adelaide
Mary Anderson, principal lady inspector
of factories to the British Home Office, and
Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commis-
sioner of Labor; and the article Employ-
ers' Liability and Workmen's Com-
pensation (Vol. 9, p. 356), which is of
peculiar interest now that in the United
States recent laws in regard to employ-
ers' liability and workmen's compensa-
tion have shown a change in legislative
theory and practice. Statutes of this
kind have been passed by the legislatures
of several states where nothing of the
sort would have been attempted a genera-
tion ago, although legislatures have al-
ways been readier than courts to approve
radical laws, and have been far more
readily influenced by popular sentiment.
After their passage they have in some
states been held unconstitutional, and in
other states the highest court has recog-
nized them as valid; the decisions per-
haps depending to some extent on the
attitude of the court toward the opposed
claims of capital and labour. Here as
elsewhere the student should remember
that much information of a local char-
acter is to be found in the articles on
different states of the Union. The article
Labor Day (Vol. 16, p. 6) describes an
official recognition of the claims of labour
in the United States.
On labour organizations and their
work see the articles: Trade Unions
(Vol. 27, p. 140), and particularly the
section Economic
Organized Effects of Trade
Labour Unionism, and the
section on trade
unions in the United States, by Carroll
D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of
Labor, who deals with such topics as
railway brotherhoods, national unions,
the "International," Knights of Labor,
American Railway Union, federations of
labour, especially the American Federa-
tion of Labor, and estimated strength of
trade unions. For the earlier history of
trade unions or similar organizations see
Trade Organization (Vol. 27, p. 135),
Gilds (Vol. 12, p. 14), Livery Com-
panies (Vol. 16, p. 809), and Appren-
ticeship (Vol. 2, p. 228).
Strikes and Lock Outs, particularly
the sections Economic Effects (Vol. 25,
p. 1028), Important British Strikes and
Lock Outs (p. 1029), and on strikes in
the United States (p. 1033),— the last by
Dr. Carroll D. Wright, who describes,
among others, the Homestead strike of
1892, the Pullman strike of 1894, the steel
strike of 1901, and the coal strike of
1902. For these and other strikes see the
local articles on such storm-centres as
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Homestead, Pullman, Leadville, Cripple
Creek, Chicago.
See also Boycott (Vol. 4, p. 353); and
Injunction (Vol. 14, p. 570), and, for a
"classic" use of the injunction against
boycott, the article on William Howard
Tapt (Vol. 26, p. 354);
Arbitration and Conciliation (Vol.
2, p. 331) for attempts by the state to
regulate the relations of capital and la-
bour at variance.
Related topics which have not been
analyzed here will be found in the ar-
ticles Unemployment (Vol. 27, p. 578),
Labour Exchange (Vol. 16, p. 7), and
Vagrancy (Vol. 27, p. 837).
Closely connected with the American
labour problems, since growing American
industries demand a supply of workmen
that cannot be filled
Immigration by natural increase
in the population, is
the question of immigration. The article
Migration (Vol. 18, p. 427) is divided
into two parts, the second dealing with
migration in. zoology. The first section,
dealing with emigration and immigration
and internal migration of populations, is
for the most part by Richmond Mayo-
Smith, late professor of political economy
and social science in Columbia Univer-
sity, New York City. It is appropriate
that the subject should be treated by an
American and with special attention to
the United States, since this country
owes its origin to an immigration three
centuries ago; as the presence of many
recent immigrants puts a strain on our
powers of assimilation and gives rise to
other serious problems; and as internal
migrations are markedly affecting social
conditions. In a preliminary historical
sketch the author deals with: prehistoric
migrations in search of booty, through the
desire of the stronger to take possession
of the lands of the weaker, or by pressure
of population on the food supply; Greek
and Roman colonization; the German
conquest; minor migratory movements
such as the introduction of Flemish
weavers to England and the forced mi-
gration of the Huguenots from France;
the great colonization period after the
discovery of America; and modern migra-
tion — characterized by its magnitude, by
the change of the emigrant's political
allegiance, and by the circumstance that
it is a movement of "individuals seeking
their own good without state direction or
aid." In a statistical discussion of immi-
gration to the United States (Vol. 18, p.
430) there is much valuable information.
"At first the Irish and Germans were
most prominent. Of later years, the
Italians, Czechs, Hungarians and Rus-
sians were numerously represented."
Immigration to other countries, especially
Canada and South America; the balance
of migration and temporary emigration;
and the effects of migration on the
country "from which" and the country
"to which" — are topics considered in the
article, which also discusses the restric-
tion of immigration. As to Asiatic immi-
gration see California "(especially P-
20, Vol. 5), San Francisco (p. 148, Vol.
24), and Coolie (Vol. 7, p. 77). See also
the article United States, section Popu-
lation and Social Conditions (p. 634, Vol.
27), and, in separate articles on states
and larger cities of the United States, the
analysis of foreign-born population, that
of foreign parentage, etc. For instance,'
in the article Massachusetts (Vol. 17,
p. 854), there is a most interesting ac-
count of the varying sources of immigra-
tion and of the replacing of Irish labour
by Canadians and Italians. Boston is
the second immigrant port of the country.
A large part of the transatlantic immi-
grants pass speedily to permanent homes
in the West, but by far the greater part of
the Canadian influx remains there.
The article on New York City (p. 617
of Vol. 19) remarks that
there are in New York City more Germans
than in any city of Germany, save Berlin,
and more Irish than in Dublin. There are
many well-defined foreign communities in
the citv, such as " Little Italy " about Mul-
berry Street, "Chinatown" on Mott, Pell
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
401
and Doyers Streets, the Hebrew quarter
on the upper Bowery and east of it, a
"German Colony" east of Second Avenue
below Fourteenth Street, French quarters
south of Washington Square about Bleeck-
er Street and on the West Side between
Twentieth and Thirty-fourth Streets; a
Russian quarter near East Broadway, a
"Greek Colony" about Sixth Avenue in
the 40's, and negro quarters on Thompson
Street and on the West Side in the 50's,
and there are equally well-defined Arme-
nian and Arab quarters.
Chicago, as the article on that city
shows, is the' second largest Bohemian
city in the world, the third Swedish, the
fourth Norwegian, the fifth Polish and
the fifth German.
The Southern states of the Union,
though they have much less immigration
than the North or
Negro West, have a popula-
Problem tion problem that is
even more difficult
in some respects — that of the negro.
Many immigrant elements are readily
"amalgamated" or assimilated into the
native local population — by marriage, by
trade, and indeed even by physical en-
vironment. It seems certain, for in-
stance, that the physical type of the chil-
dren of Italian or Hebrew immigrants in
New York City is different from that of
their parents and more like a local type,
even in such respects as th$ shape and
contour of the head and its ratio of length
to breadth. But the negro does not as-
similate physically or, to any consider-
able degree, mentally; and the communi-
ties in America in which he is most plenti-
ful are so far from eager to assimilate him
that they socially and politically isolate
him. The reader should go to the article
Negro (Vol. 19, p. 844), in which there
is a general study of the race by T. Athol
Joyce, assistant in the Department of
Ethnography, British Museum, and a sec-
tion on Negroes in the United States by Dr.
Walter Francis Willcox, late chief statis-
tician U. S. Census Bureau and professor
of social science and statistics, Cornell
University. The magnitude of the negro
problem may be deduced from Professor
Willcox's remark that the present num-
ber of negroes in the United States "is
greater than the total population of the
United States was in 1920, and nearly as
great as the population of Norway, Swe-
den and Denmark/ 9 Birth and mortality
statistics in regard to negroes show that
they are increasing much less rapidly than
whites; but it must be remembered that
there is an absolute increase, that there
is no prospect of the negro problem being
solved by the dying out of the race, and
that even the fact that negroes constitute
a smaller proportion of the population
than formerly does not greatly affect the
problem. There is also much relevant in-
formation of value in the articles on the
Southern states, particularly in the sec-
tions on population, education and gov-
ernment; and as to education see the
articles Tuskegee (Vol. 27, p. 487),
Booker T. Washington (Vol. 28, p. 844)
and S. C. Armstrong (Vol. 2, p. 591).
See also the article Lynch Law (Vol. 17,
p. 169) by Prof. W. L. Fleming of the
Louisiana State University.
There is a very close relation between
the economic problems connected with
labour and those which have to do with
capital and especially with
Trusts capital in its organized and
monopolistic forms. A mo-
nopoly of the supply, sale, or manu-
facture of any class of goods was, es-
pecially in England under the Tudors
and Stuarts, a crown grant; and the the-
ory of patent and copyright law is based
on such grants, as is shown in the articles
Monopoly (Vol. 18, p. 788), Letters
Patent (Vol. 16, p. 501), and Patents
(Vol. £0, p. 908). On the modern monop-
oly which, far from being cherished by
government, is constantly being regu-
lated, checked or "crushed," see the ar-
ticle Trusts (Vol. 22, p. 884) by Prof. J.
W. Jenks, formerly of Cornell and now of
New York University, whose treatment
is from the American point of view — the
problem is peculiarly an American one —
but with sections on European experience,
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402
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
including paragraphs on Great Britain,
Germany, France and Austria.
Among the questions answered by this ar-
ticle — questions that are continually present-
ing themselves to the mind of every intelligent
citizen, but that are seldom lucidly answered
even by the most intelligent — are:
What are trusts? Why are they formed?
Why were they not formed before the latter
years of the 19th century?
Why can combination be successfully ap-
plied in some industries and not in others?
Why do some industries thrive better under
competition than under combination? Why
are some combinations bound to fail?
In what respect has the trust advantages
over the individual competitor?
How do trusts benefit by protective tariffs
and by discrimination in rates of transporta-
tion?
What has been the history of trusts in Eu-
rope?
The question of most interest to the or-
dinary person is: Do trusts raise prices? To
this the Encyclopaedia Britannica answers:
" Experience seems to show, beyond question,
that whenever the combinations are powerful
enough to secure a monopolistic control it has
usually been the policy to increase the prices
above those which obtained during the period
of competition preceding the formation of the
combination." Besides this increased price,
the evils of combinations are: loss to investors
through promotion and speculation by direc-
tors; loss to wage-earners, corruption of legis-
latures, and the suppression of independent
activity.
The most obvious remedies are "more
rigid laws with reference to the methods
of incorporation and to the responsibility
of directors to stockholders and to the
public," greater publicity and closer gov-
ernment inspection, and the abolition of
special favours granted by government
and shipping companies.
For American legislation in regard to
trusts see the article Interstate Com-
merce (Vol. 14, p. 711), equivalent to 10
pages of this Guide,
Government by Prof. Frank A.
Control Fetter, formerly of
Cornell and now of
Princeton University. This article shows
the constitutional basis for action by the
Federal government and the power given
to Congress to regulate commerce among
the several states; and it describes the
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, amend-
ed in 1903 by the Elkins Act, and the
Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. See
also in the article United States, the
section History, §§ 353, 357, 396 (pp. 725,
726, 733 of Vol. 27).
But although there have been great
changes in the relation of government to
the individual in his private and business
life, the extent of practical government
control is still much less than many
theorists would like to see. It is true
that in many countries of Europe rail-
ways are owned and operated by the
state — see p. 826 of Vol. 22, in the article
Railways. See also the article New
Zealand and the summary of conditions
there (p. 307, Vol. 25), in part as follows:
The government owns not only the rail-
ways, but two-thirds of the whole land, let-
ting it on long leases. It sets a limit to
large estates. It levies a progressive in-
come-tax and land tax. It has a labour
department, strict factory acts and a law
of compulsory arbitration in labour dis-
putes (1895). There are old-age pensions
(1898), government insurance of life
(1871) and against fire (1905). Women
have the suffrage, and, partly in conse-
quence, the restriction of the liquor traffic
is severe. There is a protective tariff, and
Oriental labour is excluded. The success
of the experiment is not yet beyond doubt;
compulsory arbitration, for example, did
not work with perfect smoothness, and was
amended in 1908. ... It is fair to
add that the experiment is probably on
too small a scale to show what might hap-
pen in larger countries. New Zealand has
only 100,000 sq. m. of territory and about
one million of inhabitants, mainly rural
and of picked quality. The conditions of
combined isolation and security are not
easily obtained elsewhere. The action of
the "state has been in the great majority
of instances rather regulative than con-
structive.
But in general governments have ex-
tended their control more or less along
the conventional lines of law and legisla-
tive theory, and have
Socialism, not undertaken own-
etc. ership and opera-
tion — even in New
Zealand, as we have just seen, public ac-
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
403
tion being "rather regulative than con-
structive." See the general article So-
cialism (Vol. 25, p. 310) and biographies
of those connected with the Socialist
movement, such as Marx, Lassalle, Robert
Owen, Rodbertus, Bebel, Liebknecht,
Jaures, Ballance, William Morris, Ed-
ward Bellamy, and Henry George. On
communism, see the article on that sub-
ject, the biographies of Owen, Saint-
Simon, Fourier, Cabet, etc., and descrip-
tions of the more important American
communistic experiments in the articles
on Brook Farm, Shakers, Amana, Nau-
voo, Harmony, Oneida Community,
Hopedale, etc. For communism merely
as a business scheme see the article Co-
operation (Vol. 7, p. 82) and the biog-
raphies of Raiffeisen and Schulze-De-
litzsch.
We have now run through the more
strikingly novel public questions of the
day, and we come next to questions which
have been long discussed
Finance and longer recognized as
being within the sphere of
government. The one of these that is
most intimately connected with the eco-
nomic problems we have just been discuss-
ing is the subject of public finance and
revenue. On this read the articles Fi-
nance (Vol. 10, p. S74), Taxation (Vol.
26, p. 458), and National Debt (Vol.
19, p. 266); and, on American public
finance, see Vol. 27, p. 654; on Congres-
sional legislation and finance, p. 661 of
the same volume; for a general and
statistical treatment of American finance,
the sections headed Finance in each
article dealing with a state of the
Union, the articles Gold (Vol. 12,
p. 192), Silver (Vol. 25, p. 112), and
Bimetallism (Vol. 3, p. 946), and
the biographies of Robert Morris
(Vol. 18, p. 871), Alexander Hamilton
(Vol. 12, p. 880), and Jay Cooke (Vol. 7,
p. 73).
Of perennial interest in the field of pub-
lic finance is the question of tariff reform.
This is true both in the United States
and in the United Kingdom, but strange-
ly enough "tariff reform" is
Tariff used with absolutely oppo-
site meanings in the two
countries. Tariff reform in England is
linked with Imperialism and means the
introduction of higher tariffs for protec-
tion of colonial as well as British indus-
tries. In the United States the typical
tariff reformer is usually an opponent of
Imperialism (which, of course, does not
mean the same thing in the two coun-
tries), and tariff reform here involves
lowering duties, doing away with protec-
tion, and, in short, adopting approxi-
mately the very system now in vogue in
the United Kingdom, and the very sys-
tem that the followers of Joseph Cham-
berlain wish to replace with something
not entirely unlike the American protect-
ive system as it has been since the Civil
War. On this subject see the article
Tariff (Vol. 26, p. 422), by the American
economist, F. W. Taussig, professor at
Harvard, the articles Protection (Vol.
22, p. 464), by E. J. James, president of
the University of Illinois, and author of
the History of American Tariff Legisla-
tion, and Free Trade (Vol. 11, p. 88), by
the Venerable Dr. William Cunningham,
Archdeacon of Ely, and author of The
Growth of English Industry and Com-
merce; the biographies of Alexander
Hamilton (Vol. 12, p. 880), and Henry
Clay (Vol. 6, p. 470), for the foundation
of American protection; and the articles
on H. C. Carey (Vol. 5, p. 829), Fried-
rich List (Vol. 16, p. 776), and William
McKinley (Vol. 17, p. 256) for the prin-
cipal exponents, theoretical and prac-
tical, outside of Great Britain, of protec-
tion; the lives of Richard Cobden (Vol.
6, p. 607) and John Bright (Vol. 4, p.
567) and the article Corn-Laws (Vol. 7,
p. 174) for the genesis of free trade in
Great Britain; and the article on Joseph
Chamberlain (in particular pp. 816-817
of Vol. 5) for English tariff reform in
politics.
Another topic in public finance of great
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
interest at the present moment is the
banking laws, — the interference of gov-
ernment with bank-
Banking ing and similar busi-
Laws ness. Local regula-
tions in regard to
banking will be found in sections on legis-
lation and finance in articles on each of
the states of the Union. The article
Oklahoma (Vol. 20, p. 57), for example,
contains the following summary of the
first radical state enactment — constitu-
tional in this case, — providing bank
guarantees:
The unique feature of the banking system
(with amendments adopted by the second
legislature becoming effective on the 11th
of June, 1909) is a fund for the guaranty
of deposits. The state banking board lev-
ies against the capital stock of each state
bank and trust company, organized or ex-
isting, under the laws of the state to create
a fund equal to 6% of average daily de-
posits other than the deposits of state
funds properly secured. One-fifth of this
fund is payable the first year and one-,
twentieth each year thereafter; 1% of the
increase in average deposits is collected
each year. Emergency assessments, not to
exceed 2%, may be made whenever neces-
sary to pay in full the depositors in an
insolvent bank; if the guaranty fund is
impaired to such a degree that it is not
made up by the 2% emergency assessment,
the state banking board issues certificates
of indebtedness which draw 6% interest
and which are paid out of the assessment.
Any national bank may secure its deposi-
tors in this manner if it so desires. The
bank guarantee law was held to be valid
by the United States Supreme Court in
1908, after the attorney-general of the
United States had decided that it was il-
legal.
More general treatment is to be found
in the articles Banks and Banking (Vol.
3, p. 334), Savings Banks (Vol. 24, p.
243) and Trust Company (Vol. 27, p.
329) ; and see further the articles listed in
the chapter in this Guide For Bankers
and Financiers.
Another sphere of private finance over
which government restriction and regula-
tion has been greatly
Insurance extended during the
last few years, is in-
surance. The entire subject of insur-
ance is, moreover, of interest not merely
to the citizen as a member of the body
politic but to the individual as the head
of a family and as an investor for his own
protection in old age. To every one,
therefore, the article Insurance (Vol. 14,
p. 656) will be of the utmost value, by
reason of its rare combination of interest
and authority. For a full analysis of this
article and of related topics see the chap-
ter in this Guide For the Insurance Man.
Much of the earlier part of the present
chapter has been devoted to the rapid ex-
tension of governmental control, regula-
tion and supervision
Legislation through legislation.
and Courts Interesting and nov-
el though this is, it is
far less important for an intelligent com-
prehension of government than is a care-
ful study of the foundations and prin-
ciples of legislation. Only the specialist
will wish to pursue a complete course in
political science, but every well-informed
citizen of the United States should study
the general powers and functions of na-
tional and state legislatures and courts.
This material is given briefly, lucidly and
critically by the Hon. James Bryce, late
British Ambassador to the United States,
former President of the British Board of
Trade, and author of The American Com-
monwealth, in the section Constitution and
Government, article United States (Vol.
27, pp. 646-658) . Part of this section deals
with the governments of the states, as to
which there is also special information in
the section on government of the article
on each state. Regarding city govern-
ments similar sections will be found in
the articles on the larger cities. For a
full analysis and a list of articles see the
chapter For Lawyers in this Guide. Con-
stitutional restrictions of all delegated
powers must be continually kept in mind
in the study of the action of legislatures
and courts, and of the questions that
arise in regard to legislation or to court
decisions. Although the legislature rep-
resents the people more or less directly —
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
405
the lower house being commonly called
the House of Representatives — and so
has delegated to it from the people the
power of making laws, still, in the Fed-
eral and state constitutions (except those
of a very recent date) there is a system of
checks on every delegated power. The
result is that an act passed by Congress
does not become law without the ap-
proval of the president, nor, in most
states, a local statute without that of the
governor, and — more important — is not
a valid law if the highest Federal Court
(or, if it be a state enactment, the highest
state court) holds it contrary to the
terms of the constitution. For a sum-
mary of the histor-
The System ical arguments for
of Checks this system of checks
see the section on
the Constitution (Vol. 27, p. 686), in the
article United States and such bio-
graphical articles as James Madison (Vol.
17, p. 284); Alexander Hamilton (Vol.
12, p. 880), and Gouverneur Morris
(Vol. 18, p. 869). The working of this
system in nation and state has been
greatly affected by the distinction between
the legislators' mandate and that of the
judge. Legislators have shorter terms of
service than judges, and especially judges
of the higher courts, and so may be said to
be in much closer and more constant con-
tact with the people; and the legislator is
bound by what he thinks the people need
and want, — something that is continually
changing. On the other hand, the judge
is bound by the written law, unchanged
and unchangeable except by constitu-
tional amendments or slightly varying
interpretation of the constitution. The
result has been dissatisfaction with the
courts and with legislatures. The definite
expression of this dissatisfaction is in
constitutional amendments or in new
constitutions, adopted in order that fu-
ture action of the courts may more nearly
accord with the present sentiment of the
people. The story of the constitution of
each state in the Union is told, with a
summary of important constitutional
changes, in the section on government of
each article on a separate state. In his
analysis of the state constitutions, Mr.
Bryce says (Vol. 27, p. 647):
Comparing the old constitutions with the
new ones, it may be said that the note
of those enacted in the first
Initiative, thirty or forty years of the
r> A f A «. A ~,iii~* republic was their jealousy
lieierenaum of executive power and their
and Recall careful safeguarding of the
rights of the citizen; that of
the second period, from 1820 to the Civil
War (1861-65), the democratization of the
suffrage of institutions generally; that of
the third period (since the war to the pres-
ent day), a disposition to limit the powers
and check the action of the legislature, and
to commit power to the hands of the whole
people voting at the polls.
And at the close of his treatment of
local government in the United States,
the same authority writes (Vol. 27, p.
651):
Several state constitutions now contain
provisions enabling a prescribed number
(or proportion) of the voters in a state or
city to submit a proposition to all the reg-
istered voters of the state (or city) for
their approval If carried, it takes effect
as a law. This is the Initiative. These
constitutions also allow a prescribed num-
ber of voters to demand that a law passed
by the state legislature, or an ordinance
passed by the municipal authority, be sub-
mitted to all the voters for their approval.
If rejected by them, it falls to the ground.
This is the Referendum. Some cities also
provide in their charters that an official,
including the mayor or a member of the
council, may be displaced from office if, at
a special election held on the demand of a
prescribed number of the city voters, he
does not receive the largest number of
votes cast. This is the Recall. All these
three institutions are in operation in some
Western states and are spreading to some
of the Eastern cities. Their working is ob-
served with lively interest, for they carry
the principle of direct popular sovereignty
to lengths unprecedented except in Switz-
erland. But it is not merely to the faith
of the Western Americans in the people
that their introduction is due. Quite as
much must be ascribed to the want of faith
in the legislature of states and cities, which
are deemed too liable to be influenced by
selfish corporations.
In connection with the above reference
to the referendum and initiative in
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Switzerland, see the description of the
Swiss system of continuous control by
the electors (Vol. 26, p. 243).
On previous experience, outside the
United States, with the referendum and
the initiative, see the article Referendum
(Vol. 23, p. 1), by the Rev. Dr. W. A. B.
Coolidge, an American whose life has
been chiefly spent in, and devoted to the
study of, Switzerland, where the system
was evolved. In the United States the
system was first tried in Oregon, and the
student should read the description in the
article Oregon of the legislative depart-
ment (Vol. 20, p. 246), which also deals
with the recall of officers. See also under
Oklahoma (Vol. 20, p. 59), and the
articles on South Dakota and Los
Angeles*
On suffrage in the United States see p.
647 of Vol. 27, describing the require-
ments in different states and pointing out
that "by the Federal Con-
Suffrage stitution state suffrage is
also the suffrage for Federal
elections, viz. elections of representatives
in Congress and of presidential electors."
On representation see the passage on p.
658 of Vol. 27, a portion of which has
been quoted above; and on representa-
tion in state legislatures see p. 647 of Vol.
27 and consult the articles on the sepa-
rate states, where in the sections headed
Government there is also supplementary
information about election and ballot
laws. It is interesting to note, in the
articles on Mississippi, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Ala-
bama, Louisiana and Oklahoma, that
these states have practically disfran-
chised the negro. For a concrete instance
of the awkward working of the electoral
college, in the choice of the president in
1876, see the article Electoral Commis-
sion (Vol. 9, p. 172). On the position of
aliens see the articles Allegiance (Vol.
1, p. 689) and Naturalization (Vol. 19,
p. 275); and articles on various states.
In the article Oregon, for instance (Vol.
20, p. 245), the reader will find that "the
constitution provides that no Chinaman,
not a resident of the state at the time of
the adoption of the constitution, shall
ever hold any real estate or mining claim,
or work any mining claim in the state/ 9
See also, on the whole subject, the ar-
ticles Ballot (Vol. 3, p. 279); Vote (Vol.
28, p. 216); Voting Machines (Vol. 28,
p. 217) ; Election (Vol. 9, p. 169) ; Repre-
sentation (Vol.2S, especially pp. 112-116,
for proportional voting, second choice
voting, etc.), and Women (Vol. 28, p. 782)
for the history of the woman's suffrage
movement. In that connection it is
curious to note in this article (p. 787)
that, owing to an oversight in the wording
of the first constitution of New Jersey,
women could vote in that state from 1776
to 1807. For any thorough knowledge of
practical, as contrasted with theoretical
representative government in the United
States, the student should read what Mr.
Bryce has to say about Party Govern-
ment (Vol. 27, p. 658-660); a large part
of the article on the history of the United
States after the adoption of the Con-
stitution (Vol. 27, pp. 688-735); articles
on the great parties, Federalist (Vol.
10, p. 235), Democratic (Vol. 8, p. 2),
and Republican (Vol. 23, p. 177); and
the lives of the great party leaders from
Hamilton and Jefferson to McKinley,
Roosevelt, Bryan and Woodrow Wilson.
A fuller outline for the study of United
States history will be found in another
chapter of this Guide, on History of the
United States.
But the Federal government and even
the state governments do not touch any
one of us so closely as does the local gov-
ernment of our city
Municipal and township; and
Government Mr. Bryce gives (Vol
27, p. 650) a valua-
ble criticism of the American system of
local government, — which, in some cities,
indeed, seems a lack of system in the busi-
ness sense of that word, and a control of
the government by political parties prone
to corruption, bribery and the granting of
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QUESTIONS OF THE DAY
407
special privilege. Mr. Bryce dwells on
the over-developed power of the state in
legislating for the cities or other minor
governmental units, and the consequent
activity of local city interests in state and
national politics, but he also points to the
growing tendency of the states to permit
cities to enact their own charters. The
movement to take the city government
out of politics has reached its greatest
force — and its greatest success— in gov-
ernment by commission.
In 1902 the city of Galveston, in Texas,
adopted a new form of municipal govern-
ment by vesting all powers in a commis-
sion of five persons, elected by the citizens
on a "general ticket," one of whom is
mayor and head of the commission, while
each of the others has charge of a depart-
ment of municipal administration. A simi-
lar plan, differing in some details, was sub-
sequently introduced in the city of Des
Moines, in Iowa; and the success which has
attended this new departure in both cities
has led to its adoption in many others, es-
pecially, but not exclusively, in the West-
ern states.
For a fuller account see the articles on
Galveston and Des Moines, where, as
in other articles on towns and cities, there
is a summary of their government and
particularly of the distinctive features of
local administration.
What we have said, up to this point,
has all dealt with our country as a self-
contained unit — except that we have
touched on tariffs
International and on immigration
Relations and on the treat-
ment of aliens. In
the article Alien (Vol. 1, p. 662) the read-
er will find the sentence: "In the United
States the separate state laws largely de-
termine the status of an alien, but subject
to Federal treaties." And Mr. Bryce
(Vol. 27, p. 652) characterizes some of
the powers allotted to the national gov-
ernment "which relate to its action in the
international sphere." See particularly
Mr. Bryce's remarks (Vol. 27, p. 656) on
the powers of the president:
In time of war or of public disturbance,
however, the domestic authority of the
president expands rapidly. This was
markedly the case during the Civil War.
As commander-in-chief of the army and
navy, and as * charged with the faithful ex-
ecution of all laws,' he is likely to assume,
and would indeed be expected to assume,
all the powers which the emergency re-
quires. In ordinary times the president
may be almost compared to the managing
clerk in a large business establishment,
whose chief function is to select his sub-
ordinates, the policy of the concern being
in the hands of the board of directors. But
when foreign affairs reach a critical stage,
or when disorders within the Union re-
quire Federal intervention, immense re-
sponsibility is then thrown on one who is
both commander-in-chief of the army and
the head of the civil executive. In no Euro-
pean country is there any personage to
whom the president can be said to corre-
spond. He may have to exert more author-
ity, even if he enjoys less dignity, than a
European king. He has powers which are
in ordinary times narrower than those of a
European prime minister; but these pow-
ers are more secure, for instead of depend-
ing on the pleasure of a parliamentary ma-
jority, they run on to the end of his term.
In this connection you should read the
articles International Law and Inter-
national Law (Private), Treaties,
Peace, Peace Conferences, Pan-Amer-
ican Conferences and Arbitration,
International; the last showing plainly
how large a part the United States has
played in promoting better international
feeling throughout the world.
Such articles as these tell how peace has
changed from a purely negative condition to
a positive subject of international regulation
and an object of active political effort They
answer the following concrete questions on the
subject:
What was the earliest plan of peace known
to history? What were the Pax Romana, the
"Truce of God," the "Grand Design" of
Henry IV, and other schemes for the pres-
ervation of peace?
What was the greatest deliberate effort ever
made to secure the peace of the world?
What has been done by the two Hague Con-
ferences, and when will the next one be held?
How far can disarmament be carried out?
What standing-peace agreements have been
executed?
What is the history of popular effort for
international peace, and what peace societies
exist to-day?
What are the present recognised limitations
of international arbitration?
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
What are the first steps Coward an era of
universal peace?
What has been accomplished by the Pan-
American Conferences?
On international affairs of today in
which the United States has a special
interest there is a wealth of information in
the Britannica. The
International first topic that will
Affairs naturally present it-
self to the mind of
the reader is the Panama canal. On this
see the article Panama Canal (Vol. £0,
p. 666), with a large-scale map, a history
of the project and a description of the
engineering features; and on the politics,
national and international, of the ques-
tion of building the canal, the articles
Colombia, Panama, Roosevelt, United
States, History (Vol. 27, pp. 730 and
732), John Hat, and Pauncefote.
Our relations with Colombia in connec-
tion with the canal will naturally lead the
student to a general consideration of the
relation of the United States with the
Latin-American countries. Here the
most interesting factor is the Monroe
Doctrine, which has been characterized
"as one of the things that every one
knows about but that few can explain."
Bead the article Monroe Doctrine (Vol.
18, p. 738), by Dr. T. S. Woolsey, Pro-
fessor of international law, Yale Univer-
sity; the article James Monroe (Vol. 18,
p. 736), and, in the article United States,
History § 156 (Vol. 27, p. 695).
A second topic in the story of Latin-
America and the United States is Cuba;
and this part of the story has probably
never been told as accurately and inter-
estingly as in the articles Cuba Vol. 7, p.
594), and Havana (Vol. 13, p. 76) in the
Britannica, both by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
American relations with the Orient is a
third subject of importance in the foreign
affairs of the United States; and in this
subject the most interesting topic is Chi-
nese and Japanese exclusion. On this
see the articles California, San Fran-
cisco, Coolie, and United States,
History § 339 (Vol. 27, p. 723). At the
end of the article Japan (Vol. 15, p. 156)
there is a section on The Claims of Japan,
by Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, which is of
great interest in this connection.
The place of the United States as a
world power, we are proud to say, de-
pends little on its
Sea-Power army or navy —
because of its enor-
mous latent strength, its commanding
geographical position, etc. But the com-
paratively greater importance of navy
over army is now admitted by near-
ly every serious thinker — it was the
concrete lesson of the Spanish-American
War of 1898 as it was the point of the
valuable historical essays on sea-power
written before and since that war by the
American naval officer, Bear-Admiral A.
T. Mahan. The American navy and the
navies of the world are matters of inter-
est to every one — and like all matters of
importance they are to be found treated
in the Britannica.
In general see the elaborate articles
Navy (Vol. 19, p. 299); Sea-Power (Vpl.
£5, p. 548); and Sea, Command of the
(Vol. 24, p. 529); and for a detailed
course of reading on naval history and
theory see the chapter in this Guide For
Naval Officers.
The topics just discussed will serve as
an introduction to the study of the Im-
perial United States, which may be pur-
sued in the articles
The Greater Alaska, Hawaii,
United States Philippine Islands,
Porto Rico, Guam
and Cuba, and the articles on the towns
and cities in the outlying possessions.
The result of reading these articles
will be a determination to know more
about your country, to master its his-
tory, its industries and its commerce as
well as its political conditions.
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Part V
Readings for Women
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CHAPTER LXV
FOR WOMEN
IT would be absurd, in the full stream
of the 20th century, to imagine that
any of the articles in the new edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica can be
either beyond the comprehension of
women or unlikely to interest women.
And since any method of selection is also
a method of elimination, it may be
illogical to suggest that any one class of
articles especially merits their attention.
But the difficulty is purely formal. For
perhaps the greatest victory of the fem-
inist movement lies in the demonstrated
proposition that women can, in one field
after another, establish their equality
with men, without losing any of their
superiority in the exercise of those arts
to which they were formerly restricted.
And this chapter, therefore, after describ-
ing the articles which relate to the present
political and economic position of women,
naturally turns to subjects such as
domestic science and the adprnment of
the home, which in all ages and all coun-
tries have been considered to be the
special province of women.
"If the question of women's ability to
do a full share of the world's work any
longer admitted of argument, there would
be no more vivid
Women way of coming to an
Contributors appreciation of the
versatility and range
as well as the high quality of women's
intellectual capacity than by looking at
the contributions by women to the
Britannica itself. First in mass, and
first in practical value as because it vastly
increases the usefulness of the entire
book, is the Index volume with its 975
pages, its 500,000 index entries, its
classified list of articles covering nearly
70 pages and its list of contributors and
their principal signed articles. This
volume was the work of a large and
carefully organized staff under the
supervision of Miss Janet Hogarth
(now Mrs. W. L. Courtney). The fol-
lowing is a partial alphabetical list of
women contributors to the Britannica
with the more important articles they
wrote:
Contributors
Adelaide Mary Anderson
(Principal Lady Inspector of Facto-
ries, British Home Office).
Gertrude Atherton
(Author of Rezanov, The Tower of
Ivory, etc.).
Mary Bateson
(Late P'ellow of Newnham College,
Cambridge ; Author of Borough Cus-
toms, etc.).
Gertrude Bell
(Author of The Desert and the Sown).
Isabella Bird Bishop
(Author of Korea and her Neighbours,
etc.).
Articles
Labour Legislation (in part).
Rezanov.
Borough English.
Druses (in part).
Korea (in part).
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Lady Broome
(Author of Station Life in New Zea-
land).
Margaret Bryant
Agnes Muriel Clay
(Joint Editor of Sources of Roman
History).
Agnes M. Clerke
(Hon. Member Royal Astronomical So-
ciety, Author of History of Astron-
omy, etc.)*
Mrs. Craigie (" John Oliver Hobbes ")
(Author of The School for Saints,
etc.).
Lady Dilke
(Author of French Painters, etc.).
Mme. Duclaux
(Author of Life of Renan, etc.).
Lady Eastlake
(Author of Five Great Painters, etc.).
Lady Gomme
(Author of Traditional Games of Great,
Britain, etc.).
Dr. Harriet L. Hennessy, L.R.C.S.I.
Lady Hugging
(Author, with Sir William Huggins, of
Atlas of Representative Stellar
Spectra, etc.).
Lady Lugard
(Author of A Tropical Dependency,
etc.).
Kate A. Meakin
Alice Meynell
(Author of The Rhythm of Life, etc.).
Hilda M. R. Murray
(Lecturer on English, Royal Holloway
College).
Mrs. H. O. O'Neill
(Formerly Fellow of Manchester Uni-
versity).
Dr. Anna C. Paues
(Author of A Fourteenth Century Bib-
lical Version, etc.).
Mrs. W. Alison Phillips
(Associate of Bedford College, Lon-
don).
Bertha S. Phillpotts
(Formerly Librarian of Girton Col-
. lege, Cambridge).
Western Australia, History.
Alexander the Great, Legends; Caesar,
Medieval Legends; Charlemagne, Le-
gends; Virgil, the Virgil Legend; etc.
Agrarian Laws (in part); Centumviri;
Curia; Decurio; Municipium; Pa-
tron and Client (in part) ; Senate.
Astronomy, History; Brahe, Tycho;
Copernicus; Flamsteed; Halley;
Huygens; Kepler; Zodiac; etc.
George Eliot.
Greuze; Ingres; Millet, J. F.
Renan.
Gibson, John.
Children's Games.
Gynaecology; Infancy; Intestinal Ob-
struction; Medical Education, U. S.
A. (in part) ; Respiratory System,
Pathology (in part); Tuberculosis,
etc.
Armilla; Astrolabe.
British Empire ; Bauchi ; Bornu ; Kano ;
Katagum ; Nassarawa ; Nigeria;
Rhodes, Cecil; Sokoto; Zaria. *
Morocco (in part) ; Tetuan ; Sus.
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett.
English Language (in part).
Peckham, John; Prebendary; Prelate;
Prior; Procurator; Vicar.
English Bible (in part).
Louis XVIII ; Marie Antoinette, etc.
Germany, Archaeology; Norway, Early
History; Scandinavian Civilization.
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FOR WOMEN
413
Kathleen Schlesinger
(Author of The Instruments of the Or-
chestra, etc.).
Mrs. Henry Sidgwick
(Hon. Secretary to the Society for
Psychical Research, late Principal
of Newnham College.
Mrs. Alec. Tweedie
(Author of Porfirio Diaz).
Mme. Villari
(English translator of works of Prof.
Villari).
Mrs. Humphry Ward
(Author of Robert Elsmere, etc.).
Lady Welby
(Author of What is Meaning? etc.).
Jessie L. Weston
(Author of Arthurian Romances, etc.).
Alice Zimmern
(Author of The Renaissance of Girls 9
Education, etc.).
Bagpipe; Bugle; Drum; Harp; Horn;
Organ, Ancient History; Pianoforte
(in part); Spinet; Timbrel; Viol;
etc.
Spiritualism.
Diaz, Porfirio.
Savonarola.
Lyly.
SlGNIFICS.
King Arthur; Arthurian Legend; The
Holy Grail; Gueneyere; Lancelot;
Malory, Sir Thomas; Map, Walter;
Merlin; Perceval; The Round
Table; Tristan; Eschenbach, Wol-
fram von.
Mary Carpenter.
This remarkable list shows that women
have contributed to the Britannica on
subjects so varied as astronomy, medie-
val literature, medicine, sociology, lin-
guistics, literary biography, art criticism,
law and politics, political science and
sociology, musical instruments, educa-
tion, the Bible and ecclesiastical history,
and philosophy.
It may be noted as indicating the
advance of women during the last century
and a half that in the first edition of the
Encyclopaedia Bri-
Woman'8 tannica, which was
Advance published in 1771,
the article on women
consisted of the following eight words
"Woman, — the female of man — see
Homo." In the present 11th edition,
published nearly a century and a half
later, one single article entitled Women
in volume £8, beginning on page 782, is
equivalent in its contents to 22 pages
of this Guide.
What woman has accomplished in
scholarship, literature, art and science
has been done very largely in the last
hundred years. In authorship and, to
a greater degree, on the stage her
activity dates back a little further. In
Shakespeare's time all women's parts on
the stage were taken by boys. In fact
as the Britannica tells us (Vol. 8, p. 521)
in the days of Queen Elizabeth and
Shakespeare "No woman might appear
at a playhouse, unless masked."
It is only in comparatively recent times
that the real "emancipation" of woman
began; and this explains why the list of
women famous in history is so much
longer than any of the other lists given
in this part of the Guide. Through
earlier periods women attained power
only by birth, by marriage, or by being
"queens uncrowned," but none the less
powerful on that account, like Aspasia,
Nell Gwyn, Jane Shore and the Pompa-
dour.
There can be no question that during
most of the world's history, woman's
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
only place was in the home. And it is
certain that no matter how far her eman-
cipation may be carried the home will
be a sphere for her. Her relation to
her husband and her children, her right
to a share of his property and of theirs —
and to her own — as now more liberally
granted and interpreted by law, are
outlined in the Britannica. The status
of women in early times is described in
the article in the Britannica on women.
It is, with variations in different places,
everywhere a story of dependence. Even
in Roman law a woman was completely
dependent. If married she and her
property passed into the power of her
husband; if unmarried she was (unless a
vestal virgin) under the perpetual tutel-
age of her father during his life, and after
his death of her agnates, that is, of those
of kinsmen by blood or adoption who
would have been under the power of the
common ancestor had he lived. Under
English civil law a girl can contract a
valid marriage at 12, a boy at 14.
Under the common law "the father was
entitled as against the mother to the
custody of a legitimate child up to
the age of sixteen, and could only
forfeit such right by misconduct." But
the Court of Chancery sometimes "took
a less rigid view of the paternal rights
and looked more to the interest of the
child, and consequently in some cases
to the extension of the mother's right
at common law. Legislation has tended
in the same direction." Zn England
women are still under two remarkable
disabilities: "the exclusion of female
heirs from intestate succession unless in
the absence of a male heir; and the fact
that a husband could obtain a divorce
for the adultery of his wife, while a wife
could only obtain it for her husband's
adultery if coupled with some other
cause, such as cruelty or desertion."
In the United States the legal and
political status of woman varies largely
with the laws of the different states.
For example, as is well known, in cer-
tain states women have the same right as
men to the ballot.
The Legal Wyoming (1869) and
Status of Colorado (1893) were
American the first women's
Women suffrage states. In
more than half the
states, roughly everywhere except in the
South and a few eastern states, she has
the right to vote for the members of
school boards and has a general school
suffrage. In Louisiana since 1898 women
tax-payers may vote on questions of
tax levies. As regards property rights,
in the state of New York, a woman in
possession of property, who marries, has
the unqualified use, irrespective of the
wishes of her husband, of her property.
That is, she owns and can sj>end as she
pleases the whole of the income of her
property, while, on the other hand, her
husband is compelled by law to give her
a certain proportion of his income. In
other states, Mississippi, notably, the
laws as regard property of married women
are precisely the same as that for mar-
ried men. If the husband is compelled
to give a certain proportion of his in-
come to his wife, she is compelled to
give the same proportion of her income
to him. This is true in several states,
Michigan, for example, except that mar-
ried women cannot usually convey prop-
erty without the husband's permission.
In the state of New York a married
woman making her will has a right to
dispose of her property as she pleases;
whereas in other states, Missouri for
instance, the law prescribes that at least
one-half shall go to her husband, if there
are no children. In other words, in no
two states of the Union is the legal and
political status of woman the same.
It is often important, and in these days
always a matter of interest, for a woman
to know just what her legal position is
in the state in which she lives. This
information the Britannica gives.
What a mother can do for her children
she may learn from the Britannica articles
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FOR WOMEN
415
indicated in the chapters of this Guide
For Children and in the chapter For
Teachers. Similarly she will find assist-
ance in choosing, building or furnishing
a house from the chapters For Builders
and Architects, For Designers, For Manu-
facturers of Furniture, etc.
Such articles as Lace, Embroidery,
Carpets, Tapestry, Furniture, Point-
ing, Sculpture, Jewelry, Plate, par-
ticularly as they are all remarkably well
illustrated, will be of great value either
for the general formation of taste or for
giving definite information about a par-
ticular style. For the adornment of
"the House Beautiful" the Britannica
is, however, valuable not merely because
of the information it contains. The set
on India paper, compact, slender and
graceful, handsomely bound in leather,
and contained in one of the "period"
bookcases designed especially for the
books, is in itself an adornment and an or-
nament for any library or drawing room.
For the country home with flower or vege-
table gardens the article Horticulture
(Vol. IS, p. 741) will be found full of
helpful information, both in its general
treatment, and in the gardeners' calendar
for the United States, which tells in the
most practical fashion what to do each
month in the garden.
For the transformation of a house,
well-situated, well-built, well-furnished,
well-decorated into a home, — for home-
making, — any course
Home Making of study in the Bri-
tannica should be
helpful to a woman, by broadening her
sympathies and her knowledge and by
making a more interesting and better-
informed companion to her husband,
a more competent hostess to his and her
guests, and a wiser mother to her children.
But home-making is an art and not a
science — or, if the modern woman will
forgive the use of so old-fashioned a
phrase, it is a spiritual grace rather than
an intellectual achievement— and even
a Guide to readings in the Britannica
cannot give an exact formula for it.
But there is a science whose field is
the home and whose formulas are definite,
and this "domestic science" may be
learned from the
Domestic Britannica. Of pri-
Science mary interest is the
article Dietetics
(Vol. 8, p. 214), equivalent in length to
25 pages of this Guide. It is by the
late Dr. Wilbur Olin Atwater, professor
of chemistry, Wesleyan University, Mid-
dletown, Connecticut, who was special
agent of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture in charge of nutrition investiga-
tions, and R. D. Milner, formerly of the
same Department. It contains 6 val-
uable tables: I. Percentage Composi-
tion of some Common Food Materials
(64 in all); II. Digestibility (or Avail-
ability) of Nutrients in Different Classes
of Food Materials (22 in all); III. Esti-
mates of Heats of Combustion and of
Fuel Value of Nutrients in Ordinary
Mixed Diet; IV. Quantities of Available
Nutrients and Energy in Daily Food
Consumption of Persons in Different
Circumstances; V. Standards for Diet-
aries — Available Nutrients and Energy
per Man per Day; and VI. Amounts of
Nutrients and Energy Furnished for one
Shilling in Food Materials at Ordinary
Prices (22 food materials, at 44 different
prices). The topics of the article are:
Food and its functions — refuse,
water, mineral matter, protein, includ-
ing albuminoids and gelatinoids, fats,
carbohydrates.
Conversion of food into body-mate-
rial and of food and body-material into
heat, muscular energy, etc., with re-
sults obtained from Dr. Atwater's
famous experiments with men in the
" respiration calorimeter," from meas-
urement and analysis of food and
drink, and from measurement of energy
expended as heat and as external mus-
cular work.
Composition of food materials.
Digestibility or availability of foods.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Full value of food.
Food consumption.
Quantities of nutrients needed — ten-
tative estimates of the average daily
amounts required.
Hygienic economy of food: Eat what
agrees with you and use foods which
give needed nutriment, but do not bur-
den the body with superfluous material.
The importance of good cooking, neat-
ness and cleanliness.
Pecuniary economy of food.
Read also the article Nutrition (Vol.
19, p. 920, equivalent to 25 pages of this
Guide), by Dr. D. N. Paton, professor
of physiology, University of Glasgow, and
Dr. E. P. Cathcart, lecturer in chemical
physiology, University of Glasgow.
This article considers "the mode of di-
gestion, the utilization and the elimina-
tion of the end products of the three
great constituents, proteins, carbohy-
drates and fats," discussing in detail:
Chemistry of Digestion — digestion in
the mouth, stomach and the intestines;
bile.
Mode of Formation of Digestive
Secretions — the salivary and gastric
glands, secretion in the pancreas, in-
testinal juice.
Mechanism of the Alimentary Canal
— mastication, swallowing, stomach
movements, intestinal movements, etc.
Absorption by the mouth, stomach
and intestines.
Changes in the cells — proteins, car-
bohydrates, fats, fasting, muscular
work, internal secretions, pancreas.
Excretion — urea, ammonia, sulphur,
phosphorus, etc.
There is much very practical informa-
tion for the housewife in the article
Cookery (Vol. 7, p. 74), besides the in-
teresting historical
Cookery sketch. Cookery,
says this article, as
an art "is only remotely connected with
the mere necessities of nutrition or the
science of dietetics. Mere hunger, though
the best sauce, will not produce cookery,
which is the art of sauces/ 9 Oriental, Greek
and Roman cookery, at least as we know
them from literature, aimed at luxury,
rich and rare foods, cost and show.
After the Renaissance, the history of
modern cookery began with Italy, and
from Italy Catherine de' Medici brought
"Italian cooks to Paris and introduced
there a cultured simplicity which was
unknown in France before." Forks and
spoons were "Italian neatnesses" unknown
in England until the early part of the 17th
century; their use "marked an epoch in
the progress of dining, and consequently
of cookery." French cookery advanced
under Louis XIV and XV; received an
apparent set back from the French
Revolution — which, however, marked
the rise of Parisian restaurants; but
revived with brilliancy early in the 19th
century, so that now "French cooking
is admittedly the ideal of culinary art,
directly we leave the plain roast and
boiled. And the spread of cosmopolitan
hotels and restaurants over England,
America and the European continent,
has largely accustomed the whole civil-
ized world to the Parisian type."
The article closes with eminently use-
ful "notes on broiling, roasting, baking,
boiling, stewing and frying."
The article Food (Vol. 10, p. 611) de-
scribes particularly the best foods for
infants and children; foods for adults
are treated in Nutrition, Dietetics,
already mentioned, and in the article
Vegetarianism (Vol. 27, p. 967). Other
articles of importance to the cook are:
Food Preservation (Vol. 10, p. 612),
by Otto Hehner, English public analyst,
formerly president of the Society of
Public Analysts; and the same authority's
article on Adulteration (Vol. 1, p. 218),
which deals with legislation against adul-
teration, and discusses arsenic in foqjis,
preservatives such as formaldehyde and
salicylic acid, boracic preservatives, —
colouring matter in food, metallic im-
purities; American laws against adultera-
tion; German laws; particular arti-
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FOR WOMEN
417
cles adulterated — milk, condensed milk,
cream, butter, margarine, cheese, lard,
oils, flour and bread, sugar, marmalade,
jams, tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa, wine,
beer, non-alcoholic drinks, vinegar, spirits
drugs. See the chapter For Manufact-
urers of Foods.
The following is an alphabetical list of
the principal articles on foods and bever-
ages:
or Marzi-
Absinthe
Liqueurs
Aerated Waters
Loaf
Ale
Macaroni
Arrack
Malmsey
Aspic
Malt
Bacon
Marchpane, c
Bannock
pan
Barm
Margarine
Beef
Marmalade
Beer
Mate
Benedictine
Mead
Biltong
Mealie
Biscuit
Meat
Bitters
Milk
Bohea
Molasses
Brandy
Mulligatawny
Bread
Negus
Brewing
Omelette
Butter .
Pemmican
Calipash and Calipee
Caudle
Perry
Pilau
Caviare, or Caviar
Porridge
Chartreuse
Pudding
Chasse
Pulque
Cheese
Punch
Chocolate
Raisin
Chupatty
Ratafia
Chutney
Rum
Cider
Sake
Claret
Salad
Confectionery -
Scone
Cookery
Sherbet
Couscous
Sherry
Curaqoa
Spirits
Curry
Food Preservation
Steak
Suet
Ghee
Gin
Syrup
Tapioca
Gravy
Tart
Haggis
Tea
Hippocras
Toast
Jams and Jellies
Treacle
Junket
Venison
Kava (Cava, or Ava)
Vermicelli
Kedgeree
Ketchup
Vermouth
Vinegar
Kirsch
Vodka
Koumiss
Whisky
Kvass, or Kwass
Wine
Lard
Yeast
Turning sharply from the useful to
the ornamental — from the kitchen to
the boudoir — the woman who uses the
Britannica will find
Costume and in it not merely the
Ornament interesting informa-
tion to which clues
are given in the chapter for the jeweller
and in the section on embroidery (Ch. 66)
but many other articles about costume
and dress, with illustrations which make
the text far clearer and more valuable.
With the constant turns of Fashion's
wheel, dress, and especially women's
dress, is always reverting to an earlier
style or to a more primitive and semi-
barbaric style of the present day — now
Empire styles, Robespierre collars, close-
fitting gowns of the pseudo-Greek style
of the Napoleonic era, and now a quasi-
folk style, Bulgarian, or Oriental, and
again a hint of the ecclesiastical surplice,
dalmatic, stole, or collar. The result is
that the study of the styles of the past,
especially when properly illustrated, may
be not only interesting but actually
valuable to a woman planning a new
gown or a "novel" ornament for head or
throat.
The article Costume (Vol. 7, p. 224),
equivalent in length to 80 pages of this
Guide, is written by T. A. Joyce of the
Department of Ethnography, British Mu-
seum; by Stanley Arthur Cook, editor
for the Palestine Exploration Fund,
on Egyptian and Semitic costume; by
Henry Stuart Jones, late director of the
British School at Rome, on Aegean,
Greek and Roman costume; by Oswald
Barron, late editor of the Ancestor,
on medieval and modern costume; and
by W. Alison Phillips, author of Modern
Europe, etc. Its 51 illustrations are
chosen with great care from original
sources, tombs, wall-paintings, seals,
statues and statuettes, brasses, and por-
traits of many periods, and they are
supplemented by illustrations in other
articles: — Aegean Civilization (Vol. 1,
p. 245), see Plate III, Fig. 7 and Plate
IV, Fig. 7, for multiple or flounced
skirts and basques — like those of the
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418
BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
early '80's — with short overskirt scalloped
high on either side; Greek Art, Figs. 2,
3, 21, 40, 42, 75; Terracotta (Vol. 26,
p. 653), see both plates and especially
Fig. 4 of Tanagra and other figurines;
Roman Art (Vol. 23, p. 474), see Figs.
11, 12, 16, 24, 28; Brasses, Monumental
(Vol. 4, p. 434), see all illustrations;
Illuminated Manuscripts (Vol. 14, p.
312), see Plates III and V; Painting
(Vol. 20, p. 459), see Figs. 7, 10, 11, 14,
25, 27; Lace (Vol. 16, p. 37), see Figs.
4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 33; Minia-
tures (Vol. 18, p. 523), see both plates.
One of the most interesting sources for
the text of the article Costume is in the
writings of satirists, who from period
to period have praised the simplicity and
frugality of the preceding generation and
bewailed the extravagance in style and
material of dress during the satirists' own
day.
Besides this general article on costume
there is special treatment of Chinese
costume in the article China (Vol. 6,
p. 173) and a section on costume in the
article India (Vol. 14, p. 417), equivalent
to 18 pages of this Guide, written by
Col. Charles Grant, formerly inspector
of military education in India, illustrated
with 16 pen-and-ink drawings by J.
Lockwood Kipling, who is best-known to
most people as the father of Rudyard
Kipling, and the illustrator of Kim, his
son's story of native life in India. On
Celtic dress see the article Clan (Vol. 6,
p. 421); on that of the Hittites the article
Hittites (Vol. 13, p. 537); on modern
Egyptian the article Egypt (Vol. 9, p.Sl),
on Persian, the article Persia (Vol. 21, p.
193), etc.
And see the following articles on
costume and similar topics:
Aigrette
Blouse
Aiguillette
Bonnet
Apron
Braid
Backscratcher
Burnous
Baldric
Buskin
Bandana, or Bandanna Caftan
Beard Chape
Bearer Chatelaine
Costume
Patten
Cravat
Pelisse
Crinoline
Peruke
Cuff
Petticoat
Cummerbund
Plaid
Depilatory
Dolman
Pomade
Pomander
Doublet
Poncho
Dress
Puttee
Farthingale
Queue
Frock
Razor
Gaberdine
Robes
Girdle
Sandal
Glove
Scarf
Golosh, or Galosh
Shampoo
Gown
Shirt
Haik
Sleeve
Hat
Snow-shoes
Hood
Sombrero
Hose
Sporran
Jerkin
Stocking
Kaross
Tabard
Kilt
Tarbush
Kohl
Toilet
Mantle
Towel
Mitten
Trousers
Moccasin
Tunic
Moustache
Turban
Muff
Veil
Parasol
Whisker
Wig
A study of the lives of great women
will interest any one, and if this study
is pursued by means of the Britannica
the reader will have
Biographical the double advan-
Study tage of getting full
and authoritative
material presented in the most attractive
and excellent style. From.the lists that
follow of articles on women in the Bri-
tannica, interesting groups may easily
be chosen, such as:
Famous American Women: — Annic
Hutchinson, Alice and Phoebe Cart,
Margaret O'Neill Eaton, Margaret
Fuller, the Grimk£ sisters, Harriet
Beecher Stowe.
Women of Ancient Times: — Acca
Larentia, Lucretia, Agrippina, Arte-
misia, Aspasia, Cleopatra, Cornelia,
Faustina, Messallina, Virginia, Erin-
na, Corinna, Sappho, Hypatia, Zenobia.
Heroines of Fiction in History: compare
Kingsley's Hypatia with the real woman,
Ware's Zenobia with the queen as she is
represented by a historian in the Bri-
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FOR WOMEN
419
tannica; the women of Dumas and of
Scott in their historical novels* and their
originals as seen in the Britannica, for
instance Mary Queen of Scots as por-
trayed by Sir Walter in The Abbot and
by Swinburne in the Britannica, Eliza-
beth and Amy Robsart in Kenilworth
and in the Britannica, Catherine de*
Medici in Chicot the Jester and in fact;
or the women of Shakespeare's historical
plays as compared with their true place
in history.
Women in American political reform: —
Amelia B. Bloomer, Susan B. Anthony,
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia
Mott and Lucy Blackwell Stone.
The following is a partial list of articles in the Britannica dealing with Women,
who may, for convenience, be booked under the broad head of History as dis-
tinct from Literature, the Arts and Science: —
Acca Larentia
Accoramboni, Vittoria
Acland, Lady Harriett
Adelaide
Agnes of Meran
Agreda, Abbess of
Agrippina
d'Aiguillon, Duchesse
Albany, Louise, count-
ess of
Alice, Princess
Amalasuntha
Anna Amalia of Saxe-
Weimar
Anna Leopoldovna
Anne of Brittany
Anne of Cleves
Anne of Denmark
Anne of England
Anne of France
Anne (of Russia)
Arria
Arsinoe
Artemisia
Aspasia
Barton, Elizabeth
Berenice
Blanche of Castile
Boadicea
Boleyn, Anne
Borgia, Lucrezia
Brunhilda
Cappello, Bianca
Caroline, Amelia Au-
gusta
Caroline of England
Castro, Inez de
Catherine of Aragon
Catherine of Braganza
Catherine de' Medici
Catherine I and II
(Russia)
Catherine of Valois
Chateauneuf, La Belle
Christina, Maria
Christina of Sweden
Clarke, Mary Anne
Cleveland, Duchess of
Cleopatra
Clotilda, St.
Colonna, Vittoria
Corday, Charlotte
Cornelia
Cornaro, Caterina
Diane de France
Diane de Poitiers
Du Barry
Eaton, Margaret
O'Neill
Eleanor of Aquitaine
Elizabeth of Austria
Elizabeth (Carmen
Sylva)
Elizabeth, Electress
Palatine
Elizabeth of England
Elizabeth (princess)
Elizabeth of France
Elizabeth Petrovna
Este, Beatrice d'
Estrees, Gabrielle d'
Etampes,. Duchesse d*
Eudocia
Eudoxia
Eugenie
Euphrosyne
Elizabeth Farnese
Faustina
Feucheres, Baronne de
Fredegond
Gilbert, M. D. E. R.
("Lola Montez")
Godiva
Gontaut, Duchesse de
Grey, Lady Jane
Hachette, Jeanne
Henrietta Maria of
England
Howard, Catherine
Ida of Bernicia
Irene
Isabella of Bavaria
Isabella of Castile
Isabella of Hainaut
Isabella II of Spain
Jacoba
Joan of Arc
Joan (Pope)
Joanna the Mad
Joanna of Naples
Josephine
Junot, Laure
Kingston, Elizabeth,
Duchess of
La Fayette, Louise de
Lamballe, Princesse de
La Sabliere, Margue-
rite de
La Valliere, Louise de
Lenclos, Ninon de
Lennox, Countess of
Lisle, Alice
Livia Drusilla
I^ongueville, Duchesse
de
Louise of Prussia
Louise of Savoy
Lucretia
Macdonald, Flora
Main tenon, Mme. de
Maine, Duchesse du
Mailly, Comtesse de
Margaret of Austria
Margaret of Denmark
Margaret Maultasch
Margaret (Maid of
Norway)
Margaret of Scotland,
St
Margaret of Scotland
Maria Stella
Marie Antoinette
Marie Leszczynska
Marie Louise
Marie de' Medici
Marie Amelie TMrese
Marie The>ese
Matilda of Tuscany
Mary of Burgundy
Mary I and II of Eng-
land
Mary of Lorraine
Mary of Modena
Mary of Orange
Mary, Queen of Scots
Mash am, Lady
Matilda
Messallina
Mignot, Claudine
Marquise de Montespan
Marquise de Montesson
Montpensier, Duchesse
de
Octavia
Olga
Orkney, Countess of
Orleans, Henrietta of
Parr, Catherine
Perrers, Alice
Philippa of Hainaut
Phryne
Pompadour, Marquise
de
Portsmouth, Duchess of
Prie, Marquise de
Radegunda, St
Rich, Penelope
Robsart, Amy
Rosamond ("The
Fair ")
Rothelin, Marquise de
Roxana
Semiramis
Serres, Olivia
Sforza, Caterina
Shore, Jane
Snell, Hannah
Sophia Aleksyeevna
Sophia of Hanover
Sophia Dorothea of
Hanover
Sorel, Agnes
Stanhope, Lady Hester
Stuart, Arabella
Swynford, Catherine
Talbot, Mary Anne
Tanaquil
Tarpeia
Theodora
Theophano
Ursins, Princess dcs
Victoria
Virginia
Walter, Lucy
Wilhelmina
Zenobia
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Quite as long and much more impressive is the list of women who have produced
literature — excluding the heroines of mythology and literature — on whom there are
separate articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Ackermann, Louise
Adam, Juliette
A go u It, Comtesse d'
Aguilar, Grace
Aisse, Mile.
Alcott, Louisa May
Anna Commena
Arnim, Elisabeth von
Aulnoy, Baronne d'
Austen, Jane
Austin, Sarah
Baillie,'Lady Grizel
Baillie, Joanna
Bartauid, Lady Anne
Barnard, Anna Letitia
Bashkirtseff, Maria
Behn, Aphra
Bekker, Elizabeth
Bernauer, Agnes
Berners, Juliana
Blamire, Susanna
Biessington, Margue-
rite, Countess of
Blind, Mathilde
B o s b o o m-Toussaint,
Anna
Braddon, Mary Eliza-
beth
Bremer, Frederika
Bronte, Charlotte and
Emily
Brooke, Frances
Browning, Elizabeth
Barrett
B run ton, Mary
Burnett, Frances E.
Hodgson
Carter, Elizabeth
Cary, Alice and Phoebe
Cenei, Beatrice
Centlivre, Susanna
Charriere, Agnes de
Child, Lydia Maria
Cockburn, Alicia
Coleridge, Sara
Colet, Louise
Cook, Eliza
Cooke, Rose Terry
Corelli, Marie
Corinna
Cork, Mary, countess
of
Cottin, Marie
Cowley, Hannah
Craddock, Charles Eg-
bert
Craigie, Pearl ("John
Oliver Hobbes")
Craik, Dinah Maria
Craven, Pauline
D'Arbiay, Frances
Dashkov, Catherina
DeflPand, Marquise du
Delany, Mary Gran-
ville
Dickinson, Anna Eliza-
beth
Droste-Htilshoff, Freiin
von
Duff-Gordon, Lucie
Edgeworth, Maria
Edgren-Leffler, Anne
Charlotte
Edwards, Amelia Ann
Bland ford
Eliot, George
Engelbrechts-
datter, Dorthe
fipinay, Ixwise d*
Erinna
Ewing, Juliana
Ferrier, Susan E.
Flygare-Carl^n, Erailie
Foote, Mary Hallock
Fuller, Margaret
Fulierton, Lady
Gaskell, Elizabeth
Cleghorn
Gay, Marie F. S.
Genlis, Comtesse de
Girardin, Delphine de
Godwin, Mary Woll-
stonecraft
Gore, Catherine G. F.
Gyllembourg - Ehrens-
vard, Baroness
Gyp
Hahn-Hahn, Ida von
Havergai, Frances
Ridlev
Hamilton, Elizabeth
Haywood, Eliza
Hemans, Felicia Doro-
thea
Houdetot, Comtesse de
Howe, Julia Ward
Hrosvitha
Hypatia
Inchbald, Elizabeth
Ingelow, Jean
Jackson, Helen Maria
("H. H.")
Jameson, Anna Brown-
ell
Jewett, Sarah Orne
Kavanagh, Julia
Krudener, Baroness
von
Lamb, Mary
Lazarus, Emma
Lee, Sophia
Levy, Amy
Lewald, Fanny
Lyall, Edna
Malet, Lucas
Marguerite de Valois
Marie de France
Markham, Mrs.
Martineau, Harriet
Meyneil, Alice C.
Mitford, Mary Russell
Molesworth, Mary
Louise
Monk, Maria
Montagu, Elizabeth R.
Montagu, Mary Wort-
ley
More, Hannah
Morgan, Lady Sydney
Moulton, Louise Chand-
ler
Mundt, Klara (Luise
Miihlbach)
Naden, Constance
Nairne, Baroness
Negri, Ada
Norton, Caroline E. O.
Oliphant, Margaret
Opie, Amelia
Orzeszko, Eliza
Ouida
Pardoe, Julia
Pardo-Bazan, Emilia
Philips, Katharine
Piozzi, Hester Lynch
Pisan, Christine de
Ploennies, Luise von
Porter, Jane
Praxilla
Radcliffe, Ann
Reeve, Clara
Rossetti, Christine
Sable*, Marquise de
Sand, George
Sappho
Schelling, Karoiine
Schreiber, Charlotte
Elizabeth
Seudery, Madeleine de
Serao, Matilda
Sevigne\ Marquise de
Seward, Anna
Sherwood, Mary
Martha
Sigourney, Lydia H.
Smith, Charlotte
Southworth, Emma
Staal, Baronne de
Stael, Mme. de
Steele, Florn Annie
Stein, Charlotte von
Stowe, Harriet Beecher
Strickland, Agnes
Tautphoeus, Baroness
von
Taylor, Ann and Jane
Thaxter, Celia
Tighe, Mary
Tucker, Charlotte
Maria
Ward, Elizabeth Stuart
Phelps
Ward, Mrs. Humphry
Wardlaw, Lady
Wiggin, Kate Douglas
Wilkins, Mary E.
Winchelsea, Countess of
Wood, Mrs. Henry
Wordsworth, Dorothy
Yonge, Charlotte Mary
Although women have appeared on the stage only in the last two centuries
the list of actresses and singers on whom there are articles in the Britannica is a
long one. A partial list in alphabetical order follows:
Abbott, Emma
Abington, Frances
Albani, Mme.
Albert, Mme.
Alboni, Marietta
Anderson, Mary
Ashwell, Lena
Bartet, Jeanne Julia Calve, Emma
Bernhardt, Sarah Cary, Anna Louise
Birch-Pfeiffer, Char- Celeste, Mme.
lotte Chaminade, Cecile
Bracegirdle, Anne Clairon, La
Campbell, Beatrice Clive, Catherine
Stella Coghlan, Rose
Cushman, Charlotte
Despres, Suzanne
Drew, Louisa Lane
Dumesnil, Marie
Duse, Eleanora
Elssler, Fanny
Farren, Elizabeth
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Faucit, Helena
Felix, Lia
Fenton, Lavinia
Fiske, Minnie Maddern
Gilbert, Ann
Grisi, Giulia
Guilbert, Yvelte
Guimard, Marie Made-
leine
Gwyn, Nell
Hading, Jane
Horton, Christiana
Jordan, Dorothea
Keeley, Mary Anne
Kellogg, Clara Louise
Keene, Laura
Klafsky, Katharina
Lacy, Harriette Deb-
orah
Langtry, Lillie
Lecouvreur, Adrienne
Lind, Jenny
Mara, Gertrude E.
Marlowe, Julia
Mars, Mile.
Melba
Menken, Adah Isaacs
Modjeska, Helena
Morris, Clara
Neilson, Adelaide
Nethersole, Olflra
Nisbett, Louisa C.
Nordica, Lilian
Oldfield, Anne
O'Neill, Eliza
Patey, Janet Monach
Philips, Adelaide
Pope, Jane
Porter, Mary
Raabe, Pledwig
Rachel
Raucourt, Mile.
Rehan, Ada
Rejane, Gabrielle
Ristori, Adelaide
Robinson, Mary
Sacher, Rosa
Sainton-Dobly, C. H.
Schrdder, Sophie
Schr5der-D e v r i e n t ,
Wilhelmine
Seebach, Marie
Siddons, Sarah
Smithson, Henrietta l\
Sterling, Antoinette
Sterling, Fanny
Taglioni
Tempest, Marie
Terry, Ellen
Tietjens, Therese
Verbruggen, Susanna
Vestris, Lucia Eliza-
beth
Vincent, Mary Ann
Vokes, Rosina
Woffington, Peg
Yates, Mary Ann
Both in Great Britain and in the United States the great social reform movements
of the last century numbered among their most able advocates brilliant and devoted
women. This is true of temperance, abolition of slavery, prison reform, the treat-
ment of the insane and defectives, and nearly every branch which this Guide has
enumerated, especially in Part 4, where there is a general outline of these reforms.
For the part played by women see the biographies of the women just mentioned and,
among many others, Jane Addams, Clara Barton, Baroness Burdett-Coutts,
Dorothea Ltnde Drx, Emily Faithful, Elizabeth Fry, Octavta and Miranda
Hill, Mary A. Livermore and Lucretla Mott. More particularly the following
list of names of women connected with educational progress will supplement what
has been said in the chapter of this Guide For Teachers and in the part of the Guide
dealing with advances in education and educational problems in the chapter
Questions of the Day:
Astell, Mary Brace, Julia
Beale, Dorothea Bridgman, Laura
Bodichon, Barbara Bass, Frances Mary
L. S. Carpenter, Mary
Clough, Anne Jemima Shirreff, Emily
C rand all, Prudence Swan wick, Anna
Keller, Helen
Lyon, Mary
And see also the articles Co-education and articles on different colleges for
women, e.g., Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Smith, etc. One who wishes to
realize the extent of feminine talent or genius should read the lives in the Britannica
of the sculptor Harriet Hosmer and of women painters including Cecilia Beaux,
Rosa Bonheur, Artemisia Gentileschi, Kate Greenway, Angelica Kauff-
mann, Teresa Schwartze and Mme. Vig£e-Lebrun. But the reader who is eager
rather to know whether woman's intellectual powers — not her talent and her genius —
compare favourably with those of the male, will find material in the biographical
sketches of the physicist Mme. Curie; the geologist Mary Anning; the travelers
Isabella Bird Bishop and Alexandrina Tinn£; the biologists Marianne North
and Eleanor Ormerod; the American ethnologist Alice C. Fletcher; and above
all — since mathematics has always been considered above the capacity of women —
the mathematicians Maria Gaetana Agnesi and Sophie Kovalevsky and the
astronomers Agnes Mary Clerke, Maria Cunitz, Caroline Herschel, Maria
Mitchell and Mary Somerville.
It is pertinent to add that the present 11th edition of the Britannica indicates
the advance of women not only by embodying their collaboration to an unprecedented
extent and devoting an unprecedented amount of its space to biographies of women,
but by the circumstance that it has, to a far larger extent than any previous edition,
been purchased by women.
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Part VI
Readings In Connection With
Recreation and
Vacations
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CHAPTER LXVI
RECREATION AND VACATION
LAYING out your work" is a
familiar phrase, and describes a
common practice. But hardly
one man in a hundred deliberately "lays
out" his play, planning his recreation so
as to get the best value out of every hour
of his leisure time. Yet when he consults
a doctor because his work is not running
smoothly, one of the first questions he
has to answer is about the amount and
form of recreation he takes.
An important branch of the art of
playing is to learn the value of reading
about play. The more a man knows
about any form of
Recreative amusement, the
Reading' about more he will enjoy
Recreation the hours he de-
votes to it, and the
better he will succeed in keeping his
mind off his business during these hours.
But there is another and an even greater
advantage in this kind of reading: it will
take your mind out-of-doors during hours
of leisure that you are compelled to spend
in-doors. Everyone recognizes that out-
door recreations, involving some degree
of bodily activity, are the most whole-
some for men whose work is sedentary,
as is the case with nearly every reader
of this Guide, and the best forms of out-
door recreation are those in which the
contrast with your work is accentuated
by the complete change of scene and
of habits which most men can only
hope to get once a year, at vacation
time.
Turn to the next best form of relaxa-
tion, the out-door amusements that lie
close at hand. Here, again, your oppor-
tunities are limited, for all these pleasures
require daylight, which, during a great
part of the year, ends before your work is
done; and most of them require weather
conditions that you can only get at cer-
tain seasons. An hour spent in reading
and thinking about out-door amuse-
ments and travel, and in making plans
for such delights, even if the planning
must be for a future that seems far away,
is therefore always refreshing.
It is not the purpose of the present
chapter to suggest a course of reading,
in the strict sense of the phrase, for it
cannot be assumed that everyone who
would like to read about lawn-tennis
would also like to read about tarpon-
fishing. But a general account of the
Britannica articles that afford informa-
tion about recreation and vacations will
give the reader a choice among subjects
in which he is already interested and
among others which may offer him new
possibilities.
MOTORING
In connection with motoring, the pos-
sessor of the Britannica will not be sur-
prised to find in it, as might be expected
from its universal comprehensiveness,
much fuller technical information in re-
gard to the structure and operation of
his engine, the fuel he employs, and the
friction and other resistances he must
overcome, than in any of the ordinary
manuals on the subject. But it may not
occur to him that in planning either a
long or a short tour, he can find in the
volumes information of other kinds that
will give added interest and significance
to everything he sees. It is not only
when he crosses the Atlantic for his
motoring trip that cities and villages and
mountains and rivers have stories to
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
tell. In our own country, place-names
which may at first suggest nothing, are
found, on reference to the Britannica, to
be associated with episodes of early ex-
ploration, of Indian hostilities, of local
agitation, of one or another war, with the
lives of famous men, the growth of in-
dustries and of commerce, the first suc-
cess in a new branch of farming, the
early days of railroad and canal con-
struction, or the development of trans-
portation by river, lake or sea. And
what is being done to-day, in these
places, is often quite as interesting, and
quite as difficult to ascertain from any
source rther than the Britannica. This
use of the work as a guide-book, or rather
as doing a great deal that guide-books
lamentably fail to do, is discussed later
in this chapter in connection with travel
in general as a form of recreation;
but motoring gives especial opportuni-
ties for observation enriched by knowl-
edge.
The value of the Britannica in connec-
tion with the planning of a motoring
trip may be illustrated by brief notes on
some of the articles you might read if
you were about to make, for example,
the run from New York through the
Berkshire Hills and on to the White
Mountains. The following information
is all from the Britannica, and from ar-
ticles to which you would naturally turn
in this connection.
A Specimen Tour from New York to the White Mountains
Leaving New York by Broadway,
your first point is Yonkers (Vol. 28, p.
922), where, as the Britannica tells
you, stands " one of the best examples
of colonial architecture in America,"
Philipse Manor Hall, now a museum of
Revolutipnary relics. Frederick Phil-
ipse, owner in 1779 of the Hall and of
an estate extending for some distance
along the bank of the Hudson, was sus-
pected of Toryism, and all his property
was confiscated by act of legislature.
A mile and a half beyond Yonkers you
get a magnificent view of the Hudson,
disclosing the Palisades, of lava rock
(Vol. 18, p. 852) which, in cooling,
formed joints, like those of the Giant's
Causeway in Ireland. The impressive
breadth of the Hudson and its navi-
gability throughout the 151 miles to
Troy, notwithstand-
Along the ing that in all that
Hudson distance it falls only
five feet (a good
many New Yorkers would be amazed
to be told that fact), is due to the low
grade of the river bed, permitting the
tide to enter and to back up the water,
so that this long stretch of the river is
really a fjord, not a stream. The ar-
ticle Fjord (Vol. 10, p. 452) tells you
how such a rock basin or trough is
formed by geological action. The ar-
ticle Henry Hudson (Vol. 13, p.
849) tells you how the great navigator,
himself an Englishman, although em-
ployed by the Dutch East India Com-
pany in 1608 to find a westward route
to China, sailed the little "Half
Moon " as far up the river as Albany
before he was convinced that the
Pacific did not lie ahead of him.
The next point after Yonkers, Dobbs
Ferry (Vol. 8, p. 849), was a strategic
centre of great importance during the
Revolutionary War. " The American
Army under Washington encamped
near Dobbs Ferry on the 4th of July,
1781, and started thence for Yorktown
in the following month," and it was
there that Washington and Governor
Clinton, in 1788, "met General Sir
Guy Carleton to negotiate for the evac-
uation by the British troops of the
posts they still held in the United
States."
In Tarrytown, as the article under
that title (Vol. 26, p. 488) recounts,
Washington Irving, who made the le-
gends of the Hudson immortal, built
his home at " Sun-
Sleepy nyside," and was
Hollow buried in the old
Sleepy Hollow
Cemetery. The article Irving (Vol. 14,
p. 856), by the late Dr. Richard Gar-
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RECREATION AND VACATION
427
nett, the famous literary critic, tells you
all about Irving's life; and Professor
Woodberry of Columbia, in his article
on American Literature (Vol. 1, p.
831), reminds you that, although Irv-
ing spent 21 of his adult years in
Europe, he is the one American writer
who has " linked his memory locally
with his country so that it hangs over
the landscape and blends with it for-
ever." " Kaakoot," one of the large
estates at Tarrytown, recalls the ex-
traordinary career of its owner, de-
scribed in the article John D. Rocke-
feller (Vol. 23, p. 488) ; and " Lynd-
hurst/' that of Jay Gould, of whom
and of whose daughter, the well-known
philanthropist, the Britannica tells in
the article Gould (Vol. 12, p. 284).
On the post road near Tarrytown is the
bronze statue of a Continental soldier,
erected to commemorate the capture of
Major Andre, whose life is told in the
article Andre (Vol. 1, p. 968).
As you mount the hill and leave the
Hudson, you enter the beautiful re-
gion of hills, lake and streams, upon
which the city of New York long
depended for its water; and you
will be interested in comparing what
New. York has accomplished in this
connection with what has been done by
other great cities, as described in the
article Water Supply (Vol. 28, p.
387), by G. F. Deacon. Many of the
large country places you pass are the
property of prominent New York men,
of whom there are biographies in the
Britannica.
Your brief run through the hilly
northwestern corner of Connecticut, of
which the physical features are de-
scribed and the history narrated in the
article Connecticut (Vol. 6, p. 951 ) ;
takes you through Salisbury (Vol. 24,
p. 78), near Bear Mountain (2355
feet), " the highest point in the State."
A few miles more and you cross the
line into Massachusetts and enter the
enchanting region of the - Berkshire
Hills. The article Massachusetts
(Vol. 17, p. 851) says that "the Berk-
shire country — Berkshire, Hampden,
Hampshire and Franklin counties — is
among the most beautiful regions of the
United States. It is a rolling high-
land, dominated by long, wooded hill-
ridges, remarkably even-topped in gen-
eral elevation, intersected and broken
by deep valleys. Scores of charming
lakes lie in the hollows."
Great Barrington (Vol. 12, p.
397) " was a centre of disaffection
during Shays's Rebellion," an episode
for which you may
Great consult the article
Barrington Daniel Shays
(Vol. 24, p. 815),
and the account in the historical section
of the article Massachusetts (Vol. 17,
p. 860). In 1786 Shays was known as
having been " a brave Revolutionary
captain of no special personal impor-
tance." The State finances were in a
bad condition and taxes were heavy.
Mobs of discontented citizens, under
Shays's leadership, assembled to pre-
vent the courts from sitting, so that the
collection of taxes and other debts
might be obstructed. " The insurrec-
tion is regarded as having been very
potent in preparing public opinion
throughout the country for the adop-
tion of a stronger national govern-
ment." William Cullen Bryant
(Vol. 4, p. 698), " earliest of the mas-
ter-poets of America," practiced law at
Great Barrington for nine years.
Leaving Great Barrington, you cross
Monument Mountain (1710 feet) on
your way to Stockbridge (Vol. 25, p.
929) with its fa-
StOCkbridge mous avenue of
elms — perhaps the
most characteristic New England scene
in all the Berkshire country. The con-
spicuous bell-tower was erected by
David Dudley Field (Vol. 10, p.
321), the law reformer, whose proposed
code of laws for the State of New
York was the model on which most
of the existing state codes have been
based. The park was the gift of his
brother, Cyrus W. Field (Vol. 10, p.
820), born at Stockbridge, to whom we
owe the first Atlantic cable. In 1884,
at the age of 15, he became a clerk in
the great New York store described in
the article A. T. Stewart (Vol. 25. p.
912); later embarked in the wholesale
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BRITANNIGA READINGS AND STUDIES
paper business in New York, failed,
formed the firm of Cyrus W. Field &
Co., and in 1858, at the age of 84, had
made a quarter of a million, a large
fortune in those days, paid off the debts
of the paper business, and nominally
retired. From that time he was chiefly
occupied with the cable scheme, of
which the early difficulties are described
in the cable section of the article
Telegraph (Vol. 26, p. 527), although
he operated actively in stocks, was as-
sociated with Jay Gould (Vol. 12, p.
284) in completing the Wabash Rail-
road, and had a controlling interest in
the New York Elevated Railroad, be-
sides being chief proprietor of the New
York Mail and Express.
When, in 1750, Jonathan Edwards
(Vol. 9, p. 8), the famous New Eng-
land theologian, had to leave his church
at Northampton, he became pastor
at Stockbridge and missionary to
the' Housatonic Indians, remaining
there until 1759. It was there that he
wrote his famous treatise on the Free-
dom of the Will. In a cleft on Bear
Mountain, just outside the village, is
the curious Ice Glen, with caverns ice-
lined even in midsummer.
On the road from Stockbridge to
Lenox you pass the beautiful lake
called the Stockbridge Bowl, on the
shore of which Nathaniel Haw-
thorne, in 1851, wrote The House of
the Seven Gables. His reason for
adopting literature as a vocation is
quaintly stated in a letter to his mother
quoted in this Britannica biography.
" I do not want to be a doctor and live
by men's diseases, nor a minister to live
by their sins, nor a lawyer and live by
their quarrels. So I don't see that
there is anything left for me but to
be an author." Lenox (Vol. 16, p.
421) is surrounded by high hills, fa-
mous for their vivid coloring when the
leaves change their hues
Lenox in the fall, Yokun Seat
(2080 feet), South
Mountain (1200 feet), Bald Head
(1588 feet) and Rattlesnake Hill
(1540 feet). " The surrounding region
contains some of the most beautiful
country of the Berkshires — hills, lakes,
charming intervales and woods. As
early as 1885 Lenox began to attract
summer residents. In the next decade
began the creation of large estates, al-
though the great holdings of the pres-
ent day, and the villas scattered over
the hills, are comparatively recent fea-
tures." The township was named af-
ter the third Duke of Richmond and
Lennox (Vol. 28, p. 807), "a firm
supporter of the colonies in the debates
on the policy that led to the War of
American Independence; and he initi-
ated the debate of 1778 calling for the
removal of the troops from America."
Among other names associated with
Lenox and with its famous schools are
those of the actress Frances Kemble
— " Fanny " Kemble (Vol. 15, p. 724) ;
Henry Ward Beecher (Vol. 8, p.
689) ; Harriet Hosmer (Vol. 18, p.
791), the sculptor; Mark Hopkins
(Vol. 18, p. 684), the famous president
of Williams College; Alexander H.
Stephens (Vol. 25, p. 887), vice-presi-
dent of the Confederate States, who,
the article Confederate States of
America (Vol. 6, p. 899), says, was
" during the war a strong antagonist of
President Davis's policy;" and Wil-
liam H. Yancey (Vol. 28, p. 902),
whose fortunes were influenced by a
singular event. A lawyer, and editor
of a little anti-nullification weekly in
South Carolina, he married a wealthy
woman; but a few years later, in 1889,
the accidental poisoning of all the
slaves on the estate forced him to re-
turn to the law; and he subsequently
became one of the political leaders of
the Confederacy.
Pittsfield (Vol. 21, p. 682) is both
a popular resort and a prosperous man-
ufacturing town, with ample water
power supplied by
Pittsfield the east and west
branches of the
Housatonic on either side of it. It
was here that Henry W. Longfellow
(Vol. 16, p. 977) wrote The Old Clock
on the Stairs at "Elm Knoll," the
house of his father-in-law, Nathan
Appleton (Vol. 2, p. 224), a refer-
ence to whose biography in the Britan-
nica discloses the interesting fact that
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RECREATION AND VACATION
429
his son, Thomas Gold Appleton, a fa-
mous wit in his day, originated the
saying, " Good Americans when they
die, go to Paris," which is generally
attributed to Oliver Wendell Holmes.
Just outside Pittsfield lies the village
of the Shakers (Vol. 24, p. 771), the
curious sect founded by Ann Lee,
daughter of a blacksmith in Manches-
ter, England, who came to America
with a small party of her adherents in
1714. The road through Adams (Vol.
1, p. 181), affords a view of Greylock
Mountain (3535 feet), the highest
point in Massachusetts; and at North
Adams (Vol. 19, p. 760), there is a
natural bridge 50-60 feet high across
Hudson Brook; and you can see the
ruins of Fort Massachusetts, captured
in 1746 by the French with the aid of
the Indians. Here is also the western
end of the Hoosac Tunnel, 5% miles
long. The article Tunnels (Vol. 27,
p. 405) says that the piercing of this
tunnel, begun in 1885 and not finished
until 1876, was marked by the first
American use of air drills and nitro-
glycerin; and the article Power
Transmission (Vol. 22, p. 282) de-
scribes the influence which this success-
ful employment of compressed air had
in furthering its use for the noisy
" gun " tools now so familiar.
Williamstown (Vol. 28, p. 685),
the last town in Massachusetts on your
route, is the seat of Williams College;
and the " Hay-
Williamstown stack Monument"
in Mission Park,
stands where the prayer meeting was
held which was the forerunner of
the American foreign missionary
movement described in the article
Missions (Vol. 18, p. 583), which
contains the interesting statement that
in the 8rd century the proportion of
Christians to the whole human race
was one to 150, while it is now one to
three. The article Vermont (Vol.
27, p. 1025) contains an interesting
summary of the early disputes over
state boundaries in this part of New
England.
Bennington (Vol. 8, p. 748) lies
at the foot of the Green Mountains.
near Mt. Anthony (2845 feet). " The
Bennington Bat-
Bennington tie Monument, a
shaft 301 feet
high, is said to be the highest battle
monument in the world. It commemo-
rates the success gained on the 16th of
August, 1777, by a force of nearly
2000 ' Green Mountain Boys ' and
New Hampshire and Massachusetts
militia . . . over two detachments
of General Burgoyne's army," of whom
700 were taken prisoners. The article
American War of Independence
(Vol. 1, p. 842) shows how important
an effect this victory had on Burgoyne's
campaign. In 1825 William Lloyd
Garrison (Vol. 11, p. 477), the anti-
slavery leader, edited a paper at Ben-
nington, leaving it when Benjamin
Lundy (Vol. 17, p. 124), the Quaker
abolitionist, determined to secure Gar-
rison's co-operation on a Baltimore
abolitionist magazine, " walked through
the ice and snow of a New England
winter from Boston to Bennington, 125
miles," and persuaded Garrison to join
him. Bennington was the home of
Ethan Allen (Vol. 1, p. 691), the
frontier hero who led the " Green
Mountain Boys " and of Seth Warner
(Vol. 28, p. 827), who subsequently
became their colonel.
On leaving Bennington you can
choose any one of several routes to
bring you over to the Connecticut
River, but, whichever you take, you
will be fairly on the main route to the
White Mountains (by which you would
have gone from New York through
Waterbury, Springfield and Greenfield
if you had not included the Berkshires
in your itinerary) when
Hanover you reach Hanover, N.
H. (Vol. 12, p. 927).
Here, " ranges of rugged hills, broken
by deep, narrow gorges and by the
wider valley of Mink Brook, rise near
the river and culminate in Moose
Mountain, 2826 feet above the sea."
Near the foot of that peak is the birth-
place of Laura D. Bridoman (Vol. 4,
p. 559), the first blind deaf-mute to be
successfully educated. Dr. S. G« Howe
(Vol. 18, p. 887), who was head of the
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Perkins Institute for the Blind in Bos-
ton, heard of her case in 1837, took
charge of her in October of that year,
and by June, 1840, at eleven years of
age, her mind had become as well de-
veloped as that of a normal child of
her age. Charles Dickens saw her
when he was in America in 1842, and
his account of her case led to the in-
troduction in England, and afterwards
in all parts of Europe, of the Howe
system of training.
The attractions which Hanover owes
to its picturesque site are enhanced by
the fine buildings and the notably beau-
tiful campus of Dartmouth College
(Vol. 7, p. 8«8). The purpose for
which this college was originally
founded is quaintly expressed in its
charter, granted by George III in
1769. See the article on Indians,
North American (Vol. 14, p. 452).
This document ordains " that there
be a college erected in our Prov-
ince of New Hampshire by the name
of Dartmouth
Dartmouth College, for the
College education and in-
struction of youth
of the Indian Tribes in this Land in
reading, writing and all parts of
Learning which shall appear necessary
and expedient for civilizing and chris-
tianizing children of pagans . . .
and also of English youth and any
other."
With the name of Dartmouth Col-
lege will always be associated that of
Daniel Webster (Vol. 28, p. 460),
not only because he was graduated
there in 1801, but because the famous
" Dartmouth College case," in which
Webster appeared for the college be-
fore the United States Supreme Court,
was the first in which that august tri-
bunal fully asserted its power to sup-
port the Federal constitution by nulli-
fying any usurpatory statutes passed
by state legislatures.
When you turn away from the Con-
necticut River to go up the valley of
the Ammonoosuc, you are fairly in the
White Mountain region, which the Bri-
tannica (Vol. 19, p. 490) describes in
part as follows:
"The White Mountains, a continuation
of the Appalachian system, rise very
abruptly in several short ranges and in
outlying mountain
TVm WViit-a masses from a base
ine nniie level of 700 _ 1600 ft to
Mountains generally rounded sum-
mits, the heights of sev-
eral of which are nowhere exceeded in the
eastern part of the United States except
in the Black and the Unaka mountains of
North Carolina; seventy- four rise more
than 8000 ft above the sea, twelve more
than 5000 ft., and the highest, Mount
Washington, attains an elevation of 6293 ft.
The principal ranges, the Presidential,
the Franconia and the Carter-Moriah, have
a north-eastern and south-western trend.
The Presidential, in the north-eastern part
of the region, is separated from the Fran-
conia on the south-west by the Crawford,
or White Mountain Notch, about 2000 ft.
in depth, in which the Ammonoosuc and
Saco rivers find a passage, and from the
Carter-Moriah, parallel to it on the east,
by the Glen-Ellis and Peabody rivers, the
former noted for its beautiful falls. On
the Presidential range, which is about 20
m. in length, are Mount Washington and
nine other peaks exceeding 5000 ft. in
height: Mount Adams, 6805 ft.; Mount Jef-
ferson, 5725 ft.; Mount Sam Adams, 5585
ft.; Mount Clay, 5554 ft; Boot Spur, 5520
ft.; Mount Monroe, 5390 ft.; J. Q. Adams
Peak, 5384 ft.; Mount Madison, 5380 ft.;
and Mount Franklin, 5028 ft. On the
Franconia, a much shorter range, are
Mount Lafayette, 5269 ft.; Mount Lincoln,
6098 ft.; and four others exceeding 4000 ft.
The highest peak on the Carter-Moriah
range is Carter Dome, 4860 ft., but seven
others exceed 4000 ft. Loftiest of the iso-
lated mountains is Moosilauke noted for
its magnificent view-.point, 4810 ft. above
the sea. Separating Franconia and Pemi-
gewasset ranges is the romantic Franconia
Notch, overlooking which from the upper
cliffs of Profile Mountain is a remarkable
human profile, The Great Stove Face, im-
mortalized by Nathaniel Hawthorne; here,
too, is the Franconia Flume, a narrow up-
right fissure, 60 ft in height, with beautiful
waterfalls.
The whole White Mountain region
abounds in deep narrow valleys, romantic
glens, ravines, flumes, waterfalls, brooks
and lakes. . . . The headwaters of the
rivers are for the most part mountain
streams or elevated lakes; farther on their
swift and winding currents — flowing some-
times between wide intervales, sometimes
between rocky banks — are marked by nu-
merous falls and fed by lakes.
The lakes and ponds, numbering several
hundred, were formed by glacial action
and the scenery of many of them is scarcely
less attractive than that of the mountains.
The largest and most widely known is Lake
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Winnepesaukee on the S. border of the
White Mountain region; this is about 20
m. long and from 1 to 8 m. wide, is dotted
by 274 islands, mostly verdant, and has
clear water and a rather level shore, back
of which hills or mountains rise on all sides.
Among the more prominent of many others
that are admired for their beauty are
Squam, New Found, Sunapee and Ossipee,
all within a radius of a few miles from
Winnepesaukee; Massabesic farther S.;
and Diamond Ponds, Umbagog and Con-
necticut lakes, N. of the White Mountains.
The rivers with their numerous falls and
the lakes with their high altitudes furnish
a vast amount of water power for manu-
facturing, the Merrimac, in particular, into
which many of the larger lakes, including
Winnepesaukee, find an outlet, is one of
the greatest power-yielding streams of the
world."
After exploring the country thus de-
scribed in the Britannica, you can take
for your return trip to New York, the
route by Portland, Me., that by Lake
Winnepesaukee and Portsmouth, or, that
by Plymouth and Manchester, N. H.
By any of these ways, you will visit Bos-
ton, and its famous suburbs, Concord,
Lexington, Brookline, Salem and Marble-
head, whose historical and literary
associations are fully described in the
Britannica.
The article Motor Vehicles (Vol. 18,
p. 914), with 37 illustrations, is by the
late C. S. Rolls, the famous builder and
driver of motor cars,
Automobiles with a special sec-
tion on commercial
vehicles, by Edward Shrapnell Smith,
editor of The Commercial Motor. The
story of the development of the car, told
at the beginning of the article, is full of
human interest, for it shows how na-
tional characteristics affect industries.
From 1802, when Richard Trevithick
built, in England, the first practical road
carriage, until 1885, all the most prom-
ising efforts to further mechanical road
traffic were made by English inventors.
As early as 1824 there was a regular
motor-omnibus service between Chelten-
ham and Gloucester, at a speed that
sometimes (perhaps down a hill) reached
14 miles an hour; and if inventors had
been encouraged, the effort to lighten
road engines would have produced the
tubular boiler long before it actually ap-
peared. But the influence of the land-
owning, horse-breeding, horse-loving Eng-
lish aristocracy was too strong, and one
act of Parliament after another imposed
destructive restrictions, culminating in
the law passed in 1865, making 4 miles
an hour the maximum speed, and re-
quiring that a man showing a red flag
should march ahead of the engine! Of
course this drove every engine off the
road except a steam roller or the heaviest
type of traction engine. In 1885 Daimler
invented the internal combustion engine,
and for a moment Germany seemed likely
to lead the world. But Daimler failed to
hit upon a satisfactory system of trans-
mission, and although his engine worked
well in motor boats, the risk of starting a
car on the road was too great. His boat,
shown at the Paris Exposition of 1887,
attracted the attention of the French
firm of Panhard & Levassor, makers of
wood-working machinery. They bought
the French rights, and Levassor devised
the clutch, the gear-box and the whole
system of connecting the engine with its
work, which, save for improvements in
detail, are all in use to-day. In 1895 the
French car which won the race from Paris
to Bordeaux covered the 744 miles at a
mean speed of 15 miles an hour, and the
world realized that the motor car was a
practical means of transportation. But
it was not until 1896 that the English
parliament gave cars the freedom of the
roads, and that English manufacturers
could see a future for themselves.
In the United States, the industry be-
gan under great difficulties. The roads,
except in the immediate outskirts of the
larger cities, were abominable, and no
system of suspension that could make
them tolerable had yet been discovered.
But though starting late, by 1906 the
United States overtook and passed
France, becoming the foremost car build-
ing and car using nation of the world.
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
Nowhere else are factories worked upon
so large a scale, and nowhere else are
really serviceable cars so light and so
cheap. And the greatest recent improve-
ment in the gasolene engine, the Knight
sleeve-valve, is an American invention.
It is, altogether, a curious story, this
struggle in which England, Germany
and France, one after another, seemed
destined to attain the leadership
which in the end fell to the United
States.
Turning to the subsidiary articles
which relate to motoring, the gasolene
engine is elaborately discussed in Oil
Engine (Vol. 20, p. 35), by Dugald Clerk,
an expert engineer and himself the in-
ventor of the Clerk cycle engine. This
article shows how complete a change
in engineering practice was effected in
1883, when it was demonstrated that
small engines could be run at a thousand
revolutions a minute, a speed four times
as great as any previously contemplated.
All the types of carburetter are described,
with mechanical diagrams. Other diag-
rams show the action of the inner and
outer sleeves of the Knight valves.
Gasolene, and the experiments made in
search of a less costly fuel, are dealt with
in the article Fuel (Vol. 11, p. 274), by
Prof. Georg Lunge, of the Zurich Poly-
technic, the greatest of all authorities on
the subject. Tires, the bugbear of every
car-owner, form the subject of a separate
article Tire (Vol. 26, p. 1006), by Archi-
bald Sharp, which contains a number of
curious and instructive diagrams showing
the direction of the stress on a tire at the
point where the road slightly flattens it.
Rubber (Vol. 23, p. 795), by W. K.
Duns tan, president of the International
Association of Tropical Agriculture, is
well worth reading for its information as
to the effect upon tires of exposure to air
and light, apart from wear. The mater-
ials used, and the mechanical principles
involved, in the construction of cars are
discussed in a number of separate articles
under obvious titles.
PHOTOGRAPHY
A large place, in any review of recrea-
tions, must be given to photography,
which, even in its most elementary form,
provides a record and an echo of an in-
finite variety of amusements, and, after
a little study, not only does this all the
better, but becomes a delightful art in
itself, to be enjoyed in-doors as well as
out-doors, at all hours and at all seasons.
The amateur can find no more authorita-
tive, full and yet concise manual of the
subject than the Britannica article Pho-
tography (Vol. 21, p. 485), equivalent to
about 125 pages of this Guide. The first
section on History and Technique is by
Sir William de Wiveleslie Abney, author
of Instruction in Photography, Colour
Vision, etc. Next is a section on photo-
graphic apparatus by Major-Gen. James
Waterhouse, whose photographic work
in India is known throughout the world.
And then comes a discussion of pictorial
photography by A. Horsley Hinton, au-
thor of Practical Pictorixd Photography.
The following is an outline of the article:
History. — Eighteenth century ex-
periments of Scheele, Senebier and
Count Rumford. Early 19th century
discoveries. The Daguerreotype and
its improvements by Goddard, Claudet
and Fizeau. The Fox-Talbot process.
Albumen process on glass. Collodion
process. Positive pictures by the col-
lodion process. Moist collodion proc-
ess. Dry-plates; alkaline developers
with formulae for some of the most ef-
fective; developers of organic salts of
iron; developer restrainers. Dry-plate
bath process of R. Manners Gordon,
with formula for preservative. Collo-
dion emulsion processes — work of Bol-
ton and Sayce and of M. C. Lea and
W. Cooper; Bolton's modification; Col.
Wortley introduces strongly alkaline
developer. Formula for alkaline de-
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veloper for collodion plates. Gelatin
emulsion process — Maddoz (1871),
King (1873), Burgess (1878), Stas
(1874), Bennett (1878), Abney
(1879), van Monckhoven (1879) and
his use of hydrobromic acid on silver
carbonate with ammonia. Heating the
emulsion — Wortley (1879), Mansfield
(1879).
Relative rapidities of the processes
described.
Daguerreotype, 1 Half an hour's
originally, / exposure.
Calotype 9 or 3 minutes' "
Collodion 10 seconds' "
Collodion emulsion 15 seconds' "
Rapid gelatin emulsion. .1/15 second "
The second part of the article deals
with the technique of photography. The
major topics in it are:
Gelatin emulsions: formulae and di-
rections for emulsion with and without
ammonia. Coating the plates. Expos-
ure. Development, with formula for
alkaline developer. Intensifying and
varnishing the negative.
Printing processes. Albumen method
of Fox-Talbot. Sensitizing bath. Ton-
ing and fixing the print — formulae
for toning-bath. Collodio-chloride silver
printing process: Simpson's formula.
Gelatino-citrochloride emulsion : Ab-
ney 's formula. Printing with uranium
salts: an early formula. Self-toning
papers. Printing with chromates: car-
bon prints — work of Ponton, Becquerel,
Dixon, Fox-Talbot, Poitevin, Pouncey,
Fargier, Swan, Johnson and Sawyer.
Printing with salts of iron. Photo-me-
chanical printing processes: discoveries
of Oreloth, de Motay, Marechal and
Albert ; " Lichtdruck " and heliotype.
Woodbury type. Photo-lithography :
the work of E. J. Asser, J. W. Osborne
and Sir H. James.
Photographs in natural colours are
next described, and their history is
traced from 1810 when Seebeck of Jena
made experiments described in Goethe's
famous work on Colours. The first suc-
cessful colour photography was by * Bee-
querel in 1848 on a daguerreotype plate,
chlorinized. The later methods of Lipp-
mann and Lumi&re, respectively, with
collodion dry plates prepared with albu-
men and with dyed gelatin plates (ortho-
chromatic), produce pictures in which
the colours show only from an angle.
The section on the Action of Light on
Chemical Compounds, with a plate show-
ing spectra and graduation scales, con-
tains valuable diagrams and a chrono-
logical table of observers of the action of
light on different substances. The para-
graphs of particular interest to the prac-
tical photographer are those on:
Measurement of the Rapidity of a
Plate.
Effect of Temperature on Sensitive-
ness.
Effect of Small Intensities of Light
on a Sensitive Salt.
Effect of Very Intense Light on a
Sensitive Salt
Intermittent Exposure of a Sensitive
Salt.
Effect of Monochromatic Light of
Varying Wave-Lengths on a Sensitive
Salt.
Reproduction of Coloured Objects
by 8 Photographic Positives: Ives*
process; Joly's process; Autochrome
of Lumiere; Positives in 8 Colours.
Another division (equivalent to 60
pages at least in this Guide) of the ar-
ticle is on Apparatus. It deals especially
with the hand camera as developed from
1855 to 1888 when the Eastman Kodak
came out. And it has separate para-
graphs on Focusing; Plate-holders or
Dark-slides (1 illustration); Studio cam-
eras; Portable and Field cameras; Hand
cameras (7 illustrations); Twin-lens and
Reflex cameras (2 illustrations); Panor-
amic cameras (fc illustrations); 3 Colour
cameras (1 illustration); Enlarging cam-
eras and cinematographs.
A separate section deals with objec-
tives, and contains 45 illustrations, giv-
ing special attention to: single achromatic
(landscape) lens, including aplanatic; un-
symmetrical doublets; symmetrical doub-
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
lets; triple combinations; anastigmatic
combinations; telephotographic objec-
tives; anacbromatic lenses; diaphragm
apertures.
Then follows a discussion of instanta-
neous shutters (with 9 illustrations) and
a discussion under "lateral" and "cen-
tral" of flap, drop, drop and flap, rotary,
roller blind, focal plane, moving blade,
central and iris shutters.
Exposure meters (4 illustrations) with a
discussion of the actinic power of light;
sensitive plates, films and papers: sensi-
tive dry plates, plates for colour photo-
graphy, celluloid films, photographic
printing papers, apparatus for develop-
ment (with 4 illustrations); photographic
printing apparatus; bibliography.
The last division of this great article is
on Pictorial Photography, and this is il-
lustrated by three full-page plates. It
deals not merely with portrait photog-
raphy but with "artistic" landscape
work, and combination printing, which
"is really what many of us practiced in
the nursery, that is, cutting out figures
and pasting them into white spaces left
for that purpose in the picture book."
In addition to this comprehensive
treatise, in itself a complete manual of
photography, there are other articles
which will be useful to the advanced
amateur who desires either to study the
scientific aspects of the subject or to
undertake the reproduction of his work
by processes other than the ordinary
printing. The production of chemical
changes by the action of light are dis-
cussed in Photochemistry (Vol. 21, p.
484). Lens (Vol. 16, p. 421) is by Dr.
Otto Henker, of the staff of the Zeiss
factory at Jena, Germany. Aberration
(Vol. 1, p. 54) is by Dr. Eppenstein, an-
other expert of the same establishment.
The making of blocks from your own
negatives is covered by the article Pro-
cess (Vol. 22, p. 408), by Edwin Bale, art
director of Cassell & Co., and contains
coloured plates showing the stages of
superimposed printing. Sun Copying
(Vol. 26, p. 93), by F. Vincent Brooks, a
practical printer, describes direct-con-
tact printing without the use of a
camera.
OUT-DOOR GAMES
The authority which is back of the
articles in the Britannica and the fact
that its articles are on a larger scale than
those of other works of reference make
its articles on sports and games singularly
valuable. The reader who is interested in
Football, for instance, will find an ar-
ticle (Vol. 10, p. 617), of more than 12,000
words, part of it written by Walter Camp,
the famous American expert. It includes
a historical sketch; a description of the
Rugby Union game by Charles James
Nicol Fleming, inspector in the Scotch
Education Department, and Charles John
Bruce Marriott, secretary of the Rugby
Football Union; of the Association game,
by Charles William Alcock, late secretary
of the Football Association, London, and
Frederick Joseph Wall, secretary of the
Football Association; and of the game in
the United States, by Walter Camp and
Edward Breck. The article Golf is by
H. G. Hutchinson, amateur golf cham-
pion in 1886-87, and author of Golf, Book
of Golf and Golfers, etc. In the same way
there are authoritative and full articles
on the following subjects:
Athletic Sports
Children's Games
Acrobat
Circus
All-Round Athletics
Cricket
Amateur
Croquet
Archery
Cycling
Ball
Discus
Base-ball
Football
Battledore and Shuttle- Game
cock Games, Classical
Botori Golf
Bowls Gymkhana
Boxing Hammer Throwing
Bull-fighting Hurdle-Racing
Caber-Tossing Jumping
Caestus Kite-Flying
Camping-Out Lacrosse
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RECREATION AND VACATION
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Lawn-Tennis
Long Fives
Marbles
Matador
Palaestra
Pail-Mall
Pallone
Pelota
Pigeon Flying
Pole Vaulting
Potato Race
Pugilism
Pushball
Putting the Shot
Quarter Staff
Quintain
Quoits
Rackets
Ringgoal
Rounders
Rowing
Running
Scull
Skittles
Sport
Stadium
Stool-Ball
Swimming
Toreador
Tournament
Tug-of-War
Walking-Races
Water Polo
Weight-Throwing
And among active indoor games on
which the Britannica contains articles,
are Fencing, Cane Fencing, Ep£e-de-
Combat, Foil-Fencing, Sabre-Fencing,
Single-Stick, Basket Ball, Badminton,
Bowling, Tennis, Sticks, Fives, Long
Fives, Roller-Skating, Squails, Shuf-
fle-Board, Trapeze, Wrestling.
The distinction between games and
athletic sports is an arbitrary one, and the
articles on athletics have been included
in the list of those
AthletiC8 on out-door games;
but a few of them
seem to call for special mention. The ar-
ticle Athletic Sports (Vol. 2, p. 846)
gives a general account of amateur asso-
ciations and of national and international
meetings; and contains a special section
on the revived Olympic Games. Athlete
(Vol. £, p. 846) and Games, Classical
(Vol. 11, p. 44S) deal with the ancient
Greek and Roman contests. All-Round
Athletics (Vol. 1, p. 709) describes the
championship, instituted in this country,
for the highest awards attained by one
athlete in eleven different branches of
sport. Amateur (Vol. 1, p. 782) is a
very full and impartial discussion of the
interminable controversies regarding the
distinction between professionals and
amateurs. Among the articles on special
sports are Running (Vol. 23, p. 853),
dealing with every form of race from the
100-yard dash to the Marathon run;
Hurdle-Racing (Vol. 13, p. 958); Jump-
ing (Vol. 15, p. 533); Pole Vaulting
(Vol. 21, p. 977); Weight-Throwing
(Vol. 28, p.494); Putting the Shot (Vol.
22, p. 672); Hammer Throwing (Vol. 12,
p. 899); Caber-Tossing (Vol. 4, p. 917);
Discus (Vol. 8, p. 312);andTucw)F-WAR
(Vol. 27, p. 365).
The reader interested in hunting will
turn first to the articles on sporting
weapons. Gun (Vol. 12, p. 717), by Sir
Henry Seton Karr,
Hunting one of the world's
most famous big
game shots, describes the modern shot
gun in great detail, with full particulars
as to barrels, locks and ejectors. Rifle
(Vol. 23, p. 325) of course includes full
descriptions of the military rifles of all
armies, and the sections on sporting
rifles and target rifles (p. 334) are by the
contributor of the article on shot guns
just mentioned. Pistol (Vol. 21, p. 654)
gives a full account of the modern auto-
matic pistol, with diagrams showing the
mechanism of the Mauser and Colt types.
A useful table shows the length-over-all,
barrel-length, weight and composition of
cartridges, of the eleven standard types
of Colt and Smith & Wesson revolvers.
Ammunition (Vol. 1, p. 864) deals with
the cartridges used for guns, rifles and
pistols. The "propellants" employed are
discussed in Gunpowder (Vol. 12, p.
723), by Prof. Hodgkinson; Explosives
(Vol. 10, p. 81); and Cordite (Vol. 7, p.
139). Shooting (Vol. 24, p. 995), by
Percy Stephens, deals with the pursuit of
birds, ground game and big game in all
parts of the world. Among the varieties
of American big game mentioned are the
huge grizzlies of Alaska, the wapiti,
moose, caribou, antelope, big horn and
puma or mountain lion. The section on
the hunter's personal equipment con-
tains excellent practical hints as to out-
fit. Among other articles of interest in
this connection are Bird (Vol. 3, p. 959),
by Prof. Hans Gadow; Rabbit (Vol. 22,
p. 767), by Sir William Flower and Rich-
ard Lyddeker; Deer (Vol. 7, p. 923);
Antelope (Vol. 2, p. 89); Elk (Vol. 9,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
p. 290); Bear (Vol. 3, p. 573); Puma
(Vol. 22, p. 644); and Carnivora (Vol. 5,
p. 366). There is a separate article on
Pigeon Shooting (Vol. 21, p. 597). On
each species of African and Asiatic big
game there is an elaborate article. The
dogs used in sports of all kinds are de-
scribed in the article Dog (Vol. 8, p. 374),
by Walter Baxendale, kennel editor of
the London Field, and Prof. Chalmers
Mitchell, with five full-page plates.
Riding to hounds, including fox-hunt-
ing, stag-hunting, hare-hunting and the
drag hunt, is covered by the article Hunt-
ing (Vol. 13, p. 946), by A. E. T. Watson,
editor of the Badminton Library. Other
forms of the chase are dealt with in
Coursing (Vol. 7, p. 321) and Falconry
(Vol. 19, p. 141), by Lieut.-Col. DelmS
Radcliffe.
The key article on line fishing is Ang-
ling (Vol. 2, p. 21), in length equivalent
to 35 pages of this Guide. It begins with
a most interesting
Fishing historical section,
showing that, before
the days of the earliest hooks, the cave-
men used on their lines a little flake of
flint or strip of stone, fixed in the bait,
with a groove in the middle of it, around
which the line was so fastened that when
the pull came the instrument turned
crossways in the fish's stomach and could
not be disgorged. A delightful section on
angling literature follows this historical
matter; and then comes treatment of
fresh water fishing, with fly-casting and
the use of surface baits; live-baiting and
spinning; and bottom-fishing; each of the
three fully treated. A detailed study is
then made of the habits of the salmon
and of the tackle and methods devised
for his beguiling. Trout, muskelunge,
bass, perch and roach are successively
discussed; and then comes the section on
sea-angling, the tarpon, tuna, jewfish
and the giant black bass. The article
ends with a complete bibliography of
the subject. There are 96 articles on in-
dividual fish, all listed on p. 891 of Vol.
29, if the reader desires to refresh his
memory as to the varieties. Fisheries
(Vol. 10, p. 429), by Prof. Garstang and
Prof. Chalmers Mitchell is concerned
with the industry rather than with sport,
but it contains much information about
sea fish which will be of use to the sea-
angler.
A thoroughly practical article is Taxi-
dermy (Vol. 26, p. 464), by Montague
Browne, author of a manual of the art.
His book and Dr.
Taxidermy W. T. Hornaday's
Taxidermy and Zoo-
logical Collecting are the most import-
ant special books on the subject, and
Mr. Browne in this article constantly
refers to the improved methods intro-
duced by Hornaday and other Amer-
icans. He points out the dangers of using
arsenical soap and gives the formula for
the substitute, quite safe except when
hot, which he himself invented. Minute
directions are given for skinning, mount-
ing, etc. And the article also treats of
the advantages of modelling as com-
pared with the old method of "stuff-
ing"; and the placing of specimens in
natural surroundings, with panoramic
back-grounds, top- and side-lighting, etc.
On sailing, boating and kindred sub-
jects the reader should first consult the
article Yachting (Vol. 28, p. 890),
equivalent to 26
Sailing and pages of this Guide,
Boating by B. Heckstall-
Smith, yachting ed-
itor the Field, and secretary of the Yacht
Racing Association and of the Interna-
tional Yacht Racing Union. The his-
torical part of this article traces yachting
in England back to the state-barges of
the Anglo-Saxon kings and through the
pleasure ship of Elizabeth (1588), which
was built at Cowes in the Isle of Wight,
so that this place has been associated
with the sport for more than three cen-
turies. Charles II in 1660 received the
present of a yacht from the Dutch, and
at this time the Dutch word "yacht" first
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RECREATION AND VACATION
457
found its way into the English language.
Yachting clubs date from the establish-
ment in 1720 of the Cork Harbour Water
Club, now the Royal Cork Yacht Club.
At Cowes races were sailed as early -as
1780 and a yacht club was organized
there in 1812. The first yacht club in
the United States was fc>rmed in 1844
and the first race in the United States
was at New York in 1846 to Sandy Hook
light-ship and back. The first important
alteration in type was in 1848 when the
"Mosquito" was built — a 50-ton vessel,
59 ft. 2 in. at water line, 15 ft. 3 in. beam,
with a long hollow bow and a short and
rather full after-body. The first races in
the United States resulted in the building
of the "America," which in 1851 crossed
the ocean and won a race round the Isle
of Wight, bringing back to the New York
Yacht Club the "America's" cup. The
later races for this cup are described in
detail at the close of the article, with
elaborate tables showing the exact ton-
nage or sailing length of competing
yachts, dates of races, time allowance,
elapsed time, corrected time, and margin
by which each race was won. The article
describes 1870-1880 as the first great era
of yachting. Changes in the method of
reckoning length, introduced in 1879, re-
sulted in the "lead mine" or plank-on-
edge type. In 1887 the system of ton-
nage measurement was introduced and a
method of rating by water-line length
and sail area — and this "crushed the
plank-on-edge type completely. There
was not another boat of the kind built."
The era of big cutters followed — in Amer-
ica notably the Herreshoff boats. The
success of the bulb keels in the small
classes threatened the use of "skimming
dishes" in the larger classes — and a con-
sequent lack of head room and cabin
accommodation. New linear rating rules
were therefore adopted — one in 1896 and
another in 1901, followed in 1904 by in-
ternational rating rules. The English
types of Fife and Nicholson were suc-
ceeded by such boats from the Krupp
yard at Kiel as the "Meteor" and "Ger-
mania." See also the article Model
Yachting (Vol. 18, p. 640).
Other articles on the subject of boating
are Canoe (Vol. 5, p. 189); MacGregor,
John (Vol. 17, p. 232) (for the famous
"Rob Roy"); Catamaran (Vol. 5, p.
502); and Rowing (Vol. 28, p. 783), by
Charles Murray Pitman, formerly stroke
of the Oxford University eight, with a
special treatment of rowing in the United
States and a comparison of English and
American "styles." The articles Swim-
ming (Vol. 26, p. 231) by William Henry,
author of Swimming in the Badminton
Library, and Drowning and Life
Saving (Vol. 8, p. 592) are of practical
value.
The article Mountaineering (Vol.
18, p. 937) is by Sir W. Martin Conway,
famous for his ascent to a height of
23,000 feet in the
Mountaineering Kara Eoram Hima-
layas, for the High
Level route through the Alps which he
originated, and for his climbs in Spits-
bergen. It contains paragraphs on the
dangers from falling rocks, falling ice,
snow avalanches, falls from rocks, ice
slopes, crevasses, and weather; and an
outline of history of the sport, which has
been systematically pursued only since
1854. Glacier (Vol. 12, p. 60), by E.
C. Spicer is another article of great in-
terest to those who love climbing.
Among the articles on individual moun-
tains and on the great ranges, the first
place must be given to the scene of the
classic exploits of the early mountaineers.
The relevant part of the article Alps
(Vol. 1, p. 737) is by W. A. B. Coolidge
who, although an American by birth, is
more at home in the Alps than any other
living writer. This magnificent article,
which would fill nearly 40 pages of this
Guide l contains a table giving the heights
of no less than 1,317 separate peaks and
passes, and also a consecutive narrative
of Alpine exploration. Himalaya (Vol.
13, p. 470) is by Sir Thomas H. Holdich,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
superintendent of Frontier Surveys in
India. The best mountaineering section
of the Rockies is described in a section of
the article Canada (Vol. 4, p. 145).
Andes (Vol. 1, p. 960) describes the peaks
of the Southern Cordillera. Full articles
on the mountaineering sections of our
own country, such as the Appalachians,
the Adirondacks, the Catskills and White
Mountains will be found under the
obvious titles.
Skating (Vol. 25, p. 166) deals with
both speed skating and figure skating,
and tells of the exploits at Newburgh,
N. Y., of Charles
Winter Sports June and of the fa-
mous Donoghue
family. A table of amateur records is
also given. Ice hockey is treated in a
section of the article Hockey (Vol. 13, p.
554). Curling (Vol. 7, p. 645) describes
the "rink" and stones, as well as the
game, and contains a glossary of tech-
nical terms. Ice Yachting (Vol. 14, p.
241) explains the mechanical paradox
which makes it possible for a boat pro-
pelled by the wind to move faster than
the wind is blowing. Ski-running and
jumping, with the new development of
military skiing in France and Italy, are
described in Ski (Vol. 25, p. 186); and it
will surprise many readers to learn that
a clear jump of more than 130 feet has
been made. Other articles dealing with
winter sports are Snowshoes (Vol. 22,
p. 296), Coasting (Vol. 6, p. 60S) and
Toboganning (Vol. 26, p. 1042).
For information in regard to sports
connected with the horse the reader
should first study the article Horse and
particularly that part
Driving, Riding which concerns the
and Polo history of horse
breeding (pp 717-
723 of Vol. 18), written by E. D. Brick-
wood, an English authority on sport, and
the sections on "breeds of horses" by the
late William Fream, agricultural corre-
spondent of the London Times, and Prof.
Bobert Wallace, of Edinburgh Univer-
sity, who also wrote the section on man-
agement.
Horse-Racing (Vol. 13, p. 726) con-
tains a section on racing in the United
States, including the development of
trotting races and the stress put upon
time records, pacing races, racing cen-
tres, the predominance of dirt-tracks as
contrasted with the turf courses of Eng-
land; a section on the history of English
racing, including the institution of the
St. Leger, the Derby, the Oaks, the Ascot
races, the Goodwood, Two Thousand
Guineas, etc., present conditions, includ-
ing classic races, handicaps, with scale
of weight for age, the £10,000 races, the
two-year-old races, Newmarket, Ascot
and other meetings, value of horses,
trainers and jockeys, foreign horses, time,
the Jockey Club and steeple-chasing, the
Grand National; a section on racing in
Australia; a section on racing in France,
where, as in England, American owners
and jockeys have for some years past
been much to the front; and also a men-
tion of the chief meetings in other Euro-
pean countries and in Australia. Horse-
manship (Vol. 13, p. 726) is chiefly con-
cerned with exhibition riding. Driving
(Vol. 8, p. 585), by R. J. McNeill, dis-
cusses the intricacies of tandem and four-
in-hand coachmanship, and contains a
section on the use of the whip. The im-
portance of acquiring a light hand, and
the extent to which this depends on the
proper use of the three joints in the arm,
are clearly explained. Coach (Vol. 6, p.
574) tells about the amateur road coach
and the four-in-hand clubs in America
and elsewhere. The coaching horn or
"post-horn," as it used to be called, is
treated under Horn (Vol. 13, p. 697) by
Kathleen Schlesinger, the great authority
on musical instruments. Carriage (Vol.
5, p. 401), by J. A. McNaught, notes
that, although the buggy and rockaway
are the characteristic pleasure vehicles of
this country, the heavier dog-cart and
ralli-cart are much used with horses of a
certain type.
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The article Polo (Vol. 22, p. 11), by
Thomas F. Dale, steward of the Polo
and Riding Pony Society, describes the
twelve varieties of the game played dur-
ing its existence of at least 2,000 years.
The three modern forms are the Indian,
the English and the American, the game
in England dating from 1869 when it was
introduced from India by the 10th Hus-
sars — and more definitely from 1878
when it was adopted by the Hurlingham
Club. The rules of the game are given,
and its development is traced, and there
is a section on the polo pony and the
much discussed systems of measure-
ment.
Out-door recreation in the garden may
be fully studied in the article Horti-
culture (Vol. 13, p. 741), which is a
book in itself, for
Gardening its contents are the
equivalent of about
140 pages of this Guide. It is written by
Liberty Hyde Bailey, director of the
College of Agriculture, Cornell University,
who contributes a valuable gardeners'
calendar for the United States, M. T.
Masters, editor of Gardeners 9 Chronicle*
and W. R. Williams, superintendent of
the London County Council Botany
Centre, who write on "principles"; and
John Weathers, author of Practical Guide
to Garden Plants, who writes on the
"practice" of gardening. The following
is a partial list of the topics treated in
this article:
Roots, Root-Pruning and Lifting,
Watering, Bottom-Heat ; Stem ; Leaves ;
Buds; Propagation by Buds; Layer-
ing; Grafting or "Working"; Plant-
ing; Pruning; Training; Sports or Bud
Variations; Formation of Flowers;
Forcing; Retardation; Double Flowers;
Formation of Seed, Fertilization, Hy-
bridization, Reversion, Germination,
Selection — all to be supplemented by
the article Botany (Vol. 4, p. 299)
for more scientific and less practical
discussion of these topics.
The Practice of Horticulture.
Formation and Preparation of the
Garden — Site, Soil, Subsoil, Shelter,
Water Supply, Fence, Walks, Edgings.
Garden Structures — Walls, Espalier
Rails and other means of training;
Plant Houses (with 12 illustrations),
including Conservatory, Greenhouse,
Fruit House, Vinery, Peach House,
Forcing House, Pits and Frames,
Mushroom House, Fruit Room, Heat-
ing Apparatus, Pipes, Boilers, Water
Supply, Solar Heat, Ventilation, etc.
Garden Materials and Appliances —
Soil, Loam, Sand, Peat, Leaf Mould,
Composts. Manures, with descriptions
and appraisals of different varieties,
organic and inorganic. Tools, Tallies
and Labels.
Garden Operations — Propagation —
by seeds, offsets, tubers, division, suck-
ers, runners, proliferous buds, grafts,
with description and diagrams of dif-
ferent methods — buds, branch cutting,
leaf cutting, root cutting, single-eye
cutting, with 12 illustrations.
Planting and Transplanting; Water-
ing; Pruning (with 9 illustrations) ;
Ringing; Training — horizontal, fan,
trellis, etc.
Flowers — Flower Gardens, Pleasure
Grounds, Lawns ; Hardy Annuals, with
long list and description of plants rec-
ommended; Hardy Biennials, with list;
Herbaceous Perennials, with classified
list (containing more than the equiva-
lent of 1 8 pages of this Guide) ; Hardy
Trees; Bedding Plants, etc.
Vegetables.
Calendar for the United States.
A list of other articles on special as-
pects of gardening will be found in the
chapter For Farmers.
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440
BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
IN-DOOR GAMES
For learning in-door games — excluding
in-door athletic games which have been
listed above — the Britannica is particu-
larly valuable, because of its elaborate
treatment by noted authorities and be-
cause the handy and convenient form
of the India paper volume makes an
article on any indoor, game as easy to
consult as a hand-book dealing with
only one game.
For example, the article on Bridge
(Vol. 4, p. 528) is by William Henry
Whitfeld, card^editor of The Field. The
article is the equivalent of 15 pages in
this Guide; and it describes both auction
and ordinary bridge, with paragraphs on
advice to players, declarations, doubling,
redoubling, play of the hand, playing
to the score; and other forms of bridge, —
three-handed bridge, dummy bridge,
misery bridge, and draw or two-handed
bridge; and contains a list of authorities.
Even more elaborate, as befits the
subject, is the article Chess (Vol. 6, p.
93), equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide.
It contains diagrams showing the arrange-
ment of pieces and the English and Ger-
man methods of notation and a vocabu-
lary of terms of the game; it treats the
comparative value of the pieces — "pawn
1, bishop 3.25, knight 3.25, rook 5,
queen 9.5. Three minor pieces may more
often than not be advantageously ex-
changed for the queen. The knight is
generally stronger than the bishop in
the end of the game, but two bishops
are usually stronger than two knights,
more especially in open positions." Eng-
lish, French and German modes of no-
tation and names of pieces are given.
The treatment of chess problems is
accompanied by eight typical problems
with diagrams and analyses. The sec-
tion on the history of chess gives not
merely very interesting early material
but a study critical and biographical,
of the great chess masters — for example:
Ruy Lopez, the first chess analyst
Greco; Philidor, a great blindfold and
simultaneous player of the 18th century;
Allgaier; Mah6 de la Bourdonnais; the
English school of the 19th century,
Sarratt, Lewis, Mac Donnell, Evans
(of the gambit), Staunton (on whom
there is a separate article) and Buckle,
the historian of civilization; the Berlin
"Pleiades" and the Hungarians, Grimm,
Szen and LSwenthal; Morphy, the Ameri-
can; and among the great players of the
last half century, Steinitz, Paulsen,
Blackburne, Zukertort, Horwitz, Mason,
Teichman, Pillsbuiy, Lasker, Mieses,
Marshall, Tarrasch, Tchigorin, etc. The
results of international tournaments are
given from 1851 on; and modern tourna-
ment play is criticised. The article
closes with an elaborate bibliography.
The article on Draughts or Checkers
(Vol. 8, p. 547) is by J. M. M. Dallas,
late secretary of the Edinburgh Draughts
Club, and Richard Jordan, former
draughts champion of the world, and
gives the history of the game, with a
study of the different openings.
The usefulness of the Britannica for
card games in general may be easily
tested. Let us turn for instance to the
article Poker (Vol. 81, p. 899). It is
equivalent in its contents to seven or
eight pages of this Guide, and among
other interesting features it contains a
vocabulary of technical terms, including
"big dog", "little dog", "cold feet",
"splitting", and the following mathe-
matical table of approximate chances.
To improve any hand in the draw,
the Britannica tells us, the chances
are:
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RECREATION AND VACATION
441
Having in Hand
To make the Hand below
The Chance is
1 pair
To get two pairs (3-card draw)
1 in 4 1-2
1 pair
To get three of a kind (3-card draw). .
1 in 9
1 pair
To improve either way average value
lin3
1 pair and 1 odd card .
To improve either way by drawing two cards.
To get a full hand drawing one card
lin7
2 pairs
linl*
3's
To get a full hand drawing two cards
1 in 15 1-2
3's
To get four of kind drawing two cards
1 in 23 1-2
3's
To improve either way drawing two cards.
1 in 9 2-5
3's and 1 odd card. . . .
To get a full hand by drawing one card . . .
To improve either way by drawing one card
1 in 15 1-3
3's and 1 odd card
1 in 11 3-4
4 straight
To fill when open at one end only or in the
middle as 3 4 6 7, or A 2 3 4
1 in 11 3-4
4 straight
To fill when open at both ends as 3 4 5 6 . .
lin6
4 flush
To fill the flush drawing one card
lin5
4-straight flush
To fill the straight flush drawing one card .
1 in 23 1-2
3-card flush
To make a flush drawing two cards
1 in 24
Among indoor-games and kindred topics, each in a separate article, in the
Britannica, are:
Ace
Cards, Playing
Acrostic
Casino
All-Fours
Catch the Ten
Ambigu
Charades
Anagram
Checkers
Auction Pitch
Chess
Aunt Sally
Children's Games
Automaton
Commerce
Baccarat
Conjuring
Backgammon
Consolation
Bagatelle
Conundrum
Bank
Crambo
Barley-Break
Cribbage
Basset
Deuce
Beggar-my-Neighbour
Dice
Betting
Doll
Bezique
Dominoes
Billiards
Draughts
Biribi
EcartS
Blind Hookey
Euchre
Blindman's-buff
Fantan
Boston
Faro
Bouillotte
Fast and Loose
Brag
Bridge
Gaming and Wagering
Go, or Go-bang
Calabresella
Goose
Halma
Pope Joan
Hazard
Prestidigitation
Hearts
Primero
Hoyle
Puzzle
Jones, Henry ( a Cav-
• Raffle
endish ")
Rebus
Juggler
Riddles
Knucklebones
Roulette
La Grace
Salta
Legerdemain
Shio-ghi
Loo
Skat
Lotto
Snip Snap Snorem
Matrimony
Solitaire .
Mora
Solo Whist
Napoleon
Speculation
Nine Men's Morris
Spelling Bee
Old Maid
Spillikins
Ombre
Spoil-Five
Pachisi
Top
Patience
Toy
Petits-Chevaux
Trente et Quarante
Ping-Pong
Ventriloquism
Pinochle
Vingt-et-Un
Piquet
Vint
Poker
Whist
Needlework as treated in the Britan-
nica has one element of peculiar value
and novelty. In this
Needlework, etc. department, as
throughout the book,
the illustrations have been chosen upon a
principle unusual in works of reference:
they really illustrate; they throw light
on the text; they are not mere pretty
pictures intended to catch the eye and
inserted in the book haphazard. Turn
for instance to the article Lace (Vol. 16,
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BRITANNICA READINGS AND STUDIES
p. 37). Among its 61 illustrations are
not only small diagrams explaining
different stitches and meshes and patterns
and larger half-tone illustrations of
"Bone Lace" "Reticella Needlepoint",
"Gros Point de Venise", "Point de
Flandres k Brides" "Point de Venise k
Brides Picotees," "Reseau RosaceV' etc.,
but there are reproductions of portraits
of the 16th, 17th and early 18th centuries,
showing not merely patterns of lace but
the method in which it was used and
how it "combined" and harmonized with
styles of costume, and of hair dressing.
These "lace portraits" are: one from the
Louvre, about 1540 of Catherine de'
Medici, wearing a linen upturned collar
of cut work and needlepoint lace; one
by Morcelse, about 1600, of Amelie Elisa-
beth, comtesse de Hainault, wearing a
ruff of needlepoint reticella lace; one,
1614, of Mary, countess of Pembroke,
wearing a coif and cuffs of reticella lace;
one by Le Nain, about 1628, of Henri
II, due de Montmorency, wearing a
falling lace collar; one by Riley, about
1685, of James II, wearing a jabot and
cuffs of raised needlepoint lace; one,
about 1664, of Mme. Verbiest, wearing
pillow-made lace d, reseau; one, about
1695, of Princess Maria Teresa Stuart,
wearing a flounce or tablier of delicate
needlepoint lace with small relief clusters;
and one of de Vintimille, about 1730,
wearing needlepoint of the Point de Ven-
ise d brides picotees. This article on
Lace, equivalent in length to 60 pages
of this Guide, is by A. Summerly Cole,
author of Ancient Needle Point and
Pillow Lace. Embroidery (Vol. 9, p.
309) is by Mr. Cole and A. F. Kendrick,
keeper of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington; and is illustrated
with 18 figures showing many styles of
early embroidery. There are also arti-
cles on Tapestry, Needlework, Knitting,
Yarn, etc.
On dancing and the stage there is
much of interest in the Britannica. The
article on the Dance (Vol. 7, p. 794)
distinguishes dancing as an expression
of emotion, whether
Dancing, the social joy or religious
Stage, etc. exultation; dancing
for pleasure to the
dancer or the spectator; and mimetic
dancing, "to represent the actions or
passions of other people." A section
on primitive and ancient dancing de-
scribes various early dances, many of
them not unlike the "trots" and "hugs"
so notorious during the last few years.
At an Aztec feast, "called Huitzilo-
pochtli, the noblemen and women danced
tied together at the hands, and embracing
one another, the arms being thrown over
the neck." Primitive imitative dances,
the attitude of the ancient Rojnans
towards the dance, religious dances and
the attacks on the dance of such Pur-
itan sects as the Albigenses and Wal-
denses close the section on ancient
dancing.
"Modern dancing" describes the branle
(or brawl), the pavane, saraband, minuet,
gavotte, 6cossaise, cotillon, galop, lancers,
schottische, bourree, waltz, fandango,
bolero, jota, Morris dances, hornpipe,
and other English dances of the 17th
and 18th centuries. In treating of
present-day dancing the article deals
especially with the waltz, quadrille,
country-dance, lancers, polka, galop,
Washington Post and other American
barn-dances, polka-mazurka, Polonaise,
Schottische and Sir Roger de Coverley.
And it discusses ballet dancing (on which
there is also a separate article) and
musical gymnastics. There are separate
articles on the following dances: Alle-
mande, bergamask, chaconne, chasse,
Courante, Gavotte, Jig, Mazurka,
Morris Dance, Passacaglia, Pavane,
Polka, Polonaise, Quadrille, Sara-
band, Schottische.
For a sufficient knowledge of the
theatre and the drama to heighten his
enjoyment of a play, the theatre-goer
should read up the subject, the period
and the author in the Britannica. For
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RECREATION AND VACATION
443
a more serious and thorough study of
opera, music in general and the drama
as a literary form, he may turn to special
chapters of this Guide.
TRAVEL AT HOME AND ABROAD
If the traveler would make the most
of his vacation journeys — as has already
been suggested — he should "read up"
in the Britannica, even if he does not
wish to make a systematic study of the
literature, art, architecture, music, etc.,
of the country he is to visit. If he does
wish to pursue systematic study he can
use the Britannica to better advantage
than a whole library of books of travel
or special treatises.
The Britannica has offen and success-
fully been used in this way. A single
instance: The Rev. Dr.. George R. Van
De Water of St. Andrews Church, New
York City, in a letter addressed to the
publishers of the new Britannica, wrote:
"I have recently had occasion to look
up South America with a view to obtain-
ing needed information for a proposed
tour there, and I found all that I wanted
to know and found it readily."
Among ihe general classes of valuable
information for the traveler are:
The excellent maps, newly made with
the greatest care from the best sources;
Articles on the great countries of the
world. Particularly valuable sections
are those at the beginning of each of
these articles on physiography, climate,
etc., and those on transportation by
rail and water;
Articles on the states of the Union,
similarly arranged, and like them ac-
companied by maps and with full de-
scriptions of the surface of the country
and the means of communication, climate,
etc.;
Articles on regions, rivers, mountains,
etc., — for instance on the Riviera, Alps,
Nile, Rhine, Hudson, Yosemite, Yel-
lowstone.
Articles on cities and towns, with de-
scriptions of the principal places of in-
terest, historical sketches, diagrams of
battle-fields, etc.;
General articles such as Architecture,
Painting, Museums, which give critical
and related accounts of great art treas-
ures of different periods and schools.
To this information, as bearing on the
particular place the traveler intends to
visit, he will be guided by the Index;
Biographical articles related to the
special vicinity to be visited — as for in-
stance, Wordsworth, Coleridge and
DeQuincey for the Lake District.
This survey, already too long for the
limited space of this Guide, yet far too
brief to represent properly the aspect
of the Britannica with which it deals,
will have accomplished its purpose if
it induces the possessor of the volumes
to go to them when he needs relaxation.
Articles of the kind described in this chap-
ter, showing you how to make the most
of leisure hours, are doubly serviceable,
giving pleasure while they are being
read, and again when their suggestions
are carried into effect.
But it is not only in the articles deal-
ing with recreation that Britannica read-
ing insures future as well as present
enjoyment. Lafcadio Hearn said it was
worth while to visit Japan if only because
what one sees there makes one's dreams
more beautiful all through later life. And
so the fascination of history, of science,
of biography, does not end, but only
begins, with the reading which opens
for you a gate leading into fresh fields.
What you read this coming year, in any
department of the Britannica, will be
still, ten years from now, a source of
pleasure, for knowledge, once acquired,
brings continually renewed delight.
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